OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# The New Student's Reference Work/Pre-Raphaelitism

See also Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Pre-Raph′aelitism, a term used by Holman Hunt, J. E. Millais and W. M. Rossetti, three English painters of the 19th century, to denote their predilection for the great masters before the time of Raphael, who studied nature rather than technical rules and dogmas. The three representatives of the pre-Raphaelite school appeared in the exhibition-season of 1849, Millais with Lorenzo and Isabella, Hunt with Rienzi and Rossetti with The Girlhood of the Virgin, and excited the most flattering attention; but numerous critics and enemies arose, and in the third year of its existence the new school was threatened on all hands with the most powerful opposition. Happily, however, there appeared in the London Times three letters from Ruskin, denouncing the spirit of jealousy and injustice with which the young men had been assailed and pointing out the merits of their works and the great influence for good which the revival of their principles was likely to have. There followed later a succession of pictures from the three artists, whose titles have become as familiar as household-words. See Hunt, Millais and Rossetti.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Precious Stones

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​Pre′cious Stones. See Stones, Precious.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Prescott, Ariz.

See also Prescott, Arizona on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Pres′cott, Ariz., a city, county-seat of Yavapai County, on the Santa Fé, Prescott and Phoenix Railroad, formerly was the capital of Arizona. It now is an important mining-center. Cattle and timber are also produced in the district. Population 5,092.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Praxiteles

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​Praxiteles (prăx-ĭt′ḗ-lēz), one of the greatest sculptors of ancient Greece. Of his life little is known, except that he was a citizen of Athens in the 4th century B. C. His principal works, most of which have perished, were statues of Aphrodite, Eros, Dionysius, Apollo and Hermes carrying Dionysius. Feminine beauty and Bacchic pleasures were his favorite subjects, and in his treatment of these he displayed the greatest sweetness, grace and naturalness. He has been justly called the sculptor of the beautiful.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Statics

See also Statics on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Statics (stăt′ĭks), a branch of mechanics. In pure mechanics (or dynamics, as it is frequently called), the effects of forces upon bodies are considered. If the effect of forces upon a body is to change the rate of motion of the body, the forces acting are said not to be in equilibrium. Forces and effects of this kind are studied under the head of kinetics. In all other cases forces are said to be in equilibrium and are studied under the head of statics. If one hold a steel-spring in his hands and bend it, he recognizes that there are forces acting upon the spring by the fact that the shape of the spring is temporarily changed. These forces do not produce any motion in the spring; they are in equilibrium. It is this group of forces which is considered under the head of statics. For another illustration allow a locomotive to stand at rest on a steel bridge. The bridge sags slightly as the locomotive takes up its position. But the upward force with which the bridge tends to regain its original shape is exactly equal and opposite to the weight of the locomotive. These stresses produced by the locomotive and the strains which result from them illustrate the kind of problems studied under the title of statics.
Statics may, therefore, be defined as the science of the equilibrium of forces. It is very important in this connection for the student to distinguish carefully between a body which is at rest and one which is in equilibrium. A pendulum bob at the end of its swing is in rest; but it is not in equilibrium, for at that very instant it is being set in motion by its weight. The two general conditions of equilibrium for any body are that the sum of all the forces acting upon the body shall be zero and that the sum of all the moments of force acting upon the body shall be zero.
The application of these general principles to the cases of simple machines, as the lever, inclined plane etc., is the portion of statics ordinarily studied in physics; while the application of these principles to various structures, as bridges, roofs etc., is the part of statics which is pursued by engineers. The conditions under which fluids remain in equilibrium form the science of hydrostatics.
Stevinns (1548-1603) showed that a force can be completely represented by a straight line. Upon this simple fact a branch of mathematics called graphical statics has been recently founded, and has furnished many elegant geometrical solutions of engineering problems. For an unusually interesting history of statics see Mach's Science of Mechanics. Minchin's Treatise on Statics (Clarendon Press) contains an extraordinarily clear presentation of the entire subject.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Ste. Cunegonde

See also Sainte-Cunégonde, Quebec (not in Wikipedia yet) on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Ste. Cunegonde, a substantial suburb of Montreal and also in Hochelaga County, has 10,912 inhabitants. It lies southwest of the city.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Staunton, Va.

See also Staunton, Virginia on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Staunton (sta̤n′tŭn), Va., a city, the seat of Augusta County, on the Chesapeake and Ohio and Baltimore and Ohio railways, over 110 miles northwest of Richmond. It has waterworks and an electric-light plant, both of which the city operates, substantial public buildings, the city-hall, court-house, churches and schools, a Masonic Temple and a military academy etc. It is the seat of the Western State Hospital for the Insane, the Virginia School for the Deaf and the Blind, Virginia Female ​Institute and Cary Baldwin Seminary. The city manufactures (besides agricultural implements and machine-shop products) organs, overalls and wagons; it also has a flour-mill and a planing-mill. Population 10,604.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Steal Away

See also Steal Away on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Steal Away, American Negro Song, published in Jubilee Singers of Fisk University by G. D. Pike. S. Coleridge Taylor has also made a transcription of the melody in his Twenty-four Negro Melodies, transcribed for the Piano.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Steam

See also Steam on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Steam is the vapor of water. Water gives off vapor without being heated, but this process is usually called evaporation, and the word "steam" is limited to the vapor which arises from boiling water. Steam is lighter than air, and occupies much more space than water; a cubic inch of water will make nearly a cubic foot of steam. Water boils at 212° F. and makes steam, which has the same temperature as the water, but really contains more heat, so that the steam from a boiling teakettle will burn more severely than the boiling water. This extra heat is called latent heat, because it does not affect the thermometer. The boiling temperature of 212° F. is practically constant in vessels which have a free outlet for the steam; but in closed vessels, like boilers, the boiling-point may be raised, and much pressure is produced at the same time. The pressure increases faster than the temperature; for instance, the pressure at the boiling-point is one atmosphere, but it becomes two atmospheres at 249°, four at 301° and twenty at 444°. When the engineer opens a valve to let off steam, the rushing noise it makes shows its power. Steam is used to produce motion, as in the locomotive and other machines; in heating houses; and in other operations where heat is required.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Steam-Shovel and Dredge

See also Steam shovel on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Steam-Shovel and Dredge, a machine, worked with crane and steam-power attached, mounted on wheels for running on rails, and used for excavating clay, sand, gravel or other soil in railroad or other cuttings; also used for river-dredging, the deepening of canals etc. by a suction-process. The steam-shovel in use for heavy work has a boom, usually made of strong steel-girders, with a powerful thrusting-engine for giving ample scooping-force to the shovel, the latter generally being provided with heavy, pointed teeth for excavating loose rock. The bottom of the shovel or bucket is hinged, so that, when filled and raised, its contents are released by pulling a latch-cord and dumping the load into cart, car or other vehicle for removal. The thrusting of the shovel, as well as the hoisting and dumping, is the work of the attached engine, working along the movable crane. With a 2½ or 3 cubic-yards' shovel about 2,400 cubic yards of sand and 600 of loose rock can be excavated in ten hours. For dredging river-bottoms and delivering the mud or other material on shore, machines with belt-conveyors are used, different in pattern and varying in capacity and rapidity in work. Some varieties deliver to the shore or to a scow alongside by gravity, by means of an extensible sheet-iron trough or sipper-shovel of large dimensions.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Steam-Turbine

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​Steam-Turbine. See Turbine.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Steam-Whistle

See also Steam whistle on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Steam-Whis′tle, a mechanism attached to the steam-boiler in a railway-locomotive, marine engine etc., through which the escaping steam, issuing from a narrow annular orifice in a hemispherical cup, strikes the thin edge of a bell on top and produces a loud, more or less prolonged whistle, which serves as signal or warning.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Stead, William Thomas

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​Stead, William Thomas, an English journalist, was born on July 5, 1849, at Embleton, Northumberland. At 14 he became merchant's apprentice and at 22 editor of The Northern Echo, Darlington. In 1880 he became associate-editor of the Pall Mall Gazette and in 1883 the editor. In 1890 he founded The Review of Reviews, one year later The American Review of Reviews and in 1893 The Australian Review of Reviews. In 1895 he began the publication of the Masterpiece Library of Penny Poets, Novels and Prose Classics. His interests have been social and broadly democratic. For one of his publications against existing social evils, The Maiden Tribute of Modern Babylon, he was put in jail for three months. His efforts in the interest of international peace have been untiring. His more important publications are The Truth About the Navy, Truth about Russia, The Pope and the New See, The Story that Transformed the World, If Christ came to Chicago, The Labor War in the United States, Satan's Invisible World, A Study of Despairing Democracy, The United States of Europe, Mr. Carnegie's Conundrum, The Conference at the Hague, The Americanization of the World, The Last Will and Testament of Cecil John Rhodes. He died in the wreck of the Titanic, April 14, 1912.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Steamboat

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​Steamboat. See Steamship.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Wilson, Woodrow

Edition of 1905. See also Woodrow Wilson on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
WILSON, Woodrow (1856—). An American educator and historian, born at Staunton, Va. He graduated at Princeton in 1879, then studied law at the University of Virginia, and for two years, in 1882-83, practiced in Atlanta, Ga. In 1883-85 he studied jurisprudence, history, and political science at the newly opened Johns Hopkins University, from which in 1885 he received the degree of Ph.D., presenting as his thesis a study of Congressional Government (1885), which won for him a reputation as a scholar and a clear and original thinker — a reputation that was enhanced by his subsequent works. He was an associate professor of history at Bryn Mawr in 1885-86, and associate professor of history and political science there in 1886-88; filled a similar chair at Wesleyan University in 1888-90, and in 1890 became professor of jurisprudence and politics at Princeton, where he became exceedingly popular among the students and was remarkably successful as a teacher. Upon the resignation of President Patton in June, 1902, Wilson was elected president of Princeton University by the unanimous vote of the trustees, and on October 25th he was formally inaugurated. His election was regarded as particularly significant from the fact of his being the first layman to be chosen president of the university. In addition to Congressional Government and magazine articles and published addresses, his writings include: The State: Elements of Historical and Practical Politics (1889), a standard work on the subject; An Old Master, and Other Political Essays (1893); Division and Reunion, 1829-1889 (1893), in the “Epochs of American History Series;” Mere Literature, and Other Essays (1893); George Washington (1896); and A History of the American People (5 vols., 1902), his most important work, and in some respects the best compendious account yet published of American political history.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Winifred, Saint

Edition of 1905. See also Winefride on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
WINIFRED, win'i-frĕd, Saint. A British maiden of noble family, who lived in the seventh
century. According to the legend which in later times grew up round her history. Prince Caradog Ap Alan cut off her head because she would not accept his addresses. Her head, so the legend says, rolled down the hill and into Saint Bueno's Church, where immediately a spring appeared. The head was replaced by Saint Bueno, after which she lived fifteen years. This spring, called Holywell, is one of the most famous in England. The flow of water has never ceased. The spring was leased in 1870 to the corporation of Holywell by the Duke of Westminster for a thousand years at a sovereign a year. See Holywell.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Winkelmann, Eduard

Edition of 1905. See also Eduard Winkelmann on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
WINKELMANN, vĭṉ'kel-män, Eduard (1838-96). A German historian, born in Danzig and educated at Berlin and Göttingen. He became head master of the knight and chapter school at Reval in 1860, and in 1865 was appointed professor at the University of Dorpat. He was called to the chair of history at Bern in 1869, and in 1873 to Heidelberg. He published Geschichte Kaiser Friedrichs II. und seiner Reiche 1212-1235 (1863); Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte (1872); Bibliotheca Livoniæ Historica (1870 and 1878); Philipp von Schwaben und Otto IV. von Braunschweig (1873); Geschichte der Angelsachsen (1883); Urkundenbuch der Universität Heidelberg (1886); and Kaiser Friedrich II. (1889-97).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Wirnt von Grafenberg

Edition of 1905. See also Wirnt von Grafenberg on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​WIRNT VON GRAFENBERG, vē̇rnt fō̇n grä′fen-bĕrK A Middle High German poet of the thirteenth century. He was a Bavarian nobleman who between 1202 and 1205 wrote an epic, entitled Wigalois, which describes the adventures of Gawain's son, the name being a corruption of Guinglain le Galois. Wirnt took his material from the French romance Le bel inconnu of Renaud de Beaujeu, and used it with great freedom. Though extravagant and didactic, the poem is one of the best romances of the Arthurian cycle written in Germany, apart from the work of Wolfram von Eschenbach and Hartmann von Aue. A prose version was made toward the close of the fifteenth century and printed at Augsburg in 1493. Wigalois was edited by F. Pfeiffer (Leipzig, 1847). Consult F. Saran, Beiträge zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache und Litteratur, vol. xxi. (Halle, 1896).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Wisby

Edition of 1905. See also Visby on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​WIS′BY or VISBY. The capital of the Swedish island and län of Gotland, on the western coast of the island, about 44 miles from the mainland of Sweden (Map: Sweden, H 8). The town is imposingly situated amid gardens on and at the foot of a rugged cliff. It has greatly declined, as is attested by the half-vacant area inclosed within the interesting mediæval walls with their thirty-eight ancient towers. The many houses dating back to the period from the thirteenth to the seventeenth century give the place a quaint appearance. Of the many churches, only one, the Cathedral of Saint Mary, at the foot of the cliff, now remains in service. It was erected by the Germans and was completed in 1225. The interesting ruined Church of Saint Nicholas, partly Romanesque and partly Gothic, has two beautiful rose windows, supposed to have contained the two carbuncles which, tradition says, now lie at the bottom of the sea with the bones of Valdemar. The charming Gothic Saint Catharine Church dates from about 1230. Near the southeast corner of the walls is a monolithic cross marking the sepulchre of the defenders of the city in 1361. The Gotland Museum, rich in antiquities, the high school with a museum, the chemical station, and the library are the principal public buildings. The little modern harbor, south of the old Hanseatic harbor, which has disappeared, has two basins to accommodate the present traffic. Population, in 1900, 8376.
The history of Wisby is that of Gotland (q.v.). The town was probably a place of human sacrifice and a trading place of some importance in pagan times. In the Middle Ages, when it was a member of the Hansa, it was a great distributing centre for the commerce between the Orient and the Baltic countries. A famous maritime code bore its name. Valdemar IV. of Denmark practically destroyed the town in 1361, and it never regained its supremacy.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Winkelmann, Hermann

Edition of 1905. See also Hermann Winkelmann on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
WINKELMANN, Hermann (1845—). A German dramatic tenor, born in Brunswick. He adopted the profession of a singer after he had reached manhood. He made his début at Sondershausen, and then went to Darmstadt and Hamburg. He became identified with the Wagnerian drama in 1882, when he took the part of Parsifal at Bayreuth, with such success that he was engaged for the Imperial Opera at Vienna. Here he sang in Wagner's operas, with Madame Friedrich-Materna and Herr Scaria. The famous trio made a tour of the United States in 1884.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Winsor, Justin

Edition of 1905. See also Justin Winsor on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
WINSOR, wĭn'zẽr, Justin (1831-97). An American historian and librarian, born in Boston, Mass. He was educated at Harvard College and continued his studies in Paris and Heidelberg. From 1868 to 1877 he was superintendent of the Boston Public Library, and from 1877 till his death librarian of Harvard University. His historical work was chiefly of a bibliographical and cartographical kind. The first book was a History of the Town of Duxbury (1849). This was followed by several valuable bibliographies, as that of the literature of the battle of Bunker Hill (1876), of the original quartos and folios of Shakespeare (1875), of the earlier editions of Shakespeare's poems (1879). etc. His more original work comprised The Readers' Handbook of the American Revolution (1880); Christopher Columbus (1891), a very iconoclastic book; From Cartier to Frontenac: A Study of Geographical History in the Interior of North America in Its Historical Relations, 1534-1700 (1894); and the Exploration of the Mississippi Basin (1895). He was also editor of a Memorial History of Boston (1880-81), and a Narrative and Critical History of America (1884-89) — a most scholarly performance and his most useful work, no small part of its value being due to his own bibliographical and cartographical contributions.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Wirt, William

Edition of 1905. See also William Wirt (Attorney General) on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​WIRT, wẽrt, William (1772-1834). An American lawyer, statesman, and author, born at Bladensburg, Md. He obtained a grammar school education, served as a tutor, studied law, and, moving to Virginia, practiced his profession and held office. In 1803 he printed his Letters of a British Spy, containing sketches of popular speakers, which were Addisonian in style and highly popular. A second series of essays, entitled The Rainbow, appeared later in the Richmond Enquirer, but was not so successful. The Old Bachelor (1812), first published in the same paper by Wirt and some of his friends, was more popular, but as an author Wirt achieved more fame by his readable though not very accurate Life of Patrick Henry (1817). Meanwhile he had settled in Richmond in 1806 and gained a high reputation by his speech in prosecution of Aaron Burr. He supported Jefferson in politics, and became a member of the Virginia Legislature (1807-08), and United States District Attorney (1816) and Attorney-General of the United States during the administrations of Monroe and J. Q. Adams (1817-29). On retiring he settled in Baltimore, and in 1832 accepted the Anti-Masonic nomination for the Presidency. He was an able and amiable man, a good speaker, an effective though somewhat florid writer, and a lawyer and statesman of tried integrity and success. Consult the Memoir by J. P. Kennedy (Philadelphia, 1849); also “English Culture in Virginia,” by W. P. Trent, in Johns Hopkins University Studies.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Wisbech

Edition of 1905. See also Wisbech on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​WISBECH, wĭs′bēch or wĭz′-, or WISBEACH. A river-port in the Isle of Ely, Cambridgeshire, England, on the Nene, 12 miles above its mouth in the Wash (North Sea), and 40 miles north of Cambridge (Map: England, G 4). One of the principal buildings is the restored Church of Saint Peter and Saint Paul. Vessels of upward of 500 tons can reach the town. There are manufactures of rope. Wisbech is mentioned in 664; became noted for its extensive fisheries; in 1190 it received privileges from Richard I., and in 1549 was incorporated bv Edward VI. Population, in 1901, 9831.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Wisby, Laws of

Edition of 1905. See also Laws of Wisbuy on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​WISBY, Laws of. A collection of mercantile customs and regulations, dating from the last years of the thirteenth century and taking its name from the celebrated trading town in Gotland, Sweden. The laws of Wisby were in force throughout the Baltic Sea and were made the basis of the ordinances of the Hanseatic League. They were an important factor in the development of the modern system of maritime law. Scandinavian legists claim for the Wisby code an antiquity antedating that of the celebrated laws of Oleron, but the evidence is greatly against so early an origin.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Piero di Cosimo

Edition of 1905. See also Piero di Cosimo on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​PIERO DI COSIMO, dē̇ kō̇′sē̇-mō̇ (1462-1521). An Italian painter of the Florentine school. He was born in Florence and was a pupil of Cosimo Rosselli, from whom he derived his name and whom he assisted in painting the frescoes in the Sistine Chapel. Afterwards the influence of Leonardo da Vinci becomes apparent in his works, of which “Perseus Delivering Andromeda” (Uffizi, Florence), “Holy Family” (Dresden), “Venus with Cupid and Mars” (Berlin), “Coronation of the Virgin” (Louvre), and “Death of Procris” (National Gallery, London) are the most remarkable. A special feature of his pictures is the fine landscape backgrounds. He was the first master of Andrea del Sarto. For his biography, consult Knapp (Halle, 1899).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Piero della Francesca

Edition of 1905. See also the disclaimer.
​PIERO DELLA FRANCESCA, pyā′rō̇ dĕl′lȧ frȧn-chĕs′kȧ. An Italian painter. See Francesca, Piero della.