OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kingsbridge

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​KINGSBRIDGE, a market town in the Totnes parliamentary division of Devonshire, England, 48 m. S.S.W. of Exeter, on a branch of the Great Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1901), 3025. It lies 6 m. from the English Channel, at the head of an inlet or estuary which receives only small streams, on a sharply sloping site. The church of St Edmund is mainly Perpendicular, but there are Transitional Norman and Early English portions. The town-hall contains a natural history museum. A house called Pindar Lodge stands on the site of the birthplace of John Wolcot (“Peter Pindar,” 1738–1819). William Cookworthy (1705–1780), a porcelain manufacturer, the first to exploit the deposits of kaolin in the south-west of England, was also born at Kingsbridge. The township of Dodbrooke, included within the civil parish, adjoins Kingsbridge on the north-east. Some iron-founding and ship-building, with a coasting trade, are carried on.
Kingsbridge (Kyngysbrygge) was formerly included in the manor of Churchstow, the first trace of its separate existence being found in the Hundred Roll of 1276, which records that in the manor of Churchstow there is a new borough, which has a Friday market and a separate assize of bread and ale. The name Kingsbridge however does not appear till half a century later. When Kingsbridge became a separate parish is not certainly known, but it was before 1414 when the church was rebuilt and consecrated to St Edmund. In 1461 the abbot of Buckfastleigh obtained a Saturday market at Kingsbridge and a three-days’ fair at the feast of St Margaret, both of which are still held. The manor remained in possession of the abbot until the Dissolution, when it was granted to Sir William Petre. Kingsbridge was never represented in parliament or incorporated by charter, the government being by a portreeve, and down to the present day the steward of the manor holds a court leet and court baron and appoints a portreeve and constables. In 1798 the town mills were converted into a woollen manufactory, which up to recent times produced large quantities of cloth, and the serge manufacture was introduced early in the 19th century. The town has been famous from remote times for a beverage called “white ale.” Included in Kingsbridge is the little town of Dodbrooke, which at the time of the Domesday Survey had a population of 42, and a flock of 108 sheep and 27 goats; and in 1257 was granted a Wednesday market and a fair at the Feast of St Mary Magdalene.
See “Victoria County History”: Devonshire; Kingsbridge and Sulcombe, with the intermediate Estuary, historically and topographically depicted (Kingsbridge, 1819); S. F. Fox, Kingsbridge Estuary (Kingsbridge, 1864).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kingsford, William

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​KINGSFORD, WILLIAM (1819–1898), British engineer and Canadian historian, was born in London on the 23rd of December 1819. He first studied architecture, but disliking the confinement of an office enlisted in the 1st Dragoon Guards, obtaining his discharge in Canada in 1841. After serving for a time in the office of the city surveyor of Montreal he made a survey for the Lachine canal (1846–1848), and was employed in the United States in the building of the Hudson River railroad in 1849, and in Panama on the railroad being constructed there in 1851. In 1853 he was surveyor and, afterwards district superintendent for the Grand Trunk railroad, remaining in the employment of that company until 1864. The following year he went to England but returned to Canada in 1867 in the hope of taking part in the construction of the Intercolonial Railway. In this he was unsuccessful, but from 1872 to 1879 he held a government post in charge of the harbours of the Great Lakes and the St Lawrence. He had previously written books on engineering and topographical subjects, and in 1880 he began to study the records of Canadian history at Ottawa. Among other books he published Canadian Archaeology (1886) and Early Bibliography of Ontario (1892). But the great work of his life was a History of Canada in 10 volumes (1887–1897), ending with the union of Upper and Lower Canada in 1841. Kingsford died on the 28th of September 1898.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kingsley, Henry

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​KINGSLEY, HENRY (1830–1876), English novelist, younger brother of Charles Kingsley, was born at Barnack, Northamptonshire, on the 2nd of January 1830. In 1853 he left Oxford, where he was an undergraduate at Worcester College, for the Australian goldfields. This venture, however, was not a success, and after five years he returned to England. He achieved considerable popularity with his Recollections of Geoffrey Hamlyn (1859), a novel of Australian life. This was the first of a series of novels of which Ravenshoe (1861) and The Hillyars and The Burtons (1865) are the best known. These stories are characterized by much vigour, abundance of incident, and healthy sentiment. He edited for eighteen months the Edinburgh Daily Review, for which he had acted as war correspondent during the Franco-German War. He died at Cuckfield, Sussex, on the 24th of May 1876.
# Lambda: The Ultimate Imperative

AI Memo 353, the second of the Lambda Papers.
* Abstract
* Introduction
* Simple Loops
* Imperative Programming
* Continuations
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. This page must provide all available authorship information.
Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse
# Lambda: The Ultimate Declarative/Abstract

LAMBDA
THE ULTIMATE DECLARATIVE
by
Guy Lewis Steele Jr.
Abstract:
In this paper, a sequel to LAMBDA: The Ultimate Imperative, a new view of LAMBDA as a renaming operator is presented and contrasted with the usual functional view taken by LISP. This view, combined with the view of function invocation as a kind of generalized GOTO, leads to several new insights into the nature of the LISP evaluation mechanism and the symmetry between form and function, evaluation and application, and control and environment. It also complements Hewitt's actors theory nicely, explaining the intent of environment manipulation as cleanly, generally, and intuitively as the actors theory explains control structures. The relationship between functional and continuation-passing styles of programming is also clarified.
This view of LAMBDA leads directly to a number of specific techniques for use by an optimizing compiler:
* Temporary locations and user-declared variables may be allocated in a uniform manner.
* Procedurally defined data structures may compile into code as good as would be expected for data defined by the more usual declarative means.
* Lambda-calculus-theoretic models of such constructs as GOTO, DO loops, call-by-name, etc. may be used directly as macros, the expansion of which may then compile into code as good as that produced by compilers which are designed especially to handle GOTO, DO, etc.
The necessary characteristics of such a compiler designed according to this philosophy are discussed. Such a compiler is to be built in the near future as a testing ground for these ideas.
This report describes research done at the Artificial Intelligence Laboratory of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Support for the laboratory's artificial intelligence research is provided in part by the Advanced Research Projects Agency of the Department of Defense under Office of Naval Research contract N00014-75-C-0643.
# Lambda: The Ultimate Imperative/Abstract
## AbstractAbstract

We demonstrate how to model the following common programming constructs in terms of an applicative order language similar to LISP:
* Simple Recursion
* Iteration
* Compound Statements and Expressions
* GO TO and Assignment
* Continuation-Passing
* Escape Expressions
* Fluid Variables
* Call by Name, Call by Need, and Call by Reference
The models require only (possibly self-referent) lambda application, conditionals, and (rarely) assignment. No complex data structures such as stacks are used. The models are transparent, involving only local syntactic transformations.
Some of these models, such as those for GO TO and assignment, are already well known, and appear in the work of Landin, Reynolds, and others. The models for escape expressions, fluid variables, and call by need with side effects are new. This paper is partly tutorial in intent, gathering all the models together for purposes of context.
This report describes research done at the Artificial Intelligence Laboratory of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Support for the laboratory's artificial intelligence research is provided in part by the Advanced Research Projects Agency of the Department of Defense under Office of Naval Research contract N00014-75-C-0643.
# Lambda: The Ultimate Declarative

AI Memo 379, the third of the Lambda Papers.
Sequel to Lambda: The Ultimate Imperative.
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. This page must provide all available authorship information.
Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse
# Lamb v. Schmitt

* related portals: Supreme Court of the United States.
* sister projects: Wikidata item.
United States Supreme Court
285 U.S. 222
Lamb v. Schmitt
Argued: Feb. 17, 1932. --- Decided: March 14, 1932
Messrs. Edward B. Burling, of Washington, D. C., Arvid B. Tanner, of Chicago, Ill., and W. Calvin Wells, of Jackson, Miss., for petitioner.
[Argument of Counsel from pages 223-224 intentionally omitted]
Mr. Gerald FitzGerald and Sam C. Cook, both of Clarksdale, Miss., for respondent.
Mr. Justice STONE delivered the opinion of the Court.

## Notes

This work is in the public domain in the United States because it is a work of the United States federal government (see 17 U.S.C. 105).
Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse
# Kinetic Theories of Gravitation/Guthrie, 1870

In 1870, Prof. Frederick Guthrie published an account of some interesting experiments "On Approach caused by Vibration," unaware at the time of the earlier labors of Dr. Guyot in the same direction. He found that a card suspended near a vibrating tuning-fork was urged toward the fork, and by varying the experiment with smoke, with cork, with calcined magnesia, with floss cotton, with a second suspended tuning-fork, with brass disks, etc., he obtained similar results. At the termination of his experiments he thus sums up: "The experimental results appear to me to point to the following conclusions : whenever an elastic medium is between two vibrating bodies, or between a vibrating body and one at rest, and when the vibrations are dispersed in consequence of their impact on one or both of the bodies, the bodies will be urged together. The dispersion of a vibration produces a similar effect to that produced by the dispersion of the air-current in Clement's experiment; and, like the latter, the effect is due to the pressure exerted by the medium, which is in a state of higher tension [or pressure] on the side of the body furthest from the origin of vibration than on the side toward it. In mechanics — in nature — there is no such thing as a pulling force. Though the term attraction may have been occasionally used in the above to denote the tendency of bodies to approach, the line of conclusions here indicated tends to argue that there is no such thing as attraction in the sense of a pulling force, and that two utterly isolated bodies cannot influence one another. If the aetherial vibrations which are supposed to constitute radiant heat resemble the serial vibrations which constitute sound, the heat which all bodies [272] possess, and which they are all supposed to radiate in exchange, will cause all bodies to be urged toward one another."
This hypothesis would make gravitation, or molecular attraction, a function of temperature, contrary to all observation ; and is indeed entirely incompatible with the fourth, fifth, and sixth conditions of gravitative action. In short these experiments, striking and instructive as they unquestionably are, will be found on careful scrutiny to really simulate the effects of gravity in no one particular.
# Kinetic Theories of Gravitation/Leray, 1869

Within the last twenty years, probably more than a dozen " original " discoveries of the cause of gravitation have been announced to the French Academy of Sciences. Two brief essays of the same year may here be noticed. A Note by P. Leray, entitled a " New Theory of Gravitation," was presented to the Academy through M. Faye September 6, 1869.
" This new theory rests on the assumption of an aether — a fluid exceedingly rare and perfectly elastic — and on the two following principles : First, that in the free aether (that is, undisturbed by the presence of other bodies) there exist at every point equal currents crossing each other in all directions ; second, that in passing through bodies, the currents of the aether are retarded proportionally to the thickness traversed, and to the mean density of the path. It may be added, that the currents thus enfeebled, on passing again into the aether, recover but slowly their former force, and may be considered approximately — within the limits of our solar system — as preserving a constant value." This gravific fluid evidently does not differ essentially from that of Lesage. These simple hypotheses, says the writer, " conduct in effect to the same results as the law of universal attraction, without requiring any action at a distance ; and give moreover the key to many phenomena which this law does not explain."
Considering first, the case of an isolated body, it is evident that the currents, being equal in all directions, neutralize each other, effecting therefore no change of position in the isolated body ; although by the [270] vis viva absorbed from the aether, heat light and magnetism are produced in the body as shown in the stars. " This cause being permanent, explains without difficulty why the light and heat of the sun are constant "! A body in motion is of course retarded by the relative differential of the currents, although this retardation would be sensible only with very light bodies.
Considering secondly, the case of two bodies, (exterior to each other,) the currents enfeebled by traversing the bodies would impinge less strongly on the' mutually-facing sides of the two bodies than on their exterior sides, thus producing an approach by the difference of impulse. And lastly, in regard to weight, this is the result of the quantity of motion communicated to a body by the shocks of the aetherial atoms. The two facts of experience, that the weight of a body remains invariable whatever its position, and that all bodies fall with the same velocity in a vacuum, prove that ponderable atoms are spherical, having an equal superficial density in all directions, and that all ponderable atoms are alike, or that there is ultimately but a single elementary substance.
# Kinetic Theories of Gravitation/Keller, 1863

Messrs. F. A. E. and Em. Keller, in a joint "Memoir on the Cause of Weight, and of the Effects Attributed to Universal Attraction," (presented to the French Academy of Sciences March 23, 1863,) announced as the motive force the agency of aetherial undulations. Referring the effect to the longitudinal vibrations of the aether, the writers think " the time has come to seek and to find a plausible explanation of weight — simple and natural — in the ceaseless action of these waves on resisting bodies, an action analogous to that of ocean-waves, which drive ships upon the coast by the vis viva of their flow over that of their ebb ; for the longitudinal vibrations of the aetherial waves condensing and dilating being simply impulsions followed by reaction, and the reactions being always more feeble than the impulsions, there follows definitively an excess of force in the direction of the propagation which should communicate itself to dense bodies opposed to their propagation, and which should press them one toward the others. It is thus that inert bodies of slight density would transmit their impulsion to denser bodies, when thrown promiscuously into a long box, were we to strike repeatedly one of the ends of the box. Ultimately the denser particles will collect at the opposite end ; and if both ends are struck simultaneously these particles will collect in the middle of the box, while the others will be arranged in the order of decreasing density from the center."
After considering the effect on a line of particles subjected to continuous shocks at each extremity, the writers proceed : " If instead of a single line of particles a certain volume be taken, and if instead of shocks in two opposite directions the shocks are supposed to be given in all directions, it is easy to see that the denser particles, mutually absorbing a part of the impulses directed from one to the other, would approach as if [258] really attracted. As a resultant of all the impressions, the particles would act upon each other in the inverse ratio of the square of the distance, and in the direct ratio of their number, — an action which at once presents a striking analogy with the law of universal attraction."
It is not believed that either of these ratios would be even approximately attained. It will be observed that in this scheme the aetherial vibrations are supposed to exert a precisely opposite action to the undulations exhibited in the system of Professor Challis, having their origin on the circumferences of enormous spheres of aether, and being accurately directed to a central point or points, whatever may be the variety of distribution or the changes of position in the material elements.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/George Pisida

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​GEORGE PISIDA [Georgios Pisides], Byzantine poet, born in Pisidia, flourished during the 7th century A.D. Nothing is known of him except that he was a deacon and chartophylax (keeper of the records) of the church of St Sophia. His earliest work, in three cantos (ἀκροάσεις), on the campaign of the emperor Heraclius against the Persians, seems to be the work of an eyewitness. This was followed by the Avarica, an account of a futile attack on Constantinople by the Avars (626), said to have been repulsed by the aid of the Virgin Mary; and by the Heraclias, a general survey of the exploits of Heraclius both at home and abroad down to the final overthrow of Chosroes in 627. George Pisida was also the author of a didactic poem, Hexaëmeron or Cosmourgia, upon the creation of the world; a treatise on the vanity of life, after the manner of Ecclesiastes; a controversial composition against Severus, bishop of Antioch; two short poems upon the resurrection of Christ and on the recovery of the sacred crucifix stolen by the Persians. The metre chiefly used is the iambic. As a versifier Pisida is correct and even elegant; as a chronicler of contemporary events he is exceedingly useful; and later Byzantine writers enthusiastically compared him with, and even preferred him to Euripides. Recent criticism, however, characterizes his compositions as artificial and almost uniformly dull.
Complete works in J. P. Migne, Patrologia Graeca, xcii.; see also De Georgii Pisidae apud Theophanem aliosque historicos reliquiis. (1900), by S. L. Sternbach, who has edited several new poems for the first time from a Paris MS. in Wiener Studien, xiii., xiv. (1891–1892); C. Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur (1897); C. F. Bähr in Ersch and Gruber’s Allgemeine Encyklopädie.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/George the Syncellus

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​GEORGE THE SYNCELLUS [Georgios Synkellos], of Constantinople, Byzantine chronicler and ecclesiastic, lived at the end of the 8th and the beginning of the 9th century A.D. He was the syncellus (cell-mate, the confidential companion assigned to the patriarchs, sometimes little more than a spy; see Syncellus) or private secretary of Tara(u)sius, patriarch of Constantinople (784–806), after whose death he retired to a convent, and wrote his Chronicle of events from Adam to Diocletian (285). At his earnest request, the work, which he doubtless intended to bring down to his own times, was continued after his death by his friend Theophanes Confessor. The Chronicle, which, as its title implies, is rather a chronological table (with notes) than a history, is written with special reference to pre-Christian times and the introduction of Christianity, and exhibits the author as a staunch upholder of orthodoxy. But in spite of its religious bias and dry and uninteresting character, the fragments of ancient writers and apocryphal books preserved in it render it specially valuable. For instance, considerable portions of the original text of the Chronicle of Eusebius have been restored by the aid of Syncellus. His chief authorities were Annianus of Alexandria (5th century) and Panodorus, an Egyptian monk, who wrote about the year 400 and drew largely from Eusebius, Dexippus and Julius Africanus.
Editio princeps, by J. Goar (1652); in Bonn Corpus scriptorum hist. Byz., by W. Dindorf (1829). See also H. Gelzer, Sextus Julius Africanus, ii. 1 (1885); C. Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur (1897).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/George of Trebizond

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​GEORGE OF TREBIZOND (1395–1484), Greek philosopher and scholar, one of the pioneers of the revival of letters in the Western world, was born in the island of Crete, and derived his surname Trapezuntios from the fact that his ancestors were from Trebizond. At what period he came to Italy is not certain; according to some accounts he was summoned to Venice about 1430 to act as amanuensis to Francesco Barbaro, who appears to have already made his acquaintance; according to others he did not visit Italy till the time of the council of Florence (1438–1439). He learned Latin from Vittorino da Feltre, and made such rapid progress that in three years he was able to teach Latin literature and rhetoric. His reputation as a teacher and a translator of Aristotle was very great, and he was selected as secretary by Pope Nicholas V., an ardent Aristotelian. The needless bitterness of his attacks upon Plato (in the Comparatio Aristotelis et Platonis), which drew forth a powerful response from Bessarion (q.v.), and the manifestly hurried and inaccurate character of his translations of Plato, Aristotle and other classical authors, combined to ruin his fame as a scholar, and to endanger his position as a teacher of philosophy. The indignation against him on account of his first-named work was so great that he would probably have been compelled to leave Italy had not Alphonso V. given him protection at the court of Naples. He subsequently returned to Rome, where he died in great poverty on the 12th of August 1484. He had long outlived his reputation, and towards the end of his life his intellect failed him. From all accounts he was a man of very disagreeable character, conceited and quarrelsome.
See G. Voigt, Die Wiederbelebung des klassischen Altertums (1893), and article by C. F. Bähr in Ersch and Gruber’s Allgemeine Encyklopädie. For a complete list of his numerous works, consisting of translations from Greek into Latin (Plato, Aristotle and the Fathers) and original essays in Greek (chiefly theological) and Latin (grammatical and rhetorical), see Fabricius, Bibliotheca Graeca (ed. Harles), xii.