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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Montrose, Marquesses and Dukes of

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​MONTROSE, MARQUESSES AND DUKES OF. David Lindsay, 5th earl of Crawford (c. 1440–1495), was created duke of Montrose in 1488 (the first dukedom conferred in Scotland on a person not of royal blood), as a reward for remaining loyal to James III. during the rebellion of Angus and Prince James. Montrose was deprived of his dukedom by James IV., but it was restored in 1489 for life only. On his death in 1495 the title therefore became extinct.
In 1505, William, 4th Lord Graham, whose wife Annabella Drummond was the duke’s niece, was created earl of Montrose; and this title was held by his descendants till 1644, when James Graham, 5th earl, was created marquess of Montrose and earl of Kincardine. This was the celebrated marquess of Montrose (q.v.) of the Civil War, whose son and successor, James (c. 1631–1669), was known as “the Good Marquess.” The latter refused to vote at the trial of his hereditary enemy the marquess of Argyll in 1661, admitting that he could not act impartially in such a matter; and the two noblemen afterwards became firm friends. The good marquess died in 1669, and was succeeded by his son James, 3rd marquess of Montrose (d. 1684). The 4th marquess, son of the last mentioned, who was also named James (d. 1742), was lord high admiral of Scotland in 1705, and lord president of the council in 1706. He was an ardent supporter of the Hanoverian succession; he also favoured the union of Scotland with England, for his services in regard to which he was created duke of Montrose and marquess of Graham in 1707, becoming in the same year one of the first representative peers of Scotland in the parliament of Great Britain. He was one of the regents of the kingdom on the death of Queen Anne, and was appointed a secretary of state by George I. He took an active part in suppressing the Jacobite rising in 1715, after which he was made keeper of the great seal in Scotland. He died in 1742. During his lifetime his son David was raised to the peerage of Great Britain with the title of Earl Graham; and on David’s death without issue in 1731 this earldom passed under a special remainder to his brother William (c. 1710–1790), who on his father’s death in 1742 succeeded to the dukedom also. William’s son James, 3rd duke of Montrose (1755–1836), held office in Pitt’s administrations in 1783 and 1804, and in that of the duke of Portland in 1807. He obtained the annulment of the law prohibiting Highlanders from wearing the kilt. He was succeeded by his son James (1799–1874), who held office under the earl of Derby in 1852, and again in 1858 and 1866, and was father of Douglas Beresford Malise Ronald, 5th duke (b. 1852). In 1853 James Lindsay, 24th earl of Crawford, claimed the title of duke of Montrose on the ground that the patent granted to his ancestor David Lindsay in 1488 (see above) had not been effectively rescinded, but his petition was dismissed by the House of Lords.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Plank

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​PLANK, a flat piece of timber, sawn and planed; it is technically distinguished from a “board” by its greater thickness, and should measure from 2 to 4 in. in thickness and from 10 to 11 in. ​in width. The word comes through the Fr. planche (from post-Augustan, Lat. planca, a nasalized adaptation probably of Gr. πλάξ, something flat, especially a flat stone. The use of the word “plank” in the sense of an article in a political programme is of American origin and is due to the use of “platform” for the programme itself.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Plantain

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​ PLANTAIN (Lat. plantago), a name given to certain plants with broad leaves. This is the case with certain species of Plantago, Alisma and Musa, to all of which the term is popularly applied. The species of Plantago are mostly weeds with a dense tuft of radical leaves and scapes bearing terminal spikes of small flowers; the long spikes of P. major, when in seed, are used for feeding cage-birds; P. lanceolata, so called from its narrow lanceolate 3-6-ribbed leaves, is popularly known as ribwort; Alisma P. is the water-plantain, so called from the resemblance of its broad ribbed aerial leaves to those of P. major. The tropical fruit known as plantain belongs to the genus Musa (see Banana).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Planquette, Robert

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​PLANQUETTE, ROBERT (1850-), French musical composer, was born in Paris on the 31st of July 1850, and educated at the Conservatoire. As a boy he wrote songs and operettas for café concerts, and sprang into fame as the composer of Les Cloches de Corneville (Paris, 1877; London, 1878). In this work he showed a fertile vein of melody, which won instant recognition. There is in his music a touch of pathos and romantic feeling, which, had he cared to cultivate it, would have placed him far above contemporary writers of opéra bouffe. Unfortunately, he did little but repeat the formula which originally brought him reputation. Le Chevalier Gaston was produced in 1879 with little success. In 1880 came Les Voltigeurs du 32$^{me}$, which had a long run in London in 1887 as The Old Guard, and La Cantinière, which was translated into English as Nectarine, though never produced. In 1882 Rip van Winkle was produced in London, being subsequently given in Paris as Rip, in both cases with remarkable success. The libretto, an adaptation by H. B. Farnie of Washington Irving's famous tale, brought out what was best in Planquette's talent. In 1884 the phenomenon of an opera by a French composer being produced in London previously to being heard in Paris was repeated in Nell Gwynne, which was tolerably successful, but failed completely when produced in Paris as La Princesse Colombine. It was followed by La Crémaillère (Paris, 1885), Surcouf (Paris, 1887; London, as Paul Jones, 1889), Captain Thérèse (London, 1887), La Cocarde tricolore (Paris, 1892), Le Talisman (Paris, 1892), Panurge (Paris, 1895) and Mam'zette Quat'sous (Paris, 1897).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Planudes, Maximus

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​PLANUDES, MAXIMUS (c. 1260–1330), Byzantine grammarian and theologian, flourished during the reigns of Michael VIII. and Andronicus II. Palaeologi. He was born at Nicomedia in Bithynia, but the greater part of his life was spent in Constantinople, where as a monk he devoted himself to study and teaching. On entering the monastery he changed his original name Manuel to Maximus. Planudes possessed a knowledge of Latin remarkable at a time when Rome and Italy were regarded with hatred and contempt by the Byzantines. To this accomplishment he probably owed his selection as one of the ambassadors sent by Andronicus II. in 1327 to remonstrate with the Venetians for their attack upon the Genoese settlement in Pera. A more important result was that Planudes, especially by his translations, paved the way for the introduction of the Greek language and literature into the West.
He was the author of numerous works; notably a Greek grammar in the form of question and answer, like the Έρωτήματα of Moschopulus, with an appendix on the so-called “political” verse; a treatise on syntax; a biography of Aesop and a prose version of the fables, scholia on certain Greek authors; two hexameter poems, one a eulogy of Claudius Ptolemaeus, the other an account of the sudden change of an ox into a mouse; a treatise on the method of calculating in use amongst the Indians (ed. C. J. Gerhardt, Halle, 1865); and scholia to the first two books of the Arithmetic of Diophantus. His numerous translations from the Latin included Cicero’s Somnium Scipionis with the commentary of Macrobius; Caesar’s Gallic War; Ovid’s Heroides and Metamorphoses; Boetius, De consolatione philosophiae; Augustine, De trinitate. These translations were very popular during the middle ages as textbooks for the study of Greek. It is, however, as the editor and compiler of the collection of minor poems known by his name (see Anthology: Greek) that he is chiefly remembered.
See Fabricius, Bibliotheca graeca, ed. Harles, xi. 682; theological writings in Migne, Patrologia graeca, cxlvii; correspondence, ed. M. Treu (1890), with a valuable commentary; K. Krümbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur (1897); J. E. Sandys, Hist. of Class. Schol. (1906), vol. i.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Invercargill

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​INVERCARGILL, the chief town of Southland county, South Island, New Zealand, 139 m. by rail S.W. by W. from Dunedin. Pop. (1906) 7299. It lies on a deep estuary of the south coast named New River Harbour, which receives several streams famous for trout-fishing. It is the centre of the large grazing and farming district of Southland; and has a number of factories, including breweries, foundries, woollen mills and timber-works. The plan of the town is rectangular, with wide streets; and there is a fine open reserve. The harbour is deep and well sheltered, but the greater part of the trade passes through the neighbouring Bluff Harbour, on which is Campbelltown, 17 m. S. of Invercargill by rail. Bluff Harbour is the port of call and departure for steamers for Melbourne and Hobart. Exports are wool, preserved meat and timber. The district of Southland was surveyed in 1841, but was reported unfavourable, and settlement was delayed till 1857. Southland was a separate province between 1860 and 1870, but, failing financially as such, rejoined the parent province of Otago. Invercargill became a municipality in 1871, and there are five suburban municipalities. The town is the regular starting-point of a journey to the famous lakes Wakatipu and Te Anau, which are approached by rail.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Intrinsic

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​INTRINSIC (through Fr. intrinsique, from Lat. intrinsecus, inwardly; inter, within, secus, following, from root of sequi, to follow), an adjective originally applied to something internal or inside another, but now ordinarily used to express a quality inherent in or inseparable from a person, thing or abstract conception. In anatomy the term is, however, still used of a muscle which has both its origin and insertion in the organ in which it is found.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Intuition

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​INTUITION (from Lat. intuēri, to look at), in philosophy, a term applied to immediate or direct apprehension. The truth of a theorem in geometry is demonstrated by a more or less elaborate series of arguments. This is not the case, according to the intuitionalist school of philosophy, with the apprehension of universal principles, which present themselves as necessarily true in their own right, without any sort of proof. The fact that things which are equal to the same things are equal to one another is apprehended directly or immediately without demonstration. Similarly in ethics the intuitional school holds that the principles of right and wrong are immediately apprehended without reference to any other criterion and without any appeal to experience. Ethical intuitionalism sometimes goes even farther, and holds that the conscience when faced with any particular action at once assigns to it a definite moral value. Such a view presupposes that the moral quality of an action has, as it were, concrete reality which the special faculty of conscience immediately recognizes, much in the same way as a barometer records atmospheric pressure. The intuitionalist view is attacked mainly on the ground that it is false to the facts of experience, and it is maintained that many of the so-called immediate a priori judgments are in point of fact the result of forgotten processes of reasoning, and therefore a posteriori. Minor grounds of attack are found in the difficulty of discovering in certain primitive peoples any intuitive conception of right and wrong, and in the great differences which exist between moral systems in different countries and ages.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Invar

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​INVAR, an alloy of nickel and steel, characterized by an extremely small coefficient of thermal expansion; it is specially useful in the construction of pendulums and of geodetic measuring apparatus, in fact, in all mechanical devices where it is an advantage to avoid temperature compensation. The name was chosen as expressing the invariability of its dimensions with heat. (See Clock; Geodesy.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Inventory

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​INVENTORY (post-class. Lat. inventarium, a list or repertory, from invenire to find), a detailed list, schedule or enumeration in writing, of goods and chattels, credits and debts, and sometimes also of lands and tenements.
(i) In law, perhaps its earliest, and certainly its most important ​use has been in connexion with the doctrine of “benefit of inventory,” derived by many legal systems from the beneficium inventarii of Roman law, according to which an heir might enter on his ancestor’s inheritance without being liable for the debts attaching to it or to the claims of legatees beyond the value—previously ascertained by “inventory”—of the estate. The benefit of inventory exists in Scots law, in France (bénéfice d’inventaire), in Italy, Mauritius (Civil Code, Art. 774), Quebec (Civil Code, Art. 660), St Lucia (Civil Code, Art. 585), Louisiana (Civil Code, Arts. 1025 et seq.), and under the Roman Dutch law in Ceylon. In South Africa benefit of inventory is superseded by local legislation.
(ii.) In many systems of law, the duty is imposed on executors and administrators of making an “inventory” of the estate of the testator or intestate, in order to secure the property to the persons entitled to it. In England this duty was created by statute in 1529. In modern practice an inventory is not made unless called for, but the court may order it ex officio, and will do so on the application of any really interested party. Similar provisions for an inventory of the estate of deceased persons are made in Scots law (Probate and Legacy Duties Act 1808 (s. 38), and Executors (Scotland) Act 1900 (s. 5), and in most of the British colonies. In Scotland, prior to the Finance Act 1894 (which imposed a tax, called “estate duty,” on the principal value of all property, heritable or movable, passing on death), the stamp duty on movable property was termed “inventory duty.”
In the United States, the duty of preparing an inventory is generally imposed on executors and administrators; see Kent, Commentaries on American Law (new ed., 1896), ii. 414, 415; and cf. Gen. Stats. of Connecticut, 1888, s. 578; New York Stats. s. 2714; New Jersey (Orphans Court, s. 58).
(iii.) An analogous duty of preparing an “inventory” is imposed in many countries on guardians and curators. In Scotland judicial factors are charged with a similar statutory duty (Act of Sederunt, Nov. 25th, 1857, under the Bankruptcy (Scotland) Act 1856) as regards the estate of insolvent debtors.
(iv.) In Scots law, the term “inventory” is also applied to a list of documents made up for any purpose, e.g. the inventory of process or the inventory of documents, in an action, and the inventory of title-deeds produced on a judicial sale of lands.
(v.) In England an “inventory” of the personal chattels comprised in the security is required to be annexed to a bill of sale (Bills of Sale Act 1882, s. 5). See also Executors and Administrators.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Inveraray

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​INVERARAY, a royal and municipal burgh, the county town of Argyllshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 1369. It lies on the southern shore of a bay, where the river Aray enters Loch Fyne, 40 m. directly N.W. of Glasgow, and 85 m. by water. The town consists of one street running east and west, and a row of houses facing the bay. Near the church stands an obelisk in memory of the Campbells who were hanged, untried, for their share in the Argyll expedition of 1685 in connexion with the duke of Monmouth’s rebellion. The ancient market-cross, 8 ft. high, supposed to have been brought from Iona in 1472, is a beautiful specimen of the Scottish sculptured stones. The chief industry is the herring fishery, the herring of Loch Fyne being celebrated. The town originally stood on the north side of the bay, clustering round the ancient baronial hold, attributed to Sir Colin Campbell of Lochow, “the Singular,” who flourished at the end of the 14th century, but it was removed to its present site in the middle of the 18th century. Inveraray was erected into a burgh of barony in 1472; and Charles I., while a prisoner in Carisbrooke Castle, raised it to a royal burgh in 1648. Much has been done for it by the ducal house of Argyll, whose seat, Inveraray Castle, is about 1 m. from the town. This handsome square structure, built between 1744 and 1761 from designs by Robert Adam, consists of two storeys, with a round overtopping tower at each corner. Some fine tapestry and valuable relics were destroyed by fire in 1877, but the damage to the castle was repaired in 1880. The earls and dukes of Argyll were great planters of trees—mainly larch, spruce, silver fir and New England pines—and their estates around Inveraray are consequently among the most luxuriantly wooded in the Highlands. Duniquoich, a finely timbered conical hill about 900 ft. high, adjoins the castle on the north and is a picturesque landmark.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Invariable Plane

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​INVARIABLE PLANE, in celestial mechanics (see Astronomy), that plane on which the sum of the moments of momentum of all the bodies which make up a system is a maximum. It derives its celebrity from the demonstration by Laplace that to whatever mutual actions all the bodies of a system may be subjected, the position of this plane remains invariable.
A conception of it may be reached in the following way. Suppose that from the centre of gravity of the solar system (instead of which we may, if we choose, take the centre of the sun), lines or radii vectores be drawn to every body of the solar system. As the planet revolves around the centre, each radius vector describes a surface of which the area swept over in a unit of time measures the areal velocity of the planet. The constancy of this velocity in the case of the sun and a single planet is formulated in Kepler’s second law. Next pass any plane through the centre of motion and project the area just defined upon that plane. We shall thus have a projected areal velocity, the product of which by the mass of the planet is the moment of momentum of the latter. Form this product for every body or mass of matter in the system, and the sum of the moments is then invariable whatever be the direction of the plane of projection. In the case of a single body revolving around the sun this plane is that of its orbit. When all the bodies of the system are taken into account, the invariable plane is a certain mean among the planes of all the orbits.
In the case of the solar system the moment of Jupiter is so preponderant that the position of the invariable plane does not deviate much from that of the orbit of Jupiter. The influence of Saturn comes next in determining it, that of all the other planets is much smaller. The latest computation of the position of this plane is by T. J. J. See, whose result for the position of the invariable plane is inclination to ecliptic 1° 35′ 7″.74, longitude of node on ecliptic 106° 8′ 46″.7 (Eq. 1850).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Inulin

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​INULIN (C$_6$H$_{10}$O$_5$)$_x$, in chemistry, a starch-like carbohydrate, known also as alantin, menyanthin, dahlin, synanthrin and sinistrin. It occurs in many plants of the large genus Compositae, to which the elicampane (Lat. inula) belongs; and forms a white tasteless powder, sparingly soluble in cold water, very soluble in hot water and insoluble in alcohol. It is not coloured blue by iodine; and it reduces ammoniacal silver and gold solutions, but not Fehling’s solution. Heated with water or dilute acids, it is converted into laevulose.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Intransigent

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​INTRANSIGENT (adopted from the Fr. intransigeant, taken, through the Spanish intransigente, from the Lat. in, not, and transigere, to come to an understanding), one whose attitude is that of an irreconcilable. The term is used chiefly of politicians of an advanced type; those in complete antagonism to the existing form of government; but is especially applied on the continent of Europe to members of legislatures holding extreme Radical views. In this sense the word was first used in the political troubles which arose in Spain in the years 1873–1874. Intransigentism implies an attitude of uncompromising disagreement with political opponents. The word is also used non-politically, in the sense of intractability and intolerance.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Introspection

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​INTROSPECTION (from Lat. introspicere, to look within), in psychology, the process of examining the operations of one’s own mind with a view to discovering the laws which govern psychic processes. The introspective method has been adopted by psychologists from the earliest times, more especially by Hobbes, Locke, Berkeley, Hume, and English psychologists of the earlier school. It possesses the advantage that the individual has fuller knowledge of his own mind than that of any other person, and is able therefore to observe its action more accurately under systematic tests. On the other hand it has the obvious weakness that in the total content of the psychic state under examination there must be taken into account the consciousness that the test is in progress. This consciousness necessarily arouses the attention, and may divert it to such an extent that the test as such has little value. Such psychological problems as those connected with the emotions and their physical concomitants are especially defective in the introspective method; the fact that one is looking forward to a shock prepared in advance constitutes at once an abnormal psychic state, just as a nervous person’s heart will beat faster when awaiting a doctor’s diagnosis. The purely introspective method has of course always been supplemented by the comparison of similar psychic states in other persons, and in modern psycho-physiology it is of comparatively minor importance.
See Psychology, Attention, &c.; a clear statement will be found in G. F. Stout’s Manual of Psychology (1898), i. 14.