# Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society/Volume 86/The Early History of Singapore, Johore and Malacca
## The Early History of Singapore, Johore & Malacca;The Early History of Singapore, Johore & Malacca;

an outline of a paper by G. P. Rouffaer.
By R. O. Winstedt, D. LITT, (OXON.)
In the Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indie (Deel 77), 1921, G. P. Rouffaer, who first identifed tanah Mĕlayu as the basin of the Jambi, has published a startling paper on the geography of the Malaya Peninsula. It is probable that his surmises as to the situation of Langkasuka and several other theories will not be accepted, but his paper should be in the hands of every serious student of Peninsular history.
Rouffaer brushes aside G. Ferrand's recent theory (Journal Asiatique, 1918) that Malacca existed, as the unreliable Gaspar Correa wrote, for 100 years before the coming of the Portuguese, under the name Malayu, Marco Polo's Malayur. Malayur is only a Tamil form of Malayu, the original home of the Malays in Jambi. Would Fra Odorigo van Pordenone and Ibn Batutah have been silent over the existence of such an early Malacca? Would the Nagarakretagama (1365 A.D.), recording the conquests of Hayam Wurok, the famous ruler of Majapahit, have then referred to the Peninsula simply as Pahang?
On the other hand it is hardly likely that in 1403 Malacca "belonged to Siam," as the Ming annals say; from 1405-1413 was a Hindu state under Permaisura and becoming Muslim under Gujerati influence in 1414 suddenly won trade and empire. The Pararaton mentions two Malay princesses captured at the fall of Jambi and one Tuhan Wurujo (= Bongsu), a dewa-putěra (i.e. son of a Ksatriya dewa) of Pamelekahan or Malacca lands," a captive in Majapahit in 1328 A.D. Again Gerini tells how Siamese laws enacted in 1360 A.D. cite as tributary to Siam "Ujong Tanah, Malaka, Malayu, Worawari (Researches, 1909, pp. 531-2). Probably Barros (1553 A.D.) and the Sĕjarah Mĕlayu are right in saying that Malacca existed as early as the middle of the XIIIth century A.D. and became a commercial centre about 1400 A.D. owing to immigration of Malays from Singapore or Tumasik, the "sea-country."
Barros (1558), the most reliable of Portuguese chroniclers, relates how one Sangesinga (? Sangyang Singha) ruler of Singapore was murdered by his guest Permaisura, who was a fugitive from East Jara owing to disturbances on the death of Pararisa. (= O. J. Bra Wicesa, who ascended the throne of Majapahit in ​1389 A.D. and ruled some 10 years). The king of Siam attacked the usurper who fled to Pago on the Muar. His whilom followers, the Cellates (= Orang Laut) opened Bertam near Malacca.
D'Albuquerque (1557) relates how, when Malacca was founded, a Bhatara ruled Tumapel in Java and the Permaisura fled to Singapore, murdered its chief and ruled it for five years, until the ruler of Patani, brother of the murdered chief, drove him to Muar, whence he went to Bintao (Bertam) and founded Malacca. The reference to Tumapel is valuable.
The Sĕjarah Melayu (Chapters 5 and 10) give the Malay tradition of Singapore's relationship with Java. The end of chapter 10 refers to its destruction by Hayam Wuruk after 1338 A.D. when according to the Pararaton Gajadmada took his famous oath not to eat palapu until 10 countries including Palembang Pahang and Tumasik had been subjected to Majapahit and before 1365 A.D. when the Nagarakretagama tells how all the islands and states in the east and west of the Malay Archipelago had been subdued. The lettering on the fragment of the Singapore monolith, now in Raffles' Museum, is said by Dr. Krom to resemble Majapahit characters and to antedate somewhat 1360 A.D. Dr. Krom is studying a cast of the fragment.
How old is Singapore? I'Tsing mentions in 690 A.D. a state "Mo-ho-hsin" at the south of the Peninsula = Mahasin "the great Salt state," which Rouffaer identifies with a Malay land "Hasin" recorded in a Majapahit inscription of 1034 A.D. to have been conquered by Erlangga, a prince in East Java (born 991 A.D.—reigned 1019-1042 A.D.). Probably it is Ibu Khordadybeh's "Sehalahit" (Sĕlat). According to Rouffaer it was Tasik = Temasik (of the 14th century) = old Samudra = Singapura (of the 15th cent.), while on the mainland was Wura-wari (old Jav. = "clear water") from the 10th to 11th centuries = Ganggayu i.e. Gangga ayu (0. J. = "fresh water") before 1450 but still known at the time of the Sĕjarah Melayu (1612 A.D.) = Johor of the XVIth century. An inscription of 1006 A.D. in Sanskrit and old Javanese, in the Calcutta Museum, tells how Wurawari had brought disaster to Java, and the Siamese laws of 1360 A.D. count it among places subject to Siam. In the Tanjore inscription of Rajendracola I (1030 A.D.), Kadaram = Kedah, Srivijayam = Palembang, Malayur = Jambi, and Rouffaer suggests Mayirudingam Great Yirudingam = Chao Ju Kua's Great Ji-lo-t'ing = Mahasin Singapore; Ilangacogam = Langkasuka = Ganggayu = Wurawari; Ma-Ppappalam = ? Pahang or Penang, and Mevilimbangam "the walled" may be the Dindings or Klang. Langkasuka = Chao Ju Kua's Ling-ya-ssi-kia (1225 A.D.) = the Negarakretagama's Langkasuka (1365) = I-Tsing's Lang-ka-su (692) = Langgasu or Langga of the Chinese annals of the Liang dynasty (502-556) = ? the Lanka of the Ramayana. The Calcutta inscription speaks of Luaram (=lwah O. J. "river, water" and ram Skt. =rama "sweet, charming") as its capital.
​An inscription of 924 A.D. of prince Sri Wijayaloka of East Java speaks of Ujong Galoh = Ujong Putri = Jong Galoh or the Hujung Galoh of Erlangga's inscription. Galoh 'jewel' = jauhar (Arabic) Johore, and the name fits the honorific Ratna-parayana of the old Javanese Ramayana and the "Golden Chersonese " of Ptolemy, whose Sabana will correspond with the XVIth century Straits of Sabang and be the Karimuns, Hasin or Galoh. Was it from the Biduanda Kallang of Kallang river that the mysterious Kalangs, prisoners of war mentioned in old Javanese romance, came? Among the Solo regalia (upachara) are a Snake (Ardawalike) and a Roc (Garuda); among the Jokja regalia only the Snake. These must be symbols of the victory of Erlangga's as Vishnus's Garuda over the 'Snake' princes of Wurawari, Hasin, Langka, just as of the other regalia an Elephant symbolizes Patih Gajahmada, a Cock Hayam Wuruk and a Buffalo-Calf Java's victory over Menangke(r)bau and so on. To this day a Garuda is the symbol of Hindu Bali (first conquered by Java in Erlangga's time), while the Muslim mosques and art of Java took a Snake as the symbol of Islam's victory over Hinduism.
Apparently about 1135 A.D. Daha brought Galoh nearly to ruin. A Panji tale (Bij. Kon. Inst. 2, VII, 1863) speaks of a Klana Tunjong-Seta, prince of the island Kenchana, (= "gold" and ? the Golden Chersonese "), who desiring to win a Daha princess, Dewi Angreni, (or Raden Galoh), attacked Java and failed, slain by Pangeran Klana Jayang Sari, alias Raden Panji Kuda Wanengpati, a prince of Jenggala in the service of the ruler of Kediri. The people of Kenchana and three princes were carried captive to Java. Perhaps the Sĕjarah Melayu (chapters 14 and 19) show that Middle Java and Ujong Tanah once came to grips and that Malacca, or really Galoh, had to do with Daha in the Panji period.
Though the early Portuguese knew nothing of Galoh, Ganggayu or Langka, the Sĕjarah Melayu (chapter 1) connects Ganggayu with Johore and interprets the word to mean "a treasure-house of jewels," which fits both galoh and jauhar.
Between 125 when Kertanagara of Tumapel sent his ill-fated expedition against Palembang and Marco Polo's visit in 1292, apparently Kertanagara had destroyed Mahasin i.e. old Singapore (Sĕjarah Melayu. chapter 5). But Marco Polo mentions "Pentam" or Bintan, whither perhaps one band of fugitives had fled, and the Sĕjarah Melayu records how the founders of the new town Tumasik came from Bintan. The Javanese name, Tumasik, may have been given by men of Tumapel, who, after Majapahit triumphed over their country in 1293 owing to the absence of Tumapel's forces in Palembang, stayed in Sumatra and the Malay islands. Probably Kertanagara's attack on Hasin drove sea Malays (wong usin) not only to Bintan but to Muar and Malacca lands," opposite which were the Five Islands" that in early Chinese charts take the place of Malacca. Majapahit's attack about 1360 ​A.D. must have sent yet a further band in the same direction. From 1328 down to the death of Hayam Wuruk, the great Majapahit conqueror, in 1389, the Malacca Straits would be under Javanese influeuce and only later under the Siamese suzerainty of which Chinese annals and Siamese laws speak.
Such in briefest outline is Rouffaer's paper, which fills 174 pages and is to be continued further.
Though it has no direct bearing on this paper, it is interesting to note that Raffles Museum has not only a neolithic celt from Singapore but also several from Kota Tinggi in Johore: all made from local stone.