# Japan by the Japanese

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JAPAN BY THE JAPANESE
Some Press Opinions.
The St. James’s Gazette.—“Mr. Stead’s work is quite unlike any other contribution to our knowledge of the Japanese and their country. It is unique in a design which has been carried out most excellently. Let us say at once that ‘Japan by the Japanese’ is indispensable to all who would learn what Japan has done in the past, what she is now doing, and what she seeks to do in the future. Mr. Stead has gone to Japan and interviewed the statesmen who have made Japan’s history these last forty years and ruled the people: the soldiers and sailors whose skill and bravery have helped to raise her to a leading place in the world; the bankers, merchants, agriculturists, teachers, industrial leaders, professors, officials of all sorts, journalists, lawyers, diplomatists—all, in fact, who could give him real, unimpeachable information. From them he has obtained an authoritative account of the national activity in all its manifestations. His volume is at once a history, a cyclopædia, and an expression of opinion on the position in Japan by those most competent to give it—an autobiography of a nation. . . . Mr. Stead is to be warmly congratulated on his work; it must take rank as the chief authority on its subject.”
The Daily Telegraph.—‘‘The chief value of the volume is that it has been compiled by Japanese writers, including some of the most distinguished of living Japanese. . . . The book will take its place at once among the standard works of reference relating to Japan . . . this admirable and most timely volume.”
The Daily News.—“Mr. Alfred Stead is to be congratulated upon the production of this volume—the most noteworthy volume, perhaps, that has ever been issued from the newer Japan.”
The Morning Post.—“We are confident that we have now presented to us the Japan we have longed to hear about—the real Japan which cast off the shackles of feudalism thirty-seven years ago, and has never once looked back.”
The Globe.—“Every single subject, and the list of them is encyclopædic, is dealt with by a master of his craft, and the fact that the work has been dedicated to the Emperor of Japan is a sufficient guarantee that it contains an authoritative setting forth of the Japanese case. . . . As it stands it is a work which must be kept for constant reference on the shelves of those who take an intelligent interest in our ally in the Far East, for among all the many works upon Japan it is the only one which can claim to be written from cover to cover by those possessing actual and personal knowledge of the subject.”
The World.—Every page of the book is of great value . . . we heartily commend it to the study of all who wish to know how Japan is working out the proud destiny which has so wonderfully exalted her among the nations.”
The Pall Mall Gazette.—“The result is a handsome volume of 700 pages, well divided up, well indexed, accessible at every point, and replete with the minutest information. The chapters on the forces, the constitution, the diplomacy and foreign policy, the literature, press, and education of Japan are excellent.”
The Westminster—“We have now for the first time, thanks to the labours of Mr. Alfred Stead, an elaborate and exhaustive work on ‘Japan’ by Japanese writers. This work is both a book of reference and a book to read. . . . It contains all the facts compiled in each department by the highest authorities, and it supplies a running comment on the history, social institutions, politics, art, literature, and religion of Japan. It would be impossible to find any handbook about any country which has the same degree of authority.”
The Speaker.—“Mr. Alfred Stead is to be congratulated on having compiled the most authoritative and instructive book upon Japan that has yet appeared in English.”
London: WILLIAM HEINEMANN, 21 BEDFORD STREET, W.C.
JAPAN BY THE JAPANESE
A Survey by its Highest Authorities
EDITED BY ALFRED STEAD
LONDON WILLIAM HEINEMANN 1904
First Edition, August, 1904 Second Impression, October, 1904
All rights reserved
This Edition enjoys copyright in all countries signatory to the Berne Treaty, and is not to be imported into the United States of America
PREFACE
In the history of the world there has been no such wonderful development in so short a space of time as that of Japan. Less than forty years ago she was a nation at the mercy of the great Powers of the world, who on more than one occasion took advantage of her weakness. The intense patriotism of the Japanese people and the far-sighted direction of the Emperor and his statesmen have enabled Japan to reach a point in international affairs where she is predominant in Eastern Asia, and strong enough to have a voice of no mean weight in the councils of the world. And how has this change come about? The prime factor in the change has always been the necessity of keeping Japan for the Japanese. It was wisely recognised that to do this in the most thorough way it was essential that the Japanese people should be able to meet the foreigners on their own ground and surpass them. This system of universal excellence and efficiency has been carried out with the most absolute thoroughness, until to-day we see in Japan a country with a smaller foreign population than any other great nation, and one which has worked out its salvation by its own hands, not, however, disdaining the ripe fruits of experience in other lands. These methods of selection, which were followed by rapid and complete assimilation, until the country was furnished with an almost perfect organization in every department, have produced the present-day Japan. But this they could never have done had there not been already in existence a wonderful national civilization, which enabled Japan to adopt systems en bloc instead of obscure details. Japan has the advantage that her people can think as thoroughly as do the Orientals, and act on the result of her thoughts as decisively as do the Occidentals. To no other race in the world, as far as can be seen at the present moment, ​have both these gifts been given. And therefore it may be safely said that the future of this remarkable nation, equipped with every element of perfection, pulsating with loyalty and patriotism, and thorough in every detail, cannot fail to be brilliant. Just what it is that Japan will accomplish nobody who is not of Japanese blood can foretell. But that her emergence as a great nation, recognised by the world, marks an epoch in the world’s history there can be no doubt. Those who fear yellow peril, with Japan as the motive-power of a united Asia, only afford a proof of how little is known of the Japanese and their national feelings. If a united Asia is so dread an apparition and one to be expected so speedily, it must mean that totally diverse nations, varying in religion, race, and ideas can amalgamate into one perfect whole—an idea which the present state of Europe would seem to disprove. If it has been impossible in all these years to take even one step forwards towards the union of the European States, why should it be imagined that the whole continent of Asia, with its millions of people, with its illimitable distances and deserts, can become as one nation? There need be no fear that Asia will unite; but there is a fear that the European nations lacking the thoroughness of their new sister will find in Japan a serious rival to their arrogant claims to direct the internal affairs of other nations. Japan’s future lies along commercial and industrial lines, but the exigencies of Western civilization demand that her fleet and her army shall attain a certain superiority, in order that she shall be ranked as a nation on an equality with the Christian white races. But the ambitions of Japan are peaceful ambitions, and look to the development of markets and the employing of her everincreasing population as the true secrets of greatness. War without commerce is recognised by the Japanese to be no true means of national greatness. Battles and campaigns on land and sea may be used as the opening wedges, but it is the industry and commerce ready to follow in the wake of the war that enable the benefits to be reaped. To be ‘the England of the Orient’ has often been said to be Japan’s ambition. This seems to be always taken to mean that Japan desires naval greatness, to be able to wage wars in all quarters of the globe, and obtain great colonies. But is not that a sad commentary upon our own estimation of our country’s greatness? Is it not ​even more likely that, in seeking to be a second England, Japan wishes to emulate the industries, the commerce of our country, and not the wars, which have too often retarded the national development and impoverished our people.
Be Japan's ambitions what they may, it is undoubtedly the Japanese who will have everything to say in directing the national policy, and therefore it is of more than mere interest—it is of vital importance—that the opinions of the men at the head of the Japanese State and business enterprises should be known to the world. It is, as I have said before, most difficult for any foreigner to speak authoritatively of Japan. I may have some little knowledge and some little understanding of the Japanese people, but I certainly could not write authoritatively on Japan. I may have succeeded in acquiring a certain amount of Japanese atmosphere, and a deep sympathy may enable me to see many things and understand many things Japanese which others do not. But for that very reason, I know better than anyone else how absurd it would be for me or any European to write such a book on Japan as this. As all the world knows, there are thousands of books on Japan; it was at one time the fashion for every chance visitor to write a book. Some of these books are favourable, some are unfavourable, to Japan. Some few are excellent, the majority are inaccurate and misleading. How many people in the past, and even now, form their opinions of Japan upon Piérre Loti’s ‘Madame Chrysanthéme,’ and similar books, without pausing to consider that the writers had deliberately placed themselves beyond the possibility of seeing real Japanese life. What would be said of a Frenchman who should come to England to live, as Piérre Loti did in Japan, and then write a book, delightful and attractive in style, of his experiences? ‘Madame Chrysantheme’ and such books are extreme cases, but the fact remains that the hundreds of books which exist do little to dispel the ignorance which exists in the outside world concerning Japan. At best they are only critical works from the outside. In the absence of authoritative writings, however, they have usurped the position of authorities. This was inevitable. The Japanese were so busy making Japan a great State that they had no time to write books. Also, doubtless, the butterfly books of the chance traveller were more to the ​taste of the public. Japan was the land of artists and quaint peoples; the public at home did not want to learn that Japan was a nation like unto themselves—with improvements. But years have brought changes, and now the world can no longer ignore the serious side of Japan.
It was with a knowledge of this need, and the impossibility of any foreigner to supply it, that I conceived the idea of inducing the Japanese to do it themselves. I went to Japan for this purpose, and suggested to several of their leading men that they should undertake the production of an authoritative account of their country for the information of the outside world. The idea was taken up with enthusiasm, and at a gathering in Tokyo I was honoured by being requested to undertake the collecting, editing, and arranging of the work. I mention this because I feel that I owe the readers of this book some explanation as to why the name of a non-Japanese appears in a book, which, as its very title makes clear, is written by the Japanese. The difficulties of collecting the materials for such a book were not small, and much time had to be spent in the work. The war and the necessary preparations for the war prevented some of the contributions arriving, and changes were made necessary in others. At best the book must be considered as a trial essay, to be improved and enlarged later. Nobody can be more aware of its omissions, its faults, than myself, to whom, indeed, to a certain extent many of them are due. But, as it stands, I venture to claim that it is a unique work of great interest. To have secured the record of a country’s progress written by the men who are now guiding her destinies is no small thing, and in no other great country would it have been possible. Some of the statesmen who responded to my appeal for special contributions have selected their most important public utterances for inclusion in the book. This they have done because they felt that in these deliverances they had expressed their views on vital national questions so thoroughly that to write on them again would only entail repetition.
The confidence which has been placed by the leading men of Japan in what I have thus tried to do for their country has received its crown by the gracious permission accorded to me by His Imperial Majesty the Emperor of Japan to dedicate the book to him. Just how much Japan owes to the guiding rule ​of her most able and far-sighted monarch can never be measured in words. Some idea may be gained from the series of Imperial edicts, speeches, and proclamations with which the book begins. They are landmarks in the history of the progress of Japan since the accession of the present Emperor to the throne, which enable us to understand more clearly than before the way in which His Majesty has guided his nation to success. I can only record here my admiration for his achievements and my gratitude for his consideration. All my efforts to compile the book would have been in vain had it not been for the active and unceasing co-operation of many of my Japanese friends. Principal among these I must mention Mr. Sakatani, Baron Sannomiya, Baron Suyematsu, Baron Shibusawa, Mr. Yamazaki and Mr. Kodama of the Finance Department, and the Hon. K. Tsudzuki. My thanks can only repay in very small degree their many kindnesses, and I trust that the benefit to Japan resulting from the publication of the book in the way of spreading information may be a more adequate recompense to them and to all those who have contributed to the work. This book represents much toil, much time, and much effort cheerfully spent by all for the sake of Japan. I am proud to have been associated with this patriotic work of those whom I am happy in being able to call my friends. Believing as I do that a few years will show Japan to be one of the greatest of the great nations of the world, I am glad to have thus been able to assist towards establishing a better and fuller understanding of the country and of its people.
Alfred Stead.
London June 7, 1904.
THE MEIJI ERA
a.d. :
| 1st year Meiji | 1868 |
| 2nd year Meiji„ | 1869 |
| 3rd year Meiji„ | 1870 |
| 4th year Meiji„ | 1871 |
| 5th year Meiji„ | 1872 |
| 6th year Meiji„ | 1873 |
| 7th year Meiji„ | 1874 |
| 8th year Meiji„ | 1875 |
| 9th year Meiji„ | 1876 |
| 10th year Meiji„ | 1877 |
| 11th year Meiji„ | 1878 |
| 12th year Meiji„ | 1879 |
| 13th year Meiji„ | 1880 |
| 14th year Meiji„ | 1881 |
| 15th year Meiji„ | 1882 |
| 16th year Meiji„ | 1883 |
| 17th year Meiji„ | 1884 |
| 18th year Meiji„ | 1885 |
| 19th year Meiji„ | 1886 |
| 20th year Meiji„ | 1887 |
| 21st year Meiji„ | 1888 |
| 22nd year Meiji„ | 1889 |
| 23rd year Meiji„ | 1890 |
| 24th year Meiji„ | 1891 |
| 25th year Meiji„ | 1892 |
| 26th year Meiji„ | 1893 |
| 27th year Meiji„ | 1894 |
| 28th year Meiji„ | 1895 |
| 29th year Meiji„ | 1896 |
| 30th year Meiji„ | 1897 |
| 31st year Meiji„ | 1898 |
| 32nd year Meiji„ | 1899 |
| 33rd year Meiji„ | 1900 |
| 34th year Meiji„ | 1901 |
| 35th year Meiji„ | 1902 |
| 36th year Meiji„ | 1903 |
| 37th year Meiji„ | 1904 |
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
| The Kin or the Catty = 160 momme | = 1'32277 lb. avoirdupois. |
| The„ Picul = 100 kin or 100 catties | = 132'277 lb. avoirdupois. |
| The„ Kwan = 1,000 momme | = 8'281 lbs. avoirdupois.„ |
| The„ Shaku | = '994 foot. |
| The„ Sun | = 1'193 inches. |
| The„ Ken = 6 shaku | = 5'965 feet. |
| The„ Chō = 60 ken | = ⁠1/15⁠ mile, 5'4229 chains. |
| The„ Ri = 36 chō | = 2'44 miles. |
| The„ Ri sq. | = 5'9552 sq. miles. |
| The„ Chō, land measure | = 2'45 acres. |
| The„ Koku, liquid | = 39'7033 gallons. |
| The„ Koku,„ dry | = 4'9629 bushels. |
| The„ To, liquid | = 3'9703 gallons. |
| The„ To,„ dry | = 1'9851 pecks. |
1 metre = 3'3 shaku. 1 gramme = 0'26667 momme (⁠4/15⁠ momme).
The Yen = 100 sen = 1000 rin = 2 shillings 0'582075 pence. The„ Sen = 100 sen = 1000 rin = 0'2458208 pence. The„ Rin = 100 sen = 1000 rin = 0'0245821 pence.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER I :
| THE EMPEROR: IMPORTANT IMPERIAL EDICTS AND RESCRIPTS ||
| | page |
| The Opening of International Intercourse—The Restoration of Administrative Power to the Emperor—Imperial Oath of the Five Principles—The Constitution and Rules of the Deliberative Assembly of the Local Authorities—Administrative Reform—The Opening of the Assembly of Provincial Authorities—The Drafting of the Constitutional Law—The Establishment of a Parliament—The Reorganization of the Cabinet—National Education—Promulgation of the Constitution—The First Meeting of the Diet—The Building of Men-of-war—Official Discipline—War with China—Volunteer Troops—The Chino-Japanese War—The Restoration of Peace—The Retrocession of the Liaotong Peninsula—The Soldiers and Sailors—The Revised Treaties—The Boxer Outbreak—War with Russia | 1 |
| CHAPTER II ||
| THE IMPERIAL FAMILY ||
| BY BARON YOSHITANE SANNOMIYA ||
| The Emperor Jimmu—The Fujiwara Family— Beginning of the Shogunate Regime—Development of a Military Class—-The Taira Clan—Yoritomo the Seji Daishogun—The Feudal System Established—The Growth of the Tokugawa Shogunate—The Pacification and Unification of the Country—Early Foreign Visits—The Arrival of Commodore Perry—The Isolation of the Shogun—The Restoration—The Resignation of the Shogun—The Civil War of 1868–1869—Development since the Restoration | 19 |
| CHAPTER III ||
| THE CONSTITUTION OF THE EMPIRE ||
| BY MARQUIS HIROBUMI ITO ||
| The Emperor’s Attributes and Powers—The Succession to the Throne —Regency—The Rights and Duties of Subjects—Religious Freedom —Freedom of Speech and Writings—The Imperial Diet—The House of Peers—The House of Representatives—The Ministers of State —The Judicature—Finance and the Budget—Amendments to the Constitution | 32 ​ |
| CHAPTER IV ||
| THE GROWTH OF JAPAN ||
| BY MARQUIS HIROBUMI ITO ||
| The Adoption of Western Methods—The Two All-Important Events in Japanese History—The Influence of the Emperor—The Revised Treaties—Finance and National Resources—Population—National Progress—China and Japan | 64 |
| CHAPTER V ||
| THE DUTIES OF POLITICAL PARTIES ||
| BY MARQUIS HIROBUMI ITO ||
| Cabinet Ministers Responsible only to the Emperor—The Organization of the Constitutional Political Association—Election Campaigns—Agriculture—Retrenchment and Government Annoyances—The National Finances—-Review of the History of Finances—Necessary Steps in the Future | 72 |
| CHAPTER VI ||
| THE NATIONAL POLICY UNDER THE CONSTITUTION ||
| BY FIELD-MARSHAL MARQUIS YAMAGATA ||
| The Budget—The Extension of the Country’s Prestige—Cordons of Sovereignty—Cordons of Interest | 83 |
| CHAPTER VII ||
| THE IMPERIAL DIET ||
| BY THE MINISTER OF JUSTICE ||
| The Election Law for Members of the House of Representatives—Electoral Districts—Qualifications of Voters and Candidates—Naturalization—Imperial Ordinance concerning the House of Peers | 86 |
| CHAPTER VIII ||
| THE ORGANIZATION OF A CONSTITUTIONAL STATE ||
| BY BARON KENTARO KANEKO ||
| The Skeleton and Flesh of a State—The Muscle and Blood—The ‘Bushi’—The Effects of Military Statesmen—The Pacific Coast the Centre of International Trade—Japan’s Qualities as a Nation—The Influence of Chinese Classics—The Economic Spirit—Mr. Bryce on the Japanese Constitution—A Supply Department—Encouraging Home Industries—The Appointment of Consuls under the Department of Commerce—The Commercial Supremacy of the Pacific and of the Asiatic Continent | 93 ​ |
| CHAPTER IX ||
| THE ARMY ||
| I. The Growth of the Army ||
| BY FIELD-MARSHAL MARQUIS YAMAGATA ||
| The Early Military Organization—Quasi-Conscription and Conscription—The Army and Civil Wars—The Reconstruction of 1883—The Chino-Japanese War—The Boxer Disturbance—China’s Hope | 105 |
| II. The Army To-day ||
| BY FIELD-MARSHAL MARQUIS OYAMA ||
| The Minister of War—Peace and War Establishments—Transport—Pay and Pensions—The National Defence Office—The Staff College—The Appointment of Officers—Recruiting—Education | 109 |
| CHAPTER X ||
| THE NAVY ||
| BY REAR-ADMIRAL SAITO ||
| Early Days—The Restoration—Naval Administration—Naval Stations and Dockyards—Personnel—Executive Officers—Engineer Officers—Petty Officers and Men—The Naval Academy—Naval Expenditure—Pay | 121 |
| CHAPTER XI ||
| DIPLOMACY ||
| BY PROFESSOR NAGAO ARIGA ||
| Before the Restoration—The Question of Corea—The Question of Sakhalin—The Question of Liukiu—The Question of Treaty Revision—Date’s Mission to China and Lord Iwakura’s Mission to Europe and America—The Affair of the Maria Luz—Soyejima’s Mission to China—The Great Cabinet Rupture of 1873—The Formosan Expedition and the Treaty of Tientsin—Solution of the Question of Liukiu—Solution of the Question of Sakhalin—The Corean Affair of 1884—War Between China and Japan—System of Japanese Diplomacy | 142 |
| CHAPTER XII ||
| FOREIGN POLICY ||
| BY COUNT OKUMA ||
| Obtaining an Equal International Footing—Foreign Intercourse—The Eastern Question—Immovable and Unchangeable Foreign Policy necessary | 219 ​ |
| CHAPTER XIII ||
| EDUCATION ||
| I. The Growth of Education ||
| BY COUNT OKUMA ||
| Development of Japanese Literature—The Beginning of Western Influences—Educational Difficulties—No Independence of Study—Commercial Education | 223 |
| II. The Present System of Education ||
| BY PROFESSOR SAWAYANAGI ||
| Introduction—Primary Schools—Secondary Schools—Girls’ High Schools—Normal Schools—Higher Schools—Imperial Universities | 228 |
| III. University Education in Japan ||
| SPECIALLY PREPARED IN THE IMPERIAL UNIVERSITY, TOKYO ||
| Supply and Demand of University Graduates—The Necessity for more Universities—Primary Education—Secondary Education—The Lack of Good Teachers—Foreign Languages—Kwazokus, Shizokus, and Heimin—Middle and Higher Schools—Defects of the Present Preparatory Educational System—The Constitution of Tokyo University—Law Graduates and State Examinations—The College of Medicine—The Engineering College—The College of Literature— The College of Science—The College of Agriculture—The Number of Graduates during the Ten Years to 1900 in the Different Courses—The Time necessary to Complete an Education in Japan | 238 |
| IV. Woman’s Education ||
| BY BARON SUYEMATSU ||
| The Position of Woman in the Past and Present—Great Authoresses and Poets—Historical Female Figures—The Problem of Women’s Education—Compulsory Education for Boys and Girls—Kindergartens and Elementary Schools—The Curricula of Higher Schools for Women—The Higher Normal School for Women—The Peeress’ School—Academy of Music—The Tokyo Jiogakkwan—The Women’s University—The Occupations of Women—Institutions organized by Women—The Future Position of Women | 255 |
| CHAPTER XIV ||
| RELIGION ||
| I. Bushido—the Moral Ideas of Japan ||
| BY PROFESSOR INAZO NITOBE ||
| The Difficulties of a Survey of the Moral System of a Whole People—Tourists’ Misconceptions of Japan—Chivalry in Europe and in Japan—The Effects of the Feudal System—Why Foreign Visitors think Japan Immoral—Bushido: Fighting - Knight - Ways—Morality of Bushido based on Manhood and Manliness—Samuraiism not a Code—The Influence of Chinese Classics—Buddhism—Bushido the Totality of the Moral Instincts of the Japanese Race—The Moral Teachings of Shintoism—The Person the most Precious Legacy left by our Fathers—Stewards of our Health—Self-mastery a Primary Virtue—The Voice of Conscience the only Criterion of Right and Wrong—Sich schämen—Rectitude—Benevolence—Love for Emperor and Country—Parental and Filial Love—Filial Piety the First of the Virtues—The Samurai Attitude towards Women—Stoicism—Politeness and Propriety of Conduct—Veracity—The Mercantile Calling and the Samurai—The Ethics of Harakiri—A Survey of the Religions of the World—Bushido the one Foundation of Patriotism and Loyalty—Necessity for Loyalty to the Best that has been Inherited—Yamato-Damashii, the Soul of Japan | 262 ​ |
| II. Ancestor-Worship ||
| BY PROFESSOR NOBUSHIGE HOZUMI ||
| Ancestor-Worship in Europe and America—Ancestor-Worship in Japan—The Origin of Ancestor-Worship—Love of Ancestors, not Dread, the Cause of Worship —The Sacred Places in every Japanese House—The Worship of Imperial Ancestors—The Eleven Great Festival Days—The Worship of Clan Ancestors—The Worship of Family Ancestors—The Shinto and the Buddhist Ceremonies—The Worship of Imperial Ancestors the National Worship—The House—Marriage—Divorce—Adoption—Succession | 281 |
| CHAPTER XV ||
| FINANCE ||
| I. History of Financial Development ||
| BY COUNT INOUYE ||
| Looking Back to the Beginning of the Present Era—The State of Affairs at the Restoration—The anti-Foreign Feeling—The Unsatisfactory Financial Condition—Disinclination of the Government for Economy—The Redemption of State and other Paper Money—The Popular Clamour for a Constitution—The Revision of the Foreign Treaties—The War with China and its Results—A Parallel with the Franco-Prussian War—Japan necessary for the Maintenance of the Balance in the Far East—Foreign Capital absolutely necessary—A Scheme for its Introduction—The Financial Condition not Unsound | 309 |
| II. Financial and Economic Problems ||
| BY COUNT INOUYE ||
| The Need for Systematic Development—Railways and Spinning Industry—A Scheme needed to Make the National Industries Self-supporting—The Outflow of Gold—Attention to the Chinese Markets, a Lesson from Great Britain—The Revision of Foreign Treaties and the Introduction of Foreign Capital—The Adoption of a more Liberal Policy essential | 312 ​ |
| III. Financial Administration ||
| BY COUNT MATSUKATA MASAYOSHI ||
| The Effects of the War of 1894–95—The post-bellum Programme—Increased Taxation to meet the Increased Expenditure—The Adoption of the Gold Standard—The Sudden Uprising of Industrial Enterprises—Financial Difficulties resulting from the War—The Crisis of 1899—Further Increase in Taxation necessary—Public Loans floated at Home and Abroad—The Budget of 1900–1901 placed on a Sound Footing—The Boxer Outbreak—The Fall of the Ito Cabinet in 1901—The Burden of Taxation—The Economic Distress of 1901—The Establishment of Gold Monometallism—The Coinage System in Vogue at the Restoration—The Coinage Law of 1871—The Rebellion of 1877—The Redemption of the Paper Money and the Increase of the Specie Reserve—Japan a de facto Silver Standard Country—The Depreciation of Silver—The Difficulties in the Way of the Adoption of a Gold Standard—The Disposal of the Surplus Silver Coins—The Accomplishment of the Change from the Silver to the Gold Standard | 316 |
| IV. Financial Policy ||
| BY MR. SAKATANI ||
| The Organization of the Finance Department—The Procedure with regard to the Budget—Ordinary and Extraordinary Expenditure—The Diet compared to a Shareholders’ Meeting—The Financial Difficulties in the Diet in 1902—Brief Survey of the Financial Policy in the Past—The Encouragement of Thrift—The Condition of the Money Market—Financial and Administrative Organization—The Special Commission of 1902—Possible Future Sources of Revenue—The Third Naval Expansion Scheme and its Necessity—The Necessity for the Maintenance of Sea Power | 331 |
| V. The Financial System ||
| PREPARED BY THE MINISTRY OF FINANCE ||
| The Revolution of 1868—Early Financial Embarrassments—The Results of the Feudal System—The Impulse for Unification—The Surrender of the Feudal Lands—The Reform of the Land Tax in 1881—The Early Revenue and the Growth of Taxation—The Increase in National Expenditure after the War of 1894–95—The Development of the System of Taxation—The Growth of the Finance Department | 342 |
| VI. Taxation ||
| PREPARED BY THE MINISTRY OF FINANCE ||
| The Land Tax—The Business Tax—The Income Tax—The Saké Tax—The Soy Tax—The Sugar Excise—The Tax on Bourses—The Mining Tax—Tonnage Dues—The Tax on Patent Medicines— Customs Duties—Stamp Receipts—The per capita Charges of Taxes and Debts | 349 ​ |
| VII. The Nattional Debts ||
| PREPARED BY THE MINISTRY OF FINANCE ||
| The First Public Loans at the Restoration—Public Loans for the Prosecution of Public Works—Public Loans for Military Expansion—Public Loans for the Adjustment of Financial Administration—The Amount of Public Loans Redeemed and Outstanding | 355 |
| CHAPTER XVI ||
| BANKING ||
| I. The Growth of the Banking System in Japan ||
| PREPARED BY THE MINISTRY OF FINANCE ||
| The National Bank Regulations in 1872—The Change of National Banks into Private Banks—The Use of Cheques and Credit Notes—The Yokohama Specie Bank—The Bank of Japan—Local Industrial Banks—The Bank of Formosa—The Number of Banks—Banks under Government Patronage—The Powers and Duties of the Bank of Japan—Various Banks and their Scope—Bankers’ Associations and Clearing-houses—Ordinary Banks and Savings Banks | 361 |
| II. The Banking System ||
| BY MR. YAMAMOTO, EX-GOVERNOR OF THE BANK OF JAPAN ||
| The Solid Good Sense of the People—The Growth of Luxury—The Encouragement of Economy—The Value of the Depression of 1900–1901—The Necessity for proper Economic Training—The Unbounded National Resources—Competition with Foreign Countries on an Equal Footing | 379 |
| III. The Financial Crisis of 1900–1901 ||
| BY TADAMASA HAYASHI ||
| Financial Stringency an Attack of Sickness—The Inevitable Depression consequent upon Rapid Expansion—Judging a Nation’s Wealth on a Wrong Basis—Foreign Trade not the only Criterion of National Wealth—The Foreign Trade and the Remarkable Development of Ten Years—The National Debt Lower per capita than that of any other Nation—The Lessons of the Crisis | 381 ​ |
| CHAPTER XVII ||
| COMMERCE AND INDUSTRIES ||
| I. General Survey of the Industrial Situation ||
| BY BARON EIICHI SHIBUSAWA ||
| The Real Force of Progress in Business, not in Politics—The Necessity for Co-operation—Four Peculiarities of Japanese Character—Many Points of Incompleteness in Japan’s Development—The Necessity for Foreign Capital—A System of Trusteeship for the Foreign Investor—Competition in American and European Markets—The Trade of the Oriental Countries Japan’s Natural Share—The Resources of Japan—The Fatal Results of too much Militarism—Necessary Measures to insure Future Progress | 386 |
| II. General Survey of the Industrial and Financial System ||
| BY BARON EIICHI SHIBUSAWA ||
| Revenue and Expenditure—The Public Debt—Money in Circulation—Cheques—Rate of Interest—Prices of Commodities—Wages—The Corporation System—Banks—Railways—Navigation—Foreign Trade—The Tea Industry—Rice and Grain—The Weaving Industry—Cotton-spinning Industry—Raw Silk—Mining Industry | 391 |
| III. Financial and Economic Questions of the Day ||
| BY MR. SOYEDA ||
| Tariff and Foreign Trade—The Stock and Rice Exchanges—The Chambers of Commerce—Public and Private Thrift—The Consolidation of Local Debts—The Shortening of the Period of Military Service—The Importation of Capital—Population and Colonization | 408 |
| CHAPTER XVIII ||
| IMPORTANT INDUSTRIES ||
| I. Agriculture ||
| PREPARED BY THE MINISTRY OF COMMERCE AND AGRICULTURE ||
| Agriculture the Chief Industry—The Tendency of the Rural Populations to Drift to the Towns—The Sugar Industry—The Cotton-Growers—Experimental Farming—Fruit | 413 |
| II. Sericulture ||
| PREPARED BY THE MINISTRY OF COMMERCE AND AGRICULTURE ||
| Sericulture as Old as Japan—The Introduction of the Chinese Silkworm—Imperial Encouragement and Early Difficulties—The Export of Silkworm Eggs—The Teachings of Prince Shotoku as to the Rearing of the Silkworm—The Effect of the World’s Fair at Vienna in 1872—The Development of the Industry mostly as a By-Industry of the Farmer—The Growth of the Export Trade | 415 ​ |
| III. Rice ||
| PREPARED BY THE MINISTRY OF COMMERCE AND AGRICULTURE ||
| The Rice Harvest and its Effect upon the National Economy—The Production of Rice and the National Consumption—Import and Export of Rice—Action by the Government to Increase the Supply of Rice | 418 |
| IV. Tea ||
| BY MR. KABI OTANI ||
| Tea Industry introduced from China 2,000 Years ago—The Beginning of Export Trade—The Trade with America and Adulteration— Government Action among the Tea-Growers—Establishment of a Central Organization—Tea-Inspection Offices—Tea the Foundation of American-Japanese Trade—The Method of Manufacture and of Export | 421 |
| V. Forestry ||
| PREPARED BY THE MINISTRY OF COMMERCE AND AGRICULTURE ||
| The Forests under Direct Protection of the Imperial Government—Protection Forests and Utilization Forests—Encouragement of Planting in the Past and the Present—Diverse Climatic Conditions—Varieties of Trees | 425 |
| VI. Marine Products ||
| PREPARED BY THE MINISTRY OF COMMERCE AND AGRICULTURE ||
| Fish the most Important Article of Food—Development of the Industry, Coasting and Deep-Sea Work—The Effect of the Currents—The Boats in Use—The Fishing Gear—The Money-lenders—Fish Culture | 428 |
| VII. The Leaf Tobacco Monopoly ||
| PREPARED BY MR. NUO ||
| Tobacco Taxation in 1876—The Tobacco Monopoly in 1896—The Duties of the Cultivator—The Functions of the Government—The Organization of the Monopoly Offices | 431 |
| VIII. The Government Steel Works ||
| BY THE DIRECTOR-GENERAL OF THE STEEL WORKS ||
| The Importance of the Industry—The First Proposals—The Appointment of a Committee of Inquiry—The Beginning of the Works—An Additional Appropriation necessary—Situation and Extent of the Works—The Products of the Works—Favourable Prospects—The Steel Foundry at Kure | 434 ​ |
| IX. The Petroleum Industry ||
| The Development of the Industry—The Standard Oil Company—The Nature of the Japanese Oil—Oil Refineries | 439 |
| CHAPTER XIX ||
| FOREIGN TRADE ||
| BY MR. YAMAZAKI ||
| Japanese Trade compared with that of China—Principal Items of Import—Principal Exports—The External Commercial Relations | 441 |
| CHAPTER XX ||
| MINING ||
| I. General Survey ||
| PREPARED BY THE MINISTRY OF COMMERCE AND AGRICULTURE ||
| The Geological Formation of the Islands—Mining in the Early Days— Introduction of Explosives by Foreigners—The Taking Over of the Mines by the Imperial Government—Establishment of a Mining School—The Minerals recognised by Law—The Position of Foreigners—The Regulations Governing Concessions and Mining —Copper-mines—Coal-mines—The Mining Law—The Mineral Output | 444 |
| II. The Mining Industry and the Ashio Copper-mine ||
| SPECIALLY PREPARED UNDER MR. FURUKAWA’S SUPERVISION ||
| Japan the Third Copper-producing Country—Mr. Furukawa and the Mining Industry—Mr. Furukawa on Mining—The Ashio Coppermine—Early History—Development since the Restoration—Present Condition—Methods of Working—Electricity and Water Power—The Employés | 450 |
| CHAPTER XXI ||
| LABOUR ||
| I. Labour Organizations ||
| BY MR. KATAYAMA ||
| The Labouring Classes under the Feudal System—The Labour Question after the War with China—The Principal Incidents in the Progress of Labour Organization—The ‘Labour World’—The Police Regulations—Labour Agitation—The Labour Problem to be Solved by Political Movements—Socialism and Political Support | 456 ​ |
| II. The Labour Market ||
| PREPARED BY THE MINISTRY OF COMMERCE AND AGRICULTURE ||
| The Revolution of Industrial Conditions—The Numbers of Companies and of Workpeople—Day Workers—Boarding Workers—The Employment of Children—Working Hours—Wages—The Control and Supervision of Industry—Guilds—Technical Education—Apprentice System—The Mine Workers | 462 |
| III. Factory Legislation ||
| BY MR. K. SOYEDA ||
| The Condition of Labourers—The Necessity for Factory Laws—Principal Points of such Laws | 466 |
| CHAPTER XXII ||
| THE MERCHANT MARINE ||
| I. Its Growth and Present Condition ||
| BY MR. RENPEI KONDO ||
| The Early History of Navigation—The Mitsu Bishi Mail Steamship Company—The Nippon Yusen Kaisha—The Effect of the Chinese War—Japan Tenth among the Maritime Nations in 1898—The Japanese Share in the Carrying Trade of the Country—Seamen as well as Ships—Shipbuilding—The Future of Maritime Enterprise—Exports and Imports—Wages and Prices of Commodities—The Necessity for Foreign Capital | 469 |
| II. Shipbuilding ||
| BY BARON IWASAKI ||
| Early Japanese Vessels—Shipbuilding checked by the Policy of Isolation—The Coming of Commodore Perry and its Consequences—The Necessity for a Navy—The Wreck of the Russian Man-of-war Diana—The Coming of Dutch Naval Instructors—The Foundation of a Dockyard at Nagasaki by the Dutch Experts—The Subsequent Acquisition of this Yard by the Mitsu Bishi Firm—Foundation of Yokosuka Dockyard by French Experts—Review of Shipbuilding Progress since the Restoration—The Shipbuilding Encouragement Law—The Present Condition of shipbuilding | 475 |
| III. Nautical Education ||
| BY THE PRINCIPAL OF THE SHOSEN GAKKO (GOVERNMENT NAUTICAL COLLEGE), TOKYO ||
| The Need for Competent Officers—The Founding of the Nautical College—The Curriculum—Departments of Navigation and of Engineering—Training-ships—Schools for Training Seamen | 481 ​ |
| CHAPTER XXIII ||
| RAILWAYS ||
| BY MR. K. INUZUKA ||
| The First Railway—The Progress of Railway Construction—Government and Private Lines—The Cost of the Railways—The Receipts from Passenger and Goods Traffic—Working Expenses—Distribution of Railways in the Different Islands—The Present Condition | 485 |
| CHAPTER XXIV ||
| THE LEGAL SYSTEM ||
| BY THE MINISTER OF JUSTICE ||
| The Changes since the Feudal System—The Earliest Records—Clan Government—The Centralization of Administration and Adoption of Chinese Ideas—The Board of Ecclesiastical Rites placed on a Level with the Government—Changes leading to the Decline of the Influence of the Central Government—The Bakufu Legal System—‘The People should obey the Law, but should not know the Law’—The Tokugawa Dynasty’s One Hundred Articles—The Restrictions on Foreign Intercourse—The System of Social Policy—The Introduction of Occidental Systems—The Institution of the Senate and Court of Cassation—The Promulgation of the Constitution—The Civil Code—The Commercial Code—The Penal Code—Foreign Influences in the Present Legal System | 496 |
| CHAPTER XXV ||
| POLICE AND PRISONS ||
| I. Police ||
| BY BARON SUYEMATSU ||
| The Police System Part of the State Organization—The General Expenditure, and how it is Met—The Duties of the Police Force—Judicial Police—Policemen are ‘Government Officials,’ not Servants—The Earlier High Standard of the Police Force and its Decline —The Police and Prison College | 505 |
| II. Prisons ||
| PREPARED BY THE MINISTRY OF JUSTICE ||
| The Supervision of Prison Administration—The Organization of the Prison System—Governors and Officials—Financial Arrangements—The Training of Officials—The Population of Prisons—Pardons and Paroles—Capital Punishment—Medals and Rewards granted to Prisoners—Disciplinary Punishments—Recent Reforms—Prison Labour—Prison Statistics | 509 ​ |
| CHAPTER XXVI ||
| ART AND LITERATURE ||
| BY BARON SUYEMATSU ||
| I. Art ||
| The Nara Period—Religious Art—The Heian Period—Pairings of Pictures—The Kamakura Period—The Ashikaga Period—The Oda-Toyotomi Period and the Revival of Art—The Tokugawa Period—Hokusai and Korin—The Meiji Era—The Destruction of everything Old—Slow Return to Ancient Excellence—The Effect of the Foreigner—The Characteristics of Japanese Pictures—The Prices of Pictures—The Art of Gardening | 520 |
| II. Literature ||
| Little Literature from Nara Period—Literary Culture greatly Developed in Heian Period—Light Literature principally Written by Women—Genji Monogatari and Makura-no-Soshi—The Question of Morals—The Literary Decadence during the Military Period—The Revival under the Tokugawa Period—The ‘No’—Chinese Influences—Bakin’s Works and School—Popular Drama—A Comparison between Japanese and Western Drama—The Effect of the Popular Drama upon the People—Shakespeare’s Shortcomings—The Present Condition of Literature | 537 |
| CHAPTER XXVII ||
| THE PRESS ||
| BY MR. ZUMOTO ||
| The Public Press as a Gauge of Progress—The Press a Great Power—The Origin of Newspapers in Japan—The Yomiuri Sheets—The Early Newspapers—The Art of Printing—Government Gazettes—The Chugai Shimbun—The Starting of a Newspaper by an Englishman named Black—Tokyo like Paris—Yellow Journalism—News Agencies—The Press as a Step to Political Power—The Future of the Press | 550 |
| CHAPTER XXVIII ||
| POSTS, TELEGRAPHS, AND TELEPHONES ||
| BY THE DIRECTOR-GENERAL OF THE BUREAU OF POSTS AND TELEGRAPHS ||
| I. The Postal Service ||
| Inauguration—Stamps—Postcards—Uniformity in Postal Charges—The Postal Union—Post Offices and Postal Agencies—Parcel Post—Postal Orders—Postal Savings Banks | 558 ​ |
| II. Telegraphs ||
| First Establishment—The Spread of the System—Internal and Foreign Telegrams—The International Telegraph Convention | 566 |
| III. Telephones ||
| Government or Private Enterprise?—The Success of the Government System—Methods of Working—Instruments | 570 |
| CHAPTER XXIX ||
| THE PROBLEM OF THE FAR EAST ||
| BY BARON SUYEMATSU ||
| The Anglo-Japanese Relations the Keynote—Earliest Contact between the two Powers—Russian Aggression—The Tsushima Affair—The Port Lazareff-Port Hamilton Affair—The Boxer Outbreak—The Manchurian Question—English and Japanese Interests Identical—Japan and Western Civilization—Differences of Race and Religion—Religious Freedom—No Fear of Yellow Peril from Japan—China not a Warlike or Expanding Nation—England, America, and Japan—Japan’s Defeat, England’s Defeat | 573 |
| CHAPTER XXX ||
| FORMOSA ||
| I. Early Administration ||
| BY COUNT KATSURA ||
| The Development of the Administrative Organization—The Enlargement of the Police Force—General Sanitation and the Opium Question—The Improvement of Shipping Facilities—Railway Construction, Road-making, and Harbour Works | 581 |
| III. The Present Condition ||
| BY DR. SHIMPEI GOTO ||
| The Work of the Home Government—The Necessary Expenditure to Cover the Cost of Colonization—Railway Construction—Harbour Works—Lighthouses—Official Buildings—Education—Government Monopolies in Opium, Salt, and Camphor—Agricultural and Mineral Resources—Banking and Finances | 585 |
| III. Local Government ||
| PREPARED BY THE MINISTRY OF JUSTICE ||
| Constitution of the Empire of Japan—Laws Specially Decreed to Apply to Formosa—Administrative System—Imperial Ordinances and Laws having Effect in Formosa by their Nature—Taxation—Courts and Judicial Administration | 598 ​ |
| CHAPTER XXXI ||
| THE POSITION OF WOMEN ||
| BY PROFESSOR NARUSE ||
| Woman’s Part in Old Japan—The Springtime of Japanese Womanhood—The Effect of Buddhism—The Feudal Period—The Introduction of Western Ideas—The Woman’s University and Woman’s Education—School-life Training for Home-life—The Lines of Woman’s Education and the Future of Women | 603 |
APPENDICES :
| A.—THE IMPERIAL HOUSEHOLD AND THE IMPERIAL HOUSE LAW | 610 |
| B.—THE CONSTITUTION OF THE EMPIRE OF JAPAN | 616 |
| C.—ORDINANCES RELATING TO THE IMPERIAL DIET | 622 |
| D.—TABLES SHOWING PAY AND WAGES IN THE JAPANESE NAVY | 634 |
| E.—CHAIRS OF PROFESSORSHIP IN THE UNIVERSITY | 636 |
| F.—FINANCE BILL | 637 |
| G.—THE PROTECTION OF INDUSTRIAL PROPERTY | 644 |
| H.—PRINCIPAL ARTICLES OF EXPORT AND IMPORT FOR THE YEARS 1890–1902 | 646 |
| I.—SUBSIDIES AND BOUNTIES IN AID OF NAVIGATION | 650 |
| J.—THE SHIPBUILDING ENCOURAGEMENT LAW | 655 |
| K.—THE ORGANIZATION OF THE REVENUE ADMINISTRATION BUREAU | 657 |
| L.—TABLES RELATING TO THE LEGAL SYSTEM | 658 |
| M.—THE NUMBER OF PERSONS PUNISHED ANNUALLY BY DISCIPLINE | 660 |
| N.—FORMOSAN STATISTICS | 664 |
This work is in the public domain in the United States because it was published before January 1, 1930.
The longest-living author of this work died in 1933, so this work is in the public domain in countries and areas where the copyright term is the author's life plus 91 years or less. This work may be in the public domain in countries and areas with longer native copyright terms that apply the rule of the shorter term to foreign works.
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