OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pillar

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​PILLAR (O. Fr. piler, Mod. pilier, Late Lat. pilare, from pila, column), an isolated upright structure, of narrow width in relation to its height, which is either employed as a support for a superincumbent load of some sort or is set up for commemorative or ornamental purposes. In the first sense the word has many common applications, as to columns supporting the girders of a warehouse floor or the deck beams of a ship, to the single central support or pedestal of a table, machine-tool, &c, and to the masses of coal which the miner leaves in certain methods of working as supports to the roof (see Coal), it is also used figuratively of persons in such phrases as a “pillar of the state.” In architecture it has strictly the second sense. The column erected in honour of Diocletian at Alexandria is known as Pompey’s pillar, and the so-called columns of Trajan and Antoninus are in reality pillars, performing no structural function beyond that of carrying a statue. In India the only example is the iron pillar at Delhi, which is an extraordinary specimen of the iron worker’s art considering the remote date at which it was made. Up to the middle of the 10th century the term “pillar” was employed to designate the masses of masonry in a church, which carry the arcades, but now the term “pier” is invariably adopted in preference.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pillion

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​PILLION, a light saddle without pommel or bow, especially a pad fastened to the back of an ordinary saddle, as a seat for another person, generally a woman. Pillions were also used to support baggage. They were in common use from the 16th to the 18th centuries. The word appears to have been adapted into English from the Irish pillin, cushion, formed from Lat. pellis, skin. In the sense of a hat worn by a priest or doctor of divinity, “pillon” or “pylion” occurs in the 15th and 16th centuries. This is probably from Lat. pileus, a conical felt hat or cap, Gr. πῖλος.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pilibhit

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​PILIBHIT, a town and district of British India, in the Bareilly division of the United Provinces. The town-pop. (1901), 35,490-contains the mosque of Hafiz Rahmat Khan, the Rohilla chieftain, built in the second half of the 18th century. Trade is mainly in agricultural produce, and in the products of the neighbouring Himalayan territory and Nepal.
The District ot Pilibhit has an area of 1350 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 470,339, showing a decrease of 3% in the decade. Though so near the Himalayas it is entirely a plain. In its midst IS the Mala swamp. The east is forest-clad, poor and unhealthy; on the other side of the Mala the land becomes more fertile. The chief river is the Sarda, and the Gumti rises in the east. The principal crops are rice, pulses, wheat and sugar-cane. Sugar-refining is carried on, and sugar, wheat, rice and hemp are exported. The Lucknow-Bareilly section of the Oudh & Rohilkhand railway runs through the district, a portion of which is watered by the Rohilkhand canals.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pillnitz

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​PILLNITZ, a village in the kingdom of Saxony, situated on the right bank of the Elbe, 5 m. above Dresden. Pop. (1905), 770. The new palace of the king of Saxony was built in 1818 on the site of a building which was destroyed by fire. The place became a residence of the electors of Saxony about 1700, and the different parts of the palace were erected at various times during the 18th century. By the convention of Pillnitz in August 1791 the emperor Leopold II. and Frederick William II., king of Prussia, agreed to take common action against any attack on the part of France; this compact may be regarded as the basis of the first coalition against that country.
See A. von Minchwitz, Geschichte von Pillnitz (Dresden, 1893).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tata, Jamsetji Nasarwanji

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​TATA, JAMSETJI NASARWANJI (1839–1904), Parsee merchant and philanthropist, was born at Nosari, in the state of Baroda, in 1839, and went as a boy to Bombay, where he was educated at the Elphinstone College. In 1858 he entered his father’s office, and began a commercial career of the highest eminence, beginning with cotton mills at Bombay and also at Nagpur, and ending with the formation of a company to work the iron ores of the Central Provinces on modern principles. One of his best-known achievements was the lowering of the freights on Indian goods to China and Japan, as the result of a long struggle with the Nippon Yusen Kaisha Co. He also introduced a silk industry after Japanese methods into Mysore, and built the Taj Mahal hotel in Bombay. But his greatest benefaction is the endowment of a research institute at Bangalore. He died at Nauheim, in Germany, on the 19th of May 1904.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tate, James

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​TATAR PAZARJIK, or Tatar Bazardjik, a town of Bulgaria in Eastern Rumelia; on the river Maritza, and on the Sofia-Constantinople railway, 74 m. E.S.E. of Sofia and 23 m. W. of Philippopolis. Pop. (1906) 17,549. Situated at the junction of several roads, Tatar Pazarjik began to acquire commercial importance in the 15th century. Rice, millet and tobacco are largely cultivated in the surrounding lowlands, and there is some trade in cocoons and wool.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tate, Nahum

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​TATE, NAHUM (1652-1715), English poet laureate and playwright, was born in Dublin in 1652. He was the son of Faithful Teate (as the name was spelt), who wrote a quaint poem on the Trinity entitled Ter Tria. Nahum Tate was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, graduating B.A. in 1672. He published a volume of poems in London in 1677, and became a regular writer for the stage. Brutus of Alba, or The Enchanted Lovers (1678), a tragedy dealing with Dido and Aeneas, and The Loyal General (1680), were followed by a series of adaptations from Elizabethan dramas. In Shakespeare's Richard II. he altered the names of the personages, and changed the text so that every scene, to use his own words, was "full of respect to Majesty and the dignity of courts"; but in spite of these precautions The Sicilian Usurper (1681) was suppressed on the third representation on account of a possible political interpretation. King Lear (1687) was fitted with a bappy ending in a marriage between Cordelia and Edgar; and Coriolanus became the Ingratitude of a Commonwealth (1682). From John Fletcher he adapted The Island Princess (1687); from Chapman and Marston's Eastward Ho he derived the Cuckold's Haven (1685); from John Webster's White Devil he took Injured Love, or The Cruel Husband (pr. 1707); and Sir Aston Cockayne's Trappolin suppos'd a Prince he imitated in Duke and no Duke (1685). Tate's name is chiefly connected with these mangled versions of other men's plays and with the famous New Version of the Psalms of David (1696), in which he collaborated with Nicholas Brady. A supplement was licensed in 1703. Some of these hymns, notably "While Shepherds watched," and "As pants the hart," rise above the general dull level, and are said to be Tate's work.
Tate was commissioned by Dryden to write the Second Part of Absalom and Achilophel. The portraits of Elkanah Settle and Thomas Shadwell, however, are attributed to Dryden, who probably also put the finishing touches to the poem. Of his numerous poems the most original is Panacea, a poem on Tea (1700). In spite of his consistent Toryism, he succeeded Shadwell as poet laureate in 1692. He died within the precincts of the Mint, Southwark, where he had taken refuge from his creditors, on the 12th of August 1715.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tate, Ralph

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​TATE, RALPH (1840–1901), British geologist, was born at Alnwick in Northumberland in 1840. He was a nephew of George Tate (1805-1871), naturalist and archaeologist, an active member of the Berwickshire Naturalists' Club. He was educated at the Cheltenham Training College and at the Royal School of Mines, and in 1861 he was appointed teacher of natural science at the Philosophical Institution in Belfast. He there studied botany, and published his Flora Belfaslinesis (1863); and he also investigated the Cretaceous and Liassic rocks of Antrim, ​bringing his results before the Geological Society of London. In 1864 he was appointed assistant in the museum of that society. In 1867 he went on an exploring expedition to Nicaragua and Venezuela. In 1871 he was appointed to the mining school established by the Cleveland iron masters first at Darlington and then at Redcar. Here he made a special study of the Lias and its fossils, in conjunction with the Rev. J. F. Blake, and the results were published in an important work, The Yorkshire Lias (1876), in which the life-history of the strata was first worked out in detail. In 1875 Tate was appointed professor of natural science in the university of Adelaide, South Australia. He now gave especial attention to the recent and tertiary mollusca of Australia. He was the chief founder of the Royal Society of South Australia, and was in 1893 president of the Australian Association for the Advancement of Science. He died at Adelaide on the 20th of September 1901.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tassoni, Alessandro

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​TASSONI, ALESSANDRO (1565–1635), Italian poet, was a native of Modena, where he was born and died. From 1599 till 1608 he was secretary to Cardinal Ascanio Colonna, and in this capacity saw some diplomatic service; he was afterwards employed for some time in similar occupations by Charles Emmanuel, duke of Savoy. His best-known literary work is a burlesque epic entitled La Secchia Rapita, or “The Rape of the Bucket” (1622), the reference being to a raid of the Modenese upon the people of Bologna in 1325, when a bucket was carried off as a trophy. As in Butler's Hudibras, many of the personal and local allusions in this poem are now very obscure, and are apt to seem somewhat pointless to the general reader, but, in spite of Voltaire's contempt, it cannot be neglected by any systematic student of Italian literature (see Carducci's edition, 1861). Other characteristic works of Tassoni are his Pensieri Diversi (1612), in which he treats philosophical, literary, historical and scientific questions with unusual freedom, and his Considerazioni sopra il Petrarcha (1609), a piece of criticism showing great independence of traditional views.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tatar Pazarjik

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​TATAR PAZARJIK, or Tatar Bazardjik, a town of Bulgaria in Eastern Rumelia; on the river Maritza, and on the Sofia-Constantinople railway, 74 m. E.S.E. of Sofia and 23 m. W. of Philippopolis. Pop. (1906) 17,549. Situated at the junction of several roads, Tatar Pazarjik began to acquire commercial importance in the 15th century. Rice, millet and tobacco are largely cultivated in the surrounding lowlands, and there is some trade in cocoons and wool.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Granville (France)

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​GRANVILLE, a fortified sea-port and bathing-resort of north-western France, in the department of Manche, at the mouth of the Bosq, 85 m. S. by W. of Cherbourg by rail. Pop. (1906) 10,530. Granville consists of two quarters, the upper town built on a promontory jutting into the sea and surrounded by ramparts, and the lower town and harbour lying below it. The barracks and the church of Notre-Dame, a low building of granite, partly Romanesque, partly late Gothic in style, are in the upper town. The port consists of a tidal harbour, two floating basins and a dry dock. Its fleets take an active part in deep sea fishing, including the cod-fishing off Newfoundland, and oyster-fishing is carried on. It has regular communication ​with Guernsey and Jersey, and with the islands of St Pierre and Miquelon. The principal exports are eggs, vegetables and fish; coal, timber and chemical manures are imported. The industries include ship-building, fish-salting, the manufacture of cod-liver oil, the preserving of vegetables, dyeing, metal-founding, rope-making and the manufacture of chemical manures. Among the public institutions are a tribunal and a chamber of commerce. In the commune are included the Iles Chausey about 71/2 m. N.W. of Granville (see Channel Islands). Granville, before an insignificant village, was fortified by the English in 1437, taken by the French in 1441, bombarded and burned by the English in 1695, and unsuccessfully besieged by the Vendean troops in 1793. It was again bombarded by the English in 1803.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Granville (New South Wales)

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​GRANVILLE, a town of Cumberland county, New South Wales, 13 m. by rail W. of Sydney. Pop. (1901) 5094. It is an important railway junction and manufacturing town, producing agricultural implements, tweed, pipes, tiles and bricks; there are also tanneries, flour-mills, and kerosene and meat export works. It became a municipality in 1885.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Graphical Methods

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​GRAPHICAL METHODS, devices for representing by geometrical figures the numerical data which result from the quantitative investigation of phenomena. The simplest application is met with in the representation of tabular data such as occur in statistics. Such tables are usually of single entry, i.e. to a certain value of one variable there corresponds one, and only one, value of the other variable. To construct the graph, as it is called, of such a table, Cartesian co-ordinates are usually employed. Two lines or axes at right angles to each other are chosen, intersecting at a point called the origin; the horizontal axis is the axis of abscissae, the vertical one the axis of ordinates. Along one, say the axis of abscissae, distances are taken from the origin corresponding to the values of one of the variables; at these points perpendiculars are erected, and along these ordinates distances are taken corresponding to the related values of the other variable. The curve drawn through these points is the graph. A general inspection of the graph shows in bold relief the essential characters of the table. For example, if the world’s production of corn over a number of years be plotted, a poor yield is represented by a depression, a rich one by a peak, a uniform one over several years by a horizontal line and so on. Moreover, such graphs permit a convenient comparison of two or more different phenomena, and the curves render apparent at first sight similarities or differences which can be made out from the tables only after close examination. In making graphs for comparison, the scales chosen must give a similar range of variation, otherwise the correspondence may not be discerned. For example, the scales adopted for the average consumption of tea and sugar must be ounces for the former and pounds for the latter. Cartesian graphs are almost always yielded by automatic recording instruments, such as the barograph, meteorograph, seismometer, &c. The method of polar co-ordinates is more rarely used, being only specially applicable when one of the variables is a direction or recorded as an angle. A simple case is the representation of photometric data, i.e. the value of the intensity of the light emitted in different directions from a luminous source (see Lighting).
The geometrical solution of arithmetical and algebraical problems is usually termed graphical analysis; the application to problems in mechanics is treated in Mechanics, § 5, Graphic Statics, and Diagram. A special phase is presented in Vector Analysis.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Granville (Ohio)

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​GRANVILLE, a village in Licking county, Ohio, U.S.A., in the township of Granville, about 6 m. W. of Newark and 27 m. E. by N. of Columbus. Pop. of the village (1910) 1394; of the township (1910) 2442. Granville is served by the Toledo & Ohio Central and the Ohio Electric railways, the latter reaching Newark (where it connects with the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis and the Baltimore & Ohio railways), Columbus, Dayton, Zanesville and Springfield. Granville is the seat of Denison University, founded in 1831 by the Ohio Baptist Education Society and opened as a manual labour school, called the Granville Literary and Theological Institution. It was renamed Granville College in 1845, and took its present name in 1854 in honour of William S. Denison of Adamsville, Ohio, who had given $10,000 to the college. The university comprised in 1907–1908 five departments: Granville College (229 students), the collegiate department for men; Shepardson College (246 students, including 82 in the preparatory department), the collegiate department for women, founded as the Young Ladies’ Institute of Granville in 1859, given to the Baptist denomination in 1887 by Dr Daniel Shepardson, its principal and owner, and closely affiliated for scholastic purposes, since 1900, with the university, though legally it is still a distinct institution; Doane Academy (137 students), the preparatory department for boys, established in 1831, named Granville Academy in 1887, and renamed in 1895 in honour of William H. Doane of Cincinnati, who gave to it its building; a conservatory of music (137 students); and a school of art (38 students).
In 1805 the Licking Land Company, organized in the preceding year in Granville, Massachusetts, bought 29,040 acres of land in Ohio, including the site of Granville; the town was laid out, and in the last months of that year settlers from Granville, Mass., began to arrive. By January 1806 the colony numbered 234 persons; the township was incorporated in 1806 and the village was incorporated in 1831. There are several remarkable Indian mounds near Granville, notably one shaped like an alligator.
See Henry Bushnell, History of Granville, Ohio (Columbus, O., 1889).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Grape

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​GRAPE, the fruit of the vine (q.v.). The word is adopted from the O. Fr. grape, mod. grappe, bunch or cluster of flowers or fruit, grappes de raisin, bunch of grapes. The French word meant properly a hook; cf. M.H.G. krapfe, Eng. “grapnel,” and “cramp.” The development of meaning seems to be vine-hook, cluster of grapes cut with a hook, and thence in English a single grape of a cluster. The projectile called “grape” or “grape-shot,” formerly used with smooth-bore ordnance, took its name from its general resemblance to a bunch of grapes. It consisted of a number of spherical bullets (heavier than those of the contemporary musket) arranged in layers separated by thin iron plates, a bolt passing through the centre of the plates binding the whole together. On being discharged the projectile delivered the bullets in a shower somewhat after the fashion of case-shot.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Potenza

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​POTENZA (anc. Potentia), a town and episcopal see of Basilicata, Italy, capital of the province of Potenza, 103 m. by rail E. by S. of Naples. Pop. (1901), 12,313 (town), 16,163 (commune). Situated 2700 ft. above sea-level on an isolated hill above the Basento (anc. Casuentus), it is much exposed to winds and has a far more northerly climate than its position (40° 40′ N.) implies, and is indeed one of the coldest places in Italy (mean temp. Jan 37.8°, July 70.9°, for whole year 53° F.). It has been almost entirely rebuilt since the earthquake of 1857. It has a school of the industrial arts and sciences, grows good wine, and makes bricks.
The ancient Potentia lay some 470 ft. lower, by the river. Its name shows that it was of Roman origin, and its importance was no doubt due to its position at the intersection of the road leading west to the Via Popillia and north-east to the Via Appia, with the Via Herculia. No remains are visible, but a considerable number of inscriptions have been found.
Potentia must be distinguished from Potentia in Picenum, on the Adriatic coast, near the modern Porto di Recanati, a colony founded in 184 B.C., the same year as Pisaurum, but of which little is known.
The abandonment of the old site and the erection of the new town probably date from the earthquake of 1273., By the Angevines Potenza was made a domain of the San Severino family; in the beginning of the 15th century it was held by Francesco Sforza, and in 1435 it passed to the Guevara family; the Loffredi, who succeeded by marriage, continued in possession till the abolition of the great fiefs. In 1694 there was a severe earthquake; and the more terrible earthquake which on the 16th and the 17th of December 1857 passed through southern Italy, and in Basilicata alone killed 32,475 persons, laid the greater part of Potenza in ruins. In 1860 it was the first town to rise against the Neapolitan government.