# A Dictionary of Music and Musicians/Ligature

From volume 2 of the work.
​LIGATURE (Lat. Ligatura; Ital. Legatura; Fr. Liaison). A passage of two or more notes, sung to a single syllable. [See Notation.]
In antient music-books, Ligatures are not indicated, as now, by slurs: but the form of the notes themselves is changed—sometimes, in a very puzzling manner.
Three kinds of Ligatures are used in Plain Chaunt. In the first, and simplest, the notes are merely placed very close to each other, so as almost to touch, thus—
In the second, used only for two notes, ascending, they are 'bonded'—that is to say, written one over the other; the lowest being always sung first—
In the third, used for two notes descending, they are joined together, so as to form an oblique figure, descending towards the right; the upper end resting on the line or space denoting the first and highest of the two notes, and the lower, on that denoting the second, and lowest, thus—
In early times, the notes of Plain Chaunt were all of equal length. When, after the invention of Measured Music (Cantus mensurabilis), the Large, Long, Breve, and Semibreve, were brought into general use, a considerable modification of the form and scope of the Ligature became necessary. Hence, we find Franco of Cologne, in the 11th century, calling Ligatures beginning with a Breve, Ligaturæ cum proprietate; those beginning with a Long, sine proprietate; those beginning with a Semibreve, cum opposita proprieiate; those in which the last note is a Long, Ligaturæ perfectæ; those in which the last note is a Breve, imperfectæ.
In the Polyphonic Music of the 15th and 16th centuries, the form of the Ligatures varies greatly; and is, necessarily, very complex, since it concerns the relative duration of the notes, as well as their difference in pitch. A catalogue of the strange figures found in antient MSS. would be interesting only to the antiquary: but, as an intimate acquaintance with the more usual forms is absolutely indispensable ​to all who would learn how to score the great compositions of the 16th century from the original Part-books, we subjoin a few examples of those which the student is likely to find most generally useful.
Two square white notes, in ligature, without tails, are generally sung as Breves: the rule holding good, whether the notes are separately formed, or joined together in an oblique figure; thus—
Sometimes, however, (but not always,) if the passage be a descending one, the notes are to be sung as Longs; or, the first may be a Long, and the second, a Breve. But, this exception is a rare one; and it is safer to assume that the strict rule is in force, unless the fitting together of the parts should prove the contrary.
Two square white notes, in ligature, with a tail descending on the right side, are Longs, whether they ascend, or descend, and whether they are separately formed, or joined into a single oblique figure.
Two similar notes, with a tail descending on the left side, are Breves.
Two such notes, with a tail ascending on the left side, are Semibreves.
Ligatures of two notes, with a tail ascending on the left side, and another descending on the right, are to be sung—by a combination of Ex. 6 and 8—as a Semibreve, followed by a Long (Ex. 9).
In Ligatures of more than two notes, all except the first two are most frequently treated as if they were not in ligature. Thus, in Palestrina's Hymn, Ave Maris Stella, we find a Ligature of three square white notes, with a tail ascending on the left, sung as two Semibreves, and a Breve: that is to say, the first two notes are treated as in Ex. 8, while the third note retains its true length (Ex. 10).
On this point, however, some early authorities differ considerably. For instance, Ornithoparcus, writing in 1517, tells us that (1) Every middle note, however shaped, or placed, is a Breve; (2) A Long may begin, or end, a Ligature, but can never be used in the middle of it; (3) A Breve may be used either in the beginning, middle, or end of a Ligature; (4) A Semibreve may also be used in the beginning, middle, or end of a Ligature, if it have a tail ascending on the left. [See Micrologus, II.]
Black square and lozenge-shaped notes, without tails, lose, when intermixed with white notes, one fourth of their value, whether they occur in ligature, or not. Thus, a black Semibreve is equal to three Crotchets only, or a dotted Minim—in which case it is always followed by a Crotchet; as in Ex. 11—
But, a black Semibreve, following a black Breve, is shortened into a Minim, though the strict rule holds good with regard to the Breve (Ex. 12).
There is often, indeed, a little uncertainty with regard to the degree in which a black note is to be shortened; more especially, when the same Ligature contains both black and white notes—as in the following examples from Palestrina.
A very little experience will enable the student to discover the intention of such forms as these, at a glance. Though the three we have selected seem, at first sight, to offer unexpected complications, it will be found, on closer examination, that the laws laid down with regard to Ex. 8, 10, 11, and 12, leave no doubt as to the correct solution of any one of them. Even when an oblique note is half white, and half black, it is only necessary to remember that each colour is subject to its own peculiar laws.
Cases, however, frequently occur, in which black notes are to be treated precisely as white ones. It is true, these passages are more often found in single notes, than in Ligatures; but it is difficult, sometimes, to understand why they should have been introduced at all.
Sometimes, a Ligature is accompanied by one or more Points of Augmentation, the position of which clearly indicates the notes to which they are to be applied.
​In some old printed books, the last note of a Ligature is placed obliquely, in which case it is always to be sung as a Breve.
[ W. S. R. ]