OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Avenzoar

See also Ibn Zuhr on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​AVENZOAR, or Abumeron [Abū Merwān ʽAbdal-Malik ibn Zuhr], Arabian physician, who flourished at the beginning of the 12th century, was born at Seville, where he exercised his profession with great reputation. His ancestors had been celebrated as physicians for several generations, and his son was afterwards held by the Arabians to be even more eminent in his profession than Avenzoar himself. He was a contemporary of Averroes, who, according to Leo Africanus, heard his lectures, and learned physic of him. He belonged, in many respects, to the Dogmatists or Rational School, rather than to the Empirics. He was a great admirer of Galen; and in his writings he protests emphatically against quackery and the superstitious remedies of the astrologers. He shows no inconsiderable knowledge of anatomy in his remarkable description of inflammation and abscess of the mediastinum in his own person, and its diagnosis from common pleuritis as well as from abscess and dropsy of the pericardium. In cases of obstruction or of palsy of the gullet, his three modes of treatment are ingenious. He proposes to support the strength by placing the patient in a tepid bath of nutritious liquids, that might enter by cutaneous imbibition, but does not recommend this. He speaks more favourably of the introduction of food into the stomach by a silver tube; and he strongly recommends the use of nutritive enemata. From his writings it would appear that the offices of physician, surgeon and apothecary were already considered as distinct professions. He wrote a book entitled The Method of Preparing Medicines and Diet, which was translated into Hebrew in the year 1280, and thence into Latin by Paravicius, whose version, first printed at Venice, 1490, has passed through several editions.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Avenarius, Richard Heinrich Ludwig

See also Richard Avenarius on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​AVENARIUS, RICHARD HEINRICH LUDWIG (1843–1896), German philosopher, was born in Paris on the 19th of November 1843. His education, begun in Zürich and Berlin, was completed at the university of Leipzig, where he graduated in 1876. In 1877 he became professor of philosophy in Zürich, where he died on the 18th of August 1896. At Leipzig he was one of the founders of the Akademisch-philosophische Verein, and was the first editor of the Vierteljahrsschrift für wissenschaftliche Philosophie. In 1868 he published an essay on the Pantheism of Spinoza. His chief works are Philosophie als Denken der Welt gemäss dem Princip des kleinsten Kraftmasses (1876) and the Kritik der reinen Erfahrung (1888–1890). In these works he made an attempt to co-ordinate thought and action. Like Mach, he started from the principle of economy of thinking, and in the Kritik endeavoured to explain pure experience in relation to knowledge and environment. He discovers that statements dependent upon environment constitute pure experience. This philosophy, called Empirio-criticism, is not, however, a realistic but an idealistic dualism, nor can it be called materialism.
See Wundt, Philos. Stud. xiii. (1897); Carstanjen and Willy in Zeitsch. f. wiss. Philos. xx. (1896), 361 ff.; xx. 57 ff.; xxii. 53 ff.; J. Petzoldt’s Einführung in d. Philos. d. reinen Erfahrung (1900).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Avenger of Blood

See also Goel and Revenge on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​AVENGER OF BLOOD, the person, usually the nearest kinsman of the murdered man, whose duty it was to avenge his death by killing the murderer. In primitive societies, before the evolution of settled government, or the uprise of a systematized criminal law, crimes of violence were regarded as injuries of a personal character to be punished by the sufferer or his kinsfolk. This right of vengeance was common to most countries, and in many was the subject of strict regulations and limitations. It was prevented from running into excesses by the law of sanctuary (q.v.) and in many lands the institution of blood-money, and the wergild offered the wrong-doer a mode of escaping from his enemies’ revenge. The Mosaic law recognized the right of vengeance, but not the money-compensation. The Koran, on the contrary, while sanctioning the vengeance, also permits pecuniary commutation for murder.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Avengers

See also Vendicatori on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​AVENGERS, or Vendicatori, a secret society formed about 1186 in Sicily to avenge popular wrongs. The society was finally suppressed by King William II., the Norman, who hanged the grand master and branded the members with hot irons.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Aventurine

See also Aventurine on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​AVENTURINE, or Avanturine, a variety of quartz containing spangles of mica or scales of iron-oxide, which confer brilliancy on the stone. It is found chiefly in the Ural Mountains, and is cut for ornamental purposes at Ekaterinburg. Some of the Siberian aventurine, like that of the vase given by Nicholas I. to Sir R. Murchison, in 1843, is a micaceous iron-stained quartz, of but little beauty. Most aventurine is of reddish brown or yellow colour, but a green variety, containing scales of fuchsite or chrome-mica, is also known. This green aventurine, highly valued by the Chinese, is said to occur in the Bellary district in India.
Aventurine felspar, known also as Sun-stone (q.v.) is found principally at Tvedestrand in south Norway, and is a variety of oligoclase enclosing micaceous scales of haematite. Other kinds of felspar, even orthoclase, may however also show the aventurine appearance. Both plagioclastic and orthoclastic aventurine occur at several localities in the United States.
The mineral aventurine takes its name from the well-known aventurine-glass of Venice. This is a reddish brown glass with gold-like spangles, more brilliant than most of the natural stone. The story runs that this kind of glass was originally made accidentally at Murano by a workman, who let some copper filings fall into the molten “metal,” whence the product was called avventurino. From the Murano glass the name passed to the mineral, which displayed a rather similar appearance. (F. W. R.*)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Avenue

See also Avenue (landscape) and Street or road name on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​AVENUE (the past participle feminine of Fr. avenir, to come to), a way of approach; more particularly, the chief entrance-road to a country house, with rows of trees on each side; the trees themselves are said to form the avenue. In modern times the word has been much used as a name for streets in towns, whether with or without trees, such as Fifth Avenue in New York, or Shaftesbury Avenue in London.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Michigan City

* related portals: Indiana.
* sister projects: Wikipedia article, travel guide, Wikidata item.
See also Michigan City, Indiana on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​MICHIGAN CITY, a city of Laporte county, Indiana, U.S.A., on the S.E. shore of lake Michigan, about 40 m. E. by S. of Chicago. Pop. (1890) 10,776; (1900), 14,850, of whom 3662 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 19,027. Michigan City is served by the Chicago, Indianapolis & Louisville, the Lake Erie & Western, the Michigan Central and the Père Marquette railways, by interurban electric lines, and by several lines of lake steamships. The city contains a United States Life Saving Station and the Indiana State Prison, and is the seat of a Protestant Episcopal bishop. Its transportation ​advantages make it one of the principal commercial cities in the state. Its shipments of lumber are of special importance, and it has also a large transshipment trade in salt and iron ore. The total factory product in 1905 was valued at $6,314,226. The municipality owns and operates its water-works system. Michigan City was first settled about 1830, was incorporated as a village in 1837, and was first chartered as a city in 1867.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Michell, John

See also John Michell on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​MICHELL, JOHN (1724–1793), English natural philosopher and geologist, was born in 1724, and educated at Queens College, Cambridge. His name appears fourth in the Tripos list for 1748–1749; and in 1755 he was moderator in that examination. He became M.A. in 1752, and B.D. in 1761. He was a fellow of his college, and was appointed Woodwardian professor of geology in 1762, and in 1767 rector of Thornhill in Yorkshire, where he died on the 29th of April 1793. He was ​elected a fellow of the Royal Society in the same year as Henry Cavendish (1760). In 1750 he published at Cambridge a work of some eighty pages entitled A Treatise of Artificial Magnets, in which is shown an easy and expeditious method of making them superior to the best natural ones. Besides the description of the method of magnetization which still bears his name, this work contains a variety of accurate magnetic observations, and is distinguished by a lucid exposition of the nature of magnetic induction. He was the original inventor of the torsion balance, which afterwards became so famous in the hands of its second inventor Coulomb. Michell described it in his proposal of a method for obtaining the mean density of the earth. He did not live to put his method into practice; but this was done by Henry Cavendish, who made, by means of Michell’s apparatus, the celebrated determination that now goes by the name of Cavendish’s experiment (Phil. Trans., 1708). His most important geological essay was that entitled Conjectures concerning the Cause and Observations upon the Phaenomena of Earthquakes (Phil. Trans., li. 1760), which showed a remarkable knowledge of the strata in various parts of England and abroad.
Michell’s other contributions to science are: “Observations on the Comet of January 1760 at Cambridge, Phil. Trans. (1760); “A Recommendation of Hadley’s Quadrant for Surveying,” ibid. (1765); “Proposal of a Method for measuring Degrees of Longitude upon Parallels of the Equator,” ibid. (1766); “An Inquiry into the Probable Parallax and Magnitude of the Fixed Stars,” ibid. (1767); “On the Twinkling of the Fixed Stars,” ibid. (1767), “On the Means of Discovering the Distance, Magnitude, &c., of the Fixed stars,” ibid. (1784).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Michelozzo di Bartolommeo

See also Michelozzo on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​MICHELOZZO DI BARTOLOMMEO (1391–1472?), Italian sculptor, was a Florentine by birth, the son of a tailor, and in early life a pupil of Donatello. He worked in marble, bronze and silver. The statue of the young St John over the door of the Duomo at Florence, opposite the Baptistery, is by him; and he also made the beautiful silver statuette of the Baptist on the altar-frontal of San Giovanni. Michelozzo’s great friend and patron was Cosimo dei Medici, whom he accompanied to Venice in 1433 during his short exile. While at Venice, Michelozzo built the library of San Giorgio Maggiore, and designed other buildings there. In 1428, together with Donatello, he erected an open-air pulpit at an angle of the cathedral of St Stephen at Prato. The magnificent Palazzo dei Medici at Florence built by Cosimo, was designed by him; it is one of the noblest specimens of Italian 15th-century architecture, in which the great taste and skill of the architect has combined the delicate lightness of the earlier Italian Gothic with the massive stateliness of the classical style. With great engineering skill Michelozzo shored up, and partly rebuilt, the Palazzo Vecchio, then in a ruinous condition, and added to it many important rooms and staircases. When, in 1437, through Cosimo’s liberality, the monastery of San Marco at Florence was handed over to the Dominicans of Fiesole, Michelozzo was employed to rebuild the domestic part and remodel the church. For Cosimo I. he designed numerous other buildings, mostly of great beauty and importance. Among these were a guest-house at Jerusalem for the use of Florentine pilgrims, Cosimo’s summer villa at Careggi, and the strongly fortified palace of Cafagiuolo in Mugello. For Giovanni dei Medici, Cosimo’s son, he built a very large and magnificent palace at Fiesole. In spite of Vasari’s statement that he died at the age of sixty-eight, he appears to have lived till 1472. He is buried in the monastery of San Marco, Florence. Though skilled both as a sculptor and engineer, his fame chiefly rests on his architectural works, which claim for him a position of very high honour even among the greatest names of the great 15th-century Florentines.
See Hans Stegmann, Michelozzo di Bartolommeo, eine kunstgeschichtliche Studie (1888); Fritz Wolff, Michelozzo di Bartolommeo (1900); cf. also Hans Semper, Donatello (1887).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Michmash

See also Michmash on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​MICHMASH, a place in Benjamin, about 9 Roman miles north of Jerusalem (Onom, ed. Lag., p. 280), the scene of one of the most striking episodes in Old Testament history (1 Sam. xiv.). Though it did not rank as a city (not being mentioned in Joshua xviii. 21 seq.), Michmash was recolonized after the exile (Neh. xi. 31), and, favoured by the possession of excellent wheat-land (Mishna, Men. viii. 1), was still a very large village (Μαχμάς) in the time of Eusebius. The modern Mukhmas is quite a small place.
The historical interest of Michmash is connected with the strategical importance of the position, commanding the north side of the Pass of Michmash, which made it the headquarters of the Philistines and the centre of their forays in their attempt to quell the first rising under Saul, as it was also at a later date the headquarters of Jonathan the Hasmonaean (1 Macc. ix. 73). From Jerusalem to Mount Ephraim there are two main routes. The present caravan road keeps the high ground to the west near the watershed, and avoids the Pass of Michmash altogether. But another route, the importance of which in antiquity may be judged of from Isa. x. 28 sqq., led southwards from Ai over an undulating plateau to Michmash. Thus far the road is easy, but at Michmash it descends into a very steep and rough valley, which has to be crossed before reascending to Geba. At the bottom of the valley is the Pass of Michmash, a noble gorge with precipitous craggy sides. On the north the crag is crowned by a sort of plateau sloping backwards into a round-topped hill. This little plateau, about a mile east of the present village of Mukhmas, seems to have been the post of the Philistines, lying close to the centre of the insurrection, yet possessing unusually good communication with their establishments on Mount Ephraim by way of Ai and Bethel, and at the same time commanding the routes leading down to the Jordan from Ai and from Michmash itself.
See further C. R. Conder, Tentwork ii. 112 seq.; and T. K. Cheyne in Encyc. Bib., s.v. (R. A. S. M.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Michelet, Karl Ludwig

See also Karl Ludwig Michelet on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​MICHELET, KARL LUDWIG (1801–1893), German philosopher, was born on the 4th of December 1801, at Berlin, where he died on the 16th of December 1893. He studied at the gymnasium and at the university of his native town, took his degree as doctor of philosophy in 1824, and became professor in 1829, a post which he retained till his death. Educated in the doctrine of Hegel, he remained faithful to his early teaching and spent his life in defending and continuing the Hegelian tradition. His first notable work was the System der philosophischen Moral (Berlin, 1828), an examination of the ethical theory of responsibility. In 1836 he published, in Paris, a treatise on the Metaphysics of Aristotle, written in French and crowned by the Académie des Sciences Morales et Politiques. He wrote also two other treatises on Aristotle. Nikomachische Ethik (2nd ed., 1848) and Die Ethik des Aristoteles in ihrem Verhältniss zum System der Moral (1827). His own views are best expressed in his Vorlesungen über die Persönlichkeit Gottes (1841) and Die Epiphanie der ewigen Persönlichkeit des Gottes. The philosophical theology developed in these works has been described as a “Neo-Christian Spiritualism.”
Among his other publications may be mentioned Geschichte der letzten Systeme der Philos. in Deutschland von Kant bis Hegel (1837–1838); Anthropologie und Psychologie (1840); Esquisse de logique (Paris, 1856); Naturrecht oder Rechtsphilosophie (1866); Hegel der unwiderlegte Weltphilosoph (1870), Wahrheit aus meinem Leben (1886). From 1832 to 1842, Michelet was engaged in publishing the complete works of Hegel, and in 1845 he founded the Berlin Philosophical Society, which has continuously represented the Hegelianism of Germany. He was the first editor of Der Gedanke (1860), the official organ of the society.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Bartolus

See also Bartolus de Saxoferrato on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​BARTOLUS (1314–1357), Italian jurist, professor of the civil law at the university of Perugia, and the most famous master of the dialectical school of jurists, was born in 1314, at Sassoferrato, in the duchy of Urbino, and hence is generally styled Bartolus de Saxoferrato. His father was Franciscus Severi, and his mother was of the family of the Alfani. He studied the civil law first of all under Cinus at Perugia, and afterwards under Oldradus and Jacobus de Belvisio at Bologna, where he was promoted to the degree of doctor of civil law in 1334. His great reputation dates from his appointment to a chair of civil law in the university of Perugia, 1343, where he lectured for many years, raising the character of the law school of Perugia to a level with that of Bologna. He died in 1357 at Perugia, where a magnificent monument recorded the interment of his remains in the church of San Francisco, by the simple inscription of “Ossa Bartoli.” Bartolus left behind him a great reputation, and many writers have sought to explain the fact by attributing to him the introduction of the dialectical method of teaching law; but this method had been employed by Odofredus, a pupil of Accursius, in the previous century, and the successors of Odofredus had abused it to an extent which has rendered their writings in many instances unprofitable to read, the subject matter being overlaid with dialectical forms. It was the merit of Bartolus, on the other hand, that he employed the dialectical method with advantage as a teacher, and discountenanced the abuse of it; but his great reputation was more probably owing to the circumstance that he revived the exegetical system of teaching law (which had been ​neglected since the ascendancy of Accursius) in a spirit which gave it new life, whilst he imparted to his teaching a practical interest, from the judicial experience which he had acquired while acting as assessor to the courts at Todi and at Pisa before he undertook the duties of a professorial chair. His treatises On Procedure and On Evidence are amongst his most valuable works, whilst his Commentary on the Code of Justinian has been in some countries regarded as of equal authority with the code itself.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Barton Beds

See also Barton Beds on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​BARTON BEDS, in geology, the name given to a series of softish grey and brown clays, with layers of sand, of Upper Eocene age, which are found in the Hampshire Tertiary basin, where they are particularly well exposed in the cliffs of Barton, Hordwell, and in the Isle of Wight. Above the highly fossiliferous Barton Clay there is a sandy series with few fossils; these are the Headon Hill or Barton Sands. Either of these names is preferable to the term “Upper Bagshot Beds,” which has been applied to these sands. The Barton Beds are absent from the London basin, and the Upper Bagshot Sands of that area are probably at a lower horizon than the Barton Sands. The term “Bartonien” was introduced by Mayer-Eymar in 1857 for the continental equivalents of the series.
| Hampshire basin and Isle of Wight. | Hampshire basin and Isle of Wight. | | | | Paris Basin. |
| Barton Sands Barton Clay | 140–200 ft. 162–255 ft. | ${\Big \}$ | Bartonien | ${\Bigg \$ | Limestone of St. Ouen. Sands of Beauchamp   (sables moyen). |
Fusus longaevus, Volutilithes luctatrix, Ostrea gigantea, Pectunculus (Glycimeris) deleta are characteristic fossils; fishes (Lamna, Arius, &c.) and a crocodile (Diplocynodon) are also found in the Barton Clay. The sands are very pure and are used in glass making.
See “Geology of the Isle of Wight,” Mem. Geol. Survey (2nd ed., 1889); “The Geology of the Country around Southampton,” Mem. Geol. Survey (1902).  (J. A. H.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Barton, Benjamin Smith

See also Benjamin Smith Barton on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​BARTON, BENJAMIN SMITH (1766–1815), American naturalist, was born at Lancaster, Pennsylvania, in 1766, studied for two years at Edinburgh, and afterwards graduated at Göttingen. He settled at Philadelphia, and soon obtained a considerable practice. In 1789 he was appointed professor of botany and natural history in the College of Philadelphia, now the University of Pennsylvania; he was made professor of materia medica in 1795, and on the death of Dr Benjamin Rush in 1813 he obtained the chair of practical medicine. In 1802 he was chosen president of the American Philosophical Society, of which he was a strong supporter. Barton was the author of various works on natural history, botany and materia medica, his Elements of Botany (1803) being the best known. He died at Philadelphia on the 19th of December 1815.