# A History of the Knights of Malta/Chapter 19

CHAPTER XIX.
1565—1601.
Europe had looked on with breathless interest whilst the siege of Malta had been going forward. From time to time, as intelligence was brought of the continued maintenance of the fortress, a loud acclaim would arise, and prayers were offered in many a Christian congregation for the success of the Cross against the Crescent. When at last it became known that that success was indeed assured, the universal exultation knew no bounds. In the courts of Rome and Madrid these feelings found vent most freely. The island of Malta was looked upon as an advanced post by both these powers, and had Solyman been able to establish himself at that point, the kingdom of Sicily and the States of the Church would have been continually exposed to the piratical incursions of his Algerine subjects.
The king of Spain despatched a special ambassador to Malta with congratulations to La Valette upon the auspicious result of the siege. The envoy bore with him, as a present from Philip, a magnificent poniard and sword, the hilts of which were of chased gold studded with gems. At Rome a salute was fired from the castle of St. Angelo, whilst a general illumination of the city testified to the exultation of the inhabitants. Pope Pius IV., as a special mark of favour, offered La Valette a cardinal’s hat, a dignity which had in previous years been ​offered to, and accepted by, the Grand-Master Peter D’Aubusson. La Valette, however, considered, and with reason, that his position was already far more elevated than that of a cardinal. The offer of the pontiff was therefore graciously declined on the plea that the office of the Grand-Master involved functions so diametrically opposed to those of a cardinal, that he did not consider they could well be combined.
Meanwhile the rage of Solyman, upon learning the disgrace which had befallen his arms, was such as might have been anticipated in one who throughout a lengthened career had hitherto been almost invariably the favoured child of victory. Tearing the despatch which contained the unpalatable intelligence into fragments, he pledged himself to lead in person a fresh expedition against Malta at the commencement of the ensuing summer, when he vowed that he would not leave one stone standing upon another. Preparations were instantly begun in the arsenals of Constantinople for the construction of a fleet large enough to carry out the project of the sultan, and every nerve was strained to collect such a force as should effectually wipe away the stain cast upon the military renown of the empire.
The position of the Order was at this moment critical in the extreme. It became, therefore, necessary for La Valette, in the midst of the general rejoicing, to consider what steps should be taken to avert the renewed attack as to the imminence of which his spies at Constantinople had given him early intimation. The state of the island was deplorable. The fortifications were more or less in ruins, the arsenals and storehouses empty, the treasury exhausted, and the ranks of the fraternity so fearfully diminished that an adequate garrison could not be provided even had the fortress been in a proper state of defence. The general feeling of the council leant in favour of an abandonment of the island, and the withdrawal of the convent to Sicily. La Valette, however, felt that his renown and that of his knights had become too intimately connected with Malta to brook such a sacrifice in the very hour of triumph. He expressed his ​resolution to bury himself beneath the ruins he had hitherto so successfully defended, rather than permit them tamely to fall into the hands of the infidel. The same strong will and inflexible determination which had so often before overruled the opinions of his council, once more gained the day, and it was decreed that they should stand or fall in the defence of the island where they had already achieved so brilliant a success.
The crisis was, however, imminent, and La Valette, feeling that he was unable to oppose force by force, decided. on having recourse to stratagem to avert the danger. He availed him.. self of the services of some of his spies at Constantinople to cause the grand arsenal of that city to be destroyed by fire. Large stores of gunpowder had been accumulated for the liltiroses of the approaching expedition, the explosion of which utterly wrecked the dockyard and the fleet which was being equipped within it. This blow put a complete stop to the undertaking, and the death of Solyman, which occurred on September 5th, 1566, whilst invading Hungary, prevented any renewal of the attempt. Most writers, in narrating this event, have deemed it necessary to speak apologetically on the subject, and to lay great stress on the critical position in which La Valette was placed. There does not appear to be any real occasion for making excuses in the matter. The sultan was notoriously and ostentatiously preparing a large armament for the capture of Malta, and he had boasted that he would not leave in it one stone upon another. It seems, therefore, to have been a perfectly legitimate act of war to compass the destruction of the fleet whilst still lying in the arsenal of Constantinople, and La Valette was only exercising prudent foresight in averting a blow which he would otherwise have been powerless to resist.
All immediate danger of an invasion being thus happily at an end, the Grand-Master turned his attention to the restoration of his ruined defences. The siege had clearly demonstrated the importance of the fort of St. Elmo. La Valette determined, therefore, not only to restore and develop it, but also to carry out the project, so often before mooted, of occupying the entire peninsula with a new town, and surrounding it with fortifications of such strength as should render it safe from attack. Experience had shewn that the Bourg, or, as it was now called, ​the Città Vittoriosa, was but ill-suited to be the head-quarters of the convent. Exposed on all sides to hills by which it was overlooked, the difficulty of maintaining it during a lengthened siege had been so clearly shewn that some change was imperative. No other spot within the island afforded so many advantages as Mount Soeberras. The expense, however, of such a design was undoubtedly enormous, and the treasury being utterly exhausted, it was necessary to look for foreign assistance to carry out the project. Ambassadors were therefore despatched to all the leading courts of Europe, furnished with plans of the proposed scheme, and requesting aid for carrying it out. The Order at this moment stood in very high favour throughout all the Catholic countries of Europe. The good services it had rendered to Christendom by averting the dreaded inroads of the Moslem were everywhere recognized and appreciated. La Valetto received in consequence the promise of such liberal contributions that he was able at once to begin the realization of his project. The Pope guaranteed a subsidy of 15,000 crowns; the king of France, 140,000 livres; Philip, 90,000 livres; and the king of Portugal, 30,000 crusadoes. Whilst this assistance was being rendered from without, the members of the fraternity vied with one another in the extent of their gifts. Many of the wealthiest commanders, not satisfied with forwarding the entire revenues of their commanderies, stripped themselves of much of their personal property, which they cheerfully tendered in aid of the good work. Thus encouraged, La Valette summoned the most able engineers and architects then in Italy, and no longer delayed the commencement of the town. The Pope, not content with the contribution he had made in money, despatched his chief engineer, Francesco Laparelli, to aid the Grand-Master by his advice and professional skill. The design of most of the principal works of Valetta may be attributed to this officer, the general idea only having been sketched out by La Valette.
Matters being thus prepared, the 28th of March, 1566, was selected as the day on which to lay the first stone of the new city. The name to be given to it was Valetta, and the Grand-Master added thereto, as was the common practice in those days, ​the epithet Umilissima. The Bourg, in memory of the recent triumph enacted within its walls, had received the proud title of Città Vittoriosa, and the Città Notabile, the ancient capital of the island, was from this time destined to sink into comparative insignificance under the name of Città Vecchia. The ceremony of inauguration was performed with the utmost pomp. The entire extent of Mount Sceberras was covered with pavilions, whose snowy whiteness shone clear in the bright sunlight, their gay pennons fluttering in the breeze. From every quarter strangers had flocked to the island, eager to witness the ceremonial, the brilliant scene forming a striking contrast to the sad tragedy enacted on the same spot in the previous year. At an early hour La Vaiette left the Bourg in solemn procession, accompanied by all the grand-crosses and other functionaries of the Order then at Malta. They were preceded by the clergy, at whose head was Dominick Cubelles, bishop of the island, the leading ecclesiastical dignitary of the fraternity. Arrived at Mount Sceberras, the Grand-Master took up his station beneath an ample pavilion erected for the purpose on the appointed site, and there performed the ceremony of laying the first stone at the corner of St. John’s bastion. Loud rang the trumpets to announce the auspicious fact to the thousands crowding round the spot, but louder far than the shrillest note of the clarion burst forth the shout with which that enthusiastic multitude hailed the event.
The chivalric heart of La Valette must have glowed within him at this spontaneous note of acclamation. Well indeed might the noble veteran and those around him rejoice, for that shout was a knell to all the hopes the infidels might till then have entertained of ever seeing their banner floating in triumph over the fortress of Malta. It was the commencement of a new æra, during which the island was to rise in importance until it attained a foremost rank amongst the strongholds of Europe. Beneath the newly-laid stone had been deposited a number of coins in gold and silver, bearing on the one side a representation of the intended town with the motto Melita renascens, and on the other the date of inauguration. it is also recorded that a tablet was affixed to the stone bearing a Latin inscription, to the effect that the Grand-Master, La Valette, in memory of the late ​siege, and for defence against future attacks, had determined to found a new city, which he had commenced on the 28th March, 1566. As a precisely similar tablet stood over the old Porta Reale, it seems probable that it had been moved there, when the gate was built, as being more conspicuous to public view than the original position, since none now exists on St. John’s bastion. When the Porta Reale was rebuilt in 1853, this tablet was replaced on the new structure as an interesting relic of the foundation of the city. The inscription is an extract from the records of the council, which bear the following entry:—
“Die xxii menii Martii MDLXVI Fr. Joan ne de Valletta, Sacræ Domus Hosp. Hier. .M. Magister, periculorum anno superiore a suis militibus populoque Meliteo in obsidione Turcica pepessorum memor, de condenda urbe nova eaque mœniis arcibus et propugnaculis munienda inito cum proceribus consilio die Jovis XXVIII, Martii, MDLXVI. Deum Omnipotentem Deiparamque Virginem numenque tutelare D. Jo. Baptistam Divosque cæteros multa precatus ut faustum fœlixcque religioni Christianæ fieret, ac Ordini suo quod inceptabat bene cederet prima urbis fundamenta in monte ab incolis Xeberas vocato jecit, earmque de suo nomine Vallettam, dato pro insignibus in parma miniata aurato leone, appellari voluit.”
It may be interesting to add the names of the dignitaries of the Order who were present on the occasion when this important decree was registered. They were as follows:—
Reverendus Dominus Magnus Magister Frater Joannes De Valletta. Admodum Reverendus Dominus Episoopus Melitensis Frater Dominicus Cubelles.
Reverondus Prior Ecclesiw Doniinus Frater Antonius Cressinus. Reverendus Maresciallus Doninus Frater Gulielmus Coppier. Reverendus Hospitalarius Dominus Frater Jacobus Derquembourg. Reverendus Magnus Conservator Dominus Frater Petrus De Junyent. Reverendus Admiralius Dominus Frater Ludovicus Broglia.
Reverendus Prior Sancti .tEgidii Dominus Frater Ludovicus Du Pont. ​Reverendus Prior Alverniie Dominus Frater LUDOVICUS BE LASTIC.
Reverendus Prior Campanie Dominus Frater JOANNES AUDEBERT Dir LAU HUGE.
Revercndus Baiulivus Caspis Dominus Frater LUDOVLCUS Ds LALZEDO.
Locumtenens Reverendi Magni Commendatorii Dominus Frater JOANNES DR MONTAGU.
Locumtenens Reverendi Turcopolerii Dominus Frater OJIVERIUS STARCHI.
Locumtenens Reverendi Magni Baiulivil Aiemanie Dominus Frater CON RARD SCOULBACH.
Locuintenens Reverendi Cancellarii Dominus Frater DON FERDINANDUS D’ALASCON.
Locumtenens Reverencli Thesauranil Dominus Frater CAROLUS BE LA RAMA.
The record of the ceremony of the 28th March follows immediately after the above decree, and runs thus:—
“Inchoaflo Civilatis ad Mon tern Sancti .Elrni. Die xxviii. Mensi8 Martii MDLXVI fait incepta et inchoata Civita8 ad i}fontern Sancti Elmi, cuiquidem civitati Vallelta’ nornen unpositunfuit, faxit Deu.s iliudfaustuni et fells.”
Doubtless the pious aspiration with which it concludes found a warm response within the hearts of all present on the occasion. An amusing controversy has long raged in Malta in connection with these and other contemporaneous entries as to whether the name of La Valette should be spelt with one or with two i’s. These entries shew the letter doubled. In the few signatures by La Valette himself, not only the 1 but the I also is single. The explanation would probably be that in French the name was spelt with only one 1, whilst in Latin and Italian, in accordance with the common practice, the consonant was doubled.
The foundation of the new city was not effected without considerable opposition, and for some time after, La Valette was frequently called on to defend the prudence of the work he had undertaken. On the 3rd of April the viceroy, Don Garcia, arrived in Malta, accompanied by several engineers and other officers whose judgment on such matters might be considered valuable. The opinion which they expressed was that the step ​taken had been injudicious, and that the project as it stood was far too stupendous. They thought the scheme should have been restricted to the enclosure of a much smaller space, so as simply to cover fort St. Elmo. These objections were overruled by La Valette. He pointed out that the ground within the line as now proposed would be far too restricted, as it would be impossible to construct within it a town large enough for his requirements, since he not only contemplated the transfer of the convent to the new city, but also that a considerable portion of the inhabitants who were crowded into the Bourg and Senglea should move there as well.
The work now went bravely on; ditches were sunk, and with the material thus raised the ramparts were constructed. For the first year nothing was attempted except the fortifications, no one being willing to build within the town until its defence had become somewhat assured. As already stated, the Papal engineer, Francesco Laparelli, had the general control, assisted in all details by Jerome Cassan, the resident engineer of the Order. La Valette watched the progress of his favourite design with the warmest interest and the keenest anxiety. He took up his abode in a wooden hut on Mount Sceberras, and spent his days in the midst of his workmen. The example thus set was followed by other members of the fraternity, and each strove by precept and example to urge forward the progress of the work. All the leading towns of Sicily, and even Italy, were ransacked for artificers, at one time no less than 8,000 labourers being employed to assist the masons.
The original design had contemplated that the ridge of rock which formed the summit of Mount Sceberras should be cut down to a nearly level platform, on which the city was to stand, surrounded by its ramparts, the latter consisting to a great extent of the live rock scarped down to the water’s edge. Before this work had become far advanced, rumour reached the island of a new expedition preparing at Constantinople, of which the destination was supposed to be Malta. Selim, who had succeeded his father Solyman on the Ottoman throne, was a man of pacific sentiments, and too much immersed in luxury and sensuality to take delight in those ambitious projects which had been so constantly cherished by the late ​emperor. He ruled, however, over a nation eminently warlike in character, and with whom enmity to the Christian, and a craving for supremacy in the Mediterranean, had long become ruling passions. Unable entirely to restrain the aggressive propensities of his subjects, Selim was compelled apparently to meet their wishes, by fitting out expeditions without any fixed ideas as to their ultimate destination. False alarms were thus being constantly spread throughout his reign, and precautions taken on all sides to resist attacks which the sultan never seriously contemplated. The only result of the preparations he was now making was to destroy the symmetry of Valetta, which, instead of being on a comparatively level site, was hurried on, and built on the slopes as they existed, a small central strip only, upon which runs the present Strada Reale, having been levelled. Hence those interminable flights of steps which in the present day weary the pedestrian, and have invoked the metrical malediction of Byron.
La Valette had not progressed far with his new city before the want of money began to make itself seriously felt. He had received promises of large amounts, but those pledges were very tardily fulfilled, and the funds upon which he counted from his own fraternity could only be paid in annual instalments, as the revenues of the commanderies fell due. Under the pressure of these difficulties he decided upon a measure, the successful working of which proved how high the credit of the Order stood in the eyes of the inhabitants. He caused a great quantity of copper money to be made, carrying a fictitious value. These coins bore on one side the symbol of two hands clasped, and on the other the words, “Non œs sed fides"—“Not money but credit:” they were freely accepted at their nominal value by the artificers, and passed current throughout the island. The treasury, as remittances were received from Europe, faithfully redeemed this fictitious money until it had been entirely withdrawn from circulation. When the island of Malta fell into the possession of England, there was a large quantity ​of similar false money circulating, which was reclaimed by the home government at considerable loss, the nominal value being nearly £17,000, whilst that of the copper was only £400. It was at the time generally stated that this coinage was a portion of that issued by La Valette, which had not been redeemed. A little consideration, however, should have shewn that it would be impossible for copper coins to remain in circulation for 260 years. The fact was that the experiment so successfully tried by La Valette was repeated by several of the later Grand-Masters. None resorted to it more freely than Be Rohan, who circulated large quantities whilst he was erecting fort Manoel. There exists in the public library at Valetta a collection of dies from the local mint, and several of these, of different dates, shew the same symbol and legend as that described above, and were evidently used for a similar purpose.
When the ramparts had been raised and the streets of the town laid out, private individuals were invited to erect houses. As an incentive to members of the Order to join in the work, it was expressly decreed that any one building for himsell a house within the city of Valetta, should have the power of disposing of it at his death, a concession not enjoyed by him with regard to the rest of his property. This privilege induced many knights to erect mansions in the new town. Such houses shew traces of having been originally designed for men who, not being permitted to marry, and consequently having no families, did not require much sleeping accommodation. In these houses we find a general stateliness of architecture; the apartments devoted to reception, which are spacious, lofty, and handsomely decorated, occupy by far the larger part of the building, whilst those intended for sleeping-rooms are narrow, confined, and far from numerous.
The aged Grand-Master continued, throughout the brief remainder of his life, to take the deepest interest in the new city which was thus springing up before his eyes. He was not, however, permitted to spend that limited period in the peace and quiet to which ho had so justly entitled himself. The general exultation which had naturally followed on the repulse of the Turks rapidly degenerated into a spirit of license which La Valette found himself unable to check. This was especially the ​case amongst the younger members, who seemed to consider that the heroic deeds so lately performed at the siege absolved them from all the other obligations of their profession. The wildest debauchery and the most reckless libertinism prevailed, and the orgies which constantly took place were a public scandal. In some of these, ribald songs were sung reflecting not only on the character of virtuous ladies in the island, but on the Grand-Master himself. Pasquinades and libels circulated freely, and nothing was too high or too sacred to be made a subject of ridicule. In one of these, which is still extant in Malta, La Valette is accused of cowardice during the siege, and of hiding himself behind a beam during one of the assaults on the post of Castile. Matters were at length brought to such a pitch that it became necessary to resort to strong measures of repression. A prosecution was instituted against the most notorious of the offenders, and they were summoned before the council. The insubordinate knights treated the entire affair with ridicule; they rushed into the council chamber in tumultuous array, the pen was plucked from the hand of the chancellor who was recording their sentence, and the inkstand thrown out of window. Then, feeling that they had compromised themselves so thoroughly that they were certain of the severest punishment, they hurried off to the harbour, and seizing upon one of the galleys, set sail for Sicily. Deprivation of habit was, of course, the natural consequence of this gross act of rebellion.
Meanwhile a dispute which threatened the most grave consequences sprang up between the fraternity and the court of Rome. For many years the pontiffs had arrogated to themselves the power of nomination to most of the vacant dignities in the langue of Italy. In his first outburst of gratitude after the successful defence of Malta the Pope had pledged himself to interfere no more in the giving of these appointments. Before long, however, this pledge was again broken, and he became as anxious as ever to claim the privilege he had so expressly renounced. La Valette, in consequence, addressed to his Holiness a letter of urgent remonstrance upon the subject, and at the same time despatched an envoy to Rome to seek reparation for the wrong which was ​being inflicted. The Pope, irritated at the tone of the Grand-Master’s letter—and indeed it must be admitted that he had expressed himself in no measured terms—was glad of an excuse to avoid receiving the envoy; using the objectionable letter as a pretext, he not only refused him an audience, but dismissed him from the court.
This marked slight deeply affected La Valette. The accumulated troubles which weighed upon him both from within and without the convent overcame the firmness of the gallant old man. He sank into a condition of the most painful despondency, from which it was impossible to rouse him. One day towards the end of July, 1568, with the object of distracting his mind from the anxieties preying upon him, he started on a hawking expedition in the direction of St. Paul’s bay. The powerful summer sun overcame him, and he was brought home suffering from a sunstroke. A. violent fever followed, and after an illness of nearly a month he died on the 21st of August, 1568.
His body was in the first instance placed in the chapel attached to the castle of St. Angelo, but four days later, namely, on the 25th August, his successor having in the meantime been elected, a grand funeral cortege was formed for its transport to a small chapel which he had built and endowed in the city of Valetta, and which was dedicated to Our Lady of Victory. The corpse was placed upon the deck of the great carrack, which, richly decorated and dismasted, was towed in solemn procession by two other galleys draped in black cloth. They bore at the stern the Turkish banners captured during the late siege, and which were now trailed ignominiously in the water. The body having been taken into the Mama Muscetto was there landed when, the procession being reformed by land, it was conveyed with similar solemnities to the place of burial, where it was lowered into the grave amid the lamentations and regrets of all who witnessed the melancholy ceremony.
The memory of La Valette has always been held in the highest veneration by his fraternity. The Order had, during the five centuries of if s existence, enrolled but few who could have the slightest claim to be compared with him in all those ​qualities which should distinguish the leader of so powerful an institution. In his early life he had been present at the siege of Rhodes, under L’Isle Adam, and had borne an honourable part throughout that long and desperate struggle. From that hour he had followed the fortunes of his brethren in all their wanderings, and had raised himself step by step through the various dignities, until at length he was called to the supreme authority at a time of the most imminent public danger. History has shewn how fully qualified he proved himself to meet the crisis. In his public character he earned a reputation and .a position such as has fallen to the lot of but few. Stern and inflexible, he was rigidly just and honourable. Throughout his long career he proved himself invariably the terror of evildoers, and the implacable enemy to disorder of every kind. By his brethren he was respected even more perhaps than he was loved; his character was undeniably such as to excite the former rather than the latter feeling. The crisis during which he was placed at the head of affairs demanded a man of iron will, and in La Valette that man was found; so long, therefore, as the necessity for such qualifications continued, he was pre-eminently the right man in the right place, and as such received the willing obedience and warm admiration of his fraternity. During the last two years of his life, when peace was once more assured to the convent, that austerity was no longer recognised as a virtue, so that at the time of his death, there were not a few, who having felt the rigidity of his rule to be very irksome, hailed the event as a relief; and, though outwardly mourning the loss of one who had been so brilliant an ornament, were at heart not ill-pleased to look forward to a new government, which might prove less stern and inflexible to their shortcomings.
The decease of La Valette having been expected for some weeks before it took place, various intrigues had been set on foot with reference to a successor. La Valette had himself named Antonio de Toledo, the grand-prior of Castle, but the influence of two grand-crosses, La Motte and Maldonat, secured the election of the grand-admiral Peter de Monte, of the langue of Italy. The lengthened services of this knight had fully entitled him to the post. Indeed, it seems somewhat strange ​that he should not have been named by La Valette in preference to de Toledo, and it has been suggested that there was a little jealousy in the matter, an idea which seems not improbable, as the career of de Monte had up to this point been curiously similar to that of his predecessor. Like him the grand-admiral had served at the siege of Rhodes, and after that event had also established for himself a high reputation by his naval exploits. The Pope, in consideration of his services, had appointed him governor of the castle of St. Angelo at Rome. He had subsequently been named general of the galleys by the council, and had eventually become the conventual bailiff of his bin gill’. It was whilst holding this office that he was selected by La Valette to conduct the defence of Senglea during the late siege. His services in that post were sufficiently brilliant to have ranked him in general opinion second only to La Valette himself. At the conclusion of the war he was sent as envoy to Rome, and when there, the Pope, as a mark of respect for his great services, would not permit him to kneel in his presence.
De Monte was strongly impressed with the value of the work going forward on Mount Sceberras. He had no sooner, therefore, assumed the reins of government, than he announced his intention of pushing forward to a speedy conclusion the labours of his predecessor. Towards the end of 1670, the fortifications being in a very advanced state, the Pajal engineer, Laparelli, took his final departure, leaving the completion of the works to Jerome Cassan, the engineer of the Order, under the control of the commander de la Fontaine, to whom that branch of superintendence had been specially delegated. So eager was de Monte to bring his new city into a forward condition, that although it was still in an unfinished state, even as regarded the fortifications, he determined to move the head-quarters of the convent there as soon as possible, and on the 17th March, 1571, the transfer was effected. This event was celebrated with much magnificence, and may be considered as the date when the town of Valetta was first inhabited. It was, even at that time, far from ready for permanent occupation, and the Grand-Masters residence was as yet only a wooden structure, containing a hall and two rooms. It had been originally intended to build a palace for him upon the site where the auberge de Castile now ​stands. The nephew of de Monte had, however, at about this period, erected a large pile of buildings in front of the Piazza San Georgio, which appeared well adapted for the purpose, and this was purchased from him, and appropriated as a palace. It is most probable that, when the young de Monte undertook this building, he contemplated its eventual appropriation as a palace for his uncle, since it is hardly conceivable that he should have required so extensive and palatial a pile for his own use.
When the line of fortifications around the new city had been sufficiently advanced, the usual division of posts was made for each langue. The land front consisted of four bastions. That of St. Peter, on the left, was told off as the post of Italy; St. James’s bastion, containing a cavalier which dominated all the surrounding works, was the post of France; St. John’s bastion, with a similar cavalier, was that of Provence; and St. Michael’s bastion, on the right, that of Auvergne. To the right of this latter bastion, overlooking the Marsa Museetto, was St. Andrew’s bastion, which was allotted to the langue of Aragon. The line of ramparts from that point to St. Elmo was the post of Germany, whilst the corresponding line on the grand harbour side, from the St. Peter’s bastion to SL Elmo was the post of Castille; St. Elmo itself was garrisoned by detachments from all the langues, as was also St. Angelo. The old posts of the various leagues in the Bourg and Senglea were still retained by them, in addition to their new lines of defence. Each langue also constructed for itself an auberge, as they had done at Rhodes. The auberge of Provence stands in the Strada Reale, the main street of Valetta, and is now a naval and military club. The auberge of Auvergne, also in the Strada Reale, is a police office and court of justice. The auberge of France, in the Strada Mezzodi, is in the hands of the Commissariat department. The auberge of Germany was pulled down many years ago, and on its site t.he collegiate church of St. Paul was erected, through the munificence of Adelaide the late Queen Dowager, widow of William IV. The auberge of Aragon, which stood near that of Germany, was allotted as a palace to the bishop of Gibraltar, of whose see Malta is the head-quarters. The auberge of Italy ​stands at the head of the Strada Mercanti, and is in the hands of the Royal Engineers. The auberge of Castile stands by the side of that of Italy, and is appropriated as a joint mess establishment for the Royal Artillery and Royal Engineers. This building possesses far more architectural pretensions than any of the other auberqes, its magnificent site adding materially to its grandeur. Until of late it ranked indubitably as the finest structure in Malta, but some twenty years ago a grand opera house was erected in its immediate vicinity, in a very ornate and florid style, the result of which, whatever its own merits may be, has been greatly to injure the effect of the auberge of Castile. This opera house, which was utterly destroyed by fire, so far as its interior was concerned, in 1872, and since restored, stands on the site originally set apart for the auberge of England. From the time when that langue was suppressed by Henry VIII. until the latest days of the residence of the Order in Malta, hopes were entertained of its revival. Care was therefore always taken that everything connected with it should remain intact. Thus, when the general arrangements for the new city were being mapped out, a site, and that one of the best in Valotta, was set apart and religiously preserved for the use of the langue of England. Towards the end of the eighteenth century a new langue, called Anglo- Bavarian, was created, and for its use an auberge was erected facing the Mama Muscetto, near St. Elmo. This structure, which, though extensive, is far plainer than any of the others, is now an officers’ barrack.
Under the fostering care of de Monte the navy of the Order was greatly augmented. With the object of stimulating a spirit of enterprise, he gave permission to members of the fraternity to undertake cruises on their own responsibility and for their own benefit. This permission was largely taken advantage of, and many knights returned from their privateering expeditions against the Turkish corsairs laden with booty. In the midst of these private successes, a disgraceful disaster occurred. The general of the galleys, named St. Clement, whilst in command of four vessels laden with provisions, was overtaken by the Tunisian corsair Ucciali. St. Clement by no means distinguished himself; two of his vessels having been ​captured, he ran aground the one on board which he himself was, and having reached the shore fled ignominiously. In this unfortunate engagement no less than sixty-two knights perished. St. Clement, as soon as he reached Malta, was brought before the council to answer for his conduct during the fight. The evidence adduced proved his cowardice too clearly, and the public indignation ran so high that he was stripped of his habit and then handed over to the secular power for further punishment. By its decree he was strangled in prison, and his body, enclosed in a sack, thrown into the sea.
The year 1571 was marked by the glorious victory which the combined Christian fleet gained over the Turks at the battle of Lepanto. In this action only three Maltese galleys were present, under Pietro Giustiniani, the whole expedition being under the command of Don John of Austria. The action was fought on the 7th of October, and after a desperate struggle, ended in the complete rout of the Ottoman fleet. The three Maltese galleys were on the extreme right of the centre division of Don John’s line-of-battle. Aluch All, the viceroy of Algiers, who had been manœuvring against the right wing, had succeeded in penetrating between it and the centre, and had thus gained the rear of the Christian line at a point in the immediate vicinity of Giustiniani’s galleys. Perceiving that they flew the White Cross banner, he at once dashed at them. The undying hatred to the Order common to the corsairs of Algiers was burning fiercely in his bosom, and he thought that he now saw his enemies delivered into his hands. The three Maltese vessels were no match for the division he was leading, and for the moment they were cut off from support. The struggle was fierce, for the knights fought with their usual impetuosity. Maxwell, in his life of Don John, gives a most graphic account of this incident. He says:—“The knights and their men defended themselves with a valour worthy of their heroic Order. A youth named Bernadino de Heredia, son of the Count of Fuentes, signally distinguished himself, and a Zaragozan knight, Geronimo Rainirez, although riddled with arrows like another St Sebastian, fought with such desperation that none of the Algerine boarders cared to approach him until they saw that he was dead. A knight of Burgundy leaped alone into ​one of the enemy’s galleys, killed four Turks, and defended himself until overpowered by numbers. On board the prior’s vessel, when he was taken, he himself, pierced with five arrow wounds, was the sole survivor, except two knights, a Spaniard and a Sicilian, who, being senseless from their wounds, were considered as dead.”
Aluch All succeeded for the moment in capturing the prior’s galley, and having secured its banner he took the vessel in tow, hoping to make his way out of the battle, which, by this time, he saw was lost. Fortunately his manœuvre was perceived by the squadron of reserve, which had not yet been engaged, and its commander at once bore down on him to intercept the movement. Much All felt that if he remained encumbered with his prize he must inevitably be captured; so, cutting the galley adrift, he left the wounded prior to be rescued by his friends. They found on board of her the bodies of no less than 300 Turks who had been killed whilst boarding. There were also a few living Algerine sailors and Turkish soldiers, who had been put on board to assist in the navigation.
The results of the victory wore so great that for many years the naval power of the Turks in the Mediterranean was almost annihilated. Be Monte had in his last years felt himself so oppressed by the responsibilities of his office, that he earnestly besought the Pope to permit him to resign it. Pius V., however, persuaded him to remain, which he very reluctantly consented to do. He died on the 27th of January, 1572, at the age of seventy-six years.
It was during his rule that the Spanish convent of Dames Chevalières, or Hospitaller ladies, became once more united to the Order of St. John. This establishment, which was situated at Sixena, a small town midway between Saragossa and Lerida, had been founded by Sancha, daughter of Alphonso II., king of Aragon. Her mother, also called Sancha, surnamed the Chaste, had previously created a convent for noble ladies of the Order of St. John, at the time when the loss of. Palestine had deprived them of their homes. The establishment at ​Sixena was formed on a scale of princely magnificence, and resembled a palace rather than a religious house. Sixty noble young ladies of the kingdoms of Aragon and Catalonia were admitted into this institution without dower, and the munificence of its foundress, as well as that of the kings of Aragon, soon raised it to a high position. It was subjected by Pope Celestin III. to the rules of the Augustine Order. The ladies wore a scarlet robe with black mantle, bearing the white eight-pointed Cross, and in honour of their royal foundress they each carried a silver sceptre during T)ivine service. For many years the sisters remained associated with the Order of St. John, acknowledging the Grand-Master as their superior, and the prioress of the convent took her seat at all provincial chapters, next in rank to the castellan of Emposta. Towards the close of the fifteenth century they withdrew their allegiance from the fraternity and placed themselves under the direct authority of the Pope. This secession lasted until the time of de Monte, when, in 1569, Hieronyma d’Olibo, then grand-prioress of the convent, at the request of her nuns, signified their desire to become once more attached to the Order. her demand was acceded to, the schism was healed, and from that date the ladies of Sixena annually presented a silver vase to the convent at Malta in token of fealty.
The vacancy caused by the death of de Monte was filled by the election of John L’Evque de la Cassière, conventual bailiff of the langue of Auvergne, and consequently grand-marshal of the Order. The rule of this Grand-Master was an æra of turbulence and confusion from beginning to end. Although he was a man who, by dauntless courage and many gallant actions, had gained a high reputation amongst his confrères, still, from his arrogant temper and the violence and obstinacy of his character, he proved himself but ill-suited for the dignity to which he was now raised. Ere long he became involved in so many disputes, and had created such a host of enemies, that the island was thrown into a state of the utmost confusion. An altercation which he had with the bishop of Malta touching the extent of the ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the latter, led to the introduction into the island of an accredited member of the ​Inquisition, who, under the title of grand-inquisitor, became ever after a source of discord and uneasiness. This official was originally despatched in consequence of an appeal made by La Cassière to Gregory XIII. against the bishop. Differences had before this sprung up between the Grand-Masters and the bishops of Malta, as the functions and powers of the latter had never been very clearly defined, and were often the cause of a collision between themselves and the government. The intervention of the grand-inquisitor, so far from alleviating this evil, added yet another most fertile source of quarrel to those already existing. Instead of two there were now three heads in the island, and although both the bishop and the inquisitor acknowledged the supremacy of the Grand-Master, yet, by their acts, they almost invariably proved that that recognition was more nominal than real.
At the time when this new ecclesiastical authority was first despatched to Malta, the Pope had, at the request of the council, directed that he was not to act independently, but that in all matters affecting church discipline a tribunal was to be formed, in which he was to be associated with the Grand-Master, the vice- chancellor, the bishop, and the prior of the church. It was not long, however, before the ambitious grand-inquisitor, supported, as lie was, by the Pope, gradually usurped for himself an independent and separate tribunal. With the object of extending his authority, and to free it from all control on the part of the Grand-Master, he adopted the following method. Any Maltese who desired to throw off his allegiance was given a patent, issued from the office of the inquisitor, by which he became a direct subject of the Inquisition, and was no longer liable to any of the secular tribunals of the island. The .bishop of Malta, in his turn, gradually adopted a similar measure, and by a simple tonsure freed even laymen from all other control than his own. These abuses did not, of course, spring into full vigour at once, but they became by degrees so glaring that it appeared as though the chief of the Order would eventually lose all authority in the island of which he was the nominal sovereign.
Whilst La Cassière was contending with these rival functionaries the external relations of his government were at the same time giving him much cause for uneasiness. A dispute broke ​out with the republic of Venice upon the question of some property of Venetian Jews, which had been seized by the cruisers of Malta. This very nearly led to the confiscation of their possessions within the territories of the republic, and was only accommodated by the most ample concessions and complete reparation on the part of La Casaière. Another source of dispute arose from the nomination, through the interest of the king of Spain, of the archduke Winceslas of Austria to the grand-priory of Castile and the bailiwick of Lora immediately after his reception into the fraternity. Remembering the powerful assistance which that monarch had invariably accorded to the Order, it was practically impossible to refuse any request when strongly put forward by him. Still this appropriation of the leading dignities in the langue of Castile naturally gave the greatest possible dissatisfaction to its members, and a sedition sprang up which was only quelled by the interposition of the Pope. The mutinous knights were by his decree condemned to present themselves before the Grand-Master, in council, with wax tapers in their hands, and there publicly ask pardon for their turbulent behaviour.
The spirit of insubordination having once broken out, was not to be permanently quelled by a mere decree from the papal court, nor was the conduct of La Cassière, during these troublous times, such as to conciliate the brethren or restore a spirit of obedience to their ranks. his arrogance and haughty bearing only rendered matters worse, and multiplied the number of his enemies until, in the year 1581, the mutinous feeling once more shewed itself openly. The knights of the langue of Aragon had again become jealous of the influence which the numerical superiority of the French invariably gave them, and in this discontent they were joined by the Italians and Germans. The former had not, in their opinion, supplied to the roll as many Grand-Masters as their numbers would warrant, whilst the latter langue had never furnished a chief at any time. They now, therefore, joined the Spanish malcontents in plotting for the deposition of La Cassière. To veil their real designs they intrigued with a French knight named Romégas, who held a high position in the estimation of the convent, and had been nominated to the dignities of grand​Toulouse and general of the galleys. Being an ambitious man he was seduced from his allegiance under the idea that he would be named La Cassière’s successor. That Grand-Master had issued a decree banishing all women of loose character from Valetta and the neighbouring casals, with a view to checking, if possible, the gross and open licentiousness then Prevalent at the convent. This decree was alleged as one of the causes for dissatisfaction which they entertained against their chief. Such a complaint in itself marks the very low tone of morality which must at that time have been prevalent in the fraternity.
All being at length ripe for the movement the mutineers openly declared themselves. They held a public meeting, in which they stated that the Grand-Master was, from age and infirmity, unable to continue in the active exercise of his functions. They therefore proposed that he should be called on to nominate a lieutenant to assist him in his duties. La Cassière, who, although old, was still in full vigour, both of mind and body, rejected the suggestion with the utmost disdain, on which the mutineers once more met together, and, taking the law into their own hands, nominated Romégas to the post of lieutenant. By selecting a French knight they evaded the suspicion which would have attached to their proceedings had they chosen a member of one of their own langues, and thus induced a considerable number of French knights to join the cabal. Not content with this appointment, they further decreed that La Cassière should be placed in close confinement in fort St. Angelo. This resolution was at once carried into effect, and the aged Grand-Master, surrounded by his rebellious confrères, was conveyed through the streets like a criminal to his appointed place of imprisonment. During the journey he was assailed with the grossest abuse, not only by the knights, but also by the frail ladies who had been banished from the city, and who now, on the subversion of his authority, had returned thither in great numbers.
These turbulent proceedings were insidiously fomented by the king of Spain. Trusting to support the mutineers, that monarch had despatched a fleet to Malta ostensibly to protect the island from a supposed invasion by the Turks, but in reality ​to render assistance to the Spanish faction in the disturbance then raging. An appeal was made to the Pope, both by the insurgents and the Grand-Master, the latter of whom also informed the French ambassador at Rome of the situation in which he found himself. The greatest indignation was excited in the papal court at the lawless proceedings of the Spaniards, and the Pope instantly despatched an envoy to Malta to prosecute an inquiry into the causes of the insurrection. The French king also took the matter up warmly, and directed his ambassador to see the Grand-Master righted, and the intrigues of the Spanish faction thwarted.
The papal envoy, Visconti, as soon as he reached Malta, commenced an investigation into the causes and results of the disturbance. He had received directions from his Holiness to reinstate La Cassière in his dignities, provided he found that step could be taken without endangering public tranquillity. A very brief insight, however, into the state of popular feeling led Visconti to perceive that such a measure would be fraught with the greatest possible danger; he therefore contented himself with procuring the release of the imprisoned chief, and summoning him, as well as the leaders of the malcontents, to Rome, that the dispute might be settled by the pontiff in person. He also succeeded, after some negotiation, in inducing the Spanish fleet to leave the island, and trust the settlement of the question entirely to the hands of the Pope.
The entry of La Cassière into Rome, which took place on the 26th October, 1681, was attended with great pomp. Gregory seemed determined to mark, by the cordiality and magnificence of his reception, the sense he entertained of the ill usage to which the aged chief had been subjected. Romégas, on the other hand, was treated with such studied neglect, that his proud spirit sank beneath the insult, and he died on the 4th of November of a fever, brought on by agitation of mind. The Pope decreed the immediate restoration of the Grand- Master to his office, but at the same time privately cautioned him to act with greater moderation, and with more urbanity in the future governance of his fraternity. La Cassière, however, did not survive to resume the active duties of his station. The cares and anxieties of the last year had proved too much for ​his feeble frame, and he died at Rome on the 21st of December, 1581, aged seventy-eight years.
It was during his rule that the church of St. John the Baptist was erected in the new city of Valetta, and became the conventual cathedral. The expense of its construction was entirely defrayed by La Cassière out of his magisterial revenues, and he further endowed it with an annuity of 1,000 crowns. By a decree of the first chapter-general, held after the erection of this church, a separate chapel was assigned within its precincts to each langue. These chapels form the side aisles, and are filled with stately monuments erected in honour of members of the respective langues. The entire pavement is one of the most beautiful specimens of mosaic work in Europe. It is composed of a succession of records to the memory of the most celebrated among the bailiffs, grand-crosses, and commanders. It glistens with an endless variety of coloured marbles, representing the blazonry of the arms of the illustrious deceased; jasper, agate, and other similar valuable stones being plentifully introduced. The treasury of the church was enriched with numerous costly gifts in gold and silver, the quinquennial offerings of the Grand- Master and other leading dignitaries. In addition to the magnificent reliquary enclosing the hand of St. John, there were statues in silver of the twelve apostles, an exquisite golden chalice presented by Henry VIII. to L’Isle Adam, the sword and poniard given to La Valette by Philip of Spain, numerous crosses and censers in gold and silver, together with several very large candelabra of the latter metal. The chapel of the Virgin was lighted with a lamp of solid gold, suspended by a massive golden chain, and several of the altars were richly decorated and adorned with costly vessels. The whole of this treasure was plundered by Napoleon when he seized the island in the year 1798, and carried off to Egypt. It had been placed on board the French man-of-war, L’Orient, and was all lost with that vessel when she blew up at the battle of the Nile. Below the church La Cassière caused a crypt to be constructed, to which he transferred the remains of L’Isle Adam and La Valette, and it is there that these two heroes now rest, beneath handsome monuments erected at his cost. It was his ​intention, in designing this crypt, that his own body should lie by the side of those two great men, who had reflected such glory on the title of Grand-Master, and he prepared everything, including his tomb, accordingly. His death at Rome seemed at first to render it unlikely that his wishes would be carried out. It was, however, ultimately decided to transport the corpse to Malta for interment in the sepulchre he had constructed, and he now lies in the place he himself desired. At the foot of the tomb of La Valette lie the remains of Oliver Starkey, his faithful Latin secretary, and the last Englishman who held the Turcopoliership and the bailiwick of the Eagle before the suppression of the langue. The Latin inscription on the tomb of La Valette is from the pen of Starkey:—
“Ille Aske Libicequc paror libiœque quondam
Europœ et domitis sæva per arma Getis
Primus in hac alma quam condidit urbe sepultus
Valelta æterno dignus honore jacet.”
The heart of La Cassière was removed from the body and embalmed before his remains were taken to Malta, and it is still preserved at Rome. As soon as the death was notified to the Pope he despatched a mandate to the council at Malta prohibiting any steps being taken in the election of a successor until the members should have received further instructions from him. He intended originally to take the nomination entirely into his own hands, considering himself the head of the Order, and as the Grand-Master had died within the limits of his own immediate jurisdiction that he should be entitled to that prerogative. A little thought, however, led him to adopt a middle course. He therefore sent one of the knights then at Rome to his nuncio Visconti, intrusted with two separate briefs, and with full instructions how to make use of them. The messenger having arrived at Malta, the first of the briefs was presented to the council by the nuncio. In this the Pope averred that the peculiar circumstances attending the death of the late Grand-Master had left him the right to nominate a successor, but that from friendship for the Order he waived his claim to the privilege, and desired that the election should proceed in the usual manner. The langues were therefore ​convoked according to custom, and the electors nominated. Thereupon the nuncio presented his second brief, which simply restricted their powers to the choice of one out of three candidates named by the Pope. These were Chabrilian, bailiff of Manosque; Verdala, the grand-commander; and Panissa, the grand-prior of St. (lilies. The papal mandate, irregular and unauthorized though it was, received no opposition, and Hugh Louhenx de Verdala was elected to the vacancy.
Although the death of La Cassière had brought to a close the dispute of which he was the subject, the king of France was well aware that the sedition had originally sprung from the ambition and jealousy of the laiigues of Aragon and Ca.stile, fomented and encouraged by the king of Spain. He therefore directed his ambassador at the court of Rome to insist that the memory of the late Grand-Master should be vindicated from the aspersions which had been cast upon it. The Pope readily complied with this request, and nominated a commission, consisting of five cardinals and some of the leading lay officials in Rome, to investigate the accusations brought against La Cassière by Romégas and his party. Visconti having returned to Rome from Malta with the results of the inquiries which he had there made, the congress gave judgment. This was to the effect that the accusations against the late Grand-Master were malicious and unfounded; that all the proceedings taken against him were, from their manifest injustice, to be annulled, and that he was to be considered honourably acquitted of all the crimes laid to his charge. They at the same time recommended to his Holiness that he should pronounce a decree that the Order did not possess the power of deposing its chief, that authority being vested in the Pope alone. On the 3rd of September, 1582, this sentence having been ratified, was published in the consistory. Thus closed a schism which had, whilst it lasted, created a great disturbance within the convent at Malta.
The character of Verdala was eminently suited to the temper of the time which witnessed his elevation. Gentle, mild, and affable, an earnest lover of peace and concord, he strove hard to soften the bitterness which recent events had caused, and to reconcile those differences through which a spirit of disunion was still kept up in the convent. In this, however, he was not ​very successful. During the whole of his career as Grand- Master—a period of thirteen years—he was constantly troubled and harassed by the dissensions fomented against him. No conciliation on his part availed to appease the angry feelings that were aroused, and every decree which his sense of justice compelled him to promulgate, was cavilled at, and made the subject of seditious opposition. In 1587 the grand-marshal Sacconai dared to rescue by open force one of his valets who had been arrested on a charge of theft. The punishment which this audacious act brought down on him created such a ferment that Verdala deemed it advisable to proceed in person to Rome and request the intervention of the Pope against his mutinous fraternity. He was received with every mark of approval by Sextus V., who, to mark his sense of the undeserved attacks made on him, presented him with a cardinal’s hat, trusting that this accession of dignity would induce the turbulent knights to receive their chief with greater respect. It is to be doubted, however, whether the honour was a judicious one either for him to offer or for Verdala to accept. The position of a Grand-Master was such as entitled its holder to rank far higher than a mere cardinal, and when a similar proposal had been made to La Valette he declined it for that reason. Be this as it may, the cardinal’s rank did not in any way tend to improve the position of Verdala; he became so harassed by the factious conduct of the knights that he once more returned to Rome, where he expired on the 4th of May, 1595.
It was during his rule in 1592 that Gargallo, bishop of Malta, hoping to strengthen his power and gain additional support in the constant warfare he was maintaining against the authority of the Grand-Master, summoned the Jesuits to the island. There they speedily established themselves, and in their turn endeavoured to form a separate jurisdiction of their own. Malta was from this time destined to be the seat of four distinct religious powers—the bishop, the inquisitor, the Jesuits, and the Grand-Masler—a source of endless dispute and jealousy, and one which much aided in aggravating the discord between the rival nationalities of France and Spain. Pope Gregory XIII. had already decreed that the offices of the bishop of Malta and prior of the church were to be held exclusively by conventual ​chaplains. As most of these were natives of the island, who had no opportunity of attaining to the dignities monopolized by the various langues, this decree was received by them with the greatest favour, since it reserved to Maltese ecclesiastics two of the leading offices in the gift of the Order. It had, however, the effect of rendering both the bishop and the prior somewhat less amenable to the authority of their chief than they would have been had they been members of other langues.
Verdala has left several memorials of his sway in the fortifications which he constructed in the island of Gozo, and also by the erection of a country residence near the Città Vecohia for the use of the 0-rand-Masters, and which has ever since borne his name. This tower, on the acquisition of the island by the English in the year 1800, was for some years used as a place of confinement for French prisoners of war, after which it was left unoccupied until Sir William Reid, when governor of Malta, restored it as a summer palace. He added much to the ornamental grounds which surround it. In its immediate vicinity is the Boschetto, a grove which, owing to the scarcity of trees in Malta, is much prized by the inhabitants. Verdala was the first Grand-Master who bore the dignity of Turcopolier in connection with that office. The Pope felt that all immediate prospect of a return of the English nation to Roman Catholicism was at an end, and that, in consequence, there was no further hope of an early revival of the English langue. To prevent the ancient dignity belonging to the conventual bailiwick of England from beooming altogether lost, he attached it to the Grand-Mastership, so as to preserve it intact until brighter days for the langue should arise. It was also in Verdala’s time that the compilation of an authorized history of the Order was intrusted to Bosio, the materials having been collected by Anthony Fossan, who had died in the midst of his labours. Bosio’s work is very voluminous, and, therefore, somewhat tedious; it is, nevertheless, the most trustworthy and authentic narrative extant as far as it extends. The author was nephew to the Anthony Bosio whose able services as a negotiator prior to the last siege of Rhodes have already been detailed.
* ↑ La Valette at this time addressed a letter to the grand-prior of Germany, giving a short account of the siege, and appealing for help to restore the fortress. See Appendix No. 10.
* ↑ Adieu, ye joys of La Valette! Adieu, scirocco, sun, and sweat Adieu, ye cursed streets of stairs— How surely he who mounts you swears!
* ↑ “The Life of Don John of Austria,” by Sir William Stirling Maxwell (vol. i. p. 417). I have quoted the writer’s words, as they bear such signal and unbiassed testimony to the gallantry of the knights.