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# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Jean-Baptiste Girard

From volume 6 of the work.
Known as Père Girard, a Swiss pedagogue, b. at Fribourg, 17 December, 1765; d. there, 6 March, 1850. At sixteen he entered the novitiate of the Franciscans at Lucerne; after spending some time teaching in the colleges of the order, he went to Würzburg for his philosophical and theological studies, and was there ordained to the priesthood. Returning to Fribourg in 1789, he spent ten years in missionary work and in teaching philosophy to the young men of his order. His admiration for Kantian ideas, although restricted, was the occasion of suspicion of his orthodoxy. Upon the invitation of Stapfer, minister of arts and sciences, Girard wrote a plan for education in Switzerland and was called to Verne where he remained four years. In 1804 he was recalled to Fribourg, and took up work in the primary schools.
As director of the schools in Fribourg (1807-1823), Girard made education compulsory, organized the school administration, insisted on the adoption of good textbooks and methods, and introduced the monitorial system, avoiding the abuse of mere memory exercise and making every study converge to the child's complete education. These reforms, though crowned with success, were the occasion for bitter opposition from those who did not realize the importance of education, or adhered to the old routine methods. In 1809 Girard was sent to Yverdun to make a report to the Government on Pestalozzi's institutlon. He had met the latter in Berne and professed the greatest admiration for his ability as an educator, while differing from him on several important points, especially on the value of the monitorial system. This method, in fact, which Girard applied, was opposed by the bishop and the civil authorities of Fribourg, in 1823. Girard abandoned his school and went to Lucerne as professor of philosophy in the gymnasium. In 1834 he returned to Fribourg, where he remained till his death, engaged in educational pursuits and in the publication of some of his works. He had a great reputation in France, being a Knight of the Legion of Honour, and a corresponding member of the Académie des Sciences morales et politiques.
Besides many reports and memoirs, his principal writings are: "Cours de philosophie fait au Lycée de Lucerne" (1829- 31); "Des moyens de stimuler l'activité dons les écoles" (1835); "Parallèle entre la philosophie et la physique" (1840); and "Cours éducatif de langue maternelle" (Paris, 1840-48). These works banish abstractions that are above the child's intelligence, principles and rules being taught chiefly by means of concrete examples, and difficulties being introduced gradually. They contain the foundation of modern educational textbooks, and are still well worth studying. Père Girard ranks next to Pestalozzi among Swiss pedagogues.
C.A. DUBRAY
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Jean-Baptiste Glaire

From volume 6 of the work.
Priest, hebraist, and Biblical scholar; b. at Bordeaux, 1 April, 1798; d. at Issy, near Paris, 25 Feb., 1879. Having completed a course of serious study at Bordeaux, he went to the seminary of Saint-Sulpice at Paris, the courses of which he followed simultaneously with those of Oriental languages at the Sorbonne (State Faculty of Theology). After his ordination to priesthood, in 1822, he began to teach Hebrew at the seminary of Saint-Sulpice. In 1825 he was made assistant to the Abbe Chaunac de Lanzac, professor of Hebrew at the Sorbonne, and succeeded him as lecturer in 1831. He was professor of Sacred Scripture in 1836, became dean of the faculty in 1841, and retired in 1851. His numerous works are out of date, but it should be remembered that he did much for the study of Holy Scripture, and, furthermore, in a very conservative way.
The following are his chief publications.- On Oriental languages: "Lexicon manuale hebraicum et chaldaicum", Paris, 1830 (correction of the "Lexicon" of Gesenius); "Principes de grammaire hébraïque et chaldaïque", Paris, 1832 and 1843; "Manuel de l'hébraïsant", Paris, 1850; "Principes de grammaire arabe", Paris, 1861. On Holy Scripture: "Introduction historique et critique aux livres de l'Ancien et du Nouveau Testament", Paris, 1836, several times re-edited; he summarized it in his "Abrégé d'introduction" etc., Paris, 1846, which also went through several editions; "Les Livres saints vengés, ou la vérité historique et divine de l'Ancien et du Nouveau Testament", Paris, 1845. The portion of his work which endures consists of his translations of the Bible: "La sainte Bible en latin et en français", Paris, 1834; "Torah Mosché, le Pentateuque", Hebrew text with translation and annotations; "La sainte Bible selon la Vulgate", Paris, 1871-1873, an exact but too literal version; the translation of the New Testament, also frequently published separately, was specially examined and approved at Rome. Glaire's translation was inserted in the "Bible polyglotte" of Vigouroux, Paris, 1889-1890. With Viscount Walsh, Glaire edited the "Encyclopédie catholique" (Paris, 1854-), to which he contributed a number of articles.
A. BOUDINHON
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Jean-Baptiste Lully

From volume 9 of the work.
Composer, b. near Florence in 1633; d. at Paris, 22 March, 1687. He was brought to France when quite a child by Mlle de Montpensier. Having great natural gifts as a violinist, he was soon promoted to be one of the king's band of twenty-four violins, and leader of the private band. He composed a number of popular songs, including "Au clair de la lune", as well as much dance music and violin solos, and he revolutionized the orchestra by his methods. After a study of theory and composition under celebrated masters he set music for the court ballets, and was appointed composer to the king, and music master to the royal family. After his marriage in 1662, he became on very intimate terms with Molière, with whom he collaborated in ballets until 1671. A clever diplomatist and thorough courtier, he completely won the royal favour, and in March, 1672, he succeeded in ousting Abbe Perrin from the directorship of the Academy of Music. Thenceforward his success as founder of modern French opera was unquestioned, although Cambert, in 1671, paved the way. From 1672 to 1686 Lully produced twenty operas, showing himself a master of various styles. His "Isis", "Thésée", "Armide", and "Atys" are good specimens of operatic work, and he not only improved recitative but invented the French overture. Nor did he concentrate his abilities wholly on the stage; he wrote much church music. As an artist he was in the first rank, though as a man his ethical code was not of the strictest. His death was caused while conducting a "Te Deum" to celebrate the king's recovery, as, when beating time, he struck his foot inadvertently, causing an abscess which proved fatal. At his decease he left four houses, and property valued at £14,000, and he occupied the coveted post of Secrétaire du Roi, as well as Surintendant to Louis XIV.
W. H. Grattan-Flood.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Jean-Baptiste Labat

From volume 8 of the work.
Dominican missionary, born at Paris, 1664; died there, 1738. He entered the Order of Preachers in his native city at the age of twenty years and was professed on 11 April 1685. After the completion of his philosophical andtheological studies he was ordained and for several years taught philosophy publicly to the secular students of Nancy. Abandoning this work he devoted himself to missionary activity and for many years preached in the various churches of France. The missionary fields of America were proving a strong attraction to the zealous clergy of his day, and Labat became filled with a burning desire to assist in the evangelization of the Indians. Accordingly, in 1693, he obtained permission from the general of the order to depart for those colonies of the West Indies which were then underFrench domination, and laboured among the Indians for thirteen years, until 1706, when he sailed for Italy in the interests of his mission. After attending a meeting of the order at Bologna, and presenting to the general a report of his work, he prepared to return to American, but was denied permission and detained in Rome for several years. During this period he commenced a long contemplated history of the West Indies. The work wasfinally published in six volumes at Paris, in 1722, with copious illustrations made by himself ("Nouveau Voyage aux isles Françoises de l'Amérique", Paris, 1722). Labat had a wide reputation as a mathematician and wonrecognition both as a naturalist and as a scientist. He embodied in the history his scientific observations and treated comprehensively and accurately of the soil, trees, plants, fruits, and herbs of the islands. He also explained the manufactures then in existence and pointed out means forthe development of commercial relations. He published similar works on other countries, drawing information from the notes of other missionaries.His two works on Africa have become well known: "Nouvelle relation de l'Afrique occidentale", Paris, 1728 and "Relation historique de l'Ethiopie occidentale" (Congo, Angola, Matamba, after the Italian of Father Cavazzi, Cap. (Paris, 1732). The latter treatise is supplemented with notes and statistics drawn from Portuguese sources.
Ignatius Smith.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Azymes

From volume 2 of the work.
(Gr. azymos, without leaven; Heb. maççoth).
Unfermented cakes used by the Jews in their various sacrifices and religious rites (Ex. xxix, 2,23; Num., vi, 15, 17,19; Lev., ii, 4; vi, 16-17; vii, 12, viii, 2, 26), as commanded by the Law (Ex.,xxiii, 18; xxxiv, 25; Lev., ii, 11). Their use was also prescribed for the Feast of the Passover (Ex., xii, 8, 15; xiii, 3, 6, 7; Num., ix, 11; Deut., xvi, 3, 4, 8). On account of the facility with which they could be prepared, they were also made in ordinary life for unexpected guests (Gen., xviii, 6; Judges, vi, 19-21, etc.) and in times of necessity, e.g., at the time of the Exodus (Ex., xii, 34, 39), whence the name, "bread of affliction" (Deut., xvi, 3). In I Cor., v, 8, unleavened bread is the type of sincerity and truth. Unleavened cakes were especially used for the Feast of Azymes, also called the "solemn feast" (Num., xxviii, 17). This festival was instituted to commemorate Israel's deliverance from Egyptian bondage (Ex., xii, 17; xiii, 3-10). Its observance began on the fifteenth of Abib, or Nisan "the month of newcorn", and continued seven days, the first and last of which were specially solemn (Ex., xii, 15-18; xiii, 7; Lev. xxiii, 6-8, etc.). No other but unleavened bread was allowed during the whole feast. Although originally distinct, the Feast of Azymes and the Feast of the Passover are often treated as one and the same (Deut., xvi, 16; Matt., xxiv, 17; Mark,xiv, 12; Luke, xxii, 1, 7).
EDERSHEIM, The Temple and its Services (London,1874); GREEN, The Hebrew Feasts (New York, 1885); SCHULTZ, OldTestament Theology, tr. (Edinburgh, 1892), I.
F.X.E. ALBERT
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Azotus

From volume 2 of the work.
Co-author Thomas Joseph Shahan.
(Heb. Ashdodh; in Sept. Azotos)
(1) One of the five great cities of the Philistines (Jos., xiii, 3), the modern Esdud, situated three miles from the Mediterranean Sea, about half-way between Gaza and Jaffa. The temple of Dagon, whither the Ark of the Covenant was carried by the Philistines, was situated here (I K., v, 1-5; I Mach., x, 83; xi, 4). Azotus, like other Philistine cities, suffered varying fortunes in the wars with Israel, Assyria, and Egypt. Oxias fought against it (II Paral., xxvi, 6), Sargon besieged and took it (Isaias, xx, 1; Schrader, "Keilinschriftliche Bibliothek", II, 66-67), and Sennacherib did likewise (Schrader, op. Cit., II, 90-91). According to Herodotus, Psammetichus besieged the city for twenty years. In 163 B.C. Judas Machabeus cleared Azotus of idols (I Mach., v, 68), and in 148 B.C. Jonathan and Simon burnt the temple of Dagon (I Mach., x, 83-84). To-day Esdud is a modern village, with many ruins attesting its glorious past. In the New Testament Azotus is mentioned in connection with Philip's return from Gaza (Acts, viii, 40).
(2) The mountain to which Bacchides pursued the Jews in battle (I Mach., ix, 15).
Azotus, a titular see of Palestine
Situated near the seacoast, between Jaffa and Ascalon. Its episcopal list (325-536) is given in Gams (452). It is the Ashdod of the Book of Josue (xv, 47), was one of the five principal cities of the Philistines, and the chief seat of the worship of their god Dagon (I Sam., v, 1-7). Herodotus mentions it (II, 157) as having withstood King Psammetichus of Egypt in a siege of twenty-nine years, the longest then known.
Lequien, Oriens Christ. (1740), III, 659-662; Robertson, Biblical Researches, II, 368; Vigouroux in Dict. De la Bible, s.v. Azot.
F.X.E. ALBERT
THOMAS J. SHAHAN
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Aëtius

From volume 1 of the work.
​Aëtius, a Roman general, patrician, and consul, b. towards the end of the fourth century; d. 454. He was the son of an Italian mother and Gaudentius, a Scythian soldier of the empire, and in his youth had been given as a hostage to Alaric (from whom he learned the art of war), and to Rugila, King of the Huns, and in this way, doubtless, acquired among them the prestige and authority that were at once his basis of power and the source of his fall. This deliverer of Europe from the Huns first appears in history as the leader of 60,000 Huns in the pay of the imperial usurper Johannes (424). The ignominious execution of the latter was followed by the pardon of Aëtius and his restoration to the favour of the Empress Placidia. He was made Count (probably of Italy), and became the chief adviser of the Western rulers, Placidia and her son Valentinian III. In this quality it was not long before he came into conflict with the powerful Bonifacius, Count of Africa, and is said by later historians (Procopius of Byzantium, John of Antioch) to have so discredited the latter with Placidia that he was driven to revolt, brought over (428) the Vandals into Africa, and entered Italy (432) with the purpose of overthrowing in civil war his powerful enemy. But Boniface fell in battle near Rimini, and Aëtius retired for some time to the Hunnish camp in Pannonia. In 433 he returned to power at Ravenna, and for the remaining seventeen years of the joint reign of Placidia and Valentinian III was, as before, the ruling spirit of the Western Empire. The peace that he maintained through his alliances with the Huns and the Alani and through a treaty with the Ostrogoths, was broken (450) by the invasion of Attila. In the summer of that year Aëtius, in concert with the brave and loyal Theodoric, King of the Visigoths, relieved Orléans besieged by Attila, and arrested the progress of the great Hun on the Catalaunian Fields, near Troyes, where he won one of the decisive victories of history, and saved Europe for Latins, Teutons, Celts, and Slavs, as against the degraded and odious Huns. His death followed close upon his triumph; this strong and resourceful man was slain at Ravenna (454) by the weakling Emperor Valentinian III, in a fit of jealous rage, never clearly explained, but supposedly caused by the ambition of Aëtius to place his son upon the imperial throne. The assassination of the saviour of Western civilization led to the assassination (455) of Valentinian.
Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, xxxiii–v; Hodgkin, Italy and her Invaders (Oxford, 1892), I, ii, 874 sqq; 889–98; Bury, History of the Later Roman Empire (London, 1889), I, 159–83. For a critical discussion of certain legendary items in the history of Aëtius see Freeman, Aëtius and Boniface, in English Hist., Review, July, 1887.
Thomas J. Shahan.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Aër

From volume 1 of the work.
​Aër (Greek, ἀήρ, the air), the largest and outermost covering of the chalice and paten in the Greek church, corresponding to the veil in the Latin rite. It is slightly larger than the veil used to cover the chalice and paten in the Latin rite, and is beautifully embroidered in the same style and colour as the vestments of the officiating priest. It takes its name either from the lightness of the material of which it was formerly made or from the fact that the priest during the time of the recital of the Nicene Creed in the Mass holds it high in the air and waves it slowly towards the chalice. Its use, like that of the veil, was originally to cover the chalice and to prevent anything from falling therein before the consecration and before the sacred vessels were brought to the altar. It is first mentioned by name in an explanation of the liturgy (Mass) by a writer of the sixth century, and is also alluded to as "the so-called air" in the Acts of the Council of Constantinople. In the Greek Orthodox church the veil is put on the shoulders of the deacon who brings the paten to the altar at the great entrance, and the same rite is preserved in the Greek Catholic church, where the aër usually has a couple of short strings to secure it over the shoulders. A similar ceremony is still preserved in the Roman rite, where the deacon at high Mass brings the chalice and paten to the altar and places a special veil over his shoulders.
Clugnet, Dict. grec-français des noms liturgiques (Paris, 1895), 4.
Andrew J. Shipman.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Aymeric of Piacenza

From volume 2 of the work.
A learned Dominican, b. at Piacenza, Italy; d. at Bologna, 19 August, 1327. Soon after his entrance into the Lombard province of the Dominican Order, he was sent (1262) to pursue his studies at Milan, where he formed a close friendship with Niccolo Boccasini, later pope under the name of Benedict XI (1303-04). After teaching philosophy and theology for twenty-four years he was elected Provincial of Greece. In this capacity he travelled to the Chapter General of Toulouse in May, 1304, where a successor to Bernard de Jusix was to be elected, but just before the first session renounced his office and vote, with the consent of the pope. That this act of humility was the cause of his election to the master generalship of the order is the unanimous verdict of all its chroniclers. His first care was to regulate studies in those provinces where the opposition of the Fraticelli to intellectual pursuits had been most felt. He definitely determined the qualifications for degrees in the order. Oriental languages were no less encouraged by him than natural sciences. In 1309 Clement IV enjoined on Aymeric who was on his way to the chapter of Saragossa in Spain, to examine into the charges brought against the Templars. He found little to complain of. In 1310 he was summoned to the Council of Vienne to take part in the process of the Templars. In the meantime, however, he resigned his office, and thus avoided the displeasure of Clement IV, whose policy he never heartily endorsed. At the same time, as he candidly avowed, he was saved from acting against the dictates of his conscience. He is the reputed author of a treatise against the heretics of his day, and of works on moral, dogmatic, and scholastic questions, none of which are known to be extant. Montfaucon (Diarium Italicum, xxvii) speaks of a curious present given by Aymeric to the convent of Bologna. It was the Pentateuch in Hebrew and learned Jews of the time declared that the manuscript had been written by Esdras. "Although this smacks of the fabulous", cautiously remarks Montfaucon". . . still it cannot be denied that the codex appears to have been old when given to Aymeric". As a man of letters Aymeric was in close touch with the learned men of his time. Pietro Crescenzio of Bologna completed his "De Re Rustica" at the repeated solicitations of Aymeric, by whom it was corrected before the author presented it to Charles II of Sicily. The letters of Aymeric are found in "Litterae Encyclicae Magistrorum Generalium Ord. Praed." (Ed. Reichert, Rome, 1900), which forms the fifth volume of the "Monumenta Hist. Fratr. Praed." (181-202).
Tiraboschi, Storia della litt. Ital., V, I, 152-153; Quetif and Echard, SS. Ord. Praed., I, 494 sqq.; Mortier, Histoire des Maitres Generaux de l'ordre des Freres Precheurs (paris, 1905), II, 420-473; Kaufmann in Der Katholik, Feb., 1900.
THOS. M. SCHWERTNER
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Aërius of Pontus

From volume 1 of the work.
​Aërius of Pontus, a friend and fellow ascetic of Eustathius, who became Bishop of Sebaste (355), and who ordained Aërius and placed him over the hospital or asylum in that city. Aërius fell out with Eustathius, upbraided him for having deserted ascetic practices, and began to preach new doctrines, insisting that there was no sacred character distinguishing bishop or priest from laymen, that the observance of the feast of Easter was a Jewish superstition, and that it was wrong to prescribe fasts or abstinences by law, and useless to pray for the dead. According to some, Aërius was inspired to teach these doctrines by his jealousy of Eustathius. For a time, he had many followers in Sebaste, but he could not make his tenets popular, and gradually he and his sect became an occasion of abuses, which made them odious. His movement is considered important by Protestants as indicating a tendency to some of their views even at this early period; but it also shows how strongly the Christians of his day were opposed to the teaching of Aërius.
St. Epiphanius, Adv. Hæres, 75, P. G., t. XLII; Hemmer, in Dict. théol. cath.; Venables, in Dict. Christ. Biog.
John J. Wynne.
# Cincinnati Enquirer editorial on Harper's Ferry

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published 19 October 1859
We give full particulars to-day of the late extraordinary proceedings at Harper's Ferry, Va. They will attract general attention, and create great sensation in all parts of the Union. It will be seen that more detailed and authentic accounts sustain entirely the view we yesterday took in commenting upon it. It was an Abolition plot to free the negroes of Maryland and Virginia at the point of the bayonet. The leader of it was so-called "Ossawatomie Brown," one of the abolitionists who figured with LANE and MONTGOMERY in the murderous forays in Kansas. Men may well be surprised at the reckless boldness and daring of this operation: He must have taken courage from the late elections in Ohio and Pennsylvania, and supposed that he would have not only the moral, but the physical backing of these two great states in stirring up a servile war in the two states of Maryland and Virginia.
The "irrepressible conflict" of the free and slave states, which is preached by the Republican leaders as an orthodox doctrine, is well calculated to lead to such results. This affair at Harper's Ferry is but the "cloud in the distance no bigger than a man's hand," but it is the presage of the future storm, that shall desolate the whole land, if the people give this Abolition doctrine their approval. It necessarily tends to servile insurrection, civil war and disunion. BROWN and his followers are but the advance column of the partisan disciples of SEWARD and CHASE, who are burning to make a practical application of the "irrepressible con- flict doctrine. They stand ready to deluge the land in blood to carry out their fanatical views ; and the momentous question is, do the majority of the people of the free states sympathize with them?
The danger of having a Republican-Abolition President can now be readily appreciated. Such a President, having his sympathies with the insurrectionists, would be slow to move in arresting their outrages. Delay, indecision and coldness would encourage the very parties against whom he should exert promptly the physical and moral power of the government. And the very fact that there was a President with such sympathies would encourage insurrection all through the slave states. It is for the people, North and South, to say if those things shall be.
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