OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Fuh-Chow

See also Fuzhou on Wikipedia; Fuchow in the 11th Edition; and the disclaimer.
FUH-CHOW, more usually Foo-Chow, and in German Fu-tschau, a city of China, capital of the province of Fuh-keen, and one of the principal ports open to foreign commerce. In the local dialect it is called Hokchin. It is situated on the river Min, about 35 miles from the sea, in 26° 5′ N. lat. and 119° 20′ E. long. 140 miles N. of Amoy, and 280 S. of Hang-Chow. The city proper, lying nearly three miles from the north bank of the river, is surrounded by a wall about 30 feet high and 12 feet thick, which makes a circuit at upwards of five miles and is pierced by seven gateways surrounded by tall fantastic watchtowers. The whole district between the city and the river, the island of Nantai, and the southern banks of the Min are occupied by extensive suburbs; and the river itself bears a large floating population. Communication from bank to bank is afforded by a long stone bridge supported by forty solid stone piers in its northern section and by nine in its southern. The most remarkable establishment of Fuh-Chow is the arsenal situated about three miles down the stream at Pagoda Island, where the seagoing vessels usually anchor. It was founded in 1867, and is conducted under the direction of French engineers according to European methods. In 1870 it employed about 1000 workmen besides fifty European superintendents. The port was opened to European commerce in 1842; and in 1853 the firm of Russell and Co. shipped the first cargoes of tea. from Fuh-Chow to Europe and America. The European firms now number thirteen; and the tea trade is second in importance only to that of Shanghai. In 1867, 550,239 piculs of tea were exported; in 1869, 581,003 piculs; in 1872, 642,841 piculs; in 1875, 723,732 piculs; and in 1875, 617,579. The total trade in foreign vessels in 1876 was imports to the value of £l,531,617 and exports to the value of £3,330,489. The number of vessels that entered in the same year was 275, and of those 211 were British, 37 German, 11 Danish, and 9 American. A large trade is carried on by the native merchants in timber, paper, woollen and cotton goods, oranges, and olives; but the foreign houses mainly confine themselves to opium and tea. Commercial intercourse with Australia and New Zealand is on the increase. The principal imports, besides opium, are shirtings, ⏉ cloths, lead and tin, medicines, rice, tobacco, and beans and pease. Two steamboat lines afford regular communication with Hong-Kong twice a month. The town is the seat of several important missions of which the first was founded in 1846. That supported by the American Board had already in 1876 issued 1,300,000 copies of Chinese books and tracts. The population of Fuh-Chow is stated by the Boston Missionary Herald, Feb. 1872, at about 4,000,000; but A. E. Hippeslay in Handelsstatistik der Vertagshäfen von China, Vienna, 1874, the Overland China Mail, June 1872, and the Church Missionary Record, Sept. 1872, are all quoted by Behm and Wagner, Bevölkerung der Erde, 1875, as giving the number 600,000.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Friedrich Ueberweg

See also Friedrich Ueberweg on Wikipedia; Friedrich Ueberweg in the 11th Edition; and the disclaimer.
UEBERWEG, Friedrich (1826-1871), best known by his History of Philosophy, was born on the 22d January 1826 at Leichlingen, in Rhenish Prussia, where his father was Lutheran pastor. His mother, left early a widow, devoted her scanty means to the education of her only son. Ueberweg passed through the gymnasium at Elberfeld, and studied at the universities of Göttingen and Berlin. In 1852 he qualified himself at Bonn as privatdocent in philosophy. His System of Logic, published in 1857 (English translation 1871), and his essay On the Authenticity and the Order of the Platonic Writings, crowned by the Imperial Academy of Vienna (published 1861), contributed to draw attention to him as at once a scholar and a thinker. In 1862 he was called to Königsberg as extraordinary professor, and in 1867 he was advanced to the ordinary grade. He married in 1863, and on the 9th June 1871 he died prematurely.
The chief work of his later years was his compendious History of Philosophy, which is unmatched for fulness of information combined with conciseness, accuracy, and impartiality of treatment. The first part appeared in 1862. An English translation, in two volumes, was published in 1872, and has gone through several editions. Ueberweg translated, in 1869, Berkeley's Principles of Human Knowledge, with notes, for Kirchmann's Philosophische Bibliothek. In philosophy Ueberweg was strongly opposed to the subjectivistic tendency of the Kantian system, maintaining in particular the objectivity of space and time, which involved him in a somewhat violent controversy with several opponents. His own mode of thought he preferred to describe as an ideal realism, which refused to reduce reality to thought, but asserted a parallelism between the forms of existence and the forms of knowledge. Beneke and Schleiermacher seem to have exercised most influence upon the development of his thought. A short memoir, by his friend F. A. Lange (author of the History of Materialism), gives some account of what may be called personal opinions in philosophy and theology, which did not find expression in Ueberweg's published writings.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/François and Michel Anguier

See also François and Michel Anguier on Wikipedia; François and Michel Anguier on Wikipedia, François and Michel Anguier in the 11th Edition; and the disclaimer.
ANGUIER, François (born 1604, died 1669), and Michael (born 1612, died 1686), two brothers, natives of Normandy, were distinguished sculptors in the time of Louis XIV. The chief works of Francis are the monument to Cardinal de Bérulle, in the chapel of the oratory at Paris, and the mausoleum of the last duc de Montmorency at Moulins. Michael executed the sculptures of the triumphal arch at the Porte St Denis. A marble group of the Nativity in the church of Val de Grâce, was reckoned his masterpiece.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Frederick Howard, Fifth Earl of Carlisle

See also Frederick Howard, 5th Earl of Carlisle on Wikipedia; Frederick Howard, 5th Earl of Carlisle, at Wikipedia; Earls of Carlisle in the 11th Edition; and the disclaimer.
CARLISLE, Frederick Howard, Fifth Earl of (1 748- 1825), a statesman and author, was born in 1748. During his youth he was chiefly known as a man of pleasure and fashion ; and after he had reached thirty years of age, his appointment on a commission sent out by Lord North to attempt a reconciliation with the American colonies was received with sneers by the Opposition. The failure of the embassy was not, however, due to any incapacity on the part of the earl, but to the unpopularity of the Govern ment from which it received its authority. He was, in deed, considered to have displayed so much ability that he was entrusted with the vice-royalty of Ireland in 1780. The time was one of the greatest difficulty ; for while the calm of the country was disturbed by the American rebel lion, it was drained of regular troops, and large bands of volunteers not under the control of the Government had been formed. Nevertheless, the two years of Carlisle s rule passed in quietness and prosperity, and the institution of a national bank and other measures which he effected left per manently beneficial results upon the commerce of the island. In 1789, in the discussions as to the regency, Carlisle took a prominent part on the side of the Prince of Wales. In 1791 he opposed Pitt s policy of resistance to the dismem berment of Turkey by Russia ; but, on the outbreak of the French Revolution he left the Opposition, and vigor ously maintained the cause of war. In 1815 he opposed the enactment of the Corn Laws ; but from this time till his death, which occurred in 1825, he took no important part in public life. Carlisle was the author of some political tracts, a number of poems, and two tragedies, the Father s Revenge and the Stepmother, which received high praise from his contemporaries.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/United States/Sumter, Thomas

See also Thomas Sumter on Wikipedia; the 11th edition; and the disclaimer. This appears in a biographical appendix of Section I (History and Constitution) of the United States article. The section was written by Alexander Johnston.
​Sumter, Thomas, was born in Virginia in 1734, and died near Camden, S.C., June 1, 1832. He removed to South Carolina when a boy, and entered the American army as lieutenant-colonel in 1776. When the British had apparently overrun the State he kept up the struggle, retreating, when hard pressed, to the swamps of the interior. He was made brigadier-general, and thanked by Congress. He was a representative for South Carolina from 1789 to 1793 and from 1797 to 1801, United States senator from 1801 to 1810, and minister to Brazil from 1810 to 1811.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/United States/Pinckney, Charles

See also Charles Pinckney on Wikipedia; the 11th edition; and the disclaimer. This appears in a biographical appendix of Section I (History and Constitution) of the United States article. The section was written by Alexander Johnston.
​Pinckney, Charles (1758–1822), American statesman, was born at Charleston, S.C., March 9, 1758. He was admitted to the bar in 1779, was a delegate to the Continental Congress, 1777–78 and 1784–87; a delegate to the Federal convention of 1787; governor of South Carolina, 1789–92 and 1796–98; United States senator (Democrat), 1797–1801; minister to Spain, 1803–5; governor of South Carolina, 1806–8; member of the State legislature, 1810–14; and member of the house of representatives, 1819–21. He died at Charleston, Feb. 25, 1822.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/United States/Pulaski, Casimir, Count

See also Casimir Pulaski on Wikipedia; the 11th edition; and the disclaimer. This appears in a biographical appendix of Section I (History and Constitution) of the United States article. The section was written by Alexander Johnston.
​Pulaski, Casimir, Count, born in Lithuania, March 4, 1747, joined in the insurrection of 1769, escaped to Turkey in 1772, and was induced by Franklin to emigrate to America in 1777. He served in the battles of Brandywine and Germantown, receiving the rank of brigadier-general for his gallantry, and was placed in command of the cavalry. Forming a separate corps, known as Pulaski’s legion, he went to the South, where he commanded the cavalry in the assault on Savannah. He was mortally wounded, and died Oct. 11, 1780.—See Spark’s Life of Pulaski.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/United States/Schuyler, Philip

See also Philip Schuyler on Wikipedia; the 11th edition; and the disclaimer. This appears in a biographical appendix of Section I (History and Constitution) of the United States article. The section was written by Alexander Johnston.
​Schuyler, Philip, American general, was born at Albany, N.Y., Nov. 20, 1733. He was of an old and wealthy Dutch family, and in early manhood became a leader in the affairs of the colony of New York. He reached the rank of major in the French and Indian war, and at the beginning of the revolutionary struggle was made one of the American major-generals. He took part in the expedition against Canada in 1775, but ill-health compelled him to retire. He took the leading part in preparing to meet Burgoyne’s expedition in 1778; but troops had to be called in from other States, and he was subjected to jealousies which thwarted him at every step. Nevertheless, his arrangements were so complete that he had really checkmated Burgoyne before Congress superseded him in the command by the appointment of Gates, who reaped all the glory which should have accrued to Schuyler. Retiring from the army, he served for three years in the Continental Congress, and in the United States senate, 1789–91 and 1797–98. He died at Albany, Nov. 18, 1804.—See his Life and Times, by Lossing.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/United States/Putnam, Israel

See also Israel Putnam on Wikipedia; the 11th edition; and the disclaimer. This appears in a biographical appendix of Section I (History and Constitution) of the United States article. The section was written by Alexander Johnston.
​Putnam, Israel, was born at Salem, Mass., Jan. 7, 1718, removing to Pomfret, Conn., in 1739. Courage, strong will, and knowledge of men rather than of books soon made him a leader among his neighbours; and his shooting of a wolf by torch-light in a cavern in which she had sought refuge has almost become a nursery story. In the French and Indian war he became one of the most renowned of the “rangers” or partisan soldiers, who fought the Indians with their own weapons; and at the end of the war he had reached the rank of lieutenant-colonel of the Connecticut troops. At the outbreak of the revolutionary war, one of the four major-generals commissions was given to Putnam. He was an active leader at Bunker Hill, commanded at New York, and in the battle of Long Island, and was put in charge of the Hudson river defences in 1777, being the first to see the strategic importance of West Point. He died at Brooklyn, Conn., May 19, 1790.—See Lives by Cutler, Humphreys, and Peabody.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/United States/Pinckney, Charles Cotesworth

See also Charles Cotesworth Pinckney on Wikipedia; the 11th edition; and the disclaimer. This appears in a biographical appendix of Section I (History and Constitution) of the United States article. The section was written by Alexander Johnston.
​Pinckney, Charles Cotesworth (1746–1825), born at Charleston, S.C., Feb. 25, 1746, and died at the same place, Aug. 16, 1825. He was educated at Oxford and the Middle Temple, served with distinction in the American revolutionary army, was one of the envoys to France in 1797, and was the Federalist candidate for the presidency in 1804 and 1808.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/United States/Seymour, Horatio

See also Horatio Seymour on Wikipedia; the 11th edition; and the disclaimer. This appears in a biographical appendix of Section I (History and Constitution) of the United States article. The section was written by Alexander Johnston.
​Seymour, Horatio, governor of New York, was born at Pompey, N.Y., May 31, 1810. He was admitted to the bar in 1832, but never practised law, having a large private property. He soon became a leader of the Democratic party of the State, serving three terms in the State legislature after 1842, one of them as speaker. He was elected governor in 1852. In 1862 he was nominated again, and his success alarmed the national administration with a fear that the great State of New York would now be lukewarm or unfriendly. He proved to be one of the best of the “war governors,” active, zealous, and prompt in raising and forwarding men and supporting the war, though he was accused of adopting temporizing measures with the draft mob in New York city in July 1863. He was nominated for the presidency in 1868, but was defeated by Grant, and then retired from public life. He died at Utica, N.Y., Feb. 17, 1886.—See Croly’s Life of Seymour and M‘Cabe’s Life of Seymour (1868).
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/United States/Steuben, Friedrich Wilhelm August Heinrich Ferdinand, Baron von

See also Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben on Wikipedia; the 11th edition; and the disclaimer. This appears in a biographical appendix of Section I (History and Constitution) of the United States article. The section was written by Alexander Johnston.
​Steuben, Friedrich Wilhelm August Heinrich Ferdinand, Baron von, was born at Magdeburg, Prussia, Nov. 15, 1730. Entering the army at fourteen, he rose to be adjutant-general and staff-officer to Frederick the Great. After his retirement from active service, Deane induced him to go to America, where he was made major-general and inspector-general. He rendered eminent service by giving the army its first systematic drill. In this department he was the most important accession which the American army received from Europe. He settled as a farmer on land in what is now Steuben county, N.Y., given him by the State, and died there Nov. 28, 1794.—See his Life by Kapp, Bowen’s Life in Spark’s American Biography, and Greene’s German Element in the War of American Independence.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Tinné, Alexandrine

See also Alexandrine Tinné on Wikipedia; Tinné, Alexandrine Petronella Francina in the 11th Edition; and the disclaimer.
TINNÉ, Alexandrine (1839–1869), African traveller, born at The Hague on 17th October 1839, was the daughter of an English merchant and his wife, Baroness van Steengracht-Capellen. Her father died when she was five years old, leaving her the richest heiress in the Netherlands. After travelling in Norway, Italy, and the East, and visiting Egypt, when she ascended the Nile to near the equator, Mademoiselle Tinné left Europe again in 1861 for a prolonged sojourn in the Nile regions. Accompanied by her mother and her aunt, she set out from Cairo on 9th January 1862. After a short stay at Khartoum, the party ascended the White Nile as far as Gondokoro and explored a part of the Sobat, returning to Khartoum in November. Baron von Heuglin and Dr Steudner having meantime joined the ladies at Khartoum, the whole party set out in February 1863 to explore the Bahr-el-Ghazal. The limit of navigation at the Bahr-el-Homr was reached on 10th March. From Lake Rek a journey was made overland, across the Bahr Jur and south-west by the Bahr Kosango, to Jebel Kosango, on the borders of the Niam-Niam country. During the journey all the travellers suffered severely. Steudner died in April and Madame Tinné in June, and after many fatigues and dangers the remainder of the party reached Khartoum in July 1864. Mademoiselle Tinné returned to Cairo by Berber and Suakim. The geographical and scientific results of the expedition, largely into a new country, were highly important, as will be seen in Heuglin's narrative in Petermann's Mittheilungen (Erg.-hft, Nov. 15, 1865), and in his own Travels in the Region of the White Nile (1869). At Cairo Mademoiselle Tinné lived in somewhat Oriental style during the next four years, visiting Algeria, Tunis, and other parts of the Mediterranean. In January 1869 she started from Tripolis with a caravan, intending to proceed to Lake Tchad, and thence by Wadai, Darfur, and Kordofan to the Upper Nile. In July, however, on the route from Murzuk to Rhat, she was murdered by her escort.
Besides the references already given, see John A. Tinné's Geographical Notes of an Expedition in Central Africa by three Dutch Ladies, Liverpool, 1864.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Tipperary (2.)

See also Tipperary on Wikipedia; Tipperary in the 11th Edition; and the disclaimer.
TIPPERARY, a market town in the above county, is beautifully situated near the base of the Slieve-na-rnuck or Tipperary Hills, a branch of the Galtee range, on the Waterford and Limerick Railway, 3 miles south-east of Limerick junction and 110 south-west of Dublin. It contains a handsome Protestant church, a Catholic chapel, an endowed grammar-school, a town-hall, and a new corn and butter market. Owing to its situation in the centre of a fine agricultural district, it enjoys considerable prosperity, and its butter market ranks next to that of Cork. The town is of great antiquity, but first acquired importance by the erection of a castle by King John, of which there are now no remains. A monastery founded for Augustinians by Henry III., which has also disappeared, gave a second impulse to its growth. Formerly it was a corporation from a grant made in 1310 by Edward II., but is now governed by commissioners under provision of the Town Improvement Act of 1854. The population in 1871 was 6638, and in 1881 it was 7274.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Tipton

See also Tipton on Wikipedia; Tipton in the 11th Edition; and the disclaimer.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Tinnevelli (2.)

See also Tirunelveli on Wikipedia; Tinnevelli in the 11th Edition; and the disclaimer.
TINNEVELLI, chief and largest town of the above district, is situated 11/2 miles from the left bank of the Tambraparni in 8° 43′ 47″ N. lat. and 77° 43′ 49″ E. long. The town was rebuilt about 1560 by Visvanatha, the founder of the Nayakkan dynasty of Madura, who erected many temples, &c., among them the great Siva temple. Tinnevelli is an active centre of Protestant missions in south India. In 1881 the population was 23,221 (10,963 males and 12,258 females).
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Tintoretto

See also Tintoretto on Wikipedia; Tintoretto in the 11th Edition; and the disclaimer.
TINTORETTO.See Robusti.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Tippoo Sahib

See also Tippoo Sahib on Wikipedia; Tippoo Sahib in the 11th Edition; and the disclaimer.
TIPPOO SAHIB (1749-1799), sultan of Mysore, was the son of Hyder Ali (q.v.), and was born in 1749. He received a careful Mohammedan education, and was in structed in military tactics by the French officers in the employment of his father. In 1767 in the invasion of the Carnatic he commanded a corps of cavalry, and he subsequently distinguished himself in the Mahratta War of 1775-79. On the outbreak of the first Mysore War in 1780 he was put at the head of a large body of troops, with which he achieved several successes; in particular he entirely defeated Brathwaite on the banks of the Colerun in February 1782. He succeeded his father in December 1782, and in 1784 concluded a treaty of peace with the English. In the same year he assumed the title of sultan. In 1787-88 he subjugated the Nairs of Malabar, and in 1789 provoked English invasion by ravaging the territories of the rajah of Travancore. When the English entered Mysore in 1790, he retaliated by a counter-invasion, but he was ultimately compelled by Cornwallis's victory at Arikera, near Seringapatam, to purchase peace by the cession of the half of his dominions (16th March 1792). The English having deemed it necessary to renew hostilities in March 1799, he was in less than two months shut up in Seringapatam and accidentally killed during the siege (4th May 1799). See INDIA, vol. xii. pp. 803-4.