OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Raumer, Friedrich Ludwig Georg von

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​ RAUMER, FRIEDRICH LUDWIG GEORG VON (1781-1873), German historian, was born at Wörlitz in Anhalt on the 14th of May 1781. His father (d. 1822), as Kammerdirektor in Anhalt, did excellent service to agriculture. After studying at the Joachimsthal Gymnasium, Berlin, and at the universities of Halle and Göttingen, Raumer began to practise law, and rose in the civil service under Hardenberg, the chancellor. He was made a professor at the university of Breslau in 1811, and in 1819 he became professor of political science and history at Berlin, holding the chair until 1847, and giving occasional lectures until 1853. In 1815 he had carried on historical investigations in Venice, and in the two following years he had travelled in Germany, Switzerland and Italy. In 1848 he was elected a member of the German parliament at Frankfort, where he associated himself with the right centre, supporting the proposal for a German empire under the supremacy of Prussia; and he was one of the deputation which offered the imperial crown to Frederick William IV. After the breakdown of the German parliament, Raumer returned to Berlin, where he was made a member of the first chamber of the Prussian parliament. He died at Berlin on the 14th of June 1873. Raumer's style is direct, lucid and vigorous, and in his day he was a popular historian, but judged by strictly scientific standards he does not rank among the first men of his time.
His first work, published anonymously in 1806, was entitled Sechs Dialoge über Krieg und Handel. This was followed by Das britische Besteuerungssystem (1810), Handbuch merkwürdiger Stellen aus den lateinischen Geschichtschreibern des Mittelalters (1813), Herbstreise nach Venedig (1816) and other books. His most famous works are Geschichte der Hohenstaufen und ihrer Zeit (1823-25; 5th ed., 1876) and Geschichte Europas seit dem Ende des 15ten Jahrhunderts (1832-50). In 1831 appeared Briefe aus Paris und Frankreich im Jahre 1830 and Briefe aus Paris zur Erläuterung der Geschichte des 16ten und 17ten Jahrhunderts. He went to England in 1835, to Italy in 1839 and to America in 1843, and these visits led to the publication of various works — England in 1835 (1836), Beiträge zur neuern Geschichte aus dem Britischen Museum und Reichsarchive (1836-39), Italien, Beiträge zur Kenntniss dieses Landes (1840), Die Vereinigten Staaten von Nordamerika (1845). Among his later books may be mentioned Antiquarische Briefe (1851), Historisch-politische Briefe über die geselligen Verhältnisse der Menschen (1860), Lebenserinnerungen und Briefwechsel (1861) and Handbuch zur Geschichte der Literatur (1864-66). In 1830 Raumer began the Historisches Taschenbuch published by Brockhaus, which from 1871 was continued by Riehl.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Raudnitz

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​RAUDNITZ (Czech Roudnice nad Labem), a town of Bohemia, Austria, 44 m. N. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 7986, mostly Czech. It is situated on the Elbe, and its chief attraction lies in the interesting and valuable collections in its chateau, which has belonged to the princely family of Lobkowitz since the beginning of the 17th century. These include a library with a large number of the earliest specimens of printing and valuable MSS., together with a series of pictures from the time of Charles V. to the Thirty Years' War. In 1350 Cola di Rienzi, “the last of the tribunes,” was confined by the emperor Charles IV. in the castle, which occupied the site of the present chateau, previous to his despatch under arrest to the pope at Avignon. In 1184 Raudnitz is mentioned as belonging to the see of Prague. The title of duke of Raudnitz was conferred on the head of the family of Lobkowitz by the emperor Joseph II. in 1786.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ravaisson-Mollien, Jean Gaspard Félix

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​RAVAISSON-MOLLIEN, JEAN GASPARD FÉLIX (1813-1900), French philosopher and archaeologist, was born at Namur on the 23rd of October 1813. After a successful course of study at the Collège Rollin, he proceeded to Munich, where he attended the lectures of Schelling, and took his degree in philosophy in 1836. In the following year he published the first volume of his famous work Essai sur la metaphysique d'Aristote, to which in 1846 he added a supplementary volume. This work not only criticizes and comments on the theories of Aristotle and the Peripatetics, but also deduces from them a modern philosophical system. In 1838 he received the degree of doctor, and became professor of philosophy at Rennes. From 1840 he was inspector-general of public libraries, and in 1860 became inspector-general in the department of higher education. He was also a member of the Academy, and of the Academy of Moral and Political Science, and curator of the Department of Antiquities at the Louvre (from 1870). He died in Paris on the 18th of May 1900. In philosophy, he was one of the school of Cousin, with whom, however, he was at issue in many important points. The act of consciousness, according to him, is the basis of all knowledge. These acts of consciousness are manifestations of will, which is the motive and creative power of the intellectual life. The idea of God is a cumulative intuition given by all the various faculties of the mind, in its observation of harmony in nature and in man. This theory had considerable influence on speculative philosophy in France during the later years of the 19th century.
Ravaisson's chief philosophical works are: “Les Fragments philosophiques de Hamilton” (in the Revue des Deux Mondes, November, 1840); Rapport sur le stoicisme (1851); La Philosophie en France au dix-neuvième siècle (1868; 3rd ed., 1889); Morale et métaphysique (1893). Eminent as a philosopher, Ravaisson was also an archaeologist, and contributed articles on ancient sculpture to the Revue Archéologique and the Mémoires de l'Académie des Inscriptions. In 1871 he published a monograph on the Venus of Milo.
See Renouvier, in L'Année philosophique (Paris, 1868); Dawriac, “Ravaisson philosophe et critique” (La Critique philosophique, 1885, vol. ii.).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ravello

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​RAVELLO, a village of Campania, Italy, in the province of Salerno, about 3 m. N.N.E. of Amalfi by road, 1227 ft. above sea-level. It commands a magnificent view. Pop. (1901) 1851. The history of Ravello cannot be traced beyond the 9th century. In the 11th it was called Rebellum, because it refused to acknowledge the sovereignty of Amalfi, and in the 13th, when at the height of its prosperity, it had 36,000 inhabitants. The Palazzo Rufolo, begun in the 11th century, has two lofty towers and beautiful Saracenic decoration in the courtyard. The ex-cathedral of S. Pantaleo, almost entirely modernized, has fine bronze doors by Barisanus of Trani (1179), and two pulpits in Cosmatesque work. The larger, supported by six columns resting on the backs of lions, was made in 1272 by Nicolaus of Foggia; the bust over the entrance to it is said to be a portrait of Sigilgaita Rufolo. The smaller, of the same date, is simpler, and has curious representations of Jonah and the whale. The parish church of S. Giovanni in Toro, spoilt by restorations in the 18th century, contains a splendid pulpit in Cosmatesque work, supported on four pillars, and the crypt some 14th-century frescoes. In front of it is the porch of the Palazzo dell' Afflitto, composed of ancient fragments. S. Maria Immacolata is another Romanesque church.
See A. Avena, Monumenti dell' Arte Meridionale (Naples, 1902), i. 349 sqq.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rauch, Christian Daniel

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​ RAUCH, CHRISTIAN DANIEL (1777-1857), German sculptor, was born at Arolsen in the principality of Waldeck on the 2nd of January 1777. His parents were poor and unable to place him under efficient masters. His first instructor taught him little else than the art of sculpturing gravestones, and Professor Ruhl of Cassel could not give him much more. A wider field of improvement opened up before him when he removed to Berlin in 1797; but he was obliged to earn a livelihood by becoming a royal lackey, and to practise his art in spare hours. Queen Louisa, surprising him one day in the act of modelling her features in wax, sent him to study at the Academy of Art. Not long afterwards, in 1804, Count Sandrecky gave him the means to complete his education at Rome, where William von Humboldt, Canova and Thonvaldsen befriended him. Among other works, he executed bas-reliefs of “Hippolytus and Phaedra,” “Mars and Venus wounded by Diomede,” and a “Child praying.” In 1811 Rauch was commissioned to execute a monument for Queen Louisa of Prussia. The statue, representing the queen in a sleeping posture, was placed in a mausoleum in the grounds of Charlottenburg, and procured great fame for the artist. The erection of nearly all public statues came to be entrusted to him. There were, among others, Bülow and Scharnhorst at Berlin, Blücher at Breslau, Maximilian at Munich, Francke at Halle, Dürer at Nuremberg, Luther at Wittenberg, and the grand-duke Paul Frederick at Schwerin. At length, in 1830, he began, along with Schinkel the architect, the models for a colossal equestrian monument at Berlin to Frederick the Great. This work was inaugurated with great pomp in May 1851, and is regarded as one of the masterpieces of modern sculpture. Princes decorated Rauch with honours and the academies of Europe enrolled him among their members. A statue of Kant for Königsberg and a statue of Thaer for Berlin occupied his attention during some of his last years; and he had just finished a model of “Moses praying between Aaron and Hur” when he was attacked by his last illness. He died on the 3rd of December 1857.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Montrésor, Claude de Bourdeille, Comte de

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​MONTRÉSOR, CLAUDE DE BOURDEILLE, Comte de (c. 1606–1663), French intriguer and memoir-writer, was the grandnephew of Pierre de Brantôme. He was the second favourite of Gaston, duke of Orleans, the weak brother of Louis XIII., succeeding Antoine de Laage, duc de Puylaurens, in this position in 1635. He planned the assassination of Cardinal Richelieu at the camp of Amiens in 1636, a plan which failed through the cowardice of Orleans. Montrésor was obliged to spend the next six years on his estate, but in 1642 he entered into the plot of Cinq Mars against Richelieu. On its failure he escaped to England, but his estates were confiscated. Returning after Richelieu’s death, he entered into the intrigues of the period just preceding the Fronde, and was imprisoned in the Bastille, then in Vincennes, having risked his safety by coming back from exile in Holland to aid the duchess of Chevreuse. Mazarin attempted to win him over in vain, but in 1653 he made his submission to the victorious minister, and from that time on played no part in public life. He had three children by Mlle de Guise, with whom he had a lasting liaison.
His Mémoires have preserved his name from the oblivion otherwise awaiting such intriguers; they are written with naive frankness and are extremely interesting. They are printed by A. Petitot and Monmerqué in Collection des mémoires relatifs à l’histoire de France (Paris, 1876).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Montserrat (West Indies)

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​MONTSERRAT, an island in the British West Indies, one of the five presidencies in the colony of the Leeward Islands. Pop., mostly negroes (1901), 12,215. It lies 27 m. S.W. of Antigua, in 16° 45′ N. and 62° 7′ W.; is 11 m. long and 7 m. broad, and has a total area of 32 1/2 sq. m. The island is a cluster of rugged volcanic peaks rising from the Caribbean Sea, their summits clothed with forests; the still active Soufrière (3000 ft.) in the south being the highest point. The average temperature is 81° F., the hottest weather being usually tempered by cool sea breezes; the rainfall averages 94 in. per annum. There is a plentiful supply of water, and the roads are macadamized and well drained. The principal products are sugar and raw and concentrated lime-juice. Minerals are also found. Montserrat has a local legislature of six members, nominated by the Crown, and sends representatives to the general legislative council of the colony. Education is compulsory, and the majority of the schools are managed by the Church of England, to which most of the islanders belong; but the Wesleyans and the Roman ​Catholics also support schools. Plymouth (pop. 1461), the chief town, stands on an open roadstead on the south-west coast.
The island was discovered by Columbus in 1493, who named it after Monserrado, a mountain in Spain. It was colonized by the British under Sir Thomas Warner in 1632, and was taken by the French in 1664. Restored to the British in 1668, it capitulated to the French in 1782, but was again restored in 1784.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Montt, Manuel

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​MONTT, MANUEL (1809–1880), Chilean statesman, was born on the 5th of September 1809. He had a distinguished career as a scholar, and was introduced into public life during the presidency (1831–1841) of Arieto by Diego Portales. Montt distinguished himself by his courage in the crisis that followed upon Portales’ assassination in 1837, though only holding a subordinate post in the government, and afterwards he held several ministerial offices, and during the presidency (1841–1851) of Bulnes he became minister of justice and public instruction, and later of the interior. He was elected president in 1851 and again in 1856, and though the Liberals chafed under his rule, and two revolutions, in 1851 and 1859, took place during his administration, he governed Chile with an energy and wisdom that laid the foundation of her material prosperity. He was ably assisted by his minister of the interior Antonio Varas, and it was from the union of the two statesmen that the well-known ultra-conservative faction, the Montt-Varistas, took their name. His presidency was marked by the establishment of railways, telegraphs, banks, schools and training-colleges. On giving up his post in 1861 he became president of the Supreme Court of justice, a position which he held up to his death on the 20th of September 1880. His son Jorje (b. 1846) was president of Chile in 1891–1896, and a younger son, Pedro (d. 1910), in 1906–1910.
See P. B. Figueroa, Diccionario biografico de Chile, 1550–1887 (Santiago, 1888); and J. B. Suarez, Rasgos biograficos de hombres notables de Chile (Valparaiso, 1886).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Montucla, Jean Étienne

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​MONTUCLA, JEAN ÉTIENNE (1725–1799), French mathematician, was born at Lyons on the 5th of September 1725. In 1754 he published an anonymous treatise entitled Histoire des recherche sur la quadrature du cercle, and in 1758 the first part of his great work, Histoire des mathématiques, the first history of mathematics worthy of the name. He was appointed intendant-secretary of Grenoble in 1758, secretary to the expedition for colonizing Cayenne in 1764, and “premier commis des bâtiments” and censor-royal for mathematical books in 1765. The Revolution deprived him of his income and left him in great destitution. The offer in 1795 of a mathematical chair in one of the schools of Paris was declined on account of his infirm health, and he was still in straitened circumstances in 1798, when he published a second edition of the first part of his Histoire. In 1778 he re-edited Jacques Ozanam’s Récréations mathématiques, afterwards published in English by Charles Hutton (4 vols., London, 1803). He died on the 18th of December 1799. His Histoire was completed by J. J. Le F. de Lalande, and published at Paris in 1799–1802 (4 vols.).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Montyon, Antoine Jean Baptiste Robert Auget, Baron de

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​MONTYON, ANTOINE JEAN BAPTISTE ROBERT AUGET, Baron de (1733–1820), French philanthropist, was born in Paris on the 23rd of December 1733. His father was a maître des comptes; he was educated for the law, and became advocate at the Châtelet in 1755, master of requests to the council of state in 1760, and intendant successively of Auvergne, Provence and La Rochelle. He had repeatedly shown great independence of character, protesting against the accusation of Caradeuc de La Chalotais in 1766, and refusing in 1771 to suppress the local courts of justice in obedience to Maupeou. He was made a councillor of state in 1775 by the influence of Louis de Bourbon, duke of Penthievre, and in 1780 he was attached to the court in the honorary office of chancellor to the comte d’Artois (afterwards Charles X.). He followed the princes into exile, and lived for some years in London. During the emigration period he spent large sums on the alleviation of the poverty of his fellow immigrants, returning to France only at the second restoration. Between 1780 and 1787 he had founded a series of prizes, the awards to be made by the French academy and the academies of science and medicine. These prizes fell into abeyance during the revolutionary period, but were re-established in 1815. Montyon died on the 29th of December 1820, bequeathing 10,000 francs for the perpetual endowment of each of the following prizes: for the discovery of the means of rendering some mechanical process less dangerous to the Workman; for the perfecting of any technical improvement in a mechanical process; for the book which during the year rendered the greatest service to humanity; the “prix de vertu” for the most courageous act on the part of a poor Frenchman—the awards being left as before to the learned academies. He also left 10,000 francs to each of the Parisian hospitals.
Montyon wrote a series of works, chiefly on political economy: Éloge de Michel de l’hôpital (Paris, 1777); Recherches et considérations sur la population de la France (1778), a share of which is attributed to his secretary, Moheau; Rapport fait à Louis XVIII. (Constance, 1796), in which he maintained in opposition to Calonne’s Tableau de l’Europe that France had always possessed a constitution, which had, however, been violated by the kings of France; L’état statistique du Tunkin (1811); and Particularités . . . sur les ministres des finances en France (1812).
See Lacretelle, “Discours sur M. Montyon,” in the Recueil de l’académie (1820–1829); Quérard, La France littéraire, vol. vi. (1834); and, further, F. Labour, M. de Montyon d’après des documents inédits (Paris, 1880); G. Dumoulin, Montyon (Paris, 1884); and especially L. Guimbaud, Auget de Montyon (1909).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Montégut, Jean Baptiste Joseph Émile

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​MONTÉGUT, JEAN BAPTISTE JOSEPH ÉMILE (1825–1895), French critic, was born at Limoges on the 14th of June 1825. He began to write for the Revue des deux mondes in 1847, contributing between 1851 and 1857 a series of articles on the English and American novel, and in 1857 he became chief literary critic of the review. Émile Montégut translated Essais de philosophies américaine (1850) from Emerson; Révolution de 1688 (2 vols. 1853) from Macaulay’s History; and also produced the Œuvres completès (10 vols. 1868–1873) of Shakespeare. Among his numerous critical works are Écrivains modernes d’Angleterre (3rd series, 1885–1892) and, Heures de lecture d’un critique (1891), studies of John Aubrey, Pope, Wilkie Collins and Sir John Mandeville. Montégut died in Paris on the 11th of December 1895.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Montrose

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MONTROSE, a royal, municipal, and police burgh and seaport of Forfarshire, Scotland. It is situated 304 m. N.E. of Dundee by the North British railway and is also connected with the Caledonian railway company's system by a branch to Dubton. Pop. (1901), 12,427. The town occupies a considerable area on a sandy peninsula, and is bounded on the E. by the North Sea, on the N. by the North Esk, on the S. by the South Esk, and on the W. by Montrose Basin, a large depression, about 7 m. in circuit. The reclamation of the Basin has been attempted, but an embankment constructed by Dutch dikers for this purpose was demolished in a few hours by a storm. In the mouth of the channel of the South Esk lies the island of Rossie, or Inchbrayock (pop. 160), which in 1829 was connected with the burgh by means of a suspension bridge 432 ft. long and by a drawbridge with the south bank near the fishing village of Ferryden (pop. 1330). The harbour lies between the suspension bridge and the sea, and is provided with a wet dock. The links form one of the best golf-courses in Scotland and are played over by several clubs. Besides the staple industry of flax-spinning, there are manufactures of linen, canvas, sheetings, starch, soap, chemicals, rope and manures, while iron-founding, tanning and brewing are also carried on. The fisheries are of very considerable importance and the shipping is usually brisk. There is a large trade, especially in timber (the chief import), mainly with Baltic ports and Canada. The parish church is a plain structure, but has a handsome steeple 200 ft. high. The principal buildings include the town-hall, the academy on the links, dating from 1820, though its predecessor belonged to the 16th century; the museum, Dorward's house of refuge, erected in 1839; the infirmary and the royal asylum at Sunnyside on the outskirts to the north-west. Panmure barracks are not far from the wet dock. In High Street are statues to Sir Robert Peel and Joseph Hume. Montrose is governed by a provost, bailies and council, and unites with Arbroath, Brechin, Forfar and Inverbervie (the Montrose burghs) in returning one member to parliament, a district group that was represented for many years by John Morley. Montrose received its charter from David I., and was made a royal burgh in 1352. It was destroyed by fire in 1244. Here Edward I. accepted John Baliol's surrender of the kingdom on the 10th of July 1296. Sir James Douglas sailed from the port in 1330 bound for the Holy Land with the heart of Robert Bruce; and here, too, the Old Pretender embarked in 1716 for France after the failure of his cause. In 1745 the town threw in its lot with the Hanoverians, a fact which lent zest to the daring capture of the "Hazard" sloop of war off Ferryden, by Captain David Ferrier of Brechin, a thorough-going Jacobite.