OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# The New Student's Reference Work/Crittenden, John Jordan

See also John J. Crittenden on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Crit′tenden, John Jordan, was born in Woodford County, Ky., Sept. 10, 1787. He graduated at William and Mary College, Virginia, studied law, and became famous as a criminal lawyer. He served many times in the Kentucky legislature, was six times chosen senator of the United States, and served one term as representative in Congress and one term as governor of Kentucky. He also was attorney-general under Presidents Harrison and Fillmore. He was most prominent just before and during the Civil War. He opposed the repeal of the Missouri Compromise; in the Kansas troubles he sided against the course of Presidents Pierce and Buchanan; when Lincoln was elected he took firm ground for the Union; and in 1860 he proposed amendments to the constitution which, he thought, would allay strife. He strenuously sought to keep Kentucky in the Union, but was unwilling that slaves should be used as soldiers. He remained in public life to the close of his career, being in the midst of a campaign for re-election to Congress when he died near Frankfort, Ky., July 26, 1863.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Cousin, Victor

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​Cousin (kōō′zan′), Victor, founder of a school of philosophy, was born at Paris, Nov. 28, 1792. After finishing his studies he was appointed professor at the Sorbonne. He early began to write, and one of his first books, his translation of Plato, met with immediate success. His lectures drew crowds; his ideas, for the most part, were new to his hearers, bold, clear and beautiful in style; he also had a wonderful power in bringing together facts of history and philosophy so as to throw light on each other. He also took part in politics, and was one of the leaders of thought in Paris. So when his friend Guizot, in 1830, became prime minister, Cousin was made a member of the council of public instruction and also a peer of France. He also held other offices, and was a public man until 1849. His teachings have had great influence in Germany, England and America as well as in France. Among the best-known of his books are The True, the Beautiful and the Good and The History of Philosophy. He died at Cannes, France, Jan. 13, 1867.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Coventry

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​ Cov′entry (kŭv′en-trĭ), a city of Warwickshire, England, about the middle of the kingdom, between the four English ports, London, Bristol, Liverpool and Hull. Its chief manufactures are ribbons, watches, bicycles and cloth. St. Michael's Church, built between the years 1230 and 1395, is the largest parish-church in England, its spire 200 feet in height. St. Mary's Hall, built in the 14th century, with its carved-oak roof and large painted window, is a fine example of ornamental work. In 1043 Earl Leofric and his wife, Lady Godiva, founded here a monastery. In Tennyson's Godiva is told the story of this lady's famous ride, clothed only by her long hair, through the streets of Coventry, while the people reverently kept within their houses behind closed blinds. This was the barbarous condition made by her husband, the lord of the town, when she pleaded that the citizens might be freed from harsh taxes. In memory of her there used to be splendid processions in Coventry. Here also Richard II stopped the trial by battle between the Dukes of Norfolk and Hereford, of which Shakespeare has so well told us in his Richard II. Here for a time Mary, Queen of Scots was imprisoned, and near the town was one of George Eliot's homes. Population 69,978.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Covenanters

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​Covenanters, a body of the Scottish people, including the greater part of the nation, who during the 16th and the 17th centuries bound themselves by Covenants ​to make and keep the Presbyterian church as the only religion of Scotland. The first was drawn up by John Craig in 1581 and signed by James I. Others like it followed, and in 1638 was drawn up the Solemn League and Covenant, a bond between those opposed to the Catholic and Episcopal churches in Scotland, England and Ireland. It was adopted by the English Parliament. But in Charles II's reign, the covenant-oaths were declared unlawful and, later, treasonable; yet many of the Covenanters kept on taking these paths until the Revolution of 1688 made it no longer necessary for the Scots to band together for the liberty of their church.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Covington

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​ Covington (kŭv′ǐng-tǔn), the capital of Kenton County, northern Kentucky, on the Ohio River, opposite Cincinnati, to which it is joined by two fine suspension-bridges. Many of its people are Cincinnati business men; but it is more than a mere suburb of that city, having large distilleries and manufactures of glassware, nails and tobacco. It also has large industries in rolling-mills and in the manufacture of stoves, etc. The Licking River separates it from Newport, Ky. Covington is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishopric, and possesses good schools, churches, a hospital, orphan-asylum and public library. Population 53,270.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Cowbird

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* COWBIRD
Cowbird, a bird found in fields feeding near cattle, picking up the insects the animals disturb in their grazing. It sometimes rides on the back of a cow, and often may be seen just in front of one. It makes no nest, but, like the European cuckoos, lays its eggs in the nests of other birds—usually in the nest of a smaller bird. The young cowbird is larger than the other nestlings, but the deception does not seem to be noticed by the foster-mother. The male cowbird is glossy, greenish-black, with head and neck dark coffee-brown. The female is dirty brownish-gray, with whitish throat. They live in small flocks.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Lagarde, Paul Anton de

Edition of 1905. See also Paul de Lagarde on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
LAGARDE, lȧ'gärd' (properly Bötticher, Lagarde being his mother's name), Paul Anton de (1827-91). One of the greatest Orientalists of the nineteenth century. He was born at Berlin, November 2, 1827. He studied theology, philosophy, and Eastern languages at Berlin and Halle, and began his academic career in the latter place in 1851. From 1854 to 1866 he was teacher at a gymnasium in Berlin. In 1869 he became Ewald's successor at Göttingen and remained there till his death, December 22, 1891. Lagarde's writings were very numerous, and represent a wide field of activity. His earlier studies were on Iranian subjects, and were published as Gesammelte Abhandlungen (1866). As the result of investigations in London and Paris in 1852-53 he published several Syriac and Greek texts and critical studies, among them: Didascalia Apostolorum (1854); Analecta Syriaca (1858); the books of Titus Bostrenus against the Manichæans, Greek and Syriac (1859); Geoponica (1860); Reliquiæ Juris Ecclesiastici Antiquissimæ Græce (1856); Constitutiones Apostolorum (1862); Clementina (1865). Other studies of a like character are the Prætermissorum Libri Duo (1879); Petri Hispani de Lingua Arabica Libri Duo (1883); Judæ Harizii Macamæ Hebraice (1883). He edited the Opere italiane of Giordano Bruno (1888-89). In his Armenische Studien (1877) and Persische Studien (1884) he continued his Iranian studies. The latter contains valuable articles on the Judæo-Persian text of Isaiah and Jeremiah. Semitica (1878-79); Orientalia (1879-80); Ægyptiaca (1883); and the Uebersicht über die im Aramaischen, Arabischen und Hebräischen übliche Bildung der Nomina (1889) were important works. Lagarde's most valuable work, perhaps, was his contributions to the textual criticism of the Bible and upon the Old Testament Apocrypha and the Septuagint, represented by a long list of editions and criticisms of Syriac, Arabic, Coptic, and Greek versions and fragments. Symmicta (1877-80) and the Mitteilungen (1884-91) contain some of the best of his later work. Consult the “Bibliography of the Works of Paul Anton de Lagarde,” by Gottheil, in the Proceedings of the American Oriental Society for 1892. Lagarde also attempted to play the part of a politician (cf. Deutsche Schriften, 1878-81), but not so successfully as that of the scholar. A volume of poems written by him appeared after his death (1897). His library is now owned by the New York University. Consult the memoirs by Anna de Lagarde (Göttingen, 1894) and by Albrecht (Berlin, 1901).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Lang, Margaret Ruthven

Edition of 1905. See also Margaret Ruthven Lang on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
LANG, Margaret Ruthven (1867—). An American composer, born in Boston. She studied the piano with her father, B. J. Lang; the violin with Schmidt in Boston, Drechsler and Abel in Munich; composition with Gluth; and orchestration with Chadwick. She wrote a number of delightful songs, instrumental pieces, and several overtures, of which her Dramatic Overture was given by the Boston Symphony Orchestra, and Witichis by the Chicago Orchestra.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Langbein, August Friedrich Ernst

Edition of 1905. See also August Friedrich Ernst Langbein on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
LANGBEIN, läng'bḯn, August Friedrich Ernst (1757-1835). A German humorous poet and novelist, born at Radeberg, near Dresden. He studied law at Leipzig, practiced it afterwards in Dresden, and from 1800 on lived in Berlin, devoted entirely to literary pursuits. In 1820 he was appointed censor of belletristic literature. Extremely proficient in metrical composition, and commanding an inexhaustible fund of drollery, he cultivated with especial success the comical poetic tale, frequently inclining toward frivolity, but teeming with fun. The widespread popularity of his Schwänke (1792, 21st ed. 1888) was almost equaled by that of his merry tales in prose, such as Thomas Kellerwurm (1806), Magister Zimpels Brautfahrt, and others, distinguished for inventive faculty and pleasing diction. He published himself the original edition of his Sämmtliche Schriften (1835-37); his Humoristische Gedichte were edited by Tittmann (Halle, 1872), and Humoristische Erzählungen appeared in Leipzig, 1891. Consult Jess, Langbein und seine Verserzählungen (Berlin, 1902).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Ladybird

Edition of 1905. See also Coccinellidae on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​LADYBIRD (lady, with reference to Our Lady, the Virgin Mary + bird, perhaps a variant of bug), or Ladybug. A beetle of the family Coccinellidæ. Ladybirds are pretty little beetles, well known to every one, often of a brilliant red or yellow color, with black, red, white, or yellow spots, the number and distribution of which are characteristic of the different species. The form is nearly hemispherical, the under surface being very flat, the thorax and head small; the antennæ are short, and terminate in a triangular club; the legs are short. When handled, these insects emit from their joints a yellowish fluid, having a disagreeable smell. They and their larvæ feed chiefly on scale-insects and plant-lice, in devouring which they are very useful to agriculturists and fruit-growers. They deposit their eggs under the leaves of plants, on which the larvæ are to find their food, and the larvæ run about in pursuit of aphids. Ladybirds are sometimes to be seen in immense numbers, which, from ignorance of their usefulness, have sometimes been regarded with a kind of superstitious dread.
Ladybirds are great benefactors to the American fruit-growers. An Australian ladybird (Vedalia, or Novius, cardinalis) was introduced in 1886, to feed on the cottony cushion-scale of the orange and lemon groves of California, and in less than a year it practically exterminated the pest. It has since been introduced with equal success into South Africa, Portugal, Egypt, and Italy, where it has exterminated the same scale or a congeneric species. The two-spotted ladybird (Coccinella bipunctata), a black beetle with two red spots, which occurs all over the United States, is also of inestimable value in protecting vegetation from plant-lice and scale and other insects. One genus of ladybirds (Epilachna) is herbivorous, and feeds on the leaves of the squash, pumpkin, melon, bean, and other plants. See Colored Plate of Insects.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Lafont, Charles Philippe

Edition of 1905. See also Charles Philippe Lafont on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
LAFONT, lȧ'fṓN', Charles Philippe (1781-1839). A French violinist, born in Paris. He was a nephew of Berthaume, the violinist, and first studied with him. Afterwards he became a pupil at different times of Kreutzer, Berton, and Rode. After a tour in Europe he was made first violin at the Russian Court (1808). Still later he held this position under Louis XVIII. (1815). He was also a singer and composer, but it is as a violin virtuoso that he is best remembered.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Lafontaine, August Heinrich Julius

Edition of 1905. See also August Lafontaine on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
LAFONTAINE, lȧ'fṓN'tắn'. August Heinrich Julius (1758-1831). A German novelist, born in Brunswick, and educated in Helmstedt, where he studied theology. He was a private tutor for several years, acted as chaplain to the Prussian army in 1792, and in 1800 settled in Halle. He became canon of the Magdeburg Cathedral as a reward for the dedication of one of his books to Friedrich Wilhelm III. and Luise. The popularity of his novels, which are sentimental and didactic tales of domestic life, was remarkable, especially in view of his great fertility. He wrote about one hundred and fifty volumes, and soon ruined what style he had originally possessed. Among his more popular works are: Der Sonderling (1793), Der Naturmensch (1791), Saint Julien (1798), and Fedor und Marie (1805).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Lamb, Martha Joanna Reade Nash

Edition of 1905. See also Martha J. Lamb on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
LAMB, Martha Joanna Reade Nash (1829-93). An American historian, born at Plainfield, Mass., August 13, 1829. Though born and brought up in Massachusetts, and for some years a resident of Chicago, she spent most of her active life in New York City (1866-93). From 1883 till her death she edited the Magazine of American History, in which she published many of her own essays. Her chief book, the History of the City of New York (2 vols., 1877-81), was the valuable result of about fifteen years of patient labor and research. Other volumes worthy of citation are The Homes of America (1879) and Wall Street in History (1883).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Lancaster (Massachusetts)

Edition of 1905. See also Lancaster, Massachusetts on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
LANCASTER. A town, including several villages, in Worcester County, Mass., 18 miles north by east of Worcester; on the Nashua River, and on the Boston and Maine Railroad (Map: Massachusetts, D 3). It has the State Industrial School for Girls, and a public library. Though Lancaster is primarily a place of residence and a summer resort, it has dairy and farming interests, and manufactures of cotton goods, yarn, bricks, pumps, and soap. The government is administered by town meetings. The town owns and operates its water-works. Population, in 1890, 2201; in 1900, 2478. Lancaster, settled about 1651, by John Prescott, an ancestor of the historian, was incorporated as a town two years later. In 1676 Indians massacred forty of its citizens and laid the place in ruins. Consult Marvin, History of the Town of Lancaster (Lancaster, 1879). and The Early Records of Lancaster (Clinton, Mass., 1884).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Langaha

Edition of 1905. See also the disclaimer.
LANGAHA, lȧn-gä'hȧ (Malagasy name). A brown tree-snake (Dryophis langaha) of Madagascar, about three feet long, having a prolonged, scaly snout, often flattened into a leaf-like organ half an inch in length. That it uses this purely as a tactile organ seems doubtful, as it is simply a tree-snake, with no hindrance to the ordinary use of the tongue. Some related snakes, like Trigops (see Tree-Snake), have similar fleshy tips; and one, Herpeton (q.v.), has two distinct tentacles; but this species is aquatic, and such tentacles would usefully serve the purpose of the tongue, not easily protrusible in the water. Stejneger believes that these appendages serve mainly to increase the opening of the mouth, and thus assist the snakes in capturing prey, as do the bristles about the mouth of fly-catching birds.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Lang, Louis

Edition of 1905. See also Louis Lang on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
LANG, Louis (1814-93). A German-American painter, born at Waldsee, Württemberg. Already a pastel portraitist of some reputation, he went to Paris in 1834, and afterwards studied at Stuttgart. In 1838 he came to America, and in 1852 was made an Academician. His works include: “Asleep in Prayer” (1869), “Landing of the Market Boat at Capri,” “Mary, Queen of Scots,” and “Cinderella.”
# The New Student's Reference Work/Powell, John Wesley

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​Pow′ell, John Wesley, an American geologist and anthropologist, was born at Mount Morris, N. Y., March 24, 1834, and served through the Civil War, in which he rose to the rank of major. After holding a professorship in Illinois Wesleyan University for a number of years, in 1870 a survey of the Colorado and its tributaries was placed under his direction by act of Congress. His voyage through the canyon was a wonderful achievement. While engaged in this service he gave special attention to ethnology, and in 1879 was made director of the new bureau of ethnology; in 1881 he was also appointed director of the United States Geological Survey. Major Powell in 1886 received the doctorate of philosophy from Heidelberg and of laws from Harvard; and in 1887 he was president of the Association for the Advancement of Science. His works include Explorations of Colorado River; Lands of the Arid Region; Contributions to American Ethnology; and Outlines of the Philosophy of the Indians. He died on Sept. 23, 1902.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Precession

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​Preces′sion, is the name given to that slow motion of the earth which causes the equinoxes to recede slowly along the ecliptic (apparent path of the sun around the earth), so that the sun comes to them in its annual revolution a little earlier than it otherwise would. The cause of this motion is the attraction of the sun and moon upon the protuberant part of the earth about the equator — the equatorial diameter of the earth being 26 miles longer than the polar diameter. The moment of force thus exerted tends to tilt the earth, which, like a top, “precesses” instead of falling over. As this disturbing force on the earth is very small relatively to its mass, this turning of its axis about the pole of the ecliptic takes place at about the rate of 50.1″ per annum, and it therefore requires 25,868 years for the equinoxes to describe a complete circle on the ecliptic. See Earth, Pole-Star and Top.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Powder

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​Pow′der, a general name for pulverised or minutely divided solid substances, has come to be specifically identified with gunpowder, a mixture of sulphur, charcoal and potassium nitrate. Gunpowder is now used in war far less than formerly, owing to the superior advantages of smokeless powders; but the production of it is considerable, and there is little likelihood that it will be superseded for such purposes as fireworks and military and naval salutes. The origin of gunpowder is obscure. The use of it for military purposes was suggested by Roger Bacon about 1266. But gunpowder was known in India and China, where saltpeter is very abundant, from time immemorial. Gunpowder was used in cannons as early as the battle of Crécy (1346). Its quality was very gradually improved. The French took the step, under the direction of Lavoisier, of carefully pulverising the ingredients in separate wheel-mills. It was gradually discovered that the quality and purity of the ingredients, especially the charcoal and niter, need careful attention. The niter is purified and transformed into small crystals by a process of boiling in water, filtration and rotation in crystallising vessels. Willow-wood is commonly used for charcoal. Even the sulphur has to be distilled and finely powdered. The proportion of the ingredients may vary; but in military powder it often is 75 parts niter, 10 parts sulphur and 15 parts charcoal. The greater part of the powder now produced in the United States is used, not for guns, but for blasting. See Gunpowder.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Powderly, Terence Vincent

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​Pow′derly, Terence Vincent, an American labor-leader, who came into prominence as General Master-Workman of the Knights of Labor, was born at Carbondale, Pa., Jan. 22, 1849. He entered the employ of a railroad as a switch-tender at 12 and as a machinist at 19. He joined the Knights of Labor in 1874 and was elected mayor of Scranton in 1877 and 1878. He was raised to the chief office in the Knights of Labor at their meeting in Chicago in 1879, remaining master-workman until 1893. He studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1894. He was appointed commissioner of immigration by President McKinley in 1897.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Prague

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Prague, the capital of Bohemia and the third largest town in Austria-Hungary, is situated on the Moldau, 220 miles from Vienna and 120 from Dresden. It has a picturesque appearance from the beauty of its site and numerous towers, more than 70 in number, which rise above the many noble palaces, public buildings and bridges. The fortifications have been gradually demolished since 1866. The university, founded in 1348, received a new constitution in 1881, and has two co-ordinate sides or sections, one German and one Czech, the former with 150 teachers and 1,534 students and the other with 173 teachers and 3,875 students. There also is a government technical high school, with 1,300 students and German and Bohemian teachers. The city has been ravaged by wars, and here peace treaties have been enacted, notably that of 1635 between Ferdinand II and the Elector of Saxony and that of 1866 between Prussia and Austria, when the latter ceded her rights in Schleswig-Holstein and paid a war indemnity of $15,000,000. Population 228,645.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Pre-Emption

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​Pre-Emp′tion. Under the laws of the United States, an actual settler on the public lands enjoys the right, in preference to any one else, of purchasing at a fixed price the land on which he has settled, to the extent of 160 acres. In the case of offered lands, the settler must file his declaratory statement within 30 days after entry, and within a year proof must be made of settlement and cultivation and the land paid for at $1.25 per acre if outside the limits of a railroad grant or $2.50 if within such limits. If the tract settled on is unoffered, an approved plan of the township must first be received at the district land-office; the statement must then be filed within three months; and final proof and payment must be made within 30 months thereafter. Title to land is thus obtained much sooner than under the homestead laws; but a homestead settler may at any time after six months purchase the land under the pre-emption laws; as, on the other hand, the holder of a pre-emption claim may convert it into a homestead. See Homestead Laws.