OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Davis, Andrew Jackson

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​DAVIS, ANDREW JACKSON (1826–1910), American spiritualist, was born at Blooming Grove, Orange county, New York, on the 11th of August 1826. He had little education, though probably much more than he and his friends pretended. In 1843 he heard lectures in Poughkeepsie on “animal magnetism,” as the phenomena of hypnotism was then termed, and found that he had remarkable clairvoyant powers; and in the following year he had, he said, spiritual messages telling him of his life work. For the next three years (1844–1847) he practised magnetic healing with much success; and in 1847 he published The Principles of Nature, Her Divine Revelations, and a Voice to ​Mankind, which in 1845 he had dictated while in a trance to his “scribe,” William Fishbough. He lectured with little success and returned to writing (or “dictating”) books, publishing about thirty in all, including The Great Harmonia (1850–1861), an “encyclopaedia” in six volumes; The Philosophy of Special Providences (1850), which with its evident rehash of old arguments against special providences and miracles would seem to show that Davis’s inspiration was literary; The Magic Staff: an Autobiography (1857), which was supplemented by Arabula: or the Divine Guest, Containing a New Collection of New Gospels (1867), the gospels being those “according to” St Confucius, St John (G. Whittier), St Gabriel (Derzhavin), St Octavius (Frothingham), St Gerrit (Smith), St Emma (Hardinge), St Ralph (W. Emerson), St Selden (J. Finney), St Theodore (Parker), &c.; and A Stellar Key to the Summer Land (1868) and Views of Our Heavenly Home (1878), each with illustrative diagrams. Davis was much influenced by Swedenborg and by the Shakers, who reprinted his panegyric of Ann Lee in an official Sketch of Shakers and Shakerism (1884).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Davies, John

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​DAVIES (Davisius), JOHN (1679–1732), English classical scholar and critic, was born in London on the 22nd of April 1679. He was educated at Charterhouse and Queens’ College, Cambridge, of which society he was elected fellow (July 7th, 1701). He subsequently became rector of Fen Ditton, prebendary of Ely, and president of his college. He died on the 7th of March 1731–1732, and was buried in the college chapel. Davies was considered one of the best commentators on Cicero, his attention being chiefly devoted to the philosophical works of that author. Amongst these he edited the Tusculanae disputationes (1709), De natura deorum (1718), De divinatione and De fato (1725), Academica (1725), De legibus (1727), De finibus (1728). His nearly finished notes on the De officiis he bequeathed to Dr Richard Mead, with a view to their publication. Mead, finding himself unable to carry out the undertaking, transferred the notes to Thomas Bentley (nephew of the famous Richard Bentley), by whose carelessness they were burnt. Davies’s editions, which were intended to supplement those of Graevius, show great learning and an extensive knowledge of the history and systems of philosophy, but he allows himself too much licence in the matter of emendation. He also edited Maximus of Tyre’s Dissertationes (1703); the works of Caesar (1706); the Octavius of Minucius Felix (1707); the Epitome divinarum institutionum of Lactantius (1718). Although on intimate terms with Richard Bentley, he found himself unable to agree with the great scholar in regard to his dispute with Trinity College.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Davies, Sir Louis Henry

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​DAVIES, SIR LOUIS HENRY (1845– ), Canadian politician and jurist, was born in Prince Edward Island in 1845, of Huguenot descent. From 1869 to 1879 he took part in local politics, and was premier from 1876–1879; in 1882 he entered the Canadian parliament as a Liberal, and from 1896 to 1901 was minister of marine and fisheries. In the latter year he became one of the judges of the supreme court of Canada. In 1877 he was counsel for Great Britain before the Anglo-American fisheries arbitration at Halifax; in 1897 he was a joint delegate to Washington with Sir Wilfrid Laurier on the Bering Sea seal question; and in 1898–1899 a member of the Anglo-American joint high commission at Quebec.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Davila, Enrico Caterino

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​DAVILA, ENRICO CATERINO (1576–1631), Italian historian, was descended from a Spanish noble family. His immediate ancestors had been constables of the kingdom of Cyprus for the Venetian republic since 1464. But in 1570 the island was taken by the Turks; and Antonio Davila, the father of the historian, had to leave it, despoiled of all he possessed. He travelled into Spain and France, and finally returned to Padua, and at Sacco on the 30th of October 1576 his youngest son, Enrico Caterino, was born. About 1583 Antonio took this son to France, where he became a page in the service of Catherine de’ Medici, wife of King Henry II. In due time he entered the military service, and fought through the civil wars until the peace in 1598. He then returned to Padua, where, and subsequently at Parma, he led a studious life until, when war broke out, he entered the service of the republic of Venice and served with distinction in the field. But during the whole of this active life, many details of which are very interesting as illustrative of the life and manners of the time, he never lost sight of a design which he had formed at a very early period, of writing the history of those civil wars in France in which he had borne a part, and during which he had had so many opportunities of closely observing the leading personages and events. This work was completed about 1630, and was offered in vain by the author to all the publishers in Venice. At last one Tommaso Baglíoni, who had no work for his presses, undertook to print the manuscript, on condition that he should be free to leave off if more promising work offered itself. The printing of the Istoria delle guerre civili di Francia was, however, completed, and the success and sale of the work were immediate and enormous. Over two hundred editions followed, of which perhaps the best is the one published in Paris in 1644. Davila was murdered, while on his way to take possession of the government of Cremona for Venice in July 1631, by a ruffian, with whom some dispute seems to have arisen concerning the furnishing of the relays of horses ordered for his use by the Venetian government.
The Istoria was translated into French by G. Baudouin (Paris, 1642); into Spanish by Varen de Soto (Madrid, 1651, and Antwerp, 1686); into English by W. Aylesbury (London, 1647), and by Charles Cotterel (London, 1666), and into Latin by Pietro Francesco Cornazzano (Rome, 1745). The best account of the life of Davila is that by Apostolo Zeno, prefixed to an edition of the history printed at Venice in 2 vols. in 1733. Peter Bayle is severe on certain historical inaccuracies of Davila, and it is true that Davila must be read with due remembrance of the fact that he was not only a Catholic but the especial protégé of Catherine de’ Medici, but it is not to be forgotten that Bayle was as strongly Protestant.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Miscegenation

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​MISCEGENATION (from Lat. miscere, to mix, and genus, race), a mixture or blending of two races, particularly of a white with a black or negro race.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Miscellany

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​MISCELLANY, a term applied to a single book containing articles, treatises or other writings dealing with a variety of different subjects. It is a common title in the literature of the 17th and 18th centuries. The word is an adaptation of Lat. miscellanea (from miscellaneus, mixed, miscere, to mix), used in this sense by Tertullian, Miscellanea Ptolemaei (Tert. adv. Val. 12); the ordinary use of the word in Latin was for a dish of broken meats, applied by Juvenal (xi. 20) to the coarse food of gladiators.
The Lat. miscellaneus has affected the form of a word which is now usually spelled “maslin,” applied to a mixture of various kinds of grain, especially rye and wheat. This, however, is really from the O. Fr. mesteillon; Late Lat. mistilio, formed from mistus, past participle of miscere, to mix, mingle.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mise

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​MISE, an Anglo-French term (from Fr. mettre, to place) signifying a settlement of accounts, disputes, &c., by agreement or arbitration. As an English legal term it was applied to the issue in a writ of right; and in history to the payment, in return for certain privileges, made by the county palatine of Chester to each new earl, and by the Welsh to each new lord of the Marches, or to a prince or king on his entry into the country. In its more general sense of agreement the term is familiar in English history in the “Mise of Amiens,” in January, and that of Lewes, in May of 1264, made between Henry III. and the barons.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Misenum

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​MISENUM, an ancient harbour town of Campania, Italy, about 3 m. S. of Baiae (q.v.) at the western extremity of the Gulf of Puteoli (Pozzuoli). Until the end of the Republic it was dependent on Cumae, and was a favourite villa resort. Agrippa made the fine natural harbour into the main naval station of the Mediterranean fleet, and founded a colony there probably in 31 B.C. The emperor Tiberius died in his villa here. Its importance lasted until the decline of the fleet in the 4th century A.D. It was at first an independent episcopal see: Gregory the Great united it with that of Cumae. In 890 it was destroyed by the Saracens. The name was derived from one of the companions of Ulysses, or from Aeneas' trumpeter, an account of whose burial is given in Virgil, Aeneid, vi. 232.
The harbour consisted of the outer basin, or Porto di Miseno, protected by moles, of which remains still exist, and the present Mare Morto, separated from it by a comparatively modern embankment. The town lay on the south side of the outer harbour, near the village of Miseno, where remains of a theatre and baths and the inscriptions relating to the town have been found. Remains of villas can also be traced, and to the largest of these, which occupied the summit of the promontory, and belonged first to Marius, then to Lucullus, and then to the imperial house, probably belongs the subterranean Grotta Dragonara. Roads ran north to Baiae and north-west past the modern Torre Gaveta to Cumae: along the line of both are numerous columbaria.
See J. Beloch, Campanien, ed. ii. (Breslau, 1890), 190 sqq. (T. As.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Miserere

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​MISERERE (the imperative of Lat. misereri, to have mercy or pity), the name of one of the penitential psalms (li.), from its opening words, Miserere mei, Deus. The word is frequently used in English as equivalent to “Misericord” (Lat. misericordia, pity, compassion) for various forms in which the rules of a monastic order or general discipline of the clergy might be relaxed; thus it is applied to a special chamber in a monastery for those members who were allowed special food, drink, &c., and to a small bracket on the under side of the seat in a stall of a church made to turn up and afford support to a person in a position between sitting and standing. “Misericord” and “miserere” are also used of a small dagger, the “dagger of mercy,” capable of passing between the joints of armour, with which the coup de grâce might be given to a wounded man.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Miser

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​MISER, a term originally meaning (as in Latin) miserable or wretched, but now used for an avaricious person who hoards up money and who spends the smallest possible sum on necessities.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mishawaka

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​MISHAWAKA, a city of St Joseph county, Indiana, U.S.A., on the St Joseph river of Michigan, about 80 m. E. by S. of Chicago. Pop. (1900), 5560 (821 foreign-born); (1910) 11,886. It is served by the Grand Trunk and the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern railways, and by inter-urban electric lines. It has an extensive trade in grain and other agricultural products. Two miles up the river is the Hen Island dam, which, with the Mishawaka hydraulic dam, nearer the city, is the source of much of the power used by the city’s manufactories. St Joseph Iron Works was laid out on the south side of the river, in 1833, and in 1835 was organized as a village and two additions were platted. In 1836 Indiana City was laid out on the north side of the river; ​and in 1839 St Joseph Iron Works, with its two additions, and Indiana City were incorporated as one town named Mishawaka—the name of an Indian village formerly occupying a part of the present site. Mishawaka was chartered as a city in 1899.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Miscarriage

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​MISCARRIAGE, in its widest sense a going astray, a failure. In law, the word is used in several phrases; thus, a miscarriage of justice is a failure of the law to attain its ends. In the Statute of Frauds (29 Car. II., c. 3) in the expression “debt, default or miscarriage of another,” the word has sometimes been interpreted as equivalent in meaning to default, but it is more usually considered to mean a species of wrongful act for the consequence of which the law makes a party civilly responsible. The term is also used (see Abortion) for the premature expulsion of the contents of the womb before the period of gestation is complete.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mischief

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​MISCHIEF, a term meaning originally calamity, trouble; now used particularly of annoying injuries or damage done in play or through petty spite. The word is derived through O. Fr. meschef, mod. méchef, from meschever, to do wrong, mes- amiss, and chever, bring to a head (chef, Lat. caput).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Jutes

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​JUTES, the third of the Teutonic nations which invaded Britain in the 5th century, called by Bede Iutae or Iuti (see Britain, Anglo-Saxon). They settled in Kent and the Isle of Wight together with the adjacent parts of Hampshire. In the latter case the national name is said to have survived until Bede’s own time, in the New Forest indeed apparently very much later. In Kent, however, it seems to have soon passed out of use, though there is good reason for believing that the inhabitants of that kingdom were of a different nationality from their neighbours (see Kent, Kingdom of). With regard to the origin of the Jutes, Bede only says that Angulus (Angel) lay between the territories of the Saxons and the Iutae—a statement which points to their identity with the Iuti or Jyder of later times, i.e. the inhabitants of Jutland. Some recent writers have preferred to identify the Jutes with a tribe called Eucii mentioned in a letter from Theodberht to Justinian (Mon. Germ. Hist., Epist. iii., p. 132 seq.) and settled apparently in the neighbourhood of the Franks. But these people may themselves have come from Jutland.
See Bede, Hist. Eccles, i. 15, iv. 16.
    (H. M. C.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Justin I.

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​JUSTIN I. (450–527), East Roman emperor (518–527), was born in 450 as a peasant in Asia, but enlisting under Leo I. he rose to be commander of the imperial guards of Anastasius. On the latter’s death in 518 Justin used for his own election to the throne money that he had received for the support of another candidate. Being ignorant even of the rudiments of letters, Justin entrusted the administration of state to his wise and faithful quaestor Proclus and to his nephew Justinian, though his own experience dictated several improvements in military affairs. An orthodox churchman himself, he effected in 519 a reconciliation of the Eastern and Western Churches, after a schism of thirty-five years (see Hormisdas). In 522 he entered upon a desultory war with Persia, in which he co-operated with the Arabs. In 522 also Justin ceded to Theodoric, the Gothic king of Italy, the right of naming the consuls. On the 1st of April 527 Justin, enfeebled by an incurable wound, yielded to the request of the senate and assumed Justinian at his colleague; on the 1st of August he died. Justin bestowed much care on the repairing of public buildings throughout his empire, and contributed large sums to repair the damage caused by a destructive earthquake at Antioch.
See E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (ed. Bury, 1896), iv. 206–209.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Justification

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​JUSTIFICATION, in law, the showing by a defendant in a suit of sufficient reason why he did what he was called upon to answer, ​For example, in an action for assault and battery, the defendant may prove in justification that the prosecutor assaulted or beat him first, and that he acted merely in self-defence. The word is employed particularly in actions for defamation, and has in this connexion a somewhat special meaning. When a libel consists of a specific charge a plea of justification is a plea that the words are true in substance and in fact (see Libel and Slander).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Justin II.

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​JUSTIN II. (d. 578), East Roman emperor (565–578), was the nephew and successor of Justinian I. He availed himself of his influence as master of the palace, and as husband of Sophia, the niece of the late empress Theodora, to secure a peaceful election. The first few days of his reign—when he paid his uncle’s debts, administered justice in person, and proclaimed universal religious toleration—gave bright promise, but in the face of the lawless aristocracy and defiant governors of provinces he effected few subsequent reforms. The most important event of his reign was the invasion of Italy by the Lombards (q.v.), who, entering in 568, under Alboin, in a few years made themselves masters of nearly the entire country. Justin’s attention was distracted from Italy towards the N. and E. frontiers. After refusing to pay the Avars tribute, he fought several unsuccessful campaigns against them. In 572 his overtures to the Turks led to a war with Persia. After two disastrous campaigns, in which his enemies overran Syria, Justin bought a precarious peace by payment of a yearly tribute. The temporary fits of insanity into which he fell warned him to name a colleague. Passing over his own relatives, he raised, on the advice of Sophia, the general Tiberius (q.v.) to be Caesar in December 574 and withdrew for his remaining years into retirement.
See E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (ed. Bury, 1896), v. 2–17; G. Finlay, History of Greece (ed. 1877), i. 291–297; J. Bury, The Later Roman Empire (1889), ii. 67–79. (M. O. B. C.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Justin

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​JUSTIN (Junianus Justinus), Roman historian, probably lived during the age of the Antonines. Of his personal history nothing is known. He is the author of Historiarum Philippicarum libri XLIV., a work described by himself in his preface as a collection of the most important and interesting passages from the voluminous Historiae philippicae et totius mundi origines et terrae situs, written in the time of Augustus by Pompeius Trogus (q.v.). The work of Trogus is lost; but the prologi or arguments of the text are preserved by Pliny and other writers. Although the main theme of Trogus was the rise and history of the Macedonian monarchy, Justin yet permitted himself considerable freedom of digression, and thus produced a capricious anthology instead of a regular epitome of the work. As it stands, however, the history contains much valuable information. The style, though far from perfect, is clear and occasionally elegant. The book was much used in the middle ages, when the author was sometimes confounded with Justin Martyr.
Ed. princeps (1470); J. G. Graevius (1668); J. F. Gronovius (1719); C. H. Frotscher (1827–1830); J. Jeep (1859); F. Rühl (1886, with prologues); see also J. F. Fischer, De elocutione Justini (1868); F. Rühl, Die Verbreitung des J. im Mittelalter (1871); O. Eichert, Wörterbuch zu J. (1881); Köhler and Rühl in Neue Jahrbücher für Philologie, xci., ci., cxxxiii. There are translations in the chief European languages; in English by A. Goldyng (1564); R. Codrington (1682); Brown-Dykes (1712); G. Turnbull (1746); J. Clarke (1790); J. S. Watson (1853).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Justinian II.

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​JUSTINIAN II., Rhinotmetus (669–711), East Roman emperor 685–695 and 704–711, succeeded his father Constantine IV., at the age of sixteen. His reign was unhappy both at home and abroad. After a successful invasion he made a truce with the Arabs, which admitted them to the joint possession of Armenia, Iberia and Cyprus, while by removing 12,000 Christian Maronites from their native Lebanon, he gave the Arabs a command over Asia Minor of which they took advantage in 692 by conquering all Armenia. In 688 Justinian decisively defeated the Bulgarians. Meanwhile the bitter dissensions caused in the Church by the emperor, his bloody persecution of the Manichaeans, and the rapacity with which, through his creatures Stephanus and Theodatus, he extorted the means of gratifying his sumptuous tastes and his mania for erecting costly buildings, drove his subjects into rebellion. In 695 they rose under Leontius, and, after cutting off the emperor’s nose (whence his surname), banished him to Cherson in the Crimea. Leontius, after a reign of three years, was in turn dethroned and imprisoned by Tiberius Absimarus, who next assumed the purple. Justinian meanwhile had escaped from Cherson and married Theodora, sister of Busirus, khan of the Khazars. Compelled, however, by the intrigues of Tiberius, to quit his new home, he fled to Terbelis, king of the Bulgarians. With an army of 15,000 horsemen Justinian suddenly pounced upon Constantinople, slew his rivals Leontius and Tiberius, with thousands of their partisans, and once more ascended the throne in 704. His second reign was marked by an unsuccessful war against Terbelis, by Arab victories in Asia Minor, by devastating expeditions sent against his own cities of Ravenna and Cherson, where he inflicted horrible punishment upon the disaffected nobles and refugees, and by the same cruel rapacity towards his subjects. Conspiracies again broke out: Bardanes, surnamed Philippicus, assumed the purple, and Justinian, the last of the house of Heraclius, was assassinated in Asia Minor, December 711.
See E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (ed. Bury, 1896), v. 179–183; J. B. Bury, The Later Roman Empire (1889), ii. 320–330, 358–367.