OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Norris, William Edward

See also William Edward Norris on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​NORRIS, WILLIAM EDWARD (1847–), English novelist, was born on the 18th of November 1847, the son of Sir W. Norris, chief justice of Ceylon. He was educated at Eton, and called to the bar at the Inner Temple in 1874. His first story, Heaps of Money, appeared in 1877, and was followed by a long series of novels, many of which first appeared in the Temple Bar and Cornhill magazines. The best of his numerous novels are Mademoiselle de Mersac (1880), Matrimony (1881), No New ​Thing (1883), My Friend Jim (1886), The Rogue (1888), The Despotic Lady (1895), Matthew Austin (1895), The Widower (1898), Nature’s Comedian (1904), Pauline (1908).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Norrköping

See also Norrköping on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​NORRKÖPING, a town and port of Sweden, in the district (län) of Östergötland, 113 m. S.W. of Stockholm by the Malmö railway. Pop. (1880) 26,735; (1900) 41,008. It occupies both banks of the Motala, the wide and rapid emissary of lake Vetter, close to its outlet in the Bråvik, a11 inlet of the Baltic. Having been burned by the Russians in 1719 and visited by further fires in 1812, 1822 and 1826, the whole town has a modern appearance, with wide and regular streets. Among the more conspicuous buildings are St Olaf’s church (erected by Gustavus Adolphus in 1616 and rebuilt in 1765–1767); St Hedvig's, built by the German colony in 1670; the town hall, dating from the beginning of the 19th century; the high school (1868), and technical and weaving schools. Norrköping is the fourth town in population and industrial importance in Sweden. The falls in the river afford motive power to the cloth and cotton mills (spinning and weaving)—the staple industries—and to factories for sugar, paper, lithography, tobacco and carpets, joinery works and breweries. There are also shipbuilding yards and docks. Fine granite is quarried at Grafversfors, 7 1/2 m. N. The inlet of Bråvik affords excellent harbour accommodation, with from 33 ft. to 17 1/2 ft. of water below the bridges in the town. The town returns two members to the second chamber of the Riksdag (parliament).
A bull of Pope Lucius III. shows that Norrköping existed in 1185. At the meeting of the states in 1604 Duke Charles assumed the Swedish crown as Charles IX.; and not long afterwards Duke John of Östergötland introduced German craftsmen into Norrköping, and thus originated its industrial activity. Under Charles XII. the town suffered not only from war but from pestilence, 2700 of its inhabitants perishing in 1710–1711. After the Russian invasion of 1719 the population was only 2600.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/North, Marianne

See also Marianne North on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​NORTH, MARIANNE (1830–1890), English naturalist and flower-painter, was born at Hastings on the 24th of October 1830, the eldest daughter of a Norfolk landowner, descended from Roger North (1653–1734). She trained as a vocalist under Madame Sainton Dolby, but her voice failed, and she then devoted herself to painting flowers. After the death of her mother in 1855 she constantly travelled with her father, who was then member of parliament for Hastings; and on his death in 1869 she resolved to realize her early ambition of painting the flora of distant countries. In 1871–1872 with this object she went to Canada, the United States and Jamaica, and spent a year in Brazil, where she did much of her work at a hut in the depths of a forest. In 1875, after a few months at Teneriffe, she began a journey round the world, and for two years was occupied in painting the flora of California, Japan, Borneo, Java and Ceylon, The year 1878 she spent in India, and after her return she exhibited a number of her drawings in London. Her subsequent offer to present the collection to the botanical gardens at Kew, and to erect a gallery for their reception, was accepted, and the new buildings, designed by James Ferguson, were begun in the same year. At Darwin’s suggestion she went to Australia in 1880, and for a year painted there and in New Zealand. Her gallery at Kew was opened in 1882. In 1883, after a visit by her to South Africa, an additional room was opened at the Kew gallery, and in 1884–1885 she worked at Seychelles and in Chile. Miss North died at Alderly in Gloucestershire on the 30th of August 1890. The scientific accuracy with which she represented plant life in all parts of the world gives her work a permanent value.
# Kościuszko: A Biography/Preface

PREFACE
The appearance of an English biography of the Polish patriot, Tadeusz Kościuszko, requires no justification. Kościuszko's name is prominent in the long roll-call of Polish men and women who have shed their blood, sacrificed their happiness, and dedicated their lives to gain the liberation of Poland. We are now beholding what it was not given to them to see, the fruit of the seed they sowed—the restoration of their country to her place in the commonwealth of the world. It is therefore only fitting that at this moment we should recall the struggle of one of the noblest of Polish national heroes, whose newly risen country is the ally of England and America, and whose young compatriots fought with great gallantry by the side of British and American soldiers in the war that has effected the deliverance of Kościuszko's nation.
M. M. G.
This work is in the public domain in the United States because it was published before January 1, 1929.
The longest-living author of this work died in 1941, so this work is in the public domain in countries and areas where the copyright term is the author's life plus 82 years or less. This work may be in the public domain in countries and areas with longer native copyright terms that apply the rule of the shorter term to foreign works.
Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse
# Kościuszko: A Biography/List of Books Consulted

CHIEF WORKS CONSULTED
d'Angeberg. Recueil des Traités, Conventions et Actes Diplomatiques concernant la Pologne, 1762-1862. Paris, 1862.
Askenazy, Szymon, Kiążę Józef Poniatowski. Cracow, 1905.
Bartoszewicz, K. Dzieje Insurekcji Kościuszkowskiej. Vienna, 1909.
Baudouin de Courtenay, R. Nowe Materyały do Dziejow Kościuszki. Cracow, 1889.
Cambridge Modern History, VIII. The Extinction of Poland, by Professor Richard Lodge.
Chodźko, L. Żywote Narodowe. Usque ad Finem. Paris, 1859.
Chołoniewski, A. Tadeusz Kościuszko. Lwów, 1902.
Dyboski, Roman. Powstanie Kościuszki w Powieści Angielskiej. Cracow, 1908.
Eversley, Lord. The Partitions of Poland. 1915.
Falkenstein, K. Tadeusz Kościuszko. Wrocław, 1831.
Grappin, H. Histoire de Pologne. Paris.
Greene, George Washington. Life of Nathaniel Greene. New York, 1871.
Jefferson, Thomas. Memoirs, Correspondence and Miscellanies. Ed. by Thomas Jefferson Randolph, Charlottesville, 1829.
Johnson, William. Sketches of the Life and Correspondence of Nathaniel Greene. Charleston, 1822.
Kołłątaj, Hugo. Listy. Poznań, 1872.
Korzon, T. Kościuszko. Cracow, 1894, and later edition, 1906.
Kościuszko. Periodical Publication. Cracow, 1893-96.
Kościuszko, T. Listy. Ed. by L. Siemieński. Lwow, 1877.
Kunasiewicz, S. T. Kościuszko w Ameryce. Lwow, 1876.
Mickiewicz, Adam. Histoire Populaire de Pologne. Paris, 1867.
Napoleon I. Correspondance. Paris, 1863.
Niemcewicz, J. Notes sur ma Captivité à Pétersbourg. Paris, 1843.
Niemcewicz, J. Pamiętniki Czasów Moich. Paris, 1848.
Ogiński, M. Mémoires. Paris, 1826.
Paszkowski, F. Dzieje Tadeusza Kościuszki. Cracow, 1872.
Powstanie T. Kościuszki z Pism Autentycznych Sekretnych. Poznań, 1846.
Raczyński, E. Obraz Polaków i Polski w XVIII wieku. Poznań, 1841.
Rychlicki, F. Tadeusz Kościuszko i Rozbiór Polski. Cracow, 1875.
Szujski, Józef. Dzieje Polski. Lwów, 1866.
Tarnowski, St. Nasze Dzieje w XIX wieku. Cracow, 1901.
Tygodnik Illustrowany. Warsaw, 1881. Pamiętnik J. Soroki; and for Kościuszko's letter to Karl Schmid.
Washington, George. Writings. Ed. by Jared Sparks. New York, 1847.
This work is in the public domain in the United States because it was published before January 1, 1929.
The longest-living author of this work died in 1941, so this work is in the public domain in countries and areas where the copyright term is the author's life plus 82 years or less. This work may be in the public domain in countries and areas with longer native copyright terms that apply the rule of the shorter term to foreign works.
Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse
# Kościuszko: A Biography/end matter

Poland and the Minority Races
By ARTHUR L. GOODHART, M.A.
Fellow of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge,
lately Captain U.S. Army
Demy 8vo.
About 10s. 6d. net.
A description of life in Poland by the counsel of the American Peace Mission to Poland. Emphasis is placed on the relation between the Poles and the Jewish, Lithuanian, Russian and German racial minorities.
The book includes sketches of President Pilsudski, Prime Minister Paderewski, the capture of Minsk from the Bolsheviks and the Jewish pogrom which followed, the Polish Diet in session, the political parties, the battlefields of the Great War, and the rabbinical schools.
The Forerunners
By ROMAIN ROLLAND
Translated by EDEN and CEDAR PAUL
Demy 8vo.
8s. 6d. net.
In 1916 we had the pleasure of publishing "Above the Battle," a work by the author of "Jean Christophe," which immediately acquired a world- wide reputation. "The Forerunners" is a sequel to "Above the Battle." The precursors of whom Rolland writes are those of kindred spirit to the persons to whom the book is dedicated. It is published "in memory of the martyrs of the new faith in the human international, the victims of bloodthirsty stupidity and of murderous falsehood, the liberators of the men who killed them."
The World after the War
By CHARLES RODEN and DOROTHY
FRANCES BUXTON
Demy 8vo.
7s. 6d. net. Post free 8s. net.
A vivid picture of the net effects of the War, and of Allied policy since the War, especially upon the lives of the common people in all lands. Enough detail is included to give the sense of poignant human realities; but the situation is grasped as a whole and drawn in broad and distinct outline—the "Balkanization" of Europe; the new Balance of Power; the economic chaos; the responsibility of the Allied statesmen; the inner meaning of Bolshevism, and of the war against Bolshevism; finally, the elements of hope and recovery, and the possibility of a great religious revival.
LONDON : GEORGE ALLEN & UNWIN LIMITED
RUSKIN HOUSE, 40 MUSEUM STREET, W.C. 1
# Kościuszko: A Biography/Index

INDEX
# Kościuszko: A Biography/Note on the Pronunciation of Polish Names

NOTE ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF POLISH NAMES
| C | = | ts. |
| Ć, ci, | = | a soft English ch. |
| Ch | = | strongly aspirated h, resembling ch in Scotch loch. |
| Cz | = | ch, as in charm. |
| Dz | = | j. |
| J | = | y. |
| Ł | = | a peculiarly Polish letter, roughly speaking to be pronounced between u and w. |
| Ó | = | oo, as in mood. |
| Rz | = | the French j, as in Jean. |
| Ś, si, | = | a slightly hissed and softened sound of sh. |
| W | = | v. |
| Ż, zi | = | French j. |
The stress in Polish falls almost invariably on the penultimate syllable.
This work is in the public domain in the United States because it was published before January 1, 1929.
The longest-living author of this work died in 1941, so this work is in the public domain in countries and areas where the copyright term is the author's life plus 82 years or less. This work may be in the public domain in countries and areas with longer native copyright terms that apply the rule of the shorter term to foreign works.
Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kolomna

See also Kolomna on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​KOLOMNA, a town of Russia, in the government of Moscow, situated on the railway between Moscow and Ryazan, 72 m. S.E. of Moscow, at the confluence of the Moskva river with the Kolomenka. Pop. (1897), 20,970. It is an old town, mentioned in the annals in 1177, and until the 14th century was the capital of the Ryazan principality. It suffered greatly from the invasions of the Tatars in the 13th century, who destroyed it four times, as well as from the wars of the 17th century; but it always recovered and has never lost its commercial importance. During the 19th century it became a centre for the manufacture of silks, cottons, ropes and leather. Here too are railway workshops, where locomotives and wagons are made. Kolomna carries on an active trade in grain, cattle, tallow, skins, salt and timber. It has several old churches of great archaeological interest, including two of the 14th century, one being the cathedral. One gate (restored in 1895) of the fortifications of the Kreml still survives.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kolbe, Adolphe Wilhelm Hermann

See also Hermann Kolbe on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​KOLBE, ADOLPHE WILHELM HERMANN (1818–1884), German chemist, was born on the 27th of September 1818 at Elliehausen, near Göttingen, where in 1838 he began to study chemistry under F. Wöhler. In 1842 he became assistant to R. W. von Bunsen at Marburg, and three years later to Lyon Playfair at London. From 1847 to 1851 he was engaged at Brunswick in editing the Dictionary of Chemistry started by Liebig, but in the latter year he went to Marburg as successor to Bunsen in the chair of chemistry. In 1865 he was called to Leipzig in the same capacity, and he died in that city on the 25th of November 1884. Kolbe had an important share in the great development of chemical theory that occurred about the middle of the 19th century, especially in regard to the constitution of organic compounds, which he viewed as derivatives of inorganic ones, formed from the latter—in some cases directly—by simple processes of substitution. Unable to accept Berzelius’s doctrine of the unalterability of organic radicals, he also gave a new interpretation to the meaning of copulae under the influence of his fellow-worker Edward Frankland’s conception of definite atomic saturation-capacities, and thus contributed in an important degree to the subsequent establishment of the structure theory. Kolbe was a very successful teacher, a ready and vigorous writer, and a brilliant experimentalist whose work revealed the nature of many compounds the composition of which had not previously been understood. He published a Lehrbuch der organischen Chemie in 1854, smaller textbooks of organic and inorganic chemistry in 1877–1883, and Zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der theoretischen Chemie in 1881. From 1870 he was editor of the Journal für praktische Chemie, in which many trenchant criticisms of contemporary chemists and their doctrines appeared from his pen.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kolding

See also Kolding on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​KOLDING, a town of Denmark in the amt (county) of Vejle, on the east coast of Jutland, on the Koldingfjord, an inlet of the ​Little Belt, 9 m. N. of the German frontier. Pop. (1901), 12,516. It is on the Eastern railway of Jutland. The harbour throughout has a depth of over 20 ft. A little to the north-west is the splendid remnant of the royal castle Koldinghuus, formerly called Oernsborg or Arensborg. It was begun by Duke Abel in 1248; in 1808 it was burned. The large square tower was built by Christian IV. (1588–1648), and was surmounted by colossal statues, of which one is still standing. It contains an antiquarian and historical museum (1892). The name of Kolding occurs in the 10th century, but its earliest known town-rights date from 1321. In 1644 it was the scene of a Danish victory over the Swedes, and on the 22nd of April 1849 of a Danish defeat by the troops of Schleswig-Holstein. A comprehensive view of the Little Belt with its islands, and over the mainland, is obtained from the Skamlingsbank, a slight elevation 81/2 m. S.E., where an obelisk (1863) commemorates the effort made to preserve the Danish language in Schleswig.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kolguev

* related portals: Russia.
* sister projects: Wikipedia article, Wikidata item.
See also Kolguyev Island on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​KOLGUEV, Kolgueff or Kalguyev, an island off the north-west of Russia in Europe, belonging to the government of Archangel. It lies about 50 m. from the nearest point of the mainland, and is of roughly oval form, 54 m. in length from N.N.E. to S.S.W. and 39 m. in extreme breadth. It lies in a shallow sea, and is quite low, the highest point being 250 ft. above the sea. Peat-bogs and grass lands cover the greater part of the surface; there are several considerable streams and a large number of small lakes. The island is of recent geological formation; it consists almost wholly of disintegrated sandstone or clay (which rises at the north-west into cliffs up to 60 ft. high), with scattered masses of granite. Vegetation is scanty, but bears, foxes and other Arctic animals, geese, swans, &c., provide means of livelihood for a few Samoyed hunters.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kolhapur

See also Kolhapur State and Kolhapur on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​KOLHAPUR, a native state of India, within the Deccan division of Bombay. It is the fourth in importance of the Mahratta principalities, the other three being Baroda, Gwalior and Indore; and it is the principal state under the political control of the government of Bombay. Together with its jagirs or feudatories, it covers an area of 3165 sq. m. In 1901 the population was 910,011. The estimated revenue is £300,000. Kolhapur stretches from the heart of the Western Ghats eastwards into the plain of the Deccan. Along the spurs of the main chain of the Ghats lie wild and picturesque hill slopes and valleys, producing little but timber, and till recently covered with rich forests. The centre of the state is crossed by several lines of low hills running at right angles from the main range. In the east the country becomes more open and presents the unpicturesque uniformity of a well-cultivated and treeless plain, broken only by an occasional river. Among the western hills are the ancient Mahratta strongholds of Panhala, Vishalgarh, Bavda and Rungna. The rivers, though navigable during the rains by boats of 2 tons burthen, are all fordable during the hot months. Iron ore is found in the hills, and smelting was formerly carried on to a considerable extent; but now the Kolhapur mineral cannot compete with that imported from Europe. There are several good stone quarries. The principal agricultural products are rice, millets, sugar-cane, tobacco, cotton, safflower and vegetables.
The rajas of Kolhapur trace their descent from Raja Ram, a younger son of Sivaji the Great, the founder of the Mahratta power. The prevalence of piracy caused the British government to send expeditions against Kolhapur in 1765 and 1792; and in the early years of the 19th century the misgovernment of the chief compelled the British to resort to military operations, and ultimately to appoint an officer to manage the state. In recent years the state has been conspicuously well governed, on the pattern of British administration. The raja Shahu Chhatrapati, G.C.S.I. (who is entitled to a salute of 21 guns) was born in 1874, and ten years later succeeded to the throne by adoption. The principal institutions are the Rajaram college, the high school, a technical school, an agricultural school, and training-schools for both masters and mistresses. The state railway from Miraj junction to Kolhapur town is worked by the Southern Mahratta company. In recent years the state has suffered from both famine and plague.
The town of Kolhapur, or Karvir, is the terminus of a branch of the Southern Mahratta railway, 30 m. from the main line. Pop. (1901), 54,373. Besides a number of handsome modern public buildings, the town has many evidences of antiquity. Originally it appears to have been an important religious centre, and numerous Buddhist remains have been discovered in the neighbourhood.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kolin

See also Kolín on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​KOLIN, or Neu-Kolin (also Kollin; Czech, Nový Kolín), a town of Bohemia, Austria, 40 m. E. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900), 15,025, mostly Czech. It is situated on the Elbe, and amongst its noteworthy buildings may be specially mentioned the beautiful early Gothic church of St Bartholomew, erected during the latter half of the 14th century. The industries of the town include sugar-refining, steam mills, brewing, and the manufacture of starch, syrup, spirits, potash and tin ware. The neighbourhood is known for the excellence of its fruit and vegetables. Kolin is chiefly famous on account of the battle here on the 18th of June 1757, when the Prussians under Frederick the Great were defeated by the Austrians under Daun (see Seven Years’ War). The result was the raising of the siege of Prague and the evacuation of Bohemia by the Prussians. Kolin was colonized in the 13th century by German settlers and made a royal city. In 1421 it was captured by the men of Prague, and the German inhabitants who refused to accept “the four articles” were expelled. In 1427 the town declared against Prague, was besieged by Prokop the Great, and surrendered to him upon conditions at the close of the year.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kolis

See also Koli people on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​KOLIS, a caste or tribe of Western India, of uncertain origin. Possibly the name is derived from the Turki kuleh a slave; and, according to one theory, this name has been passed on to the familiar word “cooly” for an agricultural labourer. They form the main part of the inferior agricultural population of Gujarat, where they were formerly notorious as robbers; but they also extend into the Konkan and the Deccan. In 1901 the number of Kolis in all India was returned as nearly 33/4 millions; but this total includes a distinct weaving caste of Kolis or Koris in northern India.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kolomea

See also Kolomyia on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​KOLOMEA (Polish, Kolomyja), a town of Austria, in Galicia, 122 m. S. of Lemberg by rail. Pop. (1900), 34,188, of which half were Jews. It is situated on the Pruth, and has an active trade in agricultural products. To the N.E. of Kolomea, near the Dniester, lies the village of Czernelica, with ruins of a strongly fortified castle, which served as the residence of John Sobieski during his campaigns against the Turks. Kolomea is a very old town and is mentioned already in 1240, but the assertion that it was a Roman settlement under the name of Colonia is not proved. It was the principal town of the Polish province of Pokutia, and it suffered severely during the 15th and 16th centuries from the attacks of the Moldavians and the Tatars.