OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Fayolle, Marie-Emile

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​FAYOLLE, MARIE-EMILE (1852-), French marshal, was born at Puy (Haute Loire) May 14 1852. He entered the École Polytechnique in 1873, and on leaving in 1875 was posted to the 16th Regt. of artillery. As a subaltern he saw service in Tunis. He was promoted captain in 1882. In 1889 he passed through the École de Guerre, to which, in Nov. 1889, he returned as assistant to Col. Ruffey, who was then artillery lecturer. At this time Foch was lecturer in tactics, and Maud'huy and Pétain joint lecturers in infantry. In 1900 Fayolle succeeded Ruffey as artillery lecturer and held the appointment for seven years. He was promoted lieutenant-colonel in 1902 and colonel five years later. In Nov. 1908 he took over command of a regiment of artillery, and in 1910 he was made a general of brigade; but as on May 14 1914 he had passed the age limit and had not received further promotion he was placed on the retired list. On the outbreak of the World War he was recalled and given command first of a reserve brigade and then of the 70th (Reserve) Division. This division took part in the abortive Lorraine offensive of Aug. 1914. It distinguished itself in the defence of Nancy and was made the subject of a special order of the day by de Castelnau. In Oct. 1914 the division again received special notice—this time for the part it played in the fighting on the line Gavrelle-Bailleul. On Oct. 11 Fayolle was made a Commander of the Legion of Honour. In June 1915 the division was again made the subject of a special army order by Gen. d'Urbal who commanded the X. Army. On May 13 1915 Gen. Fayolle had been, contrary to the custom in the case of retired officers and in face of considerable opposition, promoted a temporary general of division. In June of the same year he succeeded Gen. Pétain in the command of the XXXIII. Corps. On Feb. 26 1916 he was promoted to the command of the VI. Army, and on March 25 following was confirmed in his rank as general of division. In command of the VI. Army, he carried out the French portion of the Somme offensive (July 1916-Nov. 1916). On Oct. 8 1916 Fayolle was made a Grand Officer of the Legion of Honour. In May 1917 he again succeeded Pétain, this time in the command of the centre group of armies. In Nov. he went to the Italian theatre in command of the French forces that were sent thither after the disaster of Caporetto. He returned in Feb. 1918 and took an important part in repelling the German offensives of March-June 1918, and in the Allied counter-offensive from July 18 onwards as commander of the northern group of armies. On July 10 he was given the Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour. Somewhat tardily he was, in Oct. 1919, awarded the Médaille Militaire. But not long afterwards he was, with Lyautey and Franchet d'Espérey, given the highest grade of all, that of Marshal of France.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Febvre, Alexandre Frédéric

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​FEBVRE, ALEXANDRE FRÉDÉRIC (1835-1916), French actor (see 10.231). He retired from the Paris stage in 1893, and made a final tour of certain European capitals the following year. He died in Paris Dec. 14 1916.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Federal Trade Commission

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​FEDERAL TRADE COMMISSION. This American Commission was created by Act of the U.S. Congress, approved Sept. 26 1914, for the prevention of unfair methods of competition in commerce. It is composed of five members appointed by the President, and confirmed by the Senate: not more than three members may be of the same political party. The Commission elects its own chairman. It entered upon its official duties March 16 1915. With it was merged the Bureau of Corporations, previously under the jurisdiction of the Department of Commerce.
If the Commission has reasons to believe that a “person, partnership or corporation” practises any unfair method to the prejudice of the public interest, it shall serve a notice upon such party, submit a statement of the charges, and set a date for a hearing. The party complained of has the right to appear and show cause why the Commission should not require the cessation of practices alleged to be in violation of the law. If the party refuses to obey the orders of the Commission, the Commission may apply to the U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals. Banks and common carriers are excepted, they being under other Federal supervision. The Commission is empowered to investigate from time to time “the organization, business, conduct, practices, and management” of any commercial corporation and its relation to any other corporation, and to make recommendations for a readjustment of its business alleged to be violating the anti-trust laws, including those relating to price discriminations, intercorporate stock-holdings, and interlocking directorates. The purpose of the Commission is to advise and regulate rather than to punish. It is also empowered to investigate trade conditions of foreign countries as affecting the foreign commerce of the United States, and to report to Congress with recommendations. The Commission comprises three departments: administrative; economic, in charge of investigations; and legal, for enforcing its findings.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Fawcett, Millicent Garrett

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​FAWCETT, MILLICENT GARRETT (1847-), British writer and political worker, was born at Aldeburgh, Suffolk, June 11 1847, the seventh child of Mr. Newson Garrett. In 1867 she married the economist Henry Fawcett, subsequently Postmaster-General (see 10.215), and during her husband's life was closely associated with him in all his work, his blindness making him in many ways extremely dependent upon her. She herself produced various works on economics, including Political Economy for Beginners (1870), Tales in Political Economy (1875), and, with her husband, a volume of Essays and Lectures (1872). Mrs. Fawcett had for many years been interested in the higher education of women and in their economic and political future, and was one of the early workers for women's suffrage, becoming more prominent in the cause after her husband's death (1884). By about 1870 various small societies had grown up with the purpose of advancing the cause of women's suffrage, and in 1896 these were amalgamated under the name of the National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies, Mrs. Fawcett in 1907 becoming the president of this movement. The body was for some years the only important suffrage society, and most of the pioneers of the movement belonged to it; but in 1906 the Women's Social and Political Union was formed, pledged to work by militant, as opposed to constitutional methods. Mrs. Fawcett was strongly opposed to the tactics of the militant suffragists, and expressly dissociated the N.U.W.S.S. from any sympathy with such methods. The constitutional methods adopted by the body of which she was president included an alliance formed with the Labour party (1912) by which the society agreed to support Labour candidates in preference to Liberal when the latter proved unsatisfactory on the suffrage question. Mrs. Fawcett in 1912 produced her work Women's Suffrage, and her other books include Lives of Queen Victoria (1895) and Sir William Molesworth (1901), and Five Famous French Women (1906).
Mrs. Fawcett's only child, Miss Philippa Garrett Fawcett, had a distinguished career at Newnham College, Cambridge, where in 1890 she was bracketed equal to senior wrangler. She became in 1905 principal assistant in the Education Officer's department of the L.C.C.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Fazy, Henri

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​FAZY, HENRI (1842-1920), Swiss statesman and historian, was a member of a family which at the date of the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685) came from Dauphiné to Geneva to seek protection for religious reasons. Its most prominent member was his great-uncle, the Radical statesman, James Fazy (see 11.591), whose biography (1887) was written by him. He was born at Berne on Jan. 31 1842. He studied at Geneva for his doctorate in philosophy and law, became a member of the Genevese cantonal parliament in 1868, and was member of the cantonal executive from 1897 till his death. He was a Radical in politics, but of a more moderate type than his great-uncle, and founded a Radical “group,” opposed to the more extreme section. Carteret, the successor of James Fazy as leader of the latter, died in 1889, and henceforward Henri Fazy played a more and more prominent part in Radical Genevese politics. As a member of the cantonal executive he had charge of the Department of Finances, and was much criticised by Gustave Ador, the leader of the Democrats or Whigs. In 1880 his proposal to separate Church and State in Geneva was rejected by the people, but was finally accepted by them in 1907. He was a member of the Swiss Conseil National from 1896 to 1899, and from 1902 onwards. After the Radical defeat of 1918 he was the only member of his party who was not turned out of office, but he became more and more conservative as time went on. In 1914, as the senior member of the Swiss Conseil National, he protested solemnly against the violation of the neutrality of Belgium.
For many years he was the archivist of Geneva, and also professor of Swiss history at the university of Geneva (1896-9 and from 1902). In the latter capacity he wrote much on Genevese history. In 1887 appeared the Life of James Fazy, in 1890 the Constitutions de Genève, in 1891 L'Alliance de 1584 entre Berne, Zurich et Genève, in 1895 Les Suisses et la Neutralité de Savoie, in 1897 La Guerre du Pays de Gex et l'Occupation genevoise, 1589-1601, in 1902 Histoire de Genève a l'Époque de l'Escalade, 1589-1601, in 1909 Genève el Charles Emmanuel and countless papers in the Proceedings of the Institut National Genevois. He died at Geneva Dec. 22 1920.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Power, Sir William Tyrone

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​Power, Sir William Tyrone (1819–1911), British soldier and administrator (see 22.224), died July 24 1911.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pressensé, Francis de

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​Pressensé, Francis de (1853–1914), French politician and man of letters, was born in Paris Sept. 30 1853, the son of Edmond de Pressensé (see 22.299). He was educated at the Lyceé Bonaparte, and at school had a brilliant career, earning many distinctions. He served on General Chanzy’s staff during the war of 1870 and was taken prisoner at Le Mans, but after the war entered the public service. After a short period at the Ministry of Public Instruction, he entered the diplomatic service, and was appointed first secretary at Washington. In 1882 he returned to France and took up journalism. He was a contributor to many journals, including the Revue des Deux Mondes and the République Française, and in 1888 became foreign editor of the Temps. On the rise of the Dreyfus question (1895) de Pressensé identified himself with the cause of the prisoner. He wrote in support of General Picquart, and in consequence of his advocacy of Émile Zola's cause was struck off the roll of the Legion of Honour. This led to his resignation from the Temps, and he came forward as a socialist politician, being in 1902 elected socialist deputy for the Rhone. He was prominent in the debates on the question of the separation of Church and State, and a bill brought in by him formed the basis of the one finally carried by M. Briand. He died in Paris Jan. 19 1914.
De Pressensé published many articles of the greatest interest in the Temps, the Revue des Deux Mondes, Aurore and Humanité. He also produced Le Cardinal Manning (1896), an interesting study, and a work on Home Rule, L’Irlande et l’Anglelerre depuis l’acte d’union jusqu’à nos jours, 1800–1888 (1889).
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Poincaré, Lucien

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​POINCARÉ, LUCIEN (1862–1920), French physicist (see 21.892), was born at Bar-le-Duc July 22 1862. After a distinguished academic career he became in succession inspector-general of physical science in 1902, director of secondary education at the Ministry of Public Instruction in 1910, director of higher education in 1914 and rector of the Académie de Paris in 1917. In that capacity he received President Wilson at the Sorbonne on the occasion of his visit to Paris for the Peace Conference. He died in Paris March 9 1920.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Poynter, Sir Edward John

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​Poynter, Sir Edward John, Bart. (1836–1919), English painter (see 22.239), died in London July 26 1919. In 1919 he retired from the presidency of the Royal Academy, and was created K.C.V.O.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Preece, Sir William Henry

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​Preece, Sir William Henry (1834–1913), British electrical engineer, was born in Wales Feb. 15 1834 and educated at King’s College, London. He became a civil engineer but in 1853 joined the Electric and International Telegraph Co., whence in 1869 he reverted to the civil service. In 1877 he was appointed electrician to the Post Office, in 1899 engineer-in-chief and, after his retirement, consulting engineer. He was a pioneer of wireless telegraphy and his early experiments are described in 26.530. He died at Penrhos, Carnarvon, Nov. 6 1913.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pollio, Alberto

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​POLLIO, ALBERTO (1852–1914), Italian general, was born at Caserta on April 21 1852. Before he was nine years old he entered the Naples military college, and he received his commission as a sub-lieutenant of artillery in April 1870. He served with distinction in various posts, and in June 1908 he was appointed chief of the Italian general staff, a position which he retained till his sudden death on July 1 1914. Pollio acquired, a wide reputation as a writer on military subjects, his chief works being on Waterloo and Custozza. Both these books were translated into various languages.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Vestris, Lucia Elizabeth

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​VESTRIS, LUCIA ELIZABETH (1797-1856), English actress, was born in London in January 1797, the daughter of Gaetano Stefano Bartolozzi (1757-1821) and granddaughter of Francesco Bartolozzi, the engraver. In 1813 she married Auguste Armand Vestris (see above), who deserted her four years later. With an agreeable contralto voice and a pleasing face and figure, Madame Vestris had made her first appearance in Italian opera in the title-role of Peter Winter's Il ratto di Proserpina at the King's Theatre in 1815. She had an immediate success in both London and Paris, where she played Camille to Talma's Horace in Horace. Her first hit in English was at Drury Lane in James Cobb's (1756-1818) Siege of Belgrade (1820). She was particularly a favourite in "breeches parts," like Cherubino in the Marriage of Figaro, and in Don Giovanni, and with such introduced songs as "Cherry Ripe," "Meet me by moonlight alone," "I've been roaming," etc. In 1831, having accumulated a fortune, she became lessee of the Olympic Theatre, and began the, presentation of a series of burlesques and extravaganzas for which she made this house famous. She married Charles James Mathews in 1838, accompanying him to America and aiding him in his subsequent managerial ventures. Her last appearance (1854) was; for his benefit in an adaptation of Madame de Girardin's La Joie fait peur, called Sunshine through Clouds, and she died in London on the 8th of August 1856. Her musical accomplishments and education were not sufficient to distinguish her in grand opera, and in high comedy she was only moderately successful. But in plays like Loan of a Lover, Paul Pry, Naval Engagements, etc., she was delightfully arch and bewitching.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Vesuvianite

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​VESUVIANITE, a rock-forming mineral of complex composition. It is a basic calcium and aluminium silicate containing small amounts of iron, magnesium, water, fluorine, etc., and sometimes boron; the approximate formula is H$_2$Ca$_6$(Al,Fe)$_3$Si$_5$O$_{18}$. It crystallizes in the tetragonal system, but often exhibits optical anomalies, and the optical sign varies from positive to negative. Well-developed crystals are of frequent occurrence. They usually have the form of four- or eight-sided prisms terminated by the basal planes (c) and pyramid-planes (p in fig.); the prism-planes are vertically Striated and the basal planes smooth and bright. Crystals are transparent to translucent, vitreous in lustre and vary in colour from brown to green; a sky-blue variety, called cyprine, owes its colour to the presence of a trace of copper. The specific gravity is 3.4 and the hardness $\scriptstyle {6{\frac {1}{2}}}$. The name vesuvianite was given by A. G. Werner in 1795, because fine crystals of the mineral are found at Vesuvius; these are brown in colour and occur in the ejected limestone blocks of Monte Somma. Several other names have been applied to this species, one of which, idocrase of R. J. Haiiy (1796), is now in common use.
Vesuvianite is typically a mineral of contact-metamorphic origin, occurring most frequently in crystalline limestones at their contact with igneous rock-masses; it also occurs in serpentine, chlorite-schist and gneiss, and is usually associated with garnet, diopside, wollastonite, &c. Localities which have yielded fine crystallized specimens are the Ala valley near Turin, Piedmont, Monte Somma (Vesuvius), Monzoni in the Fassa valley, Tirol, Achmatovsk near Zlatonst in the Urals, the River Wilui district near Lake Baikal in Siberia ("wiluite"), Christiansand in Norway, &c. When found in transparent crystals of a good green or brown colour it is occasionally cut as a gem-stone. A compact variety, closely resembling jade in appearance, has been used as an ornamental stone.
(L. J. S.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Vesterås

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​VESTERÅS, or Westerås, a town and bishop’s see of Sweden, capital of the district (län) of Vestmanland, on a northern bay of Lake Malar, 60 m. N.W. by W. of Stockholm by rail. Pop. (tooo) 11,999. It is a considerable industrial centre and an important lake port. Its Gothic cathedral, rebuilt by Birger ]arl on an earlier site, and consecrated in 1271, was restored in 1850–1860, and again in 1896–1898. The episcopal library contains the valuable collection of books which Oxenstjerna, the chancellor of Gustavus Adolphus, brought away from Mainz near the end of the Thirty Years War. A castle commands the town from an eminence; it was captured by Gustavus Vasa and rebuilt by him, and again in the 17th century, and remains the seat of the provincial government. Here Eric XIV., whose tomb is in the cathedral., was confined (1573–1575). Several national diets were held in this town, the most notable being those of 1527, when Gustavus Vasa formally introduced the Reformation into Sweden, and 1544, when he had the Swedish throne declared hereditary in his family. The original name of the town was Vestra Aros (“western mouth”), in distinction from Östra Aros, the former name of Upsala.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Vestini

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​VESTINI, an ancient Sabine tribe which occupied the eastern and northern bank of the Aternus in central Italy, entered into the Roman alliance, retaining its own independence, in 304 B.C., and issuing coins of its own in the following century. A northerly section round Amiternum near the passes into Sabine country probably received the Caerite franchise soon after. In spite of this, and of the influence of Hadria, a Latin colony founded about 290 B.C. (Livy, Epit. xi.), the local dialect, which belongs to the north Oscan group, survived certainly to the middle of the 2nd century B.C. (see the inscriptions cited below) and probably until the Social War. The oldest Latin inscriptions of the district are C.I.L. ix. 3521, from Furfo with Sullan alphabet, and 3574, “litteris antiquissimis,” but with couraverunt, a form which, as intermediate between coir- or coer- and cur-, cannot be earlier than 100 B.C. (see Latin Language). The latter inscription contains also the forms magist[r]es (nom. pl.) and ueci (gen. sing.), which show that the Latin first spoken by the Vestini was not that of Rome, but that of their neighbours the Marsi and Aequi (qq.v.). The inscription of Scoppito shows that at the time at which it was written the upper Aternus valley must be counted Vestine, not Sabine, in point of dialect.
See further Paeligni and Sabini, and for the inscriptions and further details, R. S. Conway, The Italic Dialects, pp. 258 ff., on which this article is based. (R. S. C.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Vestry

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​VESTRY (O. Fr. vestiaire, Lat. vestiarium, a wardrobe), a place or room adjoining a church, where the vestments of the minister are kept. Hence the name applied to an assembly of the parishioners, usually convened in the vestry, to transact the business of the parish. In populous parishes it obtains by custom in some, and by the “Adoptive” Vestries Act 1831 in others, to choose yearly a select number of parishioners, called a “select vestry,” to manage the concerns of the parish. (See Parish.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Vestibule

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​VESTIBULE (from Lat. vestibulum), the architectural term given to an antechamber next to the entrance and preceding the hall; it is also applied to the anteroom of any large apartment. The word is connected, like Vesta (q.v.), with the Sanscrit root vas-, to dwell, inhabit. In medieval Latin it was occasionally used, instead of vestiarium, fora vestry (see Du Cange, Gloss. med. lat., s.v.), which is derived from Lat. vestis, clothing.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Vestris, Gaetano Appolino Baldassare

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​VESTRIS, GAETANO APPOLINO BALDASSARE (1729–1808), French ballet dancer, was born in Florence and made his début at the Opera in 1749. By 1751 his success and his vanity had grown to such a point that he is reported to have said, “There are but three great men in Europe—the king of Prussia, Voltaire and I.” He was an excellent mimic as well as dancer. From 1770 to 1776 he was master and composer of ballets, retiring, in favour of Noverre, with a pension. Two other pensions fell to him, when he gave up his positions of first dancer and of first dancer of court ballets, amounting in all to 9200 livres. Vestris married a dancer, Anna Heinel (1753-1808), of German origin, who had a wonderful success at the Opéra. He reappeared at the age of seventy-one On the occasion of his grandson's début. By the dancer Mile. Allard, Vestris had a son, Marie Auguste Vestris Allard (1760–1842), also a ballet dancer, who surpassed his father, if possible, in both talent and vanity. His son, Auguste Armand Vestris (b. c. 1795), who took to the same profession, made his début at the Opéra in 1800, but left Paris for Italy and never reappeared in France. Gaetano's brother, Angelo Vestris (1730-1809), married Marie Rose Gourgaud, the sister of the actor Dugazon (q.v.).