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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Penthouse

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​PENTHOUSE, a sloping roof attached to a building either to serve as a porch or a covering for an arcade, or, if supported by walls, as a shed, a “lean-to.” In the history of siege craft, the word is particularly applied to the fixed or movable constructions used to protect the besiegers when mining, working battering-rams, catapults, &c., and is thus used to translate Lat. vinea and pluteus, and also testudo the shelter of locked shields of the Romans. The Mid. Eng. form of the word is pentis, an adaptation of O. Fr. apentis, Med. Lat. appenditium or appendicium, a small structure attached to, or dependent on, another building, from appendere, to hang on to. The form “penthouse” is due to a supposed connexion with “house” and Fr. pente, sloping roof. The more correct form “pentice” is now frequently used.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Penumbra

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​PENUMBRA (Lat. paene, almost, umbra, a shadow), in astronomy, the partial shadow of a heavenly body as cast by the sun. It is defined by the region in which the light of the sun is partially but not wholly cut off through the interception of a dark body. (See Eclipse.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Penthièvre, Counts of

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​PENTHIÈVRE, COUNTS OF. In the 11th and 12th Centuries the countship of Penthièvre in Brittany (dep. of Côtes-du-Nord) belonged to a branch of the sovereign house of Brittany. Henry d’Avaugour, heir of this dynasty, was dispossessed of the countship in 1235 by the duke of Brittany, Pierre Mauclerc, who gave it as dowry to his daughter, Yolande, on her marriage in 1238 to Hugh of Lusignan, count of La Marche. Duke John I. of Brittany, Yolande’s brother, seized the count ship on her death in 1272. In 1337 Joan of Brittany brought Penthièvre to her husband, Charles de Chatillon-Blois. In 1437 Nicole de Blois, a descendant of this family, married Jean de Brosse, and was deprived of Penthièvre by the duke of Brittany, Francis II., in 1465. The countship, which was restored to Sebastian of Luxemburg, heir of the Brosses through his mother, was erected for him into a duchy in the peerage of France (duché-pairie) in 1569, and was afterwards held by the duchess of Mercœur, daughter of the first duke of Penthièvre, and then by her daughter, the duchess of Vendôme. The duchess of Vendôme’s grandson, Louis Joseph, inherited Penthièvre in 1669, but it was taken from him by decree in 1687 and adjudged to Anne Marie de Bourbon, princess of Conti. In 1696 it was sold to the count of Toulouse, whose son bore the title of duke of Penthièvre. This title passed by inheritance to the house of Orleans.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pentstemon

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​PENTSTEMON, in botany, a genus of plants (nat. order Scrophulariaceae), chiefly natives of North America, with showy open-tubular flowers. The pentstemon of the florist has, however, sprung from P. Hartwegii and P. Cobaea, and possibly some others. The plants endure English winters unharmed in favoured situations. They are freely multiplied by cuttings, selected from the young side shoots, planted early in September, and kept in a close cold frame till rooted. They winter safely in cold frames, protected by mats or litter during frost. They produce seed freely, new kinds being obtained by that means. When special varieties are not required true from cuttings, the simplest way to raise pentstemons is to sow seed in heat (65° F.) early in February, afterwards pricking the seedlings out and hardening them off, so as to be ready for the open air by the end of May. Plants formerly known under the name of Chelone (e.g. C. barbata, C. campanulata) are now classed with the pentstemons.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Penza (town)

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​PENZA, a town of Russia, capital of the government of the same name, 492 m. by rail S E from Moscow. It stands on a plateau 567 ft. above the sea, at the confluence of the Penza with the navigable Sura. Pop. (1897), 61,851. The older parts of the town are constructed of wood, but the newer parts are well built. The cathedral was erected in 1820–1821. Penza has technical schools, public libraries, a museum of antiquities, and a theatre which has played some part in the history of the Russian stage. The bulk of the inhabitants support themselves by agriculture or fishing in the Sura. An imperial botanical garden is situated within two miles of the town. Apart from paper-mills and steam flour-mills, the manufacturing establishments are small. There is a trade in corn, oil, tallow, timber and spirits, and two fairs where cattle and horses are sold.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pentelicus

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​PENTELICUS (Βριλησσός, or Πεντελικὸν ὄρος from the deme Πεντέλη; mod. Mendeli), a mountain to the N.E. of the Athenian plain, height 3640 ft. Its quarries of white marble were not regularly worked until after the Persian wars; of this material all the chief buildings of Athens were constructed, as well as the sculpture with which they were ornamented. The ancient quarries are mostly on the south side of the mountain. The best modern quarries are on the north side. The top of Pentelicus commands a view over the plain of Marathon, and from it the Athenian traitors gave the signal to the Persians by a flashing shield on the day of the battle. There was a statue of Athena on the mountain.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pentheus

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​PENTHEUS, in Greek legend, successor of Cadmus as king of Thebes. When Dionysus, with his band of frenzied women (Maenads) arrived at Thebes (his native place and the first city visited by him in Greece), Pentheus denied his divinity and violently opposed the introduction of his rites. His mother Agave having joined the revellers on Mount Cithaeron, Pentheus followed and climbed a lofty pine to watch the proceedings. Being discovered he was torn to pieces by Agave and others, who mistook him for some wild beast. His head was carried back to Thebes in triumph by his mother. Labdacus and Lycurgus, who offered a similar resistance, met with a like fearful end. Some identify Pentheus with Dionysus himself in his character as the god of the vine, torn to pieces by the violence of winter. The fate of Pentheus was the subject of lost tragedies by Thespis and Pacuvius.
See Euripides, Bacchae, passim; Ovid, Metam. iii. 511; Theocritus xxvi; Apollodorus iii. 5, 2; Nonnus, Dionysiaca, xliv–xlvi; on representations in art see O. Jahn, Pentheus und die Mainaden (1841).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Xenia

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​XENIA, a city and the county-seat of Greene county, Ohio, U.S.A., in the township of Xenia, about 3 m. E. of the Little Miami river, and about 55 m. S.W. of Columbus and about 65 m. N.E. of Cincinnati. Pop. (1900) 8696, of whom 410 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 8706. Xenia is served by the Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton, and the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis (Pennsylvania System) railways, and by interurban electric lines to Springfield and Dayton. It is the seat of the Ohio Soldiers’ and Sailors’ Orphans’ Home and of the Xenia Theological Seminary (United Presbyterian; founded in 1794 at Service, Pa., and united in 1874 with the Theological Seminary of the North-West, founded in 1839 at Oxford, Ohio). About 3 m. N.E., at Wilberforce, is Wilberforce University (co-educational; opened in 1856 and reorganized in 1863), conducted by the African Methodist Episcopal Church. The public buildings of Xenia include a public library, the county court-house and the municipal building. Xenia is situated in a fine farming and stock-raising region, and among its manufactures are cordage and twine, boots and shoes, carriages and machinery. The township was first settled about 1797. Xenia was laid out as a village in 1803, was incorporated as a town in 1808 and was chartered as a city in 1870.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Xanthi

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​XANTHI (Turkish Eskije), a town of European Turkey in the vilayet of Adrianople; situated on the right bank of the river Eskije and at the S. foot of the Rhodope Mountains, 29 m. W. of Gumuljina by the Constantinople-Salonica railway. Pop. (1905) about 14,000, of whom the bulk are Turks and Greeks in about equal proportions, and the remainder (about 4000) Armenians, Roman Catholics or Jews. There are remains of a medieval citadel, and on the plain to the S. the ruins of an ancient Greek town. Xanthi is built in the form of an amphitheatre and possesses several mosques, churches and monasteries, a theatre with a public garden, and a municipal garden. A preparatory school for boys and girls was founded and endowed by Mazzini. The town is chiefly notable for the famous Yénidjé tobacco.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Xanthic Acid

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​XANTHIC ACID (xanthogenic acid), C$_2$H$_5$O⋅CS⋅SH, an organic acid named from the Greek ξανθός, yellow, in allusion to the bright yellow colour of its copper salt. The salts of this acid are formed by the action of carbon bisulphide on the alcoholates, or on alcoholic solutions of the caustic alkalis. They react with the alkyl iodides to form dialkyl esters of the dithio-carbonic acid, which readily decompose into mercaptans and thiocarbamic esters on treatment with ammonia: C$_2$H$_5$O⋅CS⋅SR₁+NH$_3$ = C$_2$H$_5$O⋅CS⋅NH$_2$+R₁⋅SH; with the alkali alcoholates they give salts of the alkyl thiocarbonic acids: C$_2$H$_5$O⋅CS⋅SR+CH$_3$OK+H$_2$O = CH$_3$O⋅CO⋅SK+C$_2$H$_5$OH+R⋅SH. Ethyl xanthic acid, C$_2$H$_5$O⋅CS⋅SH, is obtained by the action of dilute sulphuric acid on the potassium salt at 0° C. (Zeise, Berz. Jahresb., 3, p. 83). It is a colourless oil which is very unstable, decomposing at 25° C. into carbon bisulphide and alcohol. The potassium salt crystallizes in colourless needles and is formed by shaking carbon bisulphide with a solution of caustic potash in absolute alcohol. On the addition of cupric sulphate to its aqueous solution it yields a yellow precipitate of cupric xanthate. Potassium xanthate is used in indigo printing and also as an antidote for phylloxera. Tschugaeff (Ber., 1899, 32, p. 3332) has used the xanthic ester formation for the preparation of various terpenes, the methyl ester when distilled under slightly diminished pressure decomposing, in the sense of the equation, C$_n$H$_{2n-1}$⋅O.CS⋅SCH$_3$ = C$_n$H$_{2n-2}$+COS+CH$_3$SH. According to the author molecular change in the hydrocarbon is prevented, since no acid agent is used.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Xanthus

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​XANTHUS (mod. Gunük), an ancient city of Lycia, on the river Xanthus (Eshen Chai) about 8 m. above its mouth. It was besieged by the Persian general Harpagus (546 B.C.), when the acropolis was burned and all the inhabitants perished (Herod. i. 176). The city was afterwards rebuilt; and in 42 B.C. it was besieged by the Romans under M. Junius Brutus. It was taken by storm and set on fire, and the inhabitants perished in the flames. The ruins lie on a plateau, high above the left bank of the river. The nearest port is Kalamaki, whence a tedious ride of three to four hours round the edge of the great marsh of the Eshen Chai brings the traveller to Xanthus. The whole plan of the city with its walls and gates can be discerned. The well-preserved theatre is remarkable for a break in the curve of its auditorium, which has been constructed so as not to interfere with a sarcophagus on a pedestal and with the “Harpy Monument” which still stands to its full height, robbed of the reliefs of its parapet (now in the British Museum). In front of the theatre stands the famous stele of Xanthus inscribed on all four sides in Lycian and Greek. Behind the theatre is a terrace on which probably the temple of either the Xanthian Apollo or Sarpedon stood. The best of the tombs—the “Payava Tomb,” the “Nereid Monument,” the “Ionic Monument” and the “Lion Tomb”—are in the British Museum, as the result of Sir Chas. Fellows’s expedition; only their bases can be seen on the site. A fine triple gateway, much polygonal masonry, and the walls of the acropolis are the other objects of most interest.
See O. Benndorf and G. Niemann, Reisen in Lykien und Karien (1884). (D. G. H.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Xanthippe

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​XANTHIPPE, the wife of Socrates (q.v.). Her name has become proverbial in the sense of a nagging, quarrelsome woman. Attempts have been made to show that she has been maligned, notably by E. Zeller (“Zur Ehrenrettung der Xanthippe,” in his Vorträge und Abhandlungen, i., 1875).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nepenthes

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​NEPENTHES (Gr. νηπενθές, sc. φάρμακον, a drug that takes away grief, from νη- privative, and πένθος, “grief”), an Egyptian drug spoken of by Homer in the Odyssey (iv. 221). Generally in the form “nepenthe” the name is given to any drug having a like property, and also occasionally to the herb or plant from which such a drug is produced. It is also applied to a special genus of plants, chiefly East Indian, known as the “pitcher-plants,” on account of the formation of the leaves.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nepos, Cornelius

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​NEPOS, CORNELIUS (c. 99–24 B.C.), Roman historian, friend of Catullus, Cicero and Atticus, was born in Upper Italy (perhaps at Verona or Ticinum). He wrote: Chronica, an epitome of universal history; Exempla, a collection of anecdotes after the style of Valerius Maximus; letters to Cicero; lives of Cato the elder and Cicero; and De viris illustribus, parallel lives of distinguished Romans and foreigners, in sixteen books. One section of this voluminous work (De excellentibus ducibus exterarum gentium, more commonly known as Vitae excellentium imperatorum) and the biographies of Cato and Atticus from another (De Latinis historicis) have been preserved. Erotic poems and a geographical treatise are also attributed to him. Nepos is not altogether happy in the subjects of his biographies, and he writes rather as a panegyrist than as a biographer, although he can rebuke his own countrymen on occasion. The Lives contain many errors (especially in chronology), but supply information not found elsewhere. The language is as a rule simple and correct. The Lives were formerly attributed to Aemilius Probus of the 4th century A.D.; but the view maintained by Lambinus (in his famous edition, 1569)—that they are all the work of Nepos—is now generally accepted. A dedicatory epigram written by Probus to the emperor Theodosius and inserted after the life of Hannibal, was the origin of the mistake. This dedication, if genuine, would only prove that Probus copied (and perhaps modified and abridged) the work. In modern times G. F. Unger (Der sogenannte C.N., 1881) has attempted to prove that the author was Hyginus, but his theory has not been favourably received.
Editions of the Lives (especially selections) are extremely numerous; text by E. O. Winstedt (Oxford, 1904), C. L. Roth (1881), C. G. Cobet (1881), C. Halm and A. Fleckeisen (1889), with lexicon for school use; with notes, O. Browning and W. R. Inge (1888), J. C. Rolfe (U.S. 1894), A. Weidner and J. Schmidt (1902), C. Erbe (1892), C. Nipperdey and B. Lupus (ed. maj., 1879, school ed., 1895), J. Siebelis and O. Stange (1897).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nepi

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​NEPI (anc. Nepet or Nepete), a town and episcopal see of Italy, in the province of Rome, 71/2 m. S.W. of the town of Civita Castellana, 738 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 2973. The site, surrounded by ravines and accessible only on the W., is naturally strong and characteristic of an Etruscan town; on this side there is a considerable fragment of the ancient Etruscan wall, built of rectangular blocks of tufa (whether the rest of the site was protected by walls is uncertain), and a ruined castle, erected by Antonio da Sangallo the elder in 1499, for Pope Alexander VI., and restored by Pope Paul III. The municipio (town hall) is from the designs of Vignola, and contains some ancient ​inscriptions. The cathedral was burnt down by the French in 1789 and restored in 1831. A mile and a half E.N.E. is the Romanesque church of S Elia, founded about A.D. 1000, with frescoes of the period. It contains a pulpit of the time of Pope Gregory IV. (827–844), the sculptures of which are scattered about the church (F. Mazzanti in Nuovo Bollettino d’Archeologia Cristiana, 1896, 34).
Nepet had become Roman before 386 B.C., when Livy speaks of it and Sutrium as the keys of Etruria. In that year it was surrendered to the Etruscans and recovered by the Romans, who beheaded the authors of its surrender. It became a colony in 383 B.C. It was among the twelve Latin colonies that refused further help to Rome in 209 B.C. After the Social War it became a municipium. It is hardly mentioned in imperial times, except as a station on the road (Via Amerina) which diverged from the Via Cassia near the modern Settevene and ran to Ameria and Tuder. In the 8th century A.D. it was for a short while the seat of a dukedom.
See G. Dennis, Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria (London, 1883, i. 82). (T. As.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nephew

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​NEPHEW, the son of a brother or sister. The word is adapted from Fr. neveu, Lat. nepos (originally “grandson” or “descendant”). The O. Eng. nefa survived in the form neve till the 15th century; this represents the Teutonic branch, cf. Ger. Neffe, Dutch neef; the ultimate root is seen in the cognate Gr. νέποδες, “descendants,” ἀνεψιός, “kinsman,” and Sans. napāt, napt, “descendants” or “descendant.” The correlative “niece,” the daughter of a brother or sister, is from Fr. nièce, Lat. neptis, the feminine form of nepos; the O. Eng. word was nift, cf. Ger. Nichte. A euphemistic use of “nephew” is that of the natural son of a pope, cardinal or other ecclesiastic; and from the practice of granting preferments to such children the word “nepotism” is used of any favouritism shown in finding positions for a man’s family.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nepomuk, John of

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​NEPOMUK (or Pomuk), JOHN OF, the national saint of Bohemia. It is necessary to distinguish between the John of Nepomuk of history and the legendary one. In 1393 a dispute arose between King Wenceslaus IV. of Bohemia and the archbishop of Prague, John of Jenzenstein. Wenceslaus, wishing to found a new bishopric in south-western Bohemia, determined to seize the revenues of the abbey of Kladrub as soon as the aged abbot Raček should die. The archbishop opposed this plan, and by his orders his vicar-general, John of Pomuk—son of a German named Wölfel, a citizen of Pomuk—advised the monks to elect a new abbot immediately after Raček’s death. This greatly incensed the king, who summoned the archbishop and some of his clergy—among whom was Pomuk—to appear before him. He ordered them to be immediately arrested, and though the archbishop escaped his four companions—among them Pomuk—were seized and subjected to cruel torture. They were ordered to abandon the archbishop. Three of them consented, but Pomuk, who refused to submit and was already on the point of death, was carried to the bridge of Prague and thrown into the Vltava. It is difficult to connect this historical event with the legend of St John of Nepomuk, who was canonized by the church of Rome in 1729, mainly by the influence of the Jesuits, who hoped that this new cult would obliterate the memory of Hus. The Austrian chronicler Thomas Ebendorffer of Haselbach, who lived two generations later, first states that it was reported that King Wenceslaus had ordered that the confessor of his queen—an office that John of Pomuk never held—should be thrown into the Vltava because he would not reveal the secret of confession. The story is afterwards told in greater detail by the untrustworthy Bohemian historian Wenceslaus Hajek. It appears certain that the person canonized in 1729 was not the historical John of Pomuk or Nepomuk.
See A. H. Wratislaw, Life, Legend and Canonization of St John Nepomuk (1873), a valuable work founded on the best Bohemian authorities; also A. Frind, Der geschichtliche Heilige Johann von Nepomuk (1861); O. Abel, Die Legende vom heiligen Johann von Nepomuk (1855); and particularly vol. iii. of W. W. Tomek’s History of the Town of Prague (Czech) (12 vols., Prague, 1855–1901).
# 2 John

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2 John is a book of the Bible.
English-language translations of Ioannou 2 include:
* "2 Joon" in the Wycliffe version (first printing, c. 1384)
* "2 Joon" in the Wycliffe version (revised by Purvey et al., c. 1394)
* "2 John" in the Tyndale version (1526)
* "2 John" in the Coverdale version (1535)
* "2 John" in the Geneva version (1560)
* "2 John" in the Bishops' version (1568)
* "2 John" in the Douay–Rheims version (first printing, 1582–1610)
* "2 John" in the King James version (first printing, 1611)
* "2 John" in the Douay–Rheims version (illustrated version, 1633–1635)
* "2 John" in the Douay–Rheims version (Challoner's revision, 1749–1952)
* "2 John" in the King James version (Oxford text, 1769)
* "2 John" in the Thomson version (1808)
* "2 John" in the Webster's version (1833)
* "2 John" in the English Revised version (1885)
* "2 John" in the Young's Literal Translation version (1898)
* "2 John" in the American Standard version (1901)
* "2 John" in the King James version (tercentenary printing, 1911)
* "2 John" in the Emphasised Bible version (1916)
* "2 John" in the Basic English version (1941–1949)
* "2 John" in the World English version (in progress since 1997)
* "2 John" in the Wikisource edition (in progress since 2006)
* "2 John" in the Literal Standard Version (2020)
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