# The Chinese Language Spoken at Fuh Chau

The Chinese Language Spoken at Fuh Chau was written by the American Methodist missionary M. C. White, and was first published in The Methodist Review in July, 1856. As the first-ever linguistic study of Fuzhou dialect, this treatise gives us a rough idea of what this language was like back in the middle of the 19th century.
CHINESE
SPOKEN LANGUAGE.
BY REV. M. C. White, M.D.
FROM THE METHODIST QUARTERLY REVIEW FOR JULY, 1856.
WITH IMPORTANT ADDITIONS.
PUBLISHED BY THE MISSIONARY SOCIETY
OF THE
METHODIST GENERAL BIBLICAL INSTITUTE,
CONCORD, N. H.
THE CHINESE LANGUAGE SPOKEN AT FUH CHAU.
BY REV. M. C. WHITE, M. D.
The Chinese language is, in theory, a language of monosyllables; but, owing to the paucity of distinct syllables, two monosyllablic words having, in the language of books, the same signification, are often joined together in the spoken language to represent a single idea. Other varieties of compound words are used to express ideas which, in other languages, are represented by a simple word. Some words which are generally regarded as monosyllables, contain two or more vowel sounds, which are pronounced so distinct and separate as to constitute real dissyllables, as kiang, hiong, sieu, which are pronounced ki-ang, hi-ong, si-eu.
There are in the Fuh Chau dialect but ten vowel sounds, and they are generally reckoned as only nine, and the elementary consonant sounds are only ten, hence the number of syllables must also be small. Many combinations of consonants found in other languages are unknown to the Chinese, and the structure of their language is unfavourable to the formation of many polysyllabic words. To compensate for these restrictions upon the formation of words, they have adopted the use of a variety of tones to distinguish ideas expressed by what we should call the same word.
The tones used in different dialects vary both in their number and intonation.
In the court dialect, spoken at the Capital, and by public officers in all parts of the empire, there are five tones. In the Tiechu dialect there are said to be nine tones. In the several dialects spoken at Canton, Amoy, and Fuh Chau, there are reckoned eight tones; but in the Fuh Chau dialect there are really but seven tones, for the second and sixth are identical, and in their books, the words referred to these two tones are all arranged under the second.
In the Fuh Chau dialect there is a native work, called the Book of Eight Tones, and Thirty-six Mother Characters. In this book all the characters in common use are systematically arranged, according to their sounds. Three of the mother characters are mere duplicates, and are not used in the body of the work. All the syllabic sounds of this dialect are, therefore, arranged in thirty-three genera, under mother characters, having the same final sound as the ​characters arranged under them. Each genus (containing the same final sound) is again divided into fifteen classes, in reference to the initial sounds with which they are severally connected.
The Chinese have not carried their analysis of vocal sounds to the nice elementary distinctions recognized in Western languages; but each simple word is divided by their analysis into two parts: a final part, or “mother sound,” which gives body to the word, and a “leading part,” or initial sound.
The initial sound consists of a single consonant, or of two consonants combined, but no vowel over acts as the “leading part,” or initial.
The final part, or “mother sound,” consists, essentially, of a vowel or vowels, followed, in some words, by a single consonant, but never by two consonants. Ng, which is found at the end of many Chinese words, represents, as in English, but a single elementary consonant sound, unlike either n or g when used alone, and not compounded of the sounds of n and g combined. This is a distinct elementary sound, and is used both at the beginning and end of Chinese words. This consonant sound, which we represent by ng, is one of the initials, and in some cases it is used alone, without the addition of a final, but only as a prefix to other words, giving them a negative signification; as, hò$^2$, good; ng$^7$-hò$^2$, bad; k’ò$^3$, to depart; ng$^7$-k’ò$^3$, will not depart.
Each class of syllables is again sub-divided, according to the distinctions introduced by the tones.
The thirty-three final sounds, multiplied by the fifteen initial sounds, give four hundred and ninety-five primary syllables. These again, multiplied by the seven tones in actual use, give three thousand four hundred and sixty-five different monosyllable words, which may be distinguished by the ear; to which may be added the semi-vocal initial, ng, used in a single tone without a final, as mentioned above.
Though there are in theory this number of simple words, many of them are distinguished from others by very slight shades of differences, and there are (so far as known to the writer) only sixteen hundred and forty-four in actual use.
To supply the defect which this paucity of words occasions in the spoken language, two or more words are frequently combined into one, to express a single idea. This practice is so common, that the ​dialect of Fuh Chau has become, to a great extent, a language of polysyllables.
The statement sometimes put forth, that there are hundreds of characters expressing different ideas, which are all pronounced exactly alike, refers only to the written language as read; and even in the language as read the number of set phrases and the peculiar collocation of words give a good degree of definiteness to the language. There is but little more difficulty in understanding the idea intended, than we experience when we hear an English book read, in which occur such words as right, rite, write, and wright, or cleave, to split, and cleave, to adhere. It is true, however, that such equivocal words are more numerous in Chinese than in English.
In the different provinces, and in different districts of the same province, the reading sounds of the characters differ in the same manner as the Arabic figures are differently pronounced by the various nations of Europe. The spoken dialects also differ widely from the reading dialects of the same localities.
In general, the spoken dialects are more diffuse than the written language, which is common to all parts of the empire. This results, in the main, from the frequent necessity of using two words of similar meaning, or, more properly, a dissyllable, to express an idea definitely, when a single written character or word is all that is required.
The spoken languages being more diffuse, and differing in style from the written language, they have adopted, in several dialects, a system of writing the spoken dialects, by borrowing from the general written language a few common characters, which they use chiefly as phonetics, to represent the sounds of the spoken language. These characters are thus used without reference to their signification in the classical writings which have been handed down from the remote ages of antiquity.
This is the common system of mercantile and epistolary writing adopted by persons of limited education, and can only be understood by persons speaking the same dialect, while the style of writing in use among professed literary men, is understood alike by the literati of all parts of the empire.
The system of initials and finals used in the “Book of Eight Tones,” referred to above, would, if used for that purpose, form (in connection with the tonal marks) a complete alphabet for the Fuh Chau dialect. They have been so used by missionaries for writing colloquial phrases, in their private study of the language. Three of the gospels have been written out in this manner by Chinese teachers in the employment of missionaries. ​Books written in this style can be read with the same facility as alphabetic writing of other languages, and are a great aid in learning the colloquial, though no books have been printed in this style, and the initials and finals have never been used in this manner in native books.
To foreigners learning the Fuh Chau dialect, a thorough knowledge of this system of initials and finals, and the eight tones, is of great importance.
The student should constantly refer the pronunciation of every word to its place in this system, till he can analyze each spoken word, giving its proper initial and final, and point out its proper tone as readily as he can spell any word in his mother tongue.
Slight variations in the pronunciation of Chinese words are noticed among different Chinese teachers. When, therefore, Chinese words are represented by the letters of the English alphabet, (which are written more readily than the Chinese initials and finals,) the student refers at once to the sounds of the corresponding initials and finals, as he has learned them from his teacher.
The letters of the English alphabet, when used in the following pages to represent Chinese sounds, are to be pronounced as follows:
I. – CONSONANT SOUNDS. 1. Ch, having the same sound as in church. 2. Ch’, ch with the same sound as above, followed by an additional h, which is represented, in such cases, by the Greek spiritus asper, (’.) 3. H, having its own proper sound, as in hand, at the beginning of words, while at the end of words (where it occurs only in the fourth and eighth tones) it denotes simply an abrupt closing of the vocal organs, without the formation of any distinct sound. When the sound of h follows ch, p, or t, it is, for convenience, represented by the spiritus asper, (’.) 4. K has its own proper sound, as in king. 5. K’, k followed by a distinct sound of h. 6. L, as in English words. 7. M, as in English words. 8. N, as in English words. 9. Ng, as in sing, both at the beginning and end of words. It often requires great care to enunciate this sound correctly at the beginning of words. 10. P, as in park, parade. 11. P’, p followed by the distinct sound of h. 12. S, as in same. ​13. T, as in tame, till.
14. T‘, t followed by h, each letter retaining its own proper sound.
The preceding are the consonant sounds found in the Fuh Chau initials, but it will be seen that there are, in reality, only ten elementary consonants, viz.: Ch, H, K, L, M, N, Ng, P, S, T.
The spiritus asper, (‘,) which is equivalent to h, being used to avoid confounding ph with the sound of f, and th with th in thin or then, and to show that it is never silent in any combination.
II.–Vowels. There are nine distinct vowel sounds, viz.:
1. a, as in far, father.
2. e, as in they, prey, but when followed by ng its sound is nearly as short as in met.
3. è, like the flat sound in there, or like a in care.
4. ë, pronounced nearly like e in her, or i in bird, but more open, and spoken deeper in the throat.
5. i, as in machine, but frequently like i in pin, if the word ends with a consonant.
6. o, as in note, report.
7. ò, like o in for, cord, lord.
8. u, like oo in school; but if the word ends with h or ng, the sound is like that of u in bull. The distinction, if any, between the sound of u in these two forms of Chinese words is unimportant in practice, and too slight to be noted by any diacritical marks. At the beginning of words, when followed by another vowel, it has the force of w in English words.
9. ü has the French sound of ü, as in Püne. This is a sound between those of e and oo. When two vowels come together in the same word, each vowel retains its own sound. There are no silent letters employed in this system.
Note.–This system of orthography is substantially that known as the system of Sir William Jones, used for Romanizing the language of India, the Pacific Islands, and the languages of the North American Indians. Some have desired to embrace the sounds, used in all the dialects of China, in one system, distinguishing them by separate letters, or by diacritical marks, so that each letter shall have a uniform sound in every dialect for which it is used. Such strict uniformity would require the use of several diacritical marks so letters where they are not needed, when, as in the plan here adopted, slight modifications are allowed in each dialect. The sounds of the letters, as here given, is nearly identical with the system used in writing the languages spoken at the Sandwich Islands.
III.–Tones. Figures raised above the line, at the end of words, are used to distinguish the tones.

## TABLE OF FINALS AND INITIALS, WITH THEIR NAMES AND THEIR ALPHABETIC VALUE IN ROMAN LETTERS.

| THIRTY-THREE FINALS | THIRTY-THREE FINALS | FIFTEEN INITIALS |
| 1 Ch’ung 春 ung | 18 Ngüng$^5$ 銀 üng | 1 Liu$^2$ 柳 L |
| 2 Hua 花 ua | 19 Kong 釭 ong | 2 Pieng 邊 P |
| 3 Hiong 香 iong | 20 Chi 之 i | 3 Kiu$^5$ 求 K |
| 4 Ch’iu 秋 iu | 21 Tëng 東 ëng | 4 K’e$^3$ 氣 K’ |
| 5 Sang 山 ang | 22 Kau 郊 au | 5 Tè 低 T |
| 6 K’ai 開 ai | 23 Kuò$^3$ 過 uò | 6 P’ò 波 P’ |
| 7 Ka 嘉 a | 24 Sè 西 è | 7 T’a 他 T’ |
| 8 Ping 賓 ing | 25 Küò$^5$ 橋 üò | 8 Cheng$^5$ 曾 Ch |
| 9 Huang 歡 uang | 26 Kie 雞 ie | 9 Nih$^8$ 日 |
| 10 Kò 歌 ò | 27 Siang 聲 iang | 10 Si$^5$ 時 S |
| 11 Sü 須 ü | 28 Ch’oi 催 oi | 11 Eng 鶯 ’ |
| 12 Pue 杯 ue | 29 Ch’ë 初 ë | 12 Mung$^5$ 蒙 M |
| 13 Ku 孤 u | 30 Tieng 天 ieng | 13 Ngü$^2$ 語 Ng |
| 14 Teng 燈 eng | 31 Kia 奇 ia | 14 Ch’oh$^4$ 出 Ch’ |
| 15 Kuong 光 uong | 32 Uai 歪 uai | 15 Hi 非 H |
| 16 Hui 輝 ui | 33 Keu 溝 eu |
| 17 Sieu 燒 ieu |
NOTE—The twelfth and sixteenth finals are regarded by some teachers as having the same alphabetic sound, (the initial consonant, of course, is excepted,) but most persons observe the distinction given in the table. The characters arranged under the twenty-fifth final are pronounced by many persons residing within the walls of Fuh Chau, like those under the twenty-third. The vowel of the eighth final is pronounced by some teachers like the sound of i in machine, while others give it the sound of i as in pin. The vowel of the fourteenth final is pronounced by some like e in met, and by others like e in they. The thirty-third final has a peculiarly clear and ringing sound, and at once reminds a person of the croak of a frog.
The thirteenth initial sound is, in one instance, used alone without any final or vowel sound following it. It is used only in the seventh tone, and merely as a negative prefix to other words.
The primary syllables formed by joining each initial with all the finals, will be seen in the following table.
| | | Liu$^2$ | Pieng | Kiu$^5$ | K’e$^3$ | Tè | Cheng$^5$ | Nih$^8$ | Si$^5$ | Eng | Mung$^5$ | Ngü$^2$ | Ch’oh$^4$ | Hi |
| | | 柳 | 邊 | 求 | 氣 | 低 | 曾 | 日 | 時 | 鶯 | 蒙 | 語 | 出 | 非 |
| Ch’ung | 春 | lung | pung | kung | k’ung | tung | chung | nung | sung | ung | mung | ngung | ch’ung | hung |
| Hua | 花 | lua | pua | kua | k’ua | tua | chua | nua | sua | ua | mua | ngua | ch’ua | hua |
| Hiong | 香 | liong | piong | kiong | k’iong | tiong | chiong | niong | siong | iong | miong | ngiong | ch’iong | hiong |
| Ch’iu | 秋 | liu | piu | kiu | k’iu | tiu | chiu | niu | siu | iu | miu | ngiu | ch’iu | hiu |
| Sang | 山 | lang | pang | kang | k’ang | tang | chang | nang | sang | ang | mang | ngang | ch’ang | hang |
| K’ai | 開 | lai | pai | kai | k’ai | tai | chai | nai | sai | ai | mai | ngai | ch’ai | hai |
| Ka | 嘉 | la | pa | ka | k’a | ta | cha | na | sa | a | ma | nga | ch’a | ha |
| Ping | 賓 | ling | ping | king | k’ing | ting | ching | ning | sing | ing | ming | nging | ch’ing | hing |
| Huang | 歡 | luang | puang | kuang | k’uang | tuang | chuang | nuang | suang | uang | muang | nguang | ch’uang | huang |
| Kò | 歌 | lò | pò | kò | k’ò | tò | chò | nò | sò | ò | mò | ngò | ch’ò | hò |
| Sü | 須 | lü | pü | kü | k’ü | tü | chü | nü | sü | ü | mü | ngü | ch’ü | hü |
| Pue | 杯 | lue | pue | kue | k’ue | tue | chue | nue | sue | ue | mue | ngue | ch’ue | hue |
| Ku | 孤 | lu | pu | ku | k’u | tu | chu | nu | su | u | mu | ngu | ch’u | hu |
| Teng | 燈 | leng | peng | keng | k’eng | teng | cheng | neng | seng | eng | meng | ngeng | ch’eng | heng |
| Kuong | 光 | luong | puong | kuong | k’uong | tuong | chuong | nuong | suong | uong | muong | nguong | ch’uong | huong |
| Hui | 輝 | lui | pui | kui | k’ui | tui | chui | nui | sui | ui | mui | ngui | ch’ui | hui ​ |
| Sieu | 燒 | lieu | pieu | kieu | k’ieu | tieu | chieu | nieu | sieu | ieu | mieu | ngieu | ch’ieu | hieu |
| Ngüng$^5$ | 銀 | lüng | püng | küng | k’üng | tüng | chüng | nüng | süng | üng | müng | ngüng | ch’üng | hüng |
| Kong | 釭 | long | pong | kong | k’ong | tong | chong | nong | song | ong | mong | ngong | ch’ong | hong |
| Chi | 之 | li | pi | ki | k’i | ti | chi | ni | si | i | mi | ngi | ch’i | hi |
| Tëng | 東 | lëng | pëng | këng | k’ëng | tëng | chëng | nëng | sëng | ëng | mëng | ngëng | ch’ëng | hëng |
| Kau | 郊 | lau | pau | kau | k’au | tau | chau | nau | sau | au | mau | ngau | ch’au | hau |
| Kuò$^3$ | 過 | luò | può | kuò | k’uò | tuò | chuò | nuò | suò | uò | muò | nguò | ch’uò | huò |
| Sè | 西 | lè | pè | kè | k’è | tè | chè | nè | sè | è | mè | ngè | ch’è | hè |
| Küò$^5$ | 橋 | lüò | püò | küò | k’üò | tüò | chüò | nüò | süò | üò | müò | ngüò | ch’üò | hüò |
| Kie | 雞 | lie | pie | kie | k’ie | tie | chie | nie | sie | ie | mie | ngie | ch’ie | hie |
| Siang | 聲 | liang | piang | kiang | k’iang | tiang | chiang | niang | siang | iang | miang | ngiang | ch’iang | hiang |
| Ch’oi | 催 | loi | poi | koi | k’oi | toi | choi | noi | soi | oi | moi | ngoi | ch’oi | hoi |
| Ch’ë | 初 | lë | pë | kë | k’ë | të | chë | në | së | ë | më | ngë | ch’ë | hë |
| Tieng | 天 | lieng | pieng | kieng | k’ieng | tieng | chieng | nieng | sieng | ieng | mieng | ngieng | ch’ieng | hieng |
| Kia | 奇 | lia | pia | kia | k’ia | tia | chia | nia | sia | ia | mia | ngia | ch’ia | hia |
| Uai | 歪 | luai | puai | kuai | k’uai | tuai | chuai | nuai | suai | uai | muai | nguai | ch’uai | huai |
| Keu | 溝 | leu | peu | keu | k’eu | teu | cheu | neu | seu | eu | meu | ngeu | ch’eu | heu |
​Each of the syllables in the preceding tables is susceptible of seven variations of the tone in which it is enunciated. Some of the tones affect the orthography, while others do not. Under each word thus formed may be arranged several characters having independent significations; and thus it happens that a single word in the spoken language is made the symbol to express a number of ideas essentially different from each other.
Chinese Tones.
The greatest obstacle to the acquisition of the spoken dialects or languages of China, is peculiar application of the tones, which distinguish words having otherwise the same orthography. It is believed that the tones are not in themselves very difficult, but as they are absolutely essential to the spoken language, and require constant attention to nice distinctions, which are never noticed in other languages, they demand all the attention the student can bestow, to remember always the proper tone of each word, and to enunciate it correctly in speaking.
In English, various tones or inflections of the voice are used to give force and animation to language; but in Chinese, the tone is an essential part of the word in all circumstances; while rhetorical effect is given to discourse by accentuation, rapidity or slowness of utterance, and peculiarities of manner, as well as varieties of pitch of the voice, and gesticulation.
Much has been written in regard to the tones, and some discrepance will be found in the statements of different writers, caused, principally, by the differences in tones of the same name in the several dialects with which the different writers were acquainted.
It is generally believed that the system of tones was invented to compensate for the paucity of syllables, or single words, in the spoken languages, or dialects, of the numerous kingdoms of Eastern Asia, which have long since been consolidated into the one vast empire of China.
What was the condition of the spoken languages of China previous to the adoption of the present system of writing, we have no means of learning, except from the structure of their written language, and their ancient poetry.
The general rules of poetry, derived from the Confucian classics, have been fixed and unchanging for more than twenty centuries.
In poetical composition the words are arranged in reference to their tones, of which, for poetical purposes, there are reckoned but two classes or distinctions.
The poetical division of tones is into 平聲 ping$^5$ siang, smooth ​tone or tones; and 仄聲 cha$^4$ siang, oblique or harsh tone or tones; (for these terms may be taken either as singular or plural.) These being the only distinctions, in regard to tone, which it is necessary to observe in poetical composition, it is not improbable that there were only two tones in use when the ancient classics were written, or at least in the early ages, when the poetic standards were fixed.
The universal study of the ancient classics, and the observance of the ancient standards of poetical composition, secure a pretty general uniformity in the division of the characters into ping$^5$, or smooth toned, and cha$^4$, or harsh toned characters, though the subordinate divisions in these two classes of tones are by no means uniform in the different dialects.
The Nanking, or court dialect, has five tones, viz.: two ping$^5$, or smooth tones, and three cha$^4$, or harsh tones; though it is stated that there was originally but one smooth, or even tone.
The names which now distinguish the ping$^5$ tones, viz.: 上平聲 siong$^2$ ping$^5$ siang, primary smooth tone; and 下平聲 ha$^2$ ping$^5$ siang, secondary smooth tone, are thought, by Chinese writers, to have arisen from having the characters arranged under the ping$^5$ tone, placed in two volumes; the first volume (as is customary with any work) marked 上 siong$^2$, or first, and the latter volume marked 下 ha$^2$, or last. Theses distinctions, which originally related to the volumes of the book, having been afterward referred to a distinction of two ping$^5$ tones. This view is still further supported by the fact that, while characters referred to the smooth tones in the court dialect, are also referred to what are called smooth tones in the several local dialects, yet many characters referred to what is called a primary smooth tone in one dialect, are placed in the secondary smooth tone in another dialect, and vice versa.
The cha$^4$ tones, of which there are three in the court dialect, called 上聲 siong$^2$ siang, high tone; 去聲 k’ëü$^3$ siang, diminishing tone; and 入聲 ih$^8$ siang, entering, or abrupt tone, as they are now found in the dictionaries of the general language, or court dialect, are each again sub-divided, in many of the local dialects, (as the even tone has been in all dialects,) into primary high, diminishing, and abrupt, and secondary high, diminishing, and abrupt tones.
When all the tones now enumerated are arranged together, the 上聲 siong$^2$ siang, primary tones, are always arranged before the 下聲 ha$^2$ siang, or secondary tones, as follows, viz.:
       1. 上平聲 siong$^2$ ping$^5$ siang; primary smooth tone.
       2. 上上聲 siong$^2$ siong$^2$ siang; primary high tone.
       3. 上去聲 siong$^2$ k’ëü$^3$ siang; primary diminishing tone.
       4. 上入聲 siong$^2$ ih$^8$ siang; primary abrupt tone.
       5. 下平聲 ha$^2$ ping$^5$ siang; secondary smooth tone.
       6. 下上聲 ha$^2$ siong$^2$ siang; secondary high tone.
       7. 下去聲 ha$^2$ k’ëü$^3$ siang; secondary diminishing tone.
       8. 下入聲 ha$^2$ ih$^8$ siang; secondary abrupt tone.
This translation of the Chinese names of the tones, though not the one usually given, is admitted by the original, and gives a better idea of their nature than a more literal translation. The names of the tones, as given above, are common to various dialects, but they do not represent the same qualities of voice, or sound, in the different dialects; that is, tones bearing the same names are often essentially different in different dialects.
The number of tones in actual use, varies also in different districts. In several dialects, there are reckoned eight tones, as given above, while in the Fuh Chau dialect, only seven are in actual use, and in the Tiechu dialect there are said to be nine tones. In the spoken language of Canton there are ten tones, but in reading, only eight. The names applied to the tones give but an imperfect idea of their nature, and in general, it would be as well to designate them as first, second, &c., tones, as to employ the names they bear in Chinese books.
Description of Tones in the Fuh Chau Dialect.–The first, or primary smooth tone, called siong$^2$ ping$^5$, is a uniform even sound, enunciated a little above the ordinary speaking key, but neither elevated nor depressed, from the commencement to the close of the word. It is, in this respect, like the enunciation of a note in music; it may, therefore, be called the singing tone, or the musical monotone.
The second, or primary high tone, called siong$^2$ siong$^2$, is enunciated in the ordinary speaking key, and the voice usually falls a note at the close, as at the end of a sentence in unimpassioned discourse. In connected discourse, however, the second tone is sustained, and turns upward, like the vanishing stress of unaccented words in common conversation. In attempting to pronounce the letters a-e, we notice that e is pronounce either a note higher, or lower, than a. So, also, if we take the pains to listen attentively when a alone is pronounced, we shall notice that it has its ending, or vanishing move ​ment of a turns downward one note. This is exactly the variety of enunciation, distinguished by the second, or siong$^2$ siong$^2$ tone in this dialect.
The third, or primary diminishing tone, called siong$^2$ k’ëü$^3$, is what elocutionists call the rising third, and is heard in English on the emphatic word in a direct question, as, “Does it rain?” where the voice turns upward, through the interval of two notes of the octave.
The fourth, or primary abrupt tone, called siong$^2$ ih$^8$, turns the voice upward through the same interval as the third tone; but it terminates abruptly, as though the voice was suddenly interrupted in an effort to pronounce a final h. In words which, in other tones, end in ng, the abrupt close of the fourth tone sounds somewhat like a suppressed, or half-uttered k, but the clicking sound of the k is not heard. If a person should attempt to ask the question, “Can you open the lock?” and he suddenly stopped before enunciating the final clicking sound of the k, he would give to the last word the primary abrupt tone.
The fifth, or secondary smooth tone, called ha$^2$ ping$^5$, is a quick, forcible enunciation, commencing about two notes above the ordinary key, and suddenly dropping down, at the close, to the key note. It is what is called by elocutionists the falling third, and, when emphatic, the falling fifth. It is sometimes called the scolding tone. It is heard in a petulant enunciation of the emphatic words in the sentence, “No! I’ll do no such thing.”
The sixth tone is identical with the second, and no words are arranged under it; that is, no secondary high, or rising tone, has yet been invented in this dialect.
The seventh, or secondary diminishing tone, called ha$^2$ k’ëü$^3$, is a guttural downward circumflex. It is, in English, expressive of peculiar emphasis, frequently indicating rebuke, scorn, or contempt, as,
“Whence, and what art thou, execrable shape? . . . Back to thy punishment, False fugitive.”
“You wrong me every way; you wrong me, Brutus.”
The words very many, if spoken with forcible emphasis, would also exhibit the tone under consideration.
This is probably the most difficult tone in the language to enunciate correctly, under all circumstances.
​The eighth, or secondary abrupt tone, called ha$^2$ ih$^8$, closes abruptly, like the fourth tone, but differs from it by being enunciated on a uniform pitch, a little above the ordinary key. The eighth tone is an abrupt termination of the first tone, in the same manner as the fourth tone is an abrupt termination of the third.
The tone affect only that part of the word known as the final, while the initial remains unaffected by the tone.
In the table above, the finals are given with the modifications produced by the tones. If each initial consonant is successively prefixed to all the forms in the table, there will be obtained all the separate words, or distinct syllables, found in the language. We have placed at the head of the table, the initial eng, which denotes merely the absence of any initial consonant, as this gives the simplest form of all the finals through each tone. The student will see, from the table at page 8, 9, how each initial is successively united with all the finals, and in the table, pages 16, 17, how each final, whether joined to an initial or otherwise, is modified by the tones. In the table, the vowels printed in italics are accented; in all other cases the first vowel in a word takes the accent. The accented vowels are not marked in other parts of this article. Besides the final syllables in the table, the semi-vocal ng is used in the seventh tone, without a vowel or any other addition. With this addition there are sixty-one independent final syllables, which may be arranged in alphabetical order, as follows:
a, aë, aëh, aëng, ah, ai, aih, aing, aiu, ang, au, auh, aung, e, è, ë, eh, ëh, eng, ëng, eu, ëü, ëüh, ëüng, i, ia, iah, iang, ie, ieh, ieng, ieu, ih, ing, ieh, iong, iu, ng, o, ò, oe, oh, oi, òi, ong, u, ü, ua, uah, uai, uang, ue, uh, üh, ui, ung, üng, uò, üò, uoh, uong.
If we add the forms produced by the prefixing the initial consonants, we shall obtain nine hundred and one syllables, or simple words, capable of being distinguished by the mode of spelling them with Roman letters. Some of these forms, it will be noticed, are produced by changes in orthography, required by the tones. The entire number of forms obtained by all the changes produced by the tones, is three thousand four hundred and sixty-six words, which can be distinguished by the ear. Some of these are distinguished with difficulty, and (as nearly as is known) only one thousand six hundred and forty-four of these monosyllabic words are in actual use in the spoken language; while in the Tonic Dictionary, or Paih Ing, ​only one thousand six hundred and twenty of these sounds have characters arranged under them.
To compensate for this paucity of monosyllables, two or more are often united together, forming real polysyllables, to express single ideas. By this means the number of words is increased to several thousands, and as regards its richness and variety of expression, this dialect is but little inferior to many alphabetic languages.
It will be seen in the table, that the orthography of some words is changed, as they are declined through the different tones. In rapid speaking, words in the third and seventh tones are but slightly distinguishable from the first tone; and in such cases the orthography reverts toward the form of the corresponding word in the first tone. Yet when spoken deliberately, the tones are readily distinguished, and the orthography varies with the tones, as shown in the table.
Nouns.
Nouns, like other Chinese words, are incapable of inflexion. Gender, number, number, person, and case, are determined either by the addition of other words, or by the position a word occupies in the sentence.
Case.–The subject nominative precedes, and the predicate nominative follows the verb, as in English. The accusative case is places after transitive verbs and prepositions, and is only distinguished by its position in a sentence. But in many instances, the accusative precedes the verb in the imperative mood, as chü pong$^3$ chü-ka$^3$, book place book-case; that is, place the book in the bookcase. This construction is very common, though not always adopted.
The dative and ablative cases are often used without any distinguishing mark, though they are sometimes preceded by a preposition. The genitive case of nouns is formed by adding ki$^5$, his, hers, its, or theirs, after the noun, as sung$^5$ ki$^5$ nëng$^5$, ship’s men; that is, sailors, or boatmen; Tüng kuoh$^4$ ki$^5$ nëng$^5$, Central kingdom’s men; that is, Chinamen. The genitive is often followed by the name of the thing possessed, without any intervening word, as sung$^5$ nëng$^5$, boatmen, sailors; Tüng kuoh$^4$ nëng$^5$, men of China; Kuoh$^4$ hò$^2$, nation’s title, or national title. But in such cases, the noun in the genitive may generally be regarded as an adjective, qualifying the following noun.
Gender.—The gender of nouns is indicated by words denoting male and female, either directly or indirectly, as nang, male; and nü$^2$, for female. These are general terms, applicable to any living beings, and are placed before the nouns which they qualify. These terms are but seldom used in speaking; they belong more properly to the written language.
Table of finals, modified by the tones.
| | | 上平 | 上上 | 上去 | 上入 | 下平 | 下上 | 下去 | 下入 |
| Ch‘ung | 春 | ung | ung | ong | oh | ung | ung | ong | uh |
| Hua | 花 | ua | ua | ua | ua | ua | ua | ua | ua |
| Hiong | 香 | iong | iong | iong | ioh | iong | iong | iong | ioh |
| Ch‘iu | 秋 | iu | iu | eu | eu | iu | iu | eu | iu |
| Sang | 山 | ang | ang | ang | ah | ang | ang | ang | ah |
| K‘ai | 開 | ai | ai | ai | ai | ai | ai | ai | ai |
| Ka | 嘉 | a | a | a | a | a | a | a | a |
| Ping | 賓 | ing | ing | eng | eh | ing | ing | eng | ih |
| Huang | 歡 | uang | uang | uang | uah | uang | uang | uang | uah |
| Kò | 歌 | ò | ò | ò | ò | ò | ò | ò | ò |
| Sü | 須 | ü | ü | ëü | ëü | ü | ü | ëü | ü |
| Pue | 杯 | ue | ue | oe | oe | ue | ue | oe | ue |
| Ku | 孤 | u | u | o | o | u | u | o | u |
| Teng | 燈 | eng | eng | aing | aih | eng | eng | aing | eh |
| Kuong | 光 | uong | uong | uong | uoh | uong | uong | uong | uoh |
| Hui | 輝 | ui | ui | oi | oi | ui | ui | oi | ni ​ |
| Sieu | 燒 | ieu | ieu | ieu | ieu | ieu | ieu | ieu | ieu |
| Ngüng5 | 銀 | üng | üng | ëüng | ëüh | üng | üng | ëüng | üh |
| Kong | 釭 | ong | ong | aung | auh | ong | ong | aung | oh |
| Chi | 之 | i | i | e | e | i | i | e | i |
| Tëng | 東 | ëng | ëng | aëng | aëh | ëng | ëng | aëng | ëh |
| Kau | 郊 | au | au | au | au | au | au | au | au |
| Kuò | 過 | uò | uò | uò | uò | uò | uò | uò | uò |
| Sè | 西 | è | è | è | è | è | è | è | è |
| Küò | 橋 | üò | üò | üò | üò | üò | üò | üò | üò |
| Kie | 雞 | ie | ie | ie | ie | ie | ie | ie | ie |
| Siang | 聲 | iang | iang | iang | iah | iang | iang | iang | iah |
| Ch‘oi | 催 | oi | oi | òi | òi | oi | oi | òi | oi |
| Ch‘ë | 初 | ë | ë | aë | aë | ë | ë | aë | ë |
| T‘ieng | 天 | ieng | ieng | ieng | ieh | ieng | ieng | ieng | ieh |
| Kia | 奇 | ia | ia | ia | ia | ia | ia | ia | ia |
| Uai | 歪 | uai | uai | uai | uai | uai | uai | uai | uai |
| Keu | 溝 | eu | eu | aiu | aiu | eu | eu | aiu | eu |
​In common conversation, mò$^5$, signifying mother, and këüh$^4$, to denote the male, are employed after nouns, to distinguish the gender of all the lower animals, including birds and insects; as iong$^5$ mò$^5$, the female goat; iong$^5$ këüh$^4$, the male goat. For human beings, nü$^2$ ing$^5$ is used for woman, in the most genteel society; but the common terms for man and woman are derived from a singular circumstance in the history of the ancient kingdom of U$^5$-chü, of which Fuh Chau was the capital.
The kingdom of U$^5$-chü was subjugated by the Tong$^5$dynasty, and tradition says, that all the men were destroyed, and that the women were compelled to become the wives of their captors, (called Tong$^5$ men,) who immediately occupied the kingdom of U$^5$-chü, which, thereafter, became a part of the great Chinese empire. In memory of this circumstance, to the present day, the women of Fuh Chau are usually called Chü niong$^5$, or Chü niong$^5$ nëng$^5$; that is, Chü ladies, retaining a part of their ancient name. Girls are called Chü nie-kiang$^2$; that is, Chü children. On the other hand, the men are called Tong$^5$può kiang$^2$, or Tong$^5$ men,and boys are called Tong$^5$può nie-kiang$^2$, or Tong$^5$può kaing$^2$; that is, Tong$^5$ children. The shorter term, Tong$^5$può, is often used to signify husband. A teacher, or any literary man, is called sieng sang, while a literary lady is called sieng sang niong$^5$. There are also other terms descriptive of the various human relations, some of which are essentially masculine, and others essentially feminine; as,
| Huang$^5$kiang$^2$, foreigner. | Huang pò$^5$, foreign lady. |
| Ho$^7$, father. | Mu$^5$, mother. |
| Nong$^5$pa$^7$, papa. | Nong$^5$nè$^2$, mamma. |
| Tong$^5$può kiang$^2$, son. | Chü niekiang$^2$, daughter. |
| Hiang tie$^7$, brother. | Chia$^2$moe$^3$, sister. |
| | Neng$^5$nè$^2$, nurse. |
| Hiang, elder brother. | Chia$^2$, elder sister. |
| Tie$^7$, younger brother. | Moe$^3$, younger sister. |
Number.—In the Chinese language, both written and spoken, there is often much vagueness in regard to the number of nouns.
The singular can only be indicated definitely by being preceded or followed by the numeral for one. The plural is denoted by the connexion of words in the sentence, or by the addition of teng$^3$, denoting a class, or collection of individuals. Sometimes the plural is formed by repeating the noun, as nëng$^5$ nëng$^5$, man by man, or men generally.
Classifying Nouns.
These are analogous to what are called, in English, collective nouns; as flock, drove, herd, pair. These and many others of the ​same character are found among the Chinese classifying nouns. But the greatest part of the Chinese classifiers (as these nouns are commonly called) related to individual things, and become plural only, when preceded by a numeral greater than one; as, a piece of wood; a fibre of silk; a blade of grass; a stalk of grain; a kernel of corn; a grain of sand; a head of cabbage; a sprig of mint; a loaf of bread; a block of marble, &c. While in English comparatively few nouns have classifiers of this kind used with them, both in the singular and plural numbers, in the Fuh Chau Chinese every noun has its appropriate classifier attached to it, in almost every case where it is preceded by a numeral.
Generally several nouns have the same classifier, but when the same vocal sound is used as the names of different objects, the different classifiers that are used clearly distinguish them.
In the written language the numeral can frequently be joined to the noun without the classifier, but this usage is seldom or never admissible in the spoken language.
If we say in English two piece men, as the Chinese do when speaking English in the Chinese idiom, it sounds no more uncouth to us than lang$^7$ nëng$^5$ (literally two men) does to the Chinese, who say lang$^7$ ka$^2$ nëng$^5$, for two men, using the clasiifier ka$^2$ between the adjective lang$^7$, two, and the noun nëng$^5$, men. The combinations, a flock of tongs, a drove of wights, a kernel of twine, a prig of land, wound sound no more uncouth in English, than corresponding errors in the use of Chinese classifiers; and as very few Chinese nouns can be used without their classifiers, early attention to the proper use of this class of words is of great importance. Këng, a day’s work, is used without a classifier, and perhaps some others. The round numbers for twenty, thirty, forty, &c., one hundred, two hundred, on thousand, one myriad, &c., can be used before many nouns without classifiers; but these are rare exceptions to the rule, that Every noun must be accompanied by its appropriate classifier, when taking a numeral adjective before it.
The classifiers are called uah$^8$ che$^7$, living words; because they give life and precision to discourse. Two nouns, differing greatly in signification, though pronounced exactly alike, may be readily distinguished by the different classifiers with which they joined in discourse; as, süò$^8$ kuò$^3$ ua$^7$, a phrase of speech; and süò$^8$ hoh$^4$ ua$^7$, a scroll of painting; the word ua$^7$, meaning discourse in one case, and painting in the other, being rendered perfectly definite by the classifying nouns with which it is joined in the two cases. Tiu$^5$, plain silk cloth, and tiu$^5$, a wardrobe, or cupboard, are distinguished in a similar manner, for we say, süò$^8$ ka$^3$ tiu$^5$, one frame ​wardrobe; but süò$^8$ peh$^4$ tiu$^5$, one web of silk; or, süò$^8$ tòi$^7$ tiu$^5$, a small piece of silk goods. It is thus that these living words give clearness and precision to discourse.
Compound Nouns.
Two or more words are often united to describe an object which has no simple name. They form regular compound nouns, and are of frequent occurrence. Kiang$^2$, a child, or a small specimen of nay object named, is often affixed to nouns to form compounds; as nëng$^5$ kiang$^2$, a human child; ngu$^5$ kiang$^2$, a calf; huang kiang$^2$, a foreign child, or a foreigner; chieng$^5$ kiang$^2$, a small coin; ie$^2$ kiang$^2$, a small chair, or a tool; sung$^5$ kiang$^2$, a boatman. Kiang$^2$ may be joined to any noun in the same manner as a diminutive suffix. Sa ho$^7$ signifies a leader, and is a term often applied to priests; but when preceded by the term for such substances as wood, earth, stone, silver, it signifies a worker in those substances; as ngüng$^5$ sa ho$^7$, a silversmith; t’u$^5$ sa ho$^7$, a mason; süò$^8$ sa ho$^7$, a stone-cutter; muh$^8$ sa ho$^7$, a worker in wood, a carpenter. Some other trades are designated in the same manner.
Chò$^3$, to make or do; or p’a$^4$, to beat out, or to fashion, prefixed to the name of a thing, or material of which it is made, designates the maker of those goods, or the worker in that material; as chò$^3$ i siong$^5$, maker of clothing, or a tailor; p’a$^4$ t’ieh$^5$, iron worker, that is, a blacksmith; p’a$^4$ tëng$^5$, a coppersmith, or a brass-worker; p’a$^4$ ngüng$^5$, a silversmith. Sa ho$^7$, affixed to the above compounds, will give the additional idea of a master workman at any of those trades. We have chò$^3$ mè$^2$ mè$^7$, to work at buying and selling, or chò$^3$ seng li$^2$, or chò$^3$ seng e$^3$, to be a trader, or a merchant; chò$^3$ ch’eng$^5$, to work at fields; that is, to be a farmer; chò$^3$ cheng$^3$ këü$^3$, to bear testimony, to be a witness; chò$^3$ këng ngie$^7$, to be a mechanic of any kind; chò$^3$ maëng$^3$ would signify a maker of nets, but as the very ​same expression signifies also to dream, they usually say p’a$^4$ maëng$^3$, for making nets. All the above terms formed with chò$^3$, to make, or p’a$^4$, to fashion, often take after them the phrase ki$^5$ nëng$^5$, its man; that is, the man of whom these actions are predicated, and the entire expression is used as a noun, for merchant, trader, &c.
Adjectives.
Adjectives commonly precede the nouns which they qualify; as keng$^5$ sang, a high hill; uong$^5$ ngu$^5$, a yellow ox; ngai$^5$ nëng$^5$, bad men. The adjective may also be placed after the noun, the substantive verb being understood, in which case the adjective becomes a predicate. Such forms are more common than in English, as the substantive verb is more readily understood, and needs not to be so frequently expressed; as, nëng$^5$ ngai$^5$, the man is bad; nò$^4$ hò$^2$, the thing is good; tüò$^7$ huong$^7$, the road is long. In some such cases it is scarcely admissible to supply the substantive verb in speaking, though it must be supplied to give a correct translation in English. An adjective reduplicated becomes intensive; as hò$^2$ hò$^2$, very good; keng$^5$ keng$^5$, very high; ming$^5$ ming$^5$, very plain, clear, or evident; kuong kuong, very smooth, or very luminous. Different qualities are expressed by ordinals; as, Tè$^7$ eh$^4$ hò$^2$, number one good, or first quality; Tè$^7$ ne$^7$ hò$^2$, number two good, or second quality. The Chinese are extravagant in the use of adjectives, using superlatives where intensives only are strictly admissible. Siong$^7$, upper, or superior, and ting$^2$, ridge, or summit, are often thus used.
The following examples will show the method of comparing adjectives: ia$^2$ keng$^5$, rather high; keng$^5$, high; keng$^5$ keng$^5$, very high; ko$^3$ keng$^5$, higher; kah$^4$ keng$^5$, too high; ting$^2$ keng$^5$, highest; ia$^2$ hò$^2$, rather good; hò$^2$, good; hò$^2$ hò$^2$, very good; ko$^3$ hò$^2$, better; kah$^4$ hò$^2$, too good, or remarkably good; ting$^2$ hò$^2$, best; siong$^7$ hò$^2$, first rate, best quality; ia$^2$ pa$^8$, rather white, pretty white; sometimes it means very white.
Nia$^3$ nòi$^3$, a little, or somewhat, affixed to an adjective, indicates a slight shade of the quality; but this form is more commonly used in comparing two objects, and indicates that the object to which the adjective thus modified is applied, surpasses by a little the one with which it is compared. When two things are compared, they are generally connected by the conjunction kaëng$^7$, and the quality expressed by the comparing adjective belongs to the thing first mentioned, though it is placed after both nouns; thus, li$^2$, kaëng$^7$ li$^5$, ko$^3$ hò$^2$, plums than pears [are] better; the same idea may be expressed without the conjunction; as, li$^2$ ko$^3$ hò$^2$ li$^5$, plums [are] better [than] pears; though placed between the nouns, it still qualifies the former noun.
​“The position of an adjective determines its comparison.” When two things are compared, 長一尺 tong$^5$ süò$^8$ ch’üò$^4$, signifies, longer by a foot; but when one thing only is spoken of, the same expression means, length one foot; so also 一尺長 süò$^8$ ch’üò$^4$ tong$^5$, means, (when one thing only is referred to,) one foot long; but if two objects are mentioned, the same expression signifies one foot longer, and the greater length is understood of the thing first mentioned. 子女 chü$^2$ nü$^2$, signifies sons and daughters; while 女子 nü$^2$ chü$^2$, signifies a female child; and in the written language, when these two are combined into one character, thus, 好 it is read hò$^2$, and signifies good, beautiful. 平正 pang$^5$ chiang$^3$, literally level and perpendicular, signifies in common conversation, bad, of inferior quality.
Numeral adjectives are best understood in connexion with the written characters. Both the common and the business forms are given in the following table.
| Numbers. | Characters. | Spoken. | Abbreviated. | Spoken. |
| 1 | 一 | Sũò$^8$, or, Eh$^4$. | 〡 | Eh4. |
| 2 | 二 | Lang$^7$, or, Ne$^7$. | 〢 | Ne$^7$. |
| 3 | 三 | Sang. | 〣 | Sang. |
| 4 | 四 | Se$^3$. | 〤 | Se$^3$. |
| 5 | 五 | Ngo$^7$. | 〥 | Ngo$^7$. |
| 6 | 六 | Lëüh$^4$. | 〦 | Lëüh$^4$. |
| 7 | 七 | Ch‘eh$^4$. | 〧 | Ch‘eh$^4$ |
| 8 | 八 | Paih$^4$. | 〨 | Paih$^4$. |
| 9 | 九 | Kau$^2$. | 〩 | Kau$^2$. |
| 10 | 十 | Seh$^8$. | 〡〸 | Eh$^4$ seh$^8$. |
| 11 | 十一 | Seh$^8$ eh$^4$. | 〡〸一 | Eh$^4$ seh$^8$ eh$^4$. |
| 12 | 十二 | Seh$^8$ ne$^7$. | 〡〸二 | Eh$^4$ seh$^8$ he$^7$. |
| 13 | 十三 | Seh$^8$ sang. | 〡〸三 | Eh$^4$ seh$^8$ sang. |
| 20 | 二十 | Ne$^7$ seh$^8$. | 〢〸 | Ne$^7$ seh$^8$. |
| 30 | 三十 | Sang seh$^8$. | 〣〸 | Sang seh$^8$. |
| 100 | 一百 | Süò$^8$ pa$^4$. | 〡百 | Eh$^4$ pa$^4$. |
| 101 | 一百〇一 | Süò$^8$ pa$^4$ ling$^5$ süò$^8$. | 〡百〇〡 | Eh$^4$ pa$^4$ ling$^5$ suò$^8$. |
| 102 | 一百〇二 | Süò$^8$ pa$^4$ ling$^5$ lang$^7$. | 〡百〇〢 | Eh$^4$ pa$^4$ ling$^5$ lang$^7$. ​ |
| 110 | 一百〇十 | Süò8 pa4 ling5 seh8 i7. | 〡百一〇 | Pa4 eh4. |
| 111 | 一百〇十一 | Süò8 pa4 ling5 seh8 eh4. | 〡百一〡 | Pa4 eh4 süò8. |
| 120 | 一百〇二十 | Süò8 pa4 ling5 ne7 seh8. | 〡百二〇 | Pa4 ne7. |
| 121 | 一百二十一 | Süò8 pa4 ne7 seh8 eh4. | 〡百二〡 | P4 ne7 eh4. |
| 122 | 一百二十二 | Süò8 pa4 ne7 seh8 ne7. | 〡百二〢 | Pa4 ne7 lang7. |
| 200 | 二百 | Lang7 pa4. | 〢百〇〇 | |
| 1,000 | 一千 | Süò8 ch‘ieng. | 〡千〇〇〇〇 | Eh4 ch‘ieng. |
| 10,000 | 一萬 | Süò8 uang7. | 〡萬〇〇〇〇 | Süò8 uang7. |
| 211. | Ne7 pa4 eh4, or, lang7 pa4 eh4. |
| 220. | Ne7 pa4 ne7, or, lang7 pa4 ne7. |
| 122. | Pa4 ne7 lang7. |
| 1220. | Ch‘ieng ne7 lang7. |
| 1221. | Ch‘ieng ne7 ne7 seh8 eh4. |
| 1001. | Süo8 ch‘ieng ling5 süo8. |
| 1202. | Süo8 ch‘ieng lang7 pa4 ling5 lang7. |
| 12000. | Uang7 ne7. [One] myriad two [thousand]. |
In the use of the duplicate forms for one and two, some care is required, for while we can say eh4 seh8, or ne7 seh8, for ten and twenty, we cannot say süò8 seh8, lang7 seh8, neither is it admissible to say sü`o͘8 pa4 eh4, süò8 pa4 ne7, for one hundred and ten and one hundred and twenty.
The system of abbreviated numerals used in business transactions is easily made to represent concrete numbers, as inches, feet, and poles; or ounces, pounds &c., with their decimals, by placing the character denoting some weight, or measure, under the proper figure, in the same manner that the character for tens, hundreds, &c. is used under ordinary abbreviated characters; thus,
| 〢 | 二 | 〡 | 〤 | 〦 |
| | | 尺 | | |
two hundred and twenty-one feet, four inches, six tenths;
| 〢 | 二 | 〡 | 〤 | 〦 |
| | 丈 | | | |
twenty-two poles, one foot, four inches, six tenths; or,
| 〢 | 二 | 〡 | 〤 | 〦 |
| | | | 寸 | |
two thousand two hundred and fourteen inches, six tenths.
Pronouns.
The words used to perform the office of pronouns, in Chinese, are varied to suit the comparative rank of the speaker and hearer.
When a person speaks to an equal, or when a man of rank speaks to an inferior, the proper personal pronoun Nguai$^2$ is used, but this is inadmissible in addressing a superior. Nëng$^5$-ka, I or we, is commonly used when speaking to equals; it is, however, a circumlocution, but is in common use for the first person. Nu$^5$, [literally, a servant,] your servant, or I your servant, is used by persons addressing their superiors, and generally by persons desiring to honour those whom they address. Puong$^2$-sing, this body, equivalent to myself, is used to denote the speaker; it has no plural. There are various other circumlocutions, used as polite forms of indicating the speaker. Nü$^2$, thou, or you, is the common form of the pronoun in the second person. I [pronounced as in machine] is used for he, she, it, they, or them. Pronouns, like other words in the Chinese language, may be either singular or plural, as best suits the connexion. Nëng$^5$, man, is often appended to pronouns, as the sign of the plural; as Nguai$^2$-nëng$^5$, or, Nu$^5$-nëng$^5$, we, or us; Nü$^2$-nëng$^5$, you; I-nëng$^5$, they.
Ki$^5$, the sign of the genitive case, may be placed after any of the pronouns, in the same manner that it is used after nouns. For the possessive case of pronouns, other forms are often used; thus, leng$^7$ chong, your father; leng$^7$ tong$^5$, your mother; leng$^7$ hing, your elder brother; leng$^7$ tie$^7$, your younger brother; leng$^7$ chiang, your wife; leng$^7$ ch’ing, your relations; leng$^7$ long$^5$, your son; leng$^7$ ch’ieng king, your daughter. Leng$^7$, in all these examples, signifies good, or excellent, and is used for your as a very respectful and dignified address. The words for father, mother, &c., with which it is joined, are also titles of respect and honour, and not literal translations of our terms; yet one who fails to use them will often appear uneducated.
In the same manner they say, ka ho$^7$, my father; ka mu$^2$, my mother; ka hing, my elder brother. Ka, in these expressions, signifies one’s own family, or, perhaps, the family. When other relations are spoken of, another term is used; as, chieng$^7$ nòi$^7$, my wife; (literally, the unpretending, secluded one.) This accords with the Chinese custom of speaking humble terms of one’s self, or what is one’s own, and of praising that belonging to another.
Sia$^3$ tè$^7$, my younger brother; sia$^3$ ch’ing, my relations; pe$^3$ iu$^2$, my friend; pe$^3$ ngieh$^8$ sü, my teacher; pe$^3$ muong$^5$ tu$^5$, my pupils; pe$^3$ huò$^2$, my agent; pe$^3$ siong$^7$, my master; sieu$^2$ i$^5$, my boy; sieu$^2$ nü$^2$, sieu$^2$ k’ai$^3$, my ​slave. Sieu$^2$ means, literally, the little, or inferior one. Koi$^3$, signifying honourable, is used for your, on the ground that what is said to be honourable, is of course understood to belong to the person addressed, rather than to the speaker. Koi$^3$ k’ai$^3$, your slave; koi$^3$ siong$^7$, your master, or superior; koi$^3$ huò$^2$, your agent; koi$^3$ tung, your employer; koi$^3$ ka, your noble family; koi$^3$ iu$^2$, your noble friend; koi$^3$ kuoh$^4$, your honourable country; koi$^3$ seng$^3$, your surname. In all these examples honour is conferred upon the person addressed by applying an honourable epithet to what belongs to him.
When speaking of brutes or inanimate objects, the simple possessive pronouns are generally used.
The Interrogatives are, sie$^7$ nò$^8$, what? Which? sie$^7$ nò$^8$ nëng$^5$, what man? Who? tie$^7$ në nëng$^5$, who? or, man from what place? tie$^7$ süò$^8$ chia$^4$, which one? This expression is varied by using, instead of the last word chia$^4$, the classifier which corresponds with the particular thing in reference to which the inquiry is made.
The Demonstratives are, chi$^2$, or chia$^2$, this; hi$^2$, or hia$^2$, that. Chia$^2$ is also often used as nearly equivalent to that. Chui$^5$, or in full, chia$^2$ kuai$^3$, this place, is often used adjectively for this. Hui$^5$, or hia$^2$ kuai$^3$, is also used for the demonstrative that.
Who, which, and what, when used as relative pronouns, have no proper equivalent in this dialect of the Chinese language. Their place is supplied by demonstratives, followed by the nouns themselves.
Verbs.
The variations of the verb are not as numerous, or as precise in their meaning, as in most other languages. The various forms of p’a$^8$, to strike, will illustrate to peculiarities of the Chinese verb in the Fuh Chau dialect.
I.–Indicative Mood. 1. General tense. Nguai$^2$ pa$^8$, I strike. This form may denote either past, present, or future time, which may be determined, with more or less certainty, by the connexion in which it is used.
2. Present tense, definite; as Nguai$^2$ lè$^2$ pa$^8$, I am striking.
3. Perfect tense. This tense denotes that an action or event is already completed. With transitive verbs, in this tense, the accusative follows the principal verb, and lau$^2$, finished, follows the accusative, to denote the completion of the action; as, Nguai$^2$ pa$^8$ i lau$^5$, I have struck him.
In case of intransitive verbs, k’ò$^3$, departed, or li$^5$, to come, is often inserted between the principal verb and the auxiliary lau$^2$, ​which denotes the completion of the action; as, Muong$^5$ khui k’ò$^3$ lau$^2$, the door is opened already; Muong$^5$ kuong li$^5$ lau$^2$, the door is shut to. 4. Future indefinite. Nguai$^2$ chiong p’a$^4$, I shall strike. 5. Future definite. Nguai$^2$ cheu$^7$ può$^4$ p’a$^4$, I at once will strike. The following form is nearly intermediate between the two preceding, namely, Nguai$^2$ chiong può$^4$ p’a$^4$, I am about to strike. II. – Subjunctive Mood. The subjunctive mood is formed from the indicative, by placing ioh$^8$-sü$^2$, ka$^2$-sü$^2$, or kò$^2$-pe$^3$, signifying if, or supposing that, before the nominative to the verb; as ioh$^8$-sü$^2$ nguai$^2$ p’a$^4$, if I strike, &c. III. – Potential Mood. Nguai$^2$ è$^7$ p’a$^4$, I may, or can strike. Nguai$^2$ tüò$^8$ p’a$^4$, I must strike; Nguai$^2$ kai-tong p’a$^4$, I ought to strike; Nguai$^2$ òi$^3$ p’a$^4$, I wish to strke. IV. – Imperative Mood. Nü$^2$ p’a$^4$, strike thou; Nü$^2$ k’ò$^3$ p’a$^4$, proceed thou to strke; Nü$^2$ tüò$^8$ p’a$^4$, do you strike at once. V. – Infinitive Mood. P’a$^4$, to strike; Ing kai p’a$^4$, it is proper to strike; Lè$^2$ p’a$^4$, to be striking; P’a$^8$ lau$^2$, to have struck; Chiong può$^4$ p’a$^4$, about to strike. VI. – Participles. Lè$^2$ p’a$^4$, striking; P’a$^4$ lau$^2$, struck, or, having struck.

## Passive Voice.Passive Voice.

In the spoken language of Fuh Chau there is no proper passive form of verbs. Kieng$^3$, to see, or experience, placed before the verb, and after the auxiliary, if there is one, is sometimes used to form the passive voice, but is seldom heard in conversation, and more properly belongs to the written language. It is even doubtful whether this form is understood by any except the educated, who have learned it in books. Seu$^7$, to receive, or suffer, is more frequently used before the verb to denote action endured by the noun which proceeds the verb. Both these forms may be used without naming the person or thing by which the action is performed. When either of these words is used before an active verb to give it a passive signification, it becomes the principle verb, and the words denoting the action or suffering received or endured, become verbal nouns in the accusative case.
There is another form sometimes used, namely, Nguai$^2$ k’ëüh$^4$ I p’a$^4$, I permitted him to strike; that is, I was struck by him. In some few cases this form has acquired by usage, something like a passive signification; as, Nguai$^2$ k’ëüh$^4$ lò$^2$-tia p’a$^4$, I suffered the officer to strike; that is, I have been beaten by the officer. In this form it is always necessary to mention the person or thing by which the action has ​been performed. This form is to be carefully distinguished from another which closely resembles it, but has a very different signification; as, Nguai$^2$ këüng$^7$ lò-tia pa$^8$, I with the officers fought, or, I struck the officers.
By these and other circumlocutions, the ideas of the passive voice can be tolerably well expressed, but they often appear very harsh. The awkwardness of these expressions is most apparent when it is desirable to give an exact colloquial translation, rather than a paraphrase, of portions of Scripture.

## List of Verbs.List of Verbs.

Aïh$^4$, to press.
Ang, to touch, to rest.
Ang7, to solder, to cement.
Chia, to shade.
Chie3, to sacrifice.
Chò3, to make.
Ch‘ah8, to chop.
Chò3 hua3, to create.
Chi‘iang2, to invite.
Chu, to rent.
Ch‘oh4, to go forth.
Ch‘ëh8, to mortise.
Eng3, to reply.
Eng3, to stamp, to seal, to print.
Eng3 sing, Ening, or, Eng3 ing, to consent.
Hai7, to injure.
Hëng, to roast, to bake.
Hëüh4, to be tired.
Hieng5, to hate.
Ho3 chui2, to sprinkle with water.
Hieu3 tih8, to understand.
Hnng, to seal up.
Hung ho3, to direct.
Hui2 paung3, to defame.
Ka3, to teach.
Ka7 to bite.
Ka3 hon3, to teal [morals].
Ka3 tò7, to preach.
K‘ang3, to see.
Kang3 kieng3, to see.
K‘ang2, to lop off.
Kang2 tong7, to be inspired.
Kaing3, to cover.
(Kaiu3, a cover.)
K‘aih4, to crowd.
K‘aiu3, to button.
K‘aung3, to conceal.
K‘aung3, to sleep.
Ke3, to record, to remember.
Kè2, to unfold.
Keng2, to select.
Keng3, to honour.
Keng5, to lead.
Keu3, to save
Keu3, to call.
Këü2, to saw.
Këüh4, to permit.
Kiang, to fear.
Kiang2, to walk.
K‘i2, to begin, to build, to set up.
K‘i2 li5, to get up.
K‘ie7, to stand.
Kiu5, to shrivel.
Kong, to carry.
Kong2, to speak.
Kò5 laung7, or, Kò5 taung7, to gurgle.
K‘ò3, to depart.
Kò2 leng5, to pity.
Laë3, to rub, to file, to polish.
Li5, to come.
Lò8, to descend.
Lòi3, to bore.
Mai, to carry on the back.
Mai chaung, to bury.
Mè2, to buy.
Mè7, to sell.
Meng7, to command.
Muai, to grind. ​ Muh⁸, to heal.
Muong³, to inquire.
Muò, to touch, to stroke.
Neng⁵, to nurse.
Neng⁷, to recognise.
Neng king, to repeat prayers.
Nè, to smear.
O⁷, there is, to have.
O⁸, to learn.
Pa, to manufacture.
Pa⁸, to strike.
Peh⁴, to pull.
Puai, to split.
Pua⁸ tò, to stumble.
Pau, to envelope.
Sia⁵, to eat.
Sia che³, to write.
Sai, to use.
Sè, to wash.
Sè lè², to baptize.
Sieu, to burn.
Sieu, to receive.
Sing, to search.
Sing puang, to judge.
Sūò⁸, to cut in pieces.
Sëng, to put on [clothes.]
Tang, to row.
Tang, to carry burdens.
T‘aung³, to put of [clothes.]
Teng³, to sew, to nail.
T‘iaug³, to ache.
T‘iang³, to love.
T‘ieu³, to jump.
T‘iang, to listeu.
Toi, to plane.
Tòi³ ua⁸, to answer.
T‘ui⁵, to hammer.
Uoh⁸, to water.

## Adverbs.Adverbs.

Adverbs are compared in the same manner as adjectives. They are in the same manner rendered intensive by reduplication; as, k’è³ k’è³, very quick; maing⁷ maing⁷, very slowly. This latter expression often means hereafter, or wait a little. Ng⁷ is a negative prefix, which may be joined either to adjectives or adverbs.
The following are adverbs in common use, namely:
Hieng⁷ chai⁷, now.
Moe⁷, not yet.
Po⁷, again.
K’i² seng, formerly.
Cha², early.
Chia² si⁵ haiu⁷, at this time.
Hia² si⁵ haiu⁷, at that time.
Na⁷, only, simply.
Mò⁵ tang tong, impossible.
Këüng⁷, near.
Huong⁷, distant.
Hò², well.
Chiang³ se⁷, truly, yes.
Ng⁷ se⁷, not so.
Chiong uang⁷, thus.
Chia² iong⁷, after this fashion.
Ch’a poh⁴ tò, about so, or, not much different.
Chia⁴ chia⁴, just now (past.)
Cha² k’i², early in the morning.
Mò⁵ ta² king², no matter.
Tang, now, to-day.

## Adverbial Phrases.Adverbial Phrases.

| King nieng³, this year. | Mang⁵ nieng³, next year. |
| K‘ò³ nieng³, last year. | Nieng³ nieng⁵, yearly. |
| Nieng³ t‘au⁵, first of the year. | Nieng⁵ mue², the last of the year. |
| Sò⁸ nieng³, year before last. | Au⁷ uieng³, year after next. |
| Nò⁷ au⁷ nieug⁵, three years hence. | Nò⁷ sò⁸ nieng³, three years ago. |
| Nguoh⁸ nguob⁸, monthly. | Chia² nguoh⁸, this month. ​ |
| Puang ka² nguoh⁸, half a month. | Süò⁸ ka² nguoh⁸, one month. |
| Siong³ nguoh⁸, last month. | A⁷ nguoh⁸, next month. |
| Seng kui² ka² nguoh⁸, several months ago. | Ti⁵ kui² ka² nguoh⁸, several months hence. |
| Chiang² nguoh⁸, first month of the year. | Sang³ seh⁸ mang⁵ può, new year’s eve. |
| Nih⁸ nih⁸, daily. | King tang³, to-day. |
| Ming⁵ tang³, or, ming⁵ nih⁸, to-morrow. | So³ mang⁵, yesterday |
| Sò⁸ nih⁸, day before yesterday. | Au⁷ nih⁸, day after to-morrow. |
| Nò⁷ au⁷ nih⁸, three days hence. | Nò⁷ sò⁸ nih⁸, three days ago. |
Può, night, or evening, affixed to either of the expressions denoting days, signifies the evening of that day; as, king può, (nih$^8$ being omitted,) this evening; so$^3$ mang$^5$ può, last evening.

## Connectives.Connectives.

But few connecting particles are used in the dialect spoken at Fuh Chau, and the same is true of the Chinese language generally.

## Conjunctions.Conjunctions.

Këüng$^7$, and; ling$^5$, also; hëüh$^4$, or hëüh$^4$-ti, or, either; ka sü$^2$, or ioh$^8$ sü$^2$, if; kò$^2$ pe$^3$, supposing that; ing oi$^7$, because; ku chü, therefore.

## Prepositions.Prepositions.

Meng$^3$-seng$^5$, before; a$^7$-lau$^2$, behind; kè-teng$^2$, above; a$^7$-tè$^3$, below; tie$^2$-tie$^3$, within; ngie lau$^2$, without, outside.

## Interjections.Interjections.

Hò2! Well! It is well! Ai-ia$^5$! an expression of wonder, or surprise; this expression is also used in a drawling tone, denoting excessive grief. Ëü$^7$! So-ho! Ho there! used to call the attention of persons standing near. O$^5$! O$^5$! expressive of sudden pain.

## Versification.Versification.

​it is seen in at present. Modern poetry commonly consists of either ﬁve or seven words in a line. Of these two kinds, that of seven syllables (words) in a line is the more common. There are also verses of three, four, six, and nine words, or syllables, in a line; but the ordinary poetry is written in measures of either five or seven syllables.
In poetry there are recognised only two distinctions of tone, namely, the 平 ping, or smooth, and the 仄 cha$^4$, or harsh tones. The latter comprehends the 上 siong$^2$, or rising, the 去 k‘ëü$^3$, or vanishing, and the 入 ih$^8$, or abrupt tones, these being all considered harsh tones.
In verses of ﬁve words (syllables) no attention is paid to the tones of the ﬁrst and third. The second and fourth ought to alternate; that is, if the second is a ping tone, the fourth ought to be cha4, and vice versa. The second and third lines ought to be the reverse of the ﬁrst, and, by consequence, the fourth verse resembles the first. In verses of seven syllables, the tones of the first, third, and fifth may be selected at pleasure. The tones of the second and fourth words should alternate, and the sixth should correspond with the second. In verses of ﬁve, and also of seven syllables, the stanzas, consisting of four lines each, require three of the lines to terminate alike both in rhyme and tone, or accent. Usually the ending of the third line does not rhyme with the others, and frequently they dispense with the rhyme altogether. ’
The structure of Chinese poetry may be illustrated by diagrams, using the open circle to represent smooth tones, the shaded circle for harsh tones, and the circle with one half only shaded, to represent syllables which may be smooth or harsh at pleasure.
In this example the left hand column represents the first line, having the second syllable a smooth tone, and the fourth harsh. The second syllable of the second line is harsh, and the fourth smooth, and so on.
In the following example, the second syllable of the first line is harsh, and the fourth smooth, and so on. This example is the inversion of the first.
​bles in a measure, the third of the first line is the governing word; and the fifth sometimes holds the same relation in verses of seven syllables. This key word in Chinese poetry is the object of particular attention. It must not be a mere particle, but a word expressing some prominent idea in the sentence. It may rhyme with the key word in the following line, or it may alternate with it, according to the rule which is chosen in the poem. These different kinds of verses are variously combined, making as many as forty different poetical metres. There are six different metres in ancient poetry. The style of these poems is, in general, elevated, concise, full of allegorical, and metaphorical expressions, of words that are antique and little used, and references to events of history, deeds, usages, and opinions little known. This is what renders Chinese poetry so very difficult to be appreciated or described by Western scholars.
The great difference between the smooth and harsh tones, which are variable in different stanzas of Chinese poetry, some of which can be scarcely, if at all, enunciated in singing, renders it almost impossible to sing Chinese poetry with Western music, and a tune which was adapted to one stanza would not be appropriate for the next, though agreeing with it in the number and metrical arrangement of its syllables.
In the written language there are so many synonymous characters differing in pronunciation and tone, that there is little difficulty in adapting them to the strict rules of Chinese poetry. In the spoken language, however, the number, tones, and arrangement of words in a sentence, is so inflexible, that it is almost impossible to compose poetic measures in the spoken language. The popular songs of the empire, and hymns composed for Christian worship, are only approximations to the style of the spoken language, and, consequently, are but partially intelligible to the common people. ​==LIST OF NOUNS WITH THEIR CLASSIFIERS.==
N. B. In the following list Süò⁸, the adjective one, is frequently translated by the indefinite article to which it is often equivalent.
一件衣裳 Süò⁸iong⁷ I-siong⁵, One piece of clothing.
一件馬褂 Süò⁸iong⁷ Ma²-kua³, A short riding coat.
一件物 Süò⁸iong⁷ Nò⁴, One single thing.
一件袍 Süò⁸iong⁷ Pò⁵, A long robe open in front and behind.
一件背夾 Süò⁸iong⁷ Poe³-tah⁴, One waistcoat.
一件事 Süò⁸iong⁷ Tai³-kie⁸, One piece of business.
一件長褂 Süò⁸iong⁷ Tong⁵-kua³, A long robe (buttoning in front.)
一件長衫 Süò⁸iong⁷ Tong⁵-sang, A robe or gown buttoning at the right side.
一件短𬡨 Süò⁸ iong⁷ Toi²-long², A short under garment, a shirt.
一位 Oi⁷, A seat or throne (Used of men and gods.)
一位儂客 Süò⁸ oi⁷ Nëng⁵-k‘a⁴, A visitor, a g^est
一行風 Süò⁸ ong Hung, A gale of wind.
一畫字 Süò⁸ ua⁸ Che⁷, One stroke of writing.
一員官 Süò⁸ uong⁵ Kuang, One officer.
一圓麵餑 Süò⁸ uong⁵ Mieng⁷-p‘uoh⁸, A roll of bread or cake (made of wheat flour.
一𩃹雨 Süò⁸ ch‘ah⁴ Ü², A shower of rain,
一節竹 Süò⁸ chieh⁴ Tëüh⁴, One joint of bamboo.
一節書 Süò⁸ chieh⁴ Chü, One verse of a book.
一盞燈 Süò⁸ chang² Ting, One cup lamp.
一盞燈籠 Süò chang⁵ Ting-lëng², One lantern.
一盞酒 Süò⁸ chang² Chiu², One cup of whiskey.
一層樓 Süò⁸ cheng⁵ Lau⁵, An upper story.
一層樓梯 Süò⁸ cheng⁵ Lau⁵-t‘ai, A ladder.
一層階座 Süò⁸ cheng⁵ Kie-chò³, A flight of stairs. ​一隻碗 Süò³ chia⁴ Uang², One bowl.
一隻錢 Süò³ chia⁴ Chieng⁵, One (copper) coin.
一隻蛋 Süò³ chia⁴ Laung⁷, One egg.
一隻人 Süò³ chia⁴ Nëng, One person, (man or woman).
一隻硯 Süò³ chia⁴ Ngieng², An inkstone.
一隻麭 Süò³ chia⁴ Pau, A loaf of bread.
一隻餅 Süò³ chia⁴ Piang, A cake, a biscuit.
一隻盤 Süò³ chia⁴ Puang⁵, A plate or platter.
一隻杯 Süò³ chia⁴ Pue, One cop. A tea cup.
一隻碟 Süò³ chia⁴ Tieh³, A saucer.
一章書 Süò³ chiong Chü, One chapter of a book.
一座酒食 Süò³ chò³ Chiu²-sih⁸, A refreshment saloon.
一座牆 Süò³ chò³ Ch‘iong⁵, One wall.
一座官廳 Süò³ chò³ Kuang-t‘iang, An official residence of a subordinate officer.
一座樓 Süò³ chò³ Lau⁵, An upper story.
一座衙門 Süò³ chò³ Nga⁵-muong⁵, A court of justice.
一座炮臺 Süò³ chò³ P‘au³-tai⁵, A terrace for guns, a fort.
一座山 Süò³ chò³ Sang, One hill.
一座城 Süò³ chò³ Siang⁵, A walled city.
一座大厝 Süò³ chò³ Tuai⁷-ch‘üò³, A large house.
一端事情 Süò³ chong Tai⁷-kie³, One piece of business.
一炷香 Süò³ chëü⁷ hiong, A stick of incense.
一串珠 Süò³ ch‘uong⁵ Chuò, A string of beads.
一串錢 Süò³ ch‘uong⁵ Chieng⁵, A string of cash.
一口茶 Süò³ ch‘oi² Ta³, One swallow of tea.
一床褥 Süò³ ch‘ong⁵ Üh³, A cushion bed.
一床被 Süò³ ch‘ong⁵ P‘ue⁷, A quilt, a bedcover.
一床帳 Süò³ ch‘ong⁵ Tiong⁵, One set of musquito bars. ​一合鳥 Süò⁸ hah⁴ Cheu², A pair of birds.
一合燭 Süò⁸ hah⁴ Chuò, A couple of candles.
一合燭台 Süò⁸ hah⁴ Chuò⁴-tai⁵, A pair of candlesticks,
一合小腰棹 Süò hah⁴ Sieu² ieu tò⁴, A pair of small side tables, (Making a square when put together.)
一合椆 Süò⁸ hah⁴ Tiu⁵, A pair of wardrobes, or cupboards.
一合茶棹 Süò⁸ hah⁴ Ta⁵-tò⁴, A pair of tea-tables.
一頁書 Süò⁸ hieh⁸ Chü, One leaf of a book.
一副 Süò⁸ ho³, A set, consisting of ten things of any kind. Enough for ten persons.
一副碗 Süò⁸ ho³ Uang², A set of bowls.
一副盤 Süò⁸ ho³ Puang⁵, A set of plates.
一副甌 Süò⁸ ho³ Eu⁵, A set of cups.
一副碟 Süò⁸ ho³ Tieh⁸, A set of saucers.
一副湯匙 Süò⁸ ho³ T‘ong-p‘ieu⁵, A set of soup spoons. (The Chinese use porcelain spoons.)
一副箸 Süò⁸ ho³ Tëü⁷, A set of chop-sticks (i. e., 10 pairs).
一副牙簽 Süò⁸ ho³ Nga⁵-ch‘ieng, A set of tooth-picks.
一副椅 Süò⁸ ho³ Ie², A set of chairs.
一幅軸 Süò⁸ hoh⁴ Ch‘aëh⁴, A scroll.
一幅畫 Süò⁸ hoh⁴ Ua⁷, A picture (on a scroll).
一幅布 Süò⁸ hoh⁴ Puè³, A roll of cotton cloth.
一幅綢 Süò⁸ hoh⁴ Tiu⁵, A roll of silk.
一行字 Süò⁸ hong⁵ Che⁷, A column of characters, (Chinese is written in columns.)
一行樹 Süò⁸ hong⁵ Ch‘eu³, A row of trees,
一封書 Süò⁸ hung Chü, A sealed communication, a letter.
一夥呆人 Süò⁸ huò² Ngai⁵-nëng⁵, A band of bad men, robbers. (Huò² signifies many banded together.)
一夥賊 Süò⁸ huò² Ch‘eh⁸, A band of thieves.
一夥賊船 Süò⁸ huò² Ch‘eh⁸-sung⁵, A fleet of pirates.
一個錢 Süò⁸ ka² Chieng⁵, One cash, a copper coin. (The same as Süò chia⁴ Chieng⁵.)
一個人 Süò³ ka² Nëng⁵, One person, a human being. ​一個月 Süò⁸ ka² Nguoh⁸, One month.
一個門 Süò⁸ ka² Muong⁵, One door.
一個箱 Süò⁸ ka² Siong⁵, One trunk, box, or chest.
一架書架 Süò⁸ ka³ Chü-ka⁸, One book-case.
一架自嗎鍾 Süò⁸ ka³ , A clock (a self-striking bell.)
一架眠床 Süò⁸ ka³ Ming⁵-ch‘ong⁵, One bed-stead.
一架椆 Süò⁸ ka³ Tiu⁵, A cupboard, a wardrobe.
一間行 Süò⁸ kang Ong⁵, A mercantile establishment, a hong.
一間厝 Süò⁸ kang Ch‘üò³, One house.
一間房 Süò⁸ kang Pung⁵, An inner room.
一間店 Süò⁸ kang Taing³, One shop.
一帙書 Süò⁸ keh Chü, A set of books. (A work consisting of several volumes.)
一羣陣鴨 Süò⁸ kung⁵-teng³ Ah⁴, A flock of ducks.
一羣陣羊 Süò⁸ kung⁵-teng³ Iong⁵, A flock of sheep, a herd of goats.
一羣陣小孩 Süò⁸ kung⁵-teng³ Nie³-kiang², A company of children.
一羣陣人 Süò⁸ kung⁵-teng³ Nëng⁵, A company of men.
一羣陣打刦賊 Süò⁸ kung⁵-teng³ P‘a⁸-kieh⁴ ch‘eh⁸, A band of robbers.
一句話 Süò⁸ kuò⁸ Ua⁷, A phrase (spoken).
一句書 Süò⁸ kuò⁸ Chü, A sentence of a book.
一句古語 Süò⁸ kuò⁸ Ku-ua⁷, An ancient saying.
一句俗語 Süò⁸ kuò⁸ Süh⁸-ua⁷, An adage, a proverb.
一管針 Süò⁸ kuong³ Cheng, A needle, a probe.
一管米 Süò⁸ kuong² Mi⁵, A. stalk of rice.
一奇鞋 Süò⁸ kia È⁵, An odd shoe (one of a pair).
一奇襪 Süò⁸ kia Uah⁸, An odd stocking.
一奇靴 Süò⁸ kia K‘uò, One boot, an odd boot.
一橛墨 Süò⁸ k‘uoh⁴ Mëh⁸, A cake of ink.
一橛柴 Süò⁸ k‘uoh⁴ Ch‘a⁵, A block of wood. ​一粒楊梅 Süò⁸ lah⁸ Chuò-ung⁵, An arbutus, strawberry fruit, Red-fruit.
一粒藥丸 Süò⁸ lah⁸ Üò⁸-uong⁵, A pill, a medicinal bolus.
一粒珠 Süò⁸ lah⁸ Chuò, A bead.
一粒菓子 Süò⁸ lah⁸ Kuò² chi², One fruit (i. e., one apple, one peach, one strawberry, or one of any kind of fruit).
一粒釦 Süò⁸ lah⁸ K‘ain, One button.
一粒米 Süò⁸ lah⁸ Mi⁵, A kernel of rice.
一粒李 Süò⁸ lah⁸ Li², A plum.
一粒梨 Süò⁸ lah⁸ Li⁵, A pear.
一粒枇杷 Süò⁸ lah⁸ Pi³-pa⁵, Medlar fruit, Loquat, Mespilus japonica?
一粒荳 Süò⁸ lah⁸ Tau⁷, A single bean.
一粒頂 Süò⁸ lah⁸ Ting², A button, worn on the top of the cap, designating official rank.
一粒桃 Süò⁸ lah⁸ T‘ò⁵, A peach.
一粒鼓釘 Süò⁸ lah⁸ Ku²-ting, A round headed nail, a drum nail.
一粒葡萄 Süò⁸ lah⁸ Può⁵-tò⁵, One grape.
一領蓆 Süò⁸ liang² Ch‘üò⁸, A piece of matting.
一領布 Süò⁸ liang² Può³, One breadth of cotton cloth.
一靣旗 Süò⁸ mieng⁷ Ki⁵ or Süò⁸ meng³ Ki⁵, A flag, a stand of colors.
一畝田 Süò⁸ mu² Ch‘ieng⁵, One acre of field land.
一畝園 Süò⁸ mu² Huong⁵, An acre of garden land.
一尾魚 Süò⁸ mue² Ngü⁵, A fish, one tail (used in books only); spoken, Süò⁸ t‘au⁵ Ngü⁵, One head of fish.
一尾鱸魚 Süò⁸ mue² Lu⁵-Ngü⁵, A perch, a Chinese trout.
一尾黃花魚 Süò⁸ mue² Uong⁵-hua-ngü⁵, Yellow fish, (one of the best salt water fish.)
一門炮 Süò⁸ muong⁵ P‘au³, One mouth of artillery, one cannon.
一把柴 Süò⁸ pa² Ch‘a⁵, A bundle of wood, (used for fuel.)
一把琴 Süò⁸ pa² K‘ing⁵, A guitar.
一把斧頭 Süò⁸ pa² P‘uò²-tau³, An axe, a hatchet.
一把日𠎃 Süò⁸ pa² Nih⁸-chia, A sun shade, a parasol.
一把傘 Süò⁸ pa² Sang², An umbrella. ​一把扇 Süò⁸ pa² Sieng³, A fan.
一把箫 Süò⁸ pa² Sieu, A reed instrument with 12 tubes (sounding like an accordeon).
一把簥 Süò⁸ pa² Kieu⁵, A flute, a clarinet (?)
一把轎 Süò⁸ pa² Kieu⁷ or Süò⁸ ting² Kieu⁷, A sedan.
一把匙 Süò⁸ pa² P‘ieu⁵, A spoon.
一把刀 Süò⁸ pa² Tò, One knife.
一把釵 Süò⁸ pa² Ch‘a, One fork.
一把烟筃 Süò⁸ pa² Hong-tëng⁵, One tobacco pipe.
一把帚手 Süò⁸ pa² Sau³-ch‘iu², One broom. (Pa², is used with almost all mechanical tools and implements of husbandry.)
一板書 Süò⁸ peng² Chü, One page of a book (so called from peng², the board, or block on which it is engraved).
一板字 Süò⁸ peng² Che⁷, A block of characters, a block engraved for printing.
一板畫 Süò⁸ peng² Ua⁷, A page of pictures.
一邊一邊 Süò⁸-peng² Süò⁸-peng², Stand aside, make way.
二邊 Lang² peng², Two sides, both sides.
三板 Sang-peng² or Sang-pang², A small boat (named from the three oars with which it is rowed).
一枰棋 Süò⁸ pangg⁵ Ki⁵, A chess board.
一本書 Süò⁸ puong² Chü, One volume of a book.
一本筆 Süò⁸ puong² Peh⁴, One pencil, (made of hair.)
一盆花 Süò⁸ puong⁵ Hua, A pot of flowers, a flowering plant.
一疋 Süò⁸ p‘eh⁴, A roll, or piece, of any woven goods, A fragment of cloth is called tòi⁸.
一疋夏布 Süò⁸ p‘eh⁴ Chè³-può⁸, A piece of summer cloth, i.e., grass-cloth.
一疋縐紗 Süò⁸ p‘eh⁴ Chaiu³-sa, A piece of crape.
一疋花綢 Süò⁸ p‘eh⁴ Hua-tiu⁵, A web of figured silk.
一疋綿紬 Süò⁸ p‘eh⁴ Mieng⁵-tiu⁵, Cloth made of cotton and silk combined.
一疋白綾 Süò⁸ p‘eh⁴ Pa²-ling⁵, A web of lutestring, a species of silk goods.
一疋布 Süò⁸ p‘eh⁴ Può³, A piece of cotton cloth.
一疋縀 Süò⁸ p‘eh⁴ Taung⁷, A piece of satin.
一疋素紬 Süò⁸ p‘eh⁴ So³-tiu⁵, A piece of plain silk. ​一疋紬 Süò⁸ p‘eh⁴ Tiu⁵, A piece of common silk.
一疋洋布 Süò⁸ p‘eh⁴ Iong⁵-può³, A piece of foreign cotton cloth.
一疋尼 Süò⁸ p‘eh⁴ Ni⁵, A piece of fulled cloth, dressed cloth.
一疋大尼 Süò⁸ p‘eh⁴ Tuai⁷ ni⁵, A piece of broadcloth.
一疋粗呢 Süò⁸ p‘eh⁴ Pi⁵-chie², A piece of Spanish stripe (baize).
一疋洋夏 Süò⁸ p‘eh⁴ Iong⁵-chè, A piece of foreign lawn.
一疋文洋布 Süò⁸ p‘eh⁴ Sia-hong⁵ iong⁵ può³, A piece foreign drilling.
一疋斜文絨 Süò⁸ p‘eh⁴ Sia-hong⁵ üng⁵, A piece of cotton flannel.
一疋線綢 Süò⁸ p‘eh⁴ Siang-chaiu³, A piece of silk camlet.
一匹馬 Süò⁸ p‘eh⁴ Ma², A horse (one of a span).
一枰棋 Süò⁸ puang⁵ Ki⁵, A set of chess, a game of chess (?)
一朵花 Süò⁸ può³ Hua, A single flower, one blossom.
一部書 Süò⁸ p‘uo⁷ Chü, A set of books, or several volnmes composing a single work.
一雙鞋 Süò⁸ sëng È⁵, A pair of shoes, one put on of shoes.
一雙襪 Süò⁸ sëng Uah⁸, A pair of stockings.
一雙靴 Süò⁸ sëng K‘uò, One pair of boots.
一身神 Süò⁸ sing Sing⁵, An idol god.
一身菩薩 Süò⁸ sing Pu⁵-sah⁴, One (Budhist) idol.
一身古董 Süò⁸ sing Ku²-tung², An ancient image not worshipped, a statue (?)
一身人仔 Süò⁸ sing Nëng⁵-kiang², A statue, a likeness,
一身玩物 Süò⁸ sing Nguang⁷-uh⁸, A fancy image, a doll.
一身佛 Süò⁸ sing Huh⁸, An image of Buddha.
一身魔鬼 Süò⁸ sing Mò⁵-kui², One devil.
一首詩 Süò⁸ siu² Si, A piece of poetry.
一株樹 Süò⁸ tau Ch‘eu³, One root tree, one tree.
一株花 Süò⁸ tau Hua, One root of flowers.
一頭頭牲 Süò⁸ t‘au⁵ Tan⁵-sang, An animal, a wild animal.
一担 Süò⁸ tang³, A Coolie load, a hundred weight. ​一臺戲 Süò⁸ tai⁵ Hie³, A theatrical play.
一餐飯 Süò⁸ taung³ Puong⁷, A meal of victuals.
一題文章 Süò⁸ tè⁵ Ung⁵-chiong, An essay, a dissertation.
一條河 Süò⁸ teu⁵ Ò⁵, A canal, or river.
一條街 Süò⁸ teu⁵ Kè, A street, a street bordered by shops, a market place.
一條索 Süò⁸ teu⁵ Sò⁴, One rope.
一條線 Süò⁸ teu⁵ Siang³, A silk thread.
一條手巾 Süò⁸ teu⁵ Ch‘iu²-küng, A handkerchief.
一條帶 Süò⁸ teu⁵ Tai³, A girdle.
一條船 Süò⁸ teu⁵ Sung⁵, A ship, a boat.
一條三板 Süò⁸ teu⁵ Sang-peng², A three oared boat.
一條鐵釘 Süò⁸ teu⁵ T‘ieh⁴ ting, One iron nail.
一條針 Süò⁸ teu⁵ Cheng, A single needle.
一條草 Süò⁸ teu⁵ Ch‘au², A spear of grass.
一條竹 Süò⁸ teu⁵ Tëüh⁴, One bamboo.
一條柱 Süò⁸ teu⁵ T‘eu³ or Süò⁸ tòi T‘eu³, A post, a pillar.
一條梁 Süò⁸ teu⁵ Ch‘eu³, One tree.
一錠銀 Süò⁸ tiang⁷ Ngüng⁵, One ingot of silver.
一錠金 Süò⁸ tiang⁷ King, An ingot of gold, a bar of gold.
一錠錫 Süò⁸ tiang⁷ Seh⁴, A block of pewter.
一錠銅 Süò⁸ tiang⁷ Tëng⁵, A block of copper or brass.
一錠鐵 Süò⁸ tiang⁷ T‘ieh⁴, A pig of iron.
一滴水 Süò⁸ teh⁴ Chui², A drop of water.
一滴汗 Süò⁸ teh⁴ Kang⁷, A drop of perspiration.
一滴目汁 Süò⁸ teh⁴ Mëh⁸-chai², A tear.
一滴藥水 Süò⁸ teh⁴ Üò³-chui², A drop of medicine.
一滴子 Süò⁸ teh⁴-kiang², A little drop, a little. (Properly used only of fluids. Nia³-nòi³ is used with other objects.)
一滴一滴 Süò⁸-teh⁴ Süò⁸-teh⁴, Drop by drop. ​一頂笠 Süò⁸ ting² Lih³, A summer hat.
一頂帽 Süò⁸ ting² Mò⁷, A felt hat, a cap.
一頂轎 Süò⁸ ting² Kieu⁷, One sedan. (A sedan, like a hat, has a ting², or ball, on the top.)
一道文書 Süò⁸ tò⁷ Muong⁵-chü, An official communication.
一堆土 Süò⁸ toi T‘u⁵, A heap of earth.
一堆糞草 Süò⁸ toi Pong³-tò³, A heap of rubbish.
一塊石 Süò⁸ tòi³ Süò³, A stone.
一塊磚 Süò⁸ tòi³ Chiong, One brick.
一塊瓦 Süò⁸ tòi³ Ngua⁷, One tile.
一塊玻璃 Süò⁸ tòi³ Pò-lè⁵, A pane of glass.
一塊番錢 Süò⁸ tòi³ Huang-chieng⁵, A foreign coin, one dollar.
一塊柴 Süò⁸ tòi³ Ch‘a³, A stick of firewood.
一塊水晶 Süò⁸ tòi³ Chui²-ching, A piece of quartz crystal.
一塊板 Süò⁸ tòi³ Peng², One board.
一塊餅 Süò⁸ tòi³ Piang², A cake, a biscuit.
一塊肉 Süò⁸ tòi³ Nüh⁸, A piece of meat.
一塊柱 Süò⁸ tòi³ T‘eu³, A post, a pillar, a piece of timber.
一重衣裳 Süò⁸ tüng⁵ I-siong⁵, One thickness of clothing.
一重門 Süò⁸ tüng⁵ Muong⁵, A single door.
二重門 Lang⁷ tüng⁵ Muong⁵, A doubly enclosed door, a door on each face of the wall.
一重城 Süò⁸ tüng⁵ Siang⁵, A city surrounded with one wall, a single enclosure.
一重天 Süò⁸ tüng⁵ T‘ieng, A single vault of heaven, a single tier of clouds.
一頭頭牲 Süò⁸ t‘au⁵ T‘au⁵-sang, One animal.
頭 T‘au⁵, is used as a classifier or numeral of every animal except man, whether on the earth, in the air, or in the water, including beast, fowl, reptile, and insect.
一頭馬 Süò⁸ t‘au⁵ Ma², A horse.
一頭貓 Süò⁸ t‘au⁵ Ma⁵, A cat.
一頭牛 Süò⁸ t‘au⁵ Ngu⁵, A cow or an ox (used for either gender)
一頭魚 Süò⁸ t‘au⁵ Ngü⁵, One fish. ​一頭羊 Süò⁸ t‘au⁵ Iong⁵, A goat.
一頭綿羊 Süò⁸ t‘au⁵ Ming⁵-iong⁵, A sheep.
一頭猪 Süò⁸ t‘au⁵ Tü, A hog.
一頭犬 Süò⁸ t‘au⁵ K‘eng⁵, A dog.
一頭雞 Süò⁸ t‘au⁵ Kie, A fowl, a hen.
一頭鴨 Süò⁸ t‘au⁵ Ah⁴, A duck.
一頭鵝 Süò⁸ t‘au⁵ Ngie⁵, A goose.
一張椅 Süò⁸ t‘iong Ie², One chair.
一張棹 Süò⁸ t‘iong Tò⁴, One table.
一張紙 Süò⁸ t‘iong Chai², One sheet of paper.
一張畫 Süò⁸ t‘iong Ua⁷, One picture.
一套衣裳 Süò⁸ t‘ò³ I-siong⁵, One suit of clothes.
一套金鼓吹 Süò⁸ t‘ò³ King-ku²-ch‘ue, A band of music.
一套都乘盤 Süò⁸ t‘ò³ Tu-sing-puang⁵, A set of elegant dishes (?)
一刀紙 Süò⁸ tò Chai², A ream of paper, one cut of paper, one package varying from 48 to 195 sheets.

### Chinese Synonyms.Chinese Synonyms.

按 Eng³, To touch, to come in contact.
摸 Muò, To rub slightly, to feel.
鑢 Laë³, To rub, to polish, to grate, a grater.
Lè⁵, To graze in passing, as to strike against flowers in passing, to come in collision.
擱淺 K‘ò⁵ ch‘ieng⁵, To run a boat upon the sand
㿷 Ch‘aë³, To fret or chafe by rubbing.
磨 Muai⁵, To grind, to polish.
磨刀 Muai⁵ tò, To grind knives.
磨墨 Muai⁵ mëh⁸, To grind ink.
磨石 Muai⁵ süò³, To polish stones.
磨 Mò⁷, To grind in a mill.
扼 Aih⁴, To press or bear down with the hand.
印 Eng⁵, A seal, to stamp, to print, a press worked by a lever, to press.
壓 Tah⁴, A press worked by a screw.
⿰扌⿸虍耳 Ma, To grasp in the hand.
拉手 La ch‘iu², To clasp hands as a token of respect.
牽手 K‘eng ch‘iu², To take hold of hands.
叉手 Ch‘a ch‘iu², To clasp the hands (the fingers of one hand between those of the other.)
拈 Nieng, To bring.
掏 Tò³, To take up.
掏梨 Tò⁵ li⁵, Bring.
掏去 Tò⁵ k‘o³, Take away. ​ 牽 K‘eng, To lead.
拔 Peh⁸, To pull, to draw.
拖 T‘ua, To drag or force along a resisting animal.
鬼 Kui², Disembodied spirits, demons, devils, spiritual beings of the lower orders good or bad.
邪鬼 Sia⁵-kui², Evil spirits.
患鬼 Huang⁷-kui², Possessed of devils.
魔鬼 Mò⁵-kui², A devil working wonders.
妄講 Muong²-kong², To speak at random, to say what is not true.
亂講 Laung⁷-kong², To speak falsely.
野講 Ia²-kong², To lie.
荒唐 Huong-tong⁵, To speak falsehood.
亂講亂線 Laung⁷ kong² laung⁷ siang, To utter a tissue of falsehood with intent to deceive.
罵 Ma³, To scold, to reprove, to reproach.
詛罵 Cho³-ma³, To curse.
毀謗 Hui²-paung³, To slander.
誹謗 Pai⁵-paung³, To defame (with evil intent.)
通知 T‘ung-ti, To inform against.
鋪 P‘uò, To spread and arrange smoothly (as cotton for a quilt).
舒 Ch‘ü, To open out, to unfold, to spread out nicely.
攤開 T‘ang-k‘ui, To open or spread out (as goods for sale).
手攤開 Ch‘iu² t‘ang-k‘ui, To stretch out the arm or hand.
輕慢 K‘ing-mang⁷, To treat disrespectfully.
怠慢 Tai⁷-mang⁷, To degrade.
侮慢 U²-mang⁷, To insult.
褻瀆 Sieh⁴-tuh⁸, To treat with scorn.
咀嘴 Cho³-ch‘oi⁸, To curse.
設誓 Sieh⁴-sie⁷, To swear (properly).
發誓 Huah⁴-sie⁷, To swear (vilely).
家主 Ka chüò², Master of a family.
厝主 Ch‘üò³ chüò², Landlord.
主 Chüò², Lord, master.
厝 Ch‘üo³, Houses.
燭 Chuò⁴, Candles.
出 Ch‘oh⁴, To go out.
稻 Ch‘üò⁴, Paddy.
尺 Ch‘üò⁴, A foot measure.
蓆 Ch‘üò⁸, Matting.
驚 Kiang, To fear.
鏡 Kiang³, A mirror.
行 Kiang⁵, To walk.
金線 King-siang³, Threads of gold.
琴線 K‘ing⁵-siang³, Guitar strings.
京城 King-siang⁵, Capital city.
肯 K‘ing², Willing, I will.
不肯 Ng⁷-k‘ing², Unwilling, I will not.
肯不肯 K‘ing²-ng⁷-k‘ing², Are you willing?
里 Li², A Chinese mile = ⅓ Eng. mile.
李 Li², Plums.
梨 Li⁵, Pears.
來 Li⁵, Come.
來了 Li⁵-lau², Has come. ​ 嬷 Ma, Mamma.
攎 Ma, To grasp in the hand.
馬 Ma², A horse.
媽 Ma², Father's mother.
罵 Ma³, To chide, to blame.
猫 Ma⁵, A cat.
脈 Ma⁸, The pulse.
麥 Ma⁸, Barley.
鬧事 Nau⁷-sëü⁷, A quarrel, a riot.
鬧熱 Nau⁷-ieh⁸, Great bustle, a place where crowds assemble for business or for pleasure.
頂鬧熱 Ting²-nau⁷-ieh⁸, A very great bustle.
Pung, To burst away (as water from a pool).
房 Pung⁵, An inner room.
噴火 P'ong³-hne², To extinguish fire.
歕 P'ong³, To liberate, to let loose.
水歕 Chni²-p'ong³, Ebb tide.
Pong⁵, To place.
糞 Pong⁵, Night soil.
本 Puong², Root, origin.
本身 Puong²-sing, Myself.
花盆 Hua-puong⁵, A flower pot.
盆 Puong⁵, A deep dish.
飯 Puong⁷, Boiled rice.
長 Tong, Long (in space or in time).
水漲 Chui²-taung, Flood tide.
長長 Tong-tong, Very long.
湯 T'ong, Hot water, soup.
吞 T'ong, To swallow.
糖 T'ong⁵, Sugar.
白糖 P'a⁴-t'ong⁵, White sugar.
褪 T'aung⁵, To take off (raiment).
盪 T'aung³, To row (a boat).
縀 Taung⁷, Satin.
逷 Taung⁷, To drop, to lose.
丈 Taung⁷, A measure of ten feet.
THE LORD'S PRAYER.
Nëng⁵-ka-ki⁵ T'ieng-ho⁷ tüò⁶ t'ieng-lè²; Nguong⁶ nü²-ki⁵ miang⁵ siang⁵-seng³; Òi⁷ nü² t'ieng-kuoh⁴ cheu⁷-li⁵; Òi⁷ nü²-ki⁵ chi²-e³ è⁵-t'ung-heng³ te⁷-lè² këüng⁷ t'ieng-lè² süò⁸-iong⁵; Nih⁸-ëüng⁷ki⁵ liong⁵-ch'ò² king-tang⁵ sëü³ nëng⁵-ka; Kiu⁵ T'ieng-ho⁷ sia⁸ nëng⁵-ka-ki⁵ chòi⁷ cheu⁷ ch'iong⁷ nëng⁵-ka sia³ taih⁴-choi⁷ nëng⁵-ka-ki⁵ neng⁵süò⁸-iong³; Mò⁸ sai² nëng⁵-ka iu²-hëh⁸ k'ò³, se⁷ keu³ nëng⁵-ka cho'h⁴-k'ò³-chia² hüng-auh⁴; Ing oi³ kuoh⁴-lè², kuong⁵-pang⁵, këüng⁷ ing-ieu⁷, tu se⁷ nü² su²-o⁷-ki⁵; kau³ k'ò³'tong⁵-kiu³; A-meng⁵.
* ↑ One of the (so-called) initials has merely the force of the Greek spiritus lenis, and denotes the absence of any initial consonant, in which case the word begins with the vowel of the final or “mother sound.”
* ↑ Accented on the second vowel.
* ↑ Accented on the vowel before the last.
* ↑ The eleventh initial denotes merely the absence of initial sound.
* ↑ In the use of nouns preceded by their classifiers, a numeral adjective must always precede the classifier. The numeral süò$^8$, one, is, in such circumstances, commonly equivalent to a or an. There is no proper article in the Chinese language; its place is in part supplied by numeral and demonstrative adjectives. Weights and measures, as classifiers, are used before nouns in the same manner as in English. In the Chinese money weights in common use as Fuh Chau, 10 Lie equal one Hung = 5.755 grains, Troy. 10 Hung equal one Chieng = 57.55 grains, Troy. 10 Chieng equal one Liong, or ounce = 575.5 grains, Troy. 16 Liong equal one Küng, or pound = 9208 grains, Troy. 100 Küng equal one Tang, or load = 1311/2 Pounds, Avoirdupois. Six or eight other weights are in use at Fuh Chau, varying in value from 8/11 to 14/11 of the Küng, or pound, given above.
* ↑ The rules of Chinese versification have been translated from the Chinese Grammar of Abel Remusat. Paris: A. D. 1822.
Footnotes
This work was published before January 1, 1929, and is in the public domain worldwide because the author died at least 100 years ago.
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