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# The New International Encyclopædia/Jacobi, Moritz Hermann

Edition of 1905. See also Moritz Hermann von Jacobi on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
JACOBI, Moritz Hermann (1801-74). A German physicist and architect, brother of Karl Gustav Jacobi. He was born at Potsdam. In 1835 he became professor at the University of Dorpat, and in 1842 a member of the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences. He invented galvano-plastics and electrotyping, and carried out numerous important researches in physics. He wrote Mémoire sur l'application de l'électro-magnetisme au mouvement des machines, a remarkable essay published in 1835; and Die Galvanoplastik (1840). Consult Wild, Zum Gedächtnis an Moritz Hermann Jacobi (Leipzig, 1876).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Jacobi, Friedrich Heinrich

Edition of 1905. See also Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
JACOBI, Friedrich Heinrich (1743-1819). A German philosopher. He was born at Düsseldorf, January 25, 1743, and was educated at Frankfort and Geneva with a view to preparing himself for a mercantile career, which he began in 1762. In 1772 he was appointed councilor of finance for the duchies of Berg and Jülich, and having married a woman of wealth was enabled to devote himself to literary pursuits. In 1794 he moved to Holstein, and in 1804 to Munich, where he had been appointed a member of the newly instituted Academv of Sciences, of which he became president in 1807. He died on March 10, 1819. His writings consist partly of romances and partly of philosophical treatises. The principal are Woldemar (2 vols., 1779) and Eduard Allwills Briefsammlung (1781), both philosophical romances which attracted much attention in their day, but have now no claim to special recognition, while his philosophical work has still considerable interest. Ueber die Lehre des Spinoza in Briefen an Mendelssohn (Breslau, 1785) is a polemic against logical methods of speculation in the search after the higher class of truths; and David Hume über den Glauben, oder Idealismus und Realismus (Breslau, 1787) continues the polemic and makes an attempt to demonstrate that the mind or nature of man possesses another faculty — viz. faith or intuition — by which the higher truths are as firmly grasped and in the same way as the material world is grasped by it, since sense is incompetent to witness to the independent reality of that world. His collected works appeared at Leipzig (6 vols., 1812-24). Consult: Kuhn, Jacobi und die Philosophie seiner Zeit (Mainz, 1834); Fricker, Die Philosophie des Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi (Augsburg, 1854); Zirngiebl, F. H. Jacobis Leben, Dichtungen und Denken (Vienna, 1867); Harms, Ueber die Lehre von F. H. Jacobi (Berlin, 1876); Holtzmann, Ueber Eduard Allwills Briefsammlung (Jena, 1878); Lévy-Bruhl, “Jacobi et le Spinosisme,” in Revue Philosophique (Paris, 1894); id., La philosophie de Jacobi (ib., 1894).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Jacobi, Karl Gustav Jakob

Edition of 1905. See also Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
JACOBI, Karl Gustav Jakob (1804-51). A German mathematician, the brother of Moritz Hermann Jacobi, the physicist. He was born in Potsdam, studied in Berlin, and began his teaching there as privat-docent in 1824, but soon after went as professor of mathematics to Königsberg. He became a member of the Prussian Academy of Sciences in 1836, and in 1842 took up his permanent residence in Berlin, lecturing at the university. Jacobi's great work was in the theory of elliptic functions, of which he and Abel (q.v.) were the founders. He also contributed to the theory of numbers, to analytical mechanics, and to the study of determinants. A very important determinant bears the name Jacobian. (See Determinants.) He also founded the theory of Abelian functions. The following important works appeared in his lifetime: Fundamenta Nova Theoriæ Functionum Ellipticarum (1829); Canon Arithmeticus (1839); De Formatione et Proprietatibus Determinantium (1841; ed. by Stäckel, 1896); Mathematische Werke (3 vols,, partly posthumous, 1846-71). His Vorlesungen über Dynamik was
published posthumously (1866; 2d ed, 1884). His Gesammelte Werke (1881-91; 7 vols, and suppl.) were published by the Berlin Academy. His essay, “Uber die vierfach periodischen Functionen zweier Variabeln,” etc., was translated from the Latin and edited by Weber (1895). For sketch of his life, consult: Lejeune-Dirichlet, “Gedächtnisrede auf Jacobi,” in the Abhandlungen der Berliner Akademie (1852; printed in Jacobi's Gesammelte Werke, vol. i.).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Jacobi, Mary Putnam

Edition of 1905. See also Mary Corinna Putnam Jacobi on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
JACOBI, Mary Putnam (1842—). An American physician, born in London, England, the daughter of George P. Putnam, of New York City. The first woman graduated from the New York College of Pharmacy, in 1862, she was also the first woman graduated from the Women's Medical College in Philadelphia, in 1864. After teaching in New Orleans, and writing for a year, she went to Paris and engaged in the further study of medicine. After eighteen months passed in the hospitals of Paris, she was admitted by the Minister of Public Instruction to the Ecole de Médecine, and was graduated therefrom in 1871, receiving the second prize for her thesis. She returned to New York and began practice at once, also entering upon the duties of lecturer on therapeutics in the new Women's Medical College of the New York Infirmary. She was the first woman admitted to the New York medical societies and to the American Medical Association. In 1873 she was married to the physician Abraham Jacobi (q.v.). In 1881, upon the founding of the New York Post-Graduate Medical School, she became clinical professor of diseases of children. In 1874 she organized an association for the advancement of the medical education of women, of which she became president. Besides being a visiting physician to the New York Infirmary, Dr. Putnam-Jacobi has been for several years a visiting physician to Saint Mark's Hospital. She is a member of several medical societies, and a writer on many medical topics. She secured the Boylston prize of Harvard University in 1876 for an original essay. In 1891 she contributed a paper on the history of women physicians in this country to the volume “Women's Work in America,” in which, amid the bibliography of writings by American female physicians, she mentions over forty productions of her own pen. Her published works include: The Question of Rest for Women During Menstruation (1877); Acute Fatty Degeneration of New-Born (1878); The Value of Life (1879); Cold Pack and Anæmia (1880); The Prophylaxis of Insanity (1881); Hysteria and Other Essays (1888); Common Sense Applied to Woman's Suffrage (1894). See Jacobi, Abraham.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Jacobin

Edition of 1905. See also Jacobin (pigeon) on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
JACOBIN. A small, highly artificial pigeon, resembling the capuchin, in which the prolonged upright feathers of the neck and head form a sort of cowl about the face. See Pigeon and Colored Plate of Pigeons.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Jacobi, Abraham

Edition of 1905. See also Abraham Jacobi on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
JACO'BI, Ger. pron. yă-kō'bḗ, Abraham (1830—). An eminent German-American physician, born at Hartum, Westphalia, Germany. He studied at the universities of Greifswald, Göttingen, and Bonn, obtaining his degree in medicine from the last-named institution. Having been an active participant in the struggle for free Germany in 1848 and thereafter. Jacobi was prosecuted for treason and was kept in Prussian prisons from 1851 to 1853. In the latter year, after spending a few months in Manchester, England, he came to America, and established himself in New York City. In 1857 he took an active part in founding the German dispensary. In 1860 he was chosen to fill the first chair of diseases of children instituted in this country, that of the New York Medical College. In 1865 he was elected to fill a similar chair in the medical department of the University of the City of New York. In 1868 he took part in founding the German Hospital of New York. His position at New York University he occupied till 1870, when he was chosen clinical professor of the diseases of children in the College of Physicians and Surgeons. New York City (medical department of Columbia University). The latter position he retained until his resignation in 1902, when he was made professor emeritus. He was the first to establish, in New York City, systematic and special clinics for the diseases of children, and very largely to him is due the recognition of pediatries as a distinct branch of medicine. In 1895 he
was urged to leave New York and become professor of pediatrics in the University of Berlin, but he declined the honor. He was for many years consulting physician to the New York City Department of Health, to the J. Hood Wright Memorial Hospital, and to the New York Skin and Cancer Hospital, and visiting physician to the Nursery and Child's Hospital. He served as physician to the Mount Sinai Hospital from 1860, to the Hebrew Orphan Asylum from 1868, to Bellevue Hospital from 1873, and to Roosevelt Hospital from 1898.
Dr. Jacobi's writings are very numerous. A great number of his papers, principally on diseases of women and children, were published in medical and other periodicals in this country and in Germany.
Among his book-form publications are: Cogitationes de Vita Rerum Naturalium (1851); Dentition and Its Derangements (1862); Infant Diet (1873; 3d ed. 1875); A Treatise on Diphtheria (1880); The Intestinal Diseases of Infancy and Childhood (1887); Therapeutics of Infancy and Childhood (1895; 2d ed. 1897). His contributions to Noeggerath and Jacobi's Midwifery and the Diseases of Women and Children (1859), and his “Hygiene und Pflege der Kinder,” in Gerhardt's Handbuch der Kinderkrankheiten (1877), are most noteworthy. In 1893 he published two volumes of miscellaneous essays and addresses on a variety of subjects, mostly medical, under the title Anfsätze, Vorträge und Reden (1893). In 1873 he was married to Miss Mary C. Putnam, of New York, herself a noted physician, author, and teacher. See Jacobi, Mary Putnam.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Jacobus, Melancthon Williams (minister)

Edition of 1905. See also Melancthon Williams Jacobus, Sr. on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
JACOBUS, Melancthon Williams (1816-76). An American Presbyterian minister and author, born at Newark, N. J. In 1834 he graduated from Princeton College, and four years later from the Princeton Seminary, where he was instructor in Hebrew for the year preceding his acceptance of the pastorate of a Presbyterian church in Brooklyn, N. Y. (1839). While absent in the Holy Land (1850), he was elected professor of Oriental and biblical literature in the Western Theological Seminary, at Allegheny. Pa., and retained the position until his death. He was pastor of the Central Presbyterian Church. Pittsburg, Pa., from 1858 to 1870, was secretary of the Sustentation Committee of the Presbyterian Church from 1871 to 1874, and he received the degrees of D.D. from Jefferson College, Pennsylvania (1852), and LL.D. from Princeton (1867). He published: Notes on the New Testament (4 vols., 1848-59); an Address to the Churches (1861); Genesis (2 vols., 1864-65); and Exodus (shortly before his death).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Jacobus, Melancthon Williams (clergyman)

Edition of 1905. See also Melancthon Williams Jacobus, Jr. on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
JACOBUS, Melancthon Williams (1855—). An American clergyman and educator, born in Allegheny City, Pa., a son of the preceding. He graduated at Princeton in 1877, at the
Theological Seminary there in 1881, from 1881 to 1884 studied at the universities of Göttingen and Berlin, and from 1884 to 1891 was pastor of the Presbyterian Church at Oxford, Pa. In 1891 he was appointed to the chair of New Testament exegesis and criticism in the Hartford Theological Seminary. He became a trustee of Princeton in 1890, and was Stone lecturer at the Princeton Theological Seminary in 1897-98. He has contributed articles on New Testament subjects to The New International Encyclopædia.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Aumale, Duc d'

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Aumale (dō′ mȧl′) (Henri Eugène Philippe Louis d’Orléans), Duc d’, fourth son of Louis Philippe of France and a general of note in the French army, was born in Paris, January 16, 1822, and died in Sicily, May 7, 1897. When a youth he took part in campaigns in Algeria, of which he became governor-general. When the Revolution of 1848 broke out, he resigned his post and joined his exiled father and the Orleanist princes in England, until the law banishing royalty was repealed in 1871. The duke then returned to France, was made a general, and president of the council of war in which capacity he tried and condemned Marshal Bazaine. Later on, a new expulsion bill passed the French legislature in 1886, and he was banished until the revocation of the measure in 1889. Meanwhile, and in spite of the decree of banishment, the Duc d’Aumale bequeathed his beautiful chateau of Chantilly, with its fine art treasures, to the French nation.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Aurora (mythology)

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Aurora (in Greek Eos), the goddess of the morning. She was the daughter of Hyperion and mother of the winds. She loved Tithonus, for whom she obtained from the gods immortality but forgot to ask for perpetual youth. She lived with him at the end of the earth, and when he grew old, nursed him until at last his voice disappeared and his body became shriveled, when she changed him into a cricket. Aurora is sometimes represented in a saffron-colored robe, with a wand or a torch in her hand, emerging from a golden palace and ascending her chariot; and sometimes in a flowing veil, which she is in the act of throwing back, thus opening as it were, the gates of the morning.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Auld Lang Syne

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Auld Lang Syne, a well-known popular song; words by Robert Burns; music derived from a book of Scottish tunes printed in the latter half of the eighteenth century.
See the full text of Auld Lang Syne.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Aurora Borealis

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Aurora Borealis, often called Northern Lights, a luminous phenomenon of remarkable beauty occurring in the high latitudes. In intermediate latitudes the aurora most frequently presents the appearance of long streamers of pale yellowish light extending from the northern part of the horizon well nigh to the zenith. But in the higher latitudes this light appears frequently as an arch or even several arches, with the summits in the magnetic meridian. These streamers and arches are in almost constant motion, appearing to oscillate to and fro or to shoot suddenly upward and then to disappear with equal abruptness.
Since the auroras rotate with the earth, it is practically certain that they are phenomena which occur in the earth's atmosphere. And since they are almost universally accompanied by disturbances of the magnetic needle and by electrical disturbances, it seems highly probable that auroras are produced by electrical discharges, as was first suggested by Franklin. These discharges occur perhaps at a height of from 50 to 100 miles, where the atmospheric pressure does not amount to more than about one one-hundredth of an inch of mercury. Air under these conditions is a fairly good conductor of electricity.
When an aurora is examined with a prism, it presents an emission spectrum which is quite unique, consisting, as it does, of some half-dozen weak lines and one strong green line. This strong line has a wave length of 5,571 tenth-meters and apparently does not coincide with an equally strong line in any known substance. Such a spectrum indicates that auroras are in the condition of a glowing gas. And it is the opinion of two very high authorities, Vogel and Hasselberg, that the spectrum of the aurora is merely a modified spectrum of air, which as yet we have not been able to produce in the laboratory.
Contrary to the general impression, the frequency of auroral displays does not increase from equator to pole, but reaches a maximum at an average latitude of about 60°. So that the northern lights are not seen so frequently in Greenland and in Iceland as in regions south of these countries.
The name aurora borealis is due to Gassendi, who observed a brilliant display in France in 1621.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Aurora (Illinois)

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Aurora, a city in Kane County, Illinois, on the Fox River about 40 miles from Chicago. It has a variety of manufactures, including machinery, woolens, carriages, sash and blinds, silverware, cotton mills, a wheel scraper manufactory, smelting works, foundries, etc. The extensive shops of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy railroad are located here. The public schools are of high grade, and it is the seat of Jennings Seminary. Aurora has 38 churches, a Carnegie Library and all the adjuncts of an up-to-date and prosperous town, and is served by four railroads. Population, 29,807.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Aurelian, Lucius Domitius Aurelianus

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Aure′lian, Lucius Domitius Aurelianus, emperor of Rome, was born in Pannonia early in the 3d century. He came from the lowest classes, but so distinguished himself in the Roman legion which he entered, that he was rapidly promoted. In the campaigns against the Goths by Valerian and by Claudius II, he became very popular with the soldiers, and when Claudius died he was proclaimed emperor in 270 by the army of the Danube, which he then commanded. Having driven the Goths beyond the Danube and defeated many German tribes, he built a long wall to protect Rome against them. One of his best-known expeditions was against Palmyra, a city ruled by the famous Queen Zenobia. He captured the city and treated the people with unexpected kindness, and refused to put Zenobia to death. After his departure, the Roman garrison which he left to guard the city was murdered by the citizens. Upon hearing of this, Aurelian returned, destroyed the city and put the inhabitants to death. Zenobia herself was carried to Rome. Aurelian then defeated an uprising of the Egyptians, and once more obtained for Rome the complete control over Gaul. He also made many improvements in the condition of the people and in the city of Rome, as well as in the discipline of the army, and was given the title of Restorer of the Empire by the senate. While on his way to attack the Persians, he was assassinated near Byzantium in 275 A. D.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Auld Robin Gray

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Auld Robin Gray, a popular Scottish ballad, written about the year 1772, by Lady Anne Barnard, daughter of the Earl of Balcarras, whose family name was Lindsay. It was originally sung to an old Scotch tune, known as The Bridegroom Grat, but has been superseded by a modern air. A second part of the ballad, it is said, was written by Lady Amie, in which Robin Gray dies and Jeanie happily marries Jamie, who “lo’ed her weel,” as the song portrays.
See the full text of Auld Robin Gray ('When the sheep are in the fauld, and the kye a' at hame').
# The New Student's Reference Work/Aurungzebe

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Aurungzeb (ō-rung-zāb'), was the last great emperor of the Mughal dynasty in India. He was born in 1618, and was early appointed by his father as viceroy of the Deccan. Here he gained military experience and at the same time became very rich. In 1657 his father suddenly became sick, and his eldest brother seized power, but Aurungzeb, uniting with a younger brother, defeated him and soon gained complete control. His father, who had recovered, was made a prisoner for life in his own palace. The reign of Aurungzeb was the most brilliant period in the rule of his race. The first ten years were peaceful, and the emperor showed great wisdom in providing for a famine and in putting down a rising of Hindu fanatics. The rise of the Mahratta empire broke in upon his peaceful régime. The generals sent against this new power were defeated, and Aurungzeb had to march to the Deccan and take the field himself. He remained there twenty-two years, ruling an empire which in wealth and population was probably as great as any ever ruled by a monarch. He died in 1707. He liked to be called 'Conqueror of the World', but to show that he ruled as yet but three quarters of it, he used to tear off a corner from every sheet of paper he used in his correspondence.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Aurora, Mo.

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Aurora, Mo., a city of Lawrence County, on the Kansas City, Fort Scott & Memphis and the St. Louis & San Francisco railroads, about 270 miles southwest of St. Louis. Agriculture, fruit-growing and considerable lead and zinc mining are the chief industries of the region. Besides the shipment of these products, the city has flour mills, foundry and machine shops. Population, 4,148.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Arbroath

Edition of 1905. See also Arbroath on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ARBROATH, är-brōTH' (Celt. aber confluence, mouth + Brothock), Aberbrothwick, ăb'ẽr-brŏth'ĭk, or Aberbrothock, -ŭk. A seaport town in Forfarshire, Scotland, on the North Sea, about seventeen miles east-northeast of Dundee (Map: Scotland, F 3). Here King William the Lion founded a Tyronensian abbey in honor of Thomas à Becket ​in 1178. The King was interred in it in 1214. In the abbey, Bruce and the Scottish nobles met in 1320, to resist the claims of Edward II. to Scotland. Its ruins, which are cruciform, 270 by 160 feet, are very picturesque, presenting lofty towers, columns, gothic windows, etc. The chief industries of Arbroath are flax-spinning, jute-spinning, and the manufacture of sail-cloth. The new harbor, begun in 1841, admits vessels of 400 tons; it is protected by a breakwater. The chief exports are grain, potatoes, fish, pork, and paving-stones. Arbroath is a royal burgh, and, in conjuction with Montrose, Brechin, Forfar, and Bervie burghs, returns one member to Parliament. Population, with suburbs, in 1901, 22,372. The famous Bellrock lighthouse stands in the sea twelve miles southeast of Arbroath.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Arbutus, Trailing

Edition of 1905. See also Epigaea repens on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ARBUTUS, Trailing (Epigæa repens). A prostrate or trailing plant, called Mayflower in New England and Ground Laurel in the Southern States, with evergreen leaves, rusty, bristly shoots, and axillary clusters of fragrant, rose-colored or white flowers, opening in early spring; found in sandy or rocky soil, especially in the shade of pines. It grows from Canada to Texas, but is particularly abundant in New England, the Middle and South Atlantic States, as well as in Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Arbués, Pedro

Edition of 1905. See also Pedro de Arbués on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ARBUÉS, är-bwās', Pedro (1441-85). A Spanish inquisitor. He was born at Epila, Aragon; became a member of the Augustinian College at Saragossa, and in 1484 was appointed first inquisitor of Saragossa by Torquemada, inquisitor-general. He was a tireless persecutor of all heretics, real or suspected, and was finally slain through a conspiracy of the friends of his victims. He was canonized by Pope Pius IX. in 1867.