OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Tarai

See also Terai on Wikipedia; Tarai in the 11th Edition; and the disclaimer.
TARAI, a British district in the Kumáun division of the lieutenant-governorship of the North-West Provinces and Oudh, India, lying between 28° 51' and 29° 30' N. lat. and 78° 46' and 79° 47' E. long. It contains an area of 938 square miles, and is bounded on the N. by the Khumáun Bhábar, on the E. by Nepál and Pilibhit sub-division of Bareilly district, on the S. by the districts of Bareilly and Moradábád and the native state of Rámpur, and on the W. by Bijnaur. The headquarters of the district are at Naini Tal. Tarai ("moist land") consists of a long narrow strip of country running for about 90 miles east and west along the foot of the Himalayas, with an average breadth of about 12 miles. At its northern edge, where the waterless forest tract of the Bhábar ends, a series of springs burst from the surface, and these, increasing and uniting in their progress, form the numerous streams that intersect the Tarai. The Deoha is the great river of the Tarai proper, and is navigable at Pilibhit. Elephants, tigers, bears, leopards, hyænas, and other wild animals are found in the district. The climate is normally bad, but improvement is gradually following the spread of sanitary measures.
According to the census of 1881 the population was 206,993 (113,315 males and 93,678 females). Hindus numbered 131,966 and Mohammedans 74,982. The only town with a population exceeding 10,000 is Kásipur, with 14,667 inhabitants. The whole tendency of the population is to agricultural and not to urban life. ​The total area under crop in 1884‒85 was 254,288 acres, of which rice occupied 92,186 acres, wheat 54,627, and other food grains 80,304 acres. There are no manufactures worthy of note, and the chief trade is the export of grain. The gross revenue in 1884‒85 amounted to £42,048, the land yielding £35,507. The Tarai came under British rule at the time (1802) when Rohilkhand was ceded to the East India Company. The Government is said to have looked with indifference on this uninviting tract, but since 1831, when the revenue settlements were revised, this reproach has been less deserved. With an improved system of embankments and irrigation in 1851, the formation of the Tarai into a separate district in 1861, and its complete subjection to Kumáun in 1870, the moral and material history of this tract has greatly improved.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Taoism

See also Taoism on Wikipedia; Taoism in the 11th edition; and the disclaimer.
TAOISM. See Lâo-tsze.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Tapestry

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TAPESTRY.See Textiles.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Tapaculo

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TAPACULO, the name given in Chili to a bird of singular appearance,—the Pteroptochus albicollis of ornithology,—and, throughout this series of articles (Birds, vol. iii. p. 743; Ornithology, vol. xviii. p. 40, et alibi), applied in an extended sense to its allied forms, which are now found to constitute a small Family, Pteroptochidæ, belonging to the Tracheophonous division of Passeres, and therefore peculiar to South America. About 20 species, which are disposed by Mr Sclater (Ibis, 1874, pp, 189–206) in 8 genera, are believed to belong to this group.
Tapaculo.
The species of the Family first made known is Scytalopus magellanicus, originally described in 1783 by Latham (Synopsis, iv. p. 464) as a Warbler. Even in 1836 Gould not unnaturally took it for a Wren, when establishing the genus to which it is now referred; but some ten years after Johannes Müller found that Scytalopus, together with the true Tapaculo, which was first described by Kittlitz in 1830, possessed anatomical characters that removed them far from any position previously assigned to them, and determined their true place as above given. In the meanwhile a kindred form, Hylactes, also first described in 1830, had been shewn by Eyton to have some very exceptional osteological features, and these were found to be also common to Pteroptochus and Scytalopus. In 1860 Prof. Cabanis recognized the Pteroptochidæ as a distinct Family, but made it also include Menura (cf. Lyre-bird, vol. xv. p. 115), and in 1874 Mr Sclater (ut supra) thought that Atrichia (cf. Scrub-bird, vol. xxi. p. 554) might belong here. It was Garrod in 1876 and 1877 who finally divested the Family of these aliens, but, until examples of some of the other genera have been anatomically examined, it may not be safe to say that they all belong to the Pteroptochidæ.
The true Tapaculo (P. albicollis) has a general resemblance in plumage to the females of some of the smaller Shrikes (Lanius), and to a cursory observer its skin might pass for that of one; but its shortened wings and powerful feet would on closer inspection at once reveal the difference. In life, however, its appearance must be wholly unlike, for it rarely flies, hops actively on the ground or among bushes, with its tail erect or turned towards its head, and continually utters various and strange notes,—some, says Mr Darwin, are "like the cooing of doves, others like the bubbling of water, and many defy all similes." The "Turco," Hylactes megapodius, is larger, with greatly developed feet and claws, but is very similar in colour and habits. Two more species of Hylactes are known, and one other of Pteroptochus, all of which are peculiar to Chili or Patagonia. The species of Scytalopus are as small as Wrens, mostly of a dark colour, and inhabit parts of Brazil and Colombia, one of them occurring so far northward as Bogota. (a. n.)
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Tantalus

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TANTALUS, a hero of ancient Greek myth and legend. He was a son of Zeus and Pluto ("Wealth"), and became the father of Pelops, Proteus, and Niobe. He dwelt in splendour on Mount Sipylus near Smyrna, and was admitted to the table of the gods themselves. But he abused the divine favour by revealing to mankind the secrets he had learned in heaven, or by killing his son Pelops and serving him up to the gods at table. Another story was that he stole nectar and ambrosia from heaven and gave them to men. According to others, Pandareus stole a golden dog which guarded the temple of Zeus in Crete, and gave it to Tantalus to take care of. But, when Pandareus demanded the dog back, Tantalus denied that he had received it. Therefore Zeus turned Pandareus into a stone, and flung down Tantalus with Mount Sipylus on the top of him. The punishment of Tantalus in the lower world was famous. He stood up to his neck in water, which fled from him when he tried to drink of it; and over his head hung fruits which the wind wafted away whenever he tried to grasp them. From this myth is derived the English word "tantalize." Another story is that a rock hung over his head ready to fall and crush him. The tomb of Tantalus on Mount Sipylus was pointed out in antiquity, and has been in modern times identified by Texier with the great cairn beneath Old Magnesia; but Prof. W. M. Ramsay inclines to identify it with a remarkable rock-cut tomb beside Magnesia. The story of Tantalus contains a reminiscence of a semi-Greek kingdom which had its seat at Sipylus, the oldest and holiest city of Lydia, and one of the chief birthplaces of early Greek civilization. Of this ancient city the remains are still visible on the northern slope of Mount Sipylus, and about 4 miles east of Magnesia. They consist of sepulchral mounds, rock-cut tombs, and a small acropolis perched on an almost inaccessible crag which juts out from the nearly perpendicular limestone wall of Mount Sipylus. There was a tradition in antiquity that the city of Tantalus had been swallowed up in a lake on the mountain; but the legend may, as Prof. W. M. Ramsay thinks, have been suggested by the vast ravine which yawns beneath the acropolis. This acropolis is too small ever to have been the seat of a great empire; rather, like Pessinus and other great religious centres of Asia Minor, it may have been "the seat of a priestly suzerainty maintained over the hiero-doulio [sacred slaves] of the surrounding district." Connected as the city was on the one hand with the sea, and on the other with the capital of the ancient kingdom of Phrygia by means of the "royal road," it was a natural meeting-place for Greek and Oriental culture. A comparison of the art of Phrygia with the early art of Mycenæ and Olympia has fully confirmed the legend which connects the family of Tantalus with the Peloponnesus.
See Pelops, Phrygia, and a paper by Prof. W. M. Ramsay in Journal of Hellenic Studies, iii. p. 33 sq.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Tapioca

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TAPIOCA is a farinaceous food substance prepared from cassava starch, the product of the large tuberous roots of the cassava or manioc plant, Manihot utilissima (Jatropha manihot), native of Brazil (see Cassava, vol. v. p. 182, and comp. Arrowroot, vol. ii. p. 631, fig. 6). Cassava starch, being separated from the fibrous and nitrogenous constituents of the roots, is in a moist condition spread upon iron plates, and with constant stirring exposed to such heat as causes a partial rupture of the starch granules, which agglomerate into irregular pellets, becoming hard and translucent when cooled. In this partly torrefied condition the starch forms the tapioca of commerce, a light, pleasant, and digestible food, much used in puddings and as a thickener for soups. The French prepare an artificial tapioca from potato starch, mixed with various vegetable substances, for use in soups, &c., which is found in the market under such names as tapioca Crecy, tapioca Julienne, &c., according to the dried vegetables with which the preparations are made.
# Emanuel, or Children of the Soil/Note

In reading all names
a has the sound of a in father.
e has the„ sound of„ a in pane.
i has the„ sound of„ ee.
u has the„ sound of„ oo.
y has the„ sound of„ ii.
All final e's accented, thus Hansine, Hanseené.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Baden (3.)

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BADEN, Switzerland, a small town in the canton of Aargau, on the Limmat, 14 miles N.W. of Zurich. It is much frequented on account of its warm medicinal springs, which are about 20 in number, and vary in temperature from 98° to 126° Fahrenheit About 15,000 persons visit the place annually. Tacitus, in the first book of his Histories (c. 67), incidentally speaks of it as in modum municipii extructus locus, amæno salubrium aquarum usu frequens; and numerous remains of pillars and inscriptions, coins, and other antiquities confirm his description. It was destroyed by the Alemanni and the Huns, but was again frequented during the reign of Charlemagne, though its modern prosperity only dates from the 15th century. For a long time the countship of Baden was in the hands of the Hapsburgs, but it was conquered by the Swiss Confederates in 1415. It was here that the famous disputation of Eck with Zwingle and Œcolampadius took place in 1526; and here was held the conference of 1589. In 1714 the peace which put an end to the war of the Spanish Succession was concluded at Baden between Austria and France; and four years afterwards a treaty between Zurich, Berne, and St Gall received its name from the town. Resident population, 3412.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Baden (4.)

See also Baden bei Wien on Wikipedia; Baden bei Wein at Wikipedia; Baden in the 11th Edition; and the disclaimer.
BADEN, the chief town of a circle in Lower Austria, about 12 miles S. of Vienna on the railway to Gratz. It is beautifully situated at the mouth of the romantic Helenenthal, near the banks of the Schwachat, a rapid stream with several waterfalls, and has become a favourite summer resort with the inhabitants of the neighbouring capital. The warm baths, which give name to the town, are thirteen in number, and vary in temperature from 72° to 97° Fahr. They rise, for the most part, at the foot of the Calvarienberg, which is composed of dolomitic limestone. The number of patients is about 8000 annually. The celebrity of Baden dates back to the days of the Romans, who knew it by the name of Aquæ Cetiæ; and remains of their occupation still exist. In 1812 the town suffered severely from a fire, but it has since been elegantly rebuilt. The principal buildings are the church of St Stephen, the theatre, the casino, and the military hospital. A short distance to the west of the town stands the castle of Weilberg, which belongs to members of the imperial family. The only manufacture of much importance that is carried on in Baden is the production of steel-wares; these, especially the razors, are of excellent quality. Permanent population, about 6500.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Themistius

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THEMISTIUS, named eu&lt;fr&gt;aS? s, or "the well-languaged," was a rhetorician and philosopher of the latter half of the 4th century. Of Paphlagonian descent, he settled and taught at Constantinople. Thence he was called to Rome, but, after a short stay in the West, returned to the Eastern capital, where he resided during the rest of his life. Though a pagan, he was admitted to the senate by Constantius in 355. He was prefect of Constantinople in 384 on the nomination of Theodosius. Themistius's paraphrases of Aristotle's Posterior Analytics, Physics, and De Anima are deservedly esteemed; but weariness and disgust are the sentiments stirred by the servile orations in which he panegyrizes successive emperors, comparing first one and then another to Plato's "true philosopher," and, when all other compliments have been exhausted, to the "idea" itself. (See Keiske, quoted with approval by Dindorf in the preface to his edition: " Fuit aulicus adu lator et versipellis, vanus jactator philosophise suse, specie magis quam re cultae, ineptus et ridiculus vexator et appli cator Homer i et veteris historiae, tautologus et sophista; in omnibus orationibus paene eadem, et ubique argutias longe petitae.") Themistius's paraphrases of the De Coelo and of book A of the Metaphysics have reached us only through Hebrew versions.
The first edition of Themistius's works (Venice, 1534) included the paraphrases and eight of the orations. Nineteen orations were known to Petavius, whose editions appeared in 1613 and 1618. Harduin (Paris, 1684) gives thirty-three. Another oration was discovered by Angelo Mai, and published at Milan in 1816. The most recent editions are W. Dindorfs of the orations (Leipsic, 1832) and L. Spengel's of the paraphrases (Leipsic, 1866). The Latin translations of the Hebrew versions of the paraphrases of the DC Casio and book A of the Metaphysics were published at Venice in 1574 and 1558 respectively. See Fabricius, Blblioiheca Gr&ca, vi. 790 sq.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Themistocles

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# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Themis

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THEMIS, the Greek mythological personification of custom. In Homer the word occurs both in the singular and in the plural (themistes), with the sense of "custom," "unwritten law." But even in Homer Themis is also spoken of as a goddess who, at the command of Zeus, calls the gods to an assembly and summons or disperses the assemblies of men. But after all she is a thin abstraction, a faint shadow, by the side of the fall-blooded gods of Olympus. Hesiod furnished her with a pedigree (making her the daughter of Sky and Earth), and married her to Zeus, by whom she became the mother of a brood of wellbred abstractions, Legality, Justice, Peace, the Hours, and the Fates. Pindar, no doubt with a full sense of her abstract nature, speaks of her as the assessor of Zeus. In one passage (Prom., 209) ^Eschylus seems to regard her as identical with Earth, and "Earth-Themis" had a worship and priestess at Athens, where Athene also appears with the surname Themis. There was a tradition that the oracle at Delphi had first been in the hands of Earth, who transferred it afterwards to Themis, who in turn gave it up to Apollo. Themis had temples at Athens, Thebes, Tanagra, and Epidaurus. At Olympia she had an altar, and at Trcezen there was an altar of the Themides (plural of Themis). In modern writers Themis sometimes stands as a personification of law and justice, an idea much more abstract and advanced than the priginal sense of "traditional custom."
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Thecla, St

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THECLA, St, virgin, is commemorated by the Latin Church on September 23. The Breviary relates that she was born of illustrious parentage at Iconium, and came under the personal teaching of the apostle Paul. In her eighteenth year, having broken her engagement with Thamyris, to whom she had been betrothed, she was accused by her relations of being a Christian, and sentenced to be burned. Armed with the sign of the cross, she threw herself upon the pyre, but, the flames having been extinguished by a sudden rain, she came to Antioch, where she was exposed to the wild beasts, then fastened to bulls that she might be torn asunder, then thrown into a pit full of serpents, but from all these perils she was delivered by the grace of Christ. Her ardent faith and her holy life were the means of converting many. Returning once more to her native place, she withdrew into a mountain solitude, and became distin guished by many virtues and miracles, dying at the age of ninety. She was buried at Seleucia.
The substance of the foregoing narrative, with many other curious incidents, occurs in the very ancient apocryphal book entitled the irtpitSot of Paul and Thecla (Acta Pauli et Theclse). Tertullian tells us that this work was written by a presbyter in Asia, "out of love to Paul," but that his conduct was not ap proved, and led to his deposition. What caused special offence was its recognition of the right of women to preach and baptize. There is no doubt that the present differs very considerably from the original form of the Acta, but even now its Gnostic origin is betrayed in several features which it still retains for example, the rejection of marriage. For the text, see the Ada Apost. Apocr. of Tischendorf, who in the Prolegomena gives a large body of evidence for its great antiquity. A translation is given in the Ante-Nicene Christian Library.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Theobald, Lewis

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THEOBALD, Lewis (1688-1744), will survive as the prime butt of the original Dunciad when as a playwright, a litterateur, a translator, and even as a Shakespearean commentator, he will be entirely forgotten. The son of an attorney, Theobald was born at Sittingbourne, in Kent, in 1688, and, after a moderate education at Isleworth, studied for the profession of law,—a profession, however, which he never practised. He was a man with literary impulses, but without genius, even of a superficial kind; as a student, as a commentator, he might have led a happy and enviable life, had not the vanity of the literary idea led him into a false position. His Persian Princess (1711) and his Electra (1714) gained no distinction. In 1726 The Double Falsehood had a certain vogue, partly from Theobald's pretence that the greater part of the play was by Shakespeare. In 1717 he commenced a series of papers (uot to "The Censor," as has sometimes been stated, but under that title) which appeared in Mist's Weekly Journal; these do not seem to have been highly thought of by his contemporaries, but they were successful in gaining for Theobald not a few enemies, among whom Dennis may be named. Seven or eight years later Theobald's cen sorious tendencies had intensified rather than moderated, and in 1726 he ventured to attack the most eminent literary man of the day in his Shakespear Restored, or a Specimen of the many Errors as well committed as unamended by Mr Pope in his edition of this Poet. Two years later the censor was himself castigated severely, and, as the dedicatee of The Dunciad, he had long an unenviable notoriety; as readers of the famous satire will remember, he occupied the place of chief victim until replaced by Colley Gibber in 1743. In the matter of Shakespeare editing, however, he had the advantage of his powerful rival. When in 1733 Theobald published his edition of Shakespeare in seven volumes, that of Pope had to go to the wall. Lewis Theobald wrote other dramas besides those already men tioned, and translated plays from Sophocles and Aristo phanes, besides a rendering of Plato's Phxdo and a part translation of the Odyssey; but for none of these things is he now remembered. The student of English history might find it worth while to glance through Theobald's Life of Raleigh (1719). He died in 1744.
For plays, &c., see the Biographia Dramatica, vol. i.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Theocritus

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On a general view, Theocritus's surviving poems turn out to be (1) rural idyls, the patterns of Virgil's eclogues, and of all later pastoral poetry; (2) minute epics, or cabinet pictures from mythology; (3) sketches of contemporary life in verse; (4) courtly compositions; and (5) expressions of personal kindliness and attachment. The first category and the third are those on which the fame of Theocritus depends. His verse has a wonderful Doric melody; his shepherds are natural Southern people: it is not his fault that what he wrote truly of them has become a false commonplace in the pastoral poetry of the North.
Of Theocritus's own life we only know what has been recorded, that he lived in Syracuse, Cos, and Alexandria, and that he was acquainted with Nicias, with Aratus, the astronomical writer, and with Philinus, head of a school or sect of physicians. The rest is silence or conjecture. Suidas says that, in addition to the surviving poems, the Prcetidx, the Hopes, Hymns, the Heroines, Dirges, Elegies, and Iambics were attributed to him.
The charm of Theocritus can only be tasted in his original Doric, but the best English version is by Mr C. S. Calverley. M. Couat's book on the Alexandrine school of poetry may be re commended. J. Hauler, De Theoc. Vita et Carminibus (Freiburg, 1855), Hempel, Qusest. Theoc. (Kiel, 1881), and Rannow, Studio, Tfieocritea (Berlin, 1886), may also be found useful. The best Eng lish edition of the poems is that of Bishop Wordsworth.(A. L.)
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Thebes (1.)

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THEBES. See Egypt, vol. vii. p. 776 sq.