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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stafford, Earls and Marquesses of

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​STAFFORD, EARLS AND MARQUESSES OF. The earldom of Stafford, created in 1351, was held at first by the family of Stafford (q.v.). In 1521 it became extinct, and in September 1640 Sir William Howard (1614—1680), a son of Thomas Howard, earl of Arundel and Surrey, having three years previously married Mary (d. 1694), sister and heiress of Henry Stafford, 5th Baron Stafford, was created Baron Stafford and two months later viscount of Stafford. Accused by Titus Oates of participating in the popish plots, he was found guilty, and was beheaded on the 29th of December 1680, his titles being forfeited.
His son, Henry Stafford Howard (1658—1719), who, but for his father's attainder, would have inherited the barony and the viscounty, was created earl of Stafford in 1688, his mother being created countess of Stafford at the same time; he was succeeded by his nephew William (c. 1690—1734). When John Paul, the 4th earl (1700—1762), died, the earldom became extinct, but the title to the barony, which was under attainder, fell into abeyance.
The 4th earl's sister Mary (d. 1765) married Francis Plowden (d. 1712), and in 1824 their descendant, Sir George William Jerningham, Bart. (1771—1851), of Costessy Park, Norfolk, obtained a reversal of his ancestor's attainder and was recognized as Baron Stafford. The barony is still held by the Jerninghams.
In 1758 Granville Leveson-Gower (1721—1803) was created marquess of Stafford. He was the son of John Leveson-Gower (d. 1754), who was created Viscount Trentham and Earl Gower in 1746. The public positions held by him included that of lord privy seal, which he filled from 1755 to 1757, and again from 1784 to 1794; of master of the horse; of lord chamberlain of the royal household; and of lord president of the council, which he held from 1767 to 1769 and in 1783—1784. This wealthy and influential nobleman, who was the last survivor of the associates of the duke of Bedford, the “Bloomsbury gang,” died at Trentham Hall, in Staffordshire, on the 26th of October 1803. His son and successor, George Granville Leveson-Gower, was created duke of Sutherland in 1833. A younger son was Granville Leveson-Gower, who was created Earl Granville in 1833. The title of marquess of Stafford is now borne by the eldest son of the duke of Sutherland.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stadium

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​STADIUM, the Latin form of this Greek name for a standard of length, a stade=100 ὀργυιαί (about 6 ft., or 1 fathom) = 6 πλέθρα (100 Gr. about 101 Eng. ft.), equivalent to about 606 Eng. ft.; as being about one-eighth of the Roman mile, it is often translated by “furlong.” The course for the foot-race at Olympia (q.v.) was exactly a stade in length, and hence the name was given to the Greek foot-race and to the amphitheatre in which the races took place (see Games, Classical).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stevenage

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​STEVENAGE, an urban district in the Hitchin parliamentary division of Hertfordshire, England, 28½ m. N. of London by the Great Northern railway. Pop. (1901), 3957. The church of St Nicholas, with a graceful tower and spire, is mainly Early English, but has Norman and later portions. There is a grammar school, founded in 1558. By the North Road, south of the town, is a row of six large barrows, considered to be of Danish construction.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stevens, Alfred (painter)

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​STEVENS, ALFRED (1828–1906), Belgian painter, was born in Brussels on the 11th of May 1828. His father, an old officer in the service of William I., king of the Netherlands, was passionately fond of pictures, and readily allowed his son to draw in the ​studio of Francois Navez, director of the Brussels Academy. In 1844 Stevens went to Paris and worked under the instruction of Camille Roqueplan, a friend of his father’s; he also attended the classes at the ficole des Beaux Arts, where Ingres was then professor. In 1849 he painted at Brussels his first picture, “A Soldier in Trouble,” and in the same year went back to Paris, where he definitely settled, and exhibited in the Salons. He then painted “Ash- Wednesday Morning,” “Burghers and Country People finding at Daybreak the Body of a Murdered Gentleman, “An Artist in Despair,” and “The Love of Gold.” In 1855 he exhibited at the Antwerp Salon a little picture called “At Home,” which showed the painter’s bent towards depicting ladies of fashion. At the Great Exhibition in Paris, 1855, his contributions were remarkable, but in 1857 he returned to graceful female subjects, and his path thenceforth was clear before him. At the Great Exhibition of 1867 he was seen in a brilliant variety of works in the manner he had made his own, sending eighteen exquisite paintings; among them were the “Lady in Pink” (in the Brussels Gallery), “Consolation,” “Every Good Fortune,” “Miss Fauvette,” “Ophelia,” and “India in Paris.” At the Paris International Exhibitions of 1878 and 1889, and at the Historical Exhibition of Belgian Art, Brussels, 1880, he exhibited “The Four Seasons” (in the Palace at Brussels), “The Parisian Sphinx,” “The Japanese Mask,” “The Japanese Robe,” and “The Lady-bird” (Brussels Gallery). He died on the 24th of August 1906. “Alfred Stevens is one of the race of great painters,” wrote Camille Lemonnier, “and like them he takes immense pains with the execution of his work.” The example of his finished technique was salutary, not merely to his brethren in Belgium, but to many foreign painters who received encouragement from the study of his method. The brother of Alfred Stevens, Joseph Stevens, was a great painter of dogs and dog life.
See J. du Jardin, L’Art flamand; Camille Lemonnier, Histoire des beaux arts en Belgique.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stevedore

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​STEVEDORE, a person who is engaged in the stowage of cargo on board a ship, one who loads and unloads vessels in port. The word is an adaptation of the Spanish estivador, literally a packer, estivar, to press or pack closely, Latin stipare, to press. The Spanish word was particularly applied to the packers of wool, when Spain was a great wool-exporting country, and thus came into general mercantile use.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stevens Point

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​STEVENS POINT, a city and the county-seat of Portage county, Wisconsin, U.S.A., on both banks of the Wisconsin river, about 110 m. N. of Madison. Pop. (1890), 7896; (1900), 9524, of whom 2205 were foreign-born; (1910 U.S. census), 8692. Stevens Point is served by the Green Bay & Western and the Minneapolis, St Paul & Sault Ste Marie railways. It is attractively situated, has a fine public school system, including a high school, a manual training school, a domestic science department, and kindergarten and day schools for the deaf. It is the seat of one of the state normal schools (1894), of St Joseph’s Academy (Polish), and of the Stevens Point Commercial College, and has a Carnegie library (1904), the Portage county court-house, a city hospital, and a tuberculosis sanatorium. The city is situated in the borders of the pine timber region, and the lumber industry predominates. There are railway repair shops here, and various manufactures. The city has a considerable wholesale jobbing trade, and is an important point of shipment for the products of the agricultural country in the vicinity. Stevens Point was first settled by George Stevens in 1839, was incorporated as a village in 1847, and was first chartered as a city in 1858.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stevenson, Adlai Ewing

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​STEVENSON, ADLAI EWING (1835- ), American political leader, was born in Christian county, Kentucky, on the 23rd of October 1835. He removed with his family to Bloomington, Illinois, in 1852; was educated at the Illinois Wesleyan University at Bloomington and at Centre College, Danville, Kentucky; and was admitted to the Illinois bar in 1857. He was master in chancery for Woodford county, Illinois, in 1860-1864, and district-attorney for the twenty-third judicial district of that state from 1865 to 1869, when he removed to Bloomington. He was a Democratic representative in Congress from Illinois in 1875-1877 and again in 1879-1881; was first assistant postmaster-general in 1885-1889, and was severely criticized for his wholesale removal of Republican postmasters. He was a delegate to the national Democratic conventions in 1884 and 1892, and in the latter year was elected vice-president of the United States on the ticket with Cleveland, serving from 1893 to 1897. In 1897 he was a member of the commission (Senator Edward O. Wolcott and General Charles J. Paine being the other members) appointed by President McKinley to confer with the governments of Great Britain, France and Germany with a view to the establishment of international bimetallism. He was again Democratic nominee for vice-president in 1900, but was defeated. He published Something of Men I have Known; With Some Papers of a General Nature, Political, Historical and Retrospective (1909).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Steuco, Agostino

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​STEUCO [in Latin Steuchus or Eugubinus], AGOSTINO (1406–1549), Italian scholar and divine, was born at Gubbio in Umbria. In 15 13 he entered the congregation of the canons of St Saviour, and for some years earned his living by teaching Oriental languages, theology and antiquities. In 1525 he became librarian of the convent of Sant' Antonio at Venice, returning later to Gubbio as prior of his congregation. In 1538 he was made bishop of Chisamo in Crete, but returned after a year or two to Rome, where in 1542 he succeeded Alessandro as prefect of the Vatican Library. He wrote many works on sacred antiquities and Bible exegesis.
See Hoefer, Nouvelle biographie générale (Paris, 1857–1870).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Thomson, William

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​THOMSON, WILLIAM (1819–1890), English divine, archbishop of York, was born on the 11th of February 1819 at Whitehaven, Cumberland. He was educated at Shrewsbury and at Queen’s College, Oxford, of which he became a scholar. He took his B.A. degree in 1840, and was soon afterwards made fellow of his college. He was ordained in 1842, and worked as a curate at Cuddesdon. In 1847 he was made tutor of his college, and in 1853 he delivered the Bampton lectures, his subject being “The Atoning Work of Christ viewed in Relation to some Ancient Theories.” These thoughtful and learned lectures established his reputation and did much to clear the ground for subsequent discussions on the subject. Thomson’s activity was not confined to theology. He was made fellow of the Royal and the Royal Geographical Societies. He also wrote a very popular Outline of the Laws of Thought. He sided with the party at Oxford which favoured university reform, but this did not prevent him from being appointed provost of his college in 1855. In 1858 he was made preacher at Lincoln’s Inn and there preached some striking sermons, a volume of which he published in 1861. In the same year he edited Aids to Faith, a volume written in opposition to Essays and Reviews, the progressive sentiments of which had stirred up a great storm in the Church of England. In December 1861 he was rewarded with the see of Gloucester and Bristol, and within a twelvemonth he was elevated to the archiepiscopal see of York. In this position his moderate orthodoxy led him to join Archbishop Tait in supporting the Public Worship Regulation Act, and, as president of the northern convocation, he came frequently into sharp collision with the lower house of that body. But if he thus incurred the hostility of the High Church party among the clergy, he was admired by the laity for his strong sense, his clear and forcible reasoning, and his wide knowledge, and he remained to the last a power in the north of England. In his later years he published an address read before the members of the Edinburgh Philosophical Institution (1868), one on Design in Nature, for the Christian Evidence Society, which reached a fifth edition, various charges and pastoral addresses, and he was one of the projectors of The Speaker’s Commentary, for which he Wrote the “Introduction to the Synoptic Gospels.” He died on the 25th of December 1890.
See the Quarterly Review (April 1892).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Thor

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​THOR, one of the chief deities of the heathen Scandinavians. He is represented as a middle-aged man of enormous strength, quick to anger, but benevolent towards mankind. To the harmful race of giants (demons), on the other hand, he was an implacable foe, and many stories are told in the poetic and prose Eddas of the destruction which he brought upon them at various times with his hammer. On the whole his figure is somewhat secondary in the mythology to that of Odin, who is represented as his father. But there is no doubt that in Iceland he was worshipped more than any other god, and the same seems to have been the case in Norway—indeed, perhaps, in all northern countries—except among the royal families. Even in the great temple at Upsala his figure is said to have occupied the chief place. There is evidence that a corresponding deity named Thunor or Thonar was worshipped in England and on the Continent, but little information is obtainable regarding him, except that he was identified with the Roman Jupiter. His name is identical with the Teutonic word for thunder, and even in Sweden the association of Thor with the thunder seems not to have been forgotten. Outside the Teutonic area he has close affinities not only with Jupiter or Zeus, but still more with the Lithuanian god Perkunas, whose name (which likewise means “thunder”) appears to be connected with that of Thor’s mother (Fiörgyn). The Varangian god Perun was probably Thor himself under a Slavonic name (Russian perun, “thunderbolt”).
See H. Petersen, Om Nordboernes Gudedyrkelse og Gudetro i Hedenold (Copenhagen, 1876). For other references see Teutonic Peoples: Religion (ad fin).  (H. M. C.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Thomson, John

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​THOMSON, JOHN (1778–1840), Scottish landscape painter—Thomson of Duddingston, as he is commonly styled—was born on the 1st of September 1778 at Dailly, Ayrshire. His father, grandfather and great-grandfather were clergymen of the Church of Scotland. He studied for the same vocation in the university of Edinburgh; and, residing with his elder brother, Thomas Thomson, afterwards celebrated as an antiquarian and feudal lawyer, he made the acquaintance of Francis Jeffrey and other young members of the Scottish bar afterwards notable. During the recess he sketched in the country, and, while attending his final college session, he studied art for a month under Alexander Nasmyth. After his father’s death he became, in 1800, his successor as minister of Dailly; and in 1805 he was translated to the parish of Duddingston, close to Edinburgh. He continued, however, to practise art as an amateur, apparently without any detriment to his pastoral duties. Thomson’s popularity as a painter increased with his increasing artistic skill; and, having mastered his initial scruples against receiving artistic fees, on being offered £15 for a landscape—reassured by “Grecian” Williams’s stout assertion that the work was “worth thrice the amount”—the minister of Duddingston began to dispose of the productions of his brush in the usual manner. In 1830 he was made an honorary member of the Royal Scottish Academy. Thomson was also an accomplished performer on violin and flute, an exact and well-read student of physical science, and one of the writers on optics in the early numbers of the Edinburgh Review. He enjoyed a singularly wide and eminent circle of friends, including, among artists, Turner and Wilkie, and among men of letters, Wilson and Scott-the latter of whom desired that Thomson, instead of Turner, should have illustrated the collected edition of his works. He died at Duddingston on the 27th of October 1840 (not the 20th, as stated by some authorities). Thomson was twice married, and his second wife, the widow of Mr Dalrymple of Cleland, was herself also a skilful amateur artist.
Thomson is fairly represented in the Scottish National Gallery; and the “Aberlady Bay” of that collection, with the soft infinity of ​its clouded grey sky, and its sea which leaps and falls again in waves of sparkling and of shadowed silver, is fit to rank among the triumphs of Scottish art.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Thomson, Sir Charles Wyville

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​THOMSON, SIR CHARLES WYVILLE (1830–1882), Scottish naturalist, was born at Bonsyde, Linlithgowshire, on the 5th of March 1839, and was educated at Edinburgh University. In 1850 he was appointed lecturer in, and in 1851 professor of, botany at Aberdeen, and in 1853 he became professor of natural history in Qneen’s College, Cork. A year later he was nominated to the chair of mineralogy and geology at Queen’s College, Belfast, and in 1860 was transferred to the chair of natural history in the same institution. In 1868 he assumed the duties of professor of botany at the Royal College of Science, Dublin, and finally in 1870 he received the natural history chair at Edinburgh. He will be specially remembered as a student of the biological conditions of the depths of the sea. Being interested in crinoids, and stimulated by the results of the dredging of Michael Sars (1805–1869) in the deep sea off the Norwegian coasts, he succeeded, along with Dr W. B. Carpenter, in obtaining the loan of H.M.S. “Lightning” and “ Porcupine,” for successive deep-sea dredging expeditions in the summers of 1868 and 1869. It was thus shown that animal life exists in abundance down to depths of 650 fathoms, that all invertebrate groups are represented (largely by Tertiary forms previously believed to be extinct), and, moreover, that deep-sea temperatures are by no means so constant as was supposed, but vary considerably, and indicate an oceanic circulation. The results of these expeditions were described in The Depths of the Sea, which he published in 1873. The remarkable results gained for hydrography as well as zoology, in association with the practical needs of ocean telegraphy, soon led to the granting of H.M.S. “Challenger” for a circumnavigating expedition, and Thomson sailed at the end of 1872 as director of the scientific staff, the cruise lasting three years and a half (see “Challenger” Expedition). On his return he received many academic honours, and was knighted. In 1877 he published two volumes (The Voyage of the Challenger in the Atlantic), of a preliminary account of the results of the voyage, meanwhile carrying on his administrative labours in connexion with the disposition of the special collections and the publication of the monographs dealing with them. His health, never robust, was meanwhile giving way; from 1879 he ceased to perform the duties of his chair, and he died at Bonsyde on the 10th of March 1882.
See obituary notice in Proc. Soc. Edin. (1883); also Thomson and Murray, Reports of the Voyage of H.M.S. “Challenger” (Edinburgh, 1885).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Thomson, Thomas

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​THOMSON, THOMAS (1773–1852), Scottish chemist, was born at Crieff, Perthshire, on the 12th of April 1773. He was educated at the universities of St Andrews and Edinburgh, and after taking the degree of M.D. at the latter place in 1799 established himself there as a teacher of chemistry. From 1796 to 1800 he was sub-editor of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, in succession to his elder brother, James Thomson (1768–1855), who filled that position in 1795–1796, and who in 1805 was ordained to the parish of Eccles, Berwickshire; and the chemical and mineralogical articles which he contributed to the supplement to the third edition formed the basis of his System of Chemistry, the first edition of which was published in 1802 and the seventh in 1831. At first this work was merely a compilation, but in the later editions many of his original results were incorporated; the third edition (1807) is noteworthy as containing the first detailed account of the atomic theory, communicated to him by John Dalton himself. In 1811 he left Edinburgh, and after a visit to Sweden went to London, where in 1813 he began to edit the Annals of Philosophy, a monthly scientific journal which in 1827 was merged in the Philosophical Magazine. In 1817 he became lecturer in chemistry at Glasgow University, and in the following year was appointed to the regius professorship. This chair he retained until his death, which happened on the 2nd of July 1852 at Kilmun, Argyleshire; but from 1841 he was assisted by his nephew and son-in-law Robert Dundas Thomson (1810–1864), who subsequently became medical officer of health for St Marylebone, London, and after 1846 he ceased active work altogether. He was a most energetic professor, and, according to his colleague, but no relation, Lord Kelvin (Sir William Thomson), founded the first chemical laboratory for students at a time when practical work was scarcely recognized as a necessary part of chemical education. He did much to spread a knowledge of Dalton’s atomic theory, and carried out many experiments in its support, but his strong predilections in favour of Prout’s hypothesis tended to vitiate his results, many of which were sharply criticized by J. J. Berzelius and other chemists. In addition to various textbooks he, published a History of Chemistry (1830–1831) which has provided material for many Chemical biographers, but which, although it reads very plausibly, cannot be regarded as an authority of unimpeachable accuracy. His eldest son, Thomas Thomson (1817–1878) graduated as M.D. at Glasgow in 1839, accompanied ​Sir J. D. Hooker on his travels in Sikkim in 1850, and collaborated with him in publishing his Flora indica in 1855 and in 1854 was appointed superintendent of the botanic gardens at Calcutta, also acting as professor of botany at the Calcutta medical college.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sully, James

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​SULLY, JAMES (1842–), English psychologist, was born on the 3rd of March 1842 at Bridgwater, and was educated at the Independent College, Taunton, the Regent’s Park College, Göttingen and Berlin. He was originally destined for the Nonconformist ministry, but in 1871 adopted a literary and philosophic career. He was Grote professor of the philosophy of mind logic at University College, London, from 1892 to 1903, when he was succeeded by Carveth Read. An adherent of the associationist school of psychology, his views had great affinity with those of Alexander Bain. His monographs, as that on pessimism, are ably and readably written, and his textbooks, of which The Human Mind (1892) is the most important, are models of sound exposition.
Works.—Sensation and Intuition (1874), Pessimism (1877), Illusions (1881; 4th ed., 1895), Outlines of Psychology (1884; many editions), Teacher’s Handbook of Psychology (1886), Studies of Childhood (1895), Children’s Ways (1897), and An Essay on Laughter (1902).