# Aids to the Pronunciation of Irish/Chapter 10

CHAPTER X.
Digraphs.
79. We have already shown in Chapter VIII. how glides are formed, and we have also explained why it is not necessary to write the glides in English, whilst it is necessary to do so in Irish; consequently there are a large number of digraphs in Irish, for it is frequently necessary to join a slender consonant to a broad vowel, and vice versa. The digraphs used in Modern Irish are eá, eo, iú, ái, úi, ae, aí, ia, ío, ói, ui, ea, ai, iu, and ei. If one of the vowels of the digraph carries a síneaḋ—e.g., ái, iú, ói, &c, there is no difficulty in recognising which is the vowel and which the glide; but when there is not a síneaḋ the matter is not quite so easy—e.g., in
​liom, “o” is the vowel and “i” the glide, whilst in fios, “i” is the vowel and “o” the glide.
80. Before dealing with the sounds of the digraphs and trigraphs in detail it is well to give some drill exercises in joining a slender consonant to a broad vowel, and vice versa.
Examples similar to the following should be frequently written on the blackboard by the teacher.
The glides are printed in small type, and the student is not to pronounce them. As previously explained their sole function is to indicate the broadness or slenderness of the consonants.
| 81. (1) | Ó | (2) | Ó | (3) | Ó |
| | CÓ | | BÓ | | DÓ |
| | ÓG | | ÓR | | DeÓ |
| | CeÓ | | BeÓ | | ÓR |
| | ÓiG | | ÓiR | | ÓiR |
| | CÓG | | BOR | | DÓR |
| | CeÓG | | BeÓR | | DeÓR |
| | CÓiG | | BÓiR | | DÓiR |
| | CeÓiG | | BeÓiR | | DeÓiR |
| (4) | Ú | (5) | Ó | (6) | Ó |
| | GÚ | | ÓL | | FÓ |
| | US | | sÓ | | FeÓ |
| | GÚS | | ÓiL | | FóL |
| | ÚiS | | SeÓ | | FeÓL |
| | GiÚS | | SeÓiL | | FeÓiL |
| | GiÚiSe | | SeÓLTA | | FeÓLA |
| Ó | an | ar |
| NÓ | ann | ara |
| ÓN | rann | cara |
| NÓN | reann | cairde |
| NeÓN | treann | cairdeas |
| NÓiN | streann | cairdeaṁail |
| NeÓiN | streannc | cairdeaṁlaċt |
| NÓiNÍN | streanncán | eascairdeas |
| | streanncán ceoil | eascairdeaṁail |
EA.
82. It has been already pointed out in § 12 that there is no single character to represent the first or low caol vowel. The long sound of this vowel is heard in the words “father” “rather” “farther” as pronounced by country people. The position and shape of the tongue necessary for the production of this vowel have been already described. The digraphs ea and ai denote the short sound of this vowel when there are no disturbing influences due to the consonants. Ea is preceded by a slender consonant and followed by a broad one, whilst ai is preceded by a broad consonant and followed by a slender one.
| bean | cead | fear | peata |
| cearc | mear | neart | greama |
| geata | meala | geal | scread |
| gearraḋ | leat | fearra | speal |
| lear | reaṫa | seas | creasa |
| leasa | gean | feasa | gealt |
| lean |
83. In the following cases disturbing influences exist :—
(a) Ea, accented, and in first syllable, followed by a protected liquid, or by ḃ, ṁ, and a vowel or liquid is pronounced like ou in “house.” Ṁ produces a nasal diphthong (§ 14).
| seaḃaċ | leaḃar | meaḃar |
| leaṁnaċt | cleaṁnas | geaṁar |
| ceann | peann | gleann |
| geall | meall | ceanntar |
For a long list of words refer to § 60 also to § 75.
(b) When not in first syllable, ea followed by ḃ, ṁ, &c, = ú.
| duilleaḃar | laeṫeaṁail | flaiṫeaṁail |
| biṫeaṁnaċ | croiḋeaṁail | breiṫeaṁnas |
For longer list refer to § 62.
(c) When ea accented is followed by the broad gutturals ċ, g, ng (the ng not being final—Munster), the e is a mere glide and the a, if the ea be initial, gets the sound of the first a in “capall,” otherwise it gets a slightly flatter sound (Ulster, Munster, and Connaught).
| eagla | eagal | eaglais |
| eagailse | eagair | teaċtaire |
| leag | ceaċt | creaċ |
| beaċ | teaċt | imṫeaċt |
| seaċain | teanga | seaċt |
| sceaċ | ceangail | freagra |
(d) Beag=beog, seaċas (i.e., Seaċ)=seoċas (eo in deoċ § 100 (a)), In bead (C. béad), “e” is the vowel, and “a” the glide; eala=ala, ealaḋa=alaí.
​ (e) Ea = í + broad glide in: inġean, doilġeas, faiṫċeas, inḃear, coitċeann(ta). Refer to § 71.
84. Ea (unaccented). The e is a glide, and the a=the second a in “capall,” (Ulster, Munster and Connaught).
| aistear | seisean | feiseanna |
| creideann | aingeal | cairdeas |
| páirceanna | áiteaċa | ṁilleas |
AI.
85. Except in the cases mentioned below, ai, accented, has the short sound of the first caol vowel, preceded by a broad consonant and, followed by a slender one (Ulster, Munster, and Connaught).
| aigneaḋ | ais | ait |
| aiteas | ainm | aistear |
| saic | tais | aibiġ |
| faic | ainnir | daingean |
| aingeal | aisce | taisce |
(a) In Ulster, Munster, and Connaught ai=e in air, aige, aici; (and in raiḃ in Munster and Connaught).
(b) In Ulster ai in the following words:=“e” in “error,” “enter:” aire, faire, airgead, baile, ainm, aiṫne, aimsir, ṫainic (Craig).
​ (c) In the following words “a” is a mere glide, and “i” is the vowel in Minister:—
bain, faide, glaise, glaine, caime agaiḃ.
ai=í in crainn, gaill, baill, daill. Refer to § 67 (c).
86. Ai following a labial (b, p, m, f), or a guttural gets the sound of the first a in capall, and the “i” is a mere glide.
| bail | blais | bainne |
| baile | caibidil | caidreaṁ |
| caise | caiseal | caismirt |
| cairrgeaċ | faire | fairrge |
| fairsing | flaiṫ | flaiṫeas |
| faitċeas | gairid | gaisce |
| Gailliṁ | mair | mairg |
| maidin | maide | mairḃ |
| maiseaṁail | maiṫ | maiṫeas |
| paidir | paiste | caiṫ |
87. Ai followed by a protected liquid or by Ḋ, Ġ, ḃ+a vowel or liquid is pronounced î = “i” in “high.”
| aiġneas | laiġin | aiḃne |
| maiġdean | saiḋḃir | Taiḋg |
| aimsir | caill | cainnt |
| baintreaċ | sainnt | gaiḃne |
For longer list of words refer to § 67.
(a) In Ulster ai followed by ṫ or ġ=î.
(b) In Desmond, ai=í in snaiḋm, saiġead, claiḋeaṁ. saiḋḃir and saiḋḃreas = sever and seviruss. In Desi saiḋḃir=sîr.
​ 88. Ai, unaccented: a is a glide, and i the vowel (in Ulster, Munster and Connaught).
| obair | ċonnaic | feadair |
| capaill | laḃair | leaḃair |
| socair | Gobnait | seasaiṁ |
UI.
89. In this digraph the “u” is always the glide and the “i” the vowel (in Connaught and Munster).
| buile | buille | cluig |
| cuisle | cnuic | cuilm |
| cuid | cluiṫċe | cuir |
| fuil | fuinneog | guiḋ |
| guirt | guirm | Muire |
| muin | muir | muirġin |
| muileann | Muiris | luisne |
| guib | duine | puirt |
| ruip | tuit | uisce |
(a) In Ulster “u” of the digraph “ui” is often the vowel, and “i” the glide: muinntir, fuinneog, fuinnseog, fuiseog, cuid, cuisle, buideal, buinim, &c. In the following words “i” is the vowel: uisce, uilig, tuile, druim, ruibe, duine, cuiṁne, cruinn, tuig, duilleog, &c. (Craig).
90. When Ui is followed by a protected liquid, or by ḃ, ṁ, Ġ, Ḋ, + a vowel or liquid, the “u” remains a mere glide, but the “i” is lengthened to í.
| Muiṁneaċ | buiḋe | dliġe |
| druim | sliġe | suim |
| luiḃeanna | suiḋe | luiġe |
| buiḋean | bruiġean | fuiġleaċ |
| guiḋe | muinntir | fuinnseog |
| cuiṁne | críostuiḋe | scéaluiḋe |
For longer list refer to § 72.
The “i” of “ui” is short in scéaluiḋṫe, críostuiḋṫe, &c, the ṫ not being a vowel or liquid.
| (a) | buiḋeaċ | =baoċ | $\scriptstyle {\left.{\begin{matrix}\ \\\ \end{matrix}}\right\}\,$ | Munster. |
| (a) | buiḋeaċas | =baoċas | $\scriptstyle {\left.{\begin{matrix}\ \\\ \end{matrix}}\right\}\,$ | Munster. |
Amuiġ=Amuí in Connaught, but amu in Munster. (Second syllable stressed in both cases).
IO.
91. In the digraph io, when under tonic accent, “i” is the vowel, o the glide, except in the cases mentioned below (Ulster, Munster, Connaught):—
| Giolla | fionna | Sionainn |
| crios | lios | fios |
| slios | bior | mion |
| giota | mioscais | pionna |
| piostal | | |
| siolla=s i O lla. |||
92. When io, under tonic accent, is followed by a labial or a guttural, the “i” becomes a glide, and “o” the vowel (Ulster, Munster, Connaught).
| liobar | liobarnaċ | sioc |
| siopa | pioc | iomaire |
| liom | slioċt | rioċt |
| tiocfad | tiobraid | mioċair |
| sciob | gliogar |
| Also biolar and (f)iolar. |||
| gliocas=glíocas. |||
93. Io, under tonic accent, followed by a protected liquid = iú in Desmond, and ou in Dēsi.
| iompuiġ | fionn | iomċar |
| ionntaoiḃ | cionntuiġ | iongna (=úna) |
| ionnraic | (ós)cionn | prionnsa |
Refer to § 66.
94. ioḋ and ioġ = í + “o” glide (Connaught and Munster).
| ioḋna | tioḋlaic | ioḋbairt |
| ioḋal | dioġaltas | dioġrais |
| dioġla | fioġar | bioḋg |
| bioḋḃa | fioḋ | bioḋgaċ |
The “i” is naturally long in ríoġain and díoġḃáil.
95. In io unstressed, “i” is the vowel and “o” the glide—e.g., ciotóg, miotóg, scioból, tionól, iománuiḋe, giobógaċ, &c. Tiomáin = tomáin (i.e., broad t).
Ionad = inead (old Ir. inad); cionnus = conus (cá + ionnus).
Oi.
96. The digraph oi has three distinct sounds, viz.:—
    (1) o followed by a slender consonant.
    (2) i preceded by a broad consonant.
    (3) e preceded by a broad consonant.
It is very difficult to formulate definite rules to direct the student which pronunciation is to be given in a particular case. The following, however, may be of some assistance:—
(a) After gutturals (including l), or when followed by ​two different consonants (one may be silent owing to aspiration) the pronunciation is generally o.
| scoil | coisde | cois | doirt |
| loit | foirḃṫe | coitċeann | doilġeas |
| loisc | soilḃir | doilḃir | boiċt |
(b) When followed by r or another consonant and slender vowel the sound is usually i in Munster, but in Connaught the pronunciation is e in almost all cases, excepting rule (a).
| foineann | coir | oir | foireann |
| coinne | roilig | doineann | oide |
| toir | oileaṁaint | soir | roimis |
(c) In many words rules (a) and (b) will conflict, the pronunciation is then variable. In the following list the letters in brackets give the sound of the oi:—
| goile (o or i) | croise (i, e) | croiḋṫe (i) |
| oifig (o, e) | goid (i, e) | toice (o, e) |
| troid (o, e) | troiġ (i) | gloine (i) |
| croiceann (e) | coin (i) | soiṫeaċ (o) |
| toil (o, e) | coille (i) | boiċte (o) |
| bois (o) | doire (e) | coiscéim (i) |
| oiread (i, e) | oibre (e) | roiṁ (e); C |
| foiṫin (o) | coirce (o) | roim (i); M |
97. oi followed by a protected liquid = í in Desmond, but î in Desi.
coillcoimsiġroimpecloinnmoill
Refer to § 72.
(a) oi = î, in roinnt, doiṁin, foiġne, foiġid, leac-oiḋre, coicṫiḋeas.
98. oiḋ and oiġ (not final) = í (usually).
| croiḋe | oiḋċe | oiḋean |
| ċoiḋċe | istoiḋċe | groiḋe |
99. oi unstressed = unstressed e, or i.
| oileán | oileaṁaint | oireaṁnaċ |
| oideaċas (§ 52 (4)) | oireaċtas |
EO
100. In this digraph the “o” is always the vowel, and, except in a very small number of words, gets its long sound—i.e., ó (except in Ulster). The e is a very audible glide (resembling the English sound of “y”). The “e” is not heard when initial, or when it follows s. In Ulster “e” is likewise the glide, but the “o” = “o” in “lord;” “adorn,” &c. (§ 12 (c)).
| ceo | beo | teo |
| deo | teora | Eoġan |
| eolas | seod | ceol |
| seol | deor | seomra |
| feola | leor | fuiseog |
| driseog | eol | geoḃad |
(a) The “o” is short in deoċ, eoċair, seo, and in Connaught, seomra. As there are very few words in which the digraph eo is pronounced short, it is not necessary to mark the “o” long.
IU.
101. In this digraph the “i” is always a glide, and “u” in the vowel; so that its sound is simply u (short) preceded by a slender consonant (Ulster, Munster and Connaught).
| piuc | piuc | piuc | piuc | fiuċaḋ | fiuċaim |
| fliuċ | fliuċ | fliuċ | fliuċ | triuċ | tiuġ (ġ=ḃ in M.) |
| indiu | $\scriptstyle {\left\{{\begin{matrix}\ \\\ \end{matrix}}\right.}$ | pr. inniuḃ, M. | $\scriptstyle {\left.{\begin{matrix}\ \\\ \end{matrix}}\right\}\,$ | Siuḃán | iuċair |
| indiu | $\scriptstyle {\left\{{\begin{matrix}\ \\\ \end{matrix}}\right.}$ | pr. inniú, C. | $\scriptstyle {\left.{\begin{matrix}\ \\\ \end{matrix}}\right\}\,$ |
AO.
102. This digraph has simply the sound of é preceded and followed by a broad consonant. After labials the sound resembles “wé.”
| aos | baos | aonar |
| gaol | caol | saor |
| daor | gaoṫ | caoċ |
| maol | baoġal (=baol) | maor |
| faoḃar (=faor) | Aoḋ | paor |
| glaoḋ | taoḃ | saoṫar |
| aon | aonaċ | aosta |
| aol | daol | laoġ |
| baoṫ | caor | caoraċ |
| but caora=cuíre. |||
In Ulster ao is pronounced like ö in German, but ú is also frequently heard.
EÁ.
103. This digraph has not quite so open a sound as the “á” in “lán,” “bán,” &c, nor so flat a sound as ​the “a” in Maggie (i.e., the long sound of the first caol vowel, § 12 (a)). The “e” shows that the preceding consonant must be slender.
| sleán | oileán | milleán |
| ciseán | caisleán | cineál |
| milseán (§ 144) | Seán |
| coimeád=cimád (§ 12). |||
104. When eá is followed by ḋ or ġ it is pronounced á (§ 12) or á.
| breáġ | breáġṫaċt | meáḋon |
| meáḋċaint | spleáḋcas | cneaḋ |
ÉA or EU.
105. Both these digraphs represent the same sound, and the first one (i.e., éa) has been adopted by the Gaelic League as it represents the sound of the digraph in Connaught and in Ulster—viz., é followed by a broad glide; and as eu does not denote the Munster sound better than éa, éa should be accepted as the standard spelling.
(a) In Munster the sound is generally i-ea—i.e., the long sound of í followed by the sound of ea in fear, lean, bean, &c. There is practically equal stress on the two vowels í-ea.
| méar | féar | léas |
| éadaċ | déan | éadan |
| féad | béas | bréan |
(b) Before gutturals, labials, and l, the sound varies between í-ea and í-a (second a in capall), while there ​is a tendency to put the tonic accent on the second vowel.
| scéal | féaċ | béal |
| bréag | | Séamas |
| Éaḋmonn (Éamon); often pronounced yamon. |||
In déag; and céad the stress on the second vowel is very marked.
(c) When grammatical inflections are added the sound usually = é—e.g., méar (= mí-ear), but méaranna (= mé-ranna), also spelled méireanna féadfaḋ (= fé-taċ), &c.
106. Ae = é preceded by a broad consonant; as the e in this digraph is always long it is unnecessary to write a síneaḋ on it.
| lae | traen | Gaeḋeal |
| laeṫe | Gaeḋilig(e) (C.) | Gaeluinn (M.) |
| Gaeḋealaċ (Gaoḋalaċ) | Gaeḋealaċ (Gaoḋalaċ) | aer (broad r) |
EI.
107. In Modern Irish the vowel e occurs only at the end of words—e.g., baile, mé, lile, seamróige, &c.: in all other positions the digraph éi is used instead of é, and ei instead of e. The normal sounds of éi and ei are exactly those of é and e respectively (§12, c, d, e).
When ei (stressed) is followed by ḋ, ġ, ḃ, + a vowel or liquid; or by a protected liquid the diphthong ​Ei is produced (§ 68). In Dēsi ṁ, in addition to the above, produces this diphthong.
| eiḋean | feiḋil | leiġeas |
| leiġeasaċ | meiḋir | meiḋg |
| meiḋreaċ | Eiḃlín | greim |
| deiṁeas | geiṁreaḋ |
For longer list refer to § 68.
108. In the following words ei is pronounced “i” in Munster.
| deifir | ḋeineas | teine |
| neid | smeig | smeigín |
| feicsint | gein | meiṫil |
| deiṫneas | meisneaċ | feiṫeaṁ |
| leinḃ=linḃ or lenḃ |||
| leigint=ligint or leogaint (eo short, § 100 (a)). |||
(a) In Ulster ei=i in the following words: meisce, greim, eile beirc, ceiṫre, leigim, deiṁeas, geiṁreaḋ (Craig).
109. In the following words “i” is pronounced like “e,” in Munster:—
litir (=leitir), litireaċ, litearḋa, tinneas, file.
IA.
110. In the digraph ia, i is always the stressed vowel, and gets the full sound of í (§ 12), whilst the a is always unstressed, and consequently equals the second a in “capall.” (M. U. & C).
| fial | ciall | triall |
| grian | Brian | rian |
| pian | siad | iad |
| siar | riaṁ | Liam |
| Dia | biaḋ | mian |
(a) Dia (used with Luain, Máirt, &c.) = Dé.
(b) In the phrase “dia ḃeaṫa-sá,” dia = dé.
(c) Cia is pronounced (and now usually written) cé.
UA.
111. In this digraph, as in the last, both vowels are distinctly heard, but “u” gets the stress of the voice, and has its long sound—viz., ú; a has its unstressed value (M. U. and C).
| cuan | gual | fuar |
| suas | anuas | luaṫ |
| luaċ | fuaċt | uasal |
| cluas | uaċtar | buaċaill |
| cuaċ | scuab | ċualas |
| bruaċ |
(a) Ua in surnames = Ó (ú in Kerry, sometimes): Ua Dálaiġ.
(b) In Munster ua in the words nuaḋ and nuaḋaċt is pronounced ó: ḃfuil aon scéal nuaḋ (= nó) agat?
112. The digraphs ái, aí, ói, ío, úi, and íu present no difficulty as the vowel carrying the síneaḋ always gets its full long value, and the other vowel is a mere glide.
* ↑ In these words it is not really the ea which = í, but the “helping vowel” (§ 124) which develops between the two consonants; thus—doiliġeas, iniġean, faitiċeas, &c. The helping vowel is lengthened by the absorbed silent consonant, and the ea is really the broad glide.
* ↑ In Desmond these are pronounced flaṫ, flaṫas, maṫ, caṫ. See § 138.
* ↑ In Desmond ḃn and ṁn often produce the sound of ng—e.g., Suiḃne=Suínge; doiṁin, quasi doiṁn=dhîng; aiḃní=îngí; gaiḃní=gîgní.