# Primary Lessons in Swatow Grammar/Introduction
## INTRODUCTION.
### Sounds of the Letters.

| a as in palm, | e.g. pá, full. |
| e as„ in„ met, | e.g.„ mé, quick. |
| i as„ in„ machine, | e.g.„ sîn, god. |
| o not final or followed by h as in no, | e.g.„ mông, touch. |
| o final or followed by h as in born, | e.g.„ bó, mother. |
| u like oo in boon, | e.g.„ bûn, literary. |
| ṳ nearly as in turn, or more exactly as eu in French heure, | e.g.„ tṳ, pig. |
| ai as in aisle, | e.g.„ lâi, come. |
| au like ou in house, | e.g.„ lãu, old. |
| oa as in boa, | e.g.„ tōa, large. |
| oi, as„ in„ going, | e.g.„ õi, able. |
| ou like o in no, | e.g.„ lōu, road. |
| ua as in dual, but with second part more distinct, | e.g.„ múa, full. |
| uai like ui in quire, with„ second„ part„ more„ | e.g.„ kùai, strange. |
| ue as in fluent, with„ second„ part„ more„ | e.g.„ būe, not yet. |
| ui as„ in„ fluid, with„ second„ part„ more„ | e.g.„ múi, handsome. |
| ch nearly as in chin, but with less aspiration, | e.g.„ chin, truth. |
| chh with strong aspiration, | e.g.„ chhin, relatives. |
| g as in go, | e.g.„ gōu, hinder. |
| h initial as in hand, | e.g.„ hãn, limit. |
| h final marks an explosive sound in certain words all of which are in the ji̍p tones, | e.g.„ po̍h, thin. |
| j nearly as in June, | e.g.„ jūn, tough. |
| k nearly„ as„ in„ keep, but without aspiration | e.g.„ ki̍p, concerning. |
| kh with strong aspiration, | e.g.„ khéng, willing. |
| l as in lamb, | e.g.„ lâm, south. |
| m as„ in„ man, | e.g.„ mān, slow. |
| n as„ in„ no, | e.g.„ nôu, child. |
| p nearly as in pang, but without aspiration, | e.g.„ pâng, room. |
| ph with strong aspiration, | e.g.„ phâng, sail, |
| s as in sun, | e.g.„ sũn, obey. |
| t nearly as in tan, but without aspiration, | e.g.„ tán, wait. |
| th with strong aspiration, | e.g.„ thàn, earn. |
| ⁿ represents a strongly marked nasal, | e.g.„ kiáⁿ, child. |
​Special attention is called to the sounds represented by ṳ, j, ch, chh, k, kh, ph, t, and th which have no exact equivalents in English. The k, p, and t, should be pronounced without even the slight aspiration to be detected in English. The exact sounds must be learned from a good teacher. Of the vowels it may be said in general, that their quantity is longer than that of vowels in English words.

### The Tones.

The tones are all-important. The proper use of them is indisensable in order to be understood. They can be learned correctly from the living teacher only.
Originally there were but four tones, known as,

#### Phêⁿ-siaⁿ,

    even tone.

#### Siãng-siaⁿ,

    rising tone.

#### Khṳ̀-siaⁿ,

    departing tone.

#### Ji̍p-siaⁿ,

    entering tone.
In the course of time, modifications were introduced, and four more tones came to be added, making eight in all,—the number now used.

#### Chiēⁿ-phêⁿ,

    upper even.

#### Ẽ-phêⁿ,

    lower even.

#### Chiēⁿ-siãng,

    upper rising.

#### Ẽ-siãng,

    lower rising.

#### Chiēⁿ-khṳ̀,

    upper departing.

#### Ẽ-khṳ̀,

    lower departing.

#### Chiēⁿ-ji̍p,

    upper entering.

#### Ẽ-ji̍p,

    lower entering.
These are illustrated in the diagram on the next page. At the corners of the small squares are indicated the Chinese mode of marking tones. Within the square is given a sample Chinese character to aid the learner when asking the teacher the tone of any particular word or character. Below the squares are the names of the Chinese tones above represented, and the marks by which they are indicated in this book, These are the same as those used in Mr. Duffus’ Vocabulary. The nomenclature is similar to that used in Miss Fielde‘s Dictionary.
| ꜀天 | ꜂子 | 去꜅ | 出꜆ |
| thien. | chṳ́. | khṳ̀. | chhut. |
| heaven. | child. | go. | go out. |
| chiēⁿ-phêⁿ. | chiēⁿ-siãng. | chiēⁿ-khṳ̀. | chiēⁿ-ji̍p. |
| or– | siãng-siaⁿ. | | |
| si | sí. | sì. | sih. |
| chha. | chhá. | chhà. | chhah. |
| ku. | kú. | kù. | kuh. |
| ko. | kó. | kò. | koh. |
| su. | sú. | sù. | (suh) |
| sṳ. | sṳ́. | sṳ̀. | (sṳh) |
| thi. | thí. | thì. | thih. |
| ꜁人 | 父꜅ | 地꜄ | 入꜇ |
| nâng. | pẽ. | tī. | ji̍p. |
| man. | father. | earth. | enter. |
| ẽ-phêⁿ. | ẽ-siãng. | ẽ-khṳ̀. | ẽ-ji̍p. |
| or–. | ẽ-khṳ̀. | khṳ̀-siaⁿ. | |
| sî. | sĩ. | sī. | si̍h. |
| chhâ. | (chhã) | (chhā) | chha̍h. |
| (kû) | kũ. | kū. | (ku̍h) |
| kô. | kõ. | (kō) | (ko̍h) |
| sû. | sũ. | (sū) | (su̍h) |
| sṳ̂. | sṳ̃. | sṳ̄. | (su̱̍h) |
| thî. | thĩ. | (thī) | (thi̍h) |
The number of syllables used in all the tones is comparatively few. Some are used in three, or four, or half a dozen only, and others, from the nature of their final letter, are used in two only, all of which is so much better for the learner.
A syllable having its own proper tone may also be spoken with or without an aspirate, with or without a nasal, or with one or both combined, thus having a tone, a nasal, and an aspirate. The addition of a nasal, or an aspirate, or both, indicates an entirely different word, represented by an entirely different Chinese character, thus:—
| Ki — | khi — | kiⁿ — | khiⁿ. |
| Ta — | tha — | taⁿ — | thaⁿ. |
| Ke — | khe — | keⁿ — | kheⁿ. |
| Cha — | chha — | chaⁿ — | chhaⁿ. |
| Chi — | chhi — | chiⁿ — | chhiⁿ. |
In connection with the tones, attention must be given to the quantity of sound in the vowels. Not only must the word have the right pitch, but it must also have due quantity. There is a tendency in the foreign learner to lose sight of this. Consequently his tones are clipped or huddled together in utterance. This is a grave defect and increases the difficulty of being easily understood. In illustrating what is now to be said about vowel quantity I shall use the spelling of Goddard’s Vocabulary, which is well fitted for the purpose, omitting the tonal marks as not necessary to the illustration in hand, thus :—
| A Tiam, | spoken incorrectly as if it were | A Tem. |
| Tiang, | spoken„ incorrectly„ as„ if„ it „ were„ | tang. |
| Siang, | spoken„ incorrectly„ as„ if„ it „ were„ | sang. |
| Chiau, | spoken„ incorrectly„ as„ if„ it „ were„ | chau. |
| Chiu, | spoken„ incorrectly„ as„ if„ it „ were„ | chu. |
| Chiak, | spoken„ incorrectly„ as„ if„ it „ were„ | chak. ​ |
| Jiak, | spoken incorrectly as if it were | jak. |
| Hiang, | spoken„ incorrectly„ as„ if„ it„ were„ | hang. |
| Hiet, | spoken„ incorrectly„ as„ if„ it„ were„ | het. |
| Iong, | spoken„ incorrectly„ as„ if„ it„ were„ | yong. |
| I—u, | spoken„ incorrectly„ as„ if„ it„ were„ | you. |
| Io, | spoken„ incorrectly„ as„ if„ it„ were„ | yo. |
| Jio, | spoken„ incorrectly„ as„ if„ it„ were„ | jo. |
| Niam, | spoken„ incorrectly„ as„ if„ it„ were„ | nem. |
| Siu, | spoken„ incorrectly„ as„ if„ it„ were„ | Su. |
| Tien, | spoken„ incorrectly„ as„ if„ it„ were„ | ten. |
Now it is true that in certain words the Chinese themselves do make two sounds coalesce, as hiēn or hīn, chiang or chang, kièn or kìⁿ, chiũ or chũ. If the foreigner could limit himself to the Chinese usage it would be all well enough, but he makes sounds to coalesce which Chinese do not, and the peculiarity is instantly noticed.
The prevention of this defect is easy and simple. The learner should at the outset, among other things, take short lessons daily in the pronunciation of syllables. At such lessons the attention should be given to that one thing, regardless for the time, of either the shape or the meaning of the character. The object, at such times, should be to drill the ear to a quick apprehension, and the tongue to a correct utterance of the tones. Only it is required that the tones should be marked for the benefit of the eye, and for this reason, Mr. Goddard’s Vocabulary or Miss Fielde’s Dictionary would be specially serviceable. Let the teacher pronounce the syllables very slowly, one at a time in what the Chinese call khan-tn̂g-siaⁿ, a long drawn voice. When this is done the learner will discover how the sounds of different vowels in the same syllable are separated so as to make it practically a dissyllable. It will be noticed further how the sound of the middle vowel more especially, is prolonged in quantity. In giving a lesson the teacher may exaggerate this a little, and the pupil will need to follow him. But when he comes to speak in ordinary conversation he will not be at all likely to drawl too much, while he will escape the huddling objected to. Some examples are given in illustration. The vowel is repeated to indicate the prolongation,
| Bai, | prolonged thus — | bai-i. |
| Bi, | prolonged„ thus„ | bi-i. |
| Bie, | prolonged„ thus„ | bi-i-e. |
| Bu, | prolonged„ thus„ | bu-u. |
| Bua, | prolonged„ thus„ | bu-u-a. |
| Buan, | prolonged„ thus„ | bu-u-an. ​ |
| Bue, | prolonged thus — | bu-u-e. |
| Chia, | prolonged„ thus„ | chi-i-a. |
| Chiu, | prolonged„ thus„ | chi-i-u. |
| Chiang, | prolonged„ thus„ | chi-i-ang. |
| Chhim, | prolonged„ thus„ | chhi-i-m. |
| Ge, | prolonged„ thus„ | ge-e-e. |
| Goi, | prolonged„ thus„ | go-o-i. |
| Hiam, | prolonged„ thus„ | hi-i-am. |
| Hong, | prolonged„ thus„ | ho-o-ng,. |
| Hueⁿ, | prolonged„ thus„ | hu-u-eⁿ. |
| Huiⁿ, | prolonged„ thus„ | hu-u-iⁿ. |
| Iu, | prolonged„ thus„ | i-i-u. |
| Iuⁿ, | prolonged„ thus„ | iⁿ-iⁿ-uⁿ. |
| Kha, | prolonged„ thus„ | kh-a-a. |
| Kaⁿ, | prolonged„ thus„ | kaⁿ-aⁿ. |
| Kau, | prolonged„ thus„ | kau-au-au. |
| Khiong, | prolonged„ thus„ | khi-o-ong. |
| Kun, | prolonged„ thus„ | ku-u-n. |
| Liam, | prolonged„ thus„ | li-i-a-m. |
| Ngio, | prolonged„ thus„ | ngi-i-o. |
In the Tie-chiu dialect numerous variations are found to exist in pronunciation. Many of these are local and cannot be mentioned in detail. One class, however, prevails so extensively as to demand attention. The dialect as spoken at the Hu city and Thêng-hái is considered the more correct, and teachers from those regions are to be sought for and preferred. But in the large District across the Bay from Swatow known as Tiê-iêⁿ, or Tiô-iôⁿ as spoken by the people themselves, the divergencies of pronunciation are so marked that sometimes the first half dozen words used by a speaker will indicate to which side of the Bay he belongs.
Some of these variations are as follows :—
e is changed into au.

#### biē, a temple,

    is spoken as if it were biāu.

#### kiē, a sedan chair,

    spoken„ as if it„ were„ kiāu.

#### chie, to beckon,

    spoken„ as if it„ were„ chiau.

#### chhiêⁿ, a wall,

    spoken„ as if it„ were„ chhiâuⁿ.

#### hieⁿ, a village,

    spoken„ as if it„ were„ hiauⁿ. ​
ṳ is changed into a sound like oo.

#### chṳ̂, potatoes,

    is spoken as if it were chôo.

#### hṳ̂, fish,

    is„ spoken„ as if it„ were„ hôo.

#### khṳ̀, to go,

    is„ spoken„ as if it„ were„ khòo, or khà.

#### hṳ́, to accede,

    is„ spoken„ as if it„ were„ hóo,

#### sṳ̄, business,

    is„ spoken„ as if it„ were„ sōo.
oiⁿ is changed into aiⁿ.

#### hôiⁿ, to pay,

    is spoken as if it were hâiⁿ.

#### ôiⁿ, leisure,

    spoken„ as if it„ were„ âiⁿ.

#### koiⁿ, classifier of houses,

    spoken„ as if it„ were„ haiⁿ.

#### soiⁿ, before,

    spoken„ as if it„ were„ saiⁿ.
ou or au is changed into ow.

#### jiāu, to drive,

    is spoken as if it were jiōw.

#### miáuⁿ, obscure,

    spoken„ as if it„ were„ miów.

#### ngiau, a cat,

    spoken„ as if it„ were„ ngiow.

#### nôuⁿ, a child,

    spoken„ as if it„ were„ nôwⁿ.
In certain words i is inserted before o.

#### jo̍k, to disgrace,

    is spoken as if it were jio̍k.

#### tong, the middle

    spoken„ as if it„ were„ tiong.

#### so̍k, custom,

    spoken„ as if it„ were„ sio̍k.
ṳ is changed into i.

#### kṳn, a pound,

    is spoken as if it were kin.

#### ngṳ̂n, silver,

    spoken„ as if it„ were„ ngîn.

#### hṳ̃n, hatred,

    spoken„ as if it„ were„ hīn.
a or io is changed into e or we.

#### iông, splendor,

    is spoken as if it were wéng.

#### kuang, light,

    spoken„ as if it„ were„ kweng.

#### khuang, to subvert,

    spoken„ as if it„ were„ khweng.
u is changed into wa.

#### hun-hù, to enjoin,

    is spoken as if it were hwan-hù. ​Interchangeable Consonants.
Certain consonants in certain words are often interchanged, some Chinese using the one and some the other without appearing to notice the difference. Thus:—
l and n—initial.

#### lâm-pôiⁿ, or, nâm-pôiⁿ,

    south side.

#### lâm-nńg, or, nâm-nńg,

    male and female.
b and m—initial.

#### che̍k-buān, or, che̍k-muān,

    ten thousand.

#### kiâⁿ-bûa, or, kiâⁿ-mûa,

    step near.
t and k—final.

#### ta̍t-chîⁿ, or, ta̍k-chîⁿ,

    worth money.

#### sat-khang, or, sak-khang,

    stop up a hole.
ch and ts—initial.

#### taⁿ-chúi, or, taⁿ-tsúi,

    to carry water.

#### lo̍h-chûn, or, lo̍h-tsûn,

    to go into the boat.
g—final.
At the Hu City many words have g final which is often dropped elsewhere:—
In our Western languages it is found helpful to the memory of pupils learning to spell, to group together words having the same number of syllables and the same accentuation. The suggestion is made whether pupils in Chinese may not derive some help from grouping together double words, one or both of which have the same tone. A few examples are here presented, simply by way of illustration:-—

#### phîn-khiông,

    poor.

#### khî-khiû,

    to pray.

#### chhâi-chhêng,

    talents.

#### chhai-gî,

    doubt.

#### hêng-iông,

    appearance.

#### thiû-thú,

    to procrastinate.

#### chai-iang,

    calamities.

#### lú-tun,

    stupid.

#### eng-kai,

    ought.

#### hīⁿ-kau,

    ear-ring.

#### phêng-an,

    peace.

#### hīn-kim,

    now. ​

#### thiau-bú,

    to dance.

#### bûn-ngiá,

    elegant.

#### hong-hiám,

    dangerous.

#### huaⁿ-hí,

    delight.

#### khùang-iá,

    desert

#### khî-khá,

    dexterity.

#### húi-pãng,

    to slander.

#### miáu-sĩ,

    to despise.

#### tong-hõu,

    just.

#### kò-sõng,

    to prosecute.

#### uaⁿ-chẽⁿ,

    quiet.

#### heng-uãng,

    to prosper.

#### hêng-hua̍t,

    punish.

#### hâng-ho̍k,

    submit.

#### iú-ho̍k,

    to tempt.

#### chhut-la̍t,

    diligent.

#### ti̍t-ti̍t,

    direct.

#### hun-pie̍t,

    to discriminate.

#### lãu-tōa,

    old.

#### àu-biāu,

    profound.

#### iu-būn,

    sorrow.

#### tàⁿ-ūe,

    to speak.

#### kong-sṳ̄,

    public business.

#### pêⁿ-iēⁿ,

    the same.

#### hek-àm,

    darkness.

#### chhim-àu,

    deep.

#### chha-chhò,

    error.

#### hõng-hièn,

    to offer up.

#### hok-khì,

    blessedness.

#### heh-thò,

    to deter by threats.

#### khin-hut,

    to despise.

#### chũe-ak,

    wickedness.

#### ài-sieh,

    love.

#### chai-sek,

    knowledge.

#### chãu-chak,

    to make.

#### hiáng-hok,

    to enjoy prosperity.

#### im,

    a tone; the tone of a word.

#### chiàⁿ-im,

    the book or mandarin tone.

#### thóu-im; pe̍h-im,

    the local tone.

#### pńg-im,

    its own proper tone which a word has when spoken alone.

#### pièn-im; liên-im,

    the changed tone which a word has when in combination. Thus, in the Chinese word for wickedness, ok is the book pronunciation, ak is the thóu-im, or the local pronunciation. Ak (upper entering) is it own proper tone. Ak (lower entering) is the changed tone used in combination. e.g. ak-nâng, a bad man.

#### gṳ́; im-gṳ́,

    brogue; localisms in pronunciations or words.

#### i ũ lân-ló gṳ́,

    he has somewhat of a brogue.

#### Tiê-iêⁿ-gṳ́,

    Tie-ie pronunciation.

#### phîⁿ-im,

    nasal tone, as in piⁿ, tiⁿ, suaⁿ.

#### u-im; hoh-im,

    aspirated tone, as in thân, thi, chhi. There are some other distinctions in tone, a knowledge of which is not essential, but which are mentioned because they may be useful to the pupil in trying the better to understand his teacher.

#### tûn-im,

    labials, as in, bô, pí, pá.

#### khí-im,

    dentals, as in, si, chí, hí.

#### kauh-chi̍h-im,

    linguals made by bending the tongue, as in lo, la, lu. ​

#### that-chi̍h-im,

    linguals made by a thrust of the tongue, as in tek, tat, tak.

#### âu-im,

    gutterals, as in, hok, ek, ok.

#### ha̍p-kháu-im,

    tones made by shutting the mouth, as, m̄, kim, sim.

#### chí-kâi-im,

    this tone.

#### chhiáⁿ-tàⁿ-mān se-su,

    please speak more slowly a little.

#### lṳ́ sĩ tàⁿ-khah-mé,

    uá thiaⁿ-m̄-hīn, you speak too fast, I do not hear clearly.

#### chí-kâi-im tùi a-m̄-tùi?

    is this tone right or not?

#### chhiáⁿ-tàⁿ-tãng se-su,

    please speak it a little more heavily.

#### chhiá-tàⁿ-khin se-su,

    please speak it a little more lightly.

#### chí-kâi-jī sĩ-mih-im?

    what is the tone of this word?

#### chí-kâi-im sĩ-iâm a-sĩ-iám?

    is the tone of this word iâm or iám?

#### im—hó-khan-tn̂g se-su,

    the tone—draw it out a little.

#### chhiá-hó tha̍k-chò thóu-im,

    please read in colloquial tone.