OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Protocol

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​PROTOCOL (Fr. protocole, Late Lat. protocollum, from Gr. πρῶτος, first, and κολλᾶν, to glue, i.e. originally the first sheet of a papyrus roll), in diplomacy, the name given to a variety of written instruments. The protocollum was under the late Roman Empire a volume of leaves, bound together with glue, in which public acts were recorded, so as to guard against fraud or error on the part of those responsible for preparing them; and in later usage it came to be applied to the original drafts of such acts. Thus, too, the word prothocollare was devised for the process of drawing up public acts in authentic form (Du Cange, Glossarium lat. s.v. Protocollum). The use of the word protocollum for the introductory and other formulae in the medieval diploma (see Diplomatic) thus explains itself as implying a recorded usage in such matters.
In the language of modern diplomacy the name of “protocol” is given to the minutes (procès-verbaux) of the several sittings of a conference or congress; these, though signed by the plenipotentiaries present, have only the force of verbal engagements (see Congress). The name of “protocols” is also given to certain diplomatic instruments in which, without the form of a treaty or convention being adopted, are recorded the principles or the matters of detail on which an agreement has been reached, e.g. making special arrangements for carrying out the objects of previous treaties, defining these objects more clearly, interpreting the exact sense of a doubtful clause in a treaty (protocoles interpretatifs) and the like. Thus the famous Troppau protocol, which annunciated the right and duty of the European powers to intervene in the internal affairs of a state threatened with revolution, was from the point of view of its signatories merely a logical application of the principles contained in the treaty of the 20th of November 1815 (see Troppau). Occasionally also an agreement between two or more powers takes the form of a protocol, rather than a treaty, when the intention is to proclaim a community of views or aims without binding them to eventual common action in support of those views or aims; thus the settlement of the question of the Danish succession was recognized by the powers in conference at London, by the protocol of 1852 (see Schleswig-Holstein Question). Finally, “the protocol” (protocole diplomatique, protocole de chancellerie) is the body of ceremonial rules to be observed in all written or personal official intercourse between the heads of different states or their ministers. Thus the protocol lays down in great detail the styles and titles to be given to states, their heads, and their public ministers, and the honours to be paid to them; it also indicates the forms and customary courtesies to be observed in all international acts. “It is,” says M. Pradier-Fodéré, “the code of international politeness.”
See P. Pradier-Fodéré, Cours de droit diplomatique (Paris, 1899), ii. 499.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pouvillon, Émile

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​POUVILLON, ÉMILE (1840–1906), French novelist, was born at Montauban (Tarn et Garonne). He published in 1878 a collection of stories entitled Nouvelles réalistes. Making himself the chronicler of his native province of Quercy, he painted its scenery and its life with great clearness of outline and without exaggeration. His books include Césette (1881), the story of a peasant girl; L’Innocent (1884); Jean-de-Jeanne (1886); Le Cheval bleu (1888); Le Vœu d’etre chaste (1900); Chante-pleure (1890); Les Antibel (1892); Petites âmes (1893); Mademoiselle Clémence (1896); Pays et paysages (1895); Petites gens (1905); Bernadette de Lourdes (1894), a mystery; and Le Roi de Rome (1898), a play. He died at Chambéry.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Povoa de Varzim

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​POVOA DE VARZIM, a seaport of northern Portugal, in the district of Oporto; on a small and ill-sheltered bay, 18 m. N. of Oporto by the branch railway to Villa Nova de Familição. Pop. (1900), 12,623. In summer Povoa de Varzim is the most ​frequented sea-bathing resort in northern Portugal; it is also the headquarters of important sardine, hake, and sea-bream fisheries.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Powder

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​POWDER (through O. Fr. puldre, modern poudre, from Lat. pulvis, pulveris, dust), the small loose particles into which solid matter is disintegrated by such processes as grinding, crushing, pounding, &c., hence any preparation which takes the form of such loose uncompacted particles, the most familiar example of such preparation being that of gunpowder (q.v.). Many powders are found in medical uses, some of which have retained the name of their inventor, such as the compound powder of rhubarb, “ Gregory powder,” named after a Scottish doctor, James Gregory (1758–1822). Various preparations in form of powder are used for toilet purposes. During the period when the hair or wig was worn “ powdered ” or whitened, houses had a special room set apart for the process, known as the powdering-room or closet. In some birds, such as the herons, certain down-feathers or plumulae break off into a fine dust as fast as they are formed and form tracts defined in size and situation and known as “ powder-down patches.”
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Powell, George

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​POWELL, GEORGE (c. 1658~1714), English actor and playwright, was the son of an actor of the same name (d. c. 1698), with whom, as the king of Bakarn, he first appeared in 1687, as Emanuel in The Island Princess, Tate's version of Fletcher's play. He wrote or adapted Alphonso, King of Naples (1661), Treacherous Brothers (1676), and Very Good Wife (1693), and acted in them and in a long list of contemporary plays almost until his death. As a tragedian he succeeded to many of Betterton's parts, but not to his genius.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Powell, John Wesley

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​POWELL, JOHN WESLEY (1834-1902), Americangeologist and ethnologist, was born at Mount Morris, New York, on the 24th of March 1834. His parents were of English birth, but had moved to America in 1830, and' he was educated at Illinois and Oberlin colleges. When the Civil War broke out he entered the Union Army as a private, and at the battle of Shiloh he lost his right arm. He continued, however, on active service and served as division chief of artillery before Vicksburg, reaching the rank of major of volunteers. In 1865 he was appointed professor of geology and curator of the museum in the Illinois Wesleyan University at Bloomington, and afterwards at the Normal University. In 1867 he commenced a series of expeditions to the Rocky Mountains and the canyons of the Green and Colorado rivers, during the course of which (1869) he made a daring boat journey of three months, through the Grand Canyon, the river channel not having previously been explored. In these travels he gathered much valuable information on the geology, and he also made a special study of the Indians and their languages. His able Work led to the establishment under the U.S. government of the geographical and geological survey of the Rocky Mountain region with which he was occupied in 1870-1879. This survey, with those of Ferdinand Hayden (1829-1887) and Captain George M. Wheeler (b. 1842) was incorporated with the United States Geological and Geographical Survey under Clarence King (1842-1901) in 1879, when Powell became director of the Bureau of Ethnology, a department he had assisted in founding. On King's resignation in 1881, Powell was appointed director also of the Geological Survey, a post which he occupied until 1894. To him the present thorough organization of the U.S. Geological Survey is largely due.
His principal publications were Exploration of the Colorado River of the West and its Tributaries (1875), Report on the Geology of the Eastern Portion of the Uinta Mountains (1876), Report on the Lands of the Arid Region of the United S totes (1879), Introduction to the Study of Indian Languages (1880), Canyons of the Colorado (1895), Truth and Error (1898). Especially important were his observations on what is now termed the “Uinta type” of mountain structure: a broad, flattened anticline, from which the strata descend steeply into bordering low grounds and quickly resume their horizontality-being sometimes faulted, and affording evidence of enormous denudation. He died in Haven, Maine, on the 23rd of September 1902.
See F. S. Dellenbaugh, Romance of the Colorado River (New York, 19053, and Canyon Voyage: Second Powell Expedition (New York, 1908).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Powell, Vavasor

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​POWELL, VAVASOR (1617-1670), Welsh Nonconformist, was by birth a Radnorshire man and was educated at Jesus College, Oxford. About 1639 he entered upon the career of an itinerant preacher, and for preaching in various parts of Wales he was twice arrested in 1640; however, he was not punished and during the Civil War he preached in and around London. In 1646, when the victory of the parliamentary cause was assured, Powell returned to Wales, having received a certificate of character from the Westminster Assembly, although he had refused to be ordained by the Presbyterians. With a salary granted to him by parliament he resumed his itinerant preaching in Wales. In IOSO parliament appointed a commission “for the better propagation and preaching of the gospel in Wales, ” and Powell acted as one of the principal advisers of this body. For three years he was actively employed in removing from their parishes those ministers whom he regarded as incompetent. In 1653 he returned to London, and having denounced Cromwell for accepting the office of Lord Protector he was imprisoned. At the Restoration in 1660 he was arrested for preaching, and after a short period of freedom he was again seized, and he remained in prison for seven years. He was set free in 1667, but in the following year he was again a prisoner, and he was in custody when he died on the 27th of October 1670. Powell wrote several treatises and also some hymns, but his chief gifts were those of a preacher.
See The Life and Death of Mr Vavasor Powell (1671), attributed to Edward Bagshaw the younger; Vovasoris Examen et Purgarrlen (1654), by E. Allen and others; D. Neal, History of the Puritans (1822); and T. Rees, History of Protestant Nonconforrnity in Wales 1861
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Povindah

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​POVINDAH, a class of warrior nomadic traders in Afghanistan, who belong chiefly to the Nasir and Suliman Kuel tribes of Ghilzais. Their name, which designates their occupation, is derived from the same root as the Pushtu word for “to graze.” They are almost wholly engaged in the carrying trade between India and Afghanistan and Central Asia. They assemble every autumn in the plains east of Ghazni, with their families, flocks, herds and long strings of camels and horses, laden with the goods of Bokhara and Kandahar; and forming caravans march through the Kakar and Waziri countries by the Zhob and Gomal passes of the Suliman hills. Entering Dera Ismail Khan district about October they leave their families and flocks, their arms and some two-thirds of their fighting men in the great grazing grounds which lie on either side of the Indus, and while some wander in search of employment, others pass on with their merchandise to the great cities of India, and even by rail as far as Calcutta, Karachi and Bombay. In the spring they again assemble, and return by the same route to their homes in the hills about Ghazni and Kalat-i-Ghilzai. When the hot season begins, the men, leaving their belongings 'behind them, move off again to Kandahar, Herat and Bokhara, with the Indian and European merchandise which they have brought from Hindustan. For generations the Waziris have carried on war to the knife with these merchant traders. To meet the opposition that awaited them on the road the Povindahs used to move heavily armed, in bodies of from 5000 to 10,000, and regular marches and encampments were observed under an elected khan or leader. But since the Gomal Pass was taken over by the British and opened up in 1889 there has been comparative security on the border. During the Second Afghan War the tribes on the Tank border were stirred up by emissaries from Kabul, and the Suliman Khel joined the Mahsud Waziris in their daring raid on the town of Tank in January 1879. Colonel Boisragon, who commanded at Dera Ismail Khan, moved out against the Povindah settlements in the mouth of the Gomal Pass and severely punished them. The Povindahs paid a fine of nearly Rs. 60,000 (£6000), and agreed that in future their migratory bands should be disarmed on their entry into British territory, their Weapons to be deposited in a military arsenal, and returned to their owners when they again crossed the border.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Powell, Frederick York

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​POWELL, FREDERICK YORK (1850–1904), English historian and scholar, was born in Bloomsbury, London, on the 14th of January 1850. Much of his childhood was spent in France and Spain, so that he early acquired a mastery of the language of both countries and an insight into the genius of the people. He was educated at Rugby School, and matriculated at Oxford as an unattached student, subsequently joining Christ Church, where he took a first-class in law and modern history in 1872. He was called to the bar at the Middle Temple in 1874, and married in the same year. He became law-lecturer and tutor of Christ Church, fellow of Oriel College, delegate of the Clarendon Press, and in 1894 he was made regius professor of modern history in succession to J. A. Froude. Although he never made any extensive contribution to history, he was a particularly stimulating teacher. He had been attracted in his school days to the study of Scandinavian history and literature, and he was closely allied with Professor Gudbrandt Vigfússon (d. 1889), whom he assisted in his Icelandic Prose Reader (1897), Corpus poeticum boreale (1887), Origines islandicae (1905), and in the editing of the Grimm Centenary papers (1886). He took a keen interest in the development of modern French poetry, and Verlaine, Mallarmé and Verhaeren all lectured at Oxford under his auspices. He was also a connoisseur in japanese art. In politics his sympathies were with the oppressed of all nationalities; he had befriended refugees after the Commune, counting among his friends Jules Vallès the author of Les Réfractaires; and he was also a friend of Stepniak and his circle. He died at Oxford on the 8th of May 1904.
See the Life, with letters and selections, by Oliver Elton (1906).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pout

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​POUT, also whiting-pout or bib (Gads luscious), a fish of the family Gadidae. It is a small species abundant on the coasts of northern and western Europe, but less so in the Mediterranean. It is distinguished from other species of the genus Gadus by having a deep short body, with more or less distinct dark bars; a short and obtuse snout, not longer than the eye; the upper jaw the longer; and a long barbel at the chin. A black spot occupies the upper part of the base of the pectoral fin. Pout affect certain localities of limited extent, where a number may be caught with hook and line. They are excellent food, but must be eaten soon after capture. A pout of 5 lb is considered a very large specimen.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/May, William

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​MAY, or Mey(e), WILLIAM (d. 1560), English divine, was the brother of John May, bishop of Carlisle. He was educated at Cambridge, where he was a fellow of Trinity Hall, and in 1537, president of Queen’s College. May heartily supported the Reformation, signed the Ten Articles in 1536, and helped in the production of The Institution of a Christian Man. He had close connexion with the diocese of Ely, being ​successively chancellor, vicar-general and prebendary. In 1545 he was made a prebendary of St Paul’s, and in the following year dean. His favourable report on the Cambridge colleges saved them from dissolution. He was dispossessed during the reign of Mary, but restored to the deanery on Elizabeth’s accession. He died on the day of his election to the archbishopric of York.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mayen

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​MAYEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province, on the northern declivity of the Eifel range, 16 m. W. from Coblenz, on the railway Andernach-Gerolstein. Pop. (1905), 13,435. It is still partly surrounded by medieval walls, and the ruins of a castle rise above the town. There are some small industries, embracing textile manufactures, oil mills and tanneries, and a trade in wine, while near the town are extensive quarries of basalt. Having been a Roman settlement, Mayen became a town in 1291. In 1689 it was destroyed by the French.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mayaguez

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​MAYAGUEZ, the third largest city of Porto Rico, a seaport, and the seat of government of the department of Mayaguez, on the west coast, at the mouth of Rio Yaguez, about 72 m. W. by S. of San Juan. Pop. of the city (1899), 15,187, including 1381 negroes and 4711 of mixed races; (1910), 16,591; of the municipal district, 35,700 (1899), of whom 2687 were negroes and 9933 were of mixed races. Mayaguez is connected by the American railroad of Porto Rico with San Juan and Ponce, and it is served regularly by steamboats from San Juan, Ponce and New York, although its harbour is not accessible to vessels drawing more than 16 ft. of water. It is situated at the foot of Las Mesas mountains and commands picturesque views. The climate is healthy and good water is obtained from the mountain region. From the shipping district along the water-front a thoroughfare leads to the main portion of the city, about 1 m. distant. There are four public squares, in one of which is a statue of Columbus. Prominent among the public buildings are the City Hall (containing a public library), San Antonio Hospital, Roman Catholic churches, a Presbyterian church, the court-house and a theatre. The United States has an agricultural experiment station here, and the Insular Reform School is 1 m. south of the city. Coffee, sugar-cane and tropical fruits are grown in the surrounding country; and the business of the city consists chiefly in their export and the import of flour. Among the manufactures are sugar, tobacco and chocolate. Mayaguez was founded about the middle of the 18th century on the site of a hamlet which was first settled about 1680. It was incorporated as a town in 1836, and became a city in 1873. In 1841 it was nearly all destroyed by fire.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mayavaram

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​MAYAVARAM, a town of British India, in the Tanjore district of Madras, on the Cauvery river; junction on the South Indian railway, 174 m. S.W. of Madras. Pop. (1901), 24,276. It possesses a speciality of fine cotton and silk cloth, known as Kornad from the suburb in which the weavers live. During October and November the town is the scene of a great pilgrimage to the holy waters of the Cauvery.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Maybole

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​MAYBOLE, a burgh of barony and police burgh of Ayrshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901), 5892. It is situated 9 m. S. of Ayr and 501/4 m. S.W. of Glasgow by the Glasgow & South-Western railway. It is an ancient place, having received a charter from Duncan II. in 1193. In 1516 it was made a burgh of regality, but for generations it remained under the subjection of the Kennedys, afterwards earls of Cassillis and marquesses of Ailsa, the most powerful family in Ayrshire. Of old Maybole was the capital of the district of Carrick, and for long its characteristic feature was the family mansions of the barons of Carrick. The castle of the earls of Cassillis still remains. The public buildings include the town-hall, the Ashgrove and the Lumsden fresh-air fortnightly homes, and the Maybole combination poorhouse. The leading manufactures are of boots and shoes and agricultural implements. Two miles to the south-west are the ruins of Crossraguel (Cross of St Regulus) Abbey, founded about 1240. Kirkoswald, where Burns spent his seventeenth year, learning land-surveying, lies a little farther west. In the parish churchyard lie “Tam o’ Shanter” (Douglas Graham) and “Souter Johnnie” (John Davidson). Four miles to the west of Maybole on the coast is Culzean Castle, the chief seat of the marquess of Ailsa, dating from 1777; it stands on a basaltic cliff, beneath which are the Coves of Culzean, once the retreat of outlaws and a resort of the fairies. Farther south are the ruins of Turnberry Castle, where Robert Bruce is said to have been born. A few miles to the north of Culzean are the ruins of Dunure Castle, an ancient stronghold of the Kennedys.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/May, Phil

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​MAY, PHIL (1864–1903), English caricaturist, was born at Wortley, near Leeds, on the 22nd of April 1864, the son of an engineer. His father died when the child was nine years old, and at twelve he had begun to earn his living. Before he was fifteen he had acted as time-keeper at a foundry, had tried to become a jockey, and had been on the stage at Scarborough and Leeds. When he was about seventeen he went to London with a sovereign in his pocket. He suffered extreme want, sleeping out in the parks and streets, until he obtained employment as designer to a theatrical costumier. He also drew posters and cartoons, and for about two years worked for the St Stephen’s Review, until he was advised to go to Australia for his health. During the three years he spent there he was attached to the Sydney Bulletin, for which many of his best drawings were made. On his return to Europe he went to Paris by way of Rome, where he worked hard for some time before he appeared in 1892 in London to resume his interrupted connexion with the St Stephen’s Review. His studies of the London “guttersnipe” and the coster-girl rapidly made him famous. His overflowing sense of fun, his genuine sympathy with his subjects, and his kindly wit were on a par with his artistic ability. It was often said that the extraordinary economy of line which was a characteristic feature of his drawings had been forced upon him by the deficiencies of the printing machines of the Sydney Bulletin. It was in fact the result of a laborious process which involved a number of preliminary sketches, and of a carefully considered system of elimination. His later work included some excellent political portraits. He became a regular member of the staff of Punch in 1896, and in his later years his services were retained exclusively for Punch and the Graphic. He died on the 5th of August 1903.
There was an exhibition of his drawings at the Fine Arts Society in 1895, and another at the Leicester Galleries in 1903. A selection of his drawings contributed to the periodical press and from Phil May’s Annual and Phil May’s Sketch Books, with a portrait and biography of the artist, entitled The Phil May Folio, appeared in 1903.