OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Allium

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​ALLIUM (Lat. for “garlic”), a genus of plants, natural order Liliaceae, with about 250 species (seven of which occur in Britain), found in Central and South Europe, North Africa, the dry country of West and Central Asia, and North and Central America. The plants are bulbous herbs, with flat or rounded radical leaves, and a central naked or leafy stem, bearing a head or umbel of small flowers, with a spreading or bell-shaped white, pink, red, yellow or blue perianth. Several species afford useful foods, such as onion (Allium Cepa), leek (A. Porrum), shallot or eschallot (A. ascalonicum), garlic (A. sativum), and chives (A. schoenoprasum). A few species are cultivated as border plants; such are A. Moly, an old garden plant with bright yellow flowers, and A. neapolitanum, the well-known white-flowered species, both natives of southern Europe.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Allix, Pierre

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​ALLIX, PIERRE (1641–1717), French Protestant divine, was born at Alençon. He was pastor first at St Agobile in Champagne, and then at Charenton, near Paris. The revocation of the edict of Nantes in 1685 compelled him to take refuge in London, where, under the sanction of James II., he opened a ​church for the French exiles. His reputation for learning was such as to obtain for him, soon after his arrival, the degree of doctor of divinity from both universities, and in 1690 he received from Bishop Burnet the more substantial honour of the treasurership and a canonry in Salisbury Cathedral. He died at London in March 1717. The works of Allix, which are numerous, are chiefly of a controversial and apologetic character, and must be used with caution. In opposition to Bossuet he published Some Remarks upon the Ecclesiastical History of the Ancient Churches of Piedmont (1690), and Remarks upon the Ecclesiastical History of the Ancient Churches of the Albigenses (1692), with the idea of showing that the Albigenses were not Manichaeans, but historically identical with the Waldenses.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Heracleon

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​HERACLEON, a Gnostic who flourished about A.D. 125, probably in the south of Italy or in Sicily, and is generally classed by the early heresiologists with the Valentinian school of heresy. In his system he appears to have regarded the divine nature as a vast abyss in whose pleroma were aeons of different orders and degrees,—emanations from the source of being. Midway between the supreme God and the material world was the Demiurgus, who created the latter, and under whose jurisdiction the lower, animal soul of man proceeded after death, while his higher, celestial soul returned to the pleroma whence at first it issued. Though conspicuously uniting faith in Christ with spiritual maturity, there are evidences that, like other Valentinians, Heracleon did not sufficiently emphasize abstinence from the moral laxity and worldliness into which his followers fell. He seems to have received the ordinary Christian scriptures; and Origen, who treats him as a notable exegete, has preserved fragments of a commentary by him on the fourth gospel (brought together by Grabe in the second volume of his Spicilegium), while Clement of Alexandria quotes from him what appears to be a passage from a commentary on Luke. These writings are remarkable for their intensely mystical and allegorical interpretations of the text.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hepburn, Sir John

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​HEPBURN, SIR JOHN (c. 1598–1636), Scottish soldier in the Thirty Years’ War, was a son of George Hepburn of Athelstaneford near Haddington. In 1620 and in the following years he served in Bohemia, on the lower Rhine and in the Netherlands, and in 1623 he entered the service of Gustavus Adolphus, who, two years later, appointed him colonel of a Scottish regiment of his army. He took part with his regiment in Gustavus’s Polish wars, and in 1631, a few months before the battle of Breitenfeld he was placed in command of the “Scots” or “Green” brigade of the Swedish army. At Breitenfeld it was Hepburn’s brigade which delivered the decisive stroke, and after this he remained with the king, who placed the fullest reliance on his skill and courage, until the battle of the Alte Veste near Nuremberg. He then entered the French service, and raised two thousand men in Scotland for the French army, to which force was added in France the historic Scottish archer bodyguard of the French kings. The existing Royal Scots (Lothian) regiment (late 1st Foot) represents in the British army of to-day Hepburn’s French regiment, and indirectly, through the amalgamation referred to, the Scottish contingent of the Hundred Years’ War. Hepburn’s claim to the right of the line of battle was bitterly resented by the senior French regiments. Shortly after this, in 1633, Hepburn was under a maréchal de camp, and he took part in the campaigns in Alsace and Lorraine (1634–36). In 1635 Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar, on entering the French service, brought with him Hepburn’s former Swedish regiment, which was at once amalgamated with the French “régiment d’Hébron,” the latter thus attaining the unusual strength of 8300 men. Sir John Hepburn was killed shortly afterwards during the siege of Saverne (Zabern) on the 8th of July 1636. He was buried in Toul cathedral. With his friend Sir Robert Monro, Hepburn was the foremost of the Scottish soldiers of fortune who bore so conspicuous a part in the Thirty Years’ War. He was a sincere Roman Catholic. It is stated that he left Gustavus owing to a jest about his religion, and at any rate he found in the French service, in which he ended his days, the opportunity of reconciling his beliefs with the desire of military glory which had led him into the Swedish army, and with the patriotic feeling which had first brought him out to the wars to fight for the Stuart princess, Queen Elizabeth of Bohemia.
See James Grant, Memoirs of Sir John Hepburn.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Heptarchy

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​HEPTARCHY (Gr. ἑπτά, seven, and ἀρχή, rule), a word which is frequently used to designate the period of English history between the coming of the Anglo-Saxons in 449 and the union of the kingdoms under Ecgbert in 828. It was first used during the 16th century because of the belief held by Camden and other older historians, that during this period there were exactly seven kingdoms in England, these being Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia, Essex, Kent, Sussex and Wessex. This belief is erroneous, as the number of kingdoms varied considerably from time to time; nevertheless the word still serves a useful purpose to denote the period.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hephaestion (general)

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​HEPHAESTION, a Macedonian general, celebrated as the friend of Alexander the Great, who, comparing himself with Achilles, called Hephaestion his Patroclus. In the later campaigns in Bactria and India, he was entrusted with the task of founding cities and colonies, and built the fleet intended to sail down the Indus. He was rewarded with a golden crown and the hand of Drypetis, the sister of Alexander’s wife Stateira (324). In the same year he died suddenly at Ecbatana. A general mourning was ordered throughout Asia; at Babylon a funeral pile was erected at enormous cost, and temples were built in his honour (see Alexander the Great).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hephaestion (grammarian)

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​HEPHAESTION, a grammarian of Alexandria, who flourished in the age of the Antonines. He was the author of a manual (abridged from a larger work in 48 books) of Greek metres (Ἐγχειρίδιον περὶ μέτρων), which is most valuable as the only complete treatise on the subject that has been preserved. The concluding chapter (Περὶ ποιήματος) discusses the various kinds of poetical composition. It is written in a clear and simple style, and was much used as a school-book.
Editions by T. Gaisford (1855, with the valuable scholia); R. Westphal (1886, in Scriptores metrici Graeci) and M. Consbruch (1906); translation by T. F. Barham (1843); see also W. Christ, Gesch. der griech. Litt. (1898); M. Consbruch, De veterum Περὶ ποιήματος doctrina (1890); J. E. Sandys, Hist. Class. Schol. i. (1906).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Heppenheim

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​HEPPENHEIM, a town of Germany, in the grand-duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt, on the Bergstrasse, between Darmstadt and Heidelberg, 21 m. N. of the latter by rail. Pop. (1905), 6364. It possesses a parish church, occupying the site of one reputed to have been built by Charlemagne about 805, an interesting town hall and several schools. On an isolated hill close by stand the extensive ruins of the castle of Starkenburg, built by the abbot, Ulrich von Lorsch, about 1064 and destroyed during the Seven Years’ War, and another hill, the Landberg, was a place of assembly in the middle ages. Heppenheim, at first the property of the abbey of Lorsch, became a town in 1318. After belonging to the Rhenish Palatinate, it came into the possession of Hesse-Darmstadt in 1803. Hops, wine and tobacco are grown, and there are large stone quarries, and several small industries in the town.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Barytocalcite

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​BARYTOCALCITE, a rare mineral found only at Alston Moor in Cumberland, where it occurs as diverging groups of white transparent crystals lining cavities in the Mountain Limestone. ​
The crystals belong to the monoclinic system and are usually prismatic or blade-shaped in habit. The hardness is 4, and the sp. gr. 3·65. There are perfect cleavages parallel to the prism faces inclined at an angle of 73° 6′, and a less perfect cleavage parallel to the basal plane, the angle between which and the prism faces is 77° 6′; the angles between these three cleavages thus approximate to the angles (74° 55′) between the three cleavages of calcite, and there are other points of superficial resemblance between these two minerals. Chemically, barytocalcite is a double salt of barium and calcium carbonates, BaCa(CO$_3$)$_2$, thus differing from the orthorhombic bromlite (q.v.) which is an isomorphous mixture of the two carbonates.  (L. J. S.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Barytone

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​BARYTONE, or Baritone (Ital. baritono, from Gr. βαρύτονος, deep sounding), a musical term for the male voice whose range lies between those of the tenor and of the bass—a high bass rather than a low tenor; also the name of an obsolete stringed instrument like the viola da Gamba, and of the small B♭ or C saxhorn.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Barye, Antoine Louis

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​BARYE, ANTOINE LOUIS (1796–1875), French sculptor, was born in Paris on the 24th of September 1796. Like many of the sculptors of the Renaissance he began life as a goldsmith. After studying under Bosio, the sculptor, and Gros, the painter, he was in 1818 admitted to the École des Beaux Arts. But it was not till 1823, when he was working for Fauconnier, the goldsmith, that he discovered his real bent from watching the wild beasts in the Jardin des Plantes, making vigorous studies of them in pencil drawings worthy of Delacroix and then modelling them in sculpture on a large or small scale. In 1831 he exhibited his “Tiger devouring a Crocodile,” and in 1832 had mastered a style of his own in the “Lion and Snake.” Thenceforward Barye, though engaged in a perpetual struggle with want, exhibited year after year these studies of animals—admirable groups which reveal him as inspired by a spirit of true romance and a feeling for the beauty of the antique, as in “Theseus and the Minotaur” (1847), “Lapitha and Centaur” (1848), and numerous minor works now very highly valued. Barye was no less successful in sculpture on a small scale, and excelled in representing animals in their most familiar attitudes. As examples of his larger work we may mention the Lion of the Column of July, of which the plaster model was cast in 1839, various lions and tigers in the gardens of the Tuileries, and the four groups—War, Peace, Strength, and Order (1854). In 1852 he cast his bronze “Jaguar devouring a Hare.” The fame he deserved came too late to the sculptor. He was made professor at the museum in 1854, and was elected to the Academy of Fine Arts in 1868. He died on the 25th of June 1875. The mass of admirable work left to us by Barye entitles him to be regarded as the greatest artist of animal life of the French school, and as the creator of a new class of art which has attracted such men as Frémiet, Peter, Cain, and Gardet, who are regarded with justice as his worthiest followers.
Authorities.—Emile Lamé, Les Sculpteurs d’animaux; M. Barye (Paris, 1856); Gustave Planche, “M. Barye,” Revue des deux mondes (July 1851); Théophile Silvestre, Histoires des artistes vivants (Paris, 1856); Arsène Alexandre, “A. L. Barye,” Les Artistes célèbres, ed. E. Muntz (Paris, 1889) (with a bibliog.); Charles DeKay, Life and Works of A. L. Barye (1889), published by the Barye Monument Assoc. of New York; Jules Claretie, Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains (1882); Roger Ballu, L’Œuvre de Barye (1890); Charles Sprague Smith, Barbizon Days (1903).  (H. Fr.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Barugo

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​BARUGO, a town on the north coast of the province of Leyte, island of Leyte, Philippine Islands, on Carigara Bay. Pop. (1903) 12,360. It exports large quantities of hemp and copra, and imports rice, petroleum, and cotton-goods.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Baryatinsky, Alexander Ivanovich, Prince

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​BARYATINSKY, ALEXANDER IVANOVICH, Prince (1814–1879), Russian soldier and governor of the Caucasus, was privately educated, entered the school of the ensigns of the Guard in his seventeenth year and, on the 8th of November 1833, received his commission of cornet in the Life Guards of the cesarevich Alexander. In 1835 he served with great gallantry in the Caucasus, and on his return to St Petersburg was rewarded with a gold sword “for valour.” On the first of January 1836 he was attached to the suite of Alexander, and in 1845 was again ordered off to the Caucasus and again most brilliantly distinguished himself, especially in the attack on Shamyl’s stronghold, for which he received the order of St George. In 1846 he assisted ​Fieldmarshal Paskievich to suppress the Cracow rising. From 1848 to 1856 he took a leading part in all the chief military events in the Caucasus, his most notable exploits being his victory at Mezeninsk in 1850 and his operations against Shamyl at Chechen. His energetic and at the same time systematic tactics inaugurated a new era of mountain warfare. On the 6th of January 1853 he was appointed adjutant-general and, on July 5th of the same year, chief of the staff. In 1854 he took part in the brilliant Kürük Dere campaign. On the 1st of January 1856 he became commander-in-chief of the Caucasian army, and, subsequently, governor of the Caucasus. As an administrator he showed himself fully worthy of his high reputation. Within three years of his appointment, the whole of the eastern Caucasus was subdued and the long elusive Shamyl was taken captive. Baryatinsky also conquered many of the tribes of the western Caucasus dwelling between the rivers Laba and Byelaya. For these fresh services he was created a fieldmarshal. But his health was now entirely broken by his strenuous labours, and on the 6th of December 1862 he was, at his own request, relieved of his post. He spent the last days of his life abroad and died at Geneva, after forty-eight years of active service.
See A. L. Zisserman, Fieldmarshal Prince A. I. Baryatinski (Russ.) (Moscow, 1888–1891).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Barèges

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​BARÈGES, a town of south-western France, in the department of Hautes-Pyrénées, in the valley of the Bastan, 25 m. S.S.W. of Bagnères-de-Bigorre by road. The town, which is situated at an altitude of 4040 ft., is hardly inhabited in the winter. It is celebrated for its warm sulphurous springs (75° to 111° F.), which first became generally known in 1675 when they were visited by Madame de Maintenon and the duke of Maine, son of Louis XIV. The waters, which are used for drinking and in baths, are efficacious in the treatment of wounds and ulcers and in cases of scrofula, gout, skin diseases, &c. There is a military hospital, founded in 1760. The town was formerly much exposed to avalanches and floods, which are now less frequent owing to the construction of embankments and replanting of the hillsides. It is a centre for mountain excursions. The light silk and wool fabric called barège takes its name from the place, where it was first made.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Barwani

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​BARWANI, a native state of India, in the Bhopawar agency in central India. It lies in the Satpura mountains, south of the Nerbudda. Area, 1178 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 76,136. Many of the inhabitants are Bhils. The chief, whose title is Rana, is a Rajput of the Sisodhyia clan, connected with the Udaipur family. Though the family lost most of its possessions during the Mahratta invasion in the 14th century, it never became tributary to any Malwa chief. The forests are under an English official. The town of Barwani is situated near the left bank of the Nerbudda. The population in 1901 was 6277.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Landsberg am Lech

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​LANDSBERG AM LECH, a town in the kingdom of Bavaria, on the river Lech, 38 m. by rail W. by S. of Munich. Pop. (1905) 6505. It has eight Roman Catholic churches, among them the Liebfrauen Kirche dating from 1498, several monasteries, and a fine medieval town-hall, with frescoes by Karl von Piloty and a painting by Hubert von Herkomer. Here also are a fine gateway, the Bayer-Tor, an agricultural and other schools. Brewing, tanning and the manufacture of agricultural machinery are among the principal industries.
See Schober, Landsberg am Lech und Umgebung (1902); and Zwerger, Geschichte Landsbergs (1889).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Landsknecht

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​LANDSKNECHT, a German mercenary foot-soldier of the 16th century. The name (German for “man of the plains”) was given to mark the contrast between the force of these ​soldiers, formed by the emperor Maximilian I. about the end of the 15th century, and the Swiss, the “men of the mountains,” at that time the typical mercenary infantry of Europe. After the battles of Marignan and Pavia, where the military reputation of the Swiss had been broken, the Swabian landsknechte came to be considered the best fighting troops in Europe. Though primarily a German force and always the mainstay of imperial armies, they served in organized bodies as mercenaries elsewhere in Europe; in France they fought for the League and for the Protestants indiscriminately. In fact landsknecht, and more particularly its French corruption lansquenet, became in western Europe a general term for mercenary foot-soldiers. It is owing to the lange Spiesse (long pike or lance), the typical weapon with which they were armed, that the corrupted French form, as well as a German form, lanzknecht, and an English “lance-knight” came into use.
The landsknechts were raised by colonels (Oberst), to whom the emperor issued recruiting commissions corresponding to the English “indents”; they were organized in regiments made up of a colonel, lieut.-colonel and regimental staff, with a varying number of companies, “colours” (Fähnlein), commanded by captains (Hauptmann); subaltern officers were lieutenants and ensigns (Fähnrich). In thus defining the titles and duties of each rank, and in almost every detail of regimental customs and organization, discipline and interior economy, the landsknechts may be considered as the founders of the modern military system on a regimental basis (see further Army).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Landskrona

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​LANDSKRONA, a seaport of Sweden, on the east side of the Sound, 15 m. N.E. of Copenhagen. Pop. (1900) 14,399. The harbour is excellent, giving a depth of 35 ft., with 15 ft. beside the quays. The town is among the first twelve manufacturing centres of Sweden in value of output, the principal industries being tanning and sugar manufacture and refining from beetroot. On the little island of Hven, immediately opposite the town, Tycho Brahe built his famous subterranean observatory of Uranienborg in the second half of the 16th century. Landskrona, originally called Landora or Landör, owed its first importance to King Erik XIII., who introduced a body of Carmelite monks from Germany in 1410, and bestowed on the place the privileges of a town. During the wars of the 16th and 17th centuries it played too conspicuous a part for its own prosperity. On the 24th of July 1677 a great naval battle was fought in the neighbourhood in which the Swedes defeated the Danes.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Landsberg Bei Halle

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​LANDSBERG BEI HALLE, a town in Prussia on the Strengbach, on the railway from Berlin to Weissenfels. Pop. (1905) 1770. Its industries include quarrying and malting, and the manufacture of sugar and machinery. Landsberg was the capital of a small margraviate of this name, ruled in the 12th century by a certain Dietrich, who built the town. Later it belonged to Meissen and to Saxony, passing to Prussia in 1814.