OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Troughton, Edward

See also Edward Troughton on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​TROUGHTON, EDWARD (1753-1835), English instrument maker, was born in the parish of Corney in Cumberland in October 1753. He joined his elder brother John in carrying on the business of making mathematical instruments in Fleet Street, London, and continued it alone after his brother's death, until in 1826 he took W. Simms as a partner. He died in London on the 12th of June 1835.
Troughton was very successful in improving the mechanical part of most nautical, geodetic and astronomical instruments, but complete colour-blindness prevented him from attempting experiments in optics. The first modern transit circle was constructed by him in 1806 for Steven Groombridge; but Troughton was dissatisfied with this form of instrument, which a few years afterwards was brought to great perfection by G. von Reichenbach and J. G. Repsold, and designed the mural circle in its place. The first instrument of this kind erected in Greenwich in 1812, and ten or twelve others were subquently constructed for other observatories; but they were ultimately superceeded by Troughton's earlier design, the transit circle, by which the two co-ordinates of an object can be determined simultaneously. He also made transit instruments, equatorials, &c.; but his failure to construct an equatorial mounting of large dimensions, and the consequent lawsuit with Sir James South, embittered the last years of his life.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Laisant, Charles Anne

See also Charles-Ange Laisant on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer. This article has a printed typographic error, "Anne" should be "Ange"
​LAISANT, CHARLES ANNE (1841– ), French politician, was born at Nantes on the 1st of November 1841, and was educated at the École Polytechnique as a military engineer. ​He defended the fort of Issy at the siege of Paris, and served in Corsica and in Algeria in 1873. In 1876 he resigned his commission to enter the Chamber as deputy for Nantes in the republican interest, and in 1879 he became director of the Petit Parisien. For alleged libel on General Courtot de Cissey in this paper he was heavily fined. In the Chamber he spoke chiefly on army questions; and was chairman of a commission appointed to consider army legislation, resigning in 1887 on the refusal of the Chamber to sanction the abolition of exemptions of any kind. He then became an adherent of the revisionist policy of General Boulanger and a member of the League of Patriots. He was elected Boulangist deputy for the 18th Parisian arrondissement in 1889. He did not seek re-election in 1893, but devoted himself thenceforward to mathematics, helping to make known in France the theories of Giusto Bellavitis. He was attached to the staff of the École Polytechnique, and in 1903–1904 was president of the French Association for the Advancement of Science.
In addition to his political pamphlets Pourquoi et comment je suis Boulangiste (1887) and L’Anarchie bourgeoise (1887), he published mathematical works, among them Introduction à l’étude des quarternions (1881) and Théorie et applications des équipollences (1887).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lake Charles

See also Lake Charles, Louisiana on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​LAKE CHARLES, a city of Louisiana, U.S.A., capital of Calcasieu Parish, 30 m. from the Gulf of Mexico and about 218 m. (by rail) W. of New Orleans. Pop. (1889) 838, (1890) 3442, (1900) 6680 (2407 negroes); (1910) 11,449. It is served by the Louisiana & Texas (Southern Pacific System), the St Louis, Watkins & Gulf, the Louisiana & Pacific and the Kansas City Southern railways. The city is charmingly situated on the shore of Lake Charles, and on the Calcasieu river, which with some dredging can be made navigable for large vessels for 132 m. from the Gulf. It is a winter resort. Among the principal buildings are a Carnegie library, the city hall, the Government building, the court house, St Patrick’s sanatorium, the masonic temple and the Elks’ club. Lake Charles is in the prairie region of southern Louisiana, to the N. of which, covering a large part of the state, are magnificent forests of long-leaf pine, and lesser lowland growths of oak, ash, magnolia, cypress and other valuable timber. The Watkins railway extending to the N.E. and the Kansas City Southern extending to the N.W. have opened up the very best of the forest. The country to the S. and W. is largely given over to rice culture. Lake Charles is the chief centre of lumber manufacture in the state, and has rice mills, car shops and an important trade in wool. Ten miles W. are sulphur mines (product in 1907 about 362,000 tons), which with those of Sicily produce a large part of the total product of the world. Jennings, about 34 m. to the E., is the centre of oil fields, once very productive but now of diminishing importance. Welsh, 23 m. E., is the centre of a newer field; and others lie to the N. Lake Charles was settled about 1852, largely by people from Iowa and neighbouring states, was incorporated as a town in 1857 under the name of Charleston and again in 1867 under its present name, and was chartered as a city in 1886. The city suffered severely by fire in April 1910.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lake Geneva

See also Lake Geneva, Wisconsin on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​LAKE GENEVA, a city of Walworth county, Wisconsin, U.S.A., 65 m. N.W. of Chicago. Pop. (1900) 2585, of whom 468 were foreign-born; (1905) 3449; (1910) 3079. It is served by the Chicago & Northwestern railway. The city is picturesquely situated on the shores of Lake Geneva (9 m. long and 11/2 to 3 m. wide), a beautiful body of remarkably clear water, fed by springs, and encircled by rolling hills covered with thick groves of hardwood trees. The region is famous as a summer resort, particularly for Chicago people. The city is the seat of Oakwood Sanitarium, and at Williams Bay, 6 m. distant, is the Yerkes Observatory of the University of Chicago. Dairying is the most important industrial interest. The first settlement on Lake Geneva was made about 1833. The city was chartered in 1893.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lake City

See also Lake City, Florida on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​LAKE CITY, a town and the county-seat of Columbia county, Florida, U.S.A., 59 m. by rail W. by S. of Jacksonville. Pop. (1900) 4013, of whom 2159 were negroes; (1905) 6509; (1910) 5032. Lake City is served by the Atlantic Coast Line, the Seaboard Air Line and the Georgia Southern & Florida railways. There are ten small lakes in the neighbourhood, and the town is a winter and health resort. It is the seat of Columbia College (Baptist, 1907); the Florida Agricultural College was opened here in 1883, became the university of Florida in 1903, and in 1905 was abolished by the Buckman Law. Vegetables and fruits grown for the northern markets, sea-island cotton and tobacco are important products of the surrounding country, and Lake City has some trade in cotton, lumber, phosphates and turpentine. The town was first settled about 1826 as Alligator; it was incorporated in 1854; adopted the present name in 1859; and in 1901, with an enlarged area, was re-incorporated.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Parker, Joseph

See also Joseph Parker on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​PARKER, JOSEPH (1830–1902), English Nonconformist divine, was born at Hexham-on-Tyne on the 9th of April 1830, his father being a stonemason. He managed to pick up a fair education, which in after-life he constantly supplemented. In the revolutionary years from 1845 to 1850 young Parker as a local preacher and temperance orator gained a reputation for vigorous utterance. He was influenced by Thomas Cooper, the Chartist, and Edward Miall, the Liberationist, and was much associated with Joseph Cowen, afterwards M. P. for Newcastle. In the spring of 1852 he wrote to Dr John Campbell, minister of Whitefield Tabernacle, Moorfields, London, for advice as to entering the Congregational ministry, and after a short probation he became Campbell’s assistant. He also attended lectures in logic and philosophy at University College, London. From 1853 to 1858 he was pastor at Banbury. His next charge was at Cavendish Street, Manchester, where he rapidly made himself felt as a power in English Nonconformity. While here he published a volume of lectures entitled Church Questions, and, anonymously, Ecce Deus (1868), a work provoked by Seeley’s Ecce Homo. The university of Chicago conferred on him the degree of D.D. In 1869 he returned to London as minister of the Poultry church, founded by Thomas Goodwin. Almost at once he began the scheme which resulted in the erection of the great City Temple in Holborn Viaduct. It cost £70,000, and was opened on the 19th of May 1874. From this centre his influence spread far and wide. His stimulating and original sermons, with their notable leaning towards the use of a racy vernacular, made him one of the best known personalities of his time. Dr Parker was twice chairman of the London Congregational Board and twice of the Congregational Union of England and Wales. The death of his second wife in 1899 was a blow from which he never fully recovered, and he died on the 28th of November 1902.
Parker was pre-eminently a preacher, and his published works are chiefly sermons and expositions, chief among them being City Temple Sermons (1869–1870) and The People’s Bible, in 25 vols. (1885–1895). Other volumes include the autobiographical Springdale Abbey (1869), The Inner Life of Christ (1881), Apostolic Life (1884), Tyne Chylde: My Life and Teaching (1883; new ed., 1889), A Preacher’s Life (1899).
See E. C. Pike, Dr Parker and his Friends (1905); Congregational Year-Book (1904).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Paris (Texas)

See also Paris, Texas on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​PARIS, a city and the county-seat of Lamar county, Texas. U.S.A., about 93 m. N.E. of Dallas. Pop. (1890), 8254; (1900), 9358, of whom 3061 were negroes; (1906 estimate), 10,018. It is served by the St Louis & San Francisco (of which it is a terminus), the Gulf, Colorado & Santa Fé, the Texas & Pacific, and the Texas Midland railways. The city has cotton gins and a cotton compress, and various manufactures. In 1905 its factory products were valued at $854,930. Paris was settled in 1841, incorporated as a town in 1874, and chartered as a city in 1905.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Parker, John Henry

See also John Henry Parker (writer) on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​PARKER, JOHN HENRY (1806–1884), English writer on architecture, the son of a London merchant, was born on the 1st of March 1806. He was educated at Manor House School, Chiswick, and in 1821 entered business as a bookseller. Succeeding his uncle, Joseph Parker, as a bookseller at Oxford in 1832, ​he conducted the business with great success, the most important of the firm’s publications being perhaps the series of the “Oxford Pocket Classics.” In 1836 he brought out his Glossary of Architecture, which, published in the earlier years of the Gothic revival in England, had considerable influence in extending the movement, and supplied a valuable help to young architects. In 1848 he edited the fifth edition of Rickman’s Gothic Architecture, and in 1849 he published a handbook based on his earlier volume and entitled Introduction to the Study of Gothic Architecture. The completion of Hudson Turner’s Domestic Architecture of the Middle Ages next engaged his attention, three volumes being published (1853–1860). In 1858 he published Medieval Architecture of Chester. Parker was one of the chief advocates of the “restoration” of ecclesiastical buildings, and published in 1866 Architectural Antiquities of the City of Wells. Latterly he devoted much attention to explorations of the history of Rome by means of excavations, and succeeded in satisfying himself of the historical truth of much usually regarded as legendary. Two volumes of his Archaeology of Rome were published at Oxford in 1874 and 1876. In recognition of his labours he was decorated by the king of Italy, and received a medal from Pope Pius IX. In 1869 he endowed the keepership of the Ashmolean Museum with a sum yielding £250 a year, and under the new arrangement he was appointed the first keeper. In 1871 he was nominated C.B. He died at Oxford on the 31st of January 1884.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Paris (Illinois)

See also Paris, Illinois on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​PARIS, a city and the county seat of Edgar county, Illinois, U.S.A., in the E. part of the state, about 19 m. N.W. of Terre Haute, Ind. Pop. (1890), 4906; (1900), 6105, of whom 179 were foreign-born and 277 negroes; (1910) 7664. Paris is served by the Vandalia, and the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis (New York Central system) railways; the main line and the Cairo division of the latter intersect here, and the city is the transfer point for traffic from the E. and W. to the N. and S., and vice versa. It is in a rich farming region, of which Indian corn and oats are important products, and has a large trade. Paris was founded about 1825, was incorporated in 1853, and was re-incorporated in 1873.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Paris (legend)

See also Paris (mythology) on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​PARIS (also called Alexandros), in Greek legend, the son of Priam, king of Troy and Hecuba. Before he was born his mother dreamed that she was delivered of a firebrand. The dream was interpreted that her child would ruin his country, and when Paris was born he was exposed on Mt Ida. His life was saved by the herdsmen, and he grew up among them, distinguished for beauty and strength, till he was recognized and received by his parents. He was said to have been called Alexandros from his bravery in defending the herds against raids. When the strife arose at the marriage of Peleus and Thetis between Hera, Athena and Aphrodite, each claiming the apple that should belong to the most beautiful, Paris was selected as the judge. The three rivals unveiled their divine charms before a mortal judge on Mt Ida. Each tried to bribe the judge, Hera by promising power, Athena wisdom, Aphrodite the most beautiful woman in the world. Paris decided in favour of Aphrodite, and thus made Hera and Athena bitter enemies of his country (Homer, Iliad, xxiv. 25; Euripides, Troades, 925; Andromache, 284; Helena, 23). To gain the woman whom Aphrodite had promised, Paris set sail for Lacedaemon, deserting his old love Oenone, daughter of the river-god Cebren, who in vain warned him of the consequences. He was hospitably received by Menelaus, whose kindness he repaid by persuading his wife Helen to flee with him to Troy (Iliad, vi. 290). The siege of Troy by the united Greeks followed. Paris proved a lazy and backward fighter, though not wanting in actual courage when he could be roused to exert himself. Before the capture of the city he was mortally wounded by Philoctetes with an arrow (Sophocles, Philoctetes, 1426). He then bethought him of the slighted nymph Oenone, who he knew could heal the wound. He was carried into her presence, but she refused to save him. Afterwards, when she found he was dead, she committed suicide (Apollodorus iii. 12). The judgment of Paris became a favourite subject in Greek art. Paris is represented as a beautiful young man, beardless, wearing the pointed Phrygian cap, and often holding the apple in his hand.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Parisite

See also Parisite-(Ce) on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​PARISITE, a rare mineral consisting of cerium, lanthanum, didymium and calcium fluo-carbonate (CeF)$_2$Ca(CO$_3$)$_3$. It is found only as crystals, which belong to the hexagonal system and usually have the form of acute double pyramids terminated by the basal planes; the faces of the hexagonal pyramids are striated horizontally, and parallel to the basal plane there is a perfect cleavage. The crystals are hair-brown in colour and are translucent. The hardness is 41/2 and the specific gravity 4·36. Light which has traversed a crystal of parisite exhibits a characteristic absorption spectrum. Until recently the only known occurrence of this mineral was in the famous emerald mine at Muzo in Colombia, South America, where it was found by J. J. Paris, who re-discovered and worked the mine in the early part of the 19th century; here it is associated with emerald in a bituminous limestone of Cretaceous age (see Emerald).
Closely allied to parisite, and indeed first described as such, is a mineral from the nepheline-syenite district of Julianehaab in south Greenland. To this the name synchysite (from Gr. συγχῦσις, confounding) has been given. The crystals are rhombohedral (as distinct from hexagonal; they have the composition CeFCa(CO$_3$)$_2$, and specific gravity 2.90. At the same locality there is also found a barium-parisite, which differs from the Colombian parisite in containing barium in place of calcium, the formula being (CeF)$_2$Ba(CO$_3$)$_3$: this is named cordylite on account of the club-shaped form (κορδύλη, a club) of its hexagonal crystals. Bastnäsite is a cerium lanthanum and didymium fluoro-carbonate (CeF)CO$_3$, from Bastnäs, near Riddarhyttan, in Vestmanland, Sweden, and the Pike’s Peak region in Colorado, U.S.A.  (L. J. S.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Park

See also Park on Wikipedia; park on Wiktionary; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​PARK (Fr. parc; Ital. parco; Sp. parque; O.Eng. pearroc; connected with Ger. pferch, fold, and pfarrei, district, translating med. Lat. parochia, parish), a word ordinarily used in two senses: (a) an enclosed tract of ground, consisting of grass-land, planted with trees and shrubs, and surrounding a large country house; (b) a similar space in or near a town, laid out ornamentally, and used by the public as an “open space” for health or recreation.
The term “park” first occurs in English as a term of the forest law of England for a tract of ground enclosed and privileged for beasts of the chase, the distinguishing characteristics of which were “vert,” i.e. the green leaves of trees, “venison,” i.e. deer, and “enclosure.” A “park” was a franchise obtained by prescription or by grant from the crown (see Forest Law; also Deer Park).
The word has had a technical military significance since the early part of the 17th century. Originally meaning the space occupied by the artillery, baggage and supply vehicles of an army when at rest, it came to be used of the mass of vehicles itself. From this mass first of all the artillery, becoming more mobile, separated itself; then as the mobility of armies in general became greater they outpaced their heavy vehicles, with the result that faster moving transport units had to be created to keep up communication. A “park” is thus at the present day a large unit consisting of several hundred vehicles carrying stores; it moves several days’ marches in rear of the army, and forms a reservoir from “whence the mobile ammunition and supply columns” draw the supplies and stores required for the army’s needs. “Parking” vehicles is massing them for a halt. The word “park” is still used to mean that portion of an artillery or administrative troops’ camp or bivouac in which the vehicles are placed.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Park, Edwards Amasa

See also Edwards Amasa Park on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​PARK, EDWARDS AMASA (1808–1900), American Congregational theologian, was born in Providence, Rhode Island, on the 29th of December 1808, the son of Calvin Park (1774–1847), a Congregational minister, professor from 1804 to 1825 at Brown University, and pastor at Stoughton, Massachusetts, in 1826–1840. The son graduated at Brown University in 1826, was a teacher at Braintree for two years, and in 1831 graduated from Andover theological seminary. He was co-pastor (with R. S. Storrs) of the orthodox Congregational church of Braintree in 1831–1833; professor of mental and moral philosophy at Amherst in 1835; and Bartlett professor of sacred rhetoric (1836–1847), and Abbot professor of Christian theology (1847–1881) at Andover. He died at Andover on the 4th of June 1900. An ardent admirer of Jonathan Edwards, whose great-grand-daughter he married, Park was one of the most notable American theologians and orators. He was the most prominent leader of the “new school” of “New England Theology.” He left his theological impress on the Bibliotheca sacra, which he and Bela B. Edwards took over in 1844 from Edward Robinson, who had founded it in 1843, and of which Park was assistant editor until 1851 and editor-in-chief from 1851 to 1884. As a general statement of the position of orthodox Congregationalism he drew up and annotated the “Associate Creed of Andover Theological Seminary” (1883), and the anonymously published “Worcester Creed” of 1884 was his popularized and simplified statement. He edited in 1860 The Atonement, a collection of essays by various hands, prefaced by his study of the “Rise of the Edwardean Theory of the Atonement.” Dr Park’s sermon, “The Theology of the Intellect and that of the Feelings,” delivered in 1850 before the convention of the Congregational ministers of Massachusetts, and published in the Bibliotheca sacra of July 1850, ​was the cause of a long and bitter controversy, metaphysical rather than doctrinal, with Charles Hodge. Some of Park’s sermons were published in 1885, under the title Discourses on Some Theological Doctrines as Related to the Religious Character. With Austin Phelps and Lowell Mason he prepared The Sabbath Hymn Book (1858).
See Professor Park and His Pupils (Boston, 1899), a memorial of his 90th birthday, with articles by R. S. Storrs, G. R. W. Scott, Joseph Cook, G. Frederick Wright and others.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mistral

See also Mistral (wind) on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​MISTRAL, a local wind similar to the bora (q.v.), met with on the French Mediterranean coast. The warm Gulf of the Lion (Golfe du Lion) has to the north the cold central plateau of France, which during winter is commonly a centre of high barometric pressure, and the resulting pressure gradient causes persistent currents of cold dry air from the north-west in the intermediate zone. The mistral occurs along the coast from the mouth of the Ebro to the Gulf of Genoa, but attains greatest strength and frequency in Provence and Languedoc, i.e. the district of the Rhone delta, where it blows on an average one day out of two; the record at Marseilles is 175 days in the year. It is usually associated with cloudless skies and brilliant sunshine, intense dryness and piercing cold. With the passage of a cyclone over the gulf, or a rapid rise of pressure following a fall of snow on the central plateau, the mistral develops into a stormy wind of great violence.