OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# A Cyclopaedia of Female Biography/Gould, Hannah Flagg

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GOULD, HANNAH FLAGG,
Is a native of Lancaster, in the State of Vermont, North America; but in her early youth her father, who was a veteran of the Revolution, removed to Newburyport, in Massachusetts, where she has since resided. Her mother died when Hannah was young, and for many years, even until the decease of her beloved father, she was his housekeeper, nurse, companion, and the chief source of his earthly happiness.
Miss Gould commenced her literary career as nearly all American authors do, by writing for periodicals. Her contributions were chiefly poetical; these she collected, and in 1832 her first volume of poems was published in Boston. Since then, two addition volumes of her poems have been issued; and in 1846, a volume of prose, entitled "Gathered Leaves, or Miscellaneous Papers," which had previously been contributions to annuals, appeared. In 1850, "Diosma—a perennial," a volume of poems, selected and original, and "The Youth's Coronal," a little book of poems for children, were published.
Miss Gould possesses great delicacy and scope of imagination; she gathers around her simple themes imagery of peculiar beauty and uncommon association—and yet this imagery is always appropriate. Then she has a very felicitous command of language, and the skill of making the most uncouth words "lie smooth in rhyme," which the greatest poet of the age might envy. And she, not seldom, displays humorous turns of thought, and a sportive raillery which is very amusing.
Wit is a much rarer quality than wisdom in female writers, and Miss Gould's sprightly wit has the advantage of appearing quite original. She, however, uses it with great delicacy, and always to teach or enforce some lesson which would not disparage "divine Philosophy" to inculcate.—In truth, the great power of her poetry is its moral application. This hallows every object she looks upon, and ennobles every incident she celebrates. She takes lowly and homely themes, but she turns them to the light of heaven, and they are beautified, and refined, and elevated. She brings to her God the rich treasures of her intellect, and the warm feelings of her heart. Everywhere and in everything she sees and feels His presence; and her song rises in those "spiritual breathings," which lift the hearts of her readers, to unite with her in praise to the Lord.
# A Cyclopaedia of Female Biography/Gournay, Mary de Jars, Lady of

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GOURNAY, MARY DE JARS, LADY OF,
A French woman of wit and learning, was related to several noble families in Paris, but born in Gascony, in 1565. She had a strong turn for literature, and was so delighted with Montaigne's Essays, that, on her father's death, she adopted Montaigne in his stead, even before she had seen him. When he was at Paris in 1588, she visited him, and prevailed on him to pass two or three months with her and her mother, the Lady Gournay. Mademoiselle de Jars became so wedded to books in general, and Montaigne's Essays in particular, that she resolved never to have any other associate. Nor was Montaigne ungrateful for her admiration. He foretold, in his second book of Essays, that she would be capable of first-rate productions. The connection was carried through the family. Montaigne's daughter, the Viscountess de Jamaches, always claimed Mademoiselle de Jars as a sister. In 1634, after Montaigne's death, she revised and re-printed an edition of his Essays, with a preface, full of the strongest expressions of devotion to his memory.
She published a volume of prose and verse in 1636, called "Les Avis et les Presens de la Demoiselle de Gournal." She was never married, but received a small pension from the court. She died in 1645, at Paris.
# A Cyclopaedia of Female Biography/Grace, Mrs.

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GRACE, MRS.
The maiden name of this ingenious woman is not known. She was the daughter of a shoe-maker, and without any regular instruction, succeeded so well in painting portraits as not only to support her family, but also to realize twenty thousand pounds. She frequently exhibited with the Society of Artists in London; and in 1767, produced an historical picture. She left London for Homerton, where she died about 1786.
# A Cyclopaedia of Female Biography/Graffigny, Francoise d'Happoncourt

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GRAFFIGNY, FRANCOISE D'HAPPONCOURT,
Was the daughter of a great-niece of the celebrated engraver Callot. Her disposition gentle and serious, her judgment excellent, she was benevolent and affectionate, and much esteemed by her numerous friends. Her "Lettres Peruviennes" obtained great ​celebrity. Their variety of description, richness of imagery, and impassioned interest, have been justly admired. She also composed a comedy of the Genre Larmoyante, which contains many ingenious thoughts, but is negligently finished.
Madame de Graffigny sometimes told with mortification, that her mother, having inherited a vast number of the copperplates of the great Callot, sent one day for a brazier and had them all melted down, and made into kitchen utensils.
In her married life she suffered much unkindness from an unworthy husband. Becoming a widow, in 1740 she went to Paris in the suite of Mademoiselle de Guise, little foreseeing the honours that awaited her in the literary world. Her reputation was formed in the capital while she was unconscious of it. Several men of letters engaged her assistance in a periodical production that was in vogue at that time. She wrote for them a tale entitled "Bad examples produce as many virtues as vices." This story is filled with maxims, of which the very title is one. Madame de Graffigny began the career of an author at rather a late period of life; but no want of spirit or animation is to be objected to her writings. Besides many other dramatic and imaginative works, she composed three or four little plays for the young, which were represented in Vienna by 'the children of the Emperor, who gave her a pension. These were of a moral tendency, and written with a characteristic simplicity. She died in 1758,
# A Cyclopaedia of Female Biography/Graham, Isabella

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GRAHAM, ISABELLA,
Was born in the county of Lanark, Scotland, in 1742. Her parents, Mr. and Mrs. John Marshall, educated her carefully and religiously. In 1765, she became acquainted with Dr. John Graham, a physician of Paisley, whom she afterwards married, and by whom she had four children. Soon after then: marriage, her husband was ordered to join his regiment, then in Canada. Four of the happiest years of her life were spent in that country, when Dr. Graham was ordered to Antigua, where he died in 1774. Mrs. Graham then returned to her father in Scotland, where, by taking charge of the education of some young ladies, she supported her aged father, herself, and her children.
In 1789, Mrs. Graham returned to America, and opened a seminar for young ladies in New York, in which she was very successful. ' She was also eminent as a public benefactor, being the projector, the founder, and one of the most efficient members, of the "Widow's Society," the 'Orphans' Asylum," and a "Society for the Promotion of Industry." She devoted her time, talents, influence, and earnings to the building up of these useful charities; even performing the office of teacher for some time in the Orphans' School, before the funds were sufficient to pay an instructor. Few women have accomplished such efficient services for public good as did this truly noble woman; she not only worked herself In the cause of her Heavenly Master, but she had that peculiar faculty, the gift of persuasion, which moved the hearts of many to work with her, who, without such an exemplar and monitor, would never have entered on these plans of doing good. Mrs. Graham was also gifted with genius; her talents, hallowed by piety, and devoted to duty, were of the high order which would have gained her a wide ​reputation for literature, had she lent herself to its pursuits. Her familiar letters are models of the best style; and the fragments of her poetry, found among her papers, entitled "Provision for my last Journey through the Wilderness," etc., shew the poetic feeling which slumbered in her heart, or rather was absorbed by her love of God and her ceaseless service in His cause. She had, in this life: the reward of seeing her exertions crowned with wonderful success; and the blessing of a peaceful and happy death seemed the fitting close of an earthly career which was to open for her an eternity of glory and blessedness. She died July 27th., 1814. Bat her spirit has not passed away; it animates her descendants; her daughter, Mrs. Bethune, and the only son of this daughter, the Rev. George W. Bethune, who carry on and out the holy principles of benevolence of Isabella Graham. Her "Life and Writings" is widely known, many editions having been published in Scotland and England; and probably more than fifty thousand copies have been printed in America.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Leschetizsky, Theodor

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​LESCHETIZSKY, THEODOR (1830-1915), Polish pianist and teacher, was born in Poland June 22 1830. He was a pupil of Czerny, and for many years enjoyed a wide reputation as a pianist. His fame, however, chiefly rests upon his establishment (1878) of the Leschetizsky school of pianoforte playing at Vienna, which earned a world-wide reputation for the soundness of its methods of teaching and the number of eminent artists whom it produced. Among his pupils may be mentioned Paderewski, Mark Hambourg and Moiseiwitsch. The famous teacher died at Vienna Nov. 17 1915.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Liebknecht, Karl

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LIEBKNECHT, KARL (1871-1919), German Socialist and revolutionary leader, was the son of Wilhelm Liebknecht (see 16.592). He was born in Aug. 1871 at Leipzig. In 1899 he qualified as a lawyer, and speedily became a prominent agitator on the extreme Left wing of the Socialist party. In 1907 he was sentenced to 18 months' imprisonment for high treason. In the following year he was elected a member of the Prussian Chamber of Deputies; in 1912 he also became a member of the Reichstag, and on the outbreak of the World War he distinguished himself by the violent opposition which he offered to the policy of the Government and the successive votes of credit. Liebknecht was then expelled from the Social Democratic party and founded a faction of his own, which he called “die Sozialdemokratische Arbeitsgemeinschaft.” In 1916 he was once more arrested on a charge of high treason brought against him by the military authorities and was sentenced to four years' penal servitude. On the eve of the revolution in Oct. 1918 he was reprieved, and, on his release, at once put himself at the head of the Spartacists, the extreme revolutionary section in sympathy with Russian Bolshevism. He was once more arrested during the Spartacist insurrection in Jan. 1919, for which he was largely responsible. While he was being conveyed in a motor-car from the Government military headquarters in the west end of Berlin to the prison at Moabit he was shot down by his military escort while, as was subsequently alleged, he was attempting escape. His death, as well as that of his associate, Rosa Luxemburg, who perished on the same night at the hands of the soldiers or the mob, was constantly made a subject of reproach to the Government Socialists by the extreme Communist party.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lemaître, François Élie Jules

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LEMAÎTRE, FRANÇOIS ÉLIE JULES (1853-1915), French critic and dramatist (see 16.408), died in Paris Jan. 21 1915.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Leoncavallo, Ruggiero

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​LEONCAVALLO, RUGGIERO (1858-1919), Italian composer (see 16.455), died at Montecatini Aug. 9 1919.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lethaby, William Richard

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LETHABY, WILLIAM RICHARD (1857–), English architect, was born in Barnstaple in 1857, and began his architectural training in that town. In 1879 he won the Soane travelling studentship of the R.I.B.A., and soon afterward entered the office of Norman Shaw, remaining with him for 12 years. In 1892 he started practice on his own account. Shaw’s inspiring influence, together with William Morris and Philip Webb, shaped and coloured Lethaby’s design and work. His first important building was Avon Tyrrell, Hants., for Lord Manners, followed by Melrotter, Orkney and other smaller houses. He also carried out the Eagle Insurance building in Birmingham, and a church at Brockhampton, Hereford. A keen student of the past, Lethaby covered several fields in his writings on architecture and applied art. He published in 1892 Architecture Mysticism and Myth and London before the Conquest, and in the following year Leadwork, where his subject is treated both historically and from the craftsman’s point of view. For several years he acted as editor of the series covering the whole ground of the Artistic Crafts, and for the Arts and Crafts Society wrote, later, Handicrafts and Re-construction. Concentrating on the study of Byzantine art, in 1893 he visited Constantinople, and there, in collaboration with Harold Swainson, gathered material for his book The Church of Sancta Sophia (1894). His Westminster Abbey and the King’s Craftsmen—a study of mediaeval master-masons and building methods—was largely responsible for his being appointed in 1906 surveyor to the fabric of the Abbey, and becoming responsible for its repair and conservation. Amongst Lethaby’s many other contributions to the literature dealing with the history and methods of architecture and its dependent arts are Mediaeval Art (1908), based on a study of the French cathedrals; Greek Buildings, represented by fragments in the British Museum (1908); Architecture, an introduction to the history and theory of the Art (1912); National Architecture and Modernism (1918–21) and many articles and papers in the Hibbert, the Hellenic and other journals and magazines. He was appointed in 1893 one of the two art inspectors by the then newly constituted Technical Education Board of the Council, and, with Sir G. Frampton, was responsible for the establishment of the Council’s principal technical education centre. Of this, the Central School of Arts and Crafts, he was principal from 1893 to 1911. He was professor of design at the Royal College of Art from 1900 to 1918.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lindsay, Sir Coutts

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​LINDSAY, SIR COUTTS, 2nd Bart. (1824–1913), English artist, was born Feb. 2 1824. He succeeded in 1839 by special remainder to the baronetcy of his maternal grandfather, Sir Coutts Trotter, and afterwards entered the army, where he commanded the 1st Regt. of the Italian Legion during the Crimean War. He subsequently retired from the army and devoted himself to art. Between 1862 and 1874 he exhibited many pictures, including various successful portraits, and in 1877 founded the Grosvenor Gallery, which devoted itself to exhibiting the works of the pre-Raphaelite group and other artists who were at that time considered to be too advanced in style for the Royal Academy. His first wife, whom he married in 1864, was Caroline Blanche Elizabeth, daughter of the Rt. Hon. Henry Fitzroy by his wife Hannah Mayer de Rothschild. She was herself an artist and poet of some distinction. For 30 years before her death she lived in London or Venice, gathering a circle of friends about her which included G. F. Watts, Alma-Tadema and Browning. She collected a number of fine pictures, some of which she left to the National Gallery. She published several volumes of verse, among them From a Venetian Balcony (1903) and Poems of Love and Death (1907). She died in London Aug. 10 1912. Sir Coutts Lindsay married secondly, in 1912, Kate Harriet Madley, daughter of William Burfield. He died at Kingston May 7 1913, the baronetcy becoming extinct.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lichnowsky, Prince Karl Max von

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LICHNOWSKY, PRINCE KARL MAX VON (1860-), German diplomatist, was born March 8 1860 at Kreuzenort in Upper Silesia. He entered the German Foreign Office in 1884 and from 1904 to 1911 held secretarial posts in different German embassies abroad. In 1912 he was sent to London as ambassador, and remained at that post until the outbreak of the World War. He took part in the negotiations for a convention with Great Britain regarding the Bagdad railway and various colonial questions, which was on the point of being signed when the crisis of July and August 1914 became acute. Lichnowsky was convinced that for years the relations between Germany and Great Britain had been mismanaged and misunderstood by the Foreign Office in Berlin, and, in particular, he believed that Bethmann Hollweg and his advisers failed to appreciate the pacific attitude and intentions of Sir Edward Grey and the British Government during the crisis that ended in the World War. He embodied his views in the pamphlet entitled Meine Londoner Mission, which he circulated privately in manuscript among his German friends. This document came into the hands of a harebrained enthusiast, Capt. von Beerfelde, who was the means of its being published, without authorization, in 1917. The publication exercised a very prejudicial effect upon the German war spirit and there were loud demands among the Conservative and National Liberals for the prosecution of the author. The Prussian Upper House, of which Lichnowsky was a member, passed a resolution excluding him from that assembly. It became impossible for him to live in Germany, and he sought refuge in Switzerland.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Seigniorage

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​SEIGNIORAGE, the due levied by the authority that possesses the right of coining on the metal that it manufactures into coin. The term “ brassage ” has been used to describe this due, when confined to the mere cost of the process; the wider term “ seigniorage ” being employed when the charge is so raised as to become a profit to the imposer. The exercise of the right of seignior age has been the instrument by which most of the debasements of currency have been carried out. Under feudalism, especially in France, the chief nobles had this prerogative. In the modern state it is reserved for the sovereign authority. Most countries adopt a moderate seignior age charge. Thus the fundamental currency law of France (1803) provides that “ only the expense of coining ” shall be charged. At present this due is 6 fr. 70 c. per kilo. of gold $^9$⁄$_{10}$ fine, or 0.24%. The charge by the same law on silver was 3 fr. per kilo. or 1.66%. The limitation on the coinage of silver in practically all countries has made the seigniorage on that metal very heavy. The policy of England in respect to gold has been peculiar. Since 1664 it has been freed from any charge, though the delay in return amounts to a small due. In consequence of this gratuitous coinage, English gold has been regarded as equivalent to bullion, and exchange fluctuations have been reduced. The policy was severely criticized by Adam Smith, and it does in fact amount to a bounty on the coinage of gold. The amount is, however, too insignificant to deserve attention, especially as there are compensating gains. The employment of a seigniorage of about 1% on the “ sovereign ” was suggested by the proceedings of the Paris Monetary Conference of 1867, in order to bring about an assimilation of English and French money. By reducing the amount of gold in the sovereign to that in the proposed 25-franc piece an exact par would have been created, and, so it was hoped, the English currency and accounts need have undergone no change. The scheme was, however, rejected by a Royal Commission on the ground that an adjustment of obligations would be required.
The theory of the effects that a seignior age produces have been discussed at length. The definitive results obtained may be brieiiy stated as follows:—(1) A seigniorage charge is the same as a debasement, but its evil effect may be avoided by limiting the amount of coin issued. (2) Seigniorage operates as a tax on the metal subject to it, and this tax tends ultimately to fall on the producers, or rather on the rent obtained through the production. A heavy seigniorage on gold would tend to lower the profits derived from the gold mines of the world, and might even compel the abandonment of the least productive ones.
See Money, Monetary Conferences, and Token Money. (C. F. B.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Seine (net)

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​SEINE, or Sean (O. Fr. seigne, mod. seine, Lat. sagena, Gr. σαγήνη, a draw-net), a type of fishing net, consisting of an expanse of netting weighted at the bottom and floated at the top edge by corks, cast from a boat or ship to enclose a space of water and then drawn into the vessel or to shore.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Seignory

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​SEIGNORY, or Seigniory (Fr. seigneur, lord; Lat. senior, elder), in English law, the lordship remaining to a grantor after the grant of an estate in fee-simple. There is no land in England without its lord: “Nulle terre sans seigneur” is the old feudal maxim. Where no other lord can be discovered the crown is lord as lord paramount. The principal incidents of a seignory were an oath of fealty; a “quit” or “chief” rent; a “relief” of one year’s quit rent, and the right of escheat. In return for these privileges the lord was liable to forfeit his rights if he neglected to protect and defend the tenant or did anything injurious to the feudal relation. Every seignory now existing must have been created before the Statute of Quia Emptores (1290), which forbade the future creation of estates in fee-simple by subinfeudation. The only seignories of any importance at present are the lordships of manors. They are regarded as incorporeal hereditaments, ​and are either appendant or in gross. A seignory appendant passes with the grant of the manor; a seignory in gross—that is, a seignory which has been severed from the demesne lands of the manor to which it was originally appendant—must be specially conveyed by deed of grant.
Freehold land may be enfranchised by a conveyance of the seignory to the freehold tenant, but it does not extinguish the tenant's right of common (Baring v. Abingdon, 1892, 2 Ch. 374). By s. 3 (ii.) of the Settled Land Act 1882, the tenant for life of a manor is empowered to sell the seignory of any freehold land within the manor, and by s. 21 (v.) the purchase of the seignory of any part of settled land being freehold land, is an authorized application of capital money arising under the act.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Seiche

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SEICHE (Fr. sèche, fem. of sec, dry), in limnology, an irregular fluctuation of the water-level of lakes, first observed and so named in Switzerland. (See Lake, and Geneva.)