OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rulhière, Claude Carloman de

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​RULHIÈRE (or Rulhières), CLAUDE CARLOMAN DE (1735–1791), French poet and historian, was born at Bondy, near Paris, on the 12th of June 1735. He became aide-de-camp to Marshal Richelieu, whom he followed through the Hanoverian campaign of 1757 and to his government at Bordeaux in 1758; and at twenty-five he was sent to St Petersburg as secretary of legation. Here he actually saw the revolution which seated Catherine II. on the throne, and thus obtained the facts of Anecdotes sur la revolution de Russie en 1762. Catherine made repeated efforts to secure the destruction of the MS., which remained unpublished until after the empress’s death. Rulhière became secretary to the comte de Provence (afterwards Louis XVIII.) in 1773, and he was admitted to the Academy in 1787. The later years of his life were spent chiefly in Paris, where he held an appointment in the Foreign Office and went much into society; but he visited Germany and Poland in 1776. His unfinished Histoire de l’anarchie de Pologne (4 vols., 1807) was published posthumously under the editorship of P. C. F. Daunou. The only important historical work which he published during his lifetime was his Éclaircissements historiques sur les causes de la révocation de l’édit de Nantes... (2 vols., 1788), undertaken in view of the restoration to the Protestants of their civil rights. Rulhière died at Bondy on the 30th of January 1791.
His short sketch of the Russian revolution is justly ranked among the masterpieces of the kind in French. Of the larger Poland Carlyle, as justly, complains that its allowance of fact is too small in proportion to its bulk. The author was also a fertile writer of vers de société, short satires, epigrams, &c., and he had a considerable reputation among the witty and ill-natured group also containing Nicolas Chamfort, Antoine de Rivarol, Louis René de Champcenetz, &c. On the other hand he has the credit of caring for J. J. Rousseau in his morose old age, until Rousseau as usual quarrelled with him.
Rulhière’s works were edited, with a notice by P. R. Anguis, in 1819 (Paris, 6 vols. 8vo). The Russian Revolution may be found in the Chefs-d’œuvre historiques of the Collection Didot, and the Poland, with title altered to Révolutions de Pologne, in the same collection. See also a notice by Eugène Asse prefixed to an edition 1890) of Rulhière’s Anecdotes sur le Maréchal de Richelieu; Sainte-Beuve, Causeries du lundi (vol. iv.).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rum

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​ RUM (according to Skeat, a corruption of Malay brum or bram; the adjective “rum,” i.e. “queer,” being a distinct word, in Gipsy rom), a potable spirit distilled chiefly from fermented cane-sugar. It is mainly the produce of the West Indian Islands, notably Jamaica, and of Demerara. There are two kinds of Jamaica rum, namely, “common” or “clean” rum, and “flavoured” or “German” rum. The latter is used almost entirely for purposes of blending with lighter types of spirit. Compared with other potable spirits such as whisky and brandy, the Jamaica rums are distinguished by their very high proportion of secondary products, particularly of the compound esters. Among the latter butyric “ether” (ethyl butyrate) predominates. The Demerara rums are of a lighter character. Rum has a deep brown colour imparted by caramel or by storage in sherry casks, or, most generally, by both. “Tafia” is an inferior quality of rum produced in the French colonies. “Negro” rum, which is the lowest quality of all, and into the wash for which the débris of the sugar-cane enters, is consumed locally by the coloured workers. The spirit prepared from beet-sugar molasses cannot be regarded as rum, for, unless it is highly rectified, it possesses a disagreeable odour and taste. Fictitious rum is, however, sometimes prepared from highly rectified beet spirit and rum “essence”—a mixture of artificial esters (ethyl butyrate, &c.), birch bark oil and so on. Highly rectified beet spirit is also occasionally used for blending with genuine rum, particularly with the “flavoured” or “German” rum. The latter name originated in the fact that this kind of rum was exported very largely to Germany for the purpose of blending. The general composition of various kinds of rum is manifest from the annexed table. The consumption of rum in the United Kingdom has fallen off considerably of late years, concurrently with the general tendency of the public towards lighter and “drier” alcoholic beverages (see Spirits).
Composition of Different Varieties of Rum
(Analyses by W. Collingwood Williams; cf. J. Soc. Chem. Ind. 1907, p. 498.)
| Description. | Alcohol per cent by vol. | Total Acid. | Volatile Acid. | Esters. | Higher Alcohols. | Furfural. | Aldehydes. |
| (Results expressed in grams per 100 litres of absolute alcohol.) ||||||
| 1. Jamaica Rums— | | | | | | | |
| A. “Common Clear” | | | | | | | |
| Average | 79.1 | 78.5 | 61 | 366.5 | 98.5 | 4.5 | 15.3 |
| Maximum | 82.1 | 155 | 146 | 1058 | 150 | 11.5 | 30.0 |
| Minimum | 68.6 | 30 | 21 | 88 | 46 | 1.0 | 5.0 |
| B. “Flavoured” | | | | | | | |
| Average | 77.3 | 102.5 | 95.5 | 768.5 | 107 | 5.2 | 20.7 |
| Maximum | 80.0 | 145 | 137 | 1204 | 144 | 12.0 | 37.5 |
| Minimum | 66.1 | 45 | 39 | 391 | 80 | 2.7 | 13.0 |
| 2. Demerara Rums | | 71 to 123 | 18.4 to 75 | 37 to 96 | | 0.6 to 2.7 | |
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ruminantia

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​RUMINANTIA, a term employed by Cuvier to include all the existing artiodactyle ruminating ungulate mammals now classed under the groups Pecora, Tylopoda and Tragulina. By Professor Max Weber it is employed as a collective designation for these groups, together with the extinct Anthracotheroidea and Dichobunoidea; but its use seems best restricted to a general term rather than a definite systematic group. (See Artiodactyla, Pecora, Tylopoda.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rum (people)

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​RUM, or Roum (Arab. ar-Rūm), a very indefinite term in use among Mahommedans at different dates for Europeans generally and for the Byzantine empire in particular; at one time even for the Seljuk empire in Asia Minor, and now for Greeks inhabiting Ottoman territory. When the Arabs met the Byzantine Greeks, these called themselves Ῥωμαῖοι, or Romans, a reminiscence of the Roman conquest and of the founding of the new Rome at Byzantium. The Arabs, therefore, called them “the Rūm” as a race-name (already in Kor. xxx. 1), their territory “the land of the Rūm,” and the Mediterranean “the Sea of the Rūm.” The original ancient Greeks they called “Yūnān” (Ionians), the ancient Romans, “Rūm” and sometimes “Laṭīnīyūn” (Latins). Later, inasmuch as Muslim contact with the Byzantine Greeks was in Asia Minor, the term Rūm became fixed there geographically and remained even after the conquest by the Seljuk Turks, so that their territory was called the land of the Seljuks of Rūm. But as the Mediterranean was “the Sea of the Rūm,” so all peoples on its N. coast were called sweepingly, “the Rūm.” In Spain any Christian slave-girl who had embraced Islam was named Rūmīya, and we find the crew of a Genoese vessel being called Romans by a Muslim traveller. The crusades introduced the Franks (Ifranja), and later Arabic writers recognize them and their civilization on the N. shore of the Mediterranean W. from Rome; so Ibn Khaldūn in the latter part of the 14th century. But Rūmī is still used in Morocco for a Christian or European in general, instead of the now elsewhere commoner Ifranjī. (D. B. Ma.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rumelia

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​RUMELIA, or Roumelia (Turkish Rumili, “the land of the Romans,” i.e. the East Roman or Byzantine empire), a name commonly used, from the 15th century onwards, to denote that part of the Balkan Peninsula which was subject to Turkey. More precisely it was the country bounded N. by Bulgaria, W. by Albania and S. by the Morea, or in other words the ancient provinces, including Constantinople and Salonica, of Thrace and Macedonia. The name was ultimately applied more especially to a province composed of central Albania and western Macedonia, having Monastir for its chief town. Owing to administrative changes effected between 1870 and 1875, the name ceased to correspond with any political division. Eastern Rumelia was constituted an autonomous province of the Turkish empire by the Berlin treaty of 1878; but on the 18th of September 1885, after a bloodless revolution, it was united with Bulgaria (q.v.).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/St Rémy

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​ST RÉMY, a town of south-eastern France in the department of Bouches-du-Rhône, 15 m. N.E. of Arles by road. Pop. (1906), town, 3668; commune, 6148. It is prettily situated to the north of the range of hills named the Alpines or Alpilles in a valley of olive trees. The town has a modern church with a lofty 14th-century spire. About a mile to the south are Gallo-Roman relics of the ancient Glanum, destroyed about 480. They comprise a triumphal arch and a fine three-storied mausoleum of uncertain date. Near by is the old priory of St Paul-de-Mausole with an interesting church and cloister of Romanesque architecture. In the vicinity of St Rémy there are quarries of building stone, and seed-cultivation is an important industry.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/St Thomas (Ontario)

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​ST THOMAS, an incorporated city and port of entry of Ontario, Canada, capital of Elgin county, on Kettle creek, 13 m. S. of London and 8 m. N. of Lake Erie. Pop. (1901) 11,485. It is an important station on the Grand Trunk, Michigan Central, Lake Erie & Detroit River, and Canadian Pacific railways. It has numerous schools, a collegiate institute, and Alma ladies' college. The Michigan Central railway shops, car-wheel foundry, fiour, flax and planing mills are the principal industries.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/St Servan

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​ST SERVAN, a town of western France, in the department of Ille-et-Vilaine, on the right bank of the Rance, south of St Malo, from which it is separated by the Anse des Sablons, a creek 1 m. wide (see St Malo). Pop. (1906) 9765. It is not enclosed by walls, and with its new houses, straight wide streets and numerous gardens forms a contrast to its neighbour. North of the town there is a wet-dock, 27 acres in extent, forming part of the harbour of St Malo. The creek on which it opens is dry at low water, but at high water is 30 to 40 ft. deep. The dock is used chiefly by coasting and fishing vessels, a fleet starting annually for the Newfoundland cod-fisheries. Two other ports on the Rance, south-west of the town at the foot of the tower of Solidor, are of small importance. This stronghold, erected towards the close of the 14th century by John IV., duke of Brittany, for the purpose of contesting the claims to the temporal sovereignty of the town of Josselin de Rohan, bishop of St Malo, consists of three distinct towers formed into a triangle by loop-holed and machicolated curtains. To the west St Servan terminates in a peninsula on which stands the “ cité,” inhabited by work-people, and the “ fort de la cité ”; near by is a modern chapel which has replaced the cathedral of St Peter of Aleth, the seat of a bishopric from the 6th tovthe 12th century. The parish church is modern (1742–1842). St Servan has a communal college. It carries on steam-sawing, boat-building, rope-making and the manufacture of ship's biscuits. .
The “ Cité ” occupies the site of the city of Aleth, which at the close of the Roman empire supplanted Corseul as the capital of the Curiosolites. Aleth was a bulwark of Druidism in those regions and was not Christianized till the 6th century, when St Malo became its first bishop. On the removal of the bishopric to St Malo Aleth declined and was almost destroyed by St Louis in 1235; the houses that remained standing became the nucleus of a new community, originating from St Malo, which placed itself under the patronage of St Servan, apostle of the Orkneys. It was not till the Revolution that St Servan became a separate commune from St Malo with a municipality and police of its own.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/St Sever

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​ST SEVER, a town of south-western France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Landes, 11 m. S.S.W. of Mont de Marsan on the Southern railway between that town and Bayonne. Pop. (1906) town, 2508; commune, 4644. St Sever stands on an eminence on the left bank of the Adour in the district of the Chalosse. Its streets, bordered in places by old houses, are narrow and winding. The promenade of Morlanne laid out on the site of a Roman camp called Palestrion commands a fine view of the Adour and the pine forests of the Landes. The church of St Sever, a Romanesque building of the 12th century, with seven apses, once belonged to the Benedictine abbey founded in the 10th century. The public institutions of the town include the sub-prefecture, a tribunal of first instance, and a practical school of agriculture and viticulture which occupies a former Dominican convent. There is trade in the agricultural products of the Chalosse, especially geese.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/St Trond

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​ ST TROND, a town of Belgium in the province of Limburg about 18 m. N.W. of Liége. Pop. (1904) 15,116. It occupies an important strategical position with regard to the N.E. frontier of Belgium, and General Brialmont recommended its fortification. In the middle ages it was a fortified town belonging to the bishops of Liége, and Charles the Bold captured it in 1467. In 1566 the Assembly of Compromise met at St Trond.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/St Pol-de-Léon

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​ST POL-DE-LÉON, a town of north-western France, in the department of Finistére, about 1 m. from the shore of the English Channel, and 131/2 m. N. of Morlaix by the railway to Roscoff. Pop. (1906), town, 3353; commune, 8140. St Pol-de-Léon is a quaint town with several old houses. The cathedral is ​largely in the Norman Gothic style of the 13th and early 14th centuries. The west front has a projecting portico and two towers 180 ft. high with granite spires. Within the church there are beautifully carved stalls of the 16th century and other works of art. On the right of the high altar is a wooden shrine containing the bell of St Pol de Léon, which was said to cure headache and diseases of the ear, and at the side of the main entrance is a huge baptismal font, popularly regarded as the stone coffin of Conan Mériadec, king of the Bretons. Notre Dame de Kreizker, dating mainly from the second half of the 147th century, has a celebrated spire, 252 ft. high, which crowns the central tower. The north porch is a fine specimen of the flamboyant style. In the cemetery, which has a chapel of the 15th century, there are ossuaries of the year 1500.
In the 6th century a Welsh monk, Paul, became bishop of the small town of Léon, and lord of the domain in its vicinity, which passed to his successors and was increased by them. In 1793 the town was the centre of a serious but unsuccessful rising provoked by the recruiting measures of the Convention.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/St Riquier

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​ST RIQUIER, a town of northern France, in the department of Somme, 8 m. N.E. of Abbeville by rail. Pop. (1906) 1158. St Riquier (originally Centula) was famous for its abbey, founded about 625 by Riquier (Richarnis), son of the governor of the town. It was enriched by King Dagobert and prospered under the abbacy of Angilbert, son-in-law of Charlemagne. The buildings (18th century) are occupied by an ecclesiastical seminary. The church, a magnificent example of flamboyant Gothic architecture of the 15th and 16th centuries, has a richly sculptured west front surmounted by a square tower. In the interior the fine vaulting, the Renaissance font and carved stalls, and the frescoes in the treasury are especially noteworthy. The treasury, among other valuable relics, possesses a copper cross said to be the work of St Eloi (Eligius). The town has a municipal belfry of the 13th or 14th centuries. In 1536 St Riquier repulsed an attack by the Germans, the women especially distinguishing themselves. In 1544 it was burnt by the English, an event which marks the beginning of its decline.
See Hénocque, “Hist. de l’abbaye et de la ville de St Riquier,” in Mém. soc. antiq. Picardie. Documents inédits, ix.-xi. (Paris, 1880–1888).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Somerset, Edmund Beaufort, Duke of

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​SOMERSET, EDMUND BEAUFORT, Duke of (c. 1404–1455), was the younger son of John, earl of Somerset, and grandson of John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster. He was taken prisoner at Baugé in 1421 during his first campaign, and did not return to England till 1431. He was then styled earl of Mortain, and in 1432 was one of the envoys to the council of Basel. In 1436 he served at the relief of Calais, two years later he commanded with some success in Maine, and in 1440 recovered Harfleur. Next year he was made earl, and in 1443 marquess of Dorset. In 1444 on the death of his elder brother he became duke of Somerset. As head of the Beaufort party he was the rival of Richard of York, whom in 1446 he superseded as lieutenant of France. He lacked statesmanship, and as a general could do nothing to stop French successes. The loss of Rouen and Normandy during the next four years was precipitated by his incompetence, and his failure naturally made him a special object of Yorkist censure. The fall of Suffolk left Somerset the chief of the king’s ministers, and the Commons in vain petitioned for his removal in January 1451. In spite of York’s active hostility he maintained his position till Henry’s illness brought his rival the protectorate in March 1454. For a year he was kept a prisoner in the Tower “without any lawful process.” On the king’s recovery he was honourably discharged, and restored to his office as captain of Calais. Mistrust of Somerset was York’s excuse for taking up arms. The rivalry of the two leaders was ended by the defeat of the Lancastrians and death of Somerset at St Albans on the 22nd of May 1455. Though loyal to his family, Somerset was without capacity as a leader. It was a misfortune for Henry VI. that circumstances should have made so weak a man his chief minister. Thomas Basin, the French chronicler, describes Somerset as a handsome, courteous and kindly man. By his wife, Eleanor, daughter and co-heiress of Richard Beauchamp, earl of Warwick, he had two sons, Henry and Edmund, who were executed by Edward IV. after the battles of Hexham and Tewkesbury.
For further information see Sir James Ramsay’s Lancaster and York (Oxford, 1892), and C. Oman’s Political History of England, 1377–1485 (1906), with authorities there cited. (C. L. K.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Solís, Antonio de

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​SOLÍS, ANTONIO DE (1610–1686), Spanish dramatist and historian, was born in 1610 at Alcala de Henares (less probably, Plasencia), and studied law at Salamanca, where he produced a comedy entitled Amor y obligación, which was acted in 1627. He became secretary to the count of Oropesa, and in 1654 he was appointed secretary of state as well as private secretary to Philip IV. Later he obtained the lucrative post of chronicler of the Indies, and, on taking orders in 1667, severed his connexion with the stage. He died at Madrid on the 19th of April 1686. Of his ten extant plays, two have some place in the history of the drama. El Amor al uso was adapted by Scarron and again by Thomas Corneille as L’Amour à la mode, while La Gitanilla de Madrid, itself founded on the novela of Cervantes, has been utilized directly or indirectly by P. A. Wolff, Victor Hugo and Longfellow. The titles of the remaining seven are Triunfos de amor y fortuna, Euridice y Orfeo, El Alcázar del secreto, Las Amazonas, El Doctor Carlino, Un Bobo hace ciento, and Amparar el enemigo. Amor y obligación survives in a manuscript at the Biblioteca Nacional. The ​Histotia de la conquista de Méjico, covering the three years between the appointment of Cortes to command the invading force and the fall of the city, deservedly ranks as a Spanish prose classic. It was published in 1684; an English translation by Townshend appeared in 1724.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sombrero

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​SOMBRERO, a wide-brimmed hat, made of felt, largely worn throughout South and Central America, but originating in Spain. The Spanish word is derived from sombra, shade, generally taken to be from Lat. sub umbra, beneath the shade; but the etymology, like that of “sombre,” dark, gloomy, has been disputed.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Somerset, Lord Robert Edward Henry

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​SOMERSET, LORD ROBERT EDWARD HENRY (1776–1842), British soldier, was the third son of the 5th duke of Beaufort, and elder brother of Lord Raglan. Joining the 15th Light Dragoons in 1793, he became captain in the following year, and received a majority after serving as aide-de-camp to the duke of York in the Dutch expedition of 1799. At the end of 1800 he became a lieutenant-colonel, and in 1801 received the command of the 4th Light Dragoons. From 1799 to 1802 he represented the Monmouth boroughs in the House of Commons, and from 1803 to 1823 sat for Gloucestershire. He commanded his regiment at the battles of Talavera and Busaco, and in 1810 received a colonelcy and the appointment of A.D.C. to the king. In 1811, along with the 3rd Dragoon Guards, the 4th Light Dragoons fought a notable cavalry action at Usagre, and in 1812 Lord Edward Somerset was engaged in the great charge of Le Marchant’s heavy cavalry at Salamanca. His conduct on this occasion (he captured five guns at the head of a single squadron) won him further promotion, and he made the remaining campaigns as a major-general at the head of the Hussar brigade (7th, 10th and 15th Hussars). At Orthes he won further distinction by his pursuit of the enemy; he was made K.C.B., and received the thanks of parliament. At Waterloo he was in command of the Household Cavalry Brigade, which distinguished itself not less by its stern and patient endurance of the enemy’s fire than by its celebrated charge on the cuirassiers of Milhaud’s corps. The brigadier was particularly mentioned in Wellington’s despatches, and received the thanks of parliament as well as the Maria Theresa and other much-prized foreign orders. He died a general and G.C.B. in 1842.