OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Philaret

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​PHILARET [Theodore Nikitich Romanov] (?1553–1633), patriarch of Moscow, was the second son of the boyar Nikita Romanovich. During the reign of his first cousin Theodore I. (1584–1598), Theodore Romanov distinguished himself both as a soldier and a diplomatist, fighting against the Swedes in 1590, and conducting negotiations with the ambassadors of the emperor Rudolph II. in 1593–1594. On the death of the childless tsar, he was the popular candidate for the vacant throne; but he acquiesced in the election of Boris Godunov, and shared the disgrace of his too-powerful family three years later, when Boris compelled both him and his wife, Xenia Chestovaya, to take monastic vows under the names of Philaret and Martha respectively. Philaret was kept in the strictest confinement in the Antoniev monastery, where he was exposed to every conceivable indignity; but when the pseudo-Demetrius overthrew the Godunovs he released Philaret and made him metropolitan of Rostov (1605). In 1609 Philaret fell into the hands of pseudo-Demetrius II., who named him patriarch of all Russia, though his jurisdiction only extended over the very limited area which acknowledged the impostor. From 1610–1618 he was a prisoner in the hands of the Polish king, Sigismund III., whom he refused to acknowledge as tsar of Muscovy on being sent on an embassy to the Polish camp in 1610. He was released on the conclusion of the truce of Deulino (Feb. 13, 1619), and on the 2nd of June was canonically enthroned patriarch of Moscow. Henceforth, till his death, the established government of Muscovy was a diarchy. From 1619 to 1633 there were two actual sovereigns, Tsar Michael and his father, the most holy Patriarch Philaret. Theoretically they were co-regents, but Philaret frequently transacted affairs of state without consulting the tsar. He replenished the treasury by a more equable and rational system of assessing and collecting the taxes. His most important ​domestic measure was the chaining of the peasantry to the soil, a measure directed against the ever increasing migration of the down-trodden serfs to the steppes, where they became freebooters instead of tax-payers. The taxation of the tsar's slyuzhnuie lyudi, or military tenants, was a first step towards the proportional taxation of the hitherto privileged classes. Philaret's zeal for the purity of orthodoxy sometimes led him into excesses but he encouraged the publication of theological works, formed the nucleus of the subsequently famous Patriarchal Library, and commanded that every archbishop should establish a seminary for the clergy, himself setting the example. Another great service rendered by Philaret to his country was the reorganization of the Muscovite army with the help of foreign officers. His death in October 1633 put an end to the Russo-Polish War (1632–33), withdrawing the strongest prop from an executive feeble enough even when supported by all the weight of his authority.
(R. N. B.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Scholar, Scholarship

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​SCHOLAR, SCHOLARSHIP. The term “ scholar,” primarily meaning a “ learner,” is secondarily applied to one who has thoroughly learnt all that “ the school ” can teach him, one who by early training and constant self-culture has attained a certain maturity in precise and accurate knowledge. Hence the term “ scholarship ” in the sense of the knowledge or method of a scholar. Similarly “ classical scholarship ” may be defined as the sum of the mental attainments of a classical scholar. Scholarship is sometimes identified with classical learning or erudition; it is more often contrasted with it. The contrast is thus drawn by Donaldson in his Classical Scholarship and Classical Learning (1856), and by Mark Pattison, in his Essay on Oxford Studies (1855). “ I maintain,” says Donaldson, &ldqo; that not all learned men are accomplished scholars, though any accomplished scholar may, if he chooses to devote the time to the necessary studies, become a learned man ” (p. 149). “ It is not a knowledge,” writes Mark Pattison, “ but a discipline, that is required; not science, but the scientific habit; not erudition, but scholarship ” (Essays, i. 425).
The expression “ a scholarship ” is also used in England for a money payment made by a school, college or university, as a prize (either for one year or a series of years) to the successful competitors at an examination at which one or more such scholarships are to be awarded; and the successful candidate is called a “ scholar,” as the holder of a “ scholarship.” In this sense the word is almost synonymous with “ an exhibition,” but the latter is usually considered inferior in merit and dignity, if not in amount.
On the general history of classical scholarship, see Classics: Greek and Latin.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Scholl, Aurelien

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​SCHOLL, AURELIEN (1833–), French author and journalist, was born at Bordeaux on the 13th of July 1833. He was successively editor of the Voltaire and of the Écho de Paris. He wrote largely for the theatre, and also a number of novels dealing with Parisian life.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Scholten, Jan Hendrik

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​SCHOLTEN, JAN HENDRIK (1811–1885), Dutch Protestant theologian, was born at Vleuter near Utrecht on the 17th of August 1811. After studying at Utrecht University, he was appointed professor of theology at Franeker. From Franeker in 1843 he went to Leiden as professor extraordinarius, and in 1845 was promoted to the rank of ordinarius. Through Scholten, A. Kuenen became interested in theology; Scholten was not then the radical theologian he became later. The two scholars in course of time created a movement resembling that of the ​Tübingen School in Germany. Pursuing first the study of dogmatic theology and the philosophy of religion, Scholten published a work on the Principles of the Theology of the Reformed Church (2 vols., 1848–1850, 4th ed. 1861–1862). He then gave special attention to the New Testament, and wrote A Critical Study of the Gospel of John (1864, in German 1867). He died on the 10th of April 1885.
Scholten’s other works include: Historical and Critical Introduction to the New Testament (1853–1856); The Oldest Witnesses to the Writings of the New Testament (1866); The Oldest Gospel (1868); and The Pauline Gospel (1870). An account of his theological development is given in Afscheidsrede bij het Neerleggen van het Hoogleeraarsambt (1881), and in the biography written by A. Kuenen, Levensbericht van J. Henricus Scholten (1885).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Schomburgk, Robert Hermann

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​SCHOMBURGK, SIR ROBERT HERMANN (1804–1865), British traveller, was born at Freiburg, Prussian Saxony, on the 5th of June 1804, the son of a Protestant minister. In 1829 he went to the United States, but in 1830 left for Anegada, one of the Virgin Isles. He surveyed the island at his own expense, and sent to the Royal Geographical Society, London, a report which created such an impression that, in 1835, he was entrusted by that body with the conduct of an exploring expedition to British Guiana. He fulfilled his mission with great success, incidentally discovering the Victoria Regia lily. In 1841 he returned to Guiana to survey the colony and fix the boundary for the British Government. The result was the provisional boundary between British Guiana and Venezuela known as the “Schomburgk Line,” for which see the articles on those two countries. On his return to England he was knighted. In 1848 he was appointed British consul to St Domingo, and, in 1857, British consul to Bangkok. While holding these posts he continued his geographical surveys. He retired from the public service in 1864, and died at Berlin on the 11th of March 1865. He was the author of a Description of British Guiana and a History of Barbadoes.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Schofield, John McAllister

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JOHN McALLISTER SCHOFIELD (1831–1906), American soldier, was born at Gerry, Chautauqua county, New York, on the 29th of September 1831. He graduated, at West Point in 1853, served for two years in the artillery, was assistant professor of natural and experimental philosophy at West Point in 1855–1860, and while on leave (1860–1861) was professor of physics at Washington university, St Louis. When the Civil War broke out, he became a major in a Missouri volunteer regiment and served as chief of staff to Major-General Nathaniel Lyon until the death of that officer. (In 1892 he received a Congressional medal of honour for “conspicuous gallantry at the battle of Wilson’s Creek.”) In 1861–1863 he performed various military duties in Missouri. In April 1863 he took command of a division in the Army of the Cumberland, and in 1864, as commander of the Army of the Ohio, he took part in the Atlanta campaign under Major-General W. T. Sherman. In October 1864 Schofield was sent to Tennessee to join Major-General G. H. Thomas in opposing General J. B. Hood, and on the 30th of November he fought with General Hood the desperate and indecisive battle of Franklin. Two weeks later he took part in Thomas's crowning victory at Nashville. For his services at Franklin he was awarded the rank of brigadier-general (November 1864) and the brevet rank of major-general (March 1865) in the regular army. Being ordered to co-operate with Sherman in North Carolina, Schofield moved his corps by rail and sea to Fort Fisher, North Carolina, in seventeen days, occupied Wilmington on the 22nd of February 1865, fought the action at Kinston on the 8–10th of March, and on the 23rd joined Sherman at Goldsboro. After the war he was sent on a special diplomatic mission to France, on account of the presence of French troops in Mexico; and from June 1868 to March 1869 he served as secretary of war under President Andrew Johnson, after the retirement of E. M. Stanton (q.v.). From 1876 to 1881 he was superintendent of the Military Academy at West Point, and from 1888 until his retirement in 1895 he was commanding general of the United States army. He had become major-general in March 1869, and in February 1895 he was made lieutenant-general. He died at St Augustine, Florida, on the 4th of March 1906. General Schofield published Forty-six Years in the Army (New York, 1897).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Scholefield, James

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​SCHOLEFIELD, JAMES (1789–1853), English classical scholar, was born at Henley-on-Thames on the 15th of November 1789. He was educated at Christ’s Hospital and Trinity College, Cambridge, and was in 1825 appointed professor of Greek in the university and canon of Ely (1849). He was for some time curate to Charles Simeon, the evangelical churchman, and his low church views involved him in disputes with his own parishioners at St Michael’s, Cambridge, of which he was perpetual curate from 1823 till his death at Hastings on the 4th of April 1853. Scholefield was an excellent teacher; His most useful work was his edition of the Adversaria of P. P. Dobree (q.v.), his predecessor in the chair of Greek. He also published editions of Aeschylus (1828), in which he dealt very conservatively with the text, and of Porson’s four plays of Euripides. His Hints for an improved Translation of the New Testament met with considerable success. He was one of the examiners in the first Classical Tripos (1824). The Scholefield Theological Prize at Cambridge was established in commemoration of him in 1856.
See Memoirs of James Scholefield (1855), by his wife, Harriet Scholefield; Gentleman’s Magazine (June 1853, p. 644).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Scholium

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​SCHOLIUM (σχόλιον), the name given to grammatical, critical and explanatory notes, extracted from existing commentaries and inserted on the margin of the MS. of an ancient author. These notes were altered by successive copyists and owners of the MS. and in some cases increased to such an extent that there was no longer room for them in the margin, and it became necessary to make them into a separate work. At first they were taken from one commentary only, subsequently from several. This is indicated by the repetition of the lemma (“catchword”), or by the use of such phrases as “or thus,” “or otherwise,” “according to some,” to introduce different explanations. The name of “the first scholiast” has been given to Didymus of Alexandria (q.v.), and the practice of compiling scholia continued till the 15th or 16th century A.D. The word σχόλιον itself is first met with in Cicero (Ad Att. xvi. 7). The Greek scholia we possess are for the most part anonymous, the commentaries of Eustathius on Homer and Tzetzes on Lycophron being prominent exceptions. Although frequently trifling, they contain much information not found elsewhere, and are of considerable value for the correction and interpretation of the text. The most important are those on Homer (especially the Venetian scholia on the Iliad, discovered by Villoison in 1781 in the library of St Mark), Hesiod, Pindar, Sophocles, Aristophanes and Apollonius Rhodius; and, in Latin, those of Servius on Virgil, of Acro and Porphyrio on Horace, and of Donatus on Terence.
See E. F. Gräfenhan, Geschichte der classischen Philologie, iii. (1843–1850); W. H. Suringar, Historia critica scholiastarum Latinorum (1835).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Markham, Gervase

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​MARKHAM, GERVASE (or Jervis) (1568?–1637), English poet and miscellaneous writer, third son of Sir Robert Markham of Cotham, Nottinghamshire, was born probably in 1568. He was a soldier of fortune in the Low Countries, and later was a captain under the earl of Essex’s command in Ireland. He was acquainted with Latin and several modern languages, and had an exhaustive practical acquaintance with the arts of forestry and agriculture. He was a noted horse-breeder, and is said to have imported the first Arab. Very little is known of the events of his life. The story of the murderous quarrel between Gervase Markham and Sir John Holles related in the Biographia Britannica (s.v. Holles) has been generally connected with him, but in the Dictionary of National Biography, Sir Clements R. Markham, a descendant from the same family, refers it to another contemporary of the same name, whose monument is still to be seen in Laneham church. Gervase Markham was buried at St Giles’s, Cripplegate, London, on the 3rd of February 1637. He was a voluminous writer on many subjects, but he repeated himself considerably in his works, sometimes reprinting the same books under other titles. His booksellers procured a declaration from him in 1617 that he would produce no more on certain topics.
Markham’s writings include: The Teares of the Beloved (1600) and Marie Magdalene’s Teares (1601) long and rather commonplace poems on the Passion and Resurrection of Christ, both reprinted by Dr A. B. Grosart in the Miscellanies of the Fuller Worthies Library (1871); The most Honorable Tragedy of Sir Richard Grinvile (1595), reprinted (1871) by Professor E. Arber, a prolix and euphuistic poem in eight-lined stanzas which was no doubt in Tennyson’s mind when he wrote his stirring ballad; The Poem of Poems, or Syon’s Muse (1595), dedicated to Elizabeth, daughter of Sir Philip Sidney; Devoreux, Vertues Teares (1597). Herod and Antipater, a Tragedy (1622) was written in conjunction with William Sampson, and with Henry Machin he wrote a comedy called The Dumbe Knight (1608). A Discourse of Horsemanshippe (1593) was followed by other popular treatises on horsemanship and farriery. Honour in his Perfection (1624) is in praise of the earls of Oxford, Southampton and Essex, and the Souldier’s Accidence (1625) turns his military experiences to account. He edited Juliana Berners’s Boke of Saint Albans under the title of The Gentleman’s Academie (1595), and produced numerous books on husbandry, many of which are catalogued in Lowndes’s Bibliographer’s Manual (Bohn’s ed., 1857–1864).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Markham, Mrs

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​MARKHAM, MRS, the pseudonym of Elizabeth Penrose (1780–1837), English writer, daughter of Edmund Cartwright, the inventor of the power-loom. She was born at her father’s rectory at Goadby Marwood, Leicestershire, on the 3rd of August 1780. In 1804 she married the Rev. John Penrose, a country clergyman in Lincolnshire and a voluminous theological writer. During her girlhood Mrs Penrose had frequently stayed with relatives at Markham, a village in Nottinghamshire, and from this place she took the nom de plume of “Mrs Markham,” under which she gained celebrity as a writer of history and other books for the young. The best known of her books was A History of England from the First Invasion by the Romans to the End of the Reign of George III. (1823), which went through numerous editions. In 1828 she published a History of France. Both these works enjoyed a wide popularity in America as well as in England. The distinctive characteristic of “Mrs Markham’s” histories was the elimination of all the “horrors” of history, and of the complications of modern party politics, as being unsuitable for the youthful mind; and the addition to each chapter of “Conversations” between a fictitious group consisting of teacher and pupils bearing upon the subject matter. Her less well-known works were Amusements of Westernheath, or Moral Stories for Children (2 vols., 1824); A Visit to the Zoological Gardens (1829); two volumes of stories entitled The New Children’s Friend (1832); Historical Conversations for Young People (1836); Sermons for Children (1837). Mrs Markham died at Lincoln on the 24th of January 1837.
See Samuel Smiles, A Publisher and his Friends (2 vols., London, 1891); G. C. Boase and W. P. Courtney, Bibliotheca Cornubiensis (3 vols., London, 1874–1882).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Markhor

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​MARKHOR (“snake-eater”), the Pushtu name of a large Himalayan wild goat (Capra falconeri), characterized by its spirally twisted horns, and long shaggy winter coat. From the Pir-Panjal range of Kashmir the markhor extends westwards into Baltistan, Astor, Hunza, Afghanistan and the trans-Indus ranges of the Punjab. The twist of the horns varies to a great extent locally, the spiral being most open and corkscrew-like in the typical Astor animal, and closest and most screw-like in the race (C. falconeri jerdoni) inhabiting the Suleiman and adjacent ranges.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Markland, Jeremiah

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​MARKLAND, JEREMIAH (1693–1776), English classical scholar, was born at Childwall in Lancashire on the 29th (or 18th) of October 1693. He was educated at Christ’s Hospital and Peterhouse, Cambridge. He died at Milton, near Dorking, on the 7th of July 1776.
His most important works are Epistola critica (1723), the Sylvae of Statius (1728), notes to the editions of Lysias by Taylor, of Maximus of Tyre by Davies, of Euripides’ Hippolytus by Musgrave, editions of Euripides’ Supplices, Iphigenia in Tauride and in Aulide (ed. T. Gaisford, 1811); and Remarks on the Epistles of Cicero to Brutus (1745).
See J. Nichols’s Literary Anecdotes (1812), iv. 272; also biography by F. A. Wolf, Literarische Analekten, ii. 370 (1818).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Markham, William

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​MARKHAM, WILLIAM (1719–1807), archbishop of York, was educated at Westminster and at Christ Church, Oxford. He was one of the best scholars of his day, and attained to the headship of his old school and college in 1753 and 1767 respectively. He held from time to time a number of livings, and in 1771 was made bishop of Chester and tutor to George prince of Wales. In 1777 he became archbishop of York, and also lord high almoner and privy councillor. He was for some time a close friend of Edmund Burke, but his strong championship of Warren Hastings caused a breach. He was accused by Lord Chatham of preaching pernicious doctrines, and was a victim of the Gordon riots in 1780. He died in 1807.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Marko Kralyevich

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​MARKO KRALYEVICH, Servian hero, was a son of the Servian king or prince, Vukashin (d. 1371). Chagrined at not himself becoming king after his father’s death, he headed a revolt against the new ruler of the Servians. Later he passed into the service of the sultan of Turkey, and was killed in battle about 1394. Marko, however, is more celebrated in legend than in history. He is regarded as the personification of the Servian race, and stories of strength and wonder have gathered round his name. He is supposed to have lived for 300 years, to have ridden a horse 150 years old, and to have used his enormous physical strength against oppressors, especially against the Turks. He is a great figure in Servian poetry, and his deeds are also told in the epic poems of the Rumanians and the Bulgarians. One tradition relates how he retired from the world owing to the advent of firearms, which, he held, made strength and valour of no account in battle. Goethe regards Marko as the counterpart of Hercules and of the Persian Rustem.
The Servian poems about him were published in 1878; a German translation by Gröber (Marko, der Königssohn) appeared at Vienna in 1883.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Market Drayton

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​MARKET DRAYTON, a market town in the Newport division of Shropshire, England, on the river Tern and the Shropshire Union canal, 178 m. N.W. from London. Pop. (civil parish of Drayton-in-Hales, 1901), 5167. The Wellington-Crewe line of the Great Western railway is here joined by a branch into Staffordshire of the North Staffordshire railway. The church of St Mary has Norman remains but is modernised by restoration. The town is a centre of agricultural trade, and there are large iron foundries. It is in the parish of Drayton-in-Hales, a name sometimes applied to it; and it is also known as Drayton Magna. It is an ancient town, of which the manor was held successively by the abbots of St Ebrulph in Normandy and Combermere in Cheshire. On Blore Heath, 3 m. east in Staffordshire, Audley Cross marks a great battle in the Wars of the Roses (1459), in which the Yorkists were successful and Lord Audley fell.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Market Harborough

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​MARKET HARBOROUGH, a market town in the Harborough parliamentary division of Leicestershire, England; on the river Welland and the Grand Union Canal. Pop. of urban district (1901), 7735. It is 81 m. N.N.W. from London by the Midland railway, and is served by branches of the London & North Western and Great Northern railways. The church of St Dionysius is Decorated and Perpendicular, with a fine tower and spire. The grammar school was founded in 1614; it occupies modern buildings, but the original house remains, a picturesque half-timbered building, raised upon pillars of wood. Both British and Roman remains have been found in the vicinity. There are malt-houses and boot, shoe and stay factories. The town is also an important fox-hunting centre.