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# The Philosophy of Law

* information about this edition.
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Original title: Metaphysische Anfangsgründe der Rechtslehre (1797). [First part of The Metaphysics of Morals.]

## Table of contents

* Translator’s Preface
* Preface
* Prolegomena
** General Introduction to the Metaphysic of Morals
** General Divisions of the Metaphysic of Morals
* Introduction: Introduction to the Science of Right
** General Definitions and Divisions
** Division of the Science of Right
* Part First: Private Right
** Chapter 1: Of the Mode of Having Anything External As One's Own
** Chapter 2: The Mode of Acquiring Anything External
** Chapter 3: Acquisition Conditioned by the Sentence of a Public Judicatory
* Part Second: Public Right
** I: Right of the State and Constitutional Law
** II:The Right of Nations and International Law
** III:The Universal Right of Mankind
* Supplementary Explanations of the Principles of Right
This work is a translation and has a separate copyright status to the applicable copyright protections of the original content.
# The Problem of China

* related portals: China.
* sister projects: Wikidata item.
THE PROBLEM OF CHINA
BY BERTRAND RUSSELL
SOMETIME PROFESSOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN THE GOVERNMENT UNIVERSITY OF PEKING
LONDON: GEORGE ALLEN & UNWIN LTD. RUSKIN HOUSE, 40 MUSEUM STREET, W.C.
First published in 1922
(All rights reserved)
CONTENTS
* ChapterPage
* I.Questions................................................9
* II.China Before the Nineteenth Century................................................21
* III.China and the Western Powers................................................48
* IV.Modern China................................................63
* V.Japan Before the Restoration................................................86
* VI.Modern Japan................................................97
* VII.Japan and China Before 1914................................................117
* VIII.Japan and China Before the War................................................130
* IX.The Washington Conference................................................149
* X.Present Forces and Tendencies in the Far East................................................159
* XI.Chinese and Western Civilization Contrasted................................................185
* XII.The Chinese Character................................................199
* XIII.Higher Education in China................................................214
* XIV.Industrialism in China................................................226
* XV.The Outlook for China................................................240
* Appendix................................................253
* Index................................................256
This work is in the public domain in the United States because it was published before January 1, 1929.
The longest-living author of this work died in 1970, so this work is in the public domain in countries and areas where the copyright term is the author's life plus 53 years or less. This work may be in the public domain in countries and areas with longer native copyright terms that apply the rule of the shorter term to foreign works.
Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse
# The Princess and Curdie/Chapter 30

CHAPTER XXX. PETER.
AT the cottage on the mountain everything for a time went on just as before. It was indeed dull without Curdie, but as often as they looked at the emerald it was gloriously green, and with nothing to fear or regret, and everything to hope, they required little comforting. One morning, however, at last, Peter, who had been consulting the gem, rather now from habit than anxiety, as a farmer his barometer in undoubtful weather, turned suddenly to his wife, the stone in his hand, and held it up with a look of ghastly dismay.
"Why, that's never the emerald!" said Joan.
"It is," answered Peter; "but it were small blame to any one that took it for a bit of bottle glass!"
For, all save one spot right in the centre, of intensest and most brilliant green, it looked as if the colour had been burnt out of it.
​"Run, run, Peter!" cried his wife. "Run and tell the old princess. It may not be too late. The boy must be lying at death's door."
Without a word Peter caught up his mattock, darted from the cottage, and was at the bottom of the hill in less time than he usually took to get halfway.
The door of the king's house stood open; he rushed in and up the stair. But after wandering about in vain for an hour, opening door after door, and finding no way farther up, the heart of the old man had well-nigh failed him. Empty rooms, empty rooms!—desertion and desolation everywhere.
At last he did come upon the door to the tower-stair. Up he darted. Arrived at the top, he found three doors, and, one after the other, knocked at them all But there was neither voice nor hearing. Urged by his faith and his dread, slowly, hesitatingly, he opened one. It revealed a bare garret-room, nothing in it but one chair and one spinning-wheel. He closed it, and opened the next—to start back in terror, for he saw nothing but a great gulf, a moonless night, full of stars, and, for all the stars, dark, dark!—a fathomless abyss. He opened the third door, and a rush like the tide of a living sea invaded his ears. Multitudinous wings flapped and flashed in the sun, and, like the ascending column from a volcano, white birds innumerable shot into the air, darkening the ​day with the shadow of their cloud, and then, with a sharp sweep, as if bent sideways by a sudden wind, flew northward, swiftly away, and vanished. The place felt like a tomb. There seemed no breath of life left in it Despair laid hold upon him; he rushed down thundering with heavy feet. Out upon him darted the housekeeper like an ogress-spider, and after her came her men; but Peter rushed past them, heedless and careless—for had not the princess mocked him?—and sped along the road to Gwyntystorm. What help lay in a miner's mattock, a man's arm, a father's heart, he would bear to his boy.
Joan sat up all night waiting his return, hoping and hoping. The mountain was very still, and the sky was clear; but all night long the miner sped northwards, and the heart of his wife was troubled.
# The Poets' Chantry/Bibliography

ROBERT SOUTHWELL
WILLIAM HABINGTON
RICHARD CRASHAW
AUBREY DE VERE
GERARD HOPKINS
Father Hopkins' published verses may be found in the following anthologies :—
COVENTRY PATMORE
LIONEL JOHNSON
FRANCIS THOMPSON
ALICE MEYNELL
# The New Student's Reference Work/Brazil, Ind.

See also Brazil, Indiana on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Brazil, Ind., a city, the seat of Clay County, 57 miles west southwest of Indianapolis and about 20 miles east of Terre Haute, on the Wabash River. It is reached by the Chicago & Eastern Illinois Railroad, the Evansville & Terre Haute system and other railroads. The city has a public library, and owns and operates its own water-works. Its industries, aided by the extensive deposits of block-coal, clay and shale of superior quality in the neighborhood, include sewer-pipe and other clay products, brick and tile works, the manufacture of pig iron, boilers, mining engines, steel rails and a variety of other machinery. Brazil dates from about the year 1856, and was incorporated as a city in 1878. Population, (1910), 9,340.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Breakwater

See also Breakwater (structure) on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​ Breakwater, a bank or levee of stones or a timber structure, used to break the violence of the sea in its entrance into a harbor or roadstead. There may be a natural breakwater, as the Isle of Wight, which protects Portsmouth and Southampton. The Romans made artificial breakwaters of some size in several Italian ports. The first modern structure and the greatest of all breakwaters is that at Cherbourg, on the French side of the English Channel. There are also breakwaters in the English harbors of Plymouth, Portland and Holyhead. Several structures of this kind have also been built upon the Great Lakes, as at Buffalo and Cleveland on Lake Erie and at Chicago on Lake Michigan. The one at Buffalo is the largest in the United States. The usual method of building breakwaters is to cast down large stones and allow them to settle under the action of the tides and currents. The top is then covered with large blocks of artificial stone or with paving laid at a regular slope, and a wall is built.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Brazos

See also Brazos River on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Brazos (brä′ zōs), formerly called Brazos-de-Dios, is a large river in Texas. It rises in the elevated region of the northwest that once was called the Llano Estacado or Staked Plain, and flows southeastward between Colorado and Trinity Rivers. After a course of about nine hundred miles it falls into the Mexican Gulf, forty miles southwest of Galveston. During the wet season it affords 300 miles of steamboat navigation. The cotton plantations along the river are highly productive. About midway between the source and the mouth is Waco (population, 30,000). This is an important railway center and the chief city on the river.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Bread

See also Bread on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Bread, an article of food. Wheat is the best material for making bread; but other grains are used, such as rye, barley, Indian corn and rice. The earliest bread was made without leaven or yeast, like the unleavened bread of the Jews and the oat cakes of Scotland and the corn cakes of America. Leaven was used to raise bread, that is, to give it a spongy texture, before yeast. It is simply a portion of moistened flour or dough which has begun to ferment, and so when added to the mass causes the rest to ferment. Leaven is still used, but yeast has very generally taken its place. The usual materials of bread are flour, yeast and water containing salt. Many of the operations of breadmaking are now carried on by machinery. Some bakeries use 2,000 bags of flour in a week. Brown bread is made from the ground but undressed wheat, and so contains the bran as well as the wheat.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Brassey, Lady Anne

Brassey, Lady Anne, wife of Lord Thomas and a great traveler, accompanying her husband in his tours in the yacht Sunbeam, was born in 1840, and died at sea, Sept. 14, 1887. She is the author of the delightful Voyage in the Sunbeam, published in 1878; of a cruise to Cyprus and Constantinople, described in Sunshine and Storm in the East; and of a later work, In the Trades, the Tropics and the Roaring Forties.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Breckenridge, John Cabell

See also John C. Breckinridge on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
* John C. Breckenridge
Breck′enridge, John Cabell, an American politician and soldier, was born in Kentucky in 1821. He took part in the Mexican War, and afterward became a member of Congress. In 1856 he was elected vice-president, with Buchanan as president, and four years later was one of the Democratic candidates for president, receiving the electoral votes of most of the southern states. He was elected senator, but entered the Confederate army, where he rose to the rank of major-general. In 1865 he was appointed Confederate secretary of war. Later, he practiced law in Kentucky. He died in 1875.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Brassey, Thomas, Lord

See also Thomas Brassey, 1st Earl Brassey on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Brassey, Thomas, Lord, an English political economist and authority on seamanship, was born in 1836 (the son of Thomas Brassey, the great contractor, whose Life was written by Sir Arthur Helps) and educated at Rugby and at Oxford. He entered English political life in 1865, and from 1880 to 1885 he was civil lord of the admiralty in Mr. Gladstone’s administration and afterward secretary to the admiralty. Since 1895 he has been governor of Victoria, Australia. He is known as an enthusiastic yachtsman, interested in the British seamen, a writer on the British navy; and in 1893–95 was president of the Institute of Naval Architects. His chief writings are a treatise on Works and Wages; The Eastern Question; English Work and Foreign Wages; and The British Navy (in 5 volumes).
# The New Student's Reference Work/Brattleboro, Vt.

See also Battleboro, Vermont on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Brattleboro, Vt., a town in Windham County, on the Connecticut River, about 60 miles north of Springfield, Mass., reached by the Central Vermont and the Boston and Maine Railroad. The town dates from the middle of the 18th century and has an interesting early history, while it occupies a picturesque site. Besides its civic buildings it has a public library and is the seat of the state asylum for the insane. Among its manufactures is the factory of the Estey parlor-organs; its other establishments are furniture and toy-making factories and those producing children’s carriages, wagons and canning machinery. Maple-sugar is also a product of the industries of the town. Population (census 1910), 7,541.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Breadfruit Tree

See also Breadfruit on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
* Breadfruit
Bread′fruit Tree, a native of southern Asia, of the islands of the South Pacific and of the Indian Archipelago. It is now grown also in some of the West Indies. Growing to a height of forty or fifty feet, it has large, dark-green leaves and a sphere-shaped fruit, about the size of a child’s head, weighing sometimes over four pounds. The fruit is the main food of the natives of the South Sea islands. It is covered with a rough rind, and the fruit when ripe is juicy and yellow. It is better, however, before it is fully ripe. When cut up and baked in an oven, it is mealy and nourishing. In taste somewhat sweetish, it is more like a plantain than ordinary wheat bread. When properly cooked, it will keep several weeks. The South Sea natives beat it into a paste, which, slightly fermented, is somewhat sour, but a food they relish. The breadfruit tree will produce two or three crops a year. The wood is used for furniture, for building and for various purposes.
# The Qur'an (Palmer)/Fil

The Chapter of the Elephant.
(ⅭⅤ. Mecca.)
In the name of the merciful and compassionate God.
Hast thou not seen what thy Lord did with the fellows of the elephant?
Did He not make their stratagem lead them astray, and send down on them birds in flocks, to throw down on them stones of baked clay, $^5$ and make them like blades of herbage eaten down ?
# The Qur'an (Palmer)/Bayyina

The Chapter of the Manifest Sign.
(ⅩⅭⅧ. Place of origin doubtful.)
In the name of the merciful and compassionate God.
Those of the people of the Book and the idolaters ​who misbelieve did not fall off until there came to them the manifest sign,—
An apostle from God reading pure pages wherein are right scriptures :
Nor did those who were given the Book divide into sects until after there came to them the manifest sign.
But they were not bidden aught but to worship God, being sincere in religion unto Him as ‘Hanifs, and to be steadfast in prayer, and to give alms: for that is the standard religion.
[5] Verily, those who disbelieve amongst the people of the Book and the idolaters shall be in the fire of hell,to dwell therein for aye ; they are wretched creatures !
Verily, those who believe and act aright, they are the best of creatures ; their reward with their Lord is gardens of Eden, beneath which rivers flow, to dwell therein for aye; God shall be well pleased with them, and they with Him! that is for him who fears his Lord!
# The Qur'an (Palmer)/Humaza

The Chapter of the Backbiter.
(ⅭⅣ. Mecca.)
In the name of the merciful and compassionate God.
Woe to every slanderous backbiter, who collects wealth and counts it.
He thinks that his wealth can immortalize him.
Not so! he shall be hurled into El ʿHutamah !
$^5$ And what shall make thee understand what El ʿHutamah is ? — the fire of God kindled; which rises above the hearts. Verily, it is an archway over them on long-drawn columns.
# The Qur'an (Palmer)/Falaq

The Chapter of the Daybreak. .
(CXIII. Place of origin doubtful.)
In the name of the merciful and compassionate God.
Say, ' I seek refuge in the Lord of the daybreak, from the evil of what He has created ; and from the evil of the night when it cometh on; and from the evil of the blowers upon knots; $^5$ and from the evil of the envious when he envies.'
* ↑ Or, according to a traditional explanation given by the prophet to 'Ayeshah, ' the moon when it is eclipsed. '
* ↑ Witches who make knots in string and blow upon them, uttering at the same time some magical formula and the name of the persons they wish to injure.
# The Qur'an (Palmer)/Fatihah

The Opening Chapter.
(I. Mecca.)
In the name of the merciful and compassionate God.
Praise belongs to God, the Lord of the worlds, the merciful, the compassionate, the ruler of the day of judgment! Thee we serve and Thee we ask for aid. $^5$ Guide us in the right path, the path of those Thou art gracious to; not of those Thou art wroth with; nor of those who err.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Virgin

Edition of 1905. See also the disclaimer.
​ VIRGIN. See Mary; Madonna.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Vireo

Edition of 1905. See also Vireo on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
VIR'EO (Lat. vireo, greenfinch, from virere, to be green, vigorous), or Greenlet. The common name of a family of about fifty insectivorous birds, having a plumage more or less tinted with green and olive. In the genus Vireo the bill is short, straight, notched, and hooked at the tip; wings long and pointed; toes of moderate length; tail moderate and even. There are about 30 species, a dozen of which occur in the United States, most of them migrating to and from South America and the West Indies. Many of these birds are singers, and the variety of song in the genus is great. All subsist exclusively upon insects, and are of immense service to the gardener and orchardist. All agree, also, in constructing a very artistic nest in the form of a cup of ribbon-like materials, such as grape-vine bark, ornamented with cobwebs, lichens, and the like; the typical form is shown on the Plate of Pensile Nests of Birds, under Nidification. The most familiar and widespread species in the United States is the red-eyed vireo (Vireo olivaceus), about six inches long; back and tail bright olive green, crown ashy, and a characteristic double line, dusky and white, over the eye, the iris of which is red. The white-eyed vireo (Vireo Noveboracensis) is very similar, but has a white iris. A more southerly species is Vireo barbatulus, called ‘Whip-Tom Kelley’ in Jamaica after its call-notes. Of the others, the most striking is the yellow-throated (Vireo flavifrons), which is bright olive green above, pure white beneath, and with the throat and breast bright yellow.
RED-EYED VIREO.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Virginia, University of

Edition of 1905. See also University of Virginia on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ VIRGINIA, University of. An undenominational institution of higher learning at Charlottesville, Va., four miles from Monticello, the home of Thomas Jefferson, its founder. It was chartered in 1819 and opened in 1825. The group of college buildings, planned by Jefferson and erected under his personal supervision, together with the recent additions made to harmonize with and complete his designs, constitute one of the most characteristic and artistic pieces of academic architecture in America. The quadrangle is about 1000 feet long and 300 feet wide. The dominant structure is the Rotunda, set centrally at the northern end, and modeled from the Roman Pantheon. It is now devoted to the university library. The courses of instruction are comprised in five departments: academic, engineering, law, medicine, and agriculture, comprising in all 22 schools, of which each affords an independent course under professors who are responsible only to the board of visitors, appointed by the Governor. The courses are purely elective. The degrees of bachelor of arts, law, and science, master of arts, doctor of philosophy, medicine, and law, civil, mechanical, mining, and electrical engineer are conferred only upon examination after residence. No honorary degrees are given. Qualified persons may be licensed by the faculty to form classes for private instruction in any school of the university. The university had in 1903 a student attendance of 619, 57 instructors, and a library of 48,500 volumes. In the same year its endowment was $378,850, with an income of $154,845, and its grounds and buildings were valued at $1,250,000.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Virgin Islands

Edition of 1905. See also Virgin Islands on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ VIRGIN ISLANDS. A group of the Leeward Islands, consisting of upward of 100 islands, situated immediately east of Porto Rico (Map: Antilles, P 5). They are mostly unproductive and uninhabited. Scarcely one-third of the area is in cultivation and occupied—about 270 square miles being inhabited by nearly 40,000 persons. The climate is comparatively healthful. There are two wet and two dry seasons. Hurricanes and earthquakes are somewhat frequent. In the geological formation figure chalk-limestone, serpentine, and eruptive stone. The coasts afford good fishing; nut trees abound in the forests; and there is fine pasturage. Among the exports are sugar, indigo, cotton, and salt. Saint Croix, Saint Thomas, and Saint John belong to Denmark; Culebra, Culebrita, and Vieques to the United States (formerly to Spain); and the rest of the group, Tortola, Virgin, Gorda, and Anegada, to Great Britain. The Virgin Islands were discovered by Columbus in 1494. See West Indies, Danish; West Indies.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Virginal

Edition of 1905. See also Virginals on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ VIRGINAL (OF., Fr. virginal, from Lat. virginalis, maidenly, from virgo, maiden; so called probably because played especially by young girls). A keyed instrument, one of the precursors of the pianoforte. It resembled in form a small pianoforte, with a compass of four octaves, furnished with a quill and jack like those of the spinet, and a single string to each note.
VIRGINAL.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Villard, Henry

Edition of 1905. See also Henry Villard on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
VILLARD, Henry (1835-1900). An American journalist and financier, born in Speyer, Rhenish Bavaria. His name was originally Hilgard, but he changed it to Villard when he came to the United States in 1853. During the Civil War he won considerable distinction as a war correspondent with the Federal armies, and during the brief Austro-Prussian War of 1866 was correspondent for the New York Tribune. After the financial panic of 1873 he was made the representative of several committees of German bondholders in connection with the Pacific Coast railroads. He at once went to the Pacific Northwest, where he eventually bought the interests of various European investors and organized the Oregon Railway and Navigation Company, He formed a syndicate which obtained control of the Northern Pacific Railroad, of which he became president in 1881. Under his direction the main line to the Pacific was completed, but at such an immense expense that the company became financially embarrassed, and Villard was compelled to sacrifice his large private fortune and to retire from the presidency, A few years later, by means of German capital, he again obtained control of the Northern Pacific system, and from 1889 to 1893 was chairman of its board of directors. In 1881 he bought a controlling interest in the New York Evening Post. He was also interested in promoting Thomas A. Edison's inventions, and in ​ 1890 effected a combination of electrical interests and organized the Edison General Electric Company, of which he became president.