# The Sayings of Confucius; a New Translation of the Greater Part of the Confucian Analects/Individual Virtue

The Master said: Is he not a princely man—he who is never vexed that others know him not?
True virtue rarely goes with artful speech and insinuating looks. ​At home, a young man should show the qualities of a son; abroad, those of a younger brother. He should be circumspect but truthful. He should have charity in his heart for all men, but associate only with the virtuous. After thus regulating his conduct, his surplus energy should be de voted to literary culture.
In the matter of food and lodging, the nobler type of man does not seek mere repletion and comfort. He is earnest in his affairs and cautious in his speech, and frequents virtuous company for his own improvement. He may be called one truly bent on the study of virtue.
Mêng I Tzǔ asked for a definition of filial piety. The Master said: It consists in there being no falling off.—Fan Ch'ih was driving the Master's carriage some time after, when the latter told him, saying: Mêng I Tzǔ asked me about filial ​piety, and I answered that it consisted in there being no falling off. Fan Ch'ih said: What did you mean?—The Master replied: That parents should be served in the proper spirit while living, buried with the proper rites after death, and worshipped thereafter with the proper sacrifices.
Mêng Wu Po asked for a definition of filial piety. The Master said: There is filial piety when parents are spared all anxiety about their children except when they happen to fall sick.
Tzǔ Yu put a question on the subject of filial piety. The Master said: The filial piety of to-day reduces itself to the mere question of maintenance. Yet this is something in which even our dogs and horses have a share. Without the feeling of reverence, what is there to distinguish the two cases? ​Tzǔ Hsia also asked about filial piety. The Master said: It can hardly be gauged from mere outward acts. When there is work to be done, to relieve one's elders of the toil; or when there is wine and food, to cause them to partake thereof—is this to be reckoned filial piety?
Tzǔ Kung inquired about the higher type of man. The Master replied: The higher type of man is one who acts before he speaks, and professes only what he practises.
The Master said: The higher type of man is catholic in his sympathy and free from party bias; the lower type of man is biassed and unsympathetic.
A man without charity in his heart—what has ​he to do with ceremonies? A man without charity in his heart what has he to do with music?
Lin Fang inquired as to the prime essential in ceremonial observances. The Master said: Ah, that is a great question indeed! In all rites, simplicity is better than extravagance; in mourning for the dead, heartfelt sorrow is better than punctiliousness.
The Master said: The true gentleman is never contentious. If a spirit of rivalry is anywhere unavoidable, it is at a shooting-match. Yet even here he courteously salutes his opponents before taking up his position, and again when, having lost, he retires to drink the forfeit-cup. So that even when competing he remains a true gentleman.
It is the spirit of charity which makes a locality good to dwell in. He who selects a neighbourhood without regard to this quality cannot be considered wise.
Only he who has the spirit of goodness within him is really able either to love or to hate.
The princely man never for a single instant quits the path of virtue; in times of storm and stress he remains in it as fast as ever. ​The nobler sort of man in his progress through the world has neither narrow predilections nor obstinate antipathies. What he follows is the line of duty.
The nobler sort of man is proficient in the knowledge of his duty; the inferior man is proficient only in money-making.
In serving his father and mother, a son may use gentle remonstrance; if he sees that they pay no heed, he should not desist, but merely increase in deference; if his pains are thrown away, he must show no resentment.
While one's parents are alive, one should not travel to a distance; if one must travel, it should be in a fixed direction.
The age of one's parents should always be kept mind—on the one hand, as a subject for rejoicing; on the other, as a cause for alarm.
The wise man will be slow to speak but quick to act.
Tzǔ Chang asked, saying: The Prime Minister Tzǔ Wen held office three times, but showed no joy; he lost it three times, but testified no concern. When he ceased to be Prime Minister, he was careful to explain the political situation to his successor. What is your opinion of him?—​The Master said: He was loyal and conscientious.—Had he not the highest degree of moral virtue?—That I do not know; how can one judge of his moral virtue?—Tzǔ Chang continued: When Ts'ui Tzǔ slew the Prince of Ch'i, Ch'ên Wen Tzǔ, though the possessor of ten teams of war-horses, forsook his wealth and turned his back on the country. Having come to another state, he said "Here they are as bad as our own minister Ts'ui Tzǔ," and departed. And he repeated this proceeding each time that he came to a new state. What is your opinion of him?—The Master said: He was pure and incorruptible.—Had he not the highest degree of virtue?—I cannot say; how is one to judge?
The Master said: When the solid outweighs the ornamental, we have boorishness; when the ornamental outweighs the solid, we have superficial smartness. Only from a proper blending of the two will the higher type of man emerge. ​All men are born good. He who loses his goodness and yet lives is lucky to escape.
Better than one who knows what is right is one who is fond of what is right; and better than one who is fond of what is right is one who delights in what is right.
Fan Ch'ih asked in what wisdom consisted. The Master said: Make righteousness in human affairs your aim, treat all supernatural beings with respect, but keep aloof from them—then you may be called wise. Asked about moral virtue, he replied: The virtuous man thinks of the difficult thing first, and makes material advantage only a secondary consideration. This may be said to constitute moral virtue.
The Master said: The man of knowledge finds pleasure in the sea, the man of virtue finds pleasure in the mountains. For the man of knowledge is restless and the man of virtue is calm. The man of knowledge is happy, and the man of virtue is long-lived.
The higher type of man, having gathered wide objective knowledge from the branches of polite learning, will regulate the whole by the inner ​rule of conduct, and will thus avoid overstepping the limit.
That virtue is perfect which adheres to a constant mean. It has long been rare amongst men.
Tzǔ Kung asked: What would you say of the man who conferred benefits far and wide on the people and was able to be the salvation of all? Would you pronounce him a man of moral virtue?—Of moral virtue? said the Master. Nay, rather, of divine virtue. Even Yao and Shun were still striving to attain this height.
The man of moral virtue, wishing to stand firm himself, will lend firmness unto others; wishing ​himself to be illuminated, he will illuminate others. To be able to do to others as we would be done by—this is the true domain of moral virtue.
It has not been my lot to see a divine man; could I see a princely man, that would satisfy me. It has not been my lot to see a thoroughly virtuous man; could I see a man possessing honesty of soul, that would satisfy me. Is it possible there should be honesty of soul in one who pretends to have what he has not; who, when empty, pretends to be overflowing; who, when in want, pretends to be in affluence?
The higher type of man is calm and serene; the inferior man is constantly agitated and worried.
With sincerity and truth unite a desire for self-culture. Lay down your life rather than quit the path of virtue. Enter not the state which is tottering to its fall. Abide not in the state where sedition is rampant. When law obtains in the Empire, let yourself be seen; when lawlessness reigns, retire into obscurity. In a state governed on right principles, poverty and low station are things to be ashamed of; in an ill-governed state, riches and rank are things to be ashamed of.
The man of wisdom does not vacillate; the ​man of natural goodness does not fret; the man of valour does not fear.
Yen Yüan inquired as to the meaning of true goodness. The Master said: The subdual of self, and reversion to the natural laws governing conduct—this is true goodness. If a man can for the space of one day subdue his selfishness and revert to natural laws, the whole world will call him good. True goodness springs from a man's own heart. How can it depend on other men?—Yen Yüan said: Kindly tell me the practical rule to be deduced from this.—The Master replied: Do not use your eyes, your ears, your power of speech or your faculty of movement without obeying the inner law of self-control.—Yen Yüan said: Though I am not quick in thought or act, I will make it my business to carry out this precept.
Chung Kung inquired as to the meaning of true goodness. The Master said: When out of doors, behave as though you were entertaining a distinguished guest; in ruling the people, behave as though you were officiating at a solemn sacrifice; what you would not wish done to yourself, do not unto others. Then in public as in ​private life you will excite no ill-will. Chung Kung said: Though I am not quick in thought or act, I will make it my business to carry out this precept.
Ssǔ-ma Niu inquired as to the meaning of true goodness. The Master said: The truly good man is slow of speech.—Slowness of speech! Is this what goodness consists in?—The Master said Does not the difficulty of deciding what it is right to do necessarily imply slowness to speak?
Ssǔ-ma Niu asked for a definition of the princely man. The Master said: The princely man is one who knows neither grief nor fear.—Absence of grief and fear! Is this the mark of a princely man?—The Master said: If on searching his heart he finds no guilt, why should he grieve? of what should he be afraid?
Tzǔ Chang asked how to attain exalted virtue.…The Master said: Make conscientiousness and truth your guiding principles, and thus pass on to the cultivation duty to your neighbour. This is exalted virtue.
​The Master said: The nobler sort of man emphasises the good qualities in others, and does not accentuate the bad. The inferior sort does the reverse.
Tzǔ Chang asked: What must a man do in order to be considered distinguished?—The Master said: What do you mean by the term "distinguished"?—Tzǔ Chang replied: I mean one whose fame fills both his own private circle and the State at large.—The Master said: That is notoriety, not distinction. The man of true distinction is simple, honest, and a lover of justice and duty. He weighs men's words, and observes the expression of their faces. He is anxious to put himself below others. Such a one is truly distinguished in his private and his public life. As to the man who is merely much talked about, he puts on an appearance of charity and benevolence, but his actions belie it. He is self-satisfied and has no misgivings. Neither in private nor in public life does he achieve more than notoriety.
Tzǔ Kung asked a question about friendship. The Master said: Be conscientious in speaking to your friend, but tactful in your efforts to guide him aright. If these fail, stop. Do not court a personal rebuff.
​The Duke of Shê addressed Confucius, saying: We have an upright man in our country. His father stole a sheep, and the son bore witness against him.—In our country, Confucius replied, uprightness is something different from this. A father hides the guilt of his son, and a son hides the guilt of his father. It is in such conduct that true uprightness is to be found.
Fan Ch'ih asked a question about moral virtue. The Master said: In private life, show self-respect; in the management of affairs, be attentive and thorough; in your dealings with others, be honest and conscientious. Never abandon these principles, even among savages.
The Master said: The nobler sort of man is accommodating but not obsequious; the inferior sort is obsequious but not accommodating.
The nobler sort of man is easy to serve yet difficult to please. Who seeks to please him in wrongful ways will not succeed. In exacting service from others, he takes account of aptitudes and limitations. The baser sort of man is difficult to serve yet easy to please. Who seeks to please him in any wrongful way will assuredly succeed. And he requires absolute perfection in those from whom he exacts service.
The nobler sort of man is dignified but not proud; the inferior man is proud but not dignified.
​Hsien said: To refrain from self-glorification, to subdue feelings of resentment, to control selfish desire—may this be held to constitute perfect virtue? The Master said: These things may certainly be considered hard to achieve, but I am not so sure that they constitute perfect virtue.
The Master said: A man of inward virtue will have virtuous words on his lips, but a man of virtuous words is not always a virtuous man. The man of perfect goodness is sure to possess courage, but the courageous man is not necessarily good.
Can true love be anything but exacting? How can our sense of duty allow us to abstain from admonition?
The nobler sort of man tends upwards; the baser sort tends downwards.
The princely type of man is modest in his speech, but liberal in his performance.
The princely man has three great virtues, ​which I cannot claim for myself. He is truly benevolent, and is free from care; is truly wise, and is free from delusions; is truly brave, and is free from fear.—Nay, replied Tzǔ Kung, these virtues are our Master's own.
The Master said: Is not he a sage who neither anticipates deceit nor suspects bad faith in others, yet is prompt to detect them when they appear?
Some one asked: How do you regard the principle of returning good for evil?—The Master said: What, then, is to be the return for good? Rather should you return justice for injustice, and good for good.
Tzǔ Lu asked about the conduct of the princely man. The Master said: He cultivates himself so as to gain in self-respect.—Does he rest content with that?—He cultivates himself, was the reply, so as to give happiness to others.—And is he content with that?—He cultivates himself so as to confer peace and prosperity on the whole people. ​By self-cultivation to confer peace and prosperity on the whole people!—was not this the object which Yao and Shun still laboured to attain?
Tzǔ Kung asked for advice on the practice of moral virtue. The Master replied: If an artisan wants to do his work well, he must begin by sharpening his tools. Even so, among the great men of your country, you should serve the wise and good, and make friends of men who have this moral virtue.
The Master said: The higher type of man makes a sense of duty the groundwork of his character, blends with it in action a sense of harmonious proportion, manifests it in a spirit of unselfishness, and perfects it by the addition of sincerity and truth. Then indeed is he a noble character.
The higher type of man seeks all that he wants in himself; the inferior type of man seeks all that he wants from others.
The higher type of man is firm but not quarrelsome; sociable, but not clannish.
The wise man does not esteem a person more highly because of what he says, neither does he undervalue what is said because of the person who says it.
Tzǔ Kung asked, saying: Is there any one ​maxim which ought to be acted upon throughout one's whole life?—The Master replied: Surely the maxim of charity is such:—Do not unto others what you would not they should do unto you.
The nobler sort of man pays special attention to nine points. He is anxious to see clearly, to hear distinctly, to be kindly in his looks, respectful in his demeanour, conscientious in his speech, earnest in his affairs; when in doubt, he is careful to inquire; when in anger, he thinks of the consequences; when offered an opportunity for gain, he thinks only of his duty.
Tzǔ Chang asked Confucius a question about moral virtue. Confucius replied: Moral virtue simply consists in being able, anywhere and everywhere, to exercise five particular qualities. Asked what these were, he said: Self-respect, magnanimity, sincerity, earnestness and benevolence. Show self-respect, and others will re​spect you; be magnanimous, and you will win all hearts; be sincere, and men will trust you; be earnest, and you will achieve great things; be benevolent, and you will be fit to impose your will on others.
Tzǔ Lu asked: Does not the princely man value courage?—The Master said: He puts righteousness first. The man of high station who has courage without righteousness is a menace to the State; the common man who has courage without righteousness is nothing more than a brigand.
Tzǔ Kung asked: Has the nobler sort of man any hatreds?—The Master replied: He has. He hates those who publish the faults of others; he hates men of low condition who vilify those above them; he hates those whose courage is unaccompanied by self-restraint; he hates those who are audacious but narrow-minded. And you, Tz'ǔ, he added, have you also your hatreds?—I hate, replied the disciple, those who think that wisdom consists in prying and meddling; courage, in showing no compliance; and honesty, in denouncing other men.
* ↑ This is the much-discussed chün tzǔ, an expression of which the stereotyped English equivalent is "the superior man." But in this there is, unhappily, a tinge of blended native superciliousness and irony absolutely foreign to the phrase, which in my opinion makes it unsuitable. "Princely man" is as nearly as possible the literal translation, and sometimes, as we shall see, it actually means "prince." But in the majority of cases the connotation of rank or authority is certainly not explicit, and as a general rendering I have preferred "the higher type of man," "the nobler sort of man," or sometimes more simply, "the good man." Perhaps the nearest approximation in any European language is to be found in the Greek ὁ καλὸς κἀγαθός, because that implies high mental and moral qualities combined with all the outward bearing of a gentleman. Compare also Aristotle's ὁ σπουδαῖος, who is however rather more abstract and ideal.
* ↑ Jên, the term here translated "virtue," is perhaps the most important single word in the Analects, and the real corner-stone of Confucian ethics. Its primary meaning, in accordance with the etymology, is "humanity" in the larger sense, i.e. natural goodness of heart as shown in intercourse with one's fellow-men. Hence it is sometimes best translated "loving-kindness" or "charity" in the biblical sense, though in many cases a more convenient, if vaguer, rendering is "virtue," "moral virtue," or even, as in Legge, "perfect virtue."
* ↑ Literally, "he may be called a lover of learning." But "learning" in the mouth of Confucius is generally to be understood as study of the rules of right conduct with a view to their practical application. The object of all learning was to enable a man to develop the natural goodness within him, so as to lead a life of virtuous culture. It was not pursued solely for its own sake, nor had it become, as with us, divorced from all ethical significance.
* ↑ The chief of the house of Mêng, one of the three great families of Lu, and (according to Ssǔ-ma Ch'ien) a disciple of Confucius.
* ↑ The reply is enigmatical, but it is clear from what follows that this, and not, as Legge translates, "disobedience," is the true meaning.
* ↑ The eldest son of Mêng I Tzǔ.
* ↑ It is astonishing that Chu Hsi should have tried to improve on the old commentators here, and almost equally astonishing that Legge should have followed him, with this result: "The Master said, Parents are anxious lest their children should be sick" (and therefore children should take care of their persons)!
* ↑ Here again it is almost incredible that Legge should have adopted such a ridiculous interpretation as the following—without the authority, this time, of Chu Hsi: "The filial piety of nowadays means the support of one's parents. But dogs and horses likewise are able to do something in the way of support." The image conjured up by this sentence is grotesque, to say the least.
* ↑ Literally, "colour difficult." This famous sentence, a stumbling-block to native and foreigner alike, surely marks the extreme limit to which conciseness can be carried in Chinese. "The difficulty is with the countenance" is the lame translation offered by Legge, and later scholars have mostly followed in his footsteps, even Mr. Ku Hung-ming failing badly for once. Where all have gone astray is in taking the "difficulty" to exist in the mind of the would-be filial son, instead of being that felt by the onlooker who wishes to gauge the genuineness of the quality in others. Only a few months ago, a new and ingenious interpretation was suggested by my father, Professor H. A. Giles, namely "To define it is difficult"; but after much consideration I am led to prefer the rendering in the text, inasmuch as the word sê is quite commonly used to denote the external as opposed to the internal, form as opposed to essence.
* ↑ The answer of course is—No; outward acts do not constitute filial piety, unless prompted by a genuine duteous feeling in the heart.
* ↑ A notable utterance, which may be commended to those who have been taught to regard Confucius as a man of ceremonies and outward show.
* ↑ In order that the parents may know where their son is.
* ↑ Of the Ch'u State.
* ↑ The root idea of this word chung is loyalty to oneself, devotion to principle, or, as Mr. Ku Hung-ming well translates it, conscientiousness. Loyalty or fidelity to the sovereign is only an extended sense. Here the two ideas appear to be blended, but in a famous passage to be noted further on (p. 118) much trouble has resulted from ignoring the first and fundamental meaning.
* ↑ A high officer in Ch'i, the state adjoining Lu.
* ↑ The fact that Ch'ên Wen Tzǔ could not reconcile it with his conscience to settle in any of the states which he visited throws a lurid light on the disorder prevailing in the Empire at this period (547 B.C.). Murder and usurpation were evidently the rule rather than the exception.
* ↑ That is to say, the virtuous act, which he will perform for its own sake, regardless of consequences.
* ↑ Each finds pleasure in that part of Nature which resembles himself.
* ↑ As may be inferred from its composition, the character li originally had sole reference to religious rites, whence however it came to be applied to every sort of ceremonial, including the ordinary rules of politeness, the etiquette of society, the conduct befitting all stations of life, and moreover to the state of mind of which such conduct is the outcome. This state of mind is one of equably adjusted harmony and self-restraint, and it is in this sense of an inward principle of proportion and self-control that the word is frequently used in the Analects. Why such a vile phrase as "the rules of propriety" was ever coined to express this subtle conception, and retained in every context, however inappropriate, must remain an insoluble mystery. Is it surprising that one of the greatest of world-teachers should still be waiting to come into his full heritage, when his sayings are made to suggest nothing so much as the headmistress of a young ladies' seminary?
* ↑ It is interesting to observe that Confucius allows a grade of heroic and almost divine virtue even above that which constitutes complete goodness for all practical purposes, just as Aristotle places his θεῖός τις ἀνήρ above the σώφρων.
* ↑ It is only fair to mention that the above is not an exact translation of the words in the Chinese text, though I believe their import to be what I have set down. The point is too technical and abstruse to be discussed here.
* ↑ See note on p. 60. This is the solemn nonsense dished up by Legge: "Look not at what is contrary to propriety; listen not to what is contrary to propriety; speak not what is contrary to propriety; make no movement which is contrary to propriety."
* ↑ Confucius here, as in general, suits his reply to the questioner. In answering Yen Yüan, the model disciple, he had gone to the very root of the matter, making it clear that the essence of true goodness has little or nothing to do with externals. To Chung Kung, who was less advanced and doubtless somewhat lacking in grace or dignity of demeanour, he gives more superficial advice, but winds up by enunciating the Golden Rule, which is the best practical manner of manifesting inward goodness of heart.
* ↑ There seems to be a play on this word which cannot be brought out in translation.
* ↑ This probably means that he will not rely on words alone in judging of character.
* ↑ Being too purely negative.
* ↑ It is almost impossible, here and in other passages, to make any real distinction of meaning between tê, the manifestation of eternal principles in the soul of man, and jên, natural goodness of heart, though the former, being more universal and abstract, may be said to include the latter, which generally implies a certain relation to one's fellow-men.
* ↑ This is surely the obvious rendering, yet all previous translators have taken the second tao in the sense of "to say." Thus Legge has "Master, that is what you yourself say."
* ↑ The principle of returning good for evil, which is here apparently represented as a well-known ethical doctrine, was first enunciated, so far as wo know, by Lao Tzǔ. Confucius rejects this vain idealism, and advocates the much sounder and more practical basis for society given in the text.
* ↑ Here chün tzǔ seems almost to denote an actual prince, not merely a man with princely qualities.
* ↑ Legge translates shu "reciprocity", apparently for no other reason than to explain the maxim that follows. But it really stands for something higher than the strictly utilitarian principle of do ut des. Both here and in another famous passage (see p. 118) it is almost equivalent to jên, goodness of heart, only with the idea of altruism more explicitly brought out. It connotes sympathetic consideration for others, and hence the best rendering would seem to be "loving-kindness" or "charity." The concluding maxim is really nothing more nor less than the Golden Rule of Christ, though less familiar to us in its negative form.
* ↑ The Chinese have a proverb: "A man must insult himself before others will."
* ↑ A good example of the fluctuating content of the term chün tzǔ, which in the disciple's question implies morality without reference to rank, and in the Master's reply rank and authority without definite moral qualities.