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# The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787/Volume 3/Appendix A/CLXXXIII

​ⅭⅬⅩⅩⅩⅢ. Rufus King in the Massachusetts Convention.
“Some of the powers of the Legis. are ambiguous and others indefinite and dangerous.” This clause contains an imputation so very general that no reply in detail can be attempted without commenting on every sentence wh. forms the Grant of powers to Congress. Most of the sentences are transcribed from the present Confederation, and we can only observe that it was the intention and honest desire of the Convention to use those expressions that were most easy to be understood and least equivocal in their meaning; and we flatter ourselves they have not been entirely disappointed. We believe that the powers are closely defined, the expressions as free from ambiguity as the Convention could form them, and we never could have assented to the Report, had we supposed the Danger Mr. G. predicts.
# The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787/Volume 3/Appendix A/CLXXIX

​ⅭⅬⅩⅩⅨ. Belknap to Hazard.
Boston, Jan. 20. 1788.
On Friday P.M., an honest member, who, I believe, is a Federalist, and I believe you know him, Major Fuller, of Newton, desired to know why Georgia had 3 representatives allowed in the new plan, and Massachusetts 8, when, in the last requisition for taxes, they were assessed but one thirteenth of what Massachusetts was. One of the Anti-feds. desired that Mr. G. might answer this question. It was put to vote, and passed in the affirmative. Mr. G. himself then asked the President to reduce the question to writing, which he did, and gave it to him.… A vote passed, desiring him to take his own time, and give his answer in writing. He delivered it yesterday A.M. It was to this purpose: That the mode of apportioning taxes in Congress was by a kind of compromise, and that Georgia had lately been increased by migration. R.K. then explained the matter at large, and much more to everybody’s satisfaction.
# The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787/Volume 3/Appendix A/CLXXVII

​ⅭⅬⅩⅩⅦ. Proceedings in the Massachusetts Convention.
January 19, 1788.
The Hon. E. Gerry, Esq., answered the question proposed to him yesterday, as follows, viz:—
Saturday Morning, 19th January.
SIR:—I have no documents in Boston, and am uncertain whether I have any at home, to assist me in answering the question, “Why, in the las requisition of Congress, the portion required of this State was thirteen times as much as of Georgia, and yet we have but eight representatives in the general government, and Georgia has three?” but if my memory serves me, the reason assigned by the committee who made the apportionment for giving such a number to Georgia, was, that that State had of late greatly increased its numbers by migration, and if not then, would soon be entitled to the proportion assigned her. I think it was also said, that the apportionment was made, not by any fixed principle, but by a compromise. These reasons not being satisfactory, a motion was made on the part of Massachusetts, for increasing her number of representatives, but it did not take effect. [From “Journal of Convention.”]
Hon. Mr. King. It so happened that I was both of the Convention and Congress at the same time, and if I recollect right, the answer of Mr. Gerry does not materially vary.…
The Hon. Mr. Strong mentioned the difficulty which attended the construction of the Senate in the Convention; and that a committee, consisting of one delegate from each State, was chosen to consider the subject, who reported as it now stands; and that Mr. Gerry was on the committee, from Massachusetts. [From “Debates of Convention.”]
Mr. Gerry’s answer, in writing, produced and filed—respecting Georgia having three representatives.
Mr. King will give the answer, which he does at large. The estimate by which the requisitions are made, was made in 1782; no alteration since. Georgia has great additions and emigration, and is now in an Indian war. Connecticut and New Hampshire have paid nothing. If I was for it now, it is improper, till we are more united.…
Hon. Mr. Strong. There were large debates on this subject in the Convention. The Convention would have broke up if it had ​not been agreed to allow an equal representation in the Senate. It was an accommodation, reported by a Committee, of which Mr. Gerry was one. [From “Parsons’s Minutes.”]
# The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787/Volume 3/Appendix A/CLXXVIII

​ⅭⅬⅩⅩⅧ. King and Strong in the Massachusetts Convention.
January 19, 1788.
Rufus King explained and enlarged on the same subject: said that no certain rule ever had been in the power of Congress, therefore laid their taxes as they found the States able; the judgment founded on conjecture; and the money paid considered as so much loaned on credit by each State, and to be settled hereafter. The case of Georgia was, before the war, small; much harrassed by it; since rapidly increasing; the number of representatives no more than what they had, or would have, a right to, considering their increasing population.…
Strong.—A detail of proceedings in Convention about Senate; that Gerry was of the Committee about proportioning the Senate; that the Committee was appointed because the small States were jealous of the large ones; and the Convention was nigh breaking up but for this.
# The Proletarian Revolution in Russia/Part 5

PART FIVE
The Proletarian Revolution Conquers
By LOUIS C. FRAINA
* Chapter I: The Kornilov Revolt
* Chapter II: Bolshevism Conquerors
* Chapter III: Dictatorship of the Proletariat and Civil War
* Chapter IV: The Constituent Assembly
# The Proletarian Revolution in Russia/Part 6

PAST SIX
The Revolutionary Struggle for Peace
By LEON TROTZKY and N. LENIN
* Introduction by Luigi Carlos Fraina
* Chapter I: Peace Negotiations and Revolution
* Chapter II: What is a Peace Program?
* Chapter III: Status Quo Ante Bellum
* Chapter IV: Right of Self-Determination
* Chapter V: The United States of Europe
* Chapter VI: At Brest-Litovsk
* Chapter VII: Why Soviet Russia Made Peace
* Chapter VIII: Peace—and Our Task
# The Purple Land/Volume 1

THE
PURPLE LAND THAT ENGLAND LOST.
TRAVELS AND ADVENTURES IN THE BANDA ORIENTAL, SOUTH AMERICA.
BY
W. H. HUDSON.
VOL. I
LONDON:
SAMPSON LOW, MARSTON, SEARLE, AND RIVINGTON,
CROWN BUILDINGS, 183, FLEET STREET.
1885.
[All rights reserved.]
LONDON:
PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED,
STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
CHAPTER II.
CHAPTER III.
CHAPTER IV.
CHAPTER V.
CHAPTER VI.
CHAPTER VII.
CHAPTER VIII.
CHAPTER IX.
CHAPTER X.
CHAPTER XI.
CHAPTER XII.
CHAPTER XIII.
CHAPTER XIV.
CHAPTER XV.
CHAPTER XVI.
CHAPTER XVII.
# The Purple Land

* Volume 1
* Volume 2
This work was published before January 1, 1929, and is in the public domain worldwide because the author died at least 100 years ago.
Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse
# The Purloined Letter

* "The Purloined Letter", in Tales (1845)
* "The Purloined Letter", illustrated by Arthur Rackham, in Poe's Tales of Mystery and Imagination (1935)
This work was published before January 1, 1929, and is in the public domain worldwide because the author died at least 100 years ago.
Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse
# The Rock-cut Temples of India/The Caves of Ajunta/Triforium of Chaitya No. 19—Ajunta 3

TRIFORIUM OF CHAITYA No. 19.—AJUNTA.
GREAT richness of effect is given to this interior by the elaborate sculptures of the capitals. These consist, in every instance, of a square niche containing a seated figure of Buddha, only very slightly varied. The brackets on either side of the central block differ every one from the other, and consist of figures of men and women in the most violent attitudes; of men on horseback, or elephants, of griffins, and dragons—in short, a whole legendary history of Buddhism and of Buddhist symbolism, for there cannot be a doubt but that each composition had a legend attached to it, though we can now only identify a very few of these fragmentary groups. Indeed, we can hardly feel certain that we know the subject of all the larger and more circumstantial pictures painted on the walls of the Viharas.
# The Rock-cut Temples of India/The Caves of Ajunta/The Oldest Chaitya Cave at Ajunta

THE OLDEST CHAITYA CAVE AT AJUNTA.
THE façade of (No. 9), the smaller of the two old Chaitya Caves, shows tolerably clearly the imitation of wooden forms in this style of architecture, as it came into use before the Christian Era.
Within the great arch, on either side, are two upright posts, on which the two principal rafters rest. The broken end of one of these is seen on the right. Below, five smaller are placed horizontally, and between the two principals, seven are arranged perpendicularly.
The great flat ogee was probably originally painted, and represents a sort of barge board terminating the gable. It probably assumed this form because it was necessary to have a ridge to the roof to throw off the rain.
On the face of the rib lining the interior of the arch may be seen the incised footings into which a wooden framework was inserted, partially closing the great arch. Its form may be seen copied in the niches below.
To the left is some sculpture of much more modern date, but from the head of the principal figure having been destroyed, it is difficult to make out whom it represents. The dimensions of this Cave internally are 45 ft. by 23 ft.
# The Rock-cut Temples of India/The Caves of Ajunta/Triforium of Chaitya No. 19—Ajunta

TRIFORTUM OF CHAITYA, No. 19.—AJUNTA.
THIS and the three following views represent four different portions of the triforium belt of the Cave No. 19, and form as rich a piece of sculptured decoration as is to be found in any Buddhist cave in India, though many may be purer and in better taste.
It is also interesting as illustrating the process of change from painting to carving which took place in India as in the middle ages in our own country, and probably also in Greece. The Romanesque architects left all their masonry plain in great flat surfaces as in Cave No. 10. The Gothic artists, on the contrary, trusted very little to colour, but depended chiefly on relief for their shadow and effects.
So far as can be made out, the subjects painted in Cave No. 10 were very much the same as those represented here, but have perished in consequence of the less durable materials in which they were executed.
# The Rock-cut Temples of India/The Caves of Ajunta/Triforium of Chaitya No. 19—Ajunta 2

TRIFORIUM OF CHAITYA, No. 19.—AJUNTA.
AS will be seen in all those interior views, the whole surface was covered with a thin coating of chunam so as entirely to hide the surface of the rock; but the sculptors never seem to have thought that this could excuse them from using the same amount of elaboration in their carving as if they were to be left plain. Though it may be supposed they were prepared in this way for the purpose of being painted, it does not appear that any colour was in this instance applied.
There is not much variety in the sculptures of the triforium belt itself. These consist of alternate sitting and standing figures of Buddha. The sitting ones all cross-legged, the only variety being in the position of the hands, to which Buddhists attach much importance. Between each of these is a standing figure in the usual attitude of exposition, and though the attitude in all is very nearly the same, no two figures are exactly alike, and the variations have probably more meaning than is apparent to the casual observer.
# The Rock-cut Temples of India/The Caves of Ajunta/Triforium of Chaitya No. 19—Ajunta 4

TRIFORIUM OF CHAITYA No. 19.—AJUNTA.
THE spaces between the figure-sculptures are filled in with scrolls, in the triforium belt, of the usual patterns of the age. As a matter of course they are all different, and show a considerable amount of design and elaboration. Human masks, and dragons' heads, and other fantastic devices, are frequently mixed with the foliage, and add considerably to the effect. They, too, are evidently all copied from painted originals, and have not in this instance attained that architectural formality which they afterwards acquired, and which is so essential to true architectural effect.
The shafts of the pillars of the nave are also covered with sculptured ornaments, but as these were essential constructive parts of the building, the ornament on them is of a much soberer and more architectural form, and never interferes with the outline or the constructive effect of the columns it ornaments.
# The Rock-cut Temples of India/The Caves of Ajunta/The Oldest Group of Caves—Ajunta

THE OLDEST GROUP OF CAVES.—AJUNTA.
A LARGER view of the oldest or central group, comprising the two Chaitya Caves, Nos. 9 and 10, and interesting as explaining why this spot was chosen for the earliest excavation. As is seen from the picture, the rock here is smoother and more perpendicular than anywhere else, and carries its smoothness down almost to the bottom of the ravine. To the right and left the platform of rock rises considerably, and the Caves are situated on a ledge, which was probably broader in former times, but is now hardly passable in places. It is only by getting on the terrace at this point that the outer excavations are reached. Apparently, there never was any other ascent to any of the Caves but at this spot.
# The Rock-cut Temples of India/The Caves of Ajunta/The Oldest Vihara—Ajunta 2

THE OLDEST VIHARA.—AJUNTA.
THE only ornaments in this Cave are seven horse-shoe arches on the left-hand side and front, four over the doorways of the cells, and three over false doorways or niches between. On the right-hand side, however, where the residence of the abbot seems to have been, there are only three cells, it is much more richly ornamented, though in the same style. Just as the Romans used little frontons of temples, to adorn windows and niches, so the Buddhists employed little façades of Chaityas as ornaments, either over their doors or niches. The string course also, though this is not at first sight so obvious, is in reality of purely wooden construction. It is nothing more than wooden posts and rails repeated in stone, as may be seen at a glance at Sanchi, and other places where it is used on a larger scale. On this side of the hall, at the top is also seen the same form of battlement which is so frequently represented in the sculptures of Nineveh, but of which no ancient example exists (so far as is now known) in Hindostan.
# The Rock-cut Temples of India/The Caves of Ajunta/Upper Part of Façade, No. 26—Ajunta

UPPER PART OF FAÇADE, No. 26.—AJUNTA.
THE external architecture has nearly lost all trace of its wooden origin, except the rafters of the great opening, which were seldom lost sight of; but now they are beginning to be used as shelves for figures, and the lowest is cut through to make room for two seated Buddhas, larger than the rest.
The whole of the roof of the external porch or music gallery in front has fallen in, but so far as can be made out, it extended the whole way across, which is unusual at Ajunta.
Internally the walls of the aisles, instead of being painted, are covered with sculptures, among them a reclining figure of Buddha, 23 ft. long, in the attitude in which Nirvana or beatitude is attained. But this is accompanied by figures so comical and extravagant in design, as prove too clearly that the religion of Sakya Muni no longer existed in its original purity when the Cave was undertaken.
# The Rock-cut Temples of India/The Caves of Ajunta/The Oldest Vihara—Ajunta

THE OLDEST VIHARA.—AJUNTA.
THIS and the following view, represent the interior of No. 12, the oldest Vihara or Monastery at Ajunta, and from the analogy with other similar excavations bearing inscriptions, was excavated almost certainly anterior to the Christian Era, though how long before it cannot now be determined.
It consists of a square hall, 36 ft. 7 in. each way without any pillars or internal supports. It has three cells on the right-hand side as you enter, and four cells on each of the other two faces. Towards the face of the rock it has one doorway, with a window on each side.
It is peculiar at Ajunta, from having no central cell opposite the entrance, and no image or object of worship of any sort. In this respect it resembles the old Cuttack and Behar Caves, none of which have any images in their interiors, though the practice was apparently universal in the West soon after the age at which these earliest caves were excavated.
# The Rock-cut Temples of India/The Caves of Ajunta/Verandah, Cave No. 21—Ajunta

VERANDAH, CAVE No. 21.—AJUNTA.
RETURNING to the southern end, the next Cave (No. 21) is a large Vihara 51 ft. 6 in. by 52 ft. 6 in. but not quite finished, the pillars of the sanctuary being merely blocked out.
In style and detail it is very similar to the Cave No. 2, at the other end, showing the same exuberance of ornament, but with the same weakness of design and detail.
Besides the sanctuary, there are four chapels in this Cave, one on each side and one at each end of the two aisles, and all of these have two pillars in antis. Their frequency, and the mode in which they have superseded the residential cells, show only too clearly how the original idea of the Vihara was becoming lost at the time when this one was excavated.
Two chapels at the ends of the verandah still also remain, one of which is represented in the above view, and though the pillars of the front of the verandah are gone, the end pier on both sides remains, marking its dimensions and showing the character of its details.
# The Rock-cut Temples of India/The Caves of Ajunta/Verandah, Cave No. 2—Ajunta 2

VERANDAH, CAVE No. 2.—AJUNTA.
THE principal effect of this Cave is derived from its paintings, especially those on the ceiling. These are not of the same high class of historical paintings which adorn the Viharas 16 and 17, being generally only decorative scrolls and patterns, but as architectural ornaments, they are more complete and elaborate than those found in the other Caves, and being generally appropriate to the situation in which they are placed, they give a greater effect of finish to this Cave than is usual at Ajunta. Taken altogether, there is perhaps no Cave at this place from which the effect and arrangements of a complete Vihara can be better understood than they can from this example.
# The Rock-cut Temples of India/The Caves of Ajunta/Vihara No. 15—Ajunta

VIHARA No. 15.—AJUNTA.
NUMBER 15 is a small plain Cave, the interior of which was till very recently filled up with mud, which had washed in from a torrent above, so as to render it inaccessible. To the same cause it may perhaps be ascribed that the pillars of the verandah have fallen down and been obliterated. This Cave has now apparently been cleaned out, but no description of it has reached this country; and owing to the causes above-mentioned, its external appearance presents nothing remarkable, except the sculpture of its doorway, which appears to have been executed with considerable care, and in a good style of art.
# The Rock-cut Temples of India/The Caves of Ajunta/Verandah, Cave No. 2—Ajunta

VERANDAH, CAVE No. 2.—AJUNTA.
THE verandah is supported by four pillars of very massive form and tolerably elegant design. The lower portion is of sixteen sides, above this they are adorned with thirty-two flutes; but their principal ornaments are arranged in the belts which surround them. These are covered with the most elegant ornaments, so delicate as to be almost better suited for metal than for stone work. At either end of it a smaller porch stands in front of the two principal cells, the difference in height being made up by bassi-relievi representing scenes from the life of Buddha. The doorway leading into the hall is also a rich and elegant specimen of its class.
# The Rock-cut Temples of India/The Caves of Ajunta/Verandah of Cave No. 11—Ajunta

VERANDAH OF CAVE No. 11.—AJUNTA.
INTERNALLY the roof of the verandah has been painted, though probably at an age subsequent to the excavation, and is now very much obliterated. Its paintings, however, possess no historical interest, as they consist only of architectural patterns and borders, exhibiting what might be called a mixture of Classic and Assyrian designs.
The doorway leading to the interior is simple, and the steps are adorned with two lions' heads of good design, and well executed.
On either side is a large square window, separated into three lights by two pillars standing on the cills. These are square for the greater part of their height, but change into octagons and then into figures of sixteen sides, returning to the square form just below the capitals. This being to a greater or less extent the mode of decoration adopted for all pillars, not only at Ajunta, but in every part of India, so long as anything like a pure Hindoo style prevailed.
# The Rock-cut Temples of India/The Caves of Ajunta/Verandah of Cave No. 17—Ajunta

VERANDAH OF CAVE No. 17.—AJUNTA.
AT the end of the verandah in this view is dimly seen the circular painting or so called zodiac, from which this Vihara derives its name. A facsimile of it is now at the Crystal Palace, Sydenham. It evidently represents terrestial scenes, divided into compartments by the spokes of a wheel, which always was a favourite emblem with Buddhists. The roof of the verandah is also very beautifully adorned with paintings, which are still in very perfect preservation, not unlike those found in the baths of Titus at Rome in design, but of course inferior in execution.
Over the door are painted eight figures sitting cross-legged. The first four are black, the fifth fairer, the next still more so, the last as fair as an European, and wearing a crown. It may be remarked that there are more black people represented in this cave than in any other; the women, however, are generally fair, but the men are of all shades, from jet black to an European complexion.
# The Rock-cut Temples of India/The Caves of Ajunta/Vihara No. 16—Ajunta

VIHARA No. 16.—AJUNTA.
NUMBERS 16 and 17 are the two most interesting Caves at Ajunta,—in so far as painting is concerned, the most so in India.
No. 16, represented in the above view, is a square cave, 67 ft. 6 in. wide, and 65 ft. 2 in. deep, exclusive of the sanctuary. The centre hall is surrounded by twenty pillars, generally of an octagonal form, the sides of which are adorned in painting with something like a Roman scroll, alternating with wreaths of flowers.
All the details of the architecture of this Cave are particularly good and elegant, more so than any other in this series. There are no side chapels, but eighteen cells surrounding the great hall. The figure in the sanctuary is seated with his feet down. Some of the paintings are tolerably entire and extremely interesting, though not so much so as those in the next cave. Most of these have been copied by Major Gill in facsimile, and these copies are now exhibited in the Indian Court of the Crystal Palace at Sydenham.
# The Rock-cut Temples of India/The Caves of Ajunta/Verandah, Cave No. 23—Ajunta

VERANDAH, CAVE No. 23.—AJUNTA.
THE unfinished interior of this Cave and the next one (No. 24) are interesting as showing the whole process by which these Caves were excavated. In one place, what was to be a range of pillars is a wall rock roughly blocked out with a pick. In another it is pierced with what look like a series of rude doorways. In some places the pillars are shaped, in others the carving is finished. On the whole, it appears that it is the last process that has taken the greatest amount of time and labour. The blocking out of a Cave in such a material as amygdaloidal trap is probably not a more expensive process than building such a structure on the plain might prove. If this be so, the durability of a rock-cut structure is such that it might have been far more generally adopted were it not that the situation where they are necessarily placed is often inconvenient, and the power of lighting them frequently insufficient.