OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tenebrae

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​TENEBRAE (Lat. for “shadows,” “ darkness ”), the name for an office sung in Roman Catholic churches on the afternoon or evening of Wednesday, Thursday, and Friday of Holy Week. The name is derived, according to Durandus (Ration, lib. vi. cap. 72, n. 2), from the fact that “ the church on these days cultivates darkness (tenebras colit): firstly because it is in sorrow and grief on account of the Lord's Passion, and because for three days it celebrates his exequies since for three days he was dead; secondly, the office of Tenebrae symbolizes the darkness that fell on the face of the earth while the Sun of justice was hung upon the cross,” &c. The falling darkness is symbolized by a peculiar and singularly impressive ceremony (see Lights, Ceremonial).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tenement

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​TENEMENT (Med. Lat. tenementum, from tenere, to hold), in law, a term which, according to Coke, “includes not only all corporate inheritances which are or may be holden, but also all inheritances issuing out of those inheritances, or concerning, or annexed to, or exercisable within the same ” (Co. Litt. 20a). In its more general legal sense it is applied to realty, as opposed to personalty. In its popular sense tenement is used as meaning a house or dwelling, and, more particularly in large cities, tenement h ouses are buildings occupied by several families living independently of one another, but having a common right in the hall, staircases and outhouses. In the heart of great towns the problem of housing is a difficult one, and it is only of recent years that attention has been directed to the unsuitable and insanitary condition of many houses occupied on the tenement system as defined above, but in many cases never built with the conveniences necessary for joint occupation. In most of the large cities in Great Britain and the United States tenement houses are now built on the most modern plans (see Housing), and it is to be noted that the municipality of New York has a special Tenement-house Department, under charge of a commissioner, with wide authority to supervise the structure of tenement houses and their occupancy in the interest of health and general welfare.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tennant, Charles

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​TENNANT, CHARLES (1768–1838), Scottish industrial chemist, was born at Ochiltree, Ayrshire, on the 3rd of May 1768. He started in business as a bleacher at Darnley, and in 1798 took out a patent for a bleach liquor formed by passing chlorine into a mixture of lime and water. This product had the advantage, as compared with the Eau de Javelles, then generally used, that a cheaper base, lime, was substituted for potash in its preparation; but when he attempted to protect his rights against infringement his patent was held invalid on the double ground that the specification was incomplete and that the invention had been anticipated at some bleach-works near Nottingham. In 1799 he patented a more convenient material in bleaching powder or “chloride of lime,” formed by the action of chlorine on slaked lime, and for its manufacture founded at Glasgow in 1800 the well-known St Rollox chemical works, now merged in the United Alkali Company. He died at Glasgow on the 1st of October 1838.
His grandson the iron-master, Sir Charles Tennant (1823–1906), was M.P. for Glasgow from 1878 to 1880 and for Peebles and Selkirk from 1880 to 1886; he was created a baronet in 1885.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tench

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​TENCH (Tinca vulgaris), a small fish of the Cyprinid family, which is one of the commonest and most widely spread freshwater fishes of Europe. It is generally distributed in all suitable localities throughout England, but is limited to a few lakes and ponds in the south of Scotland and in Ireland. As the tench is of comparatively uncommon occurrence in unenclosed waters, its place among the indigenous fishes of Great Britain has been denied, and it has been supposed to have been introduced Tench from the Continent; a view which, however, is not supported by any evidence, and is practically disposed of by the fact that fossil remains of the fish are found in the Pleistocene deposits of Great Britain. In central Europe it thrives best in enclosed, preserved waters, with a clayey or muddy bottom and with an abundant vegetation; it avoids clear waters with stony ground, and is altogether absent from rapid streams. The tench is distinguished by its very small scales, which are deeply imbedded in a thick skin, whose surface is as slippery as that of an eel. All the fins have a rounded outline; the short dorsal fin is without a spine, but the males possess a very thick and flattened outer ray in the ventral fins. The mouth is rather narrow and provided at each corner with a very small barbel. Tench if kept in suitable waters are extremely prolific, and as they grow within a few years to a weight of 3 or 4 lb, and are then fit for the table, they may be profitably introduced into ponds which are already stocked with other fishes, such as carp and pike. They live on small animals or soft vegetable substances, which they root up from the bottom. The albino variety especially, which is known as the “golden tench,” can be recommended for ornamental waters, as its bright orange colours render it visible for some distance below the surface of the water. This variety, which seems to have been originally bred in Silesia, is not less well-flavoured than the normally coloured tench, and grows to the same size, viz., to 6 and even 8 lb.
The tench is really an excellent fish for the table, if kept in cool, clear water for a few days, as it is the custom to do in Germany, in order to rid it of the muddy flavour imparted to it by its favourite abode.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tencin, Claudine Alexandrine Guérin de

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​TENCIN, CLAUDINE ALEXANDRINE GUERIN DE (1681–1749), French courtesan and author, was born at Grenoble. Her father, Antoine Guerin, sieur de Tencin, was president of the parlement of Grenoble. Claudine was brought up at a convent near Grenoble and, at the wish of her parents, took the veil, but broke her vows and succeeded, in 1714, in gaining formal permission from the pope for her secularization. She joined her sister Mme. de Ferriol in Paris, where she soon established a salon, frequented by wits and roues. Among her numerous lovers were the Chevalier Le Camus Destouches, the duc de Richelieu, and according to her biographer many other persons of distinction. The last of her liaisons had a tragic ending. M. de la Fresnaye committed suicide in her house, and Mme. de Tencin spent some time in the Chatelet in consequence, but was soon liberated as the result of a declaration of her innocence by the Grand Conseil. From this time she devoted herself to political intrigue, especially for the preferment of her brother the abbe Tencin, who became archbishop of Embrun and received a cardinal’s hat. Eventually she formed a literary salon, which had among its habitue's Fontenelle, Montesquieu, the abbé de Saint Pierre, Pierre Marivaux, Alexis Piron and others. Hers was the first of the Parisian literary salons to which distinguished foreigners were admitted, and among her English guests were Bolingbroke and Chesterfield. By the good sense with which she conducted what she called her “menagerie,” she almost succeeded in effacing the record of her early disgrace. She was a novelist of considerable merit. Her novels have been highly praised for their simplicity and charm, the last qualities the circumstances of the writer's life would lead one to expect in her work. The best of them is Mtmoires du comte de Comminges (1735), which appeared, as did the other two, under the name of her nephews, MM. d’Argental and Pont de Veyle, the Teal authorship being carefully concealed. Mme. de Tencin died on the 4th of December 1749.
Her works, with those of Mme. de la Fayette, were edited by Etienne and Jay (Paris, 1825); her novels were reprinted, with introductory matter by Lescure, in 1885; and her correspondence in the Lettres de Mmes. de Villars, de La Fayette el de Tencin (Paris, 1805-1832). See P. Masson, Madame de Tencin (Paris, 1909).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tender

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​TENDER. (1) An adjective meaning soft, either physically or figuratively, derived from Fr. tendre, Lat. tener, soft, allied to tennis, thin, and ultimately to be referred to the root, tanto stretch out, as in Lat. tenders. (2) A legal term meaning an offer for acceptance, particularly an offer in money for the satisfaction of a debt or liability or an offer to pay or deliver ​according to the terms of a contract; for “ legal tender,” the currency which can legally be offered and must be accepted in payment, see Payment. The term is also applied specifically to an offer to do a specified piece of work or to supply certain goods for a certain sum or at a certain rate or to purchase goods at a certain rate. Contracts for large or important works or for the supply of large amounts of goods are usually put out to tender in order to secure the lowest price. In this sense the word is from “ to tender,” to offer, Fr. tendre, Lat. tendere, to stretch out. (3) A “ tender ” is also one who “ attends ” (Lat. attendere, to stretch towards, to give heed to), and so is applied particularly to a small vessel which brings supplies, passengers, &c., to a larger vessel, or which is used to take or bring messages from or to her, and similarly to a carriage attached to a locomotive engine on a railway which carries coal or other fuel and water.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tennant, Smithson

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​TENNANT, SMITHSON (1761–1815), English chemist, was born at Selby, Yorkshire, on the 30th of November 1761. He began to study medicine at Edinburgh in 1781, but in a few months moved to Cambridge, where he devoted himself to botany and chemistry. He graduated M.D. at Cambridge in 1790, and about the same time purchased an estate near Cheddar, where he carried out agricultural experiments. He was appointed professor of chemistry at Cambridge in 1813, but lived to deliver only one course of lectures, being killed near Boulogne on the 22nd of February 1815 by the fall of a bridge over which he was riding. He was a man of more promise than performance, and his chief achievement was the discovery of the elements iridium and osmium, which he found in the residues from the solution of platinum ores (1804). He also contributed to the proof of the identity of diamond and charcoal.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sangli

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​SANGLI, a native state of India, in Bombay, ranking as one of the Southern Mahratta Jagirs. The territory is widely scattered among other native states and British districts. Area, 1112 sq. m. Pop. (1901) 226,128; estimated revenue, £10,000. The river Kistna waters part of the country, which is exceedingly fertile. Millet, rice, wheat and cotton are the chief crops, and cotton cloth is manufactured. The chief, whose title is Tatya Saheb Patwardhan, is a Brahman by caste. The town of Sangli, on the river Kistna, has a station on the Southern Mahratta railway, 11 m. from Miraj Junction. Pop. (1901) 16,829.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sankt Johann

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​SANKT JOHANN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province, on the right bank of the Saar, opposite Saarbrücken with which it is connected by three bridges. It is 49 m. N.E. from Metz and at the junction of lines from Trier, Bingerbrück and Zweibrücken. Pop. (1905) 24,140. Sankt Johann is the seat of extensive industries, the chief being the manufacture of railway plant and machinery, iron-founding, wire-drawing and brewing; its rapid industrial development is due mainly to the extensive railway system of which it is the centre.
Sankt Johann obtains its name from a chapel erected here. From 1321 to 1859 it formed a single town with Saarbrücken, ​and then was united to form one municipality with Saarbrücken and Malstatt-Burbach (united population, 90,000).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sanmichele, Michele

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​SANMICHELE, MICHELE (1484–1559), Italian architect, was born in San Michele near Verona. He learnt the elements of his profession from his father Giovanni and his uncle Bartolommeo, who both practised as architects at Verona with much success. He went at an early age to Rome to study classic sculpture and architecture. Among his earliest works are the duomo of Montefiascone (an octagonal building surmounted with a cupola), the church of San Domenico at Orvieto, and several palaces at both places. He also executed a fine tomb in S. Domenico. He was no less distinguished as a military architect, and was much employed by the signoria of Venice, not only at home, but also in strengthening the fortifications of Corfu, Cyprus and Candia. One of Sanmichele’s most graceful designs is the Cappella de' Peregrini in the church of S. Bernardino at Verona—square outside and circular within, of the Corinthian order. He built a great number of fine palaces at Verona, including those of Canossa, Bevilacqua and Pompei, as well as the graceful Ponte Nuovo. In 1527 Sanmichele began to transform the fortifications of Verona according to the newer system of corner bastions—a system for the advancement of which he did much valuable service. His last work, begun in 1559, was the round church of the Madonna di Campagna, 11/2 m. from Verona on the road to Venice. Like most other distinguished architects of his time he wrote a work on classic architecture, I Cinque Ordini dell' architettura, printed at Verona in 1735.
See Ronzani and Luciolli, Fabbriche . . . di M. Sanmichele (Venice. 1832); and Selva, Elogio di Sanmichele (Rome, 1814).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sannazaro, Jacopo

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​SANNAZARO, JACOPO (1458–1530), Italian poet of the Renaissance, was born in 1458 at Naples of a noble family, said to have been of Spanish origin, which had its seat at San Nazaro near Pavia. His father died during the boyhood of Jacopo, who was brought up at Nocera Inferiore. He afterwards studied at Naples under Giovanni Pontanus, when, according to the fashion of the time, he assumed the name Actius Syncerus, by which he is occasionally referred to. After the death of his mother he went abroad—driven, we are told, by the pangs of despised love for a certain Carmosina, whom he has celebrated in his verse under various names; but of the details of his travels nothing is recorded. On his return he speedily achieved fame as a poet and place as a courtier, receiving from Frederick III. as a country residence the Villa Mergillina near Naples. When his patron was compelled to take refuge in France in 1501 he was accompanied by Sannazaro, who did not return to Italy till after his death (1504). The later years of the poet seem to have been spent at Naples. He died on the 27th of April 1530.
The Arcadia of Sannazaro, begun in early life and published in 1504, is a somewhat affected and insipid Italian pastoral, in which in alternate prose and verse the scenes and occupations of pastoral life are described. See Scherillo’s edition (Turin, 1888). His now seldom read Latin poem De partu Virginis, which gained for him the name of the “Christian Virgil,” appeared in 1526, and his collected Sonetti e canzoni in 1530.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sankara Acharya

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​SANKARA ACHARYA (c. 789-820), Hindu theologian, was born about the year 789, probably at the village of Kaladi in Malabar. He belonged to the Nambudri class of Brahmins. He wandered far and wide, and engaged in much philosophical and theological debate. He taught the existence of the Supreme God and founded the sect of the Smarta Brahmins. His great achievement was the perfecting of the Mimansa or Vedanta philosophy. So great were his learning and piety that he was regarded as an incarnation of Siva, and his works (commentaries on the Vedanta Sutras, the Bhagavad Gita and the Upanishads) exercised a permanent influence on Hindu thought. He died at Kedarnata in the Himalayas when only 32 years of age.
See Sri Sankaracharya, by C. N. Krishnasurami Aiyar and Pandit Sitanath Tattvabhushan (Madras, 1902).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sanquhar

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​SANQUHAR, a royal and police burgh of Dumfriesshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 1379. It is situated on the Nith, 26 m. N.W. of Dumfries by the Glasgow & South-Western railway. It became a burgh of barony in 1484 and a royal burgh in 1596, and was the scene of the exhibition of the Covenanters’ Declaration, attached to the market cross in 1680 by Richard Cameron and in 1685 by James Renwick. The industries include coal-mining and the making of bricks and tiles, spades and shovels. The coal-field, measuring 7 m. long by 21/2 m. broad, is the most extensive in the shire and is the main source of supply for Dumfries and other towns. The cattle and sheep fairs are important, and an agricultural show is held every May. Sanquhar Castle, on a hill overlooking the Nith, once belonged to the Crichtons, ancestors of the marquess of Bute, but is now a ruin. Eliock House, in the parish, was the birthplace of James (“the Admirable”) Crichton in 1560.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sanjo, Sanetomi, Prince

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​SANJO, SANETOMI, Prince (1837-1891), Japanese statesman, was one of the old court nobles (kuge) of Japan, and figured prominently among the little band of reformers who accomplished the overthrow of feudalism and the restoration of the administration to the Mikado. He served as the first prime minister (daijo daijin) in the newly organized Meiji government.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sankt Pölten

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​SANKT PÖLTEN, an old town and episcopal see of Austria, in Lower Austria, 38 m. W. of Vienna by rail. Pop. (1900) 14, 510. It is situated on the Traisen, a tributary of the Danube, and contains an interesting old abbey church, founded in 1030 and restored in 1266 and again at the beginning of the 18th century. There are several religious educational institutions in the town, and a military academy for engineers. The industries include cotton spinning and milling, as Well as the manufacture of iron and hardware, and small arms. Sankt Pölten was an inhabited place in the Roman period. An abbey dedicated to St Hippolytus was founded here in the 9th century, around which the town developed. It was called Fanum Sancti Hippolyti, from which, by corruption, the actual name is derived. It was surrounded with walls and fortifications in the time of Rudolf of Habsburg, but these were demolished in modern times.
See Lampel, Urkundenbuch des Chorherrenstifts Sankt Pölten (Wien, 1891–1901, 2 vols.).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nicastro

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​NICASTRO, a town and episcopal see of Calabria, Italy, in the province of Catanzaro, 17 m. W.N.W. of Catanzaro by rail, and 51/2 m. E. of S. Eufemia, a station on the line along the ​west coast from Naples to Reggio di Calabria. Pop. (1901) 13,671 (town), 18,150 (commune). It is situated on the isthmus between the gulfs of S Eufemia and of Squillace, the narrowest part of Calabria, 970 ft. above sea-level, and commands a fine view. The ruined castle served as the place of imprisonment of Frederick II.’s son Henry. The place suffered greatly from the earthquake of 1638, which also destroyed the Benedictine abbey of S Eufemia, founded by Robert Guiscard.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nice

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​NICE, an adjective which in present usage has two main meanings: (1) fastidious, particular, precise or scrupulous, and (2) pleasant, kind or agreeable. The first meaning has been common since the 16th century, the second only since the end of the 18th. In O. Fr., from which the English form was adapted, the word is niche or nice, which are derivatives of Lat. nescius, not knowing, ignorant. The development in meaning is doubtful; some authorities take it as (1) foolish, (2) foolishly precise, (3) delicate, (4) pleasant. Skeat suggests an early confusion with the word “nesh,” soft, delicate, still surviving dialectically.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nicephorus Callistus Xanthopoulos

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​NICEPHORUS CALLISTUS XANTHOPOULOS, of Constantinople, the last of the Greek ecclesiastical historians, flourished 1320–1330. His Historia Ecclesiastica, in eighteen books, brings the narrative down to 610; for the first four centuries the author is largely dependent on his predecessors, Eusebius, Socrates, Sozomen, Theodoret and Evagrius, his additions showing very little critical faculty; for the later period his labours, based on documents now no longer extant, to which he had free access, though he used them also with small discrimination, are much more valuable. A table of contents of other five books, continuing the history to the death of Leo the Philosopher in 911, also exists, but whether the books were ever actually written is doubtful. Some modern scholars are of opinion that Nicephorus appropriated and passed off as his own the work of an unknown author of the 10th century. The plan of the work is good and, in spite of its fables and superstitious absurdities, contains important facts which would otherwise have been unknown. The history of the Latin Church receives little attention. Only one MS. of the history is known; it was stolen by a Turkish soldier from the library at Buda during the reign of Matthias Corvinus of Hungary and taken to Constantinople, where it was bought by a Christian and eventually reached the imperial library at Vienna. Nicephorus was also the author of lists of the emperors and patriarchs of Constantinople, of a poem on the capture of Jerusalem, and of a synopsis of the Scriptures, all in iambics; and of commentaries on liturgical poems.
Works in J. P. Migne, Patrologia Graeca, cxlv.-cxlvii.; see also F. C. Baur, Die Epochen der kirchlichen Geschichtsschreibung (1852); C. Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur (1897); Wetzer and Welte’s Kirchenlexikon, ix. (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1895).