OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# The New International Encyclopædia/Al

Edition of 1905. See also Arabic definite article on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​AL, äl. The article in the Arabic language. The pronunciation of the initial vowel is vague, so that the article vacillates between al and el. Before dentals, sibilants, and liquids, the l sound ​is assimilated to the following oonsonant, so that, e.g., el-shams (the sun) becomes esh-shams; and again, the initial vowel is frequently elided, when the word preceding the vowel ends in a vowel, e.g., Abu-l-Feda for Abu-al-Feda. The essential element of the article is the l, which belongs to the category of natural sounds having a demonstrative force. The Arabic article appears in such English words as algebra, alchemy, alcove, and Alhambra, which are directly derived from the Arabic.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Al-Gazali, Abu Hamid Mohammed

Edition of 1905. See also Al-Ghazali on Wikipedia; the more elaborate article on al-Gazali at Ghazali, Abu Hamid Mohammed ibn Mohammed al.; and the disclaimer.
​AL-GAZALI, äl'gȧ-zä'lė, or AL-GAZEL, äl'gȧ-zĕl', Abu Hamid Mohammed (1058-1111). A celebrated Arabian theologian and philosopher, born at Tun, in the province of Khorassan, in eastern Persia. He became a leader of the school of the Aseharites, or Orthodox, and was for a time professor of theology in the university at Bagdad. Subsequently he assumed the rule of the Sufis (see Sufiism), or Mystics, and thus for the most part continued until his death. His eloquence as a lecturer won for him the title of Zeïn-ed-Dîn, or “Ornament of Religion,” and his Revivification of the Sciences of Religion was so highly esteemed by Mussulmans that the saying arose that if only this work wore preserved the loss of all the rest of Islam would be but slight. He wrote also The Destruction of the Philosophers, in refutation of the ancient philosophic doctrine. He was severely attacked by Averroës (q.v.).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Air

Edition of 1905. See also Atmosphere of Earth on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​AIR (Lat. aër, Gk. ἀήρ, aēr, irom ἂειν, aein, to blow). The mixture of gases forming the atmosphere of the earth. It consists essentially of 79.03 parts of nitrogen and 20.97 parts of oxygen, with varying small quantities of carbonic acid, ammonia, ozone, argon, helium, neon, krypton, and xenon (qq.v.), aqueous vapor. Certain chemical compounds, as common salt, ammonium nitrate, etc., as well as minute particles of animal, vegetable, and mineral matter, are also frequently found in the air. Early chemists called all gases airs. The chief properties of air and the phenomena they give rise to may be found treated under Atmosphere; Aërodynamics; Aërostatics; Barometer; Aëronautics, etc.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Air Bladder of Fishes

Edition of 1905. See also Swim bladder on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​AIR BLAD′DER OF FISHES. See Fish.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Ainsworth, William Harrison

Edition of 1905. See also William Harrison Ainsworth on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​AINSWORTH, William Harrison (1805-82). An English novelist, born at Manchester. His creative fancy began early to show itself in ballads and tales, which appeared in the local newspapers and in contributions to the London Magazine and other periodicals. He first studied law, but tiring of that, he began a publishing business in London, and that did not succeed. His first novel was Sir John Chiverton (1826); his second, Rookwood (1834), was very favorably received. Crichton (1837) and Jack Sheppard (1839) followed soon after. He edited Bentley's Miscellany for a time; in 1842 began his own Ainsworth's Magazine, and from 1853 edited the New Monthly Magazine. Some of his other works are: Lancashire Witches (1848); Star Chamber (1854); Cardinal Pole (1863); John Law, the Projector (1864); The Spanish Match (1865); Merrie England (1874); and Beau Nash (1880). All his works, and particularly his earlier ones, were remarkably popular in England. Their publication began when the inane "fashionable novel" was the staple, and they presented an agreeable contrast. The historical element, together with the scenery of his native country, is prominent in most of them. Analysis of character or motives had no place in his works; his strength was in the vividness ​and directness with which he realized scenes and incidents.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Aintab

Edition of 1905. See also Gaziantep on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​AINTAB, ī̇n-täb′. A town in the Syrian vilayet of Aleppo, Asiatic Turkey, situated about 65 miles north of the city of Aleppo (Map: Turkey in Asia, G 4). It is an important military post and is well fortified. It carries on an extensive trade in leather and cotton, and lies on the route leading from Aleppo to Armenia. Its population is about 43,000, and consists, to a great extent, of Armenian and Greek Christians.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Alabama (river)

Edition of 1905. See also Alabama River on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ALABAMA. A river formed by the junction of the Coosa and Tallapoosa rivers, about 10 miles north of Montgomery, Ala. (Map: Alabama, B 4). Its general course is westward to Selma, thence south-westward to about 50 miles north of Mobile, where it meets the Tonibigbee, and with that stream forms the Mobile River. It is 320 miles long, and navigable from its mouth to Montgomery, nearly its entire length.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Bott, Jean Joseph

Edition of 1905. See also Jean Joseph Bott on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
BOTT, Jean Joseph (1826-95). A German violinist. He was born in Cassel, Germany, where he received his first musical instruction from his father, the Court musician. After further studies with M. Hauptmann and L. Spohr, he won the Mozart scholarship (1841), and successively became solo violinist in the Electoral orchestra (1846) and Court kapellmeister at Meiningen (1857) and Hanover (1865). In 1885 he came to New York, where he died. His works comprise two operas — Der Unbekannte (1854) and Aktäa, das Mädchen von Korinth (1862) — and symphonies, overtures, violin concertos, pianoforte music, solos for violin, and songs.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Botta, Vincenzo

Edition of 1905. See also Vincenzo Botta on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
BOTTA, Vincenzo (1818-94). An Italian-American educator. He was born in Piedmont, Italy, was educated at the University of Turin, became a professor there, was elected to the Sardinian Parliament in 1849, and was appointed commissioner to examine the German educational system in 1850. He came to the United States for the same purpose in 1853, and soon afterwards was naturalized and appointed professor of Italian language and literature in the University of the City of New York. He remained in this position till his death. In 1855 he married Anne Charlotte Lynch, a well-known author. His best-known works are: Account of the System of Education in Piedmont; Character and Policy of Cavour (1862); Dante as a Philosopher, Patriot, and Poet (1865); and “An Historical Account of Modern Philosophy in Italy,” in Ueberweg's History of Philosophy from Thales to the Present Time (1872).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Boston Art School

Edition of 1905. See also School of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ BOSTON ART SCHOOL. This school, organized in 1876, is the most important school of design in Boston. The course includes drawing and painting from life and casts, anatomy, modeling, and perspective. The student has also the benefit of the Museum for copying purposes. There are two valuable scholarships—the Paige traveling scholarship for two years, and the Longfellow traveling scholarship for three years. Besides these there are ten scholarships of free tuition awarded each year. The annual prizes are the Sears prizes of $50 each for a drawing from a cast, the nude, and a portrait in oils; and the Thayer prize of $150, in three parts of fifty dollars each, for work in decorative design. The fee is from $90 to $125 for three terms.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Boston Port Bill

Edition of 1905. See also Boston Port Act on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ BOSTON PORT BILL. A bill passed by the British Parliament, and signed by the King in March, 1774, to punish the people of Boston for their destruction of tea in Boston Harbor, December 16, 1773. (See Boston.) It was to go into effect on June 1 and provided for the virtual closure of Boston Harbor to commerce, for the removal of the seat of government to Salem, and for the supplanting of Boston by Marblehead as a port of entry, until the people of Boston should indemnify the owners of the property destroyed and fulfill other specified conditions. This, the greatest encroachment yet made by Parliament upon the liberties of the colonists, aroused an instant and widespread feeling of indignation and alarm. Assurances of sympathy and support were immediately sent to the people of Boston by the legislatures and committees of correspondence of other Colonies, and by many town meetings, and June 1 was widely observed as a day of fasting and prayer, bells being tolled, flags placed at half-mast, and houses draped in mourning. Material aid was also given from all quarters, food-supplies being sent from as far as South Carolina. Non-importation agreements were everywhere urged, pamphlets and broadsides were issued, and finally a general congress—the first Continental Congress—was called to discuss this and other obnoxious acts passed in the same year, and to devise measures for relief. Consult Frothingham, Rise of the Republic (Boston, 1872); and, for text of the bill, Pickering, Statutes at Large, Vol. XXX. (London, 1842).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Boston (Lincolnshire)

Edition of 1905. See also Boston, Lincolnshire on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ BOSTON, bôs′ton or bŏs′- (‘Saint Botolph's town’). An ancient English borough and seaport in Lincolnshire, on both sides of the Witham. 28 miles southeast of Lincoln (Map: England, V 4) . Boston is supposed to be the ancient Icanhoe, the site of the abbey founded by Saint Botolph in 654. After the Conquest it became an important trading town and the home of a Hanseatic guild. Henry VIII. granted it a charter of incorporation. The ancient Guildhall is interesting historically as the place of trial of Brewster and his companions. The parish church of Saint Botolph (1309), 290 × 98 feet, is one of the largest without cross-aisles in England, and has a fine tower 290 feet high, surmounted by a lantern visible 40 miles out at sea. The church was partially restored in 1857, at the expense of the inhabitants of the town's American namesake. Boston returns one member to Parliament. The town owns extensive docks. The clearing of the river of silt and the closing of the adjacent fens have greatly promoted the trade of Boston. Population, in 1891, 14,570; in 1901, 15,700.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Boston Massacre, The

Edition of 1905. See also Boston Massacre on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ BOSTON MASSACRE, The. After the quartering of British troops in Boston (1768), there was continual friction between the soldiery and the people. Several minor riots occurred early in 1770, and the trouble culminated on March 5, when seven soldiers under Captain Preston, who were being pelted with snowballs and stones by fifty or sixty of the populace, headed by one Crispus Attucks (q.v.), fired into the crowd, killing three and wounding seven more, of whom two died. This act infuriated the Boston people, who met in mass-meeting and compelled the withdrawal to Castle Island (March 12) of the two regiments of troops. The seven soldiers, with Captain Preston, were tried for murder in October and November, were defended by John Adams and Josiah Quincy, and were finally acquitted, though two of them were declared guilty of manslaughter and received light punishments. There is much difference of opinion with respect to the ‘Massacre,’ some writers regarding it as a lawless affair discreditable to the people and the soldiers alike and without any great historical significance; others, as the “first act in the drama of the Revolution.” In 1816 John Adams wrote: “Not the Battle of Lexington or Bunker Hill, not the surrender of Burgoyne or Cornwallis, were more important events in American history than the battle of King Street on the 5th of March, 1770.” The day was annually connnemorated in Boston until 1783, and in 1888 a monument was erected to the memory of the ten victims. Consult: Kidder, History of the Boston Massacre (Albany, 1870); and Winsor, Memorial History of Boston, Vol. III. (Boston, 1880-81).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Bostonians, The

Edition of 1905. See also The Bostonians on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​BOSTONIANS, The. A novel by Henry James (1886).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Botta, Anne Charlotte Lynch

Edition of 1905. See also Anne Lynch Botta on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
BOT'TA, Anne Charlotte Lynch (1820-91). An American author; born in Bennington, Vt. In 1855 she married Prof. Vincenzo Botta (q.v.). She published a book of poems (1848), besides many essays and reviews, promoted the establishment of Barnard College (q.v.), and founded the prize awarded every five years by the French Academy for the best essay on “The Condition of Women.” Her Handbook of Universal Literature (1860) was formerly widely used as a text-book.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Boston College

Edition of 1905. See also Boston College on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​BOSTON COLLEGE. A Roman Catholic institution under the direction of the Fathers of the Society of Jesus. It was chartered in 1863, and opened in Boston, Mass. There are fifteen founded scholarships; the value of the buildings and grounds is placed at $537,800; and the annual income from tuition fees at $16,000. The college faculty in 1901 numbered 19 and the students 205; at the same time the number of students in the allied preparatory school was 247. The library contains 43,000 volumes. The college course is four years, leading to the degree of A.B.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Pied Piper of Hamelin, The

Edition of 1905. See also Pied Piper of Hamelin on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ PIED PIPER OF HAMELIN, The. A poem by Robert Browning (1842), written for a child of Macready, the actor, on the old legend of the piper who agreed to rid the town of rats in 1284, and, because he was not paid, lured the children of Hamelin by his playing to a cave in the mountain, where they disappeared.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Piegan

Edition of 1905. See also Piegan Blackfeet and Northern Piegan on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ PIE′GAN. One of the most interesting of the Algonquian tribes in North America. They are associated with the Siksika and the Kino or Bloods in the so-called Siksika confederacy, and over two thousand of them are on the Blackfeet agency in northwestern Montana. They are well disposed and tractable, and crimes are almost unknown among them. The other members of the confederacy extend northward into Canada, where they join their co-linguists, the Creeks (q.v.), to form the westernmost tribes of the most widely diffused language family in the Western Hemisphere.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Pierides

Edition of 1905. See also Pierides (mythology) on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​PIERIDES, pī̇-ĕr′ĭ-dēz (Lat., from Gk. πιερίδες). (1) A name given the Muses from their birthplace, Pieria in Thessaly. (2) According to late mythology the nine daughters of Pierus, King of Emathia, whom he named after the nine Muses. When they were defeated by the Muses in a musical contest, they were changed into magpies.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Pierné, Gabriel

Edition of 1905. See also Gabriel Pierné on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​PIERNÉ, pyâr′nā̇′, Gabriel (1863—). A French organist and composer, born at Metz. He was graduated at the Paris Conservatory, where he won many important prizes, including the Prix de Rome in 1882. He became organist at Sainte Clothilde in 1890, succeeding César Franck, and subsequently devoted himself largely to composition. He produced several operas (notably a four-act opera Izéil, 1894), all of which are highly regarded.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Piedmont

Edition of 1905. See also Piedmont on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ PIEDMONT, pēd′mōnt (It. Piemonte, country at the foot of the mountains). A compartimento of the Italian kingdom embracing the provinces of Turin, Cuneo, Alessandria, and Novara, and bounded by Switzerland, France, Liguria, and Lombardy. In 1247 a partition of the territories of Savoy (q.v.) led to the establishment of the two related lines of Savoy and Piedmont. The rulers of the second line were made princes of the Empire in the early part of the fourteenth century. In 1418 the dynasty became extinct and the land reverted to Savoy. From 1797 to 1814 it was a part of France. It constituted the principal part of the former Kingdom of Sardinia (q.v.), which was not infrequently spoken of as the Kingdom of Piedmont. See Italy.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Piedmont Plain

Edition of 1905. See also Piedmont (United States) on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ PIEDMONT PLAIN. A name used in the physiography of the United States to designate that part of the Atlantic coast-plain which lies between the Appalachian highland and the low coastal plain proper. It is distinguished from the latter topographically by being more rugged and eroded with deeper river-valleys, and geologically by consisting of much older and harder rock strata. The change from the hard to the soft and recent formation is marked by a definite line of escarpments over which nearly all the Atlantic rivers fall in rapids or cataracts, and the line is known as the ‘fall line.’ The Piedmont Plain is less defined in New England than in the Southern States. It is narrowest and also approaches closest to the sea in New York, and broadens southward, being about 300 miles wide in North Carolina.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Piehl, Karl

Edition of 1905. See also Karl Piehl on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ PIEHL, pēl, Karl (1853—). A Swedish Egyptologist, born at Stockholm. He was docent in Egyptian languages at Upsala in 1881, became director of the Egyptian Museum in 1889, and in 1893 was appointed to a newly endowed chair of Egyptology. Three years afterwards Piehl became editor of the Sphinx, a periodical of Egyptian archæology. His publications include: Petites études égyptologiques (1881); Dictionnaire du papyrus Harris No. 1 (1882); and the great work, Inscriptions hiéroglyphiques (1884 sqq.).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Pierce, Lovick

Edition of 1905. See also Lovick Pierce on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​PIERCE, Lovick (1785-1879). A minister of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South. He was born in Halifax County, N. C.; entered the South Carolina Conference in 1805, though he began to preach the year before; he was chaplain in the army during the War of 1812; at the close of the war he retired from the ministry and studied and practiced medicine. In 1823 he reëntered the ministry and filled the chief appointments of the Church; he represented his conference in numerous general conferences. He was known as one of the most eloquent preachers of his time.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Pieridæ

Edition of 1905. See also the disclaimer.
​PIERIDÆ. A family of butterflies noted for mimicry. See Mimicry.
# The Modern Review/Volume 5/Number 2

February, 1909
# The Modern Review/Volume 5/Number 5

May, 1909
# The Modern Review/Volume 6/Number 6

December, 1909
# The Modern Review/Volume 5/Number 6

June, 1909
# The Modern Review/Volume 5/Number 4

April, 1909
# The Modern Review/Volume 6

July to December, 1909
* Number 1 (July)
* Number 2 (August)
* Number 3 (September)
* Number 4 (October)
* Number 5 (November)
* Number 6 (December)
# The Modern Review/Volume 7

January to June, 1910
* Number 1 (January)
* Number 2 (February)
* Number 3 (March)
* Number 4 (April)
* Number 5 (May)
* Number 6 (June)
# The Modern Review/Volume 5/Number 3

March, 1909
# The Modern Review/Volume 7/Number 1

January, 1910
# The New International Encyclopædia/Frederick, Christian August

Edition of 1906. See also Frederick VIII, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
FREDERICK, Christian August (1829-80). Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg, and claimant to the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. He was born on the island of Alsen, and was educated at Bonn. After the unsuccessful revolt of Schleswig-Holstein against Danish rule, the ducal family was banished. Frederick enjoyed great popularity with the people, however, and when, after the war of 1864, the rule of Denmark in the duchies was terminated, he triumphantly entered Kiel, where he was eagerly welcomed. Numerous political complications now arose which prevented the formal reinstatement of the dynasty. By the terms of the Treaty of Vienna (October, 1864), the duchies had been relinquished to Prussia and Austria, to be disposed of by them. Prussia, however, was not inclined to permit the creation of a new German State, and imposed conditions upon Frederick which made it impossible for him to assume the government. After the Peace of Prague, which terminated the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, the lands were finally absorbed into the Kingdom of Prussia. Frederick subsequently served on the staff of the Crown Prince, Frederick William of Prussia, during the Franco-German War of 1870-71. His
daughter, Augusta Victoria, became the wife of Emperor William II. of Germany.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Frederich, Bertha

Edition of 1906. See also Bertha Frederich on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
FREDERICH, frā'de-rĭk, Bertha (pseudonym, Golo Raimund) (1825-82). A German novelist, born at Hanover. She was the wife of Eduard Frederich, editor of the Hannöverscher Courier, in which paper her first efforts appeared. In order to conceal her identity more effectually, she not only chose the above pseudonym, but managed to have the true authorship of her novels ascribed to a fictitious personage, “Georg Dannenberg.” She wrote, in all, about twenty-two novels, nearly all of which have been republished. Among them are: Bauernleben (3d ed. 1888); Zwei Bräute (4th ed. 1888); Schloss Elkrath (3d ed. 1885); Von Hand zu Hand (2d ed. 1885); Mein ist die Rache (3d ed. 1885); Zwei Menschenalter (3d ed. 1886); Ein deutsches Weib (5th ed. 1886).