# Ancient India as described by Megasthenês and Arrian/Frag. LVI.

Fragm. LVI.
Plin. Hist. Nat. VI. 21. 8—23. 11.
List of the Indian Races.
The other journeys made thence (from the Hyphasis) for Seleukos Nikator are as follows:—168 miles to the Hesidrus, and to the river Jomanes as many (some copies add 5 miles); from thence to the Ganges 112 miles. 119 miles to Rhodopha (others give 325 miles for this distance). To the town Kalinipaxa 167—500. Others give 265 miles. Thence to the confluence of the Jomanes and Ganges 625 miles (many add 13 ​miles), and to the town Palimbothra 425. To the mouth of the Ganges 738 miles.
​The races which we may enumerate without being tedious, from the chain of Emodus, of which ​a spur is called Imaus (meaning in the native language snowy), are the Isari, Cosyri, Izgi, and on the hills the Chisiotosagi, and ​the Brachmanæ, a name comprising many tribes, among which are the Maccocalingæ. ​The river Prinas and the Cainas (which flows into the Ganges) are both navigable. The tribes called Calingæ are nearest the sea, and higher up are the Mandei, and the Malli in whose ​country is Mount Mallus, the boundary of all that district being the Ganges.
(22.) This river, according to some, rises from uncertain sources, like the Nile, and inundates similarly the countries lying along its course; others say that it rises on the Skythian mountains, and has nineteen tributaries, of which, besides those already mentioned, the Condochates, Erannoboas, Cosoagus, and Sonus are navigable. Others again assert that it issues forth at once with loud roar from its fountain, and after tumbling down a steep and rocky channel is received immediately on reaching the level plains into a lake, whence it flows out with a gentle current, being at the narrowest eight miles, and on the average a hundred stadia, in breadth, and never of less depth than twenty paces (one hundred feet) in the final part of its course, which is through the country of the Gangarides. The royal city of the Calingæ is called Parthalis. Over their king 60,000 foot-soldiers, ​1000 horsemen, 700 elephants keep watch and ward in "procinct of war."
For among the more civilized Indian communities life is spent in a great variety of separate occupations. Some till the soil, some are soldiers, some traders; the noblest and richest take part in the direction of state affairs, administer justice, and sit in council with the kings. A fifth class devotes itself to the philosophy prevalent in the country, which almost assumes the form of a religion, and the members always put an end to their life by a voluntary death on a burning funeral pile. In addition to these classes there is one half-wild, which is constantly engaged in a task of immense labour, beyond the power of words to describe—that of hunting and ​taming elephants. They employ these animals in ploughing and for riding on, and regard them as forming the main part of their stock in cattle. They employ them in war and in fighting for their country. In choosing them for war, regard is had to their age, strength, and size.
There is a very large island in the Ganges which is inhabited by a single tribe called Modogalingæ. Beyond are situated the Modubæ, Molindæ, the Uberæ with a handsome town of the same name, the Galmodroësi, Preti, Calissæ, Sasuri, Passalæ, Colubæ, Orxulæ, Abali, Taluctæ. The king of ​ these keeps under arms 50,000 foot-soldiers, 4000 cavalry, and 400 elephants. Next come the Andaræ, a still more powerful race, which possesses numerous villages, and thirty towns defended by walls and towers, and which supplies its king with an army of 100,000 infantry, 2000 cavalry, and 1000 elephants. Gold is very abundant among the Dardæ, and silver among the Setæ.
​But the Prasii surpass in power and glory every other people, not only in this quarter, but one may say in all India, their capital being Palibothra, a very large and wealthy city, after which some call the people itself the Palibothri,—nay, even the whole tract along the Ganges. Their king has in his pay a standing army of 600,000 foot-soldiers, 30,0a0 cavalry, and 9000 elephants: whence may be formed some conjecture as to the vastness of his resources.
After these, but more inland, are the Monedes and Suari, in whose country is Mount Maleus, on which shadows fall towards the north in winter, and towards the south in summer, for six months alternately. Baeton asserts that the north pole in these parts is seen but once in the year, and only for fifteen days; while Megasthenês says that the same thing happens in many parts of India. The south pole is called by the Indians Dramasa. The river Jomanes flows through the Palibothri into the Ganges between the towns Methora and Carisobora. In the ​parts which lie southward from the Ganges the inhabitants, already swarthy, are deeply coloured by the sun, though not scorched black like the Ethiopians. The nearer they approach the Indus the more plainly does their complexion betray the influence of the sun.
The Indus skirts the frontiers of the Prasii, whose mountain tracts are said to be inhabited by the Pygmies. Artemidorus sets down the distance between the two rivers at 121 miles.
(23.) The Indus, called by the inhabitants Sindus, rising on that spur of Mount Caucasus which is called Paropamisus, from sources ​fronting the sunrise, receives also itself nineteen rivers, of which the most famous are the Hydaspes, which has four tributaries; the Cantabra, which has three; the Acesines and the Hypasis, which are both navigable; but nevertheless, having no very great supply of water, it is nowhere broader than fifty stadia, or deeper than fifteen paces. It forms an extremely large island, which is called Prasiane, and a smaller one, called Patale. Its stream, which is navigable, by the lowest estimates, for 1240 miles, turns westward as if following more or less closely the course of the sun, and then falls into the ocean. The measure of the coast line from the mouth of the Ganges to this river I shall set down as it is generally given, though none of the computations agree with each other. From the mouth of the Ganges to Cape Calingon and the town of Dandagula 625 miles; ​ to Tropina 1225; to the cape of Perimula, where there is the greatest emporium of trade in India, 750 miles; to the town in the island of Patala mentioned above, 620 miles.
The hill-tribes between the Indus and the Iomanes are the Cesi; the Cetriboni, who live in the woods; then the Megallæ, whose king is master of five hundred elephants and an army of horse and foot of unknown strength; the Chrysei, the Parasange, and the Asangæ, where tigers abound, noted for their ferocity. The force under arms consists of 30,000 foot, 300 elephants, and 800 horse. These are shut in by the Indus, and are surrounded by a circle of mountains and deserts ​over a space of 625 miles. Below the deserts are the Dari, the Suræ, then deserts again for 187 miles, these deserts encircling the fertile tracts just as the sea encircles islands. Below these deserts we find the Maltecoræ, Singhæ, Maroha, Rarunga, Moruni. These inhabit the hills which in an unbroken ​chain run parallel to the shores of the ocean. They are free and have no kings, and occupy the mountain heights, whereon they have built many cities. Next follow the Nareæ, enclosed by the loftiest of Indian mountains, Capitalia. ​The inhabitants on the other side of this mountain work extensive mines of gold and silver. Next are the Oraturæ, whose king has only ten elephants, though he has a very strong force of in- ​fantry. Next again are the Varetatæ, subject to a king, who keep no elephants, but trust entirely to their horse and foot. Then the Odombœræ; the Salabastræ; the Horatæ, who have a fine city, defended by marshes which serve as a ditch, wherein crocodiles are kept, which, having a great avidity for human flesh, prevent all access to the city except by a bridge. And another city ​of theirs is much admired—Automela, which, being seated on the coast at the confluence of five rivers, is a noble emporium of trade. The king is master of 1600 elephants, 150,000 foot, and 5000 cavalry. The poorer king of the Charmæ has but sixty elephants, and his force otherwise is insignificant. Next come the Pandæ, the only race in India ruled by women. They say that Hercules having but one daughter, who was on that account all the more beloved, endowed her with a noble kingdom. Her descendants rule over 300 cities, and command an army of 150,000 foot and 500 elephants. Next, with 300 cities, the Syrieni, Derangæ, Posingæ, Buzæ, Gogiarei, Umbræ, Nereæ, Brancosi, Nobundæ, Cocondæ, Nesei, Pedatriræ, Solobriasæ, Olostræ, who adjoin the island Patale, from the ​furthest shore of which to the Caspian gates the distance is said to be 1925 miles.
Then next to these towards the Indus come, in an order which is easy to follow, the Amatæ, Bolingæ, Gallitalutæ, Dimuri, Megari, Ordabæ, Mesæ; after these the Uri and Sileni. Immediately beyond come ​deserts extending for 250 miles. These being passed, we come to the Organagæ, Abaortæ, Sibaræ, Suertæ, and after these to deserts as extensive as the former. Then come the Sarophages, Sorgæ, Baraomatæ, and the Umbrittæ, who consist of twelve tribes, each possessing two cities, and the Aseni, who possess three cities. Their capital is Bucephala, built where Alexander's famous horse ​of that name was buried. Hillmen follow next, inhabiting the base of Caucasus, the Soleadæ, and the Sondræ; and if we cross to the other side of the Indus and follow its course downward we meet the Samarabriæ, Sambruceni, Bisambritæ, Osii, Antixeni, and the Taxillæ with a famous city. Then succeeds ​ a level tract of country known by the general name of Amanda, whereof the tribes are four in number—the Peucolaitæ, Arsagalitæ, Geretæ, Asoi.
Many writers, however, do not give the river Indus as the western boundary of India, but include within it four satrapies,—the Gedrosi, Arachotæ, Arii, Paropamisadæ, ​ making the river Cophes its furthest limit; though others prefer to consider all these as belonging to the Arii.
Many writers further include in India even the city Nysa and Mount Merus, sacred to Father Bacchus, whence the origin of the fable that he sprang from the thigh of Jupiter. They include also the Astacani, in whose country the vine ​ grows abundantly, and the laurel, and boxwood, and every kind of fruit-tree found in Greece. The remarkable and almost fabulous accounts which are current regarding the fertility of its soil, and the nature of its fruits and trees, its beasts and birds and other animals, will be set down each in its own place in other parts of this work. A little further on I shall speak of the satrapies, but the island of Taprobane requires my immediate attention.
But before we come to this island there are others, one being Patale, which, as we have indicated, lies at the mouth of the Indus, triangular in shape, and 220 miles in breadth. Beyond the mouth of the Indus are Chryse and Argyre, ​rich, as I believe, in metals. For I cannot readily believe, what is asserted by some writers, that their soil is impregnated with gold and silver. At a distance of twenty miles from these lies Crocala, from which, at a distance of twelve miles, is Bibaga, which abounds with oysters and other shell-fish. Next comes Toralliba, nine miles distant from the last-named island, beside many others unworthy of note.
* ↑ This list Pliny has borrowed for the most part from Megasthenês. Cf. Schwanbeck, pp. 16 seq., 57 seq.
* ↑ According to the MSS. 638 or 637 miles. The places mentioned in this famous itinerary all lay on the Royal Road, which ran from the Indus to Palibothra. They have been thus identified. The Hesidrus is now the Satlej, and the point of departure lay immediately below its junction with the Hyphasis (now the Biâs). The direct route thence (viâ Ludhiânâ, Sirhind, and Ambâlâ) conducted the traveller to the ferry of the Jomanes, now the Jamnâ, in the neighbourhood of the present Bureah, whence the road led to the Ganges at a point which, to judge from the distance given (112 miles), must have been near the site of the far-famed Hastinapura. The next stage to be reached was Rhodopha, the position of which, both its name and its distance from the Ganges (119 miles) combine to fix at Dabhai, a small town about 12 miles to the south of Anupshahr. Kalinipaxa, the next stage, Mannert and Lassen would identify with Kanauj (the Kanyâkubja of Sanskṛit); but M. de St.-Martin, objecting to this that Pliny was not likely to have designated so important and so celebrated a city by so obscure an appellation, finds a site for it in the neighbourhood on the banks of the Ikshumati, a river of Panchâla mentioned in the great Indian poems. This river, he remarks, must also have been called the Kalinadî, as the names of it still in current use, Kalinî and Kalindri, prove. Now, as 'paxa' transliterates the Sanskṛit 'paksha,' a side, Kalinipaxa, to judge from its name, must designate a town lying near the Kalinadî. The figures which represent the distances have given rise to much dispute, some of them being inconsistent either with others, or with the real distances. The text, accordingly, has generally been supposed to be corrupt, so far at least as the figures are concerned. M. de St.-Martin, however, accepting the figures nearly as they stand, shows them to be fairly correct. The first difficulty presents itself in the words, "Others give 825 miles for this distance." By 'this distance' cannot be meant the distance between the Ganges and Rhodopha, but between the Hesidrus and Rhodopha, which the addition of the figures shows to be 399 miles. The shorter estimate of others (325 miles) measures the length of a more direct route by way of Paṭiâlâ, Thanêśvara, Panipat, and Dehli. The next difficulty has probably been occasioned by a corruption of the text. It lies in the words "Ad Calinipaxa oppidum CLXVII. D. Alii CCLXV. mill." The numeral D has generally been taken to mean 500 paces, or half a Roman mile, making the translation run thus:—"To Kalinipaxa 167⁠1/2⁠ miles. Others give 265 miles.” But M. de St.-Martin prefers to think that the D has, by some mangling of the text, been detached from the beginning of the second number, with which it formed the number DLXV., and been appended to the first, being led to this conclusion on finding that the number 565 sums up almost to a nicety the distance from the Hesidrus to Kalinipaxa, as thus:— From the Hesidrus to the Jomanes 168 miles. From the Jomanes to the Ganges 112 miles.„ Prom the Ganges to Rhodopha 119 miles.„ From Rhodopha to Kalinipaxa 167 miles.„ Total 566 miles. Pliny’s carelessness in confounding total with partial distances has created the next difficulty, which lies in his stating that the distance from Kalinipaxa to the confluence of the Jomanes and the Ganges is 625 miles, while in reality it is only about 227. The figures may be corrupt, but it is much more probable that they represent the distance of some stage on the route remoter from the confluence of the rivers than Kalinipaxa. This must have been the passage of the Jomanes, for the distance— From the Jomanes to the Ganges is 112 miles. Thence to Rhodopha 119 miles.„ Thence to Kalinipaxa 167 miles.„ Thence to the confluence of the rivers 227 miles.„ Total 625 miles. This is exactly equal to 5000 stadia, the length of the Indian Mesopotamia or Doâb, the Panchâla of Sanskṝit geography, and the Antarvêda of lexicographers. The foregoing conclusions M. de St.-Martin has summed up in the table annexed:— Roman miles. Stadia. From the Hesidrus to the Jomanes. 168 1344 From the Jomanes to the Ganges 112 896 Thence to Rhodopha 119 952 From the Hesidrus to Rhodopha by a more direct route 325 2600 From Rhodopha to Kalinipaxa 167 1336 Total distance from the Hesidrus to Kalinipaxa 565 4520 From Kalinipaxa to the confluence of the Jomanes and Ganges (227) (1816) Total distance from the passage of the Jomanes to its confluence with the Ganges 625 5000 Pliny assigns 425 miles as the distance from the confluence of the rivers to Palibothra, but, as it is in reality only 248, the figures have probably been altered. He gives, lastly, 638 miles as the distance from Palibothra to the mouth of the Granges, which agrees closely with the estimate of Megasthenês, who makes it 5000 stadia—if that indeed was his estimate, and not 6000 stadia as Strabo in one passage alleges it was. The distance by land from Pâṭnâ to Tamluk (Tamralipta, the old port of the Ganges' mouth) is 445 English or 480 Roman miles. The distance by the river, which is sinuous, is of course much greater. See E'tude sur le Géographie Orecque et Latine de l'Inde, par P. V. de Saint-Martin, pp. 271-278.
* ↑ By Emodus was generally designated that part of the Himalayan range which extended along Nepâl and Bhûtan and onward toward the ocean. Other forms of the name are Emoda, Emodon, Hemodes. Lassen derives the word from the Sanskrit haimavata, in Pâtkṛit haimôta, 'snowy.' If this be so, Hemodus is the more correct form. Another derivation refers the word to 'Hêmâdri' (hema, 'gold,' and adri, 'mountain'), the 'golden mountains,'—so called either because they were thought to contain gold mines, or because of the aspect they presented when their snowy peaks reflected the golden effulgence of sunset. Imaus represents the Sanskṛit himavata, 'snowy.' The name was applied at first by the Greeks to the Hindû Kush and the Himâlayas, but was in course of time transferred to the Bolor range. This chain, which runs north and south, was regarded by the ancients as dividing Northern Asia into 'Skythia intra Imaum' and 'Skythia extra Imaum,' and it has formed for ages the boundary between China and Turkestân.
* ↑ These four tribes were located somewhere in Kaśmîr or its immediate neighbourhood. The Isari are unknown, but are probably the same as the Brysari previously mentioned by Pliny. The Cosyri are easily to be identified with the Khasîra mentioned in the Mahâbhârata as neighbours of the Daradas and Kaśmîras. Their name, it has been conjectured, survives in Khâchar, one of the three great divisions of the Kâṭhîs of Gujarât, who appear to have come originally from the Panjâb. The Izgi are mentioned in Ptolemy, under the name of the Sizyges, as a people of Sêrikê. This is, however, a mistake, as they inhabited the alpine region which extends above Kaśmîr towards the north and north-west. The Chisiotosagfi or Chirotosagi are perhaps identical with the Chiconæ (whom Pliny elsewhere mentions), in spite of the addition to their name of 'sagi,' which may have merely indicated them to be a branch of the Śâkas,—that is, the Skythians,—by whom India was overran before the time of its conquest by the Âryans. They are mentioned in Mann X. 44 together with the Pauṇḍrakas, Odras, Drâvidas, Kâmbojas, Yavanas, Paradas, Pahlavas, Chînas, Kîratas, Daradas, and Khaśas. If Chirotosagi be the right reading of their name, there can be little doubt of their identity with the Kîratas.—See P. V. de St.-Martin's work already quoted, pp. 195-197. But for the Khâchars, see Ind. Ant. vol. IV. p. 323.
* ↑ v. l. Bracmanæ. Pliny at once transports his readers from the mountains of Kaśmîr to the lower part of the valley of the Ganges. Here he places the Brachmanæ, whom he takes to be, not what they actually were, the leading caste of the population, but a powerful race composed of many tribes—the Maccooalingæ being of the number. This tribe, as well as the Gangaridæ-Kalingæ, and the Modogalingæ afterwards mentioned, are subdivisions of the Kalingæ, a widely diffused race, which spread at one time from the delta of the Ganges all along the eastern coast of the peninsula, though afterwards they did not extend southward beyond Orissa. In the Mahâbhârata they are mentioned as occupying, along with the Vangas (from whom Bengal is named) and three other leading tribes, the region which lies between Magadha and the sea. The Maccocalingæ, then, are the Magha of the Kalingæ. "Magha," says M. de St.-Martin, "is the name of one of the non-Aryan tribes of greatest importance and widest division in the lower Gangetic region, where it is broken up into several special groups extending from Arakan and Western Asam, where it is found under the name of Mogh (Anglicè Mugs), as far as to the Mâghars of the central valleys of Nepâl, to the Maqhayas, Magahis, or Maghyas of Southern Bahâr (the ancient Magadha), to the ancient Magra of Bengal, and to the Magora of Orissa. These last, by their position, may properly be taken to represent our Maccocalingæ." "The Modogalingæ," continues the same author, "find equally their representatives in the ancient Mada, a colony which the Book of Manu mentions in his enumeration of the impure tribes of Âryâvarta, and which he names by the side of the Ândhra, another people of the lower Ganges. The Monghyr inscription, winch belongs to the earlier part of the 8th century of oar era, also names the Meda, as a low tribe of this region (As. Res. vol. I. p. 126, Calcutta, 1788), and, what is remarkable, their name is found joined to that of the Andhra (Andbaraka), precisely as in the text of Manu. Pliny assigns for their habitation a large island of the Ganges; and the word Galinga (for Kalinga), to which their name is attached, necessarily places this island towards the sea-board—perhaps in the Delta." The Grangaridæ or Gangarides occupied the region corresponding roughly with that now called Lower Bengal, and consisted of various indigenous tribes, which in the course of time became more or less Âryanized. As no word is found in Sanskrit to which their name corresponds, it has been supposed of Greek invention (Lassen, Ind. Alt. vol. II. p. 201), but erroneously, for it must have been current at the period of the Makedonian invasion: since Alexander, in reply to inquiries regarding the south country, was informed that the region of the Ganges was inhabited by two principal nations, the Prasii and the Gangarîdæ. M. de St.-Martin thinks that their name has been preserved almost identically in that of the Gonghrîs of South Bahâr, whose traditions refer their origin to Tirhût; and he would identify their royal city Parthalis (or Portalis) with Varddhana (contraction of Varddhamâna), now Bardwân. Others, however, place it, as has been elsewhere stated, on the Mahânadî. In Ptolemy their capital is Gangê, which must have been situated near where Calcutta now stands. The Gangarides are mentioned by Virgil, Georg. III. 27:— In foribus pugnam ex auro solidoque elephanto Gangaridum faciam, victorisque arma Quirini. "High o'er the gate in elephant and gold The crowd shall Cæsar's Indian war behold." (Dryden's translation.)
* ↑ v. l. Pumas. The Prinas is probably the Támasâ or Tonsa, which in the Purâṇas is called the Parṇâśâ. The Cainas, notwithstanding the objections of Schwanbeck, must be identified with the Cane, which is a tributary of the Jamnâ.
* ↑ For the identification of these and other affluents of the Ganges see Notes on Arrian, c. iv., Ind. Ant. vol. V. p. 331.
* ↑ For an account of the different theories regarding the source of the Granges see Smith's Dict. of Class. Geog.
* ↑ Condochatem, Erannoboam.—v. 1. Canncham (Vamam), Erranoboan.
* ↑ regia.—v. 1. regio. The common reading, however—"Grangaridum Calingarum. Regia," &c., makes the Gangarides a branch of the Kalingæ. This is probably the correct reading, for, as General Cunningham states (Anc. Geog. of Ind. pp. 518-519), certain inscriptions speak of 'Tri-Ka-linga,' or 'the Three Kalingas.' "The name of Tri-Ka- linga," he adds, "is probably old, as Pliny mentions the Macco-Calingæ and the Gangarides-Calingæ as separate peoples from the Calingæ, while the Mahâbhârata names the Kalingas three separate times, and each time in con- junction with different peoples." (H. H. Wilson in Vishṇu Purâṇa, 1st ed. pp.185, 187 note, and 188.) As Tri-Kalinga thus corresponds with the great province of Telingâna, it seems probable that the name of Telingâna may be only a slightly contracted form of Tri-Kalingâna, or 'the Three Kalingas.'
* ↑ LX. mill.—v. 1. LXX. mill.
* ↑ Lucian, in his satirical piece on the death of Peregrînos (cap. 25), refers to this practice:—"But what is the motive which prompts this man (Peregrînos) to fling himself into the flames? God knows it is simply that he may show off how he can endure pain as do the Brachmans, to whom it pleased Theagenês to liken him, just as if India had not her own crop of fools and vain-glorious persons. But let him by all means imitate the Brachmans, for, as Onesikritos informs us, who was the pilot of Alexander's fleet and saw Kalanos burned, they do not immolate themselves by leaping into the flames, but when the pyre is made they stand close beside it perfectly motionless, and suffer themselves to be gently broiled; then decorously ascending the pile they are burned to death, and never swerve, even ever so little, from their recumbent position."
* ↑ vv. 11. modo Galingam, Modogalicam.
* ↑ Calissæ.—v. 1. Aclissæ.
* ↑ These tribes were chiefly located in the regions between the left bank of the Ganges and the Himalayas. Of the Galmodroësi, Preti, Calissæ, Sasuri, and Orxulæ nothing is known, nor can their names be identified with any to be found in Sanskṛit literature. The Modubæ represent beyond doubt the Moutiba, a people mentioned in the Aitarêya Brâhmaṇa along with other non-Âryan tribes which occupied the country north of the Ganges at the time when the Brâhmans established their first settlements in the country. The Molindæ are mentioned as the Malada in the Purâṇic lists, but no further trace of them is met with. The Uberæ must be referred to the Bhars, a numerous race spread over the central districts of the region spoken of, and extending as far as to Assam. The name is pronounced differently in different districts, and variously written, as Bors or Bhors, Bhowris, Barriias and Bhârhîyas, Bareyas, Baoris, Bharais, &c. The race, though formerly powerful, is now one of the lowest classes of the population. The Passalæ are identified as the inhabitants of Panchâla, which, as already stated, was the old name of the Doab. The Coluba respond to the Kâulûta or Kolûta—mentioned in the 4th book of the Râmâyaṇa, in the enumeration of the races of the west, also in the Varâha Saṅhitâ in the list of the people of the north-west, and in the Indian drama called the Mudra Râkshasa, of which the hero is the well-known Chandragupta. They were set- tled not far from the Upper Jamnâ. About the middle of the 7th century they were visited by the famous Chinese traveller Hiwen-Thsâng, who writes their name as Kiu-lu-to. Yule, however, places the Passalæ in the south-west of Tirhut, and the Kolubæ on the Kondochates (Gandakî) in the north-east of Gorakhpur and north-west of Sâran. The Abali answer perhaps to the Gvallas or Halvaïs of South Bahar and of the hills which covered the southern parts of the ancient Magadha. The Talucta are the people of the kingdom of Tâmralipta mentioned in the Mahâbhârata. In the writings of the Buddhists of Ceylon the name appears as Tamalitti, corresponding to the Tamluk of the present day. Between these two forms of the name that given by Pliny is evidently the connecting link. Tamluk lies to the south-west of Calcutta, from which it is distant in a direct line about 35 miles. It was in old times the main emporium of the trade carried on between Gangetic India and Ceylon.
* ↑ IV. M.—v. 1. III. M.
* ↑ The Andaræ are readily identified with the Andhra of Sanskṛit—a great and powerful nation settled originally in the Dekhaṇ between the middle part of the courses of the Godâvarî and the Kṛishṇâ rivers, but which, before the time of Megasthenês, had spread their sway towards the north as far as the upper course of the Narmadâ (Nerbudda), and, as has been already indicated, the lower districts of the Gangetic basin. Vide Ind. Ant. vol. V. p. 176. For a notice of Andhra (the modern Telingâna) see General Cunningham's Anc. Geog. of Ind. pp. 527-530.
* ↑ Pliny here reverts to where he started from in his enumeration of the tribes. The Setæ are the Sâta or Sâtaka of Sanskṛit geography, which locates them in the neighbourhood of the Daradas. [According to Yule, however, they are the Sanskṛit Sekas, and he places them on the Banâs about Jhajpur, south-east from Ajmir.—Ed. Ind. Ant.]
* ↑ The Monedes or Mandei are placed by Yule about Gangpur, on the upper waters of the Brâhmaṇî, S.W. of Chhutia Nâgpur. Lassen places them S. of the Mahânadi about Sonpur, where Yule has the Suari or Sabaræ, the Śavara of Sanskṛit authors, which Lassen places between Sonpur and Singhbhûm. See Ind. Ant vol. VI. note §, p. 127.—Ed. Ind. Ant.
* ↑ This, of course, can only occur at the equator, from which the southern extremity of India is about 500 miles distant.
* ↑ Palibothri must denote here the subjects of the realm of which Palibothra was the capital, and Jiot merely the inhabitants of that city, as Bennel and others supposed, and so fixed its site at the confluence of the Ganges and Jamunâ. Methora is easily identified with Mathurâ. Carisobora is read otherwise as Chrysobon, Cyrisoborca, Cleisoboras. "This city," says General Cunningham, "has not yet been identified, but I feel satisfied that it must be Vrindâvana, 16 miles to the north of Mathurâ. Vrindâvana means 'the grove of the basil-trees,' which is famed all over India as the scene of Kṛishṇa's sports with the milkmaids. But the earlier name of the place was Kâlikavârrta or 'Kalika's whirlpool.' . . . Now the Latin name of Clisobora is also written Carisobora and Cyrisoborka in different MSS., from which I infer that the original spelling was Kalisoborka, or, by a slight change of two letters, Kalikoborta or Kâlikâbarta." Anc. Geog. of Ind. p. 375. [Carisobora—vv. ll. Chrysoban, Cyrisoborca. This is the Kleisobora of Arrian (ante, vol. V. p. 89), which Yule places at Batesar, and Lassen at Agra, which he makes the Sanskṛit Kṛishṇapura. Wilkins (As. Res. vol. V. p. 270) says Clisobora is now called "Mugu-Nagar by the Musulmans, and Kalisapura by the Hindus." Vide Ind. Ant. vol. VI. p. 249, note ‡.—Ed. Ind. Ant.]
* ↑ Vide Ind. Ant. vol. VI. p. 183, note †.—Ed. Ind. Ant.
* ↑ A Greek geographer of Ephesus, whose date is about 100 B.C. His valuable work on geography, called a Periplûs, was much quoted by the ancient writers, but with the exception of some fragments is now lost.
* ↑ The real sources of the Indus were unknown to the Greeks. The principal stream rises to the north of the Kailâsa mountain (which figures in Hindu mythology as the mansion of the gods and Siva's paradise) in lat. 32°, long. 81° 30', at an elevation of about 20,000 feet.
* ↑ The Chandrabhâga or Akesinês, now the Chenâb.
* ↑ For remarks on the tributaries of the Indus see Notes on Arrian, chap. iv.,—Ind. Ant. vol. V. pp. 331-333.
* ↑ See Ind. Ant. vol. V. p. 330. Yule identifies the former of these with the area enclosed by the Nara from above Rohri to Haidarâbâd, and the delta of the Indus.–Ed. Ind. Ant.
* ↑ v.l. Dandaguda. Cape Kalingon is identified by Yule as Point Godavari.–Ed. Ind. Ant.
* ↑ "Both the distance and the name point to the great port town of Coringa, as the promontory of Coringon, which is situated on a projecting point of land at the mouth of the Godâvari river. The town of Dandaguda or Dandagula I take to be the Dântapura of the Buddhist chronicles, which as the capital of Kalinga may with much probability be identified with Râja Mahendri, which is only 30 miles to the north-east of Coringa. From the great similarity of the Greek Γ and Π, I think it not improbable that the Greek name may have been Dandapula, which is almost the same as Dântapura. But in this case the Dânta or 'tooth-relic' of Buddha must have been enshrined in Kalinga as early as the time of Pliny, which is confirmed by the statement of the Buddhist chronicles that the " left canine tooth' of Buddha was brought to Kalinga immediately after his death, where it was enshrined by the reigning sovereign, Brahmadatta."—Cunningham, Geog. p. 518.
* ↑ [Tropina answers to Tripontari or Tirupanatara, opposite Kochin.—Ed. Ind. Ant.] The distance given is measured from the mouth of the Ganges, and not from Cape Calingon.
* ↑ This cape is a projecting point of the island of Perimula or Perimuda, now called the island of Salsette, near Bombay.
* ↑ v.l. Asmagi. The Asange, as placed doubtfully by Lassen about Jodhpur.—Ed. Ind. Ant.
* ↑ DCXXV.—v.l. DCXXXV. Pliny, having given a general account of the basins of the Indus and the Ganges, proceeds to enumerate here the tribes which peopled the north of India. The names are obscure, but Lassen has identified one or two of them, and de Saint-Martin a considerable number more. The tribes first mentioned in the list occupied the country extending from the Jamunâ to the western coast about the mouth of the Narmadâ. The Cesi probably answer to the Khosas or Khasyas, a great tribe which from time immemorial has led a wandering life between Gujarât, the lower Indus, and the Jamunâ. The name of the Cetriboni would seem to be a transcript of Kêtrivani (for Kshatrivanêya). They may therefore have been a branch of the Kshatri (Khâtri), one of the impure tribes of the list of Manu (1. x. 12). The Megallæ must be identified with the Mâvelas of Sanskṛit books, a great tribe described as settled to the west of the Jamunâ. The Chrysei probably correspond to the Karoncha of the Purâṇic lists (Vishnu Pur. pp. 177, 186, note 13, and 351, &c.). The locality occupied by these and the two tribes mentioned after them must have lain to the north of the Raṇ, between the lower Indus and the chain of the Arâvali mountains.
* ↑ CLXXXVII.—v.l. CLXXXVIII.
* ↑ The Dhârs inhabit still the banks of the lower Ghara and the parts contiguous to the valley of the Indus. Hiwen Thsâng mentions, however, a land of Dara at the lower end of the gulf of Kachh, in a position which quite accords with that which Pliny assigns to them. The Suræ, Sansk. Śûra, have their name preserved in "Saur," which designates a tribe settled along the Lower Indus—the modern representatives of the Saurabhîra of the Harivaṁśa. They are placed with doubt by Lassen on the Lonî about Sindri, but Yule places the Bolingæ—Sanskṛit, Bhaulingas—there.—Ed. Ind. Ant.
* ↑ Moruni, &c. v.l. Moruntes, Masuæ Pagungæ, Lalii.
* ↑ § These tribes must have been located in Kachh, a mountainous tongue of land between the gulf of that name and the Raṇ, where, and where only, in this region of India, a range of mountains is to be found running along the coast. The name of the Maltecoræ has attracted particular attention because of its resemblance to the name of the Martikhora (i. e. man-eater), a fabulous animal mentioned by Ktêsias (Ctesiæ Indica, VII.) as found in India and subsisting upon human flesh. The Maltecoræ were consequently supposed to have been a race of cannibals. The identification is, however, regected by M. de St.-Martin. The Singhæ are represented at the present day by the Sânghis of Omarkoṭ (called the Song by MacMurdo), descendants of an ancient Râjput tribe called the Singhârs. The Marohæ are probably the Maruhas of the list of the Varâha Saṅhitâ, which was later than Pliny's time by four and a half centuries. In the interval they were displaced, but the displacement of tribes was nothing unusual in those days. So the Rarungæ may perhaps be the ancestors of the Ronghi or Rhanga now found on the banks of the Satlej and in the neighbourhood of Dihli.
* ↑ II Capitalia is beyond doubt the sacred Arbuda, or Mount Ȧbû which, attaining an elevation of 6500 feet, rises far above any other summit of the Arâvali range. The name of the Nareæ recalls that of the Naïr, which the Râjput chroniclers apply to the northern belt of the desert (Tod, Râjasthân, II. 211); so St.-Martin; but according to General Cunningham they must be the people of Sarui, or 'the country of reeds, as nar and sar are synonymous terms for 'a reed,' and the country of Sarui is still famous for its reed-arrows. The same author uses the statement that extensive gold and silver mines were worked on the other side of Mount Capitalia in support of his theory that this part of India was the Ophir of Scripture, from which the Tyrian navy in the days of Solomon carried away gold, a great plenty of almug-trees (red sandalwood), and precious stones (I Kings xii.). His argument runs thus:—"The last name in Pliny's list is Varetatæ, which I would change to Vataretæ by the transposition of two letters. This spelling is countenanced by the termination of the various read- ing of Svarataratæ, which, is found in some editions. It is quite possible, however, that the Svarataratæ may be intended for the Surâshṭras. The famous Yarâha Mihira mentions the Surâshṭras and Bâdaras together, amongst the people of the south-west of India (Dr. Kern's Bṛihat Saṅhitâ, XIV. 19.) These Bâdaras must therefore be the people of Badari, or Vaḍari. I understand the name of Vaḍari to denote a district abounding in the Badari, or Ber-tree (Jijube), which is very common in Southern Râjputânâ. For the same reason I should look to this neighbourhood for the ancient Sauvîra, which I take to be the true form of the famous Sophir, or Ophir, as Sauvîra is only another name of the Vaḍari or Ber-tree, as well as of its juicy fruit. Now, Sofir is the Coptic name of India at the present day; but the name must have belonged originally to that part of the Indian coast which was frequented by the merchants of the West. There can be little doubt, I think, that this was in the Gulf of Khambay, which from time immemorial has been the chief seat of Indian trade with the West. During the whole period of Greek history this trade was almost monopolized by the famous city of Barygaza, or Bhâroch, at the mouth of the Narmadâ river. About the fourth century some portion of it was diverted to the new capital of Balabhi, in the peninsula of Gujarât; in the Middle Ages it was shared with Khambay at the head of the gulf, and in modem times with Surat, at the mouth of the Tapti. If the name of Sauvîra was derived, as I suppose, from the prevalence of the Ber-tree, it is probable that it was only another appellation for the province of Badari, or Edar, at the head of the Gulf of Khambay. This, indeed, is the very position in which we should expect to find it, according to the ancient inscription of Rudra Dâma, which mentions Sindhu-Sauvîra immediately after Surâshṭra and Bhârukachha, and just before Kukura Aparanta, and Nishada (Jour. Bo. Br. R. As. Soc. VII. 120). According to this arrangement Sauvîra must have been to the north of Surâshtra and Bhâroch, and to the south of Nishada, or just where I have placed it, in the neighbourhood of Mount Ȧbû. Much the same locality is assigned to Sauvîra in the Vishṇu Purâṇa."—Anc. Geog. of Ind. pp. 496-497 : see also pp. 660-562 of this same work, where the subject is further discussed.
* ↑ v. 1. Oratæ. The Oraturæ find their representatives in the Râṭhors, who played a great part in the history of India before the Musulmân conquest, and who, though settled in the Gangetio provinces, regard Ajmir, at the eastern point of the Arâvalî, as their ancestral seat.
* ↑ v. 1. Suarataratæ. The Varetatæ cannot with certainty be identified.
* ↑ The Odombœræ, with hardly a change in the form of their name, are mentioned in Sanskrit literature, for Pânini (IV. 1, 173, quoted by Lassen, Ind. Alt. 1st ed. I. p. 614) speaks of the territory of Udumbari as that which was occupied by a tribe famous in the old legend, the Salva, who perhaps correspond to the Salabastræ of Pliny, the addition which he has made to their name being explained by the Sanskrit word vastya, which means an abode or habitation. The word udumbara means the glomerous fig-tree. The district so named lay in Kachh. [The Salabastræ are located by Lassen between the mouth of the Sarasvatî and Jodhpur, and the Horatæ at the head of the gulf of Khambhât; Automela he places at Khambhât. See Ind. Alterth. 2nd ed. I. 760. Yule has the Sandrabatis about Chandrâvati, in northern Gujarât, but these are placed by Lassen on the Banâs about Tonk.—Ed. Ind. Ant.]
* ↑ Horatæ is an incorrect transcription of Soraṭh, the vulgar form of the Sanskṛit Saurâshṭra. The Horatæ were therefore the inhabitants of the region called in the Periplûs, and in Ptolemy, Surastrênê—that is, Gujarât. Orrhoth (Ὁῤῥοθα) is used by Kosmas as the name of a city in the west of India, which has been conjectured to be Surat, but Yule thinks it rather some place on the Purbandar coast. The capital, Automela, cannot be identified, but de St.-Martin conjectures it may have been the once famous Yalabhî, which was situated m the peninsular part of Gujarât at about 24 miles' distance from the Gulf of Khambay.
* ↑ v. 1. Automula. See preceding note.
* ↑ The Charmæ have been identified with the inhabitants of Charmamandala, a district of the west mentioned in the Mahâbhârata and also in the Vishṇu Purdâṇa, under the form Charmakhanda. They are now represented by the Charmârs or Chamârs of Bundelkhand and the parts adjacent to the basin of the Ganges. The Pandæ, who were their next neighbours, most have occupied a considerable portion of the basin of the river Chambal, called in Sanskrit geography the Charmanvatî. They were a branch of the famous race of Pâṇḍu, which made for itself kingdoms in several different parts of India.
* ↑ The names in this list lead us to the desert lying between the Indus and the Arâvalî range. Most of the tribes enumerated are mentioned in the lists of the clans given in the Râjput chronicles, and have been identified by M. de St.-Martin as follows:—The Syrieni are the Suriyanis, who under that name have at all times occupied the country near the Indus in the neighbourhood of Bakkar. Darangæ is the Latin transcription of the name of the great race of the Jhâḍejâs, a branch of the Râjputs which at the present day possesses Kachh. The Buzæ represent the Buddas, an ancient branch of the same Jhâḍejâs (Tod, Annals and Antiq, of the Râj. vol. I. p. 86). The Gogiarei (other readings Gogarasi, Gogaræ) are the Kokaris, who are now settled on the banks of the Ghara or Lower Satlej. The Umbræ are represented by the Umranîs, and the Nerei perhaps by the Nharonis, who, though belonging to Baluchistân, had their ancestral seats in the regions to the east of the Indus. The Nubêteh, who figure in the old local traditions of Sindh, perhaps corresiwnd to the Nobundæ, while the Cocondæ certainly are the Kokonadas mentioned in the Mahâbhârata among the people of the north-west. (See Lassen, Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenl. t. II. 1839, p. 45.) Buchanan mentions a tribe called Kakand as belonging to Gorakhpur.
* ↑ There were two defiles, which went by the name of 'the Kaspian Gates.' One was in Albania, and was formed by the jutting out of a spur of the Kaukasos into the Kaspian Sea. The other, to which Pliny here refers, was a narrow pass leading from North-Western Asia into the north-east provinces of Persia. According to Arrian (Anab. III. 20) the Kaspian Gates lay a few days' journey distant from the Median town of Rhagai, now represented by the ruins called Rha, found a mile or two to the south of Teherân. This pass was one of the most important places in ancient geography, and from it many of the meridians were measured. Strabo, who frequently mentions it, states that its distance from the extreme promontories of India (Cape Comorin, &c.) was 14,000 stadia.
* ↑ v. 1. Ardabæ.
* ↑ In the grammatical apophthegms of Pâṇini, Bhaulingi is mentioned as a territory occupied by a branch of the great tribe of the Śâlvas (Lassen, Ind. Alt. I. p. 613, note, or 2nd ed. p. 760 n.), and from this indication M. de St.-Martin haa been led to place the Bolingæ at the western declivity of the Arâvalî mountains, where Ptolemy also places his Bolingæ. The Madrabhujingha of the Panjâh (see Vishṇu Pur. p. 187) were probably a branch of this tribe. The Gallitalutæ are identified by the same author with the Gahalata or Grehlots; the Dimuri with the Dumras, who, though belonging to the Gangetic valley, originally came from that of the Indus; the Megari with the Mokars of the Râput chronicles, whose name is perhaps preserved in that of the Mehars of the lower part of Sindh, and also in that of the Meghâris of Eastern Baluchistân; the Mesæ with the Mazaris, a considerable tribe between Shikârpûr and Mitankôt on the western bank of the Indus; and the Uri with the Hauras of the same locality—the Hurairas who figure in the Râjput lists of thirty-six royal tribes. The Sulalas of the same tribes perhaps represent the Sileni, whom Pliny mentions along with the Uri.
* ↑ vv. 11. Paragomatæ, Umbitræ.—Baraomatæ Gumbritæque.
* ↑ The tribes here enumerated must have occupied a tract of country lying above the confluence of the Indus with the stream of the combined rivers of the Panjâb. They are obscure, and their names cannot with any certainty be identified if we except that of the Sibaræ, who are undoubtedly the Sauvîras of the Mahâbhârata, and who, as their name is almost invariably combined with that of the Indus, must have dwelt not far from its banks. The Afghân tribe of the Afridîs may perhaps represent the Abaortæ, and the Sarabhân or Sarvanîs, of the same stock, the Sarophages. The Umbrittæ and the Aseni take us to the east of the river. The former are perhaps identical with the Ambastæ of the historians of Alexander, and the Ambasthas of Sanskṛit writings, who dwelt in the neighbourhood of the lower Akesinês.
* ↑ Alexander, after ihe great battle on the banks of the Hydaspês in which he defeated Pôros, founded two cities—Bukephala or Bukephalia, so named in honour of his celebrated charger, and Nikaia, so named in honour of his victory. Nikaia, it is known for certain, was built on the field of battle, and its position was therefore on the left side of the Hydaspês—probably about where Mong now stands. The site of Bukephala it is not so easy to determine. According to Plutarch and Pliny it was near the Hydaspês, in the place where Bukephalos was buried, and if that be so it must have been on the same side of the river as the sister city; whereas Strabo and all the other ancient authorities place it on the opposite side. Strabo again places it at the point where Alexander crossed the river, whereas Arrian states that it was built on the site of his camp. General Cunningham fixes this at Jalâlpur rather than at Jhelam, 30 miles higher up the river, the site which is favoured by Burnes and General Court and General Abbott. Jalâlpur is about ten miles distant from Dilâwar, where, according to Cunningham, the crossing of the river was most probably effected.
* ↑ v. l. Bisabritæ.
* ↑ The Soleadæ and the Sondræ cannot be identified, and of the tribes which were seated to the east of the Indus only the Taxillæ are known. Their capital was the famous Taxila, which was visited by Alexander the Great. "The position of this city," says Cunningham, "has hitherto remained unknown, partly owing to the erroneous distance recorded by Pliny, and partly to the want of information regarding the vast ruins which still exist in the vicinity of Shâh-dheri. All the copies of Pliny agree in stating that Taxila was only 60 Boman, or 55 English, miles from Peucolaïtis or Hashṭnagar, which would fix its site somewhere on the Haro river to the west of Hasan Abdâl, or just two days' march from the Indus. But the itineraries of the Chinese pilgrims agree in placing it at three days' journey to the east of the Indus, or in the immediate neighbourhood of Kâla-ka-Sarâi. He therefore fixes its site near Shâh-dheri (which is a mile to the north-east of that Sarâi), in the extensive ruins of a fortified city abounding with stûpas, monasteries, and temples. From this place to Hashṭnagar the distance is 74 miles English, or 19 in excess of Pliny's estimate. Taxila represents the Sanskṛit Takshaśila, of which the Pali form is Takhasila, whence the Greek form was taken. The word means either 'cut rock' or 'severed head.'—Anc. Geog. of Ind. pp. 104-121.
* ↑ As the name Amanda is entirely unknown, M. de St.-Martin proposes without hesitation the correction Gandhâra, on the ground that the territory assigned to the Amanda corresponds exactly to Gandhâra, of which the territory occupied by the Peucolita (Peukelaôtis), as we know from other writers, formed a part. The Geretæ are beyond doubt no others than the Gouræi of Arrian; and the Asoi may perhaps be identical with the Aspasii, or, as Strabo gives the name, Hippasii or Pasii. The Arsagalite are only mentioned by Pliny. Two tribes settled in the same locality are perhaps indicated by the name—the Arsa, mentioned by Ptolemy, answering to the Sanskṛit Uraśa; and the Ghilit or Ghilghit, the Gahalata of Sanskṛit, formerly mentioned.
* ↑ v.l. Peucolitæ.
* ↑ Gedrôsia comprehended probably nearly the same district which is now known by the name of Mekrân. Alexander marched through it on returning from his Indian expedition. Arachôsia extended from the chain of mountains now called the Suleimân as far southward as Gedrôsia. Its capital, Arachotos, was situated somewhere in the direction of Kandahâr, the name of which, it has been thought, preserves that of Gandhâra. According to Colonel Rawlinson the name of Arachôsia is derived from Harakhwati (Sanskṛit Sarasvati), and is preserved in the Arabic Rakhaj. It is, as has already been noticed, the Harauvatas of the Bisutun inscription. Âria denoted the country lying between Meshed and Herât; Âriâna, of which it formed a part, and of which it is sometimes used as the equivalent, was a wider district, which comprehended nearly the whole of ancient Persia. In the Persian part of the Bisutun inscription Âria appears as Hariva, in the Babylonian part as Arevan. Regarding Paropamisos and the Cophes see Ind. Ant. vol. V. pp. 329 and 330.
* ↑ Other readings of the name are Aspagani and Aspagonæ. M. de St.-Martin, whose work has so often been referred to, says:—"We have seen already that in an extract from old Hekataios preserved in Stephen of Byzantium the city of Kaspapyros is called a Gandaric city, and that in Herodotos the same place is attributed to the Paktyi, and we have added that in our opinion there is only an apparent contradiction, because the district of Paktyikê and Gandara may very well be but one and the same country. It is not difficult, in fact, to recognize in the designation mentioned by Herodotos the indigenous name of the Afghân people, Pakhtu (in the plural Pakhtûn), the name which the greater part of the tribes use among themselves, and the only one they apply to their national dialect. We have here, then, as Lassen has noticed, historical proof of the presence of the Afghâns in their actual fatherland five centuries at least before the Christian era. Now, as the seat of the Afghân or Pakht nationality is chiefly in the basin of the Kophês, to the west of the Indus, which forms its eastern boundary, this further confirms what we have already seen, that it is to the west of the great river we must seek for the site of the city of Kaspapyros or Kaśyapapura, and consequently of the Gandariê of Hekataios. The employment of two different names to designate the very same country is easily explained by this double fact, that one of the names was the Indian designation of the land, whilst the other was the indigenous name applied to it by its inhabitants. There was yet another name, of Sanskṛit origin, used as a territorial appellation of Gandhâra—that of Aśvaka. This word, derived from aśva, a horse, signified merely the cavaliers; it was less an ethnic, in the rigorous acceptation of the word, than a general appellation applied by the Indians of the Panjâb to the tribes of the region of the Kophês, renowned from antiquity for the excellence of its horses. In the popular dialects the Sanskṛit word took the usual form Assaka, which reappears scarcely modified in Assakani (Ἁσσακανοί) or Assakêni (Ἀσσακηνοί) in the Greek historians of the expedition of Alexander and subsequent writers. It is impossible not to recognize here the name of Avghân or Afghâns... which is very evidently nothing else than a contracted form of Assakán. Neither the Gandariê of Hekataios nor the Paktyi of Herodotos are known to them [Arrian and other Greek and Latin writers of the history of Alexander], but as it is the same territory [as that of the Assakani], and as in actual usage the names Afghâns and Pakhtûn are still synonymous, their identity is not a matter of doubt."—Etude sur le Géographie Grecque et Latine de l'Inde, pp. 376-8. The name of the Gandhâra, it may here be added, remounts to the highest antiquity; it is mentioned in one of the hymns of the Ṛig-Veda, as old perhaps as the 15th century B.C.—Id. p. 864.
* ↑ Vide ante, p. 62, n. *.
* ↑ CCXX.—v.l. CXXX.
* ↑ Burma and Arakan respectively, according to Yule.—Ed. Ind. Ant.
* ↑ In the bay of Karâchi, identical with the Kolaka of Ptolemy. The district in which Karachi is situated is called Karkalla to this day.
* ↑ This is called Bibakta by Arrian, Indika, cap. xxi.
* ↑ v.l. Coralliba.