OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Cousin, Jean

See also Jean Cousin the Elder on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​COUSIN, JEAN (1500–1590), French painter, was born at Soucy, near Sens, and began as a glass-painter, his windows in the Sainte Chapelle at Vincennes being considered the finest in France. As a painter of subject pictures he is ranked as the founder of the French school, as having first departed from the practice of portraits. His “Last Judgment,” influenced by Parmigiano, is in the Louvre, and a “Descent from the Cross” (1523) in the museum at Mainz is attributed to him. He was known also as a sculptor, and an engraver, both in etching and on wood, his wood-cuts for Jean le Clerc’s Bible (1596) and other books being his best-known work. He also wrote a Livre de perspective (1560), and a Livre de portraiture (1571).
See Ambroise Firmin-Didot, Étude sur J. Cousin (1872), and Recueil des œuvres choisies de J. Cousin (1873).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Chapter-house

See also Chapter house on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​CHAPTER-HOUSE (Lat. capitolium, Ital. capitolo, Fr. chapitre, Ger. Kapitelhaus), the chamber in which the chapter or heads of the monastic bodies (see Abbey and Cathedral) assembled to transact business. They are of various forms; some are oblong apartments, as Canterbury, Exeter, Chester, Gloucester, &c.; some octagonal, as Salisbury, Westminster, Wells, Lincoln, York, &c. That at Lincoln has ten sides, and that at Worcester is circular; most are vaulted internally and polygonal externally, and some, as Salisbury, Wells, Lincoln, Worcester, &c., depend on a single slight vaulting shaft for the support of the massive vaulting. They are often provided with a vestibule, as at Westminster, Lincoln, Salisbury and are almost exclusively English.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Chapu

See also Zhapu and Battle of Chapu on Wikipedia; Chapu in the 9th Edition; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​CHAPU, formerly an important maritime town of China, in the province of Cheh-kiang, 50 m. N.W. of Chên-hai, situated in one of the richest and best cultivated districts in the country. It is the port of Hang-chow, with which it has good canal communication, and it was formerly the only Chinese port trading with Japan. The town has a circuit of about 5 m. exclusive of the suburbs that lie along the beach; and the Tatar quarter is separated from the rest by a wall. It was captured and much injured by the British force in 1842, but was abandoned immediately after the engagement. The sea around it has now silted up, though in the middle of the 19th century it was accessible to the light-draught ships of the British fleet.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Character

See also Character (symbol) and Character structure on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​CHARACTER (Gr. χαρακτήρ, from χαράττειν, to scratch), a distinctive mark (spelt “caracter” up to the 16th century, with other variants); so applied to symbols of notation or letters of the alphabet; more figuratively, the distinguishing traits of anything, and particularly the moral and mental qualities of an individual human being, the sum of those qualities which distinguish him as a personality. From the latter usage “a character” becomes almost identical with “reputation”; and in the sense of “giving a servant a character,” the word involves a written testimonial. For the law relating to servants’ characters see Master and Servant. A further development is the use of “character” to mean an “odd or eccentric person”; or of a “character actor,” to mean an actor who plays a highly-coloured strange part. The word is also used as the name of a form of literature, consisting of short descriptions of types of character. Well-known examples of such “characters” are those of Theophrastus and La Bruyère, and in English, of Joseph Hall (1574–1656) and Sir Thomas Overbury.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Chapra

See also Chapra on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​CHAPRA, or Chupra, a town of British India, the administrative headquarters of Saran district in Bengal, near the left bank of the river Gogra, just above its confluence with the Ganges; with a railway station on the Bengal & North-Western line towards Oudh. Pop. (1901) 45,901, showing a decrease of 21% in the decade. There are a government high school, a German Lutheran mission, and a public library endowed by a former maharaja of Hatwa. Chapra is the centre of trade in indigo and saltpetre, and conducts a large business by water as well as by rail.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Chapter

See also Chapter (religion) on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​CHAPTER (a shortened form of chapiter, a word still used in architecture for a capital; derived from O. Fr. chapitre, Lat. capitellum, diminutive of caput, head), a principal division or section of a book, and so applied to acts of parliament, as forming “chapters” or divisions of the legislation of a session of parliament. The name “chapter” is given to the permanent body of the canons of a cathedral or collegiate church, presided over, in the English Church, by the dean, and in the Roman communion by the provost or the dean, and also to the body of the members of a religious order. This may be a “conventual” chapter of the monks of a particular monastery, “provincial” of the members of the order in a province, or “general” of the whole order. This ecclesiastical use of the word arose from the custom of reading a chapter of Scripture, or a head (capitulum) of the regula, to the assembled canons or monks. The transference from the reading to the assembly itself, and to the members constituting it, was easy, through such phrases as convenire ad capitulum. The title “chapter” is similarly used of the assembled body of knights of a military or other order. (See also Canon; Cathedral; Dean).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Char-à-banc

See also Charabanc on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​CHAR-À-BANC (Fr. for “benched carriage”), a large form of wagonette-like vehicle for passengers, but with benched seats ​arranged in rows, looking forward, commonly used for large parties, whether as public conveyances or for excursions.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Charade

See also Charades at Wikipedia; Charade in the 9th Edition; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​CHARADE, a kind of riddle, probably invented in France during the 18th century, in which a word of two or more syllables is divined by guessing and combining into one word (the answer) the different syllables, each of which is described, as an independent word, by the giver of the charade. Charades may be either in prose or verse. Of poetic charades those by W. Mackworth Praed are well known and excellent examples, while the following specimens in prose may suffice as illustrations. “My first, with the most rooted antipathy to a Frenchman, prides himself, whenever they meet, upon sticking close to his jacket; my second has many virtues, nor is its least that it gives its name to my first; my whole may I never catch!” “My first is company; my second shuns company; my third collects company; and my whole amuses company.” The solutions are Tar-tar and Co-nun-drum. The most popular form of this amusement is the acted charade, in which the meaning of the different syllables is acted out on the stage, the audience being left to guess each syllable and thus, combining the meaning of all the syllables, the whole word. A brilliant example of the acted charade is described in Thackeray’s Vanity Fair.
# Howard v. United States (356 U.S. 25)

* related portals: Supreme Court of the United States.
* sister projects: Wikidata item.
United States Supreme Court
356 U.S. 25
Howard v. United States (356 U.S. 25)
Edward Howard, Jr., pro se.
Solicitor General Rankin, Mr. Warren Olney, III, former Asst. Atty. Gen., Beatrice Rosenberg and Julia P. Cooper, for the United States.
On petition for writ of certiorari to the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit.
PER CURIAM.

## Notes

This work is in the public domain in the United States because it is a work of the United States federal government (see 17 U.S.C. 105).
Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse
# Howard v. United States (356 U.S. 25)/Opinion of the Court

* Court Documents
* Case Syllabus
* Opinion of the Court
United States Supreme Court
356 U.S. 25
Howard v. United States (356 U.S. 25)
The motion for leave to proceed in forma pauperis is granted. Upon the representations made in the Solicitor General's memorandum, and an examination of the record, the petition for writ of certiorari is granted, the judgment of the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit is vacated, and the cause is remanded to the District Court with directions to afford petitioner a hearing on his motion under 28 U.S.C. § 2255, 28 U.S.C.A. § 2255.

## Notes

This work is in the public domain in the United States because it is a work of the United States federal government (see 17 U.S.C. 105).
Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse
# Howard v. United States (184 U.S. 676)

* related portals: Supreme Court of the United States.
* sister projects: Wikidata item.
United States Supreme Court
184 U.S. 676
Howard v. United States
Argued: January 20, 1902. ---
Ordered Submitted to Full Bench January 27, 1902.
Submitted February 24, 1902.
Decided march 24, 1902.
Messrs John C. Gage, Sanford B. Ladd, and Frank Hagerman for plaintiffs in error.
Messrs. Edwin A. Krauthoff, David D. Stewart, J. V. C. Karnes, and Alexander New for defendant in error.
Mr. Justice Harlan delivered the opinion of the court:

## Notes

This work is in the public domain in the United States because it is a work of the United States federal government (see 17 U.S.C. 105).
Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse
# Howards End

HOWARDS END
HOWARDS END
E. M. Forster
"Only connect ..."
VINTAGE BOOKS NEW YORK
A Division of Random House
​Copyright, 1921, by E. M. FORSTER. All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions. Published in New York by Random House, Inc., and in Toronto, Canada, by Random House of Canada, Limited.
Reprinted by arrangement with ALFRED A. KNOPF, INC. First Borzoi Edition published 1921.
Manufactured in the United States of America
HOWARDS END
Chapter I Chapter II Chapter III Chapter IV Chapter V Chapter VI Chapter VII Chapter VIII Chapter IX Chapter X Chapter XI Chapter XII Chapter XIII Chapter XIV Chapter XV Chapter XVI Chapter XVII Chapter XVIII Chapter XIX Chapter XX Chapter XXI Chapter XXII Chapter XXIII Chapter XXIV Chapter XXV Chapter XXVI Chapter XXVII Chapter XXVIII Chapter XXIX Chapter XXX Chapter XXXI Chapter XXXII Chapter XXXIII Chapter XXXIV Chapter XXXV Chapter XXXVI Chapter XXXVII Chapter XXXVIII Chapter XXXIX Chapter XL Chapter XLI Chapter XLII Chapter XLIII Chapter XLIV
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
E(dward) M(organ) Forster was born in 1879 of mixed English and Welsh ancestry. Having attended Tonbridge School as a boy, he went on to King's College, Cambridge, with which his name was intimately connected in later years, and of which he was for a time a Fellow. His writing, which placed him among the foremost novelists and critics of the twentieth century, is remarkable for its constant attention to moral, ethical, and human values, and also for its convincing evocations not only of England, but also of such scenes of his travels as Italy, Egypt, and India. Mr. Forster died in 1970.
This work is in the public domain in the United States because it was published before January 1, 1929.
The longest-living author of this work died in 1970, so this work is in the public domain in countries and areas where the copyright term is the author's life plus 53 years or less. This work may be in the public domain in countries and areas with longer native copyright terms that apply the rule of the shorter term to foreign works.
Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse
# Howard v. Wissman/Concurrence Daniel

* Court Documents
* Case Syllabus
* Opinion of the Court
* Concurring Opinion Daniel
United States Supreme Court
59 U.S. 231
Howard v. Wissman
Mr. Justice DANIEL.
In the opinion just pronounced, so far as it goes to demonstrate the entire want of justice in the demand of the libellant, I entirely concur, the testimony in this case having satisfactorily ascertained that the loss, of the cargo was inevitable from the character of the subject of which that cargo consisted, and that by no degree of diligence or care could it have been transported in good condition to its point of destination. But, independently of these considerations, and in advance of them, there is another which of itself, in my judgment, should have prevented the claim of the libellant from being established or entertained at all in the district and circuit courts, and which should operate with equal effect in preventing its being entertained here.
This case is one of contract between the owner of property and the master of a vessel to transport a cargo of potatoes from Hamburg and to deliver them in New York. It is nothing more than a contract between the owner of property and a carrier to convey a given subject for hire. It was a contract made upon land to be terminated and executed upon the land for a stipulated compensation, and not strictly or properly a maritime contract, in any sense beyond any other contract, in the performance of which a party or agent would be compellable to cross the ocean or even to pass a river. It did not begin and terminate on the sea. Upon this contract an action might have been instituted in a court of law either upon the charter-party or the bill of lading, in conformity with ancient and well-settled practice, and could have been as speedily and efficiently decided in such a court as it could be in the present form of proceeding, less familiar to the common understanding and habits of the country, dubious and undefined in its claims to power, and attended with expenses beyond those incident to the usual tribunals of the land.
My opinion is, that for want of jurisdiction in the case presented upon the face of the libel, that libel should have been dismissed by the circuit court, and that this court should now, for that cause, order it to be dismissed.
This work is in the public domain in the United States because it is a work of the United States federal government (see 17 U.S.C. 105).
Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse
# Howard v. Wissman

* related portals: Supreme Court of the United States.
* sister projects: Wikidata item.

## Concurring Opinion

    Daniel
United States Supreme Court
59 U.S. 231
Howard v. Wissman
THIS was an appeal from the circuit court of the United States, for the southern district of New York.
The facts are stated in the opinion of the court.
The case was argued by Mr. Johnson, for the appellants, upon which side there was also a brief filed by Mr. Donohue, and by Mr. Betts, for the appellees, upon which side there was also a brief filed by Mr. Cutting.
The points of law upon both sides were so connected with the testimony that they could not be explained without giving an abstract of the evidence.
Mr. Justice CATRON delivered the opinion of the court.

## Notes

This work is in the public domain in the United States because it is a work of the United States federal government (see 17 U.S.C. 105).
Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Bullion

See also Precious metal on Wikipedia; bullion on Wiktionary; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​BULLION, a term applied to the gold and silver of the mines brought to a standard of purity. The word appears in an English act of 1336 in the French form “puissent sauvement porter à les exchanges ou bullion ... argent en plate, vessel d’argent, &c.”; and apparently it is connected with bouillon, the sense of “boiling” being transferred in English to the melting of metal, so that bullion in the passage quoted meant “melting-house” or “mint.” The first recorded instance of the use of the word for precious metal as such in the mass is in an act of 1451. From the use of gold and silver as a medium of exchange, it followed that they should approximate in all nations to a common degree of fineness; and though this is not uniform even in coins, yet the proportion of alloy in silver, and of carats alloy to carats fine in gold, has been reduced to infinitesimal differences in the bullion of commerce, and is a prime element of value even in gold and silver plate, jewelry, and other articles of manufacture. Bullion, whether in the form of coins, or of bars and ingots stamped, is subject, as a general rule of the London market, not only to weight but to assay, and receives a corresponding value.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Bumboat

See also Bumboat on Wikipedia; bumboat on Wiktionary; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​BUMBOAT, a small boat which carries vegetables, provisions, &c., to ships lying in port or off the shore. The word is probably connected with the Dutch bumboat or boomboot, a broad Dutch fishing-boat, the derivation of which is either from boom, cf. Ger. baum, a tree, or from bon, a place in which fish is kept alive, and boot, a boat. It appears first in English in the Trinity House By-laws of 1685 regulating the scavenging boats attending ships lying in the Thames.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Bullroarer

See also Bullroarer (music) on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​BULLROARER, the English name for an instrument made of a small flat slip of wood, through a hole in one end of which a string is passed; swung round rapidly it makes a booming, humming noise. Though treated as a toy by Europeans, the bullroarer has had the highest mystic significance and sanctity among primitive people. This is notably the case in Australia, where it figures in the initiation ceremonies and is regarded with the utmost awe by the “blackfellows.” Their bullroarers, or sacred “tunduns,” are of two types, the “grandfather” or “man tundun,” distinguished by its deep tone, and the “woman tundun,” which, being smaller, gives forth a weaker, shriller note. Women or girls, and boys before initiation, are never allowed to see the tundun. At the Bora, or initiation ceremonies, the bullroarer’s hum is believed to be the voice of the “Great Spirit,” and on hearing it the women hide in terror. A Maori bullroarer is preserved in the British Museum, and travellers in Africa state that it is known and held sacred there. Thus among the Egba tribe of the Yoruba race the supposed “Voice of Oro,” their god of vengeance, is produced by a bullroarer, which is actually worshipped as the god himself. The sanctity of the bullroarer has been shown to be very widespread. There is no doubt that the rhombus ῥόμβος which was whirled at the Greek mysteries was one. Among North American Indians it was common. At certain Moqui ceremonies the procession of dancers was led by a priest who whirled a bullroarer. The instrument has been traced among the Tusayan, Apache and Navaho Indians (J. G. Bourke, Ninth Annual Report of Bureau of Amer. Ethnol., 1892), among the Koskimo of British Columbia (Fr. Boas, “Social Organization, &c., of the Kwakiutl Indians,” Report of the U.S. National Museum for 1895), and in Central Brazil. In New Guinea, in some of the islands of the Torres Straits (where it is swung as a fishing-charm), in Ceylon (where it is used as a toy and figures as a sacred instrument at Buddhist festivals), and in Sumatra (where it is used to induce the demons to carry off the soul of a woman, and so drive her mad), the bullroarer is also found. Sometimes, as among the Minangkabos of Sumatra, it is made of the frontal bone of a man renowned for his bravery.
See A. Lang, Custom and Myth (1884); J. D. E. Schmeltz, Das Schwirrholz (Hamburg, 1896); A. C. Haddon, The Study of Man, and in the Journ. Anthrop. Instit. xix., 1890; G. M. C. Theal, Kaffir Folk-Lore; A. B. Ellis, Yoruba-Speaking Peoples (1894); R. C. Codrington, The Melanesians (1891).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Bumbulum

See also Bumbulum on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​BUMBULUM, Bombulum or Bunibulum, a fabulous musical instrument described in an apocryphal letter of St Jerome to Dardanus, and illustrated in a series of illuminated MSS. of the 9th to the 11th century, together with other instruments described in the same letter. These MSS. are the Psalter of Emmeran, 9th century, described by Martin Gerbert, who gives a few illustrations from it; the Cotton MS. Tiberius C. VI. in the British Museum, 11th century; the famous Boulogne Psalter, A.D. 1000; and the Psalter of Angers, 9th century. In the Cotton MS. the instrument consists of an angular frame, from which depends by a chain a rectangular metal plate having twelve bent arms attached in two rows of three on each side, one above the other. The arms appear to terminate in small rectangular bells or plates, and it is supposed that the standard frame was intended to be shaken like a sistrum in order to set the bells jangling. Sebastian Virdung gives illustrations of these instruments of Jerome, and among them of the one called bumbulum in the Cotton MS., which Virdung calls Fistula Hieronimi. The general outline is the same, but instead of metal arms there is the same number of bent pipes with conical bore. Virdung explains, following the apocryphal letter, that the stand resembling the draughtsman’s square represents the Holy Cross, the rectangular object dangling therefrom signifies Christ on the Cross, and the twelve pipes are the twelve apostles. Virdung’s illustration, probably copied from an older work in manuscript, conforms more closely to the text of the letter than does the instrument in the Cotton MS. There is no evidence whatever of the actual existence of such an instrument during the middle ages, with the exception of this series of fanciful pictures drawn to illustrate an instrument known from description only. The word bombulum was probably derived from the same root as the βομβαύλιος of Aristophanes (Acharnians, 866) (βόμβος and αὐλός), a comic compound for a bag-pipe with a play on βομβυλιός, an insect that hums or buzzes (see Bag-Pipe). The original described in the letter, also from hearsay, was probably an early type of organ.  (K. S.)
* ↑ Ad Dardanum, de diversis generibus musicorum instrumentorum.
* ↑ De Cantu et Musica Sacra (1774).
* ↑ For illustrations see Annales archéologiques, iii. p. 82 et seq.
* ↑ Musica getutscht und aussgezogen (Basle, 1511).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Bulwark

See also Architectural glossary on Wikipedia; bulwark on Wiktionary; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​BULWARK (a word probably of Scandinavian origin, from bol or bole, a tree-trunk, and werk, work, in Ger. Bollwerk, which has also been derived from an old German bolen, to throw, and so a machine for throwing missiles), a barricade of beams, earth, &c., a work in 15th and 16th century fortifications designed to mount artillery (see Boulevard). On board ship the term is used of the woodwork running round the ship above the level of the deck. Figuratively it means anything serving as a defence.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Bullock, William

See also William Bullock (actor) on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​BULLOCK, WILLIAM (c. 1657–c. 1740), English actor, “of great glee and much comic vivacity,” was the original Clincher in Farquhar’s Constant Couple (1699), Boniface in The Beaux’ Stratagem (1707), and Sir Francis Courtall in Pavener’s Artful Wife (1717). He played at all the London theatres of his time, and in the summer at a booth at Bartholomew Fair. He had three sons, all actors, of whom the eldest was Christopher Bullock (c. 1690–1724), who at Drury Lane, the Haymarket and Lincoln’s Inn Fields displayed “a considerable versatility of talent.” Christopher created a few original parts in comedies and farces of which he was the author or adapter:—A Woman’s Revenge (1715); Slip; Adventures of Half an Hour (1716); The Cobbler of Preston; Woman’s a Riddle; The Perjurer (1717); and The Traitor (1718).