OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Composition

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​COMPOSITION (Lat. compositio, from componere, to put together), the action of putting together and combining, and the product of such action. There are many applications of the word. In philology it is used of the putting together of two distinct words to form a single word; and in grammar, of the combination of words into sentences, and sentences into periods, and then applied to the result of such combination, and to the art of producing a work in prose or verse, or to the work itself. In music “composition” is used both of the art of combining musical sounds in accordance with the rules of musical form, and, more generally, of the whole art of creation or invention. The name “composer” is thus particularly applied to the musical creator in general. In the other fine arts the word is ​more strictly used of the balanced arrangement of the parts of a picture, of a piece of sculpture or a building, so that they should form one harmonious whole. The word also means an agreement or an adjustment of differences between two or more parties, and is thus the best general term to describe the agreement, often called by the equivalent German word “Ausgleich,” between Austria and Hungary in 1867. A more particular use is the legal one, for an agreement by which a creditor agrees to take from his debtor a sum less than his debt in satisfaction of the whole (see Bankruptcy). In logic “composition” is the name given to a fallacy of equivocation, where what is true distributively of each member of a class is inferred to be true of the whole class collectively. The fallacy of “division” is the converse of this, where what is true of a term used collectively is inferred to be true of its several parts. A common source of these errors in reasoning is the confusion between the collective and distributive meanings of the word “all.” Composition, often shortened to “compo,” is the name given to many materials compounded of more than one substance, and is used in various trades and manufactures, as in building, for a mixture, such as stucco, cement and plaster, for covering walls, &c., often made to represent stone or marble; a similar moulded compound is employed to represent carved wood.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Compression

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​COMPRESSION, in astronomy, the deviation of a heavenly body from the spherical form, called also the “ellipticity.” It is numerically expressed by the ratio of the differences of the axes to the major axis of the spheroid. The compression or “flattening” of the earth is about 1/298, which means that the ratio of the equatorial to the polar axis is 298:297 (see Earth, Figure of the). In engineering the term is applied to the arrangement by which the exhaust valve of a steam-engine is made to close, shutting a portion of the exhaust steam in the cylinder, before the stroke of the piston is quite complete. This steam being compressed as the stroke is completed, a cushion is formed against which the piston does work while its velocity is being rapidly reduced, and thus the stresses in the mechanism due to the inertia of the reciprocating parts are lessened. This compression, moreover, obviates the shock which would otherwise be caused by the admission of the fresh steam for the return stroke. In internal combustion engines it is a necessary condition of economy to compress the explosive mixture before it is ignited: in the Otto cycle, for instance, the second stroke of the piston effects the compression of the charge which has been drawn into the cylinder by the first forward stroke.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Compluvium

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​COMPLUVIUM (from Lat. compluere, to flow together, i.e. in reference to the rain being collected and falling through), in architecture, the Latin term for the open space left in the roof of the atrium of a Roman house for lighting it and the rooms round (see Cavaedium).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Compound Pier

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​COMPOUND PIER, the architectural term given to a clustered column or pier which consists of a centre mass or newel, to which engaged or semi-detached shafts have been attached, in order to perform, or to suggest the performance of, certain definite structural objects, such as to carry arches of additional orders, or to support the transverse or diagonal ribs of a vault, or the tie beam of an important roof. In these cases, though performing different functions, the drums of the pier are often cut out of one stone. There are, however, cases where the shafts are detached from the pier and coupled to it by armulets at regular heights, as in the Early English period.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Comprador

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​COMPRADOR (a Portuguese word used in the East, derived from the Lat. comparare, to procure), originally a native servant in European households in the East, but now the name given to the native managers in European business houses in China, and also to native contractors supplying ships in the Philippines and elsewhere in the East.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Compromise

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​COMPROMISE (pronounced cómprŏmize; through Fr. from Lat. compromittere), a term, meaning strictly a joint agreement, which has come to signify such a settlement as involves a mutual adjustment, with a surrender of part of each party’s claim. From the element of danger involved has arisen an invidious sense of the word, imputing discredit, so that being “compromised” commonly means injured in reputation.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Complement

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​COMPLEMENT (Lat. complementum, from complere, to fill up), that which fills up or completes anything, e.g. the number of men necessary to man a ship. In geometry, the complement of an angle is the difference between the angle and a right angle; the complements of a parallelogram are formed by drawing parallel to adjacent sides of a parallelogram two lines intersecting on a diagonal; four parallelograms are thus formed, and the two not about the diagonal of the original parallelogram are the complements of the parallelogram. In analysis, a complementary function is a partial solution to a differential equation (q.v.); complementary operators are reciprocal or inverse operators, i.e. two operations A and B are complementary when both operating on the same figure or function leave it unchanged. A “complementary colour” is one which produces white when mixed with another (see Colour). In Spanish the word cumplimento was used in a particular sense of the fulfilment of the duties of polite behaviour and courtesy, and it came through the French and Italian forms into use in English, with a change in spelling to “compliment,” with the sense of an act of politeness, especially of a polite expression of praise, or of social regard and greetings. The word “comply,” meaning to act in accordance with wishes, orders or conditions, is also derived from the same origin, but in sense is connected with “ply” or “pliant,” from Lat. plicare, to bend, with the idea of subserviently yielding to the wishes of another.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Congleton, Henry Brooke Parnell, 1st Baron

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​CONGLETON, HENRY BROOKE PARNELL, 1st Baron (1776–1842), was the second son of Sir John Parnell, bart. (1744–1801), chancellor of the Irish exchequer, and was educated at Eton and Cambridge. In 1801 he succeeded to the family estates in Queen’s county, and married a daughter of the earl of Portarlington; and in 1802, by his father-in-law’s interest, he was returned for Portarlington to parliament, but he speedily resigned the seat. In 1806 he was returned for Queen’s county, for which he sat till 1832, when he withdrew from the representation. In 1833, however, he was returned for Dundee; and after being twice re-elected for the same city (1835 and 1837), he was raised to the peerage in 1841 with the title of Baron Congleton of Congleton. In 1842, having suffered for some time from ill-health and melancholy, he committed suicide. He was a Liberal Whig, and took a prominent part in the struggle of his party. In 1806 he was a commissioner of the treasury for Ireland; it was on his motion on the civil list that the duke of Wellington was defeated in 1830; in that year and in 1831 he was secretary at war; and from 1835 till 1841 he was paymaster of the forces and treasurer of the ordnance and navy. He was the author of several volumes and pamphlets on matters connected with financial and penal questions, the most important being that On Financial Reform, 1830.
He was succeeded as 2nd baron by his eldest son John Vesey (1805–1883), who in 1829 joined the Plymouth Brethren, and spent his life in enthusiastic religious work. He left no son, and his brother Henry William (d. 1896) became 3rd baron, being succeeded by his second son Henry (1839–1906), a soldier who rose to be major-general.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Congreve, Richard

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​CONGREVE, RICHARD (1818–1899), English Positivist, was born at Leamington on the 4th of September 1818, and was educated at Rugby under Dr Arnold, who is said to have expressed a higher opinion of him than of any other pupil. After taking first-class honours at Oxford and gaining a fellowship at Wadham College, he spent some time as a master at Rugby, but returned to Oxford as a tutor. Soon after the revolution of 1848 he visited Paris, where he made the acquaintance of Barthélemy St Hilaire and Auguste Comte. He was so attracted by the Positive philosophy that he resigned his fellowship in 1855, and devoted the remainder of his life to the propagation of the Positive philosophy. He took a leading part in the work carried on in Chapel Street, Lamb’s Conduit Street. In 1878 he declined to admit the authority of Pierre Laffitte, Comte’s official successor, and the result was a split in the ranks of English Positivism, Frederic Harrison, Dr J. H. Bridges and Professor E. Beesly forming a separate society at Newton Hall, Fetter Lane. Congreve translated several of Comte’s works, and in 1874 published a large volume of essays, in which he advocated Comte’s view that it was the duty of Great Britain to renounce her foreign possessions. He was a man of high character, courtly manners and great intellectual capacity. He died at Hampstead on the 5th of July 1899.
Publications.—Roman Empire of the West (1855); annotated edition of Aristotle’s Politics (1855; 2nd ed., 1874); Catechism of the Positive Religion, translated from the French of A. Comte (1858; 3rd ed., 1891); Elizabeth of England (1862); Essays, political, social, and religious (1874; 2nd series, 1892); Historical Lectures (collected in one volume, 1902).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Fulgurite

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​FULGURITE (from Lat. fulgur, lightning), in petrology, the name given to rocks which have been fused on the surface by lightning, and to the characteristic holes in rocks formed by the same agency. When lightning strikes the naked surfaces of rocks, the sudden rise of temperature may produce a certain amount of fusion, especially when the rocks are dry and the electricity is not readily conducted away. Instances of this have been observed on Ararat and on several mountains in the Alps, Pyrenees, &c. A thin glassy crust, resembling a coat of varnish, is formed; its thickness is usually not more than one-eighth of an inch, and it may be colourless, white or yellow. When examined under the microscope, it usually shows no crystallization, and contains minute bubbles due to the expansion of air or other gases in the fused pellicle. Occasionally small microliths may appear, but this is uncommon because so thin a film would cool with extreme rapidity. The minerals of the rock beneath are in some cases partly fused, but the more refractory often appear quite unaffected. The glass has arisen from the melting of the most fusible ingredients alone.
Another type of fulgurite is commonest in dry sands and takes the shape of vertical tubes which may be nearly half an inch in diameter. Generally they are elliptical in cross section, or flattened by the pressure exerted by the surrounding sand on the fulgurite at a time when it was still very hot and plastic. These tubes are often vertical and may run downwards for several feet through the sand, branching and lessening as they descend. Tubular perforations in hard rocks have been noted also, but these are short and probably follow original cracks. The glassy material contains grains of sand and many small round or elliptical cavities, the long axes of which are radial. Minerals like felspar and mica are fused more readily than quartz, but analysis shows that some fulgurite glasses are very rich in silica, which perhaps was dissolved in the glass rather than simply fused. The central cavity of the tube and the bubbles in its walls point to the expansion of the gases (air, water, &c.) in the sand by sudden and extreme heating. Very fine threads of glass project from the surface of the tube as if fused droplets had been projected outwards with considerable force. Where the quartz grains have been greatly heated but not melted they become white and semi-opaque, but where they are in contact with the glass they usually show partial solution. Occasionally crystallization has begun before the glass solidified, and small microliths, the nature of which is undeterminable, occur in streams and wisps in the clear hyaline matrix. (J. S. F.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Fulginiae

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​FULGINIAE (mod. Foligno), an ancient town of Umbria, Italy, on the later line of the Via Flaminia, 15 m. S. of Nuceria. It appears to have been of comparatively late origin, inasmuch as it had no city walls, but, in imperial times especially, owing to its position on the new line of the Via Flaminia, it must have increased in importance as being the point of departure of roads to Perusia and to Picenum over the pass of Plestia. It appears to have had an amphitheatre, and three bridges over the Topino are attributed to the Roman period. Three miles to the N. lies the independent community of Forum Flaminii, the site of which is marked by the church of S. Giovanni Profiamma, at or near which the newer line of the Via Flaminia rejoined the older. It was no doubt founded by the builder of the road, C. Flaminius, consul in 220 B.C. (See Foligno and Flaminia, Via.) (T. As.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Fulcher of Chartres

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​FULCHER (or Foucher) OF CHARTRES (1058–c. 1130), French chronicler, was a priest who was present at the council of Clermont in 1095, and accompanied Robert II., duke of Normandy, on the first crusade in 1096. Having spent some time in Italy and taken part in the fighting on the way to the Holy Land, he became chaplain to Baldwin, who was chosen king of Jerusalem in 1100, and lived with Baldwin at Edessa and then at Jerusalem. He accompanied this king on several warlike expeditions, but won more lasting fame by writing his Historia Hierosolymitana or Gesta Francorum Jerusalem expugnantium, one of the most trustworthy sources for the history of the first crusade. In its final form it is divided into three books, and covers the period between the council of Clermont and 1127, and the author only gives details of events which he himself had witnessed. It was used by William of Tyre. Fulcher died after 1127, probably at Jerusalem. He has been confused with Foucher of Mongervillier (d. 1171), abbot of St-Père-en-Vallée at Chartres, and also with another person of the same name who distinguished himself at the siege of Antioch in 1098.
The Historia, but in an incomplete form, was first published by J. Bongars in the Gesta Dei per Francos (Hanover, 1611). The best edition is in tome iii. of the Recueil des historiens des croisades, Historiens occidentaux (Paris, 1866); and there is a French translation in tome xxiv. of Guizot’s Collection des mémoires relatifs à l’histoire de France (Paris, 1823–1835).
See H. von Sybel, Geschichte des ersten Kreuzzuges (Leipzig, 1881); and A. Molinier, Les Sources de l’histoire de France, tome ii. (Paris, 1902).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Fukuoka

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​FUKUOKA, a town on the north-west coast of the island of Kiushiu, Japan, in the province of Chikuzen, 90 m. N.N.E. of Nagasaki by rail. Pop. about 72,000. With Hakata, on the opposite side of a small coast stream, it forms a large centre of population, with an increasing export trade and several local industries. Of these the most important is silk-weaving, and Hakata especially is noted for its durable silk fabrics. Fukuoka was formerly the residence of the powerful daimio of Chikuzen, and played a conspicuous part in the medieval history of Japan; the renowned temple of Yeiyas in the district was destroyed by fire during the revolution of 1868. There are several other places of this name in Japan, the most important being Fukuoka in the province of Mutsu, North Nippon, a railway station on the main line from Tokyo to Aimori Ura Bay. Pop. about 5000.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Fulk (archbishop)

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​FULK (d. 900), archbishop of Reims, and partisan of Charles the Simple in his struggle with Odo, count of Paris, was elected to the see as archbishop in 883 upon the death of Hincmar. In 887 he was engaged in a struggle with the Normans who invaded his territories. Upon the deposition of Charles the Fat he sided with Charles the Simple in his contest for the West Frankish dominions against Count Odo of Paris, and crowned him king in his own metropolitan church at Reims after most of the nobles had gone over to Odo (893). Upon the death of Odo he succeeded in having Charles recognized as king by a majority of the West Frankish nobility. In 892 he obtained special privileges for his province from Pope Formosus, who promised that thereafter, when the archbishopric became vacant, the revenues should not be enjoyed by anyone while the vacancy existed, but should be reserved for the new incumbent, provided the election took place within the canonical limit of three months. From 898 until his death he held the office of chancellor, which for some time afterwards was regularly filled by the archbishop of Reims. In his efforts to keep the wealthy abbeys and benefices of the church out of the hands of the nobles, he incurred the hatred of Baldwin, count of Flanders, who secured his assassination on the 17th of June 900, a crime which the weak Carolingian monarch left unpunished.
Fulk left some letters, which are collected in Migne, Patrologia Latina, vol. cxxxi. 11-14.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Minot, Laurence

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​MINOT, LAURENCE (fl. 1333–1352), English poet, the author of eleven battle-songs, first published by Joseph Ritson in 1795 as Poems on Interesting Events in the reign of King Edward III. They had been discovered by Thomas Tyrwhitt in a MS. (Cotton Galba, E. IX., British Museum) which bore on the fly-leaf the misleading inscription: “Chaucer, Exemplar emendate scriptum.” It dates from the beginning of the 15th century. The authorship of Laurence Minot’s eleven songs is fixed by the opening of the fifth: “Minot with mowth had menid to make,” and in VII. 20, “Now Laurence Minot will begin.” The poems were evidently written contemporaneously with the events they describe. The first celebrates the English triumph at Halidon Hill (1333), and the last the capture of Guines (1352). The writer is animated by an ardent personal admiration for Edward III. and a savage joy in the triumphs of the English over their enemies. The technical difficulty of his metres and the comparatively even quality of the work led to the inference that Minot had written other songs, but none have come to light. Nothing whatever is known of his life, but the minuteness of his information suggests that he accompanied Edward on some of his campaigns. Though his name proves him to have been of Norman birth, he writes vigorous and idiomatic English of the northern dialect with some admixture of midland forms. His poems are instinct with a fierce national feeling, which has been accepted as an index of the union of interests between the Norman and English elements arising out of common dangers and common successes.
There are excellent editions of Minot's poems by Wilhelm Scholle (Quellen und Forschungen, vol. lii., Strasburg, 1884), with notes on etymology and metre, and by Mr J. Hall (Clarendon Press, 2nd ed., 1897). Mr Hall is inclined to include as his work the “Hymn to Jesus Christ and the Virgin” (Religious Pieces, Early English Text Society, No. 26, p. 76), on the grounds of similarity of style and language. See also T. Wright, Political Poems and Songs (Rolls series, 1859).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Minsk (town)

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​MINSK, a town of Russia, capital of the government of the same name, on the Svisloch, a tributary of the Berezina, at the intersection of the Moscow–Warsaw and Libau–Kharkov railways, 430 m. by rail W. from Moscow. It had, in 1897, 91,494 inhabitants, of whom one-third were Jews of the poorest class; the others were White Russians, Poles and Tatars. Amongst its public buildings is a cathedral, built in 1611. Minsk is the headquarters of the IVth Army Corps and the see of a bishop of the Orthodox Greek Church, and from 1798 to 1853 it was a see of the Roman Catholic Church. The manufactures are few and insignificant. Since the introduction of railways the commercial importance of the place, which formerly was slight, has begun to increase.
Minsk is mentioned in Russian annals in the 11th century under the name of Myen’sk, or Menesk. In 1066 and 1096 it was devastated, first by Izyazlav and afterwards by Vladimir, prince of Kiev. It changed rulers many times until the 13th century, when it became a Lithuanian fief. In the 15th century it was part of Poland, but as late as 1505 it was ravaged by Tatars, and in 1508 by Russians. In the 18th century it was taken several times by Swedes and Russians. Russia annexed it in 1793. Napoleon I. took it in 1812.