OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Niedermeyer, Louis

Edition of 1920. See also Louis Niedermeyer on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
NIEDERMEYER, nē'dĕr-mī-ĕr, Louis, Swiss composer: b. Nyon, 27 April 1802; d. Paris, 14 March 1861. He studied under Moscheles in Vienna, and in Italy with Fioravanti and Zingarelli and settled in Paris. He met with no great success in operatic music, such as ‘Marie Stuart’ (1844) and ‘La Fronde’ (1853), and thereafter devoted himself to religious music, his true vocation, not only composing but teaching and editing a journal called La Meîtrise. His opera ‘Stradella’ and his melody for Lamartine's ‘Lac’ are his best compositions of a secular sort. His training school for religious music was aided by the French government.
# The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Nindemann, Wilhelm Friedrich Carl

Edition of 1920. See also William F. C. Nindemann on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
NINDEMANN, Wilhelm Friedrich Carl, German-American Arctic explorer: b. Gingst, Germany, 22 April 1850. He removed to the United States in 1867 and in 1872 accompanied the Polaris expedition. When the Polaris was caught in the ice he with 18 of the crew drifted on an ice-floe for seven months. They were
rescued by the Tigress in 1873. He joined the Jeanette expedition in 1879, and when the vessel was crushed in the ice he was despatched for aid in 1881 by Captain De Long. He assisted in the search for De Long and his companions, whose bodies were discovered the next year. He served in the Spanish-American War. He published ‘Eines deutschen Matrosen Nordpolfahrten’ (1885).
# The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Nine-Bark

Edition of 1920. See also Physocarpus opulifolius on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
NINE-BARK, an American shrub (Opulasta opulifolius), of the rose family, common throughout the eastern part of the United States. It has an ungainly form, glabrous twigs, bright green, three-lobed, crenate-lentate leaves and small white or purplish flowers in terminal corymbs. Its bloom, remarks Mrs. Lounsberry, is not very pretty, but it redeems itself by the beauty of the ripening pods. “They, hanging in quantities at the ends of its long, curving branches, produce something the same effect as the fruit of a species of opulus or cranberry-tree. . . . The common name which would naturally recall one of the hydrangeas, is in reference to a trick of the bark in peeling not nine but many times into dilapidated-looking strips.” The hydrangea (q.v.) referred to is H. radiata, a showy wild shrub, which is given this name by the mountaineers of the Southern States on account of the ragged peeling of its bark. Both shrubs flourish in rocky and swampy places, and both are susceptible of cultivation. Consult Lounsberry, ‘Southern Wildflowers and Trees.’ (1901).
# The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Niño, Pedro Alonso

Edition of 1920. See also Pedro Alonso Niño on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
NIÑO, Pedro Alonso, pā'drō ä-lōn'sō nē'ñō, Spanish navigator: b. Moguer, Spain, about 1455; d. about 1505. He piloted one of Columbus' ships in the expedition of 1492, and accompanied him on his third voyage in 1498 to Trinidad and the coast of Paria, and returned to Spain filled with the project of making an expedition to the new country in search of treasure. He was granted the royal permission, one-fifth of the spoils to be the share of the Crown. The voyage was a successful one; he peaceably obtained from the Indians a great store of treasure, but was accused of withholding the share belonging to the king and died before the suit was ended.
# The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Noble, John Willock

Edition of 1920. See also John Willock Noble on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
NOBLE, John Willock, American lawyer: b. Lancaster, Ohio, 26 Oct. 1831; d. 1912. He was graduated from Yale University in 1851 and engaged in law practice. He was city attorney of Keokuk, Iowa, at the outbreak of the Civil War, when he enlisted and served through the war, rising to the rank of brevet brigadier-general. After the war he settled in Saint Louis; in 1867-70 he was United States attorney for Missouri at Saint Louis, and in 1889-93 Secretary of the Interior in President Harrison's Cabinet. He resumed his law practice in Saint
Louis. His term as Secretary was rendered difficult by the questions attendant on organizing the Territory of Oklahoma and opening Indian lands to settlement by the whites.
# The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Niehaus, Charles Henry

Edition of 1920. See also Charles Henry Niehaus on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
NIEHAUS, nē'hous, Charles Henry, American sculptor: b. Cincinnati, Ohio, 24 Jan. 1855. He was educated at the public schools and the McMicken School of Art; and on the savings of his boyish years proceeded to Munich, Bavaria, where he won high distinction. After his residence in Germany he returned to the United States, proceeding again to Europe and setting up a studio in Rome from 1881 to 1885. His fame as a sculptor was meantime growing. He is equally expressive with the chisel as with the modeling tool. No sculptor has been more associated with memorials of a public character than he. Among monuments may be cited the Hahnemann and Paul Jones monuments at Washington, D. C.; the equestrian monuments to Drake at Titusville, Pa., and to General Forrest, at Memphis, Tenn.; the apotheosis of Saint Louis at Saint Louis, Mo.; the Astor historical doors to Trinity Church, New York; and the pediment to the State House at Kentucky. Among busts may be mentioned those of Disraeli, Dr. Collyer, Robert Blum, Joseph Jefferson, Rabbi Gottheil, Hon. Charles
Hackley and Governor Hoadley. His ideal works include the Cæstus in the Metropolitan Museum, New York, the ‘Greek Athelete using a Strygil.’ His statues include those of Garfield at Cincinnati and the Capitol, Washington; Governor Allen of Ohio, Ingalls and Morton in the rotunda of the Capitol, Washington; Moses and Gibbon in the Congressional Library; Farragut and McKinley at Muskegon; and a statue of McKinley and lunette for his tomb at Canton, Ohio. He has executed three statues of President Lincoln, the first a seated figure of heroic size in bronze, the property of the Historical Society of Buffalo, N. Y.; the second, almost a replica of the first, is at Muskegon. His third statue, exhibited in 1916 which is in Crestele marble, is regarded as a most successful presentation and reveals almost perfectly the deeply brooding expression habitual to the countenance of the martyred President. Mr. Niehaus was awarded gold medals at Buffalo in 1901; at Charleston in 1902; and Saint Louis in 1904. He was elected a member of the National Academy in 1906. Consult Armstrong, ‘Charles Niehaus’ (New York 1902).
# The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Ninde, William Xavier

Edition of 1920. See also William Xavier Ninde on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
NINDE, William Xavier, American Methodist bishop: b. Cortland. N. Y., 21 June 1832; d. Detroit, Mich., 3 Jan. 1901. He was graduated from Weslevan University, Middletown, Conn., in 1855, and was ordained in 1856. He was in charge of various churches in New York and Ohio, and in 1870 was called to the Central Church, Detroit. He accepted the chair of practical theology at Garrett Biblical Institute, Evanston, Ill., in 1873; in 1879-84 he was president of the institute and in 1884 he was elected bishop. He was the president of the Epworth League, 1896-1900. Consult biography by Mary L. Ninde, his daughter (1902).
# The Essays of Montaigne/Book II/Chapter XXVI
### Chapter XXVI. Of thumbs.

Tacitus reports, that amongst certain barbarian kings their manner was, when they would make a firm obligation, to join their right hands close to one another, and intertwist their thumbs; and when, by force of straining the blood, it appeared in the ends, they lightly pricked them with some sharp instrument, and mutually sucked them.
Physicians say that the thumbs are the master fingers of the hand, and that their Latin etymology is derived from "pollere." The Greeks called them 'Avtixeip', as who should say, another hand. And it seems that the Latins also sometimes take it in this sense for the whole hand:
 "Sed nec vocibus excitata blandis,  Molli pollici nec rogata, surgit."
 ["Neither to be excited by soft words or by the thumb."  —Mart., xii. 98, 8.]
It was at Rome a signification of favour to depress and turn in the thumbs:
 "Fautor utroque tuum laudabit pollice ludum:"
 ["Thy patron will applaud thy sport with both thumbs"  —Horace.]
and of disfavour to elevate and thrust them outward:
 "Converso pollice vulgi,  Quemlibet occidunt populariter."
 ["The populace, with inverted thumbs, kill all that  come before them."—Juvenal, iii. 36]
The Romans exempted from war all such as were maimed in the thumbs, as having no more sufficient strength to hold their weapons. Augustus confiscated the estate of a Roman knight who had maliciously cut off the thumbs of two young children he had, to excuse them from going into the armies; and, before him, the Senate, in the time of the Italic war, had condemned Caius Vatienus to perpetual imprisonment, and confiscated all his goods, for having purposely cut off the thumb of his left hand, to exempt himself from that expedition. Some one, I have forgotten who, having won a naval battle, cut off the thumbs of all his vanquished enemies, to render them incapable of fighting and of handling the oar. The Athenians also caused the thumbs of the AEginatans to be cut off, to deprive them of the superiority in the art of navigation.
In Lacedaemon, pedagogues chastised their scholars by biting their thumbs.
# The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Arndt, Johann

Edition of 1920. See also Johann Arndt on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
ARNDT, or ARND, Johann, German Protestant theologian: b. Ballenstedt, Anhalt,
27 Dec 1555; d. Celle, Hanover, 11 May 1621. After having studied at Wittenberg, Strassburg and Basel, he was made pastor at Badeborn, Anhalt, 1583. This place he filled for seven years, when because of a dispute with Duke John George over procedure in the ritual he was deposed. He was, however, soon able to find another place at Quedlinburg; but here he was so much disliked by the townspeople that in 1599 he left, going then to Brunswick. In 1611 he was appointed general superintendent at Celle, Hanover, where he remained until his death. His chief works are “True Christianity” (1610); “Garden of Paradise” (1612). The best English translation of the first is that edited by Charles F. Schaeffer (1868). Of the latter the best English translation is by A. W. Boehm (1716).
# The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Arndt, Wilhelm

Edition of 1920. See also Wilhelm Arndt on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
ARNDT, Wilhelm, German historian: b. Lobsens, Posen, Prussia, 1838; d. 1895. He was graduated from the University of Göttingen and became connected with the University of Leipzig. For many years he was a collaborator on the ‘Monumenta Germaniæ Historica.’ His chief works are ‘Kleine Denkmäler aus der Merowingerzeit’ (1874); ‘Schrifttafeln zur Erlernung der lateinischen Paläographie’ (1874, 3d ed., 1898).
# The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Arthrostraca

Edition of 1920. See also Arthrostraca on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
ARTHROSTRACA, crustacea of the subclass Malacostraca in which the first, sometimes the second thoracic segment is fused with the head and bears maxillipedes; the remaining seven being free and bearing legs. The eyes are usually sessile. The group is divided into the Amphipoda (q.v.) and Isopoda (q.v.) Common examples are pill-bug, wood-louse, etc.
# The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Army ration

Edition of 1920. See also United States military ration on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
ARMY RATION. There are three varieties of the American army ration, garrison, field and emergency. The garrison ration is given soldiers at regularly established military posts; while the field ration is issued to troops in the field in active campaign. The emergency ration is a condensed ration, in which the best and most valuable nutritive elements are combined in the smallest bulk. In composition, the garrison and field ration are almost identical. Each ration, which is supposed to keep the soldier one day, furnishing breakfast, dinner and supper, consists of 20 ounces of fresh beef or mutton, 12 ounces of bacon, 16 ounces of canned meat or canned fish, 14 ounces of dried fish or 18 ounces of pickled fish, 18 ounces of flour or 20 ounces of corn meal, either 3/5 ounces of beans or peas or 1-3/5 ounces of rice or hominy, and either 16 ounces of potatoes or 12-4/5 ounces of potatoes together with 1-3/5 ounces of dried fruit, 1-3/5 ounces of coffee, and 3-1/5 ounces of sugar. The ration also includes small quantities of vinegar, salt, pepper, soap and candles.
Rations are usually computed by the hundred, and are issued for ten days. To a company of 100 men, would, therefore, be issued 1,000 rations. In the field, each soldier is supposed to carry one regular ration and one emergency ration all the time. The emergency ration is never eaten, except in case of last resort, and the regular ration is issued every day.
The army ration, it will be seen, contains none of those things which are ordinarily considered luxuries. For instance, there is no milk included in the ration, and the soldier must take his coffee black, unless he is able to purchase a can of condensed milk from the “sales store” with his “savings.” Congress has authorized the commissary to keep on hand other articles of food that are not included in the regular ration. These are kept in the “sales stores,” and are issued to the mess stewards, in return for “savings” from the regular rations. Out of a company of a hundred men there are a number who do not eat all of the articles in the ration. These would be wasted if drawn by the mess steward; therefore, when the thousand rations are issued to him, he returns to the commissary that part of the various components that he thinks will not be used. This, in the language of the army, is making a “savings” on the rations.
The value of the articles returned to the commissary is computed, and the mess steward is allowed to draw from the “sales stores” a sufficient quantity of luxuries that are not in the regular issue, equal to the value of his “saving.” The government, however, will not allow a “saving” to be made on certain articles in the ration. Fresh meat, dried or preserved fish, potatoes, onions, tomatoes, prunes, apples and peaches must be used; a “saving” cannot be made on these articles. They contain just the proper nutritive elements, and the quantities given are what the normal soldier should eat.
# The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Arndt, Ernst Moritz

Edition of 1920. See also Ernst Moritz Arndt on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
ARNDT, ärnt, Ernst Moritz, German poet and patriot: b. Schoritz, on the Island of Rügen (then Swedish territory), 26 Dec. 1769; d. Bonn, 29 Jan. 1860. His father was a prosperous peasant and gave his son a good schooling with the object of training him for the ministry. He finished his studies at Greifswald and Jena, after which, deciding that he did not want to enter the clerical profession, he visited many other countries. In 1806 he was appointed professor of history at Greifswald. Here he wrote ‘Der Geist der Zeit’ (1807), in which he attacked Napoleon with such boldness that after the battle of Jena he was obliged to flee to Sweden. Three years later he was able to return to his professorial work. In 1812, however, he was again obliged to leave the country and this time, on the invitation of Baron von Stein, he went to Russia. After the defeat of the French in Russia in that same year he returned to Prussia where he continued to advocate German unity. He was in the midst of the agitation that resulted in the War of Liberation which culminated in the battle of Leipzig. His writings, full of energy and fire, roused the German patriots during this period and several poems which he wrote then were put to music and sung by the soldiers; since then several of them have become national songs. Most notable of these, ‘Was ist des Deutschen Vaterland?,’ is now sung wherever German is spoken. In 1817 he married the sister of Schleiermacher, the great liberal preacher and theologian. The following year he was appointed professor of history in the newly-established University of Bonn, but his liberal views brought him into disfavor with the authorities and two years later he was suspended. The next 20 years of his life was spent in retirement. On the accession of Frederick Wilhelm IV to the throne of Prussia he was, in 1840, restored to his professorship at Bonn. In 1848 he was one of the deputation to offer to the King of Prussia the crown of Imperial Germany. Arndt's fame rests rather on his ability to rouse the fires of enthusiasm in others than on any great talents displayed in his work. He was immensely popular in his time and his popularity was founded on such sincere and true personal qualities that it has never since quite died out. His chief works are ‘Märchen und Jugenderinnerungen’ (1818); ‘Versuch einer Geschichte der Leibeigenschaft in Pommern und Rügen’ (1803); ‘Deutscher Volkskatechismus’ (1812); ‘Was bedeutet Landwehr und Landsturm?’ (1813); ‘Der Rhein, Deutschlands Strom aber nicht Deutschlands Grenze’ (1813); ‘Erinnerungen aus meinem äussern Leben’ (Leipzig 1840). The latter work forms the basis of E. M. Seeley's ‘Life and Adventures of E. M. Arndt’ (1879). Various biographies have been written, the best being by Schenkel (Elberfeld 1869), Langenberg (Bonn 1869) and Bauer (Hamburg 1882).
# The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Arndts von Arnesberg, Ludwig

Edition of 1920. See also Ludwig Arndts von Arnesberg on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
ARNDTS VON ARNESBERG, Ludwig, German jurist: b. Arnsberg, Prussia, 19 Aug. 1803; d. Vienna, 1 March 1878. He was first appointed professor of jurisprudence at Bonn, then held the same position at Breslau, Munich and finally, in 1855, in Vienna, where he remained until his death. In 1848 he was a member of the National Assembly at Frankfurt where he advocated strongly the right of Austria to enter the German Confederacy. In 1871 he was knighted by the Emperor of Austria. His chief works are ‘Lehrbuch der Pandekten’ (14th ed., 1899); ‘Juristische Encyclopädie und Methodologie’ (9th ed., 1895); ‘Die Lehre von den Vermächtnissen’ (3 vols., 1875); ‘Gesammelte zivilistische Schriften’ (3 vols., 1874); ‘Kritische Uberschanu der deutschen Gesetzgebung und Rechtswissenschaft’ (in collaboration with Bluntschli and Pözl, 8 vols., 1854).
# The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Arrow-Maker, The

Edition of 1920. See also The Arrow Maker on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
ARROW-MAKER, The. This play, reflective of American Indian life, especially of the Paiutes, in the Sierras, is by Mrs. Mary Austin. Presented at the New Theatre, New York, under the management of Winthrop Ames, in February 1911, certain concessions had to be made, so the author confessed, “to what was thought to be the demand for a drama of Indian life which should present the Indian more nearly as he is popularly conceived.” But, even in the presentation, care was taken that the music be reminiscent of Indian themes, that the chants be played from phonograph records of Indian ceremonials, that the dances be taught by one Chief Red Eagle, and that the costumes and properties have the authenticity of the American Museum of Natural History. When the play was revised and issued definitely in 1915 (Boston), its notes and glossary revealed Mrs. Austin's desire to make of ‘The Arrow-Maker’ an archaeologically correct representation of the Indian as known to her.
The central character in the drama, The Chisera, is a Medicine Woman of the Paiutes — who, in commune with the gods, is supposed to be as one removed from human passion. Those who come to her regard her as an intermediary, with the power of influencing the Great One. They all work her “to their best advantage.” But The Chisera tires of lonely commune and gives her love to Simwa, the Arrow-Maker. In the tribal matters that follow this complication the drama is a tragic revelation of Indian plotting and deceit. The Chisera is deserted by Simwa for the chief's daughter, and though this Medicine Woman has not been taught the potent exercise of hate, she ceases to exercise her power of intercession with the gods. And this brings misfortune to the tribe and grief to those involved in the way of Simwa and of one Padahoon, both rivals for tribal leadership. The final curtain falls on the death of The Chisera, mortally wounded by one of her own enchanted arrows.
Apart from its archaeological faithfulness, ‘The Arrow-Maker’ is a dignified attempt to write an American Indian drama. It is the latest in a long line of Indian dramas the first of which, Maj. Robert Roger's ‘Ponteach,’ was written in 1767.
# The Essays of Montaigne

First published in 1686; from the edition revised and edited in 1877 by William Carew Hazlitt
Scans
Table of Contents
* Preface
* The Life of Montaigne
* The Letters of Montaigne
This work is a translation and has a separate copyright status to the applicable copyright protections of the original content.
# The Essays of Montaigne/Book I
### Book I

* The Author to the Reader
* Chapter I. That men by various ways arrive at the same end.
* Chapter II. Of Sorrow.
* Chapter III. That our affections carry themselves beyond us.
* Chapter IV. That the soul discharges her passions upon false objects, where the true are wanting.
* Chapter V. Whether the governor of a place besieged ought himself to go out to parley.
* Chapter VI. That the hour of parley is dangerous.
* Chapter VII. That the intention is judge of our actions.
* Chapter VIII. Of idleness.
* Chapter IX. Of liars.
* Chapter X. Of quick or slow speech.
* Chapter XI. Of prognostications.
* Chapter XII. Of constancy.
* Chapter XIII. The ceremony of the interview of princes.
* Chapter XIV. That men are justly punished for being obstinate in the defence of a fort that is not in reason to be defended.
* Chapter XV. Of the punishment of cowardice.
* Chapter XVI. A proceeding of some ambassadors.
* Chapter XVII. Of fear.
* Chapter XVIII. That men are not to judge of our happiness till after death.
* Chapter XIX. That to study philosophy is to learn to die.
* Chapter XX. Of the force of imagination.
* Chapter XXI. That the profit of one man is the damage of another.
* Chapter XXII. Of custom, and that we should not easily change a law received.
* Chapter XXIII. Various events from the same counsel.
* Chapter XXIV. Of pedantry.
* Chapter XXV. Of the education of children.
* Chapter XXVI. That it is folly to measure truth and error by our own capacity.
* Chapter XXVII. Of friendship.
* Chapter XXVIII. Nine-and-twenty sonnets of Estienne de la Boetie.
* Chapter XXIX. Of moderation.
* Chapter XXX. Of cannibals.
* Chapter XXXI. That a man is soberly to judge of the divine ordinances.
* Chapter XXXII. That we are to avoid pleasures, even at the expense of life.
* Chapter XXXIII. That fortune is oftentimes observed to act by the rule of reason.
* Chapter XXXIV. Of one defect in our government.
* Chapter XXXV. Of the custom of wearing clothes.
* Chapter XXXVI. Of Cato the Younger.
* Chapter XXXVII. That we laugh and cry for the same thing.
* Chapter XXXVIII. Of solitude.
* Chapter XXXIX. A consideration upon Cicero.
* Chapter XL. That the relish of good and evil depends in a great measure upon the opinion we have of them.
* Chapter XLI. Not to communicate a man's honour.
* Chapter XLII. Of the inequality amongst us.
* Chapter XLIII. Of sumptuary laws.
* Chapter XLIV. Of sleep.
* Chapter XLV. Of the battle of Dreux.
* Chapter XLVI. Of names.
* Chapter XLVII. Of the uncertainty of our judgment.
* Chapter XLVIII. Of war-horses, or destriers.
* Chapter XLIX. Of ancient customs.
* Chapter L. Of Democritus and Heraclitus.
* Chapter LI. Of the vanity of words.
* Chapter LII. Of the parsimony of the Ancients.
* Chapter LIII. Of a saying of Caesar.
* Chapter LIV. Of vain subtleties.
* Chapter LV. Of smells.
* Chapter LVI. Of prayers.
* Chapter LVII. Of age.