# Adam's Reports on Vernacular Education in Bengal and Behar/Report 3/Chapter 1/Section 7

Section VII.
Sanscrit Schools.
The next class of schools is that in which the literature, law, philosophy, and religion of the Hindus are taught through the medium of the Sanscrit language; and with reference to the number of seminaries and students, the nature of the influence which learned Hindus possess, and the amount of the population over whom it is exercised, this can be considered inferior in importance only to the class of vernacular schools from which the great body of the people derive the chief part of the instruction they receive.
City and District of Moorshedabad.
In twenty thanas of this city and district there are 24 Sanscrit schools with the same number of teachers, whose average age is 46·2 years. All the teachers are Brahmans, 18 being Varendra, 8 Rarhi, and 3 Vaidika Brahmans.
The various sources of income to vernacular teachers, as far as they could be ascertained, were reduced to a monthly rate; but the receipts of learned teachers, although generally larger in amount, are obtained at such uncertain intervals that they found it more convenient to give me an annual estimate. The average of the annual receipts of 24 teachers is 128 rupees, derived principally from the presents received on the occasion of ceremonial invitations, and occasionally from other sources. One teacher receives a pension from Government of five rupees per annum, paid quarterly. I could not ascertain the origin of this payment. Another teacher has a pension of 60 rupees per annum originally bestowed by Rani Bhawani and paid through the Government. The first order of Government on the subject is dated 12th November 1799; on the 17th July 1822 the Collector reported the institution to be well attended and the pensioner qualified, and on the 10th September of the same year the Board of Revenue authorized the present incumbent to receive the allowance in succession to his father. As far as I could ascertain, the sole object of the endowment is the encouragement of learning without any reference either to religious worship, or hospitality to strangers. A third teacher holds an endowment of ten bighas of land, yielding about one rupee per bigha per annum: it is the remnant of 100 bighas originally granted by Rajah Rama Kanta to his grandfather and subsequently divided and sub-divided amongst descendants who do not belong to the profession of learning, from which it would appear that the object of the endowment has been, in a great measure, defeated. It was stated to me that the original sanad for 100 bighas was lost, ​but that a certificate of the validity of the endowment given by Mr. Hely, the Collector, of 1801, is in existence.
Connected with the present means of subsistence enjoyed by learned teachers is a consideration of the amount of encouragement formerly given to the same class. One teacher stated that at one time he received five rupees a month from one, and four rupees a month from another, neighbouring zemindar,—both of whom had discontinued these payments for the last three years on the plea of diminished means. The pandit did not appear to doubt that the cause assigned was the real one. In another case it was stated that about ten or twelve years ago an endowment of 60 rupees a year, established by Rani Bhawani and paid through the Government, was discontinued. It was paid first to Jayarama Nyaya Panchanana, and afterwards to his nephew Chandreshwar Nyayalankara, on whose death it was withheld, as he left no heir. Those who mentioned this endowment considered that it was exclusively designed for the encouragement of learning, and that it was intended to be of permanent obligation. A similar opinion was not expressed respecting numerous other endowments stated to have been resumed about 20 or 25 years ago, and amounting to 8,000 or 10,000 rupees per annum. They were grants of the Rani Bhawani, and were enjoyed by upwards of thirty individuals, but it was distinctly admitted that they had been given only for life, and that the resumption was proper. The object of these endowments was stated to be the encouragement of learning, which was very carefully distinguished from the object of certain other endowments established by the same Rani and still enjoyed to the extent of 30,000 rupees by upwards of sixty persons, Brahmans, Vaishnavas, female devotees, Musalman faqirs, and reduced zemindars. The information I obtained respecting those resumed endowments was not of that determinate character which it would have been satisfactory to me to report, and I endeavoured to procure more precise details in the Collector’s Office but without success. I shall not be surprised if the statements made to me should be found erroneous, and I have the satisfaction of knowing that means have been taken to obtain, through the appropriate channel of resumption-officers, complete information respecting endowments for educational purposes whether resumed or unresumed, with the purpose of faithfully applying all that may be discovered to their legitimate objects.
Krishnanatha Nyaya Punchanana, the pandit already mentioned as enjoying an endowment of 60 rupees per annum paid through the Government, possesses a distinguished reputation amongst learned natives throughout Bengal. Several of his pupils are settled as teachers of learning at Nuddea; he is in official employment as the pandit attached to the Court of the Civil and Sessions Judge of Moorshedabad; and both his learning and office ​as well as his wealth, which amounts, however, only to a moderate competence, give him high consideration in native society. The only species of literary composition he appears to have attempted is that description of propositions which it is usual for the professors of logical philosophy to discuss at the meetings of the learned. None of the other pandits are authors.
Almost every pandit has a separate school-house either built at his own expense, or at the cost of a former or present benefactor. The amount varies from 25 rupees to 400, and, of course, the extent of the accommodation varies with the outlay.
In 24 Sanscrit schools there are 153 students, averaging 6.3 to each school. Of the total number of students, 106 were present and 47 absent at the time the schools were visited; 41 are natives of the villages in which the schools are situated and 112 natives of other villages, and one is of the Kayastha or writer-caste, and 152 are Brahmans.
The following are the different studies pursued in these schools and the number of students engaged in each at the time the schools were visited:—
| Grammar | . . . | 23 |
| Lexicology | . . . | 4 |
| Literature | . . . | 2 |
| Law | . . . | 64 |
| Logic | . . . | 52 |
| Mythology | . . . | 8 |
The age of each student was recorded with reference to three distinct periods, viz., the age at which he commenced the study he was then pursuing, his present age, and the probable age at which he would complete the study of the branch of learning on which he was then engaged. It will be noted that two of these periods are certain, and that one is prospective and conjectural. The following is the average age, at each period, of the students belonging to each branch of learning:—
| Grammar | . . . | 11.9 | . . . | 15.2 | . . . | 18.8 |
| Lexicology | . . . | 18.0 | . . . | 19.2 | . . . | 20.2 |
| Literature | . . . | 16.0 | . . . | 25.0 | . . . | 26.5 |
| Law | . . . | 23.6 | . . . | 28.7 | . . . | 33.2 |
| Logic | . . . | 21.0 | . . . | 26.5 | . . . | 34.6 |
| Mythology | . . . | 29.1 | . . . | 31.1 | . . . | 33.6 |
Grammar, lexicology, and literature, which includes poetical and dramatic productions, although begun in succession are generally studied simultaneously, and the same remark is, in some measure, applicable to law and logic. Taking, however, each branch of learning separately, it would appear that the study of grammar occupies about seven years, lexicology about two, literature about ten, law about ten, logic about thirteen, and mythology about four.
In describing the works employed as text-books in each branch of learning, all that can be attempted in this place is to give the ​names of the principal books. In grammar, the Mugdhabodha with the Ramtarkavagisi commentary and the Kalapa with the commentary of Trilochana Dasa are chiefly used. In lexicology, the Amara Kosha is the only work employed. In general literature, the Hitopadesa and Bhatti Kavya are read. In law, the following Tatwas or treatises of Raghunandana, viz., Tithi, Prayaschitta, Udbaha, Suddhi, Sraddha, Ahnika, Ekadasi, Malamasa, Samayasuddhi, and Jyotisha, are first studied; and these are followed by the Dayabhaga and Prayaschitta Viveka. In logic, the works in use are the Mathuri commentary of Vyapti Panchaka; the Jagadisi commentary of Purva Paksha, Savyabhichara, and Kevalanwaya; and the Gadadhari commentary of Avayava and Satpratipaksha, all, of course, including their respective texts: the Sabdasaktiprakasika by Gadadhar is also read. In mythology, the Bhagavata Purana, and the Bhagavad Gita, a book of the Mahabharata, are read.
Students as well as teachers sometimes receive presents on public occasions, and in certain seasons of the year the more indigent travel about as religious mendicants, the small sums thus obtained being employed to defray those expenses which their relations or teachers do not enable them to meet. Of the 24 Sanscrit schools the students of 10 receive nothing in either of the ways above mentioned, and the students of 14 receive various sums the annual average of which is rupees 7-13. This is the annual average, not to each student, but to all the students of each school taken collectively; and with reference to the average number of students in each school, it gives little more than a rupee annually to each student.
District of Beerbhoom.
This district contains 66 Sanscrit schools, of which one village contains five and another three, four villages contain two each, and forty villages contain one each.
The number of teachers is 58, of whom 53 are Rarhi and four are Varendra Brahmans, and one is of the Vaidya or medical caste. The number of teachers is greater by two than the number of schools, one school being taught by a father and son and another by an uncle and nephew. The average age of the teachers is 45.6 years.
Two of the teachers receive no invitations or presents, but like most of the rest give their instructions gratuitously to the students. The others derive their support from the following sources:—
| | | | Rs. | As. | P. |
| 50 | teachers estimate that they receive annually at assemblies to which they are invited | . . . | 2,528 | 0 | 0 |
| 1 | teacher receives, in the form of presents and annual salary | . . . | 150 | 0 | 0 |
| 1 | receives, in the form of annual salary | . . . | 60 | 0 | 0 |
| 1 | receives,„ in the form„ of fees and perquisites | . . . | 43 | 8 | 0 |
| 1 | receives,„ in the form„ of presents, salary, and fees | . . . | 108 | 0 | 0 |
Among the learned teachers of this district, the following are the names of those who claim the distinction of being authors, and of the works they profess to have written:—
Jagaddurlabha Nyayalankara, dwelling at Nandur in the Sakalyapur thana, has written four works in Sanscrit,—first, Uddhava Chamatkar, containing 175 slokas, relating to an incident in the life of Krishna connected with his friend Uddhava; second, a commentary on the preceding; third, Pratinataka, a drama divided into seven parts, containing 532 slokas, on the history of Rama; and fourth, a commentary on the preceding.
Viseswar Siddhantavagis, dwelling at Tikuri in the Ketugram thana, has written a work in Sanscrit called Duti Sambad, containing 41 slokas, on the history of Krishna.
Viswambhar Vidyaratna, the medical teacher, dwelling at Sonarundi in the Ketugram thana, is now engaged in the composition of a work in Sanscrit in support and illustration of the doctrines of Susrusha Charaka, a medical text book; he purposes printing his own production.
Rukmini Kanta Vidyavagis, dwelling at Banwari Abad in the Ketugram thana, professes to have written the following works:—First, a commentary called Vichar Tarangini, containing 400 pages in prose, on Alankara Kaustubha,—a work on rhetoric; second, Rasa Tarangini, containing 80 pages in verse, on the amours ​of Krishna; and third, Banamali Charitra Chandrica, a drama of about 100 pages in mixed verse and prose, chiefly in Sanscrit, but intermixed with the Pracrita, Magadhi, Sauraseni, Maharashtri, Paisachi, and Apabhransa dialects according to the characters of the person introduced.
Good school-houses are not common in this district, particularly towards the north and west. The teachers very frequently accommodate their pupils in baithak-khanas and chandi mandaps. One school-house built by a patron cost Rupees 200, and another built by the teacher cost Rupees five. There are others of an intermediate character, but generally built by the teachers.
In 56 Sanscrit schools there are 393 students, averaging 7.01 to each school; of the students, one is a Daivajna, a degraded class of Brahmans; three are Vaishnavas, or followers of Vishnu; nine are Vaidyas, or of the medical caste; and the rest are regular Brahmans. The natives of the villages in which the schools are situated amount to 254, and those of other villages to 139, and the average age of 371 students was 20.7 years. The following is an enumeration of the studies pursued, and the number of students attending to each:—
| Grammar | . . . | . . . | 274 |
| Lexicology | . . . | . . . | 2 |
| Literature | . . . | . . . | 8 |
| Rhetoric | . . . | . . . | 9 |
| Law | . . . | . . . | 24 |
| Logic | . . . | . . . | 27 |
| Vedanta | . . . | . . . | 3 |
| Medicine | . . . | . . . | 1 |
| Mythology | . . . | . . . | 8 |
| Astrology | . . . | . . . | 5 |
It will be observed that while the number of students of the medical caste is nine, there is only one actually engaged in the study of medical works. The reason is that before commencing the study of medical works, it is deemed requisite to pass through a course of grammar and general literature, and in this preliminary course the remaining eight students were engaged when the school in question was visited.
In grammar, the works used as text-books are Panini with the Kaumudi commentary, Sankshipta Sar with the Goyichandri commentary, and the Mugdhabodha; in lexicology, the Amara Kosha; in literature, the Bhatti Kavya, Raghuvansa, Naishadha, and Sakuntala; in rhetoric, the Kavya Prakasa, Kavya Chandrica, and Sahitya Darpana; in law, the Tithi, Ahnika, and Prayaschitta Tatwas of Raghunandana, and the Daya Bhaga; in logic, the Jagadisi commentary of Siddhanta Lakshana and Vyaddhikaranadharmavachinnabhava, and the Mathuri commentary of the Vyapti Panchaka; in the Vedanta or theology of the Veds, the Vedanta Sara; in medicine, Nidana; in mythology, the Bhagavata Purana; and in astrology, the Samaya Pradipa and Dipika.
The students of 21 schools receive nothing in the form of presents, or by mendicancy. Those of 35 schools receive ​rupees 252-12, averaging about rupees 7-3-6 annually to the students collectively of each school.
District of Burdwan.
This district contains 190 Sanscrit schools, of which two villages contain six each, one village contains five, three villages contain four each, seven villages contain three each, twenty-seven villages contain two each, and eighty-six villages contain one each.
The number of learned teachers is the same as the number of schools, and their average age is 45.2 years. One hundred and eighty are Rarhi, four Varendra, and two Vaidika Brahmans, and four are of the Vaidya or medical caste.
The following are the annual receipts, estimated by themselves, of the whole body of teachers:—
| | | Rupees. |
| 185 | receive in the form of presents at assemblies | 10,928 |
| 1 | receives in presents and monthly allowance | 376 |
| 2 | receive by medical practice | 500 |
| 1 | receives by medical practice and in the form of monthly allowance | 156 |
| 1 | a medical professor, practises as well as teaches gratuitously. |
thus 189 professors of learning receive in all rupees 11,960, averaging to each per annum rupees 63-4-5. Of the two teachers who receive monthly allowances, one is a learned Brahman and the other a learned Vaidya, and the Rajah of Burdwan is the patron of both. There are only two teachers holding endowments of land, one amounting to eight and the other to ten bighas of land, the former yielding about eighteen, and the latter about fifteen, rupees a year.
Kalidasa Sarvabhauma, dwelling at Ambika in the Culna thana, has made a translation into easy Sanscrit and also into Bengali of those portions of Menu and Mitakshara which relate to criminal law, and also a translation into Bengali of that portion of the Mitakshara which treats of the law of usury.
Gurucharana Panchanana, dwelling at Baguniya in the Ganguriya thana, is the author of a drama in Sanscrit, entitled Srikrishna Lilambudhi, containing 50 leaves or 100 pages, in mixed prose and verse, on the amours of Krishna.
Iswarachandra Nyayaratna, dwelling at Bara Belun in the Balkrishna thana, has written three works in Sancrit, viz., Gaura Chandramrita on the incarnation of Chatanya; Manoduta, legendary; and Mukti Dipika, a comparative view of the means of obtaining final absorption according to the six schools of philosophy. These three works contain about 1,200 slokas. He is ​also engaged on a commentary illustrative of the Nyaya doctrine.
Krishnamohana Vidyabhushana, dwelling at Mahtab in the Balkrishna thana, claims to have written a commentary on Alankara Kaustubha, a work on rhetoric, containing 300 leaves or 600 pages; and Bayu Duta, a work of general literature in verse, containing 10 or 12 leaves.
The most voluminous native author I have met with is Raghunandana Goswami, dwelling at Maro in the Potna thana. The following is an enumeration of his works:—
1. A commentary on the Chandomanjari, a treatise on prosody, so framed as to express the praises of Krishna.
2. A commentary on Santi Sataka, a work on abstraction from the world.
3. Sadachara Nirnaya a compilation from the laws on the Vaishnava ritual, containing 140 leaves or 280 pages in prose and verse; a copy is in my possession.
4. Dhatu Dipa, a metrical explanation of Sanscrit roots in the order of the ten conjugations, containing 500 slokas.
5. Aunadika Kosha, a metrical dictionary of works comprising the Unadi postifixes in two parts, of which one contains words having more meanings than one, and the other words of only one meaning, 300 slokas.
6. Rogarnava Tarini, a compilation from various medical works on the treatment of disease, containing 174 leaves or 348 pages, part being in verse, extending to 6,000 slokas.
7. Arishta Nirupana, a description of the various signs or symptoms of approaching death, a compilation in verse of 400 slokas, contained in 14 leaves or 28 pages.
8. Sarira Vivritti, a treatise on the progress of gestation and on the seats in the human body of the various humours, &c., in prose and verse, comprised in 22 leaves or 44 pages.
9. Lekha Darpana, on letter writing, principally in prose, 15 leaves or 30 pages.
10. Dwaita Siddhanta Dipika, a defence of the distinction between the human and divine spirits in opposition to pantheism, contained in 71 leaves or 142 pages.
​12. Siva Sarmadastotra, 8 slokas, containing a double sense, one expressing the praises of Siva and the other some different meaning.
13. A commentary on the preceding.
14. Yamakavinoda, 8 slokas, containing the praises of Krishna, written in a species of alliteration by a repetition of the same sounds; a copy is in my possession.
15. A commentary on the preceding; a copy is in my possession.
16. Bhavanuprasa, eight slokas, containing the praises of Krishna, in a species of alliteration.
17. Antaslapika, four slokas, in question and answer so framed that the answer to one question contains the answers to all the questions in the same sloka.
18. Radha Krishnastotra, eight slokas, containing the praises of Radha and Krishna, and so framed that they may be read either backward or forward.
19. A commentary on the above, consisting of 2 leaves or 4 pages.
20. A specimen of Alata Chakra Bandha, two slokas, so framed that each sloka contains materials for 64 slokas by the transposition of each letter in succession from the beginning to the end,—first the thirty-two syllables from left to right, and afterwards the thirty-two from right to left.
21. Sansaya Satani, a commentary on the Bhagavata Purana, now in progress of composition.
22. A commentary on Yama Shatpadi, which contains the praises of Narayana by Yama.
23. Slavakadamba, 76 slokas, containing the praises of Saraswati, Ganga, Yamuna, Nityananda, Chaitanya, Vrindavana, Krishna, and Radhika.
24. Govindarupamriti, 41 slokas, containing a description of the qualities of Krishna.
25. Krishna Keli Suddhaka, 400 slokas, on the loves of Radha and Krishna, principally occupied with the period extending from the jealousy of Radha to her reconciliation with Krishna.
25. Commentary on the above, of 37 leaves or 74 pages. ​26. Govinda Mahodaya, 800 slokas, containing the history of Radha’s eight female friends or attendants.
27. Govinda Charitra, 350 slokas, containing the lamentation of Radha on account of her separation from Krishna.
28. Bhakta Mala, 5,000 slokas, explanatory of the different forms in which Krishna has been propitious to his votaries, translated from Marwari into Sanscrit.
29. Durjnana Mihira Kalanala, a defence of the doctrine of the Vaishnavas.
30. Bhakta Lilamrita, a compilation from the eighteen Puranas of every thing relating to Krishna.
31. Parakiya Mata Khandana, an attempt to establish that the milkwomen of Vrindavana with whom Krishna disported were his own wives, and not those of the milkmen of that place.
32. A commentary on Kavi Chandra’s praise of Hara and Gauri (Siva and Parvati), consisting of 10 leaves or 20 pages.
33. Desika Nirnaya, a compilation on the qualifications of a spiritual guide and on the tests by which one should be selected; a copy is in my possession.
34. A commentary on Srutyadhyaya, one of the books of the Bhagavata Purana on the history of Radha and Krishna, consisting of 22 leaves or 44} pages.
35. Krishnavilasa, 109 slokas, on the amours of Krishna. The preceding works are written in Sanscrit; the following chiefly in Bengalee, viz.,
36. Rama Rasayana, the history of Rama, written on 889 leaves or 1,778 pages, containing 30,000 slokas.
37. Patra Prakasa, 8 leaves or 16 pages, on letter writing, the example in Sanscrit and the explanation in Bengalee.
Ram Comala Kavibhushana, of the medical caste, dwelling at Burdwan in the Burdwan thana, has written Nayanananda Nataka, a drama of about 300 slokas, illustrative of the life and actions of the late Rajah of Burdwan; and Vadarthadarsa, a treatise on grammar, contained in about 50 leaves or 100 pages.
Radha Kanta Vachaspati, dwelling at Chanak in the Mangalkot thana, has written the following works, viz.:—Nikunjavilasa, a drama consisting of 60 leaves or 120 pages, illustrative of the ​loves of Radha and Krishna, and written in Sanscrit, Pracrit, Paisachi, Apabhransa, Maharashtri, Magadhi, and Sauraseni; Surya Panchasata, a poem in praise of the sun, consisting of 30 leaves or 60 pages; and Durga Sataka, containing the praises of Durga in a hundred slokas.
The majority of the teachers have school-houses either built at their own charge, or at the expense of patrons and friends, or by the subscriptions of the most respectable inhabitants of the village where the school is situated. In those instances in which there is no regular school-house, the bithak-khana or chandimandap of the pandit, or of some wealthy friend, answers the purpose.
In 190 Sanscrit schools there are 1,358 students, averaging 7·1 to each school. Of the total number 590 are natives of the villages in which the schools are situated, and 768 natives of other villages. They are thus distributed in respect of caste:—
| Brahman | . . . | 1,296 |
| Vaidyas | . . . | 45 |
| Daivajnas | . . . | 11 |
| Vaishnavas | . . . | 6 |
The students of 105 schools receive nothing in the form of presents or by mendicancy. Those of 85 schools receive rupees 391, averaging rupees 4-9-7 annually to the students collectively of each school. The following is an enumeration of the studies pursued and the number of students engaged in each:—
| Grammar | . . . | 644 |
| Lexicology | . . . | 31 |
| Literature | . . . | 90 |
| Rhetoric | . . . | 8 |
| Law | . . . | 238 |
| Logic | . . . | 277 |
| Vedanta | . . . | 3 |
| Medicine | . . . | 15 |
| Mythology | . . . | 43 |
| Astrology | . . . | 7 |
| Tantras | . . . | 2 |
The following is the average age of the students belonging to each branch of learning at each of the periods formerly mentioned:—
| Grammar | . . . | 11·4 | . . . | 16·2 | . . . | 20·7 |
| Lexicology | . . . | 15·7 | . . . | 16·4 | . . . | 17·8 |
| Literature | . . . | 18·6 | . . . | 21·4 | . . . | 24·9 |
| Rhetoric | . . . | 23·6 | . . . | 23·8 | . . . | 27·1 |
| Law | . . . | 23·2 | . . . | 27·5 | . . . | 33·5 |
| Logic | . . . | 17·8 | . . . | 22·2 | . . . | 29·0 |
| Vedanta | . . . | 24·3 | . . . | 31·3 | . . . | 34·6 |
| Medicine | . . . | 16·2 | . . . | 20·5 | . . . | 24·2 |
| Mythology | . . . | 24·6 | . . . | 27·7 | . . . | 31·6 |
| Astrology | . . . | 23·4 | . . . | 26·7 | . . . | 30·5 |
| Tantras | . . . | 27·5 | . . . | 32·0 | . . . | 32·5 |
The following works are read:—In grammar, the Daurgadasi and Ramtarkavagisi commentaries of the Mugdhaboodha, and the Harinamamrita grammar by Mulajiva Goswami; in literature, the Kumar Sambhava, Magha, and Padanka Duta; in law, the Suddhi, ​Udvaha, Sraddha, Ekadasi, Malamasa, and Jyotisha Tatwas, and the Mitakshara; in logic, the Jagadisi commentary of Vyapti Panchaka, Sinha Vyaghra, Avachhedoktanirukti, Vyapti Grahopaya, Samanya Lakshana, Pakshata, Paramarsa, Kevalanwayi, and Samanya Nirukti, the Mathuri commentary of Tarka, the Gadadhari commentary of Anumiti and Satpratipaksha, the Jagadisi and Gadadhari commentaries of Visesa Vyapti, Avayava, Savyabhichara, and Hetwabhasa, and the Sabdasaktiprakasika, Saktibadha, Muktibada, Bauddha Dhikkara, Pramanyabada, Lilavati, and Kusumanjali; in the Vedanta, Sankarabhashya and Panchadasi; in medicine, Sarangadhara Sanhita, Charaka, Vyakhya Madhu Kosha, and Chakrapani; in mythology, Ramayana and Bhagavad Gita; in astrology, Jyotisha Sara; and in the Tantra, Tantra Sara.
District of South Behar
This district contains 27 Sanscrit schools, of which one village contains six, three villages contain two each, and fifteen villages contain one each. The number of teachers is the same as the number of schools, and their average age is 43.9 years. They are all Brahmans, seventeen Sakadwipi Brahmans, four Kanyakubja, four Maithila, one Sarajupariya, and one Sonadhya.
Of the whole body of teachers, seven give their instructions gratuitously without deriving any emoluments from patrons. Of these, one, in consequence of the resumption of a small endowment he had, has withheld the pecuniary aid he formerly gave to his pupils; and three rent each a small farm which they cultivate by hired labour. The rest appear to be dependent on the other members of their own families. Twenty teachers furnished the following estimates of the amount of their annual receipts:—
| | | | Rs. |
| 1 | receives a monthly allowance from a patron | . . . | 120 |
| 2 | receive by officiating as priests about | . . . | 85 |
| 1 | receives proceeds of an endowment | . . . | 100 |
| 1 | receives„ monthly allowance and proceeds of endowment | . . . | 104 |
| 1 | receives„ monthly allowance„ and by public recitation | . . . | 340 |
| 2 | receive in presents of money and uncooked food | . . . | 274 |
| 1 | receives proceeds of an endowment and by officiating as a priest | . . . | 76 |
| 1 | receives as an initiating priest and by public recitations | . . . | 10 |
| 1 | receives„ as a family priest and by public recitations | . . . | 200 |
| 1 | receives„ a monthly allowance, village subscriptions, and proceeds of an endowment | . . . | 49 |
| 1 | receives a monthly allowance, proceeds of an endowment, and presents of uncooked food | . . . | 642 |
| 1 | receives in presents of money and uncooked food, and proceeds of an endowment | . . . | 60 |
| 5 | receive monthly allowances and presents of money, and uncooked food | . . . | 4,942 |
| 1 | receives as an initiating priest, as an officiating family priest, as a reciter of the Puranas, and in the form of occasional presents | . . . | 400 |
​Thus 20 teachers receive in all about rupees 7,402, averaging to each rupees 370-1-7 per annum. The endowed lands in extent vary from five to a hundred and fifty bighas, and in value from one to four rupees per bigha.
As far as I could ascertain, there are only two teachers in this district who are known as authors. Chakrapani pandit, dwelling at Tikari in thana Sahibgunge, has composed the following works in Sanscrit, viz:—1. Durga Ratnamala, a commentary on Sapta Sati, a sub-division of the Markandeya Purana, contained in 200 leaves or 400 pages. 2. Durjnanamukhachapetika, (a slap on the face to the ignorant,) a treatise on the law of inheritance, &c., opposed to the school of Raghunandana, written on 150 leaves or 300 pages. 3. Sarada, a commentary on Sabdendu Sekhara, itself a commentary on the Siddhanta Kaumudi, or Panini grammar, written on 200 leaves or 400 pages. 4. Mani Prakasika, a commentary on Kanstubha, itself a commentary on the 8th Chapter of Panini, written on 180 leaves or 360 pages. 5. Sakti Khandika, a logical treatise on the powers of words in the form of a commentary on Manjusha on the same subject, written on 70 leaves or 140 pages. Hara Lal Pandit, á resident of the same place, is the author of two works, viz:— 1. Sabda Prakasa, a commentary on Sabdendu Sekhara, written on 500 leaves or 1,000 pages; and 2. Paribhasha Tatwa Prakasa, a commentary on Pari Bhashendu Sekhara, itself a commentary on the Siddhanta Kaumudi, written on 125 leaves or 250 pages.
About half of the pandits have school-houses built at their own cost, or that of their patrons; and the rest avail themselves of the accommodation afforded by a threshold, an out-house, or a temple.
In 27 Sanscrit schools there are 437 students, averaging 16.1 to each school. They are all Brahmans, and of the whole number 154 are natives of the villages in which the schools are situated, and 283 are natives of other villages. The students do not acquire any portion of their subsistence by mendicancy. The majority of them are supported by family-funds, and others participate in the allowances of food granted by the patrons of the teachers. In one instance the allowance of uncooked articles of food made to the teachers expressly for the benefit of the students was estimated at rupees 1,104 per annum, in another at rupees 960, and in a third at Rupees 360; in the last mentioned case the number of students enjoying this aid being limited to fifteen. The whole of these have been included in the preceding estimate of the receipts of teachers. The following are the studies pursued, and the number of students engaged in each :—
| Grammar | . . . | . . . | 356 |
| Lexicology | . . . | . . . | 8 |
| Literature | . . . | . . . | 16 |
| Rhetoric | . . . | . . . | 2 |
| Law | . . . | . . . | 2 |
| Logic | . . . | . . . | 6 ​ |
| Vedanta | . . . | . . . | 5 |
| Mimansa | . . . | . . . | 2 |
| Sankhya | . . . | . . . | 1 |
| Medicine | . . . | . . . | 2 |
| Mythology | . . . | . . . | 22 |
| Astrology | . . . | . . . | 13 |
| Tantras | . . . | . . . | 2 |
The following is the average age of the students belonging to each branch of learning at each of the periods formerly mentioned :—
| Grammar | . . . | . . . | 11.5 | . . . | 17.3 | . . . | 24.4 |
| Lexicology | . . . | . . . | 15.5 | . . . | 19.6 | . . . | 23.8 |
| Literature | . . . | . . . | 16.6 | . . . | 18.0 | . . . | 23.4 |
| Rhetoric | . . . | . . . | 20.0 | . . . | 22.0 | . . . | 24.0 |
| Law | . . . | . . . | 18.5 | . . . | 21.0 | . . . | 26.5 |
| Logic | . . . | . . . | 22.1 | . . . | 24.1 | . . . | 28.5 |
| Vedanta | . . . | . . . | 13.2 | . . . | 13.8 | . . . | 16.6 |
| Mimansa | . . . | . . . | 22.5 | . . . | 24.5 | . . . | 28.5 |
| Sankhya | . . . | . . . | 21.0 | . . . | 23.0 | . . . | 28.0 |
| Medicine | . . . | . . . | 18.0 | . . . | 25.0 | . . . | 29.0 |
| Mythology | . . . | . . . | 19.6 | . . . | 21.9 | . . . | 26.8 |
| Astrology | . . . | . . . | 17.0 | . . . | 19.8 | . . . | 20.1 |
| Tantras | . . . | . . . | 26.5 | . . . | 27.5 | . . . | 33.0 |
The following works are read in the schools : In grammar Mahabhashya by Patanjali, interpreting or correcting Katyayana’s annotations on Panini’s rules; Sabda Kaustubha by Bhattaji Dikshita, consisting of scholia on Panini, left incomplete by the author; Siddhanta Kaumudi by Bhattaji Dikshita, a grammar in which Panini’s rules are used, but his arrangement changed; Manorama by the same author, containing notes on his own work; Sabdendu Sekhara by Nagoji Bhatta, a commentary on the Siddhanta Kaumudi; Sabdaratna by Hari Diksita, a commentary on Bhattaji’s notes on the Manorama; Chandrica by Swayamprakasananda, interpreting the Paribhashartha Sangraha, a commentary on the maxims of interpretation from ancient grammarians cited in the Varticas and Bhashya as rules for interpreting Panini’s aphorisms; Paribhashendu Sekhara by Nagoji Bhatta, a brief exposition of the same maxims; Vaiyakaranabhushana by Konda Bhatta, on syntax and the philosophy of grammatical structure; Vaiyakarana Siddhanta Manjusha by Nagoji Bhatta, on the same subjects; and Saraswati Prakriya by Anubhuti Swarupacharya, a grammar founded on seven hundred rules or aphorisms pretended to have been received by the author from the goddess Saraswati. In lexicology, the Amara Kosha. In literature Raghuvansa, Magha, Purva Naishadha, and Bharaviya or Kirata Kavya. In rhetoric, Kavya Prakasa. In law, Mitakshara and Saroja Kalika. In logic, Siddhanta Muktavali, the Gadadhari commentary of Vyapti Panchaka, the Jagadisi commentary of Vyaddhikaranadharmavachhinnabhava, and Bhasha Parichheda. In the Vedanta, Vedanta Paribhasha. In Mimansa, Adhikarana Mala. In Sankhya, Sankhya Tatwa ​Kaumudi. In medicine, Sarangadara. In mythology, Harivansa, and Sapta Sati, a chapter of the Markandeya Parana. In astrology, Muhurta Chintamani, Muhurta Martanda, Muhurta Kalpadruma Lilavati, and Sighrabodha; and in the Tantra, Sarada Tilaka.
District of Tirhoot.
This district contains fifty-six Sanscrit schools, of which one village contains five, four villages contain three each, six villages contain two each, and twenty-seven villages contain one each. The number of teachers is the same, and their average age is 47.3 years. They are all Brahmans, fifty Maithila Brahmans, three Sarajupariya, two Kanyakubja, and one Sakadwipi.
Of the body of teachers, six are independent of patronage, and are either supported from the resources of their own families, or support themselves by farming. The following are the sources of income of the remaining fifty teachers:—
| | | Rs. |
| 30 | teachers receive, in the form of presents at assemblies | 1,165 |
| 4 | teachers„ receive,„ proceeds of endowments | 535 |
| 3 | teachers„ receive,„ as officiating priests | 134 |
| 2 | teachers„ receive,„ by divination | 100 |
| 1 | teacher receives annual allowance | 4 |
| 5 | teachers receive presents of money and proceeds of endowments | 297 |
| 4 | teachers„ receive presents of money and by divination | 250 |
| 1 | teacher receives as officiating priest and by divination | 30 |
Fifty teachers thus receive an estimated income of rupees 2,515, averaging to each rupees 50-4-9 per annum. The practice of divination is very common in this district, and it is a source of income to men of learning which has not come to my knowledge elsewhere.
None of the teachers have distinguished themselves by written compositions, and amongst the whole body only two are to be found having separate school-houses for the accommodation of their students, and those built at their own cost,—in one instance amounting to two, and in the other to ten, rupees. The rest assemble their pupils in the verandas of their own dwelling-houses.
In 56 Sanscrit schools there are 214 students, averaging 3.8 to each school. They are all Brahmans, 147 of them being natives of the villages in which the schools are situated, and 67 natives of other villages. The students of three schools receive in the form of occasional presents rupees 65, which averages to the students of each school collectively rupees 21-10-8 per annum. ​The practice is for the teacher to give food only to foreign students if he can afford it, but it does not affect his repute if he cannot, and does not, give them that assistance. The majority of the students derive their chief, many their sole, support from the resources of their own families.
The following are the studies pursued, and the number of students engaged in each:—
| Grammar | . . . | 127 |
| Lexicology | . . . | 3 |
| Literature | . . . | 4 |
| Law | . . . | 8 |
| Logic | . . . | 16 |
| Vedanta | . . . | 2 |
| Mythology | . . . | 1 |
| Astrology | . . . | 53 |
The following is the average age of the students belonging to each branch of learning at each of the periods formerly mentioned:—
| Grammar | . . . | 9·0 | . . . | 16·6 | . . . | 24·3 |
| Lexicology | . . . | 20·6 | . . . | 20·5 | . . . | 22·6 |
| Literature | . . . | 20·2 | . . . | 21·0 | . . . | 25·5 |
| Law | . . . | 21·8 | . . . | 25·2 | . . . | 31·2 |
| Logic | . . . | 17·5 | . . . | 26·2 | . . . | 35·5 |
| Vedanta | . . . | 15·0 | . . . | 15·0 | . . . | 21·0 |
| Mythology | . . . | 20·0 | . . . | 20·0 | . . . | 24·0 |
| Astrology | . . . | 12·3 | . . . | 18·4 | . . . | 26·2 |
The following works are read in the schools of this district:—In grammar, Sabda Kaustubha, Siddhanta Kaumudi, Manorama, Sabdendu Sekhara, Laghu Kaumudi, Chandrika, Siddhanta Manjusha, and Saraswati Prakria. In lexicology, Amara Kosha. In literature, Raghuvansa, Magha, and Kirata Kavya. In law, Sraddha Viveka, Vivaha Tatwa, Daya Tatwa, Ahnika Tatwa, and Mitakshara. In logic, the Jagadisi commentary of Siddhanta Lakshana, Samanya Lakshana, and Hetwabhasha, Abachhedoktanirukti, the Gadadhary commentary of Vyapti Panchaka, and Pratyaksha Khanda, Pramanyabada, and Vyaddhikaranadharmavachhinnabhava. In the Vedanta philosophy, the Vedanta Sara. In mythology, the Bhagavata Purana. In astrology, Nilakanthia Tajaka, Laghu Tajaka, Vija Ghanta, Vija Ganita, Graha Laghava, Siddhanta Siromani, Sripati Paddhati, Sarva Sangraha, Surya Siddhanta, Ratna Sara, Brahma Siddhanta, and Bala Bodha.