OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Manzanillo (Cuba)

See also Manzanillo, Cuba on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​MANZANILLO, an important commercial city of Cuba, in Santiago province, on the gulf of Guacanabo, about 17 m. S. of the mouth of the Rio Cauto, on the shore of Manzanillo Bay. Pop. (1907), 15,819. It is shut off to the east and south by the Sierra Maestra. Besides the Cauto, the rivers Yara and Buey are near the city. Manzanillo is the only coast town of importance between Trinidad and Santiago. It exports large quantities of sugar, hides, tobacco, and bees-wax; also some cedar and mahogany. The history of the settlement begins in 1784, but the port was already important at that time for a trade in woods and fruits; French and English corsairs resorted thither for ship-building woods. The settlement was sacked by the French in 1792, and in the following year a fort was built for its protection. In 1833 it received an ayuntamiento (council) and in 1837, for its “loyalty” in not following the lead of Santiago in proclaiming the Spanish Constitution, received from the crown the title of Fiel. In 1827 the port was opened to commerce, national and foreign.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Manzolli, Pier Angelo

See also Pier Angelo Manzolli on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​MANZOLLI, PIER ANGELO, Italian author, was born about the end of the fifteenth century at La Stellata, near Ferrara. He wrote a poem entitled Zodiacus vitae, published at Basel in 1543, and dedicated to Hercules II. of Ferrara. The poem is full of didactic writing on the subject of human happiness in connexion with scientific knowledge, and combines metaphysical speculation with satirical attacks on ecclesiastical hypocrisy, and especially on the Pope and on Luther. It was translated into several languages, but fell under the ban of the Inquisition on the ground of its rationalizing tendencies.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Petropolis

See also Petropolis on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​PETROPOLIS, a city of the state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in an elevated valley of the Serra de Estrella, 2634 ft. above sea level and 27 m. N of the city of Rio de Janeiro, with which it is connected by a combined railway and steamship line, and also by a longer railway line. Pop. of the municipality (1900) 20,331, a large percentage being summer residents, as the census was taken late in December, (1902, municipal census, 18,373). Petropolis is served by the Principe do Grão Pará railway, now a part of the Leopoldina system, which connects with Rio de Janeiro and Nictheroy on the coast, and with the station of Entre Rios on the Central of Brazil railway. Its altitude gives the city a cool invigorating climate, making it a favourite summer residence for the well to-do classes of Rio. The rainfall is abundant, and especially so in summer (December to March) when the humidity is extreme. Vegetation is luxuriant and comprises a great variety of tropical and sub-tropical species. The city is built in a large, irregularly shaped basin formed by streams which converge to form the Piabanha river, a tributary of the Parahyba do Sul. Among the public buildings are the old imperial palace, a modern summer residence of the national executive and a municipal hall. Although Petropolis is not a commercial centre, its water-power and cool climate are making it an important manufacturing town Among the products are cotton fabrics and garments, beer, and Camembert and Brie cheeses.
Petropolis was founded in 1845 by Julius Frederick Koler under the auspices of the emperor of Brazil, Dom Pedro II, on lands purchased by his father, Dom Pedro I., in 1822. The place was previously known as Corrego Secco, which Dr George Gardner described in 1837 as “a small, miserable village.” The first emperor planned to establish there a German colony, but the plan was not realized until 1845, when about 2700 colonists from Germany were located there. Its growth was slow, but the choice of the place by the emperor as a summer residence drew thither many of the wealthy residents of the capital. The Mauá railway was opened to the foot of the serra (Raiz da Serra) in 1854, and the macadamized road up the serra to the town in 1856. The mountain section of the railway, on the Riggenbach system, was completed in 1883. Petropolis has since become the summer residence of the diplomatic corps and of the higher officials of the Federal government, and was the capital of the state of Rio de Janeiro from 1893 to 1902.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pettenkofer, Max Joseph von

See also Max Joseph von Pettenkofer on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​PETTENKOFER, MAX JOSEPH VON (1818–1901), Bavarian chemist and hygienist, was born on the 3rd of December 1818 at Lichtenheim, near Neuburg. He was a nephew of Franz Xaver Pettenkofer (1783–1850), who from 1823 was surgeon and apothecary to the Bavarian court and was the author of some chemical investigations on the vegetable alkaloids He studied pharmacy and medicine at Munich, where he graduated M.D. in 1843, and after working under Liebig at Giessen was appointed chemist to the Munich mint in 1845. Two years later he was chosen extraordinary professor of chemistry in the medical faculty, in 1853 he received the ordinary professorship, and in 1865 he became also professor of hygiene. In 1894 he retired from active work, and on the 10th of February 1901 he shot himself in a fit of depression at his home on the Starnberger See, near Munich. In his earlier years he devoted himself to chemistry, both theoretical and applied, publishing papers on the preparation of gold and platinum, numerical relations between the atomic weights of analogous elements, the formation of aventurine glass, the manufacture of illuminating gas from wood, the preservation of oil-paintings, &c. The reaction known by his name for the detection of bile acids was published in 1844. In his widely used method for the quantitative determination of carbonic acid the gaseous mixture is shaken up with baryta or lime water of known strength and the change in alkalinity ascertained by means of oxalic acid. But his name is most familiar in connexion with his work in practical hygiene, as an apostle of good water, fresh air and proper sewage disposal. His attention was drawn to this subject about 1850 by the unhealthy condition of Munich.
Pettenkofer gave vigorous expression to his views on hygiene and disease in numerous books and papers; he was an editor of the Zeitschrift für Biologie from 1865 to 1882, and of the Archiv für Hygiene from 1883 to 1894.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Petrucci, Pandolfo

See also Pandolfo Petrucci on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​PETRUCCI, PANDOLFO (d. 1512), tyrant of Siena, spent the greater part of his youth in exile, on account of the civil strife by which his native town of Siena was torn; but on the triumph of the party of the Noveschi (those who supported the Council of Nine) in 1487 he was able to return home. On the death of his brother Giacopo, one of the most powerful men in the city, Pandolfo succeeded to all the latter’s offices and emoluments (1497), thus becoming in fact if not in name master of Siena. By his marriage with Aurelia, daughter of Nicola Borghese, another very influential citizen, he still further strengthened his authority But he soon began to abuse his power by selling public office to ​the highest bidders, or conferring them on his followers. A plot was made to murder him, but he discovered the conspiracy in time, and his own father-in-law, who had been leader of the movement, was put to death. In 1498 he prevented the outbreak of war with Florence over the possession of Montepulciano, which had been a bone of contention between the two cities for over a hundred years. His attitude towards Cesare Borgia was exceedingly astute, at first he assisted him, and obtained from him with the favour of the French king the cession of Piombino; but having subsequently aroused the suspicions of Borgia, the latter attempted to suppress Petrucci by inviting him to the fatal meeting of Senigallia. The Sienese tyrant, however, did not fall into the trap, and although Borgia in 1502 obliged him to quit Siena, he returned two months later, more powerful than before Petrucci supported Pisa in the war against Florence, but eventually, through the intervention of the pope and of the king of Spain, he made peace with the latter city, to which he gave back Montepulciano in 1512. As a reward for this action Pope Julius II. created his nephew cardinal. During his last days Petrucci abdicated his authority in favour of his son Borghese. He died at San Quirico di Osenna on the 21st of, May 1512.
See Pecci, Memorie storico-critiche di Siena (Siena, 1755); U. G. Mondolfo, P. Petrucci signore di Siena, (Siena, 1899).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Petrovsk (Saratov)

See also Petrovsk, Saratov Oblast on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​PETROVSK, a town of eastern Russia, in the government of Saratov, on the Medvyeditsa, a tributary of the Don, 60 m. N.W. of the town of Saratov. Pop. (1864), 10,128; (1897), 13,212. It was founded by Peter the Great in 1698 as a defence against the Kuban Tatars. Its industrial establishments include distilleries, tanneries, tallow and brickworks.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Petrus Aureolus

See also Petrus Aureolus on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​PETRUS AUREOLUS (Oriol), scholastic philosopher and monk of the Franciscan order, lived in the latter half of the 13th century, and died in Paris in 1321 just after his appointment as archbishop of Aix. He was one of the first to attack the realist doctrines of Duns Scotus, and is interesting mainly as the precursor of William of Occam in his revival of Nominalism. His ability earned for him the titles of Doctor Facundus and Doctor Abundans.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Petrovsk (Daghestan)

See also Makhachkala on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​PETROVSK, a seaport of Russia in Transcaucasia, on the Caspian Sea, in the province of Daghestan, 180 m. by rail E. of Vladikavkaz, and 235 m. N.W. from Baku. Pop. 9806. The town has become the port of embarkation for Krasnovodsk, the Transcaspian territory, and the Central Asian khanates. There are naphtha wells, and the hot sulphur baths at Ak-gol and Talga, close by, attract many visitors in summer.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Petrozavodsk

See also Petrozavodsk on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​PETROZAVODSK, a town and episcopal see of Russia, capital of the government of Olonets, on the west shore of Lake Onega, 190 m. N.E. of St Petersburg. Pop (1865), 11,027, (1897), 12,521. Two cathedrals, built towards the end of the 18th century, a mining school, an ecclesiastical seminary and a government cannon-foundry are the Chief public buildings and institutions. Peter the Great founded ironworks here in 1703, but they continued in operation only twenty-four years The cannon-foundry was instituted in 1774. Petrozavodsk became the capital of the government of Olonets in 1802.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pettenkofen, August von

See also August von Pettenkofen on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​PETTENKOFEN, AUGUST VON (1821–1889), Austrian painter, born in Vienna, was brought up on his father's estate in Galicia. Having decided to give up the military career on which he had started, he devoted himself to painting, taking for his subjects the simple scenes of the life on the dreary Puszta. His paintings are treasured for their line qualities of colour, and for the sincerity with which the artist sets before us the uneventful melancholy life of Hungarian peasants and gipsies—without any theatrical pathos or forced humour. He was the inventor of the Pettenkofen box, an appliance for dissolving and redistributing cracked or discoloured varnish without friction or the dangerous use of chemicals. He died in Vienna in 1889.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Petropavlovsk

See also Petropavl and Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​PETROPAVLOVSK, a town of West Siberia, in the government of Altmolinsk, on the right bank of the Ishim river, and on the great Siberian highway, 170 m. by rail W. of Omsk. The population, 7850 in 1865, was 21,706 in 1900, of whom one-third were Mahommedan Kirghiz. The town carries on an active trade in cattle, furs, tea, wool, skins, cottons, woollen stuffs, corn, metals, metallic wares and spirits The small fort of Petropavlovsk was founded in 1752, and was the military centre of the Ishim line of fortifications.
Petropavlovsk is also the name of a Russian seaport in Kamchatka, on the eastern shore off the Bay of Avacha, In 53° N and 158° 44′ E. Its harbour, one of the best on the Pacific, is little used, and the town consists merely of a few huts with some 400 inhabitants. Its naval institutions were transferred to Nikolayevsk after the attack of the Anglo-French fleet in 1854.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Round

See also our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rund), circular, spherical, globular. As a substantive, the word has several specific applications; thus it is used of the rung of a ladder, of a rounded cross-bar connecting the legs of a chair, of the circuit of the ​watch under an officer which patrols the sentries in a fortress, fortified town, camp or other military station, and hence of the beat or customary course of a policeman, a postman, or a tradesman, and of the full course at such a game as golf. Similarly there were old dances called “rounds,” in which the dancers stood in a circle or ring. They were popular in the 16th and 17th centuries. Later the name was also applied to country dances where the dancers stood in two lines. For the “round” in music see Canon. A complaint or remonstrance signed by a number of persons is commonly known as a “round robin”; properly such a document should have the signatures arranged in a circle, the idea being that thus the order in which the complainants signed should be unknown. In the 16th century “round robin” was a name of mockery given to the Eucharist.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rous, Francis

See also Francis Rous on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
ROUS, FRANCIS (1579–1659), English Puritan, was born at Dittisham in Devon in 1579, and educated at Oxford (Broadgates Hall, afterwards Pembroke College) and at Leiden, graduating at the former in January 1596-97, and at the latter thirteen months afterwards. For some years he lived in seclusion in Cornwall and occupied himself with theological studies, producing among other books The Arte of Happines (1619) and Testis Veritatis, a reply to Richard Montagu's Appello Caesarem. He entered parliament in 1625 as member for Truro, and continued to represent that or some neighbouring west country constituency in such parliaments as were summoned till his death. He obtained many offices under the Commonwealth, among them that of provost of Eton College. At first a Presbyterian, he afterwards joined the Independents. In 1657 he was made a lord of parliament. He died at Acton in January 1658-59. The subjective cast of his piety is reflected in his Mystical Marriage . . . betweene a Soule and her Saviour (1635), but he is best known by his metrical version of the Psalms (1643), which was approved by the Westminster Assembly and (in a revised form) is still used in the Scottish Presbyterian churches.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Roulette

See also Roulette (curve) on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​ROULETTE, in mathematics, the locus of a point carried on a curve which rolls on another (fixed) curve. The name appears to have been used by Pascal to denote the cycloid (q.v.), which is the simplest roulette, being traced by a point on the circumference of a circle rolling on a straight line. The trochoids and epicycloid's (q.v.) are also simple roulettes, the latter being traced by points on a circle which rolls on another circle.
See W. H. Besant, Roulettes and Glissettes.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rous, Henry John

See also Henry John Rous on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
ROUS, HENRY JOHN (1795-1877), British admiral and sportsman, was born on the 23rd of January 1795, the second son of the 1st earl of Stradbroke. He was educated at Westminster School, and entered the British navy in 1808, serving as a midshipman in the expedition to Flushing. He was afterwards appointed to the “Bacchante,” and received a medal for bravery in various actions and expeditions. In 1823 he was made captain, and served in the Indian and New Holland stations from 1823 to 1829. In 1834 he was appointed to the command of the “Pique,” a 36-gun frigate, which ran ashore on the coast of Labrador and was much damaged. Rous, however, brought her across the Atlantic with a sprung foremast and without keel, forefoot or rudder, and though the ship was making 23 ins. of water an hour. Rous, always fond of sport, retired from the navy, and became in 1838 a steward of the Jockey Club, a position which he held almost uninterruptedly to his death. In 1855 he was appointed public handicapper. He managed the duke of Bedford's stables at Newmarket for many years, and wrote a work on The Laws and Practice of Horse Racing that procured for him the title of “the Blackstone of the Turf.” In 1841 he was returned M.P. for Westminster, and in 1846 Sir Robert Peel made him a lord of the admiralty. He died on the 19th of June 1877.
For the naval career of Admiral Rous see O'Byrne, Naval Biographical Dictionary (London, 1849). A vivid sketch of him as a turf authority will be found in Day's Turf Celebrities (London, 1891).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Roundhead

See also Roundhead and Clergy Act 1640 on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​ROUNDHEAD, a term applied to the adherents of the parliamentary party in England during the great Civil War. Some of the Puritans, but by no means, all, wore the hair closely cropped round the head, and there was thus an obvious contrast between them and the men of fashion with their long ringlets. “Roundhead” appears to have been first used as a term of derision towards the end of 1641 when the debates in parliament on the Bishops Exclusion Bill were causing riots at Westminster. One authority says of the crowd which gathered there: “They had the hair of their heads very few of them longer than their ears, whereupon it came to pass that those who usually with their cries attended at Westminster were by a nickname called Roundheads.” John Rushworth (Historical Collections) is more precise. According to him the word was first used on the 27th of December 1641 by a disbanded officer named David Hide, who during a riot is reported to have drawn his sword and said he would “cut the throat of those round-headed dogs that bawled against bishops.” Clarendon (History of the Rebellion, iv, 121) remarks on the matter: “and from those contestations the two terms of ‘Roundhead’ and ‘Cavalier’ grew to be received in discourse, ... they who were looked upon as servants to the king being then called ‘Cavaliers,’ and the other of the rabble contemned and despised under the name of ‘Roundheads.’ ” Baxter ascribes the origin of the term to a remark made by Queen Henrietta Maria at the trial of Strafford; referring to Pym, she asked who the round headed man was. The name remained in use until after the revolution of 1688.
Roundhead was also used during the Civil War as the name of a weapon. This is described as having “ an head about a quarter of a yard long, a staffe of two yards long put into their head, twelve iron pikes round about, and one in the end to stop with.”
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Roundsman System

See also Roundsman System on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​ROUNDSMAN SYSTEM (sometimes termed the billet, or ticket, or item system), in the English poor law, a plan by which the parish paid the occupiers of property to employ the applicants for relief at a rate of wages fixed by the parish. It depended not on the services, but on the wants of the applicants, the employer being repaid out of the poor rate all that he advanced in wages beyond a certain sum. According to this plan the parish in general made some agreement with a farmer to sell to him the labour of one or more paupers at a certain price, paying to the pauper out of the parish funds the difference between that price and the allowance which the scale, according to the price of bread and the number of his family, awarded to him. It received the local name of billet or ticket system from the ticket signed by the overseer which the pauper in general carried to the farmer as a warrant for his being employed, and afterwards took back to the overseer, signed by the farmer, as a proof that he had fulfilled the conditions of relief. In other cases the parish contracted with a person to have some work performed for him by the paupers at a given price, the parish paying the paupers. In many places the rounds man system was carried out by means of an auction, all the unemployed men being put up to sale periodically, sometimes monthly or weekly, at prices varying according to the time of year, the old and infirm selling for less than the able-bodied. The rounds man system disappeared on the reform of the poor law in 1834.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rukwa

See also Lake Rukwa on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​RUKWA (sometimes also Rikwa and Hikwa), a shallow lake in German East Africa, lying 2650 ft. above the sea in a N.W. continuation of the rift-valley which contains Lake Nyasa. The sides of the valley here run in steep parallel walls 30 to 40 m. apart, from S.E. to N.W., leaving between them a level plain extending from about 7½° to 8½° S. This whole area was probably once covered by the lake, but this has shrunk so that the permanent water occupies only a space of 30 m. by 12 at the S. immediately under the E. escarpment. In the rains its extends some 40 m. farther N., and the north of the plain is likewise then covered with water to a depth of about 4 ft. The rest of the plain is a bare expanse intensely heated by the sun in the dry season, and forming a tract of foul mud near the lake shores. But in 1903–4 the level of the lake rose so that the waters covered the whole depression. The lake has two large feeders, one coming from the W., the other from the S.E. The W. feeder, the Saisi, or Momba, rises in 80° 50′ S., 31° 30′ E., and traverses a winding valley cut out of the high plateau between lakes Nyasa and Tanganyika. It enters the lake on its N.W. side. The other chief feeder, the Songwe, rises in 9° 8′ S., 33° 30′ E. on the same plateau as the Saisi and flows N.W., entering Rukwa at its S. end. The Songwe is joined about 50 m. about its mouth by the Rupa, whose head-waters are in the high-lying land N.E. of Rukwa. The maximum depth of the lake is about 10½ ft. Its water is very brackish and of a milky colour from the mud stirred up by the wind. It contains great quantities of fish. First seen from the north by Joseph Thomson in 1880, it was visited by Dr Kaiser, a German, in 1882, and has since been thoroughly explored by various British and German travellers.
See “Begleitworte zu der Karte der Gebiete am südlichen Tanganjika-und Rukwa-See,” by Paul Sprigade, in Mitteil. v. Forsch. u. Gelehrten a. d. deutschen Schutzgebieten (Berlin, 1904), with map on the scale of 1:500,000.