OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Solway Firth

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​SOLWAY FIRTH, an estuarine inlet of the Irish Sea, between England and Scotland. If its mouth be taken as between St Bee’s Head on the English and Burrow Head on the Scottish coast, its length is 50 m. The breadth at the mouth is 32 m.; near the head, where the Solway viaduct of the Caledonian railway crosses the firth, it is nearly 11/2 m. The general direction is north-easterly from the mouth. The Scottish counties bordering the firth are Wigtownshire, Kirkcudbright and Dumfriesshire; the English coast belongs to Cumberland. On the English side the low Solway Plain borders the firth, except for a short distance above St Bees Head. The Scottish shore, however, is not continuously flat, and such elevations as Criffell (1866 ft.), Bengairn (1250) and Cairnharrow (1497), above Wigtown Bay, rise close to it. The shore line is broken on both sides by the estuaries of several rivers. Thus in Scotland the Cree and other streams enter Wigtown Bay; the Dee, Kirkcudbright Bay; Auchencairn Bay and Rough Firth receive numerous small streams, and the Nith discharges through a long estuary. The Annan has its mouth near the town of that name; and the Esk and Eden at the head of the firth, in Cumberland. On this shore Morecambe Bay receives the Wampool and Waver from the plain, the Ellen has its mouth at Maryport, and the Derwent from the Lake District at Workington. The waters of the firth are shallow, and a tidal bore occurs periodically. The fisheries are extensive, and though there are no ports of the first magnitude on the firth, a considerable shipping trade is carried on at Whitehaven, Harrington, Workington, Maryport and Silloth in Cumberland, and at Annan, Kirkcudbright, Creetown and Wigtown on the Scottish side.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Soma

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​SOMA (Sanskrit for “pressed juice,” from the root su, to press), in Hindu mythology the god who is a personification of the soma plant (Asclepias acida), from which an intoxicating milky juice is squeezed. Soma is the Indian Bacchus, and one of the most important of the Vedic gods. All the 114 hymns of the ninth book of the Rig Veda Literature are in his praise. He is celebrated as a dual divinity with Indra, Agni, Pushan or Rudra, in other books. The preparation of the soma juice was a very sacred ceremony, and the worship of the god is very old, soma being identifiable with the Avestan Avesta homa, prepared and celebrated in the Indo-Iranian period. The plant's true home is heaven, and soma is drunk by gods as well as men, and it is under its influence that Indra is related to have created the universe and fixed the earth and sky in their place. In post-Vedic literature soma is a regular name for the moon, which is regarded as being drunk up by the gods and so waning, till it is filled up again by the sun. In both the Rig Veda and Zend Avesta soma is the king of plants; in both it is a medicine which gives health, long life and removes death. In both the celestial is distinguished from the terrestrial soma, and the liquor from the god. The first soma is supposed to have been stolen from its guardian demon by an eagle, this soma-bringing eagle of Indra being comparable with the nectar-bringing eagle of Zeus, and with the eagle which, as a metamorphosis of Odin, carried off the mead.
See A. A. Macdonell, Vedic Mythology (Strassburg, 1897).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Trujillo (Spain)

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​TRUJILLO, a town of Spain, in the province of Caceres; on a hill 25 m. east of Caceres, and on the river Tozo, a sub tributary of the Tagus. Pop. (1900), 12,512. The surrounding country is rugged, but produces wheat, wine, oils and fruit, besides livestock of all sorts, and much phosphorite. There are valuable forests close to the town. In the oldest part of Trujillo are the remains of a castle said to be of Roman origin, but rebuilt by the Moors and restored in modern times. The Julia tower is also said to be Roman, like much of the fortifications. The Roman name for the town was Turgalium. The principal parish church, Santa Maria, is a fine Gothic structure of the 15th century. Trujillo was a town of importance in the middle ages. Pizarro, the conqueror of Peru, was born here about 1471, and built a palace, which still stands, in the main square of the town.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Trumball, Sir William

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​TRUMBALL, SIR WILLIAM (1639-1716), English politician, was a grandson of William Trumball (d. 1635), who was for sixteen years English resident at Brussels and afterwards a clerk of the privy council. Educated at St John's College, Oxford, young Trumball became a fellow of All Souls and settled down as a practising lawyer in Oxford and in London. He was made chancellor of the diocese of Rochester and was sent to Tangier on public business in 1683, one of his companions ​on this errand being the diarist Pepys. In 1684 Trumball was knighted by Charles II. and in 1685 he was sent as envoy to France, where he worked hard on behalf of the English Protestants there who were threatened by the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. In 1685 he became a member of Parliament, in 1687 he went as ambassador to Constantinople, and in 1694 he was made a lord of the treasury. From May 1695 until December 1697 he was a secretary of state under William III. He died on the 14th of December 1716. His son, William Trumball (1708-1760), had an only daughter, who became the wife of the Hon. Martin Sandys. She was thus the ancestress of the later marquesses of Downshire.
Many of Trumball's letters are in the British Museum and in the Record Office, London. Trumball was on friendly terms with Pierre Bayle and with Dryden, whom he advised to translate Virgil. He was also very intimate with Pope, whom he influenced in several ways, especially in urging him to make a translation of Homer.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Trujillo (Honduras)

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​TRUJILLO, or Truxillo, a seaport on the Atlantic coast of Honduras, in 15° 54' N. and 86° 5' W. Pop. (1905), about 4000. The harbour, an inlet of the Bay of Honduras, is sheltered on the north by the promontory of Cape Honduras; it is deep and spacious, but insecure in westerly winds. Mahogany, dye-woods, sarsaparilla, cattle, hides and fruit are exported; grain, flour, hardware and rum are imported. Trujillo was founded in 1524, and became one of the most prosperous ports of the new world, and the headquarters of a Spanish naval squadron. During the 17th century it was frequently and successfully raided by buccaneers, and thus lost much of its commerce. Still more has in modern times been diverted to Puerto Cortes and the Bay Islands.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Trumbull, Jonathan

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His public papers have been printed in the Massachusetts Historical Society's Collections, 5th series, vols. ix.-x. (Boston, 1885-1888), and 7th series, vols. ii.-iii. (1902). See I.W. Stuart, Life of Jonathan Trumbull, sen. (Boston, 1859).
His son Jonathan (1740-1809) graduated at Harvard in 1759, served in the War of Independence as paymaster-general of the northern department in 1775-1778 and as a military secretary of Washington in 1778-1783, and was a member of the national House of Representatives in 1789-1795, serving as Speaker in 1791-1793, and of the United States Senate in 1795-1796; he was lieutenant-governor of Connecticut in 1796-1798, and governor in 1798-1809. Another son, Joseph (1737-1778), was a member of the first Continental Congress (1774-1775), became commissary-general of stores of the Continental army in July 1775 and commissary-general of purchases in June 1777, resigned in August 1777, and from November 1777 to April 1778 was commissioner for the board of war. A grandson of the first Jonathan, Joseph (1782-1861), was a Whig representative in Congress in 1834-1835 and in 1839-1843, and was governor of Connecticut in 1849-1850.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Trumbull, Lyman

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​TRUMBULL, LYMAN (1813-1896), American jurist and political leader, was born at Colchester, Connecticut, on the 12th of October 1813, and was a grandson of Benjamin Trumbull (1735-1820), a Congregational preacher and the author of a useful Complete History of Connecticut (2 vols., 1818). He taught in Georgia, studied law, and was admitted to the bar in 1837. Removing to Belleville, Illinois, in the same year, he was elected to the state House of Representatives as a Democrat in 1840, and in 1841-1843 was secretary of state of Illinois. In 1848-1853 he was a justice of the state Supreme Court, and in 1855-1873 was a member of the United States Senate. Elected as an Anti-Nebraska Democrat, he naturally joined the Republicans, and when this party secured control in the Senate he was made chairman of the important judiciary committee, from which he reported the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution of the United States abolishing slavery. Throughout the Civil War he was a trusted counsellor of the president. In the impeachment trial of President Andrew Johnson he was one of the seven Republicans who voted to acquit, and he afterwards returned to the Democratic party. After 1873 he practised law in Chicago, was the Democratic candidate for governor of Illinois in 1880, became a Populist in 1894, and defended the railway strikers in Chicago in the same year. He died in Chicago on the 25th of June 1896.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Trumbull, James Hammond

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​TRUMBULL, JAMES HAMMOND (1821-1897), American scholar, was born in Stonington, Connecticut, on the 20th of December 1821. He studied at Yale, but ill-health prevented his graduation. He was state librarian in 1854-1855, assistant-secretary of state of Connecticut in 1847-1852 and in 1858-1861, and secretary of state in 1861-1866; and was a prominent member of the Connecticut Historical Society, of which he was president in 1863-1889, the National Academy of Science, to which he was elected in 1872, and of other learned societies. He died in Hartford on the 5th of August 1897. He wrote Historical Notes on some Provisions of the Connecticut Statutes (1860-1861) and The True Blue Laws of Connecticut (1876), and edited The Colonial Records of Connecticut (3 vols., 1850-1859). He is better known, however, as a student of the Indian dialects of New England.
He edited Roger Williams's Key to the Language of America (1866), and wrote The Composition of Indian Geographical Names (1870), The Best Methods of Studying the Indian Languages (1871), Indian Names of Places in ... Connecticut with Interpretations (1881) and other works on similar subjects.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Trumbull, John (poet)

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​TRUMBULL, JOHN (1750-1831), American poet, was born in what is now Watertown, Connecticut, where his father was a Congregational preacher, on the 24th of April 1750. At the age of seven he passed his entrance examinations at Yale, but did not enter until 1763; he graduated in 1767, studied law there, and in 1771-1773 was a tutor. In 1773 he was admitted to the bar, in 1773-1774 practised law in Boston, working in the law-office of John Adams, and after 1774 practised in New Haven. He was state attorney in 1789, a member of the Connecticut Assembly in 1792 and 1800, and a judge of the Superior Court in 1801-1819. The last six years of his life were spent in Detroit, Michigan, where he died on the 10th of May 1831. While studying at Yale he had contributed in 1769-1770 ten essays, called “The Meddler,” imitating The Spectator, to the Boston Chronicle, and in 1770 similar essays, signed “The Correspondent” to the Connecticut Journal and New Haven Post Boy. While a tutor he wrote his first satire in verse, The Progress of Dulness (1772-1773), an attack in three poems on educational methods of his time. His great poem, which ranks him with Philip Freneau and Francis Hopkinson as an American political satirist of the period of the War of Independence, was McFingal, of which the first canto, “The Town-Meeting,” appeared in 1776 (dated 1775). This canto, about 1500 lines, contains some verses from “Gage's Proclamation,” published in the Connecticut Courant for the 7th and the 14th of August 1775; it portrays a Scotch Loyalist, McFingal, and his Whig opponent, Honorius, evidently a portrait of John Adams. This first canto was divided into two, and with a third and a fourth canto was published in 1782. After the war Trumbull was a rigid Federalist, and with the “Hartford Wits” David Humphreys, Joel Barlow and Lemuel Hopkins, wrote the Anarchiad, a poem directed against the enemies of a firm central government.
See the memoir in the Hartford edition of Trumbull's Poetical Works (2 vols., 1820); James Hammond Trumbull's The Origin of “McFingal” (Morrisania, New York, 1868); and the estimate in M. C. Tyler's Literary History of the American Revolution (New York 1897).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Thorax

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​THORAX (Gr. θώραξ, breastplate, also the part of the body covered by it), the anatomical term for the chest, that part of the body which contains the heart and lungs (see Anatomy: Superficial and Artistic, and Skeleton: Axial). For the surgery of the thorax reference may be made to the headings Heart, Lung and Respiratory System.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Thorite

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​THORITE, a rare mineral consisting of thorium silicate, crystallizing in the tetragonal system and isomorphous with zircon. The theoretical formula, ThSiO$_4$, requires 81.5% of thoria, but analyses show only 50-70% there being also some uranium, cerium, &c. The mineral is almost always altered by hydration and is then optically isotropic and amorphous. Owing to differences in composition and to alteration, the specific gravity varies from 4.4 to 5.4. The colour is usually light brown, but in the variety known as “orangite” it is orange-yellow. The mineral occurs as isolated crystals and small masses in the augite-syenite near Brevik in South Norway; also at Arendal, and in the gem-gravels of Ceylon. If found in larger amount it would be an important source of thoria for incandescent gas mantles.
(L. J. S.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Thorianite

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​THORIANITE, a rare mineral, discovered by W. D. Holland, and found in the gem-gravels of Ceylon, where it occurs as small, heavy, black, cubic crystals, usually much water-worn. It was so named by W. R. Dunstan, on account of its high percentage of thorium (about 70% ThO$_2$); it also contains the oxides of uranium, lanthanum, cerium and didymium. Helium is present, and the mineral is slightly less radio-active than pitchblende. It has been examined for new elements. Miss Evans (Journ. Chem. Soc., 1908, 93, p. 666) obtained what is possibly a new element, whilst M. Ogawa (Journ. Coll. Sci. Tokyo, 1908, vol. 25) found indications of three new species: one which he called nipponium, with an equivalent weight of about 50 and atomic weight 100; the second with an equivalent of about 16.7; whilst the third yielded a radio-active oxide.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Thorn (botany)

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​THORN (O. Eng. þorn, cf. Du. doorn, Ger. Dorn, &c), in botany, a hard pointed structure, also termed a “spine,” generally representing a small branch, as in hawthorn, where a normal branch arising in the axil of a leaf is replaced by a sharply pointed thorn; accessory buds on each side of the thorn and developed in the same leaf-axil will grow in the next season into ordinary branches. The similarly developed thorns of the honey-locust (Gleditschia) are branched. In other cases, as the sloe or the wild pear, branches become spiny at the apex tapering into a stiff leafless point. On a cultivated tree these branches disappear owing to their more vigorous growth. Leaves may be modified into spines, as in barberry, the leaves of which show every gradation between a leaf with a spiny-toothed edge and those which have been reduced to simple or multiple spines. In some species of Astragalus the petiole of the pinnately compound leaf persists after the fall of the leaflets as a sharp spine. In the false acacia (Robinia) the stipules are represented by spines.
The reduction of the leaf-surface, of which the spinous habit is often an expression, is associated with growth in dry or exposed windy places. Thus, in the gorse, a characteristic plant of exposed localities such as open commons, the smaller branches, instead of being leaf-bearing shoots, are reduced to slender green spines, while the leaves on the main shoots are also more or less spinous in character. As the giving off of water from its surface is one of the chief functions of a leaf, this process is thus reduced to a minimum in situations where water is scarce or would be liable to be given off too rapidly. An extreme case is afforded by the cacti and cactus-like euphorbias, which are a characteristic type of desert vegetation where water is extremely scarce. The whole plant is reduced to a simple or branching succulent, leafless, columnar or flattened stem, the branches of which are represented by small clusters of thorns. Incidentally the ​thorns protect the plant which bears them from the attacks of animals seeking food.
Prickles are structures of less importance from the morphological point of view, being mere superficial outgrowths which may occur anywhere on stem or leaf, or even fruit.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Thornaby-on-Tees

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​THORNABY-ON-TEES, a municipal borough in the North Riding of Yorkshire, England, 3 m. S.W. of Middlesbrough, on the North-Eastern railway. Pop. (1901), 16,054. It lies opposite Stockton-on-Tees, with which it is connected by a bridge, on the river Tees. There are blast furnaces, iron foundries, engineering works, iron ship-building yards, extensive saw-mills, flour-mills and a manufactory of “blue and white” pottery. The town was formerly known as South Stockton, and is still included in the parliamentary borough of Stockton (it is within the Cleveland division of the county), but was incorporated as a separate municipal borough in 1892. It is under a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 1927 acres.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Theodulf

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​THEODULF, bishop of Orleans, was born about the middle of the 8th century, of a noble family of Gothic extraction, probably in Spain. He found favour at the Frankish court, was made abbot of Fleury and of Saint-Aignan, and in 781 became bishop of Orleans. He was a staunch supporter of Charlemagne's principles of government and educational reforms; he established schools, and by his own literary achievements showed himself a worthy member of the learned circle which graced the Carolingian court. He was likewise a good churchman and an able administrator of his diocese; he encouraged the reformation of the clergy and the monasteries. In 798 he was appointed missis dominicus, and two years later performed so great services for Leo III. as judge in the cause between the pope and his enemies, that he returned from Rome with the pallium. After the death of Alcuin he became the foremost councillor to the king on theological matters: it was he who made, on Charlemagne's request, a collection of the opinions of the fathers on the much-disputed point of the procession of the Holy Ghost. Theodulf maintained his influence a short time after the death of Charlemagne, being sent as escort to Pope Stephen V. who came in 816 to crown Louis the Fair. Later, however, he was accused of having taken part in the conspiracy of Bernard of Italy, and in 818 was deposed from all his dignities and imprisoned in a monastery at Angers. Theodulf asserted his innocence to the end, and no proof of his guilt has come down to us; in fact, from what we know of the bishop's life and political principles we should presuppose his innocence. He died in prison, probably from poison, in 821.
Theodulf was called Pindar in the palace school of Charlemagne. Fond of Latin literature, whether Christian or pagan, and a friend of the arts, he was himself one of the best writers of the period. His prose works include sermons, treatises on vices and on baptism, a penitential, capitularies and exhortations to bishops, priests and judges. His poems are his best work, and afford us a vivid picture of the times. Theodulf was the author of at least part of the hymn for Palm Sunday, the Gloria laus. The complete works of Theodulf are in J. P. Migne, Patrol. Lat., vol. 105 (Paris, 1851). The best edition of his poetry is that of E. Diimmler in the Mon. Germ. Hist. Poetae latini aevi carolini, vol. i. (Berlin, 1881).
See C. Cuissard, Théodulphe évêque d'Orléans, sa vie et ses œuvres, (Orleans, 1892); and a critical study of the writings by M. Manitius in News Archiv der Ges. für ä. deutsche Gesch. xi. (1886).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Theon, Aelius

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​THEON, AELIUS, Alexandrian sophist of uncertain date, author of a collection of preliminary exercises (pro-gymnasmata) for the training of orators. The work (extant, though incomplete), which probably formed an appendix to a manual of rhetoric, shows learning and taste, and contains valuable notices on the style and speeches of the masters of Attic oratory. Theon also wrote commentaries on Xenophon, Isocrates and Demosthenes, and treatises on style. He is to be distinguished from the Stoic Theon, who lived in the time of Augustus and also wrote on rhetoric (Quintilian, Inst. Oral. ix. 3, 77).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Theon

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​THEON, of Samos, Greek painter of the age of Alexander the Great, is mentioned by Quintilian as a good artist of the second rank. If we may trust the somewhat flimsy stories told about him, his forte consisted in a lifelike, or perhaps, as Brunn (Künstlergeschichte, ii. 253) puts it, a theatrical representation of action. His figures were said to start out of the picture. He chose such congenial subjects as the madness of Orestes, and a soldier rushing to battle. Another painter, Theorus, is mentioned, whom Brunn regards as identical with Theon.
# A Chinese Biographical Dictionary/Ch'i-su-lê

​312 Ch'i-su-lê 齊蘇勒 (T. 篤之) Died A.D. 1729. A Manchu of the Plain White Banner. He began his career in the Board of Astronomy, but was soon transferred to the Yung-ting river works; and after a year as Judge of Shantung with charge of the Grand Canal, he became in 1724 Director-General of the Yellow River, a post in which he laboured with great success until his death. In 1728 he cleared the Woosung bar. Canonised as 勤恪, and included in the Temple of Worthies.
# A Chinese Biographical Dictionary/Ch'i-tiao K'ai

​313 Ch'i-tiao K'ai 漆雕開 (T. 子開 and 子若 and 子脩). Born B.C. 541. One of the disciples of Confucius. He declined to take office, on the ground that he was not sufficiently prepared by study.