OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Schoppe, Caspar

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CASPAR SCHOPPE (1576–1649), German controversialist and scholar, was born at Neumarkt in the upper Palatinate on the 27th of May 1576 and studied at several German universities. Having become a convert to Roman Catholicism about 1599, he obtained the favour of Pope Clement VIII., and, even in an age of violent polemics, distinguished himself by the virulence of his writings against the Protestants. He became involved in a controversy with Joseph Justus Scaliger, formerly his intimate friend, and others, wrote Ecclesiasticus auctoritati Jacobi regis oppositus (1611), an attack upon James I. of England; and in Classicum belli scarf (1619) urged the Catholic princes to wage war upon the Protestants. About 1607 Schoppe entered the service of Ferdinand, archduke of Styria, afterwards the emperor Ferdinand II., who found him very useful in rebutting the arguments of the Protestants, and who sent him on several diplomatic errands. According to Pierre Bayle, he was almost killed by some Englishmen at Madrid in 1614, and again fearing for his life he left Germany for Italy in 1617, afterwards taking part in an attack upon the Jesuits. Schoppe, as the long list of his writings shows, knew also something of grammar and philosophy, and had an excellent acquaintance with Latin. His chief work is, perhaps, his Grammatica philosophica (Milan, 1628). Schoppe died at Padua on the 19th of November 1649. In his Life of Sir Henry Wotton Izaac Walton, calling him Jasper Scioppius, refers to Schoppe as “a man of a restless spirit and a malicious pen.”
Besides the works already noticed, he wrote De arte critica (1597); De Antichristo (1605); Pro auctoritate ecclesiae in decidendis fidei controversiis libellus; Scaliger hypololymaeus (1607), a virulent attack on Scaliger; and latterly the anti-jesuitical works, Flagellum Jesuiticum (1632); Mysteria patrum jesuitorum (1633); and Arcana societatis Jesu (1635). For a fuller list of his writings see J. P. Nicéron Memoires, (1727–1745). See also C. Nisard, Les Gladiateurs de la republique des lettres (Paris, 1860).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Schrader, Eberhard

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​ SCHRADER, EBERHARD (1836-1908), German orientalist, was born at Brunswick on the 7th of January 1836, and educated at Göttingen under Ewald. In 1858 he took a university prize for a treatise on the Ethiopian languages, and in 1863 became professor of theology at Zürich. Subsequently he occupied chairs at Giessen (1870) and Jena (1873), and finally became professor of oriental languages at Berlin. Though he turned first to biblical research, his chief achievements were in the field of Assyriology, in which he was a pioneer in Germany and acquired an international reputation. He died on the 4th of July 1908.
His publications include: Studien zur Kritik und Erklärung der biblischen Urgeschichte (1863); the 8th edition of De Wette's Einleitung in das Alte Testament (1869); Die assyr.-babyl. Keilinschriften (1872); Die Keilinschriften und das Alt. Test. (1872; 3rd ed. by Zimmern and Winckler, 1901-1902); Keilinschriften und Geschichtsforschung (1878); Die Höllenfahrt der Istar (text, trans., notes, 1874); Zur Frage nach dent Ursprung der altbabylonischen Kultur (1884); in conjunction with other scholars, Keilinschriftliche Bibliothek (1877).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Schouler, James

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​SCHOULER, JAMES (1839– ), American lawyer and historian, was born in West Cambridge (now Arlington), Massachusetts, on the 20th of March 1839, the son of William Schouler (1814–1872), who from 1847 to 1833 edited the Boston Atlas, one of the leading Whig journals of New England. The son graduated at Harvard in 1859, studied law in Boston and was admitted to the bar there in 1862. In 1869 he removed to Washington, where for three years he published the United States Jurist. After his return to Boston, in 1874, he devoted himself to office practice and to literary pursuits. He was a lecturer in the law school of Boston University between 1885 and 1903, a non-resident professor and lecturer in the National ​University Law School, Washington, D.C., in 1887–1909, and a lecturer on American history and constitutional law at Johns Hopkins University in 1891–1908. In 1896–1897 he was president of the American Historical Association. His legal treatises are The Law of Domestic Relations (1870), The Law of Personal Property (1872–1876; new ed., 1907), The Law of Bailments (1880), The Law of Executors and Administrators (1883), The Law of Husband and Wife (1882) and The Law of Wills (1910). He is best known, however, as an historian; his most important work being a History of the United States under the Constitution, 1789–1865 (6 vols., 1880–1899). Among his other publications are A Life of Thomas Jefferson (1893); Historical Briefs (1896), containing a biography of Mr Schouler; Constitutional Studies, State and Federal (1897); a brief Life of Alexander Hamilton (1901); Americans of 1776 (1906); and Ideals of the Republic (1908).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Schreiber, Lady Charlotte Elizabeth

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​ SCHREIBER, LADY CHARLOTTE ELIZABETH (1812-1895), better known as Lady Charlotte Guest, Welsh scholar and connoisseur of china, daughter of Albemarle Bertie, 9th earl of Lindsey, was born at Uffington House, Lincolnshire, on the 19th of May 1812. She married in 1833 Sir Josiah John Guest, manager and afterwards owner of the Dowlais ironworks near Merthyr Tydvil. Lady Charlotte Guest studied the Welsh language and literature, and published (3 vols., 1838-1849) The Mabinogion, from the Llyfr Coch o Hergest, and other ancient Welsh Manuscripts, with an English translation and notes. A second edition without the Welsh text appeared in 1877, and in 1881 The Boy's Mabinogion; being the earliest Welsh tales of King Arthur in the famous Red Book of Hergest, edited with an introduction by S. Lanier. Sir Josiah Guest died in 1852, and Lady Charlotte married in 1855 Charles Schreiber, M.P. for Cheltenham and Poole. She made a valuable collection of English porcelain and china, now in the South Kensington Museum, another of fans and fan leaves, presented to the British Museum, and a third of playing cards, part of which is in the British Museum. On all three subjects she left elaborate treatises. She died on the 15th of January 1895 at Canford Manor, Dorset, at the house of her eldest son Ivor Guest, Baron Wimborne.
Editions of Lady Charlotte Guest's translation of the Mabinogion are in The Temple Classics (1902), The Welsh Library (1902), &c.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Schooner

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​SCHOONER, a vessel rigged with fore and aft sails, properly with two masts, but now often with three, four and sometimes more masts; they are much used in the coasting trade, and require a smaller crew in proportion to their size than square rigged vessels (see Rigging and Ship). According to the story, which is probably true, the name arose from a chance spectator’s exclamation “there she scoons,” i.e. glides, slips free, at the launch of the first vessel of this type at Gloucester, Massachusetts, in 1713, her builder being one Andrew Robinson. The spelling “schooner” is due to a supposed derivation from the Dutch schooner, but that and the other European equivalents, Ger. Schoner, Dan. skonnert, Span. and Portuguese escuna, &c., are all from English. “To scoon,” according to Skeat, is a Scottish (Clydesdale) dialect word, meaning to skip over water like a flat stone, and is ultimately connected with the root, implying quick motion, seen in shoot, scud, &c. In American colloquial usage “schooner” is applied to the covered prairie-wagons used by the emigrants moving westward before the construction of railways, and to a tall, narrow, lager-beer glass.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rieti

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​RIETI (anc. Reate), a city and episcopal see of Italy, in the province of Perugia, 251/2 m. by rail and 15 m. direct S.S.E. of Terni, which is 70 m. by rail from Rome. Pop. (1901) 14,145 (town), 17,716 (commune). It occupies a fine position 1318 ft. above sea-level on the right bank of the Velino (a torrent sub-tributary to the Tiber), which at this point issues from the limestone plateau; the old town occupies the declivity and the new town spreads out on the level. While with its quaint red roofed houses, its old town walls (restored about 1250), its castle, its cathedral (13th and 15th centuries), its episcopal palace (1283), and its various churches and convents Rieti has no small amount of medieval picturesqueness; it also displays a good deal of modern activity in vine and olive growing and cattle-breeding. The fertility of the neighbourhood is celebrated both by Virgil and by Cicero. A Roman bridge over the Turano, and the Palazzo Vincentini by Vignola deserve to be mentioned.
Reate was reached from Rome by the Via Salaria (q.v.), which may originally have ended there, and a branch road ran from it to Interamna. While hardly mentioned in connexion with the Punic or Civil Wars, Reate is described by Strabo as exhausted by these long contests. Its inhabitants received the Roman franchise at the same time with the rest of the Sabines (290 B.C.), but it appears as a praefectura and not as a municipium down to the beginning of the empire. It was never made a colonia, though veterans of the Praetorian guard and of the eighth (Augusta) and ninth legions were settled there by Vespasian, who belonged to a Reatine family and was born in the neighbourhood. For the contests of the Reatines with the people of Interamna see Terni. In 1148 the town was besieged and captured by Roger I. of Sicily. In the struggle between church and empire it always held with the former; and it defied the forces of Frederick II. and Otho IV. Pope Nicholas IV. long resided at Rieti, and it was there he crowned) Charles II. of Anjou king of the Two Sicilies. In the 14th century Robert, and afterwards Joanna, of Naples managed to keep possession of Rieti for many years, but it returned to the States of the Church under Gregory IX. About the year 1500, the liberties of the town, long defended against the encroachments of the popes, were entirely abolished. An earthquake in 1785 was in 1799 followed by the much more disastrous pillage of Rieti by the papal troops for a space of fourteen days.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rietschel, Ernst Friedrich August

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​RIETSCHEL, ERNST FRIEDRICH AUGUST (1804–1861), German sculptor, was born at Pulsnitz in Saxony. At an early age he became an art student at Dresden, and subsequently a pupil of Rauch in Berlin. He there gained an art studentship, and studied in Rome in 1827–28. After returning to Saxony he soon brought himself into notice by a colossal statue of Frederick Augustus, king of Saxony; was elected a member of the academy of Dresden, and, thenceforth became one of the chief sculptors of his country. In 1832 he was elected to the Dresden professorship of sculpture, and had many foreign orders of merit conferred on him by the governments of different countries. He died at Dresden in 1861.
Rietschel’s style was very varied; he produced works imbued with much religious feeling, and to some extent he occupied the same place as a sculptor that Overbeck did in painting. Other important works by him were purely classical in style. He was specially famed for his portrait figures of eminent men, treated with much idealism and dramatic vigour; among the latter class his chief works were colossal statues of Goethe and Schiller for the town of Weimar, of Weber for Dresden and of Lessing for Brunswick. He also designed the memorial statue of Luther for Worms, but died before he could carry it out. The principal among Rietschel’s religious pieces of sculpture are the well-known Christ-Angel, and a life-sized Pietà, executed for the king of Prussia. He also worked a great deal in rilievo, and produced many graceful pieces, especially a fine series of bas-reliefs representing Night and Morning, Noon and Twilight, designed with much poetical feeling and imagination.
For a good biography of Rietschel and account of his works see Appermann, Ernst Rietschel (Leipzig, 1863). (J. H. M.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rieu, Charles Pierre Henri

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​RIEU, CHARLES PIERRE HENRI (1820–1902), Swiss Orientalist, was born at Geneva in 1820. He studied at Bonn University, where he received his doctor’s degree in 1843. He entered the British Museum in 1847, and after twenty years of service, a new post, that of keeper of Oriental manuscripts, was created for him. He completed in 1871 the second part, dealing with Arabian MSS., of the Catalogus codicum manuscriptorum orientalium, which had been begun by William Cureton, and her issued a supplementary volume in 1894. He also drew up a Catalogue of the Turkish Manuscripts (1888) and a Catalogue of the Persian Manuscripts (4 vols., 1879–95), the latter being a storehouse of information on the books and their authors. In 1895 he was made professor of Arabic in the university of Cambridge in succession to Robertson Smith. He died in London on the 19th of March 1902.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rievaulx

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​RIEVAULX, a village in the North Riding of Yorkshire, England, 3 m. W. by N. of the small town of Helmsley, which is served by a branch of the North-Eastern railway. Here, exquisitely situated in a deep wooded valley, are the ruins of Rievaulx Abbey, a foundation by Walter l’Espec in 1131 for Cistercians. The principal remains are those of the cruciform church, mainly Early English in date, and of the finest workmanship. There are considerable fragments of the refectory, and all the important domestic buildings may be traced. A beautiful prospect over the ruins and the valley is seen from the terrace on the eastern flanking hill.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Riesa

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​ RIESA, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, pleasantly situated on the left bank of the Elbe, 30 m. N.W. of Dresden, on the main line of railway to Leipzig, and at the junction of lines to Chemnitz, Elsterwerda and Nossen. Pop. 14,073. The river is here crossed by a fine bridge, a ​ sandstone and iron structure, carrying both railway and road, and replacing the one carried away by floods in 1875. The town contains two Evangelical churches, a castle, formerly a convent and now used as a town hall, and several schools. There is a harbour with quays and a dockyard, also rolling-mills and saw-mills, ironworks and sandstone quarries. Other industries are the manufacture of furniture, beer, soap, carriages and bricks. The most important shipping station on the Elbe in Saxony, Riesa is the lading-place for goods to and from Bavaria, and a mart for herrings, petroleum, wood, coal and grain. A constant passenger steamboat communication is maintained with Meissen and Dresden; and, owing to the artillery practice ranges at Zeithain, on the right bank of the Elbe, Riesa has become of recent years one of the chief depots of the Saxon army. Riesa received municipal rights in 1632, and after a period of decay was again raised to the rank of a town in 1859.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Riffians

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​RIFFIANS, the name given to the Berbers of the Rîf district of Morocco, the mountain region bordering the north coast from Ceuta eastward nearly to the borders of Algeria and forming part of the Atlas range. The name, it has been suggested, is identical with Libyan or Lîbi. A peculiarity of the Rîf dialect is the change of the Arabic “l” to “r,” and this would seem to support this derivation, “b” and “f” being interchangeable through “v.” The Riffians are only nominally subject to the sultan of Morocco, against whose authority they are in constant revolt. They are typical Berbers in physique, tall, well made and muscular, with European features and fair skins bronzed by the sun. In morality they are singularly superior to their neighbours. In order to prevent youthful unchastity, marriages are contracted between children of eight years old, the girl being brought home to live with the lad at his parents’ home till a child is born, when a separate dwelling is provided for the youthful couple. The women are noted for their beauty. The Riffians understand and speak Arabic very little. They were among the fiercest and most cruel of the pirates of the north coast of Africa. Even now they are entirely untrustworthy in this respect. See further Berbers, Morocco, Moors, Kabyles, Mzabites.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Plymouth (Pennsylvania)

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​PLYMOUTH, a borough of Luzerne county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the north branch of the Susquehanna river, immediately west of and across the river from Wilkes-Barre, of which it is a suburb. Pop. (1910), 16,996. Plymouth is served by the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western railroad. The borough is finely situated in the Wyoming Valley among the rich anthracite coalfields of eastern Pennsylvania, and its inhabitants are chiefly engaged in the coal industry; in 1906 and 1907 (when it shipped 24,081,491 tons) Luzerne county shipped more anthracite coal than any other county in Pennsylvania. In 1905 the total value of the factory products was $902,758, 69·4% more than in 1900. Before the coming of white settlers there was an Indian village called Shawnee on the site of the present borough. The township of Plymouth was settled in 1769 by immigrants from New England—many originally from Plymouth, Litchfield county, Connecticut, whence the name—under the auspices of the Susquehanna Company, which claimed this region as a part of Connecticut, and Plymouth became a centre of the contest between the “Pennamites” and the “Yankees” (representing respectively Pennsylvania and Connecticut), which grew out of the conflict of the royal charter of Pennsylvania (granted in 1681) with the royal charter of Connecticut (granted in 1662), a matter which was not settled until 1799. (See Wyoming Valley.) In its earlier history the region was agricultural. Two brothers, Abijah and John Smith, originally of Derby, Conn., settled in Plymouth in 1806 and began shipping coal thence in 1808; this was the beginning of the anthracite coal trade in the United States. The borough was incorporated in 1866, being then separated from the township of Plymouth, which had a population in 1890 of 8363 and in 1900 of 9655.
See H. B. Wright’s Historical Sketches of Plymouth (Philadelphia, 1873).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pneumatics

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​PNEUMATICS (Gr. πνεῦμα, wind, air), the branch of physical science concerned with the properties of gases and vapours (see Gas). A pneumatic trough is simply a basin containing water or some other liquid used for collecting gases.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lacaita, Sir James

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​LACAITA, SIR JAMES [Giacomo] (1813–1895), Anglo-Italian politician and writer. Born at Manduria in southern Italy, he practised law in Naples, and having come in contact with a number of prominent Englishmen and Americans in that city, he acquired a desire to study the English language. Although a moderate Liberal in politics, he never joined any secret society, but in 1851 after the restoration of Bourbon autocracy he was arrested for having supplied Gladstone with information on Bourbon misrule. Through the intervention of the British and Russian ministers he was liberated, but on the publication ​of Gladstone’s famous letters to Lord Aberdeen he was obliged to leave Naples. He first settled in Edinburgh, where he married Maria Carmichael, and then in London where he made numerous friends in literary and political circles, and was professor of Italian at Queen’s College from 1853 to 1856. In the latter year he accompanied Lord Minto to Italy, on which occasion he first met Cavour. From 1857 to 1863 he was private secretary (non-political) to Lord Lansdowne, and in 1858 he accompanied Gladstone to the Ionian Islands as secretary, for which services he was made a K.C.M.G. the following year. In 1860 Francis II. of Naples had implored Napoleon III. to send a squadron to prevent Garibaldi from crossing over from Sicily to Calabria; the emperor expressed himself willing to do so provided Great Britain co-operated, and Lord John Russell was at first inclined to agree. At this juncture Cavour, having heard of the scheme, entrusted Lacaita, at the suggestion of Sir James Hudson, the British minister at Turin, with the task of inducing Russell to refuse co-operation. Lacaita, who was an intimate friend both of Russell and his wife, succeeded, with the help of the latter, in winning over the British statesman just as he was about to accept the Franco-Neapolitan proposal, which was in consequence abandoned. He returned to Naples late in 1860 and the following year was elected member of parliament for Bitonto, although he had been naturalized a British subject in 1855. He took little part in parliamentary politics, but in 1876 was created senator. He was actively interested in a number of English companies operating in Italy, and was made one of the directors of the Italian Southern Railway Co. He had a wide circle of friends in many European countries and in America, including a number of the most famous men in politics and literature. He died in 1895 at Posilipo near Naples.
An authority on Dante, he gave many lectures on Italian literature and history while in England; and among his writings may be mentioned a large number of articles on Italian subjects in the Encyclopaedia Britannica (1857–1860), and an edition of Benvenuto da Imola’s Latin lectures on Dante delivered in 1375; he co-operated with Lord Vernon in the latter’s great edition of Dante’s Inferno (London, 1858–1865), and he compiled a catalogue in four volumes of the duke of Devonshire’s library at Chatsworth (London, 1879).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lace-bark Tree

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​LACE-BARK TREE, a native of Jamaica, known botanically as Lagetta lintearia, from its native name lagetto. The inner bark consists of numerous concentric layers of interlacing fibres resembling in appearance lace. Collars and other articles of apparel have been made of the fibre, which is also used in the manufacture of whips, &c. The tree belongs to the natural order Thymelaeaceae, and is grown in hothouses in Britain.