OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Lucas Pacioli

From volume 11 of the work.
(Paciuolo.)
Mathematician, born at Borgo San Sepolco, Tuscany, toward the middle of the fifteenth century; died probably soon after 1509. Little is known concerning his life. He became a Franciscan friar and was successively professor of mathematics at Perugia, Rome, Naples, Pisa, and Venice. With Leonardo da Vinci, he was in Milan at the court of Louis the Moor, until the invasion of the French. The last years of his life were spent in Florence and Venice. His scientific writings, though poor in style, were the basis for the works of the sixteenth-century mathematicians, including Cardan and Tartaglia. In his first work, "Summa de Arithmetica, Geometria, Proportioni, et Proportionalita", Venice, 1494, he drew freely upon the writings of Leonardo da Pisa (Fibonacci) on the theory of numbers. Indeed he has thus preserved fragments of some of the lost works of that mathematician. The application of algebra to geometry, and the treatment, for the theory of probability also help to make this treatise noteworthy. The "Divina Proportioni" (Venice, 1509), was written with some co-operation on the part of Leonardo da Vinci. It is of interest chiefly for some theorems on the inscription of polyhedrons in polyhedrons and for the use of letters to indicate numerical quantities. His edition of Euclid was published in 1509 in Venice.
Paul H. Linehan.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Luca di Simone della Robbia

From volume 13 of the work.
Sculptor, b. at Florence, 1400; d. 1481. He is believed to have studied design with a goldsmith, and then to have worked in marble and bronze under Ghiberti. He was early invited to execute sculptures for the Cathedral of S. Maria del Fiore and the Campanile. The latter_representing Philosophy, Arithmetic, Grammar, Orpheus, and Tubalcain (1437)—are still somewhat Gothic in character. For the organ-gallery of the cathedral he made the famous panels of the Cantorie, groups of boys singing and playing upon musical instruments (1431-8), now in the Museo del Duomo. For the north sacristy he made a bronze door; figures of angels bearing candles and a fine glazed earthenware relief of Christ rising from the tomb over the entrance are also his execution. Above the entrance to the southern sacristy he made the Ascension almost entirely in his new ware. The medium was not unknown, but by dint of experimenting he brought his material to great perfection. He colours are brilliant, fresh, and beautiful in quality, the blue especially being quite inimitable. The stanniferous glaze, or enamel, contained various minerals and was Luca's own secret; in the firing, it became exceedingly hard, durable, and bright. Luca's design is generally an architectural setting with a very few figures, or half figures, and rich borders of fruits and flowers. He excels in simplicity and loveliness of composition. His madonnas have great charm, dignity, and grace. In the earlier productions colour is used only for the background, for the stems and leaves of lilies, and the eyes; an occasional touch of gold is added in coronal or lettering. Later, Luca used colour more freely. The Della Robbia earthenwares are so fresh and beautiful and so decorative that even in Luca's time there were immediately in great request. They are seen at their best in Florence. A few of the principal ones are: the crucifix at S. Miniato and the ceiling of the chapel in which it is found; the medallions of the vault (centre, the Holy Ghost; corners, the Virtues) in the chapel of Cardinal Jacopo of Portugal, also at S. Miniato; the decorations of the Pazzi chapel at Sta. Croce; the armorial bearings of the Arti at Or San Michele; the Madonna of the Apple, and a number of equally fine reliefs. Of his works outside Florence may be mentioned: the Madonna at Urbino; the tabernacle at Impruneta, the vault angels of S. Giobbe, Venice (sometimes said to be by the school only); medallions of Justice and Temperance, Museum of Cluny, Paris; arms of Réné d'Anjou, London, South Kensington Museum, and other works in Naples, Sicily, and elsewhere. The admirable and much disputed group of the Visitation at S. Giovanni Fuorcivitas, Pistoia, is attributed both to Luca and Andrea.
BARBET DE JOUY, Les Della Robbia (Paris, 1855); MÜNTZ, Hist. de ;'Art pendant la Renaissance (Paris, 1895); REYMOND, Les Della Robbia (Florence, 1897); CRUTWELL, Luca and Andrea Della Robbia (London, 1902).
M. L. Handley.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Lucas Alaman

From volume 1 of the work.
​Alaman, Lucas, a Mexican statesman and historian of great merit, b. at Guanajuato in Mexico, of Spanish parents, 18 October, 1792; d. in the city of Mexico, 2 June, 1853. He received his early education in the city of Mexico, went to Spain and France in 1814, and returned to America in 1815. He made a second voyage between 1815 and 1823; in 1824 he became Secretary of State of the Mexican Republic. Alaman was a moderate Republican, and, therefore, violently persecuted by the extremistic factions in 1834, and compelled to hide for a full year. After 1836 he dedicated himself to literary and historical work until 1851, when Santa Ana recalled him to the post of Secretary of State. His two monumental works are: "Disertaciones sobre la Historia de la Republica mexicana" (Mexico, 1844), and "Historia de México, desde los primeros movimientos que prepararon su independencia en el año de 1808, hasta la época presente" (Ibid., 1849). With the exception of the (now antiquated) conceptions of the primitive condition of the Mexican Indians, these works are of standard value.
Diccionario universal de historia y de geografía (Mexico, 1853), I, Introduction, An obituary of Alaman; Memorias de la academia mexicana (Mexico, 1878), I, 4; Montes de Oca, Oración fúnebre en las honras de D. Juan Ruiz de Obregon.
Ad F. Bandelier.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Luca Giordano

From volume 6 of the work.
Neapolitan painter; b. at Naples, 1632; d. in the same place, 12 Jan., 1705. He was esteemed the marvel of his age for the rapidity with which he covered with frescoes vast ceilings, domes and walls in Italy and Spain, and was known as Luca "Fa Presto" (make haste), as the demand for his work was so great that his father was continually urging him to greater dispatch, until at length he was able to work with extraordinary speed. He was undoubtedly the chief of the Machinisti, as the popular quick-painting decorators of Italy came to be called, and perhaps no other painter has left so many picture. He was a pupil of Ribera, and then of Pietro da Cortona, and a constant copyist of the works of Raphael. Some of his earliest paintings were for the churches of Naples, but in 1679 he was invited to Florence, and in 1692 to Madrid, where he painted the immense ceiling and stairecase of the Escorial, and an enormous number of Spain to Naples, and there he spent the last three years of his life. There are sixty of his pictures in Madrid, and about half that number in Naples, while the valleries of Dresden, Munich, Paris, Vienna, Rome, works. He executed several etchings, and is believed to have also worked in pastel.
GEORGE CHARLES WILLIAMSON
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Luca Marenzio

From volume 9 of the work.
Musical composer, born in 1550 at Coccaglia, near Brescia; died at Rome 1599. His chief legacy to the musical world are his books of madrigals. His first collection was published in 1581 and was dedicated to Alphonse d'Este, the duke of Ferrara. Many of his 159 Madrigals and Motets have been translated into modern notation by Proske. A number of madrigals were published in 1588 in "Musica Trans-Alpina"; this collection became immediately popular. A "Mass" in eight parts is well known, and is worthy to be classed with the "Masses" of more illustrious church musicians. In a collection called "Villanelle e Arie alla Napolitana" he has left 113 exquisite madrigals and motets for three and four voices. The most notable of his compositions may be found printed in modern notation by Proske in "Musica Divina", II (Ratisbon, 1853).
ROSSI, Elogi Historici di Bresciani illustri (Brescia, 1620); PEACHAM, The Compleat Gentleman (London, 1622).
William Finn.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Loyola University (New Orleans)

Loyola University, New Orleans, Louisiana, is (1912) the only Catholic university in what is popularly designated "The Old South". From a small college of arts and sciences founded by the Jesuit Fathers in 1904 it has grown into an institution with plans under way to organize all the departments of a modern university. The cornerstone of Marquette Hall, the main building of the university group, was laid, 13 November, 1910, by Archbishop Blenk, assisted by fourteen members of the American hierarchy. On the same day ground was broken for the Louise C. Thomas Hall by the Apostolic delegate, Monsignor Falconio. The building dedicated to Father Marquette will always bear witness to the generous cooperation of the clergy and laity of the Archdiocese of New Orleans, who, on the invitation and under the leadership of the Rev. Albert Biever, S.J., president of Loyola College, formed an association on 17 February, 1906, known as "The Marquette Association for Higher Education", which made it its aim to arouse interest in Catholic education while soliciting the financial aid necessary for the upbuilding of a well-equipped Catholic University. The Louise C. Thomas Hall has its name from the devoted lady who subscribed $50,000 towards its erection. The beauty and nobility of her gift is expressed in the stately architecture, which combines artistic qualities with usefulness. Both structures, connected by a graceful arcade or cloister, are in the Tudor Gothic style and stand on the beautiful site which fronts St. Charles Avenue, where that handsome driveway passes Audobon Park.
P.A. RYAN
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Bēpāri

​Bēpāri.—Bēpāri is, in the Madras Census Report, described as "a caste allied to the Lambādis. Its members worship a female deity called Banjāra, speak the Bēpāri or Lambādi language, and claim to be Kshatriyas." Bhonjo, the title of the Rājāh of Gumsūr, was returned as a sub-caste. The Rev. G. Gloyer *correctly makes the name Boipari synonymous with Brinjāri, and his illustration of a Boipari family represents typical Lambādis or Brinjāris. Bēpāri and Boipari are forms of Vyapāri or Vēpāri, meaning a trader. The Bēpāris are traders and carriers between the hills and plains in the Vizagapatam Agency tracts. Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao informs me that "they regard themselves as immune from the attacks of tigers, if they take certain precautions. Most of them have to pass through places infested with these beasts, and their favourite method of keeping them off is as follows. As soon as they encamp at a place, they level a square bit of ground, and light fires in the middle of it, round which they pass the night. It is their firm belief that the tiger will not enter the square, from fear lest it should become blind,and eventually be shot. I was once travelling towards Malkangiri from Jeypore, when I fell in with a party of these people encamped in the manner described. At that time, several villages about Malkangiri were being ravaged by a notorious man-eater (tiger)."
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Bāvāji

​Bāvāji.— The Bāvājis are Bairāgi or Gosāyi beggars,who travel about the country. They are known by various names, e.g., Bairāgi, Sādu, etc.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Bēsyā

​Bēsyā (a prostitute). — Recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as a sub-caste of Oriya Gūnis. It is a form of the word Vēsya.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Bēlata

​Bēlata (Feronia elephantum: wood-apple). — An exogamous sept of Kuruba.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Bēlu

​Bēlu (Feronia elephantum).—An exogamous sept of Kuruba.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Bēgara

​Bēgara — Bēgara or Byāgara is said to be a synonym applied by Canarese Lingāyats to Holeyas.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Bēhara

​Bēhara.— Recorded, at times of census, as a title of various Oriya castes, e.g., Alia, Aruva, Dhōbi, Gaudo, Jaggali, Kevuto, Kurumo, Ronguni, and Sondi. In some cases, e.g., among the Rongunis, the title is practically an exogamous sept. The headman of many Oriya castes is called Bēhara.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Sugamanchi Balija

​Sugamanchi Balija.— A name said to mean the best of Balijas, and used as a synonym for Gāzula Balija.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Sugāli

​Sugāli.——Sugāli and Sukāli are synonyms of Lambādi.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Sudarmān

​Sudarmān.— See Udaiyān.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Subuddhi

​Subuddhi.— A title, meaning one having good sense, among several Oriya castes.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Suddho

​Suddho.— Two distinct castes go by this name, viz.,the Savaras who have settled in the plains, and a small class of agriculturists and paiks (servants) in the low country of Ganjam. The Suddhos who live in the hills eat fowls and drink liquor, which those in the plains abstain from. The caste name Suddho means pure, and is said to have its origin in the fact that Suddho paiks used to tie the turbans of the kings of Gumsūr. Like other Oriya castes, the Suddhos have Podhāno, Bissōyi, Bēhara, etc., as titles. The caste has apparently come into existence in recent times.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Sukka

​Sukka (star). — An exogamous sept of Yerukala. The equivalent Sūkra occurs as a gōtra of Oriya Kālinjis.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Sullokondia

​Sullokondia. — The highest sub-division of the Gaudos, from whose hands Oriya Brāhmans will accept water.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Sudugādusiddha

​Sudugādusiddha. — The name is derived from sudugādu, a burning-ground. In the Mysore Census Report, 1901, they are described as being "mendicants like the Jōgis, like whom they itinerate. They were once lords of burning-grounds, to whom the Kulavādi (see Holeya), who takes the cloth of the deceased and a fee for every dead body burned, paid something as acknowledging their overlordship." These people are described by Mr. J. S. F. Mackenzie,* under the name Sudgudu Siddha, or lords of the burning-ground, as agents who originally belonged to the Gangadikāra Vakkaliga caste, and have become a separate caste, called after their head Sudgudu Siddharu. They intermarry among themselves, and the office of agent is hereditary. They have particular tracts of country assigned to them, ​when on tour collecting burial fees. They can be recognised by the wooden bell in addition to the usual metal one, which they always carry about. Without this no one would acknowledge the agent's right to collect the fees.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Sthāvara

​Sthāvara.—Recorded, at times of census, as a sub-division of Jangam. The lingam, which Lingāyats carry on some part of the body, is called the jangama lingam or moveable lingam, to distinguish it from the sthāvara or fixed lingam of temples.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Chēppāt

​Chēppāt.__A sub-division of Mārān.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Chōgan

​Chōgan. — See Izhava.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Chēli

​Chēli (goat). — An exogamous sept of Bottada and Mattiya.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Chōliya Pattar

​Chōliya Pattar. — A name for Pattar Brāhmans in Malabar.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Chōutagāra

​Chōutagāra. — A corrupt form of Chaptēgāra.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Chāya

​Chāya (colour) Kurup. — A class of Kollans in Malabar, who work in lacquer.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Chēlu

​Chēlu (scorpion). — An exogamous sept of Kuruba. The equivalent thelu occurs among the Padma Sālēs.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Chōlapuram or Shōlavaram

​Chōlapuram or Shōlavaram. — A sub-division of Chetti.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Chēnu

​Chēnu (dry field). — An exogamous sept of Kamma.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Chērukāra

​Chērukāra.— Recorded, in the Travancore Census Report, 1901, as a sub-division of Nāyar.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Pityus

From volume 12 of the work.
A titular see in Pontus Polemoniacus, suffragan of Neocaesarea. Pityus was a large and wealthy Greek city on the northeast of the Black Sea (Artemidorus, in Strabo, XI, 496), which was destroyed before the time of Pliny (Hist. nat., VI, v, 16). Arrianus mentions its anchorage in "Periplus Ponti Euxini", 27. The city was rebuilt and fortified by the Romans, captured by the Scythians under Gallienus, and destroyed by the Byzantines to prevent Chosroes from entering it (Zosimus, I, 32; Procopius, "De bello gothico", IV, 4; "De aedificiis", IV, 7). In 535 it was "a fortress rather than a city" (Justinian, "Novella", 28). Stratophilus, Bishop of Pityus, assisted at the Council of Nicaea in 325; since then there is no mention of the see, which does not figure in any of the Greek "Notitiae episcopatuum" (Le Quien, "Oriens christ.", I, 519). It was towards Pityus that St. John Chrysostom (q.v.) was being led by the imperial soldiers, in execution of the decree of exile, when he died on the way (Theodoret, "Hist. eccl.", V, 34). Pityus was located at the end of the gulf, east of Cape Pitsunda, near the River Chypesta and the village of Abchasik, in the vilayet of Trebizond.
NORDMANN, Reise durch die westlichen Provinzen des Caucasus in Annalen der Erd- und Volkerkunde (Berlin, 1839), 257; SMITH, Dict. of Greek and Roman Geogr., s.v.
S. Pétridès.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Pius Bonifacius Gams

From volume 6 of the work.
An ecclesiastical historian, b. at Mittelbuch, Würtemberg, 23 January, 1816; d. Munich, 11 May, 1892. His classical studies made at Biberach and Rottweil (1826-1834), he studied philosophy and theology at Tubingen (1834-38), entered the seminary of Rottenburg in 1838, and was ordained priest on 11 September, 1839. He filled various posts as tutor, vicar, parish priest, professor until 1 May, 1847, when he was appointed chairs of philosophy and general history by the theological faculty of Hildesheim. Finally he entered the Abbey of St. Boniface at Munich, which belonged to the Bavarian congregation of the Order of St. Benedict, and pronounced the monastic vows, 5 October, 1856, adding the name of Pius to that of Boniface. Gams filled several monastic offices, being successively master of novices, sub-prior, and prior. He is best known for his "Kirchengeschichte von Spanien", 3 vols. (Ratisbon, 1862-1879), and his "Series episcoporum Ecelesiae catholiae quotquot innotuerunt a beato Petro apostolo" etc. (Ratisbon, 1873-86, with two supplements). The "Kirchengeschichte von Spanien" is a conscientiously and methodically written work, critical, also, to a certain extent, in dealing with the earliest period of Spanish ecclesiastical history, though the author rarely abandons the aid which unreliable sources seem to furnish. The "Series episcoporum" has rendered useful service and is yet very helpful. It is a collection of the episcopal lists of all ancient and modern sees known to the author. Gaps are frequent in the lists of ancient sees, especially those of the Eastern Church. It was, of course, impossible to draw up a critical list (names and dates) for such remote times and larger information must be sought in extensive documentary works, e g. "Italia Sacra" and the like; as a rule, however, the author has ignored a number of scattered dissertations which would have rectified, on a multitude of points, his uncertain chronology. In 1850 Gams founded with his colleagues Alzog, F. W. Koch, Mattes, and G.J. Muller a "Theologische Monatschrift" which lasted two years (1850-1851), and in which he published a number of essays.
Works
"Geschichte der Kirche Jesu Christi im neunzehnten Jahrhunderte mit besonderer Rucksicht auf Deutschland"; 3 vols. (Innsbruck, 1854-1858); "Johannes der Taufer im Gefangnisse" (Tabingen, 1853); "Die elfte Sacularfeier des Martyrertodes des heiligen Bonifacius", etc. (Mainz, 1855); "Die Kirchengeschichte von Spanien", 3 vols, in five parts (Ratisbon 1862-79); "Spanische Briefe" in "Historisch-politische Blatter", LVI, 134 sq., 208 sg, 311 sq., 418 sq., "Wetterleuchten auf der pyrenaischen Halbinsel", ibid, LVI, 67 sq; "Series episcoporum Ecclesiae catholicae quotquot innotuerunt a beato Petro apostolo" (Ratisbon, 1873) supp I: "Hierarchia catholica Pio IX Pontifice Romano" (Munich, 1879), Supp. II: "Series episcoporum quae apparuit 1873 completur et continuatur ab anno circa 1870 ad 20 Febr. 1885" (Ratisbon, 1886); "Das Jahre des Martyrtodes der Apostel Petrus und Paulus" (Ratisbon, 1867).
H. LECLERCQ
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Pius Melia

From volume 10 of the work.
Italian theologian, b. at Rome, 12 Jan., 1800; d. in London, June 1883. He entered the Society of Jesus on 14 Aug., 1815, taught literature at Reggio, and afterwards was engaged in preaching. He left the Society in 1853. He wrote two books: "Alcune ragioni del P. Pio Melia della C. di G." (Lucca, 1847), a defence of the Society of Jesus, and "Alcune affirmazioni del Sig. Antonio Rosmini-Serbati (Pisa, s. d.), an attack upon Rosmini (q. v.). In his "Life of Rosmini", Fr. Lockhart merely declares that the latter work was written by certain Italian Jesuits; Father de Backer, in his "Dictionnaire des Antonymes", attributed it to Passaglia, but his "Bibliothèque de la Compagnie de Jésus", re-edited by Sommervogel, follows Beorchia, who attributes it to Melia. Melia, who attacked especially Rosmini's doctrine on original sin, was answered by Rosmini (Milan, 1841) and Pagani (Milan, 1842); then began a bitter controversy which had to be ended by a direct command of Pius IX.
Sommervogel, Bibl. de la C. de J., V (Brussels and Paris, 1894); Lockhart, Life of Rosmini (London, 1886).
WM. M. TALLON
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Piscina

From volume 12 of the work.
(Lat. from piscis, a fish, fish-pond, pool or basin, called also sacrarium, thalassicon, or fenestella)
The name was used to denote a baptismal font or the cistern into which the water flowed from the head of the person baptized; or an excavation, some two or three feet deep and about one foot wide, covered with a stone slab, to receive the water from the washing of the priest's hands, the water used for washing the palls, purifiers, and corporals, the bread crumbs, cotton, etc. used after sacred unctions, and for the ashes of sacred things no longer fit for use. It was constructed near the altar, at the south wall of the sanctuary, in the sacristy, or some other suitable place. It is found also in the form of a small column or niche of stone or metal.
ROCK, Church of Our Fathers, IV (London, 1904), 194; BINTERIM, Denkwürdigkeiten, IV, 1, 112: Theol. prakt. Quartalschrift (1876), 33.
FRANCIS MERSHMAN.