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# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Guido Reni

From volume 12 of the work.
Italian painter, b. at Calvenzano near Bologna, 4 Nov., 1575; d. at Bologna, 18 Aug. 1642. At one time a memoir of Guido would have exalted him to the very highest position, especially if it had been written in England, for his works were very much in demand among art connoisseurs. His pictures fetched vast sums, and were held in the highest esteem by the collectors who knew nothing of and cared less for the works of the earlier Italian painters such as Gentile da Fabriano and Fra Angelico. Now for the time the works of this great craftsman are under a cloud, and his extraordinary powers of composition and conception, and his skill of draughtsmanship, are in danger of being overlooked by reason of an entire change of fashion. In his early days he was a colourist of great purity, a composer with dramatic force, regarded as one of the greatest masters of his time, and surrounded by pupils; but later on, his very success proved his undoing, and the pictures of his maturity and old age, though marked by facility and skill, evidence a certain monotonous melodrama and a thinness of impasto which has not tended to their permanency.
He was educated first by Calvaert, later on with the Carracci, and for a while with Ferrantini. He worked with Annibale Carracci in Rome, assisted in the decoration of the Farnese Palace, the Quirinal Palace, several of the churches of Rome, and a chapel for the Borghese family, but his greatest painting in that city is undoubtedly the ceiling decoration of the Palazzo Rospigliosi - Phoebus and the Hours preceded by Aurora. He painted also in Bologna, and commenced what probably would have been his masterpiece in Naples. His works can be studied in Dresden, St. Petersburg, Genoa, Vienna, and especially in England, as many of the famous houses of that country, such as Stafford House, Bridgwater House, Lowther Castle, Blair Castle, Kingston Lacy, Burghley House, Alton Towers, Charlton Park, Cobham Park, Narford Hall, and Windsor Castle, contain important works by him, while in Italy we find his paintings in Lucca, Milan, Modena, Padua, Pisa, Perugia, Ravenna, Siena, Turin, Venice, and elsewhere. He was a man of great energy, but unfortunately of considerable self-conceit, and of prodigious activity. He was a skilful engraver and etcher; he worked in silver point and in pastel, painted ceilings and walls in fresco, and numberless panel pictures. In his own time he was perhaps the most popular artist in Italy, and in the eighteenth century occupied a similar position in England. Presently his work will be more appreciated for its own sake than it has been, his faults will be more clearly noticed, and his excellencies have a greater value. Our principal source of information respecting him is a MS. by Oretti in the library in Bologna, from which all authors have taken materials, but it has never itself been printed. There are at present two books in hand on this painter, but neither of them are sufficiently complete to be worth quoting.
GEORGE CHARLES WILLIAMSON
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Guido de Baysio

From volume 2 of the work.
(Baisio)
An Italian canonist, b. about the middle of the thirteenth century of a noble Ghibelline family; d. at Avignon, 10 August, 1313. The probable place of his birth is Reggio, where he also studied law under Guido de Suzaria. Here he became, successively, doctor and professor of canon law and also obtained an ecclesiastical benefice as canon. Gerhard, Bishop of Parma, attached him to himself and remained his patron also as Cardinal-Archbishop of Sabina (d. 1301). To this patron Baysio dedicated his chief work, a commentary on the "Decretum" of Gratian, which he wrote about the year 1300 and entitled "Rosarium". It is an excellent collection of older glossaries, not contained in the "Glossa Ordinaria", and principally compiled from Huguccio. Many additions to the glossary which are found in the editions, published since 1505 (Paris), are taken from the "Rosarium" of Baysio and appear over his name.
In 1296 Pope Boniface VIII appointed Baysio Archdeacon of Bologna and chancellor of the celebrated university in that city. Here he at first taught canon law privately and later on became a public professor, which position he held for three years. Called to Avignon in 1304 he retained the dignity of archdeacon, held the office of papal chaplain, and also served in the Apostolic chancery until his death. His stay at Avignon was marked by several literary productions. Here he wrote an accurate and complete, but rather diffuse, commentary on the Liber Sextus and also a "Tractatus super haeresi et aliis criminibus in causa Templariorum et D. Bonifacii". This latter work was written in connection with the condemnation of the Templars at the Council of Vienne. The second part of the work constitutes a defence of the orthodoxy of Boniface VIII, and is published in Mansi, "Coll. Sacr. Concil.", XXV (Venice, 1782), 415-426. Having held the position of archdeacon, Baysio is often known by the name Archidiaconus and thus quoted (see Ferraris, Bibliotheca, Rome, 1892), VIII, 271. His chief work, the "Rosarium", has gone through many editions: Strasburg, 1472; Rome, 1477; Venice, 1480; 1513; 1601, etc. The "Apparatus ad Sextum", Milan, 1480; Venice, 1577.
Schulte, Geschichte der Quellen u. Litteratur des kan. Rechts (Stuttgart, 1875), II, 186-190; Hurter, Nomenclator (Innsbruck, 1899), IV, 413; Scherer in Kirchenlex., II, s. v.
LEO GANS
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Publius Helvius Pertinax

From volume 11 of the work.
Roman Emperor (31 Dec., 192), b. at Alba Pompeia, in Luguria, 1 August, 126; d. at Rome 28 March, 193. A freedman's son, he taught grammar at Rome before entering the army. Because of his military ability and his competence in civil positions, he was made prætor and consul. His services in the campaign against Avidius Cassius led Marcus Aurelius to give Pertinax the chief command of the army along the Danube, a position he filled with such distinction that Marcus Aurelius made him successively governor of Mœ;sia, Dacia, and Syria.
Commodus first made him commander-in-chief of the troops in Britain, then appointed him governor in Africa, and finally made him prefect of the city of Rome. On account of a conspiracy against Commodus many innocent persons, including Pertinax, were banished. After the strangling of Commodus, Pertinax was proclaimed emperor by the soldiers at the suggestion of Lætus, prefect of the prætorian guard. Pertinax had himself elected as head of the State once more by the senators and revived the title "Princeps Senatus"; on the first day of his reign he assumed the title "Pater Patriæ". Pertinax strove to restore order in the administration of the State. By selling at auction the costly furniture and plate of Commodus and by a frugal administration, before three months he was able to make gifts of money to the people and give to the prætorian guard the promised largess. He also was able to resume public works. He separated public lands from those belonging to the emperor, endeavoured to bring about the resettling of deserted estates, to recall those arbitrarily banished, and to bring informers to trial. He refused the title of Augusta for his wife, or that of Cæsar for his son until he had earned the honour. When the prætorians saw that the emperor meant to restore the ancient discipline and when the prefect Lætus noticed that he strove to limit his own influence, he aroused the soldiers of the guard against the emperor. After suppressing the revolt of the consul, Sossius Falco, Pertinax declined to put him to death, though the Senate had decreed his execution. Several prætorians were suspected of being members of the conspiracy; Lætus had these put to death without any trial and made the soldiers believe that it was done by imperial command. The prætorians now resolved to depose Pertinax. One evening a mob of about two hundred soldiers went to the palace to murder the emperor. The latter came out to them without arms in the hope of quieting them by his personal influence. His words impressed the mutineers and they put their swords back in the scabbards, when suddenly a Tongrian cavalryman fell upon Pertinax and stabbed him in the breast. This incited the others who fell upon Pertinax; the emperor's head was put on a lance and carried through the streets of the city to the camp. Severus, the second successor of Pertinax, deified him.
SCHILLER, Gesch. der röm. Kaiserzeit, I, pt. II (Gotha, 1883); VON DOMASZEWSKI, Gesch. der röm. Kaiser (Leipzig, 1909).
KARL HOEBER.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Ptolemais (Saint-Jean d'Acre)

From volume 12 of the work.
Ptolemais (Saint Jean d'Acre), a titular metropolis in Phoenicia Prima, or Maritima. The city of Acre, now Saint-Jean d'Acre, was called Ptolemais in 281 or 267 B. C., by Ptolemy II, surnamed Philadelphus, and since then this name has subsisted conjointly with the primitive one, at least as the official name. Quite early it possessed a Christian community visited by St. Paul (Acts, xxi, 7). The first bishops known are: Clarus, present about 190 at a council held concerning the observance of Easter; Æneas, at Nicæa, 325, and at Antioch, 341; Nectabus at Constantinople, 381; Antiochus, friend and later adversary of St. John Chrysostom, and author of some lost works; Helladius at Ephesus, 431; Paul at Antioch, 445, and at Chalcedon, 451; John in 518; George at Constantinople, 553 (Le Quien, "Oriens christianus", II, 813). The see was a suffragan of Tyre, which then depended on the Patriarchate of Antioch. With the Latin conquest the province of Tyre was attached to the Patriarchate of Jerusalem. Latin bishops resided there, and a list of them from 1133 to 1263 may be found in Eubel (Hier. Cath. med. ævi, I, 66). From this date to the taking of the city by the Arabs in 1291 the bishopric was governed by the Patriarch of Jerusalem. Concerning the titular bishops up to 1592 see Eubel, op. cit., I, also II, 88; III, 105. The official list of the Roman Curia (Rome, 1884) does not mention Ptolemais as a bishopric, but it may have been known as an archbishopric. The Greeks elevated the see to the rank of metropolitan depending on the Patriarchate of Jerusalem. This occurred before 1672, when Joasaph, present at the Council of Jerusalem, was qualified as metropolitan; the same conditions now exist. The Melkite, or Greek, metropolis numbers 10,000 faithful, 36 priests, 30 churches or chapels, 17 schools, 3 orphanages, and a monastery of 23 monks. There is a Latin parish directed by the Franciscans, a hospital, school for boys, the Ladies of Nazareth with a school, and a Protestant school and hospital of the Church Missionary Society.
VAILHÉ in Dict. d'hist. et de géog. eccl. (Paris, 1910), s. v. Acre, Saint-Jean d', with an important bibliography.
S. Pétridès
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Ptolemy the Gnostic

From volume 12 of the work.
Ptolemy the Gnostic, a heretic of the second century and personal disciple of Valentinus. He was probably still living about 180. No other certain details are known of his life; Harnack's suggestion that he was identical with the Ptolemy spoken of by St. Justin is as yet unproved (Text. u. Untersuch. New. Ser. XIII, Anal. z. ält. Gesch. d. Chr.). He was, with Heracleon, the principal writer of the Italian or Western school of Valentinian Gnosticism. His works have reached us in an incomplete form as follows:
This letter is found in the works of Epiphanius (Hær. XXXIII, 3-7). It was written in response to Flora's inquiry concerning the origin of the Law of the Old Testament. This law, Ptolemy states, cannot be attributed to the Supreme God, nor to the devil; nor does it proceed from one law-giver. A part of it is the work of an inferior god; the second part is due to Moses, and the third to the elders of the Jewish people. Three different sections are to be distinguished even in the part ascribed to the inferior god:
It includes such precepts as circumcision, fasting, and was raised by the Saviour from a sensible to a spiritual plane. The god who is the author of the law, in so far as it is not the product of human effort, is the demiurge who occupies a middle position between the Supreme God and the devil. He is the creator of the universe, is neither perfect, nor the author of evil, but ought to be called just. In his interpretation of the universe, Ptolemy resorted to a fantastic system of eons. Thirty of these, as he believes, rule the higher world, the pleroma. This system becomes the basis of a wild exegesis which discovers in the prologue of St. John's Gospel the first Ogdoad. (See Gnosticism.)
IRENÆUS, Adv. Hær., I, cc. i-viii; LIPSIUS in Dict. Christ. Biog., s. v. Ptolemœus, I.
N. A. WEBER.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Publican

From volume 12 of the work.
Publican, in the Gospels, is derived from the publicanus of the Vulgate, and signifies a member or employee of the Roman financial companies who farmed the taxes. From the time of the Republic the Roman State relieved itself of the trouble of collecting the taxes in the provinces by putting up the taxes of each in a lump sum to auction. The highest bidder received the authorization to extort the sum from the province in question. Such a system afforded ample opportunity for rapacious exactions on the part of the company and its officials, and the abuses were often intolerable. On account of these, and more, perhaps, because of the natural though impotent Jewish hatred of the Roman supremacy, those of the Jews who found it profitable thus to serve the foreign rulers were objects of execration to their countrymen. In the Gospel narrative we find them as a class habitually coupled with "sinners" and the "heathen". The attitude of Christ towards this, as well as other despised classes, was that of an uplifting sympathy. One great reproach cast upon Him by His enemies, the self-righteous Scribes and Pharisees, was His friendship for, and association with publicans and sinners; and consistently with this conduct it pleased Him to choose as one of the twelve Apostles Levi or Matthew the Publican (Matt., ix, 9).
MAAS, Comment. of Gospel of St. Matthew (New York, 1898); DIETRICH, Die rechtliche Natur der Societas publicanorum (Meissen, 1889); THIBAULT, Les douanes chez les Romains (Paris, 1888).
JAMES F. DRISCOLL.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Ptolemais

From volume 12 of the work.
Ptolemais, a titular see in Egypt, metropolis of Thebais Secunda. Ptolemais owes its name to Ptolemy Soter who built it on the site of a village named Si (with the article, Psi, whence the Coptic Psoi, or Psõi; Arabic Absãy; Greek Sois and Syis). The capital of the nome of Thinite, it supplanted Thebes as capital of Thebais; as important as Memphis, its administration was copied from the Greek system. A special cult in honour of the Ptolemys, particularly of its founder, was established. In the sixth century it was the civil metropolis of Thebais Secunda. Le Quien (Oriens christianus, II, 605) mentions three bishops: the Melitian Ammonius; Heraclides, present at the Council of Ephesus (431); Isaac, who signed the letter of the bishops of Thebais to the Emperor Leo (457) and was present at the Council of Constantinople under the Patriarch Gennadius. A Greek "Notitia episcopatuum" refers to the see about 820. It had also some Coptic bishops (Zoëga, "Catalogus codicum copticorum", 329). The Coptic "Notitiæ episcopatuum" do not mention the see, but other Coptic documents cite it frequently, and allusion is made to its medical school. To-day it is known as Menshîyeh or Menshâh, contains 8000 inhabitants, belongs to the district of Girgeh, Province of Sohag, on the western bank of the Nile, and is a railway station between Cairo and Thebes.
SMITH, Dict. of Greek and Roman Geogr. (London, 1878), s. v.; MÜLLER, Notes à Ptolemy, ed. DIDOT, I, 720; AMÉLINEAU, Géographie de l'Egypte à l'époque copte (Paris, 1893), 381.
S. Pétridès.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Reinmar of Hagenau

From volume 12 of the work.
A German minnesinger of the twelfth century, surnamed in the MSS. der Alte (the old) to distinguish him from later poets of that name. He is undoubtedly identical with the Reinmar referred to by Gottfried von Strasburg in his "Tristan" as the nightingale of Hagenau, the leader of the choir of nightingales, whose voice had just been hushed by death and who was to be succeeded by Walther von der Vogelweide. From this it may be inferred that the poet or his family came from Hagenau in Alsace (though there is also a place of that name in Austria), and that he died shortly before 1210, when Gottfried's "Tristan" was written. Otherwise we know nothing of Reinmar's life except what may be gathered from his verses. He certainly was in Vienna in 1195 at the Austrian court; he also participated in a crusade, presumably that undertaken by Duke Leopold in 1190. It seems that he lived for a long time at the Austrian court, where he enjoyed a high reputation and was much admired, even by the greatest of all minnesingers, Walther von der Vogelweide, who acknowledges himself as Reinmar's pupil, though this must not be taken in a literal sense. Reinmar's lyrics show the Romance influence that had been predominant since Veldeke and Hausen. They are perfect in form and thoroughly "courtly" in sentiment. Passion and natural feeling are repressed, maze, correctness and propriety, reign supreme. General reflections are common, concrete images and situations few. When, however, Reinmar breaks through the bounds of convention and allows his heart to speak, as in the lament for the death of the duke, which is put into the mouth of the duchess herself, he shows lyric gifts of a high order. But this does not often happen, and most of Reinmar's poems show more elegance of form than beauty of sentiment. In a society, however, where form was valued more than contents, such poetry was bound to meet with favour. Reinmar's poems are edited in Lachmann and Haupt, "Minnesangs Fruhling", XX (4th edition, Leipzig, 1888).
SCHMIDT, R. v. H. und Heinrich von Rugge in Quellen und Forschungen zur Sprach- und Culturgesch. der germanischen Volker (Strasburg, 1874), 4; PAUL in PAUL AND BRAUNES, Beitrage zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache- und Literature, 2487 sq.; BURDACH, R. der Alte und Walther von der Vogelweide (Leipzig, 1880).
ARTHUR F.J. REMY
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Religious Communities of the Name of Jesus

From volume 10 of the work.
(1) Knights of the Name of Jesus, also known as Seraphim, founded in 1334 by the Queens of Norway and Sweden to defend their respective countries from the onslaught of heathen hordes. They did not survive the Reformation.
(2) Sisters of the Name of Jesus comprise six congregations founded in France during the nineteenth century in the Dioceses of Besançon, with mother-house at Grande-Fontaine, Paris; of Valence (1815 or 1825), mother-house at Lorial; of Rodez, mother-house at Ste-Radegonde; of Toulouse (1827); and of Marseilles (1852). These sisters devote themselves chiefly to the work of teaching and caring for the sick.
(3) Confraternity of the Name of Jesus, formed by the amalgamation of the Portuguese Confraternity of the Most Holy Name of Jesus, founded by Andreas Díaz, O.P., in 1432, with the Spanish Confraternity of the Most Holy Name of God, established in the sixteenth century. Approbation was granted by Popes Paul V (1606) and Innocent XI (1678), and the confraternity was enriched with indulgences and placed under the Dominican general.
Florence Rudge McGahan.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Relationship

From volume 12 of the work.
(CARNAL AND SPIRITUAL)
The theologians understand by relationship in general a certain connexion of persons established either by nature or by the civil or canon law. Hence they distinguish three kinds, natural, legal and spiritual. With legal relationship we are not here concerned. Natural or carnal relationship originates in carnal intercourse of man and woman, whether marital or not. It is twofold: consanguinity and affinity. Spiritual relationship has been introduced by ecclesiastical law. It is associated with the administration of the Sacraments of Baptism and Confirmation. It runs in each case between the minister and the recipient of the sacrament and also between the sponsors on the one hand and the recipient and his parents on the other. According to the existing discipline it operates as a diriment impediment of marriage between the persons named. (See AFFINITY; CONSANGUINITY; MARRIAGE.)
SLATER, Manual of Moral Theology (New York, 1908); D'ANNIBALE, Summula Theologiœ Moralis (Rome, 1908); BALLERINI, Opus Theologicum Morale (Prato, 1900).
JOSEPH F. DELANY
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Reifenstein

From volume 12 of the work.
A former Cistercian abbey in Eichsfeld, founded on 1 August, 1162 by Count Ernst of Tonna. It was first called Albolderode and belonged to the electorate of Mainz. The monks who came from the monastery of Volkerode near Mühlhausen, displayed a brisk economic activity, and in the thirteenth century acquired about fifty estates in the neighbourhood. Little is known of the domestic life of the abbey, even the sequence of the abbots being uncertain. A monk, Heinrich Pfeifer, left Reifenstein in 1521, became a Lutheran, preached rebellion in his native town Mühlhausen, shared the leadership with Thomas Münzer in the Thuringian Peasants' War, and in May, 1525, reduced Reifenstein to ashes. After the battle of Frankenhausen Pfeifer was seized near Eisenach and executed; he died impenitent. In 1524 only six monks were left in Reifenstein, which underwent a complete decline; in 1539 one remained, and the monastery was soon deserted. In 1575 there was a single monk, and in 1579, five or six, but they led so lawless a life that Reifenstein, according to a contemporary report, resembled a robbers' cave. The church was restored in 1582. The exemplary Abbot Philipp Busse (1589-1639) re-established discipline and order. During the Thirty Years' War the monastery was pillaged seven times and almost reduced to ashes, Abbot Philipp was carried off as a prisoner, and six or seven monks were murdered. The other monks sought shelter in caves, and begged bread from the peasants. The revival of the monastery was mainly due to the learned Abbot Wilhelm Streit (1690-1721). In 1738 it had twenty-four members, and survived the distress of the Seven years' War. In 1802 the abbey fell to Prussia, was abolished on 2 March, 1803, and became a royal domain. The last abbot was Antonius Loffler (d. 1823). At present, agriculture and a school of domestic science for young women are carried on at Reifenstein. The imposing church, built in 1743, is used as a shed.
WOLF, Politische Gesch. des Eichsfeldes (Gottingen, 1793), passim; IDEM, Eichsfeldische Kirchengesch. (Gottingen, 1816), passim; DUVAL, Das Eichsfeld (Sondershausen, 1845), 19-120; STURZER, Reifenstein im Eichsfelde in Cistercienser-Chronik, VII (Bregenz, 1896), 1-10, 33-43, 65-74, 102-8; SCHNEIDERWIRTH, Das einstige Cistercienserkloster Reifenstein (Heiligenstadt, 1902); KNIEB, Gesch. der Reformation u. Gegenref. auf dem Eichsfelde (2nd ed., Heiligenstadt, 1909), passim.
Klemens Löffler.
# Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)/Bleaching

Edition of 1921; disclaimer.
​BLEACHING, the art of rendering materials colorless. This is done by exposing them to the actinic rays of the sun, or by the action of bleaching agents. The chief of these is called bleaching powder. It is chloride of lime, and is prepared by exposing moistened quick-lime to the action of chlorine, when hypochlorite and chloride of calcium are formed, the former being the bleaching agent. By the action of an acid on good bleaching powder 30 per cent. of chlorine is liberated. Substances are bleached by alternately dipping them in dilute solutions of bleaching powder and of dilute sulphuric acid. Bleaching powder is also used to purify an offensive or infectious atmosphere.