# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Alps

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​ALPS, the collective name for one of the great mountain systems of Europe.
1. Position and Name.—The continent of Europe is no more than a great peninsula extending westwards from the much vaster continent of Asia, while it is itself broken up by two inland seas into several smaller peninsulas—the Mediterranean forming the Iberian, the Italian and the Greek peninsulas, while the Baltic forms that of Scandinavia and the much smaller one of Denmark. Save the last-named, all these peninsulas of Europe are essentially mountain ranges. But in height and importance the ranges that rise therein are much surpassed by a great mountain-chain, stretching from south-eastern France to the borders of Hungary, as well as between the plains of northern Italy and of southern Germany. This chain is collectively known as the Alps, and is the most important physical feature of the European continent. The Alps, however, do not present so continuous a barrier as the Himalayas, the Andes or even the Pyrenees. They are formed of numerous ranges, divided by comparatively deep valleys, which, with many local exceptions, tend towards parallelism with the general direction of the whole mass. This, between the Dauphiné and the borders of Hungary, forms a broad band convex towards the north, while most of the valleys lie between the directions west to east and south-west to north-east. But in many parts deep transverse valleys intersect the prevailing direction of the ridges, and facilitate the passage of man, plants and animals, as well as of currents of air which mitigate the contrast that would otherwise be found between the climates of the opposite slopes.
The derivation of the name Alps is still very uncertain, some writers connecting it with a Celtic root alb, said to mean height, while others suggest the Latin adjective albus (white), referring to the colour of the snowy peaks. But in all parts of the great chain itself, the term Alp (or Alm in the Eastern Alps) is exclusively applied to the high mountain pastures (see Alp), and not to the peaks and ridges of the chain.
2. Limits.—These will depend on the meaning we attach to the word Alps as referring to the great mountain-chain of central Europe. If we merely desire to distinguish it from certain minor ranges (e.g. the Cévennes, the Jura, the hills of central Germany, the Carpathians, the Apennines), which are really independent ranges rather than offshoots of the main chain, the best limits are on the west (strictly speaking south), the Col d’Altare or di Cadibona (1624 ft.), leading from Turin to Savona and Genoa, and on the east the line of the railway over the Semmering Pass (3215 ft.) from Vienna to Marburg in the Mur valley, and on by Laibach to Trieste. But if we confine the meaning of the term Alps to those parts of the chain that are what is commonly called “Alpine,” where the height is sufficient to support a considerable mass of perpetual snow, our boundaries to the west and to the east must be placed at spots other than those mentioned above. To the west the limit will then be the Col de Tenda (6145 ft.), leading from Cuneo (Coni) to Ventimiglia, while on the east our line will be the route over the Radstädter Tauern (5702 ft.) and the Katschberg (5384 ft.) from Salzburg to Villach in Carinthia, and thence by Klagenfurt to Marburg and so past Laibach in Carniola on to Trieste; from Villach the direct route to Trieste would be over the Predil Pass (3813 ft.) or the Pontebba or Saifnitz Pass (2615 ft.), more to the west, but in either case this would exclude the Terglou (9400 ft.), the highest summit of the entire South-Eastern Alps, as well as its lower neighbours.
On the northern side the Alps (in whichever sense we take this term) are definitely bounded by the course of the Rhine from Basel to the Lake of Constance, the plain of Bavaria, and the low region of foot-hills that extend from Salzburg to the neighbourhood of Vienna. One result of this limit, marked out by Nature herself, is that the waters which flow down the northern slope of the Alps find their way either into the North Sea through the Rhine, or into the Black Sea by means of the Danube, not a drop reaching the Baltic Sea. On the southern side the mountains extending from near Turin to near Trieste subside into the great plain of Piedmont, Lombardy and Venetia. But what properly forms the western bit of the Alps runs, from near Turin to the Col de Tenda, in a southerly direction, then bending eastwards to the Col d’Altare that divides it from the Apennines.
It should be borne in mind that the limits adopted above refer purely to the topographical aspect of the Alps as they exist at the present day. Naturalists will of course prefer other limits according as they are geologists, botanists or zoologists.
3. Climate.—It is well known that as we rise from the sea-level into the upper regions of the atmosphere the temperature decreases. The effect of mountain-chains on prevailing winds is to carry warm air belonging to the lower region into an upper zone, where it expands in volume at the cost of a proportionate loss of heat, often accompanied by the precipitation of moisture in the form of snow or rain. The position of the Alps about the centre of the European continent has profoundly modified the climate of all the surrounding regions. The accumulation of vast masses of snow, which have gradually been converted into permanent glaciers, maintains a gradation of very different climates within the narrow space that intervenes between the foot of the mountains and their upper ridges; it cools the breezes that are wafted to the plains on either side, but its most important function is to regulate the water-supply of that large region which is traversed by the streams of the Alps. Nearly all the moisture that is precipitated during six or seven months is stored up in the form of snow, and is gradually diffused in the course of the succeeding summer; even in the hottest and driest seasons the reserves accumulated during a long preceding period of years in the form of glaciers are available to maintain the regular flow of the greater streams. Nor is this all; the lakes that fill several of the main valleys on the southern side of the Alps are somewhat above the level of the plains of Lombardy and Venetia, and afford an inexhaustible supply of water, which, from a remote period, has been used for that system of irrigation to which they owe their proverbial fertility. Six regions or zones, which are best distinguished by their characteristic vegetation, are found in the Alps. It is an error to suppose that these are indicated by absolute height above the sea-level. Local conditions of exposure to the sun, protection from cold winds, or the reverse, are of primary importance in determining the climate and the corresponding vegetation.
​The great plain of Upper Italy has a winter climate colder than that of the British Islands. The olive and the characteristic shrubs of the northern coasts of the Mediterranean do not thrive in the open air, but the former valuable tree ripens its fruit in sheltered places at the foot of the mountains, and penetrates along the deeper valleys and the Olive region.shores of the Italian lakes. The evergreen oak is wild on the rocks about the Lake of Garda, and lemons are cultivated on a large scale, with partial protection in winter. The olive has been known to survive severe cold when of short duration, but it cannot be cultivated with success where frosts are prolonged, or where the mean winter temperature falls below 42° F.; and to produce fruit it requires a heat of at least 75° F. during the day, continued through four or five months of the summer and autumn.
The vine is far more tolerant of cold than the olive, but to produce tolerable wine it demands, at the season of ripening, a degree of heat not much less than that needed by the more delicate tree. These conditions are satisfied in the deeper valleys of the Alps, even in the interior of the chain, and up to a considerable height on slopes exposed Vine region.to the sun. The protection afforded by winter snow enables the plant to resist severe and prolonged frosts, such as would be fatal in more exposed situations. Many wild plants characteristic of the warmer parts of middle Europe are seen to flourish along with the vine. A mean summer temperature of at least 68° F. is considered necessary to produce tolerable wine, but in ordinary seasons this is much exceeded in many of the great valleys of the Alps.
Many writers take the growth of grain as the characteristic of the mountain region; but so many varieties of all the common species are in cultivation, and these have such different climatal requirements, that they do not afford a satisfactory criterion. A more natural limit is afforded by the presence of the chief deciduous trees—oak, beech,Mountain region, or region of deciduous trees. ash and sycamore. These do not reach exactly to the same elevation, nor are they often found growing together; but their upper limit corresponds accurately enough to the change from a temperate to a colder climate that is further proved by a change in the wild herbaceous vegetation. This limit usually lies about 4000 ft. above the sea on the north side of the Alps, but on the southern slopes it often rises to 5000 ft., sometimes even to 5500 ft. It must not be supposed that this region is always marked by the presence of the characteristic trees. The interference of man has in many districts almost extirpated them, and, excepting the beech forests of the Austrian Alps, a considerable wood of deciduous trees is scarcely anywhere to be found. In many districts where such woods once existed, their place has been occupied by the Scottish pine and spruce, which suffer less from the ravages of goats, the worst enemies of tree vegetation. The mean annual temperature of this region differs little from that of the British Islands; but the climatal conditions are widely different. Here snow usually lies for several months, till it gives place to a spring and summer considerably warmer than the average of British seasons.
The Subalpine is the region which mainly determines the manner of life of the population of the Alps. On a rough estimate we may reckon that, of the space lying between the summits of the Alps and the low country on either side, one-quarter is available for cultivation, of which about one-half may be vineyards and corn-fields, while Subalpine region, or region of coniferous trees.the remainder produces forage and grass. About another quarter is utterly barren, consisting of snow-fields, glaciers, bare rock, lakes and the beds of streams. There remains about one-half, which is divided between forest and pasture, and it is the produce of this half which mainly supports the relatively large population. For a quarter of the year the flocks and herds are fed on the upper pastures; but the true limit of the wealth of a district is the number of animals that can be supported during the long winter, and while one part of the population is engaged in tending the beasts and in making cheese and butter, the remainder is busy cutting hay and storing up winter food for the cattle. The larger villages are mostly in the mountain region, but in many parts of the Alps the villages stand in the subalpine region at heights varying from 4000 ft. to 5500 ft. above the sea, more rarely extending to about 6000 ft. The most characteristic feature of this region is the prevalence of coniferous trees, which, where they have not been artificially kept down, form vast forests that cover a large part of the surface. These play a most important part in the natural economy of the country. They protect the valleys from destructive avalanches, and, retaining the superficial soil by their roots, they mitigate the destructive effects of heavy rains. In valleys where they have been rashly cut away, and the waters pour down the slopes unchecked, every tiny rivulet becomes a raging torrent, that carries off the grassy slopes and devastates the floor of the valley, covering the soil with gravel and debris. In the pine forests of the Alps the prevailing species are the common spruce and the silver fir; on siliceous soil the larch flourishes, and surpasses every other European species in height. The Scottish pine is chiefly found at a lower level and rarely forms forests. The Siberian fir is found scattered at intervals throughout the Alps but is not common. The mughus, creeping pine, or Krummholz of the Germans, is common in the Eastern Alps, and sometimes forms on the higher mountains a distinct zone above the level of its congeners. In the Northern Alps the pine forests rarely surpass the limit of 6000 ft. above the sea, but on the south side they commonly attain 7000 ft., while the larch, Siberian fir and mughus often extend above that elevation.
Throughout the Teutonic region of the Alps the word Alp is used specifically for the upper pastures where cattle are fed in summer, but this region is held to include the whole space between the uppermost limit of trees and the first appearance of permanent masses of snow. It is here that the characteristic vegetation of the Alps is developed in its Alpine region.full beauty and variety. Shrubs are not wanting. Three species of rhododendron vie with each other in the brilliancy of their masses of red or pink flowers; the common juniper rises higher still, along with three species of bilberry; and several dwarf willows attain nearly to the utmost limit of vegetation. The upper limit of this region coincides with the so-called limit of perpetual snow.
As very little snow can rest on rocks that lie at an angle exceeding 60°, and this is soon removed by the wind, some steep masses of rock remain bare even near the summits of the highest peaks, but as almost every spot offering the least hold for vegetation is covered with snow, few flowering plants are seen above 11,000 ft. There is reason to think, however, that it is the want of soil rather than climatal conditions that checks the upward extension of the alpine flora. Increased direct effect of solar radiation compensates for the cold of the nights, and in the few spots where plants have been found in flower up to a height of 12,000 ft., nothing has indicated that the processes of vegetation were arrested by the severe cold which they must sometimes endure. The climate of the glacial region has often been compared to that of the polar regions, but they are widely different. Here, intense solar radiation by day, which raises the surface when dry to a temperature approaching 80° F., alternates with severe frost by night. There, a sun which never sets sends feeble rays that maintain a low equable temperature, rarely rising more than a few degrees above the freezing-point. Hence the upper region of the Alps sustains a far more varied and brilliant vegetation.
4. Main Chain.—In the case of every mountain system geographers are disposed to regard, as a general rule, the watershed (or boundary dividing the waters flowing towards opposite slopes of the range) as marking the main chain, and this usage is justified in that the highest peaks often rise on or very near the watershed. Yet, as a matter of fact, several important mountain groups are situated on one or other side of the watershed of the Alps, and form almost independent ranges, being only connected with the main chain by a kind of peninsula: such are the Dauphine Alps, the Eastern and Western Graians, the entire Bernese Oberland, the Todi, Albula and Silvretta groups, the Ortler and Adamello ranges, and the Dolomites of south Tirol, not to speak of the lower Alps of the Vorarlberg, Bavaria and Salzburg. Of course each of these semi-detached ranges has a watershed of its own, like the lateral ridges that branch off from the main watershed. Thus there are lofty ranges parallel to that which forms the main watershed. The Alps, therefore, are not composed of a single range (as shown on the old maps) but of a great “divide,” flanked on either side by other important ranges, which, however, do not comprise such lofty peaks as the main watershed. In the following remarks we propose to follow the main watershed from one end of the Alps to the other.
Starting from the Col d’Altare or di Cadibona (west of Savona), the main chain extends first south-west, then north-west to the Col de Tenda, though nowhere rising much beyond the zone of coniferous trees. Beyond the Col de Tenda the direction is first roughly west, then north-west to the Rocher des Trois Évêques (9390 ft.), just south of the Mont Enchastraye (9695 ft.), several peaks of about 10,000 ft. rising on the watershed, though the highest of all, the Punta dell’ Argentera (10,794 ft.) stands a little way to its north. From the Rocher des Trois Évêques the watershed runs due north for a long distance, though of the two loftiest peaks of this region one, the Aiguille de Chambeyron (11,155 ft.), is just to the west, and the other, the Monte Viso (12,609 ft.), is just to the east of the watershed. From the head of the Val Pellice the main chain runs north-west, and diminishes much in average height till it reaches the Mont Thabor (10,440 ft.), which forms the apex of a salient angle which the main chain here presents towards the west. Hence the main watershed extends eastwards, culminating in the Aiguille de Scolette (11,500 ft.), but makes a great curve to the north-west and back to the south-east before rising in the Rochemelon (11,605 ft.), which may be considered as a re-entering angle in the great rampart by which Italy is guarded from its neighbours. Thence the direction taken is north as far as the eastern summit (11,693 ft.) of the Levanna, the watershed rising in a series of snowy peaks, though the loftiest point of the region, the Pointe de Charbonel (12,336 ft.), stands a little to the west. Once more the chain bends to the north-west, rising in several lofty peaks (the highest is the Aiguille de la Grande Sassière, 12,323 ft.), before attaining the considerable depression of the Little St Bernard Pass. Thence for a short way the direction is north to the Col de la Seigne, and then north-east along the crest of the Mont Blanc chain, which culminates in the peak of Mont Blanc (15,782 ft.), the loftiest in the Alps. A number of high peaks crown our ​watershed before it attains the Mont Dolent (12,543 ft.). Thence after a short dip to the south-east, our chain takes near the Great St Bernard Pass the generally eastern direction that it maintains till it reaches Monte Rosa, whence it bends northwards, making one small dip to the east as far as the Simplon Pass. It is in the portion of the watershed between the Great St Bernard and the Simplon that the main chain maintains a greater average height than in any other part. But, though it rises in a number of lofty peaks, such as the Mont Vélan (12,353 ft.), the Matterhorn (14,782 ft.), the Lyskamm (14,889 ft.), the Nord End of Monte Rosa (15,132 ft.), and the Weissmies (13,226 ft.), yet many of the highest points of the region, such as the Grand Combin (14,164 ft.), the Dent Blanche (14,318 ft.), the Weisshorn (14,804 ft.), the true summit or Dufourspitze (15,217 ft.) of Monte Rosa itself, and the Dom (14,942 ft.), all rise on its northern slope and not on the main watershed. On the other hand the chain between the Great St Bernard and the Simplon sinks at barely half a dozen points below a level of 10,000 ft. The Simplon Pass corresponds to what may be called a dislocation of the main chain. Thence to the St Gotthard the divide runs north-east, all the higher summits (including the Monte Leone, 11,684 ft., and the Pizzo Rotondo, 10,489 ft.) rising on it, a curious contrast to the long stretch just described. From the St Gotthard to the Maloja the watershed between the basins of the Rhine and Po runs in an easterly direction as a whole, though making two great dips towards the south, first to near the Vogelberg (10,565 ft.) and again to near the Pizzo Gallegione (10,201 ft.), so that it presents a broken and irregular appearance. But all the loftiest peaks rise on it: Scopi (10,499 ft.), Piz Medel (10,509 ft.), the Rheinwaldhorn (11,149 ft.), the Tambohorn (10,749 ft.) and Piz Timun (10,502 ft.).
From the Maloja Pass the main watershed dips to the south-east for a short distance, and then runs eastwards and nearly over the highest summit of the Bernina group, the Piz Bernina (13,304 ft.), to the Bernina Pass. Thence to the Reschen Scheideck Pass the main chain is ill-defined, though on it rises the Corno di Campo (10,844 ft.), beyond which it runs slightly north-east past the sources of the Adda and the Fraële Pass, sinks to form the depression of the Ofen Pass, soon bends north and rises once more in the Piz Sesvenna (10,568 ft.).
The break in the continuity of the Alpine chain marked by the deep valley, the Vintschgau, of the upper Adige (Etsch) is one of the most remarkable features in the orography of the Alps. The little Reschen lake which forms the chief source of the Adige is only 13 ft. below the Reschen Scheideck Pass (4902 ft.), and by it is but 5 m. from the Inn valley. Eastward of this pass, the main chain runs north-east to the Brenner Pass along the snowy crest of the Oetzthal and Stubai Alps, the loftiest point on it being the Weisskugel (12,291 ft., Oetzthal), for the highest summits both of the Oetzthal and of the Stubai districts, the Wildspitze (12,382 ft.) and the Zuckerhütl (11,520 ft.) stand a little to the north.
The Brenner (4495 ft.) is almost the lowest of all the great carriage-road passes across the main chain, and has always been the chief means of communication between Germany and Italy. For some way beyond it the watershed runs eastwards over the highest crest of the Zillerthal Alps, which attains 11,559 ft. in the Hochfeiler. But, a little farther, at the Dreiherrenspitze (11,500 ft.) we have to choose between following the watershed southwards, or keeping due east along the highest crest of the Greater Tauern Alps. (a) The latter course is adopted by many geographers and has much in its favour. The eastward direction is maintained and the watershed (though not the chief Alpine watershed) continues through the Greater Tauern Alps, culminating in the Gross Venediger (12,008 ft.), for the Gross Glockner (12,461 ft.) rises to the south. Our chain bends north-east near the Radstädter Tauern Pass, and preserves that direction through the Lesser Tauern Alps to the Semmering Pass. (b) On the other hand, if from the Dreiherrenspitze we cleave to the true main watershed of the Alpine chain, we find that it dips south, passes over the Hochgall (11,287 ft.), the culminating point of the Rieserferner group, and then sinks to the Toblach Pass, but at a point a little east of the great Dolomite peak of the Drei Zinnen it bends east again, and rises in the Monte Coglians (9128 ft., the monarch of the Carnic Alps). Soon after our watershed makes a last bend to the south-east and culminates in the Terglou (9400 ft.), the highest point of the Julic Alps, though the Grintovc (8429 ft., the culminating point of the Karawankas Alps) stands more to the east. Finally our watershed turns south and ends near the great limestone plateau of the Birnbaumerwald, between Laibach and Görz.
As might be expected, the main chain boasts of more glaciers and eternal snow than the independent or external ranges. Yet it is a curious fact that the three longest glaciers in the Alps (the Great Aletsch, 161/2 m., and the Unteraar and the Fiescher, each 10 m.) are all in the Bernese Oberland. In the main chain the two longest are both 91/4 m., the Mer de Glace at Chamonix and the Gorner at Zermatt. In the Eastern Alps the longest glacier is the Pasterze (rather over 61/4 m.), which is not near the true main watershed, though it clings to the slope of the Greater Tauern range, east of the Dreiherrenspitze. But the next two longest glaciers in the Eastern Alps (the Hintereis, 61/4 m., and the Gepatsch, 6 m.) are both in the Oetzthal Alps, and so close to the true main watershed.
The so-called alpine lakes are the sheets of water found at the foot of the Alps, on either slope, just where the rivers that form them issue into the plains. There are, however, alpine lakes higher up (e.g. the lake of Thun, and those in the Upper Engadine, in the heart of the mountains, though these are naturally smaller in extent, while the true lakes of the High Alps are represented by the glacier lakes of the Marjelensee (near the Great Aletsch glacier) and those on the northern slope of the Col de Fenetre, between Aosta and the Val de Bagnes. The most singular, and probably the loftiest, lake in the Alps is the ever-frozen tarn that forms the summit of the Roccia Viva (11,976 ft.) in the Eastern Graians.
Among the great alpine rivers we may distinguish two classes: those which spring directly from glaciers and those which rise in lakes, these being fed by eternal snows or glaciers. In the former class are the Isère, the Rhone, the Aar, the Ticino, the Tosa, the Hinter (or main) Rhine and the Linth; while in the latter class we have the Durance, the Po, the Reuss, the Vorder and middle branches of the Rhine, the Inn, the Adda, the Oglio and the Adige. The Piave and the Drave seem to be outside either class.
5. Principal Passes.—Though the Alps form a barrier they have never formed an impassable barrier, since, from the earliest days onwards, they have been traversed first, perhaps, for purposes of war or commerce, and later by pilgrims, students and tourists. The spots at which they were crossed are called passes (this word is sometimes though rarely applied to gorges only), and are the points at which the great chain sinks to form depressions, up to which deep-cut valleys lead from the plains. Hence the oldest name for such passes is Mont (still retained in cases of the Mont Cenis and the Monte Moro), for it was many ages before this term was especially applied to the peaks of the Alps, which with a few very rare exceptions (e.g. the Monte Viso was known to the Romans as Vesulus) were long simply disregarded. The native inhabitants of the Alps were naturally the first to use the alpine passes. But to the outer world these passes first became known when the Romans traversed them in order to conquer the world beyond. In the one case we have no direct knowledge (though the Romans probably selected the passes pointed out to them by the natives as the easiest), while in the other we hear almost exclusively of the passes across the main chain or the principal passes of the Alps. For obvious reasons the Romans, having once found an easy direct pass across the main chain, did not trouble to seek for harder and more devious routes. Hence the passes that can be shown to have been certainly known to them are comparatively few in number: they are, in topographical order from west to east, the Col de l’Argentière, the Mont Genèvre, the two St Bernards, the Splügen, the Septimer, the Brenner, the Radstädter Tauern, the Sölkscharte, the Plöcken and the Pontebba (or Saifnitz). Of these the Mont Genèvre and the Brenner were the most frequented, while it will be noticed that in the Central Alps only ​two passes (the Splügen and the Septimer) were certainly known to the Romans. In fact the central portion of the Alps was by far the least Romanised and least known till the early middle ages. Thus the Simplon is first certainly mentioned in 1235, the St Gotthard (without name) in 1236, the Lukmanier in 965, the San Bernardino in 941; of course they may have been known before, but authentic history is silent as regards them till the dates specified. Even the Mont Cenis (from the 15th to the 19th century the favourite pass for travellers going from France to Italy) is first heard of in 756 only. In the 13th century many hitherto unknown passes came into prominence, even some of the easy glacier passes. It should always be borne in mind that in the Western and Central Alps there is but one ridge to cross, to which access is gained by a deep-cut valley, though often it would be shorter to cross a second pass in order to gain the plains, e.g. the Mont Genèvre, that is most directly reached by the Col du Lautaret; and the Simplon, which is best gained by one of the lower passes over the western portion of the Bernese Oberland chain. On the other hand, in the Eastern Alps, it is generally necessary to cross three distinct ridges between the northern and southern plains, the central ridge being the highest and most difficult. Thus the passes which crossed a single ridge, and did not involve too great a detour through a long valley of approach, became the most important and the most popular, e.g. the Mont Cenis, Llie Great St Bernard, the St Gotthard, the Septimer and the Brenner. As time went on the travellers (with whatever object) who used the great alpine passes could not put up any longer with the bad old mule paths. A few passes (e.g. the Semmering, the Brenner, the Tenda and the Arlberg) can boast of carriage roads constructed before 1800, while those over the Umbrail and the Great St Bernard were not completed till the early years of the 10th century. Most of the carriage roads across the great alpine passes were thus constructed in the 19th century (particularly its first half), largely owing to the impetus given by Napoleon. As late as 1905, the highest pass over the main chain that had a carriage road was the Great St Bernard (8111 ft.), but three still higher passes over side ridges have roads-the Stelvio (9055 ft.), the Col du Galibier (8721 ft.), in the Dauphine Alps, and the Umbrail Pass (8242 ft.). Still more recently the main alpine chain has been subjected to the further indignity of having railway lines carried over it or through it-the Brenner and the Pontebba lines being cases of the former, and the Col de Tenda, the Mont Cenis (though the tunnel is really 17 m. to the west), the Simplon and the St Gotthard, not to speak of the side passes of the Arlberg, Albula and Pyhrn of the latter. There are also schemes (more or less advanced) for piercing the Splügen and the Hohe Tauern, both on the main ridge, and the Lötschen Pass, on one of the external ranges. The numerous mountain railways, chiefly in Switzerland, up various peaks (e.g. the Rigi and Pilatus) and over various side passes (e.g. the Brünig and the Little Scheidegg) do not concern us here.
6. Divisions.—The Alps, within the limits indicated under (2) above, form a great range, consisting of a main chain, with ramifications, and of several parallel minor chains. They thus form a single connected whole as contrasted with the plains at their base, and nature has made no breaks therein, save at the spots where they sink to comparatively low depressions or passes. But for the sake of practical convenience it has long been usual to select certain of the best marked of these passes to serve as limits within the range, whether to distinguish several great divisions from each other, or to further break up each of these great divisions into smaller groups. As these divisions, great or small, are so to speak artificial, several systems have been proposed according to which the Alps may be divided. We give below that which seems to us to be the most satisfactory (based very largely on personal acquaintance with most parts of the range), considering, as in the case of the limits of the chain, only its topographical aspect, as it exists at the present day, while leaving it to geologists, botanists and zoologists to elaborate special divisions as required by these various sciences. Our selected divisions relate only to the High Alps between the Col de Tenda and the route over the Radstädter Tauern, while in each of the 18 subdivisions the less elevated outlying peaks are regarded as appendages of the higher group within the topographical limits of which they rise. No attempt, of course, has been made to give a complete catalogue of the peaks and passes of the Alps, while in the case of the peaks the culminating point of a lower half-detached group has been included rather than the loftier spurs of the higher and main group; in the case of the passes, the villages or valleys they connect have been indicated, and also the general character of the route over each pass.
As regards the main divisions, three are generally distinguished; the Western Alps (chiefly French and Italian, with a small bit of the Swiss Valais) being held to extend from the Col de Tenda to the Simplon Pass, the Central Alps (all but wholly Swiss and Italian) thence to the Reschen Scheideck Pass, and the Eastern Alps (wholly Austrian and Italian, save the small Bavarian bit at the north-west angle) thence to the Radstädter Tauern route, with a bend outwards towards the south-east, as explained under (2) in order to include the higher summits of the South-Eastern Alps. Strictly speaking, we should follow the Reschen Scheideck route down the Adige valley, but as this would include in the Central Alps the Ortler and some other of the highest Tirolese summits, it is best (remembering the artificial character of the division) to draw a line from Mals southwards either over the Umbrail Pass (the old historical pass) or the Stelvio (well-known only since the carriage road was built over it in the first quarter of the 19th century) to the head of the Valtellina, and then over the Aprica Pass (as the Bergamasque Alps properly belong to the Central Alps) to the Oglio valley or the Val Camonica, and down that valley to the Lake of Iseo and Brescid.
Assuming these three main divisions, we must now consider in detail the 18 sub-divisions which we distinguish; the first 5 forming the Western Alps, the next 7 the Central Alps, and the rest the Eastern Alps, the heights throughout being, of course, given in English feet and representing the latest measurements.
I. Western Alps
1. Maritime Alps (from the Col de Tenda to the Col de l’Argentière). :
| Chief Peaks of the Maritime Alps. ||||
| Punta dell’ Argentera . . | 10,794 | Mont Tinibras. . . . . . . . | 9,948 |
| Cima dei Golas. . . . . . . | 10,286 | Mont Enchastraye . . . . | 9,695 |
| Monte Matto . . . . . . . . . | 10,128 | Monte Bego . . . . . . . . . | 9,426 |
| Mont Pelat. . . . . . . . . . | 10,017 | Mont Monnier . . . . . . . . | 9,246 |
| Mont Clapier. . . . . . . . . | 9,994 | Rocca dell’ Abisso . . . . | 9,039 |
Chief Passes of the Maritime Alps. :
| Passo del Pagarin (Vésubie Valley to Valdieri), snow | 9,236 |
| Col di Fremamorta (Tinée Valley to the Baths of Valdieri), bridle path | 8,688 |
| Bassa di Druos (same to same), bridle path | 8,629 |
| Passo di Collalunga (Tinée Valley to Vinadio), bridle path | 8,531 |
| Coll dell’ Agnel (Tenda to Valdieri), foot path. | 8,426 |
| Col della Ciriegia (St Martin Vésubie to the Baths of Valdieri), bridle path | 8,370 |
| Col des Granges Communes (St Etienne de Tinée to Barcelonnette), bridle path | 8,242 |
| Col de Pourriac (Tinée Valley to Argentera), foot path | 8,222 |
| Col della Finestre (St Martin de Vésubie to Valdieri), bridle. | 8,107 |
| Col di Guercia (Tinée Valley to Vinadio), foot path. | 8,042 |
| Col della Lombarda (same to same), bridle path | 7,858 |
| Col de la Cayolle (Var Valley to Barcelonnette), carriage. | 7,717 |
| Col di Santa Anna (Tinée Valley to Vinadio), bridle path | 7,605 |
| Col del Sabbione (Tenda to Valdieri), bridle path. | 7,428 |
| Col d’Allos or de Valgelaye (Verdon Valley to Barcelonnette), carriage road | 7,382 |
| Col de l’Argentière (Barcelonnette to Cuneo), carriage road. | 6,545 |
| Col de Tenda (Tenda to Cuneo), carriage road, railway beneath. | 6,145 |
2. Cottian Alps (from the Col de l’Argentière to the Mont Cenis and westwards to the Col du Galibier). :
| Chief Peaks of the Cottian Alps. ||||
| Monte Viso | 12,609 | Dents d’Ambin | 11,096 |
| Viso di Vallante | 12,048 | Mont d’Ambin | 11,080 |
| Aiguille de Scolette | 11,500 | Pointe de la Font Sancte | 11,057 |
| Aiguille de Chambeyron | 11,155 | Punta Ferrant | 11,037 |
| Grand Rubren | 11,142 | Visolotto | 11,001 |
| Bree de Chambeyron | 11,116 | Rochebrune | 10,906 |
| Rognosa d’Etache | 11,106 | Punta Sommeiller | 10,896 |
| Bric Froid | 10,860 | Tête des Toillies | 10,430 |
| Grand Glavza | 10,781 | Monte Granero | 10,401 |
| Rognosa di Sestrières | 10,758 | Mont Chaberton | 10,286 |
| Panestrel | 10,673 | Tete de Moyse | 10,204 |
| Roche du Grand Galibier | 10,637 | Monte Meidassa | 10,187 |
| Péou Roc | 10,601 | Pelvo d’Elva | 10,053 |
| Pic du Pelvat | 10,558 | Mont Politri | 10,009 |
| Pointe Haute de Mary | 10,539 | Mont Albergian | 9,974 |
| Pic du Thabor | 10,316 | Brio Bouchet | 9,853 |
| Mont Thabor | 10,440 | Punta Cournour | 9,410 |
| Pointe des Cerces | 10,434 |
Chief Passes of the Cottian Alps. :
| Col Sommeiller (Bardonnèche to Bramans), snow | 9,718 |
| Col de la Traversette (Crissolo to Aliries), mainly bridle | |
| beneath pass tunnel made in 1478–1480 | 9,679 |
| Col d’Ambin (Exilles to Bramans), snow | 9,364 |
| Col de St Véran (Val Varaita to the Queyras Valley), foot path | 9,331 |
| Col d’Etache (Bardonnèche to Bramans), bridle path | 9,144 |
| Col dell’ Agnello (Val Varaita to the Queyras Valley), bridle path | 9,003 |
| Col Girardin (Ubaye Valley to the Queyras Valley), bridle path | 8,855 |
| Col de Sautron (Val Maira to Barcelonnette), bridle path | 8,823 |
| Col de Longet (Ubaye Valley to Val Varaita), bridle path | 8,767 |
| Col de Mary or de Maurin ( Ubaye Valley to Val Maira), bridle path | 8,708 |
| Col d’Abriès or de Prali (Perosa to Abriès), bridle path | 8,695 |
| Col de la Roue (Bardonneche to Modane), bridle path | 8,419 |
| Col de Freius (same to same), carriage road, beneath which | |
| is the the so-called Mont Cenis railway tunnel | 8,294 |
| Col de Clapier (Bramans to Susa), bridle path | 8,173 |
| Col d’Izouard (Briançon to the Queyras Valley), carriage path | 7,835 |
| Col de la Croix (Torre Pellice to Abriès); bridle path | 7,576 |
| Petit Mont Cenis (Bramans to the Mont Cenis Plateau), bridle path | 7,166 |
| Col de Vars (Ubaye Valley to the Queyras Valley), carriage path | 6,939 |
| Mont Cenis (Lanslebourg to Susa), carriage road | 6,893 |
| Col de Sestrieres (Pignerol to Césanne), carriage road | 6,631 |
| Mont Genèvre (Briançon to Césanne), carriage road | 6,083 |
| Col des Echelles de Planpipinet (Briançon to Bardonnèche), | |
| partly carriage road | 5,774 |
3. Dauphiné Alps (from the Col du Galibier, westwards and southwards). :
| Chief Peaks of the Dauphiné Alps. ||||
| Pointe des Écrins | 13,462 | Vieux Chaillol | 10,378 |
| Meije | 13,081 | Tete de Vautisse | 10,375 |
| Ailefroide | 12,989 | Grand Pinier | 10,237 |
| Mont Pelvoux | 12,973 | Pic de Parières | 10,007 |
| Pic Sans Nom | 12,845 | Mourre Froid | 9,830 |
| Pic Gaspard | 12,730 | Belledonne (highest) | 9,781 |
| Pic Coolidge | 12,323 | Rocherblanc (Sept Laux) | 9,617 |
| Grande Ruine | 12,317 | Taillefer | 9,387 |
| Rateau | 12,317 | Pic du Frêne | 9,219 |
| Montagne des Agneaux | 12,008 | Tete de l’Obiou | 9,164 |
| Les Bans | 11,979 | Grand Ferrand | 9,059 |
| Sommet des Rouies | 11,923 | Pic de Bure (Aurouse) | 8,898 |
| Aiguille du Plat | 11,818 | Grand Veymont | 7,697 |
| Pic d’Olan | 11,735 | Mont Aiguille | 6,880 |
| Pic Bonvoisin | 11,680 | Chamechaude | 6,847 |
| Aiguilles d’Arves (highest) | 11,529 | Dent de Crolles | 6,779 |
| Grandes Rousses | 11,395 | Grand Sore | 6,670 |
| Roche de la Muzelle | 11,349 | Mont Granier | 6,358 |
| Sirac | 11,280 | Dent du Chat | 4,593 |
| Pic Félix Neff | 10,571 |
Chief Passes of the Dauphiné Alps. :
| Col de la Lauze (St Christophe to La Grave), snow | 11,625 |
| Col des Avalanches (La Bérarde to Vallouise), snow | 11,520 |
| Col de la Casse Deserte (La Bérarde to La Grave), snow | 11,516 |
| Col Émile Pic (La Grave to Vallouise), snow | 11,490 |
| Col des Ecrins (La Bérarde to Vallouise), snow | 11,205 |
| Col du Glacier Blanc (La Grave to Vallouise), snow | 10,854 |
| Col du Sélé (La Bérarde to Vallouise), snow | 10,834 |
| Brèche de la Meile (La Bérarde to la Grave), snow | 10,827 |
| Col de la Temple (La Bérarde to Vallouise), snow | 10,772 |
| Col des Aiguilles d’Arves (Valloire to St Jean d’Arves), snow | 10,335 |
| Col du Says (La Bérarde to the Val Gaudemar), snow | 10,289 |
| Col du Clot des Cavales (La Bérarde to La Grave), snow | 10,263 |
| Col du Loup du Valgaudemar (Vallouise to the Val Gaudemar), snow | 10,210 |
| Col Lombard (La Grave to St Jean d’Arves), snow | 10,171 |
| Brèche des Grandes Rousses (Allemont to Clavans), snow | 10,171 |
| Col du Sellar (Vallouise to the Val Gaudemar), snow | 10,063 |
| Col de la Muande (St Christophe to the Val Gaudemar), snow | 10,037 |
| Col des Quirlies (St Jean d’Arves to Clavans), snow | 9,679 |
| Col du Goléon (La Grave to Valloire), foot path | 9,449 |
| Pas de la Cavale (Vallouise to Champoléon), carriage road | 8,990 |
| Col d’Orcières (Dormillouse to Orcières), bridle path | 8,859 |
| Col de l’Infernet (La Grave to St Jean d’Arves), foot path | 8,826 |
| Col du Galibier (Lautaret Hospice to St Michel de Maurienne), carriage road | 8,721 |
| Brèche de Valsenestre (Bourg d’Oisans to Valsenestre), foot path | 8,642 |
| Col de Vallonpierre (Val Gaudemar to Champoléon), foot path | 8,596 |
| Col de Val Estrète (same to same), foot path | 8,596 |
| Col de Vaurze (Val Gaudemar to Val Jouffrey), foot path | 8,531 |
| Col de Martignare (La Grave to St Jean d’Arves), foot path | 8,531 |
| Col des Tourettes (Orcières to Châteauroux), bridle path | 8,465 |
| Col de la Muzelle (St Christophe to Valsenestre), foot path | 8,202 |
| Col de l’Eychauda (Vallouise to Monestier), bridle path | 7,970 |
| Col d’Arsine (La Grave to Monestier), bridle path | 7,874 |
| Col des Prés Nouveaux (Le Freney to St Jean d’Arves), bridle path | 7,523 |
| Col dessept Lanx (Allevard to Bourg d’Oisans), bridle path | 7,166 |
| Col du Lautaret (Briancon to Bourg d’Oisans), carriage road | 6,808 |
| Col de la Croix de Fer (Bourg d’Oisans to St Jean d’Arves), carriage | 6,765 |
| Col du Glandon (Bourg d’Oisans to La Chambre), carriage road | 6,401 |
| Col de l’Alpe de Vénosc (Vénosc to Le Freney), bridle path | 5,446 |
| Col d’Ornon (Bourg d’Oisans to La Mure), carriage road | 4,462 |
| Col Bayard (La Mure to Gap), carriage road | 4,088 |
| Col de la Croix Haute (Grenoble to Veynes and Gap), railway line over | 3,829 |
4. Graian Alps (from the Mont Cenis to the Little St Bernard Pass). These are usually divided into three groups, the Central (the watershed between the two passes named), the Western or French, and the Eastern or Italian; in the following lists the initials “C,” “W,” and “E” show to which group each peak and pass belongs.
Chief Peaks of the Graian Alps. :
| Grand Paradis (E) | 13,324 | Tete du Rutor (C) | 11,438 |
| Grivola (E) | 13,022 | Grande Aiguille Rousse (C) | 11,424 |
| Oirande Casse (W) | 12,668 | Granta Parey (C) | 11,395 |
| Mont Pourri (W) | 12,428 | Roc du Mulinet (C) | 11,382 |
| Mont Herbetet (E) | 12,396 | Aiguille Pers (C) | 11,323 |
| Pointe de Charbonel (C) | 12,336 | Pointe de la Sana (W) | 11,319 |
| Aiguille de la Grande Sassière (C) | 12,323 | Cima dell’ Auille (C) | 11,306 |
| Dent Parrachée (W) | 12,179 | Pointe de l’Échelle (W) | 11,260 |
| Tour du Grand St Pierre (E) | 12,113 | Punta Fourà (E) | 11,188 |
| Uja di Ciamareila (C) | 12,061 | Pointe des Sengies (E) | 11,182 |
| Cima di Charforon (E) | 12,025 | Pointe de la Gliere (W) | 11,109 |
| Grande Motte (W) | 12,018 | Pointe de la Galise (C) | 10,975 |
| Albaron (C) | 12,015 | Pointe de la Traversiere (C) | 10,962 |
| Roccia Viva (E) | 11,976 | Pointe de Mean Martin (W) | 10,949 |
| Levanna (C) | 11,943 | Punta Lavina (E) | 10,854 |
| Bessanese (C) | 11,917 | Ormelune (C) | 10,771 |
| Punta di Gaij (E) | 11,887 | Roche Chevriere (W) | 10,768 |
| Dôme de l’Arpont (W) | 11,874 | Signaldu Montlseran (C) | 10,634 |
| Pointe de Ronco (C) | 11,871 | Pointe de la Rechasse (W) | 10,575 |
| Bec de l’lnvergnan (C) | 11,838 | Grand Assaly (C) | 10,414 |
| Tsanteleina (C) | 11,831 | Roisebanque (E) | 10,381 |
| Dôme de Chasseforet (W) | 11,802 | Bocca di Nona (E) | 10,309 |
| Croce Rossa (C) | 11,703 | Torre d’Ovarda (C) | 10,089 |
| Aiguille de Péclet (W) | 11,700 | Pointe du Pousset (E) | 9,994 |
| Mont Einilius (E) | 11,677 | Dôme de Val d’Isère (C) | 9,951 |
| Punta d’Arnas (C) | 11,615 | Uja di Mondrone (C) | 9,725 |
| Aiguille de Polset (W) | 11,608 | Bellagarda (C) | 9,643 |
| Rochemelon (C) | 11,605 | Monte Marzo (E) | 9,023 |
| Mont Chalanson(C) | 11,582 | Petit Mont Blanc de Pralognan (W) | 8,809 |
| Tersiva (E) | 11,526 | Mont Jouvet (W) | 8,409 |
| Grande Traversiere (C) | 11,467 | Monte Civrari (C) | 7,553 |
Chief Passes of the Graian Alps. :
| Col de la Grande Rousse (Rhèmes Valley to the Val Grisanche), snow (C) | 11,483 |
| Col de Gébroulaz (Arc Valley to Moûtiers Tarentaise), snow (W) | 11,385 |
| Col de Monel (Cogne to Locana), snow (E) | 11,247 |
| Col du Grand Paradis (Ceresole to the Val Savaranche), snow (E) | 10,988 |
| Col du Charforon (same to same), snow (E) | 10,929 |
| Col de Teleccio (Cogne to Locana), snow (E) | 10,913 |
| Col de Lauzon (Cogne to the Val Savaranche), bridle path (E) | 10,831 |
| Col du Bouquetin (Bonneval to Val d’Isère), snow (C) | 10,827 |
| Col de St Grat (Val Grisanche to La Thuille), snow (C) | 10,827 |
| Col de l’Herbetet (Cogne to the Val Savaranche), snow (E) | 10,686 |
| Col du Collerin (Bessans to Balme), snow (C) | 10,506 |
| Col du Grand Etret (Ceresole to the Val Savaranche), snow (E) | 10,361 |
| Col de Bassac (Rhèmes Valley to the Val Grisanche), snow (C) | 10,345 |
| Col du Carro (Bonneval to Ceresole), snow (C) | 10,302 |
| Col d’Arbole (Comboe to Brissogne), snow (E) | 10,292 |
| Col de la Goletta (Val d’Isère to the Rhèmes Valley), snow (C) | 10,237 |
| Col de Rhèmes (same to same), snow (C) | 10,174 |
| Col de la Grande Casse (Pralognan to the Premou Glen), snow (W) | 10,171 |
| Col de Sea (Bonneval to Forno Alpi Graie), snow (C) | 10,115 |
| Col de l’Autaret (Bessans to Usseglio), foot path (C) | 10,073 |
| Col de Girard (Bonneval to Forno Alpi Graie), snow (C) | 9,987 |
| Col Rosset (Val Savaranche to the Rhèmes Valley), bridle path (C) | 9,922 |
| Col d’Arnas (Bessans to Balme), snow (C) | 9,889 |
| Col de la Galise (Ceresole to Val d’Isère), snow (C) | 9,836 |
| Col de Sort (Val Savaranche to the Rhèmes Valley), partly bridle path | 9,735 |
| Quecées de Tignes (Val d’Isère to Termignon), snow (W) | 9,646 |
| Col della Nouva (Cogne to Pont Canavese), partly bridle path (E) | 9,623 |
| Col de Garin (Aosta to Cogne), foot path (E) | 9,411 |
| Collarin d’Arnas (Balme to Usseglio), snow (C) | 9,351 |
| Finestra del Torrent (Rhèmes Valley to the Val Grisanche), foot path | 9,341 |
| Fenêtre de Champorcher (Cogne to Champorcher), bridle path (E) | 9,311 |
| Col de Vaudet (Isère Valley to the Val Grisanche), foot path (C) | 9,305 |
| Col de Bardoney (Cogne to Pont Canavese), snow (E) | 9,295 |
| Col de Chaviere (Modane to Pralognan), foot path (W) | 9,206 |
| Col de la Leisse (Tignes to Termignon), snow (W) | 9,121 |
| Col du Mont Iseran (Bonneval to Val d’Isère), bridle path (C) | 9,085 |
| Ghicet di Sea (Balme to Forno Alpi Graie), foot path (C) | 8,973 |
| Col de la Sachette (Tignes to Bourg St Maurice), foot path (W) | 8,954 |
| Col du Palet (Tignes to Moûtiers Tarentaise or Bourg St Maurice), bridle path (W) | 8,721 |
| Col du Mont (Ste Foy to the Val Grisanche), bridle path (C) | 8,681 |
| Col de la Croix de Nivolet (Ceresole to the Val Savaranche), bridle path (E) | 8,665 |
| Col della Crocetta (Ceresole to Forno Alpi Graie), bridle path (C) | 8,649 |
| Col de la Platière (St Jean de Maurienne to Moûtiers Tarentaise), partly bridle path (W) | 8,531 |
| Col de la Vanoise (Pralognan to Termignon), bridle path (W) | 8,291 |
| Col des Encombres (St Michel de Maurienne to Moûtiers Tarentaise), bridle path (W) | 7,668 |
| Little St Bernard (Aosta to Moûtiers Tarentaise), carriage road (C) | 7,179 |
| Col de la Madeleine (La Chambre to Moûtiers Tarentaise), bridle path (W) | 6,509 |
5. Pennine Alps (from the Little St Bernard to the Simplon Pass). This range contains all the highest peaks in the Alps, save the Finsteraarhorn (14,026) in the Bernese Oberland.
Chief Peaks of the Pennine Alps. :
| Mont Blanc | 15,782 | Aiguille de la Za | 12,051 |
| Monte Rosa (Dufourspitze) | 15,217 | Mont Collon | 11,956 |
| Nord End (Monte Rosa) | 15,132 | Diablons | 11,828 |
| Dom (Mischabelhörner) | 14,942 | Aiguille de Tour | 11,615 |
| Lyskamm | 14,889 | Mont Gelé | 11,539 |
| Weisshorn | 14,804 | Bec de Luseney | 11,503 |
| Matterhorn | 14,782 | Aiguille de Grepon | 11,489 |
| Täschhorn | 14,758 | Château des Dames | 11,447 |
| Mont Maudit | 14,669 | Aiguille des Charmoz | 11,293 |
| Dent Blanche | 14,318 | Aiguille du Tacul | 11,280 |
| Dôme du Goûter | 14,210 | Grand Tournalin | 11,086 |
| Grand Combin | 14,164 | Pointe de Rosa Blanche | 10,985 |
| Castor | 13,879 | Mont Avril | 10,962 |
| Zinal Rothhorn | 13,856 | Grande Rochere | 10,913 |
| Alphubel | 13,803 | Corno Bianco | 10,893 |
| Grandes Jorasses | 13,797 | Grauhaupt | 10,876 |
| Rimpfischhorn | 13,790 | Pointe d’Orny | 10,742 |
| Strahlhorn | 13,751 | Dent du Midi | 10,696 |
| Dent d’Hérens | 13,715 | Mont Favre | 10,693 |
| Zermatt Breithorn | 13,685 | Sasseneire | 10,693 |
| Aiguille Verte | 13,541 | Grand Golliaz | 10,630 |
| Ober Gabelhorn | 13,364 | Tour Sallières | 10,588 |
| Aiguille de Bionnassay | 13,341 | Pizzo Bianco | 10,552 |
| Allalinhorn | 13,236 | Latelhorn | 10,525 |
| Weissmies | 13,226 | Schwarzhorn (Augstbord) | 10,512 |
| Aiguille du Géant | 13,170 | Gornergrat | 10,289 |
| Laquinhorn | 13,140 | Pointe de Léchaud | 10,260 |
| Rossbodenhorn | 13,128 | Buet | 10,201 |
| Grand Cornier | 13,022 | Mont Ruan | 10,073 |
| Aiguille de Trélatête | 12,832 | Mont Néri | 10,073 |
| Aiguille d’Argentière | 12,819 | Bella Tola | 9,935 |
| Ruinette | 12,727 | Pointe de Tanneverge | 9,784 |
| Aiguille de Triolet | 12,717 | Belvédère (Aigs. Rouges) | 9,731 |
| Mont Blanc de Seilon | 12,700 | Tagliaferro | 9,725 |
| Aiguille du Midi | 12,609 | Riffelhorn | 9,617 |
| Tour Noir | 12,586 | Pointe Percée du Reposoir | 9,029 |
| Aiguille des Glaciers | 12,579 | Crammont | 8,980 |
| Mont Dolent | 12,543 | Pointe des Fours | 8,921 |
| Aiguille du Chardonnet | 12,540 | Pointe du Colloney | 8,832 |
| Cima di Jazzi | 12,527 | Catogne | 8,527 |
| Balfrin | 12,474 | Monte Bò | 8,386 |
| Pigne d’Arolla | 12,471 | Mont Joly | 8,291 |
| Mont Vélan | 12,353 | Brévent | 8,284 |
| Aiguille du Dru | 12,320 | Pointe de Salles | 8,183 |
| Tête Blanche | 12,304 | Aiguille de Varens | 8,163 |
| L’Evêque | 12,264 | Mont Chétif | 7,687 |
| Mont Pleureur | 12,159 | Môle | 6,132 |
| Dôme de Miage | 12,100 | Salève (highest point) | 4,528 |
| Lo Besso | 12,058 | |
Chief Passes of the Pennine Alps. :
| Sesiajoch (Zermatt to Alagna), snow | 14,515 |
| Col de la Brenva (Courmayeur to Chamonix), snow | 14,217 |
| Domjoch (Randa to Saas), snow | 14,062 |
| Lysjoch (Zermatt to Gressoney), snow | 14,033 |
| Mischabeljoch (Zermatt to Saas), snow | 12,651 |
| Alphubel Pass (same to same), snow | 12,474 |
| Adler Pass (same to same), snow | 12,461 |
| Moming Pass (Zermatt to Zinal), snow | 12,287 |
| Schwarzthor (Zermatt to Ayas), snow | 12,274 |
| Col de Triolet (Chamonix to Courmayeur), snow | 12,110 |
| Ried Pass (St Niklaus to Saas), snow | 11,800 |
| New Weissthor (Zermatt to Macugnaga), snow | 11,746 |
| Allalin Pass (Zermatt to Saas), snow | 11,713 |
| Col de Valpelline (Zermatt to Aosta), snow | 11,687 |
| Biesjoch (Randa to Turtmann), snow | 11,644 |
| Triftjoch (Zermatt to Zinal), snow | 11,615 |
| Col d’Argentière (Chamonix to Orsières), snow | 11,536 |
| Col du Sonadon (Bourg St Pierre to the Val de Bagnes), snow | 11,447 |
| Col de Talèfre (Chamonix to Courmayeur), snow | 11,430 |
| Col d’Hérens (Zermatt to Evolena), snow | 11,418 |
| Col Durand (Zermatt to Zinal), snow | 11,398 |
| Col des Maisons Blanches (Bourg St Pierre to the Val de Bagnes), snow | 11,241 |
| Col de Bertol (Arolla to the Col d’Hérens), snow | 11,200 |
| Col de Miage (Contamines to Courmayeur), snow | 11,077 |
| Col du Geant (Chamonix to Courmayeur), snow | 11,060 |
| Col du Mont Rouge (Val de Bagnes to the Val d’Hérémence), snow | 10,962 |
| Col du Chardonnet (Chamonix to Orsierès), snow | 10,909 |
| Col de St Théodule (Zermatt to Châtillon), snow | 10,899 |
| Col du Tour (Chamonix to Orsières), snow | 10,762 |
| Fenetre de Saleinaz (Saleinaz Glacier to Trient Glacier), snow | 10,709 |
| Col de Tracuit (Zinal to Turtmann), snow | 10,670 |
| Zwischbergen Pass (Saas to Gondo), snow | 10,657 |
| Col d’Oren (Val de Bagnes to the Valpelline), snow | 10,637 |
| Col de Seilon (Val de Bagnes to the Val d’Hérémence), snow | 10,499 |
| Col du Crêt (Val de Bagnes to the Val d’Hérémence), snow | 10,329 |
| Col de Valcóurnera (Val Tournanche to the Valpelline), snow | 10,325 |
| Col de Collon (Arolla to Aosta), snow | 10,270 |
| Col de Valsorey (Bourg St Pierre to Aosta), snow | 10,214 |
| Col de Chermontane (Val de Bagnes to Arolla), snow | 10,119 |
| Cimes Blanches (Val Tournanche to Ayas), bridle path | 9,777 |
| Col de Torrent (Evolena to the Val de Torrent), bridle path | 9,593 |
| Augstbord Pass (St Niklaus to Turtmann), bridle path | 9,492 |
| Col de Crête Sèche (Val de Bagnes to the Valpelline), snow | 9,475 |
| Col de Breuil (Bourg St Maurice to La Thuille), snow | 9,446 |
| Col d’Olen (Alagna to Gressoney), bridle path | 9,420 |
| Monte Moro (Saas to Macugnaga), partly bridle path | 9,390 |
| Pas de Chèvres (Arolla to the Val d’Hérémence), foot path | 9,354 |
| Antrona Pass (Saas to Antrona), partly bridle path | 9,331 |
| Col de Sorebois (Zinal to the Val de Torrent), bridle path | 9,269 |
| Col de Vessona (Valpelline to the St Barthelemy Glen), foot path | 9,167 |
| Col de Fenêtre (Val de Bagnes to Aosta), bridle path | 9,141 |
| Z’Meiden Pass (Zinal to Turtmann), bridle path | 9,095 |
| Turlo Pass (Alagna to Macugnaga), foot path | 8,977 |
| Col de Fenêtre (Great St Bernard to the Swiss Val Ferret), bridle path | 8,855 |
| Bettafurka (Ayas to Gressoney), bridle path | 8,780 |
| Col du Mont Tondu (Contamines to Courmayeur), snow | 8,498 |
| Col Serena (Great St Bernard to Courmayeur), foot path | 8,327 |
| Col Ferret (Courmayeur to Orsières), carriage road in progress | 8,311 |
| Col de la Seigne (Chapieux to Courmayeur) bridle path | 8,242 |
| Col de Susanfe (Champéry to Salvan), foot path | 8,202 |
| Col du Bonhomme (Contamines to Chapieux), bridle path | 8,147 |
| Col de Valdobbia (Gressoney to the Val Sesia), bridle path | 8,134 |
| Great St Bernard (Martigny to Aosta), carriage road | 8,111 |
| Col de Sagerou (Sixt to Champéry), foot path | 7,917 |
| Col de Moud (Alagna to Rima and Varallo), bridle path | 7,622 |
| Col d’Anterne (Sixt to Servos), bridle path | 7,425 |
| Col d’Egua (Rima to the Val Anzasca), bridle path | 7,336 |
| Col de Balme (Chamonix to the Trient Valley), bridle path | 7,221 |
| Simplon Pass (Brieg to Domo d’Ossola), carriage road over, railway tunnel beneath | 6,592 |
| Col de Chécouri (Courmayeur to the Lac de Combal),bridle path | 6,431 |
| Baranca Pass (Varallo to the Val Anzasca), bridle path | 5,971 |
| Col de Voza (Chamonix to Contamines), bridle path | 5,496 |
| Col de la Forclaz (Chamonix to St Gervais), bridle path | 5,105 |
| Col de la Forclaz (Trient Valley to Martigny), carriage road | 4,987 |
II. Central Alps
6. Bernese Oberland (from the Lake of Geneva to the Furka, the Reuss Valley and the Lake of Lucerne). This general name seems best to describe the range in question, though, of course, portions of it are in Cantons other than that of Berne, viz. Vaud, Fribourg, the Valais, Lucerne, Uri and Unterwalden.
Chief Peaks of the Bernese Oberland. :
| Finsteraarhorn | 14,026 | Mettenberg | 10,194 |
| Aletschhorn | 13,721 | Löffelhorn | 10,165 |
| Jungfrau | 13,669 | Grand Muveran | 10,043 |
| Mönch | 13,468 | Gross Wendenstock | 9,987 |
| Gross Schreckhorn | 13,386 | Sparrhorn | 9,928 |
| Gross Fiescherhorn | 13,285 | Torrenthorn | 9,853 |
| Eiger | 13,042 | Grande Dent de Morcles | 9,777 |
| Bietschhorn | 12,970 | Schilthorn | 9,754 |
| Gross Wannehorn | 12,812 | Eggishorn | 9,626 |
| Gross Nesthorn | 12,533 | Uri Rothstock | 9,620 |
| Lauterbrunnen Breithorn | 12,399 | Schwarzhorn(Grindelwald) | 9,613 |
| Balmhorn | 12,176 | Gross Siedelhorn | 9,452 |
| Wetterhorn (Mittelhorn) | 12,166 | Albristhorn | 9,069 |
| Wetterhorn (Hasli Jungfrau) | 12,149 | Röthihorn | 9,052 |
| Wetterhorn (Rosenhorn) | 12,110 | Faulhorn | 8,803 |
| Blümlisalphorn | 12,044 | Gummfluh | 8,074 |
| Gross Doldenhorn | 11,966 | Sulegg | 7,914 |
| Atels | 11,930 | Vanil Noir | 7,858 |
| Dammastock | 11,920 | Niesen | 7,763 |
| Galenstock | 11,802 | Brienzer Rothhorn | 7,714 |
| Sustenhorn | 11,523 | Tour d’Ai | 7,658 |
| Gspaltenhorn | 11,293 | Hohgant | 7,225 |
| Fleckistock | 11,214 | Stockhorn | 7,192 |
| Gross Huhnerstock | 10,985 | Kaiseregg | 7,182 |
| Ewigschneehorn | 10,929 | Pilatus (Tomlishorn) | 6,995 |
| Ritzlihorn | 10,768 | Chamossaire | 6,943 |
| Wildhorn | 10,709 | Gemmenalphorn | 6,772 |
| Wildstrubel | 10,673 | Rochers de Nave | 5,710 |
| Diablerets | 10,650 | Moléson | 6,582 |
| Titlis | 10,627 | Dent de Jaman | 6,165 |
| Gross Spannort | 10,516 | Napf | 4,629 |
| Wellhorn | 10,486 |
Chief Passes of the Bernese Oberland. :
| Lauithor (Lauterbrunnen to the Eggishorn), snow | 12,140 |
| Mönchjoch (Grindelwald to the Eggishorn), snow | 11,680 |
| Jungfraujoch (Wengern Alp to the Eggishorn), snow | 11,385 |
| Strahlegg Pass (Grindelwald to the Grimsel), snow | 10,995 |
| Grünhornlücke (Great Aletsch Glacier to the Fiescher Glacier), snow | 10,844 |
| Oberaarjoch (Grimsel to the Eggishorn), snow | 10,607 |
| Gauli Pass (Grimsel to Meiringen), snow | 10,519 |
| Petersgrat (Lauterbrunnen to the Lötschenthal), snow | 10,516 |
| Lötschenlücke (Lötschenthal to the Eggishorn), snow | 10,512 |
| Lauteraarsattel (Grindelwald to the Grimsel), snow | 10,355 |
| Beichgrat (Lötschenthal to the Bel Alp), snow | 10,289 |
| Lämmernjoch (Lenk to the Gemmi), snow | 10,276 |
| Triftlimmi (Rhone Glacier to the Gadmen Valley), snow | 10,200 |
| Sustenlimmi (Stein Alp to Goeschenen), snow | 10,181 |
| Gamchilücke (Kien Valley to Lauterbrunnen), snow | 9,295 |
| Tschiugel Pass (Lauterbrunnen to Kandersteg), snow | 9,265 |
| Hohthurli Pass (Kandersteg to the Kien Valley), foot path | 8,882 |
| Lötschen Pass (Kandersteg to the Lötschenthal), snow | 8,842 |
| Sefinenfurka (Lauierbrunnen to the Kien Valley), foot path | 8,583 |
| Wendenjoch (Engelberg to the Gadmen Valley), snow | 8,544 |
| Furtwangsattel (Guttannen to the Gadmen Valley), foot path | 8,393 |
| Furka Pass (Rhone Glacier to Andermatt), carriage road | 7,992 |
| Rawil Pass (Sion to Lenk), bridle path | 7,924 |
| Gemmi Pass (Randersteg to Leukerbad), bridle path | 7,641 |
| Surenen Pass (Engelberg to Altdorf), foot path | 7,563 |
| Susten Pass (Meiringen to Wassen), partly carriage road | 7,422 |
| Sanetsch Pass (Sion to Saanen), bridle path | 7,331 |
| Joch Pass (Meiringen to Engelberg), bridle path | 7,267 |
| Grimsel Pass (Meiringen to the Rhone Glacier), carriage road | 7,100 |
| Kleine Scheidegg (Grindelwald to Lauterbrunnen), railway over | 6,772 |
| Col de Cheville (Sion to Bex), bridle path | 6,723 |
| Grosse Scheidegg (Grindelwald to Meiringen), bridle path | 6,454 |
| Col de Jaman (Montreux to Montbovon), mule path over, railway tunnel beneath | 4,974 |
| Brünig Pass (Meiringen to Lucerne), railway over | 3,396 |
7. Lepontine Alps (from the Simplon to the Splügen and south of the Furka and Oberalp Passes). The eastern portion of this range, from the St Gotthard Pass to the Splügen, is sometimes named the Adula Alps.
Chief Peaks of the Lepontine Alps. :
| Monte Leone | 11,684 | Piz Blas | 9,918 |
| Rheinwaldhorn | 11,149 | Monte Giove | 9,876 |
| Guferhorn | 11,132 | Pizzo Centrale | 9,853 |
| Blindenhorn | 11,103 | Pizzas d’Annarosa | 9,850 |
| Basodino | 10,749 | Piz Beverin | 9,843 |
| Tambohorn | 10,749 | Weisshorn (Splügen) | 9,817 |
| Helsenhorn | 10,742 | Pizzo Lucendro | 9,708 |
| Wasenhorn | 10,680 | Piz Tomül | 9,676 |
| Ofenhorn | 10,637 | Piz Cavel | 9,659 |
| Cherbadung | 10,542 | Barenhorn | 9,620 |
| Piz Medel | 10,509 | Six Madun (Badus) | 9,619 |
| Scopi | 10,499 | Piz Muraun | 9,512 |
| Pizzo Rotondo | 10,489 | Zervreilerhorn | 9,508 |
| Pizzo dei Piani | 10,361 | Monte Cistella | 9,353 |
| Piz Terri | 10,338 | Piz Lukmanier | 9,115 |
| Piz Aul | 10,250 | Monte Prosa | 8,983 |
| Pizzo di Pesciora | 10,247 | Pizzo Columbè | 8,363 |
| Wyttenwasserstock | 10,119 | Monte Camoghè | 7,303 |
| Campo Tencia | 10,089 | Piz Mundaun | 6,775 |
| Leckihorn | 10,069 | Monte Generoso | 5,591 |
| Bruschghorn | 10,020 | Monte San Salvatore | 3,004 |
| Alperschellihorn | 9,991 |
Chief Passes of the Lepontine Alps. :
| Zapport Pass (Hinterrhein to Malvaglia and Biasca), snow | 10,105 |
| Güferlücke (Kanal Glen to the Lenta Glen), snow | 9,777 |
| Lentalücke (Hinterrhein to Vals Platz), snow | 9,692 |
| Hohsand Pass (Binn to Tosa Falls), snow | 9,603 |
| Lecki Pass (Wyttenwasser Glen to the Mutten Glen), snow | 9,554 |
| Passo Rotondo (Airolo to Oberwald), snow | 9,449 |
| Kaltwasser Pass (Simplon Hospice to Veglia Alp), snow | 9,331 |
| Scaradra Pass (Vals Platz to Olivone), foot path | 9,088 |
| Satteltelücke (Vals Platz to Vrin), foot path | 9,082 |
| Ritter Pass (Binn to Veglia Alp), snow | 8,832 |
| Cavanna Pass (Realp to the Val Bedretto), snow | 8,566 |
| Scatta Minoja (Devero to the Val Formazza), bridle path | 8,521 |
| Bocca di Cadlimo (Airolo to the Lukmanier Pass), foot path | 8,340 |
| Valserberg (Hinterrhein to Vals Platz), bridle path | 8,225 |
| Safierberg (Splügen to Safien Platz), bridle path | 8,170 |
| Geisspfad Pass (Binn to Devero), foot path | 8,120 |
| Gries Pass (Ulrichen to Tosa Falls), bridle path | 8,098 |
| Passo di Naret (Fusio to Airolo), bridle path | 8,015 |
| Nufenen Pass (Ulrichen to Airolo), bridle path | 8,006 |
| Diesrut Pass (Vrin fo the Somvix Oolen), bad bridle path | 7,953 |
| Albrun Pass (Binn to Devero and Baceno), bridle path | 7,907 |
| Greina Pass (Olivone to the Somvix Glen), bridle path | 7,743 |
| San Giacomo Pass (Airolo to Tosa Falls), bridle path | 7,573 |
| Passo di Buffalora (Val Mesocco to the Val Calanca), foot path | 7,431 |
| Passo dell’ Uomo (Airolo to the Lukmanier Pass), bridle path | 7,258 |
| Splügen Pass (Thusis to Chiavenna), carriage road | 6,946 |
| St Gotthard Pass (Andermatt to Airolo), carriage road over, railway tunnel beneath | 6,936 |
| San Bernardino Pass (Thusis to Bellinzona), carriage road | 6,769 |
| Lukmanier Pass (Disentis to Olivone), carriage road | 6,289 |
8. The Range of the Tödi (from the Oberalp Pass to the Klausen Pass).
Chief Peaks of the Range of the Tödi. :
| Tödi | 11,887 | Piz Segnes | 10,178 |
| Bifertenstock | 11,241 | Piz Giuf | 10,165 |
| Piz Urlaun | 11,060 | Crispalt | 10,105 |
| Oberalpstock | 10,926 | Bristenstock | 10,086 |
| Gross Scheerhorn | 10,814 | Selbsanft | 9,938 |
| Claridenstock | 10,729 | Vorab | 9,925 |
| Dussistock | 10,703 | Tschingelhörner (Elm) | 9,351 |
| Ringelspitz | 10,667 | Piz Sol (Grauehörner) | 9,348 |
| Brigelserhörner (highest) | 10,663 | Calanda | 9,213 |
| Grosse Windgalle | 10,473 | Kärpfstock | 9,177 |
| Hausstock | 10,342 | Mageren | 8,294 |
| Gross Ruchen | 10,289 | Mürtschenstock | 8,012 |
Chief Passes of the Range of the Tödi. :
| Clariden Pass (Amsteg to Linththal), snow | 9,741 |
| Planura Pass (same to same), snow | 9,646 |
| Kammlilücke or Scheerjoch (Maderanerthal to Unterschächen), snow | 9,344 |
| Sardona Pass (Flims to Ragaz), snow | 9,318 |
| Sand Alp Pass (Disentis to Linththal), snow | 9,121 |
| Brunni Pass (Disentis to Amsteg), snow | 8,977 |
| Segnes Pass (Elm to Flims), foot path | 8,613 |
| Kisten Pass (Linththal to Ilanz), bad bridle path | 8,203 |
| Panixer Pass (Elm to Ilanz), bad bridle path | 7,897 |
| Krüzli Pass (Amsteg to Sedrun), foot path | 7,710 |
| Foo or Ramin Pass (Elm to Weisstannen), bridle path | 7,290 |
| Oberalp Pass (Andermatt to Disentis), carriage road | 6,719 |
| Klausen Pass (Altdorf to Linththal), carriage road | 6,404 |
9. The Alps of North-Eastern Switzerland (north of the Klausen Pass).
Chief Peaks of the North-Eastern Swiss Alps. :
| Glärnisch (highest) | 9,580 | Gross Mythen | 6,240 |
| Böser Faulen | 9,200 | Rigikulm | 5,906 |
| Säntis | 8,216 | Hoher Kasten | 5,899 |
| Altmann | 7,999 | Rossberg | 5,194 |
| Faulfirst | 7,925 | Zugerberg (Hochwacht) | 3,255 |
| Alvier | 7,753 | Albis Hochwacht | 2,887 |
| Kurfürsten (highest) | 7,576 | Uetliberg | 2,864 |
| Speer | 6,411 |
Chief Passes of the North-Eastern Swiss Alps. :
| Ruosalperkulm (Schächen Valley to the Muota Valley), foot path | 7,126 |
| Karren Alp Pass (Muota Valley to Linththal), foot path | 6,877 |
| Kinzigkulm Pass (Schächen Valley to the Muota Valley), foot path | 6,811 |
| Saasberg Pass (Einsiedeln to Glarus), foot path | 6,227 |
| Kamor Pass (Appenzell to Rüti), bridle path | 5,512 |
| Saxerlücke (Appenzell to Sax), foot path | 5,417 |
| Schwein Alp Pass (Wäggithal to the Klön Glen), bridle path | 5,158 |
| Pragel Pass (Muotathal to Glarus), carriage road in progress | 5,099 |
| Hacken Pass (Schwyz to Einsiedeln), foot path | 4,649 |
| Holzegg Pass (same to same), bridle path | 4,616 |
| Ibergeregg Pass (Schwyz to Iberg and Einsiedeln), carriage road | 4,613 |
| Kräzeren Pass (Nesslau to Urnasch), bridle path | 3,993 |
10. Bernina Alps (from the Maloja to the Reschen Scheideck and the Stelvio, south and east of the Val Bregaglia and of the Engadine and north of the Valtellina).
Chief Peaks of the Bernina Alps. :
| Piz Bernina | 13,304 | Piz Languard | 10,716 |
| Piz Zupo | 13,131 | Piz Sesvenna | 10,568 |
| Monte di Scerscen | 13,116 | Piz Pisoc | 10,427 |
| Piz Roseg | 12,934 | Piz Murtaröl | 10,424 |
| Piz Palü | 12,835 | Piz Quaiervals | 10,358 |
| Crast’ Agüzza | 12,704 | Pizzo della Margna | 10,355 |
| Piz Morteratsch | 12,317 | Cima di Redascó | 10,299 |
| Monte della Disgrazia | 12,067 | Piz Lischanna | 10,204 |
| Pizzo di Verona | 11,359 | Pizzo di Sena | 10,099 |
| Cima di Piazzi | 11,283 | Piz Casana | 10,079 |
| Cima di Castello | 11,155 | Monte Foscagno | 10,010 |
| Cima Viola | 11,103 | Pizzo del Teo | 10,007 |
| Pizzo Cengalo | 11,070 | Pizzo del Ferro | 10,007 |
| Cima di Rosso | 11,060 | Piz Umbrail | 9,955 |
| Pizzo Scalino | 10,903 | Zwei Schwestern | 9,784 |
| Pizzo Badile | 10,863 | Monte Braulio | 9,777 |
| Corno di Campo | 10,844 | Monte Spluga | 9,321 |
| Pizzo di Dosdè | 10,762 | Monte Massuccio | 9,239 |
| Cima di Saoseo | 10,752 | Mont la Schera | 8,494 |
Chief Passes of the Bernina Alps. :
| Fuorcla Bellavista (Pontresina to Chiesa, in Val Malenco), snow | 12,087 |
| Fuorcla Crast’ Agüzza (same to same), snow | 11,805 |
| Fuorcla Tschierva (same to same), snow | 11,572 |
| Fuorela Sella (same to same), snow | 10,840 |
| Passo di Bondo (Bondo to the Baths of Masino), snow | 10,227 |
| Passo di Castello (Maloja to Morbegno), snow | 10,171 |
| Passo Tremoggia (Sils to Chiesa), snow | 9,912 |
| Passo di Mello Chiareggio to Val Masino), snow | 9,813 |
| Diavolezza Pass (Bernina road to the Morteratsch Glen), snow | 9,767 |
| Passo di Dosdè (Val Grosina to Val Viola Bormina), foot path | 9,351 |
| Passo di Sacco (Bernina road to Grosio), foot path | 9,026 |
| Passo di Zocca (Vicosoprano to Val Masino), snow | 9,000 |
| Casana pass (Scants to Livigno), bridle path | 8,832 |
| Muretto pass (Maloja to Chiesa), partly snow | 8,389 |
| Umbrail Pass or Wörmserjoch (Münster Valley to the Stelvio road), carriage road | 8,242 |
| Passo di Val Viola (Bernina road to Bormio), bridle path | 7,976 |
| Giufplan Pass (Ofen road to Fraële), bridle path | 7,723 |
| Bernina Pass (Pontresina to Tirano), carriage road | 7,645 |
| Forcola di Livigno (Bernina Pass to Livigno), small carriage road | 7,638 |
| Cruschetta Pass (Schuls by Scarl to Taufers), bridle path | 7,599 |
| Passo di Verva (Bormio to Grosio), foot path | 7,592 |
| Sursass or Schlinig Pass (Remüs to Mals) foot path | 7,540 |
| Foscagno Pass (Bormio to Trepalle), bridle path | 7,517 |
| Alpisella Lass (Uivigno to Fraule), bridle path | 7,497 |
| Scarl Pass (Scarl to Santa Maria Münster), carriage road | 7,386 |
| Dössradond Pass (Santa Maria Münster to Fraële), bridle path | 7,349 |
| Passo Dheira (Livigno to Trepalle) bridle path | 7,248 |
| Ofen Pass (Zernez to Mals), carriage road | 7,071 |
| Fraële Pass (Bormio to the Ofen road), partly bridle path | 6,398 |
| Scale di Fraële (Bormio to Fraële), bridle path | 6,372 |
| Maloja Pass (St Moritz to Chiavenna), carriage road | 5,935 |
11. Albula Range (from the Splügen Pass to the Flüela Pass. north and west of the Val Bregaglia and of the Engadine).
Chief Peaks of the Albula Range. :
| Piz Kesch | 11,228 | Pizzo Stella | 10,375 |
| Piz dellas Calderas | 11,132 | Flüela Schwarzhorn | 10,355 |
| Piz Platta | 11,109 | Pizzo della Duana | 10,279 |
| Piz Julier | 11,106 | Pizzo Gallegione | 10,201 |
| Piz d’Err | 11,093 | Gletscherhorn | 10,191 |
| Piz d’Aela | 10,959 | Cima di Lago | 10,112 |
| Cima da Flex | 10,785 | Hoch Ducan | 10,060 |
| Piz Uertsch | 10,739 | Piz Grisch | 10,000 |
| Piz Forbisch | 10,689 | Averser Weissberg | 9,987 |
| Piz Ot | 10,667 | Surettahorn | 9,971 |
| Gross Piz Vadret | 10,584 | Arosa Rothhorn | 9,794 |
| Piz Timun or Emet | 10,502 | Piz Curver | 9,761 |
| Tinzenhorn | 10,430 | Pizzo Lunghino | 9,121 |
| Piz Michel | 10,378 | Stätzerhorn | 8,450 |
Chief Passes of the Albula Range. :
| Fuorcla Calderas (Molins to Bevers), snow | 10,270 |
| Fuorcla d’Eschia (Madulein to Bergün), snow | 9,869 |
| Passo della Duana (Avers Valley to the Val Bregaglia), snow | 9,187 |
| Sertig Pass (Davos to Scanfs), foot path | 9,062 |
| Forcella di Prassignola (Avers Valley to Soglio), old paved cattle path | 8,924 |
| Tinzenthor (Bergün to Savognino), foot path | 8,918 |
| Forcella di Lago or Madris Pass (Avers Valley to Chiavenna), foot path | 8,793 |
| Forcellina (Avers Valley to the Septimer Pass), foot path | 8,770 |
| Ducan Pass (Davos to Bergün), foot path | 8,763 |
| Passo di Lei (Avers Valley to Chiavenna), foot path | 8,724 |
| Forcella di Lunghino (Maloja to the Septimer Pass), foot path | 8,645 |
| Scaletta Pass (Davos to Scanfs), bridle path | 8,593 |
| Suvretta Pass (St Moritz to Bevers), bridle path | 8,590 |
| Fuorcla d’Alp Fontauna (Bergün to Scanfs), foot path | 8,580 |
| Stallerberg (Avers Valley to Bivio-Stalla), foot path | 8,478 |
| Grialetsch Pass (Davos to Süs), foot path | 8,353 |
| Flüela Pass (Davos to Süs), carriage road | 7,838 |
| Strela Pass (Davos to Langwies), bridle path | 7,799 |
| Albula Pass (Bergün to Ponte), carriage road over, railway tunnel beneath | 7,595 |
| Septimer Pass (Bivio-Stalla to Casaccia), bridle path | 7,582 |
| Julier Pass (Thusis to Silvaplana), carriage road | 7,504 |
| Passo di Madesimo or d’Emet (Avers Valley to Madesimo), foot path | 7,481 |
12. Silvretta and Rhätikon Ranges (from the Fuela Pass to the Reschen Scheideck and the Arlberg Pass).
Chief Peaks of the Silvretta and Rhätikon Ranges. :
| Piz Linard | 11,201 | Vesulspitze | 10,145 |
| Fluchthorn | 11,165 | Flüela Weisshorn | 10,132 |
| Gross Piz Buin | 10,880 | Piz Minschun | 10,079 |
| Verstanklahorn | 10,831 | Patteriol | 10,037 |
| Muttler | 10,821 | Piz Faschalba | 10,010 |
| Piz Fliana | 10,775 | Hexenkopf | 9,968 |
| Stammerspitze | 10,689 | Gemsbleiskopf | 9,899 |
| Silvrettahorn | 10,657 | Pischahorn | 9,784 |
| Augstenberg | 10,611 | Scesaplana | 9,741 |
| Plattenhorn | 10,568 | Rothbleiskopf | 9,640 |
| Dreiländerspitze | 10,539 | Hohes Rad | 9,554 |
| Piz Tasna | 10,443 | Schiltfluh | 9,482 |
| Kuchenspitze | 10,401 | Plattenpspitze | 9,449 |
| Hoher Riffler | 10,368 | Madrishorn | 9,285 |
| Piz Mondin | 10,325 | Drusenfluh | 9,282 |
| Küchelspitze | 10,315 | Sulzfluh | 9,252 |
| Gross Seehorn | 10,247 | Zimbaspitze | 8,678 |
| Vesilspitze | 10,220 | Naafkopf | 8,445 |
| Gross Litzner | 10,207 | Falknis | 8,419 |
Chief Passes of the Silvretta and Rhätikon Ranges. :
| Jamjoch (Guarda to Galtür), snow | 10,112 |
| Fuorcla del Confin (Silvretta Pass to the Vermunt Glacier), snow | 10,033 |
| Buinlücke (Guarda to Patenen), snow | 10,020 |
| Silvretta Pass (Klosters to Lavin), snow | 9,886 |
| Zahnlücke (Jam Glen to the Fimber Glen), snow | 9,712 |
| Verstanklathor (Klosters to Lavin), snow | 9,682 |
| Fuorcla d’Urezzas (Ardez to Galtür), snow | 9,564 |
| Fuorcla Tasna (Ardez to Ischgl), snow | 9,374 |
| Fuorcla Maisas (Remüs to the Samnaun Glen), snow | 9,357 |
| Vermunt or Fermunt Pass (Guarda to Patenen), snow | 9,193 |
| Futschöl Pass (Ardez to Galtür), foot path | 9,098 |
| Fuorcla Zadrell or Vernela Pass (Klosters to Lavin), snow | 9,033 |
| Cuolm d’Alp bella or Vignitz Pass (Samnaun Glen to Kappl), foot path | 8,852 |
| Schafbücheljoch (Mathon to St Anton), foot path | 8,685 |
| Fimber Pass (Remüs to Ischgl), bridle path | 8,570 |
| Scheien Pass (Klosters to the See Glen), foot path | 8,557 |
| Vereina Pass or Pass da Val Torta (Klosters to Lavin), foot path | 8,540 ​ |
| Zebles Pass (Ischgl to the Samnaun Glen), bridle path | 8,350 |
| Garnerajoch (Klosters to Gaschurn), foot path | 8,153 |
| Fless Pass (Klosters to Süs), foot path | 8,045 |
| St Antönien or Gargellenjoch (St Antönien to St Gallenkirch), foot path | 7,792 |
| Drusenthor (Schiers to Schruns), foot path | 7,710 |
| Verrajöchl (Lünersee to the Schweizerthor), foot path | 7,648 |
| Ofen Pass (Schweizerthor to Schruns), foot path | 7,523 |
| Cavelljoch (Bludenz and the Lünersee to Seewis), foot path | 7,343 |
| Gruben Pass (St Antönien to Schruns), foot path | 7,333 |
| Schlappinerjoch (Klosters to St Gallenkirch), bridle path | 7,218 |
| Schweizerthor (Schiers to Schruns), foot path | 7 057 |
| Bielerhöhe (Patenen to Galtür), bridle path | 6,631 |
| Zeinisjoch (Patenen to Galtür), bridle path | 6,076 |
| Arlberg Pass (Landeck to Bludenz), carriage road over, railway tunnel beneath | 5,912 |
III. Eastern Alps
13. The Alps of Bavaria, the Vorarlberg and Salzburg (north of the Arlberg Pass, Innsbruck, the Pinzgau, and the Enns valley).
Chief Peaks of the Alps of Bavaria, the Vorarlberg and Salzburg. :
| Parseierspitze | 9,968 | Watzmann | 8,901 |
| Dachstein | 9,830 | Rothewandspitze | 8,878 |
| Zugspitze | 9,738 | Gross Krottenkopf(Allgäu) | 8,718 |
| Hochkönig | 9,639 | Selbhorn | 8,711 |
| Valluga | 9,223 | Hohes Licht | 8,701 |
| Rockspitze | 9,059 | Madelegabel | 8,681 |
| EHohe Griesspitze | 9,052 | Hochvogel | 8,511 |
| Stanskogel | 9,052 | Elmauer Haltsspitze (Kaisergebirge) | 7,691 |
| Birkkarspitze (Karwendel) | 9,042 |
Chief Passes of the Alps of Bavaria, the Vorarlberg and Salzburg. :
| Gentschel Pass (Oberstdorf to Schrocken), bridle path | 6,480 |
| Schrofen Pass (Oberstdorf to Warth), foot path | 5,538 |
| Gerlos Pass (Zell to Mittersill), bridle path | 4,876 |
| Pass Thurn (Kitzbühel to Mittersill), carriage road | 4,183 |
| Fern Pass (Reutte to Nassereit), carriage road | 4,026 |
| Scharnitz or Seefeld Pass (Partenkirchen to Zirl), carriage road | 3,874 |
| Hirschbühel Pass (Berchtesgaden to Saalfelden), carriage road | 3,858 |
| Hochfilzen Pass (Saalfelden to Kitzbühel), railway over | 3,173 |
| Pyhrn Pass (Linz to Liezen), carriage road over, railway tunnel beneath | 3,100 |
| Wagreinstattel (Radstadt to St Johann in Pongau), carriage road | 2,743 |
14. Central Tirol Alps (from the Brenner Pass to the Radstädter Tauern Pass, north of the Drave Valley and south of the Pinzgau and the Enns Valley). This division takes in the Zillerthal and Tuern Ranges.
Chief Peaks of the Central Tirol Alps. :
| Gross Glockner | 12,461 | Gross Geiger | 11,041 |
| Gross Venediger | 12,008 | Ruthnerhorn (Rieserferner) | 11,024 |
| Gross Wiesbachhorn | 11,713 | Hochalmspitze | 11,008 |
| Hochfeiler (Zillerthal) | 11,559 | Reichenspitze (Z) | 10,844 |
| Dreiherrenspitze | 11,500 | Gross Rotherknopf (Schober) | 10,814 |
| Mosele (Z) | 11,438 | Gross Mörchner (Z) | 10,785 |
| Olperer (Z) | 11,418 | Hochnarr (Goldberg) | 10,689 |
| Johannisberg | 11,375 | Ankogel | 10,673 |
| Hochgall (Rieserferner) | 11,287 | Hochschober | 10,663 |
| Thurnerkamp (Z) | 11,228 | Kitzsteinhorn | 10,512 |
| Gross Löffler (Z) | 11,096 | Sonnblick | 10,196 |
| Fusstein (Z) | 11,090 | Zsigmondyspitze | 10,122 |
| Schwarzenstein (Z) | 11,057 | Reckner (Tuxergebirge) | 9,485 |
Chief Passes of the Central Tirol Alps. :
| Mitterbachjoch (Breitlahner to Taufers), snow (Z) | 10,270 |
| Trippachsattel (Floiten Valley to Taufers), snow (Z) | 10,020 |
| Riffelthor (Kaprun to Heiligenblut), snow | 10,010 |
| Bockkarscharte (Ferleiten to Heiligenblut), snow | 9,994 |
| Sonnblickscharte (Rauris to Heiligenblut), snow | 9,774 |
| Alpeinerscharte (Breitlahner to St Jodok am Brenner), foot path (Z) | 9,712 |
| Vorder Umbalthörl (Prägraten to Kasern), snow | 9,607 |
| Ober Sulzbachthörl (Prägraten to Wald), snow | 9,600 |
| Keilbachjoch (Mayrhofen to Steinhaus), foot path (Z) | 9,410 |
| Unter Sulzbachthörl (Wald to Gschlöss), snow | 9,400 |
| Schwarzkopfscharte (Bramberg to Gschlöss), snow | 9,351 |
| Prägraterthörl (Pragraten to the Defereggen Glen), foot path | 9,338 |
| Glödisthörl (Lienz to Kals), snow | 9,292 |
| Antholzerscharte (Rein Valley to the Antholz Valley), snow | 9,252 |
| Krimmlerthörl (Krimml Glen to the Obersulzbach Glen) snow | 9,233 |
| Goldzechscharte (Heiligenblut to Rauris), snow | 9,220 |
| Kalserthörl (Kals to Liens), snow | 9,197 |
| Ober Tramerscharte (Rauris to Döllach), snow | 9,193 |
| Kleine Elendscharte (Gastein to Gmünd), snow | 8,987 |
| Kleine Zirknitzscharte (Döllach to Fragant or Rauris), snow | 8,921 |
| Dössener or Maunitzerscharte (Mallnitz to Gmund), snow | 8,783 |
| Grosse Elendscharte (Mallnitz to the Upper Malta Glen), snow | 8,770 |
| Unter Pfandlscharte (Ferleiten to Heiligenblut), snow | 8,744 |
| Heiliggeistjöchl (Mayrhofen to Kasern), foot path (Z) | 8,721 |
| Bergerthörl (Kals to Heiligenblut), foot path | 8,695 |
| Kaprunerthvrl (upper Kaprun Glen to the upper Stubach Glen), snow | 8,645 |
| Krimmler Tauern (Krimml to Kasern), foot path | 8,642 |
| Virgner or Defereggerthörl (Defereggen Glen to Virgen and   Prägraten), foot path | 8,586 |
| Backlenke or Trojerjoch (Pragraten to the Defereggen Glen), foot path | 8,573 |
| Hochthor or Heiligenbluter Tauern (Heiligenblut to Rauris), foot path | 8,442 |
| Hörndljöchl (Mayrhofen to Steinhaus), foot path (Z) | 8,383 |
| Velber Tauern (Windisch Matrei to Mittersill), bridle path | 8,334 |
| Kalser Tauern (Kals to Uttendorf), foot path | 8,242 |
| Hohe or Korn Tauern (Mallnitz to Gastein), bridle path over,   railway tunnel beneath | 8,081 |
| Niedere or Mallnitzer Tauern (Mallnitz to Gastein), bridle path | 7,920 |
| Fuscherthörl (Ferleiten to the Seidlwinkel Glen), foot path | 7,891 |
| Lappacherjoch (Lappach to the Ahrn Valley), foot path (Z) | 7,763 |
| Tuxerjoch or Schmirnjoch (Mayrhofen to St Jodok am Brenner),   foot path (Z) | 7,697 |
| Klammljoch (Taufers to the Defereggen Valley), bridle path | 7,517 |
| Arlscharte (St Johann in Pongau to Gmund), foot path | 7,386 |
| Pfitscherjoch (Mayrhofen to Sterzing), foot path (Z) | 7,376 |
| Kals Matreierthörl (Kals to Windisch Matrei), bridle path | 7,238 |
| Die Stanz (Gastein to Rauris), foot path | 6,900 |
| Stallersattel (Defereggen Glen to the Antholz Glen), bridle path (R) | 6,742 |
| Radstädter Tauern (Radstadt to Mautendorf), carriage road | 5,702 |
15. Ortler, Oetzthal and Stubai Banges (from the Reschen Scheideck and the Stelvio to the Brenner Pass, south of the Inn Valley, and north of the Tonale Pass).
Chief Peaks of the Ortler, Oetzthal and Stubai Ranges. :
| Ortler | 12,802 | Zuckerhütl (Stubai) | 11,520 |
| Königsspitze | 12,655 | Schalfkogel | 11,516 |
| Monte Cevedale | 12,382 | Schrankogel | 11,483 |
| Wildspitze (Oetzthal) | 12,382 | Hochwildspitze | 11,418 |
| Weisskugel | 12,291 | Sonklarspitze | 11,405 |
| Monte Zebru | 12,254 | uckettspitze | 11,346 |
| Palon della Mare | 12,156 | Wilder Freiger | 11,241 |
| Punta San Matteo | 12,113 | Veneziaspitze | 11,103 |
| Thurwieserspitze | 11,946 | Tschengelser Hochwand | 11,083 |
| Hintere Schwarze | 11,920 | Monte Confinale | 11,057 |
| Similaun | 11,821 | Glockthurm | 11,011 |
| Pizzo Tresero | 11,818 | Fernerkogel | 10,827 |
| Gross Ramolkogel | 11,651 | Monte Sobretta | 10,814 |
| Vertainspitze | 11,618 | Habicht | 10,758 |
| Hochvernagtspitze | 11,585 | Pflerscher Tribulaun | 10,178 |
Chief Passes of the Ortler, Oetzthal and Stubai Ranges. :
| Hochjoch (Sulden to the Zebru Glen), snow | 11,602 |
| Vioz Pass (Santa Caterina to Pejo), snow | 10,949 |
| Sonklarscharte (Sölden to Sterzing), snow | 10,916 |
| Königsjoch (Sulden to Santa Caterina), snow | 10,811 |
| Cevedale Pass (Santa Caterina to the Martell Glen), snow | 10,732 |
| Gepatschjoch (Vent to the Kauns Valley), snow | 10,640 |
| Ramoljoch (Vent to Gurgl), snow | 10,479 |
| Langtaufererjoch (Vent to the Reschen Scheideck Pass), snow | 10,391 |
| Bildstöckljoch (Solden to Ranalt), snow | 10,296 |
| Gurgler Eisjoch (Gurgl to the Pfossen Glen), snow | 10,292 |
| Eissee Pass (Sulden to the Martell Glen), snow | 10,279 |
| Langthalerjoch (Gurgl to Pfelders), snow | 10,033 |
| Passo del Zebru (Santa Caterina to the Zebru Glen), snow | 9,925 |
| Sällentjoch (Martell Glen to Rabbi), snow | 9,913 |
| Nederjoch (Vent to the Schnals Valley), snow | 9,899 |
| Sforzellina Pass (Santa Caterina to Pejo), snow | 9,859 |
| Pitzthalerjöchl (Mittelberg to Sölden), snow | 9,826 |
| Eisjöchl am Bild (Pfelders to the Pfossen Glen), snow | 9,541 |
| Venter Hochjoch (Vent to the Schnals Valley), snow | 9,465 |
| Tabarettascharte (Sulden to Trafoi), foot path | 9,459 |
| Stelvio Pass (Trafoi to Bormio), carriage road | 9,055 |
| Gavia Pass (Santa Caterina to Ponte di Legno), foot path | 8,651 |
| Timmeljoch or Timblerjoch (Sölden to the Passeierthal and Meran), bridle path | 8,232 |
| Jaufen Pass (Sterzing to Meran), bridle path | 6,870 |
| Reschen Scheideck Pass (Landeck to Meran), carriage road | 4,902 |
| Brenner Pass (Innsbruck to Verona), railway over | 4,495 |
16. Lombard Alps (from the Lake of Como to the Adige Valley, south of the Valtellina and the Aprica and Tonale Passes. This ​division includes the Adamello, Presanella, Brenta and Bergamasque ranges.
Chief Peaks of the Lombard Alps. :
| Presanella | 11,694 | Pizzo del Diavolo | 9,564 |
| Adamello | 11,661 | Rè di Castello | 9,482 |
| Carè Alto | 11,369 | Recastello | 9,475 |
| Dosson di Genova | 11,254 | Monte Gleno | 9,459 |
| Crozzon di Lares | 11,004 | Monte Tornello | 8,819 |
| Corno di Baitone | 10,929 | Corno Stella | 8,596 |
| Busazza | 10,922 | Monte Legnone | 8,563 |
| Lobliia Alta | 10,486 | Pizzo dei Tre Signori | 8,380 |
| Cima Tosa (Brenta) | 10,420 | Pizzo di Presolana | 8,239 |
| Cima di Brenta | 10,352 | Grigna | 7,907 |
| Crozzon di Brenta | 10,247 | Monte Baldo | 7,218 |
| Pizzo di Coca (Bergamasque) | 10,014 | Monte Spinale | 7,094 |
| Pizzo di Scais | 9,974 | Monte Gazza | 6,529 |
| Pizzo di Redorta | 9,964 | Monte Resegone | 6,155 |
| Pietra Grande | 9,630 |
Chief Passes of the Lombard Alps. :
| Passo di Lares (Lares Glacier to the Lobbia Glacier), snow | 10,483 |
| Passo di Cercen (gal di Genova to Fucine), snow | 9,984 |
| Passo della Lobbia Alta (Lobbia Glacier to the Mandron (Glacier), snow | 9,961 |
| Passo di Presena (Val di Genova to the Tonale Pass), snow | 9,879 |
| Pisgana Pass (Val di Genova to Ponte di Legno), snow | 9,626 |
| Bocca di Tuckett (Campiglio to Molveno), snow | 8,714 |
| Passo di Val Morta or del Diavolo (Val Seriana to Sondrio), foot path | 8,534 |
| Bocca di Brenta (Pinzolo or Campiglio to Molveno), snow | 8,376 |
| Passo del Grostè (Campiglio to Cles), foot path | 8,006 |
| Passo di Veniua (kal Brembana to Sondrio), foot path | 7,983 |
| Passo del Salto (Val Seriana to Sondrio), foot path | 7,937 |
| Passo del Venerocolo (Val di Scalve to the Aprica road), bridle path | 7,595 |
| Passo della Forcellina or di Campo (Cedegolo to the Val di Fomo), foot path | 7,507 |
| Passo di Idordona (Val Brembana to Sondrio), foot path | 6,824 |
| Passo di San Marco (Bergamo to Morbegno), bridle path | 6,513 |
| Croce Domini Pass (Breno to Bagolino in Val Caffaro), bridle path | 6,217 |
| Tonale Tass (Trent to Edolo), carriage road | 6,181 |
| Passo di Zovetto (Val di Scalve to Edolo), bridle path | 5,968 |
| Colle Maniva (Val Trompia to Bagolino), bridle path | 5,476 |
| Campo or Ginevriė Pass (Dimaro by Campiglio to Pinzolo), carriage road | 5,407 |
| Ciampenjoch (Cles to Meran), foot path | 5,051 |
| Mendel Pass (Botzen to Cles), railway on the Eslope | 4,462 |
| Passo di Castione or Presolana Pass (Clusone to the Val di Scalve), carriage road | 4,219 |
| Aprica Pass (Edolo to Tirano), carriage road | 3,875 |
17. The Dolomites of South Tirol (from the Brenner Pass to the Monte Croce Pass, and south of the Pusterthal).
Chief Peaks of the Dolomites of South Tirol. :
| Marmolata | 10,972 | Pala di San Martino | 9,831 |
| Antelao | 10,706 | Rosengartenspitze | 9,781 |
| Tofana di Mezzo | 10,633 | Marmarole | 9,715 |
| Sorapiss | 10,594 | Cima di Fradusta | 9,649 |
| Monte Civetta | 10,564 | Fermedathurm | 9,407 |
| Vernel | 10,319 | Cima d’Asta | 9,344 |
| Monte Cristallo | 10,496 | Cima di Canali | 9,338 |
| Cima di Vezzana | 10,470 | Croda Grande | 9,315 |
| Cimon della Pala | 10,453 | Vajoletthurm (highest) | 9,256 |
| Langkofel | 10,427 | Sass Maor | 9,239 |
| Pelmo | 10,397 | Cima di Ball | 9,131 |
| Dreischusterspitze | 10,375 | Cima della Madonna (Sass Maor) | 9,026 |
| Boëspitze | 10,342 | Rosetta | 8,993 |
| Croda Rossa (Hoher Caisl) | 10,329 | Croda da Lago | 8,911 |
| Piz Popena | 10,312 | Central Grasleitenspitze | 8,875 |
| Elferkofel | 10,220 | Schlern | 8,406 |
| Grohmannspitze | 10,207 | Sasso di Mur | 8,380 |
| Zwölferkofel | 10,142 | Cima delle Dodici | 7,671 |
| Sass Rigais (Geislerspitzen) | 9,932 | Monte Pavione | 7,664 |
| Drei Zinnen | 9,853 | Cima di Posta | 7,333 |
| Kesselkogel (Rosengarten) | 9,846 | Monte Pasubio | 7,323 |
| Fünffingerspitze | 9,833 |
Chief Passes of the Dolomites of South Tirol. :
| Passo d’ Ombretta (Campitello to Caprile), foot path | 8,983 |
| Langhofeljoch (Gröden Valley to Campirello), foot path | 8,803 |
| Tschagerjoch (Karersee to the Vajolet Glen), foot path | 8,675 |
| Crasleiten Pass (Vaiolet Glen to thegrasleiten Glen), foot path | 8,521 |
| Passo di Pravitale (Rosetta Plateau to the Pravitale Glen), foot path | 8,465 |
| Passo delle Comelle (same to Cencenighe), foot path | 8,462 |
| Passo della Rosetta (San Martino di Castrozza to the great |
| limestone Rosetta plateau), foot path | 8,442 |
| Vajolet Pass (Tiers to the Vajolet Glen), foot path | 8,363 |
| Passo di Canali (Primiero to Agordo), foot path | 8,193 |
| Tiersalpljöchl (Campitello to Tiers), foot path | 8,055 |
| Passo di Ball (San Martino di Castrozza to the Pravitale Glen), footpath | 8,038 |
| Forcella di Giralba (Sexte11 to Auronzo), foot path | 7,992 |
| Col dei Bos (Falzarego Glen to the Travernanzes Glen), foot path | 7,589 |
| Forcella Grande (San Vito to Auronzo), foot path | 7,422 |
| Pordoi Pass (Caprile to Campitello), carriage road | 7,382 |
| Sellajoch (Gröden Glen to Camphello), bridle path | 7,277 |
| Tre Sassi Pass (Cortina to St Cassian), foot path | 7,215 |
| Mahlknechtjoch (Upper Duron Glen to the Seiser Alp), foot path | 7,113 |
| Grödenerjoch (Gröden Glen to Colfuschg), bridle path | 7,011 |
| Falzarego Pass (Caprile to Cortina), small carriage road | 6,946 |
| Fedaja Pass (Campitello to Caprile), bridle path | 6,713 |
| Passo di Valles (Paneveggio to Cencenighe), foot path | 6,667 |
| Rolle Pass (Predazzo to San Martino di Castrozza and |
| Primiero), carriage road | 6,509 |
| Forcella Forada (Caprile to San Vito), bridle path | 6,480 |
| Passo di San Pellegrino (Moena to Cencenighe), small carriage, path | 6,267 |
| Forcella d’Alleghe (Alleghe to the Zoldo Glen), foot path | 5,971 |
| Tre Croci Pass (Cortina to Auronzo), carriage road | 5,932 |
| Karersee or Caressa Pass (Welschenofen to Vigo di Fassa), carriage road | 5,715 |
| Monte Croce Pass (Innichen and Sexten to the Piave Valley and Belluno), carriage road | 5,374 |
| Ampezzo Pass (Toblach to Cortina and Belluno), carriage path | 5,066 |
| Cereda Pass (Primiero to Agordo), bridle path | 4,501 |
| Toblach Pass (Bruneck to Lienz), railway over | 3,967 |
18. South-Eastern Alps (east of the Monte Croce Pass). This division includes three small groups, the Julic, Carnic and Karawankas Alps—each peak and pass being distinguished by one of the initial letters “J,” “C” or “K.”
Chief Peaks of the South-Eastern Alps. :
| Terglou or Triglav (J) | 9,400 | Monte Cridola (C) | 8,468 |
| Monte Coglians (C) | 9,128 | Grintovc (K) | 8,429 |
| Kellerwand (C) | 9,105 | Prestrelenik (J) | 8,202 |
| Jof del Montasio (J) | 9,039 | Monte Cavallo (C) | 7,386 |
| Cima dei Preti (C) | 8,868 | Krn (J) | 7,369 |
| Monte Paralba (C) | 8,829 | Stou (K) | 7,346 |
| Manhart (J) | 8,786 | Dobratsch (C) | 7,120 |
| Jalouc (J) | 8,711 | Velka Kappa (K) | 5,059 |
| Monte Canin (J) | 8,471 |
Chief Passes of the South-Eastern Alps. :
| Oefnerjoch (Forno Avoltri to St Lorenzen in the Gail Valley), foot path (C) | 7,550 |
| Wolayer Pass (same to Mauthen), foot path (C) | 6,306 |
| Loibl Pass (Klagenfurt to Laibach), carriage road (K) | 4,495 |
| Plöcken Pass (Tolmezzo to Mauthen), bridle path (C) | 4,462 |
| Predil Pass (Villach by d’arvis and Flitsch to Gorz), carriage road (J) | 3,183 |
| Birnbaumerwald (Laibach to Gorz), carriage road (J) | 2,897 |
| Saifnitz or Pontebba Pass (Villach by Tarvis and Pontebba to Udine), railway | 2,615 |
7. Political History and Modern State of the Inhabitants of the Alps.—We know practically nothing of the early dwellers in the Alps, save from the scanty accounts preserved to us by Roman and Greek historians and geographers. A few details have come down to us of the conquest of many of the Alpine tribes by Augustus, though not much more than their names. The successive emigrations and occupation of the Alpine region by divers Teutonic tribes from the 5th to the 6th centuries are, too, known to us only in outline, while to them, as to the Frankish kings and emperors, the Alps offered a route from one place to another rather than a permanent residence. It is not till the final break up of the Carolingian empire in the 10th and 11th centuries that it becomes possible to trace out the local history of different parts of the Alps.
In the case of the Western Alps (minus the bit from the chain of Mont Blanc to the Simplon, which followed the fortunes of the Valais), a prolonged struggle for the Alpine region took place between the feudal lords of Savoy, the Dauphiné and Provence. In 1349 the Dauphiné fell to France, while in 1388 the county of Nice passed from Provence to the house of Savoy, which too held Piedmont as well as other lands on the Italian side of the Alps. The struggle henceforth was limited to France and the house of Savoy, but little by little France succeeded in pushing ​back the house of Savoy across the Alps, thus forcing it to become a purely Italian power. One turning-point in the rivalry was the treaty of Utrecht (1713), by which France gave up to Savoy the districts (all forming part of the Dauphiné, and lying on the Italian slope of the Alps) of Exilles, Bardonnèche, Oulx, Fénestrelles, and Château Dauphin, while Savoy handed over to France the valley of Barcelonnette, situated on the western slope of the Alps and forming part of the county of Nice. The final act in the long-continued struggle took place in 1860, when France obtained by cession the rest of the county of Nice and also Savoy, thus remaining sole mistress on the western slope of the Alps.
In the Central Alps the chief event, on the northern side of the chain, is the gradual formation from 1291 to 1815 of the Swiss Confederation, at least so far as regards the mountain Cantons, and with especial reference to the independent confederations of the Grisons and the Valais, which only became full members of the Confederation in 1803 and 1815 respectively. The attraction of the south was too strong for both the Forest Cantons and the Grisons, so that both tried to secure, and actually did secure, various bits of the Milanese. The former, in the 15th century, won the Val Leventina (down which the St Gotthard train now thunders) as well as Bellinzona and the Val Blenio (though the Ossola Valley was held for a time only), while the latter added to the Val Bregaglia (which had been given to the bishop of Coire in 960 by the emperor Otto I.) the valleys of Mesocco and of Poschiavo. Further, in 1512, the Swiss Confederation as a whole won the valleys of Locarno with Lugano, which, combined with the 15th century conquests by the Forest Cantons, were formed in 1803 into the new Canton of Ticino or Tessin. On the other hand, the Grisons won in 1512 the Valtellina, with Bormio and Chiavenna, but in 1797 these regions were finally lost to it as well as to the Swiss Confederation, though the Grisons retained the valleys of Mesocco, Bregaglia and Poschiavo, while in 1762 it had bought the upper bit of the valley of Munster that lies on the southern slope of the Alps.
In the Eastern Alps the political history is almost monotonous, for it relates simply to the advance or retreat of the house of Habsburg, which still holds all but the whole of the northern portion (the exception is the small bit in the north-west that belongs to Bavaria) of that region. The Habsburgers, whose original home was in the lower valley of the Aar, where still stand the ruins of their ancestral castle, lost that district to the Swiss in 1415, as they had previously lost various other bits of what is now Switzerland. But they received a rich compensation in the Eastern Alps (not to speak of the imperial crown), for they there gathered in the harvest that numerous minor dynasties had prepared for them, albeit unconsciously. Thus they won the duchy of Austria with Styria in 1282, Carinthia and Carniola in 1335, Tirol in 1363, and the Vorarlberg in bits from 1375 to 1523, not to speak of minor “rectifications” of frontiers on the northern slope of the Alps. But on the other slope their progress was slower, and finally less successful. It is true that they early won Primiero (1373), as well as (1517) the Ampezzo Valley and several towns to the south of Trent. In 1797 they obtained Venetia proper, in 1803 the secularized bishoprics of Trent and Brixen (as well as that of Salzburg, more to the north), besides the Valtellina region, and in 1815 the Bergamasque valleys, while the Milanese had belonged to them since 1535. But, as is well known, in 1859 they lost to the house of Savoy both the Milanese and the Bergamasca, and in 1866 Venetia proper also, so that the Trentino is now their chief possession on the southern slope of the Alps. The gain of the Milanese in 1859 by the future king of Italy (1861) meant that Italy then won the valley of Livigno (between the Upper Engadine and Bormio), which is the only important bit it holds on the non-Italian slope of the Alps, besides the county of Tenda (obtained in 1575, and not lost in 1860), with the heads of certain glens in the Maritime Alps, reserved in 1860 for reasons connected with hunting. Thus the Alpine states (Italy, Switzerland and Austria), other than France and Bavaria, hold bits of territory on the slope of the Alps where one would not expect to find them Roughly speaking, in each of these five lands the Alpine population speaks the tongue of the country, though in Italy there are a few French-speaking districts (the Waldensian valleys as well as the Aosta and Oulx valleys) as well as some German-speaking and Ladin-speaking settlements. In Switzerland there are Italian-speaking regions, as well as some spots (in the Grisons) where the old Romance dialect of Romansch or Ladin survives; while in Austria, besides German, Italian and Ladin, we have a Slavonic-speaking population in the South-Eastern Alps. The highest permanently inhabited village in the Alps is Juf, 6998 ft. (Grisons); while in the French Alps, L’Écot, 6713 ft. (Savoy), and St Véran, 6726 ft. (Dauphiné), are rivals; the Italian Alps boast of Trepalle, 6788 ft. (between Livigno and Bormio), and the Tirolese Alps of Ober Gurgl, 6322 ft., and Fend, 6211 ft. (both in the Oetzthal).
8. Exploration of the High Alps.—The higher region of the Alps were long left to the exclusive attention of the men of the adjoining valleys, even when Alpine travellers (as distinguished from Alpine climbers) began to visit these valleys. It is reckoned that about 20 glacier passes were certainly known before 1600. about 25 more before 1700, and yet another score before 1800; but though the attempt of P. A. Arnod (an official of the duchy of Aosta) in 1689 to “re-open” the Col du Géant may be counted as made by a non-native, we do not come upon another case of the kind till the last quarter of the 18th century. Nor did it fare much better with the high peaks, though the two earliest recorded ascents were due to non-natives, that of the Rochemelon in 1358 having been undertaken in fulfilment of a vow, and that of the Mont Aiguille in 1492 by order of Charles VIII. of France, in order to destroy its immense reputation for inaccessibility—in 1555 Conrad Gesner did not climb Pilatus proper, but only the grassy mound of the Gnepfstein, the lowest and the most westerly of the seven summits. The two first men who really systematically explored the regions of ice and snow were H. B. de Saussure (1740–1799), as regards the Pennine Alps, and the Benedictine monk of Disentis, Placidus à Spescha (1752–1833, most of whose ascents were made before 1806), in the valleys at the sources of the Rhine. In the early 19th century the Meyer family of Aarau conquered in person the Jungfrau (1811) and by deputy the Finsteraarhorn (1812), besides opening several glacier passes, their energy being entirely confined to the Bernese Oberland. Their pioneer work was continued in that district, as well as others, by a number of Swiss, pre-eminent among whom were Gottlieb Studer (1804–1890) of Bern, and Edouard Desor (1811–1882) of Neuchâtel. The first-known English climber in the Alps was Colonel Mark Beaufoy (1764–1827), who in 1787 made an ascent (the fourth) of Mont Blanc, a mountain to which his fellow-countrymen long exclusively devoted themselves, with a few noteworthy exceptions, such as Principal J. D. Forbes (1809–1868), A. T. Malkin (1803–1888), John Ball (1818–1889), and Sir Alfred Wills (b. 1828). Around Monte Rosa the Vincent family, Josef Zumstein (1783–1861), and Giovanni Gnifetti (1801–1867) did good work during the half century between 1778 and 1842, while in the Eastern Alps the Archduke John (1782–1850), Prince F. J. C. von Schwarzenberg, archbishop of Salzburg (1809–1885), Valentine Stanig (1774–1847), Adolf Schaubach (1800–1850), above all, P. J. Thurwieser (1789–1865), deserve to be recalled as pioneers in the first half of the 19th century. In the early fifties of the 19th century the taste for mountaineering rapidly developed for several very different reasons. A great stimulus was given to it by the foundation of the various Alpine clubs, each of which drew together the climbers who dwelt in the same country. The first was the English Alpine Club (founded in the winter of 1857–1858), followed in 1862 by the Austrian Alpine Club (which in 1873 was fused, under the name of the German and Austrian Alpine Club, with the German Alpine Club, founded in 1869), in 1863 by the Italian and Swiss Alpine Clubs, and in 1874 by the French Alpine Club, not to mention numerous minor societies of more local character. It was by the members of these clubs (and a few others) that the minute exploration (now all but complete) ​of the High Alps was carried out, while much has been done in the way of building club huts, organizing and training guides, &c., to smooth the way for later comers, who benefit too by the detailed information published in the periodicals (the first dates from 1863 only) issued by these clubs. Limits of space forbid us to trace out in detail the history of the exploration of the High Alps, but the two sub-joined lists give the dates of the conquest of about fifty of the greater peaks (apart from the two climbed in 1358 and in 1402, see above), achieved before and after 1st January 1858. As a proof of the rapidly-growing activity of Englishmen, it may be pointed out that while before 1858 only four summits (the Mittelhorn, or central peak of the Wetterhörner, the highest point of Monte Rosa, Laquinhorn and Pelmo) were first ascended by Englishmen, in the case of the second list only five (Grand Combin, Wildspitze, Marmolata, Langkofel and Meije) were not so conquered (if the present writer, an American, be included among the English pro hac vice.)
(1) Before 1st January 1858:—Titlis (1744), Ankogel (1762), Mont Vélan (1779), Mont Blanc (1786), Rheinwaldhorn (1789), Gross Glockner (1800), Ortler (1804), Jungfrau (1811), Finsteraarhorn (1812), Zumsteinspitze (1820), Tödi (1824), Altels (1834), Piz Linard (1835), Gross Venediger (1841), Signalkuppe (1842), Wetterhörner (1844–1845), Mont Pelvoux (1848), Diablerets and Piz Bernina (both in 1850), highest point of Monte Rosa (1855), Laquinhorn (1856) and Pelmo (1857).
(2) After 1st January 1858:—Dom (1858), Aletschhorn, Bietschhorn and Grand Combin (all in 1859), Grand Paradis and Grande Casse (both in 1860), Weisshorn, Monte Viso, Gross Schreckhorn, Lyskamm and Wildspitze (all in 1861), Dent Blanche, Monte della Disgrazia and Täschhorn (all in 1862), Marmolata, Presanella, Pointe des Ecrins and Zinal Rothhorn (all in 1864), Matterhorn, Ober Gabelhorn, Aiguille Verte and Piz Roseg (all in 1865), Langkofel (1869), Cimon della Pala (1870), Rosengarten (1872), Meije (1877), Aiguille du Dru (1878), Punta dell’ Argentera (1879), Aiguille des Charmoz (1880), Aiguille de Grépon (1881) and Aiguille du Géant (1882).
9. General List of Books and Maps.—(1) Books.—For a longer list than we can give see John Ball’s Hints and Notes for Travellers in the Alps (new ed., 1899) and also A. Wäber’s Landes- und Reisebeschreibungen der Schweiz (1899, supplement in 1907). in general see J. Ball’s The Alpine Guide (3 vols., new ed. of vol. i., 1898; last ed. of vol. ii., 1876, and of vol. iii., 1879); H. A. Berlepsch, Die Alpen in Natur- und Lebensbildern (last ed., 1885, Eng. trans., 1861); T. G. Bonney, The Alpine Regions of Switzerland and the Neighbouring Countries (1868); A. Civiale, Les Alpes au point de vue de ta géographie physique (1882); Sir Martin Conway, The Alps (1904); W. A. B. Coolidge, Swiss Travel and Swiss Guide-Books (1889) and The Alps (1908); R. von Lendenfeld, Aus den Alpen (2 vols., 1896); C. Lentheric, L’Homme devant les Alpes (1896); F. Umlauft, Die Alpen (1887, Eng. trans., 1889). On some special subjects see W. A. Baillie-Grohmann, Sport in the Alps (1896); A. Mossó, Fisiologia dell’ Uomo sulle Alpi (1897, English trans., 1898); N. Zuntz and others, Hohenklima und Bergwanderungen in ihrer Wirkungen auf den Menschen (1906); G. Perndt, Der Föhn (1896, the south wind, so important in mountain districts); and the article on Glacier.
As to Alpine legends, consult Maria Savi-Lopez, Leggende delle Alpi (1889); M. Tscheinen, Walliser-Sagen (1872); Th. Vernaleken, Alpensagen (1858); and I. V. Zingerle, Sagen aus Tirol (1859); and as to Alpine poetry—J. Adam, Der Natursinn in der deutschen Dichtung (1906); E. A. Baker and F. E. Ross, The Voice of The Mountains (1905, an anthology in verse and prose); A. von Haller, Die Alpen (1732, first ed., 1882, illustrated ed., 1902); and H. E. Jenny, Die Alpendichtung in der deutschen Schweiz (1905).
As to Alpine dialects, consult J. Alton, Die ladinischen Idiome in Ladinien, Gröden, Fassa, Buchenstein, Ampezzo (1879); J. A. Chabrand and A. de Rochas d’Aiglun, Patois des Alpes cottiennes (1877).; Z. and E. Pallioppi, Dizionari dels Idioms Romauntschs d’Engiadina ota e bassa, &c. (1895); A. Socin, Schriftsprache und Dialekte im Deutschen (1888); F. J. Stalder, Die Landessprachen der Schweiz (1819), and J. Zimmerli, Die deutsch-französische Sprachgrenze in der Schweiz (3 vols., 1891–1899); besides the great Swiss Dialect Dictionary (Schweiz. Idiotikon) in course of publication since 1881.
As to the history of the Alps, the following works touch on various aspects of the subject:—G. Allais, Le Alpi Occidentali nell’ Antichità (1891); W. Brockedon, Illustrations of the Passes of the Alps (2 vols., 1828–1829); J. Grand-Carteret, La Montagne à travers les ages (2 vols., 1902–1904); G. Oberziner, Le Guerre di Augusto contro i populi alpini (1900); E. Oehlmann, Die Alpenpasse im Mittelalter (1878–1879); R. Peinhard, Pässe und Strassen in den Schweizer Alpen (1903); and L. Vaccarone, Le Vie delle Alpi Occidentali negli antichi tempi (1884); while W. A. B. Coolidge’s Josias Simler et les origines de l’alpinisme jusqu’en 1600 (1904) summarises our knowledge of the Alps up to 1600.
Among works of a more or less descriptive nature (based on actual travels), the following list includes all the standard works dated before 1855:—Le Alpi che cingono l’Italia (1845); J. G. Altmann, Versuch einer hist. u. phys. Beschreibung der helvetischen Eisbergen (1751); A. C. Bordier, Voyage pittoresque aux glacières de Savoye (173); P. J. de Bourcet, Mémoires militaires sur les frontières de la France, du Piémont, et de la Savoie (1801); M. T. Bourrit, Description des glacières, glaciers, et amas de glace du duché de Savoye (1773, Eng. trans., 1775), Description des Alpes pennines et rhétiennes (2 vols., 178i, 3rd vol., 1785), and Description des cols ou passages des Alpes (2 vols., 1803); W. Brockedon, Journals of Excursions in the Alps (1833); U. Campell, Raetiae alpestris topographica descriptio (finished in 1572, but publ. only in 1884, with a supplement in 1900); J. A. Deluc and P. G. Dentan, Relation de différents voyages dans les Alpes du Faucigny (1776); E. Desor Excursions et séjours dans les glaciers (2 series, 1844–1845); C. M. Engelhardt, Naturschilderungen aus den höchsten Schweizer-Alpen (1840), and Das Monte-Rosa und Matterhorn-Gebirg (1852); J. D. Forbes, Travels through the Alps of Savoy (1843: new ed., 1900): Sir John Forbes, A Physician’s Holiday (1849); J. Fröbel, Reise in die weniger bekannten Thäler auf der Nordseite der penninischen Alpen (1840); G. Gnifetti, Nozioni topografiche del Monte Rosa ed ascensioni su di esso (1845, 2nd ed., 1838); G. S. Gruner, Die Eisgebirge des Schweizerlandes (3 vols., 1760); J. Hegetschweiler, Reisen in den Gebirgsstock zwischen Glarus und Graubünden, 1819—1822 (1825); G. Hoffmann, Wanderungen in der Gletscherwelt (1843); F. J. Hugi, Naturhistorische Alpenreise (1830); C. J. Latrobe, The Alpenstock (1829) and The Pedestrian (1832); J. R. and H. Meyer, Reise auf den Jungfrau-Gletscher und Ersteigung seines Gipfels (1811): De Montannel, La Topographie militaire de la frontière des Alpes (written in 1777, but publ. in 1875 only); Opérations géodésiques et astronomiques pour la mesure d’un arc du parallèle moyen (2 vols., 1825–1827); H. R. Rebmann, Ein poetisch Gastmal und Gespräch zweyer Bergen, nemlich des Niesens und Stockhorns (1606); C. Rohrdorf, Reise über die Grindelwald-Viescher-Gletscher und Ersteigung des Gletschers des Jungfrau-Berges (1828); H. B. de Saussure, Voyages dans les Alpes (4 vols., 1779–1796); A. Schaubach, Deutsche Alpen (4 vols., 1845–1847); J. J. Scheuchzer, Helvetiae Stoicheiographia, Orographia, et Oreographia (1716), and Itinera per Helvetiae alpinas regiones facta annis 1702–1711 (4 vols., 1725); J. Simler, Vallesiae Descriptio et de Alpibus Commentarius (1574, new ed. in 1904, see Coolidge above); Albert Smith, The Story of Mont Blanc (1853); G. Studer, Topographische Mitteilungen aus dem Alpengebirge (1843); R. Töpffer, Voyages en zigzag (2 series, 1844 and 1853); Aegid. Tschudi, De priscâ ac verâ alpinâ Rhaetiâ (1538, also in German, same date); and L. von Weldon, Der Monte Rosa (1824).
As to works published after 1855 we can only give a short, though carefully selected, list. C. Aeby and others, Das Hochgebirge von Grindelwald (1865); W. A. Baillie-Grohmann, Tyrol and the Tyrolese (1876), and Gaddings with a Primitive People (2 vols., 1878); H. von Barth, Aus den nördlichen Kalkalpen (1874); L. Barth and L. Pfaundler, Die Stubaiergebirgsgruppe (1863); G. F. Browne, Off the Mill (1895); Mrs H. W. Cole, A Lady’s Tour round Monte Rosa (1859); E. T. Coleman, Scenes from the Snow Fields (1859); Sir Martin Conway, The Alps from End to End (1895); A. Daudet, Tartarin sur les Alpes (1885, Eng. trans., same date); C. T. Dent, Above the Snow Line (1883); Miss A. B. Edwards, Untrodden Peaks and Unfrequented Valleys (1873, Dolomites); Max Förderreuther, Die Allgäuer Alpen (1906); D. W. Freshfield, Across Country from Thonon to Trent (1865), and Italian Alps (1875); Mrs Henry Freshfield, Alpine Byways (1861), and A Summer Tour in the Grisons (1862); H. B. George, The Oberland and its Glaciers (1866); J. Gilbert and G. C. Churchill, The Dolomite Mountains (1854); A. G. Girdlestone, The High Alps without Guides (1870); P. Grohmann, Wanderungen in den Dolomiten (1877); P. Güssfeldt, In den Hochalpen (1886), and Der Montblanc (1894); T. W. Hinchliff, Summer Months among the Alps (1857); C. Hudson and E. S. Kennedy, Where there’s a Will there’s a Way (1856); E. Javelle, Souvenirs d’ un Alpiniste (1886, Eng. trans., 1899); S. W. King, The Italian Valleys of the Pennine Alps (1858); Le Valli di Lanzo (publ. by the Italian Alpine Club in 1899); A. Lorria and E. A. Mariel, Le Massif de la Bernina (1894); J. Michelet, La Montagne (1868, Eng. trans., 1872); A. W. Moore, The Alps in 1864 (1867, publ. ed., 1902); A. F. Mummery, My Climbs in the Alps (1895); Norman-Neruda, The Climbs of (1899); Peaks, Passes and Glaciers (3 vols., 1859–1862); L. Purtscheller, Über Fels und Firn (1901); E. Rambert, Ascensions et flâneries (2 vols., 1888); G. Rey, Il Monte Cervino (1904); John Ruskin, vol. iv. (On Mountain Beauty) of Modern Painters (1856); A. von Ruthner, Aus den Tauern (1864) and Aus Tirol (1869); V. Sella and D. Vallino, Monte Rosa e Gressoney (1890); F. Simony, Das Dachsteingebiet (1889–1896); L. Sinigaglia, Climbing Reminiscences of the Dolomites (1896); K. von Sonklar, Die Oetzthaler Gebirgsgruppe (1860), and Die Gebirgsgruppe der Hohen-Tauern (1866); Sir L. Stephen, The Playground of Europe (1871); B. Studer, Geschichte der physischen Geographie der Schweiz bis 1815 (1863); ​G. Studer and others, Berg- und Gletscherfahrten (2 series, 1859 and 1863); G. Theobald, Naturbilder aus den rhätischen Alpen (1860), and Das Bündner Oberland (1861); F. F. Tuckett, Hochalpenstudien (2 vols., 1873–1874); Miss L. Tuckett, How we Spent the Summer (1864), Pictures in Tyrol (1867), and Zigzagging amongst Dolomites (1871); J. Tyndall, The Glaciers of the Alps (1860), Mountaineering in 1861 (1862), and Hours of Exercise in the Alps (1871); J. J. Weilenmann, Aus der Firnenwelt (3 vols., 1872–1877); E. Whymper, Scrambles amongst the Alps (1871); Sir A. Wills, Wanderings among the High Alps (1856), and The “Eagle’s Nest” in the Valley of Sixt (1860); G. Yeld, Scrambles in the Eastern Graians (1900); H. Zschokke, Reise auf die Eisgebirge des Kantons Bern und Ersteigung ihrer höchsten Gipfel im Sommer von 1812 (1813); E. Zsigmondy, Im Hochgebirge (1889); M. Zurbriggen, From the Alps to the Andes (1899).
Many useful practical hints as to climbing are to be found in C. T. Dent and others, Mountaineering (1892, 3rd ed., 1900, “Badminton Library”); the Manuel d’Alpinisme (1904, publ. by the French Alpine Club); J. Meurer, Handbuch der alpinen Sport 1882), Katechismus für Bergsteiger (1892), and Der Bergsteiger im Hochgebirge (1893); and C. Wilson, Mountaineering (1893, “All England” series). As regards the dangers of Alpine climbing consult C. Fiorio and C. Ratti, I Pericoli dell’ Alpinismo (1889), and E. Zsigmondy, Die Gefahren der Alpen (1885, Fr. trans., 1889). There are also special guide-books for the use of climbers in the Alps—the “Climbers’ Guides” series, edited by Sir Martin Conway and W. A. B. Coolidge (10 vols., 1890—1894); W. A. B. Coolidge, H. Duhamel and F. Perrin, Guide du Haut Dauphiné (1887, with supplement in 1890, Eng. trans., 1892 and 1905); L. Purtscheller and H. Hess, Der Hochtourist in den Ostalpen (2 vols., 1894, 3 vols., 3rd ed., 1903); the 3 vols. publ. (1902–1905) by the Swiss Alpine Club under the name of Clubführer to the Alps of Glarus and Uri, and V. Wolf von Glanvell, Dolomitenführer (1898).
As regards the early history of Alpine exploration consult W. A. B. Coolidge, Josias Simler et les origines de l’alpinisme jusqu’en 1600 (1904), and F. Gribble, The Early Mountaineers (1899). For the later period see, besides the more general works of travel mentioned above, the publications (that date from 1863) of the various Alpine Clubs—the Alpine Journal (English A. C.), the Annuaire, Bulletin, La Montagne, and Revue alpine (French A. C.), the Jahrbuch, Mitteilungen, Verhandlungen, and Zeitschrift (German and Austrian A. C.), the Alpinista, Bollettino, and Rivista Mensile (Italian A. C.), and the Alpina, Écho des Alpes, Jahrbuch, Schweizer Alpen-Zeitung (Swiss A. C.), besides those of the smaller societies, such as the Österreichische Alpen-Zeitung (Austrian A. C.), the Annuaire (Société des Touristes du Dauphiné), and the Anunuario (Società degli Alpinisti Tridentini). Summaries of the Alpine history of the three great divisions of the Alps are given in (W. Alps) L. Vaccarone, Statistica delle Prime Ascensioni nelle Alpi Occidentali (3rd. ed., 1890—this work omits the Dauphiné Alps, as to which see the 1887 work or its Eng. version 1905, mentioned above); (Central and Swiss Alps) G. Studer, Über Eis und Schnee (2nd ed. 3 vols., 1896–1899); and (E. Alps) G. Gröger and J. Rabl, Die Entwickelung der Hochtouristik in den österreichischen Alpen (1890), and E. Pichter, Die Erschliessung der Ostalpen (3 vols., 1894). The detailed history of Mont Blanc has been written by Ch. Durier, Le Mont Blanc (1877, 4th ed., 1897), and C. E. Mathews, The Annals of Mont Blanc (1898). Lives of some of the most celebrated mountain guides have been written in C. D. Cunningham and W. de W. Abney, Pioneers of the Alps (2nd ed., 1888).
(2) Maps.—There is no good modern and fairly large-scale map of the entire chain of the Alps. But L. Ravenstein’s maps (scale 1:250,000) of the Swiss Alps (2 sheets) and of the Eastern Alps (8 sheets) include the whole chain, save that portion south of the range of Mont Blanc.
All the countries which include Alpine districts have now issued official Government maps. The French map on a scale of 1:80,000 is clearer and more accurate than that on a scale of 1:100,000. The Italian Government has published maps on scales of 1:50,000 and 1:100,000. the Austrian on a scale of 1:75,000, and the Bavarian on a scale of 1:50,000. But the most splendid Government map of all is that put forth by the Swiss Federal Topographical Bureau, under the title of Siegfried Atlas (scale 1:50,000 for the Alpine districts), which has quite superseded the Dufour Map (scale 1:100,000), the history of which was published in 1896. For maps of the Swiss Alps and their neighbours, see J. H. Graf, Literatur der Landesvermessung (1896 with a supplement).
A few of the best special maps of certain districts may be mentioned— such as H. Duhamel’s maps of the Dauphiné Alps (4 sheets on a scale of 1:100,000, 1889, 2nd ed., 1892), and that of the range of Mont Blanc (scale 1:50,000, 1896, 2nd ed., 1905), by X. Imfeld and L. Kurz. The German and Austrian Alpine Club is publishing a very fine set of maps (scale 1:50,000) of the Eastern Alps, which are clearer and better than the Austrian Government’s Topographische Detailkarten (11 sheets, scale 1:50,000). (W. A. B. C.)
10. Geology.—The Alps form but a small portion of a great zone of crumpling which stretches, in a series of curves, from the Atlas Mountains to the Himalayas. Within this zone the crust of the earth has been ridged up into a complex system of creases or folds, out of which the great mountain chains of southern Europe and Asia have been carved by atmospheric agencies. Superficially, the continuity of the zone is broken at intervals by gaps of greater or less extent; but these are due, in part at least, to the subsidence of portions of the folded belt and their subsequent burial by more recent accumulations. Such a gap is that between the Alps and the Carpathians, but a glance at a geological map of the region will show that the folding was probably at one time continuous. Leaving, however, the larger question of the connexion between the great mountain ranges of Europe and Asia, we find that the Alps are formed of a series of wrinkles or folds, one behind another, frequently arranged en échelon. The folds run, in general, in the direction of the chain, and together they form an arc around the plain of Lombardy and Piedmont. Outside this arc lies a depression along which the waters of the upper Danube and the lower Rhone find their way towards the sea; and beyond rise the ancient crystalline masses of Bohemia, the Black Forest and the central plateau of France, together with the intervening Mesozoic beds of southern Germany and the Jura. The depression is filled by Miocene and later beds, which for the most part lie flat and undisturbed as they were laid down. Beyond the depression also, excepting in the Jura Mountains, there is no sign of the folding which has raised the Alpine chain. Some of the older beds indeed are crumpled, but the folding is altogether different in age and in direction from that of the Alps.
To assist in forming a clear idea of the relations of the Alps to the surrounding regions, a simple illustration will suffice. Upon a table covered by a cloth lay two books in the relative positions shown in figure. The book A represents the central plateau of France and the book B represents the rocks of Bohemia and southern Germany. Fig. 1.—Looking down on the table.If the two hands be placed flat upon the table, in the angle between the two books, and the cloth pushed towards the corner, it will at once be rucked up into a fold which will follow a curve not unlike that of the Alps. The precise character and form of the folds produced will depend upon the nature of the cloth and other accidental circumstances; but with a little adjustment not only a representation of the chain of the Alps, but even a subsidiary fold in front in the position of the Jura Mountains may be obtained. Imperfect though this illustration may be, it will serve to explain the modern conception of the forces concerned in the formation of the Alps. Within the crust of the earth, whether by the contraction of the interior or in any other way, tangential pressures were set up. Since the crust is not of uniform strength throughout, only the weaker portions yielded to the pressure; and these were crumpled up against the more resisting portions and sometimes were pushed over them. In the case of the Alps it seems natural enough that the crystalline masses of Bohemia, the Black Forest and the central plateau of France should be firmer than the more modern sedimentary deposits; but it is not so easy to understand why the Mesozoic rocks of southern Germany resisted the folding, while those of the Jura yielded. It should, however, be borne in mind that the resisting mass is not necessarily at the surface. Such is in outline the process by which the Alps were elevated; but when the chain is examined in detail, it is found that its history has not been uniform throughout; and it will be convenient, for purposes of description, to divide it into three portions, which may be called the Eastern Alps, the Swiss Alps, and the Western Alps.
The Eastern Alps consist of a central mass of crystalline and schistose rocks flanked on each side by a zone of Mesozoic beds and on the north by an outer band of Tertiary deposits. On the Italian side there is usually no zone of folded Tertiaries and the Mesozoic band forms the southern Eastern Alps.border of the chain. Each of these zones is folded within itself, ​and the folding is more intense on the Bavarian side than on the Italian, the folds often leaning over towards the north. The Tertiary zone of the northern border is of especial significance and is remarkable for its extent and uniformity. It is divided longitudinally into an outer zone of Molasse and an inner zone of Flysch. The line of separation is very clearly defined; nowhere does the Molasse pass beyond it to the south and nowhere does the Flysch extend beyond it to the north. The Molasse, in the neighbourhood of the mountains, consists chiefly of conglomerates and sandstones, and the Flysch consists of sandstones and shales; but the Molasse is of Miocene and Oligocene age, while the Flysch is mainly Eocene. The relations of the two series are never normal. Along the line of contact, which is often a fault, the oldest beds of the Molasse crop out, and they are invariably overturned and plunge beneath the Flysch. A few miles farther north these same beds rise again to the surface at the summit of an anticlinal which runs parallel to the chain. Beyond this point all signs of folding gradually cease and the beds lie flat and undisturbed.
The Flysch is an extraordinarily thick and uniform mass of sandstones and shales with scarcely any fossils excepting fucoids. It is intensely folded and is constantly separated from the Mesozoic zone by a fault. Throughout the whole extent of the Eastern Alps it is strictly limited to the belt between this fault and the marginal zone of Molasse. Eocene beds, indeed, penetrate farther within the chain, but these are limestones with nummulites or lignite-bearing shales and have nothing in common with the Flysch. But although the Flysch is so uniform in character, and although it forms so well-defined a zone, it is not everywhere of the same age. In the west it seems to be entirely Eocene, but towards the east intercalated beds with Inoceramus, &c., indicate that it is partly of Cretaceous age. It is, in fact, a facies and nothing more. The most probable explanation is that the Flysch consists of the detritus washed down from the hills upon the flanks of which it was formed. It bears, indeed, very much the same relation to the Alps that the Siwalik beds of India bear to the Himalayas.
The Mesozoic belt of the Bavarian and Austrian Alps consists mainly of the Trias, Jurassic and Cretaceous beds playing a comparatively subordinate part. But between the Trias of the Eastern Alps and the Trias of the region beyond the Alpine folds there is a striking contrast. North of the Danube, in Germany as in England, red sandstones, shales and conglomerates predominate, together with beds of gypsum and salt. It was a continental formation, such as is now being formed within the desert belt of the globe. Only the Muschelkalk, which does not reach so far as England, and the uppermost beds, the Rhaetic, contain fossils in any abundance. The Trias of the Eastern Alps, on the other hand, consists chiefly of great masses of limestone with an abundant fauna, and is clearly of marine origin. The Jurassic and Cretaceous beds also differ, though in a less degree, from those of northern Europe. They consist largely of limestone; but marls and sandstones are by no means rare, and there are considerable gaps in the succession indicating that the region was not continuously beneath the sea. Tithonian fossils, characteristic of southern Europe, occur in the upper Jurassic, while the Gosau beds, belonging to the upper Cretaceous, contain many of the forms of the Hippuritic sea. Nevertheless, the difference between the deposits on the two sides of the chain shows that the central ridge was dry land during at least a part of the period.
The central zone of crystalline rock consists chiefly of gneisses and schists, but folded within it is a band of Palaeozoic rocks which divides it longitudinally into two parts. Palaeozoic beds also occur along the northern and southern margins of the crystalline zone. The age of a great part of the Palaeozoic belts is somewhat uncertain, but Permian, Carboniferous, Devonian and Silurian fossils have been found in various parts of the chain, and it is not unlikely that even the Cambrian may be represented.
The Mesozoic belt of the southern border of the chain extends from Lago Maggiore eastwards. Jurassic and Cretaceous beds play a larger part than on the northern border, but the Trias still predominates. On the west the belt is narrow, but towards the east it gradually widens, and north of Lago di Garda its northern boundary is suddenly deflected to the north and the zone spreads out so as to include the whole of the Dolomite mountains of Tirol. The sudden widening is due to the great Judicaria fault, which runs from Lago d’Idro to the neighbourhood of Meran, where it bends round to the east. The throw of this fault may be as much as 2000 metres, and the drop is on its south-east side, i.e. towards the Adriatic. It is probable, indeed, that the fault took a large share in the formation of the Adriatic depression. On the whole, the Mesozoic beds of the southern border of the Alps point to a deeper and less troubled sea than those of the north. Clastic sediments are less abundant and there are fewer breaks in the succession. The folding, moreover, is less intense; but in the Dolomites of Tirol there are great outbursts of igneous rock, and faulting has occurred on an extensive scale.
West of a line which runs from Lake Constance to Lago Maggiore the zones already described do not continue with the same simplicity. The zone of the Molasse is little changed, but the Flysch is partly folded in the Mesozoic belt and no longer forms an absolutely independent band. The Trias has almost disappeared, and what remains is Swiss Alps.not of the marine type characteristic of the Eastern Alps but belongs rather to the continental facies which occurs in Germany and France. Jurassic and Cretaceous beds form the greater part of the Mesozoic band. On the southern side of the chain the Mesozoic zone disappears entirely a little west of Lago Maggiore and the crystalline rocks rise directly from the plain.
Perhaps the strangest problem in the whole of Switzerland is that presented by the so-called Klippen. Within the Alps, when normally developed, we may trace the individual folds for long distances and observe how they arise, increase and die out, to be replaced by others of similar direction. But at times, within or on the border of the northern Eocene trough, the continuity of the folds is suddenly broken by mountain masses of quite different constitution. These are the Klippen, and they are especially important in the Chablais and between the Lakes of Geneva and Thun. Not only is the folding of the Klippen wholly independent of that of the zone in which they lie, but the rocks which form them are of foreign facies. They consist chiefly of Jurassic and Triassic beds, but it is the Trias and the Jura of the Eastern Alps and not of Switzerland. Moreover, although they interrupt the folding of the zone in which they occur, they do not disturb it: they do not, in fact, rise through the zone, but lie upon it like unconformable masses—in other words, they rest upon a thrust-plane. Whence they have come into their present position is by no means clear; but the character of the beds which form them indicates a distant origin. It is interesting to note, in this ​ connexion, that the pebbles of the Swiss Molasse are not generally such as would be derived from the neighbouring mountains, but resemble the rocks of the Eastern Alps. The Klippen are, no doubt, the remains of a much larger mass brought into the region upon a thrust-plane, and much of the Molasse has been derived from its destruction. Although the explanation here given of the origin of the Swiss Klippen is that which now is usually accepted, it should be mentioned that other theories have been proposed to account for their peculiarities.
In the Western Alps the outer border of Molasse persists; but it no longer forms so well-defined a zone, and strips are infolded amongst the older rocks. The Eocene has altogether lost its independence as a band and occurs only in patches within the Mesozoic zone. The latter, on the other hand, assumes a greater importance and forms nearly the Western Alps.whole of the subalpine ranges. It consists almost entirely of Jurassic and Cretaceous beds, the Trias in these outer ranges being of very limited extent. The main chain is formed chiefly of crystalline and schistose rocks, which on the Italian side rise directly from the plain without any intervening zone of Mesozoic beds. But it is divided longitudinally by a well-marked belt of stratified deposits, known as the zone of the Briançonnais, composed chiefly of Carboniferous, Triassic and Jurassic beds. The origin of the schistose rocks has long been under discussion, and controversy has centred more particularly around the schistes lustrés, which are held by some to be of Triassic age and by others to be pre-Carboniferous and even, perhaps, Archaean. Partly in consequence of the uncertainty as to the age of these and other rocks, there is considerable difference of opinion as to the structure of the Western Alps. According to the view most widely accepted in France the main chain as a whole forms a fan, the folds on the eastern side leaning towards Italy and those on the western side towards France. The zone of the Briançonnais lies in the middle of the fan.
From the above account it will at once appear that between the convex and the concave margins of the Alpine chain there is a striking difference. Upon the outer side of the arc the central zone of crystalline rocks is flanked by Mesozoic and Tertiary belts; towards the west, indeed, the individuality of these belts is lost, to a large extent, but the rocks remain. Upon the inner Asymmetry of the Alps.side the Tertiary band is found only in the eastern part of the chain, while towards the west, first the Tertiary and then the Mesozoic band disappears against the modern deposits of the low land. The appearance is strongly suggestive of faulting; and probably the southern margin of the chain lies buried beneath the plain of northern Italy.
The chain of the Alps was not raised by a single movement nor in a single geological period. Its growth was gradual and has not been uniform throughout. In the Eastern Alps the central ridge seems to have been in existence at least as early as Triassic times, but it has since been subject to several oscillations. The most conspicuous folding, that of the Age of the Alps.Mesozoic and Tertiary belts, must have occurred in Tertiary times, and it was not completed till the Miocene period. The structure of the zones in the Bavarian Alps seems to suggest that the chain grew outwards in successive stages, each stage being marked by the formation of a boundary fault. A precisely similar structure is seen in the Himalayas.
Authorities.—The literature is very extensive. The following list includes a few selected works on each portion of the chain:—F. Frech, “Die karnischen Alpen,” Abh. naturf Ges Halle, vol. xviii (1892 and 1894); A. Rothpletz, Ein geologischer Querschnitt durch die Ost-Alpen (Stuttgart, 1894); C. Diener, “Bau und Bild der Ostalpen und des Karstgebietes,” in Bau und Bild Österreichs (Vienna and Leipzig, 1903): Livret-guide géologique dans le Jura et les Alpes de la Suisse (Paris and Lausanne, 1894); A. Helm, Mechanismus der Gebirgsbildung (Basel, 1878); D. Zaccagna, “Riassunto di osservazioni geologiche fatte sul versante occidentale delle Alpi Graie,” Boll. R. Com. Geol. Ital. vol. xxiii. (1892), pp. 175-244; C. Diener, Der Gebirgsbau der West-Alpen (1894); M. Bertrand, “Études dans les Alpes françaises,” Bull. Soc. Géol. France, ser. 3, vol. xxii (1894), pp. 69-162; S. Franchi, “Sull’ età mesozoica della zona delle pietri verdi nelle Alpi Occidentali,” Boll. R. Geol. Ital. vol. xxix. (1898), pp. 173-217, 325-482, pts. v.-ix. For the broader question of the relation of the Alps to other regions, E. Suess, Das Antlitz der Erde (Vienna, 1885) (English translation, Oxford, 1904) should be consulted. The Geologischer Führer durch die Alpen, published by Borntraeger, Berlin, are handy guides. (P. La.)
11. Flora.—The Alps owe the richness and beauty of their plant life partly to their position as the natural boundary between the ​“Baltic” flora on the north and the “Mediterranean” flora on the south, but chiefly to the presence on their heights of a third flora which has but little in common with either of the others. The stronghold of this last, the distinctively “Alpine” flora, is the region above the tree-limit. Its closest relationship is with the flora of the Pyrenees; but an alpine flora is characteristic of all the lofty mountains of central Europe. According to J. Ball, 2010 well-marked species of flowering plants occur within the limits of the Alps. If now we confine our attention to the alpine and higher regions of the Alps and exclude from our list all those plants which, however abundant in these regions, are not less so in the adjacent lowlands, we have left some 700 species (693, according to Dr Christ). We must observe, as regards the plants of the lower alpine region, that it is the actual presence of a forest vegetation, rather than the theoretical tree-limit, which affects their vertical distribution; so that, e.g. they overflow into the extensive clearings made by man in the primeval mountain forests. Indeed, an analysis of the composition of the alpine flora as a whole leads to the conclusion that the chief bond of union between its members consists in the treeless character of their habitat.
We may broadly distinguish two main geographical elements in the alpine flora, namely, the northern element and the endemic element. This division (which is not, however, strictly exhaustive) directs special attention to what is undoubtedly the most striking feature of the flora—namely, that of its 693 species no less than 271 reappear in the extreme north. This relation of the arctic to the alpine flora is all the more remarkable in view of the very important differences between the arctic and alpine climates. The following circumpolar species are common, and widely diffused throughout the whole of the Alps: Silene acaulis, Dryas octopetala, Saxifraga oppositifolia, S. aizoides, S. stellaris, Erigeron alpinus, Azalea procumbens, Myosotis alpestris, Polygonum viviparum, Salix retusa, S. herbacea, Phleum alpinum, Juniperus nana. The proportion of northern forms, as regards both species and individuals, increases as we ascend to the higher regions. In the highest vegetation-zone, the snow-region—i.e. on islands of rock above the snow-line—they attain to an equality with the endemic forms. As examples of northern flowers which are characteristic of the snow-region, we may mention Silene acaulis, Eritrichium nanum and Arenaria ciliata. On the other hand, typical endemic species of this highest zone are Androsace helvetica, A. glacialis, Petrocallis pyrenaica and Cherleria sedoides. All the plants just named, we may observe, are “cushion-plants.” Their compact, moss-like growth and general structural peculiarities are not an expression of mutual affinity, but are in adaptation to the combined cold and dryness of their habitat. It is noteworthy that among the northern plants of the alpine zone, in the narrower sense of the term (i.e. of the region between the tree-limit and the snow-line), there is a marked predominance of species that affect moist localities; and conversely, the majority of alpine flowers of wet habitat are found also in the north. For example, in the genus Primula, a highly characteristic genus of the alpine flora, whose members are among the most striking ornaments of the rocks, the single northern species, P. farinosa, grows only in marshy meadows. On the whole, then, adaptation to cold and wet is the note of the northern element.
As for the explanation of the community between the alpine and arctic floras, all authorities are agreed that the key to the problem is furnished by the occurrence of the glacial period. In the ice-free belt, between the northern ice-sheet and the vastly extended glaciers of the Alps, the two floras must have found a common refuge and congenial conditions of existence; and this view is confirmed by direct palaeontological evidence. With the return of a milder climate, the so-called northern forms of the present alpine flora were split in two, one portion following close on the northern ice in its gradual retreat to the Arctic, the other following the shrinking glaciers till the plants were able to establish (or re-establish) themselves on the slopes of the Alps. The same explanation covers the case of the similarity of the flora (not merely as regards the northern element) on all the high mountains of central Europe. So much seems to be beyond reasonable doubt. But at this point disagreement begins between the most eminent writers on the subject. While some (e.g. Sir J. D. Hooker, Heer) regard the Arctic, and some (e.g. Wettstein) the Alps, as the original home of at least the bulk of the “northern” element, others (e.g. Ball, Christ) locate this in the highlands of temperate Asia. For it is a remarkable fact that, of the 230 northern species which are most typical of the far north, 182 are found also in the Altai (taking this as a collective name for the mountains that form the southern boundary of Siberia). In any case, however, the migration of these plants to the Alps must for the most part have taken place via the Arctic. The possibility of any extensive east to west migration having taken place direct from the Altai to the Alps seems excluded by the fact that 50% of the arctico-altaic alpine plants are absent from the Caucasus. A score of species, it is true—not such a number, be it observed, as was formerly supposed—are common to the Alps and Altai, but absent from the Arctic. But the species composing this Altaic element are not so numerous as the arctico-alpine species that are absent from the Altai. On the whole, a common origin in the north for at least the arctico-altaic group of alpine plants seems to be the most reasonable hypothesis.
Side by side with the northern element (which in some respects, we may observe to point the contrast, would be better named the tundra-element) we find a group of species usually spoken of as the xerothermic or meridional element. These do not, however, form an “element,” in the strict geographical sense in which this term is otherwise used here. They are those species which, on general phyto-geographical grounds, must be regarded as having originated under steppe-like conditions. Their affinities are chiefly, though not exclusively, with the present Mediterranean flora—about fifty are of presumably Mediterranean origin—and a large proportion of them are restricted to the southern slopes of the Alps. The following, however, among others, are distributed throughout the whole, or a great part, of the range: Colchicum alpinum, Crocus vernus, Orchis globosa, Petrocallis pyrenaica, Astragalus depressus, A. aristatus, Oxytropis Halleri, Eryngium alpinum, Erica carnea, Linaria alpina, Globularia nudicaulis, G. cordifolia, Leontopodium alpinum. The last named (the well-known “edelweiss”) is at the present day characteristic of the Siberian steppes. The presence of these plants among the alpine flora is traceable to the steppe-like conditions which prevailed in central Europe both during the warmer inter-glacial periods and (probably) for a time after the close of the ice-age. Subsequently, as the climate of the plains assumed a colder and more humid character, they retired before the invading forests to the high mountains. Here, in the intenser insolation which they enjoy on the alpine slopes, they seem to find a compensation for the drawbacks incidental to the altitude of their present station.
As regards now the endemic element as a whole, the question as to the time and place of its origin is of a highly complicated and controversial nature. The question, too, in the case of this element, is necessarily of genetic rather than purely geographical scope. It must suffice to say that the weight of scientific opinion inclines to the view that at least the majority of endemic species are of pre-glacial origin, and are either strictly indigenous or products of the neighbouring lowlands. About 40% of the endemic element in the alpine flora are endemic also in the narrower sense, i.e. they are confined to the Alps. Many of them are restricted to some one small portion of the chain; these occur chiefly in the southern and eastern Alps. It is an interesting fact that the centrally situated Bernese Alps produce hardly a single peculiar species. The greater richness of certain districts in the matter of species is partly due to the variety of soils encountered therein; but in part may be explained by the fact that these districts were the first to be freed from the ice-sheet at the end of the glacial period.
The following is a list of the most thoroughly characteristic alpine plants—all of them ipso facto members of the endemic element—which are at once peculiar to the Alps (or practically ​so) and widely distributed within the limits of the chain. These are: Festuca pulchella, Carex microstyla, Salix caesia, Rumex nivalis, Alsine aretioides, Aquilegia alpina, Thlaspi rotundifolium, Saxifraga Seguieri, S. aphylla, Astragalus leontinus, Daphne striata, Eryngium alpinum, Bupleurum stellatum, Androsace helvetica, A. glacialis, Gentiana bavarica, Phyteuma humile, Campanula thyrsoidea, C. cenisia, Achillea atrata, Cirsium spinosissimum, Crepis Terglouensis.
Authorities.—Among the voluminous literature on alpine flora, the following works are particularly noteworthy:—Ball, “On the Origin of the Flora of the European Alps,” in Proceed. of the Roy. Geog. Soc., 1879; Bennett, The Flora of the Alps, 2 vols. with 120 coloured plates (1896); Briquet, “Les Colonies végétales xérothermiques des alpes lémaniennes,” in Bull. d. l. Murithienne, soc. valaisienne des sciences nat., xxvii. and xxviii. (1898–1899); Alph. de Candolle, “Sur les causes de l’inégale distribution des plantes rares dans la chaîne des Alpes,” Extr. des Actes du Congrès botan. internat. de Florence (1875); Chodat u. Pampanini, “Sur la distribution des plantes des alpes austro-orientales,” Extr. du Globe, organe de la soc. de géographie de Genève, tome xli. (1902); H. Christ, Das Pflanzenleben der Schweiz (1882)—the chief classic on the subject; Engler, Die Pflanzenformationen und die pflanzengeographische Gliederung der Alpenkette (1901); Heer, Ueber die nivale Flora der Schweiz (1885); Jerosch, Geschichte und Herkunft der schweizerischen Alpenflora; eine Übersicht über den gegenwärtigen Stand der Frage (1903); Schröter, Das Pflanzenleben der Alpen (Zürich, 1908); R. von Wettstein, Die Geschichte unserer Alpenflora (1896). The best book of coloured plates is the Atlas der Alpenflora, in 5 vols., pub. by the Deutscher u. Oesterreichischer Alpenverein (2nd. ed., 1897).
12. Fauna.—The fauna of the lower zones in the Alps is, on the northern side of the chain, practically identical with that of central Europe, and on the southern side with that of the Mediterranean basin. But in the higher regions it presents many features of special interest alike to the zoologist and the traveller. It seems therefore best to treat here principally of the animal inhabitants of the high Alps.
Though among mammalia—as also in the case of the birds—there are but few forms peculiar to the Alps, many interesting animals have found in the high mountains at least a temporary refuge from man. The European bison, the urus, the elk and the wild swine have disappeared since Roman times. But the lynx (Lynx vulgaris) perhaps lingers in remote parts, and the brown bear (Ursus arctos) still survives in the dense forests of the Lower Engadine. The fox (Canis vulpes), the stonemarten (Martes foina) and the stoat or ermine (Putorius erminea) range in summer above the tree-limit. The Ungulata are represented by the chamois (Rupicapra tragus) and the bouquetin or steinbock (Capra ibex). The former—the sole representative, in western Europe, of the antelopes—is found elsewhere only in the Pyrenees, Carpathians, Caucasus and the mountains of eastern Turkey; the latter survives only in the eastern Graian Alps. Of the Rodentia the most interesting and conspicuous is the marmot (Arctomys marmota), which lives in colonies close to the snow-line. The snow-mouse (Arvicola nivalis) is confined to the alpine and snow regions, and is abundant at these levels throughout the whole chain of the Alps. The mountain hare (Lepus variabilis or timidus) replaces the common hare (Lepus europaeus) in the higher regions; though absent from the intervening plains it again appears in the north of Europe and in Scotland. Among the Insectivora, the alpine shrew (Sorex alpinus) is restricted to the Alps. Of the Cheiroptera (bats) only Vesperugo maurus is characteristically alpine.
The birds of the Alps are proportionately very numerous. The lammergeyer (Gypaetus barbatus), once common, is now extremely rare, even if it has not already become extinct in the Alps; but the golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) still holds its own. Some of the smaller birds of prey are not uncommon, but there is none that can be regarded as specially characteristic either of the Alps as a whole or of the alpine region. As characteristic birds of the snow-region may be mentioned the alpine chough (Pyrrhocorax alpinus), which is frequently seen at the summits even of the loftiest mountains, the alpine swift (Cypselus melba), the wallcreeper (Tichodroma muraria), snow-finch (Montifringilla nivalis) and ptarmigan (Lagopus mutus); the geographical distribution of this last being similar to that of the mountain hare. The black redstart (Ruticilla titys), though common in the lower regions, is also met with in fair numbers almost up to the snow-line. The raven (Corvus corax) is fairly common in the alpine and sub-alpine regions. On the highest pastures we find, further, the alpine accentor (Accentor collaris) and the alpine pipit (Anthus spipoletta). The crag-martin (Cotyle rupestris) haunts lofty cliffs in the alpine region. On the upper verge of the pine forests, or in the scrubby vegetation just beyond, the following are not uncommon—black woodpecker (Picus martius), ring-ousel (Turdus torquatus), Bonelli’s warbler (Phylloscopus Bonellii), crested tit (Parus cristatus), citril finch (Citrinella alpina), siskin (Chrysomitris spinus), crossbill (Loxia curvirostra), nutcracker (Nucifraga caryocatactes), blackcock (Tetrao tetrix), and the alpine varieties of the marsh-tit (Parus palustris, borealis) and tree-creeper (Certhia familiaris, costae).
The remaining classes of Vertebrata are very sparsely represented in the high Alps; and what few species occur are mostly common to the plains as well. In fact, among the remaining land vertebrates, only the black salamander (Salamandra atra) is exclusively alpine. This interesting animal, though a member of the Amphibia, is terrestrial and viviparous.
The former connexion between the Arctic and the Alps, which has left such unmistakable traces in the present alpine flora, affords, as regards the fauna also, the only possible explanation of the present geographical distribution of many alpine forms; but it is chiefly among the Invertebrata that we find this collateral testimony to the influence of the glacial period. In this respect we may note that two small crustaceans, Diaptomus bacillifer and D. denticornis, swarm in the ice-cold waters of the highest alpine tarns throughout the entire chain; and the former of these is also a characteristic inhabitant of pools formed from melting snow in the extreme north. Among the remaining divisions of Invertebrata special mention may be made of the air-breathing Arthropoda—on the whole the most important and interesting group. About one-third of the animals belonging thereto that occur in the higher regions are exclusively alpine (or alpine and northern); these characteristically alpine forms being furnished chiefly by the spiders, beetles and butterflies. Most numerous are the beetles. Those of the highest zone are remarkable for the great predominance of predaceous species and of wingless forms. In this last respect they present a striking analogy with the endemic coleopterous fauna of oceanic islands. As for the butterflies, not more than one-third of the species found in the alpine region occur in the neighbouring lowlands. The relations between alpine butterflies and plants are especially interesting, as regards not only their bionomic interdependence but also the analogies of their geographical distribution. It should be noted that butterflies are the chief agents in securing the continued existence of such alpine flowers as depend on insect fertilization, the other insect fertilizers being mostly wanting at great heights.
The classic of alpine zoology is F. von Tschudi’s Das Tierleben der Alpenwelt (11th ed., 1890). See also zoological section, by K. W. v. Dalla Torre, of Anleitung zu wissenschaftlichen Beobachtungen auf Alpenreisen. For the Vertebrata, see V. Fatio’s Faune des vertébrés de la Suisse (5 vols., 1869–1904). Die Tierwelt der Hochgebirgsseen, by F. Zschokke (1900) is an important treatise on an interesting department of alpine natural history. C. Zeller’s Alpentiere im Wechsel der Zeit (1892) gives a reliable account of the gradual disappearance of some of the larger forms of life from the Alps. For the inter-relations of alpine insects and flowers, see H. Müller’s Alpenblumen, ihre Befruchtung durch Insekten, und ihre Anpassung an dieselben (1881). (H. V. K.)