OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# The New Student's Reference Work/Buttons

See also Button on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Buttons, useful articles of wear, used as coat and dress fasteners or as mere ornaments, and made of bone, wood, metal, jet, papier maché, mother of pearl or glass. They are manufactured in various sizes, and sometimes covered with cloth or other material, and also made with and without shanks. Birmingham, England, is a great seat of their manufacture; while they are extensively turned out in factories in this country, in the different varieties of the button industry, there being to-day about 250 button-making factories in the United States, with a gross value-output of close upon $8,000,000. The process of manufacturing them is chiefly by stamping in the case of metal buttons; while the cast button is made in molds by pouring molten metal over them, the loop of wire which forms the shank being suspended in the process and pressed into the bottom of the button. Powdered steatite, saturated with soluble glass, is used for making shirt buttons in molds, the buttons being afterwards baked and polished. Other kinds of buttons are made of various composites, as well as of vegetable ivory and of the hoofs of cattle, boiled down and turned out in hydraulic presses of the various sizes and patterns.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Butte City, Mont.

See also Butte, Montana on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Butte City, Mont., the capital of Silverbow County, is situated in the southwestern portion of the state, in the midst of a rich mineral region. It is the largest city in the state, and has five lines of railway. It derives its name from the Big Butte, a high mountain peak in the vicinity of the city. The city has fine public buildings, including court house, opera house, high school and many churches, hospitals and a complete system of public and parochial schools. It has a public library containing 30,000 volumes; also a public law-library. Is well supplied with water, and the facilities of electric lighting and gas and a very efficient street car system. The ore production of the Butte district, chiefly copper, approaches $60,000,000 per year, and is rapidly increasing. The population of the city proper by census of 1910 is 39,165, but Butte, inclusive of its suburbs has about 70,000 people.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Buzzard

See also Buzzard on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Buzzard. The term is used in a loose way. The true buzzards include the hen-hawks and the common buzzard of Europe. The hen-hawks, embracing the red-tailed and rough-legged buzzards, are good representatives of the group as to general appearance and average size. The white-tailed buzzard of South America and the common fish-hawk or osprey are other varieties. The true buzzards are related to the eagles and falcons. The so-called turkey-buzzard belongs with the vultures, and not with the buzzards. In the south this bird is protected by law, both whites and negroes appreciating its services in removing decaying matter. Seen floating high up in the air, one forgets its habits and thinks only of the beauty of its motion; it is very familiar to the children of the south.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Encke, Johann Franz

Edition of 1905. See also Johann Franz Encke on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
ENCKE, Johann Franz (1791–1865.) A German astronomer, born in Hamburg, where his father was a clergyman. After studying at Göttingen, under Gauss, he look part in the campaign of 1813-14, and in 1815 served in the Prussian Army as lieutenant of artillery. On the establishment of peace, he left the service and became assistant and afterwards principal astronomer in the Observatory of Seeberg, near Gotha. In 1825, chiefly at the instance of Bessel, he was called to Berlin to become secretary of the Academy of Sciences and director of the observatory. While at Gotha, the astronomical prize offered by Cotta was awarded to Encke by the judges, Gauss and Olbers, for his determination of the orbit of the comet of 1680. This led him to investigate another problem — viz. the determination of the distance of the sun from the earth. Encke's results, based upon the two transits of Venus, in 1761 and 1709, were published in two separate tracts, entitled Die Entfernung der Sonne (1822-24). His best-known work, however, is his discussion of the orbit of the comet discovered by Pons, November 26, 1819, which has a short period of about 1200 days, and which has since gone by the name of Encke's comet and has appeared regularly. (See Comet.) Encke's researches on this subject are contained in the transactions of the Berlin Academy. He endeavored to explain a remarkably regular change in the comet's period of revolution as the result of some resisting substance in the space traversed by the comet. There is, however, much doubt among astronomers as to the correctness of this hypothesis. In 1830 he undertook to edit the Berlin Astronomisches Jahrbuch, in which he published a number of astronomical papers. He issued four volumes of Astronomische Beobachtungen auf der Sternwarte zu Berlin (1840-56).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Embury, Philip

Edition of 1905. See also Philip Embury on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
EM'BURY, Philip (1729-75). The first Methodist minister in America. He was born of German parents at Ballygaran, Ireland, September 21, 1729. He emigrated to America in 1760. In 1766 he organized a ‘class’ in New York and began preaching, at first in his own house on Barrack Street, now Park Place, and in 1767 in the rigging loft, on what is now William Street. which has become famous as the cradle of Methodism in the United States. A chapel was built in 1768 on the site of the old John Street Church, partly by Embury's own hands. In 1769 preachers sent out by Wesley arrived in New York, and Embury went as a missionary to the neighborhood of Albany. He continued there as a local preacher and organized a church at Ashgrove. He died from an accident, August, 1775.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Emden

Edition of 1905. See also Emden on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
EMDEN, ĕm'den. A city in the Prussian Province of Hanover, situated on an inlet of the Dollart Bay at the mouth of the Ems-Jade Canal and about 75 miles west-northwest of Bremen (Map: Prussia, B 2). It lies low, but is protected by strong dikes from the waters of
the bay. The town was formerly surrounded by walls, whose site has been converted into pleasant promenades; it is well built, has spacious and well-paved streets, and is intersected by numerous canals, which are crossed by many bridges. The principal building, and one of the finest public edifices in the whole region, is the town hall, erected in the sixteenth century, which contains a library and a curious collection of ancient arms and armor. A large Protestant church, dating from the twelfth century, contains a number of fine monuments. Other interesting buildings are the museum of natural history and the old barracks. The chief industry is ship-building, but there are also extensive manufactures of paper, wire, tobacco, soap, mustard, basket-ware, etc. The herring fishery is also of considerable importance. Emden is connected with Wilhelmshaven by the Ems-Jade Canal. Population, in 1890, 13,695; in 1900, 16,453. Emden was known as early as the tenth century. In 1433 it came under the dominion of Hamburg. In 1595 it was raised to the rank of a free Imperial city and its commerce at that time was extensive. It was made a free port in 1751, was occupied by Holland in 1806, and with the whole of East Friesland was incorporated with the Kingdom of Hanover in 1815, and in 1866 was united to Prussia.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Emerson, Benjamin Kendall

Edition of 1905. See also Benjamin Kendall Emerson on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
EMERSON, Benjamin Kendall (1843—). An American geologist, born at Nashua, N. H., and educated at Amherst College and the universities of Göttingen and Berlin. He became professor of geology at Amherst College in 1872, and was professor of geology and mineralogy at Smith College from 1883 to 1885. He is president of the Geological Society of America. United States assistant geologist, and a fellow and vice-president of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, and of many other learned bodies. For the United States Geological Survey he prepared a number of valuable geological maps of Massachusetts. His publications include geological papers and monographs.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Emelé, Wilhelm

Edition of 1905. See also Wilhelm Emelé on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer. In the original, "ắ" is an "ā" with a dot over it.
EMELÉ, ắ-mắ-lắ', Wilhelm (1830—). A German painter. He was born at Buchen, Baden. He is mainly known as a battle painter. After studying in Munich, Antwerp, and Paris, he settled in Vienna (1861), where several of his equestrian scenes and hunting parties were painted. Afterwards he resided successively in Munich, Berlin, and Karlsruhe. The following are a few of his best works: “Attack of French Cuirassiers at Waterloo” (1867); “Episode from the Battle of Wörth” (1879); “Cavalry Encounter Near Langenbruck” (1873).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Emerson, George Barrell

Edition of 1905. See also George Barrell Emerson on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
EMERSON, George Barrell (1797-1881). An American educator, born at Kennebunk, Maine. He graduated at Harvard, where he was afterwards tutor in mathematics and natural philosophy. He was a popular teacher in Boston for many years, and served as president of the Boston Society of Natural History, and as chairman of the commission for the zoölogical and botanical survey of the State. He wrote a Report on the Trees and Shrubs Growing Naturally in the Forests of Massachusetts (1846); A Manual of Agriculture (1861); and Reminiscences of an Old Teacher (1878).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Emerson

Edition of 1905. See also Emerson, Manitoba on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
EM'ERSON. A frontier town of Provencher County, Manitoba, Canada, on the right bank of the Red River, 60 miles south of Winnipeg (Map: Manitoba, K 5). It is the terminus of branch lines of the Canadian Pacific and the Great Northern railways. The United States is represented by a consular agent. Population, in 1891, 660; in 1901, 840.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Emerson, Alfred

Edition of 1905. See also the disclaimer. Father of Alfred E. Emerson (b. 1896), an entomologist.
EMERSON, Alfred (1859—). An American archæologist, appointed associate professor of classical archæology at Cornell University in 1891. He was born at Greencastle, Pa., and was educated in Germany and at the Johns Hopkins University. Professor Emerson's publications include Dissertatio de Hercule Homerico (1881). In 1891 he became a contributing editor of the American Journal of Archæology.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Encke, Erdmann

Edition of 1905. See also Erdmann Encke on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
ENCKE, ĕṉ'ke, Erdmann (1843-96). A German sculptor. He was born in Berlin, and studied at the academy in that city and with Albert Wolff. Several of the finest pieces of statuary in the German capital were designed by him, among them the following: “Friedrich Ludwig Jahn,” bronze statue (Hasenheide, Berlin); “Frederick I., Elector of Brandenburg”
(Façade of Town Hall, Berlin); “Queen Louise of Prussia” (Thiergarten, Berlin); and the sarcophagi of Emperor William I. and Empress Augusta in the mausoleum at Charlottenburg. He also executed a number of important bronze portrait busts, in which he used polychromy with success. He was appointed a professor of the Berlin Academy in 1883.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Low, Seth

See also Seth Low on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
* SETH LOW
Low, Seth, LL.D., ex-president of Columbia University, was born at Brooklyn, N. Y., Jan. 18, 1850. After graduating at Columbia in 1870 he began the study of law, but left it to enter his father's tea-importing house and become a member of the firm. In 1881 he was elected mayor of Brooklyn on an independent ticket, and administered its affairs for four years. In 1890 he became president of Columbia College and reorganized the institution on a university basis. He, moreover, presented it with its finely equipped library-building at a cost of a million dollars. Dr. Low has taken a lively interest in pure government for New York, being a member of its rapid-transit and Greater-New-York commissions. In 1899 he was appointed one of the American delegation to the peace-conference at The Hague. He also is president of the Archaeological Institution of America and vice-president of the New York Academy of Sciences. In 1901 he resigned the presidency of Columbia University, and was elected mayor of New York, defeating the Tammany candidate. While mayor of New York City (1901-03), Mr. Low did much to purge the civic administration from abuses.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Low, Will Hicok

See also Will Hicok Low on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​ Low, Will Hicok, American artist, was born at Albany, N. Y., May 31, 1853, and early took up painting and decorative designing as a profession. He has done much in decorating panels, ceilings and the like with ideal groups and paintings, and has also turned out much fine stained-glass work. As a beginner in figure-painting, he was a pupil of Gérôme and of Carolus Duran ​at Paris. He is an academician of the National Academy of Design, one of the founders of the Society of American Artists and the holder of many medals, diplomas and awards for his drawings and decorative work.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Lowell

See also Lowell, Massachusetts on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Low′ell (lō′el), a manufacturing city in Middlesex County, Mass., is on Merrimac River, 25 miles northwest of Boston. The river has a fall of 33 feet, which gives it fine water-power, and it is one of the largest manufacturing cities of the country. There are boot and shoe factories, nearly one hundred cotton and woolen mills and the largest carpet manufactory in the country, turning out 4,000,000 yards of carpeting a year. Other manufactures are leather, paper, iron goods, patent medicines, chemicals and carriages. Lowell manufacturers have been noted for their care of their work-people. In early days the operatives were gathered from the country around, and largely were the sons and daughters of New England farmers. They lived in boarding-houses carefully managed, attending evening schools and lectures, publishing local journals, and having the use of free reading rooms and libraries. The large foreign emigration now supplies a permanent manufacturing population; but the system of good homes and advantages for study and recreation is followed by many of the large corporations. The city pays much attention to education; the value of its school-property exceeds $1,600,000; and on elementary education it expends annually over $400,000. It maintains a public library with over 65,000 volumes. Lowell was made a city in 1826. Population 106,294, a gain of 12 per cent. over the previous decade.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Lucretius

See also Lucretius on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Lucretius (lū̇-krē′shĭ-ŭs), Roman poet and philosopher of the 1st century B. C. Very little is known of his history, and his only work is a philosophy in poetry on Nature (De Rerum Natura). Lucretius was an earnest opponent of all religious faith and of all belief in supernatural power. The highest good to him is a calm and tranquil mind. The creation of the world out of nothing he held to be impossible, neither can anything be destroyed. Life, mind, soul are merely, as we should say, functions of the body and will perish with the body. All knowledge is derived from the senses, which are our only test of truth. There is a decidedly modern flavor about some of the doctrines of Lucretius. For instance: He explains contagious diseases by the flying about in the air of minute particles, germs as we call them, injurious to life; and again, in his account of the various types of animal life, as they have successively appeared on the earth, we almost have an anticipation of the Darwinian theory of evolution. He died by suicide in 55 B. C.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Louvre

See also Louvre on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​ Louvre (lo͞ovr), the greatest of the modern palaces of Paris, lies in the center of the city near the Seine. It is a square of 576 by 538 feet. The first part, the southwest wing, was built in 1541, and the principal part of the great square was completed under Louis XIV. In 1857 the new Louvre, as it was called, was finished in the form of two buildings thrown out at right angles to the galleries which connected the old Louvre with the palace of the Tuileries. The Louvre and Tuileries now form a single palace, covering nearly 60 acres. The eastern front of the Louvre had a row of 28 Corinthian columns, and was considered one of the most beautiful architectural works of any country. The buildings forming the Louvre are used largely as galleries of art; the library was begun under Charles V, who placed the royal collection of books here; and the royal pictures were brought here in 1681. All of the works of art in the palaces were transferred to the Louvre during the Revolution, and thrown open to public inspection. Napoleon's conquests in Italy added great treasures to the collections. Under his architects the museums of ancient art, the Egyptian museum and the council-chamber, afterward used for an art-school and marine museum, were built. Many of the art-treasures brought from Italy were restored. The Louvre suffered from the communists in 1871; the library was burnt, with some of the halls of sculpture and painting.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Lucifer

See also Lucifer on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Lu′cifer (Latin, “light-bringer”), the name given to Venus as the morning-star. The early fathers of the church attached this name to Satan, in the belief that Isaiah xiv. 12, which refers to the king of Babylon, contained a reference to the prince of darkness. In Milton's Paradise Lost, also, Lucifer is the original name of the archangel (now called Satan), who fell and dragged down to hell the third part of the host of heaven.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Lucullus

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​Lucullus (lū̇-kŭl′lŭs), a distinguished Roman general, was born about 110 B. C. In 74 B. C. he defeated Mithradates, king of Pontus, and almost annihilated his army on its retreat. Three years later Pontus became subject to the Romans. In 69 B. C. he marched into Armenia, and gained a complete victory over Tigranes, king of that country. In the following year he gained another great victory over Tigranes and Mithradates, but soon after was superseded by Pompey. As a member of the Roman aristocracy he attempted to check the power of the first triumvirate,—Pompey, Crassus and Cæsar; but, failing in his efforts, he soon retired altogether from public life, his great wealth enabling him to spend the remainder of his days in ease and luxury. He died about 57 B. C.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Lourenço Marques

See also Maputo on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​ Lourenço Marques (lṓ-rĕn′sṓ mär-kĕs′), one of the three districts of Portuguese East Africa, which see.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Louvain

See also Leuven on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​ Louvain (lo͞o′văn′), a city of Belgium, 19 miles east of Brussels. It was a rich and extensive city of 200,000 citizens in the 14th century, as the capital of Brabant and the seat of the manufacture of fine cloth. Heavy punishment for a revolt drove large numbers of its citizens to England in 1382. The great university, with 20 colleges, a library of 250,000 volumes, botanic garden and museums, was founded in 1426 and at one time had 6,000 students. It still is the principal Roman Catholic institution in Belgium, with about 1,400 students. The industries are bell-founding, brewing and the manufacture of leather, paper, lace and starch. Population 42,100.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Lucknow

See also Lucknow on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Lucknow (lŭk′nou′), capital of the province of Oudh and fifth city in British India, stands on Gumti River, 42 miles from Cawnpore and 199 from Benares. The city is interesting, not only as the capital of the ancient kingdom but for the desperate fighting in and around it during the Sepoy mutiny of 1857. Early in the summer the English garrison, less than 2,000 strong, was besieged by a force five times as large. After a 12 weeks' defense, during which their commander Sir Henry Lawrence was killed, Generals Havelock and Outram fought their way into the city with a relieving force, and General Outram assumed command of the defense. The rebels, however, continued to prosecute the siege, and in November the city was evacuated by the British. In March, 1858, the English under Sir Colin Campbell (afterward Lord Clyde) returned, and after a week's hard fighting compelled the rebels to surrender. Their overthrow ended the mutiny. Population 264,049.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Braun, Louis

Edition of 1905. See also Louis Braun on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
BRAUN, Louis (1836—). A German painter of battle scenes. He was born at Schwäbisch Hall, Württemberg, and was educated in Munich and in Paris. He followed as an illustrator the Austrian army during the Danish War of 1864 and painted several battle scenes for the Emperor of Austria. He also accompanied the German armies in the war of 1870-71, and as a result exhibited his pictures entitled “Entry of the Mecklenburg Troops into Orleans,” “The Capitulation of Sedan,” “The Battle of Sedan” (later exhibited at Frankfort-on-the-Main and elsewhere as a panorama), “The Germans in Versailles,” and “The Entry of the German Army into Paris.” The great success of the “Battle of Sedan,” in panoramic form,
induced Braun (who in 1902 held a professorship in Munich) to produce several other works of the same description. Among these are the “Battle of Mars la Tour” (1884); “Panorama of the German Colonies” (with Petersen, 1885); and the “Battle of Lützen” (1892).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Brefeld, Oskar

Edition of 1905. See also Julius Oscar Brefeld on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
BREFELD, brā'fĕlt, Oskar (1839—). A German botanist, born at Telgte, Westphalia. He was appointed professor of botany at Eberswalde (1878), Münster (1884), and Breslau (1898). His scientific investigations may be said to cover the field of mycology. It was he who introduced the so-called ‘gelatin cultures’ which at one time gained such wide application in bacteriology. He published a series of volumes entitled Untersuchungen aus dem Gesamtgebiete der Mykologie (1872).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Breisach, Alt

Edition of 1905. See also Breisach on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
BREISACH, brī-zäG' (anciently, Lat. Mons Brisiacus, possibly from Celt. brig, elevation, hill + Teut. aha, water), Alt. A very old town of the Grand Duchy of Baden, situated on an isolated basaltic hill, on the right bank of the Rhine, about 12 miles west of Freiburg (Map: Germany, B 4). It is a thriving little town with manufactures of wall-paper, beer-brewing, wine manufactures, etc., and a trade in lumber and cattle. As early as the time of Julius Cæsar, Mons Brisiacus was known as a strong military position, and was taken by Ariovistus when he invaded Gaul. During the Middle Ages it frequently changed masters, and, after having been for a time a free imperial city, became a possession of the House of Austria. Its military importance made it a battle-ground for the French and Austrians in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth centuries. The French destroyed its fortifications in 1744, and, during the War of the Revolution in 1793, burned the town. In 1805 the French handed it over to the House of Baden. Population, in 1890, about 3000; in 1900, 3500. Consult Coste, Notice historique sur la ville de Vieux-Brisach (Mulhouse, 1860).