OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# The New Student's Reference Work/Chloroplast

See also Chloroplast on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Chloroplast (klō′rō̇-plăst), a protoplasmic body in plant cells that is stained by chlorophyll, and thus gives the characteristic green color to plants. For the work of chloroplasts see Photosynthesis.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Christian Science

See also Christian Science on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Christian Science. See Eddy, Mary Baker.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Christmas

See also Christmas on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Christmas (krĭs′ mas), the day on which the birth of Jesus Christ is observed. The first certain traces of the festival are found about the time of the Emperor Commodus (180–192 A. D.). In the reign of Diocletian a churchful of Christians, gathered to celebrate Christmas, were burned by order of the emperor. The birth was celebrated in May, April and January by the early Christians. It is almost certain that the 25th of December is not Christ’s birthday, as it is the rainy season in Judæa, and shepherds could hardly be watching their flocks by night in the plains at that time. The present date came to be used probably because all heathen nations celebrated that season with great festivities, as the old Norse Yule-feast. The beautiful Christmas carols at first were manger-songs, telling the story of Christ’s birth. The Christmas-tree with its hanging toys was a custom borrowed from the Romans, and is told about by the poet Vergil. The visit of Santa Claus bearing gifts belongs properly to December 6, the festival of St. Nicholas.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Christmas Carol, A

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Christmas Carol, A, the first and best of strictly Christmas stories, is one of the masterpieces of Charles Dickens. Written for the Christmas of 1843, it was marked by the best gifts of the novelist, humor, fancy, simplicity and tenderness. The old miser, Scrooge, is visited and reformed by the ghosts of Christmas past, present and future.
See the full text of A Christmas Carol (Dickens).
# The New Student's Reference Work/Christopher, Saint

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Chris′topher, Saint, according to the old story, lived in Syria, and was put to death as a martyr by the Emperor Decius. He is said to have been 12 feet in height and of great strength. In the pride of his strength, he would serve only the mightiest upon earth. Once he served a powerful king for a while; but seeing his master’s fear of the devil, he at once became the devil’s servant. But one day he saw the devil trembling before an image of Christ, and decided to serve Christ only. As punishment for not having served Him before, he undertook to carry travelers across a broad stream. One day, so the the story goes, Christ came to him in the form of a little child, to be carried over, but at every step the burden grew heavier and heavier. “Wonder not, Christopher,” said the child, “for with Me thou hast borne the sins of all the world.”
# The New Student's Reference Work/Chipmunk

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Chipmunk, a very wide-awake, sun-loving small squirrel that lives on the ground. It is sometimes called the striped squirrel, the black and light-colored stripes on its gray-brown fur being very prominent; a narrow black stripe on the middle of the back, on each side two black stripes separated by a stripe of light buff. It has roomy cheek-pouches in which it carries surprising quantities of nuts and grain to its nest. When hard beset, it will climb a tree for a short distance; but as it here is an easy prey for its enemies, it shows decided preference for a less exposed retreat.
CHIPMUNK
Its worst enemies are the birds of prey and the mink, fox and weasel, the last following it into farthest recesses of its burrow. In time of peace chipmunks chirrup together most sociably, and out in the light and air of which they are so fond hold very animated conversations, their chorus sometimes almost a song. The burrow is kept most artfully concealed; no track leading to it. First a perpendicular tunnel is sunk down several feet, next a horizontal passage made for a few yards, then a slight ascent brings to the chamber which is carpeted with grass. From the chamber the ground surface may be reached by a second route, this opening a considerable distance from the first. In the cosy nest well below the frost-line quantities of nuts and grain are stored for winter use, supplies being carried in the cheek-pouches. In the west they work considerable damage and are regarded as nuisances. In addition to nuts and grain, they eat considerable fruit, and are very fond of berries. They are distributed generally in this country, several species being found here. The chipmunk somewhat resembles the little creature popularly called striped gopher, but should not be confused with it. See Hornaday: American Natural History; Stone and Cram: American Animals.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Christian Era

See also Anno Domini on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Christian Era, the great era, now almost universally accepted, especially in Christian countries, for the computation of time. It is commonly held to correspond to the date of the birth of Christ; but this is scarcely accurate, since that epochal event took place four years before the era now accepted as the commencement of the new epoch in reckoning time. The centuries before the advent of Christ are marked B. C. (before Christ); those that follow are marked A. D. (anno Domini). The era is computed from Jan. 1 in the 4th year of the 194th Olympiad; the 753d from the foundation of Rome; and the 4,714th of the Julian period. The new epoch was introduced in Italy in the 16th century, and came into use in England some centuries later.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Christina

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Christina (krĭs-tē′ nä), queen of Sweden, the only child of the great Gustavus Adolphus, was born Dec. 17, 1626. She succeeded her father when only six years old. Beautiful and brilliant, she was given the schooling then only given to men. She took the ruling power into her own hands in 1644, and six years later, in accordance with her mannish desires, was crowned king instead of queen. She ruled ably for the next four years, but her wayward restlessness could not brook longer the restraints on her personal action which her position of queen made her keep, and she resigned the throne in favor of her cousin Charles, reserving, however, authority over her own household. At this time, when but 28 years old, she traveled over Europe somewhat like a female knight-errant, now becoming very religious at Brussels, now entering Rome on horseback dressed as an amazon, and later shocking Paris by having her grand equerry put to death in her own household for treason. Tired of this wandering life, she thought the death of Charles a good chance to become queen again. But in this she failed. She died at Rome, April 19, 1689.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Chlorophyll

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​Chlorophyll (klō′rō-fĭl), the green coloring matter of plants. It is found associated
FIG. I
with protoplasm, usually in special bodies called chloroplasts or chlorophyll bodies, which are found only in cells near the surface of parts exposed to light, e. g., in leaves and twigs. These are usually rounded granules much too small to be seen with the naked eye (see Fig. I). In some algæ they are much larger, and have curious shapes. Little is known with certainty of the chemical nature of chlorophyll, because it easily decomposes. Besides the pure green coloring matter (to which the name chlorophyll may be restricted), yellow pigments (carotin or xanthophyll) are associated with it in the mosses, ferns and seed-plants. In some algæ browns or blues or reds may be present also. The green pigment particularly (and in part the others) enables the plant to absorb certain portions of the light. The energy thus gained is partly used in the making of new foods (see Photosynthesis). In the absence of chlorophyll, this work cannot be accomplished. Chlorophyll is probably being continuously produced and destroyed in green plants. It is not usually formed in darkness, and if light is excluded from a green plant the destruction of the chlorophyll leaves it a pale yellow. Autumnal colors are due in part to the decomposition of the chlorophyll.
Chloroplasts: (a) Position in cells. (b) Isolated.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Ethiopia

See also Kush on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Ethio′pia (the Cush of the Bible), the name given to the countries south of Egypt and Libya, on the upper Nile. It included modern Nubia, Sennaar, Kordofan and Abyssinia. The name Ethiopian was originally given to all the nations inhabiting the southern part of the globe, or, rather, to all people of a dark-brown or black color. The word is supposed to come from two Greek words meaning sun-burned. The part of Ethiopia of which we have the most ancient knowledge is the kingdom of Meroë, an island formed by two rivers tributary to the Nile. Its capital was Napata. The island was very fertile, with an abundance of animals and metals. It also was the site of an oracle of Jupiter Ammon. This made it a great place of resort and a trading place for India, Arabia, Egypt, Libya and Carthage, so that it grew rapidly and became, about 1000 B. C., one of the most powerful kingdoms of the ancient world. It threw off the yoke of Egypt about 760, and in turn ruled Egypt for sixty years. At one time 240,000 Egyptians settled in Meroë, and, being artisans and traders, added to its prosperity. It was conquered by Cambyses about 530 B. C. The Ethiopians sent to Darius every third year four pints of gold-dust, 200 logs of ebony, five negro slaves and 20 tusks of ivory. Augustus conquered Meroë, and we find Queen Candace (Candace means the queen) of Ethiopia mentioned among his vassals. The remains of the ancient civilization of Ethiopia are the ruins of large buildings covered with sculptures representing battles and religious ceremonies, rows of broken sphinxes, temples hewn in the rocks and several pyramids, which are higher in proportion to their base than those of Egypt. The names of 30 kings and queens have been found, the first one, named Meneliheh, being said to be the son of Solomon and the queen of Sheba. The modern history of the country belongs to Abyssinia. The area is over 400,000 square miles, with an estimated population of over 5,000,000. See Abyssinia and Nubia.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Etna

See also Mount Etna on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Et′na or Ætna, a volcano on the eastern coast of Sicily, 10,850 feet high. It ends in a single cone, with a crater 1,000 feet deep and from two to three miles around. On the sides of the mountain are a large number of smaller cones, the chief being the Monti Rossi, twin peaks cast up in the eruption of 1669. The mountain rises through three zones—the cultivated region, of about 2,000 feet, where date-palms, bananas, oranges, lemons, olives, figs and almonds are grown; the wooded region in the middle, planted with forests of chestnut, cork, beech, pine, maple and oak; and the desert region beginning at about 6,300 feet from the base of the mountain, a dreary waste of black lava, ashes and sand, covered through a large part of the year with snow. The famous chestnut-tree, one of the largest and oldest trees in the world, formed by seven trees grown together and 163 feet in circumference, is in the wooded region of the slope. Nine thousand and seventy-five feet above the sea an observatory was built in 1880, which is the highest inhabited house in Europe, being 1,000 feet higher than the shelter on the Great St. Bernard. The earliest recorded eruption of Mount Etna has no date, but seems to have happened before the Trojan War. The earliest date is 475 B. C. The most remarkable eruptions are the following: In 1169, when Catania with 15,000 citizens was destroyed; 1329, when a new crater was opened; 1444, when the cone fell into the crater; 1537, which overwhelmed two villages; 1669, when a chasm 12 miles long was opened and a new crater made. In 1852–53 there was an eruption, which lasted nine months and sent out a torrent of lava six miles long, two miles wide and 12 feet deep. There have been in all about 100 eruptions, 16 of them occurring in the i9th century. The ascent is usually made from Catania. See Etna and Its Eruptions, by Rodwell.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Ethnology

See also Ethnology on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Ethnology. See Races.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Essen

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Es′sen, a town of Prussia, 21 miles from Düsseldorf. It is situated in a rich coal and iron district, and has large manufactures of iron, tobacco, canes and vinegar, with dye works and breweries. It is known as the site of the celebrated Krupp gun-works and cannon-foundries, one of the largest establishments in the world. These works have 1,195 furnaces, 92 steam hammers, 286 boilers and 370 steam engines; they use 2,735 tons of coal and coke daily, and produce nearly 600 tons of iron a day. They employ over 20,000 workmen. The water-supply is brought by an aqueduct four miles in length. The town dates back to 873, and has an old church founded in that year. It was ruled until 1803 by the abbess of the Benedictine nunnery, who ranked as a princess of the empire. It was transferred to Prussia in 1803. Population, 294,629.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Esther

See also Esther on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Esther (ĕs′ ter) (a star), the Persian name of the Jewish maiden Hadassah. She was the foster-daughter of Mordecai, one of the officers of the Persian king, Ahasuerus, and was selected by the king as his wife instead of Vashti, who had refused to present herself to the king and his courtiers in the midst of a drunken revel. The king’s prime minister, Haman, out of jealousy toward Mordecai, had persuaded the king to issue a decree for the destruction of the Jews. But through the influence of Esther, acting under Mordecai’s direction, Haman was hanged, Mordecai was made chief in his place, and another decree issued permitting the Jews to destroy their enemies. The story is found in Esther. The Jews still observe the feast of Purim in memory of this event, and the whole book of Esther, called by them The Roll, is read in their synagogues on that day.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Esquimault

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Esquimault (ĕs-kwī′ ma̤lt). The western suburb of the city of Victoria (British Columbia). Until recently it was the headquarters of the North Pacific fleet. The ships, save one or two, have been withdrawn and the Dominion has undertaken the maintenance of the fortifications, which are amongst the strongest in the empire. Esquimault has a splendid harbor. It was formerly used exclusively by the navy, but will now be opened to merchant-vessels. There is, besides, a dockyard with a huge dry-dock. Barracks and a naval arsenal complete the equipment of the place, which is heavily fortified.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Ether

See also Luminiferous aether on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Ether, a medium of exceedingly great tenuity supposed to fill all known space, including that which we speak of as filled with ordinary matter. The necessity of such a medium was first recognized by Huygens, and was admitted by all other clear thinkers as soon as Römer discovered the fact that light travels with finite speed. For, when it has been shown that light requires eight minutes to travel from the sun to the earth, the query naturally arises as to what becomes of the light (i. e. luminous energy) between the time it leaves the sun and the time it reaches the earth. The simplest possible explanation is that it exists somewhere in the space between the sun and the earth. But in all our experience we have never found energy except as associated with matter. For the sake of simplicity, therefore, we may assume that in this case, also, that is, in free space—space devoid of ordinary matter—luminous energy is also associated with matter. We call this matter ether. Since, however, in the 2,000 years between the time of Hipparchus and the present we are unable to detect any certain change in the length of the year, and since no retarding effect seems to be exerted upon any of the other planets, we must assume that the ether is a medium of enormously less density than the most tenuous gas of which we know anything whatever. Kelvin estimates the density of ether as 9.36×10$^{−19}$. Huygens, Young and Fresnel have proved, not only that light is a wave-motion, but that it consists of a transverse wave-motion. But transverse waves are possible only in a medium which possesses rigidity, i. e., in a solid medium. We are driven therefore to assume further that the ether is a solid; or, at least, that it behaves as a solid for motions as rapid as those which constitute light. Shoemakers’ wax is very brittle, as may be shown by striking it a quick blow with a hammer; but, if a hammer be laid upon a pan of shoemakers’ wax and allowed to remain, it will be observed that at the end of some days the hammer has sunk to the bottom of the wax, showing that the wax behaves as a fluid with regard to slow-acting forces. The ether may behave as a fluid with respect to the comparatively slow motion of the planets through it.
In 1864 Maxwell predicted and in 1888 Hertz proved experimentally, that electrical disturbances are propagated through space with the same speed as that of light. In other words, they proved that one and the same medium would answer for the propagation of light waves and electric waves.
Melloni and others had already proved that the laws of propagation of heat are identical with those of light. The cumulative evidence for thinking space filled with a ponderable medium of exceedingly minute density grows stronger every day. For the original suggestion of the modern ether, see Huygens’ Treatise on Light, translated in Harper’s Scientific Memoirs.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Essay

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Essay (The). The essay, as a record of individual observation and personal comment on social life, was first elaborated in France by Michel de Montaigne. His book, published in 1580, has never been excelled in keen penetration, rich knowledge of life, sound judgment and frank and genial conversational comment. Lord Bacon’s essays, published in 1597, are rather more like addresses or treatises in their formality; although they are brief, like letters, and pithy, like proverbs. With the rise of the periodicals, the form attained its best English expression in The Tatler and The Spectator of Steele and Addison. These brief sketches of the aspects of contemporary and local life, in their endeavor to correct some of the minor faults of the times, added certain characteristics from ancient fable and satire, and thus anticipated the manner of much of modern political and social humor. They also embodied their experiences and observations in fictitious characters, such as Sir Roger de Coverley, thus aiding in the development of the novel and the short story. They also elaborated the criticism of history and politics, of religion and morals, of literature, art and the drama, so that these have since been regarded as separate provinces, which leave the familiar essay of to-day to apply its casual, personal and suggestive method chiefly to social manners, fashions and humors. This narrowed form has continued to flourish in England, through Goldsmith, Lamb, Thackeray and Stevenson down to the present. Literary criticism in essay form is illustrated by Coleridge, Hazlitt and Matthew Arnold in England, Sainte-Beuve in France and Lowell and Whipple in America.
In the United States, Washington Irving imported the method of humor and satire in his Salmagundi (1807) and the general form of the essay in his Sketch-book (1819). The latter contains autobiographical matter; sketches of places, things, manners and customs; studies of national and racial traits; literary criticism; tales of sentiment; and tales of mystery, like Rip Van Winkle. In variety of content it thus is a precursor of the magazine of to-day. Among other American essayists, Emerson deals chiefly with religion and morals, Poe and Lowell with literature. Dr. Holmes, in The Autocrat of the Breakfast-Table, modified the form in the direction of table-talk. Thoreau’s Walden revived the nature essay. The tradition of Steele, Addison and Irving was continued, almost unchanged, by George William Curtis and Charles Dudley Warner.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Essex, Robert Devereux, Earl of

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Essex, Robert Devereux, Earl of, was born on Nov. 10, 1567. His first service was in the Netherlands under the Earl of Leicester, his stepfather. At court he became a favorite of the queen, and was put in command of the forces sent to help Henry IV against the League in 1591. To him was largely due the capture of Cadiz (1596). He quarreled with the queen about an appointment, turning his back upon her in the presence of her ministers, and, when she resented the indignity with a box on the ear, drew his sword, swearing that he would not endure such treatment from Henry VIII himself. They were never really reconciled. After failing as lord-lieutenant of Ireland, he formed a wild scheme to get rid of Elizabeth’s councilors, who were opposed to him. He entered London at the head of 300 men, expecting the people to rise in his favor, but was disappointed and forced to surrender. He was tried for treason, condemned, and beheaded on Feb. 25, 1601. Elizabeth was very unwilling to sign his death warrant, but the story of the ring given him by the queen for a safeguard and kept back by the countess of Nottingham, is now believed to be an invention. He was a writer of verse, built a monument to Spenser, and gave an estate to Bacon.