# On the Economy of Machinery and Manufactures

On the
ECONOMY OF MACHINERY
AND
MANUFACTURES
By
CHARLES BABBAGE, ESQ$^{re}$. A.M.
Member of several Academies.
FOURTH EDITION ENLARGED.
LONDON.
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET
1846.
TO
The University of Cambridge,
THIS VOLUME
IS INSCRIBED
AS A TRIBUTE OF RESPECT
AND GRATITUDE
BY
THE AUTHOR.
* Preface
* Preface to Second Edition
* Preface to Third Edition
CONTENTS.
Section I.
INTRODUCTION.
statement of the object and plan of the Work. [Pages 1, 2.]
CHAPTER I.
sources of the advantages arising from machinery and manufactures. [Page 3—20.]
England peculiarly a Manufacturing Country, § 1. Its Manufactures spread throughout the World, 2. Proportions of Agricultural Population in various Countries; its gradual Increase in England, 3. Sources of the advantages derived from Machinery and Manufactures, 4.——Additions to Human Power. Experiment on Force to move a Block of Stone, 5.——Economy of Time. Gunpowder, 6. Convenience of Speaking Tubes, 7. Diamond for cutting Glass; its Hardness, 8.——Employment of Materials of little Value. Goldbeaters' Skin; horny Refuse; old Tin Ware, 9.——Of Tools, 10. To arrange Needles, 11. To place their Points in one Direction, 12. Substitute for Hand; Nail making, 13. Shoe-machinery; Sash-lines, 14.——Division of the Objects of Machinery. To produce Power; to transmit Force and execute Work; general Principles, 15. Wind; Water, 16. Steam; Force not created, 17. Economy of Time in various Modes of dividing the Root of a Tree, 18. Chinese Mode of conveying Cotton compared with European, 19.
CHAPTER II.
accumulating power.
[Page 21—26.]
When the Work requires more Force than can be produced in the time allowed for its Operation. Fly-wheel, Rolling-iron, § 20. Anecdote of punching Plate-iron, 21. Pile-engine, 22. Effects of the power of Gunpowder in expelling different charges. Le Vaillant's experiment with water substituted for shot, 23. Phenomenon of Fulminating Powder, 24. Velocity of a Wave passing through Deal, supposed to be greater than through Tallow, 25. Existence of Momentary pressures of various force in the boiler of a steam-engine, 25*. Reasoning on the Theory of Explosion, 26.
CHAPTER III.
regulating power.
[Page 27—29.]
Governor of Steam-engine. Ditto moving in Water at Chatham, § 27. Cataract for regulating Engines in Cornish Mines, 28. Uniform supply of Fuel to Steam-engine. Consuming Smoke, 29. Vane regulated by Resistance of Air. Striking Clock, 30. Suggestions for the adaptation of a Vane or Fly to an instrument for measuring the altitude of Mountains, 31.
CHAPTER IV.
increase and diminution of velocity.
[Page 30—37.]
Fatigue arising from Rapidity of muscular Exertion, contrasted with its Magnitude, § 32. Most advantageous Load for a Porter, 33. Tags of Boot-laces, 34. Spinning by Hand and by Wheel. Machines to wind Riband and Sewing Cotton, 35. Tilt-hammer driven down by a Spring, 36. Sithe-making, 37. Safety of Velocity in Skating, 38. Application of sudden force to a flat-bottomed Boat to increase the speed. Reaction of the Water, 39. Great Velocity of moving bodies an impediment to the full effect of their weight, 40. Essential importance of Rapidity in Mining Operations, 41. Window glass, 42. Smoke-jack, 43. Telegraphs, 44.
CHAPTER V.
extending the time of action of forces.
[Pages 38, 39.]
Watches and Clocks. Common Jack. Automatons, § 45. Jack useful for physical Experiments, also to agitate Chemical Solutions, and Polish Mineral Specimens, 46.
CHAPTER VI.
saving time in natural operations.
[Page 40—46.]
Tanning, § 47. Impregnation of Timber with Tar, &c. Accident to Boat of a Whaling Ship, 48. Bleaching Linen, 49. Evaporation of Water of Brine Springs, 50, 51. Deepening of Rivers in America, 52. Ascending Rapids, 53. Position of Church Clocks, 54. Defective arrangement of the Post-Office Letter-Boxes. Proposition for the remedy, 55.
CHAPTER VII.
exerting forces too great for human power, and executing operations too delicate for human touch.
[Page 47—53.]
Difficulty of making a large Number of Men act simultaneously. Statue of Peter the Great. Egyptian Drawing, § 56. Communication by Signals; Clapper of the Capstan; Rod of Iron, 57. Rivets used when Red-hot, 58. Spinning Cotton. Steam-boats, 59, 60. Damping Paper for Bank Notes, 61. Separation of dense Particles by Fluid suspension, 62, 63. Application of Heat for removing the filaments of Cotton in Muslin and Patent Net, 64.
CHAPTER VIII.
registering operations.
[Page 54—61.]
Pedometer. Counting Machines for Carriages. Steam-engine, § 65. Machine for measuring Calicoes, 66. Tell-tale, 67. Instrument to measure Liquor drawn from Casks, 68. To measure Liquor remaining in Casks, 69. Gas-meter, 70. Water-meter, 71, 72. Machine for registering the Average of
​fluctuating Forces. Barometer Clock, 73. Scapement movement of Clocks and Watches. New Instrument to denote the detents on the dial-plate of the Stop-watch, 74. Alarums, Repeating Clocks and Watches, 75. Instrument to ascertain the direction and intensity of an Earthquake in the Night; Occurrence at Odessa, 76.
CHAPTER IX.
economy of materials employed.
[Page 62—65.]
Cutting Trees into Planks, § 77. Printing-ink. Experiment, 78.
CHAPTER X.
of the identity of the work when it is of the same kind, and of its accuracy when of different kinds.
[Page 66—68.]
Top of a Box turned in Lathe, § 79. Accuracy of Work executed by Tools, 80. By Turning, 81.
CHAPTER XI.
of copying.
[Page 69—113.]
Division of subject, 82.——Of Printing from Cavities. Copperplate Printing, § 84. Engraving on Steel, 85. Music Printing, 86. Calico Printing from Cylinders, 87. Stencilling, 88. Printing Red Cotton Handkerchiefs, 89, 90.——Printing from Surface. Printing from Wooden Blocks, 92. From movable Type, 93. From Stereotype, 94. Lettering Books, 95. Calico Printing, 96. Oil-cloth Printing, 97. Letter Copying, 98. Printing on China, 99. Lithographic Printing, 100, 101. Reprinting old Works by Lithography, 102. Lithographic Printing in Colours, 103. Register Printing, 104.——Copying by Casting. Iron and Metals, 106. Casts of Vegetable Productions in Bronze, 107—109. Casts in Plaster, 110. Casting in Wax. Imitations of Plants; of the Human Body, 111.——Copying by Moulding. Bricks, Tiles, Cornice of Church of St. Stefano, 113. Embossed ​China, 114. Glass Seals, 115. Square Glass Bottles with Names, 116. Wooden Snuff-boxes, 117. Horn Knife Handles. Umbrella Handles, 118. Tobacco-pipe making, 120. Embossing on Calico; on Leather, 121, 122. Swaging, 123. Engraving by Pressure on Steel. Bank Notes. Forgery, 124, 125. Gold and Silver Mouldings, 126. Ornamental Papers, 127.——Copying by Stamping. Coins and Medals, 129. Military Ornaments, 130. Buttons and Nail Heads, 131. Clichée, 132.——Copying by Punching. Boilerplates, 134. Tinned Iron, 135. Buhl-work, 136. Cards for Guns, 137. Gilt Paper Ornaments, 138. Steel Chains 139.——Copying with Elongations. Wire Drawing, 141. Brass Tube Drawing, 142 Leaden Pipes, 143. Iron Rolling, 144, 145. Vermicelli, 146.——Copying with altered Dimensions. Pentagraph, 147. Turning, 148. Rose Engine Turning, 149. Copying Dies by Lathes, 150. Shoe Lasts, 151. Copying Busts, 152. Screw-cutting, 153. Printing from Copper Plates with altered Dimensions, 154. Engraving from Medals, 155—157. Veils made by Caterpillars. Weight of various Fabrics, 158. Copying through six Stages in Printing this volume, 159.
CHAPTER XII.
on the method of observing manufactories.
[Page 114—118.]
Skeleton, General Inquiries, § 160. Skeleton for each Process, 161.
Section II.
On the Domestic and Political Economy of Manufactures.
CHAPTER XIII.
on the difference between making and manufacturing.
[Page 119—122.]
Economical Principle, § 163. Difference between Making and Manufacturing; Expedition and profitable advantage of the latter, 164.
CHAPTER XIV.
of money as a medium of exchange.
[Page 123—133.]
Introduction of Metals as Currency, § 166. Base and Spurious Coins, 167. Sub-division of Money; by decimals, 168, 169, Property valued by the Standard of Currency, 170. Paper Medium, 171. Banking-houses, 172. The Clearing-house, 173, 174. Economy of the Paper medium; Security of the Metallic medium; Depreciation of Coin; Depreciation of Paper, 176. Inconvenience in the deficiency of Supply, 177. Superabundance of Coin the reduction of a paper issue, 178. Effects of reduction in the value of Money, 179.
CHAPTER XV.
on the influence of verification on price.
[Page 134—146.]
Modification of general Principles, § 181. Verification of Sugar, Tea, Flour, 182. Doctoring Trefoil, and Clover, 183. Flax, 184. Difficulty of distinguishing "single press" Lace, 185. Stockings, 186. Watches, 187. Measures of articles of Linen Drapery, 188. Apothecaries and Druggists, 189. Impossibility of verifying the Value of Plated Ware, 190. Effect of Number of Proprietors on Price, 191. Loss incurred in ascertaining the Legality of Price; Conveyance of Parcels, 192. Verification by Name, 193. Ice. Oil of Cajeput, 194. Stock Purchases, 195. Forestalling, 196.
CHAPTER XVI.
on the influence of durability on price.
[Page 147—151.]
Degree of Durability in Articles. Paper, Pens, Precious Stones, § 197. Tables, Chairs, 198. Looking-glasses, 199. Copper, Gold, Iron, Lead, Silver, 200.
CHAPTER XVII.
on price, as measured by money.
[Page 152—162.]
List of Prices of various Articles in 1818, 1824, 1828, 1830, § 201. Another List, for 1812, 1832, § 202. Advice about such Lists, 203. Causes of Alteration of Money Price, 204. Table of Elements of Alteration, 205. Price of Plate Glass in London, Paris, and Berlin. Price of large Plates, 206. Comparative Calculation, 207. Middle-men, 208. Middle-men of Italy, 209.
CHAPTER XVIII.
of raw materials.
[Page 163—168.]
Nature of Raw Material, § 210. Gold and Silver Leaf, 211. Venetian Gold Chains, 212. Watch-spring, 213. Tables of Price of Raw Material and Labour in various Manufacture of France, 214. Price of Bar-iron in various Countries, 215. Price of Lead, 216.
CHAPTER XIX.
on the division of labour.
[Page 169—190.]
Causes of its Advantages, § 217. Time required for learning an Art, 218. Waste of Materials in learning, 219. Time lost in changing Occupation; change of Tools, 220, 221. Skill acquired by frequent Repetition of the same Process. Nail-making; Signing Bank Notes, 222, 223. Contrivance of Tools, 224. New Principle of the Advantage of the Division of Labour, 225, 226. Pin-making, English, 228—235. Table of Cost of making English Pins, 236. Ditto French Pins, 237, 238. American Pin-making Machine, 239. Examination of its Merits, 240
CHAPTER XX.
on the division of mental labour.
[Page 191—202.]
Great French Tables of Logarithms, § 241—246. On performing Arithmetical Calculations by Machinery, 247. Explanation of Mathematical Principle. Table of Square Numbers with Differences, 248. Illustration by three Clocks, 249. Distribution of Labour in Mines, 252.
CHAPTER XXI.
on the cost of each separate process in a manufacture.
[Page 203—210.]
Comparative Value of Cotton of Java in various Stages of Manufacture, § 255. Statement of Expense of printing the present Volume, 256. Observations on Statement, 257—259. Effect of Duty on Paper, 260. Charge for Advertisements, 261, 262.
CHAPTER XXII.
on the causes and consequences of large factories.
[Page 211—224.]
Principle on which large Factories are established, § 263. Transport of Materials, 264. Machine for making Patent-net working eight Hours a-day. Same Machine working twenty-four Hours requires three Sets of Men. Porter to admit different Sets of Workmen. Workman to keep Machines in Repair, 265. Application of Steam to Weaving, 266. Lighting by Gas, 267. Accountant's Department, 268. Effects of large Factories, 269. Economy of Raw Produce; exemplified in Horns, 270. Middle-men. Confidence in Character, 271. Extent of Confidence, 272. Breach of Confidence: Needles without Eyes, 273. Instance of Confidence, 274. Drawbacks, 275. Sending Agents to distant Countries. Extract from the Report of the Committee of the House of Commons relating to Factory System, 276.
CHAPTER XXIII.
on the position of large factories.
[Page 225—230.]
In the Line of Cheap Modes of Conveyance; Fuel, Water, Power, § 277. Mississippi, 278. Steam-boats on that River, note. Accumulation of Factories establishes regular Markets, 279. Removal of Factories, 280, 281. Facilities for removing different Machines, 282. Important Suggestions to Workmen on this Subject, 283.
CHAPTER XXIV.
on over-manufacturing.
[Page 231—241.]
Periodical. Effect where there are not large Establishments. System of Compensation, § 284. Effect on large Factories. Two Remedies, 285. Diminished Production. Diminished Cost of Production, 286. Effects in driving Capital to other Employments, 287. New mode of smelting Iron to meet reduction of Profits; Statement at the Clyde Iron-Works, 288. Observations on the practicability of the New Mode, objections stated, and conclusions drawn, 289—297.
CHAPTER XXV.
inquiries previous to commencing any manufactory.
[Page 242—249.]
Expense of Tools and Machines. Supply of Raw Material, § 298, 299. Probable Demand. Dolls' Eyes, 300. Tolls on Steam-carriages. Effect of Atmosphere, of Wheels, and of Horses' Feet on Roads, 301. Draught of Carriages over various kinds of Roads. Draught up various Inclinations at six, eight, and ten Miles per Hour, 302. Time in which Returns can be made; Facility of introducing new Articles, 303. Probable Opposition to new Manufacture, 304.
CHAPTER XXVI.
on a new system of manufacturing.
[Page 250—259.]
Opposition of Workmen, § 305. Participation in the Profits by Workmen; the Mines in Cornwall, Flintshire, Yorkshire ​and Cumberland, 306, 307. Proposed new Plan of Remuneration; Union of Small Capitals; Division of Profit; Reward for Improvements; Occupation in Slackness; Removal of causes for Combination: Objections met as to Partnerships and refractory Artisans; Whaling Ships, 308—317.
CHAPTER XXVII.
on contriving machinery.
[Page 260—267.]
Power of inventing Mechanical Contrivances not very rare. Projects to prevent Forgery of Bank-notes, § 318. Best Combinations of Machinery rare. Drawings to be made to determine all the Movements, 319. Experiments for all the physical or chemical circumstances. Punching Letters on Copper, 320. Causes of Failure in Machines, 321. Want of Stiffness in Framing, 322. Experiment should be tried with good Workmanship, 323. Same Experiment repeated at distant Intervals, 324. Expense of new Machine, 326 Advice to Projectors, 327, 328.
CHAPTER XXVIII.
proper circumstances for the application of machinery.
[Page 268—282.]
When many things of the same kind are required, § 329. Where few things perfectly accurate are required, 330. Where Economy of Time is required. Newspapers, 331. "The Times," 332. "Chambers' Journal," 333. Conveyance of Letters, 334. Steam-carriages, 337. Diving Vessel, 338. Slide of Alpnach, 339.
CHAPTER XXIX.
on the duration of machinery.
[Page 283—292.]
Engines to produce Power last long, § 340. Improvements increase Production, 341—344. Age of Watches, 345. Machines let for Hire. Unexpected Effect of a Change in the ​Rent of Stocking Frames, 346. Stamps, and Dies, and Steam Power let out, 349. Suggestions on Steam and Air; practice at the Mint, 350. Cheaply manufactured articles less durable, 352.
CHAPTER XXX.
on combinations amongst masters or workmen against each other.
[Page 293—311.]
Rules in particular Factories, § 353. Larger Societies, 359. Objects of them, 360. Effects, 361. Gun Barrels, 362. Fear of Combination causes Expense; Coal and Iron Works, 366. Cause of Removal of Factories, 368. The Truck System, 371. Payment of Wages in Goods, 375.
CHAPTER XXXI.
on combinations of masters against the public.
[Page 312—333.]
Instances, § 376. Gas and Water Companies, 377. Coal-owners, 379. Booksellers, 380. Profits on the present Volume, 381. Combination of Booksellers, 384—400. Remedy proposed, 401. Reviews, 402.
CHAPTER XXXII.
on the effect of machinery in reducing the demand for labour.
[Page 334—341.]
Competition between Machine and Hand Labour, § 404. Machines do not throw human labour out of employ; Crushing Mill in Cornwall; the Stretcher; weaving by Hand and Power Loom, 407—412.
CHAPTER XXXIII.
on the effect of taxes and of legal restrictions upon manufactures.
[Page 342—363.]
Taxes on Paper, on Windows, § 414, 415. Excise Regulations, 416, 417. Effects of Duties, 418. Insurance on ​Smuggling, 419. Effects of Mode of Taxation on Manufactures, 420—422. Bounties, 423. Effects of Removal of a Monopoly in the Bobbin-net Trade, 425. Present State of that Trade, 427—429. Number and Distribution of Machines, 430. Of Patents, 432. Expense, 433. Of Copyright, 434. Of limited Partnerships, 435. Restrictions on Emigration, 436.
CHAPTER XXXIV.
on the exportation of machinery.
[Page 364—378.]
Reason for and against, § 437. Competition between Manufacturer in poor and in rich Country, 439. Impossible to prevent Exportation of all whilst that of any is permitted, 442. Makers of new Machines interested in supplying the Home Market, 443. Foreign Orders charged higher, 444. Comparison of internal Communications in England and France, 451. Manchester Rail-Road, 452.
CHAPTER XXXV.
on the future prospects of manufactures, as connected with science.
[Page 379—392.]
Union of Theory and Practice, § 453. Difficulties opposed to Cultivation of Abstract Science, 454. Royal Society, 455. British Association for the Promotion of Science, 456. Effect of Public Opinion on Science, 458. Manufacturers discovered Iodine and Brome, 460. Peruvian Bark, 461 Views of the Future, 463. Conclusion.
* Additions
* Index
Layout 2
This work was published before January 1, 1929, and is in the public domain worldwide because the author died at least 100 years ago.
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