# Chronologies and Calendars/Chapter 6

NOW that the reader has become familiar with the greater epochs and eras, it will be suitable to introduce to his notice a series of lesser cycles; and for more convenient reference these are arranged in alphabetical order.
Actium,—This era (deriving its title from the great sea-fight) dates from 31 B.C. Octavian thereafter became Emperor of the then known word as the result of that battle. After the epoch of Augustus (otherwise Octavian) that is from 27 B.C., there were thirty-three imperial reigns till the partition of the Empire in 364 A.D. It will suffice to give these in order of time so far as Constantine the Great, when Rome became nominally a Christian empire. The successor of Augustus was
| Tiberius. | He began to reign | 14 | A.D., succeeded by |
| Caius Caligula | He began„ to reign„ | 36 | A.D., suc„ceeded„ by |
| Cladius | He began„ to reign„ | 40 | A.D., suc„ceeded„ by |
| Nero | He began„ to reign„ | 54 | A.D., suc„ceeded„ by |
| Vespacian | He began„ to reign„ | 68 | A.D., suc„ceeded„ by |
| Titus | He began„ to reign„ | 78 | A.D., suc„ceeded„ by |
| Domician | He began„ to reign„ | 81 | A.D., suc„ceeded„ by ​ |
| Nerva | He began to reign | 96 | A.D., succeeded by |
| Trajan | He began„ to reign„ | 97 | A.D., suc„ceeded„ by |
| Adrian | He began„ to reign„ | 116 | A.D., suc„ceeded„ by |
| Antonius Pius | He began„ to reign„ | 137 | A.D., suc„ceeded„ by |
| Marcus Aurelius | He began„ to reign„ | 161 | A.D., suc„ceeded„ by |
| Commodus | He began„ to reign„ | 180 | A.D., suc„ceeded„ by |
| Pertinax | He began„ to reign„ | 193 | A.D., suc„ceeded„ by |
| Septemus Severus | He began„ to reign„ | 194 | A.D., suc„ceeded„ by |
| Caracella | He began„ to reign„ | 211 | A.D., suc„ceeded„ by |
| Opilius Macrinus | He began„ to reign„ | 217 | A.D., suc„ceeded„ by |
| Heliogabalus | He began„ to reign„ | 218 | A.D., suc„ceeded„ by |
| Alexander Severus | He began„ to reign„ | 222 | A.D., suc„ceeded„ by |
| Two Gordians | He began„ to reign„ | 235 | A.D., suc„ceeded„ by |
| Gordian Juniors | He began„ to reign„ | 238 | A.D., suc„ceeded„ by |
| Philip the Arabian | He began„ to reign„ | 243 | A.D., suc„ceeded„ by |
| Decius | He began„ to reign„ | 249 | A.D., suc„ceeded„ by |
| Gallus Hostilius | He began„ to reign„ | 251 | A.D., suc„ceeded„ by |
| Valerian Gallienus | He began„ to reign„ | 253 | A.D., suc„ceeded„ by |
| Claudius | He began„ to reign„ | 268 | A.D., suc„ceeded„ by |
| Aurelian | He began„ to reign„ | 270 | A.D., suc„ceeded„ by |
| Tacitus and Florian | He began„ to reign„ | 275 | A.D., suc„ceeded„ by |
| Probus | He began„ to reign„ | 276 | A.D., suc„ceeded„ by |
| Carus | He began„ to reign„ | 282 | A.D., suc„ceeded„ by |
| Diocletian | He began„ to reign„ | 283 | A.D., suc„ceeded„ by |
| Constantius Chlorus | He began„ to reign„ | 305 | A.D., suc„ceeded„ by |
| Constantius the Great | He began„ to reign„ | 306 |
'Annalists invariably number the place of each sovereign from Augustus downwards. Francis II., the last emperor, was 120 from Augustus,' namely, to 1806.
​48. Ages.—The term 'Age,' as referring to some particular period or track of time in history, is of importance. For instance there are (a) the Augustan Age; this is a variable expression, and it arose from the fact that later writers recognised in the literature of the reign of Augustus Cæsar the highest state of purity, Thus, again, the reign of Louis XIV. was an Augustan Age in the literature of France, and possibly (pace Queen Anne) the present reign of Victoria will be known as the Augustan Age of Britain. (b) Archeological Ages are divided into three sections:—The Stone, the Bronze, and the Iron Ages. (c) The Geologic Ages are as follows:—The Archean, the Silurian, the Devonian, the Carboniferous, the Mesozoic, the Tertiary, and the Quaternary. (d) The Middle Ages—the period of time intervening between the decline of the Roman Empire and the revival of letters. Haldane regards it as beginning with the sixth and ending with the fifteenth century. Of course this specification can apply to Europe only.
49 Annus Magnus.—The Chaldaic astronomers observed that the stars shift their places at about the rate of a degree in seventy-two years; according to which calculation these stars will perform one revolution in 25,920 years, at the end whereof they stand as they where when the period began. But I may add that the expression 'Great Year,' when used by Josephus, meant a period of ​600 years, and referred to the reputed longevity of the Andeluvians.
50. Black Days meant all those days on which it was unlucky to commence any undertaking. Such days are regularly indicated in the old abbey calendars of Scotland, in the famous Codex Membranaceus of Warms {a Runic calendar dated 1328);. and in the calendar attributed to Bede. A specimen of a runic calendar is on a later page.
51. Calippic Cycles contain periods of seventy-six years, beginning in the third year of the 112 Olympiad, or A.U.C. 424 or B.C. 330. It was proposed by Callippus, the Greek astronomer, as an improvement on the Metonic Cycle after mentioned.
52. Corea.—Proclamations in this country, when signed only by the prime minister, are dated by reference to the month and the regnal years thus: 'Eleventh second moon: first year of Kon Yang.' But where the edict is by the Sovereign, it runs: 'Sixth moon of the 503rd year of dynasty,' i.e. July, 1894.
53. Christmas.—Yuletide has been held as a sacred festival by numberless nations. Christians hold December 25th as the anniversary of the birth of Jesus. China on the same day celebrates the birth of Buddah, son of Mâya. The Druids held during the winter solstice the festival of Nolagh. Egypt held that Horus, son of Isis, was born towards the close of December. Greece celebrated on the winter solstice the birth of Δημήτηρ ​(Ceres), Βάκχος (Bacchus), and Ήρακλῆς (Hercules). India. Numerous Indian tribes keep Yuletide as a religious festival. Mexico holds in the winter solstice the festival of Capaerame. Persia at the same period honours the birth of Mithras. Rome celebrated on December 25th the festival 'Natalis Solis Invicta.' Scandinavia held at Yuletide the festival called Jul, in honour of Freya, son of Odin.
54. Epact.—This word appears in our calendars, and indicates that there are an excess in days of the solar year over the lunar year, As the former has 365 days, and the latter only 354, this would make a maximum difference of eleven days. But the epact for any one year is the number of days from the last new moon of the preceding year to the first day of January immediately following.
55. Julian Period.—This is 'a chronological period of 7,980 years, combining the solar, lunar, and indiction cycles (28 × 19 × 15 = 7,980), being reckoned from the year 4,713, B.C., when the first year of these several cycles would: coincide, so that if any year of the period be divided by 28, 19, or 15, the remainder would be the year of the compounding cycle. The Julian period was proposed by Scaliger, to remove or avoid ambiguities in chronological dates, and was so named because composed of Julian years.' It was handy for fixing years in a common basis between 4,713 B.C., and 1582 A.D., or later, according to the adoption of the Gregorian correction on the Julian ​leap years. Historians hardly ever refer to, and never cite, the Julian period, but on the other hand they very frequently count the years—no matter in what period or country—as opening with 1st January. Hence as regards dates falling between 1st January and 25th March, there is often a year of difference in the historical dates.
56. Louisian Epoch was the invention of an Amien's friar in 1683. Its factors were:—a solar cycle (28 years) × a lunar cycle (19) × 30, and thus its duration was meant to be 15,960 years, but it never had more than one academic interest even in France.
57. The Metonic, or Cycle of the Moon, was first heard of in the first year of the seventy-fifth Olympiad. Its author, the celebrated Athenian astrologer, Meton, found that nineteen years made a period at the end whereof the moon was to the sun in the same position as the lesser was to the greater light at the start of the period. It was such a valued chronological check that it was cited in the Greek Fasti in letters of gold, hence the "golden number" of our calendar. To find this cycle add one to the A.D. year, and divide by nineteen. The remainder is the golden number. Thus 1895 plus 1 = 1896 ÷ 19 = 99 15/19: therefore fifteen is the golden number for 1895.
58. Modern Jew's Reckoning.—Through a curious and accidental typographical concurrence, which some time ago appeared in a Scottish newspaper, the great chronological gulf which exists between the Jews and Christendom is ​clearly set out. I give the portion of the paragraph:—'September 20th, 1895. Edinburgh Jews and the New Year celebrations. The Jews are at present celebrating their New Year, 5656.' But not only in Scotland. Over all the world the same chronological celebration was being observed with religious zeal. In fact, so careful are the Jews on this and other fasts, that they—though numerically small—practically stop all business in the exchanges and the bourses on their fast days. It is a thing for wonder how a few millions of Jews can control the commerce and the monetary interests of the Gentile world. The cardinal points of the Jewish way of counting time are as follows:—Era, anno mundi: years, lunar: correction, 384 days triennially, or ve-adar, comes in seven times every nineteen years. The civil year begins in our September-October; the sacred year in March-April. Thus:—
* A.M. 5651 began on 15th Sept., 1890, A.D.
* A.M.„ 5652 began on„  3rd Oct., 1891, A.D.„ intercalculated month, ve-adar in previous spring.
* A.M. 5653 began on 22nd Sept., 1892, A.D.
* A.M.„ 5654 began on„ 11th Sept, 1893, A.D.„
* A.M.„ 5655 began on„  1st Oct., 1894, A.D.„ intercalculation as above.
The Jewish day, like their month, touches two days of the A.D. calender, so with this peculiarity, and the intercalculations, the two calenders are practically synchronous. In longer periods the New Years recur on the same days—1835, 1881, and 1927 for instance, the 24th September ​beginning these years. The current almanac is in section 149.
59. Mohammed's Era.—The New Year's day of this, the era of Hegira or Mohammed's flight from Mecca to Medina, is reckoned as corresponding to a date afterwards named 16th July, Anno Domini, 622. That day was chosen as the starting point because it was the New Year's day of the then commencing lunar or Arabic year. Hedjrah, or Hegira, is simply the Arabic word for a 'going away'; and it was first used in this chronological connection by the Calif Omar in the first year, now known to us as 640, A.D. This A.D. style was first suggested by Dionysius, thirteen years previously, as already mentioned; and it cannot be doubtful that the Calif Omar never heard of the A.D. calender. It is interesting to compare the dates in the year of these two styles, and to observe the retrogression which always goes on in the Moslem periods, whereof the basis is lunar, not solar. Thus:—
* 17th Aug., 1890, A.D., began 1308, A.H.
* 7th Aug.,„ 1891, A.D.,„ began„ 1309, A.H.„
* 26th Aug.,July, 1892, A.D.,„ began„ 1310, A.H.„
* 15th Aug.,„ 1893, A.D.,„ began„ 1311, A.H.„
* 5th Aug.,„ 1894, A.D.,„ began„ 1312, A.H.„
* 24th Aug.,June, 1895, A.D.,„ began„ 1312, A.H.„
Elaborate formulæ have been invented for turning Moslem into Anno Domini years, but the following ready, though sufficiently accurate, method is useful:—
Deduct, 3 per cent from the Moslem year. Add to the answer 622.
60. Months.—The names of the months (so far as used in Christendom) call for some notice in this chapter:—January: this month was sacred to Janus, the god of the sun and the year. February: the Roman festival of Purification was held on the 15th of February. March, Mars month:—
April: there was no god attached to this month. May: the name of a goddess christened this month. June: some have accorded to Juno (the goddess) and others to Junius (the tribe name), the honour of giving a name to this month. July: this month was called Quintilis (the fifth month according to the pre-Ceasarian Calendar), but in honour to Julius Cæsar it was named after him, more especially as he was born in this month, August: in like manner, this word was adopted in honour of Augustus Cæsar, (a) on account of his victories and (b) because he had entered upon ​his first consulate in this month. Till then it was known as Sextilis. September was formerly, till B.C. 54, the seventh month. For nineteen and one half centuries it has been the ninth of the historical year, which has been held to commence as from January, notwithstanding international divergences otherwise. October, November, and December were respectively the eighth, ninth, and tenth months of the old Roman Calendar. In December (in the northern hemisphere) occurred the winter solstice. It was a period of time when (under Paganism as under Christianity) special festivals were held. See these detailed in section 53 supra.
61. Old Style; New Style.—I have prepared this table as the best explanation of the currency in the two styles:—
| Style | Empire | Months | Divided | Days in | Days in | Leap year currency | Dates |
| Style | Empire | Months | Divided | com. year | leap year | Leap year currency | Dates |
| O.S. | Roman | 12 solar | Kal; Ides; Nones. | 365 | 366 | 1 in 4 | Under the Cæsars |
| O.S.„ | Western Roman | {{{1}}}„ | {{{1}}}„ | {{{1}}}„ | {{{1}}}„ | {{{1}}}„ | 650 A.D. |
| O.S.„ | Saxon | {{{1}}}„ | {{{1}}}„ | {{{1}}}„ | {{{1}}}„ | {{{1}}}„ | 9th cent. |
| N.S. | Papal | {{{1}}}„ | Also Saxon week-days | {{{1}}}„ | {{{1}}}„ | 97 in 400 | 1582 |
| N.S.„ | British | {{{1}}}„ | Saxon | {{{1}}}„ | {{{1}}}„ | {{{1}}}„ | 1752 |
| O.S. | Russian | {{{1}}}„ | week-days | {{{1}}}„ | {{{1}}}„ | 1 in 4 | 1896 |
62. Nabonassar.—Ancient history can recite how the monarch of this name acceded to the Babylonion throne, but it has been left to the indefatigible Ptolemy to give us a clue to the year of the accession, which he has done by leaving on record certain astronomical phenomena; and ​calculations founded thereon point to the year 747, B.C. (February 24th) as the year and month in which Nabonassar ascended the throne. It was the style adopted by the Alexandrian Greeks and also by some otber peoples. It was a great public fact, and hence became a convenient terminus from which to start computations for events.
63. Palmyra. A recent traveller has mentioned facts regarding inscriptions in this famous ruined city which, in my opinion, indicate that the era of Seleucidae was current to the latter part of the third century A.D. He discovered a statue, erected by certain generals, that bore the inscription, which he translates as follows: 'To their sovereign, in the month of Ab, the year 582.' This, in the anno domini reckoning, is August, 271. Half a decade later the Romans conquered the district.
64. Russian Style. This era (the era of Constantinople) was, Nicolas states, adopted in Constantinople 'before the middle of the seventh century.' It begins as from the year 5508 B.C. This year is the date of the creation according to the Greek Church, whence the Russians adopted the reckoning, and followed the same till the reign of Peter the Great. Writing in 1727, Voltaire has some delicate raillery about the Russians' inability to give reasons for their Mundane era. Pointing out that they (believing that the creation occurred in autumn had begun their year then) he ridicules the idea for 'autumn in Russia, he says, 'was spring in countries at the Antipodes.' But Peter the Great, as Brockmann points out, 'ordained that the year should begin with 1st January.' ​In that unique decree he gave a reason for this in the words, 'Because not only in many maratime regions of Christian Europe, but also with the Slavs (which on all things agree with the orthodox Church), in Wallachia (now Roumania), Moldavia (now North Roumania), Servia, Dalmatia, Bulgaria, and Greece, the year begins to be counted from 1st January. This imperial ukase, having been issued on 20th December, 1699, the then ensuing first day of January began the 1700th year A.D. Of course this was still the old style so far as regards the leap years; and accordingly, as they observed not only 1700 but also 1800 erroneously as leap terms, it follows that to-day their and our reckonings are out of touch by twelve days—two days more than the ten corrected by Pope Gregory at 1582. Further, this necessitates the affixing of two dates in international letters, instruments, or declarations; and this is done either January 1/13, 1895, or 1st January (13th January)—the former date (1st) being the old, and the latter (13th) the new style. This is not only cumbrous, but costly. A very good object-lesson on the international inconvenience arising from the forced use of two styles will frequently be found in the advertising columns of (say) The Times. There, for instance, on the 16th September, 1895, is a notice pertaining to the Russian Loan. A drawing had taken place 'on 20th August (1st September), 1895, reimbursable from the 19th November (1st December), 1895, at Saint Petersburg.' Indeed, in this single official notice of ​130 lines, one hundred dates in duplicate have to be inserted; and seeing that a double number of brackets are necessarily used, the extra expenses of printing must be considerable. And to think that one touch of the new style, imperially allowed, could soon make the whole of Christendom chronologically akin! See section 27 supra on Russia's intention of adopting the N.S.
65. Solar Cycle.—The first year of the first cycle hereof corresponds with 9 B.C. on the Julian Calendar; it means a period of twenty-eight years, at the expiry whereof the days of a month fit once again into the same calends, nones, and ides, or week-days, according to the century in question, as at the first day of the cycle. Thus the new years of 1866 and 1894 (being twenty-eight years apart) fell both on a Monday.
66. Sunday or Dominical Letter, is one of seven letters—A to G inclusive—used in almanacs to denote the Sunday; dies dominica, the Lord's day of later Latinists. In leap years, January and February have one letter, and March to December a new one; otherwise one letter runs for one twelvemonth, and the succession of the letters is in backward order. Thus, 1894 had G, and 1895 had F. The moveable feasts of the Church are found (not fixed) by referring to the Sunday letter and relative tables, includ- the golden number which shows the year of the Metonic or lunar cycle.
67. U.S.A. Reckoning.—Before the 1st of January, 1752, the colonies in America having been British possessions, the calendar of the old country was circulated; and, after the date in question, the New 'Style' prevailed in ​terms of the imperial statute. Indeed, so far as the essentials are concerned, it is current at the present time. Having thrown off the British yoke they became the United States (virtually as frons 4th July, 1776), and it was considered necessary to speak not only of Independence Day, but also of the year thereof. Accordingly for a long time the presidential proclamations have run as having been signed at the city of Washington, the day, month, and year A.D., and the Independence of the United States, such and such a year. The religious festivals of the Anglican and Roman Communions do not differ from the diets observed elsewhere in Christendom. The Dog Days, as indicative of torrid periods, are reckoned as between 25th July and 5th September. The so-called New World, many think, should be styled the Older World, as there are traces of prehistoric man; and very recently calculations have been furnished to the Niagara commissioners to the effect that the Falls are 31,000 years old. The basis of calculation having been the real rate of recession in the Falls during the last half century, the figures may not be far amiss.
68. Year of our Lord.—It is highly probable that Charles III. of Germany was the first monarch to use the phrase in Western Europe, which he did in an edict during the year 879.
69. Year of Light is a Masonic term. The craft claims to have had a uniform community from the building of the temple of temples, which Ideler, the Prussian astronomer, contended really began an era in ancient chronology, viz., May (i.e., about Mid-spring), B.C. 1015. But the Masons ​nowadays go back much further, and in diplomas (bi-lingual documents, Latin and English,) two dates are stated, 'The year of our Lord' and 'of Light,' the latter being dated from 4004 B.C. But it must be remembered that (a) the Jewish Free Masons us the Anno Mundi date instead of the A.D.; (b) Moslems, the era of Mohammed; (c) the Hindoo Free Masons, the Samvat and (d) the Chinese Free Masons, the regnal year and lunar month.
70. Yes-degerd, Era of—This term is sometimes found in histories of Hindustan; and is commonly reckoned to run from the year 632 A.D, But it has only local interest when compared with the imperial importance of the principal Hindoo eras.
* ↑ Who decreed that dies solis should thereafter be the Christian Sunday.
* ↑ Who, when unsatisfied with any day’s labour, wrote in the album 'diem perdidi' (‘I have lost a day’).
* ↑ H. R. Empire, p. 259.
* ↑ The times of no life and simplest forms of life.
* ↑ The invertebrætes era.
* ↑ Fishes predominant.
* ↑ The coal plants' period.
* ↑ Or reptiles' epoch.
* ↑ When mammaliæ appeared.
* ↑ Or æra hominis.
* ↑ Webster, p. 31.
* ↑ Brewer, p. 1317.
* ↑ Proceedings S.A., vol, xxix., p. 236.
* ↑ Corea was unknown in Europe till about 250 years ago.
* ↑ Bunsen.
* ↑ Higgins.
* ↑ Monier Williams.
* ↑ 'History of the Indies,' vol. ii, p. 354.
* ↑ Gross.
* ↑ See as to foregoing Brewer, p. 1321.
* ↑ For 1896 it was 15.
* ↑ Webster, p. 805.
* ↑ See also chapter vii., section 79 infra.
* ↑ Now known as 432 B.C.
* ↑ The fixing of Easter in the Romish and Anglican communions throughout Christendom is founded annually on this cycle.
* ↑ The juxta-position of the types was such that 5656 was on the next line immediately below 1895.
* ↑ See also section 41 supra.
* ↑ See section 23, supra.
* ↑ In Chamber's Encycl., under Hegira, or Hedjirah
* ↑ The Christians, even by the Mussulman's criterion, cannot be more ignorant chronologically than Jewish, Buddhists, or Chinese.
* ↑ William Cullen Bryant; he died in 1878.
* ↑ The exact year A.U.C. and B.C. of Cæsar's birth is still in dispute 100 B.C. is usually given.
* ↑ See also section 89 infra as to the persistence of O.S.
* ↑ Palmyra is distant from Jerusalem 315 miles, according to the caravan route.
* ↑ Histoire de Charles XII., p. 17, 'L'ère des Moscovites commencait á la creation du monde; ils comptaient 7,207 ans au commencement du siècle passé, sans pouvoir rendre raison de cette date: le premier jour de leur année venait au 13 de notre mois de Septembre.'
* ↑ Or the cycle of the sun.
* ↑ See section 57 supra.
* ↑ See also section 140 infra, wherein a new calendar which has been suggested is explained.
* ↑ See also sections 145 et seq. infra. And here it may be convenient to say that (among minor eras) the year 1897 harmonises, in some quarters of its currency, with (1) 2022 of the era of Tyre, (2) 1072 of the Collamic era, and (3) 1306 of the Telingaic Fusli epoch.