OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Greenlaw

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​GREENLAW (a “grassy hill”), a town of Berwickshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 611. It is situated on the Blackadder, 621/4 m. S.E. of Edinburgh by the North British railway company’s branch line from Reston Junction to St Boswells. The town was built towards the end of the 17th century, to take the place of an older one, which stood about a mile to the S.E. It was the county town from 1696 to 1853, when for several years it shared this dignity with Duns, which, however, is now the sole capital. The chief manufactures are woollens and agricultural implements. About 3 m. to the S. the ruin of Hume Castle, founded in the 13th century, occupies a commanding site. Captured by the English in 1547, in spite of Lady Home’s gallant defence, it was retaken two years afterwards, only to fall again in 1569. After its surrender to Cromwell in 1650 it gradually decayed. Towards the close of the 18th century the 3rd earl of Marchmont had the walls rebuilt out of the old stones, and the castle, though a mere shell of the original structure, is now a picturesque ruin.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Greenfield

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​GREENFIELD, a township and the county-seat of Franklin county, in N.E. Massachusetts, U.S.A., including an area of 20 sq. m. of meadow and hill country, watered by the Green and Deerfield rivers and various small tributaries. Pop. (1890) 5252, (1900) 7927, of whom 1431 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 10,427. The principal village, of the same name as the township, is situated on the N. bank of the Deerfield river, and on the Boston & Maine railway and the Connecticut Valley street railway (electric). Among Greenfield’s manufactures are cutlery, machinery, and taps and dies. Greenfield, originally part of Deerfield, was settled about 1682, was established as a “district” in 1753, and on the 23rd of August 1775 was, by a general Act, separated from Deerfield and incorporated as a separate township, although it had assumed full township rights in 1774 by sending delegates to the Provincial Congress. In 1793 part of it was taken to form the township of Gill; in 1838 part of it was annexed to Bernardston; and in 1896 it annexed a part of Deerfield. It was much disaffected at the time of Shays’s Rebellion.
See F. M. Thompson, History of Greenfield (2 vols., Greenfield, 1904).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Greenfinch

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​GREENFINCH (Ger. Grünfink), or Green Linnet, as it is very often called, a common European bird, the Fringilla chloris of Linnaeus, ranked by many systematists with one section of hawfinches, Coccothraustes, but apparently more nearly allied to the other section Hesperiphona, and perhaps justifiably deemed the type of a distinct genus, to which the name Chloris or Ligurinus has been applied. The cock, in his plumage of yellowish-green and yellow is one of the most finely coloured of common English birds, but he is rather heavily built, and his song is hardly commended. The hen is much less brightly tinted. Throughout Britain, as a rule, this species is one of the most plentiful birds, and is found at all seasons of the year. It pervades almost the whole of Europe, and in Asia reaches the river Ob. It visits Palestine, but is unknown in Egypt. It is, however, abundant in Mauritania, whence specimens are so brightly coloured that they have been deemed to form a distinct species, the Ligurinus aurantiiventris of Dr Cabanis, but that view is now generally abandoned. In the north-east of Asia and its adjacent islands occur two allied species—the Fringilla sinica of Linnaeus and the F. kawarahiba of Temminck. (A. N.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Greenheart

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​GREENHEART, one of the most valuable of timbers, the produce of Nectandra Rodiaei, natural order Lauraceae, a large tree, native of tropical South America and the West Indies. The Indian name of the tree is sipiri or bibiru, and from its bark and fruits is obtained the febrifuge principle bibirine. Greenheart wood is of a dark-green colour, sap wood and heart wood being so much alike that they can with difficulty be distinguished from each other. The heart wood is one of the most durable of all timbers, and its value is greatly enhanced by the fact that it is proof against the ravages of many marine borers which rapidly destroy piles and other submarine structures of most other kinds of wood available for such purposes. In the Kelvingrove Museum, Glasgow, there are two pieces of planking from a wreck submerged during eighteen years on the west coast of Scotland. ​The one specimen—greenheart—is merely slightly pitted on the surface, the body of the wood being perfectly sound and untouched, while the other—teak—is almost entirely eaten away. Greenheart, tested either by transverse or by tensile strain, is one of the strongest of all woods, and it is also exceedingly dense, its specific gravity being about 1150. It is included in the second line of Lloyd’s Register for shipbuilding purposes, and it is extensively used for keelsons, beams, engine-bearers and planking, &c., as well as in the general engineering arts, but its excessive weight unfits it for many purposes for which its other properties would render it eminently suitable.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hurst, John Fletcher

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​HURST, JOHN FLETCHER (1834–1903), American Methodist Episcopal bishop, was born in Salem, Dorchester county, Maryland, on the 17th of August 1834. He graduated at Dickinson College in 1854, and in 1856 went to Germany and studied at Halle and Heidelberg. From 1858 to 1867 he was engaged in pastoral work in America, and from 1867 to 1871 he taught in Methodist mission institutes in Germany. In 1871–1873 he was professor of historical theology at Drew Theological Seminary, Madison, New Jersey, of which he was president from 1873 till 1880, when he was made a bishop. He died at Bethesda, Maryland, on the 4th of May 1903. Bishop Hurst, by his splendid devotion in 1876–1879, recovered the endowment of Drew Theological Seminary, lost by the failure in 1876 of Daniel Drew, its founder; and with McClintock and Crooks he improved the quality of Methodist scholarship. The American University (Methodist Episcopal) at Washington, D.C., for postgraduate work was the outcome of his projects, and he was its chancellor from 1891 to his death.
He published A History of Rationalism (1866); Hagenbach’s Church History of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries (2 vols., 1869); von Oosterzee’s John’s Gospel: Apologetical Lectures (1869); Lange’s Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans (1869); Martyrs to the Tract Cause: A Contribution to the History of the Reformation (1872), a translation and revision of Thelemann’s Märtyrer der Traktatsache (1864); Outlines of Bible History (1873); Outlines of Church History (1874); Life and Literature in the Fatherland (1875), brilliant sketches of Germany; a brief pamphlet, Our Theological Century (1877); Bibliotheca Theologica (1883), a compilation by his students, revised by G. W. Gillmore in 1895 under the title Literature of Theology; Indika: the Country and People of India and Ceylon (1891), the outgrowth of his travels in 1884–1885 when he held the conferences of India; and several church histories (Chautauqua text-books) published together as A Short History of the Christian Church (1893).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hurry, Sir John

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​HURRY (or Urry), SIR JOHN (d. 1650), British soldier, was born in Aberdeenshire, and saw much service as a young man in Germany. In 1641 he returned home and became Lieut.-Colonel in a Scottish regiment. At the end of the same year he was involved in the plot known as the “Incident.” At the outbreak of the Civil War Hurry joined the army of the earl of Essex, and was distinguished at Edgehill and Brentford. Early in 1643 he deserted to the Royalists, bringing with him information on which Rupert acted at once. Thus was brought about the action of Chalgrove Field, where Hurry again showed conspicuous valour; he was knighted on the same evening. In 1644 he was with Rupert at Marston Moor, where with Lucas he led the victorious left wing of horse. But a little later, thinking the King’s cause lost, he again deserted, and eventually was sent with Baillie against Montrose in the Highlands. His ​detached operations were conducted with great skill, but his attempt to surprise Montrose’s camp at Auldearn ended in a complete disaster, partly on account of the accident of the men discharging their pieces before starting on the march. Soon afterwards he once more joined Charles’s party, and he was taken prisoner in the disastrous campaign of Preston (1648). Sir John Hurry was Montrose’s Major-General in the last desperate attempt of the Scottish Royalists. Taken at Carbisdale, he was beheaded at Edinburgh, May 29th, 1650. A soldier of fortune of great bravery, experience and skill, his frequent changes of front were due rather to laxity of political principles than to any calculated idea of treason.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hussar

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​HUSSAR, originally the name of a soldier belonging to a corps of light horse raised by Matthias Corvinus, king of Hungary, in 1458, to fight against the Turks. The Magyar huszar, from which the word is derived, was formerly connected with the Magyar husz, twenty, and was explained by a supposed raising of the troops by the taking of each twentieth man. According to the New English Dictionary the word is an adaptation of the Italian corsaro, corsair, a robber, and is found in 15th-century documents coupled with praedones. The hussar was the typical Hungarian cavalry soldier, and, in the absence of good light cavalry in the regular armies of central and western Europe, the name and character of the hussars gradually spread into Prussia, France, &c. Frederick the Great sent Major H. J. von Zieten to study the work of this type of cavalry in the Austrian service, and Zieten so far improved on the Austrian model that he defeated his old teacher, General Baranyai, in an encounter between the Prussian and Austrian hussars at Rothschloss in 1741. The typical uniform of the Hungarian hussar was followed with modifications in other European armies. It consisted of a busby or a high cylindrical cloth cap, jacket with heavy braiding, and a dolman or pelisse, a loose coat worn hanging from the left shoulder. The hussar regiments of the British army were converted from light dragoons at the following dates: 7th (1805), 10th and 15th (1806), 18th (1807, and again on revival after disbandment, 1858), 8th (1822), 11th (1840), 20th (late 2nd Bengal European Cavalry) (1860), 13th, 14th, and 19th (late 1st Bengal European Cavalry) (1861). The 21st Lancers were hussars from 1862 to 1897.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Husband

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​HUSBAND, properly the “head of a household,” but now chiefly used in the sense of a man legally joined by marriage to a woman, his “wife”; the legal relations between them are treated below under Husband and Wife. The word appears in O. Eng. as húsbonda, answering to the Old Norwegian húsbóndi, and means the owner or freeholder of a hus, or house. The last part of the word still survives in “bondage” and “bondman,” and is derived from bua, to dwell, which, like Lat. colere, means also to till or cultivate, and to have a household. “Wife,” in O. Eng. wif, appears in all Teutonic languages except Gothic; cf. Ger. Weib, Dutch wijf, &c., and meant originally simply a female, “woman” itself being derived from wifman, the pronunciation of the plural wimmen still preserving the original i. Many derivations of “wife” have been given; thus it has been connected with the root of “weave,” with the Gothic waibjan, to fold or wrap up, referring to the entangling clothes worn by a woman, and also with the root of vibrare, to tremble. These are all merely guesses, and the ultimate history of the word is lost. It does not appear outside Teutonic languages. Parallel to “husband” is “housewife,” the woman managing a household. The earlier húswif was pronounced hussif, and this pronunciation survives in the application of the word to a small case containing scissors, needles and pins, cottons, &c. From this form also derives “hussy,” now only used in a depreciatory sense of a light, impertinent girl. Beyond the meaning of a husband as a married man, the word appears in connexion with agriculture, in “husbandry” and “husbandman.” According to some authorities “husbandman” meant originally in the north of England a holder of a “husbandland,” a manorial tenant who held two ox-gangs or virgates, and ranked next below the yeoman (see J. C. Atkinson in Notes and Queries, 6th series, vol. xii., and E. Bateson, History of Northumberland, ii., 1893). From the idea of the manager of a household, “husband” was in use transferred to the manager of an estate, and the title was held by certain officials, especially in the great trading companies. Thus the “husband” of the East India Company looked after the interests of the company at the custom-house. The word in this sense is practically obsolete, but it still appears in “ship’s husband,” an agent of the owners of a ship who looks to the proper equipping of the vessel, and her repairs, procures and adjusts freights, keeps the accounts, makes charter-parties and acts generally as manager of the ship’s employment. Where such an agent is himself one of the owners of the vessel, the name of “managing owner” is used. The “ship’s husband” or “managing owner” must register his name and address at the port of registry (Merchant Shipping Act 1894, § 59). From the use of “husband” for a good and thrifty manager of a household, the verb “to husband” means to economize, to lay up a store, to save.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hushi

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​HUSHI (Rumanian Huși), the capital of the department of Falciu, Rumania; on a branch of the Jassy-Galatz railway, 9 m. W. of the river Pruth and the Russian frontier. Pop. (1900) 15,404, about one-fourth being Jews. Hushi is an episcopal see. The cathedral was built in 1491 by Stephen the Great of Moldavia. There are no important manufactures, but a large fair is held annually in September for the sale of live-stock, and wine is produced in considerable quantities. Hushi is said to have been founded in the 15th century by a colony of Hussites, from whom its name is derived. The treaty of the Pruth between Russia and Turkey was signed here in 1711.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hurricane

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​HURRICANE, a wind-storm of great force and violence, originally as experienced in the West Indies; it is now used to describe similar storms in other regions, except in the East Indies and the Chinese seas, where they are generally known as “typhoons.” Hurricane is the strongest force of wind in the Beaufort scale. The Caribbean word huracan was introduced by the Portuguese, Spanish and Dutch explorers of the 15th and 16th centuries into many European languages, as in Span. huracan, Portu. furacao, Ital. uracane, Fr. ouragan, and in Swed., Ger. and Dutch as orkan, or orkaan. A “hurricane-deck” is an upper deck on a steamer which protects the lower one, and incidentally serves as a promenade.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hurstmonceaux

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​HURSTMONCEAUX (also Herstmonceux), a village in the Eastbourne parliamentary division of Sussex, England, 9 m. N.E. of Eastbourne. Pop. (1901) 1429. The village takes its name from Waleran de Monceux, lord of the manor after the Conquest, but the castle, for the picturesque ruins of which the village is famous, was built in the reign of Henry VI. by Sir Roger de Fiennes. It is moated, and is a fine specimen of 15th-century brickwork, the buildings covering an almost square quadrangle measuring about 70 yds. in the side. Towers flank the corners, and there is a beautiful turreted entrance gate, but only the foundations of most of the buildings ranged round the inner courts are to be traced. The church of All Saints is in the main Early English, and contains interesting monuments to members of the Fiennes family and others. In the churchyard is the tomb of Archdeacon Julius Charles Hare, the theologian (1855). Much material from the castle was used in the erection of Hurstmonceaux Place, a mansion of the 18th century.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Faber, Frederick William

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​FABER, FREDERICK WILLIAM (1814–1863), British hymn writer and theologian, was born on the 28th of June 1814 at Calverley, Yorkshire, of which place his grandfather, Thomas Faber, was vicar. He attended the grammar school of Bishop Auckland for a short time, but a large portion of his boyhood was spent in Westmorland. He afterwards went to Harrow ​and to Balliol College, Oxford. In 1835 he obtained a scholarship at University College; and in 1836 he gained the Newdigate prize for a poem on “The Knights of St John,” which elicited special praise from Keble. Among his college friends were Dean Stanley and Roundell Palmer, 1st earl of Selborne. In January 1837 he was elected fellow of University College. Meanwhile he had given up the Calvinistic views of his youth, and had become an enthusiastic follower of John Henry Newman. In 1841 a travelling tutorship took him to the continent; and on his return a book appeared called Sights and Thoughts in Foreign Churches and among Foreign Peoples (London, 1842), with a dedication to his friend the poet Wordsworth. He accepted the rectory of Elton in Huntingdonshire, but soon after went again to the continent, in order to study the methods of the Roman Catholic Church; and after a prolonged mental struggle he joined the Roman Catholic communion in November 1845. He founded a religious community at Birmingham, called Wilfridians, which was ultimately merged in the oratory of St Philip Neri, with John Henry Newman as Superior. In 1849 a branch of the oratory—subsequently independent—was established in London, first in King William Street, and afterwards at Brompton, over which Faber presided till his death on the 26th of September 1863. In spite of his weak health, an almost incredible amount of work was crowded into those years. He published a number of theological works, and edited the Oratorian Lives of the Saints. He was an eloquent preacher, and a man of great charm of character. It is mainly as a hymn-writer, however, that Faber is remembered. Among his best-known hymns are:—“The Greatness of God,” “The Will of God,” “The Eternal Father,” “The God of my Childhood,” “Jesus is God,” “The Pilgrims of the Night,” “The Land beyond the Sea,” “Sweet Saviour, bless us ere we go,” “I was wandering and weary,” and “The Shadow of the Rock.” The hymns are largely used in Protestant collections. In addition to many pamphlets and translations, Faber published the following works: All for Jesus; The Precious Blood; Bethlehem; The Blessed Sacrament; The Creator and the Creature; Growth of Holiness; Spiritual Conferences; The Foot of the Cross (8 vols., London, 1853–1860).
See his Life and Letters, by Father J. E. Bowden (London, 1869), and A Brief Sketch of the Early Life of the late F. W. Faber, D.D., by his brother the Rev. F. A. Faber (London, 1869).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Fabbroni, Angelo

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​FABBRONI, ANGELO (1732–1803), Italian biographer, was born at Marradi in Tuscany on the 25th of September 1732. After studying at Faenza he entered the Roman college founded for the education of young Tuscans. On the conclusion of his studies he continued his stay in Rome, and having been introduced to the celebrated Jansenist Bottari, received from him the canonry of Santa Teresa in Trastevere. Some time after this he was chosen to preach a discourse in the pontifical chapel before Benedict XIV. and made such a favourable impression that the pontiff settled on him an annuity, with the possession of which Fabbroni was able to devote his whole time to study. He was intimate with Leopold I., grand-duke of Tuscany, but the Jesuits disliked him on account of his Jansenist views. Besides his other literary labours he began at Pisa in 1771 a literary journal, which he continued till 1796. About 1772 he made a journey to Paris, where he formed the acquaintance of Condorcet, Diderot, d’Alembert, Rousseau and most of the other eminent Frenchmen of the day. He also spent four months in London. He died at Pisa on the 22nd of September 1803.
The following are his principal works:—Vitae Italorum doctrina excellentium qui saeculis XVII. et XVIII. floruerunt (20 vols., Pisa, 1778–1799, 1804–1805), the last two vols., published posthumously, contain a life of the author; Laurentii Medicei Magnifici Vita (2 vols., Pisa, 1784), a work which served as a basis for H. Roscoe’s Life of Lorenzo dei Medici; Leonis X. pontificis maximi Vita (Pisa, 1797); and Elogi di Dante Alighieri, di Angelo Poliziano, di Lodovico Ariosto, e di Torq. Tasso (Parma, 1800).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Faber

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​FABER, the name of a family of German lead-pencil manufacturers. Their business was founded in 1760 at Stein, near Nuremberg, by Kaspar Faber (d. 1784). It was then inherited by his son Anton Wilhelm (d. 1819). Georg Leonhard Faber succeeded in 1810 (d. 1839), and the business passed to Johann Lothar von Faber (1817–1896), the great-grandson of the founder. At the time of his assuming control about twenty hands were employed, under old-fashioned conditions, and owing to the invention of the French crayons Contés of Nicolas Jacques Conté (q.v.) competition had reduced the entire Nuremberg industry to a low ebb (see Pencil). Johann introduced improvements in machinery and methods, brought his factory to the highest state of efficiency, and it became a model for all the other German and Austrian manufacturers. He established branches in New York, Paris, London and Berlin, and agencies in Vienna, St Petersburg and Hamburg, and made his greatest coup in 1856, when he contracted for the exclusive control of the graphite obtained from the East Siberian mines. Faber had also branched out into the manufacture of water-colour and oil paints, inks, slates and slate-pencils, and engineers’ and architects’ drawing instruments, and built additional factories to house his various industries at New York and at Noisy-le-Sec, near Paris, and had his own cedar mills in Florida. For his services to German industry he received a patent of nobility and an appointment as councillor of state. After the death of his widow (1903) the business was inherited by his grand-daughter Countess Otilie von Faber-Castell and her husband, Count Alexander.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Eẃe

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​EẂE, a group of Negro peoples of the Slave Coast, West Africa. By the natives their country is called Eẃe–me, “Land of the Eẃe.” The Eẃe family forms five linguistic groups: the Anlo or Anglawa on the Gold Coast frontier, the Krepi of Anfueh speech, the Jeji, the Dahomeyans and the Mahi.
See further Dahomey, and A. B. Ellis, The Eẃe-Speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast . . . (London, 1890).