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# The New International Encyclopædia/Biernatzki, Johann Christoph

Edition of 1905. See also Johann Christoph Biernatzki on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
BIERNATZKI, bē-ẽr-näts'kḗ, Johann Christoph (1795-1840). A German author. He was born at Elmshorn, in Holstein, and, from 1825 to 1840, served as a Lutheran pastor at Friedrichsstadt in the Province of Schleswig. His most important publication is Die Hallig, oder die Schiffbrüchigen auf dem Eiland in der Nordsee (“The Hallig, or Shipwrecks on an Island of the North Sea”), with introduction by Düntzer (1881), which is still valued for its accurate description of the pastor's personal experiences during the floods which frequently desolated Schleswig. His complete works, including tales, poems, and didactic treatises, were published after his death, 8 vols. (Leipzig, 1852). Consult his biography (Leipzig, 1852), by his son Karl Bernhard Biernatzki.
# The New School

* The New School, from Main Street and other poems (1917)
* The New School, from A treasury of war poetry, British and American poems of the world war, 1914-1919 (1917)
# The New School of Love

* The New School of Love (1800)
* The New School of Love (1806)
# The New Russia/Foreword

FOREWORD.
By
Mrs. PHILIP SNOWDEN.
During a recent visit to Geneva I met Mr. Paul Birukoff in his own home. He had just returned from Moscow, whither he had been sent by the Swiss Red Cross in charge of four hundred Russian refugees who were being returned to then own country. His conversation about the present state of Russia was so interesting that it occurred to me that it would be very useful if his experience and knowledge of Russia could be made known in Great Britain. The fact that Mr. Birukoff is not a Bolshevist makes his impressions and statements all the more valuable.
The translation of Mr. Birukoff's manuscript has been made by Mr. Emile Burns, the Secretary of the I.L.P. Information Bureau, to whom I am very much indebted.
# The New Student's Reference Work

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Shortcut: NSRW
See the disclaimer for this project.
List of volumes
Volume I: A—CZER
Volume II: D—KREU
Volume III: KRU—PLE
Volume IV: PLI—UTR
Volume V: V—ZYG
THE NEW
STUDENT'S REFERENCE WORK
FOR
TEACHERS, STUDENTS AND FAMILIES
EDITED BY CHANDLER B. BEACH, A.M.
ASSOCIATE EDITOR FRANK MORTON McMURRY, Ph.D.
VOLUME I
CHICAGO F. E. COMPTON AND COMPANY 1914
This work is in the public domain in the United States because it was published before January 1, 1929.
The longest-living author of this work died in 1936, so this work is in the public domain in countries and areas where the copyright term is the author's life plus 87 years or less. This work may be in the public domain in countries and areas with longer native copyright terms that apply the rule of the shorter term to foreign works.
Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse
# The New Student's Reference Work/A

See also A on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​A, the first letter in the English alphabet and in many others. In English the letter has several different sounds, as in ah, at, all, ask, ale, fan, private, penal. In the French and other languages of Continental Europe it has but one sound; the broad a as in ah. This is the simplest vowel sound, given with the open mouth and throat.
# The New Russia/Biographical Note

BIOGRAPHICAL NOTE
On
PAUL BIRUKOFF.
Paul Birukoff, an intimate friend and biographer of Leo Tolstoi, was born in 1860 at Kostroma in Russia. He studied first with the Corps of Pages, then at the School of Imperial Marine, and later, after a cruise in the Mediterranean, went to the Marine Academy.
Feeling no vocation for a military career, he transferred his services to the Academy of Sciences, taking a post at the Central Observatory of Petrograd. The social and moral ideas which were then current in high society in Russia attracted him greatly, and he soon abandoned his scientific career and took to popular propaganda for Christian and democratic ideals. He was one of the founders of the publishing house, Posrednich, which soon became the principal medium of propaganda for Tolstoi's ideas. Becoming acquainted with Leo Tolstoi, Paul Birukoff soon became one of his intimate friends, and later an interpreter of his ideals. In 1897 he took an active part in the anti-militarist movement of the Doukhobortsi, as a result of which he was exiled and deported to the Baltic Provinces near Mitau, where he had to spend a year under close police supervision. After that he was allowed to go abroad, and went first to England, then made a journey to Cyprus to establish there a colony of the Doukhobortsi, and finally settled in Switzerland ​near Geneva. After the Russian Revolution of 1905 he was able to return to Russia, but as he found his activities hampered by the last reactionary Czarist Government, he left Russia again and returned to Switzerland in 1912, and, believing that he would have to settle there for ever, he was naturalised and became a citizen of Geneva. But at the end of the world war in November, 1918, being anxious to renew his literary relations with Russia, he took an engagement with the Swiss Red Cross, conducted a number of Russian emigrants from Switzerland to Moscow, and after a stay of three months in Moscow, returned to Geneva with the last train load of Swiss subjects in March, 1919. In the brief account which follows he gives an impartial account of his impressions of his former Fatherland. His main literary works are:
(1) Tolstoi's Life. A biography in four volumes (two volumes already published, the third in the press, and the fourth in preparation. This has been translated into all European languages).
(2) The French edition of Tolstoi's complete works, with preface and notes.
(3) Edition, with notes, of Leo Tolstoi's Journal.
(4) A large number of articles on the Tolstoian Movement in Russia, published in various papers and reviews.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Quagga

See also Quagga on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Quagga (kwăg' gȦ), a striped wild ass, related to the zebra and, like the latter, peculiar to Africa. It formerly abounded in herds on the plains south of Vaal River, but now is rare, if not extinct. During its abundance thousands were killed annually by Boer hunters for their skins. It is easily distinguished from the three other members of the family, although Burchell's zebra is often erroneously called quagga. The head, neck, mane and shoulders are striped, but the stripes fade out behind the shoulders, and the hind quarters and legs are unstriped. It is of stouter build than the zebra, but has ears and tail more like a horse. Its color is reddish brown above with dark brown spots, the under surface and the legs being nearly white.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Quarrying

See also Quarry on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Quar'rying is excavating stone, which may be done either by hand or by dynamite, blasting powder or other explosives. The art demands intimate knowledge of the structure of the rock to be excavated. This rock is commonly of one of two kinds, either stratified or igneous. The most important stratified rocks for quarrying are limestone and sandstone. The quarryman takes advantage of the bedding and natural cleavage of these rocks, so as to direct his efforts along the line of least resistance. Even some of the hardest of the igneous rocks, granite for example, have natural lines of cleavage, which may be utilized. The stratified rocks are split by means of a plug fixed in a hole in the rock between two wedges, known as "feathers." When the plug is hammered, the wedges operate on the stone with a great splitting force. This method, however, is only applicable to blocks of a limited size. Explosives, as dynamite and gunpowder, will loosen blocks of the largest description. Dynamite shatters the rock to such a degree that it is more serviceable in quarrying road-stone than building-stone. Sometimes a large block is cut off by a channeling machine, which cuts by means of a sharpened bar impelled by steam-power. When quarried, the stone is cut and dressed for use in building, statuary etc.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Quahaug

See also Hard clam on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Quahaug (kwa' hŏg), the common round clam of the Atlantic coast found from Texas to Cape Cod. It is frequently seen in eastern markets and much esteemed as food.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Quakers

See also Religious Society of Friends on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Qua'kers or Society of Friends, a sect founded by George Fox in 1648-66. In spite of severe and cruel persecutions the Quakers established themselves in England and in America. Although not a large denomination, they have exerted a strong and good influence on the public at large by their purity of life and the stand they have taken in great questions, as war and slavery. Friends began to protest against slavery as early as 1688, and in 1787 no known Friend owned a slave. As early as 1727 they commenced to censure the traffic in slaves, and opposed it more and more warmly, until the whole British nation felt the blow and set their slaves free. Their leading doctrine is that of "internal light." They believe that the Holy Spirit or the indwelling Christ alone maketh wise unto salvation and illumines the mind with true and spiritual knowledge of the things of God. Hence they do not consider human learning essential to a minister of the gospel, and have no theological schools or classes for students. Their ministers do not receive a salary, but bestow their labor freely, and in return are freely entertained when their work takes them away from home. The Friends have from the start, by example and precept, urged "plainness of speech, behavior and apparel;" and hence a Friend could always be distinguished by certain outward peculiarities, as "thee, thou, first month, second day," instead of the usual terms used, and by their quaint garb. In 1827 Elias Hicks denied the divine authority of the Scriptures, the divinity of Christ and His atonement, and carried with him about half of the Society in America. These are now known as the Hicksite Friends, while the remainder are called Orthodox Friends. The more eminent leaders of this sect have been George Fox, Robert Barclay, Thomas Ellwood, John Woolman, William Penn and John Bright. They number in the United States about 120,000; while about 20,000 of them are in England. See Fox's Journal and Sewell's History of the Quakers.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Quarantine

See also Quarantine on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Quarantine (kwăr'an-tēn' ), ("a period of forty days"), is a forced abstinence from communication with the shore which ships are compelled to undergo when they are last from some port or country where certain diseases held to be infectious, as yellow fever, plague or cholera, are or have been raging. Where a quarantine is established, it is a punishable offense for any person in the suspected ship to come on shore or for anyone to disembark any merchandise or goods, except at lazarettos, which are establishments provided for the reception of goods or passengers or crew, and where such purifying processes as the sanitary science of the time prescribes are applied. Until a ship is discharged from quarantine, she displays a yellow flag at her masthead if she has a clean bill of health, a yellow flag with a black spot if not clean; at night a white light is shown at the same place. The permit to hold intercourse after performing quarantine is called pratique. Quarantine is not of necessity limited to a sea-frontier; it is enforced at the frontiers between adjacent states, and by cities and towns on houses in which are cases of infectious diseases.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Quartermaster

See also Quartermaster on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Quar'termas'ter, an officer whose duty is to provide quarter, provisions, storage, clothing, fuel, stationery and transportation for the army and to superintend the supplies. In the navy the quartermaster is a petty officer who attends to the helm, binnacle, signals and the like under the direction of the master.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Quadrant

See also Sextant on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Quadrant (kwŏd' rănt), an astronomical instrument, invented by Hadley in 1731 for use in measuring angles at sea and in other places where a fixed divided circle is not available. The quadrant, in a crude form, had been used for several hundred years before the time of Hadley, if we admit the astrolabe graduated through 90° as a kind of quadrant. But Hadley so improved the instrument by introducing a fixed and a movable mirror and by bringing into the same line the images of the two objects whose angular distance is to be measured, that he really made a new and highly valuable apparatus. The quadrant is merely a brass frame, provided with a radial arm carrying a mirror, whose polished surface contains the axis of the quadrant. By looking through the small telescope and a half-silvered mirror (attached to the quadrant) at any particular object, one may, by rotating this radial arm, make the image of a second object appear in the same direction as the first. The angle through which the arm must be turned to secure this coincidence is half the angle subtended by the two objects; and this angle is read directly from the graduated edge of the quadrant. Sometimes only 60° of the edge is graduated, in which case the instrument is called a sextant. Hadley's invention immediately displaced the astrolabe and the cross-staff which had hitherto been used for taking latitudes at sea. A considerable part of the accuracy of the quadrant is due to the use of the vernier, invented by Pierre Vernier in 1631. About the same time the telescopic sight was invented by Gascoigne and the tangent screw by Helvelius. All combine to make the quadrant or sextant a thoroughly accurate instrument, now in daily use by all navigators.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Quadruple Alliance

See also War of the Quadruple Alliance on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Quad'ruple Alli'ance, a league against Spain, formed in August, 1718, between Britain, France, Austria and Holland, to counteract the ambitious schemes of Alberoni. It was made upon the basis of the Triple Alliance, which had been formed in January, 1717, between England, Holland and France, and by which the clauses in the treaty of Utrecht having reference to the accession of the house of Hanover in England, the renunciation by the Spanish king of his claims to the French throne and the accession of the house of Orleans to the French throne, should the young king, Louis XV, die without issue, were guaranteed. The Spanish fleet was destroyed by Byng off Cape Passaro; the French crossed the Pyrenees and defeated the Spaniards several times; and at length Philip was compelled to dismiss Alberoni and accept the terms of the Quadruple Alliance.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Quadrilateral

See also The Revolutions of 1848 in the Italian states on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Quad'rilat'eral, four fortresses of northern Italy — Mantua, Verona, Peschiera and Legnano — which form a sort of outwork to the bastion of the mountains of the Tyrol, and divide the plain north of the Po into two sections by a powerful barrier. They have figured in all the later wars fought in northern Italy, especially in the wars between Austria and the different Italian states. Russia has a similar combination in Poland, called the Polish Quadrilateral.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Quail

See also Quail on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Quail, a small game-bird of the Old World, belonging to the partridge family. There are six species. The common European quail is about seven inches long, with a very short tail. They are of a brown color, streaked with buff. They are ground-birds. They winter in Africa, and are trapped in large numbers for the market. The birds called quail in the United States belong to a different family. The bob-white is a good type. They nest on the ground, laying from ten to eighteen white eggs, but sometimes they perch on trees. They remain through the year and should be protected and fed, for they are helpful to the farmers in destroying many injurious insects. They are especially fond of the Colorado potato-beetle.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Ida, Mount

See also Mount Ida on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​ I′da, Mount, a high mountain range in Asia Minor, extending from Phrygia through Mysia into Troas. Near its base was the city of Troy. From Ida as their source many famous streams flow, including the Granicus and the Scamander. Mount Ida is celebrated as the scene of many Greek legends. Situated in Crete is another Ida, 8,055 feet high. Here Zeus, the chief god of the Greeks, was said to have been educated.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Illimani

See also Illimani on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​ Illimani (ḗl′yḗ-mä′nḗ), one of the principal mountains of the Bolivian Andes. It is 40 miles southeast of La Paz and is 21,150 feet in height.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Ichneumon Flies

See also Ichneumonoidea on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
* ICHNEUMON FLY
Ichneumon Flies, insects with four membranous wings, that have the habit of laying their eggs in or upon other insects. In this way they destroy many insect pests. All are parasites upon other insects; as a rule, upon those injurious to vegetation. Caterpillars are especially subject to their attacks. The eggs are frequently placed in their little cases upon the skin of insects. After hatching, the larvæ bore their way into the insects and feed upon the blood and juices of their host. The insects thus attacked die, and the small flies come out. The ichneumon family includes minute forms and large ones. The largest one in the United States is an insect of remarkable appearance, with a slender body and three long filaments at its hinder end. The body is about two and one half inches long, and the extreme length from tip of antennæ to tip of filament is ten inches. The middle filament is an ovipositor to aid in laying the eggs. It is armed with a file at the tip. With this instrument the insect bores into trees (see illustration) infested by the larvæ of another insect, viz., the pigeon tremex, which does so much harm to shade-trees. When the burrow of one of these is found, an egg is deposited in it. The larva which hatches creeps along the burrow and attaches itself to the tremex larva, which it destroys by sucking its blood.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Idol

See also Cult image on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​I′dol, an image made to represent a divine being and be adored as such. Worshiping such an object as a god is idolatry. To these images and the objects of nature, as the sun, the moon, the stars, air, water, fire and other elements, divine honors were given by the most ancient nations. Nature-worship or the worship of the various objects in the world around us may be traced to the Phœnicians, who made gods of the sun, moon and stars. The origin of animal worship can be traced to the Egyptians, who made gods of oxen, birds, crocodiles, serpents and still lower forms of animal life. Man-worship had its origin in Greece and Rome, and is familiar to us through their mythology. Among the chief gods of Greece were Zeus (Jove or Jupiter), the god of the sky; Neptune, the ruler of the sea; Apollo, the god of light; Mars, god of war. Idols most often are imitations of the human form in wood or stone, made colossal or monstrous to give added dignity or power. To savage minds the animal is the equal of man; so we sometimes find that their idols were grotesque figures, half-human and half-animal. See Early History of Mankind and Primitive Culture by E. B. Tylor.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Igorrotes

See also Igorot people on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​ Igorro′tes, a race of warlike Filipinos, largely of the Malayan type, are chiefly confined to the island of Luzon. They show traces of Mongolian blood, due to the long-continued rule of the Chinese. They are to be distinguished from the black and dwarfish Negritos.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Illinois River

See also Illinois River on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​ Illinois River is the largest river in the state of Illinois. It is formed by a union of the Des Plaines from Wisconsin and the Kankakee from Indiana, and flows nearly 500 miles before reaching the Mississippi. It is navigable for 245 miles from its mouth. The chief branches are the Fox and Spoon Rivers on the north and the Vermilion, Mackinaw and Sangamon Rivers on the south and east. It is now connected with Lake Michigan through the Chicago Drainage Canal. It is proposed to open a deep-waterway through this canal and the Illinois and Mississippi Rivers, from the lakes to the Gulf, and thus to the Panama Canal.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Ichneumon

See also Egyptian mongoose on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​ Ichneumon (ik-nū′-mon), a flesh-eating quadruped, having a long, slender body, small head, sharp nose, rounded ears and short legs. The species are numerous, and are natives of Africa and the warmer parts of Asia. They feed on small animals, reptiles, eggs and insects. Once the Egyptian ichneumon was a sacred animal, and with its relative, the mongoose of India, was supposed to destroy serpents and poisonous reptiles. Many wonderful fables are told of its power. The ichneumon is easily tamed, and is useful in keeping the house free from rats and other vermin.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Illinois Indians

See also Illinois Confederation on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​ Illinois Indians, the name of a community of tribes of Indians related to the great Dakota family, which inhabited the territory now comprised in the state of Illinois and also tracts of land west of the Mississippi River. They principally were Algonquins. History tells us that they were a brave, war-like race, who aided the French in their Indian wars, and fought the Sacs and Foxes on their own account. There still is a small part of the tribe on a reservation in Indian Territory.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Putlitz, Gustav Heinrich Gans, Edler von and zu

Edition of 1905. See also Gustav zu Putlitz on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
PUTLITZ, put′lĭts, Gustav Heinrich Gans, Edler von and zu (1821-90). A German dramatist and novelist, born March 20, 1821, at Retzin, Brandenburg. He studied law in Berlin and Heidelberg. From 1846 to 1848 he was a functionary in the Government of Magdeburg, and thereafter he lived partly on his estate at Retzin, partly in Berlin. In 1863 he became director of the Court Theatre in Schwerin; from 1867 to 1868 he was Court marshal of the Prussian Crown Prince, after which he devoted himself to literature, dwelling in Berlin. Between 1873 and 1889 he managed the Court Theatre in Karlsruhe. Among his works are the poetic fairy stories Was sich der Wald erzählt (1850), Walpurgis (1869), and Vergissmeinnicht (1853); two plays
much read in American schools, Badekuren and Das Herz vergessen; and the dramas Das Testament des Grossen Kurfürsten (1858) and Rolf Berndt (1881). Consult Gustav zu Putlitz, ein Lebensbild, by his widow, Elisabeth (Berlin, 1894-95).