# Handbook of the Swatow Vernacular/Grammar
## Lesson X. Grammar.

Substantives and Adjectives are not declined: the same word expresses both the singular and the plural. Pronouns hove a plural form.
| Singular. | Plural. |
| 我 | Uá, I. | 阮。咱 | Ún or nán, we. |
| 爾 | Lṳ́, thou or you. | 恁 | Nín, ye or you. |
| 伊 | I, he, she, it. | 因。伊人 | I or i--nâng, they, them. |
The distinctions of moods, tenses, numbers and persons are shown by the addition of certain auxiliary verbs or particles, as follows:—

### indicative mood.
#### present tense.
##### 我來

    Uá lâi
       I come.

##### 爾去

    Lṳ́ khṳ̀
       You go.

##### 伊要

    I àiⁿ
       He wants.

##### 阮勿

    Ún màiⁿ
       We don't want.

##### 恁是我個朋友

    Nín sĩ uá kâi phêng-iú
       You are my friends.

##### 因。伊人是外人

    In or i--nâng sĩ gūa-nâng
       They are outsiders. ​past tense.
The common signs of the Past Tense are 有 ũ and 甞 chêng, and are employed chiefly in asking questions and in giving answers, but seldom when a subject is simply being spoken of, viz.—

##### 伊分我

    I pun uá
       He gave me.

##### 伊昨日來

    I tsa-jít lâi
       He came yesterday.

##### 伊昨日有來或無

    I tsa-jít ũ lâi a-bô?
       Did he come yesterday or not?

##### 伊昨日不甞來。伊昨日無來

    I tsa-jít m̄-chêng lâi, or i tsa-jít bô-lâi
       He did not come yesterday.

##### 我昨日甞來。我昨日有來

    Uá tsa-jít chêng--lâi, or uá tsa-jít ũ--lâi
       I did come yesterday.

#### perfect tense.

The chief signs of the Perfect Tense are 了 lióu, 正 chiàⁿ, 識 pat, 有 ũ, 未 būe, and 亞未 a-būe.
Lióu 了 (finish) can only be used to subjects being spoken of, and cannot be used in asking questions, viz.—

##### 伊來了

    I lâi--lō
       He has come.

##### 阮知了

    Ún tsai--lō
       We have known.

##### 因到了

    In kàu--lō
       They have arrived. ​Chiàⁿ 正 (just) and 識 pat (ever) can be used both to questions and answers, viz.—

##### 伊正來

    I chiàⁿ-lâi
       He has just come.

##### 爾此時正來

    Lṳ́ chi-tsûn chìaⁿ-lâi?
       Have you just now come?

##### 爾昔識來此處否

    Lṳ́ tsá pat-lâi--chié mē?
       Have you ever been here before?

##### 我昔不識來此處

    Uá tsá m̄-pat lâi--chié
       I have never been here before.
Ũ (have) 有 in the Perfect Tense, generally followed by the interrogative sign 亞未 a-būe, is used for questions only, and 未 būe (not yet) is used for answers, viz.—

##### 伊有來或未

    I ũ lâi a-būe?
       Has he come?

##### 伊未來

    I būe lâi
       He has not come.

##### 因有去或未

    In ũ khṳ̀ a-būe?
       Have they gone?

##### 因未去

    In būe khṳ̀
       They have not gone.

#### future tense.

The chief signs of the Future Tense are àiⁿ, 正要 chiàⁿ-àiⁿ, (want) 會 õi (can) and 袂 bõi (cannot.) viz.— ​

##### 伊明天要來

    I màⁿ-khí àiⁿ-lâi
       He will come to-morrow.

##### 霎時要落雨

    Khiã-tiām àiⁿ-lóh-hõu
       It will rain bye-and-bye.

##### 伊何時正要來

    I tiang-sî chiàⁿ-àiⁿ lâi?
       When will he come?

##### 伊霎時正要來

    I khiã-tiām chiàⁿ-àiⁿ-lâi
       He will come bye-and-bye.

##### 我下個月要轉

    Uá ẽ-kâi-guêh àiⁿ-tńg
       I shall go home next month.

##### 伊會死或袂

    I õi sí a-bõi?
       Will he die?

##### 伊袂死

    I bõi--sí
       He will not die.

##### 伊將來會做大

    I chiang-lâi õi tsò-tūa
       He will be great in the future.

#### potential mood.

The signs of the Potential Mood are 會 õi, 袂 bõi, 會得 õi-tit, 袂得 bõi-tit, 好 hó, 着 tiéh, and 不可 m̄-móⁿ.
Õi (can) 會 implies ability, and 袂 bõi (cannot) implies its opposite, inability.

##### 伊會氽

    I õi-siû
       He can swim.

##### 伊袂走

    I bõi-tsáu
       He cannot run.
Õi-tit (can) 會得 implies possibility, and 袂得 bõi-tit (cannot) implies impossibility. ​

##### 爾今夜回得來或袂

    Lṳ́ ke-mêⁿ õi-tit lâi a-bõi?
       Can you come to-night or not?

##### 我不閒。我今夜袂得去

    Uá m̄-ôiⁿ, uá ke-mêⁿ bõi-tit khṳ̀
       I am busy, I cannot go to-night.

##### 爾早時呾爾袂得來。爾只囘如何會得來

    Lṳ́ thâng-kùa tàⁿ-lṳ́ bõi-tit lái, lṳ́ chí-tsûn tsò-nîⁿ õi-tit lâi?
       You said just now you could not come, how is it you can come now?

##### 我只囘閒。故此就會得來

    Uá chí-tsûn ôiⁿ, kù-tshṳ́ chiũ õi-tit lâi
       I have leisure just now, and therefore I can come.

##### 爾若是無共伊呾。伊袂得知

    Lṳ́ nāⁿ-sĩ bô kah i tàⁿ, i bõi-tit tsai
       If you did not tell him, he could not know it.
Hó 好 is very nearly the same as the English auxiliary verb may, and implies liberty.

##### 我好去否

    Uá hó-khṳ̀ mē?
       May I go?

##### 爾好去

    Lṳ́ hó-khṳ̀
       You may go.

##### 我好呾否

    Uá hó-tàⁿ mē?
       May I speak?
Tiéh 着 (must, ought, or should) implies obligation.

##### 爾着來

    Lṳ́ tiéh-lâi
       You must, (ought to, or should) come.

##### 喊伊着靜靜

    Hàm i tiéh tiām-tiām
       Tell him he ought to be silent.

##### 我着𭒡爾

    Uá tiéh-hiâm lṳ́
       I must blame you.

##### 爾着認爾個不着

    Lṳ́ tiéh-jīn lṳ́ kâi m̄-tiéh
       You should admit your fault. ​M̄-móⁿ (don't) 不可 implies the opposite of 着 tiéh, viz. must not, ought not, and should not.

##### 爾不可去

    Luú m̄-móⁿ khṳ̀
       You must not go.

##### 恁不可分伊去

    Nín m̄-móⁿ pun i khṳ̀
       You ought not to let him go.

##### 恁不可辯

    Nín m̄-móⁿ à
       You should not argue.
The Passive verb is formed by the use of the words 分 pun, 乞 khoih (to give) and 分人 pun--nâng (give people.)

##### 爾乞何人打

    Lṳ́ khoih tî-tiâng phah?
       By whom were you beaten?

##### 我分伊打

    Uá pun i phah
       I was beaten by him.

##### 伊分人殺

    I pun--nâng thâi
       He was killed.

##### 分何人殺

    Pun tî-tiâng thâi?
       Was killed by whom?

##### 是分伊殺或不是

    Sĩ pun i thâi a m̄-sĩ?
       Was he kileld by him or not?

##### 伊分雷公扣死

    I pun lûi-kong khà-sí
       He was struck to death by lightning.

##### 伊袂分人騙

    I bõi pun--nâng phièn
       He cannot be deceived by people.

##### 伊個名聲乞人稱誦

    I kâi miâⁿ-siaⁿ khoih--nâng o-ló
       His name is praised by the people.
The Progressive Form is formed by the use of the word 在 tõ (in the act of) and 要 iàⁿ (want.) ​

##### 小兒在耍

    Nouⁿ-kiáⁿ tõ sńg
       The boys are playing.

##### 我在寫字

    Uá tõ siá-jī
       I am writing.

##### 亞奴在哭

    A-nôuⁿ tõ khàu
       The child is crying.

##### 伊呾伊要去

    I tàⁿ i àiⁿ-lâi
       He says he is coming.

##### 伊要轉去

    I àiⁿ-tńg--khṳ̀
       He is going home.

### comparison of adjectives.
#### the comparative degree.

The words employed in the comparative degree are 愈 zú, 敬 kèng, (more) 𢰳 ióu, (a little) 過 kùe, (over) 贏 iâⁿ (to be superior, to defeat,) and 輸, (to be inferior, to be defeated.)

##### 愈多愈好

    Zú-tsōi zú-hó
       The more the better.

##### 只個𢰳大

    Chí--kâi ióu-tūa
       This is a little larger.

##### 伊有愈多我

    I ũ zú-tsōi uá
       He has more than I.

##### 此個敬長過彼個

    Chí--kâi kèng-tn̂g kùe hṳ́-kâi
       This is longer than that.

##### 爾個好。我個愈敬好

    Lṳ́--kâi hó, uá--kâi zú-kèng hó
       Yours is good, (but) mine better.

##### 伊會走猛過我

    I õi-tsáu méⁿ-kùe uá
       He can run faster than I.

##### 伊行猛過伊走

    Lṳ́ kiâⁿ méⁿ-kùe i tsáu
       You walk faster than he runs.

##### 潮州府會贏過汕頭或袂

    Tiê-chiu-hú õi iâⁿ-kùe Suaⁿ-thâu a-bõi?
       Is Ch'ao-chow-fu better than Swatow? ​

##### 爾寫個字贏我個

    Lṳ́ siá kâi jī iâⁿ uá kâi
       Your writing is better than mine.

##### 伊作事贏爾

    I tsò-sṳ̄ iâⁿ lṳ́
       He does things better than you.

##### 爾無用。輸伊

    Lṳ́ bô-ēng su i
       You are no use, and are surpassed by him.

##### 爾會走贏伊否

    Lṳ́ õi tsáu-iâⁿ i mē?
       Can you over take him in running?

##### 袂。我輸伊

    Bõi, uá su i
       No, I am behind him in running.

#### the superlative degree.

The words employed in the superlative degrree are 上 siãng and 上頂 siãng-téng (supreme); the latter generally refers to the qualities of goods, viz.—

##### 有上大個否

    Ũ siãng-tūa--kâi mē?
       Have you the largest one?

##### 此個就是上大個

    Chí--kâi chiũ-sĩ siãng-tūa kâi
       This is the largest one.

##### 我要上頂好個

    Uá àiⁿ siãng-téng-hó--kâi
       I want the best (quality.)
* ↑ This word is so unaccented, that it is always sounded lō instead of lióu, when it comes after a Double hyphen.
* ↑ In every case ũ may be omitted if preferred.
* ↑ Chiàⁿ-àiⁿ is nearly the same as the auxillary verb will, and is employed thus, e. g. I tiang-sî chiàⁿ-àiⁿ lâi? when will he come? that is to say, he is not coming now, but when will he come? and the answer is I khiã-tiām chiàⁿ-àiⁿ lâi, He will come bye and bye, that is to say, he will come, but not before the time when he intends to come.