OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Koster, Laurens

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​KOSTER (or Coster), LAURENS (c. 1370–1440), Dutch printer, whose claims to be considered at least one of the inventors of the art (see Typography) have been recognized by many investigators. His real name was Laurens Janssoen-Koster (i.e. sacristan) being merely the title which he bore as an official of the great parish church of Haarlem. We find him mentioned several times between 1417 and 1434 as a member of the great council, as an assessor (scabinus), and as the city treasurer. He probably perished in the plague that visited Haarlem in 1439–1440; his widow is mentioned in the latter year. His descendants, through his daughter Lucia, can be traced down to 1724.
See Peter Scriver, Beschryvinge der Stad Harlem (Haarlem, 1628); Scheltema, Levensschets van Laurens d. Koster (Haarlem, 1834); Van der Linde, De Haarlemsche Costerlegende (Hague, 1870).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kotas

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​KOTAS (Kotar, Koter, Kohatur, Gauhatar), an aboriginal tribe of the Nilgiri hills, India. They are a well-made people, of good features, tall, and of a dull copper colour, but some of them are among the fairest of the hill tribes. They recognize no caste among themselves, but are divided into keris (streets), and a man must marry outside his keri. Their villages (of which there are seven) are large, averaging from thirty to sixty huts. They are agriculturists and herdsmen, and the only one of the hill tribes who practise industrial arts, being excellent as carpenters, smiths, tanners and basket-makers. They do menial work for the Todas, to whom they pay a tribute. They worship ideal gods, which are not represented by any images. Their language is an old and rude dialect of Kanarese. In 1901 they numbered 1267.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Saisset, Bernard

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​SAISSET, BERNARD (d. c. 1314), French bishop, was abbot of Saint Antonin de Pamiers in 1268. Boniface VIII., detaching the city of Pamiers from the diocese of Toulouse in 1295, made it the seat of a new bishopric and appointed Saisset to the see. Of a headstrong temperament, Saisset as abbot energetically sustained the struggle with the counts of Foix, begun two centuries before, for the lordship of the city of Pamiers, which had been shared between the counts and abbots by the feudal contract of pariage. The struggle ended in 1297 by an agreement between the two parties as to their common rights, and when the pope raised the excommunication incurred by the count, Saisset absolved him in the refectory of the Dominican monastery in Pamiers (1300). Saisset is, however, famous in French history for his opposition to King Philip IV. As an ardent Languedocian he hated the French, and spoke openly of the king in disrespectful terms. But when he tried to organize a, general rising of the south, he was denounced to the king, perhaps by his old enemies the count of Foix and the bishop of Toulouse. Philip IV. charged Richard Leneveu, archdeacon of Auge in the diocese of Lisieux, and ​Jean de Picquigni, vidame of Amiens, to make an investigation, which lasted several months. Saisset was on the point of escaping to Rome when the vidame of Amiens surprised him by night in his episcopal palace. He was brought to Senlis, and on the 24th of October 1301 appeared before Philip and his court. The chancellor, Pierre Flotte, charged him with high treason, and he was placed in the keeping of the archbishop of Narbonne, his metropolitan. Philip IV. tried to obtain from the pope the canonical degradation of Saisset. Boniface VIII., instead, ordered the king in December 1301 to free the bishop, in order that he might go to Rome to justify himself. At the same time, he sent the famous bulls Salvator mundi, a sort of repetition of Clericis laicos, and Ausculta fili, which opened a new stage of the quarrel between the pope and king. In the heat of the new struggle Saisset was forgotten. He had been turned over in February 1302 into the keeping of Jacques des Normands, the papal legate, and was ordered to leave the kingdom at once. He lived at Rome until after the incident at Anagni. In 1308 the king pardoned him, and restored him to his see. He died, still bishop of Pamiers, about 1314.
There is no proof for the legend that Bernard Saisset earned Philip IV.'s hatred in 1300-1301 by boldly sustaining the pope's demand for the liberation of the count of Flanders, and by publicly proclaiming the doctrine of papal supremacy.
See Dom Vaissete, Histoire générale de Languedoc, ed. Privat, t. ix. pp. 216-310; Histoire littéraire de la France, t. xxvi. pp. 540-547; E. de Rozière, Le Passage de Pamiers, in Bibliothèque de l'École des Chartes (1871); Ch. V. Langlois in Lavisse's Histoire de France, t. iii., pt. ii., pp. 142-146.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Saka

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​SAKA, or Shāka, the name of one or more tribes which invaded India from Central Asia. The word is used loosely, especially by Hindu authors, to designate all the tribes which from time to time invaded India from the north, much as all the tribes who invaded China are indiscriminately termed Tatars. Used more accurately, it denotes the tribe which invaded India 130-140 B.C. They are the Sacae and Sakai of classical authors and the Se of the Chinese, which may represent an original Sek or Sök. The Chinese annalists state that they were a pastoral people who lived in the neighbourhood of the modern Kashgar. About 160 B.C. they were driven southward by the advance of the Yue-Chi from the east. One portion appears to have settled in western Afghanistan, hence called Sakasthāna, in modern Persian Sejistan. The other section occupied the Punjab and possessed themselves of the territory which the Graeco-Bactrian kings had acquired in India, that is Sind, Gujarat and Malwa. The rulers of these provinces bore the title of Satrap (Kshatrapa or Chhatrapa) and were apparently subordinate to a king who ruled over the valley of Kabul and the Punjab. In 57 B.C. the Sakas were attacked simultaneously by Parthians from the west and by the Malava clans from the east and their power was destroyed. It should be added that what we know of Saka history is mostly derived from coins and inscriptions which admit of various interpretations and that scholars are by no means agreed as to names and dates. In any case their power, if it lasted so long, must have been swept away by the Kushan conquest of Northern India.
Nothing is known of the language or race of the Sakas. Like most of the invaders of India at this period they adopted Buddhism, at least partially. They can be traced to the neighbourhood of Kashgar, but not like the Yue-Chi to the frontiers of China. They may have been Turanians akin to that tribe, or they may have been Iranians akin to the Iranian element in Transoxiana and the districts south of the Pamirs. They cannot be the same as the Scythians of Europe, though the name and original nomadic life are points in common.
See Vincent Smith, Early History of India (1908); O. Franke, Beiträge aus chinesischen Quellen zur Kenntnis der Türkvölker und Skythen (1904); P. Gardner, Coins of Greek and Scythian Kings in India (1886); and various articles by Vincent Smith, Fleet, Cunningham, A. Stein, Sylvain Levi and others in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Journal asiatique, Indian Antiquary, Zeitsch. der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft, &c. (C. El.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sainton, Prosper Philippe Catherine

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​SAINTON, PROSPER PHILIPPE CATHERINE (1813-1890), French violinist, was the son of a merchant at Toulouse, where he was born on the 5th of June 1813. He entered the Paris Conservatoire under Habeneck in 1831, and became professor of the violin in the Conservatoire of Toulouse. In 1844 he made his first appearance in England, at a Philharmonic concert directed by Mendelssohn. Settling in London, he was in 1845 appointed professor at the Royal Academy of Music. In' the early organizations for chamber music which culminated in the establishment of the Popular concerts, Sainton bore an important
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sais

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​SAIS (Egyptian Sai), an ancient city of the Egyptian Delta, lying westward of the Thermuthiac or Sebennytic branch of the Nile. It was capital of the 5th nome of Lower Egypt and must have been important from remote times. In the 8th century B.C. Sais held the hegemony of the Western Delta, while Bubastite families ruled in the east and the kings of Ethiopia in Upper Egypt. The Ethiopians found their most vigorous opponents in the Saite princes Tefnachthus and his son Bocchoris “the Wise” of the XXIVth Dynasty. After reigning six years the latter is said to have been burnt alive by Sabacon, the founder of the Ethiopian XXVth Dynasty. At the time when invasions by the Assyrians drove out the Ethiopian Taracus again and again, the chief of the twenty princes to whom Esarhaddon and Assur-bani-pal successively entrusted the government was Niku, king of Sais and Memphis. His son Psammetichus (q.v.) was the founder of the XXVIth Dynasty. Although the main seat of government was at Memphis, Sais remained the royal residence throughout this flourishing dynasty. Neith, the goddess of Sais, was identified with Athena, and Osiris was worshipped there in a great festival.
The brick enclosure wall of the temple is still plainly visible near the little village of Sa el hagar (Sa of stone) on the east bank of the Rosetta branch, but the royal tombs and other monuments of Sais, some of which were described by Herodotus, and its inscribed records, have all gone. Only crude brick ruins and rubbish heaps remain on the site, but a few relics conveyed to Alexandria and Europe in the Roman age have come down to our day, notably the inscribed statue of a priest of Neith who was high in favour with Psammetichus III., Cambyses and Darius. Bronze figures of deities are now the most interesting objects to be found at Sa el hagar.  (F. Ll. G.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Saintsbury, George Edward Bateman

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​SAINTSBURY, GEORGE EDWARD BATEMAN (1845–), English man of letters, was born at Southampton on the 23rd of October 1845. He was educated at King's College School, London, and at Merton College, Oxford (B.A., 1868), and spent six years in Guernsey as senior classical master of Elizabeth College. From 1874 to 1876 he was headmaster of the Elgin Educational Institute. He began his literary career in 1875 as a critic for the Academy, and for ten years was actively engaged in journalism, becoming an important member of the staff of the Saturday Review. Some of the critical essays contributed to the literary journals were afterwards collected in his Essays in English Literature, 1780–1860 (2 vols., 1890–1895), Essays on French Novelists (1891), Miscellaneous Essays (1892), Corrected Impressions (1895). His first book, A Primer of French Literature (1880), and his Short History of French Literature (1882; 6th ed., Oxford, 1901), were followed by a series of editions of French classics and of books and articles on the history of French literature, which made him the most prominent English authority on the subject. His studies in English literature were no less comprehensive, and included the valuable revision of Sir Walter Scott's edition of Dryden's Works (Edinburgh, 18 vols., 1882-1893), Dryden (1881) in the “ English Men of Letters ” series, History of Elizabethan Literature (1887), History of Nineteenth Century Literature (1896), A Short History of English Literature (1898, 3rd ed. 1903), an edition of the Minor Caroline Poets of the Caroline Period (2 vols., 1905–1906), a collection of rare poems of great value, and editions of English classics. He edited the series of “ Periods of European Literature,” contributing the volumes on The Flourishing of Romance and the Rise of Allegory (1897), and The Earlier Renaissance (1901). In 1895 he became professor of rhetoric and English literature at Edinburgh university, and subsequently produced two of his most important works, A History of Criticism (3 vols., 1900–1904), with the companion volume Loci Critici, Passages Illustrative of Critical Theory and Practice (Boston, U.S.A., and London, 1903), and A History of English Prosody from the 12th Century to the Present Day (i., 1906; ii., 1908; iii., 1910); also The Later Nineteenth Century (1909).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Saisset, Émile Edmond

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​SAISSET, EMILE EDMOND (1814-1863), French philosopher, was born at Montpellier on the 16th of September 1814, and died at Paris on the 17th of December 1863. He studied philosophy in the school of Cousin, and carried on the eclectic tradition of his master along with Ravaisson and Jules Simon. He was professor of philosophy at Caen, at the École Normale in Paris and later at the Sorbonne.
His chief works are a monograph on Aenesidemus the Sceptic (1840); Le Scepticisme: Ænésidème, Pascal, Kant (1845); a translation of Spinoza (1843); Précurseurs et disciples de Descartes (1862); Discours de la philosophies de Leibnitz (1857)—a work which had great influence on the progress of thought in France; Essai de philosophie religieuse (1859); Critique et histoire de la philosophie (1865).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sainton-Dolby, Charlotte Helen

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​SAINTON-DOLBY, CHARLOTTE HELEN (1821–1885), English contralto singer, was born in London on the 17th of May 11821, studied at the Royal Academy of Music from 1832 to 1837, Crivelli being her principal singing-master. In 1837 she was elected to a king's scholarship, and first appeared at a Philharmonic concert in 1841. In October 1845 she sang at the Gewandhaus, Leipzig, through the influence of Mendelssohn, who had been delighted by her singing in St Paul. The contralto music in his Elijah was written for her voice, but she did not appear in that Work till the performance at Exeter Hall on the 16th of April 1847. She married M. Sainton in 1860, and in 1870 she retired from the career of a public singer, but two years afterwards started a “ vocal academy ” in London. She made various successful attempts as a composer, and the cantatas “ The Legend of St Dorothea ” (1876), “ The Story of the Faithful Soul " (1879), and “ Florimel ” (1885), enjoyed considerable success. Her last public appearance was at her husband's farewell concert in June 1883, and she died on the 18th of February 1885. A scholarship in her memory was founded at the Royal Academy of Music. Her voice was of moderate power and of fine quality, but it was her dignified and artistic style that gave her the high place she held for so many years both in oratorio and ballads.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Saintonge

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​SAINTONGE, one of the old provinces of France, of which Saintes (q.v.) was the capital, was bounded on the N.W. by Aunis, on the N.E. by Poitou, on the E. by Angoumois, on the S. by Guienne, and on the W. by Guienne and the Atlantic. It now forms a small portion of the department of Charente and the greater part of that of Charente Inférieure. In the time of Caesar, Saintonge was occupied by the Santones, whose capital was Mediolanum; afterwards it was part of Aquitania Secunda. The civitas Santonum, which formed the bishopric of Saintes, was divided into two pagi: Santonicus (whence Sanctonia, Saintonge) and Alienensis, later Alniensis (Aunis). Halved by the treaty of 1259, it was wholly ceded to the king of England in 1360, but reconquered by Du Guesclin in 1371. Up to 1789 it was in the same gouvernement with Angoumois, but from a judiciary point of view Saintonge was under the parlement of Bordeaux and Angoumois under that of Paris.
See D. Massiou, Histoire politique, civile et religieuse de la Saintonge et de l’Aunis (6 vols., 1836–1839; 2nd ed., 1846); P. D. Rainguet, Biographie saintongeaise (1852). See also the publications of the Société des archives historiques de la Saintonge et de l’Aunis (1874 fol.).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Review

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​REVIEW (Fr. revue, from revoir, to see again, Lat. re and videre), an inspection or critical examination; it is chiefly used as a military or naval term for an inspection on a large or formal scale of a fleet or body of troops by the sovereign or other person holding a high official position, or for a critical account of a recently published literary work in a magazine or periodical. The earliest use of the word for the title of such a periodical was in the paper begun by Defoe in 1704, the full title of which was A Review of the Affairs of France and of all Europe, as influenced by that Nation (see Periodicals and Newspapers). In France there is a particular application of the term revue or, more fully, revue de fin d'année to a form of dramatic performance, acted or sung, in which the chief events of the past year, and the personages who have been prominently before the public, are satirically and critically passed under review. Attempts have been made to trace such performances to an early origin. In their modern form, however, they date from the reign of Louis Philippe. L'An 1841 et l'an 1941, by the brothers Cogniard, was one of the earliest.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Revillagigedo

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​REVILLAGIGEDO, an isolated, uninhabited group of rocky islands in the N. Pacific, lat. 18° N., long. 112° W., belonging to Mexico, and forming part of the state of Colima. They are about 420 m. from the Mexican coast and comprise the large island of Socorro (San Tomás), 24 m. long by an average of 9 m. wide, and the three widely separated islets of San Benedicto, Roca Partida and Clarion, with a total area of 320 sq. m. The island of Socorro has an extinct volcano 3660 ft. high. The islands have certain remarkable zoological features, comprising several birds and reptiles allied to those of the Mexican mainland but differing from them in species. The archipelago derives its name from the Spanish Viceroy who governed Mexico from 1746 to 1755.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Revelstoke

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​REVELSTOKE, an incorporated town of British Columbia, on the Columbia river and the Canadian Pacific railway, 381 m. E. of Vancouver. Pop. (1907) 3526. It is the capital of Kootenay county, and the shipping centre for the mining and lumbering district. It contains large railway shops, several breweries, and saw and shingle mills.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Revere

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​REVERE, a township and a coast resort of Suffolk county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., immediately N.E. of Boston on Massachusetts Bay. Pop. (1910, U.S. census), 18,219. Area, 4.56 sq. m. The township is served by the Boston & Maine and the Boston, Revere Beach & Lynn railways, and by several electric railways connecting with Boston, Chelsea, Lynn, Malden, and Medford. Revere Beach, a crescent-shaped beach of white sand extending from the promontory of Winthrop on the S. to the Point of Pines on the N., is a popular bathing resort, and has been called the Coney Island of Boston. The township has a Carnegie library and a handsome town hall. The first settlement here was made about 1626, and, under the name of Rumney Marsh, it was a part of Boston until 1739, when it became a part of the new township of Chelsea. The northern part of Chelsea was organized as the township of North Chelsea in 1846; part of it was separated as Winthrop in 1852; and in 1871 the name North Chelsea was changed to Revere, in honour of Paul Revere.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Revolutionary Tribunal, The

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​REVOLUTIONARY TRIBUNAL, THE (le tribunal revolutionnaire), a court which was instituted in Paris by the Convention during the French Revolution for the trial of political offenders, and became one of the most powerful engines of the Terror. The news of the failure of the French arms in Belgium gave rise in Paris to popular movements on the 9th and 10th of March 1793, and on the 10th of March, on the proposal of Danton, the Convention decreed that there should be established in Paris an extraordinary criminal tribunal, which received the official name of the Revolutionary Tribunal by a decree of the 29th of October 1793. It was composed of a jury, a public. prosecutor, and two substitutes, all nominated by the Convention; and from its judgments there was no appeal. With M.J.A. Hermann as president and Fouquier-Tinville as public prosecutor, the tribunal terrorized the royalists, the refractory priests and all the actors in the counter-revolution. Soon, too, it came to be used for personal ends, particularly by, Robespierre, who employed it for the condemnation of his adversaries. The excesses of the Revolutionary Tribunal increased with the growth of Robespierre's ascendancy in the Committee of Public Safety; and on the 10th of June 1794 was promulgated, at his instigation, the infamous Law of 22 Prairial, which forbade prisoners to employ counsel for- their defence, suppressed the hearing of witnesses and made death the sole penalty. Before 22 Prairial the Revolutionary Tribunal, had pronounced 1220 death-sentences in thirteen months; during the forty-nine days between the passing of the law and the fall of Robespierre 1376 persons were condemned, including many innocent victims. The lists of prisoners to be sent before the tribunal were prepared by a popular commission sitting at the museum, and signed, after revision, by the Committee of General Security and the Committee of Public Safety jointly. Although Robespierre was the principal purveyor of the tribunal, we possess only one of these lists bearing his signature. The Revolutionary Tribunal was suppressed on the 31st of May 1795. Among its most celebrated victims may be mentioned Marie Antoinette, the Hébertists, the Dantonists and several of the Girondists. Similar tribunals were also in operation in the provinces.
See H. A. Wallon, Histoire du tribunal révolutionnaire de Paris (Paris, 6 vols., 1880-82); E. Campardon, Le Tribunal revolutionnaire de Paris (Paris, 2nd ed., 2 vols., 1866); C. Berriat Saint-Prix, La Justice révolutionnaire à Paris, Bordeaux, Brest, Lyon, Nantes, ... (Paris, 1861), and La Justice révolutionnaire (août 1792–prairial an II.) d'apres des documents originaux (Paris, 1870); also G. Lenôtre, Le Tribunal revolutionnaire (1908). For a bibliography of its records see M. Tourneux, Bibliog. de la ville de Paris ... (1890, vol. i. Nos. 3925-3974).