OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pardoe, Julia

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​PARDOE, JULIA (1806–1862), English writer, was born at Beverley, Yorkshire, in 1806. When fourteen years old she published a volume of poems. In 1835 she went to Constantinople and her experiences there furnished her with material for vivid pictures of Eastern life in the City of the Sultan (1837), Romance of the Harem (1839) and Beauties of the Bosphorus (1839). Her other works, not always historically accurate, include Louis XIV. and the Court of France in the Seventeenth Century (1847); The Court and Reign of Francis I.(1849); The Life and Memoirs of Marie de Medici (1852); Episodes of French History during the Consulate and the First Empire (1859); and several sprightly and pleasant novels. In 1860 she was granted a civil list pension. She died on the 26th of November 1862.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pardubitz

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​PARDUBITZ (Czech, Pardubic), a town of Bohemia, Austria, 65 m. E. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900), 17,029, mostly Czech. The most interesting buildings are the old fortified château of the 16th century, with its Gothic chapel restored in 1880; the church of St Bartholomew, dating in its present form from 1538; the new town hall (1894); the Grünes Tor, also built in 1538; and the handsome new synagogue. Pardubitz has a tolerably active trade in grain and timber, and the horse-fairs attract numerous customers.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Parenthesis

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​PARENTHESIS (from Gr. παρεντιθέναι, put in alongside), the grammatical term denoting the insertion (and so also the signs for such insertion) of a word, phrase or sentence between other words or in another sentence, without interfering with the construction, and serving a qualifying, explanatory or supplementary purpose. In writing or printing such parenthetical words or sentences are marked off by commas, dashes, or, more usually, by square or semi-circular brackets.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Parga

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​PARGA, a seaport of Albania, European Turkey, in the vilayet of Iannina, and on the Ionian Sea. Pop. (1905), about 5000, of whom the majority are Greeks. Parga has a rock-built citadel and a harbour formed by a mole which the Venetians constructed in 1572. It exports citrons, wool, oak, bark and skins. Originally occupying the site of the ancient Toryne (or Palaeo-Parga), a short distance to the west, Parga was removed to its present position after the Turkish invasion in the 15th century. Under Venetian protection, freely accepted in 1401, the inhabitants maintained their municipal independence and commercial prosperity down to the destruction of the Venetian republic in 1797, though on two occasions, in 1500 and 1560, their city was burned by the Turks. The attempts of Ali Pasha of Iannina to make himself master of the place were thwarted partly by the presence of a French garrison in the citadel and partly by the heroic attitude of the Pargiotes themselves, who were anxious to have their city incorporated with the Ionian Republic. To secure their purpose they in 1814 expelled the French garrison and accepted British protection; but the British Government in 1815 determined to go back to the convention of 1800 by which Parga was to be surrendered to Turkey, though no mosque was to be built or Mussulman to settle within its territory. Rather than subject themselves to the tyranny of Ali Pasha, the Pargiotes decided to forsake their country; and accordingly in 1819, having previously exhumed and burned the remains of their ancestors, they migrated to the Ionian Islands. The Turkish government was constrained to pay them £142,425 by way of compensation.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Monaghan (town)

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​MONAGHAN, a market town and the county town of county Monaghan, Ireland, on the Ulster Canal and the Belfast and Clones line of the Great Northern railway, by which it is 52 m. S.W. by W. of Dublin, Pop. (1901), 2932. There is a modern Roman Catholic cathedral (1862–1892) for the diocese of Clogher, a convent of the Sisters of St Louis, and a Protestant church (1836), and the public and county buildings include court-house, gaol, workhouse, asylum, hospital and barracks. Educational establishments include a national model school and the college of St Macartan, preparatory for the Roman Catholic priesthood. The town takes its name (Muinechan, the town of monks) from an early monastery. It was incorporated by James I., but was little more than a hamlet until the close of the 18th century. Rossmore Park, the fine demesne of Lord Rossmore, is the most noteworthy of several neighbouring residences, The town is governed by an urban district council.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Monarchy

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​MONARCHY (Fr. monarchie, from Lat. monarchia, Gr. μοναρχία, rule of one, μόνος, alone, άρχή, rule), strictly, the undivided sovereignty or rule of a single person. Hence the term is applied to states in which the supreme authority is vested in a single person, the monarch, who in his own right is the permanent head of the state. The character of true monarchy is well defined in the well-known lines of Cowper (Verses supposed to be written by Alexander Selkirk):
“I am monarch of all I survey, My right there is none to dispute.”
The word “monarchy” has, however, outlived this original meaning, and is now used, when used at all, somewhat loosely of states ruled over by hereditary sovereigns, as distinct from republics with elected presidents; or for the “monarchical principle,” as opposed to the republican, involved in this distinction.
The old idea of monarchy, viz. that of the prince as representing within the limits of his dominions the monarchy of God over all things, culminated in the 17th century in the doctrine of the divine right of kings, and was defined in the famous dictum of Louis XIV.: L'état c'est moi! The conception of monarchy was derived through Christianity from the theocracies of the East; it was the underlying principle of the medieval empire and also of the medieval papacy, the rule of the popes during the period of its greatest development being sometimes called “the papal monarchy.” The monarchical principle was shaken to its foundations by the English revolution of 1688; it was shattered by the French revolution of 1789; and though it survives as a political force, more or less strongly, in most European countries, “monarchists,” in the strict sense of the word, are everywhere a small and dwindling minority. To express the change phrases were invented which have come into general use, though involving a certain contradiction in terms, viz. “limited” or ​“constitutional monarchy,” as opposed to “absolute” or “autocratic monarchy.”
Finally, a distinction is drawn between “elective” and “hereditary” monarchies. Of the former class the most conspicuous was the Holy Roman Empire; but in Europe all monarchies were, within certain limits, originally elective; and, after the introduction of Christianity, the essential condition of the assumption of sovereign power was not so much kinship with the reigning family as the “sacring” by the divine authority of the Church. The purely hereditary principle was of comparatively late growth, the outcome of obvious convenience, exalted under the influence of various forces into a religious or quasi-religious dogma. (See also Government and Sovereignty.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Monastir

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​MONASTIR, or Bitolia, the second city of Macedonia, and the capital of the vilayet of Monastir in European Turkey, on the Salonica-Monastir railway, 400 m. W. of Constantinople. Pop. (1905), about 60,000. Monastir is situated at an altitude ​of 2019 ft. on the eastern versant of the richly wooded mountains which culminate in the Peristeri (8300 ft.) and sever Lake Prespa from the valley of the Kara-Su or Tzerna. A tributary of this river, the Dragor or Drahor, traverses Monastir through a rocky channel which is rarely filled except after a thaw or heavy rain. The city possesses many mosques, churches and schools, baths and a military hospital. It is the seat of numerous consulates, an American Protestant mission, and a Lazarist mission. The annual value of its trade is about £400,000. Grain, flour, cloth, hides and bones are exported, and a large amount of gold and silver ornaments is manufactured, though this industry tends to decline.
The military advantages of its position at the meeting-place of roads from Salonica, Durazzo, Uskub, and Adrianople led the Turks, about 1820, to make Monastir the headquarters of an army corps. Since then the general and commercial importance of the city has greatly increased, and in 1898 it was made the see of a Bulgarian bishop. The ancient diocese of its Greek archbishop is known as Pelagonia, from the old name of the Kara-Su Plain. Monastir itself has been identified with the ancient Heraclea Lyncestis on the Via Egnatia; its modern name is derived from the monastery of Bukova (“the beeches”) near the southern outskirts of the city.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Monboddo, James Burnett, Lord

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​MONBODDO, JAMES BURNETT, Lord (1714–1799), Scottish judge and anthropologist, was born in 1714 at Monboddo in Kincardineshire. He studied at Aberdeen, and, after passing his law examinations in Edinburgh, he quickly took a leading position at the Scottish bar, being made a Lord of Session in 1767 with the title of Lord Monboddo. Many of his eccentricities, both of conduct and opinion, appear less remarkable to us than they did to his contemporaries; moreover, he seems to have heightened the impression of them by his humorous sallies in their defence. He may have had other reasons than the practice of the ancients for dining late and performing his journeys on horseback instead of in a carriage. He is remembered more particularly for his writings on human origins. In his Antient Metaphysics (1779–1799), Monboddo conceived man as gradually elevating himself from an animal condition, in which his mind is immersed in matter, to a state in which mind acts independently of body. In his equally voluminous work, The Origin and Progress of Language (1773), he brought man under the same species as the orang-outang. He traced the gradual elevation of man to the social state, which he conceived as a natural process determined by “the necessities of human life.” He looked on language (which is not “natural” to man in the sense of being necessary to his self-preservation) as a consequence of his social state. His views about the origin of society and language and the faculties by which man is distinguished from the brutes have many curious points of contact with Darwinism and neo-Kantianism. His idea of studying man as one of the animals, and of collecting facts about savage tribes to throw light on the problems of civilization, bring him into contact with the one, and his intimate knowledge of Greek philosophy with the other. In both respects Monboddo was far in advance of his neighbours. His studied abstinence from fine writing—from “the rhetorical and poetical style fashionable among writers of the present day”—on such subjects as he handled confirmed the idea of his contemporaries that he was only an eccentric ​concocter of supremely absurd paradoxes. He died on the 26th of May 1799.
Boswell’s Life of Johnson gives an account of the lexicographer’s visit to Burnett at Monboddo, and is full of references to the natural contemporary view of a man who thought that the human race could be descended from monkeys.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Moncey, Bon Adrien Jeannot de

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​MONCEY, BON ADRIEN JEANNOT DE, Duke of Conegliano (1754–1842), marshal of France, was the son of a lawyer of Besançon, where he was born on the 31st of July 1754. In his boyhood he twice enlisted in the French army, but his father procured his discharge on both occasions. His desire was at last gratified in 1778, when he received a commission. He was a captain when, in 1791, he embraced the principles of the French Revolution. Moncey won great distinction in the campaigns of 1793 and 1794 on the Spanish frontier (see French Revolutionary Wars), rising from the command of a battalion to the command in chief of the Army of the Western Pyrénées in a few months, and his successful operations were largely instrumental in compelling the Spanish government to make peace. After this he was employed in the highest commands until 1799, when the government, suspecting him of Royalist views, dismissed him. But the coup d’état of 18. Brumaire brought him back to the active list, and in Napoleon’s Italian campaign of 1800 he led a corps from Switzerland into Italy, surmounting all the difficulties of bringing horses and guns over the then formidable pass of St Gothard. In 1801 Napoleon made him inspector-general of gendarmerie, and on the assumption of the imperial title created him a marshal of France. In 1805 Moncey received the grand cordon of the legion of honour, and in 1808 the title of duke of Conegliano. In the latter year, the first of the Peninsular War, Moncey was sent to Spain in command of an army corps. He signalized himself by his victorious advance on Valencia, the effect of which was, however, destroyed by the disaster to Dupont at Baylen, and took a leading part in the emperor’s campaign on the Ebro and in the second siege of Saragossa in 1809. He refused. to serve in the invasion of Russia, and therefore had no share in the campaign of the grande armée in 1812 and 1813. When, however, France was invaded (1814) Marshal Moncey reappeared in the field and fought the last battle for Paris on the heights of Montmartre and at the barrier of Clichy. He remained neutral during the Hundred Days, feeling himself bound to Louis XVIII. by his engagements as a peer of France, but after Waterloo he was punished for refusing to take part in the court-martial on Ney by imprisonment and the loss of his marshalate. He was reinstated in 1816, and re-entered the chamber of peers three years later. His last active service was as commander of an army corps in the short war with Spain, 1823. In 1833 he became governor of the Invalides. He died on the 20th of April 1842.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Monassir

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​MONASSIR (Monasir), an African tribe of Semitic stock, living in the Nile valley (Berber mudiria) between Birti (their headquarters) and Dar Robatab. They are a prosperous, sedentary tribe, claim kinship with the Ababda, and speak Arabic, but are of very mixed blood. Next to Birti their chief settlement is at Salamat. Both places are on the left bank of the Nile. It was by Monassir tribesmen that Colonel J. D. H. Stewart, Gordon's comrade at Khartum, was murdered in 1884.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/O'Donovan, William Rudolf

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​O’DONOVAN, WILLIAM RUDOLF (1844–), American sculptor, was born in Preston county, Virginia, on the 28th of March 1844. He had no technical art training, but after the Civil War, in which he served in the Confederate army, he opened a studio in New York City. and became a well-known sculptor, especially of memorial pieces. Among these are statues of George Washington (in Caracas), Lincoln and Grant (Prospect Park, Brooklyn), the captors of Major André (Tarrytown, N.Y.), and Archbishop Hughes (Fordham University, Fordham, N.Y.), and a memorial tablet to Bayard Taylor (Cornell University). In 1878 he become an associate of the National Academy of Design.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/O'Donovan, Edmund

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​O’DONOVAN, EDMUND (1844–1883), British war-correspondent, was born at Dublin on the 13th of September 1844, the son of John O’Donovan (1809–1861), a well-known Irish archaeologist and topographer. In 1866 he began to contribute to the Irish Times and other Dublin papers. After the battle of Sedan he joined the Foreign Legion of the French army, and was wounded and taken prisoner by the Germans. In 1873 the Carlist rising attracted him to Spain, and he wrote many newspaper letters on the campaign. In 1876 he represented the London Daily News during the rising of Bosnia and Herzegovina against the Turks, and in 1879, for the same paper, made his adventurous and famous journey to Merv. On his arrival at Merv, the Turcomans, suspecting him to be a Russian spy, detained him. It was only after several months’ captivity that O’Donovan managed to get a message to his principals through to Persia, whence it was telegraphed to England. These adventures he described in The Merv Oasis (1882). In 1883 O’Donovan accompanied the ill-fated expedition of Hicks Pasha to the Egyptian Sudan, and perished with it.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/O'Reilly, John Boyle

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​O’REILLY, JOHN BOYLE (1844–1890), Irish-American politician and journalist, was born near Drogheda on the 28th of June 1844, the son of a schoolmaster. After some years of newspaper experience, first as compositor, then as reporter, during which he became an ardent revolutionist and joined the Fenian organization known as the Irish Republican Brotherhood, he enlisted in a British cavalry regiment with the purpose of winning over the troops to the revolutionary cause (1863). At this period wholesale corruption of the army, in which there was a very large percentage of Irishmen, was a strong feature in the Fenian programme, and O’Reilly, who soon became a great favourite, was successful in disseminating disaffection in his regiment. In 1866 the extent of the sedition in the regiments in Ireland was discovered by the authorities. O’Reilly was arrested at Dublin, where his regiment was then quartered, tried by court-martial for concealing his knowledge of an impending mutiny, and sentenced to be shot, but the sentence was subsequently commuted to twenty years’ penal servitude. After confinement in various English prisons, he was transported in 1867 to Bunbury, Western Australia. In 1869 he escaped to the United States, and settled in Boston, where he became editor of The Pilot, a Roman Catholic newspaper. He subsequently organized the expedition which rescued all the Irish military political prisoners from the Western Australia convict establishments (1876), and he aided and abetted the American propaganda in favour of Irish nationalism. O’Reilly died in Hull, Mass., on the 10th of August 1890. His reputation in America naturally differed very much from what it was in England, towards whom he was uniformly mischievous. He was the author of several volumes of poetry of considerable merit, and of a novel of convict life, Moondyne, which achieved a great success. He was also selected to write occasional odes in commemoration of many American celebrations.
See J. J. Roche, Life of John Boyle O’Reilly, (Boston, 1891).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/O'Rell, Max

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​O’RELL, MAX, the nom-de-plume of Paul Blouet (1848–1903), French author and journalist, who was born in Brittany in 1848. He served as a cavalry officer in the Franco-German War, was captured at Sedan, but was released in time to join the Versaillist army which overcame the Commune, and was severely wounded during the second siege of Paris. In 1872 he went to England as correspondent of several French newspapers, and in 1876 became the very efficient French master at St Paul’s school, London, retaining that post until 1884. What induced him to leave was the brilliant success of his first book, John Bull et son Île, which in its French and English forms was so widely read as to make his pseudonym a household word in England and America.
Several other volumes of a similar type dealing in a like spirit with Scotland, America and France followed. He married an Englishwoman, who translated his books. But the main work of the years between 1890 and 1900 was lecturing. Max O’Rell was a ready and amusing speaker, and his easy manner and his humorous gift made him very successful on the platform. He lectured often in the United Kingdom and still more often in America. He died in Paris, where he was acting as correspondent of the New York Journal, on the 25th of May 1903.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/O'Hagan, Thomas O'Hagan, 1st Baron

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​O’HAGAN, THOMAS O’HAGAN, 1st Baron (1812–1885), lord chancellor of Ireland, was born at Belfast, on the 29th of May 1812. He was educated at Belfast Academical Institution, and was called to the Irish bar in 1836. In 1840 he removed to Dublin, where he appeared for the repeal party in many political trials. His advocacy of a continuance of the union with England, and his appointment as solicitor-general for Ireland in 1861 and attorney-general in the following year, lost him the support of the Nationalist party, but he was returned to parliament as member for Tralee in 1863. In 1865 he was appointed a judge of common pleas, and in 1868 became lord chancellor of Ireland in Gladstone’s first ministry. He was the first Roman Catholic to hold the chancellorship since the reign of James II., an act throwing open the office to Roman Catholics having been passed in 1867. In 1870 he was raised to the peerage, and held office until the resignation of the ministry in 1874. In 1880 he again became lord chancellor on Gladstone’s return to office, but resigned in 1881. He died in London on the 1st of February 1885, and was succeeded by his eldest son, Thomas Towneley (1878–1900), and then by another son, Maurice Herbert Towneley (b. 1882).