OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# The New International Encyclopædia/Jackson (Mississippi)

Edition of 1905. See also Jackson, Mississippi on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​JACKSON. The capital of the State of Mississippi and the county-seat of Hinds County, 180 miles north of New Orleans, La.; on the Pearl River, and on the Illinois Central, the Queen and Crescent Route, the Yazoo and Mississippi Valley, and other railroads (Map: Mississippi, E 6). Besides the State Capitol, the Governor's mansion and United States Government building are prominent structures. There are also Millsaps College (Methodist Episcopal), founded in 1892, Bellhaven College for young ladies, State institutions for the deaf and dumb, the blind and the insane, James Observatory, and the State Library. Among the points of interest are the remains of fortifications erected at the siege of Jackson in 1863, a Confederate monument, and a statue of Jefferson Davis. The city is in a cotton-growing section, and has considerable trade, and valuable manufactures, including cottonseed products, lumber and lumber products—staves, hubs, spokes, etc.—brooms, machinery, plows, and harrows. The government is administered, under a revised charter of 1882, by a mayor, biennially elected, and a unicameral council. Settled about 1830, Jackson was incorporated ten years later. During the Civil War it was occupied in 1863 by General Grant, and in 1864 was for the most part destroyed by General Sherman. Population, in 1890, 5920; in 1900, 7816.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Jackson Square

Edition of 1905. See also Jackson Square (New Orleans) on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ JACKSON SQUARE. A public square of New Orleans, La., formerly the Place d'Armes, and renamed for Andrew Jackson, who in 1815 defeated the British at New Orleans.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Jacksonville (Illinois)

Edition of 1905. See also Jacksonville, Illinois on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ JACKSONVILLE. A city and the county-seat of Morgan County, Ill., 90 miles north of Saint Louis, Mo.; on the Chicago and Alton, the Chicago, Peoria and Saint Louis, the Wabash, and the Jacksonville and Saint Louis railroads (Map: Illinois, B 4). Primarily a residential place, Jacksonville has numerous colleges and public institutions. It is the seat of Illinois College, founded in 1829 (the first institution of higher learning in the State); the Illinois Woman's College (Methodist Episcopal), opened in 1847; Jacksonville Academy for Young Women, opened in 1830; State Conservatory of Music; the State Central Hospital for the Insane; and State institutions for the blind and the deaf and dumb. There are also the Passavant Memorial Hospital, Hospital of Our Saviour, and Carnegie Public Library. Duncan Park and the Morgan County fair grounds are here. The city hall, court-house, and high school are prominent buildings, and Morgan Lake is of interest. The principal industrial establishments include railroad car shops of the Chicago, Peoria and Saint Louis, woolen and planing mills, brick-yards, and bridge-works. Jacksonville, named in honor of Gen. Andrew Jackson, was founded as the county-seat in 1825, and was first incorporated in 1867, this charter being still in operation. The government is vested in a mayor, elected biennially, a council, and administrative officials, the majority of whom are appointed by the mayor, a number of appointments, however, requiring the confirmation of the council. There are municipal water-works and an electric-light plant. Population, in 1890, 12,935; in 1900, 15,078.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Jackson (Michigan)

Edition of 1905. See also Jackson, Michigan on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​JACK′SON. A city and the county-seat of Jackson County, Mich., 76 miles west of Detroit; on the Grand River, and on the Michigan Central, the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern, the Grand Trunk, and the Cincinnati Northern railroads (Map: Michigan, J 6). It is built on both sides of the river; the principal streets are paved with brick; and among more prominent features are the State prison, a public library, and a fine United States Government building. Jackson is the centre of a productive farming region, and coal and fire-clay exist in the vicinity. It has a considerable trade in agricultural produce, and is also an important wholesale distributing point, especially for reaping and mowing machines. Its extensive manufactures include foundry and machine-shop products, carriages and wagons, agricultural implements, milling machinery, flour, sewer-pipe, fire-brick, paper, corsets, etc. The Michigan Central Railroad has large car and machine shops here. Under a revised charter of 1897, the government is vested in a mayor, annually elected, a city council, and administrative departments, all governed by boards which are appointed by the executive. The water-works are owned and operated by the municipality. Jackson was settled in 1829, but it did not develop rapidly until after railroad communication was opened by the Michigan Central in 1841. It was chartered as a city in 1857. Population, in 1890, 20,798; in 1900, 25,180.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Jackson (Ohio)

Edition of 1905. See also Jackson, Ohio on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​JACKSON. A city and the county-seat of Jackson County, Ohio, 100 miles south by east of Columbus; on the Baltimore and Ohio Southwestern, the Columbus, Hocking Valley and Toledo, and the Detroit Southern railroads (Map: Ohio, E 7). Coal and iron mining are the leading industries, and there are iron-furnaces, foundries, a tannery, a woolen-factory, plow-works, etc. Jackson, settled as early as 1795, and incorporated in 1847, is governed by a mayor, elected every two years, and a council. Population, in 1890, 4320; in 1900, 4672.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Paul, Vincent de

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PAUL, pṓl, Vincent de. See Vincent de Paul, Saint.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Paul, Vision of

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PAUL, Vision of. See Apocrypha, section on New Testament.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Paulding, Hiram

See also Hiram Paulding on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
PAUL'DING, Hiram (1797-1878). An American naval officer. He was born in New York City, entered the United States Navy as a midshipman iu 1811, participated in the battle of Lake Champlain (September 11, 1814), receiving a vote of thanks and a sword from Congress for his services, served under Commodore Decatur against the Barbary Powers in 1815, and in the following year was promoted to a lieutenancy. He accompanied Commodore Porter on an expedition against the West Indian pirates in 1822-23, acting as first lieutenant of the Sea Gull, said to have been the first steamer ever used for purposes of war; served on the Dolphin in 1826 when that vessel was sent to the Mulgrave Islands in search of the mutineers of the American whale ship Globe; cruised in the East Indies, in command of the Vincennes, from 1844 to 1847; was in command of the Washington Navy Yard from 1851 to 1854; and from 1854 to 1857 was commander of the home squadron, at the time the highest position in the navy. For arresting the filibuster Walker (see Walker, William) at Greytown, Nicaragua, in December, 1857, he was relieved from command by President Buchanan, though the Republic of Nicaragua, in recognition of his services, presented him with a sword and a large tract of valuable land, which latter Congress did not allow him to accept. On the outbreak of the Civil War he was ordered to Washington to assist Secretary Welles of the Navy Department, and in April, 1861, proceeded to Norfolk and destroyed the navy yard there. Having passed the age limit of sixty-two years, he was technically retired in December, 1861. In the following year he was promoted to the recently created grade of rear-admiral, on the retired list, and subsequently was commandant of the New York Navy Yard from 1862 to 1866, in which position he rendered important services to the Government by sending many vessels and thousands of men to the front; was Governor of the Naval Asylum in Philadelphia from 1866 to 1869, and was port admiral at Boston from 1870 to 1871. He published a Journal of a Cruise Among the Islands of the Pacific (1831). Consult a biographical sketch by Meade in Harper's New Monthly Magazine, vol. lviii. (New York, 1879).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Paul and Virginia

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PAUL AND VIRGINIA (Fr. Paul et Virginie, pṓ'lắ-vḗr'zhḗ'nḗ'). A well-known romance by Bernardin de Saint-Pierre (1788), the scene of which is laid in Mauritius, where the author had spent three years. It exhibits great powers of description and emotional force, with exaggerated sentiment and a not altogether healthy atmosphere. It is the story of two playmates whose affection develops into love, and ends with the drowning of Virginia and the death of her lover from grief.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Paul Clifford

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PAUL CLIFFORD. A novel by Bulwer-Lytton (1833). It is the story of a chivalrous highwayman in the time of the French Revolution. Paul Clifford, of unknown birth, brought up in evil, is arrested for theft and becomes a highwayman. As Captain Clifford he loves Lucy Brandon, but is brought before her uncle, Judge Brandon, for a robbery. He proves to be
Brandon's stolen child, is condemned to death by his father, but escapes with Lucy to America.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Paulding, James Kirke

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PAULDING, James Kirke (1779-1860). An American author, born in Pleasant Valley, Dutchess County, N. Y. After a scanty education, he went to New York, where, with William Irving, his brother-in-law, and with Washington Irving, he collaborated in Salmagundi (1807), the second series of the same (1810) being by Paulding alone. During the War of 1812 he published the Diverting History of John Bull and Brother Jonathan; and in 1814 the United States and England, a defense against British criticisms. This work attracted attention and caused him to be appointed secretary of the board of navy commissioners. In 1817 he published a defense of the Southern States and of slavery in Letters from the South, by a Northern Man; in 1822, A Sketch of Old England, by a New England Man; and in 1825 John Bull in America, or the New Munchausen, a satire on the writings of British tourists. Meanwhile he had published his first novel, Koningsmarke (1823); Merry
Tales of the Three Wise Men of Gotham (1826) followed, and other books, mainly humorous and satirical. In 1831 he produced The Dutchman's Fireside, a novel dealing with the old Dutch settlers. This, his best work, was followed by Westward Ho! (1832), a novel dealing with Kentucky. Next came a good biography of Washington (1835), and Slavery in the United States (1836). Meanwhile he had been navy agent at New York City since 1825, a position from which he was advanced in 1837 to the post of Secretary of the Navy in Van Buren's Cabinet. On his retirement in 1841 he went to a country residence at Hyde Park, where he wrote a few stories and plays, the novel, The Puritan and His Daughter (1849), being the most conspicuous. There he died, April 6, 1860. His select works appeared in four volumes (1867-68). Consult Literary Life of James K. Paulding, by his son William (New York, 1867).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Peabody, Cecil Hobart

Edition of 1905. See also Cecil Peabody on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
PEABODY, Cecil Hobart (1855—). An American mechanical engineer, born in Burlington, Vt. He graduated in the department of mechanical engineering at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1877, and in 1893 became professor of marine engineering and naval architecture there. In the interval he had been professor of mathematics in the Sapporo Imperial Agricultural College of Japan (1878), and assistant professor of mechanical engineering in the University of Illinois, and of steam engineering in the Boston Institute. His publications include: Thermodynamics of the Steam Engine (1889); Valve Gear for Steam Engines (1892); Steam Boilers (with Miller, 1897); and Manual of Steam Engine Indicator (1900).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Paul I., Petrovitch

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PAUL I., Petrovitch (1754-1801). Emperor of Russia from 1706 to 1801. He was the son of Peter III. and Catharine the Great. He underwent a vigorous training at the hands of his mother, and this served to harden and warp a nature which was by no means devoid of generous impulses. The memory of his father's violent death made him suspicious of all who surrounded him, and as prince or emperor prevented him from gathering a party around him. During his mother's lifetime he was allowed no share in the government, and with the exception of a journey abroad (1781-82) passed his time in brooding idleness on his estates at Gatchina. Catharine died November 17, 1796, while seriously contemplating the exclusion of Paul from the succession to the throne in favor of his son
Alexander. Paul's reign began with fair promise, but speedily degenerated into an oppressive despotism which weighed alike on the Court, the army, and the intellectual life of the nation. The system of police espionage was developed to a hitherto unparalleled degree, and swift punishment was visited on those unfortunate enough to arouse the slightest suspicion in the Emperor's diseased imagination. Reluctant at first to enter the struggle against France, he finally joined the Second European Coalition against the French Republic in 1798, and in 1799 the Russian armies under Suvaroff (q.v.) gained a series of notable victories over the French and drove them out of Northern Italy. Bonaparte's astute diplomacy, however, succeeded in breeding dissension between the Russian Emperor and his allies. Paul's discontent was intensified by the conduct of England in refusing him possession of the island of Malta, to which as grand master of the Knights of Malta, an office assumed in 1798, he laid claim. His opposition to England finally developed into open hostility, and led in 1800-01 to the formation of the Northern Maritime League by Russia, Sweden, and Denmark against Great Britain. At home, meanwhile, Paul's despotism had become unendurable, and a conspiracy was formed by some of the highest officials about the Court to bring about the Emperor's abdication in favor of his son Alexander. The leaders of the conspiracy were Count Pahlen, Count Panin, Prince Suboff, General Bennigsen, and General Uvaroff. On the night of March 23, 1801, the Imperial palace was surrounded by the troops of Count Pahlen while the conspirators, some thirty in number, broke into Paul's chamber and at the sword's point demanded that he sign the act of abdication. No certain knowledge exists of what then occurred, but it would seem that the Emperor, crazed with fear, attempted resistance, that a scuffle ensued, and that in the struggle Paul was strangled with his own scarf. Of Paul's ten children. Alexander and Nicholas ruled over Russia, while Constantine was a prominent figure during the reign of the latter. Consult: Kobeko, Der Cäsarewitsch Paul, 1754-96 (Berlin, 1886); Brenemann, Aus den Tagen Kaiser Pauls (Leipzig, 1886).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Novalis

Edition of 1905. See also Novalis on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
NOVALIS, nṓ-vä'lĭs (Lat., fallow land). A name assumed by Friedrich von Hardenberg (1772-1801), a German romantic author, once of cosmopolitan renown. He was born in Prussian Saxony. His parents were Moravians, and he was much influenced by that mystic religion. He studied at Jena, Leipzig, and Wittenberg, and in 1794 went to Tennstädt to further his legal training. There he fell in love with a delicate thirteen-year-old girl, who died as his betrothed in 1797. Novalis was then auditor at the Weissenfels salt works. He thought he was a blighted being, but presently he went to Freiburg to continue technical studies and became again betrothed. He returned to Weissenfels in 1799, but was obliged by disease of the lungs to postpone his marriage and died in 1801. His writings were soon collected by the Sehlegels and issued in two volumes, often reëdited, with a third volume in 1846. They are mainly fragmentary. Noteworthy among them is an unfinished romance, Heinrich von Ofterdingen, the mawkish Knight of the Blue Flower Poesy, whose ‘apotheosis’ Novalis tells us he intended the novel to be. Carlyle recommended its ‘persual and reperusal.’ Individual passages in it are charming, and good lyrics are interspersed in the narrative. Earlier in time than Ofterdingen is a romance, Die Lehrlinge zu Sais, wherein the ‘Disciples’ discover that ‘the secret of Nature is nothing else than the fulfilled longing of a loving heart.’ Famous also in their way are the Hymnen an die Nacht, sentimentally morbid musings on his quickly consoled bereavement, mingled with impressions of Young's Night Thoughts and Fichte's lectures at Jena. Some of the fragments are political and reveal an exaltation of patriotic idealism. Other fragments deal with natural science in the same dreamy spirit. His religious lyrics have an emotional tenderness and a nebulous charm. The rest of his work is all but forgotten. Consult: Haym, Friedrich von Hardenberg (2d ed., Gotha, 1883); id., Die romantische Schule (Berlin, 1870).
# The New International Encyclopædia/O'Hagan, Thomas

See also Thomas O'Hagan, 1st Baron O'Hagan on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​O'HA′GAN, Thomas, first Baron (1812-85). An Irish jurist and statesman, born at Belfast. He was called to the Dublin bar in 1836, for the following four years he edited the Newry Examiner, and was afterwards associated with his friend Daniel O'Connell in lawsuits bearing upon national rights. He fell out of favor with the Patriot Party by his defense of the union with England, by his appointment to the Board of National Education in 1858, and to the Attorney-Generalship in 1862, but, despite opposition, he was sent to Parliament from Tralee in 1863. Five years afterwards, under Gladstone, O'Hagan was made Lord Chancellor of Ireland and served until 1874. He was the first Roman Catholic raised to that office during two centuries, and he took his seat in the House of Lords in 1870. In 1880 he was made vice-chancellor of the Royal University of Ireland, founded in that year, and the same year Gladstone, on his return to power, called him to resume the Lord Chancellorship of Ireland, but O'Hagan's health forbade his keeping it for more than a year, though he had time to make an eloquent appeal for the Irish Land Bill. His Occasional Papers and Addresses were published in 1884, and his Speeches and Arguments in 1885.
# The New International Encyclopædia/O'Hara, Theodore

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​O'HARA, ō̇-hăr′ȧ, Theodore (1820-67). An American poet and soldier, born in Danville, Ky., February 11, 1820. After being educated at Bardstown, he studied law, was admitted to the bar, got an appointment at Washington, entered the army at the beginning of the Mexican War, and was brevetted major for gallantry. Afterwards he practiced law, filibustered in Cuba, performed diplomatic commissions and filled editorial posts, and in the Civil War served as colonel of an Alabama regiment and on staffs. After the war he engaged in the cotton business, but he suffered reverses. His body was removed to Kentucky and buried by the side of the victims of Buena Vista whom he had commemorated in his famous “Bivouac of the Dead,” the only one of his occasional poems that keeps his memory fresh.
# The New International Encyclopædia/O'Higgins, Ambrosio

See also Ambrosio O'Higgins, 1st Marquis of Osorno on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​O'HIG′GINS, Span. pron. ō̇-ē′gē̇ns, Ambrosio (c. 1730-1801). A South American governor. He was born in County Heath, Ireland, and his original name was Ambrose Higgins; was sent by his uncle, a priest in Spain, to Buenos Ayres; there he set up as a peddler and finally crossed the country and settled in Chile. He entered the Spanish army, rose rapidly, and in 1788 received the appointment of Captain-General of Chile. The last five years of his life were spent as Viceroy of Peru, with the title of Marquis of Osorno.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Névé

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​ NÉVÉ, nắ′ắ′. See Glacier.
# The New International Encyclopædia/O'Higgins

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​O'HIGGINS, ō̇-ē′gē̇ns. An inland province of Chile, bounded by the Province of Colchagua on the south, Santiago on the north and west, and Argentina on the east (Map: Chile, C 10). Area, 2524 square miles. The eastern part lies on the slope of the Andes and is very mountainous. In the west the surface is flat and well adapted for grazing, which, together with agriculture, is the chief occupation. Gold and other metals are found in the mountains. Population, in 1895, 85,277. The capital is Rancagua (q.v.).
# The New International Encyclopædia/O'Higgins, Bernardo

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​O'HIGGINS, Bernardo (1776-1842). A South American soldier, dictator of Chile. He was born at Chillan, was educated at Lima until he was fifteen and then in England, where he became intimate with Miranda; and after many strange adventures returned to Chile in 1802. He joined the patriots in 1810, and three years afterwards was appointed Carrera's successor. A breach between the two generals, which threatened civil war, seemed healed by the necessity of meeting the attack of the Spanish Army. O'Higgins, treacherously deserted by Carrera, was defeated at Rancagua (1814), and was forced to leave the country. In 1817 he returned as lieutenant of San Martin, and after the victory of the patriot army accepted the dictatorship, which his commander had refused. He was completely successful in driving out the Spaniards from Chile; but the aristocratic party distrusted his republican leanings and his attempts to introduce a liberal constitution. Under the followers of Carrera, they rebelled and deposed him in 1823. O'Higgins went to Lima, where he spent his remaining years.
# The New Student's Reference Work/London, Jack

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​London, Jack, novelist, a new force in letters, hailing from California, but a wanderer and “tramp” whose career has been as romantic and exciting as that of any of the characters in his books. So realistic is he that he has been termed the New World Kipling. Born in 1876 in San Francisco, Mr. London studied for a while at the University of California, but early took to voyaging, serving as a sailor before the mast and generally pursuing a roving life, not only in this country and in Canada, but abroad, and that chiefly on pedestrian tours. He also acted as a war correspondent during the Russo-Japanese War. Many of his books are frankly socialistic, especially The War of the Classes and The People of the Abyss. His novels and stories, which gave insight into the hearts of undisciplined men, embrace The Sea Wolf, The Call of the Wild, The Cruise of the Dazzler, The Son of the Wolf, Tales of the Fish Patrol and The Children of the Frost.