OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sinter

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​SINTER, a word taken from the German (allied to Eng. “cinder”) and applied to certain mineral deposits, more or less porous or vesicular in texture. At least two kinds of sinter are recognized—one siliceous, the other calcareous. Siliceous sinter is a deposit of opaline or amorphous silica from hot springs and geysers, occurring as an incrustation around the springs, and sometimes forming conical mounds or terraces. The pink and white sinter-terraces of New Zealand were destroyed by the eruption of Mount Tarawera in 1886. Mr W. H. Weed on studying the deposition of sinter in the Yellowstone National Park found that the colloidal silica was largely due to the action of algae and other forms of vegetation in the thermal waters (9th Ann. Rep. U.S. Geol. Surv., 1889, p. 613). Siliceous sinter is known to mineralogists under such names as geyserite, fiorite and michaelite (see Opal) .
Calcareous sinter is a deposit of calcium carbonate, exemplified by the travertine, which forms the principal building stone of Rome (Ital. travertino, a corruption of tiburtino, the stone of Tibur, now Tivoli). The so-called “petrifying springs,” not uncommon in limestone-districts, yield calcareous waters which deposit a sintery incrustation on objects exposed to their action. The cavities in calcareous sinter are partly due to the decay of mosses and other vegetable structures which have assisted in its precipitation. Even in thermal waters, like the hot springs of Carlsbad, in Bohemia, which deposit Sprudelstein, the origin of the deposits is mainly due to organic agencies, as shown as far back as 1862 by Ferd. Cohn. Whilst calcareous deposits in the open air form sinter-like travertine, those in caves constitute stalagmite.
Iron-sinter is a term sometimes applied to cellular bog iron-ore.  (F. W. R.*)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sion College

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​SION COLLEGE, in London, an institution founded as a college, gild of parochial clergy and almshouse, under the will (1623) of Dr Thomas White, vicar of St Dunstan's in the West. The clergy who benefit by the foundation are the incumbents of the City parishes, of parishes which adjoined the city bounds when the college was founded, and of parishes subsequently formed out of these. The original buildings in London Wall were on a site previously occupied by Elsing Spital, a hospital for the blind founded in 1329, and earlier still by a nunnery. They comprised the almshouses, a hall and chapel, and the library added to the foundation by Dr John Simson, rector of St Olave's, Hart Street, one of White's executors. There were also, at least originally, apartments for students. In 1884 the almshouses were abolished, and the almsfolk became out-pensioners. It was subsequently found possible to extend their numbers from the original number of 10 men and 10 women to 40 in all, and to increase the pension. In 1886 Sion College was moved to new buildings on the Victoria Embankment, and is now principally known for its theological library which serves as a lending library to members of the college, and is accessible to the public. A governing body appointed by the members to administer the foundation consists of a president, two deans and four assistants.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sinew

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​SINEW (O. Eng. sinu, sionu, cf. Dutch zenuw, Ger. Sehne, possibly allied to Skt. snava, tendon, cf. Ger. Schnur, string), a tendon, a cord-like layer of fibrous tissue at the end of a muscle forming the attachment to the bone or other hard part. The broad, flat tendons are usually called fasciae (see Muscular System and Connective Tissue). The word is used figuratively of muscular or nervous strength, and particularly, in “sinews of war,” of the power of money.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sion

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​SION [Ger. Sitten], the capital of the Swiss canton of the Valais. It is on the railway between St Maurice ( 25½ m. distant) and Brieg (33 m. distant). Sion is one of the most picturesque little cities in Switzerland, being built around two prominent hillocks that rise from the level valley of the Rhone. The north hillock is crowned by the castle of Tourbillon (built 1294, burnt 1788), which was long the residence of the bishops. The south hillock bears the castle of Valeria, long the residence of the canons (it now contains an historical museum) with the interesting 13th century church of St Catherine. In the town below is the 15th century cathedral, and the Majoria castle (burnt in 1788) the former residence of the " major " (or mayor of the city). There are various other curious objects in the city, which is built on the banks of the Sionne torrent, and is at a height of 1680 ft. above the sea-level. In 1900 Sion contained 6048 inhabitants (mainly Romanists), of whom 1481 were German-speaking and 4446 French-speaking.
Sion [Sedum] dates from Roman times, and the bishop's see was removed thither from Martigny [Ododurum] about 580. In 999 the bishop received from Rudolf III., king of Burgundy, the dignity of count of the Valais, and henceforward was the temporal as well as the spiritual lord of the Valais, retaining this position, at least in part, till 1798.
See also J. Gremaud, Introduction to vol. v. (Lausanne, 1884) of his Documents relatifs à l’histoire du Vallais; R. R. Hoppeler, Beiträge zur Geschichte des Wallis im Mittelalter (Zurich, 1897); B. Rameau, Le Valais historique (Sion, 1886).  (W. A. B. C.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Singora

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​SINGORA, or Songkla (the Sangore of early navigators), a port on the E. coast of the Malay Peninsula and the headquarters of the high commissioner of the Siamese division of Nakhon Sri Tammarat. It is situated in 7° 12′ N. and 100° 35′ E. It was settled at the beginning of the 19th century by Chinese from Amoy, the leader of whom was appointed by Siam to be governor of the town and district. Having been more than once sacked by Malay pirates, the town was encircled, about 1850, by a strong wall, which, as both Chinese governors and Malay pirates, are now things of the past, supplies the public works department with good road metal. The population, about 5000, Chinese, Siamese and a few Malays, is stationary, and the same may be said of the trade, which is all carried in Chinese junks. The town has become an important administrative centre; good roads connect it with Kedah and other places in the Peninsula, and the mining is developed in the interior. In 1906 railways surveys were undertaken by the government with a view to making Singora the port for S. Siam; but this harbour, formed by the entrance to the inland sea of Patalung, would require dredging to be available for vessels of any size.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Singhbhum

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​SINGHBHUM, a district of British India, in the Chota Nagpur division of Bengal. The administrative headquarters are at Chaibasa. Area 3891 sq. m. Its central portion consists of a long undulating tract of country, running E. and W., and enclosed by great hill ranges. The depressions lying between the ridges comprise the most fertile part, which varies in elevation above sea-level from 400 ft. near the Subanrekha on the E. to 750 ft. around the station of Chaibasa. S. of this an elevated plateau of 700 sq. m. rises to upwards of 1000 ft. In the W. is an extensive mountainous tract, sparsely inhabited by the wildest of the Hos; while in the extreme S.W. is a still grander mass of mountains, known as “Saranda of the seven hundred hills,” rising to a height of 3500 ft. From the Layada range on the N.W. of Singhbhum many rocky spurs strike out into the district, some attaining an elevation of 2900 ft. Among other ranges and peaks are the Chaitanpur range, reaching an elevation of 2529 ft., and the Kapargadi range, rising abruptly from the plain and running in a S.E. direction until it culminates in Tuiligar Hill (2492 ft.). The principal rivers are the Subanrekha, which with its affluents flows through the E. of the district; the South Koel, which rises W. of Ranchi, and drains the Saranda region; and the Baitarani, which touches the S. border for 8 m. About two-thirds of Singhbhum district is covered with primeval forest, containing some valuable timber trees; in the forests tigers, leopards, bears and several kinds of deer abound, and small herds of elephants occasionally wander from the Meghasani Hills in Mayurbhanj.
In 1901 the population was 613,579, showing an increase of 12% in the decade. More than one-half belong to aboriginal tribes, mostly Hos. The chief crop is rice, followed by pulses, oil-seeds and maize. There are three missions in the district—S.P.G., Lutheran and Roman Catholic—which have been very successful among the aboriginal tribes, especially in the spread of education. The isolation of Singhbhum has been broken by the opening of the Bengal–Nagpur railway, which has protected it from the danger of famine, and at the same time given a value to its jungle products.
Colonel Dalton, in his Ethnology of Bengal, says that the Singhbhum Rajput chiefs have been known to the British government since 1803, when the marquess Wellesley was governor-general of India; but there does not appear to have been any intercourse between British officials and the people of the Kolhan previous to 1819. The Hos or Larka Kols, the aboriginal race of Singhbhum, would allow no stranger to settle in, or even pass through, the Kolhan; they were, however, subjugated in 1836, when the head-men entered into engagements to bear allegiance to the British government. The country remained tranquil and prosperous until 1857, when a rebellion took place among the Hos under Parahat Raja. After a tedious campaign they surrendered in 1859, and the capture of the raja put a stop to their disturbances.
# A Dictionary of Music and Musicians/Altes, Ernest

From volume 4 of the work.
[ A. J. ]
# A Dictionary of Music and Musicians/Altnikol

From volume 4 of the work.
​ALTNIKOL. See vol. i. p. 116 a.
# A Dictionary of Music and Musicians/Althorn

From volume 1 of the work.
[ W. H. S. ]
# A Dictionary of Music and Musicians/Alvsleben

From volume 4 of the work.
​ALVSLEBEN. See Otto-Alvsleben, in Appendix.
# A Dictionary of Music and Musicians/Alto

From volume 1 of the work.
[ J. H. ]
# A Dictionary of Music and Musicians/Alto (instrument)

From volume 1 of the work.
[ P. D. ]
# A Dictionary of Music and Musicians/Altra Volta

From volume 1 of the work.
​ALTRA VOLTA (Ital. 'another turn'), a term in use during the early part of the last century for encore, a word which has now entirely superseded it.
# A Dictionary of Music and Musicians/Ambassadrice, L'

From volume 1 of the work.
​AMBASSADRICE, L', opera in three acts; libretto by Scribe; music by Auber; first performed at the Opéra Comique, Dec. 21, 1836.
# A Dictionary of Music and Musicians/Amber Witch, The

From volume 1 of the work.
​AMBER WITCH, THE, a romantic opera in four acts, by W. V. Wallace; libretto by H. F. Chorley; first produced at Her Majesty's Theatre, Feb. 28, 1861.
# A Dictionary of Music and Musicians/Grosse Caisse

From volume 1 of the work.
[ V. de P. ]
# A Dictionary of Music and Musicians/Griffin, Thomas

From volume 1 of the work.
[ W. H. H. ]
# A Dictionary of Music and Musicians/Grosso

From volume 1 of the work.
​GROSSO. Italian for 'great.' The 'Concerto Grosso' of the first half of the 18th century, said to have been invented by Torelli in 1709, was a piece for a combination of several solo instruments with the full band. Thus Corelli's Concerti Grossi (op. 6) are described in the title as 'con due violini e violoncello di concertino obligati, e due altri violini e basso di concerto grosso, ad arbitrio che si potramo radoppiare.' The same is the case with Handel's '12 Grand Concertos,' which are for 2 solo violins and a cello, accompanied by and alternating with a band of 2 violins, viola, cello, and bass. The piece contained 4, 5, or 6 movements of different tempo, one being usually a fugue and one a dance, and all in the same key.
[ G. ]
# A Dictionary of Music and Musicians/Griffin, George

From volume 1 of the work.
[ W. H. H. ]
# A Dictionary of Music and Musicians/Grimaldi

From volume 1 of the work.
​GRIMALDI. See Nicolini.
# A Dictionary of Music and Musicians/Grimm, Julius

From volume 1 of the work.
[ E. D. ]
# A Dictionary of Music and Musicians/Grisar, Albert

From volume 1 of the work.
[ G. ]
# A Dictionary of Music and Musicians/Grossi

From volume 1 of the work.
​GROSSI. See Siface.
# A Dictionary of Music and Musicians/Grossvater-Tanz

From volume 1 of the work.
​GROSSVATER-TANZ, i.e. grandfather-dance. A curious old German family-dance of the 17th century, which was greatly in vogue at weddings. Spohr had to introduce it into the Festival march which he wrote by command for the marriage of Princess Marie of Hesse with the Duke of Saxe Meiningen in 1825 (Selbstbiog. ii. 165). It consisted of three parts, the first of which was an andante in triple time, sung to the words
'Und als der Grossvater die Grossmutter nahm, Da war der Grossvater ein Bräutigam,'
to which succeeded two quick phrases in 2-4 time—
[ E. P. ]
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Zach, Franz Xaver, Baron von

See also Franz Xaver von Zach on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​ZACH, FRANZ XAVER, Baron von (1754-1832), German astronomer, was born at Pesth on the 4th of June 1754. He served for some time in the Austrian army, and afterwards lived in London from 1783 to 1786 as tutor in the house of the Saxon minister, Count Bruhl. In 1786 he was appointed by Ernest II. of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha director of the new observatory on the Seeberg at Gotha, which was finished in 1791. From 1806 Zach accompanied the duke's widow on her travels in the south of Europe. He died in Paris on the 2nd of September 1832.
Zach published Tables of the Sun (Gotha, 1792; new and improved edition, ibid., 1804), and numerous papers on geographical subjects, particularly on the geographical positions of many towns and places, which he determined on his travels with a sextant. His principal importance was, however, as editor of three scientific journals of great value: Allgemeine Geographische Ephemeriden (4 vols., Gotha, 1798-99), Monatliche Correspondenz zur Beforderung der Erd- und Himmels-Kunde (28 vols., Gotha, 1800-13, from 1807 edited by B. von Lindenau), and Correspondance astronomique, geographique, hydrographique, et statistique (Genoa, 1818-26, 14 vols., and one number of the 15th suppressed at the instigation of the Jesuits).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Zagazig

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ZAGAZIG (Zaķāzīk), a town of Lower Egypt, capital of the province of Sharkia. Pop. (1907) 34,999, including 2617 Copts and 1355 Greeks. It is built on a branch of the Fresh Water or Ismailia canal, and on the Al-Mo'izz canal (the ancient Tanitic channel of the Nile), and is 47 m. by rail N.N.E. of Cairo. Situated on the Delta in the midst of a fertile district, Zagazig is a great centre of the cotton and grain trade of Egypt. It has large cotton factories and the offices of numerous European merchants. About a mile south of the town are the ruins of Bubastis (q.v.).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Zacatecas (city)

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​ZACATECAS, a city of Mexico, capital of the state of Zacatecas, 442 m. by the Mexican Central railway N.W. of Mexico city. Pop. (1900) 30,912. It is built in a deep, narrow ravine, 8050 ft. above sea-level, with narrow, crooked streets climbing the steep hillsides, and white, flat-roofed houses of four and five storeys overtopping each other. Its streets are well paved, and are lighted with electricity. The city is well drained and has a fine aqueduct for its water supply. The cathedral is an elaborately carved red-stone structure with unfinished towers and richly decorated interior. Several domed churches occupy prominent sites. The National College and the Colegio de Nuesta Señora de Guadalupe with its fine library may be noticed. Overlooking the city from an elevation of 500 ft. is the Bufa Hill, which is crowned by a chapel and is a popular pilgrimage resort. The Guadalupe chapel near the city has elaborate decorations, including frescoes, onyx steps, silver rails and paintings, and a curious tiled dome. The industries comprise carriage building, weaving and the manufacture of coarse pottery. The town is an important commercial centre.
Zacatecas was founded in 1546 and was built over a rich vein of silver discovered by Juan de Tolosa in the same year. This and other mines in the vicinity attracted a large population, and it soon became one of the chief mining centres of Mexico. It was made a city in 1585 by Philip II.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Zacharias, St

See also Pope Zachary on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
ZACHARIAS, ST, pope from 741 to 752, was a Greek by birth, and appears to have been on intimate terms with Gregory III., whom he succeeded (November 741). Contemporary history dwells chiefly on his great personal influence with the Lombard king Luitprand, and with his successor Rachis; it was largely through his tact in dealing with these princes in a variety of emergencies that the exarchate of Ravenna was a rescued from becoming part of the Lombard kingdom. A correspondence, of considerable extent and of great interest, between Zacharias and St Boniface, the apostle of Germany, is still extant, and shows how great was the influence of this pope on events then passing in France and Germany: he encouraged the deposition of Childeric, and it was with his sanction that Boniface crowned Pippin as king of the Franks as Soissons in 752. Zacharias is stated to have remonstrated with the emperor Constantine Copronymus on the part he had taken in the iconclastic controversy. He died on the 14th of March 752, and was succeeded by Stephen II.
The letters and decrees of Zacharias are published in Migne, Patrolog. lat. p. 917–960.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Zacatecas (state)

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​ZACATECAS, a state of Mexico, bounded N by Durango and Coahuila, E. by San Luis Potosi, S. by Aguascalientes and Jalisco, and W. by Jalisco and Durango. Area, 24,757 sq. m. Pop. (1900) 462,190. It belongs wholly to the great central plateau of Mexico, with an average elevation of about 7700 ft. The state is somewhat mountainous, being traversed in the W. by lateral ranges of the Sierra Madre Occidental, and by numerous isolated ranges in other parts—Mazapil, Norillos, Guadalupe and others. There are no large rivers, only the small head-streams of the Aguanaval in the N., and of the Guazamota, Bolanos and Juchipila in the W., the last three being tributaries oi the Rio Grande de Santiago. As the rainfall is light this lack of streams suitable for irrigation is a drawback to agriculture. The climate is dry and generally healthy, being warm in the valleys and temperate in the mountains. The agricultural products are cereals, sugar and maguey, the first being dependent on the rainfall, often failing altogether, the second on irrigation in the lower valleys, and the latter doing best in a dry climate on a calcareous soil with water not far beneath the surface. There is also a considerable production of peaches, apricots and grapes, the last being made into wine. A few cattle are raised, and considerable attention is given to the rearing of sheep, goats and swine. A natural product is guayule, a shrub from which rubber is extracted. The chief industry of Zacatecas, however, is mining for silver, gold, mercury, copper, iron, zinc, lead, bismuth, antimony and salt. Its mineral wealth was discovered soon after the conquest, and some of its mines are among the most famous of Mexico, dating from 1546. One of the most productive of its silver mines, the Alvarado, has records which show a production of nearly $800,000,000 in silver between 1548 and 1867. The state is traversed by the Mexican Central and the Mexican National railways. Its manufactures are limited chiefly to the ​reduction of mineral ores, the extraction of rubber from guayule, the making of sugar, rum, mescal, pulque, woollen and cotton fabrics, and some minor industries of the capital. The capital is Zacatecas, and the other principal towns are Sombrerete (pop. 10,000), an important silver-mining town 70 m. N .W. of the capital (elevation 8430 ft.); Ciudad Garcia (about 9500); Guadalupe (9000); Pinos (8000), a mining town; San Juan de Mezquital (7000); and Fresnillo (6300), an important silver- and copper-mining centre.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Zaila

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​ZAILA, or Zeila; a town on the African coast of the Gulf of Aden, 124 m. S.W. of Aden and 200 m. N.N.E. of Harrar. Zaila is the most western of the ports of the British Somaliland protectorate, being 170 m. N.W. of Berbera by the coast caravan track. The town is surrounded on three sides by the sea; landward the country is unbroken desert for some fifty miles. The principal buildings, which date from the days of Egyptian occupation (1875-1884) are of white (coral) stone; the Somali dwellings are made of grass. Zaila has a good sheltered anchorage much frequented by Arab sailing craft, but heavy draught steamers are obliged to anchor a mile and a half from the shore. Small coasting boats lie off the pier and there is no difficulty in loading or discharging cargo. The water supply of the town is drawn from the wells of Takosha, about three miles distant; every morning camels, in charge of old Somali women and bearing goatskins filled with water, come into the town in picturesque procession. The population varies from 3000 to 7000, the natives, who come in the cool season to barter their goods, retiring to the highlands in hot weather. The chief traders are Indians, the smaller dealers Arabs, Greeks and Jews. The imports, which reach Zaila chiefly via Aden, are mainly cotton goods, rice, jowaree, dates and silk; the exports—of which 90 per cent. are from Abyssinia—are principally coffee, skins, ivory, cattle, ghee and mother-of-pearl.
Zaila owed its importance to its proximity to Harrar, the great entrepôt for the trade of southern Abyssinia. The trade of the port received, however, a severe check on the opening (1901-2) of the railway to Harrar from the French port of Jibuti, which is 35 m. N.W. of Zaila. A steamer from Aden to Zaila takes fifteen hours to accomplish the journey; caravans proceeding from Zaila to Harrar occupy from ten days to three weeks on the road.
For history and trade statistics, see Somaliland, British.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Zaimukht

See also Zaimukhts on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​ ZAIMUKHT, the name of a small Pathan tribe on the Kohat border of the North-West Frontier Province of India. The Zaimukhts inhabit the hills to the south of the Orakzais ​
between the Miranzai and Kurram valleys. Their country may be described as a triangle, with the range of hills known as the Samana as its base, and the village of Thal in the Kurram valley as its apex. This includes a tract on its western side occupied by an Orakzai clan. The total area is about 400 sq. m., of which the Orakzais occupy a fourth. The Zaimukhts are a fine-looking powerful race, with a fighting strength of some 3000 men.