# The Zoologist/4th series, vol 1 (1897)/Issue 669/The Ostrich

Published in: The Zoologist, 4th series, vol 1, issues 669 (March, 1897), p. 97–120
Vicious Ostrich Cock "bromming"— at end of third note of cry (p. 105).
Vicious Ostrich Cock "rolling" (p. 104).
THE ZOOLOGIST
No. 669.—March, 1897.
THE OSTRICH.
By S.C. Cronwright Schreiner.
The Ostrich, Struthio camelus, has been observed with interest from very early times; it has frequently been the subject of remark by African travellers; and it has been domesticated and farmed in the Cape Colony for some thirty years. Yet it is remarkable how little is known about it in scientific circles, and how many misconceptions still prevail as to its nature and habits.
How many Species are there?
I have not been able to ascertain whether the question as to the number of species of Ostrich has yet been settled. Some writers maintain there are two species; others that there are three. Professor Newton (article "Ostrich," 'Encyclopædia Britannica'), after briefly reviewing the evidence, says the question "has been for some years agitated without leading to a satisfactory solution."
The reasons given for classifying the Ostrich into three species are:—
That in the North African bird, Struthio camelus, the skin of the unfeathered parts is flesh-coloured; in the South African, S. australis, bluish, except at the angle of the gape, which is flesh-coloured; and in the birds of the Somali country, S. mybdophanes, leaden coloured.
It is further maintained that the eggs of the northern Ostrich are larger than those of the southern, and have a perfectly smooth surface, while those of the southern are punctured or pitted; also that the northern bird is the smaller, and the cock not so jet-black. Mr. Bartlett adds, as another distinguishing character, that in the southern Ostrich the scales of the tarsi and toes, unlike the skin of the other unfeathered parts, are flesh-coloured.
If the question has not been settled, a short description of the South African Ostrich may help towards its solution; if it is decided, the description may nevertheless convey some useful information to such as are interested in it.
Colour of the Plumage.
Chicks when first hatched, and for some weeks after, have the wings and upper part of the body covered with a mottled dark-and-white coat of small feathers, ending in solid spiked points, almost like miniature porcupine quills; the lower part with a soft yellow down. The neck is marked longitudinal with wide dark stripes on a lighter ground, and the head with spots of the same colour. Some broods are much darker than others. They soon acquire a plumage varying from ash-colour to brown, the feathers retaining their spiked points for some time. At an age, generally from about twelve to eighteen months, ​chicks begin to moult their youthful plumage of narrow pointed feathers, and gradually acquire those of the adult bird, possessing them in their entirety, at the latest, when about four years old. Up to the time when the change begins, the sexes are not distinguishable; but after the moult the cocks acquire a black and the hens a drab plumage, which differs from that of a big chick not so much in colour as in the shape and quality of the feathers. The cocks do not change abruptly from their youthful drab to adult black, but pass through what is generally designated by the Dutch word, the "bont" (variegated) stage. Black, brown, and drab feathers are indiscriminately mingled all over the body, the plumes and tails being black-and-white. The same stage is gone through by the hens, but is not nearly so conspicuous, the difference in the colour of the feathers being less marked. At about four years all have their adult plumage; but both among cocks and hens there is a great diversity in colour in different individuals and in different parts of the country. In all cocks the plumes ("whites") are white, but in hens these feathers ("feminas") vary from white to drab. The "tails" correspond in colour with the "whites" and "feminas," respectively. In both sexes, variations in body-colour are most conspicuous. Some cocks are a glittering jet-black, while others are a rusty-brown; a few have odd white feathers clotted about the body; occasionally the secondary wing-feathers are white, or often fringed with white; and I knew of one which was thickly flecked with white over the whole body. In some cocks all the feathers, "whites" excepted, are beautifully curled, almost as though artificially; while in others they have not the slightest indication of curl. These individual variations are in some cases accentuated by differences of climate. Towards the coast the rusty-brown tint (more pronounced than up-country) is often found, while the glittering jet-black, so characteristic of Karroo birds, is comparatively uncommon. On the authority of an Ostrich farmer of great experience, who has hundreds of birds on both Karroo and coast farms, Karroo birds produce, on the whole, the best "blacks," coast birds the best "whites." The first essentiality of black feathers is that they shall be glittering and glossy, and this condition the dry air of the Karroo seems to favour; a white feather must, other characteristics being equal, be soft, with a limp ​quill, and this seems to be most frequently produced by the damp coast breezes. Hens also vary in body-colour to an equal extent, though, in their case, the differences are not very conspicuous, the colours not being so strongly contrasted. They range from a dark rich brown to light brown, grey, or ash. I have had several hens with each feather ("feminas" excepted) barred across with white at about a quarter of its length from the tip, and one which had the perfect black plumage of a cock.
Colour of the Unfeathered Parts.
The colour of the unfeathered parts of chicks is yellow, which gradually changes to flesh-colour, and, as the adult stage is reached, either remains flesh-coloured, though of not so pronounced a tint, or changes to bluish or leaden—nearly always bluish. Variations not only in colour, but in texture, thickness, and strength of the skin, are both great and frequent. The colour of the neck varies also, in both sexes, from dark—nearly black in the case of the cock and deep brown in the hen—to almost white. The colour of the eye even varies; generally it is brown, but grey is not unknown.
Colour of the Tarsi and Toes.
Chicks may be divided into two lots, of about equal number, by the colour of the scales of the tarsi and toes. Some have light brown scales, the others dark brown. There is no grading from one tint to another; the line of demarcation is clear and unmistakable. The dark-scaled are by some farmers said to be cocks, the light-scaled hens. My attention was only drawn to this peculiarity shortly before retiring from Ostrich-farming; I cannot therefore express a decided opinion, not having had an opportunity of testing whether the statement is correct.
At any rate, the scales of the hens invariably remain brown, but those of the cocks change to flesh-colour, varying from nearly white to brilliant crimson. Cocks' legs do not often lose all trace of the crimson tint, though its intensity varies with the seasons, being brightest in a fat bird in the height of his sexual vigour in the breeding season, and faintest when a bird is in a ​low condition in the winter. It also varies in individual birds, and with their condition, and becomes pale during the period of sitting. During the non-breeding season the colouration, more or less faded, is nearly always confined to the scales of the tarsi; but in all cocks that "come on" during the breeding season it is seldom, if ever, so confined, the tarsi themselves, the toes, and the beak, to a greater or less extent, also becoming affected. Some cocks are then most brilliantly coloured; not only do the toes and the whole of the tarsi become a brilliant crimson, but the upper part of the leg (called by the Cape Ostrich farmers the "thigh") for half its length, nearly the whole of the head, especially the beak, ears, and around the eyes, are of the same gaudy tint. A vicious cock in full plumage is then a beautiful and imposing creature; the glittering glossy black is strikingly contrasted with the spotless white of his waving plumes, and the bright crimson of his head and legs; and as, with springy steps, he advances to battle, angrily lashing his wings across his raised body, with tail and neck erect, and flashing eyes, he is not only a beautiful, but a grand, and, to many a man, a terrifying object.
No corresponding changes take place in the hen; neither does she become vicious, except when she has chicks.
The Egg; and Size of Ostriches.
As to the alleged difference in the shell of the eggs of the northern and southern Ostrich, it may be sufficient to remark that the eggs of the southern bird vary frequently and greatly in respect of size, shape, and shell; some are quite a third larger than others; some are almost spherical, others oblong; and the shells vary from being deeply and thickly pitted to smooth and polished.
Differences in the sizes of Ostriches are equally marked; there is no uniformity. Some birds are very much larger than others; they also differ considerably in shape.
Only one Species.
It will thus be seen that all the differences on which the arguments for classifying the Ostrich into three species are founded, are commonly present among the Ostriches of the Cape Colony—that is, of South Africa generally; for a great many of ​the Cape Ostriches are the progeny of birds brought down from "The Interior"—the Kalahari Desert, Damaraland, and beyond. There is, I think, little doubt that all South African Ostriches are of one species; individual variations, accentuated by local differences of food and climate, are quite sufficient to account for all supposed varieties. I do not think that, on the evidence which I have been able to gather, there is any justification for maintaining that there is more than one species of Ostrich.
The Egg and Flesh of the Ostrich.
The Ostrich hen lays every other day, and the egg weighs about three pounds; it is a tasty and nutritious food however prepared, very rich, and excellent for making pastry and cakes. It is generally computed to be equal to two dozen fowls' eggs; but this must be on account of its superior richness, for, from personal experiment, the empty shell of a fairly large one exactly held the contents of eighteen fowls' eggs. It takes about forty minutes to boil an Ostrich egg hard. The period of incubation is about six weeks. The flesh of the chick, if well prepared, is excellent, but that of an old bird is tough and insipid. The Ostrich is, however, never killed for food, and is very rarely eaten, except by native servants.
Its Breast-bone and Powers of Kicking.
The breast-bone of the Ostrich is of great thickness and strength, and of course keelless. Its lower edge has a hard pad, which must be useful to this heavy, long-legged bird when it bumps down to the recumbent position. It is obvious that the great weight and speed of the Ostrich, and its liability to collide against objects on the ground over which, when frightened, it makes its headlong indiscriminate way, would need that it be protected in front. Its thick convex sternum, almost devoid of flesh, is a most effective safeguard. As an instance of this, I have seen an Ostrich, at great speed, run against and snap a No. 6 fencing-wire, striking it with its breast; in the same way I have seen a sneeze-wood pole (a very tough wood used in wire-fencing), four inches in diameter at its thinnest end, broken just where it emerged from the ground; and a chick about eighteen months old run against a loose badly-built stone wall two feet in ​thickness, and break a gap through it;—all these without injury to the birds. The shape and strength of the breast-bone is also a protection to fighting cocks, for the most powerfully delivered kicks nearly always strike there, doing but little harm.
During the breeding season cocks often fight, but, unless they kick at each other through a wire-fence (when a broken leg frequently occurs), seldom with fatal results. The kick is forward with a downward tendency, and the long nail with which the larger toe is armed often cuts and tears severely. The force of the kick is great; a man goes down before it like a nine-pin. I have seen two cocks charge at each other, the larger of the two, at the first kick, being hurled several yards on to the broad of his back, while the kicker recoiled into a sitting posture; and I possessed a cock which kicked a hole through a sheet of corrugated iron, behind which a man had taken refuge. They can kick as high as a man's face; I have had a hole kicked through my riding breeches above the knee, and have known a boy kicked out of the saddle. Deaths from Ostrich kicks are by no means unknown. A really vicious cock seems to fear nothing, unless it be a dog that will attack him. The most striking instance of their fearlessness which I have heard was told me by a railway guard. The goods train he was in charge of was one day rattling at full speed down a steep gradient. A vicious cock saw it coming, and at once got on to the line between the rails, and advanced fearlessly to fight the monster. As the screeching engine approached, he rushed at it from straight in front, hissing angrily, and kicked. He was cut to pieces the next moment.
Leaping and Swimming.
The old idea that an Ostrich can only leap over a very low fence, or across but the narrowest sluit (gully), is incorrect. It is true that perfectly tame birds, grazed within well-defined boundaries, may often be kept there with very insecure fences when the birds are thoroughly accustomed to recognize such as boundaries; but they will, when startled (never deliberately), sometimes go over a six-strand wire fence nearly five feet high, putting one foot on one of the middle wires, and striding over with the other. They will go over a stone wall in the same manner, if too high for them to step upon; and I have seen a ​cock take a standing jump on to the top of a wall five feet high, beyond which were his chicks. When accustomed to run in cut-up veld they become very clever at leaping across sluits. They do not stride over, but, coming almost to a standstill at the edge of each sluit, jump with both feet, often alighting on one foot and striding on at once with the other, like a good steeplechaser.
Even as a chick the Ostrich is a powerful swimmer. I have known several birds swim some distance down the Great Fish River when it was running fairly strong, and have heard, on what seems trustworthy evidence, of a cock that was carried a long way down the same river when it was running nearly level with its precipitous banks in the stormy season; he was some hours in the water before he could get out, but emerged unhurt.
Waltzing and Rolling.
All Ostriches, adults as well as chicks, have a strange habit known as "waltzing." When chicks are let out from a kraal in the early morning they will often start away at a great pace. After running for a few hundred yards they will all stop, and, with raised wings, spin round rapidly for some time, often until quite giddy, when a broken leg occasionally occurs. Adult birds, when running in large camps, will often, if the veld is good, do the same, especially if startled in the fresh of the early morning. A troop of birds waltzing, in full plumage, is a remarkably pretty sight.
Vicious cocks "roll" when challenging to fight, or when wooing the hen. The cock will suddenly bump down on to his "knees" (the ankle-joint), open his wings, making a straight line across his breast, and then swing them alternately backward and forward (keeping the line straight) as if on a pivot, each wing as it comes forward being raised while that going backward is depressed. The neck is lowered until the head is on a level with the back, and the head and neck swing from side to side with the wings, the back of the head striking with a loud click against the ribs, first on the one side and then on the other. The click is produced by the skin of the neck, which then bulges loosely just under the beak, and for some distance downwards. While rolling, every feather over the whole body is on end, and the plumes are open, like a large white fan. At such a time the bird sees very ​imperfectly, if at all; in fact, he seems so preoccupied that, if pursued, one may often approach unnoticed. I have walked up to a rolling cock and seized him by the neck, much to his surprise. Just before rolling, a cock, especially if courting the hen, will often run slowly and daintily on the points of his toes, with neck slightly inflated, upright and rigid, the tail half-drooped, and all his body feathers fluffed up; the wings raised and expanded, the inside edges touching the sides of the neck for nearly the whole of its length, and the plumes showing separately, like an open fan, flat to the front, on each side of his head. In no other attitude is the splendid beauty of his plumage displayed to such advantage.
The Cry of the Ostrich.
The cry of the Ostrich is very correctly described as a "boom." (The word in use among all Ostrich farmers at the Cape is the Dutch verb "brom"; in English, an Ostrich "broms," or is "bromming.") This cry is confined to the cock. It is uttered spontaneously sometimes, especially at night; but generally it is a challenge to another cock to fight, or a note of courting to the hen. It can only be uttered while the bird is standing still. It is a peculiar muffled round sound, very difficult to locate exactly, and conveys the impression that, if it had free vent, it would become a loud roar. It is made by the bird calling, without allowing any air to escape. Each cry consists of three "booms," two short followed by one long, the bird just catching its breath after each note. As no air escapes, the neck becomes greatly inflated during each "boom," in the third to a remarkable extent. This cry may be repeatedly uttered. At night it sounds weird and wild. A faint yet close imitation may be produced by a person closing his lips tight, and attempting to utter two rather short "boos" with an interval of about a second after each, and then one long one, allowing the breath to come into the mouth, but not to escape. The cheeks will become distended just as the neck of the Ostrich does.
There are other sounds common to both sexes—an angry hiss, a subdued guttural gurgle (uttered occasionally when much frightened), and a short sharp note, generally an alarm signal. There is also the penetrating plaintive call of chicks of all ages, a liquid, tremulous, treble cry.
How it Feeds, and what it will Swallow.
The Ostrich feeds in a peculiar manner. It tosses the food into a sack in the upper part of the neck, and then swallows it. I have seen a bird toss fully a quart of mealies (Indian corn) into this sack before swallowing; and it is no uncommon thing to see two "swallows" travelling down the neck at the same time with a clear interval between them; or to see one of them (if of large and loose food, e.g. grain) slide back into the sack after being swallowed, if the bird lowers its head to continue feeding before the food has travelled some considerable distance down the neck. The food travels slowly, and performs a complete circuit of the neck before reaching the crop. Crushed bones are greedily eaten; if too large a piece should stick in the neck, it is a simple matter to cut it out and sew the wound up again. The wound, as a rule, heals quickly, and causes but little inconvenience.
As is well known, Ostriches will swallow almost anything small enough to pass down the neck. I have either known them swallow, or have heard of them swallowing, and on evidence which I believe, such things as oranges, small tortoises, fowl and turkey chickens, and kittens! I found a cock in my dining-room on one occasion rapidly demolishing, one after another, the contents of a box of luscious peaches. Some friends were playing tennis with only one ball. A rather vigorous drive sent it beyond the tennis-ground, close to an Ostrich hen; she at once swallowed it with evident relish, and brought the game to a sudden end! A cock swallowed several yards of fencing-wire in short pieces, and about half a dozen brass cartridges. These were found in his crop, and had killed him. He had followed the fencers, swallowing the ends of the wires as filed off! An Ostrich's crop always contains a large quantity of smooth stones, many of them brightly coloured.
How the Ostrich runs.
Considerable misconception prevails as to the manner in which the Ostrich runs. It seems to be still generally held that, when running, it spreads out its wings, and, aided by them, skims lightly over the ground. This is not correct.
Y/hen a bird really settles itself to run it holds its head lower than usual, and a little forward, with a deep loop in the ​neck. The neck vibrates sinuously, but the head remains steady, thus enabling the bird, even at top speed, to look around with unshaken glance in any direction. The wings lie along the sides about on a level with, or a little higher than, the back, and are held loosely just free of the plunging "thigh." There is no attempt to hold them extended, or to derive any assistance from them as organs of flight. Indeed, I doubt whether the conformation of the wings permits their being held out to any extent with the edge to the front; and the front edge is thickly and heavily covered with long feathers (which are regularly plucked for the market). In fact, it may be said that the wings assume just that position along the sides which the wind would force them into when the Ostrich is running at a great pace; their position is exactly that which offers least resistance to the passing wind.
When Ostriches are startled, as by a dog; when they start away to run; or when not very hard pressed, they will often run, and very rapidly, for some distance with their wings raised nearly upright on each side of the neck; just as, under similar conditions, Springbucks will run with the white fan on their backs raised, frequently "pronking." When the Ostrich runs thus, with its wings raised, it generally moves with a high, springy, bounding step, never with the long raking stride of the bird that, hard-pressed, is fleeing for its life. Raised wings are undoubtedly an obstacle to the greatest pace. So the Springbuck, when he stretches himself out to run his fastest, shuts down his fan, as the attitude which enables him to expand it prevents his attaining to his greatest pace. When an Ostrich, after a long run, is very tired, its wings sometimes droop; this is due to exhaustion; they are never, by a running bird exerting itself to the utmost, held out away from the sides to lighten its weight or to increase its pace. But the wings appear to be of great service in turning, enabling the bird to double abruptly even when going at top speed.
Nidification, Sexual Relations, and Parental Habits.
Greater misconception seems to prevail with regard to the nidification, sexual relations, and parental habits of the Ostrich than upon any other really important points connected with it.
The best comment upon the various authorities will perhaps be a simple statement of what I know to be the facts.
The Nest.
As the breeding season approaches, a cock and hen will pair, and, having selected a site congenial to their inclinations, proceed to make a nest. I believe that in all cases, in the first instance, one cock and one hen, having paired, select the site and make the nest.
In a camp, no matter how large, where there are many birds and many nests, choice of position is restricted. As they like to have their nests far apart, it is especially difficult for a pair to select a spot which shall escape the observation of other birds. This probably accounts for the fact that many sites are unwisely chosen. Generally a stony or sandy rise, however slight, is selected, often beside and partly sheltered by a small bush. The sites being selected, each cock is supreme over all other cocks at his nest and in its immediate neighbourhood.
The nest is simply a hollow depression, more or less deep according to the nature of the soil. It is made by the pair together. The cock goes down on to his breast, scraping or kicking the sand out backwards with his feet, cutting the earth with his long and powerful nails. The hen stands by, often fluttering and clicking her wings, and helps by picking up the sand with her beak, and dropping it irregularly near the edge of the growing depression.
Laying and Sitting.
When satisfied with their work (and they are easily satisfied, often too easily) the hen begins to lay an egg in the nest, every other day. During the laying period the nest is often unattended, and is not slept on at night. A nest in which only one hen is laying contains on the average about fifteen eggs; but she often begins to sit before she has laid her full complement. Sometimes she will lay four or five after beginning to sit, though not often so many; sometimes only one or two; while sometimes ​she will lay her full complement. The hen generally begins the sitting; she will occasionally sit for one or two days and nights before the cock takes his turn. Now and then, however, the cock will be first to sit; but, in such a case, he will probably leave the nest for some hours during the day.
When sitting assumes its regular course, the hen sits from 8 or 9 a.m. to about 4 p.m., and the cock from 4 p.m. to about 8 or 9 a.m. The bird whose turn it is to be on the nest keeps its seat until the other arrives to relieve it, when they at once change places. Soon after beginning to sit, the cock loses his sexual vigour and inclinations, and ceases his attentions to the hen.
It is quite incorrect to say that the cock alone sits, or that during the day the eggs are left to the heat of the sun. The cock and hen sit alternately, regularly and steadily, night and day, during the whole period of incubation. Apart from incubation, it is necessary that the eggs should be covered during the day as a protection, in many parts, against small carnivora and monkeys; against the inclemencies of the weather, such as the frequent and violent hail and rain storms which sweep over the country; and against the great heat, which in the summer is almost tropical. The heat from the direct rays of the sun striking upon unprotected eggs, when, after incubation, development has once set in, is so great that it would kill them. Sand thus exposed becomes so hot that even a hardened hand can scarcely endure it. On an average summer's day I tested the heat of the sand, keeping the thermometer in the shade, and found it to be 150° Fahr. The maximum temperature allowed to eggs in an incubator is 104° Fahr., though a few degrees more, if not maintained too long, are not greatly injurious; but if the thermometer stands at 150° Fahr. for some hours daily, chicks will not incubate. However, argument is quite unnecessary; the hen sits on the eggs every day—of this there is no doubt whatever; they are not left to the heat of the sun; if they were, no chicks would ever result; they are covered by the birds during the whole period of incubation.
Times of Sitting well Apportioned.
There are several interesting points connected with the process of sitting. For instance, the time is admirably arranged ​to allow each bird to feed. The Ostrich is a peculiar feeder; in the first place he walks rapidly on and on as he feeds, pecking a few leaves here and a few there in his stride, seldom halting unless he finds some plant particularly to his liking, and then only for a minute or two. In the next place, he is not an indiscriminate feeder, but carefully selects what he likes. This, as a rule, consists of plants, which, owing to the nature of the country, are few and far between. He does not, however, go systematically in search of them, but strides straight on, eating those in his way. Thus he travels long distances while feeding, and requires several consecutive hours if he is to obtain a satisfactory meal. The hen has about four or five hours to feed in the early morning before she goes on to the nest; and the cock has seven or eight consecutive hours through the day, after which the hen again has three or four hours in the evening, before she returns to sleep near the nest. Generally, the hen has a somewhat longer time to feed than the cock, but her time is broken into two portions, and she cannot wander so far in search of food as he can, and thus has not the same opportunity of getting on to new ground, where food may be more abundant, from not having been visited so often, for the Ostrich is a destructive feeder, eating out the plants he likes when he has not a sufficiently large run. In compensation, the hen occupies the nest only half as long as the cock, who, however, has his feeding time unbroken, and half his time on the nest at night. It will thus be seen that, not counting the hours at night when both are sleeping (the cock on the nest), the duties of incubation are very evenly divided.
Protective Colouration.
The colour of each is admirably adapted to the time spent on the nest, and furnish interesting examples of protective colouration. It is scarcely possible to conceive a more effective disguise than the sober brownish grey of the hen for day sitting, and the black of the cock for night. When on the nest, the Ostrich lays its head, neck, and tail flat along the ground; its naked "thighs" are covered by the wings, the plumes lying close together on the earth almost hidden against the bird's body. Thus only the low, long-curved body projects above the surrounding level. The cock, at night, is, of course, almost ​perfectly hidden; while the hen, at day-time, closely resembles a stone, bush, ant-heap, or any little inequality of the veld. One is surprised to see how close such a large bird can lie to the ground, and how even an Ostrich-farmer may almost walk over a sitting hen in full daylight without seeing her. The cock is simply indistinguishable at night, except to a practised eye, and then only at a few yards distance. It may be urged that the black of the cock is not a protection in the morning or afternoon during daylight. This is not quite correct. In the very early morning, or in the afternoon towards sundown, it is most difficult to distinguish him; and it is but for two or three hours altogether that he is in the broad daylight, that being the only time in the whole twenty-four hours when the nest is not protected in a singularly effective manner by the colour of the sitting bird. Even then, unless one is close to the nest, his low-lying, long-curved, motionless form blends so closely with the ground and surrounding objects as to be much more difficult to discover than an inexperienced person could believe.
The little Embankment around the Nest.
As sitting continues, a little embankment is gradually raised around the nest, where the nature of the soil permits. This is not in the original plan of the nest, but is made during the incubation of the eggs. The sitting bird, while on the nest, sometimes pecks the sand up with its beak nearly as far from the nest as it can reach, and drops it around the body. A little embankment is thus gradually formed, and often, just outside, a shallow irregular trench, from which the soil has been taken. The formation of both is aided by a peculiar habit of the birds. When the bird on the nest is much excited (as by the approach of other birds or people), it snaps up the sand spasmodically without rising from the nest, and without lifting its head more than a few inches from the ground. The bank is raised by such sand as falls inward, and the trench is deepened.
The original nest, as has been pointed out, is merely a shallow depression, the earth scraped out being mostly scattered far and wide by the vigorous kicks of the cock. As sitting continues the depression is very liable to silt up again; this is aided by the bird scraping in sand now and then when working the ​outside eggs in under the body, and by the way it seats itself on the nest. It squats at the edge, and then gradually, in a sliding manner, works itself in, until it covers the eggs, dragging in sand during the process, and thus silting up the nest. The Ostrich, being a large, heavy, long-legged bird, when about to squat, bumps with a hard jerk on to its "knees," and then gently lets its body down to the ground. So, when getting on to a nest, it carefully places its feet among the eggs, bumps down with its "knees" outside the nest, clear of the eggs, and then works itself in till the nest is covered. If this method were not pursued the eggs would be broken by the sudden and violent impact with the "knees" as the bird bumped down.
Now the use of the bank, and the reason for its gradual, continuous formation after sitting begins, are apparent; the nest is thus kept hollow. Without it the nest would be liable to silt up and the eggs roll away. That this is its use seems to be clearly shown by the fact that the nest, though hollow, is at times slightly raised above the original level. The embankment, lying close to the bird's body, also serves to carry off some of the rain that falls on the bird, as well as to partly prevent running water entering the nest.
Guarding the Nest.
The cock is very vicious and pugnacious, and will attack any bird or any person approaching the nest; at times he will chase and kick at bucks, jackals, porcupines, and other animals. If, however, a person gets right up to the nest, especially if he kneels or sits beside it, the cock seldom kicks, but puts his head down to the ground, snaps his beak spasmodically, hissing violently meanwhile, and tremulously flutters his wings (which click loudly at the largest joint) in impotent excitement and distress. But if one is only a few yards off he will kick and fight most determinedly. The reason seems obvious: if he kicks at the nest he will almost certainly break the eggs.
The hen is not vicious, and does not fight, except when she has chicks; then the habits of the cock and hen change to some extent; the cock generally runs away with the chicks (he will fight if necessary), while the hen advances to do battle.
Eggs outside the Nest.
Often, during incubation, an egg or two will be found lying outside the nest. Most authorities maintain that the birds put them out designedly, and that such eggs are used as food for the newly-hatched chicks, being broken for this purpose by the parent birds.
There is no truth in either contention. These eggs are rolled out accidentally, and if replaced will not be rejected, as I know from having frequently marked and replaced them by way of experiment. They may be quite fresh, in some stage of incubation, or rotten. There is no truth whatever in the statement that the newly-hatched chicks are fed upon them; but I have seen chicks a few days old greedily eating the dung of their parents, which often, after sitting, is in the form of small pellets. In the earlier days of Ostrich-farming I have seen little incubator-hatched chicks supplied with soft cow-dung and beaten-up Ostrich egg, but nothing of the sort is done now; they are fed with succulent green food, which is enough for all purposes. If left to nature, and allowed to run with their parents, they thrive perhaps better than under any other conditions; only they become very wild, and are liable to be killed by hawks, jackals, and other animals.
The Hatching of the Chicks.
If an egg should be broken in the nest, the old birds eat it, shell and all, as they will often do when the first chick or two hatch out. This habit has no doubt given rise to the erroneous belief, expressed by one of the authorities, that the cock breaks the chicks out—cracking the shell with his breast, shaking the chick loose, and then swallowing the membrane. The chicks hatch out unaided, and though no doubt the movements of the parent on the eggs do occasionally help to free a chick which has already pecked through and cracked the shell (as I have seen), there is no design in these movements, and no need for help.
If sitting begins after the hen has laid her full complement of eggs, naturally all fertile eggs will have sufficient time to hatch. Even if she lays one or two after beginning to sit, still all may ​hatch, for often one bird will remain on the nest during the day (and of course at night) with such chicks as cannot yet stand or walk, while the other feeds close at hand with the stronger ones. Thus the full time for sitting may be, and often is, exceeded by some days, and all the sound eggs may hatch. But if the hen has laid, say, four or five after beginning to sit, it is probable that several will be left in the nest, containing large living chicks (which die in the shell), for the birds will not continue sitting for more than three or four days after the first chicks appear.
Newly-hatched Chicks.
As the time for the eggs to hatch out draws near, the birds become much excited, probably from hearing the chicks crying in the shell, or pecking at it to break themselves out (both sounds being very distinct); the excitement increases as the chicks appear.
When first hatched the chicks are perfectly helpless; the back of the head and adjoining portion of the neck are greatly swollen and out of shape, as are the legs, especially the tarsi and toes, which are puffed and jelly-like, and of a transparent-looking pinkish yellow. The eyes have a cloudy expressionless appearance. For some hours they cannot even hold up their heads; they cannot stand until at least twenty-four hours old, nor get about at all until another day older, and then only in a very ricketty manner, tumbling over every few steps; nor are they quick and steady on their legs until the swelling has quite subsided. They do not seem to have much consciousness for about the first twenty-four hours, but when once they have found their legs they soon become exceedingly wild unless handled, and rapidly attain to a remarkable speed. For about the first day they eat nothing; after this they may be seen, when the sunshine is warm, sitting on the edge of the nest, just free of the parent, pecking feebly and uncertainly at small objects on the ground, or at anything within their reach. The stronger ones will gradually wander a short distance from the nest with the parent that is not sitting, and eventually all will leave it, being tended by both cock and hen.
Parents and Chicks.
When defending the nest the cock carries himself splendidly, with erect straight neck, his attitude being most imposing and defiant. But when the hen (or the cock) is advancing to protect the chicks, she comes with a rapid, shuffling stride, hissing violently, with wings fluttering at right angles to the body, flat to the front, and almost touching the ground. Often both cock and hen will run away with the chicks, but if the enemy is close the chicks, especially when very young, will scatter in all directions, and squat separately. Even when older they will squat, if hard pressed. Sometimes, to mislead the pursuer, the parents will feign injury, gradually leading him away from the little chicks. I have seen a cock fall, as if with a broken leg, several times within a couple of hundred yards.
When startled the parents emit a short sound of one note, which is a signal of alarm. When the danger is past the chicks (which when squatting lie perfectly still, blending closely with the ground, and are most difficult to discover) arise, and run about in all directions, calling with their penetrating tremulous cry. The old birds return to the neighbourhood where the little ones scattered, and gather them together again. They do not call, but their height, and their keen sight and hearing, enable them readily to find the crying, moving specks. The chicks, too, are very quick at seeing and running to their parents.
The parents know their own chicks, except when very small, and will kick and peck at others, often killing them. Adult nonbreeding birds also do this, as do large chicks to very small ones.
Is the Ostrich Polygamous?
There seems to be no diversity of opinion as to the polygamy of the Ostrich. It is almost entirely on the fact (an incontestable one), that several hens frequently lay in one and the same nest, that the argument for polygamy is based.
Let us examine this fact, and endeavour to ascertain what it implies.
One cock and one hen (not one cock and several hens) having paired, select a spot, and together make the nest. When the spot is well selected, in some secluded place not easily discovered, and ​where other birds are not in the habit of coming, I have known many cases, in camps containing from eighty to one hundred birds of both sexes, where the pair have kept the nest exclusively. Such a nest, unless destroyed by rains or wild animals, is almost certain to yield a large proportion of chicks. This cannot, perhaps, be said of a nest under any other conditions. If, during the laying of the eggs, or after the pair have begun to sit, other hens lay in the nest or sit on it, the yield of chicks will not be so great; there will never, as far as my experience goes, be a good yield; often there are no chicks at all. The pair frequently abandon the nest. A good yield of chicks, in proportion to the eggs laid, is seldom obtained from any nest in which more than one hen lays or broods; with two hens, a good yield may be got in proportion to the eggs actually sat upon; when there are more than two hens, a few chicks may hatch out, but in the great majority of cases there will be none. The chance of obtaining any yield at all lessens as the number of hens increases; with four or more hens it is almost safe to say that chicks never result.
Yet it is undeniable that in a camp where many Ostriches run, nests are generally shared by several hens, usually by more than two. I have known six or eight to share one nest, and have found a nest with one hundred and fifty eggs in and about it, many with from fifty to seventy; but it is very exceptional—in fact, almost unknown—for such nests to yield chicks. If it were natural for several hens to share one nest, chicks should result.
All the hens of one nest keep to that nest, each laying generally about a sitting, and then beginning to brood. If they cannot lay in the nest because it is occupied, they will not often go to another nest, but will deposit their eggs just outside their own. Each nest is owned by one cock; but I do not know, when there are several hens laying in one nest, whether they are all fertilised by the cock of that nest.
Why several Hens often Share one Nest.
Now, how is it, if the Ostrich is not polygamous, that several hens often share the same nest?
The following considerations may not quite solve the question, but serve, I think, to help towards its solution.
​In a troop of young birds the sexes are about evenly balanced, and, presumably, in the wild state this balance is not much disturbed. But there probably is a preponderance of hens, even in the wild state, for, in the breeding season, the cocks fight among themselves, occasionally with fatal results. In domestication, the preponderance of hens is no doubt greater, for cocks are not only killed by kicking at each other through wire fences, thus breaking their legs, but also occasionally by people they attack. In domestication, neither all cocks nor all hens come into season; but, as the cocks that are killed are among the most vigorous and mettlesome, the proportion also of hens that come into season is greater than that of cocks.
Unattached Hens.
When a cock is ready to breed, he pairs with one hen, and with her makes the nest. If they escape the intrusion of other hens, this state of monogamy continues, and chicks result; if they do not, polygamy will probably take place, almost always with disastrous consequences to the nest.
Now, there are other hens in season, and being in excess of the cocks (who have already mated), they are unattached, having no cock to mate with. They surrender to any cock, and are thus fertilised. So excited and overwrought are they, that tame hens will often squat on the approach of a man. Having no nests of their own (only one case of a hen unaided making a nest has come under my observation), they lay their eggs in other hens' nests, each generally keeping to the nest she first selects; or they drop their eggs at random about the veld, this habit no doubt helping to give rise to the old Biblical belief, persisting to the present day, that the Ostrich leaves her eggs in the sand to hatch by the heat of the sun.
Herein, I think, to a great extent lies the true explanation of the so-called association of several hens with one cock, giving rise to the idea of polygamy. The cock is polygamous, it would seem, not so much from any free choice of his own as because the hens are forced upon him.
Large Chicks mistaken for Hens.
I think that travellers have often mistaken large chicks for hens. Thus, when they see a cock and some half-dozen drab Ostriches together, at a nest or on the veld, they at once class them as cock and hens, and say they are polygamous birds, while it is more than likely that the lot consists of one pair with large chicks. I have often seen a large chick mistaken for an adult hen by men of considerable experience as Ostrich farmers. Such chicks are not easily distinguished from hens, except at close quarters by an experienced man. Andersson seems to have made this mistake, and even to have supposed that a large chick was an Ostrich of a different species. It must be remembered that Ostriches are some years reaching maturity, often not attaining their complete adult plumage till four years old. If little chicks (another year's brood) accompanied the pair with large chicks, one would be even more likely to draw a false inference.
Why no Chicks result.
When several hens lay in the same nest it frequently happens that two wish to lay at the same time. In this case, as a rule, one will lay in the nest, the other on the bare ground outside. Sometimes, however, two hens may be seen on the nest at once. Presently some of the hens will begin to sit (the cock alone sitting at night). One occupies the nest, the other broody hens lying or standing about close at hand, thus betraying its presence. When she arises, whichever of the other hens is quickest, perhaps a laying hen, takes her place. Under these conditions a great many eggs are broken both before sitting begins and afterwards. The hens do not sit by turns; there is no plan in their proceedings at all.
The laying of eggs goes on from day to day by some of the hens, even after others have ceased. The consequence of this is that the same lot of eggs are never in the nest together for more than a few days at a time. (This I have frequently proved by marking the eggs.) Some are rolled out, new ones are laid, or old ones are rolled in, for the nest becomes trampled almost out of shape by the traffic about it. Thus there are no chicks; the eggs become broken or addled, and the nest is eventually abandoned. Under such conditions it not infrequently happens ​that the cock (and perhaps some of the hens) abandons the nest in disgust before the full period of incubation is completed. This he never does if he has only one hen and is undisturbed by other birds.
It must also be noted that chicks are attended by one cock and one hen, and that the pair will kick any birds, chicks or adults, that approach them; also that it is a common rule among Ostrich farmers to camp off special breeding birds in pairs.
Every authority that I have consulted holds that the Ostrich is polygamous, but the evidence against polygamy is very strong: a pair make the nest; the hen lays all her eggs (a full sitting) in that nest; the hatching of the eggs and the care of the chicks are shared equally by cock and hen; the cock loses his sexual vigour and ceases his attentions to the hen, soon after beginning to sit; and one hen to a nest yields the best results.
Evidences for Monogamy stronger than for Polygamy.
I do not, however, think it can be maintained that the monogamy of the Ostrich is proved absolutely, but I decidedly think that the arguments in its favour are much stronger than those in support of polygamy. That there is a thoroughly organized polygamy I do not believe. It may perhaps be said that the present state of the relation between the sexes is not quite organized; but if monogamy is not yet firmly established, I hold, at least, that the tendency is that way, and am certain that monogamy is the state most suitable to the propagation of the species, though, under certain conditions, polygamy may be resorted to.
Curious and Exceptional Relations.
Finally, it must be allowed that, while all the facts at my command point strongly to the conclusion that the Ostrich is not only often monogamous, but that monogamy is the only condition perfectly favourable to the successful hatching and rearing of young; and that all the arguments in favour of polygamy break down on examination: yet the fact remains that there are a large number of curious and exceptional circumstances connected with the nidification, sexual relations, and parental habits of Ostriches that I am not yet exactly able to account ​for, either on the supposition of fully organized monogamy or polygamy. It is possible that when a larger number of careful observations have been made, and the Ostrich, both in its wild state and under domesticated conditions, has been scientifically studied, we shall find certain curious and exceptional conditions governing the nidification and sexual relations of these birds. And it is much to be desired that those especially who have opportunities of studying the Ostrich in its wild state, or of obtaining exact information from those who have had these opportunities, should carefully collect all facts, as this matter is one of much scientific interest.
* ↑ This article is founded on personal observations made during nine years of uninterrupted Ostrich-farming in the Karroo of the Cape Colony, and during travels about the country generally. The number of Ostriches which were under my care during this period ranged from about 250 to 450. Some of the birds were the progeny of wild birds, brought down as chicks from further up-country. Every year eight special breeding pairs were camped off, each pair in a separate small camp; but the other birds ran in large camps, the extent of the farm being 4600 morgen (about two acres to the morgen). In these large camps, some of which are a couple of miles in diameter, numbers of birds of both sexes run in what is practically a wild state, seldom interfered with in any way, except when rounded up to be plucked or to be fed in a drought. I know, from personal observation when purchasing wild chicks from the nest, and from numerous inquiries, that the habits of birds thus farmed differ in no way from those of native wild birds, except perhaps that monogamy is more difficult. The whole of the Cape Colony is the native habitat of the Ostrich; there are feral Ostriches in many parts, and wild birds in some of the up-country districts.
* ↑ For an uncorrected scan see: this page. See also the text (by Newton) in the 11th ed. (Wikisource-Ed.)
* ↑ The term chick is often used for a bird of as much as even three years old.
* ↑ "Pronking," the (Dutch) word used to denote the habit these Antelopes have of leaping to a great height into the air, the attitude (which expands the white fan) being almost exactly that of a bucking horse.
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