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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kumaon

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​KUMAON, or Kumaun, an administrative division of British India, in the United Provinces, with headquarters at Naini Tal. It consists of a large Himalayan tract, together with two submontane strips called the Tarai and the Bhabhar; area 13,725 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 1,207,030, showing an increase of less than 2% in the decade. The submontane strips were up to 1850 an almost impenetrable forest, given up to wild animals; but since then the numerous clearings have attracted a large population from the hills, who cultivate the rich soil during the hot and cold seasons, returning to the hills in the rains. The rest of Kumaon is a maze of mountains, some of which are among the loftiest known. In a tract not more than 140 m. in length and 40 m. in breadth there are over thirty peaks rising to elevations exceeding 18,000 ft. (see Himalaya). The rivers rise chiefly in the southern slope of the Tibetan watershed north of the loftiest peaks, amongst which they make their way down valleys of rapid declivity and extraordinary depth. The principal are the Sarda (Kali), the Pindar and Kailganga, whose waters join the Alaknanda. The valuable timber of the yet uncleared forest tracts is now under official supervision. The chief trees are the chir, or three-leaved Himalayan pine, the cypress, fir, alder, sāl or iron-wood, and saindan. Limestone, sandstone, slate, gneiss and granite constitute the principal geological formations. Mines of iron, copper, gypsum, lead and asbestos exist; but they are not thoroughly worked. Except in the submontane strips and deep valleys the climate is mild. The rainfall of the outer Himalayan range, which is first struck by the monsoon, is double that of the central hills, in the average proportion of 80 in. to 40. No winter passes without snow on the higher ridges, and in some years it is universal throughout the mountain tract. Frosts, especially in the valleys, are often severe. Kumaon is occasionally visited by epidemic cholera. Leprosy is most prevalent in the east of the district. Goitre and cretinism afflict a small proportion of the inhabitants. The hill fevers at times exhibit the rapid and malignant features of plague.
In 1891 the division was composed of the three districts of Kumaon, Garhwal and the Tarai; but the two districts of Kumaon and the Tarai were subsequently redistributed and renamed after their headquarters, Naini Tal and Almora. Kumaon proper constituted an old Rajput principality, which became extinct at the beginning of the 19th century. The country was annexed after the Gurkha war of 1815, and was governed for seventy years on the non-regulation system by three most successful administrators—Mr Traill, Mr J. H. Batten and Sir Henry Ramsay.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kulm

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​KULM (Culm). (1) A town of Germany, in the province of West Prussia, 33 m. by rail N.W. of Thorn, on an elevation above the plain, and 1 m. E. of the Vistula. Pop. (1905), 11,665. It is surrounded by old walls, dating from the 13th century, and contains some interesting buildings, notably its churches, of which two are Roman Catholic and two Protestant, and its medieval town-hall. The cadet school, founded here in 1776 by Frederick the Great, was removed to Köslin in 1890. There are large oil mills, also iron foundries and machine shops, as well as an important trade in agricultural produce, including fruit and vegetables. Kulm gives name to the oldest bishopric in Prussia, although the bishop resides at Pelplin. It was presented about 1220 by Duke Conrad of Masovia to the bishop of Prussia. Frederick II. pledged it in 1226 to the Teutonic order, to whom it owes its early development. By the second peace of Thorn in 1466 it passed to Poland, and it was annexed to Prussia in 1772. It joined the Hanseatic League, and used to carry on very extensive manufactures of cloth.
(2) A village of Bohemia about 3 m. N.E. of Teplitz, at the foot of the Erzgebirge, celebrated as the scene of a battle in which the French were defeated by the Austrians, Prussians and Russians on the 29th and 30th of August 1813 (see Napoleonic Campaigns).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kulmbach

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​KULMBACH, or Culmbach, a town of Germany, in the Bavarian province of Upper Franconia, picturesquely situated on the Weisser Main, and the Munich-Bamberg-Hof railway, 11 m. N.W. from Bayreuth. Pop. (1900), 9428. It contains a Roman Catholic and three Protestant churches, a museum and several schools. The town has several linen manufactories and a large cotton spinnery, but is chiefly famed for its many extensive breweries, which mainly produce a black beer, not unlike English porter, which is largely exported. Connected with these are malting and bottling works. On a rocky eminence, 1300 ft. in height, to the south-east of the town stands the former fortress of Plassenburg, during the 14th and 15th centuries the residence of the margraves of Bayreuth, called also margraves of Brandenburg-Kulmbach. It was dismantled in 1807, and is now used as a prison. Kulmbach and Plassenburg belonged to the dukes of Meran, and then to the counts of Orlamunde, from whom they passed in the 14th century to the Hohenzollerns, burgraves of Nuremberg, and thus to the margraves of Bayreuth.
See F. Stein, Kulmbach und die Plassenburg in alter und neuer Zeit (Kulmbach, 1903); Huther, Kulmbach und Umgebung (Kulmbach, 1886); and C. Meyer, Quellen zur Geschichte der Stadt Kulmbach (Munich, 1895).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kuku Khoto

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​KUKU KHOTO (Chinese Kwei-hwa), a city of the Chinese province of Shan-si, situated to the north of the Great Wall, in 40° 50′ N. and 111° 45′ E., about 160 m. W. of Kalgan. It lies in the valley of a small river which joins the Hwang-ho 50 m. to the south. There are two distinct walled towns in Kuku Khoto, at an interval of a mile and a half; the one is the seat of the civil governor and is surrounded by the trading town, and the other is the seat of the military governor, and stands in the open country. In the first or old town more especially there are strong traces of western Asiatic influence; the houses are not in the Chinese style, being built all round with brick or stone and having flat roofs, while a large number of the people are still Mahommedans and, there is little doubt, descended from western settlers. The town at the same time is a great seat of Buddhism—the lamaseries containing, it is said, no less than 20,000 persons devoted to a religious life. As the southern terminus of the routes across the desert of Gobi from Ulyasutai and the Tian Shan, Kuku Khoto is a great mart for the exchange of flour, millet and manufactured goods for the raw products of Mongolia. A Catholic and a Protestant mission are maintained in the town. Lieut. Watts-Jones, R.E., was murdered at Kwei-hwa during the Boxer outbreak in 1900.
Early notices of Kuku Khoto will be found in Gerbillon (1688–1698, in Du Halde (vol. ii., Eng. ed.), and in Astley’s Collection (vol. iv.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kulp

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​KULP, a town of Russian Transcaucasia, in the government of Erivan, 60 m. W.S.W. from the town of Erivan and 2 m. S. of the Aras river. Pop. (1897), 3074. Close by is the Kulp salt mountain, about 1000 ft. high, consisting of beds of clay intermingled with thick deposits of rock salt, which has been worked from time immemorial. Regular galleries are cut in the transparent, horizontal salt layers, from which cubes of about 70 ℔ weight are extracted, to the amount of 27,500 tons every year.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kulu

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​KULU, a subdivision of Kangra district, Punjab, British India, which nominally includes the two Himalayan cantons or waziris of Lahul and Spiti. The tahsil of Kulu has an area of 1054 sq. m., of which only 60 sq. m. are cultivated; pop. (1901), 68,954. The Sainj, which joins the Beas at Largi, divides the tract into two portions, Kulu proper and Soraj. Kulu proper, north of the Sainj, together with inner Soraj, forms a great basin or depression in the midst of the Himalayan system, having the narrow gorge of the Beas at Largi as the only outlet for its waters. North and east the Bara Bangahal and mid-Himalayan ranges rise to a mean elevation of 18,000 ft., while southward the Jalori and Dhaoladhar ridges attain a height of 11,000 ft. The higher villages stand 9000 ft. above the sea; and even the cultivated tracts have probably an average elevation of 5000 ft. The houses consist of four-storeyed châlets in little groups, huddled closely together on the ledges or slopes of the valleys, picturesquely built with projecting eaves and carved wooden verandas. The Beas, which, with its tributaries, drains the entire basin, rises at the crest of the Rohtang pass, 13,326 ft. above the sea, and has an average fall of 125 ft. per mile. Its course presents a succession of magnificent scenery, including cataracts, gorges, precipitous cliffs, and mountains clad with forests of deodar, towering above the tiers of pine on the lower rocky ledges. It is crossed by several suspension bridges. Great mineral wealth exists, but the difficulty of transport and labour prevents its development. Hot springs occur at three localities, much resorted to as places of pilgrimage. The character of the hillmen resembles that of most other mountaineers in its mixture of simplicity, independence and superstition. Tibetan polyandry still prevails in Soraj, but has almost died out elsewhere. The temples are dedicated rather to local deities than to the greater gods of the Hindu pantheon. Kulu is an ancient Rajput principality, which was conquered by Ranjit Singh about 1812. Its hereditary ruler,
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kulmsee

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​KULMSEE, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of West Prussia, on a lake, 14 m. by rail N. of Thorn and at the junction of railways to Bromberg and Marienburg. Pop. (1900), 8987. It has a fine Roman Catholic cathedral, which was built in the 13th, and restored in the 15th century, and an Evangelical church. Until 1823 the town was the seat of the bishops of Kulm.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Müllner, Amandus Gottfried Adolf

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​MÜLLNER, AMANDUS GOTTFRIED ADOLF (1774–1829), German dramatic poet, nephew of Gottfried August Bürger, (q.v.), was born at Langendorf near Weissenfels on the 18th of October 1774. After studying law at Leipzig he established himself as advocate at Weissenfels and made his début as an author with the novel Incest, oder der Schutzgeist von Avignon (1799). He next wrote a few comedies for an amateur theatre in Weissenfels; these were followed by more pretentious pieces: Der angolische Kater (1809) and Der Blitz (1814, publ. 1818), after French models. With his tragedies, however, Der neun-und-zwanzigste Februar (1812), and especially Die Schuld (1813, publ. 1816), Müllner became the representative of the so-called Schicksalsdramatiker, and for several years “fate-tragedies” on the model of Die Schuld dominated the German stage. His later plays, König Yngurd (1817) and Die Albaneserin (1820), were less important. Notwithstanding his literary success, Müllner did not neglect his profession, and was given the title of Hofrat; he also edited various journals, and had a reputation as a vigorous if somewhat acrimonious critic He died at Weissenfels on the 11th of June 1829.
Müllner’s Vermischte Schriften appeared in 2 vols. (1824–1826); his Dramatische Werke in 8 vols. (1828; 2nd ed., 1832). In 1830 four supplementary volumes were published containing mainly criticism. See F. K. J. Schütz, Müllners Leben, Charakter und Geist (1830); Minor, Die Schicksalstragödie in ihren Hauptvertretern (1883), and the same author’s volume, “Das Schicksalsdrama” (1884), in Kürschner’s Deutsche Nationalliteratur, vol. 151.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Münster, Georg

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​MÜNSTER, GEORG, Count zu (1776–1844), German palaeontologist, was born on the 17th of February 1776. He formed a famous collection of fossils, which was ultimately secured by the Bavarian state, and formed the nucleus of the palaeontological museum at Munich. Count Münster assisted Goldfuss in his great work Petrefacta Germaniae. He died at Bayreuth on the 23rd of December 1844.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Münster, Sebastian

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​MÜNSTER, SEBASTIAN (1489–1552), German geographer, mathematician and Hebraist, was born at Ingelheim in the Palatinate. After studying at Heidelberg and Tübingen, he entered the Franciscan order, but abandoned it for Lutheranism about 1529. Shortly afterwards he was appointed court preacher at Heidelberg, where he also lectured in Hebrew and Old Testament exegesis. From 1536 he taught at Basel, where he published his Cosmographia universalis in 1544, and where he died of the plague on the 23rd of May 1552. A disciple of Elias Levita, he was the first German to edit the Hebrew Bible (2 vols., fol., Basel, 1534–1535); this edition was accompanied by a new Latin translation and a large number of annotations. He published more than one Hebrew grammar, and was the first to prepare a Grammatica chaldaica (Basel, 1527). His lexicographical labours included a Dictionarium chaldaicum (1527), and a Dictionarium trilingue, of Latin, Greek and Hebrew (1530). But his most important work was his Cosmographia, which also appeared in German as a Beschreibung aller Länder, the first detailed, scientific and popular description of the world in Münster’s native language, as well as a supreme effort of geographical study and literature in the Reformation period. In this Münster was assisted by more than one hundred and twenty collaborators.
The most valued edition of the Cosmographia or Beschreibung is that of 1550, especially prized for its portraits and its city and costume pictures. Besides the works mentioned above we may notice Münster’s Germaniae descriptio of 1530, his Novus orbis of 1532, his Mappa Europae of 1536, his Rhaetia of 1538, his editions of Solinus, Mela and Ptolemy in 1538–1540 and among non-geographical treatises his Horologiographia, 1531, on dialling (see Dial), his Organum uranicum of 1536 on the planetary motions, and his Rudimenta mathematica of 1551. His published maps numbered 142.
See V. Hantzsch, Sebastian Münster (1898). in vol. xviii. of the Publications of the Royal Society of Sciences of Saxony, Historical-Philological Section).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Münden

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​MÜNDEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hanover, picturesquely situated at the confluence of the Fulda and the Werra, 21 m. N.E. of Cassel by rail. Pop. (1905), 10,755. It is an ancient place, municipal rights having been granted to it in 1247. A few ruins of its former walls still survive. The large Lutheran church of St Blasius (14th–15th centuries) contains the sarcophagus of Duke Eric of Brunswick-Calenberg (d. 1540). The 13th-century Church of St Aegidius was injured in the siege of 1625–26 but was subsequently restored. There is a new Roman Catholic church (1895). The town hall (1619), and the ducal castle, built by Duke Eric II. about 1570, and rebuilt in 1898, are the principal secular buildings. In the latter is the municipal museum. There are various small industries and a trade in timber. Münden, often called “Hannoversch-Münden” (i.e. Hanoverian Münden), to distinguish it from Prussian Minden, was founded by the landgraves of Thuringia, and passed in 1247 to the house of Brunswick. It was for a time the residence of the dukes of Brunswick-Lüneburg. In 1626 it was destroyed by Tilly.
See Willigerod, Geschichte von Münden (Göttingen, 1808); and Henze, Führer durch Münden und Umgegend (Münden, 1900).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Münnich, Burkhard Christoph

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​MÜNNICH, BURKHARD CHRISTOPH, Count (1683–1767), Russian soldier and statesman, was born at Neuenhuntorf, in Oldenburg, in 1683, and at an early age entered the French service. Thence he transferred successively to the armies of Hesse-Darmstadt and of Saxony, and finally, with the rank of general-in-chief and the title of count, he joined the army of Peter II. of Russia. In 1732 he became field-marshal and president of the council of war. In this post he did good service in the re-organization of the Russian army, and founded the cadet corps which was destined to supply the future generations of officers. In 1734 he took Danzig, and with 1736 began the Turkish campaigns which made Münnich’s reputation as a soldier. Working along the shores of the Black Sea from the Crimea, he took Ochakov after a celebrated siege in 1737, and in 1739 won the battle of Stavutschina, and took Khotin (or Choczim), and established himself firmly in Moldavia. Marshal Münnich now began to take an active part in political affairs, the particular tone of which was given by his rivalry with Biron, or Bieren, duke of Courland. But his activity was brought to a close by the revolution of 1741; he was arrested on his way to the frontier, and condemned to death. Brought out for execution, and withdrawn from the scaffold, he was later sent to Siberia, where he remained for several years, until the accession of Peter III. brought about his release in 1762. Catherine II., who soon displaced Peter, employed the old field-marshal as director-general of the Baltic ports. He died in 1767. Feldmarschall Münnich was a fine soldier of the professional type, and many future commanders, notably Loudon and Lacy, served their apprenticeship at Ochakov and Khotin. As a statesman he is regarded as the founder of Russian Philhellenism. He had the grade of count of the Holy Roman Empire. The Russian 37th Dragoons bear his name.
He wrote an Ébauche pour donner une idée de la forme de l’empire de Russie (Leipzig, 1774), and his voluminous diaries have appeared in various publications—Herrmann, Beiträge zur Geschichte des russischen Reichs (Leipzig, 1843). See Hempel, Leben Münnichs (Bremen, 1742); Halem, Geschichte des F. M. Grafen Münnich (Oldenburg, 1803; 2nd ed., 1838); Kostomarov, Feldmarschall Münnich (Russische Geschichte in Biographien, v. 2).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Müller, William James

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​MÜLLER, WILLIAM JAMES (1812–1845), English landscape and figure painter, was born at Bristol on the 28th of June 1812, his father, a Prussian, being curator of the museum. He first studied painting under J. B. Pyne. His early subjects deal mainly with the scenery of Gloucestershire and Wales, and he learned much from his study of Claude, Ruysdael, and earlier landscape-painters. In 1833 he figured for the first time in the Royal Academy with his “Destruction of Old London Bridge—Morning,” and next year he made a tour through France, Switzerland and Italy. Four years later he visited Athens, extending his travels to Egypt, and in the sketches executed during this period and the paintings produced from them his power and individuality are apparent. Shortly after his return he left Bristol and settled in London, where he exhibited regularly. In 1840 he again visited France, where he executed a series of sketches of Renaissance architecture, twenty-five of which were lithographed and published in 1841, in a folio entitled The Age of Francis I. of France. In 1843 he accompanied, at his own request and his own charges, the government ​expedition to Lycia, where he made a number of masterly sketches. He died at Bristol on the 8th of September 1845.
The print room of the British Museum possesses, through the bequest of Mr John Henderson, a rich collection of Müller's sketches. A biography by N. Neal Solly was published in 1875.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Münch-Bellinghausen, Eligius Franz Joseph, Freiherr von

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​MÜNCH-BELLINGHAUSEN, ELIGIUS FRANZ JOSEPH, Freiherr von (1806–1871), Austrian poet and dramatist (who wrote under the pseudonym “Friedrich Halm”), was born at Cracow on the 2nd of April 1806, the son of a district judge. Educated at first at a private school in Vienna, he afterwards attended lectures at the university, and in 1826, at the early age of twenty, married and entered the government service. In 1840 he became Regierungsrat, in 1845 Hofrat and custodian of the royal library, in 1861 life member of the Austrian Herrenhaus (upper chamber), and from 1869 to 1871 was intendant of the two court theatres in Vienna. He died at Hütteldorf near Vienna on the 22nd of May 1871. Münch-Bellinghausen’s dramas, among them notably Griseldis (1835; publ. 1837; 11th ed., 1896), Der Adept (1836; publ. 1838), Camoens (1838), Der Sohn der Wildnis (1842; 10th ed., 1896), and Der Fechter von Ravenna (1854; publ. 1857; 6th ed., 1894), are distinguished by elegance of language, melodious versification and clever construction, and were for a time exceedingly popular.
His poems, Gedichte, were published in Stuttgart, 1850 (new ed., Vienna, 1877). His works, Sämtliche Werke, were published in eight volumes (1856–1864), to which four posthumous volumes were added in 1872. Ausgewählte Werke, ed. by A. Schlossar, 4 vols. (1904). See F. Pachler, Jugend und Lehrjahre des Dichters F. Halm (1877); J. Simiani, Gedenkblätter an F. Halm (1873). Halm’s correspondence with Enk von der Burg has been published by R. Schachinger (1890).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Müller, Lucian

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​MÜLLER, LUCIAN (1836–1898), German scholar, was born at Merseburg in Prussian Saxony on the 17th of March 1836. Having studied at Berlin and Halle, he resided for five years in Holland, where he collected the materials for his Geschichte der klassischen Philologie in den Niederlanden (1869). Unable to obtain a university appointment in Germany, he accepted (1870) the professorship of Latin at the Imperial Historico-Philological Institute in St Petersburg. There he died on the 24th of April 1898. Müller was a disciple of the methods of Bentley and Lachmann. His De re metrica poetarum latinorum (1861; 2nd ed., 1894) represents a landmark in the investigation of the metrical system of the Roman poets (the dramatists excepted), and his Metrik der Griechen und Römer (2nd ed., 1885) is an excellent treatise in a small compass (Eng. trans. by S. B. Platner, Boston, Mass., 1892).
His other chief publications were: C. Lucili saturarum reliquiae (1872), including the fragments of Accius and Sueius; Leben und Werke des Gaius Lucilius (1876; suppt. Luciliana, 1884); text of Horace (1869; 3rd ed., 1897); Quintus Horatius Flaccus, eine litterarhistorische Biographie (1880); Quintus Ennius (1884), an introduction to the study of Roman poetry; Q. Enni carminum reliquiae (1884); Livi Andronici et Cn. Naevi fabularum reliquiae (1885); Der saturnische Vers und seine Denkmäler (1885); Noni Marcelli compendiosa doctrina (1888); De Pacuvii fabulis (1889); De Accii fabulis disputatio (1890).