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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lambinus, Dionysius

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​LAMBINUS, DIONYSIUS, the Latinized name of Denis Lambin (1520–1572), French classical scholar, born at Montreuil-sur-mer in Picardy. Having devoted several years to classical studies during a residence in Italy, he was invited to Paris in 1650 to fill the professorship of Latin in the Collège de France, which he soon afterwards exchanged for that of Greek. His lectures were frequently interrupted by his ill-health and the religious disturbances of the time. His death (September 1572) is said to have been caused by his apprehension that he might share the fate of his friend Peter Ramus (Pierre de la Ramée), who had been killed in the massacre of St Bartholomew. Lambinus was one of the greatest scholars of his age, and his editions of classical authors are still useful. In textual criticism he was a conservative, but by no means a slavish one; indeed, his opponents accused him of rashness in emendation. His chief defect is that he refers vaguely to his MSS. without specifying the source of his readings, so that their relative importance cannot be estimated. But his commentaries, with their wealth of illustration and parallel passages, are a mine of information. In the opinion of the best scholars, he preserved the happy mean in his annotations, although his own countrymen have coined the word lambiner to express trifling and diffuseness.
His chief editions are: Horace (1561); Lucretius (1564), on which see H. A. J. Munro’s preface to his edition; Cicero (1566); Cornelius Nepos (1569); Demosthenes (1570), completing the unfinished work of Guillaume Morel; Plautus (1576).
See Peter Lazer, De Dionysio Lambino narratio, printed in Orelli’s Onomasticon Tullianum (i. 1836), and Trium disertissimorum virorum praefationes ac epistolae familiares aliquot: Mureti, Lambini, Regii (Paris, 1579); also Sandys, Hist. of Classical Scholarship (1908, ii. 188), and A. Horawitz in Ersch and Gruber’s Allgemeine Encyclopädie.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lambert, Francis

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​LAMBERT, FRANCIS (c. 1486–1530), Protestant reformer, was the son of a papal official at Avignon, where he was born between 1485 and 1487. At the age of 15 he entered the Franciscan monastery at Avignon, and after 1517 he was an itinerant preacher, travelling through France, Italy and Switzerland. His study of the Scriptures shook his faith in Roman Catholic theology, and by 1522 he had abandoned his order, and became known to the leaders of the Reformation in Switzerland and Germany. He did not, however, identify himself either with Zwinglianism or Lutheranism; he disputed with Zwingli at Zürich in 1522, and then made his way to Eisenach and Wittenberg, where he married in 1523. He returned to Strassburg in 1524, being anxious to spread the doctrines of the Reformation among the French-speaking population of the neighbourhood. By the Germans he was distrusted, and in 1526 his activities were prohibited by the city of Strassburg. He was, however, befriended by Jacob Sturm, who recommended him to the Landgraf Philip of Hesse, the most liberal of the German reforming princes. With Philip’s encouragement he drafted that scheme of ecclesiastical reform for which he is famous. Its basis was essentially democratic and congregational, though it provided for the government of the whole church by means of a synod. Pastors were to be elected by the congregation, and the whole system of canon-law was repudiated. This scheme was submitted by Philip to a synod at Homburg; but Luther intervened and persuaded the Landgraf to abandon it. It was far too democratic to commend itself to the Lutherans, who had by this time bound the Lutheran cause to the support of princes rather than to that of the people. Philip continued to favour Lambert, who was appointed professor and head of the theological faculty in the Landgraf’s new university of Marburg. Patrick Hamilton (q.v.), the Scottish martyr, was one of his pupils; and it was at Lambert’s instigation that Hamilton composed his Loci communes, or Patrick’s Pleas as they were popularly called in Scotland. Lambert was also one of the divines who took part in the great conference of Marburg in 1529; he had long wavered between the Lutheran and the Zwinglian view of the Lord’s Supper, but at this conference he definitely adopted the Zwinglian view. He died of the plague on the 18th of April 1530, and was buried at Marburg.
A catalogue of Lambert’s writings is given in Haag’s La France protestante. See also lives of Lambert by Baum (Strassburg, 1840); F. W. Hessencamp (Elberfeld, 1860), Stieve (Breslau, 1867) and Louis Ruffet (Paris, 1873); Lorimer, Life of Patrick Hamilton (1857); A. L. Richter, Die evangelischen Kirchenordnungen des 16. Jahrh. (Weimar, 1846); Hessencamp, Hessische Kirchenordnungen im Zeitalter der Reformation; Philip of Hesse’s Correspondence with Bucer, ed. M. Lenz; Lindsay, Hist. Reformation; Allgemeine deutsche Biographie.  (A. F. P.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Free Church of England

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​FREE CHURCH OF ENGLAND, a Protestant episcopal church “essentially one with the established church of England, but free to go into any parish, to use a revised edition of the Book of Common Prayer, to associate the laity with the clergy in the government and work of the church, and to hold communion with Christians of other denominations.” It was founded in 1844 ​in opposition to the Tractarian movement, and embodies the distinctively evangelical elements of the Reformation. It preserves and maintains to the letter all that is Protestant and evangelical in the liturgy and services of the Anglican church, while its free constitution and revised formularies meet the needs of members of that communion who resent sacerdotal and ritualistic tendencies. There are two dioceses (northern and southern) each with a bishop, about 30 churches and ministers, and about 1300 members.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Fredrikstad

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​FREDRIKSTAD (Frederikstad), a seaport and manufacturing town of Norway in Smaalenene amt (county), 58 m. S. by E. of Christiania by the Christiania-Gothenburg railway. Pop. (1900) 14,553. It lies at the mouth and on the eastern shore of Christiania fjord, occupying both banks of the great river Glommen, which, descending from the richly-wooded district of Österdal, floats down vast quantities of timber. The new town on the right bank is therefore a centre of the timber export trade, this place being the principal port in Norway for the export of pit-props, planed boards, and other varieties of timber. There is also a great industry in the making of red bricks, owing to the expansion of Christiania, Gothenburg and other towns. Granite is quarried and exported. Besides the large number of saw and planing mills, there are shipbuilding yards, engine and boiler works, cotton and woollen mills, and factories for acetic acid and naphtha. The harbour, which can be entered by vessels drawing 14 ft., is kept open in winter by an ice-breaker. In the vicinity is the island Hankö, the most fashionable Norwegian seaside resort. The old town on the left bank was founded by Frederick II. in 1567. It was for a long time strongly fortified, and in 1716 Charles XII. of Sweden made a vain attempt to capture it.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Free-stone

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​FREE-STONE (a translation of the O. Fr. franche pere or pierre, i.e. stone of good quality; the modern French equivalent is pierre de taille, and Ital. pietra molle), stone used in architecture for mouldings, tracery and other work required to be worked with the chisel. The oolitic stones are generally so called, although in some countries soft sandstones are used; in some churches an indurated chalk called “clunch” is employed for internal lining and for carving.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Dayton (Kentucky)

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​DAYTON, a city of Campbell county, Kentucky, U.S.A., on the S. bank of the Ohio river, opposite Cincinnati, and adjoining Bellevue and Newport, Ky. Pop. (1890) 4264; (1900) 6104 including 655 foreign-born and 63 negroes; (1910) 6979. It is served by the Chesapeake & Ohio railway at Newport, of which it is a suburb, largely residential. It has manufactories of watch-cases ​and pianos, and whisky distilleries. In the city is the Speers Memorial hospital. Dayton was settled and incorporated in 1849.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/De Costa, Benjamin Franklin

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​DE COSTA, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN (1831–1904), American clergyman and historical writer, was born in Charlestown, Massachusetts, on the 10th of July 1831. He graduated in 1856 at the Biblical Institute at Concord, New Hampshire (now a part of Boston University), became a minister in the Episcopal Church in 1857, and during the next three years was a rector first at North Adams, and then at Newton Lower Falls, Mass. After serving as chaplain in two Massachusetts regiments during the first two years of the Civil War, he became editor (1863) of The Christian Times in New York, and subsequently edited The Episcopalian and The Magazine of American History. He was rector of the church of St John the Evangelist in New York city from 1881 to 1899, when he resigned in consequence of being converted to Roman Catholicism. He was one of the organizers and long the secretary of the Church Temperance Society, and founded and was the first president (1884–1899) of the American branch of the White Cross Society. He became a high authority on early American cartography and the history of the period of exploration. He died in New York city on the 4th of November 1904. In addition to numerous monographs and valuable contributions to Winsor’s Narrative and Critical History of America, he published The Pre-Columbian Discovery of America by the Northmen (1868); The Northmen in Maine (1870); The Moabite Stone (1871); The Rector of Roxburgh (1871), a novel under the nom de plume of “William Hickling”; and Verrazano the Explorer; being a Vindication of his Letter and Voyage (1880).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Day, Thomas

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​DAY, THOMAS (1748–1789), British author, was born in London on the 22nd of June 1748. He is famous as the writer of Sandford and Merton (1783–1789), a book for the young, which, though quaintly didactic and often ridiculous, has had considerable educational value as inculcating manliness and independence. Day was educated at the Charterhouse and at Corpus Christi College, Oxford, and became a great admirer of J. J. Rousseau and his doctrine of the ideal state of nature. Having independent means he devoted himself to a life of study and philanthropy. His views on marriage were typical of the man. He brought up two foundlings, one of whom he hoped eventually to marry. They were educated on the severest principles, but neither acquired the high quality of stoicism which he had looked for. After several proposals of marriage to other ladies had been rejected, he married an heiress who agreed with his ascetic programme of life. He finally settled at Ottershaw in Surrey and took to farming on philanthropic principles. He had many curious and impracticable theories, among them one that all animals could be managed by kindness, and while riding an unbroken colt he was thrown near Wargrave and killed on the 28th of September 1789. His poem The Dying Negro, published in 1773, struck the keynote of the anti-slavery movement. It is also obvious from his other works, such as The Devoted Legions (1776) and The Desolation of America (1777), that he strongly sympathized with the Americans during their War of Independence.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Daylesford

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​DAYLESFORD, a town of Talbot county, Victoria, Australia, 74 m. by rail N.W. of Melbourne. Pop. (1901) 3384. It lies on the flank of the Great Dividing Range, at an elevation of 2030 ft. On Wombat Hill are beautiful public gardens commanding extensive views, and a fine convent of the Presentation Order. Much wheat is grown in the district, and gold-mining, both quartz and alluvial, is carried on. Daylesford has an important mining school. Near the town are the Hepburn mineral springs and a number of beautiful waterfalls, and 6 m. from it is Mount Franklin, an extinct volcano.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/De Coster, Charles Théodore Henri

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​DE COSTER, CHARLES THÉODORE HENRI (1827–1879), Belgian writer, was born at Munich on the 20th of August 1827. His father, Augustin de Coster, was a native of Liége, who was attached to the household of the papal nuncio at Munich, but soon returned to Belgium. Charles was placed in a Brussels bank, but in 1850 he entered the university of Brussels, where he completed his studies in 1855. He was one of the founders of the Société des Joyeux, a small literary club, more than one member of which was to achieve literary distinction. De Coster made his début as a poet in the Revue trimestrielle, founded in 1854, and his first efforts in prose were contributed to a periodical entitled Uylenspiegel (founded 1856). A correspondence covering the years 1850–1858, his Lettres à Élisa, were edited by Ch. Potvin in 1894. He was a keen student of Rabelais and Montaigne, and familiarized himself with 16th-century French. He said that Flemish manners and speech could not be rendered faithfully in modern French, and accordingly wrote his best works in the old tongue. The success of his Légendes flamandes (1857) was increased by the illustrations of Félicien Rops and other friends. In 1861 he published his Contes brabançons, in modern French. His masterpiece is his Légende de Thyl Uylenspiegel et de Lamme Goedzak (1867), a 16th-century romance, in which Belgian patriotism found its fullest expression. In the preparation for this prose epic of the gueux he spent some ten years. Uylenspiegel (Eulenspiegel) has been compared to Don Quixote, and even to Panurge. He is the type of the 16th-century Fleming, and the history of his resurrection from the grave itself was accepted as an allegory of the destiny of the race. The exploits of himself and his friend form the thread of a semi-historical narrative, full of racy humour, in spite of the barbarities that find a place in it. This book also was illustrated by Rops and others. In 1870 De Coster became professor of general history and of French literature at the military school. His works however were not financially profitable; in spite of his government employment he was always in difficulties; and he died in much discouragement on the 7th of May 1879 at Ixelles, Brussels. The expensive form in which Uylenspiegel was produced made it open only to a limited class of readers, and when a new and cheap edition in modern French appeared in 1893 it was received practically as a new book in France and Belgium.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/De Camp, Joseph

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​DE CAMP, JOSEPH (1858–), American portrait and figure painter, was born in Cincinnati, Ohio, in 1858. He was a pupil of Frank Duveneck and of the Royal Academy of Munich; became a member of the society of Ten American Painters, and a teacher in the schools of the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, Philadelphia, and the Boston Museum of Fine Arts; and painted important mural decorations in the Philadelphia city hall.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hagen, Friedrich Heinrich von Der

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​HAGEN, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH VON DER (1780–1856), German philologist, chiefly distinguished for his researches in Old German literature, was born at Schmiedeberg In Brandenburg on the 19th of February 1780. After studying law at the university of Halle, he obtained a legal appointment in the state service at Berlin, but in 1806 resigned this office in order to devote himself exclusively to letters. In 1810 he was appointed professor extraordinarius of German literature in the university of Berlin; in the following year he was transferred in a similar capacity to Breslau, and in 1821 returned to Berlin as professor ordinarius. He died at Berlin on the 11th of June 1856. Although von der Hagen’s critical work is now entirely out of date, the chief merit of awakening an interest in old German poetry belongs to him.
His principal publications are the Nibelungenlied, of which he issued four editions, the first in 1810 and the last in 1842; the Minnesinger (Leipzig, 1838–1856, 4 vols, in 5 parts); Lieder der ältern Edda (Berlin, 1812); Gottfried von Strassburg (Berlin, 1823); a collection of Old German tales under the title Gesamtabenteuer (Stuttgart, 1850, 3 vols.) and Das Heldenbuch (Leipzig, 1855). He also published Über die ältesten Darstellungen der Faustsage (Berlin, 1844); and from 1835 he edited Das neue Jahrbuch der Berlinischen Gesellschaft für deutsche Sprache und Altertumskunde. His correspondence with C. G. Heyne and G. F. Benecke was published by K. Dziatzko (Leipzig, 1893).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hagenau

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​HAGENAU, a town of Germany, in the imperial province of Alsace-Lorraine, situated in the middle of the Hagenau Forest, on the Moder, and on the railway from Strassburg to Weissenburg, 10 m. N.N.E. of the former city. Pop. (1905), 18,500. It has two Evangelical and two ancient Catholic churches (one dating from the 12th, the other from the 13th century), a gymnasium, a public library, a hospital, and a theatre. The principal industries are wool and cotton spinning, and the manufacture of porcelain, earthenware, boots, soap, oil, sparkling wines and beer. There is also considerable trade in hops and vegetables. Hagenau is an important military centre and has a large garrison, including three artillery battalions.
Hagenau dates from the beginning of the 12th century, and owes its origin to the erection of a hunting lodge by the dukes of Swabia. The emperor Frederick I. surrounded it with walls and gave it town rights in 1154. On the site of the hunting lodge he founded an imperial palace, in which were preserved the jewelled imperial crown, sceptre, imperial globe, and sword of Charlemagne. Subsequently it became the seat of the Landvogt ​of Hagenau, the imperial advocatus in Lower Alsace. Richard of Cornwall, king of the Romans, made it an imperial city in 1257. In 1648 it came into the possession of France, and in 1673 Louis XIV. caused the fortifications to be razed. In 1675 it was captured by imperial troops, but in 1677 it was retaken by the French and nearly all destroyed by fire. In 1871 it fell, with the rest of Alsace-Lorraine, into the possession of Germany.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hag-fish

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​HAG-FISH, Glutinous Hag, or Borer (Myxine), a marine fish which forms with the lampreys one of the lowest orders of vertebrates (Cyclostomata). Similar in form to a lamprey, it is usually found within the body of dead cod or haddock, on the flesh of which it feeds after having buried itself in the abdomen. When caught, it secretes a thick glutinous slime in such quantity that it is commonly believed to have the power of converting water into glue. It is found in the North Atlantic and other temperate seas of the globe, being taken in some localities in large numbers, e.g. off the east coast of Scotland and the west coast of California (see Cyclostomata).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hagen

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​HAGEN, a town of Germany, In the Prussian province of Westphalia. Pop. (1905), 77,498. It lies amid well-wooded hills at the confluence of the Ennepe with the Volme, 15 m. N.E. of Elberfeld, on the main line to Brunswick and Berlin, and at the junction of important lines of railway, connecting it with the principal towns of the Westphalian iron district. It has five Evangelical churches, a Roman Catholic church, an Old Catholic church, a synagogue, a gymnasium, realgymnasium, and a technical school with special classes for machine-building. There are also a museum, a theatre, and a prettily arranged municipal park. Hagen is one of the most flourishing commercial towns in Westphalia, and possesses extensive iron and steel works, large cotton print works, woollen and cotton factories, manufactures of leather, paper, tobacco, and iron and steel wares, breweries and distilleries. There are large limestone quarries in the vicinity and also an alabaster quarry.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hagenbeck, Carl

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​HAGENBECK, CARL (1844– ), wild-animal collector and dealer, was born at Hamburg in 1844. In 1848 his father purchased some seals and a Polar bear brought to Hamburg by a whaler, and subsequently acquired many other wild animals. At the age of twenty-one Carl Hagenbeck was given the whole collection, and before long had greatly extended the business, so that in 1873 he had to erect large buildings in Hamburg to house his animals. In 1875 he began to exhibit a collection of the representative animals of many countries, accompanied by troupes of the natives of the respective countries, throughout all the large cities of Europe. The educational value of these exhibitions was officially recognized by the French government, which in 1891 awarded Hagenbeck the diploma of the Academy. Most of the wild animals exhibited in music-halls and other popular places of entertainment throughout the world have come from Hagenbeck’s collection at Stellingen, near Hamburg.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hagerstown

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​HAGERSTOWN, a city and the county-seat of Washington county, Maryland, U.S.A., near Antietam Creek, about 86 m. by rail W.N.W. from Baltimore. Pop. (1890), 10,118; (1900), 13,591, of whom 1277 were negroes; (1910, census), 16,507. Hagerstown is served by the Baltimore & Ohio, the Western Maryland, the Norfolk & Western, and the Cumberland Valley railways, and by an interurban electric line. It lies in a fertile valley overlooked by South Mountain to the E. and North Mountain, more distant, to the W. The city is the seat of Kee Mar College (1852; non-sectarian) for women. Hagerstown is a business centre for the surrounding agricultural district, has good water power, and as a manufacturing centre ranked third in the state in 1905, its factory products being valued in that year at $3,026,901, an increase of 66.3% over their value in 1900. Among the manufactures are flour, shirts, hosiery, gloves, bicycles, automobiles, agricultural implements, print paper, fertilizers, sash, doors and blinds, furniture, carriages, spokes and wheels. The municipality owns and operates its electric lighting plant. Hagerstown was laid out as a town in 1762 by Captain Jonathan Hager (who had received a patent to 200 acres here from Lord Baltimore in 1739), and was incorporated in 1791. It was an important station on the old National (or Cumberland) Road. General R. E. Lee concentrated his forces at Hagerstown before the battle of Gettysburg.