OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Todi

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​TODI (anc. Tuder), a town and episcopal see of the province of Perugia, Italy, 28 m. S. of Perugia by road, on a steep hill above the east bank of the Tiber, 1348 ft. above sea-level, and 866 ft. above the river. Pop. (1901), 3599 (town), 16,528 (commune). Some portions of the ancient town walls—of two enceintes, an inner and an outer, the former attributed to the original Umbrian inhabitants, the latter to the Romans—are preserved, and also remains of baths, amphitheatre, theatre, and a substruction wall of massive masonry, with four niches. Here was found the bronze statue of Mars, now in the Vatican, so that the building is sometimes erroneously called the temple of Mars. Beneath the cathedral square, at the highest point of the town, is a large reservoir. The Romanesque cathedral has a simple facade (partly of the nth, partly of the 14th and 15th centuries), with a fine portal and rose window. In the same square is the massive Romanesque Gothic Palazzo Comunale of 1267, the Palazzo dei Priori and the Palazzo della Podesta. The Gothic church of S. Fortunato, with its nave and aisles of the same height, has a splendid portal; the upper part of the facade is unfinished. Both this church and the cathedral have good choir-stalls.
Just outside the town on the west is the pilgrimage church of S. Maria della Consolazione, one of the finest buildings of the Renaissance, and often wrongly attributed to Bramante. Contemporary documents prove that the interior was begun in 1508 by Cola Matteuccio da Caprarola, and the exterior completed in 1516–1524 by Ambrogio da Milano and Francesco di Vito Lombardo; the slender dome was not added till 1606; its plan is a Greek cross. S. Fillippo in the town, a church of the early 16th century, betrays the influence of the Consolazione in details.
During the period of its independence, the town struck coins with the legend Tutere. It is hardly mentioned in history until it received Roman citizenship in the Social War. Crassus took it in 83 B.C.; and a colony was founded there by Octavian, including some soldiers of the 41st legion, which only existed in his time, after which it bore the name Colonia Iulia fida Tuder. It was a station on the road between America and Perusia, but otherwise is hardly mentioned. Narses won a victory over the Goths near Todi in 552, and Totila lost his life. In the middle ages it had frequent struggles with Perugia, and its obedience to the church until the 16th century was somewhat fitful. The village of Vicus Martis Tudertium lay 9 m. to the east on the Via Flaminia. Several inscriptions mention it (Corpus inscript. lat. xi. 694).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tobolsk (town)

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​TOBOLSK, a town of Asiatic Russia, capital of the government of the same name, on the right bank of the Irtysh, near its confluence with the Tobol. Pop. (1900), 21,401. It is 305 m. E.N.E. from Ekaterinburg, and is no longer the capital of West ​Siberia nor even an administrative centre for exiles. The kreml, or citadel, built in the reign of Peter the Great, by Swedish prisoners, in imitation of the kreml of Moscow, contains the cathedral, erected towards the end of the 17th century. Some 12 m. south-east are the ruins of the “ fort of Kuchum," the site of the capital of Siberia, Isker, before the Russian conquest. Tobolsk was founded in 1587 by Cossacks, and forms the see of the bishop of Tobolsk and Siberia.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tochi Valley

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​TOCHI VALLEY, or Dawar, one of the chief routes into Afghanistan in the North-West Frontier Province of India. It leads from the Bannu through tribal country, and is inhabited by the Dawari (q.v.). The valley is divided into two parts, known as Upper and Lower Dawar, by a narrow pass called the Taghrai Tangi, some three m. long. Between Dawar and British territory is the low range of uninhabited hills, which skirt the Bannu district. It was by this route that Mahmud of Ghazni effected several of his raids into India and the remains of a road flanking the valley and of defensive positions are still to be traced. After the Waziristan Expedition of 1894 the Tochi was garrisoned by British troops; but when Lord Curzon reorganized the frontier in 1901, the British troops were withdrawn, and their place supplied by tribal militia. The chief posts are Saidgi, Idak, Miranshah, Datta Khel and Sheranni. The valley was the scene of action for the Tochi or Dawari Expedition under Brigadier-General Keyes in 1872, and the Tochi Expedition under General Corrie Bird in 1897.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tocsin

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​TOCSIN, a signal of alarm given by the ringing of a bell, hence any warning or danger signal. The earliest form in English is tocksaine, which was borrowed from the O. Fr. toquesin (toquer, to strike, cf. toucher and sin, mod. signe, a signal, Lat. signum). The use of “touch” and its cognate forms with the idea of giving a sound is seen in “tucket,” Ital. toccata, which probably originally meant a signal given by tap of drum, but is always applied to a flourish or fanfare on a trumpet.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tod, James

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​TOD, JAMES (1782–1835), British officer and Oriental scholar, was born on the 20th of March 1782, and went to India as a cadet in the Bengal army in 1799. He commanded the escort attached to the resident with Sindia from 1812 to 1817. In the latter year he was in charge of the Intelligence Department which largely contributed to break up the confederacy of Maratha chiefs in the Pindari War, and was of great assistance in the campaign in Rajputana. In 1818 he was appointed political agent for the states of western Rajputana, where he conciliated the chieftains, settled their mutual feuds and collected materials for his Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan (2 vols., 1829–1832). Another book of value, Travels in Western India (1839), was published posthumously. He returned from India in 1823, ​was promoted lieutenant-colonel in 1826, and died in London on the 17th of November 1855.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Todhunter, Isaac

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​TODHUNTER, ISAAC (1820–1884), English mathematician, son of George Todhunter, a Nonconformist minister, was born at Rye on the 23rd of November 1820. He was educated at Hastings, at which town his mother had opened a school after the death of his father in 1826. He became an assistant master at a school at Peckham, attending at the same time evening classes at the University College, London. In 1842 he obtained a mathematical scholarship and graduated as B.A. at London University, and was awarded the gold medal on the M.A. examination. About this time he became mathematical master at a school at Wimbledon. In 1844 he entered St John’s College, Cambridge, where he was senior Wrangler in 1848, and gained the first Smith’s prize and the Burney prize; and in 1849 he was elected to a fellowship, and began his life of college lecturer and private tutor. In 1862 he was made a fellow of the Royal Society, and in 1865 a member of the Mathematical Society of London. In 1871 he gained the Adams prize and was elected to the council of the Royal Society. He was elected honorary fellow of St John’s in 1874, having resigned his fellowship on his marriage in 1864. In 1880 his eyesight began to fail, and shortly afterwards he was attacked with paralysis. He died at Cambridge on the 1st of March 1884.
Works.—Treatise on the Differential Calculus and the Elements of the Integral Calculus (1852, 6th ed., 1873), Treatise on Analytical Statics (1853, 4th ed., 1874); Treatise on the Integral Calculus (1857, 4th ed., 1874); Treatise on Algebra (1858, 6th ed., 1871); Treatise on Plane Coordinate Geometry (1858, 3rd ed., 1861); Plane Trigonometry (1859, 4th ed., 1869); Spherical Trigonometry (1859); History of the Calculus of Variations (1861); Theory of Equations (1861, 2nd ed. 1875); Examples of Analytical Geometry of Three Dimensions (1858, 3rd ed., 1873); Mechanics (1867), History of the Mathematical Theory of Probability from the Time of Pascal to that of Lagrange (1865); Researches in the Calculus of Variations (1871); History of the Mathematical Theories of Attraction and Figure of the Earth from Newton to Laplace (1873); Elementary Treatise on Laplace’s, Lamé’s and Bessel’s Functions (1875); Natural Philosophy for Beginners (1877). An unfinished work, The History of the Theory of Elasticity, was edited and published posthumously in 1886 by Karl Pearson. Todhunter also published keys to the problems in his textbooks on algebra and trigonometry; and a biographical work, William Whewell, account of his writings and correspondence (1876), in addition to many original papers in scientific journals.
See obituary notices in the Proc. Lond. Math. Soc. (1884), and Proc. Roy. Soc. (1884).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Suardi, Bartolommeo

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​SUARDI, BARTOLOMMEO (c. 1455-c. 1536), Italian painter and architect, frequently called Bramantino, was born in Milan, the son of Alberto Suardi. He executed a number of paintings containing portraits of celebrated personages for the Vatican. In 1508 he was engaged in Rome. Bramante d'Urbino taught Bramantino architecture, and the pupil assisted the master in the execution of the interior of the church of San Satiro, Milan. In 1525 Bramantino was appointed architect to the court by Duke Francis (II.) Sforza, and his aid as an engineer in the defence of Milan brought him a. multitude of rewards. ​Bartolommeo Suardi has been much confused with a certain Bramantino da Milano, of whom Vasari makes frequent and specific mention in his life of Piero della Francesca, his observations on Benvenuto Garofalo and Girolamo da Carpi, and his life of Jacopo Sansovino. The Bramantino of Vasari, if he existed at all, worked for Pope Nicolas V. between 1450 and 1455.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Subleyras, Pierre

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​SUBLEYRAS, PIERRE (1699–1749), French painter, was born at Uzès (Gard) in 1699. He left France for Italy in 1728, having carried off the grand prix. He there painted for the Canons of Asti “Christ’s Visit to the House of Simon the Pharisee” (Louvre, engraved by Subleyras himself), a large work, which made his reputation and procured his admission into the Academy of St Luke. Cardinal Valenti Gonzaga next obtained for him the order for “Saint Basil and the Emperor Valens” (small study in Louvre), which was executed in mosaic for St Peter’s. Benedict XIV. and all the princes of Rome sat to him, and the pope himself commanded two great paintings—the “Marriage of St Catherine” and the “Ecstasy of St Camilla”—which he placed in his private apartments. Subleyras shows greater individuality in his curious genre pictures, which he produced in considerable number (Louvre). In his illustrations of La Fontaine and Boccaccio his true relation to the modern era comes out; and his drawings from nature are often admirable (see one of a man draped in a heavy cloak in the British Museum). Exhausted by overwork, Subleyras tried a change to Naples, but returned to Rome at the end of a few months to die (May 28, 1749). His wife, the celebrated miniature painter, Maria Felice Tibaldi, was sister to the wife of Trémollière.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Subinfeudation

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​SUBINFEUDATION, in English law, the practice by which tenants, holding land under the king or other superior lord, carved out in their turn by subletting or alienating a part of their lands new and distinct tenures. The tenants were termed “mesne-lords,” with regard to those holding from them, the immediate tenant being tenant in capite. The lowest tenant of all was the freeholder, or, as he was sometimes termed tenant paravail. The Crown, who in theory owned all lands, was lord paramount. The great lords looked with dissatisfaction on the increase of such subtenures. Accordingly in 1290 a statute was passed, Quia emptores, which allowed the tenant to alienate whenever he pleased, but the alienee or person to whom he granted was to hold the land not of the alienor but of the same immediate lord, and by the same services as the alienor held it before. (See further, Manor.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Subjectivism

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​SUBJECTIVISM, a philosophical term, applied in general to all theories which lay stress on the purely mental sides of experience opposed to objectivism. In the narrowest sense subjectivism goes to the logical extreme of denying that mind can know objects at all (cf. Solipsism). The doctrine originates in the fact that the most elementary psychic phenomena presuppose in addition to the data of the senses (which as such are momentary) a combining action of the mind. (See Idealism.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sublime

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​SUBLIME (Lat. sublimis, exalted), in aesthetics, a term applied to the quality of transcendant greatness, whether physical, moral, intellectual or artistic. It is specially used for a greatness with which nothing else can be compared and which is beyond all possibility of calculation or measurement. Psychologically the effect of the perception of the sublime is a feeling of awe or helplessness. The first study of the value of the sublime is the treatise ascribed to Longinus (q.v.), On the Sublime (strictly Περὶ ὕψους). Burke and Kant both investigated the subject (cf. Burke’s Essay on the Sublime and Beautiful, 1756) and both distinguished the sublime from the beautiful. Later writers tend to include the sublime in the beautiful (see Aesthetics).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Réville, Albert

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​RÉVILLE, ALBERT (1826–), French Protestant theologian, was born at Dieppe on the 4th of November 1826. After studying at Geneva and Strassburg, he became in 1849 pastor at Lunerai near Dieppe, and in 1851 of the Walloon Church at Rotterdam, where he remained until 1872. In 1880 he was made professor of the history of religions in the College de France at Paris. Six years later he was appointed president of the section of religious studies in the École des hautes études at the Sorbonne. He is one of the leaders of the French school of advanced critical theology.
Works.—Besides contributing to the Revue de théologie (Paris), the Revue de l'histoire des religions (Paris), the Revue des deux mondes, the following works are important: Manuel d'histoire comparée de la philosophie et de la religion (1859; Eng. trans., 1864); Histoire du dogme de la divinité de Jésus Christ (1869, 3rd ed., 1904; Eng. trans., 1905); Prolegomènes de l'histoire des religions (1881, 4th ed., 1886; Eng. trans., 1884); Theodore Parker, sa vie et ses œuvres (1865; Eng. trans., 1865, 2nd ed., 1877); Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion as illustrated by the native religions of Mexico and Peru (the “ Hibbert Lectures " for 1884); Jésus de Nazareth (1897, 12th ed., 1906).
His son, Jean Reville, was born on the 6th of November 1854, studied at Geneva, Paris, Berlin and Heidelberg, and became professor of patriotic literature and secretary of the section of religious studies in the École des hautes études at the Sorbonne. In 1884 he became co-editor of the Revue de l'histoire des religions (Paris).
His books include: La Doctrine du logos (1881); La Religion à Rome sous les Sévères (1886); Les Origines de l'épiscopat (1895); and Le Protestantisme libéral, ses origines, sa nature, sa mission (1903; Eng. trans., 1903).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rémusat, Jean Pierre Abel

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​REMUSAT, JEAN PIERRE ABEL (1788–1832), French Chinese scholar, was born in Paris on the 5th of September 1788. He was educated for the medical profession, but a Chinese herbal in the collection of the Abbé Tersan attracted his attention, and he taught himself to read it by great perseverance and with imperfect help. At the end of five years’ study he produced in 1811 an Essai sur la langue et la littérature chinoises, and a paper on foreign languages among the Chinese, which procured him the patronage of Silvestre de Sacy. In 1814 a chair of Chinese was founded at the College de France, and Rémusat was placed in it. From this time he gave himself wholly to the languages of the Far East, and published a series of useful works, among which his contributions from Chinese sources to the history of the Tatar nations claim special notice. Rémusat became an editor of the Journal de savants in 1818, and founder and first secretary of the Paris Asiatic Society in 1822; he also held various Government appointments. He died at Paris on the 4th of June 1832. A list of his works is given in Quérard’s France littéraire s.v. Rémusat.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Röntgen, Wilhelm Konrad

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​RÖNTGEN. WILHELM KONRAD (1845–). German physicist, was born at Lennep on the 27th of March 1845. He received his early education in Holland, and then went to study at Zurich, where he took his doctor's degree in 1869. He then became assistant to Kundt at Würzburg and afterwards at Strassburg, becoming privat-dosent at the latter university in 1874. Next year he was appointed professor of mathematics and physics at the Agricultural Academy of Hohenheim, and in 1876 he returned to Strassburg as extraordinary professor. In 1879 he was chosen ordinary professor of physics and director of the Physical Institute at Giessen, whence in 1885 he removed in the same capacity to Würzburg. It was at the latter place that he made the discovery for which his name is chiefly known, the Röntgen rays. In 1895, while experimenting with a highly exhausted vacuum tube on the conduction of electricity through gases, he noticed that a paper screen covered with barium platinocyanide, which happened to be lying near, became fluorescent under the action of some radiation emitted from the tube, which at the time was enclosed in a box of black cardboard. Further investigation showed that this radiation had the power of passing through various substances which are opaque to ordinary light, and also of affecting a photographic plate. Its behaviour being curious in several respects, particularly in regard to reflection and refraction, doubt arose in his mind whether it was to be looked upon as light or not, and he was led to put forward the hypothesis that it was due to longitudinal vibrations in the ether, not to transverse ones like ordinary light; but in view of the uncertainty existing as to its nature, he called it X-rays. For this discovery he received the Rumford medal of the Royal Society in 1896, jointly with Philip Lenard, who had already shown, as also had Hertz, that a portion of the cathode rays could pass through a thin film of a metal such as aluminum. Röntgen also conducted researches in various other branches of physics, including elasticity, capillarity, the conduction of heat in crystals, the absorption of heat-rays by different gases, piezo-electricity, the electromagnetic rotation of polarized light, &c.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rümker, Carl Ludwig Christian

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​RÜMKER, CARL LUDWIG CHRISTIAN (1788-1862), German astronomer, was born in Mecklenburg on the 28th of May 1788. He served in the British navy from 1807 until 1817, and was director of the school of navigation at Hamburg from 1819 till 1820. In 1821 he went to New South Wales as astronomer at the observatory built at Parramatta by Sir Thomas Brisbane. He returned to Europe in 1830 and took charge of the observatory at Hamburg. His chief work was concerned with the cataloguing of stars: a preliminary catalogue of the stars of the S. hemisphere was published in 1832 at Hamburg, and in 1846-52 he published his great catalogue of 12,000 stars. In 1857 he went to reside at Lisbon, where he died on the 21st of December 1862.
His son, George Friedrich Wilhelm (1832-1900), born on the 31st of December 1832, at Hamburg, was astronomer at the observatory at Durham, England, from 1853 to 1856. He then became assistant at the Hamburg observatory, and in 1862 was appointed director of the same institution. From 1884 he was the Hamburg delegate for the International Earth Measurement. He died on the 3rd of March 1900.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Trichinopoly

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​TRICHINOPOLY, a city and district of British India, in the Madras presidency. The city is on the right bank of the river Cauvery, 250 m. by rail S.W. from Madras. Pop. (1901), 104,721. The fort which forms the nucleus of the city measures about 1 m. by ½ m.; its defences have been removed. Within it rises the Rock of Trichinopoly, 273 ft. above the city, and so completely isolated as to provide a remarkable view over the surrounding plains. It is ascended by a covered stone staircase, entered by a carved gateway, and profusely ornamented. At ​intervals up this stair are chambers connected with the temple on the rock. Buddhist inscriptions and carvings in some of them are attributed to the 5th or 6th century. Near the foot of the rock is a fine masonry tank called the Teppakulam, and the palace of the nawab, of which the fine domed audience hall is now used as a town-hall. In Trichinopoly is St Joseph's first-grade college, maintained by the Jesuit mission and occupying, among other buildings, a house formerly the residence of Clive. Another first-grade college is maintained by the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel; it has grown out of schools founded by the missionary Schwarz. The Roman Catholics have a fine cathedral. Trichinopoly is important as a trading centre, especially as being a railway junction. It has special industries in goldsmiths' work and modelling in pith; the well-known Trichinopoly cigars are chiefly manufactured from tobacco grown outside the district at Dindigul. Trichinopoly and its neighbourhood was the scene of much hard fighting between the English and the French during the Carnatic wars between 1749 and 1761.
The District of Trichinopoly has an area of 3632 sq. m. The surface is generally flat, though diversified by masses of crystalline rock, of which the Trichinopoly Rock in the fort is a well-known example. The only mountains are the Pachamalais, which rise to 2500 ft. and extend into Salem district. The Cauvery and its branch, the Coleroon, are the only rivers of any importance. The climate is very hot and not liable to great variations; the annual average rainfall is about 34 in. The principal crops are rice, millets, other food-grains and oil-seeds, with a little cotton and tobacco. The main line of the South Indian railway traverses the district, with a branch to Erode. In 1901 the population was 1,444,770, showing an increase of 5% in the decade. The district came into the hands of the British along with the rest of the Carnatic in 1801.
See Trichinopoly District Gazetteer (Madras, 1907).