OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/October

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​OCTOBER, the eighth month of the old Roman year, which began in March. In the Julian calendar, while retaining its old name, it became the tenth month, and had thirty-one days assigned to it. The meditrinalia, when a libation of new wine was made in honour of Meditrina, were celebrated on the 11th, the faunalia on the 13th, and the equiria, when the equus October was sacrificed to Mars in the Campus Martius, on the 15th. Several attempts were made to rename the month in honour of the emperors. Thus it was in succession temporarily known as Germanicus, Antoninus, Tacitus and Herculeus, the latter a surname of Commodus. The senate’s attempt to christen it Faustinus in honour of Faustina, wife of Antoninus, was equally unsuccessful. The principal ecclesiastical feasts in October are those of St Luke on the 18th and of St Simon and St Jude on the 28th. By the Slavs it is called “yellow month,” from the fading of the leaf; to the Anglo-Saxons it was known as Winterfylleth, because at this full moon (fylleth) winter was supposed to begin.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Octodon

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​OCTODON, the generic name for a small South American rodent mammal (Octodon degus) locally known as the degu. It is the type of the family Octodontidae, the members of which—collectively termed octodonts—are exclusively Central and South American. Several of them, such as Echinomys and Loncheres, are rat-like creatures with spiny or bristly fur (see Rodentia).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ocriculum

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​OCRICULUM (mod. Otricoli), an ancient town of Umbria, Italy, on the Via Flaminia, near the E. bank of the Tiber, 44 m. N. of Rome and 12 m. S. of Narnia. It concluded an alliance with Rome in 308 B.C. The modern village lies higher than the ancient town, and excavations on the site of the latter in 1775 and following years led to the discovery of the baths, a theatre, a basilica and other buildings. In the baths were found a number of works of art, now in the Vatican, notably the mosaic pavement of the Sala della Rotonda, and the celebrated head of Zeus and the head of Claudius in the same room. An amphitheatre is still visible, but the other buildings have in the main been covered up again.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Octave

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​OCTAVE (from Lat. octavus, eighth, octo, eight), a period or series of eight members. In ecclesiastical usage the octave is the eighth day after a particular church festival, the feast day itself and the “octave” being counted. The octave thus always falls on the same day of the week as the festival, and any event occurring during the period is said to be “in the octave.” In music, an octave is the eighth full tone above or below any given note. It is produced by double or half the number of vibrations corresponding to the given note. In the interval between a note and its octave is contained the full scale, the octave of a note forming the starting-point of another scale of similar intervals to the first. The interval between a note and its octave is also called an octave. The name is also applied to an open metal stop in an organ, and to a flute (more usually known as the piccolo) one octave higher in pitch than the regular flute. It is also a term for a “parade” in fencing. The “law of octaves” was a term applied in 1865 to a relationship among the chemical elements enunciated by J. A. R. Newlands.
In literature an octave is a form of verse consisting of eight iambic lines, and complete in itself. From its use by the poets of Sicily, the recognized type of this form is usually called the Sicilian Octave. It is distinguished from a single stanza of ottava rima, in which the rhyme-arrangement is abababcc, by having only two rhymes, arranged abababab. In German literature the octave has been used not infrequently since 1820, when Ruckert published “Sicilianen,” as they are called in German, for the first time. The word octave is also often used to describe ​the eight opening lines of a sonnet, in which the rhyme-arrangement is abbaabba, or some modification of this, but properly always on two rhymes only.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Octavia

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​OCTAVIA, the name of two princesses of the Augustan house. (1) Octavia, daughter of Gaius Octavius and sister of the emperor Augustus, was the wife of Gaius Marcellus, one of the bitterest enemies of Julius Caesar. In 41 B.C. her husband died, and she was married to Marcus Antonius, with the idea of bringing about a reconciliation between him and her brother. Her efforts were at first successful, but in 36 Antony left for the Parthian War and renewed his intrigue with Cleopatra. Though Octavia took out troops and money to him (35), he refused to see her and formally divorced her in 32, but she always protected his children, even those by Fulvia and Cleopatra. Her beauty and virtues are praised by all ancient authorities. By her first husband she was the mother of Marcus Marcellus (q.v.), who died in 23 B.C. (2) Octavia, daughter of the emperor Claudius, was the wife of Nero, by whom she was put to death. A Latin tragedy on her fate is attributed, though wrongly, to Seneca.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Reinkens, Joseph Hubert

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​REINKENS, JOSEPH HUBERT (1821–1896), German Old Catholic bishop, was born at Burtscheid, near Aix-la-Chapelle, on the 1st of March 1821, his father being a gardener. In 1836, on the death of his mother, he took to manual work in order to support his numerous brothers and sisters, but in 1840 he was able to go to the gymnasium at Aix, and he afterwards studied theology at the universities of Bonn and Munich. He was ordained priest in 1848, and in 1849 graduated as doctor in theology. He was soon appointed professor of ecclesiastical history at Breslau, and in 1865 he was made rector of the university. During this period he wrote, among other treatises, monographs on Clement of Alexandria, Hilary of Poitiers and Martin of Tours. In consequence of an essay on art, especially in tragedy, after Aristotle, he was made doctor in philosophy in the university of Leipzig. When, in 1870, the question of papal infallibility was raised, Reinkens attached himself to the party opposed to the proclamation of the dogma. He wrote several pamphlets on church tradition relative to infallibility and on the procedure of the Council. When the dogma of infallibility was proclaimed, Reinkens joined the band of influential theologians, headed by Döllinger, who resolved to organize resistance to the decree. He was one of those who signed the Declaration of Nüremberg in 1871, and at the Bonn conferences with Orientals and Anglicans in 1874 and 1875 he was conspicuous. The Old Catholics having decided to separate themselves from the Church of Rome, Reinkens was chosen their bishop in Germany at an enthusiastic meeting at Cologne in 1873 (see Old Catholics). On the 11th of August of that year he was consecrated by Dr Heykamp, bishop of Deventer. Reinkens devoted himself zealously to his office, and it was due to his efforts that the Old Catholic movement crystallized into an organized church, with a definite status in the various German states. He wrote a number of theological works after his consecration, but none of them so important as his treatise on Cyprian and the Unity of the Church (1873). The chief act of his episcopal career was his consecration in 1876 of Dr Edward Herzog to preside as bishop over the Old Catholic Church in Switzerland. In 1881 Reinkens visited England, and received Holy Communion more than once with bishops, clergy and laity of the Church of England, and in 1894 he defended the validity of Anglican orders against his co-religionists, the Old Catholics of Holland. He died at Bonn on the 4th of January 1896.
See Joseph Hubert Reinkens, by his nephew, J. M. Reinkens (Gotha, 1906).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Release

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​RELEASE (O.Fr. reles, variant of relais, from relaisser, to release, let go, Lat. relaxare), freedom or deliverance from trouble, pain or sorrow, the freeing or discharge from some obligation or debt, the action of letting go or releasing something fixed or set in position. In law, the term is applied to the discharge of some obligation, by which it is extinguished (see Debt), and to the conveyance of an estate or interest in real or personal property to one who has already some estate or interest therein. For the special form of conveyancing known as “lease and release,” see Conveyancing.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Reland, Adrian

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​RELAND, ADRIAN (1676–1718), Dutch Orientalist, was born at Ryp, studied at Utrecht and Leiden, and was professor of Oriental languages successively at Harderwijk (1699) and Utrecht (1701). His most important works were Palaestina ex veteribus monumentis illustrata (Utrecht, 1714), and Antiquitates sacrae veterum Hebraeorum. (See also Burman, Traj. Erud., P.z96 seq.).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Relief

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​RELIEF (through Fr. from Lat. relevare, to lift up), an act of raising or lifting off or up. Apart from the general sense of a mitigation, cessation or removal of pain, sorrow, discomfort, &c., and the artistic use (It. relievo) of the projection of a figure or design in sculpture from the ground on which it is formed, which is treated below, the term “relief” is used in the following senses; it was one of the feudal incidents between lord and vassal, and consisted of a payment to the lord in kind or money made by the heir on the death of the ancestor for the privilege of succession, for, fiefs not being hereditary, the estate had lapsed to the lord; by this payment the heir caducum praedium relevabat (Du Cange, Gloss. s.v. Relevare). The word is also generally used, in law, for any exemption granted by a court from the strict legal consequences of an act, &c., e.g. to a parliamentary candidate from the penal consequences ensuing from breaches of the regulations of the Corrupt and Illegal Practices Acts. Relief is also the term used in English law for the assistance given to the indigent poor by the Poor Law authorities (see Poor Law).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Turberville, George

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​TURBERVILLE (or Turbervile), GEORGE (1540?–1610?), English poet, second son of Nicholas Turberville of Whitchurch, Dorset, belonged to an old Dorsetshire family, the D'Urbervilles of Mr Thomas Hardy’s novel, Tess. He became a scholar of Winchester College in 1554, and in 1561 was made a fellow of New College, Oxford. In 1562 he began to study law in London, and gained a reputation, according to Anthony à Wood, as a poet and man of affairs. He accompanied Thomas Randolph in a special mission to Moscow to the court of Ivan the Terrible in 1568. Of his Poems describing the Places and Manners of the Country and People of Russia (1568) mentioned by Wood, only three metrical letters describing his adventures survive, and these were reprinted in Hakluyt’s Voyages (1589). His Epitaphs, Epigrams, Songs and Sonets appeared “newly corrected with additions” in 1367. In the same year he published translations of the Heroycall Epistles of Ovid, and of the Eglogs of Mantuan (Gianbattista Spagnuoli, called Mantuanus), and in 1568 A Plaine Path to Perfect Vertue from Dominicus Mancinus. The Book of Falconry or Hawking and the Noble Art of Venerie (printed together in 1575) may both be assigned to Turberville. The title page of his Tragical Tales (1587), which are translations from Boccaccio and Bandello, says that the book was written at the time of the author’s troubles. What these were is unknown, but Wood says he was living and in high esteem in 1594. He probably died before 1611. He is a disciple of Wyat and Surrey, whose matter he sometimes appropriated. Much of his verse is sing-song enough, but he disarms criticism by his humble estimate of his own powers.
His Epitaphs &c. were reprinted in Alexander Chalmers’s English Poets (1810), and by J. P. Collier in 1867.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Turbet i Haidari

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​TURBET I HAIDARI, a district of the province of Khorasan in Persia, bounded N. by Meshed, E. by Bakharz, S. by Khaf and W. by Turshiz. It has a population of about 30,000, composed chiefly of members of the Turki Karai tribe and Beluchis. The Karais were settled here by Timur in the 14th century and now provide a battalion of infantry and 1 50 cavalrymen to the army. The district contains about 150 villages and hamlets, most of them situated in its more fertile eastern part, and pays a yearly revenue of £14,000. Much silk was formerly produced, now very little, but there are large crops of grain.
Turbet i Haidari, the capital of the district, is 76 m. nearly S. of Meshed, in 35° 17′ N., 59° 11′ E., at an elevation of 4100 ft. The town is picturesquely situated on the bank of a deep and wide ravine in the midst of lofty hills, and surrounded by clusters of villages. Its population amounts to 8000 souls. There is a well-stocked bazaar and a number of Russian traders have established themselves here since 1903, when the place was connected with Meshed on one side and with Seistan on the other side by a telegraph line which, nominally Persian, is worked and maintained by a Russian staff. A British consul has resided here since 1905, and there is also a post-office.
The place was formerly known as Zavah and derives its present name from the turbet or tomb of a holy man named Kutb ed din Haidar, the founder of the ascetic sect of dervishes known as the Haidaris. He died c. 1230 and is buried in a large domed building a short distance outside the town.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tunstall

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​TUNSTALL, a market town of Staffordshire, England, on the northern outskirts of the Potteries district, included in the parliamentary borough of Newcastle-under-Lyme, 4 m. N.W. from Stoke-upon-Trent by the North Staffordshire railway. Pop. of urban district (1901), 19,492. The town is of modern growth. The Victoria Institute (1889) includes a library and schools of art and science. The neighbourhood is full of collieries, ironworks and potteries. Kidsgrove, Chatterley and Talk-o'-th'-hill are large neighbouring villages; the mines at the last-named were the scene of a terrible explosion in 1866, by which nearly a hundred lives were lost. There are brick and tile works in Tunstall. The town is included in the large parish of Wolstanton, and in the borough of Stoke-on-Trent (q.v.) under the “ Potteries Federation ” scheme (1908).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tunny

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​TUNNY (Thunnus thynnus), one of the largest fishes of the family of mackerels, belongs to the genus of which the bonito (Th. pelamys) and the albacores (Th. albacora, Th. alalonga, &c.) are equally well-known members. From the latter the tunny is distinguished by its much shorter pectoral fins, which reach backwards only to, or nearly to, the end of the first dorsal fin. It possesses nine short inlets behind the dorsal, and eight behind the anal fin. Its colour is dark bluish above, and greyish, tinged and spotted with silvery, below. The tunny is a pelagic fish, but periodically approaches the shore, wandering in large shoals, within well-ascertained areas along the coast. It not infrequently appears in small companies or singly in the English Channel and in the German Ocean, probably in pursuit
Tunny.
of the shoals of pilchards and herrings on which it feeds. The regularity of its appearance on certain parts of the coasts of the Mediterranean has led to the establishment of a systematic fishery, which has been carried on from the time of the Phoenieians to the present day. Immense numbers of tunnies were caught on the Spanish coast and in the Sea of Marmora, where, however, this industry has much declined. The Sardinian tunnies were considered to be of superior excellence. The greatest number is now caught on the north coast of Sicily, the fisheries of this island supplying most of the preserved tunny which is exported to other parts of the world. In ancient times the fish were preserved in salt, and that coming from Sardinia, which was specially esteemed by the Romans, was known as ​Salsamentum sardicum. At present preference is given to tunny preserved in oil. Many of the fishes, especially the smaller ones, are consumed fresh. The tunny occurs also in the Pacific and is much sought for by anglers on the coast of southern California, where tuna-fishing has become a fashionable sport; but several other species seem to take its place in the Indo-Pacific ocean. It is one of the largest fishes, attaining to a length of ten ft. and to a weight of more than a thousand pounds.
In connexion with the extremely active life of these fishes allusion should be made to the fact, first ascertained in 1839 by John (brother of Sir Humphry) Davy, that the temperature of the blood of a tunny may be considerably higher than that of the surrounding water, a discovery which disposed of the time honoured division of vertebrate animals into warm-blooded and cold-blooded.
The variations and movements of the tunny and albacores were studied with special care by King Carlos of Portugal, who published in 1899 a large illustrated memoir entitled A Pesca do atom no Algarve in 1898 (Lisbon). This memoir is accompanied by excellent figures of the different species of Thunnus and charts of their distribution in the Atlantic.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tupper, Martin Farquhar

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​TUPPER, MARTIN FARQUHAR (1810–1889), English writer, the author of Proverbial Philosophy, was born in London on the 17th of July 1810. He was the son of Martin Tupper, a doctor, who came of an old Huguenot family. He was educated at Charterhouse and at Christ Church, Oxford, where he gained a prize for a theological essay, Gladstone being second to him. He was called to the bar at Lincoln’s Inn, but never practised. He began a long career of authorship in 1832 with Sacra Poesis, and in 1838 he published Geraldine, and other Poems, and for fifty years was fertile in producing both verse and prose; but his name is indissolubly connected with his long series of didactic moralisings in blank verse, the Proverbial Philosophy (1838–1867), which for about twenty-five years enjoyed an extraordinary popularity that has ever since been the cause of persistent satire. The first part was, however, a comparative failure, and N. P. Willis, the American author, took it to be a forgotten work of the 17th century. The commonplace character of Tupper’s reflections is indubitable, and his blank verse is only prose cut up into suitable lengths; but the Proverbial Philosophy was full of a perfectly genuine moral and religious feeling, and contained many apt and striking expressions. By these qualities it appealed to a large and uncritical section of the public. A genial, warm-hearted man, Tupper’s humane instincts prompted him to espouse many reforming movements; he was an early supporter of the Volunteer movement, and did much to promote good relations with America. He was also a mechanical inventor in a small way. In 1886 he published My Life as an Author; and on the 29th of November 1889 he died at Albury, Surrey.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tunnel Vault

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​TUNNEL VAULT, the term in architecture given to the semicircular or elliptical vault over underground passages, in contradistinction to the wagon or barrel vault of edifices above ground.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tupis

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​TUPIS (Comrades), a tribe and stock of South American Indians of Brazil. They call all other peoples Tapuyas (foreigners) . Their original home is believed to have been on the Amazon, and from its mouth they spread far southwards along the Brazilian coast. When hard pressed by the Portuguese they retreated to the Andes. Martius gives the Tupi nation a wide range, from the Atlantic to the Andes, and from Paraguay to the Amazon. Of this stock are the Omaguas, Cocomas and other Peruvian tribes. Latham makes the Tupis members of the Guarani stock. The " Lingoa Geral " or trade language between Portuguese and Amazon Indians is a corruption of the Tupi tongue.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tunstall, Cuthbert

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​TUNSTALL (or Tonstall), CUTHBERT (1474–1559), English prelate, was an illegitimate son of Thomas Tunstall of Thurland Castle, Lancashire, his legitimate half-brother, Brian Tunstall, being killed at Flodden in 1513. Cuthbert seems to have studied at Oxford, at Cambridge and at Padua, and he became a distinguished scholar, winning favourable comment from Erasmus. Having held several livings in quick succession, he became chancellor to William Warham, archbishop of Canterbury, In 1511, and he was soon employed on diplomatic business by Henry VIII. and Wolsey, being sent to Brussels in 1515 and to Cologne in 1519, while he was at Worms during the famous Diet of, 1521. In 1516 he had been made master of the rolls; in 1521 he became dean of Salisbury, in 1522 bishop of London, and in 1523 keeper of the privy seal. For Henry VIII. he negotiated with Charles V. after his victory at Pavia in 1525 and he helped to arrange the Peace of Cambrai in 1529. In 1530 he succeeded Wolsey as bishop of Durham. Tunstall's religious views now gave some anxiety. He adhered firmly to the traditional teaching of the Church, but after some slight hesitation he accepted Henry as its head and publicly defended this position. In 1537 the bishop was appointed president of the new council of the north, but although he was often engaged in treating with the Scots he found time to take part in other public business and to attend parliament, where in 1539 he participated in the discussion on the bill of six articles. Although he disliked the religious policy pursued by the advisers of Edward VI. and voted against the first act of uniformity in 1549, he continued to discharge his public duties without molestation until after the fall of the protector Somerset; then in May 1551, he was placed in custody. A bill charging him with treason was introduced, but the House of Commons refused to pass it; he was, however, deprived of his bishopric in October 1552. On the accession of Mary in 1553 he was released and was again bishop of Durham, but during this reign he showed no animus against the Protestants. When Elizabeth came to the throne he refused to take the oath of supremacy, and he would not help to consecrate Matthew Parker as archbishop of Canterbury. He was arrested, and was still a prisoner at Lambeth when he died on the 18th of November 1559-
Among Tunstall's writings are De veritate corporis et sanguinis domini nostri Jesu Christi in eucharistia (1554); and De arte suppulandi libri quattuor (1522). The bishop's correspondence as president of the council of the north is in the British Museum.