OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Satricum

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​ SATRICUM (mod. Conca), an ancient town of Latium, situated some 30 m. to the S.E. of Rome, in a low-lying region to the S. of the Alban Hills, to the N.W. of the Pomptine Marshes. It was accessible direct from Rome by a road running more or less parallel to the Via Appia, to the S.W. of it. It is said to have been an Alban colony: it was a member of the Latin league of 499 B.C. and became Volscian in 488. It was several times won and lost by the Romans, and twice destroyed by fire. After 346 B.C. we hear of it only in connexion with the temple of Mater Matuta. A. Nibby (Analisi della carta dei dintorni di Roma, Rome, 1848, iii. 64) was the first to fix the site upon the low hill, surrounded by tufa cliffs, on which were still scanty remains of walling in rectangular blocks of the same material, which is now occupied by the farm-house of Conca. One mile W.N.W., on the hill above Le Ferriere, remains of an archaic temple, ascribed to Mater Matuta, were discovered by excavation in 1896. The work was begun under the direction of Professor H. Graillot of the University of Bordeaux, member of, the French School of Rome, but after two weeks' work was suspended by order of the Italian government, and then resumed under the supervision of their own officials. The objects discovered are in the Museo di Papa Giulio at Rome. Another Satricum lay on the right bank of the Liris, not far from Arpinum.
See H. Graillot in Mélanges de l'école française de Rome (1896), 131; and Notizie degli scavi (1896), passim. (T. As.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Satsuma Islands

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​ SATSUMA ISLANDS, a group of islands belonging to Japan, lying westward of the province of Satsuma (31° 40′ N. and 129° 40′ E.). The two principal are Kami-Koshiki-shima (24½ m. by 5½) and Shimo-Koshiki-shima (8½ m. by 5¼).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Navarrete, Martin Fernandez de

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​NAVARRETE, MARTIN FERNANDEZ DE (1765–1844), Spanish historian, was born at Abalos on the 9th of November 1765, and entered the navy in 1780. He was engaged in the unsuccessful operations against Gibraltar in 1782, and afterwards in the suppression of Algerine pirates. Ill-health compelled him for a time to withdraw from active service, but he devoted this forced leisure to historical research, and in 1789 he was appointed by the crown to examine the national archives relating to the maritime history of Spain. Rejoining the navy in 1793, he was present at the siege of Toulon, and afterwards received command of a frigate. From 1797 to 1808 he held in succession various ​important posts in the ministry of marine. In 1808 the French invasion led to his withdrawal to Andalusia, and the rest of his life was entirely devoted to literature. In 1819 appeared, as an appendix to the Academy’s edition of Don Quijote, his Vida de Cervantes, and in 1825 the first two volumes of the Coleccion de los Viajes y Descubrimientos que hicieron por Mar los Españoles desde fines del Siglo XV. (3rd vol., 1829; 4th vol., 1837). In 1837 he was made a senator and director of the academy of history. At the time of his death, on the 8th of October 1844, he was assisting in the preparation of the Coleccion de Documentos Ineditos para la Historia de España. His Disertacion sobre la Historia de la Nautica (1846) and Biblioteca Maritima Española (1851), were published posthumously.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Navel

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​NAVEL (O. Eng. nafela, a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Nabel, Swed. nafvel; the Sanskrit is nābhīla; the English root is also seen in “nave,” the hub of a wheel), in anatomy, the umbilicus (Gr. ὀμφαλός), the depression in the abdomen which indicates the point through which the embryo mammal obtained nourishment from its mother (see Anatomy: section Superficial and Artistic).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Navius, Attus

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​NAVIUS, ATTUS, in Roman legendary history, a famous augur during the reign of Tarquinius Priscus. When the latter desired to double the number of the equestrian centuries, Navius opposed him, declaring that it must not be done unless the omens were propitious, and, as a proof of his powers of divination, cut through a whetstone with a razor. Navius’s statue with veiled head was afterwards shown in the comitium; the whetstone and razor were buried in the same place, and a puteal placed over them. Hard by was a sacred fig-tree, called after him the Navian fig-tree. It was reported that Navius was subsequently put to death by Tarquinius. According to Schwegler, the puteal originally indicated that the place had been struck by lightning, and the story is a reminiscence of the early struggle between the state and ecclesiasticism.
See Livy i. 36; Dion. Halic. iii. 70; Aurelius Victor, De viris illustribus, 6; Schwegler, Römische Geschichte, bk. xv. 16.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Navvy

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​NAVVY, a labourer employed in the digging and excavating of earth, &c., in the construction of railways, docks, canals or other engineering operations. The word is a shortened form of “navigator,” applied during the 18th and early part of the 19th centuries to a labourer at work on canals, to which the name “navigation” is often applied. Power-machines (excavators) for performing such work are consequently known as “steam-navvies.”
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nawab

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​NAWAB, a Mahommedan title for a native ruler in India, answering to the Hindu raja. Nawab originally means a deputy, being the honorific plural of the Arabic naib, and it was applied to a delegate of a supreme chief, the viceroy or governor under the Great Mogul, e.g. the nawab of Oudh. From this use it became a title of rank, without office, and is now sometimes conferred by the British government on Mahommedan gentlemen for distinguished service.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ludolf, Hiob

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​LUDOLF (or Leutholf), HIOB (1624–1704), German orientalist, was born at Erfurt on the 15th of June 1624. After studying philology at the Erfurt academy and at Leiden, he travelled in order to increase his linguistic knowledge. While in Italy he became acquainted with one Gregorius, an Abyssinian ​scholar, and acquired from him an intimate knowledge of the Ethiopian language. In 1652 he entered the service of the duke of Saxe-Gotha, in which he continued until 1678, when he retired to Frankfort-on-Main. In 1683 he visited England to promote a cherished scheme for establishing trade with Abyssinia, but his efforts were unsuccessful, chiefly through the bigotry of the authorities of the Abyssinian Church. Returning to Frankfort in 1684, he gave himself wholly to literary work, which he continued almost to his death on the 8th of April 1704. In 1690 he was appointed president of the collegium imperiale historicum.
The works of Ludolf, who is said to have been acquainted with twenty-five languages, include Sciagraphia historiae aethiopicae (Jena, 1676); and the Historia aethiopica (Frankfort, 1681), which has been translated into English, French and Dutch, and which was supplemented by a Commentarius (1691) and by Appendices (1693–1694). Among his other works are: Grammatica linguae amharicae (Frankfort, 1698); Lexicon amharico-latinum (Frankfort, 1698); Lexicon aethiopico-latinum (Frankfort, 1699); and Grammatica aethiopica (London, 1661, and Frankfort, 1702). In his Grammatik der äthiopischen Sprache (1857) August Dillmann throws doubt on the story of Ludolf’s intimacy with Gregorius.
See C. Juncker, Commentarius de vita et scriptis Jobi Ludolfi (Frankfort, 1710); L. Diestel, Geschichte des alten Testaments in der christlichen Kirche (Jena, 1868); and J. Flemming, “Hiob Ludolf,” in the Beiträge zur Assyriologie (Leipzig, 1890–1891).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ludwig, Otto

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​LUDWIG, OTTO (1813–1865), German dramatist, novelist and critic, was born at Eisfeld in Thuringia, on the 11th of February 1813. His father, who was syndic of Eisfeld, died when the boy was twelve years old, and he was brought up amidst uncongenial conditions. He had devoted his leisure to poetry and music, which unfitted him for the mercantile career planned for him. The attention of the duke of Meiningen was directed to one of his musical compositions, an opera, Die Köhlerin, and Ludwig was enabled in 1839 to continue his musical studies under Mendelssohn in Leipzig. But ill-health and constitutional shyness caused him to give up a musical career, and he turned exclusively to literary studies, and wrote several stories and dramas. Of the latter, Der Erbförster (1850) attracted immediate attention as a masterly psychological study. It was followed by Die Makkabäer (1852), in which the realistic method of Der Erbförster was transferred to an historical milieu, which allowed more brilliant colouring and a freer play of the imagination. With these tragedies, to which may be added Die Rechte des Herzens and Das Fräulein von Scuderi, the comedy Hans Frey, and an unfinished tragedy on the subject of Agnes Bernauer, Ludwig ranks immediately after Hebbel as Germany’s most notable dramatic poet at the middle of the 19th century. Meanwhile he had married and settled permanently in Dresden, where he turned his attention to fiction. He published a series of admirable stories of Thuringian life, characterized by the same attention to minute detail and careful psychological analysis as his dramas. The best of these are Die Heiteretei und ihr Widerspiel (1851), and Ludwig’s masterpiece, the powerful novel, Zwischen Himmel und Erde (1855). In his Shakespeare-Studien (not published until 1891) Ludwig showed himself a discriminating critic, with a fine insight into the hidden springs of the creative imagination. So great, however, was his enthusiasm for Shakespeare, that he was led to depreciate Schiller in a way which found little favour among his countrymen. He died at Dresden on the 25th of February 1865.
Ludwig’s Gesammelte Schriften were published by A. Stern and E. Schmidt in 6 vols. (1891–1892); also by A. Bartels (6 vols., 1900). See A. Stern, Otto Ludwig, ein Dichterleben (1891; 2nd ed., 1906), and A. Sauer, Otto Ludwig (1893).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ludwigsburg

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​LUDWIGSBURG, a town in the kingdom of Württemberg, 9 m. to the N. of Stuttgart by rail and 11/2 m. from the river Neckar. Pop. (1905) 23,093. It was founded and laid out at the beginning of the 18th century by the duke of Württemberg, Eberhard Louis, and was enlarged and improved by Duke Charles Eugène. Constructed as the adjunct of a palace the town bears the impress of its origin, with its straight streets and spacious squares. It is now mainly important as the chief military depot in Württemberg. The royal palace, one of the finest in Germany, stands in a beautiful park and contains a portrait gallery and the burial vault of the rulers of Württemberg. The industries include the manufacture of organs and pianos, of cotton, woollen and linen goods, of chemicals, iron and wire goods, and brewing and brick-making. In the vicinity is the beautiful royal residence of Monrepos, which is connected with the park of Ludwigsburg by a fine avenue of lime trees. From 1758 to ​1824 the town was famous for the production of a special kind of porcelain.
See Belschner, Ludwigsburg in zwei Jahrhunderten (Ludwigsburg, 1904).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ludwigslust

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​LUDWIGSLUST, a town of Germany, in the grand-duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, 22 m. by rail S. by E. of Schwerin. Pop. (1905) 6728. The castle was built by the duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Frederick II., in 1772–1776. There is also another ducal residence, a fine park and a monument of the grand duke, Frederick Francis I. (d. 1837). The town has a church constructed on the model of a Greek temple. It has manufactures of chemicals and other small industries. Ludwigslust was founded by the duke Frederick, being named after this duke’s father, Christian Louis II. It became a town in 1876.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ludwigshafen

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​LUDWIGSHAFEN, a town of Germany, in the Bavarian Palatinate, on the left bank of the Rhine, immediately opposite to Mannheim, with which it is connected by a steam ferry and a railway bridge. Pop. (1885) 21,042, (1900) 61,905, (1905) 72,168. It has an increasing trade in iron, timber, coal and agricultural products, a trade which is fostered by a harbour opened in 1897; and also large factories for making aniline dyes and soda. Other industries are the manufacture of cellulose, artificial manure, flour and malt; and there are saw-mills, iron foundries and breweries in the town. The place, which was founded in 1843 by Louis I., king of Bavaria, was only made a town in 1859.
See J. Esselborn, Geschichte der Stadt Ludwigshafen (Ludwigshafen, 1888).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lug

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​LUG, a verb meaning to pull a heavy object, to drag, now mainly used colloquially. It is probably Scandinavian in origin; the Swedish lugg, forelock, lock of hair, gives lugga, to pull, tug; and “lug” in some north-eastern English dialects is still chiefly used in the sense of pulling a person’s hair. “Luggage,” passengers’ baggage, means by origin that which has to be “lugged” about. The Scandinavian word may be also the source of “lug,” in the sense of “ear,” in Scotland the regular dialectical word, and in English commonly applied to the ear-shaped handles of metal or earthenware pots, pitchers, &c. If so the word means something that can be pulled or tugged. This is also possibly the origin of the “lug” or “lug-sail,” a four-sided sail attached to a yard which is hung obliquely to the mast, whence probably the name “lugger” of a sailing-vessel with two or three masts and fore and aft lug-sails. The word may, however, be connected with the Dutch logger, a fishing-boat using drag-nets. “Lug” is also the name of a marine worm, Arenicola marina, used as bait.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pherecydes of Leros

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​PHERECYDES OF LEROS, Greek mythographer, fl. c. 454 B.C. He is probably identical with Pherecydes of Athens, although the two are distinguished by Suidas (also by T. Lipsius, Quaestiones logographicae, 1886). He seems to have been born in the island of Leros, and to have been called an Athenian because he spent the greater part of his life and wrote his great work there. Of his treatises, On Leros, On Iphigeneia, On the Festivals of Dionysus, nothing remains; but numerous fragments of his genealogies of the gods and heroes, variously called Ἱστορίαι, Γενεαλογίαι, Αὐτοχθόνες, in ten books, written in the Ionic dialect, have been preserved (see C. W. Müller’s Frag. hist. graec., vol. i. pp. xxxiv., 70). He modified the legends, not with a view to rationalizing them, but rather to adjust them to popular beliefs. He cannot, therefore, be classed with Hecataeus, whose method was far more scientific.
See C. Lütke, Pherecydea (diss. Göttingen, 1893); W. Christ, Geschichte der griechischen Litteratur (1898); and specially H. Bertsch, Pherekydeische Studien (1898).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Phenomenon

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​PHENOMENON (Gr. φαινόμενον, a thing seen, from φαίνεσθαι, to appear), in ordinary language a thing, process, event, &c., observed by the senses. Thus the rising of the sun, a thunder storm, an earthquake are natural “phenomena.” From this springs the incorrect colloquial sense, something out of the common, an event which especially strikes the attention; hence such phrases as “phenomenal” activity. In Greek philosophy phenomena are the changing objects of the senses as opposed to essences (τὰ ἄντα) which are one and permanent, and are therefore regarded as being more real, the objects of reason rather than of senses which are “bad witnesses.” In modern philosophy the phenomenon is neither the “thing-in-itself,” nor the noumenon (q.v.) or object of pure thought, but the thing-in-itself as it appears to the mind in sensation (see especially Kant; and Metaphysics). In this sense the subjective character is of prime importance. Among derivative terms are “Phenomenalism” and “Phenomenology,” Phenomenalism is either (1) the doctrine that there can be no knowledge except by phenomena, i.e. sense-given data, or (2) the doctrine that all known things are phenomena, i.e. that there are no “things-in-themselves.” “Phenomenology” is the science of phenomena: every special science has a special section in which its particular phenomena are described. The term was first used in English in the 3rd edition of the Ency. Brit. in the article “Philosophy” by J. Robison. Kant has a special use of the term for that part of the Metaphysic of Nature which considers motion and rest as predicates of a judgment about things.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Philadelphia (Palestine)

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​PHILADELPHIA, the Greek name (1) of a city in Palestine in the land of Ammon (see Ammonites), and (2) of a city so-called in honour of Attalus II. of Pergamum, the modern Ala-Shehr (q.v.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Philadelphians

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​PHILADELPHIANS, a sect of religious mystics, founded in London in the latter part of the 17th century. In 1652 Dr John Pordage (1607–1681), rector of Bradfield, Berkshire, gathered together a few followers of Jakob Boehme, the chief of whom was Jane Lead or Leade (née Ward; 1623–1704). Pordage was ejected from his living by the Triers in 1655, but was restored in 1660. Mrs Leade had been from girlhood of a mystical temperament, and experienced phantasms which she recorded in a diary entitled A Fountain of Gardens, beginning in 1670, in which year the Philadelphian society was definitely organized. She drew up for it “The Laws of Paradise,” which show that the enterprise was designed “to advance the Kingdom of God by improving the life, teaching the loftiest morality, and enforcing the duty of universal brotherhood, peace and love.” Its members had a strong faith in what they called the “Divine Secrets,” the wonders of God and nature, the profound spiritual experiences of regeneration and soul-resurrection, and the second Advent. In 1693 some of Mrs Leade’s writings were translated into Dutch, and by this means and her acquaintance with Francis Lee (1661–1719), an Oxford scholar who studied medicine at Leiden and became her son-in-law, a connexion was opened up with Germany and Holland. In 1703 the Philadelphians drew up their confession, but they made no further progress and soon declined. The Holland branch withdrew, and the English government forbade the society to meet. For many years, however, a considerable number of people regarded Mrs Leade’s visions, which were published in a long series of writings, as proofs of her divine calling. In her later years she had a severe struggle with poverty, which was relieved by a pension granted by Baron Kniphausen.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pherecrates

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​PHERECRATES, Greek poet of the Old Attic Comedy, was a contemporary of Cratinus, Crates and Aristophanes. At first an actor, he seems to have gained a prize for a play in 438 B.C. The only other ascertained date in his life is 420, when he produced his play The Wild Men. Like Crates, whom he imitated, he abandoned personal satire for more general themes, although in some of the fragments of his plays we find him attacking Alcibiades and others. He was especially famed for his inventive imagination, and the elegance and purity of his diction are attested by the epithet ἀττικώτατος (most Attic) applied to him by Athenaeus and the sophist Phrynichus. He was the inventor of a new metre, called after him Pherecratean, which frequently occurs in the choruses of Greek tragedies and in Horace.
A considerable number of fragments from his 16 (or 13) plays has been preserved, collected in T. Kock, Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta, 1. (1880), and A. Meineke, Poetarum Comicorum Graecorum Fragmenta (1855).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pherecydes of Syros

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​PHERECYDES OF SYROS, Greek philosopher (or rather philosophical theologian), flourished during the 6th century B.C. He was sometimes reckoned one of the Seven Wise Men, and is said to have been the teacher of Pythagoras. With the possible ​exception of Cadmus (q.v.) of Miletus, he was the first Greek prose-writer He belonged to the circle of Peisistratus at Athens, and was the founder of an Orphic community. He is characterized as “one of the earliest Representatives of a half-critical, half-credulous eclecticism” (Gomperz). He was credited with having originated the doctrine of metempsychosis (q.v), while Cicero and Augustine assert that he was the first to teach the immortality of the soul. Of his astronomical studies he left a proof in the “heliotropion,” a cave at Syros which served to determine the annual turning-point of the sun, like the grotto of Posillipo (Posilipo, Posilippo) at Naples, and was one of the sights of the island.
In his cosmogonic treatise on nature and the gods, called Πεντέμυχος (Preller’s correction of Suidas, who has ἐπτάμυχος) from the five elementary or original principles (aether, fire, air water, earth; Gomperz substitutes smoke and darkness for aether and earth), he enunciated a system in which science allegory and mythology were blended. In the beginning were Chronos, the principle of time, Zeus (Zas), the principle of life, and Chthoniē, the earth goddess. Chronos begat fire, a and water, and from these three sprang numerous other gods. Smoke and darkness appear in a later tradition. A fragment of the “sacred marriage” of Zas and Chthoniē was found on an Egyptian papyrus at the end of the 19th century.
See H. Diels, Fragmente der Vorsokratiker (1903); also O. Kern, De Orphei, Epimenidis, Pherecydis theogoniis (1888), D. Speliotopoulos, Περι Φ ρεκύδου τοῦ Συρί υ (Athens, 1890); T. Gomperz, Greek Thinkers (Eng. trans.), i. 85, B. P. Grenfell, New Classical Fragments (1897) H. Weil, Etudes sur l’antiquité grecque (1900).