# The Grammar of English Grammars/Part I

​PART I.
ORTHOGRAPHY.
ORTHOGRAPHY treats of letters, syllables, separate words, and spelling.
CHAPTER I.--OF LETTERS.
A Letter is an alphabetic character, which commonly represents some elementary sound of the human voice, some element of speech.
An elementary sound of the human voice, or an element of speech, is one of the simple sounds which compose a spoken language. The sound of a letter is commonly called its power: when any letter of a word is not sounded, it is said to be silent or mute. The letters in the English alphabet, are twenty-six; the simple or primary sounds which they represent, are about thirty-six or thirty-seven.
A knowledge of the letters consists in an acquaintance with these four sorts of things; their names, their classes, their powers, and their forms.
The letters are written, or printed, or painted, or engraved, or embossed, in an infinite variety of shapes and sizes; and yet are always the same, because their essential properties do not change, and their names, classes, and powers, are mostly permanent.
The following are some of the different sorts of types, or styles of letters, with which every reader should be early acquainted:--
1. The Roman: A a, B b, C c, D d, E e, F f, G g, H h, I i, J j, K k, L l, M m, N n, o, P p, Q q, R r, S s, T t, U u, V v, W w, X x, Y y, Z z.
2. The Italic: A a, B b, C c, D d, E e, F f, G g, H h, I i, J j, K k, L l, M m, N n, o, P p, Q q, R r, S s, T t, U u, V v, W w, X x, Y y, Z z.
3. The Script: [Script: A a, B b, C c, D d, E e, F f, G g, H h, I i, J j, K k, L l, M m, N n, o, P p, Q q, R r, S s, T t, U u, V v, W w, X x, Y y, Z z.]
4. The Old English: [Old English: A a, B b, C c, D d, E e, F f, G g, H h, I i, J j, K k, L l, M m, N n, o, P p, Q q, R r, S s, T t, U u, V v, W w, X x, Y y, Z z.]
OBSERVATIONS.
OBS. 1.--A letter consists not in the figure only, or in the power only, but in the figure and power united; as an ambassador consists not in the man only, or in the commission only, but in the man commissioned. The figure and the power, therefore, are necessary to constitute the letter; and a name is as necessary, to call it by, teach it, or tell what it is. The class of a letter is determined by the nature of its power, or sound; as the ambassador is plenipotentiary or otherwise, according to the extent of his commission. To all but the deaf and dumb, written language is the representative of that which is spoken; so that, in the view of people in general, the powers of the letters are habitually identified with their sounds, and are conceived to be nothing else. Hence any given sound, or modification of sound, which all men can produce at pleasure, when arbitrarily associated with a written sign, or conventional character, constitutes what ​is called a letter. Thus we may produce the sounds of a, e, o, then, by a particular compression of the organs of utterance, modify them all, into ba, be, bo, or fa, fe, fo; and we shall see that a, e, and o, are letters of one sort, and b and f of an other. By elementary or articulate sounds,[86] then, we mean not only the simple tones of the voice itself, but the modifying stops and turns which are given them in speech, and marked by letters: the real voices constituting vowels; and their modifications, consonants.
OBS. 2.--A mere mark to which no sound or power is ever given, cannot be a letter; though it may, like the marks used for punctuation, deserve a name and a place in grammar. Commas, semicolons, and the like, represent silence, rather than sounds, and are therefore not letters. Nor are the Arabic figures, which represent entire words, nor again any symbols standing for things, (as the astronomic marks for the sun, the moon, the planets,) to be confounded with letters; because the representative of any word or number, of any name or thing, differs widely in its power, from the sign of a simple elementary sound: i. e., from any constituent part of a written word. The first letter of a word or name does indeed sometimes stand for the whole, and is still a letter; but it is so, as being the first element of the word, and not as being the representative of the whole.
OBS. 3.--In their definitions of vowels and consonants, many grammarians have resolved letters into sounds only; as, "A Vowel is an articulate sound," &c.--"A Consonant is an articulate sound," &c.--L. Murray's Gram., p. 7. But this confounding of the visible signs with the things which they signify, is very far from being a true account of either. Besides, letters combined are capable of a certain mysterious power which is independent of all sound, though speech, doubtless, is what they properly represent. In practice, almost all the letters may occasionally happen to be silent; yet are they not, in these cases, necessarily useless. The deaf and dumb also, to whom none of the letters express or represent sounds, may be taught to read and write understandingly. They even learn in some way to distinguish the accented from the unaccented syllables, and to have some notion of quantity, or of something else equivalent to it; for some of them, it is said, can compose verses according to the rules of prosody. Hence it would appear, that the powers of the letters are not, of necessity, identified with their sounds; the things being in some respect distinguishable, though the terms are commonly taken as synonymous. The fact is, that a word, whether spoken or written, is of itself significant, whether its corresponding form be known or not. Hence, in the one form, it may be perfectly intelligible to the illiterate, and in the other, to the educated deaf and dumb; while, to the learned who hear and speak, either form immediately suggests the other, with the meaning common to both.
OBS. 4.--Our knowledge of letters rises no higher than to the forms used by the ancient Hebrews and Phoenicians. Moses is supposed to have written in characters which were nearly the same as those called Samaritan, but his writings have come to us in an alphabet more beautiful and regular, called the Chaldee or Chaldaic, which is said to have been made by Ezra the scribe, when he wrote out a new copy of the law, after the rebuilding of the temple. Cadmus carried the Phoenician alphabet into Greece, where it was subsequently altered and enlarged. The small letters were not invented till about the seventh century of our era. The Latins, or Romans, derived most of their capitals from the Greeks; but their small letters, if they had any, were made afterwards among themselves. This alphabet underwent various changes, and received very great improvements, before it became that beautiful series of characters which we now use, under the name of Roman letters. Indeed these particular forms, which are now justly preferred by many nations, are said to have been adopted after the invention of printing. "The Roman letters were first used by Sweynheim and Pannartz, printers who settled at Rome, in 1467. The earliest work printed wholly in this character in England, is said to have been Lily's or Paul's Accidence, printed by Richard Pinson, 1518. The Italic letters were invented by Aldus Manutius at Rome, towards the close of the fifteenth century, and were first used in an edition of Virgil, in 1501."--Constables Miscellany, Vol. xx, p. 147. The Saxon alphabet was mostly Roman. Not more than one quarter of the letters have other forms. But the changes, though few, give to a printed page a very different appearance. Under William the Conqueror, this alphabet was superseded by the modern Gothic, Old English, or Black letter; which, in its turn, happily gave place to the present Roman. The Germans still use a type similar to the Old English, but not so heavy.
OBS. 5.--I have suggested that a true knowledge of the letters implies an acquaintance with their names, their classes, their powers, and their forms. Under these four heads, therefore, I shall briefly present what seems most worthy of the learner's attention at first, and shall reserve for the appendix a more particular account of these important elements. The most common and the most useful things are not those about which we are in general most inquisitive. Hence many, who think themselves sufficiently acquainted with the letters, do in fact know but very ​little about them. If a person is able to read some easy book, he is apt to suppose he has no more to learn respecting the letters; or he neglects the minute study of these elements, because he sees what words they make, and can amuse himself with stories of things more interesting. But merely to understand common English, is a very small qualification for him who aspires to scholarship, and especially for a teacher. For one may do this, and even be a great reader, without ever being able to name the letters properly, or to pronounce such syllables as ca, ce, ci, co, cu, cy, without getting half of them wrong. No one can ever teach an art more perfectly than he has learned it; and if we neglect the elements of grammar, our attainments must needs be proportionately unsettled and superficial.
I. NAMES OF THE LETTERS. The names of the letters, as now commonly spoken and written in English, are A, Bee, Cee, Dee, E, Eff, Gee, Aitch, I, Jay, Kay, Ell, Em, En, O, Pee, Kue, Ar, Ess, Tee, U, Vee, Double-u, Ex, Wy, Zee.
OBSERVATIONS.
OBS. 1.--With the learning and application of these names, our literary education begins; with a continual rehearsal of them in spelling, it is for a long time carried on; nor can we ever dispense with them, but by substituting others, or by ceasing to mention the things thus named. What is obviously indispensable, needs no proof of its importance. But I know not whether it has ever been noticed, that these names, like those of the days of the week, are worthy of particular distinction, for their own nature. They are words of a very peculiar kind, being nouns that are at once both proper and common. For, in respect to rank, character, and design, each letter is a thing strictly individual and identical--that is, it is ever one and the same; yet, in an other respect, it is a comprehensive sort, embracing individuals both various and numberless. Thus every B is a b, make it as you will; and can be nothing else than that same letter b, though you make it in a thousand different fashions, and multiply it after each pattern innumerably. Here, then, we see individuality combined at once with great diversity, and infinite multiplicity; and it is to this combination, that letters owe their wonderful power of transmitting thought. Their names, therefore, should always be written with capitals, as proper nouns, at least in the singular number; and should form the plural regularly, as ordinary appellatives. Thus: (if we adopt the names now most generally used in English schools:) A, Aes; Bee, Bees; Cee, Cees; Dee, Dees; E, Ees; Eff, Effs; Gee, Gees; Aitch, Aitches; I, Ies; Jay, Jays; Kay, Kays; Ell, Ells; Em, Ems; En, Ens; O, Oes; Pee, Pees; Kue, Kues; Ar, Ars; Ess, Esses; Tee, Tees; U, Ues; Vee, Vees; Double-u, Double-ues; Ex, Exes; Wy, Wies; Zee, Zees.
OBS. 2.--The names of the letters, as expressed in the modern languages, are mostly framed with reference to their powers, or sounds. Yet is there in English no letter of which the name is always identical with its power: for A, E, I, O, and U, are the only letters which can name themselves, and all these have other sounds than those which their names express. The simple powers of the other letters are so manifestly insufficient to form any name, and so palpable is the difference between the nature and the name of each, that did we not know how education has been trifled with, it would be hard to believe even Murray, when he says, "They are frequently confounded by writers on grammar. Observations and reasonings on the name, are often applied to explain the nature of a consonant; and by this means the student is led into error and perplexity."--L. Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 8. The confounding of names with the things for which they stand, implies, unquestionably, great carelessness in the use of speech, and great indistinctness of apprehension in respect to things; yet so common is this error, that Murray himself has many times fallen into it.[87] Let the learner therefore be on his guard, remembering that grammar, both in its study and in its practice, requires the constant exercise of a rational discernment. Those letters which name themselves, take for their names those sounds which they usually represent at the end of an accented syllable; thus the names, A, E, I, O, U, are uttered with the sounds given to the same letters in the first syllables of the other names, Abel, Enoch, Isaac, Obed, Urim; or in the first syllables of the common words, paper, penal, pilot, potent, pupil. The other letters, most of which can never be perfectly sounded alone, have names in which their powers are combined with other sounds more vocal; as, Bee, Cee, Dee,--Ell, Em, En,--Jay, Kay, Kue. But in this respect the terms Aitch and Double-u are irregular; because they have no obvious reference to the powers of the letters thus named.
OBS. 3.--Letters, like all other things, must be learned and spoken of by their na ​mes; nor can they be spoken of otherwise; yet, as the simple characters are better known and more easily exhibited than their written names, the former are often substituted for the latter, and are read as the words for which they are assumed. Hence the orthography of these words has hitherto been left too much to mere fancy or caprice. Our dictionaries, by a strange oversight or negligence, do not recognize them as words; and writers have in general spelled them with very little regard to either authority or analogy. What they are, or ought to be, has therefore been treated as a trifling question: and, what is still more surprising, several authors of spelling-books make no mention at all of them; while others, here at the very threshold of instruction, teach falsely--giving "he" for Aitch, "er" for Ar, "oo" or "uu" for Double-u, "ye" for Wy, and writing almost all the rest improperly. So that many persons who think themselves well educated, would be greatly puzzled to name on paper these simple elements of all learning. Nay, there can be found a hundred men who can readily write the alphabetic names which were in use two or three thousand years ago in Greece or Palestine, for one who can do the same thing with propriety, respecting those which we now employ so constantly in English:[88] and yet the words themselves are as familiar to every school-boy's lips as are the characters to his eye. This fact may help to convince us, that the grammar of our language has never yet been sufficiently taught. Among all the particulars which constitute this subject, there are none which better deserve to be everywhere known, by proper and determinate names, than these prime elements of all written language.
OBS. 4.--Should it happen to be asked a hundred lustrums hence, what were the names of the letters in "the Augustan age of English literature," or in the days of William the Fourth and Andrew Jackson, I fear the learned of that day will be as much at a loss for an answer, as would most of our college tutors now, were they asked, by what series of names the Roman youth were taught to spell. Might not Quintilian or Varro have obliged many, by recording these? As it is, we are indebted to Priscian, a grammarian of the sixth century, for almost all we know about them. But even the information which may be had, on this point, has been strangely overlooked by our common Latin grammarians.[89] What, but the greater care of earlier writers, has made the Greek names better known or more important than the Latin? In every nation that is not totally illiterate, custom must have established for the letters a certain set of names, which are the only true ones, and which are of course to be preferred to such as are local or unauthorized. In this, however, as in other things, use may sometimes vary, and possibly improve; but when its decisions are clear, no feeble reason should be allowed to disturb them. Every parent, therefore, who would have his children instructed to read and write the English language, should see that in the first place they learn to name the letters as they are commonly named in English. A Scotch gentleman of good education informs me, that the names of the letters, as he first learned them in a school in his own country, were these: "A, Ib, Ec, Id, E, Iff, Ig, Ich, I, Ij, Ik, Ill, Im, In, O, Ip, Kue, Ir, Iss, It, U, Iv, Double-u, Ix, Wy, Iz;" but that in the same school the English names are now used. It is to be hoped, that all teachers will in time abandon every such local usage, and name the letters as they ought to be named; and that the day will come, in which the regular English orthography of these terms, shall be steadily preferred, ignorance of it be thought a disgrace, and the makers of school-books feel no longer at liberty to alter names that are a thousand times better known than their own.
OBS. 5.--It is not in respect to their orthography alone, that these first words in literature demand inquiry and reflection: the pronunciation of some of them has often been taught erroneously, and, with respect to three or four of them, some writers have attempted to make an entire change from the customary forms which I have recorded. Whether the name of the first letter should be pronounced "Aye," as it is in England, "Ah," as it is in Ireland, or "Aw," as it is in Scotland, is a question which Walker has largely discussed, and clearly decided in favour of the first sound; and this decision accords with the universal practice of the schools in America. It is remarkable that this able critic, though he treated minutely of the letters, naming them all in the outset of his "Principles" subsequently neglected the names of them all, except the fir ​last. Of Zee, (which has also been called Zed, Zad, Izzard, Uzzard, Izzet, and Iz,) he says, "Its common name is izzard, which Dr. Johnson explains into s hard; if, however, this is the meaning, it is a gross misnomer; for the z is not the hard, but the soft s; but as it has a less sharp, and therefore not so audible a sound, it is not impossible but it may mean s surd. Zed, borrowed from the French, is the more fashionable name of this letter; but, in my opinion, not to be admitted, because the names of the letters ought to have no diversity."--Walker's Principles, No. 483. It is true, the name of a letter ought to be one, and in no respect diverse; but where diversity has already obtained, and become firmly rooted in custom, is it to be obviated by insisting upon what is old-fashioned, awkward, and inconvenient? Shall the better usage give place to the worse? Uniformity cannot be so reached. In this country, both Zed and Izzard, as well as the worse forms Zad and Uzzard, are now fairly superseded by the softer and better term Zee; and whoever will spell aloud, with each of these names, a few such words as dizzy, mizzen, gizzard, may easily perceive why none of the former can ever be brought again into use. The other two, Iz and Izzet, being localisms, and not authorized English, I give up all six; Zed to the French, and the rest to oblivion.
OBS. 6.--By way of apology for noticing the name of the first letter, Walker observes, "If a diversity of names to vowels did not confound us in our spelling, or declaring to each other the component letters of a word, it would be entirely needless to enter into so trifling a question as the mere name of a letter; but when we find ourselves unable to convey signs to each other on account of this diversity of names, and that words themselves are endangered by an improper utterance of their component parts, it seems highly incumbent on us to attempt a uniformity in this point, which, insignificant as it may seem, is undoubtedly the foundation of a just and regular pronunciation."--Dict., under A. If diversity in this matter is so perplexing, what shall we say to those who are attempting innovations without assigning reasons, or even pretending authority? and if a knowledge of these names is the basis of a just pronunciation, what shall we think of him who will take no pains to ascertain how he ought to speak and write them? He who pretends to teach the proper fashion of speaking and writing, cannot deal honestly, if ever he silently prefer a suggested improvement, to any established and undisturbed usage of the language; for, in grammar, no individual authority can be a counterpoise to general custom. The best usage can never be that which is little known, nor can it be well ascertained and taught by him who knows little. Inquisitive minds are ever curious to learn the nature, origin, and causes of things; and that instruction is the most useful, which is best calculated to gratify this rational curiosity. This is my apology for dwelling so long upon the present topic.
OBS. 7.--The names originally given to the letters were not mere notations of sound, intended solely to express or make known the powers of the several characters then in use; nor ought even the modern names of our present letters, though formed with special reference to their sounds, to be considered such. Expressions of mere sound, such as the notations in a pronouncing dictionary, having no reference to what is meant by the sound, do not constitute words at all; because they are not those acknowledged signs to which a meaning has been attached, and are consequently without that significance which is an essential property of words. But, in every language, there must be a series of sounds by which the alphabetical characters are commonly known in speech; and which, as they are the acknowledged names of these particular objects, must be entitled to a place among the words of the language. It is a great error to judge otherwise; and a greater to make it a "trifling question" in grammar, whether a given letter shall be called by one name or by an other. Who shall say that Daleth, Delta, and Dee, are not three real words, each equally important in the language to which it properly belongs? Such names have always been in use wherever literature has been cultivated; and as the forms and powers of the letters have been changed by the nations, and have become different in different languages, there has necessarily followed a change of the names. For, whatever inconvenience scholars may find in the diversity which has thence arisen, to name these elements in a set of foreign terms, inconsistent with the genius of the language to be learned, would surely be attended with a tenfold greater. We derived our letters, and their names too, from the Romans; but this is no good reason why the latter should be spelled and pronounced as we suppose they were spelled and pronounced in Rome.
OBS. 8.--The names of the twenty-two letters in Hebrew, are, without dispute, proper words; for they are not only significant of the letters thus named, but have in general, if not in every instance, some other meaning in that language. Thus the mysterious ciphers which the English reader meets with, and wonders over, as he reads the 119th Psalm, may be resolved, according to some of the Hebrew grammars, as follows:--
א Aleph, A, an ox, or a leader; ב Beth, Bee, house; ג Gimel, Gee, a camel; ד ​Daleth, Dee, a door ; ה He, E, she, or behold ; ו Vau, U, a hook, or a nail ; ז Zain, Zee, armour ; ח Cheth, or Heth, Aitch, a hedge ; ט Teth, Tee, a serpent, or a scroll ; י Jod, or Yod, I, or Wy, a hand shut ; כ Caph, Cee, a hollow hand, or a cup ; ל Lamed, Ell, an ox-goad ; מ Mem, Em, a stain, or spot ; נ Nun, En, a fish, or a snake ; ס Samech, Ess, a basis, or support ; ע Ain, or Oin, O, an eye, or a well ; פ Pe, Pee, a lip, or mouth ; צ Tzaddi, or Tsadhe, Tee-zee, (i. e. tz, or ts,) a hunter's pole ; ק Koph, Kue, or Kay, an ape ; ר Resch, or Resh, Ar, a head ; ש Schin, or Sin, Ess-aitch, or Ess, a tooth ; ת Tau, or Thau, Tee, or Tee-aitch, a cross, or mark.
These English names of the Hebrew letters are written with much less uniformity than those of the Greek, because there has been more dispute respecting their powers. This is directly contrary to what one would have expected; since the Hebrew names are words originally significant of other things than the letters, and the Greek are not. The original pronunciation of both languages is admitted to be lost, or involved in so much obscurity that little can be positively affirmed about it; and yet, where least was known, grammarians have produced the most diversity; aiming at disputed sounds in the one case, but generally preferring a correspondence of letters in the other.
Obs. 9.—The word alphabet is derived from the first two names in the following series. The Greek letters are twenty-four; which are formed, named, and sounded, thus:—
Α α, Alpha, a; Β β, Beta, b; Γ γ, Gamma, g hard; Δ δ, Delta, d; Ε ε, Epsilon, e short; Ζ ζ, Zeta, z; Η η, Eta, e long; Θ θ, Theta, th; Ι ι, Iota, i; Κ κ, Kappa, k; Λ λ, Lambda, l; Μ μ, Mu, m; Ν ν, Nu, n; Ξ ξ, Xi, x; Ο ο, Omicron, o short; Π π, Pi, p; Ρ ρ Rho, r; Σ σ ς, Sigma, s; Τ τ, Tau, t; Υ υ, Upsilon, u; Φ φ, Phi, ph; Χ χ, Chi, ch; Ψ ψ, Psi, ps; Ω ω, Omega, o long.
Of these names, our English dictionaries explain the first and the last; and Webster has defined Iota, and Zeta, but without reference to the meaning of the former in Greek. Beta, Delta, Lambda, and perhaps some others, are also found in the etymologies or definitions of Johnson and Webster, both of whom spell the word Lambda and its derivative lambdoidal without the silent b, which is commonly, if not always, inserted by the authors of our Greek grammars, and which Worcester, more properly, retains.
Obs. 10.—The reader will observe that the foregoing names, whether Greek or Hebrew, are in general much less simple than those which our letters now bear; and if he has ever attempted to spell aloud in either of those languages, he cannot but be sensible of the great advantage which was gained when to each letter there was given a short name, expressive, as ours mostly are, of its ordinary power. This improvement appears to have been introduced by the Romans, whose names for the letters were even more simple than our own. But so negligent in respect to them have been the Latin grammarians, both ancient and modern, that few even of the learned can tell what they really were in that language; or how they differed, either in orthography or sound, from those of the English or the French, the Hebrew or the Greek. Most of them, however, may yet be ascertained from Priscian, and some others of note among the ancient philologists; so that by taking from later authors the names of those letters which were not used in old times, we can still furnish an entire list, concerning the accuracy of which there is not much room to dispute. It is probable that in the ancient pronunciation of Latin, a was commonly sounded as in father; e like the English a; i mostly like e long; y like i short; c generally and g always hard, as in come and go. But, as the original, native, or just pronunciation of a language is not necessary to an understanding of it when written, the existing nations have severally, in a great measure, accommodated themselves, in their manner of reading this and other ancient tongues.
Obs. 11.—As the Latin language is now printed, its letters are twenty-five. Like the French, it has all that belong to the English alphabet, except the Double-u. But, till the first Punic war, the Romans wrote C for G, and doubtless gave it the power as well as the place of the Gamma or Gimel. It then seems to have slid into K; but they used it also for S, as we do now. The ancient Saxons, generally pronounced C as K, but sometimes as Ch. Their G was either guttural, or like our Y. In some of the early English grammars the name of the latter is written Ghee. The letter F, when first invented, was called, from its shape, Digamma, and afterwards Ef. J, when it was first distinguished from I, was called by the Hebrew name Jod, and afterwards Je. V, when first distinguished from U, was called Vau, then Va, then Ve. Y, when the Romans first borrowed it from the Greeks, was called Ypsilon; and Z, from the same source, was called Zeta; and, as these two letters were used only in words of Greek origin, I know not whether they ever received from the Romans any shorter names. In Schneider's Latin Grammar, the letters are named in the following manner; except Je and Ve, which are omitted by this author: "A, Be, Ce, De, E, Ef, Ge, Ha, I, [Je,] Ka, El, Em, En, O, Pe, Cu, Er, Es, Te, U, [Ve,] Ix, Ypsilon, Zeta." And this I suppose to be the most proper way of writing their names in Latin, unless we have sufficient authority for shortening Ypsilon into Y, sounded as short i, and for changing Zeta into Ez.
Obs. 12.—In many, if not in all languages, the five vowels, A, E, I, O, U, name themselves; but they name themselves differently to the ear, according to the different ways of utterin ​g them in different languages. And as the name of a consonant necessarily requires one or more vowels, that also may be affected in the same manner. But in every language there should be a known way both of writing and of speaking every name in the series; and that, if there is nothing to hinder, should be made conformable to the genius of the language. I do not say that the names above can be regularly declined in Latin; but in English it is as easy to speak of two Dees as of two trees, of two Kays as of two days, of two Exes as of two foxes, of two Effs as of two skiffs; and there ought to be no more difficulty about the correct way of writing the word in the one case, than in the other. In Dr. Sam. Prat's Latin Grammar, (an elaborate octavo, all Latin, published in London, 1722,) nine of the consonants are reckoned mutes; b, c, d, g, p, q, t, j, and v; and eight, semivowels; f, l, m, n, r, s, x, z. "All the mutes," says this author, "are named by placing e after them; as, be, ce, de, ge, except q, which ends in u." See p. 8. "The semivowels, beginning with e, end in themselves; as, ef, ach, el, em, en, er, es, ex, (or, as Priscian will have it, ix,) eds." See p. 9. This mostly accords with the names given in the preceding paragraph; and so far as it does not, I judge the author to be wrong. The reader will observe that the Doctor's explanation is neither very exact nor quite complete: K is a mute which is not enumerated, and the rule would make the name of it Ke, and not Ka;--H is not one of his eight semivowels, nor does the name Ach accord with his rule or seem like a Latin word;--the name of Z, according to his principle, would be Ez and not "Eds," although the latter may better indicate the sound which was then given to this letter.
OBS. 13.--If the history of these names exhibits diversity, so does that of almost all other terms; and yet there is some way of writing every word with correctness, and correctness tends to permanence. But Time, that establishes authority, destroys it also, when he fairly sanctions newer customs. To all names worthy to be known, it is natural to wish a perpetual uniformity; but if any one thinks the variableness of these to be peculiar, let him open the English Bible of the fourteenth century, and read a few verses, observing the names. For instance: "Forsothe whanne Eroude was to bringynge forth hym, in that nigt Petir was slepynge bitwixe tweyno knytis."--Dedis, (i. e., Acts,) xii, 6. "Crist Ihesu that is to demynge the quyke and deed."--2 Tim., iv, 1. Since this was written for English, our language has changed much, and at the same time acquired, by means of the press, some aids to stability. I have recorded above the true names of the letters, as they are now used, with something of their history; and if there could be in human works any thing unchangeable, I should wish, (with due deference to all schemers and fault-finders,) that these names might remain the same forever.
OBS. 14.--If any change is desirable in our present names of the letters, it is that we may have a shorter and simpler term in stead of Double-u. But can we change this well known name? I imagine it would be about as easy to change Alpha, Upsilon, or Omega; and perhaps it would be as useful. Let Dr. Webster, or any defender of his spelling, try it. He never named the English letters rightly; long ago discarded the term Double-u; and is not yet tired of his experiment with "oo;" but thinks still to make the vowel sound of this letter its name. Yet he writes his new name wrong; has no authority for it but his own; and is, most certainly, reprehensible for the innovation.[92] If W is to be named as a vowel, it ought to name itself, as other vowels do, and not to take two Oes for its written name. Who that knows what it is, to name a letter, can think of naming w by double o? That it is possible for an ingenious man to misconceive this simple affair of naming the letters, may appear not only from the foregoing instance, but from the following quotation: "Among the thousand mismanagements of literary instruction, there is at the outset in the hornbook, the pretence to represent elementary sounds by syllables composed of two or more elements; as, Be, Kay, Zed, Double-u, and Aitch. These words are used in infancy, and through life, as simple elements in the process of synthetic spelling. If the definition of a consonant was made by the master from the practice of the child, it might suggest pity for the pedagogue, but should not make us forget the realities of nature."--Dr. Push, on the Philosophy of the Human Voice, p. 52. This is a strange allegation to come from such a source. If I bid a boy spell the word why, he says, "Double-u, Aitch, Wy, hwi;" and knows that he has spelled and pronounced the word correctly. But if he conceives that the five syllables which form the three words, Double-u, and Aitch, and Wy, are the three simple sounds which he utters in pronouncing the word why, it is not because the hornbook, or the teacher of the hornbook, ever made any such blunder or "pretence;" but because, like some great philosophers, he is capable of misconceiving very plain things. Suppose he should take it into his head to follow Dr. Webster's books, and to say, "Oo, he, ye, hwi;" who, but these doctors, would imagine, that such spelling was supported either by "the realities of nature," or by the authority of custom? I shall retain both the old "definition of a consonant," and the usual names of the letters, notwithstanding the contemptuous pity it may excite in the minds of such critics.
II. CLASSES OF THE LETTERS.
The letters are divided into two general classes, vowels and consonants.
A vowel is a letter which forms a perfect sound when uttered alone; as, a, e, o. ​
A consonant is a letter which cannot be perfectly uttered till joined to a vowel; as, b, c, d.[93]
The vowels are a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes w and y. All the other letters are consonants.
W or y is called a consonant when it precedes a vowel heard in the same syllable; as in wine, twine, whine; ye, yet, youth: in all other cases, these letters are vowels; as in Yssel, Ystadt, yttria; newly, dewy, eyebrow.
CLASSES OF CONSONANTS.
The consonants are divided, with respect to their powers, into semivowels and mutes.
A semivowel is a consonant which can be imperfectly sounded without a vowel, so that at the end of a syllable its sound may be protracted; as, l, n, z, in al, an, az.
A mute is a consonant which cannot be sounded at all without a vowel, and which at the end of a syllable suddenly stops the breath; as, k, p, t, in ak, ap, at.
The semivowels are, f, h, j, l, m, n, r, s, v, w, x, y, z, and c and g soft: but w or y at the end of a syllable, is a vowel; and the sound of c, f, g, h, j, s, or x, can be protracted only as an aspirate, or strong breath.
Four of the semivowels,--l, m, n, and r,--are termed liquids, on account of the fluency of their sounds; and four others,--v, w, y, and z,--are likewise more vocal than the aspirates.
The mutes are eight;--b, d, k, p, q, t, and c and g hard: three of these,--k, q, and c hard,--sound exactly alike: b, d, and g hard, stop the voice less suddenly than the rest.
OBSERVATIONS.
OBS. 1.--The foregoing division of the letters is of very great antiquity, and, in respect to its principal features sanctioned by almost universal authority; yet if we examine it minutely, either with reference to the various opinions of the learned, or with regard to the essential differences among the things of which it speaks, it will not perhaps be found in all respects indisputably certain. It will however be of use, as a basis for some subsequent rules, and as a means of calling the attention of the learner to the manner in which he utters the sounds of the letters. A knowledge of about three dozen different elementary sounds is implied in the faculty of speech. The power of producing these sounds with distinctness, and of adapting them to the purposes for which language is used, constitutes perfection of utterance. Had we a perfect alphabet, consisting of one symbol, and only one, for each elementary sound; and a perfect method of spelling, freed from silent letters, and precisely adjusted to the most correct pronunciation of words; the process of learning to read would doubtless be greatly facilitated. And yet any attempt toward such a reformation, any change short of the introduction of some entirely new mode of writing, would be both unwise and impracticable. It would involve our laws and literature in utter confusion, because pronunciation is the least permanent part of language; and if the orthography of words were conformed entirely to this standard, their origin and meaning would, in many instances, be soon lost. We must therefore content ourselves to learn languages as they are, and to make the best use we can of our present imperfect system of alphabetic characters; and we may be the better satisfied to do this, because the deficiencies and redundancies of this alphabet are not yet so well ascertained, as to make it certain what a perfect one would be.
OBS. 2.--In order to have a right understanding of the letters, it is necessary to enumerate, as accurately as we can, the elementary sounds of the language; and to attend carefully to the manner in which these sounds are enunciated, as well as to the characters by which they are represented. The most unconcerned observer cannot but perceive that there are certain differences in the sounds, as well as in the shapes, of the letters; and yet under what heads they ought severally to be classed, or how many of them will fall under some particular name, it may occasionally puzzle a philosopher to tell. The student must consider what is proposed or asked, use his own senses, and judge for himself. With our lower-case alphabet before him, he can tell by his own eye, which are the long letters, and which the short ones; so let him learn by his own ear, which are the vowels, and which, the consonants. The processes are alike simple; and, if he be neither blind nor deaf, he can do both about equally well. Thus he may know for a certainty, ​that a is a short letter, and b a long one; the former a vowel, the latter a consonant: and so of others. Yet as he may doubt whether t is a long letter or a short one, so he may be puzzled to say whether w and y, as heard in we and ye, are vowels or consonants: but neither of these difficulties should impair his confidence in any of his other decisions. If he attain by observation and practice a clear and perfect pronunciation of the letters, he will be able to class them for himself with as much accuracy as he will find in books.
OBS. 3.--Grammarians have generally agreed that every letter is either a vowel or a consonant; and also that there are among the latter some semivowels, some mutes, some aspirates, some liquids, some sharps, some flats, some labials, some dentals, some nasals, some palatals, and perhaps yet other species; but in enumerating the letters which belong to these several classes, they disagree so much as to make it no easy matter to ascertain what particular classification is best supported by their authority. I have adopted what I conceive to be the best authorized, and at the same time the most intelligible. He that dislikes the scheme, may do better, if he can. But let him with modesty determine what sort of discoveries may render our ancient authorities questionable. Aristotle, three hundred and thirty years before Christ, divided the Greek letters into vowels, semivowels, and mutes, and declared that no syllable could be formed without a vowel. In the opinion of some neoterics, it has been reserved to our age, to detect the fallacy of this. But I would fain believe that the Stagirite knew as well what he was saying, as did Dr. James Rush, when, in 1827, he declared the doctrine of vowels and consonants to be "a misrepresentation." The latter philosopher resolves the letters into "tonics, subtonics, and atonics;" and avers that "consonants alone may form syllables." Indeed, I cannot but think the ancient doctrine better. For, to say that "consonants alone may form syllables," is as much as to say that consonants are not consonants, but vowels! To be consistent, the attempters of this reformation should never speak of vowels or consonants, semivowels or mutes; because they judge the terms inappropriate, and the classification absurd. They should therefore adhere strictly to their "tonics, subtonics, and atonics;" which classes, though apparently the same as vowels, semivowels, and mutes, are better adapted to their new and peculiar division of these elements. Thus, by reforming both language and philosophy at once, they may make what they will of either!
OBS. 4.--Some teach that w and y are always vowels: conceiving the former to be equivalent to oo, and the latter to i or e. Dr. Lowth says, "Y is always a vowel," and "W is either a vowel or a diphthong." Dr. Webster supposes w to be always "a vowel, a simple sound;" but admits that, "At the beginning of words, y is called an articulation or consonant, and with some propriety perhaps, as it brings the root of the tongue in close contact with the lower part of the palate, and nearly in the position to which the close g brings it."--American Dict., Octavo. But I follow Wallis, Brightland, Johnson, Walker, Murray, Worcester, and others, in considering both of them sometimes vowels and sometimes consonants. They are consonants at the beginning of words in English, because their sounds take the article a, and not an, before them; as, a wall, a yard, and not, an wall, an yard. But oo or the sound of e, requires an, and not a; as, an eel, an oozy bog.[94] At the end of a syllable we know they are vowels; but at the beginning, they are so squeezed in their pronunciation, as to follow a vowel without any hiatus, or difficulty of utterance; as, "O worthy youth! so young, so wise!"
OBS. 5.--Murray's rule, "W and y are consonants when they begin a word or syllable, but in every other situation they are vowels," which is found in Comly's book, Kirkham's, Merchant's, Ingersoll's, Fisk's. Hart's, Hiley's, Alger's, Bullions's, Pond's, S. Putnam's, Weld's, and in sundry other grammars, is favourable to my doctrine, but too badly conceived to be quoted here as authority. It undesignedly makes w a consonant in wine, and a vowel in twine; and y a consonant when it forms a syllable, as in dewy: for a letter that forms a syllable, "begins" it. But Kirkham has lately learned his letters anew; and, supposing he had Dr. Rush on his side, has philosophically taken their names for their sounds. He now calls y a "diphthong." But he is wrong here by his own showing: he should rather have called it a triphthong. He says, "By pronouncing in a very deliberate and perfectly natural manner, the letter y, (which is a diphthong,) the unpractised student will perceive, that the sound produced, is compound; being formed, at its opening, of the obscure sound of oo as heard in oo-ze, which sound rapidly slides into that of i, and then advances to that of ee as heard in e-ve, and on which it gradually passes off into silence."--Kirkham's Elocution, p. 75. Thus the "unpractised student" is taught that b-y spells bwy; or, if pronounced "very deliberately, boo-i-ee!" Nay, this grammatist makes b, not a labial mute, as Walker, Webster, Cobb, and others, have called it, but a nasal subtonic, or semivowel. He delights in protracting its "guttural murmur;" perhaps, in assuming its name for its sound; and, having proved, that "consonants are capable of forming syllables," finds no difficulty in mouthing this little monosyllable by into b-oo-i-ee! In this way, it is the easiest thing in the world, ​for such a man to outface Aristotle, or any other divider of the letters; for he makes the sounds by which he judges. "Boy," says the teacher of Kirkham's Elocution, "describe the protracted sound of y."--Kirkham's Elocution, p. 110. The pupil may answer, "That letter, sir, has no longer or more complex sound, than what is heard in the word eye, or in the vowel i; but the book which I study, describes it otherwise. I know not whether I can make you understand it, but I will tr-oo-i-ee." If the word try, which the author uses as an example, does not exhibit his "protracted sound of y," there is no word that does: the sound is a mere fiction, originating in strange ignorance.
OBS. 6.--In the large print above, I have explained the principal classes of the letters, but not all that are spoken of in books. It is proper to inform the learner that the sharp consonants are t, and all others after which our contracted preterits and participles require that d should be sounded like t; as in the words faced, reached, stuffed, laughed, triumphed, croaked, cracked, houghed, reaped, nipped, piqued, missed, wished, earthed, betrothed, fixed. The flat or smooth consonants are d, and all others with which the proper sound of d may be united; as in the words, daubed, judged, hugged, thronged, sealed, filled, aimed, crammed, pained, planned, feared, marred, soothed, loved, dozed, buzzed. The labials are those consonants which are articulated chiefly by the lips; among which, Dr. Webster reckons b, f, m, p, and v. But Dr. Rush says, b and m are nasals, the latter, "purely nasal." [95] The dentals are those consonants which are referred to the teeth; the nasals are those which are affected by the nose; and the palatals are those which compress the palate, as k and hard g. But these last-named classes are not of much importance; nor have I thought it worth while to notice minutely the opinions of writers respecting the others, as whether h is a semivowel, or a mute, or neither.
OBS. 7.--The Cherokee alphabet, which was invented in 1821, by See-quo-yah, or George Guess, an ingenious but wholly illiterate Indian, contains eighty-five letters, or characters. But the sounds of the language are much fewer than ours; for the characters represent, not simple tones and articulations, but syllabic sounds, and this number is said to be sufficient to denote them all. But the different syllabic sounds in our language amount to some thousands. I suppose, from the account, that See-quo-yah writes his name, in his own language, with three letters; and that characters so used, would not require, and probably would not admit, such a division as that of vowels and consonants. One of the Cherokees, in a letter to the American Lyceum, states, that a knowledge of this mode of writing is so easily acquired, that one who understands and speaks the language, "can learn to read in a day; and, indeed," continues the writer, "I have known some to acquire the art in a single evening. It is only necessary to learn the different sounds of the characters, to be enabled to read at once. In the English language, we must not only first learn the letters, but to spell, before reading; but in Cherokee, all that is required, is, to learn the letters; for they have syllabic sounds, and by connecting different ones together, a word is formed: in which there is no art. All who understand the language can do so, and both read and write, so soon as they can learn to trace with their fingers the forms of the characters. I suppose that more than one half of the Cherokees can read their own language, and are thereby enabled to acquire much valuable information, with which they otherwise would never have been blessed."--W. S. Coodey, 1831.
OBS. 8.--From the foregoing account, it would appear that the Cherokee language is a very peculiar one: its words must either be very few, or the proportion of polysyllables very great. The characters used in China and Japan, stand severally for words; and their number is said to be not less than seventy thousand; so that the study of a whole life is scarcely sufficient to make a man thoroughly master of them. Syllabic writing is represented by Dr. Blair as a great improvement upon the Chinese method, and yet as being far inferior to that which is properly alphabetic, like ours. "The first step, in this new progress," says he, "was the invention of an alphabet of syllables, which probably preceded the invention of an alphabet of letters, among some of the ancient nations; and which is said to be retained to this day, in Ethiopia, and some countries of India. By fixing upon a particular mark, or character, for every syllable in the language, the number of characters, necessary to be used in writing, was reduced within a much smaller compass than the number of words in the language. Still, however, the number of characters was great; and must have continued to render both reading and writing very laborious arts. Till, at last, some happy genius arose, and tracing the sounds made by the human voice, to their most simple elements, reduced them to a very few vowels and consonants; and, by affixing to each of these, the signs which we now call letters, taught men how, by their combinations, to put in writing all the different words, or combinations of sound, which they employed in speech. By being reduced to this simplicity, the art of writing was brought to its highest state of perfection; and, in this state, we now enjoy it in all the countries of Europe."--Blair's Rhetoric, Lect. VII, p. 68.
OBS. 9.--All certain knowledge of the sounds given to the letters by Moses and the prophets having been long ago lost, a strange dispute has arisen, and been carried on for centuries, concerning this question, "Whether the Hebrew letters are, or are not, all consonants:" the vowels being ​supposed by some to be suppressed and understood; and not written, except by points of comparatively late invention. The discussion of such a question does not properly belong to English grammar; but, on account of its curiosity, as well as of its analogy to some of our present disputes, I mention it. Dr. Charles Wilson says, "After we have sufficiently known the figures and names of the letters, the next step is, to learn to enunciate or to pronounce them, so as to produce articulate sounds. On this subject, which appears at first sight very plain and simple, numberless contentions and varieties of opinion meet us at the threshold. From the earliest period of the invention of written characters to represent human language, however more or less remote that time may be, it seems absolutely certain, that the distinction of letters into vowels and consonants must have obtained. All the speculations of the Greek grammarians assume this as a first principle." Again: "I beg leave only to premise this observation, that I absolutely and unequivocally deny the position, that all the letters of the Hebrew alphabet are consonants; and, after the most careful and minute inquiry, give it as my opinion, that of the twenty-two letters of which the Hebrew alphabet consists, five are vowels and seventeen are consonants. The five vowels by name are, Aleph, He, Vau, Yod, and Ain."--Wilson's Heb. Gram., pp. 6 and 8.
III. POWERS OF THE LETTERS.
The powers of the letters are properly those elementary sounds which their figures are used to represent; but letters formed into words, are capable of communicating thought independently of sound. The simple elementary sounds of any language are few, commonly not more than thirty-six;[96] but they may be variously combined, so as to form words innumerable. Different vowel sounds, or vocal elements, are produced by opening the mouth differently, and placing the tongue in a peculiar manner for each; but the voice may vary in loudness, pitch, or time, and still utter the same vowel power.
The vowel sounds which form the basis of the English language, and which ought therefore to be perfectly familiar to every one who speaks it, are those which are heard at the beginning of the words, ate, at, ah, all, eel, ell, isle, ill, old, on, ooze, use, us, and that of u in bull.
In the formation of syllables, some of these fourteen primary sounds may be joined together, as in ay, oil, out, owl; and all of them may be preceded or followed by certain motions and positions of the lips and tongue, which will severally convert them into other terms in speech. Thus the same essential sounds may be changed into a new series of words by an f; as, fate, fat, far, fall, feel, fell, file, fill, fold, fond, fool, fuse, fuss, full. Again, into as many more with a p; as, pate, pat, par, pall, peel, pell, pile, pill, pole, pond, pool, pule, purl, pull. Each of the vowel sounds may be variously expressed by letters. About half of them are sometimes words: the rest are seldom, if ever, used alone even to form syllables. But the reader may easily learn to utter them all, separately, according to the foregoing series. Let us note them as plainly as possible: eigh, ~a, ah, awe, =eh, ~e, eye, ~i, oh, ~o, oo, yew, ~u, û. Thus the eight long sounds, eigh, ah, awe, eh, eye, oh, ooh, yew, are, or may be, words; but the six less vocal, called the short vowel sounds, as in at, et, it, ot, ut, put, are commonly heard only in connexion with consonants; except the first, which is perhaps the most frequent sound of the vowel A or a--a sound sometimes given to the word a, perhaps most generally; as in the phrase, "twice ~a day."
The simple consonant sounds in English are twenty-two: they are marked by b, d, f, g hard, h, k, l, m, n, ng, p, r, s, sh, t, th sharp, th flat, v, w, y, z, and zh. But zh is written only to show the sound of other letters; as of s in pleasure, or z in azure. ​
All these sounds are heard distinctly in the following words: buy, die, fie, guy, high, kie, lie, my, nigh, eying, pie, rye, sigh, shy, tie, thigh, thy, vie, we, ye, zebra, seizure. Again: most of them may be repeated in the same word, if not in the same syllable; as in bibber, diddle, fifty, giggle, high-hung, cackle, lily, mimic, ninny, singing, pippin, mirror, hissest, flesh-brush, tittle, thinketh, thither, vivid, witwal, union,[97] dizzies, vision.
With us, the consonants J and X represent, not simple, but complex sounds: hence they are never doubled. J is equivalent to dzh; and X, either to ks or to gz. The former ends no English word, and the latter begins none. To the initial X of foreign words, we always give the simple sound of Z; as in Xerxes, xebec.
The consonants C and Q have no sounds peculiar to themselves. Q has always the power of k. C is hard, like k, before a, o, and u; and soft, like s, before e, i, and y: thus the syllables, ca, ce, ci, co, cu, cy, are pronounced, ka, se, si, ko, ku, sy. S before c preserves the former sound, but coalesces with the latter; hence the syllables, sca, sce, sci, sco, scu, scy, are sounded, ska, se, si, sko, sku, sy. Ce and ci have sometimes the sound of sh; as in ocean, social. Ch commonly represents the compound sound of tsh; as in church.
G, as well as C, has different sounds before different vowels. G is always hard, or guttural, before a, o, and u; and generally soft, like j, before e, i, or y: thus the syllables, ga, ge, gi, go, gu, gy, are pronounced ga, je, ji, go, gu, jy.
The possible combinations and mutations of the twenty-six letters of our alphabet, are many millions of millions. But those clusters which are unpronounceable, are useless. Of such as may be easily uttered, there are more than enough for all the purposes of useful writing, or the recording of speech.
Thus it is, that from principles so few and simple as about six or seven and thirty plain elementary sounds, represented by characters still fewer, we derive such a variety of oral and written signs, as may suffice to explain or record all the sentiments and transactions of all men in all ages.
OBSERVATIONS.
OBS. 1.--A knowledge of sounds can be acquired, in the first instance, only by the ear. No description of the manner of their production, or of the differences which distinguish them, can be at all intelligible to him who has not already, by the sense of hearing, acquired a knowledge of both. What I here say of the sounds of the letters, must of course be addressed to those persons only who are able both to speak and to read English. Why then attempt instruction by a method which both ignorance and knowledge on the part of the pupil, must alike render useless? I have supposed some readers to have such an acquaintance with the powers of the letters, as is but loose and imperfect; sufficient for the accurate pronunciation of some words or syllables, but leaving them liable to mistakes in others; extending perhaps to all the sounds of the language, but not to a ready analysis or enumeration of them. Such persons may profit by a written description of the powers of the letters, though no such description can equal the clear impression of the living voice. Teachers, too, whose business it is to aid the articulation of the young, and, by a patient inculcation of elementary principles, to lay the foundation of an accurate pronunciation, may derive some assistance from any notation of these principles, which will help their memory, or that of the learner. The connexion between letters and sounds is altogether arbitrary; but a few positions, being assumed and made known, in respect to some characters, become easy standards for further instruction in respect to others of similar sound.
OBS. 2.--The importance of being instructed at an early age, to pronounce with distinctness and facility all the elementary sounds of one's native language, has been so frequently urged, and is so obvious in itself, that none but those who have been themselves neglected, will be likely to disregard the claims of their children in this respect.[98] But surely an accurate kn ​owledge of the ordinary powers of the letters would be vastly more common, were there not much hereditary negligence respecting the manner in which these important rudiments are learned. The utterance of the illiterate may exhibit wit and native talent, but it is always more or less barbarous, because it is not aided by a knowledge of orthography. For pronunciation and orthography, however they may seem, in our language especially, to be often at variance, are certainly correlative: a true knowledge of either tends to the preservation of both. Each of the letters represents some one or more of the elementary sounds, exclusive of the rest; and each of the elementary sounds, though several of them are occasionally transferred, has some one or two letters to which it most properly or most frequently belongs. But borrowed, as our language has been, from a great variety of sources, to which it is desirable ever to retain the means of tracing it, there is certainly much apparent lack of correspondence between its oral and its written form. Still the discrepancies are few, when compared with the instances of exact conformity; and, if they are, as I suppose they are, unavoidable, it is as useless to complain of the trouble they occasion, as it is to think of forcing a reconciliation. The wranglers in this controversy, can never agree among themselves, whether orthography shall conform to pronunciation, or pronunciation to orthography. Nor does any one of them well know how our language would either sound or look, were he himself appointed sole arbiter of all variances between our spelling and our speech.
OBS. 3.--"Language," says Dr. Rush, "was long ago analyzed into its alphabetic elements. Wherever this analysis is known, the art of teaching language has, with the best success, been conducted upon the rudimental method." * * * "The art of reading consists in having all the vocal elements under complete command, that they may be properly applied, for the vivid and elegant delineation of the sense and sentiment of discourse."--Philosophy of the Voice, p. 346. Again, of "the pronunciation of the alphabetic elements," he says, "The least deviation from the assumed standard converts the listener into the critic; and I am surely speaking within bounds when I say, that for every miscalled element in discourse, ten succeeding words are lost to the greater part of an audience."--Ibid., p. 350. These quotations plainly imply both the practicability and the importance of teaching the pronunciation of our language analytically by means of its present orthography, and agreeably to the standard assumed by the grammarians. The first of them affirms that it has been done, "with the best success," according to some ancient method of dividing the letters and explaining their sounds. And yet, both before and afterwards, we find this same author complaining of our alphabet and its subdivisions, as if sense or philosophy must utterly repudiate both; and of our orthography, as if a ploughman might teach us to spell better: and, at the same time, he speaks of softening his censure through modesty. "The deficiencies, redundancies, and confusion, of the system of alphabetic characters in this language, prevent the adoption of its subdivisions in this essay."--Ib., p. 52. Of the specific sounds given to the letters, he says, "The first of these matters is under the rule of every body, and therefore is very properly to be excluded from the discussions of that philosophy which desires to be effectual in its instruction. How can we hope to establish a system of elemental pronunciation in a language, when great masters in criticism condemn at once every attempt, in so simple and useful a labour as the correction of its orthography!"--P. 256. Again: "I deprecate noticing the faults of speakers, in the pronunciation of the alphabetic elements. It is better for criticism to be modest on this point, till it has the sense or independence to make our alphabet and its uses, look more like the work of what is called--wise and transcendent humanity: till the pardonable variety of pronunciation, and the true spelling by the vulgar, have satirized into reformation that pen-craft which keeps up the troubles of orthography for no other purpose, as one can divine, than to boast of a very questionable merit as a criterion of education."--Ib., p. 383.
OBS. 4.--How far these views are compatible, the reader will judge. And it is hoped he will excuse the length of the extracts, from a consideration of the fact, that a great master of the "pen-craft" here ridiculed, a noted stickler for needless Kays and Ues, now commonly rejected, while he boasts that his grammar, which he mostly copied from Murray's, is teaching the old explanation of the alphabetic elements to "more than one hundred thousand children and youth," is also vending under his own name an abstract of the new scheme of "tonicks, subtonicks, and atonicks;" and, in one breath, bestowing superlative praise on both, in order, as it would seem, to monopolize all inconsistency. "Among those who have successfully laboured in the philological field, Mr. Lindley Murray stands forth in bold relief, as undeniably at the head of the list."--Kirkham's Elocution, p. 12. "The modern candidate for oratorical fame, stands on very different, and far more advantageous, ground, than that occupied by the young and aspiring Athenian; especially since a correct analysis of the vocal organs, and a faithful record of their operations, have been given to the world by Dr. James Rush, of Philadelphia--a name that will outlive the unquarried marble of our mountains."--Ibid., p. 29. "But what is to be said when presumption pushes itself into the front ranks of elocution, and thoughtless friends undertake to support it? The fraud must go on, till presumption quarrels, as often happens, with its own friends, or with itself, and thus dissolves the spell of its merits."--Rush, on the Voice, p. 405.
OBS. 5.--The question respecting the number of simple or elementary sounds in our language, presents a remarkable puzzle: and it is idle, if not ridiculous, for any man to declaim about the imperfection of our alphabet and orthography, who does not show himself able to solve it. All ​these sounds may easily be written in a plain sentence of three or four lines upon almost any subject; and every one who can read, is familiar with them all, and with all the letters. Now it is either easy to count them, or it is difficult. If difficult, wherein does the difficulty lie? and how shall he who knows not what and how many they are, think himself capable of reforming our system of their alphabetic signs? If easy, why do so few pretend to know their number? and of those who do pretend to this knowledge, why are there so few that agree? A certain verse in the seventh chapter of Ezra, has been said to contain all the letters. It however contains no j; and, with respect to the sounds, it lacks that of f, that of th sharp, and that of u in bull. I will suggest a few additional words for these; and then both all the letters, and all the sounds, of the English language, will be found in the example; and most of them, many times over: "'And I, even I, Artaxerxes, the king, do make a decree to all the treasurers' who 'are beyond the river, that whatsoever Ezra the priest, the scribe of the law of the God of heaven, shall require of you, it be done speedily' and faithfully, according to that which he shall enjoin." Some letters, and some sounds, are here used much more frequently than others; but, on an average, we have, in this short passage, each sound five times, and each letter eight. How often, then, does a man speak all the elements of his language, who reads well but one hour!
OBS. 6.--Of the number of elementary sounds in our language, different orthoëpists report differently; because they cannot always agree among themselves, wherein the identity or the simplicity, the sameness or the singleness, even of well-known sounds, consists; or because, if each is allowed to determine these points for himself, no one of them adheres strictly to his own decision. They may also, each for himself, have some peculiar way of utterance, which will confound some sounds which other men distinguish, or distinguish some which other men confound. For, as a man may write a very bad hand which shall still be legible, so he may utter many sounds improperly and still be understood. One may, in this way, make out a scheme of the alphabetic elements, which shall be true of his own pronunciation, and yet have obvious faults when tried by the best usage of English speech. It is desirable not to multiply these sounds beyond the number which a correct and elegant pronunciation of the language obviously requires. And what that number is, it seems to me not very difficult to ascertain; at least, I think we may fix it with sufficient accuracy for all practical purposes. But let it be remembered, that all who have hitherto attempted the enumeration, have deviated more or less from their own decisions concerning either the simplicity or the identity of sounds; but, most commonly, it appears to have been thought expedient to admit some exceptions concerning both. Thus the long or diphthongal sounds of I and U, are admitted by some, and excluded by others; the sound of j, or soft g, is reckoned as simple by some, and rejected as compound by others; so a part, if not all, of what are called the long and the short vowels, as heard in ale and ell, arm and am, all and on, isle or eel and ill, tone and tun, pule or pool and pull, have been declared essentially the same by some, and essentially different by others. Were we to recognize as elementary, no sounds but such as are unquestionably simple in themselves, and indisputably different in quality from all others, we should not have more sounds than letters: and this is a proof that we have characters enough, though the sounds are perhaps badly distributed among them.
OBS. 7.--I have enumerated thirty-six well known sounds, which, in compliance with general custom, and for convenience in teaching. I choose to regard as the oral elements of our language. There may be found some reputable authority for adding four or five more, and other authority as reputable, for striking from the list seven or eight of those already mentioned. For the sake of the general principle, which we always regard in writing, a principle of universal grammar, that there can be no syllable without a vowel, I am inclined to teach, with Brightland, Dr. Johnson, L. Murray, and others, that, in English, as in French, there is given to the vowel e a certain very obscure sound which approaches, but amounts not to an absolute suppression, though it is commonly so regarded by the writers of dictionaries. It may be exemplified in the words oven, shovel, able;[99] or in the unemphatic article the before a consonant, as in the sentence, "Take the nearest:" we do not hear it as "thee nearest," nor as "then carest," but more obscurely. There is also a feeble sound of i or y unaccented, which is equivalent to ee uttered feebly, as in the word diversity. This is the most common sound of i and of y. The vulgar are apt to let it fall into the more obscure sound of short u. As elegance of utterance depends much upon the preservation of this sound from such obtuseness, perhaps Walker and others have done well to mark it as e in me; though some suppose it to be peculiar, and others identify it with the short i in fit. Thirdly, a distinction is made by some writers, between the vowel sounds heard in hate and bear, which Sheridan and Walker consider to be the same. The apparent difference may perhaps result from the following consonant r, which is apt to affect the sound of the vowel which precedes it. Such words as bear, care, dare, careful, parent, are very liable to be corrupted in pronunciation, by too ​broad a sound of the a; and, as the multiplication of needless distinctions should be avoided, I do not approve of adding an other sound to a vowel which has already quite too many. Worcester, however, in his new Dictionary, and Wells, in his new Grammar, give to the vowel A six or seven sounds in lieu of four; and Dr. Mandeville, in his Course of Reading, says, "A has eight sounds."--P. 9.
OBS. 8.--Sheridan made the elements of his oratory twenty-eight. Jones followed him implicitly, and adopted the same number.[100] Walker recognized several more, but I know not whether he has anywhere told us how many there are. Lindley Murray enumerates thirty-six, and the same thirty-six that are given in the main text above. The eight sounds not counted by Sheridan are these: 1. The Italian a, as in far, father, which he reckoned but a lengthening of the a in hat; 2. The short o, as in hot, which he supposed to be but a shortening of the a in hall; 3. The diphthongal i, as in isle, which he thought but a quicker union of the sounds of the diphthong oi, but which, in my opinion, is rather a very quick union of the sounds ah and ee into ay, I;[101] 4. The long u, which is acknowledged to be equal to yu or yew, though perhaps a little different from you or yoo,[102] the sound given it by Walker; 5. The u heard in pull, which he considered but a shortening of oo; 6. The consonant w, which he conceived to be always a vowel, and equivalent to oo; 7. The consonant y, which he made equal to a short ee; 8. The consonant h, which he declared to be no letter, but a mere breathing, In all other respects, his scheme of the alphabetic elements agrees with that which is adopted in this work, and which is now most commonly taught.
OBS. 9.--The effect of Quantity in the prolation of the vowels, is a matter with which every reader ought to be experimentally acquainted. Quantity is simply the time of utterance, whether long or short. It is commonly spoken of with reference to syllables, because it belongs severally to all the distinct or numerable impulses of the voice, and to these only; but, as vowels or diphthongs may be uttered alone, the notion of quantity is of course as applicable to them, as to any of the more complex sounds in which consonants are joined with them. All sounds imply time; because they are the transient effects of certain percussions which temporarily agitate the air, an element that tends to silence. When mighty winds have swept over sea and land, and the voice of the Ocean is raised, he speaks to the towering cliffs in the deep tones of a long quantity; the rolling billows, as they meet the shore, pronounce the long-drawn syllables of his majestic elocution. But see him again in gentler mood; stand upon the beach and listen to the rippling of his more frequent waves: he will teach you short quantity, as well as long. In common parlance, to avoid tediousness, to save time, and to adapt language to circumstances, we usually utter words with great rapidity, and in comparatively short quantity. But in oratory, and sometimes in ordinary reading, those sounds which are best fitted to fill and gratify the ear, should be sensibly protracted, especially in emphatic words; and even the shortest syllable, must be so lengthened as to be uttered with perfect clearness: otherwise the performance will be judged defective.
OBS. 10.--Some of the vowels are usually uttered in longer time than others; but whether the former are naturally long, and the latter naturally short, may be doubted: the common opinion is, that they are. But one author at least denies it; and says, "We must explode the pretended natural epithets short and long given to our vowels, independent on accent: and we must observe that our silent e final lengthens not its syllable, unless the preceding vowel be accented."--Mackintosh's Essay on E. Gram., p. 232. The distinction of long and short vowels which has generally obtained, and the correspondences which some writers have laboured to establish between them, have always been to me sources of much embarrassment. It would appear, that in one or two instances, sounds that differ only in length, or time, are commonly recognized as different elements; and that grammarians and orthoëpists, perceiving this, have attempted to carry out the analogy, and to find among what they call the long vowels a parent sound for each of the short ones. In doing this, they have either neglected to consult the ear, or have not chosen to abide by its verdict. I suppose the vowels heard in pull and pool would be necessarily identified, if the former were protracted or the latter shortened; and perhaps there would be a like coalescence of those heard in of and all, were they tried in the same way, though I am not sure of it. In protracting the e in met, and the i ​in ship, ignorance or carelessness might perhaps, with the help of our orthoëpists, convert the former word into mate and the latter into sheep; and, as this would breed confusion in the language, the avoiding of the similarity may perhaps be a sufficient reason for confining these two sounds of e and i, to that short quantity in which they cannot be mistaken. But to suppose, as some do, that the protraction of u in tun would identify it with the o in tone, surpasses any notion I have of what stupidity may misconceive. With one or two exceptions, therefore, it appears to me that each of the pure vowel sounds is of such a nature, that it may be readily recognized by its own peculiar quality or tone, though it be made as long or as short as it is possible for any sound of the human voice to be. It is manifest that each of the vowel sounds heard in ate, at, arm, all, eel, old, ooze, us, may be protracted to the entire extent of a full breath slowly expended, and still be precisely the same one simple sound;[103] and, on the contrary, that all but one may be shortened to the very minimum of vocality, and still be severally known without danger of mistake. The prolation of a pure vowel places the organs of utterance in that particular position which the sound of the letter requires, and then holds them unmoved till we have given to it all the length we choose.
OBS. 11.--In treating of the quantity and quality of the vowels, Walker says, "The first distinction of sound that seems to obtrude itself upon us when we utter the vowels, is a long and a short sound, according to the greater or less duration of time taken up in pronouncing them. This distinction is so obvious as to have been adopted in all languages, and is that to which we annex clearer ideas than to any other; and though the short sounds of some vowels have not in our language been classed with sufficient accuracy with their parent long ones, yet this has bred but little confusion, as vowels long and short are always sufficiently distinguishable."--Principles, No. 63. Again: "But though the terms long and short, as applied to vowels, are pretty generally understood, an accurate ear will easily perceive that these terms do not always mean the long and short sounds of the respective vowels to which they are applied; for, if we choose to be directed by the ear, in denominating vowels long or short, we must certainly give these appellations to those sounds only which have exactly the same radical tone, and differ only in the long or short emission of that tone."--Ib., No. 66. He then proceeds to state his opinion that the vowel sounds heard in the following words are thus correspondent: tame, them; car, carry; wall, want; dawn, gone; theme, him; tone, nearly tun; pool, pull. As to the long sounds of i or y, and of u, these two being diphthongal, he supposes the short sound of each to be no other than the short sound of its latter element ee or oo. Now to me most of this is exceedingly unsatisfactory; and I have shown why.
OBS. 12.--If men's notions of the length and shortness of vowels are the clearest ideas they have in relation to the elements of speech, how comes it to pass that of all the disputable points in grammar, this is the most perplexed with contrarieties of opinion? In coming before the world as an author, no man intends to place himself clearly in the wrong; yet, on the simple powers of the letters, we have volumes of irreconcilable doctrines. A great connoisseur in things of this sort, who professes to have been long "in the habit of listening to sounds of every description, and that with more than ordinary attention," declares in a recent and expensive work, that "in every language we find the vowels incorrectly classed"; and, in order to give to "the simple elements of English utterance" a better explanation than others have furnished, he devotes to a new analysis of our alphabet the ample space of twenty octavo pages, besides having several chapters on subjects connected with it. And what do his twenty pages amount to? I will give the substance of them in ten lines, and the reader may judge. He does not tell us how many elementary sounds there are; but, professing to arrange the vowels, long and short, "in the order in which they are naturally found," as well as to show of the consonants that the mutes and liquids form correspondents in regular pairs, he presents a scheme which I abbreviate as follows. VOWELS: 1. A, as in =all and wh~at, or o, as in orifice and n~ot; 2. U--=urn and h~ut, or l=ove and c~ome; 3. O--v=ote and ech~o; 4. A--=ah and h~at; 5. A--h=azy, no short sound; 6. E--=e=el and it; 7. E--m=ercy and m~et; 8. O--pr=ove and ad~o; 9. OO--t=o=ol and f~o~ot; 10. W--vo=w and la~w; 11. Y--(like the first e--) s=yntax and dut~y. DIPHTHONGS: 1. I--as ah-ee; 2. U--as ee-oo; 3. OU--as au-oo. CONSONANTS: 1. Mutes,--c or s, f, h, k or q, p, t, th sharp, sh; 2. Liquids,--l, which has no corresponding mute, and z, v, r, ng, m, n, th flat and j, which severally correspond to the eight mutes in their order; 3. Subliquids,--g hard, b, and d. See "Music of Nature," by William Gardiner, p. 480, and after.
OBS. 13.--Dr. Rush comes to the explanation of the powers of the letters as the confident first revealer of nature's management and wisdom; and hopes to have laid the foundation of a system of instruction in reading and oratory, which, if adopted and perfected, "will beget a similarity of opinion and practice," and "be found to possess an excellence which must grow into sure and irreversible favour."--Phil. of the Voice, p. 404. "We have been willing," he says, "to believe, on faith alone, that nature is wise in the contrivance of speech. Let us now show, by our works of analysis, how she manages the simple elements of the voice, in the production of their unbounded combinations."--Ibid., p. 44. Again: "Every one, with peculiar self-satisfaction, thinks he reads well, and yet all read differently: there is, however, but one mode of reading well."--Ib., p. 403. That one mode, some say, his philosophy alone teaches. Of that, others may judge. I ​shall only notice here what seems to be his fundamental position, that, on all the vocal elements of language, nature has stamped duplicity. To establish this extraordinary doctrine, he first attempts to prove, that "the letter a, as heard in the word day," combines two distinguishable yet inseparable sounds; that it is a compound of what he calls, with reference to vowels and syllables in general, "the radical and the vanishing movement of the voice,"--a single and indivisible element in which "two sounds are heard continuously successive," the sounds of a and e as in ale and eve. He does not know that some grammarians have contended that ay in day is a proper diphthong, in which both the vowels are heard; but, so pronouncing it himself, infers from the experiment, that there is no simpler sound of the vowel a. If this inference is not wrong, the word shape is to be pronounced sha-epe; and, in like manner, a multitude of other words will acquire a new element not commonly heard in them.
OBS. 14.--But the doctrine stops not here. The philosopher examines, in some similar way, the other simple vowel sounds, and finds a beginning and an end, a base and an apex, a radical and a vanishing movement, to them all; and imagines a sufficient warrant from nature to divide them all "into two parts," and to convert most of them into diphthongs, as well as to include all diphthongs with them, as being altogether as simple and elementary. Thus he begins with confounding all distinction between diphthongs and simple vowels; except that which he makes for himself when he admits "the radical and the vanish," the first half of a sound and the last, to have no difference in quality. This admission is made with respect to the vowels heard in ooze, eel, err, end, and in, which he calls, not diphthongs, but "monothongs." But in the a of ale, he hears =a'-ee; in that of an, ~a'-~e; (that is, the short a followed by something of the sound of e in err;) in that of art, ah'~-e; in that of all, awe'-~e; in the i of isle, =i'-ee; in the o of old, =o'-oo; in the proper diphthong ou, ou'-oo; in the oy of boy, he knows not what. After his explanation of these mysteries, he says, "The seven radical sounds with their vanishes, which have been described, include, as far as I can perceive, all the elementary diphthongs of the English language."--Ib., p. 60. But all the sounds of the vowel u, whether diphthongal or simple, are excluded from his list, unless he means to represent one of them by the e in err; and the complex vowel sound heard in voice and boy, is confessedly omitted on account of a doubt whether it consists of two sounds or of three! The elements which he enumerates are thirty-five; but if oi is not a triphthong, they are to be thirty-six. Twelve are called "Tonics; and are heard in the usual sound of the separated Italics, in the following words: A-ll, a-rt, a-n, a-le, ou-r, i-sle, o-ld, ee-l, oo-ze, e-rr, e-nd, i-n,"--Ib., p. 53. Fourteen are called "Subtonics; and are marked by the separated Italics, in the following words: B-ow, d-are, g-ive, v-ile, z-one, y-e, w-o, th-en, a-z-ure, si-ng, l-ove, m-ay, n-ot, r-oe."--Ib., p. 54. Nine are called "Atonics; they are heard in the words, U-p, ou-t, ar-k, i-f, ye-s, h-e, wh-eat, th-in, pu-sh."--Ib., p. 56. My opinion of this scheme of the alphabet the reader will have anticipated.
IV. FORMS OF THE LETTERS.
In printed books of the English language, the Roman characters are generally employed; sometimes, the Italic; and occasionally, the [Font change: Old English]: but in handwriting, [Font change: Script letters] are used, the forms of which are peculiarly adapted to the pen.
Characters of different sorts or sizes should never be needlessly mixed; because facility of reading, as well as the beauty of a book, depends much upon the regularity of its letters.
In the ordinary forms of the Roman letters, every thick stroke that slants, slants from the left to the right downwards, except the middle stroke in Z; and every thin stroke that slants, slants from the left to the right upwards.
Italics are chiefly used to distinguish emphatic or remarkable words: in the Bible, they show what words were supplied by the translators.
In manuscripts, a single line drawn under a word is meant for Italics; a double line, for small capitals; a triple line, for full capitals.
In every kind of type or character, the letters have severally two forms, by which they are distinguished as capitals and small letters. Small letters constitute the body of every work; and capitals are used for the sake of eminence and distinction. The titles of books, and the heads of their principal divisions, are printed wholly in capitals. Showbills, painted signs, and short inscriptions, commonly appear best in full capitals. Some of these are so copied in books; as, "I found an altar ​with this inscription, TO THE UNKNOWN GOD."--Acts, xvii, 23. "And they set up over his head, his accusation written, THIS IS JESUS, THE KING OF THE JEWS."--Matt., xxvii, 37.
RULES FOR THE USE OF CAPITALS.
RULE I.--OF BOOKS.
When particular books are mentioned by their names, the chief words in their titles begin with capitals, and the other letters are small; as, "Pope's Essay on Man"--"the Book of Common Prayer"--"the Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments." [104]
RULE II.--FIRST WORDS.
The first word of every distinct sentence, or of any clause separately numbered or paragraphed, should begin with a capital; as, "Rejoice evermore. Pray without ceasing. In every thing give thanks: for this is the will of God in Christ Jesus concerning you. Quench not the Spirit. Despise not prophesyings. Prove all things: hold fast that which is good."--1 Thess., v, 16--21.
"14. He has given his assent to their acts of pretended legislation:
RULE III.--OF THE DEITY.
All names of the Deity, and sometimes their emphatic substitutes, should begin with capitals; as, "God, Jehovah, the Almighty, the Supreme Being, Divine Providence, the Messiah, the Comforter, the Father, the Son, the Holy Spirit, the Lord of Sabaoth."
RULE IV.--PROPER NAMES.
Proper names, of every description, should always begin with capitals; as, "Saul of Tarsus, Simon Peter, Judas Iscariot, England, London, the Strand, the Thames, the Pyrenees, the Vatican, the Greeks, the Argo and the Argonauts."
RULE V.--OF TITLES.
Titles of office or honour, and epithets of distinction, applied to persons, begin usually with capitals; as, "His Majesty William the Fourth, Chief Justice Marshall, Sir Matthew Hale, Dr. Johnson, the Rev. Dr. Chalmers, Lewis the Bold, Charles the Second, James the Less, St. Bartholomew, Pliny the Younger, Noah Webster, Jun., Esq."
RULE VI.--ONE CAPITAL.
Those compound proper names which by analogy incline to a union of their parts without a hyphen, should be so written, and have but one capital: as, "Eastport, Eastville, Westborough, Westfield, Westtown, Whitehall, Whitechurch, Whitehaven, Whiteplains, Mountmellick, Mountpleasant, Germantown, Germanflats, Blackrock, Redhook, Kinderhook, Newfoundland, Statenland, Newcastle, Northcastle, Southbridge, Fairhaven, Dekalb, Deruyter, Lafayette, Macpherson."
RULE VII.--TWO CAPITALS.
The compounding of a name under one capital should be avoided when the general analogy of other similar terms suggests a separation under two; a ​s, "The chief mountains of Ross-shire are Ben Chat, Benchasker, Ben Golich, Ben Nore, Ben Foskarg, and Ben Wyvis."--Glasgow Geog., Vol. ii, p. 311. Write Ben Chasker. So, when the word East, West, North, or South, as part of a name, denotes relative position, or when the word New distinguishes a place by contrast, we have generally separate words and two capitals; as, "East Greenwich, West Greenwich, North Bridgewater, South Bridgewater, New Jersey, New Hampshire."
RULE VIII.--COMPOUNDS.
When any adjective or common noun is made a distinct part of a compound proper name, it ought to begin with a capital; as, "The United States, the Argentine Republic, the Peak of Teneriffe, the Blue Ridge, the Little Pedee, Long Island, Jersey City, Lower Canada, Green Bay, Gretna Green, Land's End, the Gold Coast."
RULE IX.--APPOSITION.
When a common and a proper name are associated merely to explain each other, it is in general sufficient, if the proper name begin with a capital, and the appellative, with a small letter; as, "The prophet Elisha, Matthew the publican, the brook Cherith, the river Euphrates, the Ohio river, Warren county, Flatbush village, New York city."
RULE X.--PERSONIFICATIONS.
The name of an object personified, when it conveys an idea strictly individual, should begin with a capital; as, "Upon this, Fancy began again to bestir herself."--Addison. "Come, gentle Spring, ethereal mildness, come."--Thomson.
RULE XI.--DERIVATIVES.
Words derived from proper names, and having direct reference to particular persons, places, sects, or nations, should begin with capitals; as, "Platonic, Newtonian, Greek, or Grecian, Romish, or Roman, Italic, or Italian, German, or Germanic, Swedish, Turkish, Chinese, Genoese, French, Dutch, Scotch, Welsh:" so, perhaps, "to Platonize, Grecize, Romanize, Italicize, Latinize, or Frenchify."
RULE XII.--OF I AND O.
The words I and O should always be capitals; as, "Praise the Lord, O Jerusalem; praise thy God, O Zion."--Psalm cxlvii. "O wretched man that I am!"--"For that which I do, I allow not: for what I would, that do I not; but what I hate, that do I."--Rom., vii, 24 and 15.
RULE XIII.--OF POETRY.
Every line in poetry, except what is regarded as making but one verse with the line preceding, should begin with a capital; as,
Of the exception, some editions of the Psalms in Metre are full of examples; as,
RULE XIV.--OF EXAMPLES.
The first word of a full example, of a distinct speech, or of a direct quotation, should begin with a capital; as, "Remember this maxim: 'Know thyself.'"--"Virgil says, 'Labour conquers all things.'"--"Jesus answered them, Is it not written in your law, I said, Ye are gods?"--John, x, 34. "Thou knowest the commandments, Do not commit adultery, Do not kill, Do not steal, Do not bear false witness, Honour thy father and thy mother."--Luke, xviii, 20. ​
RULE XV.--CHIEF WORDS.
Other words of particular importance, and such as denote the principal subjects treated of, may be distinguished by capitals; and names subscribed frequently have capitals throughout: as, "In its application to the Executive, with reference to the Legislative branch of the Government, the same rule of action should make the President ever anxious to avoid the exercise of any discretionary authority which can be regulated by Congress."--ANDREW JACKSON, 1835.
RULE XVI.--NEEDLESS CAPITALS.
Capitals are improper wherever there is not some special rule or reason for their use: a century ago books were disfigured by their frequency; as, "Many a Noble Genius is lost for want of Education. Which wou'd then be Much More Liberal. As it was when the Church Enjoy'd her Possessions. And Learning was, in the Dark Ages, Preserv'd almost only among the Clergy."--CHARLES LESLIE, 1700; Divine Right of Tythes, p. 228.
OBSERVATIONS.
OBS. 1.--The letters of the alphabet, read by their names, are equivalent to words. They are a sort of universal signs, by which we may mark and particularize objects of any sort, named or nameless; as, "To say, therefore, that while A and B are both quadrangular, A is more or less quadrangular than B, is absurd."--Murray's Gram., p. 50. Hence they are used in the sciences as symbols of an infinite variety of things or ideas, being construed both substantively and adjectively; as, "In ascending from the note C to D, the interval is equal to an inch; and from D to E, the same."--Music of Nature, p. 293. "We have only to imagine the G clef placed below it."--Ib. Any of their forms may be used for such purposes, but the custom of each science determines our choice. Thus Algebra employs small Italics; Music, Roman capitals; Geometry, for the most part, the same; Astronomy, Greek characters; and Grammar, in some part or other, every sort. Examples: "Then comes answer like an ABC book."--Beauties of Shakspeare, p. 97. "Then comes question like an a, b, c, book.--Shakspeare." See A, B, C, in Johnson's quarto Dict. Better:--"like an A-Bee-Cee book."
OBS. 2.--A lavish use of capitals defeats the very purpose for which the letters were distinguished in rank; and carelessness in respect to the rules which govern them, may sometimes misrepresent the writer's meaning. On many occasions, however, their use or disuse is arbitrary, and must be left to the judgement and taste of authors and printers. Instances of this kind will, for the most part, concern chief words, and come under the fifteenth rule above. In this grammar, the number of rules is increased; but the foregoing are still perhaps too few to establish an accurate uniformity. They will however tend to this desirable result; and if doubts arise in their application, the difficulties will be in particular examples only, and not in the general principles of the rules. For instance: In 1 Chron., xxix, 10th, some of our Bibles say, "Blessed be thou, LORD God of Israel our father, for ever and ever." Others say, "Blessed be thou, LORD God of Israel, our Father, for ever and ever." And others, "Blessed be thou, LORD God of Israel our Father, for ever and ever." The last is wrong, either in the capital F, or for lack of a comma after Israel. The others differ in meaning; because they construe the word father, or Father, differently. Which is right I know not. The first agrees with the Latin Vulgate, and the second, with the Greek text of the Septuagint; which two famous versions here disagree, without ambiguity in either.[105]
OBS. 3.--The innumerable discrepancies in respect to capitals, which, to a greater or less extent, disgrace the very best editions of our most popular books, are a sufficient evidence of the want of better directions on this point. In amending the rules for this purpose, I have not been able entirely to satisfy myself; and therefore must needs fail to satisfy the very critical reader. But the public shall have the best instructions I can give. On Rule 1st, concerning Books, it may be observed, that when particular books or writings are mentioned by other terms than their real titles, the principle of the rule does not apply. Thus, one may call Paradise Lost, "Milton's great poem;" or the Diversions of Purley, "the etymological investigations of Horne Tooke." So it is written in the Bible, "And there was delivered unto him the book of the prophet Esaias."--Luke, iv, 17. Because the name of Esaias, or Isaiah, seems to be the only proper title of his book.
OBS. 4.--On Rule 2d, concerning First Words, it may be observed, that the using of other points than the period, to separate sentences that are totally distinct in sense, as is sometimes practised in quoting, is no reason for the omission of capitals at the beginning of such sentences; ​but, rather, an obvious reason for their use. Our grammarians frequently manufacture a parcel of puerile examples, and, with the formality of apparent quotation, throw them together in the following manner: "He is above disguise;" "we serve under a good master;" "he rules over a willing people;" "we should do nothing beneath our character."--Murray's Gram., p. 118. These sentences, and all others so related, should, unquestionably, begin with capitals. Of themselves, they are distinct enough to be separated by the period and a dash. With examples of one's own making, the quotation points may be used or not, as the writer pleases; but not on their insertion or omission, nor even on the quality of the separating point, depends in all cases the propriety or impropriety of using initial capitals. For example: "The Future Tense is the form of the verb which denotes future time; as, John will come, you shall go, they will learn, the sun will rise to-morrow, he will return next week."--Frazee's Improved Gram., p. 38; Old Edition, 35. To say nothing of the punctuation here used, it is certain that the initial words, you, they, the, and he, should have commenced with capitals.
OBS. 5.--On Rule 3d, concerning Names of Deity, it may be observed, that the words Lord and God take the nature of proper names, only when they are used in reference to the Eternal Divinity. The former, as a title of honour to men, is usually written with a capital; but, as a common appellative, with a small letter. The latter, when used with reference to any fabulous deity, or when made plural to speak of many, should seldom, if ever, begin with a capital; for we do not write with a capital any common name which we do not mean to honour: as, "Though there be that are called gods, whether in heaven or in earth--as there be gods many, and lords many."--1 Cor., viii, 5. But a diversity of design or conception in respect to this kind of distinction, has produced great diversity concerning capitals, not only in original writings, but also in reprints and quotations, not excepting even the sacred books. Example: "The Lord is a great God, and a great King above all Gods."--Gurney's Essays, p. 88. Perhaps the writer here exalts the inferior beings called gods, that he may honour the one true God the more; but the Bible, in four editions to which I have turned, gives the word gods no capital. See Psalms, xcv, 3. The word Heaven put for God, begins with a capital; but when taken literally, it commonly begins with a small letter. Several nouns occasionally connected with names of the Deity, are written with a very puzzling diversity: as, "The Lord of Sabaoth;"--"The Lord God of hosts;"--"The God of armies;"--"The Father of goodness;"--"The Giver of all good;"--"The Lord, the righteous Judge." All these, and many more like them, are found sometimes with a capital, and sometimes without. Sabaoth, being a foreign word, and used only in this particular connexion, usually takes a capital; but the equivalent English words do not seem to require it. For "Judge," in the last example, I would use a capital; for "good" and "goodness," in the preceding ones, the small letter: the one is an eminent name, the others are mere attributes. Alger writes, "the Son of Man," with two capitals; others, perhaps more properly, "the Son of man," with one--wherever that phrase occurs in the New Testament. But, in some editions, it has no capital at all.
OBS. 6.--On Rule 4th, concerning Proper Names, it may be observed, that the application of this principle supposes the learner to be able to distinguish between proper names and common appellatives. Of the difference between these two classes of words, almost every child that can speak, must have formed some idea. I once noticed that a very little boy, who knew no better than to call a pigeon a turkey because the creature had feathers, was sufficiently master of this distinction, to call many individuals by their several names, and to apply the common words, man, woman, boy, girl, &c., with that generality which belongs to them. There is, therefore, some very plain ground for this rule. But not all is plain, and I will not veil the cause of embarrassment. It is only an act of imposture, to pretend that grammar is easy, in stead of making it so. Innumerable instances occur, in which the following assertion is by no means true: "The distinction between a common and a proper noun is very obvious."--Kirkham's Gram., p 32. Nor do the remarks of this author, or those of any other that I am acquainted with, remove any part of the difficulty. We are told by this gentleman, (in language incorrigibly bad,) that, "Nouns which denote the genus, species, or variety of beings or things, are always common; as, tree, the genus; oak, ash, chestnut, poplar, different species; and red oak, white oak, black oak, varieties."--Ib., p. 32. Now, as it requires but one noun to denote either a genus or a species, I know not how to conceive of those "nouns which denote the genus of things," except as of other confusion and nonsense; and, as for the three varieties of oak, there are surely no "nouns" here to denote them, unless he will have red, white, and black to be nouns. But what shall we say of--"the Red sea, the White sea, the Black sea;" or, with two capitals, "Red Sea, White Sea, Black Sea," and a thousand other similar terms, which are neither proper names unless they are written with capitals, nor written with capitals unless they are first judged to be proper names? The simple phrase, "the united states," has nothing of the nature of a proper name; but what is the character of the term, when written with two capitals, "the United States?" If we contend that it is not then a proper name, we make our country anonymous. And what shall we say to those grammarians who contend, that "Heaven, Hell, Earth, Sun, and Moon, are proper names;" and that, as such, they should be written with capitals? See Churchill's Gram., p. 380.
OBS. 7.--It would seem that most, if not all, proper names had originally some common signification, and that very many of our ordinary words and phrases have been converted into proper names, merely by being applied to particular persons, places, or objects, and receiving the distinction of capitals. How many of the oceans, seas, lakes, capes, islands, mountains, states, counties, streets, institutions, buildings, and other things, which we constantly particularize, have no other proper names than such as are thus formed, and such as are still perhaps, in many instances, essentially appellative! The difficulties respecting these will be further noticed below. A proper noun is the name of some particular individual, group, or people; as, Adam, Boston, the Hudson, the Azores, the Andes, the Romans, the Jews, the Jesuits, the Cherokees. This is as good a definition as ​I can give of a proper noun or name. Thus we commonly distinguish the names of particular persons, places, nations, tribes, or sects, with capitals. Yet we name the sun, the moon, the equator, and many other particular objects, without a capital; for the word the may give a particular meaning to a common noun, without converting it into a proper name: but if we say Sol, for the sun, or Luna, for the moon, we write it with a capital. With some apparent inconsistency, we commonly write the word Gentiles with a capital, but pagans, heathens, and negroes, without: thus custom has marked these names with degradation. The names of the days of the week, and those of the months, however expressed, appear to me to partake of the nature of proper names, and to require capitals: as, Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday; or, as the Friends denominate them, Firstday, Secondday, Thirdday, Fourthday, Fifthday, Sixthday, Seventhday. So, if they will not use January, February, &c., they should write as proper names their Firstmonth, Secondmonth, &c. The Hebrew names for the months, were also proper nouns: to wit, Abib, Zif, Sivan, Thamuz, Ab, Elul, Tisri, Marchesvan, Chisleu, Tebeth, Shebat, Adar; the year, with the ancient Jews, beginning, as ours once did, in March.
OBS. 8.--On Rule 5th, concerning Titles of Honour, it may be observed, that names of office or rank, however high, do not require capitals merely as such; for, when we use them alone in their ordinary sense, or simply place them in apposition with proper names, without intending any particular honour, we begin them with a small letter: as, "the emperor Augustus;"--"our mighty sovereign, Abbas Carascan;"--"David the king;"--"Tidal king of nations;"--"Bonner, bishop of London;"--"The sons of Eliphaz, the first-born you of Esau; duke Teman, duke Omar, duke Zepho, duke Kenaz, duke Korah, duke Gatam, and duke Amalek."--Gen., xxxvi, 15. So, sometimes, in addresses in which even the greatest respect is intended to be shown: as, "O sir, we came indeed down at the first time to buy food."--Gen., xliii, 20. "O my lord, let thy servant, I pray thee, speak a word in my lord's ears."--Gen., xliv, 18. The Bible, which makes small account of worldly honours, seldom uses capitals under this rule; but, in some editions, we find "Nehemiah the Tirshatha," and "Herod the Tetrarch," each with a needless capital. Murray, in whose illustrations the word king occurs early one hundred times, seldom honours his Majesty with a capital; and, what is more, in all this mawkish mentioning of royalty, nothing is said of it that is worth knowing. Examples: "The king and the queen had put on their robes."--Murray's Gram., p. 154. "The king, with his life-guard, has just passed through the village."--Ib., 150. "The king of Great Britain's dominions."--Ib., 45. "On a sudden appeared the king."--Ib., 146. "Long live the King!"--Ib., 146. "On which side soever the king cast his eyes."--Ib., 156. "It is the king of Great Britain's."--Ib., 176. "He desired to be their king."--Ib., 181. "They desired him to be their king."--Ib., 181. "He caused himself to be proclaimed king."--Ib., 182. These examples, and thousands more as simple and worthless, are among the pretended quotations by which this excellent man, thought "to promote the cause of virtue, as well as of learning!"
OBS. 9.--On Rule 6th, concerning One Capital for Compounds, I would observe, that perhaps there is nothing more puzzling in grammar, than to find out, amidst all the diversity of random writing, and wild guess-work in printing, the true way in which the compound names of places should be written. For example: What in Greek was "ho Areios Pagos," the Martial Hill, occurs twice in the New Testament: once, in the accusative case, "ton Areion Pagan," which is rendered Areopagus; and once, in the genitive, "tou Areiou Pagou," which, in different copies of the English Bible is made Mars' Hill, Mars' hill, Mars'-hill, Marshill, Mars Hill, and perhaps Mars hill. But if Mars must needs be put in the possessive case, (which I doubt,) they are all wrong: for then it should be Mars's Hill; as the name Campus Martins is rendered "Mars's Field," in Collier's Life of Marcus Antoninus. We often use nouns adjectively; and Areios is an adjective: I would therefore write this name Mars Hill, as we write Bunker Hill. Again: Whitehaven and Fairhaven are commonly written with single capitals; but, of six or seven towns called Newhaven or New Haven, some have the name in one word and some in two. Haven means a harbour, and the words, New Haven, written separately, would naturally be understood of a harbour: the close compound is obviously more suitable for the name of a city or town. In England, compounds of this kind are more used than in America; and in both countries the tendency of common usage seems to be, to contract and consolidate such terms. Hence the British counties are almost all named by compounds ending with the word shire; as, Nottinghamshire, Derbyshire, Staffordshire, Leicestershire, Northamptonshire, Warwickshire, Worcestershire, &c. But the best books we have, are full of discrepancies and errors in respect to names, whether foreign or domestic; as, "Ulswater is somewhat smaller. The handsomest is Derwentwater."--Balbi's Geog., p. 212. "Ulswater, a lake of England," &c. "Derwent-Water, a lake in Cumberland," &c.--Univ. Gazetteer, "Ulleswater, lake, Eng. situated partly in Westmoreland," &c.--Worcester's Gaz. "Derwent Water, lake, Eng. in Cumberland."--Ibid. These words, I suppose, should be written Ullswater and Derwentwater.
OBS. 10.--An affix, or termination, differs from a distinct word; and is commonly understood otherwise, though it may consist of the same letters and have the same sound. Thus, if I were to write Stow Bridge, it would be understood of a bridge; if Stowbridge, of a town: or the latter might even be the name of a family. So Belleisle is the proper name of a strait; and Belle Isle of several different islands in France and America. Upon this plain distinction, and the manifest inconvenience of any violation of so clear an analogy of the language, depends the propriety of most of the corrections which ​I shall offer under Rule 6th. But if the inhabitants of any place choose to call their town a creek, a river, a harbour, or a bridge, and to think it officious in other men to pretend to know better, they may do as they please. If between them and their correctors there lie a mutual charge of misnomer, it is for the literary world to determine who is right. Important names are sometimes acquired by mere accident. Those which are totally inappropriate, no reasonable design can have bestowed. Thus a fancied resemblance between the island of Aquidneck, in Narraganset Bay, and that of Rhodes, in the Ægean Sea, has at length given to a state, or republic, which lies chiefly on the main land, the absurd name of Rhode Island; so that now, to distinguish Aquidneck itself, geographers resort to the strange phrase, "the Island of Rhode Island."--Balbi. The official title of this little republic, is, "the State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations." But this name is not only too long for popular use, but it is doubtful in its construction and meaning. It is capable of being understood in four different ways. 1. A stranger to the fact, would not learn from this phrase, that the "Providence Plantations" are included in the "State of Rhode Island," but would naturally infer the contrary. 2. The phrase, "Rhode Island and Providence Plantations," may be supposed to mean "Rhode Island [Plantations] and Providence Plantations." 3. It may be understood to mean "Rhode Island and Providence [i.e., two] Plantations." 4. It may be taken for "Rhode Island" [i.e., as an island,] and the "Providence Plantations." Which, now, of all these did Charles the Second mean, when he gave the colony this name, with his charter, in 1663? It happened that he meant the last; but I doubt whether any man in the state, except perhaps some learned lawyer, can parse the phrase, with any certainty of its true construction and meaning. This old title can never be used, except in law. To write the popular name "Rhodeisland," as Dr. Webster has it in his American Spelling-Book, p. 121, would be some improvement upon it; but to make it Rhodeland, or simply Rhode, would be much more appropriate. As for Rhode Island, it ought to mean nothing but the island; and it is, in fact, an abuse of language to apply it otherwise. In one of his parsing lessons, Sanborn gives us for good English the following tautology: "Rhode Island derived its name from the island of Rhode Island."--Analytical Gram., p. 37. Think of that sentence!
OBS. 11.--On Rules 7th and 8th, concerning Two Capitals for Compounds, I would observe, with a general reference to those compound terms which designate particular places or things, that it is often no easy matter to determine, either from custom or from analogy, whether such common words as may happen to be embraced in them, are to be accounted parts of compound proper names and written with capitals, or to be regarded as appellatives, requiring small letters according to Rule 9th. Again the question may be, whether they ought not to be joined to the foregoing word, according to Rule 6th. Let the numerous examples under these four rules be duly considered: for usage, in respect to each of them, is diverse; so much so, that we not unfrequently find it contradictory, in the very same page, paragraph, or even sentence. Perhaps we may reach some principles of uniformity and consistency, by observing the several different kinds of phrases thus used. 1. We often add an adjective to an old proper name to make a new one, or to serve the purpose of distinction: as, Now York, New Orleans, New England, New Bedford; North America, South America; Upper Canada, Lower Canada; Great Pedee, Little Pedee; East Cambridge, West Cambridge; Troy, West Troy. All names of this class require two capitals: except a few which are joined together; as Northampton, which is sometimes more analogically written North Hampton. 2. We often use the possessive case with some common noun after it; as, Behring's Straits, Baffin's Bay, Cook's Inlet, Van Diemen's Land, Martha's Vineyard, Sacket's Harbour, Glenn's Falls. Names of this class generally have more than one capital; and perhaps all of them should be written so, except such as coalesce; as, Gravesend, Moorestown, the Crowsnest. 3. We sometimes use two common nouns with of between them; as, the Cape of Good Hope, the Isle of Man, the Isles of Shoals, the Lake of the Woods, the Mountains of the Moon. Such nouns are usually written with more than one capital. I would therefore write "the Mount of Olives" in this manner, though it is not commonly found so in the Bible. 4. We often use an adjective and a common noun; as, the Yellow sea, the Indian ocean, the White hills, Crooked lake, the Red river; or, with two capitals, the Yellow Sea, the Indian Ocean, the White Hills, Crooked Lake, the Red River. In this class of names the adjective is the distinctive word, and always has a capital; respecting the other term, usage is divided, but seems rather to favour two capitals. 5. We frequently put an appellative, or common noun, before or after a proper name; as, New York city, Washington street, Plymouth county, Greenwich village. "The Carondelet canal extends from the city of New Orleans to the bayou St. John, connecting lake Pontchartrain with the Mississippi river."--Balbi's Geog. This is apposition. In phrases of this kind, the common noun often has a capital, but it seldom absolutely requires it; and in general a small letter is more correct, except in some few instances in which the common noun is regarded as a permanent part of the name; as in Washington City, Jersey City. The words Mount, Cape, Lake, and Bay, are now generally written with capitals when connected with their proper names; as, Mount Hope, Cape Cod, Lake Erie, Casco Bay. But they are not always so written, even in modern books; and in the Bible we read of "mount Horeb, mount Sinai, mount Zion, mount Olivet," and many others, always with a single capital.
OBS. 12.--In modern compound names, the hyphen is now less frequently used than it was a few years ago. They seldom, if ever, need it, unless they are employed as adjectives; and then there is a manifest propriety in inserting it. Thus the phrase, "the New London Bridge," can be understood only of a new bridge in London; and if we intend by it a bridge in New London, we ​must say, "the New-London Bridge." So "the New York Directory" is not properly a directory for New York, but a new directory for York. I have seen several books with titles which, for this reason, were evidently erroneous. With respect to the ancient Scripture names, of this class, we find, in different editions of the Bible, as well as in other books, many discrepancies. The reader may see a very fair specimen of them, by comparing together the last two vocabularies of Walker's Key. He will there meet with an abundance of examples like these: "Uz'zen Shérah, Uzzen-shérah; Talitha Cúmi, Talithacúmi; Náthan Mélech, Nathan'-melech; A'bel Mehólath, Abel-mehólah; Házel Elpóni, Hazelepóni; Az'noth Tábor, Asnoth-tábor; Báal Ham'on, Baal-hámon; Hámon Gog, Ham'ongog; Báal Zébub, Bäal'zebub; Shéthar Boz'näi, Shether-boz'näi; Meródach Bal'adan, Merodach-bal'adan." All these glaring inconsistencies, and many more, has Dr. Webster restereotyped from Walker, in his octavo Dictionary! I see no more need of the hyphen in such names, than in those of modern times. They ought, in some instances, to be joined together without it; and, in others, to be written separately, with double capitals. But special regard should be had to the ancient text. The phrase, "Talitha, cumi,"--i. e., "Damsel, arise,"--is found in some Bibles, "Talitha-cumi;" but this form of it is no more correct than either of those quoted above. See Mark, v, 41st, in Griesbach's Greek Testament, where a comma divides this expression.
OBS. 13.--On Rule 10th, concerning Personifications, it may be well to observe, that not every noun which is the name of an object personified, must begin with a capital, but only such as have a resemblance to proper nouns; for the word person itself, or persons, or any other common noun denoting persons or a person, demands no such distinction. And proper names of persons are so marked, not with any reference to personality, but because they are proper nouns--or names of individuals, and not names of sorts. Thus, Æsop's viper and file are both personified, where it is recorded, "'What ails thee, fool?' says the file to the viper;" but the fable gives to these names no capitals, except in the title of the story. It may here be added, that, according to their definitions of personification, our grammarians and the teachers of rhetoric have hitherto formed no very accurate idea of what constitutes the figure. Lindley Murray says, "PERSONIFICATION [,] or PROSOPOPOEIA, is that figure by which we attribute life and action to inanimate objects."--Octavo Gram., p. 346; Duodecimo, p. 211. Now this is all wrong, doubly wrong,--wrong in relation to what personification is, and wrong too in its specification of the objects which may be personified. For "life and action" not being peculiar to persons, there must be something else than these ascribed, to form the figure; and, surely, the objects which Fancy thinks it right to personify, are not always "inanimate." I have elsewhere defined the thing as follows: "Personification is a figure by which, in imagination, we ascribe intelligence and personality to unintelligent beings or abstract qualities."--Inst., p. 234.
OBS. 14.--On Rule 11th, concerning Derivatives, I would observe, that not only the proper adjectives, to which this rule more particularly refers, but also nouns, and even verbs, derived from such adjectives, are frequently, if not generally, written with an initial capital. Thus, from Greece, we have Greek, Greeks, Greekish, Greekling, Grecise, Grecism, Grecian, Grecians, Grecianize. So Murray, copying Blair, speaks of "Latinised English;" and, again, of style strictly "English, without Scotticisms or Gallicisms."--Mur. Gram., 8vo, p. 295; Blair's Lect., pp. 93 and 94. But it is questionable, how far this principle respecting capitals ought to be carried. The examples in Dr. Johnson's quarto Dictionary exhibit the words, gallicisms, anglicisms, hebrician, latinize, latinized, judaized, and christianized, without capitals; and the words Latinisms, Grecisms, Hebraisms, and Frenchified, under like circumstances, with them. Dr. Webster also defines Romanize, "To Latinize; to conform to Romish opinions." In the examples of Johnson, there is a manifest inconsistency. Now, with respect to adjectives from proper names, and also to the nouns formed immediately from such adjectives, it is clear that they ought to have capitals: no one will contend that the words American and Americans should be written with a small a. With respect to Americanism, Gallicism, and other similar words, there may be some room to doubt. But I prefer a capital for these. And, that we may have a uniform rule to go by, I would not stop here, but would write Americanize and Americanized with a capital also; for it appears that custom is in favour of thus distinguishing nearly all verbs and participles of this kind, so long as they retain an obvious reference to their particular origin. But when any such word ceases to be understood as referring directly to the proper name, it may properly be written without a capital. Thus we write jalap from Jalapa, hermetical from Hermes, hymeneal from Hymen, simony, from Simon, philippic from Philip; the verbs, to hector, to romance, to japan, to christen, to philippize, to galvanize; and the adverbs hermetically and jesuitically, all without a capital: and perhaps judaize, christianize, and their derivatives, may join this class. Dr. Webster's octavo Dictionary mentions "the prussic acid" and "prussian blue," without a capital; and so does Worcester's.
OBS. 15.--On Rule 12th, concerning I and O, it may be observed, that although many who occasionally write, are ignorant enough to violate this, as well as every other rule of grammar, yet no printer ever commits blunders of this sort. Consequently, the few erroneous examples which will be exhibited for correction under it, will not be undesigned mistakes. Among the errors of books, we do not find the printing of the words I and O in small characters; but the confounding of O with the other interjection oh, is not uncommon even among grammarians. The latter has no concern with this rule, nor is it equivalent to the former, as a sign: O is a note of wishing, earnestness, and vocative address; but oh is, properly, a sign of sorrow, pain, or surprise. In the following example, therefore, a line from Milton is perverted:--
"Oh thou! that with surpassing glory crowned!"  --Bucke's Gram., p. 88.
OBS. 16.--On Rule 13th, concerning Poetry, it may be observed, that the principle applies only to regular versification, which is the common form, if not the distinguishing mark, of poetical composition. And, in this, the practice of beginning every line with a capital is almost universal; but I have seen some books in which it was whimsically disregarded. Such poetry as that of Macpherson's Ossian, or such as the common translation of the Psalms, is subjected neither to this rule, nor to the common laws of verse.
OBS. 17.--On Rule 14th, concerning Examples, Speeches, and Quotations, it may be observed, that the propriety of beginning these with a capital or otherwise, depends in some measure upon their form. One may suggest certain words by way of example, (as see, saw, seeing, seen,) and they will require no capital; or he may sometimes write one half of a sentence in his own words, and quote the other with the guillemets and no capital; but whatsoever is cited as being said with other relations of what is called person, requires something to distinguish it from the text into which it is woven. Thus Cobbett observes, that, "The French, in their Bible, say Le Verbe, where we say The Word."--E. Gram., p. 21. Cobbett says the whole of this; but he here refers one short phrase to the French nation, and an other to the English, not improperly beginning each with a capital, and further distinguishing them by Italics. Our common Bibles make no use of the quotation points, but rely solely upon capitals and the common points, to show where any particular speech begins or ends. In some instances, the insufficiency of these means is greatly felt, notwithstanding the extraordinary care of the original writers, in the use of introductory phrases. Murray says, "When a quotation is brought in obliquely after a comma, a capital is unnecessary: as, 'Solomon observes, "that pride goes before destruction."'"--Octavo Gram., p. 284. But, as the word 'that' belongs not to Solomon, and the next word begins his assertion, I think we ought to write it, "Solomon observes, that, 'Pride goeth before destruction.'" Or, if we do not mean to quote him literally, we may omit the guillemets, and say, "Solomon observes that pride goes before destruction."
IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.
ERRORS RESPECTING CAPITALS.
[Fist][The improprieties in the following examples are to be corrected orally by the learner, according to the formules given, or according to others framed from them with such slight changes as the several quotations may require. A correct example will occasionally he admitted for the sake of contrast, or that the learner may see the quoted author's inconsistency. It will also serve as a block over which stupidity may stumble and wake up. But a full explanation of what is intended, will be afforded in the Key.]
UNDER RULE I.--OF BOOKS.
"Many a reader of the bible knows not who wrote the acts of the apostles."--G. B.
[FORMULE OF CORRECTION.--Not proper, because the words, bible, acts, and apostles, here begin with small letters. But, according to Rule 1st, "When particular books are mentioned by their names, the chief words in their titles begin with capitals, and the other letters are small." Therefore, "Bible" should begin with a capital B; and "Acts" and "Apostles," each with a large A.]
"The sons of Levi, the chief of the fathers, were written in the book of the chronicles."--SCOTT'S BIBLE: Neh., xii, 23. "Are they not written in the book of the acts of Solomon?"--SCOTT, ALGER: I Kings, xi, 41. "Are they not written in the book of the Chronicles of the kings of Israel?"--ALGER: 1 Kings, xxii, 39. "Are they not written in the book of the chronicles of the kings of Judah?"--SCOTT: ib., ver. 45. "Which were written in the law of Moses, and in the prophets, and in the psalms."--SCOTT: Luke, xxiv, 44. "The narrative of which may be seen in Josephus's History of the Jewish wars."--Scott's Preface, p. ix. "This history of the Jewish war was Josephus's first work, and published about A. D. 75."--Note to Josephus. "'I have read,' says Photius, 'the chronology of Justus of Tiberias.'"--Ib., Jos. Life. "A philosophical grammar, written by James Harris, Esquire."--Murray's Gram., p. 34. "The reader is referred to Stroud's sketch of the slave laws."--Anti-Slavery Mag., i, 25. "But God has so made the bible that it interprets itself."--Ib., i, 78. "In 1562, with the help of Hopkins, he completed the psalter."--Music of Nature, p. 283. "Gardiner says this of Sternhold; of whom the universal biographical dictionary and the American encyclopedia affirm, that he died in 1549."--Author. "The title of a Book, to wit: 'English Grammar in familiar lectures,'" &c.--Kirkham's Gram., p. 2. "We had not, at that time, seen Mr. Kirkham's 'Grammar in familiar Lectures.'"--Ib., p. 3. "When you parse, you may spread the Compendium before you."--Ib., p. 53. "Whenever you parse, you may spread the compendium before you."--Ib., p. 113. "Adelung was the author of a grammatical and critical dictionary of the German language, and other works."--Univ. Biog. Dict. "Alley, William, author of 'the poor man's library,' and a translation of the Pentateuch, died in 1570."--Ib.
UNDER RULE II.--OF FIRST WORDS.
"Depart instantly: improve your time: forgive us our sins."--Murray's Gram., p. 61.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the words improve and forgive begin with small letters. But, according to Rule 2nd, "The first word of every distinct sentence should begin with a capital." Therefore, "Improve" should begin with a capital I; and "Forgive," with a capital F.]
EXAMPLES: "Gold is corrupting; the sea is green; a lion is bold."--Mur. Gram., p. 170; et al. Again: "It may rain; he may go or stay; he would walk; they should learn."--Ib., p. 64; et al. Again: " ​Oh! I have alienated my friend; alas! I fear for life."--Ib., p. 128; et al. Again: "He went from London to York;" "she is above disguise;" "they are supported by industry."--Ib., p. 28; et al. "On the foregoing examples, I have a word to say. they are better than a fair specimen of their kind, our grammars abound with worse illustrations, their models of English are generally spurious quotations. few of their proof-texts have any just parentage, goose-eyes are abundant, but names scarce. who fathers the foundlings? nobody. then let their merit be nobody's, and their defects his who could write no better."--Author. "goose-eyes!" says a bright boy; "pray, what are they? does this Mr. Author make new words when he pleases? dead-eyes are in a ship, they are blocks, with holes in them, but what are goose-eyes in grammar?" ANSWER: "goose-eyes are quotation points, some of the Germans gave them this name, making a jest of their form, the French call them guillemets, from the name of their inventor."--Author. "it is a personal pronoun, of the third person singular."--Comly's Gram., 12th Ed., p. 126. "ourselves is a personal pronoun, of the first person plural."--Ib., 138. "thee is a personal pronoun, of the second person singular."--Ib., 126. "contentment is a noun common, of the third person singular."--Ib., 128. "were is a neuter verb, of the indicative mood, imperfect tense."--Ib., 129.
UNDER RULE III.--OF DEITY.
"O thou dispenser of life! thy mercies are boundless."--W. Allen's Gram., p. 449.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the word dispenser begins with a small letter. But, according to Rule 3d, "All names of the Deity, and sometimes their emphatic substitutes, should begin with capitals." Therefore, "Dispenser" should here begin with a capital D.]
"Shall not the judge of all the earth do right?"--SCOTT: Gen., xviii, 25. "And the spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters."--Murray's Gram., p. 330. "It is the gift of him, who is the great author of good, and the Father of mercies."--Ib., 287. "This is thy god that brought thee up out of Egypt."--SCOTT, ALGER: Neh., ix, 18. "For the lord is our defence; and the holy one of Israel is our king."--See Psalm lxxxix, 18. "By making him the responsible steward of heaven's bounties."--Anti- Slavery Mag., i, 29. "Which the Lord, the righteous judge, shall give me at that day."--SCOTT, FRIENDS: 2 Tim., iv, 8. "The cries of them * * * entered into the ears of the Lord of sabaoth."--SCOTT: James, v, 4. "In Horeb, the deity revealed himself to Moses, as the eternal I am, the self-existent one; and, after the first discouraging interview of his messengers with Pharaoh, he renewed his promise to them, by the awful name, jehovah--a name till then unknown, and one which the Jews always held it a fearful profanation to pronounce."--Author. "And god spake unto Moses, and said unto him, I am the lord: and I appeared unto Abraham, unto Isaac, and unto Jacob, by the name of god almighty; but by my name jehovah was I not known to them."--See[106] Exod., vi, 2. "Thus saith the lord the king of Israel, and his redeemer the lord of hosts; I am the first, and I am the last; and besides me there is no god."--See Isa., xliv, 6.
UNDER RULE IV.--OF PROPER NAMES.
"Islamism prescribes fasting during the month ramazan."--Balbi's Geog., p. 17.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the word ramazan here begins with a small letter. But, according to Rule 4th, "Proper names, of every description, should always begin with capitals." Therefore, "Ramazan" should begin with a capital R. The word is also misspelled: it should rather be Ramadan.]
"Near mecca, in arabia, is jebel nor, or the mountain of light, on the top of which the mussulmans erected a mosque, that they might perform their devotions where, according to their belief, mohammed received from the angel gabriel the first chapter of the Koran."--Author. "In the kaaba at mecca, there is a celebrated block of volcanic basalt, which the mohammedans venerate as the gift of gabriel to abraham, but their ancestors once held it to be an image of remphan, or saturn; so 'the image which fell down from jupiter,' to share with diana the homage of the ephesians, was probably nothing more than a meteoric stone."--Id. "When the lycaonians, at lystra, took paul and barnabas to be gods, they called the former mercury, on account of his eloquence, and the latter jupiter, for the greater dignity of his appearance."--Id. "Of the writings of the apostolic fathers of the first century, but few have come down to us; yet we have in those of barnabas, clement of rome, hermas, ignatius, and polycarp, very certain evidence of the authenticity of the New Testament, and the New Testament is a voucher for the old."--Id.
"It is said by tatian, that theagenes of rhegium, in the time of cambyses, stesimbrotus the thracian, antimachus the colophonian, herodotus of halicarnassus, dionysius the olynthian, ephorus of cumæ, philochorus the athenian, metaclides and chamæleon the peripatetics, and zenodotus, aristophanes, callimachus, erates, eratosthenes, aristarchus, and apollodorus, the grammarians, all wrote concerning the poetry, the birth, and the age of homer." See Coleridge's Introd., p. 57. "Yet, for aught that now appears, the life of homer is as fabulous as that of hercules; and some have even ​suspected, that, as the son of jupiter and alcmena, has fathered the deeds of forty other herculeses, so this unfathered son of critheis, themisto, or whatever dame--this melesigenes, mæonides, homer--the blind schoolmaster, and poet, of smyrna, chios, colophon, salamis, rhodes, argos, athens, or whatever place--has, by the help of lycurgus, solon, pisistratus, and other learned ancients, been made up of many poets or homers, and set so far aloft and aloof on old parnassus, as to become a god in the eyes of all greece, a wonder in those of all Christendom."--Author.
UNDER RULE V.--OF TITLES.
"The king has conferred on him the title of duke."--Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 193.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the word duke begins with a small letter. But, according to Rule 5th, "Titles of office or honour, and epithets of distinction, applied to persons, begin usually with capitals." Therefore, "Duke" should here begin with a capital D.]
"At the court of queen Elizabeth."--Murray's Gram.; 8vo, p. 157; 12mo, p. 126; Fisk's, 115; et al. "The laws of nature are, truly, what lord Bacon styles his aphorisms, laws of laws."--Murray's Key, p. 260. "Sixtus the fourth was, if I mistake not, a great collector of books."--Ib., p. 257. "Who at that time made up the court of king Charles the second."--Murray's Gram., p. 314. "In case of his majesty's dying without issue."--Kirkham's Gram., p. 181. "King Charles the first was beheaded in 1649."--W. Allen's Gram., p. 45. "He can no more impart or (to use lord Bacon's word,) transmit convictions."--Kirkham's Eloc., p. 220. "I reside at lord Stormont's, my old patron and benefactor."--Murray's Gram., p. 176. "We staid a month at lord Lyttleton's, the ornament of his country."--Ib., p. 177. "Whose prerogative is it? It is the king of Great Britain's;" "That is the duke of Bridgewater's canal;" "The bishop of Llandaff's excellent book;" "The Lord mayor of London's authority."--Ib., p. 176. "Why call ye me lord, lord, and do not the things which I say?"--See GRIESBACH: Luke, vi, 46. "And of them he chose twelve, whom also he named apostles."--SCOTT: Luke, vi, 13. "And forthwith he came to Jesus, and said, Hail, master; and kissed him."--See the Greek: Matt., xxvi, 49. "And he said, Nay, father Abraham: but if one went unto them from the dead, they will repent."--Luke, xvi, 30.
UNDER RULE VI.--OF ONE CAPITAL.
"Fall River, a village in Massachusetts, population 3431."--See Univ. Gaz., p. 416.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the name Fall River is here written in two parts, and with two capitals. But, according to Rule 6th, "Those compound proper names which by analogy incline to a union of their parts without a hyphen, should be so written, and have but one capital." Therefore, Fallriver, as the name of a town, should be one word, and retain but one capital.]
"Dr. Anderson died at West Ham, in Essex, in 1808."--Biog. Dict. "Mad River, [the name of] two towns in Clark and Champaign counties, Ohio."--Williams's Universal Gazetteer. "White Creek, town of Washington county, N. York."--Ib. "Salt Creek, the name of four towns in different parts of Ohio."--Ib. "Salt Lick, a town of Fayette county, Pennsylvania."--Ib. "Yellow Creek, a town of Columbiana county, Ohio."--Ib. "White Clay, a hundred of New Castle county, Delaware."--Ib. "Newcastle, town and halfshire of Newcastle county, Delaware."--Ib. "Sing-Sing, a village of West Chester county, New York, situated in the town of Mount Pleasant."--Ib. "West Chester, a county of New York; also a town in Westchester county."--Ib. "West Town, a village of Orange county, New York."--Ib. "White Water, a town of Hamilton county, Ohio."--Ib. "White Water River, a considerable stream that rises in Indiana, and flowing southeasterly, unites with the Miami, in Ohio."--Ib. "Black Water, a village of Hampshire, in England, and a town in Ireland."--Ib. "Black Water, the name of seven different rivers in England, Ireland, and the United States."--Ib. "Red Hook, a town of Dutchess county, New York, on the Hudson."--Ib. "Kinderhook, a town of Columbia county, New York, on the Hudson."--Ib. "New Fane, a town of Niagara county, New York."--Ib. "Lake Port, a town of Chicot county, Arkansas."--Ib. "Moose Head Lake, the chief source of the Kennebeck, in Maine."--Ib. "Macdonough, a county of Illinois, population (in 1830) 2,959."--Ib., p. 408. "Mc Donough, a county of Illinois, with a courthouse, at Macomb."--Ib., p. 185. "Half-Moon, the name of two towns, in New York and Pennsylvania; also of two bays in the West Indies."--See Worcester's Gaz. "Le Boeuf, a town of Erie county, Pennsylvania, near a small lake of the same name."--Ib. "Charles City, James City, Elizabeth City, names of counties in Virginia, not cities, nor towns."--See Univ. Gaz. "The superior qualities of the waters of the Frome, here called Stroud water."--Balbi's Geog., p. 223.
UNDER RULE VII.--TWO CAPITALS.
"The Forth rises on the north side of Benlomond, and runs easterly."--Glas. Geog.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the name "Benlomond" is compounded under one capital, contrary to the general analogy of other similar terms. But, according to Rule 7th, "The compounding of a name under one capital should be avoided when the general analogy of other similar terms suggests a separation under two." Therefore, "Ben Lomond" should be written with two capitals and no hyphen.]
"The red granite of Ben-nevis is said to be the finest in the world."--Ib., ii, 311. "Ben-more, in Perthshire, is 3,915 feet above the level of the sea."--Ib., 313. "The height of Benclou ​gh is 2,420 feet."--Ib.. "In Sutherland and Caithness, are Ben Ormod, Ben Clibeg, Ben Grin, Ben Hope, and Ben Lugal."--Ib., 311. "Benvracky is 2,756 feet high; Ben-ledi, 3,009; and Benvoirlich, 3,300."--Ib., 313. "The river Dochart gives the name of Glendochart to the vale through which it runs."--Ib., 314. "About ten miles from its source, the Tay diffuses itself into Lochdochart."--Geog. altered. LAKES:--"Lochard, Loch-Achray, Loch-Con, Loch-Doine, Loch-Katrine, Loch-Lomond, Loch-Voil."--Scott's Lady of the Lake. GLENS:--"Glenfinlas, Glen Fruin, Glen Luss, Ross-dhu, Leven-glen, Strath-Endrick, Strath-Gartney, Strath-Ire."--Ib. MOUNTAINS:--"Ben-an, Benharrow, Benledi, Ben-Lomond, Benvoirlich, Ben-venue, and sometimes Benvenue."--Ib. "Fenelon died in 1715, deeply lamented by all the inhabitants of the Low-countries."--Murray's Sequel, p. 322. "And Pharaoh-nechoh made Eliakim, the son of Josiah, king."--SCOTT, FRIENDS: 2 Kings, xxiii, 34. "Those who seem so merry and well pleased, call her Good Fortune; but the others, who weep and wring their hands, Bad-fortune."--Collier's Tablet of Cebes.
UNDER RULE VIII.--OF COMPOUNDS.
"When Joab returned, and smote Edom in the valley of salt."--SCOTT: Ps. lx, title.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the words valley and salt begin with small letters. But, according to Rule 8th, "When any adjective or common noun is made a distinct part of a compound proper name, it ought to begin with a capital." Therefore, "Valley" should here begin with a capital V, and "Salt" with a capital S.]
"Then Paul stood in the midst of Mars' hill and said," &c.--SCOTT: Acts, xvii, 22. "And at night he went out, and abode in the mount that is called the mount of Olives."--Luke, xxi, 37. "Abgillus, son of the king of the Frisii, surnamed Prester John, was in the Holy land with Charlemagne."--Univ. Biog. Dict. "Cape Palmas, in Africa, divides the Grain coast from the Ivory coast."--Dict. of Geog., p. 125. "The North Esk, flowing from Loch-lee, falls into the sea three miles north of Montrose."--Ib., p. 232. "At Queen's ferry, the channel of the Forth is contracted by promontories on both coasts."--Ib., p. 233. "The Chestnut ridge is about twenty-five miles west of the Alleghanies, and Laurel ridge, ten miles further west."--Balbi's Geog., p. 65. "Washington City, the metropolis of the United States of America."--W.'s Univ. Gaz., p. 380. "Washington city, in the District of Columbia, population (in 1830) 18,826."--Ib., p. 408. "The loftiest peak of the white mountains, in new Hampshire, is called mount Washington."--Author. "Mount's bay, in the west of England, lies between the land's end and lizard point."--Id. "Salamis, an island of the Egean Sea, off the southern coast of the ancient Attica."--Dict. of Geog. "Rhodes, an island of the Egean sea, the largest and most easterly of the Cyclades."--Ib. "But he overthrew Pharaoh and his host in the Red sea."--BRUCE'S BIBLE: Ps. cxxxvi, 15. "But they provoked him at the sea, even at the Red sea."--SCOTT: Ps. cvi, 7.[107]
UNDER RULE IX.--OF APPOSITION.
"At that time, Herod the Tetrarch heard of the fame of Jesus."--ALGER: Matt., xiv, 1.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the word Tetrarch begins with a capital letter. But, according to Rule 8th, "When a common and a proper name are associated merely to explain each other, it is in general sufficient, if the proper name begin with a capital, and the appellative, with a small letter." Therefore, "tetrarch" should here begin with a small t.]
"Who has been more detested than Judas the Traitor?"--Author. "St. Luke, the Evangelist, was a physician of Antioch, and one of the converts of St. Paul."--Id. "Luther, the Reformer, began his bold career by preaching against papal indulgences."--Id. "The Poet Lydgate was a disciple and admirer of Chaucer: he died in 1440."--Id. "The Grammarian Varro, 'the most learned of the Romans,' wrote three books when he was eighty years old."--Id. "John Despauter, the great Grammarian of Flanders, whose works are still valued, died in 1520."--Id. "Nero, the Emperor and Tyrant of Rome, slew himself to avoid a worse death."--Id. "Cicero the Orator, 'the Father of his Country,' was assassinated at the age of 64."--Id. "Euripides, the Greek Tragedian, was born in the Island of Salamis, B. C. 476."--Id. "I will say unto God my Rock, Why hast thou forgotten me?"--SCOTT: Ps. xlii, 9. "Staten Island, an island of New York, nine miles below New York City."--Univ. Gaz. "When the son of Atreus, King of Men, and the noble Achilles first separated."--Coleridge's Introd., p. 83.
UNDER RULE X.--OF PERSONIFICATIONS.
"But wisdom is justified of all her children."--SCOTT, ALGER: Luke, vii, 35.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the word wisdom begins with a small letter. But, according to Rule 10th, "The name of an object personified, when it conveys an idea strictly individual, should begin with a capital." Therefore, "Wisdom" should here begin with a capital W.]
"Fortune and the church are generally put in the feminine gender."--Murray's Gram., i, p. 37. "Go to your natural religion; lay before her Mahomet, and his disciples."--Blair's Rhetoric, p. 157: see also Murray's Gram., i, 347. "O death! where is thy sting? O grave! where is thy victory?"--1 Cor., xv, 55; Murray's Gram., p. 348; English Reader, 31; Merchant's Gram., 212. "Ye cannot serve God and Mammon."--SCOTT, FRIENDS, ET AL.: Matt., vi, 24. "Ye cannot s ​erve God and mammon."--IIDEM: Luke, xvi, 13. "This house was built as if suspicion herself had dictated the plan."--See Key. "Poetry distinguishes herself from prose, by yielding to a musical law."--See Key. "My beauteous deliverer thus uttered her divine instructions: 'My name is religion. I am the offspring of truth and love, and the parent of benevolence, hope, and joy. That monster, from whose power I have freed you, is called superstition: she is the child of discontent, and her followers are fear and sorrow.'"--See Key. "Neither hope nor fear could enter the retreats; and habit had so absolute a power, that even conscience, if religion had employed her in their favour, would not have been able to force an entrance."--See Key.
UNDER RULE XI.--OF DERIVATIVES.
"In English, I would have gallicisms avoided."--FELTON: Johnson's Dict.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the word gallicisms here begins with a small letter. But, according to Rule 11th, "Words derived from proper names, and having direct reference to particular persons, places, sects, or nations, should begin with capitals." Therefore, "Gallicisms" should begin with a capital G.]
"Sallust was born in Italy, 85 years before the christian era."--Murray's Seq., p. 357. "Dr. Doddridge was not only a great man, but one of the most excellent and useful christians, and christian ministers."--Ib., 319. "They corrupt their style with untutored anglicisms."--MILTON: in Johnson's Dict. "Albert of Stade, author of a chronicle from the creation to 1286, a benedictine of the 13th century."--Universal Biog. Dict. "Graffio, a jesuit of Capua in the 16th century, author of two volumes on moral subjects."--Ib. "They frenchify and italianize words whenever they can."--See Key. "He who sells a christian, sells the grace of God."--Anti-Slavery Mag., p. 77. "The first persecution against the christians, under Nero, began A. D. 64."--Gregory's Dict. "P. Rapin, the jesuit, uniformly decides in favour of the Roman writers."--Cobbett's E. Gram., ¶ 171. "The Roman poet and epicurean philosopher Lucretius has said," &c.--Cohen's Florida, p. 107. Spell "calvinistic, atticism, gothicism, epicurism, jesuitism, sabianism, socinianism, anglican, anglicism, anglicize, vandalism, gallicism, romanize."--Webster's El. Spelling-Book, 130-133. "The large ternate bat."--Webster's Dict. w. ROSSET; Bolles's Dict., w. ROSET.
UNDER RULE XII.--OF I AND O.
"Fall back, fall back; i have not room:--o! methinks i see a couple whom i should know."--Lucian, varied.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the word I, which occurs three times, and the word O, which occurs once, are here printed in letters of the lower case.[108] But, according to Rule 12th, "The words I and O should always be capitals." Therefore, each should be changed to a capital, as often as it occurs.]
"Nay, i live as i did, i think as i did, i love you as i did; but all these are to no purpose: the world will not live, think, or love, as i do."--Swift, varied. "Whither, o! whither shall i fly? o wretched prince! o cruel reverse of fortune! o father Micipsa! is this the consequence of thy generosity?"--Sallust, varied. "When i was a child, i spake as a child, i understood as a child, i thought as a child; but when i became a man, i put away childish things."--1 Cor., xiii, 11, varied. "And i heard, but i understood not: then said i, o my Lord, what shall be the end of these things?"--Dan., xii, 8, varied. "Here am i; i think i am very good, and i am quite sure i am very happy, yet i never wrote a treatise in my life."--Few Days in Athens, varied. "Singular, Vocative, o master; Plural, Vocative, o masters."--Bicknell's Gram., p. 30.
UNDER RULE XIII.--OF POETRY.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the last three lines of this example begin with small letters. But, according to Rule 18th, "Every line in poetry, except what is regarded as making but one verse with the preceding line, should begin with a capital." Therefore, the words, "Lie," "But," and "And," at the commencement of these lines, should severally begin with the capitals L, B, and A.]
UNDER RULE XIV.--OF EXAMPLES.
"The word rather is very properly used to express a small degree or excess of a quality: as, 'she is rather profuse in her expenses.'"--Murray's Gram., p. 47.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the word she begins with a small letter. But, according to Rule 14th, "The first word of a full example, of a distinct speech, or of a direct quotation, should begin with a capital." Therefore, the word "She" should here begin with a capital S.]
"Neither imports not either; that is, not one nor the other: as, 'neither of my friends was there.'"--Murray's Gram., p. 56. "When we say, 'he is a tall man,' 'this is a fair day,' we make some reference to the ordinary size of men, and to different weather."--Ib., p. 47. "We more readily say, 'A million of men,' than 'a thousand of men.'"--Ib., p. 169. "So in the instances, 'two and two are four;' 'the fifth and sixth volumes will complete the set of books.'"--Ib., p. 124. "The adjective may frequently either precede or follow it [the verb]: as, 'the man is happy;' or, 'happy is the man:' 'The interview was delightful;' or, 'delightful was the interview.'"--Ib., p. 168. "If we say, 'he writes a pen,' 'they ran the river, 'the tower fell the Greeks,' 'Lambeth is Westminster-abbey,' [we speak absurdly;] and, it is evident, there is a vacancy which must be filled up by some connecting word: as thus, 'He writes with a pen;' 'they ran towards the river;' 'the tower fell upon the Greeks;' 'Lambeth is over against Westminster-abbey.'"--Ib., p. 118. "Let me repeat it;--he only is great, who has the habits of greatness."--Murray's Key, 241. "I say not unto thee, until seven times; but, until seventy times seven."--See Matt., xviii, 22.
UNDER RULE XV.--OF CHIEF WORDS.
"The supreme council of the nation is called the divan."--Balbi's Geog., p. 360.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the word divan begins with a small letter. But, according to Rule 15th, "Other words of particular importance, and such as denote the principal subjects treated of, may be distinguished by capitals." Therefore, "Divan" should here begin with a capital D.]
"The British parliament is composed of kings, lords, and commons."--Murray's Key, p. 184. "A popular orator in the House of Commons has a sort of patent for coining as many new terms as he pleases."--See Campbell's Rhet., p. 169; Murray's Gram., 364. "They may all be taken together, as one name; as, the house of commons."-- Merchant's School Gram., p. 25. "Intrusted to persons in whom the parliament could confide."--Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 202. "For 'The Lords' house,' it were certainly better to say, 'The house of lords;' and, in stead of 'The commons' vote,' to say, 'The votes of the commons.'"--See ib., p. 177, 4th Amer. Ed.; also Priestley's Gram., p. 69. "The house of lords were so much influenced by these reasons."--Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 152; Priestley's Gram., 188. "Rhetoricians commonly divide them into two great classes; figures of words, and figures of thought. The former, figures of words, are commonly called tropes."--Blair's Rhet., p. 132. "Perhaps figures of imagination, and figures of passion, might be a more useful distribution."--Ib., p. 133. "Hitherto we have considered sentences, under the heads of perspicuity, unity, and strength."--Ib., p. 120.
UNDER RULE XVI.--OF NEEDLESS CAPITALS.
"Be of good cheer: It is I; be not afraid."--ALGER: Matt., xiv, 27.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the word It begins with a capital I, for which there appears to be neither rule nor reason. But, according to Rule 16th, "Capitals are improper wherever there is not some special rule or reason for their use." Therefore, 'it' should here begin with a small letter, as Dr. Scott has it.]
"Between passion and lying, there is not a Finger's breadth."--Murray's Key, p. 240. "Can our Solicitude alter the course, or unravel the intricacy, of human events?"--Ib., p. 242. "The last edition was carefully compared with the Original M. S."--Ib., p. 239. "And the governor asked him, saying, Art thou the King of the Jews?"--ALGER: Matt., xxvii, 11. "Let them be turned back for a reward of their shame, that say, Aha, Aha!"--FRIENDS' BIBLE: Ps., lxx, 3. "Let them be desolate for a reward of their shame, that say unto me, Aha, aha!"--IB.: Ps., xl, 15. "What think ye of Christ? whose Son is he? They say unto him, The Son of David. He saith unto them, How then doth David in Spirit call him Lord?"--SCOTT: Matt., xxii, 42, 43. "Among all Things in the Universe, direct your Worship to the Greatest; And which is that? 'T is that Being which Manages and Governs all the Rest."--Meditations of M. Aurelius Antoninus, p. ​76. "As for Modesty and Good Faith, Truth and Justice, they have left this wicked World and retired to Heaven: And now what is it that can keep you here?"--Ib., p. 81.
PROMISCUOUS ERRORS RESPECTING CAPITALS.
LESSON I.--MIXED.
"Come, gentle spring, Ethereal mildness, come."--Gardiner's Music of Nature, p. 411.
[FORMULES.--1. Not proper, because the word spring begins with a small letter. But, according to Rule 10th, "The name of an object personified, when it conveys an idea strictly individual, should begin with a capital." Therefore "Spring" should here begin with a capital S.
2. Not proper again, because the word Ethereal begins with a capital E, for which there appears to be neither rule nor reason. But, according to Rule 16th. "Capitals are improper whenever there is not some special rule or reason for their use." Therefore, "ethereal" should here begin with a small letter.]
As, "He is the Cicero of his age; he is reading the lives of the Twelve Cæsars."--Murray's Gram., p. 36. "In the History of Henry the fourth, by father Daniel, we are surprized at not finding him the great man."--Priestley's Gram., p. 151. "In the history of Henry the fourth, by Father Daniel, we are surprised at not finding him the great man."--Murray's Gram., p. 172; Ingersoll's, 187; Fisk's, 99. "Do not those same poor peasants use the Lever and the Wedge, and many other instruments?"--Murray, 288; from Harris, 293. "Arithmetic is excellent for the gauging of Liquors; Geometry, for the measuring of Estates; Astronomy, for the making of Almanacks; and Grammar, perhaps, for the drawing of Bonds and Conveyances."--Harris's Hermes, p. 295. "The wars of Flanders, written in Latin by Famianus Strada, is a book of some note."--Blair's Rhet., p. 364. "William is a noun.--why? was is a verb.--why? a is an article.--why? very is an adverb.--why?" &c.--Merchant's School Gram., p. 20. "In the beginning was the word, and that word was with God, and God was that word."--Gwilt's Saxon Gram., p. 49. "The greeks are numerous in thessaly, macedonia, romelia, and albania."--Balbi, varied. "He is styled by the Turks, Sultan (Mighty) or Padishah (lord)."--Balbi's Geog., p. 360. "I will ransom them from the power of the grave; I will redeem them from death: O death, I will be thy plagues;[109] O grave, I will be thy destruction."--SCOTT, ALGER, ET AL.: Hosea, xiii, 14. "Silver and Gold have I none; but such as I have, give I unto thee."--Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 321. "Return, we beseech thee, O God of Hosts, look down from heaven, and behold, and visit this vine."--Ib., p. 342. "In the Attic Commonwealth, it was the privilege of every citizen to rail in public."--Ib., p. 316. "They assert that, in the phrases, 'give me that,' 'this is John's,' and 'such were some of you,' the words in italics are pronouns: but that, in the following phrases, they are not pronouns; 'this book is instructive,' 'some boys are ingenious,' 'my health is declining,' 'our hearts are deceitful,' &c."--Ib., p. 58. "And the coast bends again to the northwest, as far as Far Out head."--Glasgow Geog., Vol. ii, p. 308. Dr. Webster, and other makers of spelling-books, very improperly write "sunday, monday, tuesday, wednesday, thursday, friday, saturday," without capitals.--See Webster's Elementary Spelling-Book p. 85. "The commander in chief of the Turkish navy is styled the capitan-pasha."--Balbi's Geog., p. 360. "Shall we not much rather be in subjection unto the father of spirits, and live?"--SCOTT'S BIBLE: Heb., xii, 9. "Shall we not much rather be in subjection unto the Father of Spirits, and live?"--FRIENDS' BIBLE: Heb., xii, 9. "He was more anxious to attain the character of a Christian hero."--Murray's Sequel, p. 308. "Beautiful for situation, the joy of the whole earth, is mount Zion."--Psalms, xlviii, 2. "The Lord is my Helper, and I will not fear what man shall do unto me."--SCOTT: Heb., xiii, 6. "Make haste to help me, O LORD my Salvation."--SCOTT: Ps., xxxviii, 22.
LESSON II.--MIXED.
"That range of hills, known under the general name of mount Jura."--Priestley's Gram., p. 110. "He rebuked the Red sea also, and it was dried up."--SCOTT: Ps., cvi, 9. "Jesus went unto the mount of Olives."--John, viii, 1. "Milton's book, in reply to the Defence of the king, by Salmasius, gained him a thousand pounds from the parliament, and killed his antagonist with vexation."--See Murray's Sequel, 343. "Mandeville, sir John, an Englishman, famous for his travels, born about 1300, died in 1372."--Biog. Dict. "Ettrick pen, a mountain in Selkirkshire, Scotland, height 2,200 feet."--Glasgow Geog., Vol. ii, p. 312. "The coast bends from Dungsbyhead in a northwest direction to the promontory of Dunnet head."--Ib., p. 307. "Gen. Gaines ordered a detachment of near 300 men, under the command of Major Twiggs, to surround and take an Indian Village, called Fowl Town, about fourteen miles from fort Scott."--Cohen's Florida, p. 41. "And he took the damsel by the hand, and said unto her, Talitha Cumi."--ALGER: Mark, v, 4. "On religious subjects, a frequent recurrence of scripture-language is attended with peculiar force."--Murray's Gram., p. 318. "Contemplated with gratitude to their Author, the Giver of all Good."--Ib., p. 289. "When he, the Spirit of Truth, is come, he will guide you into all ​truth."--Ib., p. 171; Fisk, 98; Ingersoll, 186. "See the lecture on verbs, rule XV. note 4."--Fisk's E. Gram., p. 117. "At the commencement of lecture II. I informed you that Etymology treats, 3dly, of derivation."--Kirkham's Gram., p. 171. "This VIII. lecture is a very important one."--Ib., p. 113. "Now read the XI. and XII. lectures four or five times over."--Ib., p. 152. "In 1752, he was advanced to the bench, under the title of lord Kames."--Murray's Sequel, p. 331. "One of his maxims was, 'know thyself.'"--Lempriere's Dict., n. Chilo. "Good master, what good thing shall I do, that I may have eternal life?"--See Matt., xix, 16. "His best known works, however, are 'anecdotes of the earl of Chatham,' 2 vols. 4to., 3 vols. 8vo., and 'biographical, literary, and political anecdotes of several of the most eminent persons of the present age; never before printed,' 3 vols. 8vo. 1797."--Univ. Biog. Dict., n. Almon. "O gentle sleep, Nature's soft nurse, how have I frighted thee?"--Merchant's School Gram., p. 172. "O sleep, O gentle sleep, Nature's soft nurse," &c.--SINGER'S SHAK. Sec. Part of Hen. IV, Act iii. "Sleep, gentle sleep, Nature's soft nurse," &c.--Dodd's Beauties of Shakspeare, p. 129.
LESSON III.--MIXED.
"Fenelon united the characters of a nobleman and a Christian pastor. His book entitled 'An explication of the Maxims of the Saints concerning the interior life,' gave considerable offence to the guardians of orthodoxy."--Murray's Sequel, p. 321. "When natural religion, who before was only a spectator, is introduced as speaking by the centurion's voice."--Blair's Rhet., p. 157. "You cannot deny, that the great mover and author of nature constantly explaineth himself to the eyes of men, by the sensible intervention of arbitrary signs, which have no similitude, or connexion, with the things signified."--Berkley's Minute Philosopher, p. 169. "The name of this letter is double U, its form, that of a double V."--Wilson's Essay on Gram., p. 19. "Murray, in his spelling book, wrote 'Charles-Town' with a Hyphen and two Capitals."--See p. 101. "He also wrote 'european' without a capital."--See p. 86. "They profess themselves to be pharisees, who are to be heard and not imitated."--Calvin's Institutes, Ded., p. 55. "Dr. Webster wrote both 'Newhaven' and 'Newyork' with single capitals."--See his American Spelling-Book, p. 111. "Gayhead, the west point of Martha's Vineyard."--Williams's Univ. Gaz. Write "Craborchard, Eggharbor, Longisland, Perthamboy, Westhampton, Littlecompton, Newpaltz, Crownpoint, Fellspoint, Sandyhook, Portpenn, Portroyal. Portobello, and Portorico."--Webster's American Spelling-Book, 127-140. Write the names of the months: "january, february, march, april, may, june, july, august, september, october, november, december."--Cobb's Standard Spelling-Book, 21-40. Write the following names and words properly: "tuesday, wednesday, thursday, friday, saturday, saturn;--christ, christian, christmas, christendom, michaelmas, indian, bacchanals;--Easthampton, omega, johannes, aonian, levitical, deuteronomy, european."--Cobb's Standard Spelling-Book, sundry places.
CHAPTER II.--OF SYLLABLES.
A Syllable is one or more letters pronounced in one sound; and is either a word, as, a, an, ant; or a part of a word, as di in dial.
In every word there are as many syllables as there are distinct sounds, or separate impulses of the voice; as, gram-ma-ri-an.
A word of one syllable is called a monosyllable; a word of two syllables, a dissyllable; a word of three syllables, a trissyllable; and a word of four or more syllables, a polysyllable.
Every vowel, except w, may form a syllable of itself; but the consonants belong to the vowels or diphthongs; and without a vowel no syllable can be formed.
DIPHTHONGS AND TRIPHTHONGS.
A diphthong is two vowels joined in one syllable; as, ea in beat, ou in sound. In oe or æ, old or foreign, the characters often unite.
A proper diphthong is a diphthong in which both the vowels are sounded; as, oi in voice, ow in ​vow.
An improper diphthong is a diphthong in which only one of the vowels is sounded; as, oa in loaf, eo in people.
A triphthong is three vowels joined in one syllable; as, eau in beau, iew in view, oeu in manoeuvre.
A proper triphthong is a triphthong in which all the vowels are sounded; as, uoy in buoy.
An improper triphthong is a triphthong in which only one or two of the vowels are sounded; as, eau in beauty, iou in anxious. The diphthongs in English are twenty-nine; embracing all but six of the thirty-five possible combinations of two vowels: aa, ae, ai, ao, au, aw, ay,--ea, ee, ei, eo, eu, ew, ey,--ia, ie, (ii,) io, (iu, iw, iy,)--oa, oe, oi, oo, ou, ow, oy,--ua, ue, ui, uo, (uu, uw,) uy.
Ten of these diphthongs, being variously sounded, may be either proper or improper; to wit, ay,--ie,--oi, ou, ow,--ua, ue, ui, uo, uy.
The proper diphthongs appear to be thirteen; ay,--ia, ie, io,--oi, ou, ow, oy,--ua, ue, ui, uo, uy: of which combinations, only three, ia, io, and oy, are invariably of this class.
The improper diphthongs are twenty-six; aa, ae, ai, ao, au, aw, ay,--ea, ee, ei, eo, eu, ew, ey,--ie,--oa, oe, oi, oo, ou, ow,--ua, ue, ui, uo, uy.
The only proper triphthong in English is uoy, as in buoy, buoyant, buoyancy; unless uoi in quoit may be considered a parallel instance.
The improper triphthongs are sixteen; awe, aye,--eau, eou, ewe, eye,--ieu, iew, iou,--oeu, owe,--uai, uaw, uay, uea, uee.
SYLLABICATION.
In dividing words into syllables, we are to be directed chiefly by the ear; it may however be proper to observe, as far as practicable, the following rules.
RULE I.--CONSONANTS.
Consonants should generally be joined to the vowels or diphthongs which they modify in utterance; as, An-ax-ag'-o-ras, ap-os-tol'-i-cal.[110]
RULE II.--VOWELS.
Two vowels, coming together, if they make not a diphthong, must be parted in dividing the syllables; as, A-cka'-i-a, A-o'-ni-an, a-e'-ri-al.
RULE III.--TERMINATIONS.
Derivative and grammatical terminations should generally be separated from the radical words to which they have been added; as, harm-less, great-ly, connect-ed: thus count-er and coun-ter are different words.
RULE IV.--PREFIXES.
Prefixes, in general, form separate syllables; as, mis-place, out-ride, up-lift: but if their own primitive meaning be disregarded, the case may be otherwise; thus, re-create, and rec'-reate, re-formation, and ref-ormation, are words of different ​import.
RULE V.--COMPOUNDS.
Compounds, when divided, should be divided into the simple words which compose them; as, boat-swain, foot-hold, never-the-less.
RULE VI.--LINES FULL.
At the end of a line, a word may be divided, if necessary; but a syllable must never be broken.
OBSERVATIONS.
OBS. 1.--The doctrine of English syllabication is attended with some difficulties; because its purposes are various, and its principles, often contradictory. The old rules, borrowed chiefly from grammars of other languages, and still retained in some of our own, are liable to very strong objections.[111] By aiming to divide on the vowels, and to force the consonants, as much as possible, into the beginning of syllables, they often pervert or misrepresent our pronunciation. Thus Murray, in his Spelling-Book, has "gra-vel, fi-nish, me-lon, bro-ther, bo-dy, wi-dow, pri-son, a-va-rice, e-ve-ry, o-ran-ges, e-ne-my, me-di-cine, re-pre-sent, re-so-lu-tion," and a multitude of other words, divided upon a principle by which the young learner can scarcely fail to be led into error respecting their sounds. This method of division is therefore particularly reprehensible in such books as are designed to teach the true pronunciation of words; for which reason, it has been generally abandoned in our modern spelling-books and dictionaries: the authors of which have severally aimed at some sort of compromise between etymology and pronunciation; but they disagree so much, as to the manner of effecting it, that no two of them will be found alike, and very few, if any, entirely consistent with themselves.
OBS. 2.--The object of syllabication may be any one of the following four; 1. To enable a child to read unfamiliar words by spelling them; 2. To show the derivation or composition of words; 3. To exhibit the exact pronunciation of words; 4. To divide words properly, when it is necessary to break them at the ends of lines. With respect to the first of these objects, Walker observes, "When a child has made certain advances in reading, but is ignorant of the sound of many of the longer words, it may not be improper to lay down the common general rule to him, that a consonant between two vowels must go to the latter, and that two consonants coming together must be divided. Farther than this it would be absurd to go with a child."--Walker's Principles, No. 539. Yet, as a caution be it recorded, that, in 1833, an itinerant lecturer from the South, who made it his business to teach what he calls in his title-page, "An Abridgment of Walker's Rules on the Sounds of the Letters,"--an Abridgement, which, he says in his preface, "will be found to contain, it is believed, all the important rules that are established by Walker, and to carry his principles farther than he himself has done"--befooled the Legislature of Massachusetts, the School Committee and Common Council of Boston, the professor of elocution at Harvard University, and many other equally wise men of the east, into the notion that English pronunciation could be conveniently taught to children, in "four or five days," by means of some three or four hundred rules of which the following is a specimen: "RULE 282. When a single consonant is preceded by a vowel under the preantepenultimate accent, and is followed by a vowel that is succeeded by a consonant, it belongs to the accented vowel."--Mulkey's Abridgement of Walker's Rules, p. 34.
OBS. 3.--A grosser specimen of literary quackery, than is the publication which I have just quoted, can scarcely be found in the world of letters. It censures "the principles laid down and illustrated by Walker," as "so elaborate and so verbose as to be wearisome to the scholar and useless to the child;" and yet declares them to be, "for the most part, the true rules of pronunciation, according to the analogy of the language."--Mulkey's Preface, p. 3. It professes to be an abridgement and simplification of those principles, especially adapted to the wants and capacities of children; and, at the same time, imposes upon the memory of the young learner twenty-nine rules for syllabication, similar to that which I have quoted above; whereas Walker himself, with all his verbosity, expressly declares it "absurd," to offer more than one or two, and those of the very simplest character. It is to be observed that the author teaches nothing but the elements of reading; nothing but the sounds of letters and syllables; nothing but a few simple fractions of the great science of grammar: and, for this purpose, he would conduct the learner through the following particulars, and have him remember them all: 1. Fifteen distinctions respecting the "classification and organic formation of the letters." 2. Sixty-three rules for "the sounds of the vowels, according to their relative positions." 3. Sixty-four explanations of "the different sounds of the diphthongs." 4. Eighty-nine rules for "the sounds of the consonants, according to position." 5. Twenty-three heads, embracing a hundred and fifty-six principles of accent. 6. Twenty-nine "rules for dividing words into syllables." 7. Thirty-three "additional principles;" which are thrown together promiscuously, because he could not class them. 8. Fifty-two pages of "irregular Words," forming particular exceptions to the foregoing rules. 9. Twenty-eight page ​s of notes extracted from Walker's Dictionary, and very prettily called "The Beauties of Walker." All this is Walker simplified for children!
OBS. 4.--Such is a brief sketch of Mulkey's system of orthoëpy; a work in which "he claims to have devised what has heretofore been a desideratum--a mode by which children in our common schools may be taught the rules for the pronunciation of their mother tongue."--Preface, p. 4. The faults of the book are so exceedingly numerous, that to point them out, would be more toil, than to write an accurate volume of twice the size. And is it possible, that a system like this could find patronage in the metropolis of New England, in that proud centre of arts and sciences, and in the proudest halls of learning and of legislation? Examine the gentleman's credentials, and take your choice between the adoption of his plan, as a great improvement in the management of syllables, and the certain conclusion that great men may be greatly duped respecting them. Unless the public has been imposed upon by a worse fraud than mere literary quackery, the authorities I have mentioned did extensively patronize the scheme; and the Common Council of that learned city did order, November 14th, 1833, "That the School Committee be and they are hereby authorized to employ Mr. William Mulkey to give a course of Lectures on Orthoëpy to the several instructors of the public schools, and that the sum of five hundred dollars is hereby appropriated for that purpose, and that the same amount be withdrawn from the reserved fund."--See Mulkey's Circular.
OBS. 5.--Pronunciation is best taught to children by means of a good spelling-book; a book in which the words are arranged according to their analogies, and divided according to their proper sounds. Vocabularies, dictionaries, and glossaries, may also be serviceable to those who are sufficiently advanced to learn how to use them. With regard to the first of the abovenamed purposes of syllabication, I am almost ready to dissent even from the modest opinion of Walker himself; for ignorance can only guess at the pronunciation of words, till positive instruction comes in to give assurance; and it may be doubted whether even the simple rule or rules suggested by Walker would not about as often mislead the young reader as correct him. With regard to the second purpose, that of showing the derivation or composition of words, it is plain, that etymology, and not pronunciation, must here govern the division; and that it should go no further than to separate the constituent parts of each word; as, ortho-graphy, theo-logy. But when we divide for the third purpose, and intend to show what is the pronunciation of a word, we must, if possible, divide into such syllabic sounds as will exactly recompose the word, when put together again; as, or-thog-ra-phy, the-ol-o-gy. This being the most common purpose of syllabication, perhaps it would be well to give it a general preference; and adopt it whenever we can, not only in the composing of spelling-books and dictionaries, but also in the dividing of words at the ends of lines.
OBS. 6.--Dr. Lowth says, "The best and easiest rule, for dividing the syllables in spelling, is, to divide them as they are naturally divided in a right pronunciation; without regard to the derivation of words, or the possible combination of consonants at the beginning of a syllable."--Lowth's Gram., p. 5. And Walker approves of the principle, with respect to the third purpose mentioned above: "This," says that celebrated orthoëpist, "is the method adopted by those who would convey the whole sound, by giving distinctly every part; and, when this is the object of syllabication, Dr. Lowth's rule is certainly to be followed."--Walker's Principles,--No. 541. But this rule, which no one can apply till he has found out the pronunciation, will not always be practicable where that is known, and perhaps not always expedient where it is practicable. For example: the words colonel, venison, transition, propitious, cannot be so divided as to exhibit their pronunciation; and, in such as acid, magic, pacify, legible, liquidate, it may not be best to follow the rule, because there is some reasonable objection to terminating the first syllables of these words with c, g, and q, especially at the end of a line. The rule for terminations may also interfere with this, called "Lowth's;" as in sizable, rising, dronish.
OBS. 7.--For the dividing of words into syllables, I have given six rules, which are perhaps as many as will be useful. They are to be understood as general principles; and, as to the exceptions to be made in their application, or the settling of their conflicting claims to attention, these may be left to the judgement of each writer. The old principle of dividing by the eye, and not by the ear, I have rejected; and, with it, all but one of the five rules which the old grammarians gave for the purpose. "The divisions of the letters into syllables, should, unquestionably, be the same in written, as in spoken language; otherwise the learner is misguided, and seduced by false representations into injurious errors."--Wilson's Essay on Gram., p. 37. Through the influence of books in which the words are divided according to their sounds, the pronunciation of the language is daily becoming more and more uniform; and it may perhaps be reasonably hoped, that the general adoption of this method of syllabication, and a proper exposition of the occasional errors of ignorance, will one day obviate entirely the objection arising from the instability of the principle. For the old grammarians urged, that the scholar who had learned their rules should "strictly conform to them; and that he should industriously avoid that random Method of dividing by the Ear, which is subject to mere jumble, as it must be continually fluctuating according to the various Dialects of different Countries."--British Grammar, p. 47.
OBS. 8.--The important exercise of oral spelling is often very absurdly conducted. In many of our schools, it may be observed that the teacher, in giving out the words to be spelled, is not always careful to utter them with what he knows to be their true sounds, but frequently accommodates his pronunciation to the known or supposed ignorance of the scholar; and the latter is still more frequently allowed to hurry through the process, without putting the syllables together ​as he proceeds; and, sometimes, without forming or distinguishing the syllables at all. Merely to pronounce a word and then name its letters, is an exceedingly imperfect mode of spelling; a mode in which far more is lost in respect to accuracy of speech, than is gained in respect to time. The syllables should not only be distinctly formed and pronounced, but pronounced as they are heard in the whole word; and each should be successively added to the preceding syllables, till the whole sound is formed by the reunion of all its parts. For example: divisibility. The scholar should say, "Dee I, de; Vee I Ess, viz, de-viz; I, de-viz-e; Bee I Ell, bil, de-viz-e-bil; I, de-viz-e-bil-e; Tee Wy, te, de-viz-e-bil-e-te." Again: chicanery. "Cee Aitch I, she; Cee A, ka, she-ka; En E Ar, nur, she-ka-nur; Wy, she-ka-nur-e." One of the chief advantages of oral spelling, is its tendency to promote accuracy of pronunciation; and this end it will reach, in proportion to the care and skill with which it is conducted. But oral spelling should not be relied on as the sole means of teaching orthography. It will not be found sufficient. The method of giving out words for practical spelling on slates or paper, or of reading something which is to be written again by the learner, is much to be commended, as a means of exercising those scholars who are so far advanced as to write legibly. This is called, in the schools, dictation.
IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.
ERRORS IN SYLLABICATION.
LESSON I.--CONSONANTS.
1. Correct the division of the following words of two syllables: "ci-vil, co-lour, co-py, da-mask, do-zen, e-ver, fea-ther, ga-ther, hea-ven, hea-vy, ho-ney, le-mon, li-nen, mea-dow, mo-ney, ne-ver, o-live, o-range, o-ther, phea-sant, plea-sant, pu-nish, ra-ther, rea-dy, ri-ver, ro-bin, scho-lar, sho-vel, sto-mach, ti-mid, whe-ther."--Murray's Spelling-Book, N. Y., 1819, p. 43-50.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the v in ci-vil, the l in co-lour, the p in co-py, &c., are written with the following vowel, but spoken with that which precedes. But, according to Rule 1st, "Consonants should generally be joined to the vowels or diphthongs which they modify in utterance." Therefore, these words should be divided thus: civ-il, col-our, cop-y, &c.]
2. Correct the division of the following words of three syllables: "be-ne-fit, ca-bi-net, ca-nis-ter, ca-ta-logue, cha-rac-ter, cha-ri-ty, co-vet-ous, di-li-gence, di-mi-ty, e-le-phant, e-vi-dent, e-ver-green, fri-vo-lous, ga-ther-ing, ge-ne-rous, go-vern-ess, go-vern-or, ho-nes-ty, ka-len-dar, la-ven-der, le-ve-ret, li-be-ral, me-mo-ry, mi-nis-ter, mo-dest-ly, no-vel-ty, no-bo-dy, pa-ra-dise, po-ver-ty, pre-sent-ly, pro-vi-dence, pro-per-ly, pri-son-er, ra-ven-ous, sa-tis-fy, se-ve-ral, se-pa-rate, tra-vel-ler, va-ga-bond;--con-si-der, con-ti-nue, de-li-ver, dis-co-ver, dis-fi-gure, dis-ho-nest, dis-tri-bute, in-ha-bit, me-cha-nic, what-e-ver;--re-com-mend, re-fu-gee, re-pri-mand."--Murray: ib., p. 67-83.
3. Correct the division of the following words of four syllables: "ca-ter-pil-lar, cha-ri-ta-ble, di-li-gent-ly, mi-se-ra-ble, pro-fit-a-ble, to-le-ra-ble;--be-ne-vo-lent, con-si-der-ate, di-mi-nu-tive, ex-pe-ri-ment, ex-tra-va-gant, in-ha-bi-tant, no-bi-li-ty, par-ti-cu-lar, pros-pe-ri-ty, ri-di-cu-lous, sin-ce-ri-ty;--de-mon-stra-tion, e-du-ca-tion, e-mu-la-tion, e-pi-de-mic, ma-le-fac-tor, ma-nu-fac-ture, me-mo-ran-dum, mo-de-ra-tor, pa-ra-ly-tic, pe-ni-ten-tial, re-sig-na-tion, sa-tis-fac-tion, se-mi-co-lon."--Murray: ib., p. 84-87.
4. Correct the division of the following words of five syllables: "a-bo-mi-na-ble, a-po-the-ca-ry, con-sid-e-ra-ble, ex-pla-na-to-ry, pre-pa-ra-to-ry;--a-ca-de-mi-cal, cu-ri-o-si-ty, ge-o-gra-phi-cal, ma-nu-fac-to-ry, sa-tis-fac-to-ry, me-ri-to-ri-ous;--cha-rac-te-ris-tic, e-pi-gram-ma-tic, ex-pe-ri-ment-al, po-ly-syl-la-ble, con-sid-e-ra-tion." --Murray: ib., p. 87-89.
5. Correct the division of the following proper names: "He-len, Leo-nard, Phi-lip, Ro-bert, Ho-race, Tho-mas;--Ca-ro-line, Ca-tha-rine, Da-ni-el, De-bo-rah, Do-ro-thy, Fre-de-rick, I-sa-bel, Jo-na-than, Ly-di-a, Ni-cho-las, O-li-ver, Sa-mu-el, Si-me-on, So-lo-mon, Ti-mo-thy, Va-len-tine;--A-me-ri-ca, Bar-tho-lo-mew, E-li-za-beth, Na-tha-ni-el, Pe-ne-lo-pe, The-o-phi-lus."--Murray: ib., p. 98-101.
LESSON II.--MIXED.
1. Correct the division of the following words, by Rule 1st: "cap-rice, es-teem, dis-es-teem, ob-lige;--az-ure, mat-ron, pat-ron, phal-anx, sir-en, trait-or, trench-er, barb-er, burn-ish, garn-ish, tarn-ish, varn-ish, mark-et, musk-et, pamph-let;--brave-ry, knave-ry, siave-ry, eve-ning, scene-ry, bribe-ry, nice-ty, chi-cane-ry, ma-chine-ry, im-age-ry;-- as-y-lum, hor-i-zon,--fi-nan-cier, he-ro-ism,--sar-don-yx, scur-ril-ous,-- com-e-di-an, post-e-ri-or."--Webster's Spelling-Books.
2. Correct the division of the following words by Rule 2d: "oy-er, fol-io, gen-ial, gen-ius, jun-ior, sa-tiate, vi-tiate;--am-bro-sia, cha-mel-ion, par-hel-ion, con-ven-ient, in-gen-ious, om-nis-cience, pe-cul-iar, so-cia-ble, par-tial-i-ty, pe-cun-ia-ry;--an-nun-ciate, e-nun-ciate, ap-pre-ciate, as-so-ciate, ex-pa-tiate, in-gra-tiate, in-i-tiate, li-cen-tiate, ne-go-tiate, no-vi-ciate, of-fi-ciate, pro-pi-tiate, sub-stan-tiate."--Webster: Old Spelling-Book, 86-91; New, 121-128.
3. Correct the division of the following words by Rule 3d: "dres-ser, has-ty, pas-try, sei-zure, rol-ler, jes-ter, wea-ver, vam-per, han-dy, dros-sy, glos-sy, mo-ver, mo-ving, oo-zy, ful-ler, trus-ty, weigh-ty, noi-sy, drow-sy, swar-thy."--Cobb's Standard Spelling-Book. Again: "eas-tern, full-y, pull-et, rill-et, scan-ty, nee-dy."--Webster.
4. Correct the division of the following words by Rule 4th: "aw-ry,"--Webster's Old Book, 52; "ath-wart,"--Ib., 93; "pros-pect-ive,"--Ib., 66; "pa-renth-e-sis,"--Ib., 93; "res-ist-i-bil-ity,"-- ​Webster's New Book, 93; "hem-is-pher-ic,"--Ib., 130; "mo-nos-tich, he-mis-tick," [112]--Walker's Dict., 8vo; Cobb, 33; "tow-ards,"--Cobb, 48.
5. Correct the division of the following words by Rule 5th: "E'n-gland,"--Murray's Spelling-Book, p. 100; "a-no-ther,"--Ib., 71; "a-noth-er,"--Emerson, 76; "Be-thes-da, Beth-a-ba-ra,"--Webster, 141; Cobb, 159.
LESSON III.--MIXED.
1. Correct the division of the following words, according to their derivation: "ben-der, bles-sing, bras-sy, chaf-fy, chan-ter, clas-per, craf-ty, cur-dy, fen-der, fil-my, fus-ty, glas-sy, graf-ter, gras-sy, gus-ty, ban-ded, mas-sy, mus-ky, rus-ty, swel-ling, tel-ler, tes-ted, thrif-ty, ves-ture."--Cobb's Standard Spelling-Book.
2. Correct the division of the following words, so as to give no wrong notion of their derivation and meaning: "barb-er, burn-ish, brisk-et, cank-er, chart-er, cuck-oo, furn-ish, garn-ish, guil-ty, hank-er, lust-y, port-al, tarn-ish, test-ate, test-y, trait-or, treat-y, varn-ish, vest-al, di-urn-al, e-tern-al, in-fern-al, in-tern-al, ma-tern-al, noc-turn-al, pa-tern-al."--Webster's Elementary Spelling-Book.
3. Correct the division of the following words, so as to convey no wrong idea of their pronunciation: "ar-mo-ry, ar-te-ry, butch-er-y, cook-e-ry, eb-o-ny, em-e-ry, ev-e-ry, fel-o-ny, fop-pe-ry, flip-pe-ry, gal-le-ry, his-to-ry, liv-e-ry. lot-te-ry, mock-e-ry, mys-te-ry, nun-ne-ry, or-re-ry, pil-lo-ry, quack-e-ry, sor-ce-ry, witch-e-ry."--Ib., 41-42.
4. Correct the division of the following words, and give to n before k the sound of ng: "ank-le, bask-et, blank-et, buck-le, cack-le, crank-le, crink-le, east-er, fick-le, freck-le, knuck-le, mark-et, monk-ey, port-ress, pick-le, poult-ice, punch-eon, qua-drant, qua-drate, squa-dron, rank-le, shack-le, sprink-le, tink-le, twink-le, wrink-le."--Cobb's Standard Spelling-Book.
5. Correct the division of the following words, with a proper regard to Rules 1st and 3d: "a-scribe, bland-ish, bran-chy, clou-dy, dus-ty, drea-ry, eve-ning, faul-ty, fil-thy, fros-ty, gau-dy, gloo-my, heal-thy, hear-ken, hear-ty, hoa-ry, lea-ky, loung-er, mar-shy, migh-ty, mil-ky, naugh-ty, pas-sing, pit-cher, rea-dy, roc-ky, spee-dy, stea-dy, stor-my, thirs-ty, thor-ny, trus-ty, ves-try, wes-tern, weal-thy."--Emerson's Spelling-Book, 17-44.
CHAPTER III.--OF WORDS.
A Word is one or more syllables spoken or written as the sign of some idea, or of some manner of thought. Words are distinguished as primitive or derivative, and as simple or compound. The former division is called their species; the latter, their figure.
A primitive word is one that is not formed from any simpler word in the language; as, harm, great, connect.
A derivative word is one that is formed from some simpler word in the language; as, harmless, greatly, connected, disconnect, unconnected.
A simple word is one that is not compounded, not composed of other words; as, watch, man, house, tower, never, the, less.
A compound word is one that is composed of two or more simple words; as, watchman, watchhouse, watchtower, nevertheless.
Permanent compounds are consolidated; as, bookseller, schoolmaster: others, which may be called temporary compounds, are formed by the hyphen; as, good-natured, negro-merchant.
RULES FOR THE FIGURE OF WORDS.
RULE I.--COMPOUNDS.
Words regularly or analogically united, and commonly known as forming a compound, should never be needlessly broken apart. Thus, steamboat, railroad, red-hot, well-being, new-coined, are preferable to the phrases, steam boat, rail road, red hot, well being, new coined; and toward us is better than the old phrase, to us ward. ​
RULE II.--SIMPLES.
When the simple words would only form a regular phrase, of the same meaning, the compounding of any of them ought to be avoided. Thus, the compound instead is not to be commended, because the simple phrase, in stead of, is exactly like the other phrases, in lieu of, in place of, in room of, in which we write no compound.
RULE III.--THE SENSE.
Words otherwise liable to be misunderstood, must be joined together or written separately, as the sense and construction may happen to require. Thus, a glass house is a house made of glass, but a glasshouse is a house in which glass is made; so a negro merchant is a coloured trader, but a negro-merchant is a man who buys and sells negroes.
RULE IV.--ELLIPSES.
When two or more compounds are connected in one sentence, none of them should be split to make an ellipsis of half a word. Thus, "six or seventeen" should not be said for "sixteen or seventeen;" nor ought we to say, "calf, goat, and sheepskins" for "calfskins, goatskins, and sheepskins" In the latter instance, however, it might be right to separate all the words; as in the phrase, "soup, coffee, and tea houses."--Liberator, x, 40.
RULE V.--THE HYPHEN.
When the parts of a compound do not fully coalesce, as to-day, to-night, to-morrow; or when each retains its original accent, so that the compound has more than one, or one that is movable, as first-born, hanger-on, laughter-loving, garlic-eater, butterfly-shell, the hyphen should be inserted between them.
RULE VI.--NO HYPHEN.
When a compound has but one accented syllable in pronunciation, as watchword, statesman, gentleman, and the parts are such as admit of a complete coalescence, no hyphen should be inserted between them. Churchill, after much attention to this subject, writes thus: "The practical instruction of the countinghouse imparts a more thorough knowledge of bookkeeping, than all the fictitious transactions of a mere schoolbook, however carefully constructed to suit particular purposes."--New Gram., p. vii. But counting-house, having more stress on the last syllable than on the middle one, is usually written with the hyphen; and book-keeping and school-book, though they may not need it, are oftener so formed than otherwise.
OBSERVATIONS.
OBS. 1.--Words are the least parts of significant language; that is, of language significant in each part; for, to syllables, taken merely as syllables, no meaning belongs. But, to a word, signification of some sort or other, is essential; there can be no word without it; for a sign or symbol must needs represent or signify something. And as I cannot suppose words to represent external things, I have said "A Word is one or more syllables spoken or written as the sign of some idea." But of what ideas are the words of our language significant? Are we to say, "Of all ideas;" and to recognize as an English word every syllable, or combination of syllables, to which we know a meaning is attached? No. For this, in the first place, would confound one language with an other; and destroy a distinction which must ever be practically recognized, till all men shall again speak one language. In the next place, it would compel us to embrace among our words an infinitude of terms that are significant only of local ideas, such as men any where or at any time may have had concerning any of the individuals they have known, whether persons, places, or things. But, however important they may be in the eyes of men, the names of particular persons, places, or things, because they convey only particular ideas, do not properly belong to what we call our language. Lexicographers do not collect and define proper names, because they are beyond the limits of their art, and can be explained only from history. I do not say that proper names are to be excluded from grammar; but I would show wherein consists the superiority of general terms over these. For if our common words did not differ essentially from proper names, we could demonstrate nothing in science: we could not frame from them any general or affirmative proposition at all; because all our terms would be particular, and not general; and because every individual thing in nature must necessarily be for ever itself only, and not an other. ​
OBS. 2.--Our common words, then, are the symbols neither of external particulars, nor merely of the sensible ideas which external particulars excite in our minds, but mainly of those general or universal ideas which belong rather to the intellect than to the senses. For intellection differs from sensation, somewhat as the understanding of a man differs from the perceptive faculty of a brute; and language, being framed for the reciprocal commerce of human minds, whose perceptions include both, is made to consist of signs of ideas both general and particular, yet without placing them on equal ground. Our general ideas--that is, our ideas conceived as common to many individuals, existing in any part of time, past, present, or future--such, for example, as belong to the words man, horse, tree, cedar, wave, motion, strength, resist--such ideas, I say, constitute that most excellent significance which belongs to words primarily, essentially, and immediately; whereas, our particular ideas, such as are conceived only of individual objects, which arc infinite in number and ever fleeting, constitute a significance which belongs to language only secondarily, accidentally, and mediately. If we express the latter at all, we do it either by proper names, of which but very few ever become generally known, or by means of certain changeable limitations which are added to our general terms; whereby language, as Harris observes, "without wandering into infinitude, contrives how to denote things infinite."--Hermes, p. 345. The particular manner in which this is done, I shall show hereafter, in Etymology, when I come to treat of articles and definitives.
OBS. 3.--If we examine the structure of proper names, we shall find that most of them are compounds, the parts of which have, in very many instances, some general signification. Now a complete phrase commonly conveys some particular notion or conception of the mind; but, in this case, the signification of the general terms is restricted by the other words which are added to them. Thus smith is a more general term than goldsmith; and goldsmith is more general than a goldsmith; a goldsmith, than the goldsmith; the goldsmith, than one Goldsmith; one Goldsmith, than Mr. Goldsmith; Mr. Goldsmith, than Oliver Goldsmith. Thus we see that the simplest mode of designating particular persons or objects, is that of giving them proper names; but proper names must needs be so written, that they may be known as proper names, and not be mistaken for common terms. I have before observed, that we have some names which are both proper and common; and that these should be written with capitals, and should form the plural regularly. It is surprising that the Friends, who are in some respects particularly scrupulous about language, should so generally have overlooked the necessity there is, of compounding their numerical names of the months and days, and writing them uniformly with capitals, as proper names. For proper names they certainly are, in every thing but the form, whenever they are used without the article, and without those other terms which render their general idea particular. And the compound form with a capital, is as necessary for Firstday, Secondday, Thirdday, &c., as for Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, &c. "The first day of the week,"--"The seventh day of the month,"--"The second month of summer,"--"The second month in the year," &c., are good English phrases, in which any compounding of the terms, or any additional use of capitals, would be improper; but, for common use, these phrases are found too long and too artificial. We must have a less cumbersome mode of specifying the months of the year and the days of the week. What then? Shall we merely throw away the terms of particularity, and, without substituting in their place the form of proper names, apply general terms to particular thoughts, and insist on it that this is right? And is not this precisely what is done by those who reject as heathenish the ordinary names of the months and days, and write "first day," for Sunday, in stead of "the first day of the week;" or "second month," for February, in stead of "the second month in the year;" and so forth? This phraseology may perhaps be well understood by those to whom it is familiar, but still it is an abuse of language, because it is inconsistent with the common acceptation of the terms. Example: "The departure of a ship will take place every sixth day with punctuality."--Philadelphia Weekly Messenger. The writer of this did not mean, "every Friday;" and it is absurd for the Friends so to understand it, or so to write, when that is what they mean.
OBS. 4.--In the ordinary business of life, it is generally desirable to express our meaning as briefly as possible; but legal phraseology is always full to the letter, and often redundant. Hence a merchant will write, "Nov. 24, 1837," or, "11 mo. 24th, 1837;" but a conveyancer will have it, "On the twenty-fourth day of November, one thousand eight hundred and thirty-seven;"--or, perhaps, "On the twenty-fourth day of the eleventh month, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and thirty-seven." Accordingly we find that, in common daily use, all the names of the months, except March, May, June, and July, are abbreviated; thus, Jan., Feb., Apr., Aug., Sept., Oct., Nov., Dec. And sometimes even the Arabic number of the year is made yet shorter; as '37 for 1837; or 1835-6-7, for 1835, 1836, and 1837. In like manner, in constructing tables of time, we sometimes denote the days of the week by the simple initials of their names; as, S. for Sunday, M. for Monday, &c. But, for facility of abbreviation, the numerical names, whether of the months or of the days, are perhaps still more convenient. For, if we please, we may put the simple Arabic figures for them; though it is better to add d. for day, and mo. for month: as, 1 d., 2 d., 3 d., &c.;--1 mo., 2 mo., 3 mo., &c.:--or more compactly thus: 1d., 2d., 3d., &c.;--1mo., 2mo., 3mo., &c. But, take which mode of naming we will, our ordinary expression of these things should be in neither extreme, but should avoid alike too great brevity and too great prolixity; and, therefore, it is best to make it a general rule in our literary compositions, to use the full form of proper names for the months and days, and to denote the years by Arabic figures written in full.
OBS. 5.--In considering the nature of words, I was once a little puzzled with a curious specula​speculation, if I may not term it an important inquiry, concerning the principle of their identity. We often speak of "the same words," and of "different words;" but wherein does the sameness or the difference of words consist? Not in their pronunciation; for the same word may be differently pronounced; as, p=at'ron or p=a'tron, m=at'ron or m=a'tron. Not in their orthography; for the same word may be differently spelled; as, favour or favor, music or musick, connexion or connection. Not in their form of presentation; for the same word may be either spoken or written; and speech and writing present what we call the same words, in two ways totally different. Not in their meaning; for the same word may have different meanings, and different words may signify precisely the same thing. This sameness of words, then, must consist in something which is to be reconciled with great diversity. Yet every word is itself, and not an other: and every word must necessarily have some property peculiar to itself, by which it may be easily distinguished from every other. Were it not so, language would be unintelligible. But it is so; and, therefore, to mistake one word for an other, is universally thought to betray great ignorance or great negligence, though such mistakes are by no means of uncommon occurrence. But that the question about the identity of words is not a very easy one, may appear from the fact, that the learned often disagree about it in practice; as when one grammarian will have an and a to be two words, and an other will affirm them to be only different forms of one and the same word.
OBS. 6.--Let us see, then, if amidst all this diversity we can find that principle of sameness, by which a dispute of this kind ought to be settled. Now, although different words do generally differ in orthography, in pronunciation, and in meaning, so that an entire sameness implies one orthography, one pronunciation, and one meaning; yet some diversity is allowed in each of these respects, so that a sign differing from an other only in one, is not therefore a different word, or a sign agreeing with an other only in one, is not therefore the same word. It follows thence, that the principle of verbal identity, the principle which distinguishes every word from every other, lies in neither extreme: it lies in a narrower compass than in all three, and yet not singly in any one, but jointly in any two. So that signs differing in any two of these characteristics of a word, are different words; and signs agreeing in any two, are the same word. Consequently, if to any difference either of spelling or of sound we add a difference of signification everybody will immediately say, that we speak or write different words, and not the same: thus dear, beloved, and deer, an animal, are two such words as no one would think to be the same; and, in like manner, use, advantage, and use, to employ, will readily be called different words. Upon this principle, an and a are different words; yet, in conformity to old usage, and because the latter is in fact but an abridgement of the former, I have always treated them as one and the same article, though I have nowhere expressly called them the same word. But, to establish the principle above named, which appears to me the only one on which any such question can be resolved, or the identity of words be fixed at all, we must assume that every word has one right pronunciation, and only one; one just orthography, and only one; and some proper signification, which, though perhaps not always the same, is always a part of its essence. For when two words of different meaning are spelled or pronounced alike, not to maintain the second point of difference, against the double orthography or the double pronunciation of either, is to confound their identity at once, and to prove by the rule that two different words are one and the same, by first absurdly making them so.
OBS. 7.--In no part of grammar is usage more unsettled and variable than in that which relates to the figure of words. It is a point of which modern writers have taken but very little notice. Lily, and other ancient Latin grammarians, reckoned both species and figure among the grammatical accidents of nearly all the different parts of speech; and accordingly noticed them, in their Etymology, as things worthy to be thus made distinct topics, like numbers, genders, cases, moods, tenses, &c. But the manner of compounding words in Latin, and also in Greek, is always by consolidation. No use appears to have been made of the hyphen, in joining the words of those languages, though the name of the mark is a Greek compound, meaning "under one." The compounding of words is one principal means of increasing their number; and the arbitrariness with which that is done or neglected in English, is sufficient of itself to make the number of our words a matter of great uncertainty. Such terms, however, having the advantage of explaining themselves in a much greater degree than others, have little need of definition; and when new things are formed, it is very natural and proper to give them new names of this sort: as, steamboat, railroad. The propriety or impropriety of these additions to the language, is not to be determined by dictionaries; for that must be settled by usage before any lexicographer will insert them. And so numerous, after all, are the discrepancies found in our best dictionaries, that many a word may have its day and grow obsolete, before a nation can learn from them the right way of spelling it; and many a fashionable thing may go entirely out of use, before a man can thus determine how to name it. Railroads are of so recent invention that I find the word in only one dictionary; and that one is wrong, in giving the word a hyphen, while half our printers are wrong, in keeping the words separate because Johnson did not compound them. But is it not more important, to know whether we ought to write railroad, or rail-road, or rail road, which we cannot learn from any of our dictionaries, than to find out whether we ought to write rocklo, or roquelo, or roquelaur, or roquelaure, which, in some form or other, is found in them all? The duke of Roquelaure is now forgotten, and his cloak is out of fashion.
OBS. 8.--No regular phrase, as I have taught in the second rule above, should be needlessly converted into a compound word, either by tacking its parts together with the hyphen, or by uniting them without a hyphen; for, in general, a phrase is one thing, and a word is an other: ​and they ought to be kept as distinct as possible.[113] But, when a whole phrase takes the relation of an adjective, the words must be compounded, and the hyphen becomes necessary; as, "An inexpressibly apt bottle-of-small-beer comparison."--Peter Pindar. The occasions for the compounding of words, are in general sufficiently plain, to any one who knows what is intended to be said; but, as we compound words, sometimes with the hyphen, and sometimes without, there is no small difficulty in ascertaining when to use this mark, and when to omit it. "Some settled rule for the use of the hyphen on these occasions, is much wanted. Modern printers have a strange predilection for it; using it on almost every possible occasion. Mr. L. Murray, who has only three lines on the subject, seems inclined to countenance this practice; which is, no doubt, convenient enough for those who do not like trouble. His words are: 'A Hyphen, marked thus - is employed in connecting compounded words: as, Lap-dog, tea-pot, pre-existence, self-love, to-morrow, mother-in-law.' Of his six examples, Johnson, our only acknowledged standard, gives the first and third without any separation between the syllables, lapdog, preexistence; his second and fifth as two distinct words each, tea pot, to morrow; and his sixth as three words, mother in law: so that only his fourth has the sanction of the lexicographer. There certainly can be no more reason for putting a hyphen after the common prefixes, than before the common affixes, ness, ly, and the rest."--Churchill's Gram., p. 374.
OBS. 9.--Again: "While it would be absurd, to sacrifice the established practice of all good authors to the ignorance of such readers [as could possibly mistake for a diphthong the two contiguous vowels in such words as preexistence, cooperate, and reenter]; it would unquestionably be advantageous, to have some principle to guide us in that labyrinth of words, in which the hyphen appears to have been admitted or rejected arbitrarily, or at hap-hazard. Thus, though we find in Johnson, alms-basket, alms-giver, with the hyphen; we have almsdeed, almshouse, almsman, without: and many similar examples of an unsettled practice might be adduced, sufficient to fill several pages. In this perplexity, is not the pronunciation of the words the best guide? In the English language, every word of more than one syllable is marked by an accent on some particular syllable. Some very long words indeed admit a secondary accent on another syllable; but still this is much inferior, and leaves one leading accent prominent: as in expos'tulatory. Accordingly, when a compound has but one accented syllable in pronunciation, as night'cap, bed'stead, broad'sword, the two words have coalesced completely into one, and no hyphen should be admitted. On the other hand, when each of the radical words has an accent, as Chris'tian-name', broad'-shoul'dered, I think the hyphen should be used. Good'-na'tured is a compound epithet with two accents, and therefore requires the hyphen: in good nature, good will, and similar expressions, good is used simply as an adjective, and of course should remain distinct from the noun. Thus, too, when a noun is used adjectively, it should remain separate from the noun it modifies; as, a gold ring, a silver buckle. When two numerals are employed to express a number, without a conjunction between them, it is usual to connect them by a hyphen; as, twenty-five, eighty-four: but when the conjunction is inserted, the hyphen is as improper as it would be between other words connected by the conjunction. This, however, is a common abuse; and we often meet with five-&-twenty, six-&-thirty, and the like."--Ib., p. 376. Thus far Churchill: who appears to me, however, too hasty about the hyphen in compound numerals. For we write one hundred, two hundred, three thousand, &c., without either hyphen or conjunction; and as five-and-twenty is equivalent to twenty-five, and virtually but one word, the hyphen, if not absolutely necessary to the sense, is certainly not so very improper as he alleges. "Christian name" is as often written without the hyphen as with it, and perhaps as accurately.
IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.
ERRORS IN THE FIGURE, OR FORM, OF WORDS.
UNDER RULE I.--OF COMPOUNDS.
"Professing to imitate Timon, the man hater."--Goldsmith's Rome, p. 161.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the compound term manhater is here made two words. But, according to Rule 1st, "Words regularly or analogically united, and commonly known as forming a compound, should never be needlessly broken apart." Therefore, manhater should be written as one word.]
"Men load hay with a pitch fork."--Webster's New Spelling-Book, p. 40. "A pear tree grows from the seed of a pear."--Ib., p. 33. "A tooth brush is good to brush your teeth."--Ib., p. 85. "The mail is opened at the post office."--Ib., p. 151. "The error seems to me two fold."--Sanborn's Gram., p. 230. "To pre-engage means to engage before hand."--Webster's New Spelling-Book, p. 82. "It is a mean act to deface the figures on a mile stone."--Ib., p. 88. "A grange is a farm and farm house."--Ib., p. 118. "It is no more right to steal apples or water melons, than money."--Ib., p. 118. "The awl is a tool used by shoemakers, and harness makers."--Ib., p. 150. "Twenty five cents are equal to one quarter of a dollar."--Ib., p. 107. "The blowing up of the Fulton at New York was a terrible disaster."--Ib., p. 54. "The elders also, and the bringers up of the children, sent to Jehu."--SCOTT: 2 Kings, x, 5. "Not with eye serv ​ice, as men pleasers."--Bickersteth, on Prayer, p. 64. "A good natured and equitable construction of cases."--Ash's Gram., p. 138. "And purify your hearts, ye double minded."--Gurney's Portable Evidences, p. 115. "It is a mean spirited action to steal; i. e. to steal is a mean spirited action."--Grammar of Alex. Murray, the schoolmaster, p. 124. "There is, indeed, one form of orthography which is a kin to the subjunctive mood of the Latin tongue."--Booth's Introd. to Dict., p. 71. "To bring him into nearer connexion with real and everyday life."--Philological Museum, Vol. i, p. 459. "The common place, stale declamation of its revilers would be silenced."--Ib., i, 494. "She formed a very singular and unheard of project."--Goldsmith's Rome, p. 160. "He had many vigilant, though feeble talented, and mean spirited enemies."--ROBERTS VAUX: The Friend, Vol. vii, p. 74. "These old fashioned people would level our psalmody," &c.--Music of Nature, p. 292. "This slow shifting scenery in the theatre of harmony."--Ib., p. 398. "So we are assured from Scripture it self."--Harris's Hermes, p. 300. "The mind, being disheartened, then betakes its self to trifling."--R. Johnson's Pref. to Gram. Com. "Whose soever sins ye remit, they are remitted unto them."--Beacon, p. 115: SCOTT, ALGER, FRIENDS: John, xx, 23. "Tarry we our selves how we will."--Walker's English Particles, p. 161. "Manage your credit so, that you need neither swear your self, nor want a voucher."--Collier's Antoninus, p. 33. "Whereas song never conveys any of the above named sentiments."--Rush, on the Voice, p. 424. "I go on horse back."--Guy's Gram., p. 54. "This requires purity, in opposition to barbarous, obsolete, or new coined words."--Adam's Gram., p. 242; Gould's, 234. "May the Plough share shine."--White's Eng. Verb, p. 161. "Which way ever we consider it."--Locke, on Ed., p. 83.
UNDER RULE II.--OF SIMPLES.
"It qualifies any of the four parts of speech abovenamed."--Kirkham's Gram., p. 83.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because abovenamed is here unnecessarily made a compound. But, according to Rule 2d, "When the simple words would only form a regular phrase, of the same meaning, the compounding of any of them ought to be avoided." Therefore, above and named should here have been written as two words.]
"After awhile they put us out among the rude multitude."--Fox's Journal. Vol. i, p. 169. "It would be ashame, if your mind should falter and give in."--Collier's Meditations of Antoninus, p. 94. "They stared awhile in silence one upon another."--Rasselas, p. 73. "After passion has for awhile exercised its tyrannical sway."--Murray's Gram., ii, 135 and 267. "Though set within the same general-frame of intonation."--Rush, on the Voice, p. 339. "Which do not carry any of the natural vocal-signs of expression."--Ib., p. 329. "The measurable constructive-powers of a few associable constituents."--Ib., p. 343. "Before each accented syllable or emphatic monosyllabic-word."--Ib., p. 364. "One should not think too favourably of oneself."--See Murray's Gram., Vol. i, p. 154. "Know ye not your ownselves, how that Jesus Christ is in you."--Barclay's Works, Vol. i, p. 355. "I judge not my ownself, for I know nothing of my ownself."-- Wayland's Moral Science, p. 84. "Though they were in such a rage, I desired them to tarry awhile."--Josephus, Vol. v, p. 179. "A instead of an is now used before words beginning with a long."--Murray's Gram., p. 31. "John will have earned his wages the next new-year's day."--Murray's Gram., p. 82. "A new-year's-gift is a present made on the first day of the year."--See Johnson, Walker, Webster, et al. "When he sat on the throne, distributing new-year's-gifts."--STILLINGFLEET, in Johnson's Dict. "St. Paul admonishes Timothy to refuse old-wives'- fables."--Author. "The world, take it altogether, is but one."-- Collier's Antoninus, B. vii, Sec. 9. "In writings of this stamp we must accept of sound instead of sense."--Murray's Gram., p. 298. "A male-child, A female-child, Male-descendants, Female-descendants."-- Goldsbury's C. S. Gram., p. 13; Rev. T. Smith's Gram., p. 15. "Male-servants, Female-servants. Male-relations, Female-relations."-- Felton's Gram., p. 15.
UNDER RULE III.--THE SENSE.
"Our discriminations of this matter have been but four footed instincts."--Rush, on the Voice, p. 291.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the term four footed is made two words, as if the instincts were four and footed. But, according to Rule 3d, "Words otherwise liable to be misunderstood, must be joined together, or written separately, as the sense and construction may happen to require." Therefore, four-footed, as it here means quadruped, or having four feet, should be one word.]
"He is in the right, (says Clytus,) not to bear free born men at his table."--Goldsmith's Greece, Vol. ii, p. 128. "To the short seeing eye of man, the progress may appear little."--The Friend, Vol. ix, p. 377. "Knowledge and virtue are, emphatically, the stepping stone to individual distinction."--Town's Analysis, p. 5. "A tin peddler will sell tin vessels as he travels."--Webster's New Spelling-Book, p. 44. "The beams of a wood-house are held up by the posts and joists."--Ib., p. 39. "What you mean by future tense adjective, I can easily understand."--Tooke's Diversions, Vol. ii, p. 450. "The town has been for several days very well behaved."--Spectator, No. 532. "A rounce is the handle of a printing press."--Webster's' Dict.; also El. Spelling-Book, p. ​118. "The phraseology we call thee and thouing is not in so common use with us, as the tutoyant among the French."--Walker's Dict., w. Thy. "Hunting, and other out door sports, are generally pursued."--Balbi's Geog., p. 227. "Come unto me, all ye that labour and are heavy laden."--SCOTT, ALGER, FRIENDS: Matt., xi, 28. "God so loved the world, that he gave his only begotten Son to save it."--Barclay's Works, i, p. 71. See SCOTT'S BIBLE: John, iii, 16. "Jehovah is a prayer hearing God: Nineveh repented, and was spared."--N. Y. Observer, Vol. x, p. 90. "These are well pleasing to God, in all ranks and relations."--Barclay's Works, Vol. i, p. 73. "Whosoever cometh any thing near unto the tabernacle."--Numb., xvii, 13. "The words coalesce, when they have a long established association."-- Murray's Gram., p. 169. "Open to me the gates of righteousness: I will go in to them."--OLD BIBLE: Ps., cxviii, 19. "He saw an angel of God coming into him."--See Acts, x, 3. "The consequences of any action are to be considered in a two fold light."--Wayland's Moral Science, p. 108. "We commonly write two fold, three fold, four fold, and so on up to ten fold, without a hyphen; and, after that, we use one."--Author. See Matt., xiii, 8. "When the first mark is going off, he cries turn! the glass holder answers done!"--Bowditch's Nav., p. 128. "It is a kind of familiar shaking hands with all the vices."--Maturin's Sermons, p. 170. "She is a good natured woman;" "James is self opinionated;" "He is broken hearted."--Wright's Gram., p. 147. "These three examples apply to the present tense construction only."--Ib., p. 65. "So that it was like a game of hide and go seek."--Edward's First Lessons in Grammar, p. 90.
UNDER RULE IV.--OF ELLIPSES.
"This building serves yet for a school and a meeting-house."
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the compound word schoolhouse is here divided to avoid a repetition of the last half. But, according to Rule 4th, "When two or more compounds are connected in one sentence, none of them should be split to make an ellipsis of half a word." Therefore, "school" should be "schoolhouse;" thus, "This building serves yet for a schoolhouse and a meeting-house."]
"Schoolmasters and mistresses of honest friends [are] to be encouraged."--N. E. Discipline, p. xv. "We never assumed to ourselves a faith or worship-making-power."--Barclay's Works, Vol. i, p. 83. "Pot and pearl ashes are made from common ashes."--Webster's New Spelling-Book, p. 69. "Both the ten and eight syllable verses are iambics."--Blair's Gram., p. 121. "I say to myself, thou, he says to thy, to his self; &c."--Dr. Murray's Hist. of Europ. Lang., Vol. ii p. 121. "Or those who have esteemed themselves skilful, have tried for the mastery in two or four horse chariots."--Zenobia, Vol. i, p. 152. "I remember him barefooted and headed, running through the streets."--Castle Rackrent, p. 68. "Friends have the entire control of the school and dwelling-houses."--The Friend, Vol. vii, p. 231. "The meeting is held at the first mentioned place in the first month, at the last in the second, and so on."--Ib., p. 167. "Meetings for worship are held at the same hour on first and fourth days."--Ib., p. 230. "Every part of it, inside and out, is covered with gold leaf."--Ib., p. 404. "The Eastern Quarterly Meeting is held on the last seventh day in second, fifth, eighth, and eleventh month."--Ib., p. 87. "Trenton Preparative Meeting is held on the third fifth day in each month, at ten o'clock; meetings for worship at the same hour on first and fifth days."--Ib., p. 231. "Ketch, a vessel with two masts, a main and mizzen-mast."--Webster's Dict., "I only mean to suggest a doubt, whether nature has enlisted herself as a Cis or Trans-Atlantic partisan?"-- Jefferson's Notes, p. 97. "By large hammers, like those used for paper and fullingmills, they beat their hemp."--MORTIMER: in Johnson's Dict. "Ant-hill, or Hillock, n. s. The small protuberances of earth, in which ants make their nests."--Ib. "It became necessary to substitute simple indicative terms called pro-names or nouns."--Enclytica, p. 16.
UNDER RULE V.--THE HYPHEN.
"Evilthinking; a noun, compounded of the noun evil and the imperfect participle thinking; singular number;" &c.--Churchill's Gram., p. 180.
[FORMULE--Not proper, because the word evilthinking, which has more than one accented syllable, is here compounded without the hyphen. But, according to Rule 5th, "When the parts of a compound do not fully coalesce, or when each retains its original accent, so that the compound has more than one, or one that is movable, the hyphen should be inserted between them." Therefore, the hyphen should be used in this word; thus, evil-thinking.]
"Evilspeaking; a noun, compounded of the noun evil and the imperfect participle speaking."--Ib. "I am a tall, broadshouldered, impudent, black fellow."--SPECTATOR: in Johnson's Dict. "Ingratitude! thou marblehearted fiend."--SHAK.: ib. "A popular licence is indeed the manyheaded tyranny."--SIDNEY: ib. "He from the manypeopled city flies."--SANDYS: ib. "He manylanguaged nations has surveyed."--POPE: ib. "The horsecucumber is the large green cucumber, and the best for the table."--MORTIMER: ib. "The bird of night did sit, even at noonday, upon the market-place."--SHAK.: ib. "These make a general gaoldelivery of souls, not for punishment."--SOUTH: ib. "Thy air, thou other goldbound brow, is like the first."--SHAK.: ib. " ​His person was deformed to the highest degree; flatnosed, and blobberlipped."--L'ESTRANGE: ib. "He that defraudeth the labourer of his hire, is a bloodshedder."--ECCLUS., xxxiv, 22: ib. "Bloodyminded, adj. from bloody and mind. Cruel; inclined to blood-shed."--See Johnson's Dict. "Bluntwitted lord, ignoble in demeanour."--SHAK.: ib. "A young fellow with a bobwig and a black silken bag tied to it."--SPECTATOR: ib. "I have seen enough to confute all the boldfaced atheists of this age."--BRAMHALL: ib. "Before milkwhite, now purple with love's wound."--SHAK: ib. "For what else is a redhot iron than fire? and what else is a burning coal than redhot wood?"--NEWTON: ib. "Pollevil is a large swelling, inflammation, or imposthume in the horse's poll, or nape of the neck just between the ears."--FARRIER: ib.
UNDER RULE VI.--NO HYPHEN.
"From his fond parent's eye a tear-drop fell."--Snelling's Gift for Scribblers, p. 43.
[FORMULE--Not proper, because the word tear-drop, which has never any other than a full accent on the first syllable, is here compounded with the hyphen. But, according to Rule 6th, "When a compound has but one accented syllable in pronunciation, and the parts are such as admit of a complete coalescence, no hyphen should be inserted between them." Therefore, teardrop should be made a close compound.]
"How great, poor jack-daw, would thy sufferings be!"--Ib., p. 29. "Placed like a scare-crow in a field of corn."--Ib., p. 39. "Soup for the alms-house at a cent a quart."--Ib., p. 23. "Up into the watch-tower get, and see all things despoiled of fallacies."--DONNE: Johnson's Dict., w. Lattice. "In the day-time she sitteth in a watchtower, and flieth most by night."--BACON: ib., w. Watchtower. "In the daytime Fame sitteth in a watch-tower, and flieth most by night."--ID.: ib., w. Daytime. "The moral is the first business of the poet, as being the ground-work of his instruction."--DRYDEN: ib., w. Moral. "Madam's own hand the mouse-trap baited."--PRIOR: ib., w. Mouse-trap. "By the sinking of the air-shaft the air hath liberty to circulate."--RAY: ib., w. Airshaft. "The multiform and amazing operations of the air-pump and the loadstone."--WATTS: ib., w. Multiform. "Many of the fire-arms are named from animals."--Ib., w. Musket. "You might have trussed him and all his apparel into an eel-skin."--SHAK.: ib., w. Truss. "They may serve as land-marks to shew what lies in the direct way of truth."--LOCKE: ib., w. Landmark. "A pack-horse is driven constantly in a narrow lane and dirty road."--Id. ib., w. Lane. "A mill-horse, still bound to go in one circle."--SIDNEY: ib., w. Mill-horse. "Of singing birds they have linnets, goldfinches, ruddocks, Canary-birds, black-birds, thrushes, and divers others."--CAREW: ib., w. Goldfinch. "Of singing birds, they have linnets, gold-finches, blackbirds, thrushes, and divers others."--ID.: ib., w. Blackbird. "Of singing birds, they have linnets, gold-finches, ruddocks, canary birds, blackbirds, thrushes, and divers other."--ID.: ib., w. Canary bird. "Cartrage, or Cartridge, a case of paper or parchment filled with gun-powder."--Johnson's Dict., 4to.
PROMISCUOUS ERRORS IN THE FIGURE OF WORDS.
LESSON I.--MIXED.
"They that live in glass-houses, should not throw stones."--Old Adage. "If a man profess Christianity in any manner or form soever."--Watts, p. 5. "For Cassius is a weary of the world."--SHAKSPEARE: in Kirkham's Elocution, p. 67. "By the coming together of more, the chains were fastened on."--Walker's Particles, p. 223. "Unto the carrying away of Jerusalem captive in the fifth month."--Jer., i, 3. "And the goings forth of the border shall be to Zedad."--Numbers, xxxiv, 8. "And the goings out of it shall be at Hazar-enan."--Ib., ver. 9. "For the taking place of effects, in a certain particular series."--Dr. West, on Agency, p. 39. "The letting go of which was the occasion of all that corruption."--Dr. J. Owen. "A falling off at the end always hurts greatly."--Blair's Lect., p. 126. "A falling off at the end is always injurious."--Jamieson's Rhetoric, p. 127. "As all holdings forth were courteously supposed to be trains of reasoning."--Dr. Murray's Hist. of Europ. Lang., Vol. i, p. 333. "Whose goings forth have been from of old, from everlasting."-- Micah, v, 2. "Some times the adjective becomes a substantive."-- Bradley's Gram., p. 104. "It is very plain, I consider man as visited a new."--Barclay's Works, Vol. iii, p. 331. "Nor do I any where say, as he falsely insinuates."--Ib., p. 331. "Every where, any where, some where, no where."--Alex. Murray's Gram., p. 55. "The world hurries off a pace, and time is like a rapid river."--Collier's Antoninus, p. 58. "But to now model the paradoxes of ancient skepticism."--Brown's Estimate, Vol. i, p. 102. "The south east winds from the ocean invariably produce rain."--Webster's Essays, p. 369. "North west winds from the high lands produce cold clear weather."--Ib. "The greatest part of such tables would be of little use to English men."--Priestley's Gram., p. 155. "The ground floor of the east wing of Mulberry street ​meeting house was filled."--The Friend, vii, 232. "Prince Rupert's Drop. This singular production is made at the glass houses."--Red Book, p. 131.
LESSON II.--MIXED.
"In the twenty and seventh year of Asa king of Judah did Zimri reign seven days in Tirzah."--1 Kings, xvi, 15. "In the thirty and first year of Asa king of Judah, began Omri to reign over Israel."--Ib., xvi, 23. "He cannot so deceive himself as to fancy that he is able to do a rule of three sum."--Foreign Quarterly Review. "The best cod are those known under the name of Isle of Shoals dun fish."--Balbi's Geog., p. 26. "The soldiers, with down cast eyes, seemed to beg for mercy."--Goldsmith's Greece, Vol. ii, p. 142. "His head was covered with a coarse worn out piece of cloth."--Ib., p. 124. "Though they had lately received a reinforcement of a thousand heavy armed Spartans."--Ib., p. 38. "But he laid them by unopened; and, with a smile, said, 'Business to morrow.'"--Ib., p. 7. "Chester monthly meeting is held at Moore's town, the third day following the second second day."--The Friend, Vol. vii, p. 124. "Eggharbour monthly meeting is held the first second day."--Ib., p. 124. "Little Egg Harbour Monthly Meeting is held at Tuckerton on the second fifth day in each month."--Ib., p. 231. "At three o'clock, on first day morning the 24th of eleventh month, 1834," &c.--Ib., p. 64. "In less than one-fourth part of the time usually devoted."--Kirkham's Gram., p. 4. "The pupil will not have occasion to use it one-tenth part as much."--Ib., p. 11. "The painter dips his paint brush in paint, to paint the carriage."--Ib., p. 28. "In an ancient English version of the New-Testament."--Ib., p. 74. "The little boy was bare headed."--Red Book, p. 36. "The man, being a little short sighted, did not immediately know him."--Ib., p. 40. "Picture frames are gilt with gold."--Ib., p. 44. "The park keeper killed one of the deer."--Ib., p. 44. "The fox was killed near the brick kiln."--Ib., p. 46. "Here comes Esther, with her milk pail."--Ib., p. 50. "The cabinet maker would not tell us."--Ib., p. 60. "A fine thorn hedge extended along the edge of the hill."--Ib., p. 65. "If their private interests should be ever so little affected."--Ib., p. 73. "Unios are fresh water shells, vulgarly called fresh water clams."--Ib., p. 102.
LESSON III.--MIXED.
"The captive hovers a-while upon the sad remains."--PRIOR: in Johnson's Dict., w. Hover. "Constantia saw that the hand writing agreed with the contents of the letter."--ADDISON: ib., w. Hand. "They have put me in a silk night-gown, and a gaudy fool's cap."--ID.: ib., w. Nightgown. "Have you no more manners than to rail at Hocus, that has saved that clod-pated, numskull'd ninnyhammer of yours from ruin, and all his family?"--ARBUTHNOT: ib., w. Ninnyhammer. "A noble, that is, six, shillings and eightpence, is, and usually hath been paid."--BACON: ib., w. Noble. "The king of birds thick feather'd and with full-summed wings, fastened his talons east and west."--HOWELL: ib., w. Full-summed. "To morrow. This is an idiom of the same kind, supposing morrow to mean originally morning: as, to night, to day."--Johnson's Dict., 4to. "To-day goes away and to-morrow comes."--Id., ib., w. Go, No. 70. "Young children, who are try'd in Go carts, to keep their steps from sliding."--PRIOR: ib., w. Go-cart. "Which, followed well, would demonstrate them but goers backward."--SHAK.: ib., w. Goer. "Heaven's golden winged herald late he saw, to a poor Galilean virgin sent."--CRASHAW: ib., w. Golden. "My penthouse eye-brows and my shaggy beard offend your sight."--DRYDEN: ib., w. Penthouse. "The hungry lion would fain have been dealing with good horse-flesh."-- L'ESTRANGE: ib., w. Nag. "A broad brimmed hat ensconced each careful head."--Snelling's Gift, p. 63. "With harsh vibrations of his three stringed lute."--Ib., p. 42. "They magnify a hundred fold an author's merit."--Ib., p. 14. "I'll nail them fast to some oft opened door."--Ib., p. 10. "Glossed over only with a saint-like show, still thou art bound to vice."--DRYDEN: in Johnson's Dict., w. Gloss. "Take of aqua-fortis two ounces, of quick-silver two drachms."--BACON: ib., w. Charge. "This rainbow never appears but when it rains in the sun-shine."--NEWTON: ib., w. Rainbow.
CHAPTER IV.--OF SPELLING.
Spelling is the art of expressing words by their proper letters. This important art is to be acquired rather by means of the spelling-book or dictionary, and by observation in reading, than by the study of written rules; because what is proper or improper, depends chiefly upon usage. ​
The orthography of our language is attended with much uncertainty and perplexity: many words are variously spelled by the best scholars, and many others are not usually written according to the analogy of similar words. But to be ignorant of the orthography of such words as are spelled with uniformity, and frequently used, is justly considered disgraceful.
The following rules may prevent some embarrassment, and thus be of service to those who wish to be accurate.
RULES FOR SPELLING.
RULE I.--FINAL F, L, OR S.
Monosyllables ending in f, l, or s, preceded by a single vowel, double the final consonant; as staff, mill, pass--muff, knell, gloss--off, hiss, puss.
EXCEPTIONS.--The words clef, if, and of, are written with single f; and as, gas, has, was, yes, his, is, this, us, pus, and thus, with single s. So bul, for the flounder; nul, for no, in law; sol, for sou or sun; and sal, for salt, in chemistry, have but the single l.
OBS.--Because sal, salis, in Latin, doubles not the l, the chemists write salify, salifiable, salification, saliferous, saline, salinous, saliniform, salifying, &c., with single l, contrary to Rule 3d. But in gas they ought to double the s; for this is a word of their own inventing. Neither have they any plea for allowing it to form gases and gaseous with the s still single; for so they make it violate two general rules at once. If the singular cannot now be written gass, the plural should nevertheless be gasses, and the adjective should be gasseous, according to Rule 3d.
RULE II.--OTHER FINALS.
Words ending in any other consonant than f, l, or s, do not double the final letter; as, mob, nod, dog, sum, sun, cup, cur, cut, fix, whiz.
EXCEPTIONS.--We double the consonant in abb, ebb, add, odd, egg, jagg, ragg, inn, err, burr, purr, butt, buzz, fuzz, yarr, and some proper names. But we have also ab (from) and ad (to) for prefixes; and jag, rag, in, bur, and but, are other words that conform to the rule.
RULE III.--DOUBLING.
Monosyllables, and words accented on the last syllable, when they end with a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, or by a vowel after qu, double their final consonant before an additional syllable that begins with a vowel: as, rob, robbed, robber; fop, foppish, foppery; squat, squatter, squatting; thin, thinner, thinnest; swim, swimmer, swimming; commit, committeth, committing, committed, committer, committees; acquit, acquittal, acquittance, acquitted, acquitting, acquitteth.
EXCEPTIONS.--1. X final, being equivalent to ks, is never doubled: thus, from mix, we have mixed, mixing, and mixer. 2. When the derivative retains not the accent of the root, the final consonant is not always doubled: as, prefer', pref'erence, pref'erable; refer', ref'erence, ref'erable, or refer'rible; infer', in'ference, in'ferable, or infer'rible; transfer', a trans'fer, trans'ferable, or transfer'rible. 3. But letters doubled in Latin, are usually doubled in English, without regard to accent, or to any other principle: as, Britain, Britan'nic, Britannia; appeal, appel'lant; argil, argil'laus, argilla'ceous; cavil, cav'illous, cavilla'tion; excel', ex'cellent, ex'cellence; inflame', inflam'mable, inflamma'tion. See Observations 13 and 14, p. 199.
RULE IV.--NO DOUBLING.
A final consonant, when it is not preceded by a single vowel, or when the accent is not on the last syllable, should remain single before an additional syllable: as, toil, toiling; oil, oily; visit, visited; differ, differing; peril, perilous; viol, violist; real, realize, realist; dial, dialing, dialist; equal, equalize, equality; vitriol, vitriolic, vitriolate.
EXCEPTIONS.--1. The final l of words ending in el, must be doubled before an other vowel, lest the power of the e be mistaken, and a syllable be lost: as, travel, traveller; duel, duellist; revel, revelling; gravel, gravelly; marvel, marvellous. Yet the word parallel, having three Ells already, conforms to the rule in forming its derivatives; as, paralleling, paralleled, and unparalleled. 2. Contrary to the preceding rule, the preterits, participles, and derivative nouns, of ​the few verbs ending in al, il, or ol, unaccented,--namely, equal, rival, vial, marshal, victual, cavil, pencil, carol, gambol, and pistol,--are usually allowed to double the l, though some dissent from the practice: as, equalled, equalling; rivalled, rivalling; cavilled, cavilling, caviller; carolled, carolling, caroller. 3. When ly follows l, we have two Ells of course, but in fact no doubling: as, real, really; oral, orally; cruel, cruelly; civil, civilly; cool, coolly; wool, woolly. 4. Compounds, though they often remove the principal accent from the point of duplication, always retain the double letter: as, wit'snapper, kid'napper,[114] grass'hopper, duck'-legged, spur'galled, hot'spurred, broad'-brimmed, hare'-lipped, half-witted. So, compromitted and manumitted; but benefited is different.
RULE V.--FINAL CK.
Monosyllables and English verbs end not with c, but take ck for double c; as, rack, wreck, rock, attack: but, in general, words derived from the learned languages need not the k, and common use discards it; as, Italic, maniac, music, public.
EXCEPTIONS.--The words arc, part of a circle; orc, the name of a fish; lac, a gum or resin; and sac, or soc, a privilege, in old English law, are ended with c only. Zinc is, perhaps, better spelled zink; marc, mark; disc, disk; and talc, talck.
RULE VI.--RETAINING.
Words ending with any double letter, preserve it double before any additional termination, not beginning with the same letter;[115] as in the following derivatives: wooer, seeing, blissful, oddly, gruffly, equally, shelly, hilly, stiffness, illness, stillness, shrillness, fellness, smallness, drollness, freeness, grassless, passless, carelessness, recklessness, embarrassment, enfeoffment, agreement, agreeable.
EXCEPTIONS.--1. Certain irregular derivatives in d or t, from verbs ending in ee, ll, or ss, (as fled from flee, sold from sell, told from tell, dwelt from dwell, spelt from spell, spilt from spill, shalt from shall, wilt from will, blest from bless, past from pass,) are exceptions to the foregoing rule. 2. If the word pontiff is properly spelled with two Effs, its eight derivatives are also exceptions to this rule; for they are severally spelled with one; as, pontific, pontifical, pontificate, &c. 3. The words skillful, skillfully, willful, willfully, chillness, tallness, dullness, and fullness, have generally been allowed to drop the second l, though all of them might well be made to conform to the general rule, agreeably to the orthography of Webster.
RULE VII.--RETAINING.
Words ending with any double letter, preserve it double in all derivatives formed from them by means of prefixes: as, see, foresee; feoff, enfeoff; pass, repass; press, depress; miss, amiss; call, recall; stall, forestall; thrall, inthrall; spell, misspell; tell, foretell; sell, undersell; add, superadd; snuff, besnuff; swell, overswell.
OBSERVATION.--The words enroll, unroll, miscall, befall, befell, bethrall, reinstall, disinthrall, fulfill, and twibill, are very commonly written with one l, and made exceptions to this rule; but those authors are in the right who retain the double letter.
RULE VIII.--FINAL LL.
Final ll is peculiar to monosyllables and their compounds, with the few derivatives formed from such roots by prefixes; consequently, all other words that end in l, must be terminated with a single l: as, cabal, logical, appal, excel, rebel, refel, dispel, extol, control, mogul, jackal, rascal, damsel, handsel, tinsel, tendril, tranquil, gamb ​ol, consul.
OBSERVATION.--The words annul, until, distil, extil, and instil, are also properly spelled with one l; for the monosyllables null, till, and still are not really their roots, but rather derivatives, or contractions of later growth. Webster, however, prefers distill, extill, and instill with ll; and some have been disposed to add the other two.
RULE IX.--FINAL E.
The final e of a primitive word, when this letter is mute or obscure, is generally omitted before an additional termination beginning with a vowel: as, remove, removal; rate, ratable; force, forcible; true, truism; rave, raving; sue, suing; eye, eying; idle, idling; centre, centring.
EXCEPTIONS.--1. Words ending in ce or ge, retain the e before able or ous, to preserve the soft sounds of c and g: as, trace, traceable; change, changeable; outrage, outrageous. 2. So, from shoe, we write shoeing, to preserve the sound of the root; from hoe, hoeing, by apparent analogy; and, from singe, singeing; from swinge, swingeing; from tinge, tingeing; that they may not be confounded with singing, swinging, and tinging. 3. To compounds and prefixes, as firearms, forearm, anteact, viceagent, the rule does not apply; and final ee remains double, by Rule 6th, as in disagreeable, disagreeing.
RULE X.--FINAL E.
The final e of a primitive word is generally retained before an additional termination beginning with a consonant: as, pale, paleness; edge, edgeless; judge, judgeship; lodge, lodgement; change, changeful; infringe, infringement.
EXCEPTIONS.--1. When the e is preceded by a vowel, it is sometimes omitted; as in duly, truly, awful, argument; but much more frequently retained; as in dueness, trueness, blueness, bluely, rueful, dueful, shoeless, eyeless. 2. The word wholly is also an exception to the rule, for nobody writes it wholely. 3. Some will have judgment, abridgment, and acknowledgment, to be irreclaimable exceptions; but I write them with the e, upon the authority of Lowth, Beattie, Ainsworth, Walker, Cobb, Chalmers, and others: the French "jugement," judgement, always retains the e.
RULE XI--FINAL Y.
The final y of a primitive word, when preceded by a consonant, is generally changed into i before an additional termination: as, merry, merrier, merriest, merrily, merriment; pity, pitied, pities, pitiest, pitiless, pitiful, pitiable; contrary, contrariness, contrarily.
EXCEPTIONS.--1. This rule applies to derivatives, but not to compounds: thus, we write merciful, and mercy-seat; penniless, and pennyworth; scurviness, and scurvy-grass; &c. But ladyship and goodyship, being unlike secretariship and suretiship; handicraft and handiwork,[116] unlike handygripe and handystroke; babyship and babyhood, unlike stateliness and likelihood; the distinction between derivatives and compounds, we see, is too nice a point to have been always accurately observed. 2. Before ing or ish, the y is retained to prevent the doubling of i: as, pity, pitying; baby, babyish. 3. Words ending in ie, dropping the e by Rule 9th, change the i into y, for the same reason: as, die, dying; vie, vying; lie, lying.
RULE XII--FINAL Y.
The final y of a primitive word, when preceded by a vowel, should not be changed into i before any additional termination: as, day, days; key, keys; guy, guys; valley, valleys; coy, coyly; cloy, cloys, cloyed; boy, boyish, boyhood; annoy, annoyer, annoyance; joy, joyless, joyful.
EXCEPTIONS.--1. From lay, pay, say, and stay, are formed laid, paid, said, and staid; but the regular words, layed, payed, stayed, are sometimes used. 2. Raiment, contracted from arrayment, is never written with the y. 3. Daily is more common than the regular form dayly; but gayly, gayety, and gayness, are justly superseding gaily and gaiety.
RULE XIII.--IZE AND ISE.
Words ending in ize or ise sounded alike, as in wise and size, generally take the z in all such as are essentially formed by means of the termination; and th ​e s in monosyllables, and all such as are essentially formed by means of prefixes: as, gormandise, apologize, brutalize, canonize, pilgrimize, philosophize, cauterize, anathematize, sympathize, disorganize, with z;[117] rise, arise, disguise, advise, devise, supervise, circumcise, despise, surmise, surprise, comprise, compromise, enterprise, presurmise, with s.
EXCEPTIONS.--1. Advertise, catechise, chastise, criticise,[118] exercise, exorcise, and merchandise, are most commonly written with s and size, assize, capsize, analyze, overprize, detonize, and recognize, with z. How many of them are real exceptions to the rule, it is difficult to say. 2. Prise, a thing taken, and prize, to esteem; apprise, to inform, and apprize, to value, or appraise, are often written either way, without this distinction of meaning, which some wish to establish. 3. The want of the foregoing rule has also made many words variable, which ought, unquestionably, to conform to the general principle.
RULE XIV.--COMPOUNDS.
Compounds generally retain the orthography of the simple words which compose them: as, wherein, horseman, uphill, shellfish, knee-deep, kneedgrass, kneading-trough, innkeeper, skylight, plumtree, mandrill.
EXCEPTIONS.--1. In permanent compounds, or in any derivatives of which, they are not the roots, the words full and all drop one l; as, handful, careful, fulfil, always, although, withal; in temporary compounds, they retain both; as, full-eyed, chock-full,[119] all-wise, save-all. 2. So the prefix mis, (if from miss, to err,) drops one s; but it is wrong to drop them both, as in Johnson's "mispell" and "mispend," for misspell and misspend. 3. In the names of days, the word mass also drops one s; as, Christmas, Candlemas, Lammas. 4. The possessive case often drops the apostrophe; as in herdsman, kitesfoot. 5. One letter is dropped, if three of the same kind come together: as, Rosshire, chaffinch; or else a hyphen is used: as, Ross-shire, ill-looking, still-life. 6. Chilblain, welcome, and welfare, drop one l. 7. Pastime drops an s. 8. Shepherd, wherever, and whosever, drop an e; and wherefore and therefore assume one.
RULE XV.--USAGE.
Any word for the spelling of which we have no rule but usage, is written wrong if not spelled according to the usage which is most common among the learned: as, "The brewer grinds his malt before he brues his beer."--Red Book, p. 38.
OBSERVATIONS.
OBS. 1.--The foregoing rules aim at no wild and impracticable reformation of our orthography; but, if carefully applied, they will do much to obviate its chief difficulties. Being made variable by the ignorance of some writers and the caprice of others, our spelling is now, and always has been, exceedingly irregular and unsettled. Uniformity and consistency can be attained in no other way, than by the steady application of rules and principles; and these must be made as few and as general as the case will admit, that the memory of the learner may not be overmatched by their number or complexity. Rules founded on the analogy of similar words, and sanctioned by the usage of careful writers, must be taken as our guides; because common practice is often found to be capricious, contradictory, and uncertain. That errors and inconsistencies abound, even in the books which are proposed to the world as standards of English orthography, is a position which scarcely needs proof. It is true, to a greater or less extent, of all the spelling-books and dictionaries that I have seen, and probably of all that have ever been published. And as all authors are liable to mistakes, which others may copy, general rules should have more weight than particular examples to the contrary. "The right spelling of a word may be said to be that which agrees the best with its pronunciation, its etymology, and with the analogy of the particular class of words to which it belongs."--Philological Museum, V ​ol. i, p. 647.
OBS. 2.--I do not deny that great respect is due to the authority of our lexicographers, or that great improvement was made in the orthography of our language when Dr. Johnson put his hand to the work. But sometimes one man's authority may offset an other's; and he that is inconsistent with himself, destroys his own: for, surely, his example cannot be paramount to his principles. Much has been idly said, both for and against the adoption of Johnson's Dictionary, or Webster's, as the criterion of what is right or wrong in spelling; but it would seem that no one man's learning is sufficiently extensive, or his memory sufficiently accurate, to be solely relied on to furnish a standard by which we may in all cases be governed. Johnson was generally right; but, like other men, he was sometimes wrong. He erred sometimes in his principles, or in their application; as when he adopted the k in such words as rhetorick, and demoniack; or when he inserted the u in such words as governour, warriour, superiour. Neither of these modes of spelling was ever generally adopted, in any thing like the number of words to which he applied them; or ever will be; though some indiscreet compilers are still zealously endeavouring to impose them upon the public, as the true way of spelling. He also erred sometimes by accident, or oversight; as when he spelled thus: "recall and miscal, inthrall and bethral, windfall and downfal, laystall and thumbstal, waterfall and overfal, molehill and dunghil, windmill and twibil, uphill and downhil." This occasional excision of the letter l is reprehensible, because it is contrary to general analogy, and because both letters are necessary to preserve the sound, and show the derivation of the compound. Walker censures it as a "ridiculous irregularity," and lays the blame of it on the "printers," and yet does not venture to correct it! See Johnson's Dictionary, first American edition, quarto; Walker's Pronouncing Dictionary, under the word Dunghil; and his Rhyming Dictionary, Introd., p. xv.
OBS. 3.--"Dr. Johnson's Dictionary" has been represented by some as having "nearly fixed the external form of our language." But Murray, who quotes this from Dr. Nares, admits, at the same time, that, "The orthography of a great number of English words, is far from being uniform, even amongst writers of distinction."--Gram., p. 25. And, after commending this work of Johnson's, as A STANDARD, from which, "it is earnestly to be hoped, that no author will henceforth, on light grounds, be tempted to innovate," he adds, "This Dictionary, however, contains some orthographical inconsistencies which ought to be rectified: such as, immovable, moveable; chastely, chastness; fertileness, fertily; sliness, slyly; fearlessly, fearlesness; needlessness, needlesly."--Ib. In respect to the final ck and our, he also intentionally departs from THE STANDARD which he thus commends; preferring, in that, the authority of Walker's Rhyming Dictionary, from which he borrowed his rules for spelling. For, against the use of k at the end of words from the learned languages, and against the u in many words in which Johnson used it, we have the authority, not only of general usage now, but of many grammarians who were contemporary with Johnson, and of more than a dozen lexicographers, ancient or modern, among whom is Walker himself. In this, therefore, Murray's practice is right, and his commended standard dictionary, wrong.
OBS. 4.--Of words ending in or or our, we have about three hundred and twenty; of which not more than forty can now with any propriety be written with the latter termination. Aiming to write according to the best usage of the present day, I insert the u in so many of these words as now seem most familiar to the eye when so written; but I have no partiality for any letters that can well be spared; and if this book should ever, by any good fortune, happen to be reprinted, after honour, labour, favour, behaviour, and endeavour, shall have become as unfashionable as authour, errour, terrour, and emperour, are now, let the proof-reader strike out the useless letter not only from these words, but from all others which shall bear an equally antiquated appearance.
OBS. 5.--I have suggested the above-mentioned imperfections in Dr. Johnson's orthography, merely to justify the liberty which I take of spelling otherwise; and not with any view to give a preference to that of Dr. Webster, who is now contending for the honour of having furnished a more correct standard. For the latter author, though right in some things in which the former was wrong, is, on the whole, still more erroneous and inconsistent. In his various attempts at reformation in our orthography, he has spelled many hundreds of words in such a variety of ways, that he knows not at last which of them is right, and which are wrong. But in respect to definitions, he has done good service to our literature; nor have his critics been sufficiently just respecting what they call his "innovations." See Cobb's Critical Review of the Orthography of Webster. To omit the k from such words as publick, or the u from such as superiour, is certainly no innovation; it is but ignorance that censures the general practice, under that name. The advocates for Johnson and opponents of Webster, who are now so zealously stickling for the k and the u in these cases, ought to know that they are contending for what was obsolete, or obsolescent, when Dr. Johnson was a boy.
OBS. 6.--I have before observed that some of the grammarians who were contemporary with Johnson, did not adopt his practice respecting the k or the u, in publick, critick, errour, superiour, &c. And indeed I am not sure there were any who did. Dr. Johnson was born in 1709, and he died in 1784. But Brightland's Grammar, which was written during the reign of Queen Anne, who died in 1714, in treating of the letter C, says, "If in any Word the harder Sound precedes (e), (i), or (y), (k) is either added or put in its Place; as, Skill, Skin, Publick: And tho' the additional (k) in the foregoing Word be an old Way of Spelling, yet it is now very justly left off, as being a superfluous Letter; for (c) at the End is always hard."--Seventh Edition, Lond., 1746, p. 37.
OBS. 7.--The three grammars of Ash, Priestley, and Lowth, all appeared, in their first editions, about one time; all, if I mistake not, in the year 1763; and none of these learned doctors, it ​would seem, used the mode of spelling now in question. In Ash, of 1799, we have such orthography as this: "Italics, public, domestic, our traffic, music, quick; error, superior, warrior, authors, honour, humour, favour, behaviour." In Priestley, of 1772: "Iambics, dactyls, dactylic, anapæstic, monosyllabic, electric, public, critic; author, emperor's, superior; favour, labours, neighbours, laboured, vigour, endeavour; meagre, hillock, bailiwick, bishoprick, control, travelling." In Lowth, of 1799: "Comic, critic, characteristic, domestic; author, favor, favored, endeavored, alledging, foretells." Now all these are words in the spelling of which Johnson and Webster contradict each other; and if they are not all right, surely they would not, on the whole, be made more nearly right, by being conformed to either of these authorities exclusively. For THE BEST USAGE is the ultimate rule of grammar.
OBS. 8.--The old British Grammar, written before the American Revolution, and even before "the learned Mr. Samuel Johnson" was doctorated, though it thus respectfully quotes that great scholar, does not follow him in the spelling of which I am treating. On the contrary, it abounds with examples of words ending in ic and or, and not in ick and our, as he wrote them; and I am confident, that, from that time to this, the former orthography has continued to be more common than his. Walker, the orthoëpist, who died in 1807, yielded the point respecting the k, and ended about four hundred and fifty words with c in his Rhyming Dictionary; but he thought it more of an innovation than it really was. In his Pronouncing Dictionary, he says, "It has been a custom, within these twenty years, to omit the k at the end of words, when preceded by c. This has introduced a novelty into the language, which is that of ending a word with an unusual letter," &c. "This omission of k is, however, too general to be counteracted, even by the authority of Johnson; but it is to be hoped it will be confined to words from the learned languages."-- Walker's Principles of Pronunciation, No. 400. The tenth edition of Burn's Grammar, dated 1810, says, "It has become customary to omit k after c at the end of dissyllables and trisyllables, &c. as music, arithmetic, logic; but the k is retained in monosyllables; as, back, deck, rick, &c."--P. 25. James Buchanan, of whose English Syntax there had been five American editions in 1792, added no k to such words as didactic, critic, classic, of which he made frequent use; and though he wrote honour, labour, and the like, with u, as they are perhaps most generally written now, he inserted no u in error, author, or any of those words in which that letter would now be inconsistent with good taste.
OBS. 9.--Bicknell's Grammar, of 1790, treating of the letter k, says, "And for the same reason we have dropt it at the end of words after c, which is there always hard; as in publick, logick, &c. which are more elegantly written public, logic."--Part ii, p. 13. Again: "It has heretofore joined with c at the end of words; as publick, logick; but, as before observed, being there quite superfluous, it is now left out"--Ib., p. 16. Horne Tooke's orthography was also agreeable to the rule which I have given on this subject. So is the usage of David Booth: "Formerly a k was added, as, rustick, politick, Arithmetick, &c. but this is now in disuse."--Booth's Introd. to Dict., Lond., 1814, p. 80.
OBS. 10.--As the authors of many recent spelling-books--Cobb, Emerson, Burhans, Bolles, Sears, Marshall, Mott, and others--are now contending for this "superfluous letter," in spite of all the authority against it, it seems proper briefly to notice their argument, lest the student be misled by it. It is summed up by one of them in the following words: "In regard to k after c at the end of words, it may be sufficient to say, that its omission has never been attempted, except in a small portion of the cases where it occurs; and that it tends to an erroneous pronunciation of derivatives, as in mimick, mimicking, where, if the k were omitted, it would read mimicing; and as c before i is always sounded like s, it must be pronounced mimising. Now, since it is never omitted in monosyllables, where it most frequently occurs, as in block, clock, &c., and can be in a part only of polysyllables, it is thought better to preserve it in all cases, by which we have one general rule, in place of several irregularities and exceptions that must follow its partial omission."--Bolles's Spelling-Book, p. 2. I need not tell the reader that these two sentences evince great want of care or skill in the art of grammar. But it is proper to inform him, that we have in our language eighty-six monosyllables which end with ck, and from them about fifty compounds or derivatives, which of course keep the same termination. To these may be added a dozen or more which seem to be of doubtful formation, such as huckaback, pickapack, gimcrack, ticktack, picknick, barrack, knapsack, hollyhock, shamrock, hammock, hillock, hammock, bullock, roebuck. But the verbs on which this argument is founded are only six; attack, ransack, traffick, frolick, mimick, and physick; and these, unquestionably, must either be spelled with the k, or must assume it in their derivatives. Now that useful class of words which are generally and properly written with final c, are about four hundred and fifty in number, and are all of them either adjectives or nouns of regular derivation from the learned languages, being words of more than one syllable, which have come to us from Greek or Latin roots. But what has the doubling of c by k, in our native monosyllables and their derivatives, to do with all these words of foreign origin? For the reason of the matter, we might as well double the l, as our ancestors did, in naturall, temporall, spirituall, &c.
OBS. 11.--The learner should observe that some letters incline much to a duplication, while gome others are doubled but seldom, and some, never. Thus, among the vowels, ee and oo occur frequently; aa is used sometimes; ii, never--except in certain Latin words, (wherein the vowels are separately uttered,) such as Horatii, Veii, iidem, genii. Again, the doubling of u is precluded by the fact that we have a distinct letter called Double-u, which was made by joining two Vees, or two Ues, when the form for u was v. So, among the consonants, f, l, and s, incline more ​to duplication, than any others. These letters are double, not only at the end of those monosyllables which have but one vowel, as staff, mill, pass; but also under some other circumstances. According to general usage, final f is doubled after a single vowel, in almost all cases; as in bailiff, caitiff, plaintiff, midriff, sheriff, tariff, mastiff: yet not in calif, which is perhaps better written caliph. Final l, as may be seen by Rule 8th, admits not now of a duplication like this; but, by the exceptions to Rule 4th, it is frequently doubled when no other consonant would be; as in travelling, grovelling; unless, (contrary to the opinion of Lowth, Walker, and Webster,) we will have fillipping, gossipping, and worshipping, to be needful exceptions also.
Obs. 12.--Final s sometimes occurs single, as in alas, atlas, bias; and especially in Latin words, as virus, impetus; and when it is added to form plurals, as verse, verses: but this letter, too, is generally doubled at the end of primitive words of more than one syllable; as in carcass, compass, cuirass, harass, trespass, embarrass. On the contrary, the other consonants are seldom doubled, except when they come under Rule 3d. The letter p, however, is commonly doubled, in some words, even when it forms a needless exception to Rule 4th; as in the derivatives from fillip, gossip, and perhaps also worship. This letter, too, was very frequently doubled in Greek; whence we have, from the name of Philip of Macedon, the words Philippic and Philippize, which, if spelled according to our rule for such derivatives, would, like galloped and galloper, siruped and sirupy, have but one p. We find them so written in some late dictionaries. But if fillipped, gossipped, and worshipped, with the other derivatives from the same roots, are just and necessary exceptions to Rule 4th, (which I do not admit,) so are these; and for a much stronger reason, as the classical scholar will think. In our language, or in words purely English, the letters h, i, j, k, q, v, w, x, and y, are, properly speaking, never doubled. Yet, in the forming of compounds, it may possibly happen, that two Aitches, two Kays, or even two Double-ues or Wies, shall come together; as in withhold, brickkiln, slowwoorm, bayyarn.
OBS. 13.--There are some words--as those which come from metal, medal, coral, crystal, argil, axil, cavil, tranquil, pupil, papil--in which the classical scholar is apt to violate the analogy of English derivation, by doubling the letter l, because he remembers the ll of their foreign roots, or their foreign correspondents. But let him also remember, that, if a knowledge of etymology may be shown by spelling metallic, metalliferous, metallography, metallurgic, metallurgist, metallurgy, medallic, medallion, crystallize, crystalline, argillous, argillaceous, axillar, axillary, cavillous, cavillation, papillate, papillous, papillary, tranquillity, and pupillary, with double l, ignorance of it must needs be implied in spelling metaline, metalist, metaloid, metaloidal, medalist, coralaceous, coraline, coralite, coralinite, coraloid, coraloidal, crystalite, argilite, argilitic, tranquilize, and pupilage, in like manner. But we cannot well double the l in the former, and not in the latter words. Here is a choice of difficulties. Etymology must govern orthography. But what etymology? our own, or that which is foreign? If we say, both, they disagree; and the mere English scholar cannot know when, or how far, to be guided by the latter. If a Latin diminutive, as papilla from papula or papa, pupillus from pupus, or tranquillus from trans and quietus, happen to double an l, must we forever cling to the reduplication, and that, in spite of our own rules to the contrary? Why is it more objectionable to change pupillaris to pupilary, than pupillus to pupil? or, to change tranquillitas to tranquility, than tranquillus to tranquil? And since papilous, pupilage, and tranquilize are formed from the English words, and not directly from the Latin, why is it not as improper to write them with double l, as to write perilous, vassalage, and civilize, in the same manner?
OBS. 14.--If the practice of the learned would allow us to follow the English rule here, I should incline to the opinion, that all the words which I have mentioned above, ought to be written with single l. Ainsworth exhibits the Latin word for coral in four forms, and the Greek word in three. Two of the Latin and two of the Greek have the l single; the others double it. He also spells "coraliticus" with one l, and defines it "A sort of white marble, called coraline." [120] The Spaniards, from whose medalla, we have medal; whose argil[121] is arcilla, from the Latin argilla; and to whose cavilar, Webster traces cavil; in all their derivatives from these Latin roots, metallum, metal--coralium, corallium, curalium, or corallum, coral--crystallus or crystallum, crystal--pupillus, pupil--and tranquillus, tranquil--follow their own rules, and write mostly with single l: as, pupilero, a teacher; metalico, metalic; corolina (fem.) coraline; cristalino, crystaline; crystalizar, crystalize; traquilizar, tranquilize; and tranquilidad, tranquility. And if we follow not ours, when or how shall the English scholar ever know why we spell as we do? For example, what can he make of the orthography of the following words, which I copy from our best dictionaries: equip', eq'uipage; wor'ship, wor'shipper;--peril, perilous; cavil, cavillous;[122]--libel, libellous; quarrel, quarrelous;--opal, opaline; metal, metalline;[123]--coral, coralliform; crystal, crystalf ​orm;--dial, dialist; medal, medallist;--rascal, rascalion; medal, medallion;--moral, moralist, morality; metal, metallist, metallurgy;--civil, civilize, civility; tranquil, tranquillize, tranquillity;--novel, novelism, novelist, novelize; grovel, grovelling, grovelled, groveller?
OBS. 15.--The second clause of Murray's or Walker's 5th Rule for spelling, gives only a single l to each of the derivatives above named.[124] But it also treats in like manner many hundreds of words in which the l must certainly be doubled. And, as neither "the Compiler," nor any of his copiers, have paid any regard to their own principle, neither their doctrine nor their practice can be of much weight either way. Yet it is important to know to what words the rule is, or is not, applicable. In considering this vexatious question about the duplication of l, I was at first inclined to admit that, whenever final l has become single in English by dropping the second l of a foreign root, the word shall resume the ll in all derivatives formed from it by adding a termination beginning with a vowel; as, beryllus, beryl, berylline. This would, of course, double the l in nearly all the derivatives from metal, medal, &c. But what says Custom? She constantly doubles the l in most of them; but wavers in respect to some, and in a few will have it single. Hence the difficulty of drawing a line by which we may abide without censure. Pu'pillage and pu'pillary, with ll, are according to Walker's Rhyming Dictionary; but Johnson spells them pu'pilage and pu'pilary, with single l; and Walker, in his Pronouncing Dictionary, has pupilage with one l, and pupillary with two. Again: both Johnson's and the Pronouncing Dictionary, give us medallist and metallist with ll, and are sustained by Webster and others; but Walker, in his Rhyming Dictionary, writes them medalist and metalist, with single l, like dialist, formalist, cabalist, herbalist, and twenty other such words. Further: Webster doubles the l in all the derivatives of metal, medal, coral, axil, argil, and papil; but writes it single in all those of crystal, cavil, pupil, and tranquil--except tranquillity.
OBS. 16.--Dr. Webster also attempts, or pretends, to put in practice the hasty proposition of Walker, to spell with single l all derivatives from words ending in l not under the accent. "No letter," says Walker, "seems to be more frequently doubled improperly than l. Why we should write libelling, levelling, revelling, and yet offering, suffering, reasoning, I am totally at a loss to determine; and, unless l can give a better plea than any other letter in the alphabet, for being doubled in this situation, I must, in the style of Lucian, in his trial of the letter T, declare for an expulsion."--Rhyming Dict., p. x. This rash conception, being adopted by some men of still less caution, has wrought great mischief in our orthography. With respect to words ending in el, it is a good and sufficient reason for doubling the l, that the e may otherwise be supposed servile and silent. I have therefore made this termination a general exception to the rule against doubling. Besides, a large number of these words, being derived from foreign words in which the l was doubled, have a second reason for the duplication, as strong as that which has often induced these same authors to double that letter, as noticed above. Such are bordel, chapel, duel, fardel, gabel, gospel, gravel, lamel, label, libel, marvel, model, novel, parcel, quarrel, and spinel. Accordingly we find, that, in his work of expulsion, Dr. Webster has not unfrequently contradicted himself, and conformed to usage, by doubling the l where he probably intended to write it single. Thus, in the words bordeller, chapellany, chapelling, gospellary, gospeller, gravelly, lamellate, lamellar, lamellarly, lamelliform, and spinellane, he has written the l double, while he has grossly corrupted many other similar words by forbearing the reduplication; as, traveler, groveling, duelist, marvelous, and the like. In cases of such difficulty, we can never arrive at uniformity and consistency of practice, unless we resort to principles, and such principles as can be made intelligible to the English scholar. If any one is dissatisfied with the rules and exceptions which I have laid down, let him study the subject till he can furnish the schools with better.
OBS. 17.--We have in our language a very numerous class of adjectives ending in able or ible, as affable, arable, tolerable, admissible, credible, infallible, to the number of nine hundred or more. In respect to the proper form and signification of some of these, there occurs no small difficulty. Able is a common English word, the meaning of which is much better understood than its origin. Horne Tooke supposes it to have come from the Gothic noun abal, signifying strength; and consequently avers, that it "has nothing to do with the Latin adjective habilis, fit, or able, from which our etymologists erroneously derive it."--Diversions of Purley, Vol. ii, p. 450. This I suppose the etymologists will dispute with him. But whatever may be its true derivation, no one can well deny that able, as a suffix, belongs most properly, if not exclusively, to verbs; for most of the words formed by it, are plainly a sort of verbal adjectives. And it is evident that this author is right in supposing that English words of this termination, like the Latin verbals in bilis, have, or ought to have, such a signification as may justify the name which he gives them, of "potential passive adjectives;" a signification in which the English and the Latin derivatives exactly correspond. Thus dis'soluble or dissolv'able does not mean able to dissolve, but capable of being dissolved; and divisible or dividable does not mean able to divide, but capable of being divided.
OBS. 18.--As to the application of this suffix to nouns, when we consider the signification of the words thus formed, its propriety may well be doubted. It is true, however, that nouns do sometimes assume something of the nature of verbs, so as to give rise to adjectives that are of a participial character; such, for instance, as sainted, bigoted, conceited, gifted, tufted. Again, of such as hard-hearted, good-natured, cold-blooded, we have an indefinite number. And perhaps, upon the same principle, the formation of such words as actionable, companionable, exceptionable, marketable, merchantable, pasturable, treasonable, and so forth, may be justified, if care be taken to use them in a sense analogous to that of the real verbals. But, surely, the meaning which is commonly attached to the words amicable, changeable, fashionable, favourable, peaceable, reasonable, pleasurable, seasonable, suitable, and some others, would never be guessed from their formation. Thus, suitable means fitting or suiting, and not able to suit, or capable of being suited.
OBS. 19.--Though all words that terminate in able, used as a suffix, are properly reckoned derivatives, rather than compounds, and in the former class the separate meaning of the parts united is much less regarded than in the latter; yet, in the use of words of this formation, it would be well to have some respect to the general analogy of their signification as stated above; and not to make derivatives of the same fashion convey meanings so very different as do some of these. Perhaps it is from some general notion of their impropriety, that several words of this doubtful character have already become obsolete, or are gradually falling into disuse: as, accustomable, chanceable, concordable, conusable, customable, behoovable, leisurable, medicinable, personable, powerable, razorable, shapable, semblable, vengeable, veritable. Still, there are several others, yet currently employed, which might better perhaps, for the same reason, give place to more regular terms: as, amicable, for friendly or kind; charitable, for benevolent or liberal; colourable, for apparent or specious; peaceable, for peaceful or unhostile; pleasurable, for pleasing or delightful; profitable, for gainful or lucrative; sociable, for social or affable; reasonable, for rational or just.
OBS. 20.--In respect to the orthography of words ending in able or ible, it is sometimes difficult to determine which of these endings ought to be preferred; as whether we ought to write tenable or tenible, reversable or reversible, addable or addible. In Latin, the termination is bilis, and the preceding vowel is determined by the conjugation to which the verb belongs. Thus, for verbs of the first conjugation, it is a; as, from arare, to plough, arabilis, arable, tillable. For the second conjugation, it is i; as, from doc=ere, to teach, docibilis, or docilis, docible or docile, teachable. For the third conjugation, it is i; as, from vend=ere, to sell, vendibilis, vendible, salable. And, for the fourth conjugation, it is i; as, from sepelire, to bury, sepelib~ilis, sep'elible,[125] buriable. But from solvo and volvo, of the third conjugation, we have ubilis, uble; as, solubilis, sol'uble, solvible or solvable; volubilis, vol'uble, rollable. Hence the English words, rev'oluble, res'oluble, irres'oluble, dis'soluble, indis'soluble, and ins ​ol'uble. Thus the Latin verbals in bilis, are a sufficient guide to the orthography of all such words as are traceable to them; but the mere English scholar cannot avail himself of this aid; and of this sort of words we have a much greater number than were ever known in Latin. A few we have borrowed from the French: as, tenable, capable, preferable, convertible; and these we write as they are written in French. But the difficulty lies chiefly in those which are of English growth. For some of them are formed according to the model of the Latin verbals in ibilis; as forcible, coercible, reducible, discernible; and others are made by simply adding the suffix able; as traceable, pronounceable, manageable, advisable, returnable. The last are purely English; and yet they correspond in form with such as come from Latin verbals in abilis.
OBS. 21.--From these different modes of formation, with the choice of different roots, we have sometimes two or three words, differing in orthography and pronunciation, but conveying the same meaning; as, divis'ible and divi'dable, des'picable and despi'sable, ref'erable and refer'rible, mis'cible and mix'able, dis'soluble, dissol'vible, and dissol'vable. Hence, too, we have some words which seem to the mere English scholar to be spelled in a very contradictory manner, though each, perhaps, obeys the law of its own derivation; as, peaceable and forcible, impierceable and coercible, marriageable and corrigible, damageable and eligible, changeable and tangible, chargeable and frangible, fencible and defensible, pref'erable and referrible, conversable and reversible, defendable and descendible, amendable and extendible, bendable and vendible, dividable and corrodible, returnable and discernible, indispensable and responsible, advisable and fusible, respectable and compatible, delectable and collectible, taxable and flexible.
OBS. 22.--The American editor of the Red Book, to whom all these apparent inconsistencies seemed real blunders, has greatly exaggerated this difficulty in our orthography, and charged Johnson and Walker with having written all these words and many more, in this contradictory manner, "without any apparent reason!" He boldly avers, that, "The perpetual contradictions of the same or like words, in all the books, show that the authors had no distinct ideas of what is right, and what is wrong;" and ignorantly imagines, that, "The use of ible rather than able, in any case, originated in the necessity of keeping the soft sound of c and g, in the derivatives; and if ible was confined to that use, it would be an easy and simple rule."--Red Book, p. 170. Hence, he proposes to write peacible for peaceable, tracible for traceable, changible for changeable, managible for manageable; and so for all the rest that come from words ending in ce or ge. But, whatever advantage there might be in this, his "easy and simple rule" would work a revolution for which the world is not yet prepared. It would make audible audable, fallible fallable, feasible feasable, terrible terrable, horrible horrable, &c. No tyro can spell in a worse manner than this, even if he have no rule at all. And those who do not know enough of Latin grammar to profit by what I have said in the preceding observation, may console themselves with the reflection, that, in spelling these difficult words entirely by guess, they will not miss the way more than some have done who pretended to be critics. The rule given by John Burn, for able and ible, is less objectionable; but it is rendered useless by the great number of its exceptions.
OBS. 23.--As most of the rules for spelling refer to the final letters of our primitive words, it may be proper for the learner to know and remember, that not all the letters of the alphabet can assume that situation, and that some of them terminate words much more frequently than others. Thus, in Walker's Rhyming Dictionary, the letter a ends about 220 words; b, 160; c, 450; d, 1550; ​e, 7000; f, 140; g, 280; h, 400; i, 29; j, none; k, 550; l, 1900; m, 550; n, 3300; o, 200; p, 450; q, none; r, 2750; s, 3250; t, 3100; u, 14; v, none; w, 200; x, 100; y, 5000; z, 5. We have, then, three consonants, j, q, and v, which never end a word. And why not? With respect to j and v, the reason is plain from their history. These letters were formerly identified with i and u, which are not terminational letters. The vowel i ends no pure English word, except that which is formed of its own capital I; and the few words which end with u are all foreign, except thou and you. And not only so, the letter j is what was formerly called i consonant; and v is what was called u consonant. But it was the initial i and u, or the i and u which preceded an other vowel, and not those which followed one, that were converted into the consonants j and v. Hence, neither of these letters ever ends any English word, or is ever doubled. Nor do they unite with other consonants before or after a vowel: except that v is joined with r in a few words of French origin, as livre, manoeuvre; or with l in some Dutch names, as Watervleit. Q ends no English word, because it is always followed by u. The French termination que, which is commonly retained in pique, antique, critique, opaque, oblique, burlesque, and grotesque, is equivalent to k; hence we write packet, lackey, checker, risk, mask, and mosk, rather than paquet, laquey, chequer, risque, masque, and mosque. And some authors write burlesk and grotesk, preferring k to que.
OBS. 24.--Thus we see that j, q, and v, are, for the most part, initial consonants only. Hence there is a harshness, if not an impropriety, in that syllabication which some have recently adopted, wherein they accommodate to the ear the division of such words as maj-es-ty, proj-ect, traj-ect,--eq-ui-ty, liq-ui-date, ex-cheq-uer. But v, in a similar situation, has now become familiar; as in ev-er-y, ev-i-dence: and it may also stand with l or r, in the division of such words as solv-ing and serv-ing. Of words ending in ive, Walker exhibits four hundred and fifty--exactly the same number that he spells with ic. And Horne Tooke, who derives ive from the Latin ivus, (q. d. vis,) and ic from the Greek [Greek: ikos], (q. d. [Greek: ischus]) both implying power, has well observed that there is a general correspondence of meaning between these two classes of adjectives--both being of "a potential active signification; as purgative, vomitive, operative, &c.; cathartic, emetic, energetic, &c."--Diversions of Purley, Vol. ii, p. 445. I have before observed, that Tooke spelled all this latter class of words without the final k; but he left it to Dr. Webster to suggest the reformation of striking the final e from the former.
OBS. 25.--In Dr. Webster's "Collection of Essays and Fugitiv Peeces," published in 1790, we find, among other equally ingenious improvements of our orthography, a general omission of the final e in all words ending in ive, or rather of all words ending in ve, preceded by a short vowel; as, "primitiv, derivativ, extensiv, positiv, deserv, twelv, proov, luv, hav, giv, liv." This mode of spelling, had it been adopted by other learned men, would not only have made v a very frequent final consonant, but would have placed it in an other new and strange predicament, as being subject to reduplication. For he that will write hav, giv, and liv, must also, by a general rule of grammar, write havving, givving, and livving. And not only so, there will follow also, in the solemn style of the Bible, a change of givest, livest, giveth, and liveth, into givvest, livvest, givveth, and livveth. From all this it may appear, that a silent final e is not always quite so useless a thing as some may imagine. With a levity no less remarkable, does the author of the Red Book propose at once two different ways of reforming the orthography of such words as pierceable, manageable, and so forth; in one of which, the letter j would be brought into a new position, and subjected sometimes to reduplication. "It would be a useful improvement to change this c into s, and g into j;" as, piersable, manajable, &c. "Or they might assume i;" as, piercibe, managible, &c.--Red Book, p. 170. Now would not this "useful improvement" give us such a word as allejjable? and would not one such monster be more offensive than all our present exceptions to Rule 9th? Out upon all such tampering with orthography!
OBS. 26.--If any thing could arrest the folly of innovators and dabbling reformers, it would be the history of former attempts to effect improvements similar to theirs. With this sort of history every one would do well to acquaint himself, before he proceeds to disfigure words by placing their written elements in any new predicament. If the orthography of the English language is ever reduced to greater regularity than it now exhibits, the reformation must be wrought by those who have no disposition either to exaggerate its present defects, or to undertake too much. Regard must be had to the origin, as well as to the sounds, of words. To many people, all silent letters seem superfluous; and all indirect modes of spelling, absurd. Hence, as the learner may perceive, a very large proportion of the variations and disputed points in spelling, are such as refer to the silent letters, which are retained by some writers and omitted by others. It is desirable that such as are useless and irregular should be always omitted; and such as are useful and regular always retained. The rules which I have laid down as principles of discrimination, are such as almost every reader will know to be generally true, and agreeable to present usage, though several of them have never before been printed in any grammar. Their application will strike out some letters which are often written, and retain some which are often omitted; but, if they err on either hand, I am confident they err less than any other set of rules ever yet formed for the same purpose. Walker, from whom Murray borrowed his rules for spelling, declares for an expulsion of the second l from traveller, gambolled, grovelling, equalling, cavilling, and all similar words; seems more willing to drop an l from illness, stillness, shrillness, fellness, and drollness, than to retain both in smallness, tallness, chillness, dullness, and fullness; makes it one of his orthographical aphorisms, that, "Words taken into composition often drop those letters which were superfluous in their simples; as, Christmas, dunghil, handful;" and, at the same time, chooses rather to restore the silent e to the ten derivatives from move and prove, from which Johnson dropped it, than to drop it from the ten similar words in which that author retained it! And not only so, he argues against the principle ​of his own aphorism; and says, "It is certainly to be feared that, if this pruning of our words of all the superfluous letters, as they are called, should be much farther indulged, we shall quickly antiquate our most respectable authors, and irreparably maim our language."--Walker's Rhyming Dict., p. xvii.
OBS. 27.--No attempt to subject our orthography to a system of phonetics, seems likely to meet with general favour, or to be free from objection, if it should. For words are not mere sounds, and in their orthography more is implied than in phonetics, or phonography. Ideographic forms have, in general, the advantage of preserving the identity, history, and lineage of words; and these are important matters in respect to which phonetic writing is very liable to be deficient. Dr. Johnson, about a century ago, observed, "There have been many schemes offered for the emendation and settlement of our orthography, which, like that of other nations, being formed by chance, or according to the fancy of the earliest writers in rude ages, was at first very various and uncertain, and [is] as yet sufficiently irregular. Of these reformers some have endeavoured to accommodate orthography better to the pronunciation, without considering that this is to measure by a shadow, to take that for a model or standard which is changing while they apply it. Others, less absurdly indeed, but with equal unlikelihood of success, have endeavoured to proportion the number of letters to that of sounds, that every sound may have its own character, and every character a single sound. Such would be the orthography of a new language to be formed by a synod of grammarians upon principles of science. But who can hope to prevail on nations to change their practice, and make all their old books useless? or what advantage would a new orthography procure equivalent to the confusion and perplexity of such an alteration?"--Johnson's Grammar before Quarto Dict., p. 4.
OBS. 28.--Among these reformers of our alphabet and orthography, of whose schemes he gives examples, the Doctor mentions, first, "Sir Thomas Smith, secretary of state to Queen Elizabeth, a man of real learning, and much practised in grammatical disquisitions;" who died in 1597;--next, "Dr. Gill, the celebrated master of St. Paul's School in London;" who died in 1635;--then, "Charles Butler, a man who did not want an understanding which might have qualified him for better employment;" who died in 1647;--and, lastly, "Bishop Wilkins, of Chester, a learned and ingenious critic, who is said to have proposed his scheme, without expecting to be followed;" he died in 1672.
OBS. 29.--From this time, there was, so far as I know, no noticeable renewal of such efforts, till about the year 1790, when, as it is shown above on page 134 of my Introduction, Dr. Webster, (who was then only "Noah Webster, Jun., attorney at law,") attempted to spell all words as they are spoken, without revising the alphabet--a scheme which his subsequent experience before many years led him to abandon. Such a reformation was again attempted, about forty years after, by an other young lawyer, the late lamented Thomas S. Grimke, of South Carolina, but with no more success. More recently, phonography, or phonetic writing, has been revived, and to some extent spread, by the publications of Isaac Pitman, of Bath, England, and of Dr. Andrew Comstock, of Philadelphia. The system of the former has been made known in America chiefly by the lectures and other efforts of Andrews and Boyle, of Dr. Stone, a citizen of Boston, and of E. Webster, a publisher in Philadelphia.
OBS. 30.--The pronunciation of words being evidently as deficient in regularity, in uniformity, and in stability, as is their orthography, if not more so, cannot be conveniently made the measure of their written expression. Concerning the principle of writing and printing by sounds alone, a recent writer delivers his opinion thus: "Let me here observe, as something not remote from our subject, but, on the contrary, directly bearing upon it, that I can conceive no [other] method of so effectually defacing and barbarizing our English tongue, no [other] scheme that would go so far to empty it, practically at least and for us, of all the hoarded wit, wisdom, imagination, and history which it contains, to cut the vital nerve which connects its present with the past, as the introduction of the scheme of 'phonetic spelling,' which some have lately been zealously advocating among us; the principle of which is, that all words should be spelt according as they are sounded, that the writing should be, in every case, subordinated to the speaking. The tacit assumption that it ought so to be, is the pervading error running through the whole system."--R. C. Trench, on the Study of Words, p. 177.
OBS. 31.--The phonographic system of stenography, tachygraphy, or short-hand writing, is, I incline to believe, a very great improvement upon the earlier methods. It is perhaps the most reliable mode of taking down speeches, sermons, or arguments, during their delivery, and reporting them for the press; though I cannot pronounce upon this from any experience of my own in the practice of the art. And it seems highly probable, if it has not been fully proved, that children may at first be taught to read more readily, and with better articulation, from phonetic print, or phonotypy, as it has been called, than from books that exhibit words in their current or established orthography. But still it is questionable whether it is not best for them to learn each word at first by its peculiar or ideographic form--the form in which they must ultimately learn to read it, and which indeed constitutes its only orthography. ​
IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.
ERRORS IN SPELLING.
UNDER RULE I.—OF FINAL F, L, OR S.
"He wil observe the moral law, in hiz conduct."—Webster's Essays, p. 320.
[FORMULES—1. Not proper, because the word "wil" is here spelled with one l. But, according to Rule 1st, "Monosyllables ending in f, l, or s, preceded by a single vowel, double the final consonant." Therefore, this l should be doubled; thus, will.
2. Not proper again, because the word "hiz" is here spelled with z. But, according to the exceptions to Rule 1st, "The words as, gas, has, was, yes, his, &c., are written with single s." Therefore, this z should be s; thus, his.]
"A clif is a steep bank, or a precipitous rock."—See Rhyming Dict. "A needy man's budget is ful of schemes."—Old Adage. "Few large publications in this country wil pay a printer."—Noah Webster's Essays, p. x. "I shal, with cheerfulness, resign my other papers to oblivion."—Ib., p. x. "The proposition waz suspended til the next session of the legislature."—Ib., p. 362. "Tenants for life wil make the most of lands for themselves."—Ib., p. 366. "While every thing iz left to lazy negroes, a state wil never be wel cultivated."—Ib., p. 367. "The heirs of the original proprietors stil hold the soil."—Ib., p. 349. "Say my annual profit on money loaned shal be six per cent."—Ib., p. 308. "No man would submit to the drudgery of business, if he could make money az fast by lying stil."—Ib., p. 310. "A man may az wel feed himself with a bodkin, az with a knife of the present fashion."—Ib., p. 400. "The clothes wil be ill washed, the food wil be badly cooked; and you wil be ashamed of your wife, if she iz not ashamed of herself."—Ib., p. 404. "He wil submit to the laws of the state, while he iz a member of it."—Ib., p. 320. "But wil our sage writers on law forever think by tradition?"—Ib., p. 318. "Some stil retain a sovereign power in their territories."—Ib., p. 298. "They sel images, prayers, the sound of bels, remission of sins, &c."—Perkins's Theology, p. 401. "And the law had sacrifices offered every day for the sins of al the people."—Ib., p. 406. "Then it may please the Lord, they shal find it to be a restorative."—Ib., p. 420. "Perdition is repentance put of til a future day."—Old Maxim. "The angels of God, which wil good and cannot wil evil, have nevertheless perfect liberty of wil."—Perkins's Theology, p. 716. "Secondly, this doctrine cuts off the excuse of al sin."—Ib., p. 717. "Knel, the sound of a bell rung at a funeral."—Johnson and Walker.
"If gold with dros or grain with chaf you find,  Select—and leave the chaf and dros behind."—Author.
UNDER RULE II.—OF OTHER FINALS.
"The mobb hath many heads, but no brains."—Old Maxim.
[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the word "mobb" is here spelled with double b. But, according to Rule 2d, "Words ending in any other consonant than f, l, or s, do not double the final letter." Therefore, this b should be single: thus, mob.]
"Clamm, to clog with any glutinous or viscous matter."—Johnson's Dict. "Whurr, to pronounce the letter r with too much force."—Ib. "Flipp, a mixed liquor, consisting of beer and spirits sweetened."—Ib. "Glynn, a hollow between two mountains, a glen."—Churchill's Grammar, p. 22. "Lamm, to beat soundly with a cudgel or bludgeon."—Walker's Dict. "Bunn, a small cake, a simnel, a kind of sweet bread."—See ib. "Brunett, a woman with a brown complexion."—Ib. and Johnson's Dict. "Wad'sett, an ancient tenure or lease of land in the Highlands of Scotland."—Webster's Dict. "To dodd sheep, is to cut the wool away about their tails."—Ib. "In aliquem arietare, CIC. To run full but at one."—Walker's Particles, p. 95. "Neither your policy nor your temper would permitt you to kill me."—Philological Museum, Vol. i, p. 427. "And admitt none but his own offspring to fulfill them."—Ib., i, 437. "The summ of all this Dispute is, that some make them Participles," &c.—Johnson's Gram. Com., p. 352. "As, the whistling of winds, the buz and hum of insects, the hiss of serpents, the crash of falling timber."—Blair's Rhet., p. 129; Adam's Lat. Gram., p. 247; Gould's, 238. "Vann, to winnow, or a fan for winnowing."—Walker's Rhyming Dict. "Creatures that buz, are very commonly such as will sting."—Author "Begg, buy, or borrow; butt beware how you find."—Id. "It is better to have a house to lett, than a house to gett."—Id. "Let not your tongue cutt your throat."—Old Precept. "A little witt will save a fortunate man."—Old Adage. "There is many a slipp 'twixt the cup and the lipp."—Id. "Mothers' darlings make but milksopp heroes."—Id. "One eye-witness is worth tenn hearsays."—Id.
"The judge shall jobb, the bishop bite the town,  And mighty dukes pack cards for half a crown."—POPE:  in Joh. Dict., w. Pack.
UNDER RULE III.—OF DOUBLING.
"Friz, to curl; frized, curled; frizing, curling."—Webster's Dict., 8vo. Ed. of 1829.
[FORMULE—Not proper, because the words "frized" and "frizing" are here spelled with the single z, of their primitive friz. But, according to Rule 3d, "Monosyllables, and words accented on the last syllable, when they end with a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, double their final consonant before an additional syllable that begins with a vowel." Therefore, this z should be doubled; thus, frizzed, frizzing.] ​
"The commercial interests served to foster the principles of Whigism."—Payne's Geog., Vol. ii, p. 511. "Their extreme indolence shuned every species of labour."—Robertson's Amer., Vol. i, p. 341. "In poverty and stripedness they attend their little meetings."—The Friend, Vol. vii, p. 256. "In guiding and controling[126] the power you have thus obtained."—Abbott's Teacher, p. 15. "I began, Thou beganest, He began; We began, You began, They began."—Alex. Murray's Gram., p. 92. "Why does began change its ending; as, I began, Thou beganest?"—Ib., p. 93. "Truth and conscience cannot be controled by any methods of coercion."—Hints on Toleration, p. xvi. "Dr. Webster noded, when he wrote 'knit, kniter, and knitingneedle' without doubling the t."—See El. Spelling-Book, 1st Ed., p. 136. "A wag should have wit enough to know when other wags are quizing him."—G. Brown. "Bon'y, handsome, beautiful, merry."—Walker's Rhyming Dict. "Coquetish, practicing coquetry; after the manner of a jilt."—Webster's Dict. "Potage, a species of food, made of meat and vegetables boiled to softness in water."—See ib. "Potager, from potage, a porringer, a small vessel for children's food."—See ib., and Worcester's. "Compromit, compromited, compromiting; manumit, manumitted, manumitting."—Webster. "Inferible; that may be inferred or deduced from premises."—Red Book, p. 228. "Acids are either solid, liquid, or gaseous."—Gregory's Dict., art. Chemistry. "The spark will pass through the interrupted space between the two wires, and explode the gases."—Ib. "Do we sound gases and gaseous like cases and caseous? No: they are more like glasses and osseous."—G. Brown. "I shall not need here to mention Swiming, when he is of an age able to learn."—Locke, on Ed., p. 12. "Why do lexicographers spell thinnish and mannish with two Ens, and dimish and ramish with one Em, each?"—See Johnson and Webster. "Gas forms the plural regularly, gases."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 38. "Singular, Gas; Plural, Gases."—S. W. Clark's Gram., p. 47. "These are contractions from sheded, bursted."—Hiley's Grammar, p. 45. "The Present Tense denotes what is occuring at the present time."—Day's Gram., p. 36, and p. 61. "The verb ending in eth is of the solemn or antiquated style; as, he loveth, he walketh, he runeth."—P. Davis's Gram., p. 34.
"Thro' freedom's sons no more remonstrance rings,  Degrading nobles and controling kings."—Murray's Sequel, p. 292.
UNDER RULE IV.—NO DOUBLING.
"A bigotted and tyrannical clergy will be feared."—Brown's Estimate, Vol. ii, p. 78.
[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the final t of bigot is here doubled in "bigotted." But, according to Rule 4th, "A final consonant, when it is not preceded by a single vowel, or when the accent is not on the last syllable, should remain single before an additional syllable." Therefore, this t should be single; thus, bigoted.]
"Jacob worshipped his Creator, leaning on the top of his staff."—Key in Merchant's Gram., p. 185. "For it is all marvelously destitute of interest."—Merchant's Criticisms. "As, box, boxes; church, churches; lash, lashes; kiss, kisses; rebus, rebusses."—Murray's Gram., 12mo, p. 42. "Gossipping and lying go hand in hand."—Old Maxim. "The substance of the Criticisms on the Diversions of Purley was, with singular industry, gossipped by the present precious secretary of war, in Payne the bookseller's shop."—See Key. "Worship makes worshipped, worshipper, worshipping; gossip, gossipped, gossipper, gossipping; fillip, fillipped, fillipper, fillipping."—Nixon's Parser, p. 72. "I became as fidgetty as a fly in a milk-jug."—Blackwood's Mag., Vol. xl, p. 674. "That enormous error seems to be rivetted in popular opinion."—Webster's Essays, p. 364. "Whose mind iz not biassed by personal attachments to a sovereign."—Ib., p. 318. "Laws against usury originated in a bigotted prejudice against the Jews."—Ib., p. 315. "The most criticcal period of life iz usually between thirteen and seventeen."—Ib., p. 388. "Generallissimo, the chief commander of an army or military force."—See El. Spelling-Book, p. 93. "Tranquillize, to quiet, to make calm and peaceful."—Ib., p. 133. "Pommeled, beaten, bruised; having pommels, as a sword or dagger."—Webster and Chalmers. "From what a height does the jeweler look down upon his shoemaker!"—Red Book, p. 108. "You will have a verbal account from my friend and fellow traveler."—Ib., p. 155. "I observe that you have written the word counseled with one l only."—Ib., p. 173. "They were offended at such as combatted these notions."—Robertson's America, Vol. ii, p. 437. "From libel, come libeled, libeler, libeling, libelous; from grovel, groveled, groveler, groveling; from gravel, graveled and graveling."—See Webster's Dict. "Wooliness, the state of being woolly."—Ib. "Yet he has spelled chappelling, bordeller, medallist, metalline, metallist, metallize, clavellated, &c. with ll, contrary to his rule."—Cobb's Review of Webster, p. 11. "Again, he has spelled cancelation and snively with single l, and cupellation, pannellation, wittolly, with ll."—Ib. "Oilly, fatty, greasy, containing oil, glib."—Rhyming Dict. "Medallist, one curious in medals; Metallist, one skilled in metals."—Johnson, Webster, Worcester, Cobb, et al. "He is benefitted."—Town's Spelling-Book, p. 5. "They traveled for pleasure."—S. W. Clark's Gram., p. 101.
<poem.
<.poem>
UNDER RULE V.—OF FINAL CK.
"He hopes, therefore, to be pardoned by the critick."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 10. ​
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the word "critick" is here spelled with a final k. But, according to Rule 5th, "Monosyllables and English verbs end not with c, but take ck for double c; as, rack, wreck, rock, attack: but, in general, words derived from the learned languages need not the k, and common use discards it." Therefore, this k should be omitted; thus, critic.]
"The leading object of every publick speaker should be to persuade."--Kirkham's Elocution, p. 153. "May not four feet be as poetick as five; or fifteen feet, as poetick as fifty?"--Ib., p. 146. "Avoid all theatrical trick and mimickry, and especially all scholastick stiffness."--Ib., p. 154. "No one thinks of becoming skilled in dancing, or in musick, or in mathematicks, or logick, without long and close application to the subject."--Ib., p. 152. "Caspar's sense of feeling, and susceptibility of metallick and magnetick excitement were also very extraordinary."--Ib., p. 238. "Authorship has become a mania, or, perhaps I should say, an epidemick."--Ib., p. 6. "What can prevent this republick from soon raising a literary standard?"--Ib., p. 10. "Courteous reader, you may think me garrulous upon topicks quite foreign to the subject before me."--Ib., p. 11. "Of the Tonick, Subtonick, and Atoniek elements."--Ib., p. 15. "The subtonick elements are inferiour to the tonicks in all the emphatick and elegant purposes of speech."--Ib., p. 32. "The nine atonicks, and the three abrupt subtonicks cause an interruption to the continuity of the syllabick impulse."--Ib., p. 37. "On scientifick principles, conjunctions and prepositions are but one part of speech."--Kirkham's Gram., p. 120. "That some inferior animals should be able to mimic human articulation, will not seem wonderful."--Murray's Gram., 8vo, Vol. i, p. 2.
UNDER RULE VI.--OF RETAINING.
"Fearlesness, exemption from fear, intrepidity."--Johnson's Dict.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the word "fearlesness" is here allowed to drop one s of fearless. But, according to Rule 6th, "Words ending with any double letter, preserve it double before any additional termination not beginning with the same letter." Therefore, the other s should be inserted; thus, fearlessness.]
"Dreadlesness; fearlesness, intrepidity, undauntedness."--Johnson's Dict. "Regardlesly, without heed; Regardlesness, heedlessness, inattention."--Ib. "Blamelesly, innocently; Blamlesness, innocence."--Ib. "That is better than to be flattered into pride and carelesness."--TAYLOR: Joh. Dict. "Good fortunes began to breed a proud recklesness in them."--SIDNEY: ib. "See whether he lazily and listlesly dreams away his time."--LOCKE: ib. "It may be, the palate of the soul is indisposed by listlesness or sorrow."--TAYLOR: ib. "Pitilesly, without mercy; Pitilesness, unmercifulness."--Johnson. "What say you to such as these? abominable, accordable, agreable, &c."--Tooke's Diversions, Vol. ii, p. 432. "Artlesly; naturally, sincerely, without craft."--Johnson. "A chilness, or shivering of the body, generally precedes a fever."--Murray's Key, p. 167. "Smalness; littleness, minuteness, weakness."--Rhyming Dict. "Gall-less, a. free from gall or bitterness."--Webster's Dict. "Talness; height of stature, upright length with comparative slenderness."--See Johnson et al. "Wilful; stubborn, contumacious, perverse, inflexible."--Id. "He guided them by the skilfulness of his hands."--Psal. lxxviii, 72. "The earth is the Lord's and the fulness thereof."--Murray's Key, p. 172. "What is now, is but an amasment of imaginary conceptions."--GLANVILLE: Joh. Dict. "Embarrasment; perplexity, entanglement."--See Littleton's Dict. "The second is slothfulness, whereby they are performed slackly and carelesly."--Perkins's Theology, p. 729. "Instalment; induction into office; part of a large sum of money, to be paid at a particular time."--See Johnson's Dict. "Inthralment; servitude, slavery."--Ib.
UNDER RULE VII.--OF RETAINING.
"Shall, on the contrary, in the first person, simply foretels."--Murray's Gram., p. 88; Ingersoll's, 136; Fisk's, 78; Jaudon's, 59; A. Flint's, 42; Wright's, 90; Bullions's, 32.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the word "foretels" does not here retain the double l of tell. But, according to Rule 7th, "Words ending with any double letter, preserve it double in all derivatives formed from them by means of prefixes." Therefore, the other l should be inserted; thus, foretells.]
"There are a few compound irregular verbs, as befal, bespeak, &c."--Ash's Gram., p. 46. "That we might frequently recal it to our memory."--Calvin's Institutes, p. 112. "The angels exercise a constant solicitude that no evil befal us."--Ib., p. 107. "Inthral; to enslave, to shackle, to reduce to servitude."--Walker's Dict. "He makes resolutions, and fulfils them by new ones."--Red Book, p. 138. "To enrol my humble name upon the list of authors on Elocution."--Kirkham's Elocution, p. 12. "Forestal; to anticipate, to take up beforehand."--Walker's Rhym. Dict. "Miscal; to call wrong, to name improperly."--Johnson. "Bethral; to enslave, to reduce to bondage."--See id. "Befal; to happen to, to come to pass."--Rhym. Dict. "Unrol; to open what is rolled or convolved."--Johnson. "Counterrol; to keep copies of accounts to prevent frauds."--See id. "As Sisyphus uprols a rock, which constantly overpowers him at the summit."--Author. "Unwel; not well, indisposed, not in good health."--See Red Book, p. 336. "Undersel; to defeat by selling for less, to sell cheaper than an other."--See id., p. 332. "Inwal; to enclose or fortify with a wall."--See id., p. 295. "Twibil; an instrument ​with two bills, or with a point and a blade; a pickaxe, a mattock, a halberd, a battle-axe."—See Dict. "What you miscal their folly, is their care."—Dryden. "My heart will sigh when I miscal it so."—Shakspeare. "But if the arrangement recal one set of ideas more readily than another."—Blair's Rhet., p. 130.
"'Tis done; and since 'tis done, 'tis past recal;  And since 'tis past recal, must be forgotten."—Dryden.
UNDER RULE VIII.—OF FINAL LL.
"The righteous is taken away from the evill to come."—Perkins's Works, p. 417.
[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the word "evill" is here written with final ll. But, according to Rule 8th, "Final ll is peculiar to monosyllables and their compounds, with the few derivatives formed from such roots by prefixes; consequently, all other words that end in l, must be terminated with a single l." Therefore, one l should be here omitted; thus, evil.]
"Patroll; to go the rounds in a camp or garrison, to march about and observe what passes."—Webster's Amer. Dict., 8vo. "Marshall; the chief officer of arms, one who regulates rank and order."—See Bailey's Dict. "Weevill; a destructive grub that gets among corn."—See Rhym. Dict. "It much excells all other studies and arts."—Walker's Particles, p. 217. "It is essentiall to all magnitudes, to be in one place."—Perkins's Works, p. 403. "By nature I was thy vassall, but Christ hath redeemed me."—Ib., p. 404. "Some, being in want, pray for temporall blessings."—Ib., p. 412. "And this the Lord doth, either in temporall or spirituall benefits."—Ib., p. 415. "He makes an idoll of them, by setting his heart on them."—Ib., p. 416. "This triall by desertion serveth for two purposes."—Ib., p. 420. "Moreover, this destruction is both perpetuall and terrible."—Ib., p. 726. "Giving to severall men several gifts, according to his good pleasure."—Ib., p. 731. "Untill; to some time, place, or degree, mentioned."—See Red Book, p. 330. "Annull; to make void, to nullify, to abrogate, to abolish." "Nitric acid combined with argill, forms the nitrate of argill."—Gregory's Dict., art. Chemistry.
"Let modest Foster, if he will, excell  Ten Metropolitans in preaching well."—Pope, p. 414.
UNDER RULE IX.—OF FINAL E.
"Adjectives ending in able signify capacity; as, comfortable, tenable, improvable."—Priestley's Gram., p. 33.
[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the word "improveable" here retains the final e of improve. But, according to Rule 9th, "The final e of a primitive word is generally omitted before an additional termination beginning with a vowel." Therefore, this e should be omitted; thus, improvable.]
"Their mildness and hospitality are ascribeable to a general administration of religious ordinances."—Webster's Essays, p. 336. "Retrench as much as possible without obscureing the sense."—James Brown's Amer. Gram., 1821, p. 11. "Changable, subject to change; Unchangeable, immutable."—Walker's Rhym. Dict. "Tameable, susceptive of taming; Untameable, not to be tamed."—Ib. "Reconcileable, Unreconcileable, Reconcileableness; Irreconcilable, Irreconcilably, Irreconcilableness."—Johnson's Dict. "We have thought it most adviseable to pay him some little attention."—Merchants Criticisms. "Proveable, that may be proved; Reprovable. blameable, worthy of reprehension."—Walker's Dict. "Moveable and Immovable, Moveably and Immovably, Moveables and Removal, Moveableness and Improvableness, Unremoveable and Unimprovable, Unremoveably and Removable, Proveable and Approvable, Irreproveable and Reprovable, Unreproveable and Improvable, Unimproveableness and Improvably."—Johnson's Dict. "And with this cruelty you are chargable in some measure yourself."—Collier's Antoninus, p. 94. "Mothers would certainly resent it, as judgeing it proceeded from a low opinion of the genius of their sex."—British Gram., Pref., p. xxv. "Titheable, subject to the payment of tithes; Saleable, vendible, fit for sale; Loseable, possible to be lost; Sizeable, of reasonable bulk or size."—Walker's Rhyming Dict. "When he began this custom, he was puleing and very tender."—Locke, on Ed., p. 8.
"The plate, coin, revenues, and moveables,  Whereof our uncle Gaunt did stand possess'd."—Shak.
UNDER RULE X.—OF FINAL E.
"Diversly; in different ways, differently, variously."—Rhym. Dict., and Webster's.
[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the word "Diversly" here omits the final e of its primitive word, diverse. But, according to Rule 10th, "The final e of a primitive word is generally retained before an additional termination beginning with a consonant." Therefore, this e should be retained; thus, Diversely.]
"The event thereof contains a wholsome instruction."—Bacon's Wisdom of the Ancients, p. 17. "Whence Scaliger falsly concluded that articles were useless."—Brightland's Gram., p. 94. "The child that we have just seen is wholesomly fed."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 187. "Indeed, falshood and legerdemain sink the character of a prince."—Collier's Antoninus, p. 5. "In earnest, at this rate of managment, thou usest thyself very coarsly."—Ib., p. 19. "To give them an arrangment and diversity, as agreeable as the nature of the subject would admit"—Murray's Pref. to Ex., p. vi. "Alger's Grammar is only a trifling enlargment of Murray's little Abridgment."—Author. "You ask whether you are to retain or omit the mute e in the word judgment, abrdig​ment, acknowledgment, lodgment, adjudgment, and prejudgment."—Red Book, p. 172. "Fertileness, fruitfulness; Fertily, fruitfully, abundantly."—Johnson's Dict. "Chastly, purely, without contamination; Chastness, chastity, purity."—Ib., and Walker's. "Rhymster, n. One who makes rhymes; a versifier; a mean poet."—Johnson and Webster. "It is therefore an heroical achievment to dispossess this imaginary monarch."—Berkley's Minute Philos., p. 151. "Whereby, is not meant the Present Time, as he imagins, but the Time Past."—Johnson's Gram. Com., p. 344 "So far is this word from affecting the noun, in regard to its definitness, that its own character of definitness or indefinitness, depends upon the name to which it is prefixed."—Webster's Philosophical Gram., p. 20.
"Satire, by wholsome Lessons, wou'd reclaim,  And heal their Vices to secure their Fame."  —Brightland's Gr., p. 171.
UNDER RULE XI.—OF FINAL Y.
"Solon's the veryest fool in all the play."—Dryden, from Persius, p. 475.
[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the word "veryest" here retains the final y of its primitive very. But, according to Rule 13th, "The final y of a primitive word, when preceded by a consonant, is generally changed into i before an additional termination." Therefore, this y should be changed to i; thus, veriest.]
"Our author prides himself upon his great slyness and shrewdness."—Merchant's Criticisms. "This tense, then, implys also the signification of Debeo."—B. Johnson's Gram. Com., p. 300. "That may be apply'd to a Subject, with respect to something accidental."—Ib., p. 133. "This latter accompanys his Note with a distinction."—Ib., p. 196. "This Rule is defective, and none of the Annotators have sufficiently supply'd it."—Ib., p. 204. "Though the fancy'd Supplement of Sanctius, Scioppius, Vossius, and Mariangelus, may take place."—Ib., p. 276. "Yet as to the commutableness of these two Tenses, which is deny'd likewise, they are all one."—Ib., p. 311. "Both these Tenses may represent a Futurity implyed by the dependence of the Clause."—Ib., p. 332. "Cry, cries, crying, cried, crier, decrial; Shy, shyer, shyest, shyly, shyness; Fly, flies, flying, flier, high-flier; Sly, slyer, slyest, slyly, slyness; Spy, spies, spying, spied, espial; Dry, drier, driest, dryly, dryness."—Cobb's Dict. "Cry, cried, crying, crier, cryer, decried, decrier, decrial; Shy, shyly, shily, shyness, shiness; Fly, flier, flyer, high-flyer; Sly, slily, slyly, sliness, slyness; Ply, plyer, plying, pliers, complied, compiler; Dry, drier, dryer, dryly, dryness."—Webster's Dict., 8vo. "Cry, crier, decrier, decrial; Shy, shily, shyly, shiness, shyness; Fly, flier, flyer, high-flier; Sly, slily, slyly, sliness, slyness; Ply, pliers, plyers, plying, complier; Dry, drier, dryer, dryly, dryness."—Chalmers's Abridgement of Todd's Johnson. "I would sooner listen to the thrumming of a dandyzette at her piano."—Kirkham's Elocution, p. 24. "Send her away; for she cryeth after us."—Felton's Gram., p. 140. "IVYED, a. Overgrown with ivy."—Todd's Dict., and Webster's.
"Some dryly plain, without invention's aid,  Write dull receipts how poems may be made."—Pope.
UNDER RULE XII.—OF FINAL Y.
"The gaiety of youth should be tempered by the precepts of age."—Mur. Key, p. 175.
[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the word "gaiety" does not here retain the final y of the primitive word gay. But, according to Rule 12th, "The final y of a primitive word, when preceded by a vowel, should not be changed into i before an additional termination." Therefore, this y should be retained; thus, gayety.]
"In the storm of 1703, two thousand stacks of chimnies were blown down, in and about London."—See Red Book, p. 112. "And the vexation was not abated by the hacknied plea of haste."—Ib., p. 142. "The fourth sin of our daies is lukewarmness."—Perkins's Works, p. 725. "God hates the workers of iniquity, and destroies them that speak lies."—Ib., p. 723. "For, when he laies his hand upon us, we may not fret."—Ib., p. 726. "Care not for it; but if thou maiest be free, choose it rather."—Ib., p. 736. "Alexander Severus saith, 'He that buieth, must sell: I will not suffer buyers and sellers of offices.'"—Ib., p. 737. "With these measures fell in all monied men."—SWIFT: Johnson's Dict. "But rattling nonsense in full vollies breaks."—POPE: ib., w. Volley. "Vallies are the intervals betwixt mountains."—WOODWARD: ib. "The Hebrews had fifty-two journies or marches."—Wood's Dict. "It was not possible to manage or steer the gallies thus fastened together."—Goldsmith's Greece, Vol. ii, p. 106. "Turkies were not known to naturalists till after the discovery of America."—See Gregory's Dict. "I would not have given it for a wilderness of monkies."—See Key. "Men worked at embroidery, especially in abbies."—Constable's Miscellany, Vol. xxi, p. 101. "By which all purchasers or mortgagees may be secured of all monies they lay out."—TEMPLE: Johnson's Dict. "He would fly to the mines and the gallies for his recreation."—SOUTH: Ib.
"Here pullies make the pond'rous oak ascend."—GAY: ib.  —————————"You need my help, and you say,  Shylock, we would have monies."—SHAKSPEARE: ib.
UNDER RULE XIII.—OF IZE AND ISE.
"Will any able writer authorise other men to revise his works?"—Author.
[FORMULES.—1. Not proper, because the word "authorise" is here written with s in the last syllable, in stead of z. But, according to Rule 13th, "Words ending in ize or ise sounded alike, as in wise and size, generally take the z in all such as are essentially formed by means of the termination." Therefore, this s should be z; thus, authorize.] ​
2. Not proper again, because the word "revize" is here written with z in the last syllable, in lieu of s. But, according to Rule 13th, "Words ending in ize or ise sounded alike, as in wise and size, generally take the s, in monosyllables, and all such as are essentially formed by means of prefixes." Therefore, this z should be s; thus, revise.]
"It can be made as strong and expressive as this Latinised English."—Murray's Gram., p. 295. "Governed by the success or the failure of an enterprize."—Ib., Vol. ii, pp. 128 and 259. "Who have patronised the cause of justice against powerful oppressors."—Ib., pp. 94 and 228; Merchant, p. 199. "Yet custom authorises this use of it."—Priestley's Gram., p. 148. "They surprize myself, * * * and I even think the writers themselves will be surprized."—Ib., Pref., p. xi. "Let the interest rize to any sum which can be obtained."—Webster's Essays, p. 310. "To determin what interest shall arize on the use of money."—Ib., p. 313. "To direct the popular councils and check a rizing opposition."—Ib., p. 335. "Five were appointed to the immediate exercize of the office."—Ib., p. 340. "No man ever offers himself [as] a candidate by advertizing."—Ib., p. 344. "They are honest and economical, but indolent, and destitute of enterprize."—Ib., p. 347. "I would however advize you to be cautious."—Ib., p. 404. "We are accountable for whatever we patronise in others."—Murray's Key, p. 175. "After he was baptised, and was solemnly admitted into the office."—Perkins's Works, p. 732. "He will find all, or most of them, comprized in the Exercises."—British Gram., Pref., p. v. "A quick and ready habit of methodising and regulating their thoughts."—Ib., p. xviii. "To tyrannise over the time and patience of his reader."—Kirkham's Elocution, p. iii. "Writers of dull books, however, if patronised at all, are rewarded beyond their deserts."—Ib., p. v. "A little reflection, will show the reader the propriety and the reason for emphasising the words marked."—Ib., p. 163. "The English Chronicle contains an account of a surprizing cure."—Red Book, p. 61. "Dogmatise, to assert positively; Dogmatizer, an asserter, a magisterial teacher."—Chalmers's Dict. "And their inflections might now have been easily analysed."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, Vol. i, p. 113. "Authorize, disauthorise, and unauthorized; Temporize, contemporise, and extemporize."—Walkers Dict. "Legalize, equalise, methodise, sluggardize, womanise, humanize, patronise, cantonize, gluttonise, epitomise, anatomize, phlebotomise, sanctuarise, characterize, synonymise, recognise, detonize, colonise."—Ibid.
"This BEAUTY Sweetness always must comprize,  Which from the Subject, well express'd will rise."  —Brightland's Gr., p. 164.
UNDER RULE XIV.—OF COMPOUNDS.
"The glory of the Lord shall be thy rereward."—COMMON BIBLES: Isa., lviii, 8.
[FORMULE—Not proper, because the compound word "rereward" has not here the orthography of the two simple words rear and ward, which compose it. But, according to Rule 14th, "Compounds generally retain the orthography of the simple words which compose them." And, the accent being here unfixed, a hyphen is proper. Therefore, this word should be spelled thus, rear-ward.]
"A mere vaunt-courier to announce the coming of his master."—Tooke's Diversions, Vol. i, p. 49. "The parti-coloured shutter appeared to come close up before him."—Kirkham's Elocution, p. 233. "When the day broke upon this handfull of forlorn but dauntless spirits."—Ib., p. 245. "If, upon a plumbtree, peaches and apricots are ingrafted, no body will say they are the natural growth of the plumbtree."—Berkley's Minute Philos., p. 45. "The channel between Newfoundland and Labrador is called the Straits of Bellisle."—Worcester's Gaz. "There being nothing that more exposes to Headach." [127]—Locke, on Education, p. 6. "And, by a sleep, to say we end the heartach."—SHAK.: in Joh. Dict. "He that sleeps, feels not the toothach."—ID., ibid. "That the shoe must fit him, because it fitted his father and granfather."—Philological Museum, Vol. i, p. 431. "A single word, mispelt, in a letter, is sufficient to show, that you have received a defective education."—Bucke's Gram., p. 3. "Which mistatement the committee attributed to a failure of memory."—Professors' Reasons, p. 14. "Then he went through the Banquetting-House to the scaffold."—Smollett's England, Vol. iii, p. 345. "For the purpose of maintaining a clergyman and skoolmaster."—Webster's Essays, p. 355. "They however knew that the lands were claimed by Pensylvania."—Ib., p. 357. "But if you ask a reason, they immediately bid farewel to argument."—Red Book, p. 80. "Whom resist stedfast in the faith."—SCOTT: 1 Peter, v, 9. "And they continued stedfastly in the apostles' doctrine."—Acts, ii, 42. "Beware lest ye also fall from your own stedfastness."—2 Peter, iii, 17. "Galiot, or galliott, a Dutch vessel, carrying a main-mast and a mizen-mast."—Web. Dict. "Infinitive, to overflow; Preterit, overflowed; Participle, overflown."—Cobbett's E. Gram., (1818,) p. 61. "After they have mispent so much precious Time."—British Gram., p. xv. "Some say, two handsfull; some, two handfulls; and others, two handfull."— Alex. Murray's Gram., p. 106. "Lapfull, as much as the lap can contain."—Webster's Octavo Dict. "Darefull, full of defiance."—Walker's Rhym. Dict. "The road to the blissfull regions, is as open to the peasant as to the king."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 167. "Mis-spel is mis-spell in every Dictionary which I have seen."—Barnes's Red Book. p. 303. "Downfal; ruin, calamity, fall from rank or state."—Johnson's Dict. "The whole legislature likewize acts az a court."—Webster's Essays, p. 340. "It were better a milstone were hanged ​about his neck."--Perkins's Works, p. 731. "Plum-tree, a tree that produces plums; Hog-plumbtree, a tree."--Webster's Dict. "Trisyllables ending in re or le, accent the first syllable."--Murray's Gram., p. 238.
UNDER RULE XV.--OF USAGE.
"Nor are the modes of the Greek tongue more uniform."--Murray's Gram., p. 112.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the word "modes" is here written for moods, which is more common among the learned, and usually preferred by Murray himself. But, according to Rule 15th, "Any word for the spelling of which we have no rule but usage, is written wrong if not spelled according to the usage which is most common among the learned." Therefore, the latter form should be preferred; thus, moods, and not modes.]
"If we analize a conjunctive preterite, the rule will not appear to hold."--Priestley's Gram., p. 118. "No landholder would have been at that expence."--Ib., p. 116. "I went to see the child whilst they were putting on its cloaths."--Ib., p. 125. "This stile is ostentatious, and doth not suit grave writing."--Ib., p. 82. "The king of Israel, and Jehosophat the king of Judah, sat each on his throne."--Mur. Gram., p. 165, twice; Merchant's, 89; Churchill's, 300. "The king of Israel, and Jehosaphat the king of Judah, sat each on his throne."--Lowth's Gram., p. 90; Harrison's, 99; Churchill's, 138; Wright's, 148. "Lisias, speaking of his friends, promised to his father, never to abandon them."--Murray's Gram., Vol. ii, pp. 121 and 253. "Some, to avoid this errour, run into it's opposite."--Churchill's Gram., p. 199. "Hope, the balm of life, sooths us under every misfortune."--Merchants Key, p. 204. "Any judgement or decree might be heerd and reversed by the legislature."--Webster's Essays, p. 340. "A pathetic harang wil skreen from punishment any knave."--Ib., p. 341. "For the same reezon, the wimen would be improper judges."--Ibid. "Every person iz indulged in worshiping az he pleezes."--Ib., p. 345. "Most or all teechers are excluded from genteel company."--Ib., p. 362. "The Kristian religion, in its purity, iz the best institution on erth."--Ib., p. 364. "Neether clergymen nor human laws hav the leest authority over the conscience."--Ib., p. 363. "A gild is a society, fraternity, or corporation."--Red Book, p. 83. "Phillis was not able to unty the knot, and so she cut it."--Ib., p. 46. "An aker of land is the quantity of one hundred and sixty perches."--Ib., p. 93. "Oker is a fossil earth combined with the oxid of some metal."--Ib., p. 96. "Genii, when denoting ærial spirits: Geniuses, when signifying persons of genius."--Mur.'s Gram., i, p. 42. "Genii, when denoting æriel spirits; Geniuses, when signifying persons of genius."--Frost's Gram., p. 9. "Genius, Plu. geniuses, men of wit; but genii, ærial beings."--Nutting's Gram., p. 18. "Aerisius, king of Argos, had a beautiful daughter, whose name was Danæ."--Classic Tales, p. 109. "Phæton was the son of Apollo and Clymene."--Ib., p. 152. "But, after all, I may not have reached the intended Gaol."--Buchanan's Syntax, Pref., p. xxvii. "'Pitticus was offered a large sum.' Better: 'A large sum was offered to Pitticus.'"--Kirkham's Gram., p. 187. "King Missipsi charged his sons to respect the senate and people of Rome."--See ib., p. 161. "For example: Gallileo invented the telescope."--Ib., pp. 54 and 67. "Cathmor's warriours sleep in death."--Ib., p. 54. "For parsing will enable you to detect and correct errours in composition."--Ib., p. 50.
PROMISCUOUS ERRORS IN SPELLING.
LESSON I.--MIXED.
"A bad author deserves better usage than a bad critick."--POPE: Johnson's Dict., w. Former. "Produce a single passage superiour to the speech of Logan, a Mingo chief, delivered to Lord Dunmore, when governour of Virginia."--Kirkham's Elocution, p. 247. "We have none synonimous to supply its place."--Jamieson's Rhetoric, p. 48. "There is a probability that the effect will be accellerated."--Ib., p. 48. "Nay, a regard to sound hath controuled the public choice."--Ib., p. 46. "Though learnt from the uninterrupted use of gutterel sounds."--Ib., p. 5. "It is by carefully filing off all roughness and inequaleties, that languages, like metals, must be polished."--Ib., p. 48. "That I have not mispent my time in the service of the community."--Buchanan's Syntax, Pref., p. xxviii. "The leaves of maiz are also called blades."--Webster's El. Spelling-Book, p. 43. "Who boast that they know what is past, and can foretel what is to come."--Robertson's Amer., Vol. i, p. 360. "Its tasteless dullness is interrupted by nothing but its perplexities."-- Abbott's Teacher, p. 18. "Sentences constructed with the Johnsonian fullness and swell."--Jamieson's Rhet., p. 130. "The privilege of escaping from his prefatory dullness and prolixity."--Kirkham's Elocution, p. iv. "But in poetry this characteristick of dulness attains its full growth."--Ib., p. 72. "The leading characteristick consists in an increase of the force and fullness."--Ib., p. 71. "The character of this opening fulness and feebler vanish."--Ib., p. 31. "Who, in the fullness of unequalled power, would not believe himself the favourite of heaven?"--Ib., p. 181. "They marr one another, and distract him."--Philological Museum, Vol. i, p. 433. "Let a deaf worshipper of antiquity and an English prosodist settle this."--Rush, on the Voice, p. 140. "This phillipic gave rise to my satirical reply in self-defence."-- Merchant's Criticisms ​"We here saw no inuendoes, no new sophistry, no falsehoods."--Ib. "A witty and humourous vein has often produced enemies."--Murray's Key, p. 173. "Cry holla! to thy tongue, I pr'ythee: it curvetts unseasonably."--Shak. "I said, in my slyest manner, 'Your health, sir.'"--Blackwood's Mag., Vol. xl, p. 679. "And attornies also travel the circuit in pursute of business."--Red Book, p. 83. "Some whole counties in Virginia would hardly sel for the valu of the dets du from the inhabitants."--Webster's Essays, p. 301. "They were called the court of assistants, and exercized all powers legislativ and judicial."--Ib., p. 340. "Arithmetic is excellent for the guaging of liquors."--Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 288. "Most of the inflections may be analysed in a way somewhat similar."--Ib., p. 112.
LESSON II.--MIXED.
"Hence it [less] is a privative word, denoting destitution; as, fatherless, faithless, pennyless."--Webster's Dict., w. Less. "Bay; red, or reddish, inclining to a chesnut color."--Same. "To mimick, to imitate or ape for sport; a mimic, one who imitates or mimics."--Ib. "Counterroil, a counterpart or copy of the rolls; Counterrolment, a counter account."--Ib. "Millenium, the thousand years during which Satan shall be bound."--Ib. "Millenial, pertaining to the millenium, or to a thousand years."--Ib. "Thraldom; slavery, bondage, a state of servitude."--See Johnson's Dict. "Brier, a prickly bush; Briery, rough, prickly, full of briers; Sweetbriar, a fragrant shrub."--See Johnson, Walker, Chalmers, Webster, and others. "Will, in the second and third Persons, barely foretels."--British Gram., p. 132. "And therefor there is no Word false, but what is distinguished by Italics."--Ib., Pref., p. v. "What should be repeted is left to their Discretion."--Ib., p. iv. "Because they are abstracted or seperated from material Substances."--Ib., p. ix. "All Motion is in Time, and therefor, where-ever it exists, implies Time as its Concommitant."--Ib., p. 140. "And illiterate grown persons are guilty of blameable spelling."--Ib., Pref., p. xiv. "They wil always be ignorant, and of ruf uncivil manners."--Webster's Essays, p. 346. "This fact wil hardly be beleeved in the northern states."--Ib., p. 367. "The province however waz harrassed with disputes."--Ib., p. 352. "So little concern haz the legislature for the interest of lerning."--Ib., p. 349. "The gentlemen wil not admit that a skoolmaster can be a gentleman."--Ib., p. 362. "Such absurd qui-pro-quoes cannot be too strenuously avoided."--Churchill's Gram., p. 205. "When we say, 'a man looks slyly;' we signify, that he assumes a sly look."--Ib., p. 339. "Peep; to look through a crevice; to look narrowly, closely, or slyly."--Webster's Dict. "Hence the confession has become a hacknied proverb."--Wayland's Moral Science, p. 110. "Not to mention the more ornamental parts of guilding, varnish, &c."--Tooke's Diversions, Vol. i, p. 20. "After this system of self-interest had been rivetted."--Brown's Estimate, Vol. ii, p. 136. "Prejudice might have prevented the cordial approbation of a bigotted Jew."--SCOTT: on Luke, x.
LESSON III.--MIXED.
"The infinitive mode has commonly the sign to before it."--Harrison's Gram., p. 25. "Thus, it is adviseable to write singeing, from the verb to singe, by way of distinction from singing, the participle of the verb to sing."--Ib., p. 27. "Many verbs form both the preterite tense and the preterite participle irregularly."--Ib., p. 28. "Much must be left to every one's taste and judgment."--Ib., p. 67. "Verses of different lengths intermixed form a Pindarick poem."--Priestley's Gram., p. 44. "He'll surprize you."--Frost's El. of Gram., p. 88. "Unequalled archer! why was this concealed?"--KNOWLES: ib., p. 102. "So gaily curl the waves before each dashing prow."--BYRON: ib., p. 104. "When is a dipthong called a proper dipthong?"--Infant School Gram., p. 11. "How many ss would goodness then end with? Three."--Ib., p. 33. "Q. What is a tripthong? A. A tripthong is the union of three vowels, pronounced in like manner."--Bacon's Gram., p. 7. "The verb, noun, or pronoun, is referred to the preceding terms taken seperately."--Ib., p. 47. "The cubic foot of matter which occupies the center of the globe."--Cardell's Gram., 18mo, p. 47. "The wine imbibes oxigen, or the acidifying principle, from the air."--Ib., p. 62. "Charcoal, sulphur, and niter, make gun powder."--Ib., p. 90. "It would be readily understood, that the thing so labeled, was a bottle of Madeira wine."--Ib., p. 99. "They went their ways, one to his farm, an other to his merchandize."--Ib., p. 130. "A dipthong is the union of two vowels, sounded by a single impulse of the voice."--Russell's Gram., p. 7. "The professors of the Mahommedan religion are called Mussulmans."--Maltby's Gram., p. 73. "This shews that let is not a sign of the imperative mood, but a real verb."--Ib., p. 51. "Those preterites and participles, which are first mentioned in the list, seem to be the most eligible."--Ib., p. 47. "Monosyllables, for the most part, are compared by er and est; and dyssyllables by more and most."--Ib., p. 19. "This termination, added to a noun, or adjective, changes it into a verb: as modern, to modernise; a symbol, to symbolize."--Churchill's Gram., p. 24. "An Abridgment of Murray's Grammar, with additions from Webster, Ash, Tooke, and others."--Maltby's title-page. "For the sake of occupying the room more advantagously, the subject of Orthography is merely glanced at."--Nutting's Gram., p. 5. "So contended the accusers of Gallileo." ​--O. B. Peirce's Gram., 12mo, 1839, p. 380. "Murray says, 'They were traveling past when we met them.'"--Peirce, ib., p. 361. "They fulfil the only purposes for which they are designed."--Ib., p. 359. "On the fulfillment of the event."--Ib., p. 175. "Fullness consists in expressing every idea."--Ib., p. 291. "Consistently with fulness and perspicuity."--Ib., p. 337. "The word verriest is a gross corruption; as, 'He is the verriest fool on earth.'"--Wright's Gram., p. 202. "The sound will recal the idea of the object."--Hiley's Gram., p. 142. "Formed for great enterprizes."--Bullions's Prin. of E. Gram., p. 153. "The most important rules and definitions are printed in large type, italicised."--Hart's Gram., p. 3. "HAMLETTED, a. Accustomed to a hamlet; countrified."--Bolles's Dict., and Chalmers's. "Singular, spoonful, cup-full, coach-full, handful; plural, spoonfuls, cup-fulls, coach-fulls, handfuls."--Bullions's Analyt. and Pract. Gram., p. 27.
CHAPTER V.--QUESTIONS.
ORDER OF REHEARSAL, AND METHOD OF EXAMINATION.
[Fist][The student ought to be able to answer with readiness, and in the words of the book, all the following questions on grammar. And if he has but lately commenced the study, it may be well to require of him a general rehearsal of this kind, before he proceeds to the correction of any part of the false grammar quoted in the foregoing chapters. At any rate, he should be master of so many of the definitions and rules as precede the part which he attempts to correct; because this knowledge is necessary to a creditable performance of the exercise. But those who are very quick at reading, may perform it tolerably, by consulting the book at the time, for what they do not remember. The answers to these questions will embrace all the main text of the work; and, if any further examination be thought necessary, extemporaneous questions may be framed for the purpose.]
LESSON I.--GRAMMAR.
1. What is the name, or title, of this book? 2. What is Grammar? 3. What is an English Grammar? 4. What is English Grammar, in itself? and what knowledge does it imply? 5. If grammar is the art of reading, writing, and speaking, define these actions. What is it, to read? 6. What is it, to write? 7. What is it, to speak? 8. How is grammar to be taught, and by what means are its principles to be made known? 9. What is a perfect definition? 10. What is an example, as used in teaching? 11. What is a rule of grammar? 12. What is an exercise? 13. What was language at first, and what is it now? 14. Of what two kinds does the composition of language consist? and how do they differ? 15. What are the least parts of language? 16. What has discourse to do with sentences? or sentences, with points? 17. In extended compositions, what is the order of the parts, upwards from a sentence? 18. What, then, is the common order of literary division, downwards, throughout? 19. Are all literary works divided exactly in this way? 20. How is Grammar divided? 21. Of what does Orthography treat? 22. Of what does Etymology treat? 23. Of what does Syntax treat? 24. Of what does Prosody treat?
PART FIRST, ORTHOGRAPHY.
LESSON II.--LETTERS.
1. Of what does Orthography treat? 2. What is a letter? 3. What is an elementary sound of human voice, or speech? 4. What name is given to the sound of a letter? and what epithet, to a letter not sounded? 5. How many letters are there in English? and how many sounds do they represent? 6. In what does a knowledge of the letters consist? 7. What variety is there in the letters? and how are they always the same? 8. What different sorts of types, or styles of letters, are used in English? 9. What are the names of the letters in English? 10. What are their names in both numbers, singular and plural? 11. Into what general classes are the letters divided? 12. What is a vowel? 13. What is a consonant? 14. What letters are vowels? and what, consonants? 15. When are w and y consonants? and when, vowels? 16. How are the consonants divided? 17. What is a semivowel? 18. What is a mute? 19. What letters are reckoned semivowels? and how many of these are aspirates? 20. What letters are called liquids? and why? 21. What letters are reckoned mutes? and which of them are imperfect mutes?
LESSON III.--SOUNDS.
1. What is meant, when we speak of the powers of the letters? 2. Are the sounds of a language fewer than its words? 3. How are different vowel sounds produced? 4. What are the vowel sounds in English? 5. How may these sounds be modified in the formation of syllables? 6. Can you form a word upon each by means of an f? 7. Will you try the series again with a p? 8. How may the vowel sounds be written? and how uttered when they are not words? 9. Which of the vowel sounds form words? and what of the rest? 10. How many and what are the consonant sounds in English? 11. In what series of words may all these sounds be heard? ​12. In what series of words may each of them be heard two or three times? 13. What is said of the sounds of j and x? 14. What is said of the sounds of c and g? 15. What is said of sc, or s before c? 16. What, of ce, ci, and ch? 17. What sounds has the consonant g? 18. In how many different ways can the letters of the alphabet be combined? 19. What do we derive from these combinations of sounds and characters?
LESSON IV.--CAPITALS.
1. What characters are employed in English? 2. Why should the different sorts of letters be kept distinct? 3. What is said of the slanting strokes in Roman letters? 4. For what purpose are Italics chiefly used? 5. In preparing a manuscript, how do we mark these things for the printer? 6. What distinction of form belongs to each of the letters? 7. What is said of small letters? and why are capitals used? 8. What things are commonly exhibited wholly in capitals? 9. How many rules for capitals are given in this book? and what are their titles? 10. What says Rule 1st of books? 11. What says Rule 2d of first words? 12. What says Rule 3d of names of Deity? 13. What says Rule 4th of proper names? 14. What says Rule 5th of titles? 15. What says Rule 6th of one capital? 16. What says Rule 7th of two capitals? 17. What says Rule 8th of compounds? 18. What says Rule 9th of apposition? 19. What says Rule 10th of personifications? 20. What says Rule 11th of derivatives? 21. What says Rule 12th of I and O? 22. What says Rule 13th of poetry? 23. What says Rule 14th of examples? 24. What says Rule 15th of chief words? 25. What says Rule 16th of needless capitals?
[Now turn to the first chapter of Orthography, and correct the improprieties there quoted for the practical application of these rules.]
LESSON V.--SYLLABLES.
1. What is a syllable? 2. Can the syllables of a word be perceived by the ear? 3. Under what names are words classed according to the number of their syllables? 4. Which of the letters can form syllables of themselves? and which cannot? 5. What is a diphthong? 6. What is a proper diphthong? 7. What is an improper diphthong? 8. What is a triphthong? 9. What is a proper triphthong? 10. What is an improper triphthong? 11. How many and what are the diphthongs in English? 12. How many and which of these are so variable in sound that they may be either proper or improper diphthongs? 13. How many and what are the proper diphthongs? 14. How many and what are the improper diphthongs? 15. Are proper triphthongs numerous in our language? 16. How many and what are the improper triphthongs? 17. What guide have we for dividing words into syllables? 18. How many special rules of syllabication are given in this book? and what are their titles, or subjects? 19. What says Rule 1st of consonants? 20. What says Rule 2d of vowels? 21. What says Rule 3d of terminations? 22. What says Rule 4th of prefixes? 23. What says Rule 5th of compounds? 24. What says Rule 6th of lines full?
[Now turn to the second chapter of Orthography, and correct the improprieties there quoted for the practical application of these rules.]
LESSON VI.--WORDS.
1. What is a word? 2. How are words distinguished in regard to species and figure? 3. What is a primitive word? 4. What is a derivative word? 5. What is a simple word? 6. What is a compound word? 7. How do permanent compounds differ from others? 8. How many rules for the figure of words are given in this book? and what are their titles, or subjects? 9. What says Rule 1st of compounds? 10. What says Rule 2d of simples? 11. What says Rule 3d of the sense? 12. What says Rule 4th of ellipses? 13. What says Rule 5th of the hyphen? 14. What says Rule 6th of no hyphen?
[Now turn to the third chapter of Orthography, and correct the improprieties there quoted for the practical application of these rules.]
LESSON VII.--SPELLING.
1. What is spelling? 2. How is this art to be acquired? and why so? 3. Why is it difficult to learn to spell accurately? 4. Is it then any disgrace to spell words erroneously? 5. What benefit may be expected from the rules for spelling? 6. How many rules for spelling are given in this book? and what are their titles, or subjects? 7. What says Rule 1st of final f, l, or s? 8. Can you mention the principal exceptions to this rule? 9. What says Rule 2d of other finals? 10. Are there any exceptions to this rule? 11. What says Rule 3d of the doubling of consonants? 12. Under what three heads are the exceptions to this rule noticed? 13. What says Rule 4th against the doubling of consonants? 14. Under what four heads are the apparent exceptions to this Rule noticed? 15. What says Rule 5th of final ck? 16. What monosyllables, contrary to this rule, end with c only? 17. What says Rule 6th of the retaining of double letters before affixes? 18. Under what three heads are the exceptions to this rule noticed? 19. What says Rule 7th of the retaining of double letters after prefixes? 20. What observation is made respecting exceptions to this rule?
LESSON VIII.--SPELLING.
21. What says Rule 8th of final ll, and of final l single? 22. What words does this rule claim, which might seem to come under Rule 7th? and why? 23. What says Rule 9th of final e ​omitted? 24. Under what three heads are the exceptions, real or apparent, here noticed? 25. What says Rule 10th of final e retained? 26. Under what three heads are the exceptions to this rule noticed? 27. What says Rule 11th of final y changed? 28. Under what three heads are the limits and exceptions to this rule noticed? 29. What says Rule 12th of final y unchanged? 30. Under what three heads are the exceptions to this rule noticed? 31. What says Rule 13th of the terminations ize and ise? 32. Under what three heads are the apparent exceptions to this rule noticed? 33. What says Rule 14th of compounds? 34. Under what seven heads are the exceptions to this rule noticed? 35. What says Rule 15th of usage, as a law of spelling?
[Now turn to the fourth chapter of Orthography, and correct the improprieties there quoted for the practical application of these rules and their exceptions.]
CHAPTER VI.--FOR WRITING.
EXERCISES IN ORTHOGRAPHY.
[Fist] [The following examples of false orthography are inserted here, and not explained in the general Key, that they may he corrected by the pupil in writing. Some of the examples here quoted are less inaccurate than others, but all of them, except a few shown in contrast, are, in some respect or other, erroneous. It is supposed, that every student who can answer the questions contained in the preceding chapter, will readily discern wherein the errors lie, and be able to make the necessary corrections.]
EXERCISE I.--CAPITALS.
"Alexander the great killed his friend Clitus."--Harrison's Gram., p. 68. "The words in italics are parsed in the same manner."--Maltby's Gram., p. 69. "It may be read by those who do not understand latin."--Barclay's Works, Vol. iii, p. 262. "A roman s being added to a word in italics or small capitals."--Churchill's Gram., p. 215. "This is not simply a gallicism, but a corruption of the French on; itself a corruption."-- Ib., p. 228. "The Gallicism, 'it is me,' is perpetually striking the ear in London."--Ib., p. 316. "'Almost nothing,' is a common Scotticism, equally improper: it should be, 'scarcely any thing.'"--Ib., p. 333. "To use learn for teach, is a common Scotticism, that ought to be carefully avoided."--See ib., p. 261. "A few observations on the subjunctive mood as it appears in our English bible."--Wilcox's Gram., p. 40. "The translators of the bible, have confounded two tenses, which in the original are uniformly kept distinct."--Ib., p. 40. "More like heaven on earth, than the holy land would have been."--Anti-Slavery Mag., Vol. i, p. 72. "There is now extant a poetical composition, called the golden verses of Pythagoras."-- Lempriere's Dict. "Exercise of the Mind upon Theorems of Science, like generous and manly Exercise of the Body, tends to call forth and strengthen Nature's original Vigour."--Harris's Hermes, p. 295. "O that I could prevail on Christians to melt down, under the warm influence of brotherly love, all the distinctions of methodists, independents, baptists, anabaptists, arians, trinitarians, unitarians, in the glorious name of christians."--KNOX: Churchill's Gram., p. 173. "Pythagoras long ago remarked, 'that ability and necessity dwell near each other.'"--Student's Manual, p. 285.
EXERCISE II.--SYLLABLES.
1. Correct Bolles, in the division of the following words: "Del-ia, Jul-ia, Lyd-ia, heigh-ten, pat-ron, ad-roit, worth-y, fath-er, fath-er-ly, mar-chi-o-ness, i-dent-ic-al, out-ra-ge-ous, ob-nox-i-ous, pro-di-gi-ous, tre-mend-ous, ob-liv-i-on, pe-cul-i-ar."--Revised Spelling-Book: New London, 1831.
2. Correct Sears, in the division of the following words: "A-quil-a, hear-ty, drea-ry, wor-my, hai-ry, thor-ny, phil-os-o-phy, dis-cov-e-ry, re-cov-e-ry, ad-diti-on, am-biti-on, au-spici-ous, fac-titi-ous, fla-giti-ous, fru-iti-on, sol-stiti-al, ab-o-liti-on."--Standard Spelling-Book: "New Haven," 1826.
3. Correct Bradley, in the division of the following words: "Jes-ter, rai-ny, forg-e-ry, fin-e-ry, spic-e-ry, brib-e-ry, groc-e-ry, chi-can-e-ry, fer-riage, line-age, cri-ed, tri-ed, sù-ed, slic-ed, forc-ed, pledg-ed, sav-ed, dup-ed, strip-ed, touch-ed, trounc-ed."--Improved Spelling-Book: Windsor, 1815.
4. Correct Burhans, in the division of the following words: "Boar-der, brigh-ten, cei-ling, frigh-ten, glea-ner, lea-kage, suc-ker, mos-sy, fros-ty, twop-ence, pu-pill-ar-y, crit-i-call-y, gen-er-all-y, lit-er-all-y, log-i-call-y, trag-i-call-y, ar-ti-fici-al, po-liti-call-y, sloth-full-y, spite-full-y, re-all-y, sui-ta-ble, ta-mea-ble, flumm-er-y, nesc-i-ence, shep-her-dess, trav-ell-er, re-pea-ter, re-pressi-on, suc-cessi-on, un-lear-ned."--Critical Pronouncing Spelling-Book:[128] Phila ​delphia, 1823.
5. Correct Marshall, in the division of the following words: "Trench-er, trunch-eon, dros-sy, glos-sy, glas-sy, gras-sy, dres-ses, pres-ses, cal-ling, chan-ging, en-chan-ging, con-ver-sing, mois-ture, join-ture, qua-drant, qua-drate, trans-gres-sor, dis-es-teem."--New Spelling-Book: New York, 1836.
6. Correct Emerson, in the division of the following words: "Dus-ty mis-ty, mar-shy, mil-ky, wes-tern, stor-my, nee-dy, spee-dy, drea-ry, fros-ty, pas-sing, roc-ky, bran-chy, bland-ish, pru-dish, eve-ning, a-noth-er."--National Spelling-Book: Boston, 1828.
EXERCISE III.--FIGURE OF WORDS.
"I was surprised by the return of my long lost brother."--Parker's Exercises in English Composition, p. 5. "Such singular and unheard of clemency cannot be passed over by me in silence."--Ib., p. 10. "I perceive my whole system excited by the potent stimulus of sun-shine."--Ib., p. 11. "To preserve the unity of a sentence, it is sometimes necessary to employ the case absolute, instead of the verb and conjunction."--Ib., p. 17. "Severity and hard hearted opinions accord with the temper of the times."--Ib., p. 18. "That poor man was put into the mad house."--Ib., p. 22. "This fellow must be put into the poor house."--Ib. p. 22. "I have seen the breast works and other defences of earth, that were thrown up."--Ib., p. 24. "Cloven footed animals are enabled to walk more easily on uneven ground."--Ib., p. 25. "Self conceit blasts the prospects of many a youth."--Ib., p. 26. "Not a moment should elapse without bringing some thing to pass."--Ib., p. 36. "A school master decoyed the children of the principal citizens into the Roman camp."--Ib., p. 39. "The pupil may now write a description of the following objects. A school room. A steam boat. A writing desk. A dwelling house. A meeting house. A paper mill. A grist mill. A wind mill."--Ib., p. 45. "Every metaphor should be founded on a resemblance which is clear and striking; not far fetched, nor difficult to be discovered."--Ib., p. 49. "I was reclining in an arbour overhung with honey suckle and jessamine of the most exquisite fragrance."--Ib., p. 51. "The author of the following extract is speaking of the slave trade."--Ib., p. 60. "The all wise and benevolent Author of nature has so framed the soul of man, that he cannot but approve of virtue."--Ib., p. 74. "There is something of self denial in the very idea of it."--Ib., p. 75. "Age therefore requires a well spent youth to render it happy."--Ib., p. 76. "Pearl-ash requires much labour in its extraction from ashes."--Ib., p. 91. "Club, or crump, footed, Loripes; Rough, or leather, footed, Plumipes."--Ainsworth's Dict.
EXERCISE IV.--SPELLING.
"His antichamber, and room of audience, are little square chambers wainscoted."--ADDISON: Johnson's Dict., w. Antechamber. "Nobody will deem the quicksighted amongst them to have very enlarged views of ethicks."--LOCKE: Ib., w. Quicksighted. "At the rate of this thick-skulled blunderhead, every plow-jobber shall take upon him to read upon divinity."--L'ESTRANGE: Ib., m. Blunderhead. "On the topmast, the yards, and boltsprit would I flame distinctly."--SHAK.: Ib., w. Bowsprit. "This is the tune of our catch plaid by the picture of nobody."--ID.: Ib., w. Nobody. "Thy fall hath left a kind of blot to mark the fulfraught man."--ID.: Ib., w. Fulfraught. "Till blinded by some Jack o'Lanthorn sprite."--Snelling's Gift, p. 62. "The beauties you would have me eulogise."--Ib., p. 14. "They rail at me--I gaily laugh at them."--Ib., p. 13. "Which the king and his sister had intrusted to him withall."--Josephus, Vol. v, p. 143. "The terms of these emotions are by no means synonimous."--Rush, on the Voice, p. 336. "Lillied, adj. Embellished with lilies."--Chalmers's Dict. "They seize the compendious blessing without exertion and without reflexion."--Philological Museum, Vol. i, p. 428. "The first cry that rouses them from their torpour, is the cry that demands their blood."--Ib., p. 433. "It meets the wants of elementary schools and deserves to be patronised."--Kirkham's Gram., p. 5. "Whose attempts were paralysed by the hallowed sound."--Music of Nature, p. 270. "It would be an amusing investigation to analyse their language."--Ib., p. 200. "It is my father's will that I should take on me the hostess-ship of the day."--SHAK.: in Johnson's Dict. "To retain the full apprehension of them undiminisht."--Phil. Museum., Vol. i, p. 458. "The ayes and noes were taken in the House of Commons."--Anti-Slavery Mag., Vol. i, p. 11. "Derivative words are formed by adding letters or syllables to primatives."--Davenport's Gram., p. 7. "The minister never was thus harrassed himself."--Nelson, on Infidelity, p. 6. "The most vehement politician thinks himself unbiassed in his judgment."--Ib., p. 17. "Mistress-ship, n. Female rule or dominion."--Webster's Dict.
EXERCISE V.--MIXED ERRORS.
"The quince tree is of a low stature; the branches are diffused and crooked."--MILLER: Johnson's Dict. "The greater slow worm, called also the blindworm, is commonly thought to be blind, because of the littleness of his eyes."--GREW: ib. "Oh Hocus! where art thou? It used to go in another guess manner in thy time."--ARBUTHNOT: ib. "One would not make a hotheaded crackbrained coxcomb forward for a scheme of moderation."--ID.: ib. "As for you, colonel huff-cap, we shall try before a civil magistrate who's the greatest plotter."--DRYDEN: ib., w. Huff. "In like manner, Actions co-alesce with their Agents, and Passions with their Patients."--Harris's Hermes, p. 263. "These Sentiments are not unusual even with the Philosopher now a days."--Ib., p. 350. "As if the Marble were to fashion the Chizzle, and not the Chizzle the Marble."--Ib., p. 353. "I would not be understood, in what I have said, to undervalue Experiment."--Ib., p. 352. "How therefore is it that they approach nearly to Non-Entity's?"--Ib., p. 431. "Gluttonise, modernise, epitomise, barbarise, tyranise."--Churchill's Gram., pp. 31 and 42. "Now fair befal thee and thy noble house!"--SHAK.: ib., p. 241. "Nor do I think the error above-mentioned would have been so long indulged," &c.--Ash's Gram., p. 4. "The editor of the two editions above mentioned was pleased to give this little manuel to the public," &c.--Ib., p. 7. "A Note of Admiration denotes a modelation of the voice suited to the expression."--Ib., p. 16. "It always has some respect to the power of the agent; and is therefore properly stiled the potential mode."--Ib., p. 29. "Both these are supposed to be synonomous expressions."--Ib., p. 105. "An expence beyond what my circumstances admit."--DODDRIDGE: ib., p. 138. "There are four of them: the Full-Point, or Period; the Colon; the Semi-Colon; the Comma."--Cobbett's E. Gram., N. Y., 1818, p. 77. "There are many men, who have been at Latin-Schools for years, and who, at last, cannot write six sentences in English correctly."--Ib., p. 39. "But, figures of rhetorick are edge tools, and two edge tools too."--Ib., p. 182. "The horse-chesnut grows into a goodly standard."--MORTIMER: Johnson's Dict. "Whereever if is to be used."--O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 175.
EXERCISE VI.--MIXED ERRORS.
"Pied, adj. [from pie.] Variegated; partycoloured."--Johnson's Dict. "Pie, [pica, Lat.] A magpie; a party-coloured bird."--Ib. "Gluy, adj. [from glue.] Viscous; tenacious; glutinous."--Ib. "Gluey, a. Viscous, glutinous. Glueyness. n. The quality of being gluey."--Webster's Dict. "Old Euclio, seeing a crow-scrat[129] upon the muck-hill, returned in all haste, taking it for an ill sign."--BURTON: Johnson's Dict. "Wars are begun by hairbrained[130] dissolute captains."--ID.: ib. "A carot is a well known garden root."--Red Book, p. 60. "Natural philosophy, metaphysicks, ethicks, history, theology, and politicks, were familiar to him."--Kirkham's Elocution, p. 209. "The words in Italicks and capitals, are emphatick."--Ib., p. 210. "It is still more exceptionable; Candles, Cherrys, Figs, and other sorts of Plumbs, being sold by Weight, and being Plurals."--Johnson's Gram. Com., p. 135. "If the End of Grammar be not to save that Trouble, and Expence of Time, I know not what it is good for."--Ib., p. 161. "Caulce, Sheep Penns, or the like, has no Singular, according to Charisius."--Ib., p. 194. "These busibodies are like to such as reade bookes with intent onely to spie out the faults thereof"--Perkins's Works, p. 741. "I think it every man's indispensible duty, to do all the service he can to his country."--Locke, on Ed., p. 4. "Either fretting it self into a troublesome Excess, or flaging into a downright want of Appetite."--Ib., p. 23. "And nobody would have a child cramed at breakfast."--Ib., p. 23. "Judgeship and judgment, lodgable and alledgeable, alledgement and abridgment, lodgment and infringement, enlargement and acknowledgment."--Webster's Dict., 8vo. "Huckster, n. s. One who sells goods by retail, or in small quantities; a pedler."--Johnson's Dict.
EXERCISE VII.--MIXED ERRORS.
"Boys like a warm fire in a wintry day."--Webster's El. Spelling-Book, p. 62. "The lilly is a very pretty flower."--Ib., p. 62. "The potatoe is a native plant of America."--Ib., p. 60. "An anglicism is a peculiar mode of speech among the English."--Ib., p. 136. "Black berries and raspberries grow on briars."--Ib., p. 150. "You can broil a beef steak over the coals of fire."--Ib., p. 38. "Beef'-steak, n. A steak or slice of beef for broiling."--Webster's Dict. "Beef'steak, s. a slice of beef for broiling."--Treasury of Knowledge. "As he must suffer in case of the fall of merchandize, he is entitled to the corresponding gain if merchandize rises."--Wayland's Moral Science, p. 258. "He is the worshipper of an hour, but the worldling for life."--Maturin's Sermons, p. 424. "Slyly hinting something to the disadvantage of great and honest men."--Webster's Essays, p. 329. "'Tis by this therefore that I Define the Verb; namely, that it is a Part of Speech, by which something is apply'd to another, as to its Subject."--Johnson's Gram. Com., ​p. 255. "It may sometimes throw a passing cloud over the bright hour of gaiety."--Kirkham's Elocution, p. 178. "To criticize, is to discover errors; and to crystalize implies to freeze or congele."--Red Book, p. 68. "The affectation of using the preterite instead of the participle, is peculiarly aukward; as, he has came."--Priestley's Grammar, p. 125. "They are moraly responsible for their individual conduct."--Cardell's El. Gram., p. 21. "An engine of sixty horse power, is deemed of equal force with a team of sixty horses."--Red Book, p. 113. "This, at fourpence per ounce, is two shillings and fourpence a week, or six pounds, one shining and four pence a year."--Ib., p. 122. "The tru meening of parliament iz a meeting of barons or peers."--Webster's Essays, p. 276. "Several authorities seem at leest to favor this opinion."--Ib., p. 277. "That iz, az I hav explained the tru primitiv meening of the word."--Ib., p. 276. "The lords are peers of the relm; that iz, the ancient prescriptiv judges or barons."--Ib., p. 274.
EXERCISE VIII--MIXED ERRORS.
"A second verb so nearly synonimous with the first, is at best superfluous."--Churchill's Gram., p. 332. "Indicate it, by some mark opposite [to] the word misspelt."--Abbott's Teacher, p. 74. "And succesfully controling the tendencies of mind."--Ib., p. 24. "It [the Monastick Life] looks very like what we call Childrens-Play."--[LESLIE'S] Right of Tythes, p. 236. "It seems rather lik Playing of Booty, to Please those Fools and Knaves."--Ib., Pref., p. vi. "And first I Name Milton, only for his Name, lest the Party should say, that I had not Cousider'd his Performance against Tythes."--Ib., p. iv. "His Fancy was too Predominant for his Judgment. His Talent lay so much in Satyr that he hated Reasoning."--Ib., p. iv. "He has thrown away some of his Railery against Tythes, and the Church then underfoot."--Ib., p. v. "They Vey'd with one another in these things."--Ib., p. 220. "Epamanondas was far the most accomplished of the Thebans."--Cooper's New Gram., p. 27. "Whoever and Whichever, are thus declined. Sing. and Plur. nom. whoever, poss. whoseever, obj. whomever. Sing. and Plu. nom. whichever, poss. whoseever, obj. whichever."--Ib., p. 38. "WHEREEVER, adv. [where and ever.] At whatever place."--Webster's Dict. "They at length took possession of all the country south of the Welch mountains."--Dobson's Comp. Gram., p. 7. "Those Britains, who refused to submit to the foreign yoke, retired into Wales."--Ib., p. 6. "Religion is the most chearful thing in the world."--Ib., p. 43. "Two means the number two compleatly, whereas second means only the last of two, and so of all the rest."--Ib., p. 44. "Now send men to Joppa, and call for one Simon, whose sirname is Peter."--Ib., p. 96. (See Acts, x, 5.) "In French words, we use enter instead of inter; as, entertain, enterlace, enterprize."--Ib., p. 101. "Amphiology, i. e. a speech of uncertain or doubtful meaning."--Ib., p. 103. "Surprize; as, hah! hey day! what! strange!"--Ib., p. 109. "Names of the letters: ai bee see dee ee ef jee aitch eye jay kay el em en o pee cue ar ess tee you voe double u eks wi zed."--Rev. W. Allen's Gram., p. 3.
EXERCISE IX.--MIXED ERRORS.
"And is written for eacend, adding, ekeing."--Dr. Murray's Hist. of Europ. Lang., Vol. i, p. 222. "The Hindus have changed ai into e, sounded like e in where."--Ib., Vol. ii, p. 121. "And therefor I would rather see the cruelest usurper than the mildest despot."-- Philological Museum, Vol. i, p. 430. "Sufficiently distinct to prevent our marveling."--Ib., i, 477. "Possessed of this preheminence he disregarded the clamours of the people."--Smollett's England, Vol. iii, p. 222. "He himself, having communicated, administered the sacrament to some of the bye-standers."--Ib., p. 222. "The high fed astrology which it nurtured, is reduced to a skeleton on the leaf of an almanac."--Cardell's Gram., p. 6. "Fulton was an eminent engineer: he invented steam boats."--Ib., p. 30. "Then, in comes the benign latitude of the doctrine of goodwill."--SOUTH: in Johnson's Dict. "Being very lucky in a pair of long lanthorn-jaws, he wrung his face into a hideous grimace."--SPECTATOR: ib. "Who had lived almost four-and-twenty years under so politick a king as his father."--BACON: ib., w. Lowness. "The children will answer; John's, or William's, or whose ever it may be."--Infant School Gram., p. 32. "It is found tolerably easy to apply them, by practising a little guess work."--Cardell's Gram., p. 91. "For between which two links could speech makers draw the division line?"--Ib., p. 50. "The wonderful activity of the rope dancer who stands on his head."--Ib., p. 56. "The brilliancy which the sun displays on its own disk, is sun shine."--Ib., p. 63. "A word of three syllables is termed a trisyllable."--Murray's Gram., p. 23; Coar's, 17; Jaudon's, 13; Comly's, 8; Cooper's, New Gr., 8; Kirkham's, 20; Picket's, 10; Alger's, 12; Blair's, 1; Guy's, 2; Bolles's Spelling-Book, 161. See Johnson's Dict. "A word of three syllables is termed a trissyllable."--British Gram., p. 33; Comprehensive Gram., 23; Bicknell's, 17; Allen's, 31; John Peirce's, 149; Lennie's, 5; Maltby's, 8; Ingersoll's, 7; Bradley's, 66; Davenport's, 7; Bucke's, 16; Bolles's Spelling-Book, 91. See Littleton's Lat. Dict. (1.) "Will, in the first Persons, promises or threatens: But in the second and third Persons, it barely foretells."--British Gram., p. 132. (2.) "Will, in the first Persons, promises or threatens; but in the second and third Persons, it barely foretells."--Buchanan's Gram., p. 41. (3.) "Will, in the first person, promises, engages, or threatens. In ​the second and third persons, it merely foretels."--Jaudon's Gram., p. 59. (4.) "Will, in the first person singular and plural, promises or threatens; in the second and third persons, only foretells."--Lowth's Gram., p. 41. (5.) "Will, in the first person singular and plural, intimates resolution and promising; in the second and third person, only foretels."--Murray's Gram., p. 88; Ingersoll's, 136; Fisk's, 78; A. Flint's, 42; Bullions's, 32; Hamlin's, 41; Cooper's Murray, 50. [Fist] Murray's Second Edition has it "foretells." (6.) "Will, in the first person singular and plural, expresses resolution and promising. In the second and third persons it only foretells."--Comly's Gram., p. 38; E. Devis's, 51; Lennie's, 22. (7.) "Will, in the first person, promises. In the second and third persons, it simply foretels."--Maltby's Gram., p. 24. (8.) "Will, in the first person implies resolution and promising; in the second and third, it foretells."--Cooper's New Gram., p. 51. (9.) "Will, in the first person singular and plural, promises or threatens; in the second and third persons, only foretels: shall, on the contrary, in the first person, simply foretels; in the second and third persons, promises, commands, or threatens."--Adam's Lat. and Eng. Gram., p. 83. (10.) "In the first person shall foretels, and will promises or threatens; but in the second and third persons will foretels, and shall promises or threatens."--Blair's Gram., p. 65.
EXERCISE X.--MIXED ERRORS.
"I am liable to be charged that I latinize too much."--DRYDEN: in Johnson's Dict. "To mould him platonically to his own idea."--WOTTON: ib. "I will marry a wife as beautiful as the houries, and as wise as Zobeide."--Murray's E. Reader, p. 148. "I will marry a wife, beautiful as the Houries."--Wilcox's Gram., p. 65. "The words in italics are all in the imperative mood."--Maltby's Gram., p. 71. "Words Italicised, are emphatick, in various degrees."--Kirkham's Elocution, p. 173. "Wherever two gg's come together, they are both hard."--Buchanan's Gram., p. 5. "But these are rather silent (o)'s than obscure (u)'s."--Brightland's Gram., p. 19. "That can be Guest at by us, only from the Consequences."--Right of Tythes, p. viii. "He says he was glad that he had Baptized so few; And asks them, Were ye Baptised in the Name of Paul?"--Ib., p. ix. "Therefor he Charg'd the Clergy with the Name of Hirelings."--Ib., p. viii. "On the fourth day before the first second day in each month."--The Friend, Vol. vii, p. 230. "We are not bound to adhere for ever to the terms, or to the meaning of terms, which were established by our ancestors."--Murray's Gram., p. 140. "O! learn from him to station quick eyed Prudence at the helm."--Frosts El. of Gram., p. 104. "It pourtrays the serene landscape of a retired village."--Music of Nature, p. 421. "By stating the fact, in a circumlocutary manner."--Booth's Introd. to Dict., p. 33. "Time as an abstract being is a non-entity."--Ib., p. 29. "From the difficulty of analysing the multiplied combinations of words."--Ib., p. 19. "Drop those letters that are superfluous, as: handful, foretel."--Cooper's Plain & Pract. Gram., p. 10. "Shall, in the first person, simply foretells."--Ib., p. 51. "And the latter must evidently be so too, or, at least, cotemporary, with the act."--Ib., p. 60. "The man has been traveling for five years."--Ib., p. 77. "I shall not take up time in combatting their scruples."--Blair's Rhet., p. 320. "In several of the chorusses of Euripides and Sophocles, we have the same kind of lyric poetry as in Pindar."--Ib., p. 398. "Until the Statesman and Divine shall unite their efforts in forming the human mind, rather than in loping its excressences, after it has been neglected."--Webster's Essays, p. 26. "Where conviction could be followed only by a bigotted persistence in error."--Ib., p. 78. "All the barons were entitled to a seet in the national council, in right of their baronys."--Ib., p. 260. "Some knowledge of arithmetic is necessary for every lady."--Ib., p. 29. "Upon this, [the system of chivalry,] were founded those romances of night-errantry."--Blair's Rhet., p. 374. "The subject is, the atchievements of Charlemagne and his Peers, or Paladins."--Ib., p. 374. "Aye, aye; this slice to be sure outweighs the other."--Blair's Reader, p. 31. "In the common phrase, good-bye, bye signifies passing, going. The phrase signifies, a good going, a prosperous passage, and is equivalent to farewell."--Webster's Dict. "Good-by, adv.--a contraction of good be with you--a familiar way of bidding farewell."--See Chalmers's Dict. "Off he sprung, and did not so much as stop to say good bye to you."--Blair's Reader, p. 16. "It no longer recals the notion of the action."--Barnard's Gram., p. 69.
EXERCISE XI.--MIXED ERRORS.
"The practices in the art of carpentry are called planeing, sawing, mortising, scribing, moulding, &c."--Blair's Reader, p. 118. "With her left hand, she guides the thread round the spindle, or rather round a spole which goes on the spindle."--Ib., p. 134. "Much suff'ring heroes next their honours claim."--POPE: Johnson's Dict., w. Much. "Vein healing verven, and head purging dill."--SPENSER: ib., w. Head. "An, in old English, signifies if; as, 'an it please your honor.'"--Webster's Dict. "What, then, was the moral worth of these renouned leaders?"--M'Ilvaine's Lect., p. 460. "Behold how every form of human misery is met by the self denying diligence of the benevolent."--Ib., p. 411. "Reptiles, bats, and doleful creatures--jackalls, hyenas, and lions--inhabit the holes, and caverns, and marshes of the desolate city."--Ib., p. 270. "ADAYS, ​adv. On or in days; as, in the phrase, now adays."--Webster's Dict. "REFEREE, one to whom a thing is referred; TRANSFERREE, the person to whom a transfer is made."--Ib. "The Hospitallers were an order of knights who built a hospital at Jerusalem for pilgrims."--Ib. "GERARD, Tom, or Tung, was the institutor and first grand master of the knights hospitalers: he died in 1120."--Biog. Dict. "I had a purpose now to lead our many to the holy land."--SHAK.: in Johnson's Dict. "He turned their heart to hate his people, to deal subtilly with his servants."--Psalms, cv, 25. "In Dryden's ode of Alexander's Feast, the line, 'Faln, faln, faln, faln,' represents a gradual sinking of the mind."--Kames, El. of Crit., Vol. ii, p. 71. "The first of these lines is marvelously nonsensical."--Jamieson's Rhet., p. 117. "We have the nicely chiseled forms of an Apollo and a Venus, but it is the same cold marble still."--Christian Spect., Vol. viii, p. 201. "Death waves his mighty wand and paralyses all."--Bucke's Gram., p. 35. "Fear God. Honor the patriot. Respect virtue."--Kirkham's Gram., p. 216. "Pontius Pilate being Governour of Judea, and Herod being Tetrarch of Galilee."--Ib., p. 189. See Luke, iii, 1. "AUCTIONEER, n. s. The person that manages an auction."--Johnson's Dict. "The earth put forth her primroses and days-eyes, to behold him."--HOWEL: ib. "Musselman, not being a compound of man, is musselmans in the plural."--Lennie's Gram., p. 9. "The absurdity of fatigueing them with a needless heap of grammar rules."--Burgh's Dignity, Vol. i, p. 147. "John was forced to sit with his arms a kimbo, to keep them asunder."--ARBUTHNOT: Joh. Dict. "To set the arms a kimbo, is to set the hands on the hips, with the elbows projecting outward."--Webster's Dict. "We almost uniformly confine the inflexion to the last or the latter noun."--Maunder's Gram., p. 2. "This is all souls day, fellows! Is it not?"--SHAK.: in Joh. Dict. "The english physicians make use of troy-weight."--Johnson's Dict. "There is a certain number of ranks allowed to dukes, marquisses, and earls."--PEACHAM: ib., w. Marquis.
EXERCISE XII.--MIXED ERRORS.
"In reading, every appearance of sing-song should be avoided."--Sanborn's Gram., p. 75. "If you are thoroughly acquainted with the inflexions of the verb."--Ib., p. 53. "The preterite of read is pronounced red."--Ib., p. 48. "Humility opens a high way to dignity."--Ib., p. 15. "What is intricate must be unraveled."--Ib., p. 275. "Roger Bacon invented gun powder, A. D. 1280."--Ib., p. 277. "On which ever word we lay the emphasis."--Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 243; 12mo, p. 195. "Each of the leaders was apprized of the Roman invasion."--Nixon's Parser, p. 123. "If I say, 'I gallopped from Islington to Holloway;' the verb is intransitive: if, 'I gallopped my horse from Islington to Holloway;' it is transitive."--Churchill's Gram., p. 238. "The reasonableness of setting a part one day in seven."--The Friend, Vol. iv, p. 240. "The promoters of paper money making reprobated this act."--Webster's Essays, p. 196. "There are five compound personal pronouns, which are derived from the five simple personal pronouns by adding to some of their cases the syllable self; as, my-self, thy-self, him-self, her-self, it-self."--Perley's Gram., p. 16. "Possessives, my-own, thy-own, his-own, her-own, its-own, our-own, your-own, their-own."--Ib., Declensions. "Thy man servant and thy maid servant may rest, as well as thou."--Sanborn's Gram., p. 160. "How many right angles has an acute angled triangle?"--Ib., p. 220. "In the days of Jorum, king of Israel, flourished the prophet Elisha."--Ib., p. 148. "In the days of Jorum, king of Israel, Elisha, the prophet flourished."--Ib., p. 133. "Lodgable, a. Capable of affording a temporary abode."--Webster's Octavo Dict.--"Win me into the easy hearted man."--Johnson's Quarto Dict. "And then to end life, is the same as to dye."--Milnes's Greek Gram., p. 176. "Those usurping hectors who pretend to honour without religion, think the charge of a lie a blot not to be washed out but by blood."--SOUTH: Joh. Dict. "His gallies attending him, he pursues the unfortunate."--Nixon's Parser, p. 91. "This cannot fail to make us shyer of yielding our assent."--Campbell's Rhet., p. 117. "When he comes to the Italicised word, he should give it such a definition as its connection with the sentence may require."--Claggett's Expositor, p. vii. "Learn to distil from your lips all the honies of persuasion."--Adams's Rhetoric, Vol. i, p. 31. "To instill ideas of disgust and abhorrence against the Americans."--Ib., ii, 300. "Where prejudice has not acquired an uncontroled ascendency."--Ib., i, 31. "The uncontrolable propensity of his mind was undoubtedly to oratory."--Ib., i, 100. "The Brutus is a practical commentary upon the dialogues and the orator."--Ib., i, 120. "The oratorical partitions are a short elementary compendium."--Ib., i, 130. "You shall find hundreds of persons able to produce a crowd of good ideas upon any subject, for one that can marshall them to the best advantage."--Ib., i, 169. "In this lecture, you have the outline of all that the whole course will comprize."--Ib., i, 182. "He would have been stopped by a hint from the bench, that he was traveling out of the record."--Ib., i, 289. "To tell them that which should befal them in the last days."--Ib., ii, 308. "Where all is present, there is nothing past to recal."--Ib., ii, 358. "Whose due it is to drink the brimfull cup of God's eternal vengeance."--Law and Grace, p. 36.
* ↑ The Scotch Iz
* ↑ William Bolles, in