OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Nangudi Vellāla

​Nangudi Vellāla. — The so-called Nangudi Vellālas, or Savalai Pillais, are found inhabiting several villages in the Tinnevelly district, and differ from other Vellālas in several important points. They say that they are Kōttai (fort) Vellālas, who have given up the custom of living within a fort. Nangudi women are not allowed to enter the fort at Srivaiguntam, wherein the Kottai Vellālas live. Within the last few years, marriages are said to have taken place between members of the two communities. The Nangudis have exogamous septs or kilais, named for the most part after persons or deities, which, like the septs of the Maravans, run in the female line. The hereditary caste headman is called Pattaththu Pillai. In olden times, members who disobeyed him were made to run through the streets with a rotten tender cocoanut tied to the kudumi (hair knot), while a man ran behind, applying a tamarind switch to the back.
The consent of a girl's maternal uncle and his wife is necessary, before she can marry. The aunt's consent is signified by touching the tāli (marriage badge) on the wedding day. The uncle keeps a light, called ayira panthi, burning until the time for tying the tāli. A quarter measure of rice is tied up in a cloth, and the ​knot converted into a wick, which is fed with ghī (clarified butter).
The news of a death in the community is conveyed by the barber. Before the removal of the corpse, all close relations, and at least one pair of Nangudis from every village, must come to the house. Absence on this occasion is considered as a very grave insult. On the second day after death, an Amarantus, called arakkirai, must be cooked.
A special feature in connection with inheritance is that a man should give his daughters some property, and every daughter must be given a house. The husbands have to live in their wives' houses. The property which a woman receives from her father becomes eventually the property of her daughters, and her sons have no claim to it. Sons inherit the property of the father in the usual manner.
Like the Kondaikatti Vellālas, the Nangudis claim that they had the right of placing the crown on the head of the Pāndyan kings. In the village of Korkai, there is a tank (pond) called Kannimar Jonai, because celestial maidens used to bathe there. When one Agni Mahā Rishi was doing penance, three of the celestial maidens are said to have come to bathe. The Rishi fell in love with them, and eventually three sons were born. These children were brought up by the Vellālas of Korkai at the request of the Rishi, who represented that they were likely to become kings. According to the legend, they became Chēra, Chōla, and Pāndya kings.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Nariangal

​Nariangal (nari, jackal). — An exogamous sept of Vallamban.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Nannūru

​Nannūru (four hundred). — An exogamous sept of Mādiga.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Nantunikkuruppu

​Nantunikkuruppu.— Recorded, in the Travancore Census Report, 1901, as a synonym of Vātti, a sub-division of Nāyar.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Narollu

​Narollu (fibre). — An exogamous sept of Pedakanti Kāpu.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Nanukonda

​Nanukonda.— A sub-division of Lingāyat Kāpus, named after the village of Nanukonda in the Kurnool district.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Naravidyavāru

​Naravidyavāru.— These are Vipravinōdis, who are Jangams by caste. They style themselves Naravidyavāru when they perform acrobatic and other feats before ordinary people, and Vipravinōdi when they perform before Brāhmans. The name Naravidyavāru is said to be a contraction of Narulu-mēchche-vidya-cheyu-vāru, i.e., those who receive the approbation of men. One of their most favourite feats is throwing three or four wooden or stone balls up into the air, and rolling them quickly in succession over various parts of the body — arms, chest, etc.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Narpathu Katchi

​Narpathu Katchi (forty-house section). — A sub-division of Valluvan.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Johannes Reuchlin

From volume 12 of the work.
(Grecized, Capnion).
Celebrated German humanist, b. at Pforzheim, Baden, 22 February, 1455; d. at Liebenzell, 30 June, 1522. He studied at Freiburg, Paris, and Basle, where he won his baccalaureate in 1475, his degree of master in 1477, and later taught Greek and Latin; in 1479 he became bachelor of jurisprudence at Orléans, and licentiate of law at Poitiers in 1481. During two trips to Italy (1482 and 1490) he became acquainted with the Platonic Academy at Florence and the chief Italian philologians, he himself exciting wonder through his great philological knowledge. In the interval between these journeys he became counsel of Count Eberhard of Würtemburg, assessor in the high court and doctor of jurisprudence, meanwhile applying himself zealously to the study of Hebrew. On the death of his patron Eberhard, he fled to Heidelberg through fear of his successor, the malevolent Count Eberhard VI, where he became counsel to the elector. In 1498 he paid his third visit to Rome, and perfected his Hebrew by intercourse with some learned Jews. In Heidelberg he wrote his two witty and successful Latin comedies, "Sergius" and "Henno". On Eberhard's deposition he returned to Stuttgart, and became imperial judge of the Swabian Confederation (1502-12), private littérateur, professor of Greek and Hebrew at Ingolstadt (1520-1), and professor at Tübingen (1521-2). The chief service of Reuchlin was his introduction into Germany of the study of Hebrew. His "De rudimentis hebraicis" (1506), containing both lexicon and grammar, was epoch-making. In 1512 he published as a manual for beginners an edition of the Hebrew text of the Penitential Psalms with a literal Latin translation. In his "De accentibus et orthographia linguae hebraicae" (1518), he treats in detail the word-accent, and more briefly the rhetorical accent and musical emphasis. Less important are his cabalistic writings ("De verbo mirifico", 1494; "De arte cabbalistica", 1517), in which he becomes lost in the abstruse problems of mysterious names and figures. Meanwhile his unfortunate quarrel with Johann Pfefferkorn and the Cologne Dominicans concerning the destruction of the Talmudic books had begun. (For a discussion of this, see HUMANISM.) Throughout the Reformation, Reuchlin remained faithful to the Church and sought to alienate his grandnephew Melanchthon from Luther.
Geiger, Johann Reuchlin (Leipzig, 1871); Idem, Renaissance u. Humanismus (Berlin, 1882), 504-25; Reuchlins Briefwechsel, ed. Geiger (Tübingen, 1875); The Cambridge Modern History, I (Cambridge, 1902), 572-3.
Klemens Löffler.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Johannes Thurmayr

From volume 14 of the work.
(Called AVENTINUS from the place of his birth)
Born at Abensberg, Bavaria, 4 July, 1477; died at Ratisbon, 9 January, 1534. He studied at the Universities of Ingolstadt, Vienna, Cracow, and Paris. In 1507 he returned to Ingolstadt, and in 1509 was appointed tutor to the younger brothers of Duke William IV of Bavaria. In his zeal for learning he founded the "Sodalitas litteraria Angilostadensis", which, however, soon ceased to exist (1520). In 1512 he wrote the "Rudimenta grammaticae latinae". In 1517 he was appointed historiographer of Bavaria and was commissioned to write the history of the country. Many of the important authorities which he collected for this purpose have been preserved only in his copies. He embodied a critical treatment of them in a complete history of Bavaria, "Annales Bojorum", down to the year 1460. His condensed German version of it, the "Bayerische Chronik", is the first important history in the German language. Though he ranked as a Catholic, Thurmayr was in sympathy with the Humanists, inclined to the opinions of the Reformers, rejected auricular confession, objected to pilgrimages and indulgences, and opposed in violent language the claims of the hierarchy as excessive. For this reason his history was not published at Ingolstadt until 1554, and then only with omission of the passages hostile to the Church. The "Bayerische Chronik" was published at Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1566. The Bavarian Academy issued a critical complete edition of his works in five volumes (Munich, 1880-86).
See the biographies by WIEDMANN (Freising, 1858); DITTMAR (Nordlingen, 1862); WEGELE (Bamberg, 1890); DOLLINGER, Aventin u. seine Zeit (Munich, 1877; Nordingen, 1888).
PATRICIUS SCHLAGER
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Johannes Mentelin

From volume 10 of the work.
(MENTEL)
Born c. 1410; died 12 Dec., 1478; an eminent German typographer of the fifteenth century, and the first printer and bookseller at Strasburg (Alsace). He belonged to a respected family at Schlettstadt. After 1447 he was a "gold-schreiber" (illuminator) at Strasburg, where he became a burgess and member of the painters' and goldsmiths' guilds. It was as an illuminator that he became connected with printing; and he received his printer's training at Mainz: he began printing at Strasburg before 1460. His establishment at once developed great activity; in a few years at produced quite a number of immense folio volumes with a masterly finish. He also procured the sale of his prints by means of printed catalogues. These "publisher's catalogues" have proved a very valuable means of identifying and ascertaining facts about Mentelin's prints, because he usually appended neither name, place nor date to his works. His type is nearly always conspicuous as being a simplified Gothic round-hand (the minuscule used in the books of the period). Though they cannot compare either in design or technical finish with those of Gutenberg and Schoffer, they are not without some original features especially in the capital letters, which occur both in flourishing Gothic and in the simple Roman lapidary style. Of his large printed works, about 30 in number, including at least 35 large folio volumes, the following are the most conspicuous: the Latin edition of the Bible of 1460, and 1463; the German Bible, about 1466, also the first editions of the writings of St. Augustine, St. Chrysostom, St. Jerome, Aristotle, Isidore, and the "Canon" of Avicenna. The business was carried on by his Adolf Rusch, and afterwards by Johann Pruss. Although Mentelin cannot be reckoned the inventor the art of printing books, as his grandson Johan Schott claimed in 1521, he was nevertheless one of the most skilful of the early typographers.
SCHMIDT, Gesch. der altest Bibliotheken und der ersten Buchdrucker zu Strassburg (1882); Allg. deutsch. Biog., XXI (Leipzig, 1885).
Heinrich Wilh. Wallau.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Johannes Moschus

From volume 10 of the work.
(ho tou Moschou, son of Moschus)
A monk and ascetical writer, b. about 550 probably at Damascus; d. at Rome, 619. He was surnamed The Abstemious (ho eukratas). He lived successively with the monks at the monastery of St. Theodosius (now Deir Dosi) in Jerusalem, among the hermits in the Jordan valley, and in the New Laura of St. Sabas south-east of Bethlehem. About the year 578 he went to Egypt with Sophronius (afterwards Patriarch of Jerusalem) and came as far as the Great Oasis. After 583 he came to Mt. Sinai and spent about ten years in the Laura of Aeliatae; he then visited the monasteries, near Jerusalem and the Dead Sea. In 604 he went to Antioch but returned to Egypt in 607. Later he came to Cyprus and in 614-615 to Rome. On his deathbed he requested Sophronius to bury him, if possible, on Mt. Sinai or else at the monastery of St. Theodosius in Jerusalem. Mt. Sinai being then invaded by the Arabs, Sophronius buried him in the monastery of St. Theodosius. He is the author of one of the earliest hagiological works entitled "Leimon" (Pratum spirituale, Spiritual Meadow). In it he narrates his personal experiences with many great ascetics whom he met during his extensive travels, and repeats the edifying stories which these ascetics related to him. Though the work is devoid of critical discrimination and teems with miracles and ecstatic visions, it gives a clear insight into the practices of Eastern monasticism, contains important data on the religious cult and ceremonies, and acquaints us with the numerous heresies that threatened to disrupt the Church in the East. It was first edited by Fronton du Duc in "Auctarium biblioth. patrum," II (Paris, 1624), 1057-1159. A better edition was brought out by Cotelier in "Ecclesiae Graecae Monumenta," II (Paris, 1681), which is reprinted in Migne, P.G.. LXXXVII, III, 2851-3112. A Latin translation, by Bl. Ambrose Traversari, is printed in Migne, P.L., LXXIV, 121-240, and an Italian version made from the Latin of Traversari (Venice, 1475; Vicenzo, 1479). Conjointly with Sophronius, Moschus wrote a life of John the Almoner, a fragment of which is preserved in the first chapter of the "Vita S. Joanni Eleemosynarii" by Leontius, under the name of "Simeon Metaphrastes" (P.G., CXIV, 895-966).
BARDENHEWER, Patrologie, tr. SHAHAN, Patrology (Freiburg im Br. and St. Louis, 1908), 559-61; HOLE in Dict. Christ. Biog., III, 406-8; VAILHE, St. Jean Mosch in Echos d'Orient, V (Paris, 1901), 107-16 and 356-87; IDEM, Sophrone le sophiste et Sophrone le patriarche in Revue de l'Orient chretien, VII (Paris, 1902), 360-385; VIII (1903), 32-69. A Latin translation of an old life, originally in Greek, is printed in P.L., LXXIV, 119-22, and in USENER, Der hl. Tychon (Leipzig, 1907), 91-3.
MICHAEL OTT
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Johannes Veghe

From volume 15 of the work.
German preacher and religious writer, b. at Münster in Westphalia about 1435; d. there, 21 September, 1504. His father seems to have been a physician. In 1450 he matriculated at the University of Cologne; in the register of students he is called "Johannes ten Loc alias Veghe clericus Monasteriensis". In 1451 he entered the house of the Brethren of the Common Life of Münster, in 1469 became first rector of the house of the Brethren at Rostock, returned to Münster in 1471, and was made rector there in 1475. On account of ill health he resigned in 1481 and became confessor to the Sisters of Niesink at Münster; this position which he retained until his death, gave him time to gratify his literary tastes. He lived to see the victory of Humanism (q.v.) in Münster and Westphalia; the Humanists Murmellius and Hermann von dem Busche in their poems praise his pious life and his study of religious books. His earliest work is his "Geistliche Jagd", dedicated to Duke Magnus II of Mecklenburg. This is a description of a spiritual chase, whose object is God; all the details of an actual hunt are applied to the sphere of spiritual things. This work was followed by the : "Marientrost", in which Veghe wishes to show how and why we should appeal to the Blessed Virgin; "Geistliches Blumenbett" (Lectulus Floridus), dedicated to the Sisters of Niesink; and "Weingarten der Seele", which treats in three books of the progress of man from the beginning of Christian life to perfection. Veghe's main work consists of sermons delivered in Low German before the Sisters of Niesink 1492. They are splendid examples of pulpit oratory, notable for the keen observation of nature and knowledge of the human heart; the mode of expression is vigorous and racy. His absolute mastery of the language, and the simple, natural style, will, in the opinion of Triloff, perpetuate the fame of Veghe in the history of Low German literature. His sermons were edited by Professor Franz Jostes in 1883. In dogma Veghe held rigidly to the teachings of the Church, but he would not accept the gaining of indulgences for the dead, who he believed were entirely under the hand and judgment of God. He was genuinely religious, not hypocritical, and at the same time cheerful and kindly.
JOSTES, Johannes Veghe, ein deutscher Prediges des X V Jahrhunderts (Halle, 1883); TRILOFF, Die Traktate u. Predigten Veghes untersucht (Halle, 1904); BOMER, Das literarische Leben in Münster (Münster, 1906), 55-63.
Klemens Löffler.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Johannes Pauli

From volume 11 of the work.
Born about 1455; died after 1530 in the monastery at Thann in Alsace. What little is known of his life rests upon unreliable information. Ludwig von Pastor rejects the story that he was of Jewish descent, and baptised at an early age taking the name of Johannes Pauli from his godfather (see below). Pauli became Master of Arts in Strasburg, entered the Franciscans (the "Barefooted"), and delivered his first sermon in Thann in 1479. Two years later, he was sent to the convent at Oppenheim; in 1504 the conventual monastery at Bern desired him as a guardian; he held the same office in Strasburg 1506-10; in 1516 he is mentioned as preacher in Schlettstadt; later in Villingen in the Black Forest, and finally in Thann. Prompted by his acquaintance with Geiler of Kaisersberg, he published in 1515 "Das Evangelienbuch"; in 1516 "Die Emeis, Buch von der Omeissen"; in 1517 "Die Brösamlin Geilers"; in 1520 "Das Narrenschiff, aus dem Latein ins Deutsch gebracht". His own work, which assured him a lasting place in German literature, is the famous collection of farces and humorous stories "Schimpf (Scherz) und Ernst". This a genuine "folk's book", written in an easy and plain style, filled with humour and pointed satire, intended to instruct while it amused. "He did not desire," as Georg Rollenhagen says in his preface to "Froschmäusler", "to make people laugh without teaching them something; his book was like the old legends and sagas, full of fabulous happenings and incidents, but written so that in them, as in a comedy, there are combined with poetry and imagination the plain, unvarnished, bitter truths of life, worded so as to tell serious things in a jocular manner, with a laugh and a smile." Pauli drew his information from a variety of sources, and his farces became the inspiration of the later German poets, especially for Hans Sachs. He exercised a wide influence upon the culture of the whole century.
VEITH, Ueber den Barfüsser Johannes Pauli (Vienna, 1839); OESTERLEY, Johannes Paulis Schimpf und Ernst (Stuttgart, 1866); EUBEL, Gesch. der oberdeutschen Minoritenprovinz (Wurzburg, 1886); JANSSEN, Gesch. des deutschen Volkes, ed. PASTOR, VI (Freiburg, 1901); BOBERTAG, Deutsche Nationallitteratur (Kürschner), XXIV; WEIGERT, Deutsche Volkschwänke des 16. Jahrhunderts (Kempten, 1909).
NICHOLAS SCHEID
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Isaac of Seleucia

From volume 8 of the work.
Patriarch of the Persian Church, d. 410. Isaac is celebrated among the patriarchs of the Persian Church for having reorganized it after the terrible persecution that overwhelmed it under Sapor (Shapûr) II. We know little or nothing definite of his early days. According to the most probable tradition he was enabled through the influence he had with King Yazdgerd I, to restore the Catholicate of Seleucia, which had been vacant for twenty-two years. Another account says he was chosen to replace a certain Qayom, who had been deposed by his fellow-bishops for incapacity. Isaac's great work was the organizing of the Council of Seleucia, the equivalent for the Eastern Syrian Church of the Council of Nicaea. The Persian bishops met under the express orders of the monarch at the capital of the Sassanide kingdom. Isaac presided, in concert with Maruthas of Martyropolis, whom the "Western Fathers", i.e., the bishops of the Syrian Province of Antioch, had delegated to assist in the reorganization of the Christian religion in Persia. Two Persian nobles and the Grand Vizier, who represented the king at this important assembly, promulgated a decree authorizing the Christians to practice their religion and to construct churches. They recognized Isaac, the Catholicos of Seleucia, as the sole official head of the Persian Christians, and declared that the secular arm would repress all who were insubordinate to him. Shortly after this great success, which assured the unification and the stability of the Persian Church, Isaac died.
CHABOT, Synodicon orientale (Paris, 1902), BRAUN, Das Buch Synhados (Stuttgart, 1900); De sancta nicaena synodo (Munster, 1898), LABOURET, Le christianisme dans l'Empire perse (Paris, 1904).
J. LABOURT
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Islam

From volume 8 of the work.
Islam, an Arabic word which, since Mohammed's time, has acquired a religious and technical significance denoting the religion of Mohammed and of the Koran, just as denotes that of Jesus and of the Gospels, or that of Moses, the Prophets, and of the Old Testament.
Grammatically, the word Islam is the infinitive of the so-called fourth verbal form of the regular intransitive stem salima, "to be safe", "to be secure", etc. In its second verbal form (sallama) it means "to make some one safe" and "to free", "to make secure", etc. In its third form (salama), it signifies "to make peace", or "to become at peace", i.e. to be reconciled". In its fourth form (aslama), the infinitive of which is islam, it acquires the sense of "to resign", "to submit oneself" or "to surrender". Hence Islam, in its ethico-religious significance, means the "entire surrender of the will to God", and its professors are called Muslimun (sing. Muslim), which is the participial form, that is "those who have surrendered themselves", or "believers", as opposed to the "rejectors" of the Divine message, who are called Kafirs, Mushriks (that is those who associate various gods with the Deity), or pagans.
Historically, of course, to become a Muslim was to become a follower of Mohammed and of his religion; and it is very doubtful whether the earliest Muslims or followers of Mohammed, had any clear notion of the ethico-religious significance of the term, although its later theological development is entirely consistent and logical. According to the Shafiites (one of the four great Mohammedan schools of theology), Islam, as a principle of the law of God, is "the manifesting of humility or submission, and outward conforming with the law of God, and the taking upon oneself to do or to say as the Prophet has done or said"; and if this outward manifestation of religion is coupled with "a firm and internal belief of the heart", i.e. faith, then it is called Iman. Hence the Mohammedan theological axiom "Islam is with the tongue, and Iman is with the heart." According to the Hanafites (another of the four above-mentioned schools), however, no distinction is to be made between the two terms, as Iman, according to them, is essentially included in Islam.
Islam is sometimes divided under two heads of "Faith", or "Iman", and "Practical Religion", or "Din". Faith (Iman) includes a belief in one God, omnipotent, omniscient, all-merciful, the author of all good, and in Mohammed as His prophet, expressed in the formula: "There is no God but God, and Mohammed is the Prophet of God." It includes also, belief in the authority and sufficiency of the Koran, in angels, genii, and the devil, in the immortality of the soul, the resurrection, the day of judgment, and in the God's absolute decree for good and evil. Practical religion (Din), on the other hand, consists of five observances, viz.: recital of the formula of belief, prayer with ablution, fasting, almsgiving, and the pilgrimage to Mecca. For further details see KORAN and MOHAMMEDANISM
GABRIEL OUSSANI