# Primary Lessons in Swatow Grammar/Lesson XXI

Nouns are of many varieties. It will be sufficient to indicate a few of them.
1. Single nouns, consisting of one word, with a fixed and definite meaning. This includes names of persons, places, and things, such as, pûaⁿ, a plate; to, a knife; chhe, a fork; iâm, salt; chhòu, vinegar; bō, a hat; ôi, shoes; sìn, faith; ngĩ, righteousness; hái, sea; suaⁿ, mountain.—The pupil will expand this list indefinitely to suit his own wants.
2. Double nouns, where two words of similar meaning are joined together, to add force, and prevent ambiguity of meaning.

## húe-hu,

    ashes.

## lói-mãu,

    politeness.

## kui-kṳ́,

    custom.

## koi-lōu,

    street.

## chhù-ok,

    a dwelling.

## hâng-kháu,

    a hong.

## chàng-pâng,

    a go-down.

## hân-néⁿ,

    cold.

## chṳ-kūiⁿ,

    a desk.

## huap-tōu,

    a rule.

## ai-khàu,

    weeping.

## kài-hãn,

    a limit.

## mô-kúi,

    a demon.

## kuaⁿ-hú,

    an officer.

## khûan-pèⁿ,

    authority.

## iông-kuang,

    splendor.

## siâⁿ-ip,

    a city.

## kang-hu,

    work.

## kòu-kī,

    envy.

## chai-sek,

    knowledge.

## hũa-huãm,

    calamity.

## lī-iah,

    profit.
3. Descriptive nouns, where a whole clause has a substantive signification.

## ba̍k-kang kâi-sai-pẽ,

    a wood-work mechanic, i.e. a carpenter.

## phah-thih kâi-sai-pẽ,

    a beat iron mechanic, i.e. a blacksmith.

## thì-thâu kâi-sai-pẽ,

    a shave head mechanic, i.e. a barber.

## chò-ôi kâi-sai-pẽ,

    a maker of shoes mechanic, i.e. a shoemaker.

## chò-tháng kâi-sai-pẽ,

    a maker of buckets, i.e. a cooper.

## kiâⁿ-chûn-nâng,

    sailors.

## huang-chúi sin-seⁿ,

    a geomancer.

## kà-chṳ sin-seⁿ,

    a school teacher.

## chò-ui sin-seⁿ,

    a physician.

## kúan-lí siàu-ba̍k,

    an accountant.

## lia̍h-tõa kâi-nâng,

    a pilot.

## sam-hâng kâi-chhâi-chú,

    a lumber dealer.
​4. Diminutive nouns such as in English are sometimes formed by the affixes let, ling, &c, are made by adding kiáⁿ. They often have a contemptuous meaning.

## ah-kiáⁿ,

    a duckling.

## suaⁿ-kiáⁿ,

    a hillock.

## gô-kiáⁿ,

    a gosling.

## koi-kiáⁿ,

    a small chicken.

## chha̍t-kiáⁿ,

    a petty thief.

## gû-kiáⁿ,

    a calf.

## káu-kiáⁿ,

    a puppy.

## ngiau-kiáⁿ,

    kittens.

## sai-kiáⁿ,

    lion-whelps.

## hîm-kiáⁿ,

    bear cubs.

## sai-kiáⁿ,

    an apprentice.

## seng-lí-kiáⁿ,

    petty merchandise.

## hãu-seⁿ-kiáⁿ,

    youngsters.

## sió-kuaⁿ-kiáⁿ,

    petty officials.

## ma̍k-nih-kiáⁿ,

    a twinkling.
5. Nouns are made concrete with the aid of i-kâi, his or its; chí-kâi, this; sṳ̄, matter; and só-kiè-chò, that which is called. In such cases chí-kâi has an intensive force of the definite article. It emphasizes the word to which it is prefixed.

## taⁿ chí-kâi-sí kâi-sṳ̄,

    now this matter of death, or, this subject of death.

## taⁿ chí-kâi, nâng só-kiè-chò-thiàⁿ,

    now this that people call pain.

## i kâi-tiâm,

    its sweetness.

## taⁿ chí kâi-sìn-tek kâi-ì-sṳ̀,

    now this idea of faith (is thus and so).
6. It is to be remembered, also, that adjectives and nouns are often mutually convertible. Adjectives become nouns and nouns become adjectives. In the list of adjectives already given a large number of the words are constantly used as nouns; thus, khiam-sùn means humility as well as humble; kiau-ngāu, pride as well as proud ; phîn-khiông, poverty as well as poor. One noun preceding another often becomes an adjective, as:—

## chhâ-tháng,

    a wood (en) bucket.

## thih-thûi,

    an iron hammer.

## seⁿ-ue,

    a cast-iron pan.

## chie̍h-mn̂g,

    a stone door.

## jông-saⁿ,

    a wool (en) jacket.

## po-lî-chun,

    a glass bottle.

## iû-pân,

    an oil can.

## thóu-im,

    a country dialect. ​Case.
There are in Chinese no case terminations as in Latin, e.g. domin-us, domin-i, domin-o, &c. Case signification is indicated, as in English, by the use of particles, chiefly prepositions, preceding or following the noun.
The Genitive, of, possession, ownership, pertaining to &c, is indicated:—
1. By position simply, or by employing an adjective form of speech.

## gūa-kok-nâng,

    people of outside nations.

## siâⁿ-chhiêⁿ,

    city wall, or, wall of a city.

## sì-so̍k,

    customs of the world.

## kuaⁿ-gê,

    Mandarin office, or, office of the Mandarin.

## uâng-bō,

    king crown, or, crown of the king.
2. By the classifier kâi denoting: one, an individual. It has the force of the apostrophic ’s in English, and is by far the most common sign of the Genitive. It always follows the noun. Sometimes chṳ, of, its is used, but this is bookish save in certain idiomatic phrases.

## uá-kâi-sṳ̄,

    an affair of mine.

## i kâi-pín-hẽng,

    his actions.

## i kâi-ì-sṳ̀,

    his meaning.

## hieⁿ-lí kâi-kui-kṳ́,

    the custom of the village.

## póu-thâu kâi-pèⁿ,

    the handle of the axe.

## i kâi chhiú-siá,

    his hand-writing.
3. So̍k, pertaining to is used in written language, but in certain cases becomes colloquial, and sometimes has a Genitive sense.

## i chhin-so̍k,

    belonging to his clan, i.e. of his clan.

## siang-so̍k,

    mutually pertaining to.

## chí-kâi-sieⁿ so̍k-tî-kūiⁿ só-kuán?

    this village belongs to the jurisdiction of what district?

## Tiê-Chiu káu-so̍k,

    the nine (districts) of Tie-Chiu.
Very commonly the Dative sense is discernible only from the connection. At other times the following auxiliaries are utilized, pun, to give to; to let, to allow, to; tùi, to respond to, used properly by inferiors to superiors; ṳ́, to, with; kāng, kiau, with, together with, and therefore, to, hiàng, to, towards; kàu, to reach to, to; in-ũi-tie̍h, for, on account of.

## uá sàng--lṳ́,

    I present (to) you.

## khṳ̀ Ka-la-pa,

    (he) has gone (to) Batavia.

## khṳ̀ Si̍t-la̍t,

    (he) has gone (to) Singapore.

## khṳ̀ Pin-nô-sṳ̃,

    (he) has gone (to) the Island of Penang.

## i kau-tài hâng-chú,

    he delivered it (to) the head of the hong.

## i chìn-uâng-ke,

    he presented it to the king.

## i hièn-chì Siãng-tì,

    he offered it up to the Supreme Ruler.

## khie̍h-chúi pun--i,

    take water and give to him.

## si-ṳn pun--i,

    grant a favor to him.

## tàⁿ-pun i-chai,

    to let him know.

## tàⁿ-mêng, pun-i phah-sǹg,

    tell clearly to let him decide.

## tùi-i tàⁿ,

    said to him.

## tùi-i kâi-thâu-ke tàⁿ,

    said to his master.

## tùi-i kâi-chhin-nâng tàⁿ,

    said to his relatives.

## ṳ́-lṳ́ bô-kan?

    whhat consequence is it to you.

## ṳ́-lṳ́ bô-siang-kan,

    it is of no consequence to you.

## ṳ́-i kói-sueh,

    explain it to him.

## kāng-i tàⁿ,

    say together with him, i. e. say to him.

## kiau-i tàⁿ,

    talk with, or, to him.

## kiau-lṳ́-chò,

    do it with, or, for you.

## uá kiau-lṳ́ pheⁿ-phah,

    I will decide for you.

## hiàng-thiⁿ tàⁿ,

    spoke towards heaven, i. e. cried out to heaven.

## ka̍k-chiẽⁿ-thiⁿ,

    threw it up towards the sky.

## kiâⁿ-lōu hiàng-sai,

    walked towards, or, to the west.

## chhù-chôiⁿ hiàng-tang,

    the front of the house is to the east.

## khṳ̀-kàu Ji̍t-pńg,

    went to Japan.

## siau-kàu múa-tî-kò,

    diffused to everywhere (said of goods exported).

## kàu-chí-lâi,

    up to this.

## siẽⁿ-m̄-kàu,

    cannot think up to it, i.e. never thought of it, or, unthinkable.

## hôiⁿ--i,

    pay it to him.

## hôiⁿ-i ji-cha̍p-ngṳ̂n,

    paid him twenty dollars.

## i kâi-siàu-ba̍k tie̍h-hôiⁿ--i,

    pay him his account.

## eng-kai hôiⁿ--i, chiũ-hôiⁿ--i,

    what is necessary to pay him, pay him.

## ũi-tie̍h pēⁿ kâi-sṳ̄,

    for, or, on account of illness.

## ũi-tie̍h si̍h-pńg,

    on account of losses.

## ũi-tie̍h chí-kiãⁿ-sṳ̄,

    for, or, on account of this one matter. ​Accusative.
The Accusative is known simply from its connection. It usually follows the verb.

## lòi-chhâ,

    split wood.

## chám-chhâ,

    cut wood.

## lôi-chhân,

    plough a field.

## ní-pòu,

    dye cloth.

## póu-ôi,

    mend shoes.

## theⁿ-chûn,

    pole the boat.

## siu-lōu,

    repair the road.

## taⁿ-thôu,

    carry earth (on a pole).

## taⁿ-chúi,

    carry water.

## kng-chie̍h,

    to bear stones (between two).

## phõ-a-nôuⁿ,

    carry a child (in the arms).

## la̍h-mue̍h-kiãⁿ,

    gather up an armful of things.
The Vocative is known by a, o, oi.

## a-chek--a,

    O Uncle.

## a-tĩ--a,

    O younger brother.

## a-hiaⁿ--a,

    O older brother.

## chhù-piⁿ--a,

    O neighbor.

## uá phêng-iú--a,

    O my friend.

## lãu-tia--a,

    O your Honor.

## kò-chûn-nâng, oi,

    O you man rowing a boat.

## khiâ-hõu-sùaⁿ kâi-nâng, oi,

    ho, you man carrying an umbrella.
The Ablative with, in, from, and by is indicated by the following equivalents ;—chiang or chang, to make use of, ēng, to use, íⁿ, by means of, lãi, within, tõ, to be at, kāng, together with, chhap, to mix, or, be with, kai, khṳt, khih, with, together with, by, and iû, chhông, from. These words express agency, instrumentality, or source of efficiency in connection with nouns.

## hó-chang sĩ-mue̍h khṳ̀-chò?

    what shall I take to go and do it with?

## chang phì-jũ kà--i,

    use an illustration and teach him.

## chang hó-ūe uaⁿ-ùe--i,

    with good words comforted him.

## chang-ak-ūe kek-i seⁿ-khì,

    with bad words he provoked him to anger. ​

## chang-chie̍h ka̍k-sí--i,

    killed him with a stone.

## ēng-ngṳ̂n bói--kâi,

    some thing bought with money.

## ēng-khî-khá kâi-ūe phièn--i,

    with crafty words beguiled him.

## ēng-tōa-siaⁿ hàm--i,

    with a loud voice called him.

## ēng-tek-ko phah-chûa,

    with a bamboo stick he beat (killed) a snake.

## ēng-jī tièⁿ-hṳ̂,

    with bait caught fish.

## íⁿ-to thâi-nâng,

    with a knife he killed him.

## íⁿ-kòi-mông lia̍h--i,

    by means of, or, with a trick he caught him.

## íⁿ-lu̍t-huap phōiⁿ--i,

    he made use of the law to punish him.

## íⁿ chí-kâi-sṳ̄ tōu-seⁿ,

    by means of this he gets a living.

## sim-lãi,

    in the heart.

## i tõ-hṳ́-lãi,

    he is in there.

## chûn-tõ kang-lãi,

    the boat is in the channel.

## kāng-i chò-pû kiâⁿ-lōu,

    walking the road with him.

## kāng-i chham-siâng,

    consult with him.

## kāng-i chò-pû-chia̍h,

    eat with him.

## chhap-i uáng-lâi,

    come and go with him.

## chhap-i chhut-mn̂g,

    went out doors with him.

## khṳt-i lêng-jo̍k,

    disgraced by him.

## kai-i chhēng-saⁿ,

    put on his clothes for him.

## iû-pak-thâu lâi,

    come from the north.

## chhông-lâm-pôiⁿ lâi,

    comes from the south.

## ēng sĩ-mih-mue̍h khṳ̀-chò?

    what did he use to do it with?

## hó-ēng sĩ-mih khṳ̀-chò?

    what may he use to go and do it with?

## ēng sĩ-mih-nâng kâi-pńg-chîⁿ?

    he used what man's capital?

## khùa sĩ-mih-nâng kâi-sì-la̍t?

    he trusted in what man’s influence?

## oi-lâng sĩ-ēng-gû a-sĩ ēng-nâng?

    in grinding did he use cattle or men?

## chiang sĩ-mih-huap?

    what method did he make use of ?

## ēng chò-nî-iēⁿ kâi-khì-kũ?

    what kind of implements did he use?

## iû-tî-kò chhut--lâi?

    from where did it come?

## àiⁿ-chò--i, chiang-tî-kâi khṳ̀-chò?

    if I want to do it, what shall I take to go and do it with?