OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rewbell, Jean François

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​REWBELL, JEAN FRANÇOIS (1747–1807), French politician, was born at Colmar (then in the department of Haut-Rhin) on the 8th of October 1747. He was president (bâtonnier) of the order of, aoocats in Colmar, and in 1789 was elected deputy to the States-General by the Third Estateof the bailliage of Colmar-Schlestadt. In the Constituent Assembly his oratorical gifts, legal knowledge and austerity of life gave him much influence. During the session of the Legislative Assembly he exercised the functions of procurer syndic and was subsequently secretary-general of the department of Haut-Rhin. In the Convention he was a zealous promoter of the trial of Louis XVI., but was absent on mission at the time of the king's condemnation. He took part in the reactionary movement which followed the fall of Robespierre, and became a member of the reorganized Committees of Public Safety and General Security. The moderation he displayed caused his election by seventeen departments to the Council of Five Hundred. Appointed a member of the Directory on the 1st of October 1795, he became its president in 1796, and retired by ballot in 1799. He then entered the Council of Ancients. After the coup d’état of 18 Brumaire he retired from public life, and died at Colmar on the 23rd of November 1807.
See L. Sciout, Le Directoire (Paris, 1895–97).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rewa Kantha

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​REWA KANTHA, a political agency or collection of native states in India, subordinate to the government of Bombay. It stretches for about 150 m. between the plain of Gujarat and the hills of Malwa, from the river Tapti to the Mahi, crossing the Nerbudda or Rewa, from which it takes its name. The number of separate states is 61, many of which are under British jurisdiction. The only important one is Rajpipla (q.v.). It includes also five second-class states entitled Chota Udaipur, Bariya, Sunth, Lunawada and Balaimor. Total area, 4972 sq. m. In 1901 the population was 479,065, showing a decrease of 35% in the decade, due to the results of famine. Estimated revenue, £140,000; tribute (mostly to the gaekwar of Baroda), £10,000. Many of the inhabitants belong to the wild tribes of Bhils and Kolis. The political agent, who is also collector of the British district of the Panch Mahals, resides at Godhra.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Reyer, Ernest

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​REYER, ERNEST (1823–), French composer, was born at Marseilles on the 1st of December 1823. At the age of sixteen he went to Algeria, and remained there some years. The outcome of his residence there was a symphonic ode entitled Le Sélam, the musical oriental ism of which had, unluckily for him, already been anticipated by Félicien David in Le Désert, Maître Wolfram, a one-act opera, was produced at the Opéra comique ​in 1854; and in 1858 Sacuntala, a ballet, at the Opéra. It was the production of La Statue at the Théatre lyrique in 1861 that brought Reyer's name prominently before the public. But Reyer had to wait several years before obtaining a real and permanent success. Erostrate, an opera produced at Baden-Baden in 1862, and given at the Paris Opéra some ten years later, was a failure. The composer had in the meanwhile set to work on Sigurd, the subject of which is the same that inspired Wagner in Siegfried and Gotterddmmerung. It was at last produced in Brussels in 1884, and subsequently brought out at the Paris Opéra. Sigurd is a work of great value, displaying its composer's elevated notions as regards the form of the “ lyrical drama.” Salarnrnbé, founded upon Flaubert's romance, was successfully produced at Brussels in 1890. Gluck, Weber, Berlioz and Wagner exercised most influence over Reyer. As a musical critic (preceding Berlioz in that capacity for the Journal des débats) Reyer was a well-known writer; and he became librarian of the Paris Opéra, and a member of the Institute. His Quarante Ans de musique (with biographical notice by E. Henriot) was published in 1909.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Reynolds, John Fulton

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​REYNOLDS, JOHN FULTON (1820-1863), American soldier, was born at Lancaster, Pennsylvania, on the 20th of September 1820, and graduated at West Point in 1841. He became first lieutenant of artillery in 1846, and was breveted captain and major for gallantry in the Mexican War. He took part in the Utah expedition under Brigadier-General Albert Sidney Johnston. In 1859 he was made commandant of cadets ​at West Point, where he was stationed at the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861. He was made a lieutenant-colonel of infantry in May and brigadier-general of volunteers in August of that year. In the Peninsular campaign, after taking part in the battles of Beaver Dam Creek and Gaines' Mill, he was taken prisoner in the hard-fought action of Glendale or Frazier's Farm. Exchanged after six weeks' captivity, he commanded a division with conspicuous ability and courage in the second battle of Bull Run. Shortly after this he was placed in command of the militia of his native state when Lee's invasion threatened it. In November 1862 he was commissioned major-general of volunteers, and appointed to command the I. Corps of the Army of the Potomac, and took part in the battle of Fredericksburg. At the time of General Meade's appointment to command the Army of the Potomac many desired to see Reynolds selected for that post, but he gave Meade his whole-hearted support in the three critical days preceding the battle of Gettysburg (q.v.). He was placed by Meade in command of the left Wing (I., III. and XI. corps and Buford's cavalry division) and thrown forward to Gettysburg to cover the concentration of the Army of the Potomac. The battle which ensued there, on the 1st of July 1863, took its shape from Reynolds's resolution to support Buford's cavalry with the I. and XI. crops. Meade was notified, and hurried forward the right wing under Hancock. Reynolds himself was killed very early in the day by a rifle bullets. A bronze statue was placed on the field of Gettysburg and a portrait in the library at West Point by the men of the I. Corps. The state of Pennsylvania erected a granite shaft on the spot where he fell, and an equestrian bronze statue stands in Philadelphia.
His elder brother William (1815-1879), a naval officer, served afloat in the Civil War, effected many useful reforms while acting secretary of the navy in 1873 and 1874, and retired from the United States navy in 1877 as a rear-admiral.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Saunderson, Edward James

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​SAUNDERSON, EDWARD JAMES (1837–1906), Irish politician, was born at Castle Saunderson, Co. Cavan, on the 1st of October 1837. He was the son of Alexander Saunderson, M.P. for Cavan (d. 1857), his mother being a daughter of the 6th Baron Farnham. The Irish Saundersons were a 17th century branch of an old family, originally of Durham; a Lincolnshire branch, the Saundersons of Saxby, held the titles of Viscount Castleton (Irish: cr. 1628) and Baron Saunderson (British: cr. 1714) up to 1723. Edward Saunderson was educated abroad, and, having succeeded to the Cavan estates, married in 1865 a daughter of the 3rd Baron Ventry, and in the same year was elected M.P. for the county as a Palmerstonian Liberal. He lost his seat in 1874, and by 1885, when he again entered parliament for North Armagh, he had become a prominent Orangeman and a Conservative; the question of Irish home rule had now come to the front, and Saunderson's political career as a representative Irish Unionist had begun. He had entered the Cavan militia (4th battalion Royal Irish Fusiliers) in 1862, and was now major (1875), becoming colonel in 1886 and in command of the battalion from 1891 to 1893. Almost from the first he became leader of the Irish Unionist party in the House of Commons, his uncompromising speeches being full of force and humour. In 1898 his services were recognized by his being made a privy councillor. He died on the 21st of October 1906. In private life Colonel Saunderson was well known as a keen yachtsman; his character was deeply marked by stern religious feeling, and his fine sincerity, while endearing him to his friends, never lost him the respect of his opponents.
See the Memoir by Reginald Lucas (1908).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sauval, Henri

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​SAUVAL, HENRI (1623-1676), French historian, son of an advocate in the Parlement, was born in Paris, and baptized on the 5th of March 1623. He devoted most of his life to researches among the archives of his native city, and in 1656 even obtained a licence to print his Paris ancien et moderne; but on his death (21st March 1676) the whole work was still in manuscript. A long time afterwards it appeared, thanks to his collaborator, Claude Bernard Rousseau, under the title of Histoire et recherche des antiquités de la ville de Paris (1724), but remodelled, with the addition of long and dull dissertations which were not by Sauval. The work was not without merits, and it was re-issued in 1733 and 1750. The original manuscript first belonged to Montmerqué, and then passed into the possession of Le Roux de Lincy, who prepared an annotated edition; unfortunately this material, together with the original MS., was lost in the incendiary fires which took place under the Commune (1871). There remain, however, Le Roux de Lincy's researches, a series of articles on Sauval which appeared in the Bulletin du bibliophile et du bibliothécaire in 1862, 1866 and 1868. See also the Bibliographie de Paris avant 1789, by the Abbé Valentin Dufour (1882).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Saunter

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​SAUNTER, to loiter, lounge, walk idly or lazily. The derivation of the word has given rise to some curiously far-fetched guesses; thus it has been referred to the Holy Land, La Sainte Terre, where pilgrims lingered and loitered, or to the supposed tendency to idle propensities of those who possess no landed property, sans terre. The most probable suggestions are (1) that of Wedgwood, who connects it with a word in exactly the English sense which appears in various forms in Scandinavian languages, Icel. slentr, Dan. slentre, Swed. slentra, cf. slen, sloth, slunt, lout; this derivation assumes the disappearance of the l. (2) That supported by Skeat, and first propounded by Blackley (Word Gossip, 1869), which connects it with the Middle Eng. aunter, adventure; it may represent the Fr. s'aventurer, to go out on an adventure, and the sense-development would be from the idle and apparently objectless expeditions of knights-errant in search of adventure.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Saussure, Nicolas Théodore de

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​SAUSSURE, NICOLAS THEODORE DE (1767-1845), eldest son of Horace Bénédict de Saussure, was born on the 14th of October 1767, at Geneva, and is known chiefly for his work on the chemistry of vegetable physiology. He lived quietly and avoided society; yet like his ancestors he was a member of the ​Genevan representative council, and gave much attention to public affairs. In the latter part of his life he became more of a recluse than ever, and died at Geneva on the 18th of April 1845.
When a young man Nicolas Théodore accompanied his father in his Alpine journeys and assisted him by the careful determination of many physical constants. He was attracted to chemistry by Lavoisier's brilliant conceptions, but he did not become great as an originator. He took a leading share in improving the processes of ultimate organic analysis; and he determined the composition of ethyl alcohol, ether and some other commonly occurring substances. He also studied fermentation, the conversion of starch into sugar, and many other processes of minor importance. The greater number of his 36 published papers dealt with the chemistry and physiology of plants, the nature of soils, and the conditions of vegetable life, and were republished under the title Recherches chimiques sur la végétation.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Savage

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​SAVAGE, a word by derivation meaning belonging to the wilds or forests (O. Fr. salvage, mod. sauvage, Late Lat. silvaticus, silva, wood, forest), hence wild, uncultivated, barbarian, and so used of races in an uncivilized or barbarous condition, or of animals or human beings generally, untamed, ferocious.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Savage, Minot Judson

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​SAVAGE, MINOT JUDSON (1841-), American Unitarian minister and author, was born in Norridgewock, Maine, on the 10th of June 1841. He graduated at the Bangor Theological Seminary in 1864, and for nine years was in the Congregational ministry, being a home missionary at San Mateo and Grass Valley, California, until 1867, and holding pastorates at Framingham, Mass. (1867-1869), and Hannibal, Missouri (1869-1873). He then became a Unitarian, and was pastor of the Third Unitarian Church of Chicago in 1873-1874, of the Church of the Unity in Boston in 1874-1896, and of the Church of the Messiah in New York City in 1896-1906.
He wrote many books, including Christianity, the Science of Manhood (1873), The Religion of Evolution (1876), The Morals of Evolution (1880), The Religious Life (1885), My Creed (1887), The Evolution of Christianity (1892), Our Unitarian Gospel (1898), The Passing and the Permanent in Religion (1901), Life Beyond Death (1901), Can Telepathy Explain? (1902), Life's Dark Problems (1905), and, besides other volumes in verse, America to England (1905).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Saunderson, Nicholas

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​SAUNDERSON, or Sanderson, NICHOLAS (1682–1739), English mathematician, was born at Thurlstone, Yorkshire, in January 1682. When about a year old he lost his sight through smallpox; but this did not prevent him from acquiring a knowledge of Latin and Greek, and studying mathematics. In 1707 he began lecturing at Cambridge on the principles of the Newtonian philosophy, and in November 1711 he succeeded William Whiston, the Lucasian professor of mathematics in Cambridge. He was created doctor of laws in 1728 by command of George II., and in 1736 was admitted a member of the Royal Society. He died of scurvy, on the 19th of April 1739.
Saunderson possessed the friendship of many of the eminent mathematicians of the time, such as Sir Isaac Newton, Edmund Halley, Abraham De Moivre and Roger Cotes. His senses of hearing and touch were extraordinarily acute, and he could carry on mentally long and intricate mathematical calculations. He devised a calculating machine or abacus, by which he could perform arithmetical and algebraical operations by the sense of touch; this method is sometimes termed his palpable arithmetic, an account of which is given in his elaborate Elements of Algebra (2 vols., Cambridge, 1740). Of his other writings, prepared for the use of his pupils, the only one which has been published is The Method of Fluxions (1 vol., London, 1756). At the end of this treatise there is given, in Latin, an explanation of the principal propositions of Sir Isaac Newton's philosophy.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Totonicapam

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​TOTONICAPAM, or Totonicapan, the capital of the department of Totonicapam, Guatemala, on the same high plateau as Quezaltenango, the nearest railway station, from which it is 12 m. E.N.E. Pop. (1905) about 28,000. Totonicapam is inhabited mainly by Quiché Indians, employed in the making of cloth, furniture, pottery and wooden musical instruments. There are hot mineral springs in the neighbourhood. In 1838 Totonicapam was declared an independent republic, in which the adjoining departments of Sololá and Quezaltenango were included. This state existed for two years, and was then again merged in the republic of Guatemala. Totonicapam suffered greatly in the earthquake of the 18th of April 1902.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Toscanella

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​TOSCANELLA (anc. Tuscana), a town of the province of Rome, Italy, 15 m. N.E. of Corneto by road, 545 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901), 4839. The medieval walls with their towers are still preserved. On the ancient citadel hill is the Romanesque church of S. Pietro, belonging to four different periods—739, 1093 (the date of the reconstruction of the crypt), the middle of the 12th and the end of the 12th century. It has the shape of a Roman basilica, with a nave and two aisles and one apse. The elaborate façade with its rose window also belongs to the 12th century. S. Maria in the valley below dates from 1050 to 1206, and has a similar façade and a massive square campanile. In the town are two other Romanesque churches.
See G. T. Rivoira, Origini dell' architettura Lombarda l. 146 (Rome 1901).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tostig

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​TOSTIG (d. 1066), earl of Northumbria, was a son, probably the third, of Earl Godwine, and in 1051 married Judith, sister or daughter of Baldwin V., count of Flanders. In the year of his marriage he shared the short exile of his father, returning with him to England in 1052, and became earl of Northumbria after the death of Earl Siward in 1055. He was very intimate with his brother-in-law, Edward the Confessor, and in 1061 he visited Pope Nicholas II. at Rome in the company of Aldred, archbishop of York. By stern and cruel measures Tostig introduced a certain amount of order into the wild northern district under his rule; this severity made him exceedingly unpopular, and in 1065 Northumbria broke into open revolt. Declaring Tostig an outlaw and choosing Morkere in his stead, the rebels marched southwards and were met at Oxford by Earl Harold, who, rather against the will of the king, granted their demands. Tostig sailed to Flanders and thence to Normandy, where he offered his services to Duke William, who was related to his wife and who was preparing for his invasion of England. He then harried the Isle of Wight and the Kentish and Lincolnshire coasts, and, after a stay in Scotland and possibly a visit to Norway, joined another invader, Harald III. Hardrada, king of Norway, in the Tyne. Together they sailed up the Humber and at Gate Fulford, near York, defeated Earls Morkere and Edwine and entered York. But Harold, now king, was hurrying to the north. Taking the Norwegians by surprise at Stamford Bridge he destroyed their army on the 25th of September 1066, and in this battle both Tostig and the king of Norway were slain. Tostig’s two sons appear to have taken refuge in Norway, and his widow Judith married Welf, duke of Bavaria.
See E. A. Freeman, The Norman Conquest, vols. ii. and iii. (1870–1876).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Totana

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​TOTANA, a town of eastern Spain, in the province of Murcia, on the Lorca-Murcia railway. Pop. (1900), 13,703. The town, which consists of two parts, the Barrio de Sevilla and Barrio de Triana, contains several handsome public buildings, among them the church of Santiago, with its three naves. Water is conveyed to Totana from the Sierra de Espuña by an aqueduct 7 m. long. Saltpetre is obtained among the hills, and there is a thriving trade in wheat, oranges, olives, almonds, and wine from the Sangonera valley. Other industries are the manufacture of linen, leather and the earthenware jars called tinajas, which are used for the storage of oil and wine.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Torzhok

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​TORZHOK, a town of Russia, in the government of Tver, on the river Tvertsa, 21 m. by rail S.W. of the Likhoslavl, station of the St Petersburg & Moscow railway. Pop. (1900), 15,119. It dates from the 11th century, and the name (marketplace) shows that this dependency of Novgorod was a commercial centre. It was fortified with a stone wall, which only partially protected it from the attacks of Mongols, Lithuanians and Poles. Torzhok is celebrated in Russia for its embroidered velvet and embroidered leather-work, for the manufacture of travelling bags, and for its trade in corn and flour.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Totila

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​TOTILA (d. 552), king of the Ostrogoths, was chosen king after the death of his uncle Ildibad in 541, his real name being, as is seen from the coinage issued by him, Baduila. The work of his life was the restoration of the Gothic kingdom in Italy and he entered upon the task at the very beginning of his reign, collecting together and inspiring the Goths and winning a victory over the troops of the emperor Justinian, near Faenza. Having gained another victory in 542, this time in the valley of Mugello, he left Tuscany for Naples, captured that city and then received the submission of the provinces of Lucania, Apulia and Calabria. Totila’s conquest of Italy was marked not only by celerity but also by mercy, and Gibbon says “none were deceived, either friends or enemies, who depended on his faith or his clemency.” Towards the end of 545 the Gothic king took up his station at Tivoli and prepared to starve Rome into surrender, making at the same time elaborate preparations for checking the progress of Belisarius who was advancing to its relief. The Imperial fleet, moving up the Tiber and led by the great general, only just failed to succour the city, which must then, perforce, open its gates to the Goths. It was plundered, although Totila did not carry out his threat to make it a pasture for cattle, and when the Gothic army withdrew into Apulia it was from a scene of desolation. But its walls and other fortifications were soon restored, and Totila again marching against it was defeated by Belisarius, who, however, did not follow up his advantage. Several cities were taken by the Goths, while Belisarius remained inactive and then left Italy, and in 549 Totila advanced a third time against Rome, which he captured through the treachery of some of its defenders. His next exploit was the conquest and plunder of Sicily, after which he subdued Corsica and Sardinia and sent a Gothic fleet against the coasts of Greece. By this time the emperor Justinian was taking energetic measures to check the Goths. The conduct of a new campaign was entrusted to the eunuch Narses; Totila marched against him and was defeated and killed at the battle of Tagina in July 552.
See E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall, edited by J. B. Bury (1898), vol. iv; T. Hodgkin, Italy and her Invaders (1896), vol. iv. and Kampfner, Totila, König der Ostgoten (1889).