# The Zoologist/4th series, vol 5 (1901)/Issue 717/Editorial Gleanings

Published in The Zoologist, 4th series, vol 5, issue 717, p. 113–120
EDITORIAL GLEANINGS.
A paper recently read before the Royal Society by Mr. W.T. Blanford, LL.D., &c., is written with the object of investigating the zoological divisions of British India and its dependencies, including Ceylon, as shown by the evidence afforded by the eight volumes of the 'Fauna of British India,' containing the descriptions of the Vertebrata. For the purpose of this investigation the whole area of India, Ceylon, and Burma has been divided into tracts, nineteen in number, distinguished by various physical characters, such as rainfall, height above the sea, presence of forest, &c., and tables showing the distribution of each vertebrate genus in these different tracts have been prepared. Briefly the results are the following:—
The whole area contains portions of five different subregions, two of which are assigned to the Holarctic (Palæarctic) region, and three to the Indo-Malay (Indian or Oriental). The first two are (1) the Punjab and Sind, with Baluchistan regarded as appertaining to the Eremian, Tyrrhenian, or Mediterranean province; and (3) the higher Himalayas and Western Tibet, which belong to the Tibetan subregion. The three Indo-Malay subregions are (1) the Cisgangetic, formed by the Indian Peninsula and Ceylon, the only subregion entirely confined to the area; (2) the Transgangetic, comprising the Himalayas, Assam, and Burma within the area, and Southern China, &c., farther to the eastward; and (3) the Malayan, to which Southern Tenasserim is referred. These subregions correspond to those of Wallace, except that his Ceylonese and Indian subregions are united.
The differences between the Cisgangetic and Transgangetic faunas are explained, and it is shown that in Peninsular India, with Ceylon, traces of three distinct elements can be found in the fauna. One of these—the Indo-Malay—is common to India and the countries east of the Bay of Bengal. Another, termed Aryan, is probably a late tertiary, perhaps a pliocene immigrant from Central Asia, and is well represented in the Siwalik fossils; whilst the third, consisting of certain reptiles, batrachians, and invertebrates peculiar to Southern India and Ceylon, is thought to have probably inhabited the country longer than either of the others.
The manner in which the Burmese and Assamese fauna has penetrated the Himalayan forest area, dying out gradually to the westward, is attributed to recent immigation from Assam after the glacial epoch. This and ​several other peculiarities of the distribution, such as the occurrence of certain genera in both Burma and Southern India, but not in Northern India, may be explained if the temperature of India generally went much lower in Pleistocene times; and the probability of this conclusion is strongly supported by the evidence in the Himalayas of glaciers having formerly descended 7000 feet lower than they do at present.
Mr. Robert Service, of Dumfries, has printed for private circulation a paper he read before his local Society last November on "The Vertebrates of Solway: a Century's Changes." These changes are not inconsiderable. On the rougher and hill portions of the country Black Cattle have long since been replaced by Sheep, and as a consequence heather is slowly dying out. We read that the Badger has approached extinction; the Common Seal (Phoca vitulina) does not visit the Solway waters with its former regularity; the Black Rat may be considered as extinct; the Common Hare only holds its own. In birds, the Martin is decreasing in numbers, and the Goldfinch even more so; the Barn-Owl seems dying out, and the Hen-Harrier, though plentiful half a century ago, is now scarcely ever seen. On the other hand, the Mistle-Thrush, once uncommon, is now a familiar species; the White Wagtail is more regular in appearance; the Pied Flycatcher breeds regularly in several places; whilst the Starling has become a most abundant species. The Adder (Pelias berus) must have been once very common. Mr. Service was informed that during the reclamation of a farm from Lochar Moss the number of Adders killed averaged forty per acre. In fishes, the Cod is no longer the same in number or size; but the Anchovy, which arrived in the Solway waters in 1889, remains in quantity.
The Fourteenth Annual Meeting of the Western Province Game Protection Association was held at Cape Town on Aug. 30th last. It is most satisfactory to find that even in Cape Colony the larger game animals are not yet exterminated. We extract the following from a report in the 'Cape Argus':—
"From information supplied by the Agricultural Department, the following varieties of big game appear still to be found in the Colony. The numbers, however, are only approximate, as it is feared that during the disturbed condition of the Northern Border of Bechuanaland much unauthorised shooting of big game took place:—Blesbok; About 400 in Steynsburg division. Bontebok: About 220 in Bredasdorp and Swellendam divisions. Buffaloes: Over 700 in Albany, Alexandria, Bathurst, and Uitenhage divisions. In the first two of these districts they were specially protected until March 27th, 1001, and in Bathurst until Oct. 2nd, 1900. ​Elephants: About 25 in Knysna, and 120 in Uitenhage divisions. Gemsbok: About 4000 principally in Bushmanland and Bechuanaland, with a fair lot in Barkly West division. Koodoos: 4000, found mostly in the divisions of Uitenhage, Willowmore, Jansenville, Port Beaufort, Albany, Victoria East, and Vryburg; and in lesser numbers in Ladismith, Oudtshoorn, Prince Albert, Riversdale, Griqualand West, Kuruman, and Mafeking. Oribi: A few are still to be found in Bathurst division, where they were specially protected until Jan. 31st, 1901; and in Griqualand East (where they are specially protected), and in Bathurst until Oct. 21st, 1900. Rietbok: About 450 in Komgha and Kimberley divisions, and a few in Griqualand East, where they are specially protected until May 28th, 1902. Zebra: Between 300 and 400. The bulk of them in George, Oudtshoorn, and Uniondale divisions, with a few detached troops in the divisions of Cradock, Prince Albert, and Somerset East. Hartebeest and Wildebeest in fairly large numbers are found in Bechuanaland and Griqualand West, but continued unauthorised slaughter of these animals on the unoccupied lands on the desert borders has, it is feared, already largely reduced the numbers; but the Game Laws Amendment Act, No. 33, of 1899, passed last session, will, it is hoped, enable effective measures to be taken to put a stop to such acts. The presence of these animals in large or small numbers in the former locality depends largely on the state of the veld, and the dryness or otherwise of the season in the Kalahari Desert. Wild Ostriches: About 2500, principally in Bechuanaland, Griqualand West, and Bushmanland."
The vanishing Mammalian Fauna of South Africa is the subject of an interesting article in the 'Cape Times' of Nov. 28th, by Frederick R.N. Findlay, from which we quote as follows:—
"It is marvellous how rapidly the countless herds of game that once roamed over the rolling plains of South Africa have been practically exterminated. The exquisite fauna of Africa in the past added greatly to the charm and fascination which that continent has had for so many men, but they are being swept away by an unenlightened 'civilization.' Some useful and magnificent forms of feral life are already as extinct as the Dodo, and others are on the verge of extinction. No more could a Pringle sing:
'And the timorous Quagga's wild whistling neigh Is heard by the fountain at fall of day';
for the last of its tribe fell more than a score of years ago. The Blaauwbok (Hippotragus leucophæus) has gone these hundred years, and its beautiful relation, the Roan Antelope (H. equinus), is nowhere plentiful. The White ​Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros simus) can almost be said to be extinct; its black brother (R. bicornis) is now rarely found south of the Zambesi River, and even the Black Wildebeest is in danger of extinction. A brief period of sixty-three years has elapsed since Captain (afterwards Sir) Cornwallis Harris, while encamped near the present site of Pretoria, at the foot of the Cashan Mountains (Magaliesberg), encountered large numbers of Rhinoceroses, and recorded what he had seen in the following words:—'The country now literally presented the appearance of a menagerie, the hosts of Rhinoceroses in particular that daily exhibited themselves almost exceeding belief. Whilst the camp was being formed an ugly head might be seen protruded from every bush, and the possession of the ground was often stoutly disputed. In the field these animals lost no opportunity of rendering themselves obnoxious, frequently charging at my elbow when in the act of drawing the trigger at some other object, and pursuing our horses with indefatigable and ludicrous industry, carrying their noses close to the ground, moving with a mincing gait, which ill beseemed so ungainly and ponderous a quadruped, and uttering the while a sound between a grunt and a smothered whistle.' And, again: 'On our way from the wagons to a hill, not half a mile distant, we counted no less than twenty-two of the white species of Rhinoceros, and were compelled in self-defence to slaughter four. On one occasion I was besieged in a bush by three at once, and had no little difficulty in beating off the assailants.' To-day the Cashan Mountains are topped with frowning forts overlooking a great town—Pretoria.
"In Pretoria a collection of animals was started some months before the war broke out; the Government bought a very valuable and extensive property bordering on the Aapies River, at the northern extremity of the town, and presented it to the National Museum for the purpose of erecting a new museum building and starting a Dieren-tuin (Zoological Garden). In September, 1899, a good start had been made at the building of the new museum, and quite a fine collection of animals for the Zoo had already been secured by Dr. Gunning; when I last saw them they were flourishing in their extensive runs. It was a Staats or Government institution, but we hoped soon to frame a scheme which would have made it a public concern. A few months ago there was some correspondence in the local papers as to starting a Zoo at Cape Town, but I for one do not think it is advisable to make the first attempt here. Mr. Rhodes has already a fine collection of animals on his Groote-Schuur estate, and the public have free access to the beautiful grounds. I consider Pretoria to be the most suitable place in South Africa for an extensive National Zoological Garden. In arriving at this conclusion I have borne the following facts in mind:—
​"Firstly, a fine property has been secured for that purpose; there is plenty of water in the river, and Hippopotami and Crocodiles, and other water-loving animals, birds, and fish will undoubtedly thrive splendidly; indigenous trees or rather shrubs, grass, and reeds abound, and the animals will at once be at home there.
"Secondly, the valley in which Pretoria now stands was, as I have already pointed out, once the habitat of a great variety of game; consequently it may reasonably be hoped that animals will prosper better there than, for instance, Cape Town, with its climate and pasturage almost foreign to some species; or than in the London Zoo, with its fogs, cold weather, and new conditions of life.
"Thirdly, Pretoria, situated as it is, will be able to secure specimens of many rare animals in the Sabi Valley and elsewhere at a comparatively low cost, for there will be no great difficulty about transporting them.
"Fourthly, it is hoped that an extensive track of at present almost valueless country, either in the districts of Waterberg or Zoutpansberg, or the Sabi Valley, may be secured from the Government in the near future, for the purpose of forming an immense reserve. I feel confident that, once such a grant has been obtained, funds sufficient to enable us to close the territory, and to drive in and secure as much game as possible, will be forthcoming from the many men who wish to see a comprehensive scheme for the preservation of wild animals set on foot."
Bird Migration in Great Britain and Ireland.—The Third Interim Report of the Committee appointed to work out the details of the Observations of Migrations of Birds at Lighthouses and Lightships, 1880–87, was presented at the recent meeting of the British Association at Bradford, and consists of a "Statement furnished to the Committee by Mr. W. Eagle Clarke, containing a summary of the observations as regards (i.) the Song-Thrush (Turdus musicus), and (ii.) the White Wagtail (Motacilla alba)." As regards the extreme value and interest of the publication, the Committee well remark that it "throws such a light on the natural history, and especially the movements, of those two species as has never been possessed before."
It is well known that during a certain period in the early development of most animals no difference, external or internal, can be detected between the males and females. This undifferentiated stage is considered by some to be a stage of sexual indifference more or less complete. There is a well-known theory that during the period in question the future sex of individuals may be influenced by nutrition in such a way that a female bias is given by rich and plentiful food, and a male bias by the opposite condition. To test this hypothesis, Mr. Gemmill selected two molluscs for observation—the Edible Mussel (Mytilus edulis), and the Common Limpet (Patella vulgata). We give some extracts as regards the evidence afforded by the first:—
"Mussels may be found in suitable places on the tidal zone at all levels' from a little below high-water mark, downwards. They feed only when immersed under water—that is to say, when the tide is sufficiently far in to cover them. Mussels placed high up on the tidal zone are thus able to feed only intermittently, and during short periods. They grow slowly, and remain small in size. The average weight of low-level Mussels on Keppel Pier, Millport, is six or seven times greater than the average of high-level specimens. These facts and similar facts regarding the fixed animals on the tidal zone (e.g. Barnacles) point to comparative starvation of high-level specimens as contrasted with those which occupy a lower position.
"In the life-history of the Mussel there is first a free swimming stage, then the larvæ settle down and become permanently attached. At the time when they fix themselves, and for a considerable period afterwards, their sex, so far as I could make out by careful histological examination, is still undifferentiated. During the first period of growth and differentiation of sex, the young Mussels are subject to the different nutritive conditions indicated above, according as they have placed themselves high up or low down on the tidal zone. Nature thus supplies all the factors necessary for an experiment, and works out the experiment herself. It only remains to observe, in a large number of specimens taken from different localities, the relative proportion of males and females at different levels. By comparing these proportions we shall be able to tell whether richness or poorness of nutrition, acting under the conditions above indicated, have had any influence in determining sex in the young Mussel. A large number of Mussels were accordingly examined. In order to avoid local peculiarities, the batch of Mussels were taken from many different localities.
"Results.—Out of the total number examined, 49 per cent. were males, ​51 per cent, females. Of the Mussels taken from high level, 47 per cent, were males, 53 per cent, females. Of the Mussels taken from mid-level, 48 per cent, were males, 52 per cent, females. Of the Mussels taken from low level, 51 per cent, were males, 49 per cent, females. From these figures it will be seen that the proportion of the sexes varies within very narrow limits at the different levels. There is certainly not a greater proportion of males at the upper poorly nourished zones, nor a greater proportion of females in the lower zones. Indeed, the differences, such as they are, point the other way."
At the meeting of the Linnean Society held on Feb. 7th a paper was read by Mr. H.M. Bernard, "On the Necessity for a Provisional Nomenclature for those Forms of Life which cannot be at once arranged in a Natural System." Taking the Stony Corals as an illustration, the author showed how impossible it is to classify them into "species" in the present state of our knowledge (1) of the living forms themselves, and (2) of what we should mean by the term "species." He found himself compelled to invent some method of naming them which shall enable their natural history to be written, so far as it can be discovered, without at the same time having to pretend that, in so doing, the specimens are being classified in the modern evolutionary sense—that is, according to their true genetic affinities. This "natural order" can only be based upon an exhaustive study of all the discoverable variations, and only then will it be possible to arrange these variations into natural groups or "species." Further, this study, if its results are to be trustworthy, must have had regard not only to the structural details of the specimens, but also to their natural conditions of existence, in order that all these variations, which are purely accidental and adaptational, e.g. due to special currents, or to favourable or unfavourable positions on the reef, may be eliminated; for only those which have been normally inherited can be admitted into an evolutionary classification—at least, as at present understood.
The author contended therefore that the present exclusive adherence, for all purposes of description, to the Linnean binomial system, which implies classification when classification can only be attained as the end and crown of our work, is philosophically absurd and practically disastrous. The absurdity of starting by assuming what it is the object of all our researches to find out is self-evident; while the hindrance to progress due to waste of energy, to the assumption that the goal is attained, to the natural indisposition to rearrange previous classifications, to the synonymies which continue to grow, and must ever continue to grow, as our knowledge—which advances in spite of our methods—compels us to bring our premature classifications nearer and nearer to the natural order, only need to be mentioned to be equally self-evident.
​A provisional nomenclature was therefore proposed, in order to make work possible in those groups in which, as in the Corals, classification, except in its barest outlines, is premature. The author suggested that this consists (1) of the existing generic name (or, when that cannot be discovered, the family name); (2) of the locality in which each specimen has been found; (3) of a fraction which can be understood from the following illustration:—"Porites, Singapore 4/20" would mean that there are twenty apparently distinct forms of Porites known to occur at Singapore, and the particular one referred to is that which was described and figured as No. 4. If a new Porites be found in the same locality, i.e. a Porites not immediately referable to any yet figured, its designation for reference would be "Porites, Singapore 21/21." The formula which shall be ultimately agreed upon ought to be formally adopted.
Dr. Smith Woodward, at a meeting of the Zoological Society on March 5th, read a paper on some remains of extinct Reptiles obtained from Patagonia by the La Plata Museum. They included the skull and other remains of a remarkably armoured Chelonian, Miolania, which had previously been discovered only in superficial deposits in Queensland and in Lord Howe's Island, off the Australian coast. The genus was now proved to be Pleurodiran. There was also a considerable portion of the skeleton of a large extinct Snake, apparently of the primitive genus of the South American family Ilysiidæ. Along with these remains were found the well-preserved jaws of a large carnivorous Dinosaur, allied to Megalosaurus. Either the Dinosaurian Reptiles must have survived to a later period in South America than elsewhere, or geologists must have been mistaken as to the age of the formation in which the other reptiles and extinct mammals occurred. The discovery of Miolania in South America seemed to favour the theory of a former antarctic continent; but it should be remembered that in late Secondary and early Tertiary times the Pleurodiran Chelonians were almost cosmopolitan. Future discovery might thus perhaps explain the occurrence of Miolania in South America and Australia, in the same manner as the occurrence of Ceratodus in these two regions was already explained.
* ↑ "For the purposes of this article, when speaking of South Africa I mean the territory lying to the south of the Zambesi and Cunéné Rivers."
* ↑ 'Wild Sports of Southern Africa,' pp. 182, 183 (fifth edition, 1852).
* ↑ "It must, however, in fairness, be remembered that when Van Riebeek and his Dutch companions landed in Table Bay in April, 1652, they found a great profusion of animal life roaming upon its shores. Hippopotami occupied a swamp, it is said, on the present site of Church Square, and 'Harts and Elands' were numerous on the slopes of Table Mountain. The surrounding country was 'swarming with Elands, Hartebeests, and Stemboks,' and Lions were numerous and bold; even as late as June, 1694, nine Cows were killed by Lions within sight of the Castle; and the animals in Mr. Rhodes's Zoo have hitherto thrived fairly well, although some of the species are but poor representatives of their wild brothers."
This work was published before January 1, 1929, and is in the public domain worldwide because the author died at least 100 years ago.
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