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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rūdagī

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RŪDAGĪ (d. 954). Farīd-eddīn Mahommed 'Abdallāh, the first great literary genius of modern Persia, was born in Rūdag, a village in Transoxiana, about 870-900. Most of his biographers assert that he was totally blind, but the accurate knowledge of colours shown in his poems makes this very doubtful. The fame of his accomplishments reached the ear of the Sāmānid Nasr II. bin Ahmad, the ruler of Khorāsān and Transoxiana (913-42), who invited the poet to his court. Rūdagī became his daily companion, rose to the highest honours and amassed great wealth. In spite of various predecessors, he well deserves the title of “father of Persian literature,” “the Adam or Sultan of poets,” since he was the first who impressed upon every form of epic, lyric and didactic poetry its peculiar stamp and its individual character. He is also said to have been the founder of the “dīwān” — that is, the typical form of the complete collection of a poet's lyrical compositions in a more or less alphabetical order which prevails to the present day among all Mahommedan writers. Of the 1,300,000 verses attributed to him, there remain only 52 kasīdas, ghazals and rubā'īs; of his epic masterpieces we have nothing beyond a few stray lines in native dictionaries. But the most serious loss is that of his translation of Ibn Mokaffa's Arabic version of the old Indian fable book Kalilah and Dimnah, which he put into Persian verse at the request of his royal patron. Numerous fragments, however, are preserved in the Persian lexicon of Asadī of Tus (ed. P. Horn, Göttingen, 1897). In his kasīdas, all devoted to the praise of his sovereign and friend, Rūdagī has left us unequalled models of a refined and delicate taste, very different from the often bombastic compositions of later Persian encomiasts. His didactic odes and epigrams express in well-measured lines a sort of Epicurean philosophy of human life and human happiness; more charming still are the purely lyrical pieces in glorification of love and wine. Rūdagī survived his royal friend, and died poor and forgotten by the world.
There is a complete edition of all the extant poems of Rūdagī, in Persian text and metrical German translation, together with a biographical account, based on forty-six Persian MSS., in Dr H. Ethé's “Rūdagī der Sāmānidendichter” (Göttinger Nachrichten, 1873, pp. 663-742); see also his “Neupersische Literatur” in Geiger's Grundriss der iranischen Philologie (ii.); P. Horn, Gesch. der persischen Literatur (1901), p. 73; E. G. Browne, Literary History of Persia, i. (1902); C. J. Pickering, “A Persian Chaucer” in National Review (May 1890).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Saale

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​SAALE, a river of Germany, a tributary of the Elbe, rises between Bayreuth and Hof in the N.E. of Bavaria, springing out of the Fichtelgebirge at an altitude of 2390 ft. It pursues a winding course in a northerly direction, and after passing the manufacturing town of Hof, flows amid well-wooded hills until it reaches the pleasant vale of Saalberg. Here it receives the waters of the Schwarza, in whose romantic valley lies the castle of Schwarzburg, the ancestral seat of the princes of the ruling house of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt. From Saalberg the Saale enters the dreary limestone formation of Thuringia, sweeps beneath the barren, conical hills lying opposite to the university town of Jena, passes the pleasant watering-place of Kösen, washes numerous vine-clad hills and, after receiving at Naumburg the deep and navigable Unstrut, flows past Weissenfels, Merseburg, Halle, Bernburg and Kalbe, and joins the Elbe just above Barby, after traversing a distance of 226 m. It is navigable from Naumburg, 100 m., with the help of sluices, and is connected with the Elster near Leipzig by a canal. The soil of the lower part of its valley is of exceptional fertility, and produces, amongst other crops, large supplies of sugar beetroot. Among its affluents are the Elster, Regnitz and Orla on the right bank, and the Ilm, Unstrut, Salza, Wipper and Bode on the left. Its upper course is rapid. Its valley, down to Merseburg, is picturesque, and even romantic, because of the many castles which crown the enclosing heights. It is sometimes called the Thuringian or Saxon Saale, to distinguish it from another Saale (70 m. long), a right-bank tributary of the Main, in the Bavarian district of Lower Franconia.
See Hertzberg, Die historische Bedeutung des Saaletals (Halle, 1895.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Saar

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​SAAR, a river of Germany, a right-bank tributary of the Mosel. It rises in the Donon, an eminence of the Vosges, close to the Franco-German frontier, and flows at first north, then north-west and finally north again to its junction with the Mosel ​at Konz. Its length is 143 m. The middle part of its valley is an important industrial district, with coal-mines and a variety of manufactures; the Saar wines are also well known. The principal towns on the Saar are Saargemünd, Saarbrücken and St Johann (which face each other across the river), Saarlouis and Saarburg. The river is navigable up to Saargemünd, a distance of 75 m. From here there is connexion with the Rhine-Marne canal by way of the Saar canal, built in 1862, and 40 m. in length, following the Saar valley upwards for about half that distance.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rüstow, Friedrich Wilhelm

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​RÜSTOW, FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1821–1878), Swiss soldier and military writer, was a Prussian by birth. He entered the service of his native country, and served for some years, until the publication of Der Deutsche Militärstaat vor und während der Revolution (Zürich, 1850) brought him official condemnation. He was sentenced by a court-martial to a long term of fortress imprisonment, but succeeded in escaping to Switzerland. He obtained military employment in the service of the Republic, and in 1857 was major on the engineer staff. Three years later he accompanied Garibaldi in the famous expedition against the two Sicilies as colonel and chief of the staff, and to him must be ascribed the victories of Capua (19th Sept. 1860) and the Volturno (1st Oct. 1860). At the end of the campaign he once more settled down at Zürich. At the outbreak of the war of 1870 he offered his services to Prussia, but was not accepted. In 1878, on the foundation of a military professorship at Zurich, Rüstow applied for the post, and, on its being given to another officer, lost heart and committed suicide.
Two younger brothers, both Prussian soldiers, were also distinguished men. The elder, Alexander (1824–1866), is remembered for his work Der Kustenkrieg (Berlin, 1848); the younger, Caesar (1826–1866), was one of the foremost experts of his time in the design and construction of military rifles, and the writer of several treatises on that subject, of which we may mention Die Kriegshandfeuerwaffen (Berlin, 1857–64). Both Alexander and Caesar fell on the field of battle in the war of 1866, at Königgratz and Dermbach respectively.
Amongst F. W. Rüstow's works, which covered nearly eve? branch of the military art, a large number must be mentioned. Historical—Heerwesen und Kriegführung Julius Cäsars (Gotha, 1855; 2nd ed., Nordhausen, 1862), Kommentar zu Napoleon III.'s Geschichte Julius Cäsars (Stuttgart, 1865–67), Geschichte des Griechischen Kriegswesens (in collaboration with Köchly, Aarau, 1852), Militär. Biographen (David, Xenophon, Montluc) (Zürich, 1858), Geschichte der Infanterie (Gotha, 1857–58; 3rd ed., 1884), Die Ersten Feldzüge Napoleons 1796–1797 (Zürich, 1867), Der Krieg von 1805 in Deutschland und Italien (Frauenfeld, 1854), Geschichte des Ungarischen Insurrektionkrieges 1848–49 (Zürich, 1860), reminiscences of 1860 in Italy (Leipzig, 1861) and monographs on the campaigns of 1848–49 in Italy (Zürich, 1849) and the (Crimean War (Zürich, 1855–56). Critical and General—Allgemeine Taktik (Zürich, 1858; 2nd ed., 1868), Kriegspolitik und Kriegsgebrauch (Zürich, 1876), Militär-Handwörterbuch (Zürich, 1859), Die Feldherrnkunst des XIX Jahrhunderts (Zürich, 1857; 3rd ed., 1878–79), Der Krieg und seine Mittel (Leipzig, 1856). He also wrote Annalen des Königreichs Italien (Zürich, 1862–63).
See Zemim, “ F. W. Rüstow," in Unsere Zeit. vol. 2 (Leipzig, 1882).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Saarbrücken

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​SAARBRÜCKEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine Province, on the left bank of the Saar, a navigable tributary of the Mosel, is situated 49 m. by rail N.E. of Metz, at the south end of one of the most extensive coal-fields in Europe, to which it has given its name. Pop. (1885) 10,453; (1905) 26,944. With the towns of St ]ohann, immediately opposite on the right bank of the river, and Malstatt-Burbach, Saarbrücken forms a single community, the three places having been united in 1909. Saarbrücken has four Protestant churches, a Roman Catholic and an Old Catholic church, and a town hall adorned with paintings by Anton von Werner, illustrating episodes of the war of 187O. Other buildings are the castle, until 1793 the residence of the princes of the house of Nassau-Saarbrücken; a gymnasium, founded in 1615, and a celebrated mining academy. The industries of St Johann-Saarbrücken include wool-spinning, brewing, and the manufacture of leather, tobacco, chemicals and iron wares. The trade is chiefly connected with the produce of the neighbouring coal-mines and that of the numerous important iron and glass works of the district. The Saarbrücken coal-fields extend over 70 sq. m., are estimated to yield about 10,000,000 tons annually, and give employment to nearly 50,000 men.
Saarbrücken owes its name to a bridge which existed in Roman times. Its early lords were the bishops of Metz, the counts of the lower Saargau, and the counts of the Ardennes. From 1381 to 1793 it belonged to the counts of Nassau-Saarbrücken, and then, after having been in the possession of France from 1801 to 1815, it passed to Prussia. In the Franco-Prussian War Saarbrücken was seized by the French on the 2nd of August 1870, but the first German victory on the heights of Spicheren, 3 m. to the south, relieved it four days later.
See Köllner, Geschichte der Städte Saarbrücken und St Johann (Saarbrücken, 1865); Ruppersberg, Geschichte der ehemaligen Grafschaft Saarbrücken (Saarbrücken, 1899-1903); and H. Kniebe, Bilder aus Saarbrückens Vergangenheit (Saarbrücken, 1894).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Saarburg

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​SAARBURG, a town of Germany, in the imperial province of Alsace-Lorraine, on the Saar, 44 m. N.W. from Strassburg by rail. Pop. (1905) 9818. Its chief industries are the manufacture of watch springs, gloves, lace, beer and machinery, and it has a trade in grain. Saarburg, which has been identified with the Pons Saravi of the Romans, belonged to France from 1661 to 1871, its earlier owners having been the bishops of Metz and the dukes of Lorraine.
Another Saarburg is a town in Prussia at the confluence of the Saar and the Leuk. Pop. (1905) 2186. It has the ruins of a castle, formerly belonging to the electors of Trier, and is still partly surrounded by walls. It has manufactures of bells, furniture and cigars, other industries being tanning and vine-growing. Saarburg dates from the 10th century and received municipal rights in 1291. From 1036 until 1727, when it passed into the possession of France, it belonged to the electors of Trier. It became Prussian in 1815.
See Hewer, Geschichte der Burg und Stadt Saarburg (Trier, 1862).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rāwendis

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​RĀWENDIS, a Persian sect that took its name from a town Rāwend near Isfahan. Its origin is unknown, but they held ultra-Shiite doctrines (see Shiites). Under the year 158 (A.D. 775) Tabarī says that a man of the Rāwendis, called al-Ablaq (because he was leprous), asserted that the spirit that was in Jesus was in ‛Ali, then in the imāms one after the other to Ibrahīm ibn Maḥommed, and that thus these were gods. Asad ibn ‛Abdallah, then governor of Khorasan, put many of them to death. Under the year 135 (A.D. 752–3) the historian again mentions a rising of the Rāwendis of Talaqān, and its suppression. Under 141 (A.D. 758–9) he gives a fuller account of them. They believed in metempsychosis, or the transmigration of souls, and asserted that the spirit of Adam was in Othman ibn Nāhik, that the Lord who fed them and gave them drink was Abu Ja‛far ul-Manṣūr, and that al-Haitham ibn Moawiyā was Gabriel. Accordingly they came to the palace of Manṣūr in Hashimiya and began to hail him as Lord. Manṣūr, however, secured their chiefs and threw them into prison. By means of a mock funeral they succeeded in reaching the prison and delivering their leaders. They then turned in wrath against Manṣūr and almost succeeded in capturing him, but were defeated and slain by al-Haitham. (G. W. T.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kotah

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​KOTAH, a native state of India, in the Rajputana agency, with an area of 5684 sq. m. The country slopes gently northwards from the high table-land of Malwa, and is drained by the Chambal with its tributaries, all flowing in a northerly or north-easterly direction. The Mokandarra range, from 1200 to 1600 ft. above sea-level, runs from south-east to north-west. The Mokandarra Pass through these hills, in the neighbourhood of the highest peak (1671 ft.), has been rendered memorable by the passage of Colonel Monson’s army on its disastrous retreat in 1804. There are extensive game preserves, chiefly covered with grass. In addition to the usual Indian grains, wheat, cotton, poppy, and a little tobacco of good quality are cultivated. The manufactures are very limited. Cotton fabrics are woven, but are being rapidly superseded by the cheap products of Bombay and Manchaster. Articles of wooden furniture are also constructed. The chief articles of export are opium and grain; salt, cotton and woollen cloth are imported.
Kotah is an offshoot from Bundi state, having been bestowed upon a younger son of the Bundi raja by the emperor Shah Jahan in return for services rendered him when the latter was in rebellion against his father Jahangir. In 1897 a considerable portion of the area taken to form Jhalawar (q.v.) in 1838 was restored to Kotah. In 1901 the population was 544,879, showing a decrease of 24% due to the results of famine. The estimated revenue is £206,000; tribute, £28,000. The maharao Umad Singh, was born in 1873, and succeeded in 1889. He was educated at the Mayo College, Ajmere, and became a major in the British army. A continuation of the branch line of the Indian Midland railway from Goona to Baran passes through Kotah, and it is also traversed by a new line, opened in 1909. The state suffered from drought in 1896–1897, and again more severely in 1899–1900.
The town of Kotah is on the right bank of the Chambal. Pop. (1901), 33,679. It is surrounded and also divided into three parts by massive walls, and contains an old and a new palace of the maharao and a number of fine temples. Muslins are the chief articles of manufacture, but the town has no great trade, and this and the unhealthiness of the site may account for the decrease in population.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kotka

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​KOTKA, a seaport of Finland, in the province of Viborg, 35 m. by rail from Kuivola junction on the Helsingfors railway, on an island of the same name at the mouth of the Kymmene river. Pop. (1904), 7628. It is the chief port for exports from and imports to east Finland and a centre of the timber trade.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kotri

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​KOTRI, a town of British India, in Karachi district, Sind, situated on the right bank of the Indus. Pop. (1901), 7617. Kotri is the junction of branches of the North-Western railway, serving each bank of the Indus, which is here crossed by a railway bridge. It was formerly the station for Hyderabad, which lies across the Indus, and the headquarters of the Indus steam flotilla, now abolished in consequence of the development of railway facilities. Besides its importance as a railway centre, however, Kotri still has a considerable general transit trade by river.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kostroma (government)

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​KOSTROMA, a government of central Russia, surrounded by those of Vologda, Vyatka, Nizhniy-Novgorod, Vladimir and Yaroslav, lying mostly on the left bank of the upper Volga. It has an area of 32,480 sq. m. Its surface is generally undulating, with hilly tracts on the right bank of the Volga, and extensive flat and marshy districts in the east. Rocks of the Permian system predominate, though a small tract belongs to the Jurassic, and both are overlain by thick deposits of Quaternary clays. The soil in the east is for the most part sand or a sandy clay; a few patches, however, are fertile black earth. Forests, yielding excellent timber for ship-building, and in many cases still untouched, occupy 61% of the area of the government. The export of timber is greatly facilitated by the navigable tributaries of the Volga, e.g. the Kostroma, Unzha, Neya, Vioksa and Vetluga. The climate is severe; frosts of −22° F. are common in January, and the mean temperature of the year is only 3°.1 (summer, 64°.5; winter, −13°.3). The population, which numbered 1,176,000 in 1870 and 1,424,171 in 1897, is almost entirely Russian. The estimated population in 1906 was 1,596,700. Out of 20,000,000 acres, 7,861,500 acres belong to private owners, 6,379,500 to the peasant communities, 3,660,800 to the crown, and 1,243,000 to the imperial family. Agriculture is at a low ebb; only 4,000,000 acres are under crops (rye, oats, wheat and barley), and the yield of corn is insufficient for the wants of the population. Flax and hops are cultivated to an increasing extent. But market-gardening is of some importance. Bee-keeping was formerly an important industry. The chief articles of commerce are timber, fuel, pitch, tar, mushrooms, and wooden wares for building and household purposes, which are largely manufactured by the peasantry and exported to the steppe governments of the lower Volga and the Don. Boat-building is also carried on. Some other small industries, such as the manufacture of silver and copper wares, leather goods, bast mats and sacks, lace and felt boots, are carried on in the villages; but the trade in linen and towelling, formerly the staple, is declining. There are cotton, flax and linen mills, engineering and chemical works, distilleries, tanneries and paper mills. The government of Kostroma is divided into twelve districts, the ​chief towns of which, with populations in 1897, are Kostroma (q.v.), Bui (2626), Chukhloma (2200), Galich (6182), Kineshma (7564), Kologriv (2566), Makariev (6068), Nerekhta (3002), Soligalich (3420), Varnavin (1140), Vetluga (5200) and Yurievets (4778).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kotzebue, Otto von

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​KOTZEBUE, OTTO VON (1787–1846), Russian navigator, second son of the foregoing, was born at Reval on the 30th of December 1787. After being educated at the St Petersburg school of cadets, he accompanied Krusenstern on his voyage of 1803–1806. After his promotion to lieutenant Kotzebue was placed in command of an expedition, fitted out at the expense of the imperial chancellor, Count Rumantsoff, in the brig “Rurick.” In this vessel, with only twenty-seven men, Kotzebue set out on the 30th of July 1815 to find a passage across the Arctic Ocean and explore the less-known parts of Oceania. Proceeding by Cape Horn, he discovered the Romanzov, Rurik and Krusenstern Islands, then made for Kamchatka, and in the middle of July proceeded northward, coasting along the north-west coast of America, and discovering and naming Kotzebue Gulf or Sound and Krusenstern Cape. Returning by the coast of Asia, he again sailed to the south, sojourned for three weeks at the Sandwich Islands, and on the 1st of January 1817 discovered New Year Island. After some further cruising in the Pacific he again proceeded north, but a severe attack of illness compelling him to return to Europe, he reached the Neva on the 3rd of August 1818, bringing home a large collection of previously unknown plants and much new ethnological information. In 1823 Kotzebue, now a captain, was entrusted with the command of an expedition in two ships of war, the main object of which was to take reinforcements to Kamchatka. There was, however, a staff of scientists on board, who collected much valuable information and material in geography, ethnography and natural history. The expedition, proceeding by Cape Horn, visited the Radak and Society Islands, and reached Petropavlovsk in July 1824. Many positions along the coast were rectified, the Navigator islands visited, and several discoveries made. The expedition returned by the Marianna, Philippine, New Caledonia and Hawaiian Islands, reaching Kronstadt on the 10th of July 1826. There are English translations of both Kotzebue’s narratives: A Voyage of Discovery into the South Sea and Beering’s Straits for the Purpose of exploring a North-East Passage, undertaken in the Years 1815–1818 (3 vols. 1821), and A New Voyage Round the World in the Years 1823–1826 (1830). Three years after his return from his second voyage, Kotzebue died at Reval on the 15th of February 1846.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kostroma (town)

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​KOSTROMA, a town of Russia, capital of the government of the same name, 230 m. N.N.E. of Moscow and 57 m. E.N.E. from Yaroslav, on the left bank of the Volga, at the mouth of the navigable Kostroma, with suburbs on the opposite side of the Volga. Pop. (1897), 41,268. Its glittering gilded cupolas make it a conspicuous feature in the landscape as it climbs up the terraced river bank. It is one of the oldest towns of Russia, having been founded in 1152. Its fort was often the refuge of the princes of Moscow during war, but the town was plundered more than once by the Tatars. The cathedral, built in 1239 and rebuilt in 1773, is situated in the kreml, or citadel, and is a fine monument of old Russian architecture. In the centre of the town is a monument to the peasant Ivan Susanin and the tsar Michael (1851). The former sacrificed his own life in 1669 by leading the Poles astray in the forests in order to save the life of his own tsar Michael Fedeorovich. On the opposite bank of the Volga, close to the water’s edge, stands the monastery of Ipatiyev, founded in 1330, with a cathedral built in 1586, both associated with the election of Tsar Michael (1669). Kostroma has been renowned since the 16th century for its linen, which was exported to Holland, and the manufacture of linen and linen-yarn is still kept up to some extent. The town has also cotton-mills, tanneries, saw-mills, an iron-foundry and a machine factory. It carries on an active trade—importing grain, and exporting linen, linen yarn, leather, and especially timber and wooden wares.