OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Reid, Thomas Mayne

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REID, THOMAS MAYNE (1818-1883), better known as Mayne Reid, British novelist, the son of a Presbyterian minister, was born at Ballyroney, Co. Down, Ireland, on the 4th of April 1818. His own early life was as adventurous as any boy reader of his novels could desire. He was educated for the church, but did not take orders, and when twenty years old went to America in search of excitement and fortune. He made trading excursions on the Red river, studying the ways of the red man and the white pioneer. He made acquaintance with the Missouri in the same manner, and roved through all the states of the Union. In Philadelphia, where he was engaged in journalism from 1843 to 1846, he made the acquaintance of Edgar Allan Poe. When the war with Mexico broke out in 1846 he obtained a captain's commission, was present at the siege and capture of Vera Cruz, and led a forlorn hope at Chapultepec, where he sustained such severe injuries that his life was despaired of. In one of his novels he says that he believed theoretically in the military value of untrained troops, and that he had found his theories confirmed in actual warfare. An enthusiastic republican, he offered his services to the Hungarian insurgents in 1849, raised a body of volunteers, and sailed for Europe, but arrived too late. He then settled in England, and began his career of a novelist with the publication, in 1850, of the Rifle Rangers. This was followed next year by the Scalp Hunters. He never surpassed his first productions, except perhaps in The White Chief (1859) and The Quadroon (1856); but he continued to produce tales of self-reliant enterprise and exciting adventure with great fertility. Simplicity of
plot and easy variety of exciting incident are among the merits that contribute to his popularity with boys. His reflections are not profound, but are frequently more sensible than might be presumed at first from his aggressive manner of expressing them. He died in London on the 22nd of October 1883.
See Memoir (1890) by his widow, Elizabeth Mayne Reid.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Reid, Sir George

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​REID, SIR GEORGE (1841– ), Scottish artist, was born in Aberdeen on the 31st of October 1841. He developed an early passion for drawing, which led to his being apprenticed in 1854 for seven years to Messrs Keith & Gibb, lithographers in Aberdeen. In 1861 Reid took lessons from an itinerant portrait-painter, William Niddrie, who had been a pupil of James Giles, R.S.A., and afterwards entered as a student in the school of the Board of Trustees in Edinburgh. He returned to Aberdeen to paint landscapes and portraits for any trifling sum which his work could command. His first portrait to attract attention, from its fine quality, was that of George Macdonald, the poet and novelist, now the property of the university of Aberdeen. His early landscapes were conscientiously painted in the open air and on the spot. But Reid soon came to see that such work was inherently false, painted as the picture was day after day under varying conditions of light and shade. Accordingly, in 1865 he proceeded to Utrecht to study under A. Mollinger, whose work he admired, from its unity and simplicity. This change in his method of viewing Nature was looked on as revolutionary by the Royal Scottish Academy, and for some years his work found little favour in that quarter; but other artists gradually adopted the system of tone-studies, which ultimately prevailed. Reid went to Paris in 1868 to study under the figure painter Yvon; and he worked in 1872 with Josef Israëls at the Hague. From this time forward Reid's success was continuous and marked. He showed his versatility in landscape, as in his “Whins in Bloom,” which combined great breadth with fine detail; in flower-pieces, such as his “Roses,” which were brilliant in rapid suggestiveness and force; but most of all in his portraits, which are marked by great individuality, and by fine insight into character. His work in black-and-white, his admirable illustrations in brushwork of Edinburgh and its neighbourhood, and also his pen-drawings, about which it has been declared that “his work contains all the subtleties and refinements of a most delicate etching,” must also be noted. Elected Associate of the Royal Scottish Academy in 1870, Reid attained full membership in 1877, and took up his residence in Edinburgh in 1882. In 1891 he was elected President—a post which he held until 1902—receiving also the honour of knighthood, and he was awarded a gold medal at the Paris Exhibition of 1900. His brother Samuel (b. 1854) was also a painter and a writer of tales and verse.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Reid, Whitelaw

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REID, WHITELAW (1837- ), American journalist and diplomatist, was born of Scotch parentage, near Xenia, Ohio, on the 27th of October 1837. He graduated at Miami University in 1856, and spoke frequently in behalf of John C. Frémont, the Republican candidate for the presidency in that year; was superintendent of schools of South Charleston, Ohio, in 1856-58, and in 1858-59 was editor of the Xenia News. In 1860 he became legislative correspondent at Columbus for several Ohio newspapers, including the Cincinnati Gazette, of which he was made city editor in 1861. He was war correspondent for the Gazette in 1861-62, serving also as volunteer aide-de-camp (with the rank of captain) to General Thomas A. Morris (1811-1904) and General William S. Rosecrans in West Virginia. He was Washington correspondent of the Gazette in 1862-68, acting incidentally as clerk of the military committee of Congress (1862-63) and as librarian of the House of Representatives (1863-66). In 1868 he became a leading editorial writer for the New York Tribune, in the following year was made managing editor, and in 1872, upon the death of Horace Greeley, became the principal proprietor and editor-in-chief. In 1905 Reid relinquished his active editorship of the Tribune, but retained financial control. He declined an appointment as United States minister to Germany in 1877 and again in 1881, but served as minister to France in 1889-92, and in 1892 was the unsuccessful Republican candidate for vice-president on the ticket with Benjamin Harrison. In 1897 he was special ambassador of the United States on the occasion of Queen Victoria's jubilee; in 1898 was a member of the commission which arranged the terms of peace between the United States and Spain; in 1902 was special ambassador of the United States at the coronation of King Edward VII., and in 1905 became ambassador to Great Britain. He was elected a life member of the New York State Board of Regents in 1878; and in 1902 he became vice-chancellor and, in 1904, chancellor of the university of the state of New York. In 1881 he married a daughter of Darius Ogden Mills (1825-1910), a prominent financier.
His publications include After the War (1867), in which he gives his observations during a journey through the Southern States in 1866; Ohio in the War (2 vols., 1868); Some Consequences of the Last Treaty of Paris (1899); Our New Duties (1899); Later Aspects of Our New Duties (1899); Problems of Expansion (1900); The Greatest Fact in Modern History (1906), and How America faced its Educational Problem (1906).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Reigate

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REIGATE, a market town and municipal borough in the Reigate parliamentary division of Surrey, England, 24 m. S. by W. of London by the South-Eastern & Chatham railway. Pop. (1901) 25,993. It is situated at the head of the long valley of Holmsdale Hollow, beneath the North Downs. A very fine prospect over a great part of Surrey and Sussex, and extending to Hampshire and Kent, is obtained from the neighbouring Reigate Hill. Of the old castle, supposed to
have been built before the Conquest to command the pass through the valley, there only remains the entrance to a cave beneath, 150 ft. long and from 10 to 12 ft. high, excavated in the sandstone, which was used as a guardroom. The grounds are laid out as a public garden. Near the market house is the site of an ancient chapel dedicated to Thomas à Becket. In the chancel of the parish church of St Mary, a building ranging from Transitional Norman to Perpendicular, is buried Lord Howard, the commander of the English navy against the Spanish Armada. Above the vestry there is a library containing choice manuscripts and rare books. The grammar school was founded in 1675. Among the other public buildings are the town hall, the public hall, the market hall, and the working men's institute. The borough includes the township of Redhill, adjacent on the east. The town has some agricultural trade, and in the neighbourhood are quarries for freestone, hearthstone and white sand. The borough is under a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 5994 acres.
Reigate (Cherchefelle, Regat, Reygate) owed its first settlement to its situation at a cross-road on the Pilgrim's Way, at the foot of the North Downs; and its early importance to the castle which was the stronghold of the De Warennes in the 12th, 13th and 14h centuries. On the death of Edith, the widow of Edward the Confessor, to whom it belonged, William I. secured the manor of Cherchefelle, as it was then called. It was granted by William Rufus to Earl Warenne, through whose family it passed in 1347 to the earls of Arundel. The name Reigate occurs in 1199. Burgesses of Reigate are mentioned in a close roll of 1348, but no early charter is known. The town was incorporated in 1863. It returned two members to parliament from 1295 till 1831, and afterwards one member only until 1867, when it was disfranchised for corruption. In the reign of Edward I. Earl Warenne held a weekly market on Saturdays, and fairs on Tuesday in Whitsun-week, the eve and day of St Lawrence, and the eve and day of the Exaltation of the Cross, by prescriptive right. Edward II. granted a market on Tuesdays, which is still held. The fair days are now Whit-Tuesday and the 9th of December.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Reichensperger, August

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REICHENSPERGER, AUGUST (1808-1895), German politician, was born at Coblenz on the 22nd of March 1808, studied law and entered government service, becoming counsellor to the court of appeal (Appellationsgerichtsrat) at Cologne in 1849. He was a member of the German parliament at Frankfort in 1848, when he attached himself to the Right, and of the Erfurt parliament in 1850, when he voted against the Prussian Union. From 1850 to 1863 he sat in the Prussian Lower House, from 1867 to 1884 in the Reichstag, and from 1879 onwards also in the Prussian Chamber of Deputies. Originally of Liberal tendencies, he developed from 1837 onwards ultramontane opinions, founded in 1852 the Catholic group which in 1861 took the name of the Centre party (Centrum) and became one of its most conspicuous orators. He died on the 16th of July 1895 at Cologne. He published a considerable number of works on art and architecture, including Die christlich-germanische Baukunst (Trier, 1852, 3rd ed., 1860); Fingerzeige auf dem Gebiete der christlichen Kunst (Leipzig, 1854); Augustus Pugin, der Neubegründer der christlichen Kunst in England (Freiburg, 1877).
See L. v. Pastor, August Reichensperger, 2 vols. (Freiburg-im-Breisgau, 1899).
His brother, Peter Reichensperger (1810-1892), counsellor to the appeal court at Cologne (1850) and until 1879 to the Obertribunal at Berlin, was elected to the Reichstag in 1867 as a member of the Liberal Opposition, but subsequently joined the Centre party. In the Kulturkampf he took an active part on the ultramontane side. He had been a member of the Prussian National Assembly in 1848, and in 1888 he published his Erlebnisse eines alten Parlamentariers im Revolutionsjahr 1848.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Reid, Robert

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REID, ROBERT (1862- ), American artist, was born at Stockbridge, Mass., on the 29th of July 1862. He studied at the art schools of the Boston Museum of Fine Arts, the Art Students' League, New York, and under Boulanger and Lefebvre in Paris. His early pictures were figures of French peasants, painted at Étaples, but subsequently he became best known for mural decoration and designs for stained glass. He contributed with others to the frescoes of the dome of the Liberal Arts Building at the Columbian Exposition, Chicago, in 1893. Other work is in the Congressional Library, Washington, the Appellate Court House, New York, and the State House, Boston, where are his three large panels, “James Otis Delivering his Speech against the Writs of Assistance,” “Paul Revere's Ride” and the “Boston Tea Party.” He executed a panel for the American Pavilion at the Paris Exhibition, 1900, and in 1906 he completed a series of ten stained glass windows for a church at Fairhaven, Mass., for the Rogers Memorial. In 1906 he became a full member of the National Academy of Design.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Reid, Sir Robert Gillespie

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REID, SIR ROBERT GILLESPIE (1840-1908), Canadian railway contractor, was born at Coupar-Angus, Scotland. When a young man he spent a few years in Australia goldmining, and in 1871 he settled in America, where he began his career as a contractor. He built one section of the Canadian Pacific railway, and was responsible for the erection of the international bridge over the Niagara river, the international railway bridge over the Rio Grande river and the Lachine bridge over the St Lawrence. In 1893 Reid signed a contract with the government of Newfoundland by which he undertook to construct a railway from St John's to Port-aux-Basques and to work the line for ten years in return for a large grant of land. In 1898 he further contracted to work all the railways in Newfoundland for fifty years on condition that at the end
of this time they should become his property. This bargain, which included other matters such as steamers, docks and telegraphs, was extraordinarily favourable to Reid, who, by further enormous grants of land, became one of the largest landed proprietors in the world; public opinion was aroused against it, and at first the governor, Sir Herbert Murray, refused to ratify it. After the premier, Sir James Winter, had been replaced by Mr (afterwards Sir) Robert Bond, the terms of the contract were revised, being made more favourable to Newfoundland, and Reid's interests were transferred to a company, the Reid Newfoundland Company, of which he was the first president (see Newfoundland, Roads and Railways). Reid was knighted in 1907, and he died on the 3rd of June 1908.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Reid, Sir William

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REID, SIR WILLIAM (1791-1858), Scottish administrator and man of science, was born on the 25th of April 1791 at the manse of Kinglassie, Fifeshire, and entered the Royal Engineers in 1809. He saw active service in the Peninsula under Wellington, and took part in the bombardment of Algiers in 1816. In 1835 and 1836 he again saw active service, in Spain against Don Carlos. In 1838 he published his Attempt to develop the Law of Storms, which obtained wide popularity. In 1839 he was appointed governor of the Bermudas, where he did much to develop the agricultural resources of the islands, and in 1846 he was transferred to Barbados. In 1850-51 he was chairman of the executive committee of the Great Exhibition; on the completion of the work he was made a K.C.B. and appointed governor of Malta. He died in London on the 31st of October 1858.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Referee

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REFEREE, a person to whom anything is referred; an arbitrator. The court of referees in England was a court to which the House of Commons committed the decision of all questions as to the right of petitioners to be heard in opposition to private bills. As originally constituted the referees consisted of the chairman of ways and means, and other members, the Speaker's counsel and several official referees not members of the House of Commons. In 1903 the appointment of official referees was discontinued. The court now consists of the chairman of ways and means, the deputy chairman and not less than seven other members of the House appointed by the Speaker, and its duty, as defined by a standing order, is to decide upon all petitions against private bills, or against provisional orders or provisional certificates, as to the rights of the petitioners to be heard upon such petitions. In the high court of justice, under the Judicature Act 1873, cases may be submitted to three official referees, for trial, inquiry and report, or assessment of damages. Inquiry and report may be directed in any case, trial only by consent of the parties, or in any matter requiring any prolonged examination of documents or accounts, or any scientific or local investigation which cannot be tried in the ordinary way.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Reformatory School

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​REFORMATORY SCHOOL, an institution for the industrial training of juvenile offenders, in which they are lodged, clothed and fed, as well as taught. They are to be distinguished from “industrial schools,” which are institutions for potential and not actual delinquents. To reformatory schools in England are sent juveniles up to the age of sixteen who have been convicted of an offence punishable with penal servitude or imprisonment. The order is made by the court before which they are tried; the limit of detention is the age of nineteen. Reformatory schools are regulated by the Children Act 1908, which repealed the Reformatory Schools Act 1866, as amended by acts of 1872, 1874, 1891, 1893, 1899 and 1901. See further Juvenile Offenders.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Reformed Churches

See also Zwingliism, Arminianism, and Calvinism on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer. Note that this title comprises all adherents of the reformed Protestant churches, whereas the Reformed Church in America, Reformed Church in the United States, and Reformed Episcopal Church are specific denominations.
​REFORMED CHURCHES, the name assumed by those Protestant bodies who adopted the tenets of Zwingli (and later of Calvin), as distinguished from those of the Lutheran or Evangelical divines. They are accordingly often spoken of as the Calvinistic Churches, Protestant being sometimes used as a synonym for Lutheran. The great difference is in the attitude towards the Lord's Supper, the Reformed or Calvinistic Churches repudiating not only transubstantiation but also the Lutheran consubstantiation. They also reject the use of crucifixes and other symbols and ceremonies retained by the Lutherans.
Full details of these divergences are given in M. Schneckenburger, Vergleichende Darstellung des lutherischen and reformierten Lehrbegriffs (Stuttgart, 1855); G. B. Winer, Comparative Darstellung (Berlin, 1866; Eng. tr., Edinburgh, 1873). See also Reformation; Presbyterianism; Cameronians.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ripon, Wisconsin

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​RIPON, a city of Fond du Lac county, Wisconsin, U.S.A., on Silver Creek, about 22 m. W. of Fond du Lac, and about 75 m. N.W. of Milwaukee. Pop. (1890), 3358; (1900), 3818, of whom 885 were foreign-born; (1905), 3811; (1910), 3739. Ripon is served by the Chicago & North-Western, and the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul railways. The city has a Carnegie library, which also houses the library of the Ripon Historical Society, and is the seat of Ripon College (non-sectarian, co-educational), which was founded in 1850 as the Lyceum of Ripon, and was named Ripon College in 1864; in 1908 it had 23 instructors and 279 students. There are grain elevators and various manufactories, among the products of which are cheese and other creamery products, flour, knit goods, pickles and canned goods, woodenware, washing machines and gloves.
The site of Ripon was purchased in 1838 by John Scott Horner (1802-1883), of Virginia, secretary and acting-governor of Michigan Territory in 1835, and the first secretary of Wisconsin Territory in 1836-37, who named the village when it was established in 1849 from the seat of his ancestors in Yorkshire. In May 1844 a settlement, named Ceresco or “the Wisconsin Phalanx,” a Fourierist community, organized in Southport (now Kenosha), had been established in the vicinity. A “Long House,” 400 ft. in length, was erected, which contained tenements, an amusement or lecture hall, and a dining-room where all ate at a common table, and where board was provided at cost, sometimes as low as sixty-three cents per week. The “class of usefulness” was divided into three groups, agricultural, mechanical and educational, with such subdivisions as necessity dictated, and an exact account of labour was kept. The community prospered materially from the start. In the second season it consisted of thirty families with property valued at $27,725; in 1846 there were 180 resident members, and the net profit for the year was $9029. Eventually differences of opinion arose as to the division of labour, and the common dining-hall did not prove popular. Rivalry developed with the village of Ripon, and the community gave up its charter at the close of 1850, dividing property valued at $40,000 among the shareholders. On the whole it was one of the most successful experiments in communism ever tried in America. In 1858 Ripon absorbed the village of Ceresco and was chartered as a city. At Ripon started one of the disconnected movements that resulted in the founding of the Republican party.
See D. P. Mapes, History of Ripon (Milwaukee, Wis., 1873); Consul W. Butterfield, History of Fond du Lac County (1880); W. A. Hinds, American Communities and Co-operative Colonies (3rd ed., Chicago, 1908), and F. A. Flower, History of the Republican Party (1884).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rishanger, William

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​RISHANGER, WILLIAM (c. 1250-c. 1312), English chronicler, made his profession as a Benedictine at St Alban's abbey in 1271, of which he perhaps became the official chronicler. The most important of his writings is the Narratio de bellis apud Lewes et Evesham. Though written many years afterwards and drawn from other sources, it is a spirited account of the barons' war. He is so great an admirer of Simon de Montfort that this work has been called a hagiography. He is credited with the authorship of a chronicle covering the period 1250-1306; this has been disputed, but the work is printed under his name by Riley. Another work of his, of not much importance, is a chronicle entitled Recapitulatis brevis de gestis domini Edwardi, &c. He is probably not the author of other works commonly attributed to him.
Authorities. — Wilhelmi Rishanger chronica et annales, Rolls Series, Introduction ed. H. T. Riley; the Narratio de bellis apud Lewes et Evesham, ed. J. O. Halliwell, Camden Society, 1840.