OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Fredegond

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​FREDEGOND (Fredigundis) (d. 597), Frankish queen. Originally a serving-woman, she inspired the Frankish king, Chilperic I., with a violent passion. At her instigation he repudiated his first wife Audovera, and strangled his second, Galswintha, Queen Brunhilda’s sister. A few days after this murder Chilperic married Fredegond (567). This woman exercised a most pernicious influence over him. She forced him into war against Austrasia, in the course of which she procured the assassination of the victorious king Sigebert (575); she carried on a malignant struggle against Chilperic’s sons by his first wife, Theodebert, Merwich and Clovis, who all died tragic deaths; and she persistently endeavoured to secure the throne for her own children. Her first son Thierry, however, to whom Bishop Ragnemod of Paris stood godfather, died soon after birth, and Fredegond tortured a number of women whom she accused of having bewitched the child. Her second son also died in infancy. Finally, she gave birth to a child who afterwards became king as Clotaire II. Shortly after the birth of this third son, Chilperic himself perished in mysterious circumstances (584). Fredegond has been accused of complicity in his murder, but with little show of probability, since in her husband she lost her principal supporter.
Henceforth Fredegond did all in her power to gain the kingdom for her child. Taking refuge at the church of Notre Dame at Paris, she appealed to King Guntram of Burgundy, who took Clotaire under his protection and defended him against his other nephew, Childebert II., king of Austrasia. From that time until her death Fredegond governed the western kingdom. She endeavoured to prevent the alliance between King Guntram and Childebert, which was cemented by the pact of Andelot; and made several attempts to assassinate Childebert by sending against him hired bravoes armed with poisoned scramasaxes (heavy single-edged knives). After the death of Childebert in 595 she resolved to augment the kingdom of Neustria at the expense of Austrasia, and to this end seized some cities near Paris and defeated Theudebert at the battle of Laffaux, near Soissons. Her triumph, however, was short-lived, as she died quietly in her bed in 597 soon after her victory.
See V. N. Augustin Thierry, Récits des temps mérovingiens (Brussels, 1840); Ulysse Chevalier, Bio-bibliographie (2nd ed.), s.v. “Frédégonde.” (C. Pf.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Fredericia

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​FREDERICIA (Friedericia), a seaport of Denmark, near the S.E. corner of Jutland, on the west shore of the Little Belt opposite the island of Fünen. Pop. (1901) 12,714. It has railway communication with both south and north, and a steam ferry connects with Middelfart, a seaside resort and railway station on Fünen. There is a considerable shipping trade, and the industries comprise the manufacture of tobacco, salt and chicory, and of cotton goods and hats. A small fort was erected on the site of Fredericia by Christian IV. of Denmark, and his successor, Frederick III., determined about 1650 to make it a powerful fortress. Free exercise of religion was offered to all who should settle in the new town, which at first bore the name of Frederiksodde, and only received its present designation in 1664. In 1657 it was taken by storm by the Swedish general Wrangel, and in 1659, after the fortress had been dismantled, it was occupied by Frederick William of Brandenburg. It was not till 1709–1710 that the works were again put in a state of defence. In 1848 no attempt was made by the Danes to oppose the Prussians, who entered on the 2nd of May, and maintained their position against the Danish gunboats. During the armistice of 1848–1849 the fortress was strengthened, and soon afterwards it stood a siege of two months, which was brought to a glorious close by a successful sortie on the 6th of July 1849. In memory of the victory several monuments have been erected in the town and its vicinity, of which the most noticeable are the bronze statue of the Danish Land Soldier by Bissen (one of Thorvaldsen’s pupils), and the great barrow over 500 Danes in the cemetery of the Holy Trinity Church, with a bas-relief by the same sculptor. On the outbreak of the war of 1864, the fortress was again strengthened by new works and an entrenched camp; but the Danes suddenly evacuated it on the 28th of April after a siege of six weeks. The Austro-Prussian army partly destroyed the fortifications, and kept possession of the town till the conclusion of peace.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Frederick Augustus II.

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​FREDERICK AUGUSTUS II. (1797–1854), king of Saxony, eldest son of Prince Maximilian and of Caroline Maria Theresa of Parma, was born on the 18th of May 1797. The unsettled times in which his youth was passed necessitated his frequent change of residence, but care was nevertheless taken that his education should not be interrupted, and he also acquired, through his journeys in foreign states (Switzerland 1818, Montenegro 1838, England and Scotland 1844) and his intercourse with men of eminence, a special taste for art and for natural science. He was himself a good landscape-painter and had a fine collection of engravings on copper. He was twice married—in 1819 (October 7) to the duchess Caroline, fourth daughter of the emperor Francis I. of Austria (d. May 22, 1832), and in 1833 (April 4) to Maria, daughter of Maximilian I. of Bavaria. There were no children of either marriage. During the government of his uncles (Frederick Augustus I. and Anthony) he took no part in the administration of the country, though he was the sole heir to the crown. In 1830 a rising in Dresden led to his being named joint regent of the kingdom along with King Anthony on the 13th of September; and in this position his popularity and his wise and liberal reforms (for instance, in arranging public audiences) speedily quelled all discontent. On the 6th of June 1836 he succeeded his uncle. Though he administered the affairs of his kingdom with enlightened liberality Saxony did not escape the political storms which broke upon Germany in 1848. He elected Liberal ministers, and he was at first in favour of the programme of German unity put forward at Frankfort, but he refused to acknowledge the democratic constitution of the German parliament. This attitude led to the insurrection at Dresden in May 1849, which was suppressed by the help of Prussian troops. From that time onward his reign was tranquil and prosperous. Later Count Beust, leader of the Austrian and feudal party in Saxony, became his principal minister and guided his policy on most occasions. His death occurred accidentally through the upsetting of his carriage near Brennbühel, between Imst and Wenns in Tirol (August 9, 1854). Frederick Augustus devoted his leisure hours chiefly to the study of botany. He made botanical excursions into different countries, and Flora Marienbadensis, oder Pflanzen und Gebirgsarten, gesammelt und beschrieben, written by him, was published at Prague by Kedler, 1837.
See Böttiger-Flathe, History of Saxony, vol. iii.; R. Freiherr von Friesen, Erinnerungen (2 vols., Dresden, 1881); F. F. Graf von Beust, Aus drei-viertel Jahrhunderten (2 vols., 1887); Flathe, in Allg. deutsche Biogr. (J. Hn.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Frederick Henry

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​FREDERICK HENRY (1584–1647), prince of Orange, the youngest child of William the Silent, was born at Delft about six months before his father’s assassination on the 29th of January 1584. His mother, Louise de Coligny, was daughter of the famous Huguenot leader, Admiral de Coligny, and was the fourth wife of William the Silent. The boy was trained to arms by his elder brother, Maurice of Nassau, one of the first generals of his age. On the death of Maurice in 1625, Frederick Henry succeeded him in his paternal dignities and estates, and also in the stadtholderates of the five provinces of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Overysel and Gelderland, and in the important posts of captain and admiral-general of the Union. Frederick Henry proved himself scarcely inferior to his brother as a general, and a far more capable statesman and politician. During twenty-two years he remained at the head of affairs in the United Provinces, and in his time the power of the stadtholderate reached its highest point. The “Period of Frederick Henry,” as it is usually styled by Dutch writers, is generally accounted the golden age of the republic. It was marked by great military and naval triumphs, by world-wide maritime and commercial expansion, and by a wonderful outburst of activity in the domains of art and literature. The chief military exploits of Frederick Henry were the sieges and captures of Hertogenbosch in 1629, of Maastricht in 1632, of Breda in 1637, of Sas van Ghent in 1644, and of Hulst in 1645. During the greater part of his administration the alliance with France against Spain had been the pivot of Frederick Henry’s foreign policy, but in his last years he sacrificed the French alliance for the sake of concluding a separate peace with Spain, by which the United Provinces obtained from that power all the advantages for which they had for eighty years been contending. Frederick Henry died on the 14th of March 1647, and was buried with great pomp beside his father and brother at Delft. The treaty of Münster, ending the long struggle between the Dutch and the Spaniards, was not actually signed until the 30th of January 1648, the illness and death of the stadtholder having caused a delay in the negotiations. Frederick Henry was married in 1625 to Amalia von Solms, and left one son, William II. of Orange, and four daughters.
Frederick Henry left an account of his campaigns in his Mémoires de Frédéric Henri (Amsterdam, 1743). See Cambridge Mod. Hist. vol. iv. chap. 24, and the bibliography on p. 931.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Camping Out

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​CAMPING OUT. The sport of abandoning ordinary house-life, and living in tents, touring in vans, boats, &c., has been elaborately developed in modern times, and a considerable literature has been devoted to it, to which the curious may be referred.
See, for Europe, A. A. Macdonell’s Camping-out (1892) and Voyages on German Rivers (1890); G. R. Lowndes, Gipsy Tents (1890).
For Australia and Africa, W. B. Lord, Shifts and Expedients of Camp Life (1871); the articles by F.J. Jackson in the Big Game Shooting volume of the “Badminton Library”; the articles on “Camping out” in The Encyclopaedia of Sport; F. C. Selous, A Hunter’s Wanderings in Africa (1881), and Travel and Adventure in South Africa (1893); A. W. Chanler, Through Jungle and Desert (1896); A. B. Rathbone, Camping and Tramping in Malaya (1898).
For America, G. O. Shields, Camping and Camp Outfits (1890); W. W. Pascoe, Canoe and Camp Cookery (1893); Woodcraft, by “Nessmuk” (1895); W. S. Rainsford, Camping and Hunting in the Shoshone (1896); S. E. White, The Forest (1903), and The Mountains (1904); Suggestions as to Outfit for Tramping and Camping (1904), published by “The Appalachian Mountain Club,” Boston. Valuable information will be found in the sporting periodicals, and in the catalogues of outfitters and dealers in sporting goods.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Campinas

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​CAMPINAS, an inland city of the state of São Paulo, Brazil, 65 m. by rail N.W. of the city of São Paulo and 114 m. from the port of Santos, with which it is connected by the Paulista & São Paulo railway. Pop. (1890) of the city and municipality, 33,921. Campinas is the commercial centre of one of the oldest coffee-producing districts of the state and the outlet for a rich and extensive agricultural region lying farther inland. The Mogyana railway starts from this point and extends north to Uberaba, Minas Geraes, while the Paulista lines extend north-west into new and very fertile regions. Coffee is the staple production, though Indian corn, mandioca and fruit are produced largely for local consumption. The city is built in a bowl-like depression of the great central plateau, and the drainage from the surrounding hillsides has produced a dangerously insanitary condition, from which one or two virulent fever epidemics have resulted.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Campi, Giulio

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​CAMPI, GIULIO (1500–1572), the founder of a school of Italian painters, was born at Cremona. He was son of a painter, Galeazzo Campi (1475–1536), under whom he took his first lessons in art. He was then taught by Giulio Romano; and he made a special study of Titian, Correggio and Raphael. His works are remarkable for their correctness, vigour and loftiness of style. They are very numerous, and the church of St Margaret in his native town owes all its paintings to his hand. Among the earliest of his school are his brothers, Vincenzo and Antonio, the latter of whom was also of some mark as a sculptor and as historian of Cremona.
Giulio’s pupil, Bernardino Campi (1522–1592), in some respects superior to his master, began life as a goldsmith. After an education under Giulio Campi and Ippolito Corta, he attained such skill that when he added another to the eleven Caesars of Titian, it was impossible to say which was the master’s and which the imitator’s. He was also much influenced by Correggio and Raphael. His principal work is seen in the frescoes of the cupola at San Sigismondo, at Cremona.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Campobasso

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​CAMPOBASSO, a city of Molise, Italy, the capital of the province of Campobasso, 172 m. E.S.E. of Rome by rail, situated 2132 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) town 11,273; commune 14,491. The town itself contains no buildings of antiquarian interest, but it has some fine modern edifices. Its chief industry is the manufacture of arms and cutlery. Above the town are the picturesque ruins of a castle of the 15th century. The date of the foundation of Campobasso is unknown. The town, with the territory surrounding it, was under the feudal rule of counts until 1739, when it passed to the Neapolitan crown, in consideration of a payment of 108,000 ducats.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Campillo, José del

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​CAMPILLO, JOSÉ DEL (1695–1743), Spanish statesman, was of very obscure origin. From his own account of his youth, written to Antonio de Mier in 1726, we only know that he was born in “a house equally poor and honest,” that he studied Latin by his own wish, that he entered the service of Don Antonio Maldonado, prebendary of Córdoba, who wished apparently to train him as a priest, and that he declined to take orders. He left the service of Maldonado in 1713, being then eighteen years of age. In 1715 he became “page” to D. Francisco de Ocio, superintendent general of customs, who doubtless employed him as a clerk. In 1717 he attracted the favourable notice of Patiño, the head of the newly-organized navy, and was by him transferred to the naval department. Under the protection of Patiño, who became prime minister in 1726, Campillo was constantly employed on naval administrative work both at home and in America. It was Patiño’s policy to build up a navy quietly at home and in America, without attracting too much attention abroad, and particularly in England. Campillo proved an industrious and honest subordinate. Part of his experience was to be present at a shipwreck in Central America in which he was credited with showing spirit and practical ability in saving the lives of the crew. In 1726 he was denounced to the Inquisition for the offence of reading forbidden books. The proceedings against him were not carried further, but the incident is an example of the vexatious tyranny exercised by the Holy Office, and the effect it must have had even in its decadence in damping all intellectual activity. It was not until in 1741, when Spain was entangled in a land war in Italy and a naval war with England, that Campillo was summoned by the king to take the place of prime minister. He had to find the means of carrying on a policy out of all proportion to the resources of Spain, with an empty treasury. His short tenure of power was chiefly notable for his vigorous attempt to sweep away the system of farming the taxes, which left the state at the mercy of contractors and financiers. Campillo’s predecessors were constantly compelled to apply to capitalists to provide funds to meet the demands of the king for his buildings and his foreign policy. A whole year’s revenue was frequently forestalled. Campillo persuaded the king to allow him to establish a system of direct collection, by which waste and pilfering would be avoided. Some progress was made towards putting the national finances on a sound footing, though Campillo could not prevent the king from disposing, without his knowledge, of large sums of money needed for the public service. He died suddenly on the 11th of April 1743. Campillo was the author of a treatise on a New System of Government for America printed at Madrid 1789. He also left a MS. treatise with the curious title, What is superfluous and is wanting in Spain, in order that it may be what it ought to be, and not what it is.
See D. Antonio Rodriquez Villa, Patiño y Campillo (Madrid, 1882).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Campistron, Jean Galbert de

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​CAMPISTRON, JEAN GALBERT DE (1656–1723), French dramatist, was born at Toulouse of noble family in 1656. At the age of seventeen he was wounded in a duel and sent to Paris. Here he became an ardent disciple of Racine. If he copied his master’s methods of construction with some success, in the execution of his plans he never advanced beyond mediocrity, nor did he ever approach the secret of the musical lines of Athalie and Phèdre. He secured the patronage of the influential duchesse de Bouillon by dedicating Arminius to her, and in 1685 he scored his first success with Andronic, which disguised under other names the tragic story of Don Carlos and Elizabeth of France. The piece made a great sensation, but Campistron’s treatment is weak, and he failed to avail himself of the possibilities inherent in his subject. Racine was asked by Louis Joseph, duc de Vendôme, to write the book of an opera to be performed at a fête given in honour of the Dauphin. He handed on the commission to Campistron, who produced Acis et Galathée for Lulli’s music. Campistron had another success in Tiridate (1691), in which he treated, again under changed names, the biblical story of Amnon’s passion for his sister Tamar. He wrote many other tragedies and two comedies, one of which, Le Jaloux désabusé, has been considered by some judges to be his best work. In 1686 he had been made intendant to the duc de Vendôme and followed him to Italy and Spain, accompanying him on all his campaigns. If he was not a good poet he was an honest man under circumstances in which corruption was easy and usual. Many honours were conferred on him. The king of Spain bestowed on him the order of St James of the Sword; the duke of Mantua made him marquis of Penango in Montferrat; and in 1701 he was received into the Academy. After thirty years of service with Vendôme he retired to his native place, where he died on the 11th of May 1723.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Camphuysen, Dirk Rafelsz

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​CAMPHUYSEN, DIRK RAFELSZ (1586–1627), Dutch painter, poet and theologian, was the son of a surgeon at Gorcum. As he manifested great artistic talent, his brother, in whose charge he was left on the death of his parents, placed him under the painter Govaerts. But at that time there was intense interest in theology; and Camphuysen, sharing in the prevailing enthusiasm, deserted the pursuit of art, to become first a private tutor and afterwards minister of Vleuten near Utrecht (1616). As, however, he had embraced the doctrines of Arminius with fervour, he was deprived of this post and driven into exile (1619). His chief solace was poetry; and he has left a translation of the Psalms, and a number of short pieces, remarkable for their freshness and depth of poetic feeling. He is also the author of several theological works of fair merit, among which is a Compendium Doctrinae Sociniorum; but his fame chiefly rests on his pictures, which, like his poems, are mostly small, but of great beauty; the colouring, though thin, is pure; the composition and pencilling are exquisite, and the perspective above criticism. The best of his works are his sunset and moonlight scenes and his views of the Rhine and other rivers. The close of his life was spent at Dokkum. His nephew Raphael (b. 1598) is by some considered to have been the author of several of the works ascribed to him; and his son Govaert (1624–1674), a follower or imitator of Paul Potter, is similarly credited.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pisaurum

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​PISAURUM (mod. Pesaro, q.v.), an ancient town of Umbria on the Via Flaminia, 26 m. from Ariminum and 8 from Fanum Fortunae. A Roman colony was founded here in the territory of the Galli Senones in 184 B.C., at the mouth of the river Pisaurus (mod. Foglia; the sea has since then receded about half a mile). Whether it took the place of an earlier town or not, is not known: an important Gaulish cemetery has been discovered near the village of Novilara between Pisaurum and Fanum, but to which of these centres (if either) it belonged is uncertain (E. Brizio in Monumenti dei Lincei [1895], V. 85 sqq.). In 174 B.C. we hear that the censors built a temple of Jupiter here and paved a road. T. Accius, the counsel who opposed Cicero in the case when he defended Cluentius in a still extant speech, was a native of Pisaurum. Catullus refers to the town as decadent or unhealthy, but this may be merely malicious, and does not seem to be borne out by facts: for it is not infrequently mentioned by classical authors. It was occupied by Caesar in 49 B.C., and was made a colony under the second triumvirate. Hence it bears the name Colonia Julia Felix. We hear little of it under the empire. It was destroyed by the Goths in 539, and restored by Belisarius in 545. From the inscriptions, nearly 200 in number, an idea of the importance of the town may be gained. Among them are a group of cippi found on the site of a sacred grove of the matrons of Pisaurum, bearing dedications to various deities, and belonging probably to the date of the foundation of the colony. There are some remains of the town walls, and an ancient bridge over the Foglia. It was, like Ariminum, a considerable place for the manufacture of bricks and pottery, though the factories cannot always be precisely localized.