OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Turban

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​TURBAN, the name of a particular form of head-dress worn by men of Mahommedan races. The earlier forms of the word in English are turbant, turband, and tolibanl or tulipant, the latter showing that variant of the original which survives in the name of the flower, the tulip. All these forms represent the French adaptation of the Turkish tulbend, a vulgarism for dulbend, from Persian dulband, a sash or scarf wound round the head. The Moslem turban is essentially a scarf of silk, fine linen, cotton or other material folded round the head, sometimes, as in Egypt, round the tarbush or close-fitting felt cap; sometimes, as in Afghanistan, round a conical cap; or, as among certain races in India, round the skull-cap or kullah. Races, professions, degrees of rank, and the like vary in the style of turban worn; distinctions being made in size, methods of folding, and colour and the like (see India: Costume). At the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th century, a species of head- dress somewhat resembling the true turban in outward form was worn by ladies of western nations, chiefly for use indoors.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Vol 1/Title page

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THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA
A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME I
A to ANDROPHAGI
New York Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 342 Madison Avenue
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Vol 1/Copyright notice

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Copyright, in the United States of America, 1910, by The Encyclopædia Britannica Company.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Voisenon, Claude Henri de Fuzée, Abbé de

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​VOISENON, CLAUDE HENRI DE FUZÉE, Abbé de (1708–75), French dramatist and man of letters, was born at the château of Voisenon near Melun, on the 8th of July 1708. At the age of ten he addressed an epistle in verse to Voltaire, who asked the boy to visit him. From this introduction dated a friendship that lasted for fifty years. Voisenon made his début as a dramatist with L’Heureuse ressemblance in 1728, followed in 1739 by a three-act comedy l’École du monde at the Théâtre français. This was preceded by a verse prologue, l’Ombre de Molière, and a month later Voisenon produced a criticism on his own piece in Le Retour de l’ombre de Molière. A duel in which he was the aggressor inspired him with remorse, and he entered the priesthood, becoming vicar-general to the bishop of Boulogne. He received the abbey of Jard, which made no demands on him. He became closely attached to Madame du Châtelet, the mistress of Voltaire (q.v), and was intimate with the comte de Caylus and Mademoiselle Quinault Dufresne. He made witty but by no means edifying contributions to the Étrennes de Saint-Jean, the Bals da Bois, &c. In 1744 he produced the Mariages assortis and in 1746 his masterpiece, the Coquette fixée. He lived on terms of the closest intimacy with Charles Simon Favart and his wife. His pen was always at the service of any of his friends, and it was generally supposed, though on insufficient grounds, that he had a considerable share in Favart’s most successful operas. Voisenon had, strange to say, scruples all his life about the incongruity between his way of living and his profession, but he continued to write indecent stories for private circulation, and wrote verses in honour of Madame du Barry, as he had done for Madame de Pompadour. He was elected to the Academy in 1762. On the disgrace of his patron, the duc de Choiseul, he lost his pensions and honours, but soon recovered his position. He was intimate with the chancellor Maupeou, and was suspected of writing on his behalf in defence of the abolition of the parlement. This and some other incidents brought him into general disgrace. Early in 1775 he retired to the château de Voisenon, where he died on the 22nd of November of the same year.
His Œuvres complètes were published by his executrix, Madame de Turpin, in 1781.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Voiture, Vincent

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​VOITURE, VINCENT (1598–1648), French poet, was the son of a rich merchant of Amiens. He was introduced by a school-fellow, the comte d’Avaux, to Gaston d’Orléans, and accompanied him to Brussels and Lorraine on diplomatic missions. Although a follower of Gaston, he won the favour of Richelieu, and was one of the earliest academicians. He also received appointments and pensions from Louis XIII. and Anne of Austria. He published nothing in book form, but his verses and his prose letters were the delight of the coteries, and were copied, handed about and admired more perhaps than the work of any contemporary. He had been early introduced to the Hôtel de Rambouillet, where he was the especial friend of Julie d’Angennes, who called him her “dwarf king.” His ingenuity in providing amusement for the younger members of the circle ensured his popularity, which was never seriously threatened except by Antoine Godeau, and this rivalry ceased when Richelieu appointed Godeau bishop of Grasse. When at the desire of the duc de Montausier nineteen poets contributed to the Guirlande da Julie, which was to decide the much-fêted Julie in favour of his suit, Voiture refused to take part. The quarrel between the Uranistes and the Jobelins arose over the respective merits of a sonnet of Voiture addressed to a certain Uranie, and of another composed by Isaac de Benserade, till then unknown, on the subject of Job. Another famous piece of his of the same kind, La Belle Matineuse, is less exquisite, but still very admirable, and Voiture stands in the highest rank of writers of vers de société. His prose letters are full of lively wit, and, in some cases, as in the letter on Richelieu’s policy (Letter LXXIV.), show considerable political penetration. He ranks with Jean de Balzac as the chief director of the reform in French prose which accompanied that of Malherbe in French verse. Voiture died at the outbreak of the Fronde, which killed the society to which he was accustomed, on the 26th of May 1648.
See A. Roux. Œuvres de M. de Voiture (Paris, 1856); and C. A. Sainte-Beuve, Causeries du lundi, vol xii.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Voivode

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​VOIVODE (also Vaivode, Vayvode, Wayvode, &c., Med. Gr. βοεβόδος), a title in use among certain Slavonic peoples, meaning literally “leader of an army” (Sl. voi, host, army; voiditi, to lead), and so applied at various periods and in various eastern European countries to rulers, governors or officials of varying degree. It is best known as the title of the princes of Moldavia and Wallachia. In these states the title remained in use from the earliest times until 1658 in the case of the first state, and until 1716 in that of the second, when it gave way to Hospodar (q.v.). During the period of Hungarian domination of Transylvania (1004–1526) it was governed by a voivode as an Hungarian province, the last voivode raising himself to the position of an independent prince. In Poland the title was used of certain administrative officials; Polish historians latinized it by palatinus. At the present day voivode is used, in its original sense of a high military officer, in the Montenegrin army, where it corresponds to the general officer in other European armies.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Vokes

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​VOKES, the name of a family of English actors. Frederick Mortimer Vokes (1846–1888), the son of a costumier, made his first appearance on the stage in 1854. In 1861 he, his sisters Jessie (1851–1884), Victoria (1853–1894) and Rosina (1858–1894), and Walter Fawdon (Vokes), first as the “Vokes Children” and then as the “Vokes Family,” began to perform at music halls and at the pantomimes, and by their agility and humour made the name well known to English and American theatre-goers. Fred Vokes was a man of real inventiveness as well as rare acrobatic skill.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Voiron

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​VOIRON, a town of France in the department of the Isère. Pop. (1901) 12,625. It stands at a height of 950 ft, on the Morge (a tributary of the Isère). It is a manufacturing town, and contains numerous factories which produce a sort of cloth named after the town, and also silk-weaving factories (2000 looms, with an annual output of eight to nine million yards). There are also paper-making factories in the town. The fine church of St Bruno was built 1864–73 at the expense of the monks of the Grande Chartreuse. Voiron is the starting-point of the steam tramways to St Laurent du Pont, 12 m. (for the Grande Chartreuse), and to Charavines, 10½ m. (for the Lac de Paladru). Voiron long formed part of Savoy, but in 1355 was exchanged (with the rest of the region between the Rhone and the Isère, watered by the Guiers Mort) by the count with France for Faucigny and Gex.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Phthalic Acids

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​PHTHALIC ACIDS, or Benzene Dicarboxylic Acids, C$_6$H$_4$(CO$_2$H)$_2$. There are three isomers: (1) ortho, or phthalic acid; (2) meta, or isophthalic acid; (3) para, or terephthalic acid.
Phthalic acid was obtained by Laurent in 1836 by oxidizing naphthalene tetrachloride, and, believing it to be a naphthalene derivative, he named it naphthalenic acid, Marignac determined its formula and showed Laurent’s supposition to be incorrect, upon which Laurent gave it its present name. It is manufactured by oxidizing naphthalene tetrachloride (prepared from naphthalene, potassium, chlorate and hydrochloric acid) with nitric acid, or, better, by oxidizing the hydrocarbon with fuming sulphuric acid, using mercury or mercuric sulphate as a catalyst (German pat. 91, 202). It also results on the oxidation of ​diderivatives of benzene. It forms white crystals, melting at 213° with decomposition into water and phthalic an hydride; the latter forms long white needles, melting at 128° and boiling at 284°. Heated with an excess of lime it gives benzene; calcium benzoate results when calcium phthalate is heated with one molecule of lime to 330°–350°. The acid (and an hydride) are largely used in the colour industry (see Fluorescein; Phenolphthalein).
Phthalyl chloride, C$_6$H$_4$(COCl)$_2$ or C$_6$H$_4$(CCl$_2$) (CO)O, formed by heating the an hydride with phosphorus chloride, is an oil which solidif1es at 0° and boils at 275°. In some reactions it behaves as hav1ng the first formula, in others as having the second. Phthalyl chloride with phosphorus pentachloride gives two phthalylene tetra chlorides, one melting at 88° and the other at 47°. They cannot be changed into one another, and have been given the formulae C$_6$H$_4$(CCl$_3$) (COCl) and C$_6$H$_4$(CCl$_2$)$_2$O. Phthalimide, C$_6$H$_4$(CO)$_2$NH, is formed by heating phthalic an hydride or chloride in ammonia gas or by molecular rearrangement of ortho-cyanbenzoic acid. It forms N-metallic and alkyl salts. Bromine and potash give anthranilic acid, C$_6$H$_4$(NH$_2$)(CO$_2$H). (See Indigo.)
Isophlhalic acid is obtained by oxidizing meta-xylene with chromic acid, or by fusing potassium meta-sulphobenzoate, or meta-brombenzoate with potassium formate (terephthalic acid is also formed in the last case). It melts above 300°, and dissolves in 7800 parts of cold water and in 460 of boiling. The barium salt (+6H$_2$O) is very soluble (a distinction between phthalic and terephthalic acids). Uvitic acid, 5-methyl isophthalic acid, is obtained by oxidizing mesitylene or by condensing pyroracemic acid with baryta water.
Terephthalic acid, formed by oxidizing para-diderivatives of benzene, or best by oxidizing caraway oil, a mixture of cymene and cuminol, with chromic acid, as almost insoluble in water, alcohol and ether; it sublimes without melting when heated.
For the reduced phthalic acids see Polymethylenes.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Phthisis

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​PHTHISIS (Gr. φθίσις “wasting”), a term formerly applied (like “Consumption”) to the disease of the lung now known as Tuberculosis (q.v.).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Phylactery

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​PHYLACTERY (φυλακτήριον), a Greek word meaning “guard” (sc. against misfortune), i.e. an amulet. It is applied in the New Testament to the tefillin or “prayer-thongs” worn by orthodox Jews daily at morning-prayer (whether at home or in the synagogue). The title employed in Hebrew, tefillin, seems really to be derived from an Aramaic term meaning “attachments,” “ornaments”; it corresponds to the Biblical Hebrew word rendered “frontlets” (totafôth). The tefillin or phylacteries are worn, one on the left arm (the “hand-tefilla”), and the other on the head (the “head-tefilla”). In each case the leather thongs support a small satchel which is fastened to the arm and the forehead respectively, and contains certain passages of the Law written (in Hebrew) on parchment, viz. Exod. xiii. 1-10 amd 11-16, Deut. vi. 4-9 and xi. 13-21. The custom of wearing phylacteries seems to have been derived in the first instance from the Pharisees. By the Sadducees and the generality of the people in the time of Christ it seems not to have been practised Later it became—not without protest—one of the badges of orthodox Judaism. It is significant that the custom is entirely unknown to the Samaritan community.
The phylacteries, together with the “fringe” (tsitsîth) and door-post symbol (mezuza)—which latter consists of a piece of parchment, containing the Hebrew text of Deut. vi. 4-9 and xi. 13-21 enclosed in a glass or metal tube, and fixed upon the right hand post of the door of each dwelling-room in a house—form the three sets of visible signs by which the Israelite is constantly reminded of his duty to God (cf. Num. xv. 39-40; Deut. vi. 9; xi 20). The “fringe” (or “tassels”) was originally attached to the common outer garment—a large square wrap—the loose end of which hung over the left shoulder. This garment with tassels is mentioned in the New Testament (cf. Matt. ix. 20; xiv. 36; xxiii. 5 and parallels). Among modern Jews it has survived in two forms: (1) the fringed praying shawl called talith worn by every male orthodox Jew at the synagogue morning service; and (2) an under-garment, shaped like a chest-protector, one part covering the chest, the other the back, which is worn continuously by male orthodox Jews. It is called Arba Kanfoth (i.e. “Four Corners,” Deut. xxii. 12) or “little Talith,” and is, of course, “fringed.” Both phylactery and mezuza were supposed to keep off hurtful demons (Targ. on Cant. viii. 3).
See Surenhusius, Mischna, i. 9 seq.; and Bodenschatz, Kirch. 'Verf. d. heutigen Juden, iv. 9 seq. (W. R. S.; G. H. Bo.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Phylarchus

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​PHYLARCHUS, a Greek historian, who flourished during the time of Aratus, the strategus of the Achaean League, in the 3rd century B.C. His birthplace is variously given as Athens, Naucratis, or Sicyon. He was probably a native of Naucratis, and subsequently migrated to Athens. He was the author of a history in 28 books, covering the period from the expedition of Pyrrhus king of Epirus to Peloponnesus (272) to the death of the Spartan king Cleomenes (220) after his defeat by Antigonus Doson. Polybius (ii. 56-63) charges him with undue partiality for Cleomenes and unfairness towards Aratus; Plutarch (Aratus, 38), who is of the same opinion, did not hesitate to use him freely in his own biographies of Agis and Cleomenes.
Fragments and life in C. W. Müller, Fragmenta historicorum graecorum, vol. i. (1841); monographs by J. F. Lucht (1836) and C. A. F. Bruckner (1839); C. Wachsmuth, Einleitung in das Studium der alten Geschichte (1895).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Phthalazines

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​PHTHALAZINES (benzo-orthodiazines or benzopyridazines), in organic chemistry a group of heterocyclic compounds containing the ring complex shown in formula I. They are isomeric with the cinnolines (q.v.). The parent substance of the group, phthalazine, C$_8$H$_6$N$_2$, is best obtained from the condensation of ω-tetrabromorthoxylene with hydrazine (D. Gabriel, Ber., 1893, 26, p. 2210), or by the reduction of chlorphthalazine with phosphorus and hydriodic acid (Ber., 1897, p. 3024). It possesses basic properties and forms addition products with alkyl iodides. On oxidation with alkaline potassium permanganate it yields pyridazine dicarboxylic acid. Zinc and hydrochloric acid decompose it with formation of orthoxylylene diamine.
The keto-hydro derivative phthalazone, C$_8$H$_6$ON$_2$, (formula II.), is obtained by condensing hydrazine with orthophthalaldehydo-acid. On treatment with phosphorus oxychlonde it yields a chlorphthalazine which with zinc and hydrochloric acid gives isoindole, C$_8$H$_7$N, and with tin and hydrochloric acid phthalimidine, C$_8$H$_7$ON, the second nitrogen atom being eliminated as ammonia.
| | N | | CO | |NH N |
| | N | | CH | |NH N |
| I. Phthalazine. | | II. Phthalazone. | II. Phthalazone. |
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Phyle

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PHYLE, a mountain fortress, on a pass leading from Athens to Boeotia and Thebes, and commanding a fine view of the Attic plain. It is situated on the south-west end of Mt Parnes. It is chiefly famous for its occupation by Thrasybulus at the head of the Athenian exiles during the rule of the Thirty Tyrants in 404 B.C. After defending himself from attack, with the help of a snowstorm, he succeeded by a venturesome night march in seizing Munychia. Close to Phyle is the cliff called Harma, over which the Pythian lightnings were watched for from Athens.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Phryne

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​PHRYNE, Greek courtesan, lived in the 4th century B.C. Her real name was Mnesarete, but owing to her complexion she was called Phryne (toad), a name given to other courtesans. She was born at Thespiae in Boeotia, but seems to have lived at Athens. She acquired so much wealth by her extraordinary beauty that she offered to rebuild the walls of Thebes, which had been destroyed by Alexander the Great (336), on condition that the words “Destroyed by Alexander, restored by Phryne the courtesan,” were inscribed upon them. On the occasion of a festival of Poseidon at Eleusis she laid aside her garments, let down her hair, and stepped into the sea in the sight of the people, thus suggesting to the painter Apelles his great picture of Aphrodite Anadyomene, for which Phryne sat as model. She was also (according to some) the model for the statue of the Cnidian Aphrodite by Praxiteles. When accused of profaning the Eleusinian mysteries, she was defended by the orator Hypereides, one of her lovers. When it seemed as if the verdict would be unfavourable, he rent her robe and displayed her lovely bosom, which so moved her judges that they acquitted her. According to others, she herself thus displayed her charms. She is said to have made an attempt on the virtue of the philosopher Xenocrates. A statue of Phryne, the work of Praxiteles, was placed in a temple at Thespiae by the side of a statue of Aphrodite by the same artist.
See Athenaeus, pp. 558, 567, 583, 585, 590, 591; Aelian, Var. Hist. ix. 32; Pliny, Nat. Hist. xxxiv. 71.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pail

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​PAIL, a bucket, a vessel for carrying water, milk or other liquids, made of wood or metal or other material, varying in size, and usually of a circular shape and somewhat wider at the top than the bottom. The word is of somewhat obscure origin. The present form points to the O. Eng. paegel, but the sense, that of a small wine-measure, a gill, is difficult to connect with the present one. The earlier forms of the word in Mid. Eng. spell the word payle, paille, and this rather points to a connexion with O. Fr. paelle, payelle, a small pan or flat dish, from Lat. patella, diminutive of patera, dish. The sense here also presents difficulties, “pail” in English being always a deep vessel.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Paghman

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​PAGHMAN, a small district of Afghanistan to the west of Kabul, lying under the Paghman branch of the Hindu Kush range. It is exceedingly picturesque, the villages clinging to the sides of the mountain glens from which water is drawn for irrigation; and excellent fruit is grown.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pagoda

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​PAGODA (Port. pagode, a word introduced in the 16th century by the early Portuguese adventurers in India, reproducing phonetically some native word, possibly Pers. but-kadah, a house for an idol, or some form of Sansk. bhagavat, divine, holy), an Eastern term for a temple, especially a building of a pyramid shape common in India and the Far East and devoted to sacred purposes; in Buddhist countries, notably China, the name of a many-sided tower in which are kept holy relics. More loosely “pagoda” is used in the East to signify any non-Christian or non-Mussulman place of worship. Pagoda or ​pagod was also the name given to a gold (occasionally also silver) coin, of about the value of seven shillings, at one time current in southern India. From this meaning is derived the expression “the pagoda tree,” as synonymous with the “wealth of the Indies,” whence the phrase to “shake the pagoda tree.” There is a real tree, the Plumieria acuminata, bearing the name. It grows in India, and is of a small and graceful shape, and bears yellow and white flowers tinged with red.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Paignton

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​PAIGNTON, a seaside resort in the Torquay parliamentary division of Devonshire, England, on Tor Bay, 23/4 m. S.W. of Torquay, on the Great Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1901), 8385. The church of St John is mainly Perpendicular, ​but has a late Norman doorway, and contains a carved and painted pulpit, and in the Kirkham chapel several interesting monuments of the Kirkham family, and a beautiful though damaged stone screen. Among other buildings and institutions are a novitiate of Marist Fathers, a science and art school, a pier with pavilion and concert rooms, and a yacht club. Little remains of an old palace of the bishops of Exeter apart from the 14th-century Bible Tower. Its last tenant was Bishop Miles Coverdale, who in 1535 published the first English translation of the whole Bible. The town owes its popularity to a firm expanse of sand, good bathing facilities, and a temperate climate.