OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Millom

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​MILLOM, a market town in the Egremont parliamentary division of Cumberland, England, in the extreme south-west of the county, on the Furness railway. Pop. of urban district (1901), 10,426. The church of Holy Trinity, Early Norman and Decorated in date, is chiefly of interest for its curious pillars, alternately round and octagonal, and for a window in the north aisle, which has five lights, and is known, on account of its unique shape, as the “fish-window.” A massive roodstone stands in the churchyard. Millom Castle, dating from shortly after the Conquest, was fortified in the 14th century by Sir John Huddlestone, whose descendants held it until 1774. For centuries, they exercised the power of life and death; a stone stands where the gallows were formerly erected, and indicates that here they exercised jura regalia. Though strongly built, the castle was never of great size, and it has been largely dismantled. A fine carved staircase, however, still exists in the main chapel. In 1648 the Parliamentary forces besieged Millom Castle, and early in the 19th century its park was converted into farmland. In the neighbourhood of Millom there are blast furnaces and highly productive mines of red haematite ore. The deposit lies partly under the foreshore of the river Duddon, and a company has expended upwards of £120,000 upon a sea-wall and embankment to protect the mine from the sea.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Millet, Jean François (c. 1642-1679)

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​MILLET (or Milé), JEAN FRANÇOIS (c. 1642–1679), commonly called Francisque, was born at Antwerp about 1642, and is generally classed amongst the painters of Flanders on account of the accident of his birth. But his father was a Frenchman, a turner in ivory of Dijon, who took service with the prince of Condé and probably returned after a time to his native country. He remained long enough in Antwerp to apprentice his son to an obscure member of a painter family called Laurent, pupil of Gabriel Franck. With Laurent, Francisque left Antwerp for Paris, and there settled in 1660 after marrying his master’s daughter. He was received a member of the Academy of Painting at Paris in 1673, and after gaining consideration as an imitator of the Poussins he died in 1679, bequeathing his art and some of his talents to one of his sons. Francisque probably knew, as well as imitated, Nicolas Poussin, Gaspar Dughet and Sebastian Bourdon; and it is doubtless because of his acquaintance with these travelled artists that, being himself without familiarity with the classic lands of Italy and Greece, he was able to imagine and reproduce Italian and Arcadian scenery with considerable grace and effectiveness. It is indeed surprising to observe, even at this day how skilfully he executed these imaginary subjects, enlivened them with appropriate figures, and shed over them the glow of a warm yet fresh and sparkling tone. Twelve of his most important landscapes, which remained in the palace of the Tuileries, were destroyed by fire; and though many of his pieces may still be found catalogued in Continental and English collections, others in great number remain unknown and unacknowledged.
His son Jean François Millet, the younger (1666–1723), also called Francisque, was born in Paris, and was made a member of the Academy of Painting in 1709. He is not quite so independent in his art as his father; but he had clever friends, and when he wanted figures to his landscapes, he consulted Watteau, and other followers of the “court shepherdess” school. In the museum of Grenoble is a “Paysage” by him which is prettily adorned with Watteau’s figures.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Milliner

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​MILLINER, originally a dealer in goods from the city of Milan in Italy, whence the name. Such goods were chiefly steel work, including. cutlery, needles, also arms and armour and textile fabrics, ribbons, gloves and “Milan bonnets.” The “milliners” of London, though never formed into a Livery Company seem to have been associated with the “Cappers and Hurers,” which later were amalgamated with the “Haberdashers” (q.v.). Minsheu’s derivation of the word from mille, thousand (“as having a thousand small wares to sell”), though a typical instance of guessing etymologies, shows the miscellaneous character of their trade in the 16th and 17th centuries. The modern use of the word is confined chiefly to one who makes and sells bonnets and hats for women; but articles of “millinery” include ribbons, laces, &c., usually retailed by haberdashers.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Millstone Grit

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​MILLSTONE GRIT, in geology, a series of massive sandstones, grits and conglomerates with alternate shales, the whole resting directly upon the Carboniferous Limestone or upon intervening shales (Yoredale, Limestone Shales), usually in stratigraphical continuity. Its occasional coal-seams show that conditions of coal-formation had already begun. In Great Britain its outcrop extends from the Bristol Coalfield through South and North Wales to its fullest development in the north-midland counties, Lancashire and Yorkshire, and thence to Scotland, where the Roslin Sandstone of the Lothians and the Moor Rock of Lanark and Stirling are considered its equivalents. Characterized by grits and sandstones of the same general type, though individually variable, as sandbanks formed on the shoaling of the Carboniferous sea, yet often persistent over wide areas, the formation, estimated as 5000 ft. thick in Lancashire, contains typically the following grits in descending order: First, or Rough Rock; second, or Haslingden Flags (Lancashire); third, or Chatsworth Grit (the last two being the Middle Grits of Yorkshire); fourth and fifth, or Kinderscout Grits and the Shale Grits. The first and third, the most persistent, are often coarse and pebbly, like the Kinderscout Grits. In the north of England these grits lose their identity. In South Wales the Millstone Grit, immediately succeeding the Carboniferous Limestone, consists of 450 ft. of grit and shale, its upper member being the massive pebbly Farewell Rock. It extends into the Bristol Coalfield, though not recognized in the Devonshire Culm. In Ireland certain grey grits and flags are assigned to it. In northern France and Belgium it loses its individuality and is merged in the Coal-measures. It reappears east of the Rhine, but is unrecognizable in the somewhat different Carboniferous succession of eastern Europe. In America the Pottsville Conglomerate, 1500 ft. thick in the south Appalachians, with workable coals, and widely unconformable upon the Mississippian, introduces the Pennsylvanian (Upper Carboniferous) system, and approximately represents the Millstone Grit of western Europe, as does the red conglomerate of Nova Scotia.
The shales of the Millstone Grit include thin beds of marine goniatites (Glyphioceras bilingue, Gastrioceras carbonarium), Pterinopecten papyraceus, and Lingula mytiloides, while the grits contain Lepidodendron, Stigmaria and calamites. In Scotland plants and estuarine fishes differ markedly above and below the Roslin Sandstone.
The English Millstone Grit produces a characteristic scenery of wild moorland plateaux, or alternations of shale-valleys and rugged grit-ridges. The grits furnish valuable building-stones, and grindstones. They also afford an excellent water supply. (C. B. W.*)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Millville

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​MILLVILLE, a city of Cumberland county, New Jersey, U.S.A., on the Maurice river, 40 m. S. by E. of Philadelphia. Pop. (1890) 10,002; (1900) 10,583 (598 foreign-born); (1905, state census) 11,884; (1910) 12,451. It is served by the West Jersey & Seashore railway, by electric lines to Philadelphia, Bridgeton, Vineland and Fairton, and by schooners and small freight boats. Peaches and small fruit are cultivated extensively in the surrounding country. In the north part of the city is a large public park, in which a beautiful lake 3 m. long and about 1 m. wide has been formed by damming the river. Glass and moulding sand is found in the vicinity, and the city is engaged principally in the manufacture of glass (especially druggists’ ware). The value of the city’s factory products increased from $2,513,433 in 1900 to $3,719,417 in 1905, or 48%, and of the total value in 1905, $2,332,614, or 62·7%, was the value of the glass products. Millville was incorporated as a town in 1801, was chartered as a city in 1866, and its charter was revised in 1877.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hamilton, James

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​HAMILTON, JAMES (1769–1831), English educationist, and author of the Hamiltonian system of teaching languages, was born in 1769. The first part of his life was spent in mercantile pursuits. Having settled in Hamburg and become free of the city, he was anxious to become acquainted with German and accepted the tuition of a French emigré, General d’Angelis. In twelve lessons he found himself able to read an easy German book, his master having discarded the use of a grammar and translated to him short stories word for word into French. As a citizen of Hamburg Hamilton started a business in Paris, and during the peace of Amiens maintained a lucrative trade with England; but at the rupture of the treaty he was made a prisoner of war, and though the protection of Hamburg was enough to get the words effacé de la liste des prisonniers de guerre inscribed upon his passport, he was detained in custody till the close of hostilities. His business being thus ruined, he went in 1814 to America, intending to become a farmer and manufacturer of potash; but, changing his plan before he reached his “location,” he started as a teacher in New York. Adopting his old tutor’s method, he attained remarkable success in New York, Baltimore, Washington, Boston, Montreal and Quebec. Returning to England in July 1823, he was equally fortunate in Manchester and elsewhere. The two master principles of his method were that the language should be presented to the scholar as a living organism, and that its laws should be learned from observation and not by rules. His system attracted general attention, and was vigorously attacked and defended. In 1826 Sydney Smith devoted an article to its elucidation in the Edinburgh Review. As text-books for his pupils Hamilton printed interlinear translations of the Gospel of John, of an Epitome historiae sacrae, of Aesop’s Fables, Eutropius, Aurelius Victor, Phaedrus, &c., and many books were issued as Hamiltonian with which he ​had nothing personally to do. He died on the 31st of October 1831.
See Hamilton’s own account, The History, Principles, Practice and Results of the Hamiltonian System (Manchester, 1829; new ed., 1831); Alberte, Über die Hamilton’sche Methode; C. F. Wurm, Hamilton und Jacotot (1831).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hamilton, Elizabeth

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​HAMILTON, ELIZABETH (1758–1816), British author, was born at Belfast, of Scottish extraction, on the 21st of July 1758. Her father’s death in 1759 left his wife so embarrassed that Elizabeth was adopted in 1762 by her paternal aunt, Mrs Marshall, who lived in Scotland, near Stirling. In 1788 Miss Hamilton went to live with her brother Captain Charles Hamilton (1753–1792), who was engaged on his translation of the Hedaya. Prompted by her brother’s associations, she produced her ​Letters of a Hindoo Rajah in 1796. Soon after, with her sister Mrs Blake, she settled at Bath, where she published in 1800 the Memoirs of Modern Philosophers, a satire on the admirers of the French Revolution. In 1801–1802 appeared her Letters on Education. After travelling through Wales and Scotland for nearly two years, the sisters took up their abode in 1803 at Edinburgh. In 1804 Mrs Hamilton, as she then preferred to be called, published her Life of Agrippina, wife of Germanicus; and in the same year she received a pension from government. The Cottagers of Glenburnie (1808), which is her best-known work, was described by Sir Walter Scott as “a picture of the rural habits of Scotland, of striking and impressive fidelity.” She also published Popular Essays on the Elementary Principles of the Human Mind (1812), and Hints addressed to the Patrons and Directors of Public Schools (1815). She died at Harrogate on the 23rd of July 1816.
Memoirs of Mrs Elizabeth Hamilton, by Miss Benger, were published in 1818.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hamilton, Robert

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​HAMILTON, ROBERT (1743–1829), Scottish economist and mathematician, was born at Pilrig, Edinburgh, on the 11th of June 1743. His grandfather, William Hamilton, principal of Edinburgh University, had been a professor of divinity. Having completed his education at the university of Edinburgh, where he was distinguished in mathematics, Robert was induced to enter a banking-house in order to acquire a practical knowledge of business, but his ambition was really academic. In 1769 he gave up business pursuits and accepted the rectorship of Perth academy. In 1779 he was presented to the chair of natural philosophy at Aberdeen University. For many years, however, by private arrangement with his colleague Professor Copland, Hamilton taught the class of mathematics. In 1817 he was presented to the latter chair.
Hamilton’s most important work is the Essay on the National Debt, which appeared in 1813 and was undoubtedly the first to expose the economic fallacies involved in Pitt’s policy of a sinking fund. It is still of value. A posthumous volume published in 1830, The Progress of Society, is also of great ability, and is a very effective treatment of economical principles by tracing their natural origin and position in the development of social life. Some minor works of a practical character (Introduction to Merchandise, 1777; Essay on War and Peace, 1790) are now forgotten.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hamilton, Sir William (diplomatist)

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​HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM (1730–1803), British diplomatist and archaeologist, son of Lord Archibald Hamilton, governor of Greenwich hospital and of Jamaica, was born in Scotland on the 13th of December 1730, and served in the 3rd Regiment of Foot Guards from 1747 to 1758. He left the army after his marriage with Miss Barlow, a Welsh heiress from whom he inherited an estate near Swansea upon her death in 1782. Their only child, a daughter, died in 1775. From 1761 to 1764 he was member of parliament for Midhurst, but in the latter year he was appointed envoy to the court of Naples, a post which he held for thirty-six years—until his recall in 1800. During the greater part of this time the official duties of the minister were of small importance. It was enough that the representative of the British crown should be a man of the world whose means enabled him to entertain on a handsome scale. Hamilton was admirably qualified for these duties, being an amiable and accomplished man, who took an intelligent interest in science and art. In 1766 he became a member of the Royal Society, and between that year and 1780 he contributed to its Philosophical Transactions a series of observations on the action of volcanoes, which he had made, or caused to be made, at Vesuvius and Etna. He employed a draftsman named Fabris to make studies of the eruption of 1775 and 1776, and a Dominican, Resina, to make observations at a later period. He published several treatises on earthquakes and volcanoes between 1776 and 1783. He was a fellow of the Society of Antiquaries and of the Dilettanti, and a notable collector. Many of his treasures went to enrich the British Museum. In 1772 he was made a knight of the Bath. The last ten years of his life presented a curious contrast to the elegant peace of those which had preceded them. In 1791 he married Emma Lyon (see the separate article on Lady Hamilton). The outbreak of the French Revolution and the rapid extension of the revolutionary movement in Western Europe soon overwhelmed Naples. It was a misfortune for Sir William that he was left to meet the very trying political and diplomatic conditions which arose after 1793. His health had begun to break down, and he suffered from bilious fevers. Sir William was in fact in a state approaching dotage before his recall, a fact which, combined with his senile devotion to Lady Hamilton, has to be considered in accounting for his extraordinary complaisance in her relations with Nelson. He died on the 6th of April 1803.
See E. Edwards, Lives of the Founders of the British Museum (London, 1870); and the authorities given in the article on Emma, Lady Hamilton.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hamilton, John

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​HAMILTON, JOHN (c. 1511–1571), Scottish prelate and politician, was a natural son of James Hamilton, 1st earl of Arran. At a very early age he became a monk and abbot of Paisley, and after studying in Paris he returned to Scotland, where he soon rose to a position of power and influence under his half-brother, the regent Arran. He was made keeper of the privy seal in 1543 and bishop of Dunkeld two years later; in 1546 he followed David Beaton as archbishop of St Andrews, and about the same time he became treasurer of the kingdom. He made vigorous efforts to stay the growth of Protestantism, but with one or two exceptions “persecution was not the policy of Archbishop Hamilton,” and in the interests of the Roman Catholic religion a catechism called Hamilton’s Catechism (published with an introduction by T. G. Law in 1884) was drawn up and printed, possibly at his instigation. Having incurred the displeasure of the Protestants, now the dominant party in Scotland, the archbishop was imprisoned in 1563. After his release he was an active partisan of Mary queen of Scots; he baptized the infant James, afterwards King James VI., and pronounced the divorce of the queen from Bothwell. He was present at the battle of Langside, and some time later took refuge in Dumbarton Castle. Here he was seized, and on the charge of being concerned in the murders of Lord Darnley and the regent Murray he was tried, and hanged on the 6th of April 1571. The archbishop had three children by his mistress, Grizzel Sempill.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pedal Clarinet

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​PEDAL CLARINET, a contrabass instrument invented in 1891 by M. F. Besson to complete the quartet of clarinets, as the contrafagotto or double bassoon completes that of the oboe family; it is constructed on practically the same principles as the clarinet, and consists of a tube 10 ft. long, in which cylindrical and conical bores are so ingeniously combined that the acoustic principles remain unchanged. The tube is doubled up twice upon itself; at the upper end the beak mouthpiece stands out like the head of a viper, while at the lower a metal tube, in the shape of a U with a wide gloxinea-shaped bell, is joined to the wooden tube. The beak mouthpiece is exactly like that of the other clarinets but of larger size, and it is furnished with a single or beating reed. There are 13 keys and 2 rings on the tube, and the fingering is the same as for the B flat clarinet except for the eight highest semitones. The compass of the pedal clarinet is as follows:—
| Notation— | Real Sounds— |
The instrument is in B flat two octaves below the B flat clarinet, and, like it, it is a transposing instrument, the music being written in a key a tone higher than that of the composition, and in order to avoid ledger lines a whole octave higher besides. The tone is rich and full except for the lowest notes, which are unavoidably a little rough in quality, but much more sonorous than the corresponding notes on the double bassoon. The upper register resembles the chalumeau register of the B flat clarinet, being reedy and sweet. The instrument is used as a fundamental bass for the wood wind at Kneller Hall, and it has also been used at Covent Garden to accompany the music of Fafner and Hunding in the Nibelungen Ring.
Many attempts have been made since the beginning of the 19th century to construct contra clarinets, but all possessed inherent faults and have been discarded (see Batyphone). A contrabass clarinet in F, an octave below the basset horn, constructed by Albert of Brussels in 1890, was, we believe, considered successful, but it differed in design from the pedal clarinet. (K. S.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pedersen, Christiern

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​PEDERSEN, CHRISTIERN (c. 1480–1554), Danish writer, known as the “father of Danish literature,” was a canon of the cathedral of Lund, and in 1510 went to Paris, where he took his master’s degree in 1515. In Paris he edited the proverbs of Peder Laale and (1514) the Historia danica of Saxo Grammaticus. He showed signs of the spirit of reform, asserting that the gospels should be translated into the vernacular so that the common people might understand. He worked at a continuation of the history of Saxo Grammaticus, and became secretary to Christian II., whom he followed into exile in 1525. In Holland he translated the New Testament (1529) and the Psalms (1531) from the Vulgate, and, becoming a convert to the reformed opinion, he issued several Lutheran tracts. After his return to Denmark in 1532 he set up a printing press at Malmö. He published a Danish version (Kronike om Holger Danske) of the French romance of Ogier the Dane, and another of the Charlemagne legends, which is probably derived immediately from the Norwegian Karlamagnus saga. His greatest work, the Danish version of the Holy Scriptures, which is known generally as “Christian III.’s Bible,” is an important landmark in Danish literature. It was founded on Luther’s version, and was edited by Peder Palladius, bishop of Zealand, and others.
See C. Pedersen’s Danske Skrifter, edited by C. J. Brandt and B. T. Fenger (5 vols., Copenhagen, 1850–1856).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Peculiar

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​PECULIAR, a word now generally used in the sense of that which solely or exclusively belongs to, or is particularly characteristic of, an individual; hence strange, odd, queer. The Lat. peculiaris meant primarily “belonging to private property,” and is formed from peculium, private property, particularly the property given by a paterfamilias to his children, or by a master to his slave, to enjoy as their own. As a term of ecclesiastical law “peculiar” is applied to those ecclesiastical districts, parishes, chapels or churches, once numerous in England, which were outside the jurisdiction of the bishop of the diocese in which they were situated, and were subject to a jurisdiction “peculiar” to themselves. They were introduced originally, in many cases by papal authority, in order to limit the powers of the bishop in his diocese. There were royal peculiars, e.g. the Chapel Royal St James’s, or St George’s Windsor, peculiars of the archbishop, over certain of which the Court of Peculiars exercised jurisdiction (see Arches, Court of), and peculiars of bishops and deans (see Dean). The jurisdiction and privileges of the “peculiars” were abolished by statutory powers given to the Ecclesiastical Commissioners, by the Ecclesiastical Commissioners Acts 1836 and 1850, by the Pluralities Act 1838, the Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction Act 1847, and other statutes.