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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Neumann, Franz Ernst

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​NEUMANN, FRANZ ERNST (1798–1895), German mineralogist, physicist and mathematician, was born at Joachimstal on the 11th of September 1798. In 1815 he interrupted his studies at Berlin to serve as a volunteer in the campaign against Napoleon, and was wounded in the Battle of Ligny. Subsequently he entered Berlin University as a student of theology, but soon turned to scientific subjects. His earlier papers were mostly concerned with crystallography, and the reputation they gained him led to his appointment as Privatdozent at Königsberg, where in 1828 he became extraordinary, and in 1829 ordinary, professor of mineralogy and physics. In 1831, from a study of the specific heats of compounds, he formulated “Neumann’s law,” which expressed in modern language runs: “The molecular heat of a compound is equal to the sum of the atomic heats of its constituents.” Devoting himself next to optics, he produced memoirs which entitle him to a high place among the early searchers after a true dynamical theory of light. In 1832, by the aid of a particular hypothesis as to the constitution of the ether, he reached by a rigorous dynamical calculation results agreeing with those obtained by A. L. Cauchy, and succeeded in deducing laws of double refraction closely resembling those of A. J. Fresnel; and in subsequent years he attacked the problem of giving mathematical expression to the conditions holding for a surface separating two crystalline media, and worked out from theory the laws of double refraction in strained crystalline bodies. He also made important contributions to the mathematical theory of electrodynamics, and in papers published in 1845 and 1847 established mathematically the laws of the induction of electric currents. His last publication, which appeared in 1878, was on spherical harmonics (Beiträge zur Theorie der Kugelfunctionen). He took part in founding the Mathematisch-Physikalisches Seminar, to give students a practical acquaintance with the methods of original research. He retired from his professorship in 1876, and died at Königsberg on the 23rd of May 1895. His son, Carl Gottfried Neumann (b. 1832), became in 1858 Privatdozent, and in 1863 extraordinary professor of mathematics at Halle. He was then appointed to the ordinary chair of mathematics successively at Basel (1863), Tübingen (1865) and Leipzig (1868).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Neumann, Karl Friedrich

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NEUMANN, KARL FRIEDRICH (1793–1870), German orientalist, was born, under the name of Bamberger, at Reichsmannsdorf, near Bamberg, on the 28th of December 1793. He studied philosophy and philology at Heidelberg, Munich and Göttingen, became a convert to Protestantism and took the name of Neumann. From 1822 to 1825 he was a teacher at Spires; then he learned Armenian in Venice and visited Paris and London. In 1829 he went to China, where he studied the language and amassed a large library of valuable books and manuscripts. These, about 12,000 in number, he presented to the royal library at Munich. Returning to Germany in 1831 Neumann was made professor of Armenian and Chinese in the university of Munich. He held this position until 1852, when, owing to his pronounced revolutionary opinions, he was removed from his chair. Ten years later he settled in Berlin, where he died on the 17th of March 1870.
Neumann's leisure time after his enforced retirement was occupied in historical studies, and besides his Geschichte des englischen Reichs in Asien (Leipzig, 1851), he wrote a history of the United States of America, Geschichte der Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika (Berlin, 1863–1866). His other works include: Versuch einer Geschichte der armenischen Literatur (Leipzig, 1836); Die Völker des südlichen Russland (1846, and again 1855); and Geschichte des englisch-chinesischen Kriegs (1846, and again 1855). He also issued some translations from Chinese and Armenian: Catechism of the Shamans (1831); Vahram's Chronicle of the Armenian Kingdom in Cilicia (1831) and History of the Pirates in the China Sea (1831). The journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (London, 1871) contains a full list of his works.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Neumünster

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​NEUMÜNSTER, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein, lies on both banks of the small river Schwale, in the basin of the Stör, 40 m. N. of Altona-Hamburg by rail, and at the junction of lines to Kiel, Vamdrup (Denmark) and Tönning. Pop. (1905) 31,347. It has an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church and several schools. It is, after Altona, the most important industrial town in the province, and contains extensive cloth-factories, besides manufactories of leather, cotton, wadding, carpets, paper, machinery, beer and sweetmeats. Its trade is also brisk. The name, which was originally Wipendorp, is derived from an Augustine monastery, founded in 1130 by Vicelin, the apostle of Holstein, and is mentioned as “novum monasterium” in a document of 1136. Its industrial importance began in the 17th century, when the cloth-workers of Segeberg, a town to the south-east, migrated to it. It became a town in 1870.
See Kirmis, Geschichte der Stadt Neumünster (1900); and Dittmann, Aus dem alten Neumünster (1879).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Neuquen

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​NEUQUEN, an inland territory of Argentina on the Chilean frontier, between the Colorado and Limay rivers, with the province of Mendoza on the N. and the territory of Rio Negro on the E. and S. Area, 42,345 sq. m. Pop. (1895) 14,517; (1904, estimate) 18,022. The greater part of the territory is mountainous, with fertile, well-watered valleys and valuable forests. The eastern part, however, contains large barren plains, showing some stunted vegetation, and having numerous saline deposits. Long droughts prevail in this region and there is no inducement for settlement, the nomadic Indians visiting it only on their hunting expeditions. Guanacos and Argentine hares are found in abundance in Neuquen, and to a lesser degree the South American ostrich. The Neuquen, which unites with the Limay near the 68th meridian to form the Rio Negro, is the principal river of the territory. The largest of a group of beautiful lakes in the higher Andean valleys is the celebrated Nahuel-Huapi (Lion Grass), which is nearly 50 m. long from E. to W. and about 20 m. from N. to S. at its widest part, and which lies partly in the S.W. angle of the territory, partly in Rio Negro, and partly in the republic of Chile. It is the source of the Rio ​Limay and receives the overflow from two smaller neighbouring lakes. The temperature of the Andean region is cold even in summer, but on the lower plains it is hot in summer, and only moderately cold in winter. The principal industry is the raising of stock for the Chilean markets, as there is little cultivation. Cereals, forage crops, vegetables and fruits of the cold temperate zone can be produced easily, but distance from markets and lack of transport have restricted their production to local needs. The territory is reached by a light-draft river steamer which ascends the Rio Negro to Fort Roca at the confluence of the Limay and Neuquen, and by a branch of the Great Southern railway from Bahia Blanca to the same point. The population is concentrated in a few small towns on the rivers and in some colonies, established by the national government to check Chilean invasions, in the fertile districts of the Andes. A majority of the population, however, is of Chilean origin. The capital is Chos Malal, a small town on the upper Neuquen, in the mountainous district in the northern part of the territory.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rheine

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​RHEINE, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Westphalia, situated on the Ems, at the point where it becomes navigable, 29 m. W. by rail of Osnabrück, and at the junction of main lines to Münster, Rotterdam and Emden. Pop. (1905) 12,801. It is an old-fashioned town with a pronounced Dutch aspect, and has pretty gardens and promenades. Rheine is the seat of cotton industries, has manufactures of jute, machinery, tobacco and flour, and a considerable river trade in agricultural produce. It received municipal rights in 1327. About a mile north of Rheine is the castle of Bentlage, the family seat of the princes of Rheina-Wolbeck.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rhayader

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​RHAYADER (Rhaiadr-Gwy), a market town of Radnorshire, Wales, situated amid wild and beautiful scenery on the left bank of the Wye, about 11/2 m. above its confluence with the Elan. Pop. (1901) 1215. Rhayader is a station on the Cambrian railway. A stone bridge over the Wye connects the town with the village and parish church of Cwmdauddwr. Rhayader has for some centuries been an important centre for Welsh mutton and Wool, and its sheep fairs are largely attended by drovers and buyers from all parts. Near Rhayader are the large reservoirs constructed (1895) by the corporation of Birmingham in the Elan and Claerwen valleys.
Rhayader, built close to the Falls of the Wye (whence its name), owes its early importance to the castle erected here by Prince Rhys ap Griffith of South Wales, c. 1178, in order to check the English advance up the Wye Valley. Seized by the invaders, castle and town were later retaken in 1231 by Prince Llewelyn ap Iorwerth, who burned the fortress and slew its garrison. Scarcely a trace of the castle exists, although its site near St Clement's church is locally known as Tower Hill. With the erection of Maesyfed into the shire of Radnor in 1536 Rhayader was named as assize-town for the newly formed county in conjunction with New Radnor; but in 1542, on account of a local riot, the town was deprived of this privilege in favour of Presteign. Rhayader constituted one of the group of boroughs comprising the Radnor parliamentary district until the Redistribution Act of 1885.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rhea (mythology)

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​RHEA, a goddess of the Greeks known in mythology as the daughter of Uranus and Gaia, the sister and consort of Kronos, and the mother of Zeus. In Homer she is the mother of the gods, though not a universal mother like Cybele, the Phrygian Great Mother, with whom she was later identified. The original seat of her worship was in Crete. There, according to legend, she saved the new-born Zeus, her sixth child, from being devoured by Kronos by substituting a stone for him and entrusting the infant god to the care of her attendants the Curetes (q.v.). These attendants afterwards became the bodyguard of Zeus and the priests of Rhea, and performed ceremonies in her honour. In historic times the resemblances between Rhea and the Asiatic Great Mother, Phrygian Cybele, were so noticeable that the Greeks accounted for them by regarding the latter as only their own Rhea, who had deserted her original home in Crete and fled to the mountain wilds of Asia Minor to escape the persecution of Kronos (Strabo 469, 12). The reverse view was also held (Virgil, Aen. iii. 111), and it is probably true that a stock of Asiatic origin formed part of the primitive population of Crete and brought with them the worship of the Asiatic Great Mother, who became the Cretan Rhea. (See Great Mother of the Gods.) (G. Sn.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rheinberger, Joseph Gabriel

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​RHEINBERGER, JOSEPH GABRIEL (1839–1901), German composer, was born at Vaduz, Liechtenstein, on the 17th of March 1839. His musical abilities were manifested so early that he was appointed organist of the parish church when he was but seven years old. A three-part Mass composed by him was performed in the following year. He was taught at first by Philipp Schmutzer, choir director at Feldkirch; he entered the Munich Conservatorium in 1851, and remained there till 1854 ​as a pupil of Professor E. Leonhard for piano, Professor Herzog for organ and J. J. Maier for counterpoint. After leaving the School he had private lessons from Franz Lachner, and was appointed a professor in the conservatorium in succession to Leonhard in 1859. In 1860 he became professor of composition, and was appointed organist of the Michelskirche, a post he held till 1866. In 1877 he succeeded Wüllner as Hofkapellmeister, and from that time his attention was largely devoted to sacred music. His compositions include works of importance in every form, from the operas Die sieben Raben (Munich, 1869) and Türmers Töchterlein (Munich, 1873) and the oratorio Christoforus, op. 120, to the-well-known quartet for piano and strings in E flat, op. 38, the nonet for wind and strings, op. 139, and the seventeen organ sonatas, which form notable additions to the literature of the instrument. He died in November 1901.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rhenanus, Beatus

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​RHENANUS, BEATUS (1485–1547), German humanist, was born in 1485 at Schlettstadt in Alsace, where his father, named Bild, a native of Rheinau (hence the surname Rhenauus), was a prosperous butcher. He received his early education at the famous Latin school of Schlettstadt, and afterwards (1503) went to Paris, where he came under the influence of Tacobus Faber Stapulensis, an eminent Aristotelian. In 1511 he removed to Basel, where he became intimate with Desiderius Erasmus, and took an active share in the publishing enterprises of Joannes Froben (q.v.). In 1526 he returned to Schlettstadt, and devoted himself to a life of learned leisure, enlivened with epistolary and personal intercourse with Erasmus (the printing of whose more important works he personally superintended) and many other scholars of his time. He died at Strassburg on the 20th of July 1547.
His earliest publication was a biography of Geiler of Kaisersberg (1510). Of his subsequent works the principal are Rerum Germanicarum Libri III. (1531), and editions of Velleius Paterculus (ed. princeps, from a MS. discovered by himself, 1522); Tacitus (1519, exclusive of the Histories); Livius (1535); and Erasmus (with a life, 9 vols. fol., 1540–41).
See A. Horawitz, Beatus Rhenanus (1872), and by the same, Des Beatus Rheuanus literarische Tätigkeil (2 vols., 1872); also the notice by R. Hartfelder in Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rheticus

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​RHETICUS, or Rhaeticus (1514–1576), a surname given to George Joachim, German astronomer and mathematician, from his birth at Feldkirch in that part of Tirol which was anciently the territory of the Rhaeti. Born on the 15th of February 1514, he studied at Tiguri with Oswald Mycone, and afterwards went to Wittenberg where he was appointed professor of mathematics in 1537. Being greatly attracted by the new Copernican theory, he resigned the professorship in 1539, and went to Frauenberg to associate himself with Copernicus, Nicolaus (q.v.), and superintended the printing of the De Orbium Revolutione which he had persuaded Copernicus to complete. Rheticus now began his great treatise, Opus Palatinum de Triangulis, and continued to work at it while he occupied his old chair at Wittenberg, and indeed up to his death at Cassovia in Hungary, on the 4th of December 1576. The Opus Palatinum of Rheticus was published by Valentine Otho, mathematician to the electoral prince palatine, in 1596. It gives tables of sines and cosines, tangents, &c., for every 10 seconds, calculated to ten places. He had projected a table of the same kind to fifteen places, but did not live to complete it. The sine table, however, was afterwards published on this scale under the name of Thesaurus Mathematicus (Frankfort, 1613) by B. Pitiscus (1561–1613), who himself carried the calculation of a few of the earlier sines to twenty-two places. He also published Narratio de Libris Revolutionum Copernici (Gedenum, 1540), which was subsequently added to editions of Copernicus's works; and Ephemerides until 1551, which were founded on the Copernican doctrines. He projected numerous other Works, as is shown by a letter to Peter Ramus in 1568, which Adrian Romanus inserted in the preface to his Idea of Mathematics.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mogilev on the Dnieper

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​MOGILEV ON THE DNIEPER, a town of Russia, capital of the government of Mogilev. Pop. (1900), 47,591, two-thirds Jews. It is situated on a hilly site on both banks of the Dnieper, 120 m. by rail S.W. of Smolensk. It is the see of an archbishop of the Orthodox Greek Church. The public buildings include the cathedral of the Orthodox Greek Church (founded by Catherine II. of Russia and Joseph II. of Austria in 1780), a Roman Catholic cathedral (built in 1692), an old castle, a museum, a church dating from 1620, and an old Tatar tower. The principal industries are tanneries. The commerce is mostly in the hands of Jews. Corn, salt, sugar and fish are brought from the south, whilst skins and manufactured wares, imported from Germany, are sent to the southern governments.
Mogilev is mentioned for the first time in the 14th century as a dependency of the Vitebsk, or of the Mstislavl principality. At the beginning of the 15th century it became the personal property of the Polish kings. But it was continually plundered—either by Russians, who attacked it six times during the 16th century, or by Cossacks, who plundered it three times. In the 17th century its inhabitants, who belonged to the Orthodox Greek Church, suffered much from the persecutions of the United Greek Church. In 1654 it surrendered to Russia, but in 1661 the Russian garrison was massacred by the inhabitants. In the 18th century the town was taken several times by Russians and by Swedes, and in 1708 Peter the Great ordered it to be destroyed by fire. It was annexed to Russia in 1772. Near here the French under Davoût defeated the Russians under Bagration on the 23rd of July 1812.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mogila, Peter

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​MOGILA, PETER (c. 1596–1647), metropolitan of Kiev from 1632, belonged to a noble Wallachian family. He studied for some time at the university of Paris, and first became a monk in 1625. He was the author of a Catechism (Kiev, 1645) and other minor works, but is principally celebrated for the Orthodox Confession, drawn up at his instance by the Abbot Kosslowski of Kiev, approved at a provincial synod in 1640, and accepted by the patriarchs of Constantinople, Jerusalem, Alexandria and Antioch in 1642–1643, and by the synod of Jerusalem in 1672. (See Orthodox Eastern Church.)
There are numerous editions of the Confession in Russian; it has been edited in Greek and Latin by Panagiotes (Amsterdam, 1662), by Hofmann (Leipzig, 1695), and by Kimmel (Jena, 1843), and there is a German translation by Frisch (Frankfort, 1727).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mogul

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​MOGUL, Moghal, or Mughal, the Arabic and Persian form of the word Mongol, usually applied to the Mahommedan Empire in India, which was founded by Baber. In consequence the name is applied to all foreign Mahommedans from the countries on the west and north-west of India, except the Pathans. The Great Mogul is the name given to the Mogul emperors of Delhi by the Portuguese and subsequently by Europeans generally.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mohave

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​MOHAVE (corrupted from hamok-habi; “three mountains,” their native name, with reference to three peaks, which form a prominent feature of their country), a tribe of North American Indians of Yuman stock. They have always lived along both banks of the lower Colorado river, in Arizona and California.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Moffat

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​MOFFAT, a burgh of barony, and police burgh, of Upper Annandale, Dumfriesshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901), 2153. It is situated 21 m. N.N.E. of Dumfries by road and 63 m. distant by the Caledonian railway, from both Edinburgh and Glasgow. It is the terminus of a branch line from Beattock, 2 m. distant. It has been famous for its sulphur and saline waters since the middle of the 18th century, and also enjoys great vogue as a holiday resort. The hills in the locality range from the adjacent Gallow Hill (832 ft.) to Hartfell (2651 ft.); about 5 m. north there is abundance of beautiful and varied scenery on the Annan, the Evan, the Birnock and the Moffat. The spa, a mile to the north of the town, was acquired by the burgh commissioners in 1898, and there are also spas at Hartfell (31/2 m. north) and Garpel (2 m. south-west). Dumcrieff House, 2 m. south-west, is the seat of Lord Rollo.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Moffat, Robert

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​MOFFAT, ROBERT (1795–1883), Scottish Congregationalist missionary to Africa, was born at Ormiston, Haddingtonshire, on the 21st of December 1795, of humble parentage. He began as a gardener, but in 1814, when employed at High Leigh in Cheshire, offered himself to the London Missionary Society, and in 1816 was sent out to South Africa. After spending a year in Namaqua Land, with the chief Afrikaner, whom he converted, Moffat returned to Cape Town in 1819 and married Mary Smith (1795–1870), the daughter of a former employer, a remarkable woman and most helpful wife. In 1820 Moffat and his wife left the Cape and proceeded to Griqua Town, and ultimately settled at Kuruman, among the Bechuana tribes living to the west of the Vaal river. Here he worked as a missionary till 1870, when he reluctantly returned finally to his native land. He made frequent journeys into the neighbouring regions as far north as the Matabele country. The results of these journeys he communicated to the Royal Geographical Society (Journal xxv.–xxxviii. and Proceedings ii.), and when in England on furlough (1839—1843) he published his well-known Missionary Labours and Scenes in South Africa (1842). He translated the whole of the Bible and The Pilgrim’s Progress into Sechwana. Moffat was builder, carpenter, smith, gardener, farmer, all in one, and by precept and example he succeeded in turning a horde of bloodthirsty savages into a “people appreciating and cultivating the arts and habits of civilized life, with a written language of their own.” He met with incredible discouragement and dangers at first, which he overcame by his strong faith, determination and genial humour. It was largely due to him that David Livingstone, his son-in-law, took up his subsequent work. On his return to England he received a testimonial of £5000. He died at Leigh, near Tunbridge Wells, on the 9th of August 1883.
See Lives of Robert and Mary Moffat, by J. S. Moffat (1885); and C. S. Horne, The Story of the L. M. S. (1894).