OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# The New International Encyclopædia/Vallisneria

Edition of 1905. See also Vallisneria on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
* EEL GRASS (Vallisneria spiralis).
VAL'LISNE'RIA (Neo-Lat., named in honor of Antonio Vallisneri, an Italian botanist of the eighteenth century). A genus of small, stemless, aquatic plants, with grass-like leaves, belonging to the natural order Hydrocharidaceæ, and found in the warm parts of both hemispheres. They generally grow in running waters. Vallisneria spiralis is particularly celebrated on account of its peculiar process of fecundation. The flowers of the female plants rise to the surface of the water by uncoiling their long spirally twisted stalks; the flowers of the male plants become detached, having previously grown on short spikes at the bottom of the water, and expand, floating about upon the surface. After fecundation, the female flowers return under the water by the recoiling of their stalks and the fruit is ripened under water. The plant is found in ditches and bogs in Italy, Southern France, and the United States, where it is called wild celery, and is famous as the food of the canvas-back duck.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Chad, Lake

See also Lake Chad on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Chad, Lake. See Tsad, Lake.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Charles IX

See also Charles IX of France on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​ Charles IX, king of France, the second son of Henry II and Catherine dei Medici, was born in 1550 and succeeded his brother, Francis II, in 1560. He was weak and wavering, and led in all things by his mother. It was her counsel that drove him to authorize the massacre of St. Bartholomew's Day. He died May 30, 1574.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Celts

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​Celts or Kelts, an Aryan or Indo-European race that spread over Europe in early times. There seem to have been two migrations, the first Celts conquering and driving westward the native peoples, who were of the Ivernian race, and in turn being driven and conquered by the second horde of their countrymen. There was no common Celtic name by which all Celts were known to the Romans, but they were known as Galli or Celtæ. The Celts intermarried with the natives they conquered, and with the Romans and Saxons who conquered them; but some of them have remained more or less distinct, as the Irish, Bretons, Scotch Highlanders and Welsh. The language of the Irish and Scotch is called Gaelic; and a Gaelic dialect different from either of these, the Manx, is still spoken in the Isle of Man, while the Cornish dialect in the south of England, was spoken so late as a hundred and twenty-five years ago.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Chang-Choo-Fou

See also Zhangzhou on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Chang-Choo-Fou, a large city of China, in the province of Fokien, 35 miles from Amoy, its port on the coast, It is well built, and has a large Buddhist temple. Population, estimated at 1,000,000.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Charles Edward

See also Charles Edward Stuart on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​ Charles Edward (the Young Pretender), the son of James Stuart, the first Pretender, was born at Rome, Dec. 31, 1720. Unlike his father and grandfather, he was talented and firm of purpose. As a boy he served in the Spanish army against Austria. On the breaking out of war between France and England in 1744, the French furnished him with a powerful fleet and an army under the command of Marshal Saxe, the greatest soldier of the time, with which to secure the throne of the Stuarts, but the expedition was driven back by storms. The French refusing to let him try again, he managed to collect enough funds to fit out two small vessels. One was driven off by a British cruiser, but the second bore Charles to Scotland, where an army of Highlanders slowly gathered about him. He destroyed an English army sent against him at Prestonpans, eight miles east of Edinburgh, which gave him such a reputation that he marched through England to within 100 miles of London, which he could have captured, but the Highlanders becoming alarmed, forced him to retreat. After winning the battle of Falkirk (Jan. 17, 1746), his Highland chiefs forced him again to retreat to the Highlands, where the disastrous defeat of Culloden ruined his cause. He might have won this battle, too, though his army was smaller than that of the English and, besides was worn out by long marches and hunger, had not the MacDonald clan on the left wing refused to charge, sulking because they had always had the honor of holding the right since the battle of Bannockburn. After months of wandering and adventure, the Pretender escaped from the country. He never took the title of king, but lived thenceforward in Europe as the Count of Albany, until his death at Rome in 1768.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Charles Martel

See also Charles Martel on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​ Charles Martel, meaning Charles the Hammer, was born about 688. He was mayor of the palace under the last Frankish kings of the Merovingian dynasty, and was the real ruler of the Franks. He carried on wars with the Saxons, the Alamanni and the Bavarians; but his great service to Europe was his driving back of the Saracens. They had already taken Bordeaux and had advanced to the Loire, when Charles met them in 732, and after a hard-fought battle wholly defeated them. This was one of the most important victories in the world's history, and probably kept Europe from becoming a Mohammedan country and being to-day no further advanced than Arabia. Charles died in 741.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Celsius, Anders

See also Anders Celsius on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Celsius (sĕl′sĭ-ŭs), Anders, a Swedish astronomer, born 1701, died 1744. Besides making some important geodetic measurements, he invented a scale of temperatures, known as the centigrade scale, which is now universally used in scientific work. The centigrade scale is defined by dividing the interval of temperature between melting ice and boiling water into 100 equal parts.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Champlain

See also Lake Champlain on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Champlain (shăm-plān), a beautiful lake separating the states of New York and Vermont. It is 110 miles long and from one to 15 broad. It empties into the St. Lawrence through the Richelieu River, and a canal joins it to the Hudson. Here the Americans defeated the British in a naval battle in 1814. The lake is named from its discoverer, Samuel de Champlain.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Channel, The English

See also English Channel on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Channel, The English, is the narrow sea between England and France. It joins the North Sea at the Strait of Dover, where it is only 21 miles wide. From here to its junction with the Atlantic, where it is 100 miles wide, its length is 280 miles It contains the Channel Islands, the Isle of Wight and others.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Charles, Law of

See also Charles's law on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​ Charles, Law of. When a constant mass of gas is heated, either or both of two things may happen to it. (1) The effect may be to increase the volume of the gas while the pressure remains the same; (2) the effect may be to increase the pressure of the gas while the volume remains constant; or (3) both the volume and the pressure may be changed simultaneously. Charles' law, which might more properly be called Gay-Lussac's law, tells us just how these changes take place. If the mass and pressure of the gas remain constant, then the volume of the gas increases $^1$⁄$_{273}$ part for each degree centigrade through which it is heated. Thus, if we denote by V$_0$ the volume of the gas at the temperature of melting ice, its volume at any other temperature, V$_t$, will be given by the following equation:
V$_t$ = V$_0$[1 + 0.003665 t$^0$] = V$_0$[1 + $^t$⁄$_{273}$]
The fact thus described is known as Charles' law. If the volume remains constant and ​the pressure changes, the effect is described by the following equation:
P$_t$ = P$_0$[1 + 0.003665 t$^0$]
where P$_0$ is the pressure at the temperature of melting ice and P$_t$ the pressure at t$^0$. If pressure and volume both change, then
P$_t$V$_t$ = P$_0$V$_0$[1 + 0.003665 t$^0$]
The student should be warned that this law of Charles is very accurately true for all gases throughout a moderate range of pressures, but is not exactly true for any gas, and does not hold at all in the case of vapors.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Jason of Cyrene

Edition of 1905. See also Jason of Cyrene on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
JASON OF CYRENE, sḯ-rē'nḗ. An author whose history in five books is mentioned in II. Maccabees ii. 23. The original work is lost, and known to us only in the epitome made by the author of II. Maccabees. (See Maccabees, Books of the.) There is some evidence that it was used by Gorionides. It was unquestionably written in Greek. Whether Jason was a Greek or a Hellenistic Jew is not altogether known. Büchler defends the former opinion and ascribes to him those parts of II. Maccabees dealing with the Syrian wars under Antiochus IV., Antiochus V., and Demetrius I. (qq.v.). But there is reason to believe, as Willrich has shown, that the work comprised the whole history of the Asmonean dynasty, and that only the part of it dealing with events that occurred between B.C. 175 and 161 was epitomized. In that case it is more natural to suppose that he was a Jew. He may, however, have had access to written sources not of Jewish origin. This would account for some facts that have recently led Niese to ascribe to II. Maccabees, and consequently to Jason, a higher age and a greater credibility than to I. Maccabees. It is not likely that this view will prevail. But even if preference is given to I. Maccabees, this may not affect Jason so much as the author of II. Maccabees. The latter has confessedly exercised much freedom. Not only has he abridged, but also added to, and probably altered Jason's work. Kosters and Kamphausen have gone so far as to declare Jason a fictitious personage behind whose name the author indulged in polemics against I. Maccabees. There is no convincing evidence, however, of acquaintance with I. Maccabees, and such a fiction seems to most scholars wholly improbable. If Jason's work included the whole dynasty, Willrich is probably right in assuming that he wrote in the reign of Claudius. Others maintain that he lived in the second century B.C. The Ἰάσων κυρήναιος discovered on a temple wall in Egypt (Revue des études grecques, 1894, p. 297), seems to belong to the third century B.C. Consult: Geiger, Urschrift und Uebersetzungen der Bibel (Breslau, 1857); Wellhausen, Pharisäer und Sadducäer (Greifswald, 1874); Kosters, in Theologisch Tijdschrift (Leyden, 1878; pp. 491 sqq.); Trieber, Zur Kritik des Gorionides (Göttingen, 1895); Kamphausen, in Kantzsch's Apokryphen (Tübingen, 1900); Willrich, Judaica (Göttingen, 1900);
Schürer, Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes (3d ed., Leipzig, 1901); Büchler, Tobiaden und Oniaden (Vienna, 1899); Niese, Kritik der beiden Makkabäerbücher (Berlin, 1900); Torrey, article “Maccabees,” in Encyclopædia Biblica (London, 1902).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Jay, William

Edition of 1905. See also William Jay (jurist) on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
JAY, William (1789-1858). An American reformer and jurist, the son of John Jay (1745-1829). He was born in New York City, graduated at Yale in 1808, and then studied law at Albany, though poor eyesight soon compelled him to give up the profession. He early became
interested in various philanthropic enterprises and reforms, and identified himself especially with the temperance, anti-slavery, and anti-war movements. He was one of the founders (in 1816) of the American Bible Society, which he defended against the vigorous attacks of the High-Church Party; was judge of common pleas in New York from 1818 to 1820; and was first judge of Westchester County from 1820 to 1842, when he was removed on account of his anti-slavery views. An enthusiastic member of the American Anti-Slavery Society, whose constitution he drafted, he stood with Birney at the head of the conservative Abolitionists, and by his calm, logical, and judicial writings exerted for many years a powerful influence. From 1835 to 1837 he was the Society's corresponding foreign secretary. As a protagonist of the anti-war theories, he was also conspicuous, and was for many years president of the Peace Society. His most valuable publication was the Life and Writings of John Jay (1833), in which the part played by his father in the diplomacy of the Revolution was first adequately pointed out.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Jay, John (lawyer)

Edition of 1905. See also John Jay (lawyer) on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
JAY, John (1817–94). An American lawyer and diplomat, son of William Jay (q.v.) and a grandson of Chief Justice John Jay (q.v.). He was born in New York City, graduated at Columbia College in 1836, and was admitted to the bar three years later. He early became intensely interested in the anti-slavery movement, and while still in college (1834) was president of the New York Young Men's Anti-Slavery Society. He was active in the Free-Soil Party movement, presided at several of its conventions, and was once its candidate for Attorney-General of New York. In 1854 he organized the series of popular meetings in the Broadway Tabernacle, and the next year was prominently identified with the founding of the Republican Party. From 1869 to 1875 he was United States Minister to Austria-Hungary. In 1877 he was appointed by President Hayes chairman of the special commission to investigate Chester A. Arthur's administration of the New York Custom-House. In 1883 Gov. Grover Cleveland appointed him the Republican member of the New York Civil-Service Commission, of which he later became president. He published many books and pamphlets on slavery and other questions.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Jal, Auguste

Edition of 1905. See also Auguste Jal on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
JAL, zhȧl, Auguste (1795-1873). A French author, born at Lyons. He was educated at the naval school in Brest, and led a company of the cadets in the defense of Paris during the Hundred Days (1815). His first literary work was done on Le Fureteur, Le Miroir, and Le Pandore, liberal journals. Afterwards he became well known as an art critic. In 1831 he received official charge of the marine archives and wrote in this connection a nautical glossary and L'archéologie navale (1839). The fruit of much of his labor is embodied in his great Dictionnaire critique de biographie et d'histoire (1864). He also wrote a memoir, published posthumously, Souvenirs
d'un homme de lettres (1877), and several other works on art and archæology.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Janizaries

Edition of 1905. See also Janissary on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
JANIZARIES, or JANISSARIES (OF. jannissaire, Fr. janissaire, It. giannizzero, from Turk, yen̄icheri, new troops, from yen̄i, new + Ar. askar, army, soldier). A Turkish military force first instituted by Orkhan (1326-59), the son and successor of Othman, the founder of the Ottoman Turkish Empire, who levied from the conquered Christian peoples a systematic tribute of young children. These tribute children, always the healthiest and strongest, were trained under Mohammedan tutelage, and, together with Christian captives taken in war and Turkish subjects attracted by the special privileges offered, constituted a special corps of picked troops, which was thus composed of many nationalities. In
turn it became the bulwark of the Empire, and, like the Roman pretorians and Russian streltsi, a dictatorial power. The corps was more perfectly organized by Amurath I. after 1360, when its strength was raised to about 12,000. After the sixteenth century the drafting of Christian children and captives ceased, and the corps was recruited by voluntary enlistment. There were two classes of janizaries, one a standing force, garrisoned in Constantinople and the chief towns and varying in number from 25,000 to 100,000, the other a trained militia known as jamaks, scattered throughout all the towns of the Empire, and numbering from 300,000 to 400,000. The janizaries proper were divided into ortas or regiments. At the head of the whole force was the aga, whose power extended to life and death, for the janizaries were always ready to break out into deeds of violence if their pay or perquisites were withheld. In times of peace they acted as a police force. They served on foot, generally formed the reserves of the Turkish Army, and were noted for the wild impetuosity of their attack. The Sultan's bodyguard was formed of them. They became in the course of time very unruly, and their history abounds in conspiracies, assassinations of sultans, viziers, and agas, and atrocities of every kind; so that by degrees they became more dangerous to the sultans than any foreign enemies. Attempts were made by several sultans to reform or dissolve the corps, but they were always unsuccessful. The reforms of Sultan Mahmud II. (q.v.) were bitterly opposed by the janizaries, especially the reorganization of the army on the European model. This opposition broke forth in open revolt, and on June 15, 1825, Mahmud ordered the flag of the Prophet to be unrolled and the Faithful to be arrayed against the mutinous corps. The janizaries, deserted by their aga and other principal officers, were defeated, with the loss of 16,000 men; their barracks were burned, 6000 to 8000 of them being killed in the assault or destroyed by the flames. A proclamation of June 17, 1826, declared the janizary force dissolved. All opposition was defeated with bloodshed. Thousands were put to death, and more than 20,000 were banished. In the Imperial Museum at Constantinople are 150 life-size figures illustrating the appearance of these famous troops.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Jaurés, Jean Léon

Edition of 1905. See also Jean Jaurès on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
JAURÉS, zhṓ'rắ', Jean Léon (1859—). A French Socialist, born at Castres. He studied at the Lycée Louis le Grand and at the Ecole Normale Supérieure; taught philosophy at Albi (1881-83), and at Toulouse (1883-85); and then entered politics, and was chosen Deputy in 1885. He was at this time a strongly conservative Republican, but after his defeat in 1889 by the monarchist candidate, and his return to Toulouse, he became a Socialist, and in 1893 was returned to the Chamber of Deputies, where he was one of the most prominent of the leaders of the Socialist party until 1898, when he failed of reëlection. The break in the Socialist ranks which followed Millerand's acceptance in 1899 of the Portfolio of Commerce somewhat lessened Jaurés's power, as he attempted to sustain the Government. He took an important part in the movement for revision in the Dreyfus affair; published Les preuves (1900); and, in spite of a bitter attack on him based on the confirmation of his daughter in the Catholic Church (1901), kept his old place as one of the foremost leaders and greatest orators of the Socialist Party. He was reëlected Deputy in 1902.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Jay, James

Edition of 1905. See also James Jay on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
JAY, Sir James (1732-1815). An American physician, brother of John Jay. He was born in New York City, studied medicine, and became a practicing physician. He was instrumental in obtaining the endowments for King's (now Columbia) College, New York, and Benjamin Franklin's projected college (now the University of Pennsylvania) in Philadelphia. For the purpose of soliciting contributions for these colleges, he visited England in 1732, where he was knighted by the King, George III. His writings include two pamphlets relating to the collections made for the colleges in America (1771 and 1774), and Reflections and Observations on the Gout (1772).
# The New Student's Reference Work/Nashua

See also Nashua, New Hampshire on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Nashua, a manufacturing town of New Hampshire, in Hillsboro County, at the junction of the Merrimac and Nashua Rivers, and about 40 miles from Boston. By means of a three-mile canal, the falls of the Nashua River furnish power to many cotton factories, paper, carpet, and iron mills. Population 26,005.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Narcissus

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Narcis'sus, genus of flowering plants with bulbous, perennial roots; leaves and flower-stalks annual. The name is from a Greek word meaning torpor, and has reference to the narcotic properties of the plants. There are several species, among them daffodils and jonquils. The narcissus is widely distributed in the Old World, being found in southern Europe, northern Africa, Persia, China and Japan. The flower was beloved of the ancients, has oft been sung by the poets, and about it cluster myth and legend. Narcissus poeticus is celebrated in Greek and Roman verse; pseudo narcissus is the common English daffodil; N. polyanthus is the parent of the cultivated variety, grown extensively by florists and treasured as a garden-flower.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Narses

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Nar'ses, statesman and general, one of the supports of the eastern Roman empire, was born in Persian Armenia about 472 A. D. From a low position he rose to be keeper of the privy purse to Emperor Justinian. Some years later he was given sole command in Italy. His conduct of this campaign was very masterly; having no transports, he marched his army around the Adriatic, encountered the Ostrogoths at Taginæ and defeated them, slaying their king. After further successes and taking possession of Rome, Narses completely destroyed the Gothic power. He was then made prefect of Italy and held court at Ravenna until the death of Justinian, when, being accused of avarice .and extortion by the people, he was removed by Justin (567). Narses died at Rome about 573 A. D. See Goth's Justinian and Hodgkin's Italy and Her Invaders.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Nashville, Tenn.

See also Nashville, Tennessee on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Nash′ville, Tenn., capital of Tennessee, lies mainly on the left bank of Cumberland River, about 200 miles from the Ohio, which is here crossed by a steel truss and a railway drawbridge. Two more steel bridges are in course of construction for street traffic. It is a well-built city, containing the new capitol, a penitentiary and a large insane asylum. Besides an excellent school-system, it is the seat of Nashville University, Vanderbilt University, and for young ladies has Ward Seminary and Belmont, Buford, Radnor and Boscobel College and St. Cecelia's Academy (Roman Catholic). Central Tennessee College, Fisk University, Roger Williams University (the last three for colored students) and the state normal school also are here. It has a good trade in cotton, tobacco, flour, oil, paper, timber, leather, iron and spirits; and it has five shoe factories, six iron foundries, and is the largest hardwood market in the United States. It is served by four railroads, and has city ownership of the lighting-plant and
waterworks. The town was founded in 1780, and became the capital in 1843. General Thomas defeated the Confederates under Hood here, in December, 1864. Population 110,364.