# Decisive Battles Since Waterloo/Chapter 20

CHAPTER XX.
FALL OF KHIVA—1873.
While England has been pursuing a career of conquest in the great Indian peninsula and adjacent countries, Russia has been doing likewise in Northern Asia. Yermak, a Cossack chief, crossed the Ural Mountains, and invaded Siberia in 1580; nineteen years later was formed the East India Company, which laid the foundation of the present British Empire in India. England's course of conquest has carried her arms to the northward, while those of Russia have steadily pushed to the south. Now they confront each other on the plains and among the mountains of Afghanistan, and on more than one occasion in the past few years a hostile encounter has been imminent.
In her southward march over the plains of Central Asia, Russia successfully conquered numerous tribes and khanates of greater or less importance, and in most instances the conquests were bloodless. The Russians are superior to the British in their knowledge of Oriental character and Oriental ways of dealing; and for this reason they are often able to accomplish by diplomacy what the latter can only gain by fighting. Having a good deal of the Asiatic in their composition, they are better fitted than any other European people for dealing with the inhabitants of that part of the world, which has been claimed to be the cradle of the human race. The Russians usually try diplomacy before resorting to arms, but the arms are generally close at hand during the negotiations, and whenever they are needed there is no delay in their use.
​The khanate of Khiva resisted both the diplomacy and the arms of Russia until a very recent period. It occupied an area of about 200,000 square miles in the great plain of Turkestan, but of this area only a small part was under cultivation or capable of being cultivated. The chief oasis in which the capital Khiva is situated, stretches from the mouth of the Amou Darya or Oxus, about two hundred miles along its banks, and is watered by canals drawn from that stream. This fertile area is about 3,000 square miles in extent, and has a population of a quarter of a million. Geographically Khiva is of no great importance, but it has a prominent place in the political world, and the events of 1873 drew towards it the attention of all nations. Russia had long sought to possess the khanate, but, protected by the desert sands that surround them, the Khivans were able to bid defiance to their northern enemies.
It is a curious circumstance that the first expedition for this purpose actually succeeded in conquering the khanate and holding it for two or three months. It was organized and conducted by a chieftain of the Yaik or Ural Cossacks, and was simply a plundering expedition on a large scale. Finding the Khan unprepared for war, the chieftain drove him out, seized his capital, and took possession of his treasure and his wives. The Cossack declared himself khan, ruled the country, converted the Khan's favorite wife to Christianity and married her. But finding, after ten or twelve weeks of power, that the Khan was assembling an army to re-conquer his capital, the Cossack determined to retreat to the Urals, and started with a large caravan loaded with plunder. The Cossacks were overtaken by the Khan, and so severely were they handled that only five or six escaped alive to the Urals. The Cossack chieftain killed his newly converted bride when he saw that escape was hopeless, and then died fighting among a heap of slain Khivans who had fallen beneath his sword.
​Two similar freebooting expeditions were undertaken by Cossacks, but both were disastrous. One of them made a dash upon Kuna-Urgench, whence they carried off about one thousand Khivan women, whom they wanted for wives, together with other booty. The Khan overtook them on their retreat, and slew the invaders to almost the last man. The other expedition was met about half way across the desert and forced to retire after heavy loss.
Peter the Great sent an expedition against Khiva in 1717. It was composed of about 4,000 regular and irregular troops, and attempted to cross the desert in the middle of summer. About one fourth of the number died of illness on the way, and the rest, greatly worn out, were slaughtered by the Khan's army almost in sight of the mud walls of the capital. Of the whole 4,000 who started only 40 escaped, and thus ended the fourth expedition against Khiva.
For more than a century from this date the situation was changed, the Cossacks who had formerly plundered the Khivans being themselves the victims of Khivan plundering. Hundreds of Cossacks and other Russians were carried to Khiva and sold into slavery, and caravans on their way to trade in Central Asia were attacked and plundered almost daily. By 1839 these raids had become intolerable to the Russians, and the government at St. Petersburg determined to send an expedition against Khiva. It was commanded by General Perovski, and consisted of about 5,000 men, 22 guns, and a transport train of 10,000 camels. As it was thought impossible to cross the desert in summer, the expedition started from Orenburg December 1, 1839.
The winter proved to be exceptionally severe, and by the middle of December the thermometer showed 40° below zero, and the mercury froze when exposed to the air. The snow was very deep, and before the expedition was half way to Khiva half the camels were dead or ​disabled and many of the men were frostbitten and unable to move without assistance. The camels were dying at the rate of one hundred a day, and as the effective force was reduced to less than 2,000 men. General Perovski decided to retreat. The remnant of the expedition arrived at Fort Emba in February and remained there until spring, but the attempt to capture Khiva was not then renewed.
The next expedition to Khiva was that of General Kaufmann in 1873, which resulted in the conquest of the khanate and the transfer of its rule to Russia. We will now consider the details of the expedition.
General Kaufmann, Governor-General of Turkestan, had been for two years planning the expedition and getting ready for it before he asked the permission of the government at St. Petersburg to attack the khanate of Khiva. But there were other aspirants than Kaufmann for the honor of capturing Khiva, and as the distances were very great and nobody was able to say with certainty which route offered the best chances of success, the emperor, after due consideration of the subject, decided to send four expeditions from as many different points. The first was to go from the Caucasus under command of Colonel Markosoff; the second was to march from Orenburg under General Verevkin; the third was from Kinderly Bay, on the Caspian Sea, under Colonel Lomakin; and the fourth was from Tashkend under General Kaufmann. A fifth column was to start from Kazala, or Fort No. i, on the Syr Daria, under command of Grand Duke Nicholas, and join General Kaufmann en route. Markosoff's expedition never reached Khiva; it suffered terribly in the desert, and when within 120 miles of the oasis was compelled to turn back.
The governor of Orenburg did not receive his orders to prepare the expedition until the first days of January. By the 27th of February he had his troops in readiness ​with the proper ammunition, equipment, tents, and clothing, for a march of 1,100 miles through a desert country. In spite of the severe cold the column reached Fort Emba, on the river of the same name, 400 miles from the starting-point, near the end of March, without the loss of a man. The column consisted of nine companies of infantry: 1,600 men; nine sotnias (squadrons) of Cossacks: 1,200 men; eight pieces of artillery, a rocket and a mortar battery, with three times the ordinary store of amunition. The transport train consisted of 5,000 camels. Supplies were taken for two months and a half, and the entire column had felt tents for every twenty men.
The Kinderly column contained 1,800 men with ten pieces of artillery. It was provisioned and equipped similarly to the Orenburg column, which it was intended to join at Lake Aibugir. It suffered terribly in the desert, partly from the intense heat of the middle of the day and partly from great scarcity of water. There were few wells along the route, and such water as could be found was very bad for men and animals. Sunstroke, dysentery, and general debility were prevalent, and fever was so common that nobody seemed to mind it. On two or three occasions the whole expedition was in peril of death from thirst; one march of three days was made with practically no water, the Turcomans having poisoned the only well on the route by throwing into it the carcases of putrefying animals. The march ended with the entrance into the oasis near Kungrad, and the joy of the soldiers can be imagined when they found green pastures and flowing water after a journey of two months across the desert and terrible suffering from thirst. The columns of General Verevkin and Colonel Lomakin joined near Kungrad, which was taken without a blow. And hereby hangs an interesting incident.
Up to their arrival at Kungrad neither of the columns met any opposition from the Khivans. They showed ​themselves a few times, and their commanders sent insolent messages to the Russian leaders, to which no answers were vouchsafed. The day before General Verevkin entered Kungrad, he received a letter from the governor of that place asking that the Russians would delay their advance for three days so that he could have his cannon ready and give them battle. He threatened that if they pushed blindly forward before that time he would simply refuse to fight. They continued to advance, and the Khivan governor of Kungrad kept his word by abandoning the place just before the Russians entered it.
But from Kungrad onward the Russians were harassed by the Turcomans, who hung on their flanks, making attacks or feints at all hours and keeping the invaders in such a state of alertness that they were unable to get any rest at night. The Turcomans were well mounted, and both men and horses showed themselves capable of wonderful endurance. In spite of the opposition of the Turcomans the united column advanced steadily in the direction of Khiva, the capital, having numerous skirmishes with the enemy's cavalry and an occasional encounter in which artillery was used. On the 9th of June they arrived in front of Khiva, but in consequence of the high walls of the gardens and the forests of fruit-trees they were within two hundred yards of the walls of the place before they were aware of its proximity. Nothing had been heard from Kaufmann beyond vague reports from prisoners that there was a Russian column approaching Khiva on the other side.
General Verevkin and his staff were leading the advance along a road not more than twelve or fifteen feet wide, bordered by high walls. Suddenly there was a crash of musketry accompanied by the deep growl of artillery; the bullets from the small-arms and the shot from the cannon passed over their heads, as the Khivans had made the mistake of aiming too high. Discharge after discharge ​followed, and in a little while the Khivans obtained a better range, and their fire began to tell. The Russians then found they were under the walls of Khiva; retreat was inconvenient if not impossible, and General Verevkin gave the order to advance. The infantry went forward at a run, and soon came into an open field in front of one of the gates, which was defended by a breastwork with four guns. Two companies of infantry under Major Burovstoff dashed over the breastworks and bayonetted the gunners; the breastwork was about 100 yards from the walls of the town, and from these walls the Khivans poured such a deadly fire that it was not possible to drag away the guns until the Russian artillery had opened fire and compelled the slackening of that of the Khivans.
Three of the guns were taken away, but the fourth was spiked and left behind. In retiring to their own lines the Russian storming party was compelled to haul the guns one by one over a narrow bridge and across an open field, exposed all the time to Khivan cannon-shot. Then a regular bombardment set in, which was temporarily suspended on a request from the Khan, in which he proposed terms of capitulation. Hardly had his messenger left the camp before the Khivan fire again reopened, and thereupon the Russians renewed theirs. It was afterwards ascertained that the Khan was unable to restrain his Turcoman forces, and the fire had been reopened contrary to his orders.
About sunset a messenger arrived from General Kaufmann announcing that he was about nine miles away on the other side of the city, and ordering the suspension of the fire. It was obeyed with considerable reluctance, as General Verevkin was confident that Khiva would soon be within his grasp. It was certainly a remarkable circumstance that three columns starting from different points a thousand miles apart should have arrived before Khiva almost simultaneously. We will now make a flying leap ​to Tashkend and accompany Kaufmann's column from that city to Khiva.
Kaufmann had about 2,500 men in his column with a baggage train of 4,000 camels. His force consisted of eleven companies of infantry (1,650 men), one company of sappers and miners, four pieces of horse artillery, and six pieces of foot artillery, half a battery of mountain howitzers, a battery and a half of rockets, and 600 Cossack cavalry. His artillery was of the newest model of breech-loaders, and the mountain battery was of the kind that can be quickly taken to pieces and packed on horseback. The column left Tashkend on March 15th, and Djizzak ten days later. The troops suffered much from cold on the march, but as the season advanced the weather grew warmer, and the column reached the well of Arystan-Bel-Kuduk on the 13th April.
On the 6th May Kaufmann reached Khala-Ata where he was joined by the column under Grand Duke Nicholas. It left Kazala March 11th, and by the original plan it was to have joined Kaufmann at Bukali, in the Bukan-Tau mountains. Fearing that the Kazala column might be too weak to meet the enemy alone, General Kaufmann sent word for the Grand Duke to join him at Khala-Ata instead of Bukali. This change of plan caused some delay, as the Kazala column was compelled to make a detour that lost about two weeks of valuable time, and caused the latter part of the march to be made after the summer heats had come upon the desert and dried up some of the wells. Several days were spent in reconnoitring the country before them, and on the 12th of May the united column started from Khala-Ata. The Kazala column, which had joined that from Tashkend, was about 1,400 strong, with half a battery of rockets, half a battery of mountain pieces, two mitrailleuses, and 150 Cossacks.
The first encounter with the enemy was at Adam-Kurulgan, to which point Kaufmann advanced on the 12th ​May, leaving a small garrison at Khala-Ata. Several wells were dug, and as this was the last point where water could be obtained before reaching the Oxus, preparations were made for carrying a supply sufficient for the journey. No positive information could be obtained as to the distance, but it was thought that the river was not more than two or three days away, and accordingly a supply for three days was deemed sufficient. The weather was getting so hot that it was impossible to march in the middle of the day. The plan was to march from very early in the morning until about nine o'clock, and then halt until late in the afternoon, when the route would be resumed till nine or ten at night.
On the first day on this part of the desert it had been expected that the column would cover thirty miles, but the camels were so much enfeebled and retarded the movements so greatly, that only fifteen miles were accomplished. It was found that nearly the whole supply of water was exhausted, and the consequent predicament was very serious. To retire to Adam-Kurulgan might be the signal for the whole of Central Asia to rise against the invaders. These people more than any other in the world believe in the old proverb "Nothing succeeds like success." The slightest retrograde movement of their enemies is construed into fear or incapacity, and gives encouragement accordingly. Kaufmann could not wait where he was and send back for water, and without it he could not go forward. Retreat or advance was alike impossible.
But it was necessary to choose between the two dire alternatives, or everybody would perish. Kaufmann was about to give the order to retire to Adam-Kurulgan when one of the guides came to him and said he thought he could find water in the neighborhood, although all the other guides persisted that there was none nearer than the Oxus. Kaufmann handed his pocket flask to the fellow, and said: "Bring that full of water and I'll give you a ​hundred roubles." A good horse was given to the man, and he was off at full speed; in an hour he was back with the flask filled with water which he had obtained from a well about four miles from the route; he said there were three wells there, unknown to the caravans, and they contained water sufficient for the army, Kaufmann immediately ordered the march in the direction of the wells, and when the army arrived there three more wells were dug. The water was very bad, and the quantity so limited, that the men were allowed only a pint a day each, and there was none for the camels. The place has since been known as Alty-Kuduk, or "Six Wells."
Kaufmann sent the camel train back to Adam-Kurulgan to enable the camels to drink and bring a supply of fresh water for a second attempt to cross the desert. The camel train had an escort of 600 men; this escort was attacked by the Turcomans at daylight on the 18th of May, the latter rightly concluding that if they could capture the camels it would not be possible for the Russians to cross the desert. The Turcomans came on with great bravery, but their sabres could avail nothing againt the Russian breech-loaders, and they were driven back in disorder. So enfeebled were the camels, and so great were the delays, that a week was consumed in the journey to Adam-Kurulgan and back to Alty-Kuduk. Meantime the army suffered greatly, but the water gradually grew better and more plentiful, and Kaufmann once more prepared to advance.
But the camels were so reduced, that instead of carrying their full loads of 600 pounds, they could not now average 200 pounds each. Nearly the whole of the baggage was left at Alty-Kuduk, under a small garrison, which threw up a small entrenchment around the wells. Two pieces of artillery were left, and also four of the six iron boats that Kaufmann had prepared for passing the Oxus. The march was made as rapidly as possible, and at the ​end of the third day the Oxus was in sight. During all the last day the Turcoman cavalry hung on their flanks and continually harassed them, but the breech-loading rifles emptied a good many saddles, and prevented any thing like a charge. Many of the Turcoman horses were killed by the Russian sharp-shooters. A Turcoman on foot is the most pitiable of beings, and utterly useless as a soldier, so that the killing of a horse was equivalent for the time being to the slaughter or disabling of a man.
The discipline of the Russian soldier is well illustrated by the conduct of the men when the water was reached. Though the soldiers were wild with thirst, not one of them broke ranks to get at the water until permission was given. Kaufmann spoke of their conduct almost with tears in his eyes, and said he did not believe the soldiers of any other army in the world could thus be restrained. The necessity for keeping them in the ranks after reaching the water was caused by the need of holding the Turcomans at a respectful distance; they hung close to the army, and were evidently prepared to take advantage of the disorder that was naturally expected when the water was reached.
When General Kaufmann reached the bank of the Oxus, and before tasting of the water, he crossed himself devoutly, and each officer of his staff did the same. Part of the soldiers were detailed to carry water to the rest, and in a few minutes the parched and burning throats of the men and animals were moistened, the enemy being held at bay in the meantime. As soon as the safety of the column was made sure, the Russians changed from the defensive to the offensive. Shells were thrown among the Turcomans; the Russian cavalry charged and pursued their late assailants several miles along the bank of the river. They captured a dozen "kayuks" or boats, so that General Kaufmann had no more regrets about the iron boats he was forced to leave behind before crossing the desert. Down to this time he had been greatly distressed on the ​subject, as it was necessary to cross the river in order to get to Khiva.
On the morning of the 30th May, Kaufmann began crossing his army to the other bank of the Oxus. The spot selected for the crossing was at Sheik-Arik, where a canal, diverted from the river, enters the oasis. The oasis of Khiva practically begins at Sheik-Arik, though there is considerable cultivation higher up the river. The ground from here to the Aral Sea is intersected with numerous ditches and canals, which are the existence of the gardens for which the country is famous. Khiva resembles Lower Egypt in its dependence upon the river that runs through it. Should the river cease to flow, the entire oasis would soon become like the desert which now surrounds it, and was for so long its protection against invasion.
The boats were capable of carrying fifty men each; the river is here about three-quarters of a mile wide, with a fair but not powerful current, and the crossing occupied about twenty minutes. But in going over and returning the boat was drifted far down the stream, so that it took some time to drag it up to the point where the troops were to enter it. After their march through the desert, the soldiers greatly enjoyed the opportunity of sporting in the water. The horses came in for their share of delight, and the animals generally made no opposition to swimming behind the boats. There was a good deal of doubt as to whether the passage would be disputed by the Turcomans, but to the delight of the Russians not a single enemy appeared, and the crossing was unmolested. If the Turcomans had made ever so feeble an attempt they would have troubled the Russians a good deal, as they had a fortification on the other bank of the river which could have been easily defended. The first of the Russians that crossed took possession of this fort; four small cannon were sent over, and in two or three hours after the first boat-load had crossed, the Russians were strongly posted and able to take care of themselves.
​All day long the crossing continued, but at nightfall the work was not completed. During the night the Oxus rose about six feet, and a portion of the Russian camp was drowned out, but happily it was only the camp and not any of its occupants. The next day the crossing was completed, and the camels, well laden with water and refreshed and strengthened by their brief stay in the rich valley of the Oxus, were sent back to bring up the detachment and baggage that had been left at Alty-Kuduk. General Kaufmann issued a friendly proclamation to the Khivans, and induced them to open a bazaar near his camp for the sale of food. He announced that all who remained at home would not be molested in person or property, and that the Russians would pay for all the provisions and forage they wanted when it was brought into camp. But he added that if they were obliged to go out and hunt for their supplies, they would take whatever they wanted without paying for it, and would pillage and burn every abandoned house. The proclamation had the desired effect, and the Khivans brought in a plentiful supply of flour, fruit, chickens, sheep, rice, sugar, tea, and other things of which the Russians were in great need. They demanded and received four or five times the ordinary prices of what they sold. As they had expected the Russians would take every thing without payment, such being their own practice on their forays, they were greatly surprised at the conduct of their conquerors, and good feelings were established at once.
Things went on in this way for three days, when the Khivans suddenly stopped bringing in supplies, in consequence of an order from the Khan that any one who gave or sold provisions to the Russians should be put to death. A foraging party was sent out and had a slight skirmish with the Turcomans, and on the next day General Kaufmann decided to advance. He had received a letter from General Verevkin, giving notice of his approach from ​Kungrad, and very naturally he did not wish his inferior in rank to have the honor of being the first to enter the capital.
Hazar-Asp, a strong fortification capable of a vigorous defence, was surrendered without a blow, somewhat to the disappointment of the younger officers, who were anxious for a fight. The fortification encloses a village of about 5,000 inhabitants, and covers some three acres of ground. It is 10 miles back from the river and about 40 from Khiva. A small garrison was left to hold the place and the rest of the army encamped near the river, waiting for the whole column to arrive from Alty-Kudjk before advancing upon Khiva. On the morning of the 8th June the Alty-Kuduk detachment had arrived, and the whole camp was broken up for the march to the capital. No opposition was made to the advance, and by the evening of the 9th the army was within 10 miles of Khiva when a messenger brought a letter from the Khan, offering his submission and proposing to surrender himself and his capital immediately.
This message was the result of the bombardment of the other side of the city by General Verevkin's column, which has been described already. Kaufmann immediately sent orders for Verevkin to stop his bombardment, which the latter obeyed as a matter of course, though much against his will.
Next morning, Kaufmann wrote to the Khan, telling him to march out on the Hazar-Asp road with 100 of his followers and listen to the terms of surrender. During the night the Khan fled from the city and was not at hand to receive the letter, which was responded to by his uncle, Said Emir Ul-Umer, who surrendered the city. While these negotiations were going on, several reports of cannon were heard; they continued at varied intervals until Kaufmann's troops were actually entering the city at the Hazar-Asp gate. It turned out that the Turcomans had renewed the fight with Verevkin's troops, and the ​latter were not slow to reply. With their artillery they battered down the Hazavat gate, and then Colonel Skobeleff and Count Shuvaloff, with about 1,000 men, made a dash into the city and kept up a running fight to the Great Square and the palace of the Khan.
They had been there about five minutes when they heard that the Tashkend column was entering at the Hazar-Asp gate with drums beating and colors flying. Waiting an instant to catch the strains of the music, Colonel Skobeleff gave the order to retreat, and his men left Khiva by the gate by which they had entered. Great pains were taken to prevent publicity to this incident, as it was but natural that the commanding general would not wish to cede the honor of the capture of Khiva to a subordinate.
The Tashkend column marched to the Great Square, and was drawn up in line to receive General Kaufmann, who shortly entered, accompanied by the officers of his staff. The band played the national air of Russia, the colors were saluted, and solemn possession was taken in the name of the Czar. The Khivans received their conquerors in silence, but great numbers of them brought peace-offerings in the shape of dried fruit and similar articles of food. On being assured that no harm would come to any who remained quietly at home, they seemed content, and before nightfall had opened a bazaar and were doing an excellent business with the Russians.
The warmest welcome was given to the Russians by the Persian slaves. Khiva has been for many decades one of the great slave markets of Asia; thousands of Persians and many Russians have been sold there into perpetual bondage, and when once in the possession of a Khivan master, their escape or redemption was hopeless. They had heard that wherever the Russians went there was no more slavery, and when the Muscovites took possession of the city hundreds of these unhappy captives crowded ​around them to have their chains removed. This is no figure of speech, as it was the custom of the Khivans to load their slaves with chains to prevent their running away. The sound of chisel and hammer, as the links were cut, or the grating of the file opening the rivets, were audible all over Khiva for several days after the arrival of the Russians. Slavery in the oasis was at an end. The Russian slaves in Khiva were liberated just before Kaufmann started from Tashkend, but too late to prevent the departure of the expedition.
A few days after taking possession of the city, General Kaufmann drafted a treaty to be made between the Khan and the Emperor. It was sent to St. Petersburg, where it received the imperial sanction, and was then returned to the general. On the 23d of August it was signed by General Kaufmann and the Khan in presence of the full staff of the former and a proportionate number of Khivan dignitaries.
By the terms of the treaty, the Khan became a vassal of the Emperor, surrendering the right of holding direct relations with neighboring khans and potentates, declaring war, or making commercial treaties, without the Emperor's permission. The boundaries were carefully defined; the Oxus was to be navigated exclusively by Russian vessels; the Russians had the right to establish ports and posts wherever they pleased; could build warehouses for the storage of goods, and all Russian merchants could have their commercial agents in Khiva, or other towns of the khanate. Slavery was to cease forever, and the khanate agreed to pay a war indemnity of 2,200,000 roubles in twenty annual instalments, with interest at five per cent.
The conquest of Khiva pushed the boundary of Russia some 300 miles to the south, annexed a territory of many thousand square miles, and gave complete control of the navigation of the Oxus. The moral advantages of the conquest were of more consequence to Russia ​than the material ones, though the latter were by no means small. Khiva had been considered inaccessible and impregnable. Its fall exerted a powerful influence upon the Moslem inhabitants of Central Asia, by showing them that the Russians were invincible. Khiva was the last stronghold of Islam in Central Asia after the fall of Bokhara, and its capture was necessary to the spread of Russian influence in the direction of India. And however jealously the conquest may have been regarded by British statesmen, there can be no dispute that humanity gained greatly by the result of Kaufmann's victory.
Whatever shortcomings there may be in the rule of the Czar, it is far preferable to that of the Khan. Human life is no longer disregarded; tortures and wholesale decapitations are no more permitted; raids for purposes of plunder are things of the past, and the inhabitants of neighboring districts are no longer in constant peril of being carried into slavery. Before the arrival of Kaufmann the Great Square of Khiva was the scene of terrible spectacles. Vámbéry describes how he witnessed there in 1863 the payment for the heads of men slain in battle, the execution of prisoners, the sale or bestowal of others into slavery, and how several aged men, useless as slaves, were thrown on the ground, and firmly held while the executioner gouged out their eyes, and coolly wiped his dripping knife on their beards. If nothing else was required, the abolition of these wanton cruelties was a complete justification of the Russian conquest of the Oasis of the khans.