OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Karl Ernst Jarcke

From volume 8 of the work.
Born 10 November, 1801, at Danzig, Prussia; died 27 December, 1852, at Vienna. He belonged to a Protestant merchant family. He took up the study of jurisprudence, and became at an early age professor of criminal law at Bonn and later in Berlin. His scholarly attachments were especially revealed in his "Handbuch des gemeinen deutschen Strafrechts" (3 vols., 1827-30). Longing for faith and overcome by the conclusively and immensity of Catholic dogma, as he found it disclosed in the decrees of the Council of Trent, he embraced the Catholic Faith at Cologne in 1824. After the outbreak of the Revolution of July in Paris, he wrote an anonymous political brochure, "Die franzosische Revolution von 1830". It met the emphatic approval of the circle of friends of the then Crown Prince (later King Frederick William IV), which was composed of men of anti-revolutionary views, influenced by Romanticism and by Haller. Jarcke assumed the editorship of the periodical "Politische Wochenblatt", founded by these men in 1831 to promote their ideas. In 1832 Metternich called him to the State Chancery in Vienna to succeed the late Friedrich Gentz. He accepted the call, but continued an active collaborator of the weekly journal. The residence in Vienna did not satisfy him. In 1837 he broke with his Berlin friends on the subject of the "Cologne Occurrence" — the imprisonment of the Archbishop of Cologne — of which they approved but which he condemned. In 1838 he founded with Phillips the "Historisch-politische Blatter" to support Catholic interests in Germany. When Metternich was overthrown in 1848 Jarcke left Vienna, but returned there when order was restored, and died shortly after. His ideal was the "Germanic State" of the Middle Ages; at its head an hereditary monarch, all claims of the princes on their subjects to be regulated by treaties, the state to be occupied only with the defence in war and the administration of justice; in domestic affairs entirely unrestricted opportunities for development within the confederacy. Of "political necessities", "measures for the welfare of the state", and of a "constitution" Jarcke wished to know nothing, except perhaps of a restriction of the royal prerogative by an advisory popular assembly, which however must be representative of the professions and the interests at stake, not merely founded on a general or property qualification franchise. In his articles on the relations between Church and State he combated especially the Protestant and Liberal views. In seeming contradiction to his anti-revolutionary year of 1848, and he took a willing part in the Catholic movement which began at that time.
MARTIN SPAHN
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Karl Friedrich Savigny

From volume 16 of the work.
Diplomatist, born at Berlin, 19 Sept., 1814; died at Frankfort-on-the-Main, 11 Feb., 1875. He was the son of the great jurist Friedrich Karl von Savigny, who was then privy councillor of the court of appeals, member of the Prussian council of State, and professor at the University of Berlin, and of his wife, Kunigunde Brentano, sister of the poet Klemens Brentano. The father was a Protestant, but the mother was a Catholic, and the children were allowed to follow the religion of the mother. Karl Friedrich was first taught at home, then attended the French Gymnasium at Berlin, the Collegium Romanum at Rome, and the Collegium Sebastianum at Naples. He studied law at Berlin, Munich, and Paris. In 1836 he became an auscultator at Berlin; in 1837 he was a referendar in the court at Aachen, in 1840 secretary of legation at London and Dresden, in 1842 at Lisbon, in 1848 at London. In 1849 he was councillor of legations and member of the ministry of foreign affairs, and in 1850 ambassador at Karlsruhe. While here he was able to win over the Government of Baden for the Prussian policy, and, as Bismarck testified, "by cautious and tactful bearing to win a commanding position at Karlsruhe for the Prussian government."
From 1859 Karl Friedrich was Prussian ambassador at Dresden, from 1862 at Brussels, and from 1864 he was minister with full powers at the Diet of the German Confederation at Frankfort. In 1866 he offered at the Diet the Prussian motion for the reform of the German Confederation, and when it was rejected on 14 June, 1866, he declared the withdrawal of Prussia, upon which the Austro-Prussian war began. Later in connection with Bismarck he was plenipotentiary in making a treaty of peace with the states of southern Germany and Saxony. He was the presiding officer of the government conferences for the drafting of a constitution for the North German Confederation, and was a plenipotentiary at the Reichstag which decided the constitution. Thus he performed important services in national affairs. In 1868 he retired partially, and in 1871 entirely, from government positions in order to become one of the parliamentary leaders of the Catholics. From 1867 he was a member of the Lower House of the Prussian Diet, from 1868 a member of the Lower House of the Diet of the North German Confederation, and later of the German Reichstag, or Parliament of the German Empire. In 1871 he took part in the founding of the Centre Party. He was not particularly distinguished as a speaker, but his knowledge, distinguished personality, and connections were of much benefit to the Catholic cause.
Unsere Zeit, XI, Pt. I (Leipzig, 1875), 466-69; Allegemeine deutsche Biographie, s. v.; PASTOR, August Reichensperger, I, Pt. II (Freiburg, 1899), passim.
Klemens Löffler.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Kalands Brethren

From volume 8 of the work.
(Kalandbrüder, Fratres Calendarii.)
The name given to religious and charitable associations of priests and laymen especially numerous in Northern and Central Germany, which held regular meetings for religious edification and instruction, and also to encourage works of charity and prayers for the dead. They were originally an extension of the meetings of the clergy of the separate deaneries usually held on the first day of each month (Kalendæ, hence their title Kaland). After the thirteenth century these meetings developed in many cases into special, organized societies to which both priests and the laity, men and women, belonged. Special statutes regulated the conduct of the society, its reunions, the duties of the directors in promoting the religious life and Christian discipline, the services to be held, the administration of the general funds, and their application to charitable purposes. A dean was at the head of each association, and a treasurer administered the revenues. The associations were encouraged by the bishops, who assigned them particular churches or at least special altars for Divine Service. The offering of prayers and the Sacrifice of the Mass for deceased members was especially fostered. The oldest known Kaland confraternity is that of Ottberg near Höchster (Westphalia), of whose existence in 1226 we have documentary evidence. The "Calendarii" flourished especially in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, but later decayed. A banquet was introduced at the meetings, which subsequently degenerated in many instances into a revel, leading in certain neighbourhoods to abuses. From Germany the Kaland confraternities spread to Denmark, Norway, Hungary, and France. In the sixteenth century the Reformation led to the dissolution of the majority; the rest gradually disappeared, only one being now known to exist, that of Münster in Westphalia.
SCHATZ, Der Kaland, ein Gedicht des 13. Jahrhunderts (Halberstadt Programme, 1850-1); FELLER, Dissertatio de fratribus Calendariis (Leipzig, 1691); BLUMBERG, Ueber die Kalandsbr der (Chemnitz, 1721); DITTMER, Das Heilig-Geist-Spital und die St. Clemens-Kaland zu Lübeck (Lübeck, 1838); BIERLING, Die Kalandsbrüderschaften, bes. in der Diözese Paderborn in Zeitschr. für vaterländ. Gesch. u. Altertumskunde, X, 3rd series (Münster, 1872), 175-237; BODEMANN, Die geistl. Brüderschaften, insbesondere die Kalands- und Kagelbrüder der Stadt Lüneburg im Mittelalter in Zeitschr. des histor. Vereins für Niedersachsen (1882), 64-128; Die norddeutschen Kalandsgesellschaften u. der Kaland in Münster in Hist. -polit. Blätter, LXXXVII (1881), 669-80; MICHAEL, Gesch. des deutschen Volkes, II (Freiburg, 1889), 198; RAUTENSTRAUCH, Die Kalandbr derschaften, das kulturelle Vorbild der sächsischen Kantoreien (Dresden, 1903).
J.P. KIRSCH
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Karl Ernst, Freiherr von Moy de Sons

From volume 10 of the work.
A jurist, born 10 August, 1799, at Munich; died 1 August, 1867, at Innsbruck (Tyrol). He belonged to an ancient noble family of Picardy, banished from France in 1789 and settled in Munich. After completing his studies in his native city, he became auditor in the war office; in 1827 privatdocent; 1830-33 attorney at law, in 1833 extraordinary professor of natural and political law at Würtzburg; finally in 1837 ordinary professor at Munich. Because of the address by the Senate of the university to King Ludwig II concerning the notorious dancer Lola Montes, he was deposed together with several other professors and appointed supernumerary counsellor of the Court of Appeals at Neuburg on the Danube. Obtaining leave of absence in 1848, he went to Innsbruck, where he devoted himself to literary work for the old Conservative party and in 1851, after his complete severance from the service of Bavaria, he accepted the chair of history of the German Empire and German law, in the university of that town. In 1863 he retired after having transferred the chair of German history to Ficker. In 1860-62 he was first vice-president and in 1864 president of the General Assembly of German Catholics. A tireless champion of Catholic ideas in speech and writing, on account of his peaceable disposition he was never a leader in the struggle for the Catholic cause. In Austrian politics he soon abandoned his straightforward position and became reconciled to the modern trend, warmly defending the Concordat. Among his writings, in which he devoted the greatest attention to careful research and lucid arrangement, may be mentioned "Lehrbuch des bayerischen Staatsrechtes" (Ratisbon, 1840-46); "De impedimentis matrimonii" (Munich, 1827); "Die Ehe und die Stellung der katholischen Kirche in Deutschland rücksichtlich dieses Punktes ihrer Disciplin" (Landshut, 1830); "Das Eherecht der Christen in der morgenländischen und abendländischen Kirche bis zur Zeit Karls des Grossen nach den Quellen dargestell" (Ratisbon, 1833), by all means his best work; "Grundlinien einer Philosophie des Rechtes vom Katholischen Standpunkt" (2 vols., Vienna, 1854-57); "Die weltliche Herrschaft des Papstes und die rechtliche Ordnung in Europa" (Ratisbon, 1860). He did a great service to canon law through his foundation of the "Archiv für Katholisches Kirchenrecht mit besonderer Rücksicht auf Oesterreich" later "mit Rücksicht auch auf Deutschland" (Innsbruck, 1857), which he edited as far as the fifth volume.
Biographisches Lexicon des Kaiserthums Oesterreichs, XIX (1868), 165-167; Allgemeine deutsche Biographie, XXII (1885), 420.
PATRICIUS SCHLAGER.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Karl Friedrich Rumohr

From volume 13 of the work.
Art historian, b. at Dresden, 1785; d. there, 1843. He became a Catholic in 1804. He was blessed not only with worldly possessions, but also with a practically unquenchable thirst for knowledge, and especially with a keen sense of form and beauty, which fitted him for the critical treatment of art and social relations. Italy was frequently visited by him, and he was fond of varying life in the large cities with the stillness and loneliness of the country. Exercising a magnificent hospitality, he himself was in many places, despite his very irritable temperament, a welcome guest-even with King William IV of Prussia and Christian VIII of Denmark. In his "Italienische Forschungen" (3 vols., 182-31), he treated in masterly fashion the Umbrian-Tuscan School of painting, and prepared the way for a critical conception of art history in Italy. His residence in Italy also gave rise to interesting works on the rural condition of Central and Upper Italy. His "Drei Reisen nach Italien" appeared as a special work. As the result of searching study he wrote "Hans Holbein der Jungere in seinem Verhältnis zum deutschen Formschnittwesen", "Zur Geschichte und Theorie der Formschneidekunst", and "Geschichte der königlichen Kupferstichsammlung zu Kopenhagen". His "Novellen" ae unimportant, his "Deutsche Denkwürdigkeiten" (4 vols.), of little interest; his "Hunde-Füchsestreit" (Kynalopekomachie) and "Schule der Höflichkeit" are written in a humorous vein. The "Geist der Kochkunst" also extended his fame and popularity. King Christian VIII built a monument in his honour.
Biography by SCHULZ (Leipzig, 1844); POEL in Allg. Deutsche Biogr., XXIX.
G. GIETMANN
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Sanno

​Sanno (little). — A sub-division of Bottada, Omanaito, Pentiya, and Sondi.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Santha

​Santha (a fair). — An exogamous sept of Dēvānga and Oddē.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Sammērāya

​Sammērāya.——A name for Telugu beggars employed as servants and messengers by the heads of Lingāyat mutts (religious institutions). It is derived from sammē, denoting confederacy or league, and denotes those who are bound to the rules laid down by Lingāyats.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Samudra

​Samudra. — Samudra, Samudram, or Samudrala, meaning the ocean, has been recorded as an exogamous sept of Telugu Brāhmans, Koravas, Kurubas, Balijas, and Mālas. The equivalent Tamudri occurs as the title of the Zamorin, who is the sea-king or ruler of Calicut.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Sankati

​Sankati (rāgi or millet pudding). — An exogamous sept of Bōya. Rāgi is the staple dietary of many of the lower classes, who cannot afford rice.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Sanror

​Sanror.— A synonym of Shānāns, who claim that Shānān is derived from Sānrōr, meaning the learned or noble.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Sammathi Makkal

​Sammathi Makkal (hammer-men). — An exogamous section of Kallan.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Sampige

​Sampigē.——Sampigē and Sampangi (champac: Michelia Champaca) have been recorded as an exogamous sept of Kurni and Oddē. Champac flowers are used in the manufacture of temple garlands.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Sanjōgi

​Sanjōgi.— The Sanjōgis are an Oriya class of religious mendicants, who wear the sacred thread, and act as priests for Pānos and other lowly people. The name indicates connection, and that they are the connecting link between ordinary people and those who have given up earthly pleasures (Sanyāsis). The Sanjōgis follow the ordinary as well as the ascetic life. Mr. G. Ramamurti Pantulu informs me that they are believed to be the offspring of ascetics who have violated their vow of celibacy, and women with whom they have lived. They make and sell bead rosaries of the sacred tulsi or basil (Ocimum sanctum) which are worn by various Oriya castes. Some are cultivators, while others are beggars. A Sanjōgi beggar goes about with a bell ​on the thigh, and a coloured pot on the left shoulder. A few are employed at Oriya maths (religious institutions), where it is their duty to invite Bairāgis and ascetics to a dinner party, and afterwards to remove the leaf platters, and eat the food which is left.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Sanku

​Sanku.— Sanku, the conch or chank (Turbinella rapa) has been recorded as a sub-division of Dāsaris, Koppala Velamas, and Paraiyans who act as conch-blowers at funerals, and as an exogamons sept of Kuruba. Sankukatti, or those who tie the chank, occurs as a sub-division of Idaiyan. The chank shell, which is regularly collected by divers off Tuticorin in the Tinnevelly district, is highly prized by Hindus, and used for offering libations, and as a musical instrument at temple services, marriages, and other ceremonials. Vaishnavites and Mādhvas are branded with the emblems of the chank and chakram. The rare right-handed chank shell is specially valued, and purchased for large sums. A legend, recorded by Baldæus, runs to the effect that "Garroude (Garuda) flew in all haste to Brahma, and brought to Kistna the chianko or kinkhorn twisted to the right". Such a shell appears on the coat-of-arms of the Rāja of Cochin and on the coins of Travancore.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/William Darrell

From volume 4 of the work.
Theologian, b. 1651, in Buckinghamshire, England; d. 28 Feb., 1721, at St. Omer's, France. He was a member of the ancient Catholic family of Darrell of Scotney Castle, Sussex, being the only son of Thomas Darrell and his wife, Thomassine Marcham. He joined the Society of Jesus on 7 Sept., 1671, was professed 25 March, 1689. He wrote: "A Vindication of St. Ignatius from Phanaticism and of the Jesuits from the calumnies laid to their charge in a late book (by Henry Wharton) entitled The Enthusiasm of the Church of Rome" (London, 1688); "Moral Reflections on the Epistles and Gospels of every Sunday throughout the Year" (London, 1711, and frequently reprinted); "The Gentleman Instructed in the conduct of a virtuous and happy life" (10th ed., London, 1732; frequently reprinted and translated into Italian and Hungarian); "Theses Theologicæ" (Liège, 1702); "The Case Reviewed" in answer to Leslie's "Case Stated" (2nd ed., London, 1717); "A Treatise of the Real Presence" (London,1721). He translated "Discourses of Cleander and Eudoxus upon the Provincial Letters from the French" (1701). Jones in his edition of Peck's "Popery Tracts" (1859), also attributes to Father Darrell: "A Letter on King James the Second's most gracious Letter of Indulgence" (1687); "The Layman's Opinion sent . . . to a considerable Divine in the Church of England" (1687); "A Letter to a Lady" (1688); "The Vanity of Human Respects" (1688).
FOLEY, Records Eng. Prov. S. J. (London, 1878), III, 477, VII, i, 196; PECK, Catalogue of Popery Tracts (1735),ed. JONES (Chetham Society, 1859); GILLOW, Bibl. Dict. Eng. Cath. (London, 1886), II; COOPER in Dict. Nat. Biog. (London, 1888), XIV.
EDWIN BURTON
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/William Detré

From volume 4 of the work.
Missionary, b. in France in 1668, d. in South America, at an advanced age, date uncertain. After his admission to the Society of Jesus, he was sent by his superiors to the missions of South America in 1706, and seven years later was appointed superior-general and visitor of all the missions of the Amazon embracing a tract of over 3000 miles. He is credited with translating the catechism into eighteen different languages for the various Indian tribes under his jurisdiction. It was he who sent to Europe the celebrated map of the Amazon drawn by Father Samuel Fritz, S.J., and engraved at Quito in 1707. In 1727 he was appointed rector of the College of Cuenca, where he continued the zealous exercise of the foundations of the ministry. He left an interesting "Relation" dated 1 June 1731, giving curious details about the uncivilized races of the Amazon. It is inserted in volume XXIII of the "Lettres Edifiantes", original edition.
Michaud, Biog. Univ. (Paris, 1814); Sommervogel, Bibl. de la C. de J. (Brussels, 1892), s.v. Samuel Fritz, III, 1003.
EDWARD P. SPILLANE
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/William Dunbar

From volume 5 of the work.
Scottish poet, sometimes styled the "Chaucer of Scotland", born c. 1460; died c. 1520(?). He graduated B.A. at St. Andrews University in 1479. Educated for the Church, according to his own statement he became a Franciscan novice, and as such traversed the whole of England, preached in various towns, and crossed over for a time to Picardy in France. About 1490 he returned to Scotland and entered the service of James IV, who employed him on various embassies to Paris and elsewhere, and settled a small pension on him. He celebrated James's marriage to Margaret of England by his well-known poem "The Thrissil and the Rois" (The Thistle and the Rose, 1503), symbolizing the amity between the two kingdoms. The poet received gifts in money from the king on this and on other occasions, such as the celebration of his first Mass in 1504, but though he often petitioned both the king and queen for a benefice (limiting his wishes, as he said, to a small country kirk covered with heather) he never obtained one, and seems always to have lived in poverty. The best known of his other poems were the "Goldyn Targe", an allegory illustrating the victory of love over reason; a "Dance" (of the seven deadly sins), a work of much gloomy power; and many other pieces, some humorous and disfigured by the coarseness of the time, others of a religious and ascetic type. A few were printed during his lifetime; and in 1834 an admirable edition of his complete works was published, edited by Dr. David Laing. In 1511 Dunbar is mentioned among Queen Margaret's train on one of her journeys; but nothing is heard of him after 1513, the year of the battle of the Flodden. Laing conjectures that he may have fallen at that fight, but other writers suppose him to have survived until about 1520.
D. O. HUNTER-BLAIR.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/William Flete

From volume 6 of the work.
An Augustinian hermit friar, a contemporary and great friend of St. Catherine of Siena; the exact place and date of his birth are unknown and those of his death are disputed. He was an English mystic, and lived in the latter half of the fourteenth century; educated at Cambridge, he afterwards joined the Austin Friars in England, but desiring a stricter than they were living, and hearing that there were two monasteries of his order which had returned to primitive discipline near Siena, he set out for Italy. On reaching the forest of Lecceto near Siena, in which one of these monasteries stood, he found the place, which abounded in caves, suited to the contemplative life, that with the consent of his superiors he joined this community. Henceforth he spent his days in study and contemplation in one of these caves, and returned to the monastery at night to sleep. He was called the "Bachelor of the Wood"; here he became acquainted with St. Catherine, who occasionally visited him at Lecceto and went to confession to him. He had so great a love for solitude, that he declined to leave it when invited by Pope Urban VI to go to Rome, to assist him with his counsel at the time of the papal schisms then disturbing the Church.
He wrote a long panegyric on St. Catherine at her death, which, with another of his works, is preserved in the public library at Siena. For at least nineteen years he led a most holy and austere life in this wood, and is said by Torellus to have returned to England, immediately after St. Catherine's death in 1383, and, after introducing the reform of Lecceto, to have died the same year. Others say he died in 1383, but there is no mention of his death in the book of the dead at Lecceto, and the exact date of it is uncertain. He was considered a saint by his contemporaries.
None of his works have been printed: they consist of six manuscripts; (1) an epistle to the provincial of his order; (2) a letter to the doctors of the province; (3) an epistle to the brethren in general; (4) predictions to the English of calamities coming upon England (in this he prophesied that England would lose the Catholic faith); (5) divers epistles; (6) a treatise on remedies against temptations. A fifteenth century manuscript of this last is now in the University Library at Cambridge, to which it was presented by George I.
Francesca M. Steele.