OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Roscellinus

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​ROSCELLINUS (Rucelinus, or Rousselin) (c. 1050–c. 1122), often called the founder of Nominalism (see Scholasticism), was born at Compiègne (Compendium). Little is known of his life, and our knowledge of his doctrines is mainly derived from Anselm, Abelard and John of Salisbury. He studied at Soissons and Reims, was afterwards attached to the cathedral of Chartres, and became canon of Compiégne. It seems most probable that Roscellinus was not strictly the first to promulgate nominalistic doctrines; but in his exposition they received more definite expression, and, being applied to the dogma of the Trinity, attracted universal attention. Roscellinus maintained that it is merely a habit of speech which prevents our speaking of the three persons as three substances or three Gods. If it were otherwise, and the, three persons were really one substance or thing (una res), we should be forced to admit that the Father and the Holy Spirit became incarnate along with the Son. Roscellinus seems to have put forward this doctrine in perfect good faith, and to have claimed for it at first the authority of Lanfranc and Anselm. In 1092, however, a council convoked by the archbishop of Reims condemned his interpretation, and Roscellinus, who was in danger of being stoned to death by the orthodox populace, recanted his error. He fled to England, but having made himself unpopular by an attack on the doctrines of Anselm, he left the country and repaired to Rome, where he was well received and became reconciled to the Church. He then returned to France, taught at Tours and Loc-menach (Loches) in Brittany (where he had Abelard as a pupil), and finally became canon of Besançon. He is heard of as late as 1121, when he came forward to oppose Abelard's views on the Trinity.
Of the writings of Roscellinus, nothing is preserved except a letter to Abelard, mainly concerned with the doctrine of the Trinity (ed. J. A. Schmeller, Munich, 1850). See F. Picaret, Rosselin, philosophe et théologien (1896), and authorities quoted under Scholasticism.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Roscius Gallus, Quintus

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​ROSCIUS GALLUS, QUINTUS (c. 126–62 B.C.), Roman actor, was born, a slave, at Solonium, near Lanuvium. Endowed with a handsome face and manly figure, he studied the delivery and gestures of the most distinguished advocates in the Forum, especially Q. Hortensius, and won universal praise for his grace and elegance on the stage. He especially excelled in comedy. Cicero took lessons from him. The two often engaged in friendly rivalry to try whether the orator or the actor could express a thought or emotion with the greater effect, and Roscius wrote a treatise in which he compared acting and oratory. Q. Lutatius Catulus composed a quatrain in his honour, and the dictator Sulla presented him with a gold ring, the badge of the equestrian order, a remarkable distinction for an actor in Rome, where the profession was held in contempt. Like his contemporary Aesopus, Roscius amassed a large fortune, and he appears to have retired from the stage some time before his death. In 76 B.C. he was sued by C. Fannius Chaerea for 50,000 sesterces (about £400), and was defended by Cicero in a famous speech.
See H. H. Pflüger, Cicero's Rede pro Q. Roscio Comoedo (1904).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Roscher, Wilhelm Georg Friedrich

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​ROSCHER, WILHELM GEORG FRIEDRICH (1817–1894), German economist, was born at Hanover on the 21st of October 1817. He studied at Göttingen and Berlin, and obtained a professorship at Göttingen in 1844 and subsequently at Leipzig in 1848. Omitting preparatory indications and undeveloped germs of doctrine, the origin of the “historical” school of political economy may be traced to Roscher. Its fundamental principles are dated, though with some hesitation, and with an unfortunate contrast of the historical with the philosophical method, in his Grundriss zu Vorlesungen über die Staatswirthschaft nach geschichtlicher Methode (1843). This short study was afterwards expanded into his great System der Volkswirthschaft, published in five volumes between 1854 and 1894, and arranged as follows: vol. i., Die Grundlagen der Nationalökonomie, 1854 (trans. by J. J. Lalor, Principles of Political Economy, Chicago, 1878); vol. ii., Die Nationalökonomie des Ackerbaues und der verwandten Urproduktionszweige, 1859; vol. iii., Die Nationalokonomie des Handels und Gewerbfleisses, 1881; vol. iv., System der Finanzwissenschaft, 1886; vol. v., System der Armenpflege und Armenpolitik, 1894. His Geschichte der Nationalökonomie in Deutschland (1874) is a monumental work. He also published in 1842 an excellent commentary on the life and works of Thucydides. He died at Leipzig on the 4th of June 1894.
See T. Roscher, Zur Geschichte der Familie Roscher in Niedersachsen (Hanover, 1892); Brasch, Wilhelm Roscher und die sozialwissenschaftlichen Strömungen der Gegenwart (Leipzig, 1895).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Roscoe, Sir Henry Enfield

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​ROSCOE, SIR HENRY ENFIELD (1833–), English chemist, was born in London on the 7th of January 1833. After ​studying at Liverpool High School and University College, London, he went to Heidelberg to work under R. W. Bunsen, of whom he became a lifelong friend. In 1857 he was appointed to the chair of chemistry at Owens College, Manchester, where he remained for thirty years, and from 1885 to 1895 he was M.P. for the south division of Manchester. He served on several royal commissions appointed to consider educational questions, in which he was keenly interested, and from 1896 to 1902 was vice-chancellor of London University. He was knighted in 1884. His scientific work includes a memorable series of researches carried out with Bunsen between 1855 and 1862, in which they laid the foundations of comparative photochemistry. In 1867 he began an elaborate investigation of vanadium and its compounds, and devised a process for preparing it pure in the metallic state, at the same time showing that the substance which had previously passed for the metal was contaminated with oxygen and nitrogen. He was also the author of researches on niobium, tungsten, uranium, perchloric acid, the solubility of ammonia, &c. His publications include, besides several elementary books on chemistry which have had a wide circulation and been translated into many foreign languages, Lectures on Spectrum Analysis (1869); a Treatise on Chemistry (the first edition of which appeared in 1877–1892); A New View of Dalton’s Atomic Theory, with Dr A. Harden (1896); and an Autobiography (1906). The Treatise on Chemistry, written in collaboration with Carl Schorlemmer (1834–1892), who was appointed his private assistant at Manchester in 1859, official assistant in the laboratory in 1861, and professor of organic chemistry in 1874, is a standard work.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pelletan, Charles Camille

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​PELLETAN, CHARLES CAMILLE (1846– ), French politician and journalist, was born in Paris on the 28th of June 1846, the son of Eugene Pelletan (1813–1884), a writer of some distinction and a noted opponent of the Second Empire. Camille Pelletan was educated in Paris, passed as licentiate in laws, and was qualified as an “archivist paléographe.” At the age of twenty he became an active contributor to the press, and a bitter critic of the Imperial Government. After the war of 1870-71 he took a leading place among the most radical section of French politicians, as an opponent of the “opportunists” who continued the policy of Gambetta. In 1880 he became editor of Justice, and worked with success to bring about a revision of the sentences passed on the Communards. In 1881 he was chosen member for the tenth arrondissement of Paris, and in 1835 for the Bouches du Rhone, being re-elected in 1889, 1893 and 1898, and he was repeatedly chosen as “reporter” to the various bureaus. During the Nationalist and Dreyfus agitations he fought vigorously on behalf of the Republican government and when the coalition known as the “Bloc” was formed he took his place as a Radical leader. He was made minister of marine in the cabinet of M. Combes, June 1902 to January 1905, but his administration was severely criticized, notably by M. de Lanessan and other naval experts. During the great sailors’ strike at Marseilles in 1904 he showed pronounced sympathy with the socialistic aims and methods of the strikers, and a strong feeling was aroused that ​his Radical sympathies tended to a serious weakening of the navy and to destruction of discipline. A somewhat violent controversy resulted, in the course of which M. Pelletan's indiscreet speeches did him no good; and he became a common subject for ill-natured caricatures. On the fall of the Combes ministry he became less prominent in French politics.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pellicier, Guillaume

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​PELLICIER, GUILLAUME (c. 1490-1568), French prelate and diplomatist, was educated by his uncle, the bishop of Maguelonne, whom he succeeded in 1529. In 1536 he had the seat of his bishopric transferred to Montpellier. Appointed ambassador at Venice in 1539, he fulfilled his mission to the entire satisfaction of Francis I., but on the discovery of the system of espionage he had employed the king had to recall him in 1542. Returning to his diocese, he was imprisoned in the chateau of Beaucaire for his tolerance of the Reformers, so he replaced his former indulgence by severity, and the end of his episcopate was disturbed by religious struggles. He was a man of wide learning, a humanist and a friend of humanists, and took a keen interest in the natural sciences.
See] Zeller, La Diplomatic: française . . . d'aprés le corresporidartce de G. Pellicier (Paris, 1881), and A Tausserat-Radel, Correspondance politique de Guillaume Pellicier (Paris, 1899).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pelloux, Luigi

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​ PELLOUX, LUIGI (1830-), Italian general and politician, was born on the 1st of March 1839, at La Roche, in Savoy, of parents who retained their Italian nationality when Savoy was annexed to France. Entering the army as lieutenant of artillery in 1857 he gained the medal for military valour at the battle of Custozza in 1866, and in 1870 commanded the brigade of artillery which battered the breach in the wall of Rome at Porta Pia. He was elected to the Chamber in 1881 as deputy for Leghorn, which he represented until 1895, and joined the party of the Left. He had entered the war office in 1870, and in 1880 became general secretary, in which capacity he introduced many useful reforms in the army. After a succession of high military commands he received the appointment of chief of the general staff in 1896. He was minister of war in the Rudini and Giolitti cabinets of 1891-1893. In July 1896 he resumed the portfolio of war in the Rudini cabinet, and was appointed senator. In May 1897 he secured the adoption of the Army Reform Bill, fixing Italian military expenditure at a maximum of £9,560,000 a year, but in December of that year he was defeated in the Chamber on the question of the promotion of officers. Resigning office, he was in May 1898 sent as royal commissioner to Bari, where, without recourse to martial law, he succeeded in restoring public order. Upon the fall of Rudini in June 1898, General Pelloux was entrusted by King Humbert with the formation of a cabinet, and took for himself the post of minister of the interior. He resigned office in May 1899, but was again entrusted with the formation of the ministry. He took stern measures against the revolutionary elements in southern Italy, and his new cabinet was essentially military and conservative. The Public Safety Bill for the reform of the police laws, taken over by him from the Rudini cabinet, and eventually promulgated by royal decree, was fiercely obstructed by the Socialist party, which, with the Left and Extreme Left, succeeded in forcing General Pelloux to dissolve the Chamber in May 1900, and to resign office after the general election in June. In the autumn of 1901 he was appointed to the command of the Turin army corps.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pelopidas

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​ PELOPIDAS (d. 364 B.C.), Theban statesman and general. He was a member of a distinguished family, and possessed great wealth which he expended on his friends, while content to lead the life of an athlete. In 385 B.C. he served in a Theban contingent sent to the support of the Spartans at Mantineia, where he was saved, when dangerously wounded, by Epaminondas (q.v.). Upon the seizure of the Theban citadel by the Spartans (383 or 382) he fled to Athens, and took the lead in a conspiracy to liberate Thebes. In 379 his party surprised and killed their chief political opponents, and roused the people against the Spartan garrison, which surrendered to an army gathered by Pelopidas. In this and subsequent years he was elected boeotarch, and about 375 he routed a much larger Spartan force at Tegyra (near Orchomenus). This victory he owed mainly to the valour of the Sacred Band, a picked body of 300 infantry. At the battle of Leuctra (371) he contributed greatly to the success of Epaminondas's new tactics by the rapidity with which he made the Sacred Band close with the Spartans. In 370 he accompanied his friend Epaminondas as boeotarch into Peloponnesus. On their return both generals were unsuccessfully accused of having retained their command beyond the legal term. In 369, in response to a petition of the Thessalians, Pelopidas was sent with an army against Alexander, tyrant of Pherae. After driving Alexander out, he passed into Macedonia and arbitrated between two claimants to the throne. In order to secure the influence of Thebes, he brought home hostages, including the king's brother, afterwards Philip II., the conqueror of Greece. Next year Pelopidas was again called upon to interfere in Macedonia, but, being deserted by his mercenaries, was compelled to make an agreement with Ptolemaeus of Alorus. On his return through Thessaly he was seized by Alexander of Pherae, and two expeditions from Thebes were needed to secure his release. In 367 Pelopidas went on an embassy to the Persian king and induced him to prescribe a settlement of Greece according to the wishes of the Thebans. In 364 he received another appeal from the Thessalian towns against Alexander of Pherae. Though an eclipse of the sun prevented his bringing with him more than a handful of troops, he overthrew the tyrant's far superior force on the ridge of Cynoscephalae; but wishing to slay Alexander with his own hand, he rushed forward too eagerly and was cut down by the tyrant's guards.
Plutarch and Nepos, Pelopidas; Diodorus xv. 62-81; Xenophon, Hellenica, vii. 1. See also Thebes.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pellitory

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​ PELLITORY, in botany, the common name for a small hairy perennial herb which grows on old walls, hedge banks and similar localities, and is known botanically as Parietaria officinalis (Lat. paries, a wall). It has a short woody rootstock from which spring erect or spreading stems 1 to 2 ft. long, bearing slender leafy branches, and axillary clusters of small green flowers. It belongs to the nettle order (Urticaceae), and is nearly allied to the nettle, Urtica, but its hairs are not stinging.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pellisson, Paul

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​ PELLISSON, PAUL (1624-1693), French author, was born at Béziers on the 30th of October 1624, of a distinguished Calvinist family. He studied law at Toulouse, and practised at the bar of Castres. Going to Paris with letters of introduction to Valentin Conrart, who was a co-religionist, he became through him acquainted with the members of the academy. Pellisson undertook to be their historian, and in 1653 published a Relation contenant l'histoire de l'académie française. This panegyric was rewarded by a promise of the next vacant place and by permission to be present at their meetings. In 1657 Pellisson became secretary to the minister of finance, Nicolas Fouquet, and when in 1661 the minister was arrested, his secretary was imprisoned in the Bastille. Pellisson had the courage to stand by his fallen patron, in whose defence he issued his celebrated Mémoire in 1661, with the title Discours au roi, par un de ses fidèles sujets sur le procès de M. de Fouquet, in which the facts in favour of Fouquet are marshalled with great skill. Another pamphlet, Seconde défense de M. Fouquet, followed. Pellisson was released in 1666, and from this date sought the royal favour. He became historiographer to the king, and in that capacity wrote a fragmentary Histoire de Louis XIV., covering the years 1660 to 1670. In 1670 he was converted to Catholicism and obtained rich ecclesiastical preferment. He died on the 7th of February 1693. He was very intimate with Mlle de Scudéry in whose novels he figures as Herminius and Acante. His sterling worth of character made him many friends and justified Bussy-Rabutin's description of him as “encore plus honnête homme que bel esprit.”
See Sainte-Beuve, Causeries du lundi, vol xiv.; and F. L. Marcon, Étude sur la vie et les œvres de Pellisson (1859).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pelomyxa

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​ PELOMYXA, so named by R. Greeff, a genus of Lobose Rhizopoda (q.v.), naked, multinucleate, with very blunt rounded pseudopodia, formed by eruption (see Amoeba), often containing peculiar vesicles (glycogen?), and full of a symbiotic bacterium. It inhabits the ooze of decomposing organic matter at the bottom of ponds and lakes.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pilau

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PILAU, a favourite Eastern dish, consisting essentially of rice, boiled with mutton or other meat, fowl or fish, and flavoured with spices, raisin, &c. The word appears in Persian, Turkish and Urdu, and has been adopted in European languages. The form pilaff, showing the Turkish pronunciation, is also common.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pilchard

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​PILCHARD (in earlier 16th century forms pylcher, pilchar; of unknown origin; the Fr. pilseir is adapted from Eng.), Clupea pilchardus, a fish of the herring family (Clupeidae), abundant in the Mediterranean and on the Atlantic coasts of Europe, north to the English Channel. Sardine is another name for the same fish, which on the coast of Britanny and Normandy is also called célan or céléren. It is readily distinguished from the other European species of Clupea. The operculum is sculptured with ridges radiating and descending towards the suboperculum; the scales are large, about thirty along the lateral line, deciduous; the ventral fins are inserted below, or nearly below, the middle of the base of the dorsal fin, the dorsal fin has seventeen or eighteen, the anal from nineteen to twenty-one rays. A small blackish spot in the scapular region is very constant, and sometimes succeeded by other similar marks. There are no teeth on the palate, pyloric appendages exist in great numbers; the vertebrae number fifty-three. The pilchard is one of the most important fishes of the English Channel. It spawns at a distance from the shore, and its eggs are buoyant, like those of many other marine fishes and unlike those of the herring, which are adhesive and demersal, i.e. develop under water. The egg of the pilchard is very easily distinguished from other pelagic eggs by the unusually large space separating the vitelline membrane from the contained ovum. Spawning takes place in summer, the season extending from June to October. When commencing their migrations towards the land the shoals consist of countless numbers, but they break up into smaller companies near the shore. Pilchards feed on minute crustaceans and other pelagic animals and require two or three years before they attain their full size, which is about 10 in. in length. The sardines of the west coast of France, which are tinned in oil for export, are immature fish of the same stock as those taken on the coasts of Cornwall; they are 5 to 71/2 in. in length, and though such fish occur also on the Cornish coast it is only in small numbers and for brief periods. In the Mediterranean the sardine does not exceed 71/2 in. in length when mature. On the Pacific coast of America, in New Zealand and in Japan a pilchard occurs (Clupea sagax) which in its characters and habits is so similar to the European pilchard that its general utilization is deserving of attention. Immense shoals are reported to visit the east coast of Otago every year in February and March. Clupea scombrina is the “ oil sardine ” of the east coast of India. (J. T. C.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pile

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​PILE, an homonymous word, of which the main branches are (1) a heap, through Fr. from pila, pillar; (2) a heavy beam used in making foundations, literally a pointed stake, an adaptation of Lat. pīlum, javelin; (3) the nap on cloth, Lat. pilus, hair. In the first branch the Lat. pila (for pigla, from root of pangere, to fasten) meant also a pier or mole of stone, hence any mass of masonry, as in Fr. pile. In English usage the word chiefly means a “heap” or “mass” of objects laid one on the top of the other, such as the heap of faggots or other combustible material on which a dead body is cremated, “funeral pile,” or on which a living person is burnt as a punishment. It also is applied to a large and lofty building, and specifically, to a stand of arms, “piled” in military fashion, and to the series of plates, “galvanic” or “voltaic piles,” in an electric battery. The modern “head and tail” of a coin was formerly “cross and pile,” Fr. croix el pile, in modern Fr. face et pile. In the older apparatus for minting the die for the reverse was placed on a small upright pillar, pile, the other on a puncheon known as a “trussell” (Fr. trousseau). The common name of the disease of haemorrhoids (q.v.) or “piles” is probably an extension of this word, in the sense of mass, swelling, but may be referred to the Lat. pila, ball. The name of the pilum, or heavy javelin (lit. pounder, pestle, from pinsere, pisere, to beat), the chief weapon of the ancient Roman infantry, was adopted into many Teutonic languages in the sense of dart or arrow, cf. Germ. Pfeil; in English it was chiefly used of a heavy stake with one end sharpened, and driven into swampy ground or in the bed of a river to form the first foundations for a building; the primitive lake-dwellings built on “piles” are also known as “pile-dwellings.” For the use of piles in building see Foundations and Bridges. In heraldry a charge represented by two lines meeting in the form of an arrow head is known as a “pile,” a direct adaptation probably of the Lat. pilum. The division of this intricate word, followed here, is that adopted by the New English Dictionary; other etymologists (e.g. Skeat, Etym. Dict., 1898) arrange the words and their Latin originals somewhat differently.