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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Katha

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​KATHA, a district in the northern division of Upper Burma, with an area of 6994 sq. m., 3730 of which consists of the former separate state of Wuntho. It is bounded N. by the Upper Chindwin, Bhamo and Myitkyina districts, E. by the Kaukkwe River as far as the Irrawaddy, thence east of the Irrawaddy by the Shan State of Möng Mit (Momeik), and by the Shweli River, S. by the Ruby Mines district and Shwebo, and W. by the Upper Chindwin district. Three ranges of hills run through the district, known as the Minwun, Gangaw and Mangin ranges. They separate the three main rivers—the Irrawaddy, the Mèza and the Mu. The Minwun range runs from north to south, and forms for a considerable part of its length the dividing line between the Katha district proper and what formerly was the Wuntho state. Its average altitude is between 1500 and 2000 ft. The Gangaw range runs from the north of the district for a considerable portion of its length close to and down the right bank of the Irrawaddy as far as Tigyaing, where the Myatheindan pagoda gives its name to the last point. Its highest point is 4400 ft., but the average is between 1500 and 2000 ft. The Katha branch of the railway crosses it at Petsut, a village 12 miles west of Katha town. The Mangin range runs through Wuntho (highest peak, Maingthôn, 5450 ft.).
Gold, copper, iron and lead are found in considerable quantities in the district. The Kyaukpazat gold-mines, worked by an English company, gave good returns, but the quartz reef proved to be a mere pocket and is now worked out. The iron, copper and lead are not now worked. Jade and soapstone also exist, and salt is produced from brine wells. There are three forest reserves in Katha, with a total area of 1119 sq. m. The population in 1901 was 176,223, an increase of 32% in the decade. The number of Shans is about half that of Burmese, and of Kadus half that of Shans. The Shans are mostly in the Wuntho sub-division. Rice is the chief crop in the plains, tea, cotton, sesamum and hill rice in the hills. The valley of the Mèza, which is very malarious, was used as a convict settlement under Burmese rule. The district was first occupied by British troops in 1886, but it was not finally quieted till 1890, when the Wuntho sawbwa was deposed and his state incorporated in Katha district.
Katha is the headquarters of the district. The principal means of communication are the Irrawaddy Flotilla steamers, which run between Mandalay and Bhamo, and the railway which communicates with Sagaing to the south and Myitkyina to the north. A ferry-steamer plies between Katha and Bhamo.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Katmandu

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​KATMANDU (less correctly Khatmandu), the capital of the state of Nepal, India, situated on the bank of the Vishnumati river at its confluence with the Baghmati, in 27° 36′ N., 85° 24′ E. The town, which is said to have been founded about 723, contains a population estimated at 70,000, occupying 5000 houses made of brick, and usually from two to four storeys high. Many of the houses have large projecting wooden windows or balconies, richly carved. The maharaja’s palace, a huge, rambling, ungainly building, stands in the centre of the town, which also contains numerous temples. One of these, a wooden building in the centre of the town, gives it its name (kat = wood). The streets are extremely narrow, and the whole town very dirty. A British resident is stationed about a mile north of the town.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Katsura, Taro, Marquess

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​KATSURA, TARO, Marquess (1847– ), Japanese soldier and statesman, was born in 1847 in Choshu. He commenced his career by fighting under the Imperial banner in the civil war of the Restoration, and he displayed such talent that he was twice sent at public expense to Germany (in 1870 and 1884) to study strategy and tactics. In 1886 he was appointed vice-minister of war, and in 1891 the command of division devolved on him. He led the left wing of the Japanese army in the campaign of 1894–95 against China, and made a memorable march in the depth of winter from the north-east shore of the Yellow Sea to Haicheng, finally occupying Niuchwang, and effecting a junction with the second army corps which moved up the Liaotung peninsula. For these services he received the title of viscount. He held the portfolio of war from 1898 to 1901, when he became premier and retained office for four and a half years, a record in Japan. In 1902 his cabinet concluded the first entente with England, which event procured for Katsura the rank of count. He also directed state affairs throughout the war with Russia, and concluded the offensive and defensive treaty of 1905 with Great Britain, receiving from King Edward the grand cross of the order of St Michael and St George, and being raised by the mikado to the rank of marquess. He resigned the premiership in 1905 to Marquess Saionji, but was again invited to form a cabinet in 1908. Marquess Katsura might be considered the chief exponent of conservative views in Japan. Adhering strictly to the doctrine that ministries were responsible to the emperor alone and not at all to the diet, he stood wholly aloof from political parties, only his remarkable gift of tact and conciliation enabling him to govern on such principles.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Katkov, Michael Nikiforovich

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​KATKOV, MICHAEL NIKIFOROVICH (1818–1887), Russian journalist, was born in Moscow in 1818. On finishing his course at the university he devoted himself to literature and philosophy, and showed so little individuality that during the reign of Nicholas I. he never once came into disagreeable contact with the authorities. With the Liberal reaction and strong reform movement which characterized the earlier years of Alexander II.’s reign (1855–1881) he thoroughly sympathized, and for some time he warmly advocated the introduction of liberal institutions of the British type, but when he perceived that the agitation was assuming a Socialistic and Nihilist tinge, and that in some quarters of the Liberal camp indulgence was being shown to Polish national aspirations, he gradually modified his attitude until he came to be regarded by the Liberals as a renegade. At the beginning of 1863 he assumed the management and editorship of the Moscow Gazette, and he retained that position till his death in 1887. During these twenty-four years he exercised considerable influence on public opinion and even on the Government, by representing with great ability the moderately Conservative spirit of Moscow in opposition to the occasionally ultra-Liberal and always cosmopolitan spirit of St Petersburg. With the Slavophils he agreed in advocating the extension of Russian influence in south-eastern Europe, but he carefully kept aloof from them and condemned their archaeological and ecclesiastical sentimentality. Though generally temperate in his views, he was extremely incisive and often violent in his modes of expressing them, so that he made many enemies and sometimes incurred the displeasure of the press-censure and the ministers, against which he was more than once protected by Alexander III. in consideration of his able advocacy of national interests. He is remembered chiefly as an energetic opponent of Polish national aspirations, of extreme Liberalism, of the system of public instruction based on natural science, and of German political influence. In this last capacity he helped to prepare the way for the Franco-Russian alliance.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kato, Taka-Akira

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​KATO, TAKA-AKIRA (1859– ), Japanese statesman, was born at Nagoya, and commenced life as an employee in the great firm of Mitsu Bishi. In 1887 he became private secretary to Count Okuma, minister of state for foreign affairs. Subsequently he served as director of a bureau in the finance department, and from 1894 to 1899 he represented his country at the court of St James. He received the portfolio of foreign affairs in the fourth Ito cabinet (1900–1901), which remained in office only a few months. Appointed again to the same position in the Saionji cabinet (1906), he resigned after a brief interval, being opposed to the nationalization of the private railways, which measure the cabinet approved. He then remained without office until 1908, when he again accepted the post of ambassador in London. He was decorated with the grand cross of St Michael and St George, and earned the reputation of being one of the strongest men among the junior statesmen.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Katrine, Loch

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​KATRINE, LOCH, a fresh-water lake of Scotland, lying almost entirely in Perthshire. The boundary between the counties of Perth and Stirling runs from Glengyle, at the head of the lake, down the centre to a point opposite Stronachlachar from which it strikes to the south-western shore towards Loch Arklet. The loch, which has a south-easterly trend, is about 8 m. long, and its greatest breadth is 1 m. It lies 364 ft. above the sea-level. It occupies an area of 43/4 square miles and has a drainage basin of 371/2 square miles. The average depth is 142 ft., the greatest depth being 495 ft. The average annual rainfall is 78 inches. The mean temperature at the surface is 56.4° F., and at the bottom 41° F. The scenery has been immortalized in Sir Walter Scott’s Lady of the Lake. The surrounding hills are of considerable altitude, the most remarkable being the head of Ben A’an (1750 ft.) and the grassy craigs and broken contour of Ben Venue (2393 ft.). It is fed by the Gyle and numerous burns, and drained by the Achray to Loch Achray and thence by the Black Avon to Loch Vennacher. Since 1859 it has formed the chief source of the water-supply of Glasgow, the aqueduct leaving the lake about 11/2 m. S.E. of Stronachlachar. By powers obtained in 1885 the level of the lake was increased by 5 ft. by a system of sluices regulating the outflow of the Achray. One result of this damming up has been to submerge the Silver Strand and to curtail the dimensions of Ellen’s Isle. The principal points on the shores are Glengyle, formerly a fastness of the Macgregors, the Trossachs, the Goblins’ Cave on Ben Venue, and Stronachlachar (Gaelic, “the mason’s nose”), from which there is a ferry to Coilachra on the opposite side. A road has been constructed from the Trossachs for nearly six miles along the northern shore. During summer steamers ply between the Trossachs and Stronachlachar and there is a daily service of coaches from the Trossachs to Callander (about 10 m.) and to Aberfoyle (9 m.), and between Stronachlachar, to Inversnaid on Loch Lomond (about 41/2 m.). The road to Inversnaid runs through the Macgregors’ country referred to in Scott’s Rob Roy.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Katsena

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​KATSENA, an ancient state of the western Sudan, now included in the province of Kano in the British protectorate of Northern Nigeria. Katsena was amongst the oldest of the Hausa states. There exist manuscripts which carry back its history for about 1000 years and tradition ascribes the origin of the Hausa population, which is known also by the name of Habe or Habeche, to the union of Bajibda of Bagdad with a prehistoric queen of Daura. The conquest of the Habe of Katsena by the Fula about the beginning of the 19th century made little difference to the country. The more cultivated Habe were already Mahommedan and the new rulers adopted the existing customs and system of government. These were in many respects highly developed and included elaborate systems of taxation and justice.
The capital of the administrative district is a town of the same name, in 13° N., 7° 41′ E., being 160 m. E. by S. of the city of Sokoto, and 84 m. N.W. of Kano. The walls of Katsena have a circuit of between 13 and 14 miles, but only a small part of the enclosed space is inhabited. In the 17th and 18th centuries it appears to have been the largest town in the Hausa countries, and its inhabitants at that time numbered some 100,000. The date of the foundation of the present town must be comparatively modern, for it is believed to have been moved from its ancient site and at the time of Leo Africanus (c. 1513) there was no place of any considerable size in the province of Katsena. Before that period Katsena boasted of being the chief seat of learning throughout the Hausa states and this reputation was maintained to the time of the Fula conquest. In the beginning of the 19th century the town fell into the hands of the Fula, but only after a protracted and heroic defence. In March 1903 Sir F. Lugard visited Katsena on his way from Sokoto and the emir and chiefs accepted British suzerainty without fighting. The Katsena district has since formed an administrative district in the double province of Kano and Katagum. The emir was unfaithful to his oath of allegiance to the British crown, and was deposed in 1904. His successor was installed and took the oath of allegiance ​ in December of the same year. Katsena is a rich and populous district.
See the Travels of Heinrich Barth (new ed., London, 1890, chs. xxiii. and xxiv.). Consult also the Annual Reports on Northern Nigeria issued by the Colonial Office, London, particularly the Report for 1902.
Katsena is also the name of a town in the district of Katsena-Allah, in the province of Muri, Northern Nigeria. This district is watered by a river of the same name which takes its rise in the mountains of the German colony of Cameroon, and flows into the Benue at a point above Abinsi.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kater, Henry

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​KATER, HENRY (1777–1835), English physicist of German descent, was born at Bristol on the 16th of April 1777. At first he purposed to study law; but this he abandoned on his father’s death in 1794, and entered the army, obtaining a commission in the 12th regiment of foot, then stationed in India, where he rendered valuable assistance in the great trigonometrical survey. Failing health obliged him to return to England; and in 1808, being then a lieutenant, he entered on a distinguished student career in the senior department of the Royal Military College at Sandhurst. Shortly after he was promoted to the rank of captain. In 1814 he retired on half-pay, and devoted the remainder of his life to scientific research. He died at London on the 26th of April 1835.
His first important contribution to scientific knowledge was the comparison of the merits of the Cassegrainian and Gregorian telescopes, from which (Phil. Trans., 1813 and 1814) he deduced that the illuminating power of the former exceeded that of the latter in the proportion of 5 : 2. This inferiority of the Gregorian he explained as being probably due to the mutual interference of the rays as they crossed at the principal focus before reflection at the second mirror. His most valuable work was the determination of the length of the second’s pendulum, first at London and subsequently at various stations throughout the country (Phil. Trans., 1818, 1819). In these researches he skilfully took advantage of the well-known property of reciprocity between the centres of suspension and oscillation of an oscillating body, so as to determine experimentally the precise position of the centre of oscillation; the distance between these centres was then the length of the ideal simple pendulum having the same time of oscillation. As the inventor of the floating collimator, Kater rendered a great service to practical astronomy (Phil. Trans., 1825, 1828). He also published memoirs (Phil. Trans., 1821, 1831) on British standards of length and mass; and in 1832 he published an account of his labours in verifying the Russian standards of length. For his services to Russia in this respect he received in 1814 the decoration of the order of St. Anne; and the same year he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society.
His attention was also turned to the subject of compass needles, his Bakerian lecture “On the Best Kind of Steel and Form for a Compass Needle” (Phil. Trans., 1821) containing the results of many experiments. The treatise on “Mechanics” in Lardner’s Cyclopaedia was partly written by him; and his interest in more purely astronomical questions was evidenced by two communications to the Astronomical Society’s Memoirs for 1831–1833—the one on an observation of Saturn’s outer ring, the other on a method of determining longitude by means of lunar eclipses.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Intaglio

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​INTAGLIO (an Ital. word, from intagliare, to incise, cut into), a form of engraving or carving, in which the pattern or design is sunk below the surface of the material thus treated, opposed to “cameo” or “relievo”—carving or engraving where the design is raised. Intaglio is thus applied to incised gems, as cameo (q.v.) to gems cut in relief (see Gems).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Institute

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​INSTITUTE (from Lat. instituere, to establish or set up), something established, an institution, particularly any society established for an artistic, educational, scientific or social purpose. The word seems to have been first applied in English to such institutions for the advancement of science or art as were modelled on the great French society, the Institut National (see Academies). It is thus the name of such societies as the Royal Institute of British Architects, the Imperial Institute and the like. It is extended to similar organizations, particularly to educational, on a smaller or local scale, such as Mechanics’ or Workmen’s Institutes, and is sometimes applied to charitable foundations. In the United States the word is, in a particular sense, applied to periodic classes giving instruction in the principles of education to the teachers of elementary and district schools. The term “institute” is often used to translate the Lat. institutio, in the sense of a treatise on the elements of any subject, and particularly of law or jurisprudence; thus the compilation of the principles of Roman law, made by order of the emperor Justinian, is known as Justinian’s Institutes, and hence Coke’s treatise on English law, of which the first part is better known as Coke upon Littleton, is called The Institute. The same title is borne by Calvin’s work on the elements of the Christian doctrine. In Scots law “institute” is the person named, in a settlement or testament to whom an estate is first limited; those who follow, failing him, are termed “substitutes.”
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Institutional Church

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​INSTITUTIONAL CHURCH, the name generally applied both in the British Isles and in America to a type of church which supplements its ordinary work by identifying itself in various ways with the secular interests of those whom it seeks to influence. The idea of such extension of function grew out of the recognition of the fact that the normal activities of church work entirely failed to retain the interest of a large class of the population to whom the ritual formality of ordinary services was unacceptable. Various attempts were made to overcome this deficiency, e.g. by modifying the form of service or of some services, by the addition to the ordinary services of more or less informal meetings (e.g. the Pleasant Sunday Afternoon services), by specially excusing persons from wearing the normal church-going attire in holiday resorts, and by holding services out of doors. The principle underlying all these changes is systematized in the Institutional Church which, in addition to its main building for ​specifically religious services, provides other rooms or buildings which during the week are open for the use of members and friends. Lectures, concerts, debates and social gatherings are organized; there are reading rooms, gymnasiums and other recreations rooms; various clubs (cycling, cricket, football) are formed. The organization of the whole is subdivided into special departments managed by committees. By these various means many persons are attracted into the atmosphere of the church’s work who could not be induced to attend the formal services.
This expansion of normal church work may be traced back in England to at least as early as 1840, but the full development of the Institutional Church belongs only to the latter years of the 19th century. The chief example in England is Whitefield’s Central Mission in Tottenham Court Road, London, a church which, in addition to an elaborate organization on the lines above described, has an official journal. In the United States the movement may be said to date from about 1880. The name “Institutional” was first applied to Berkeley Temple, Boston, by Dr William Jewett Tucker, then president of Dartmouth College. The obvious criticism that this epithet emphasizes the administrative and secular side to the exclusion of the spiritual led to the tentative adoption of other titles, e.g. the “Open Church,” the “Free Church,” the former of which is the more commonly used. In 1894 was formed the “Open and Institutional Church League” at New York, which held a number of conventions and served as a headquarters for the numerous separate churches. In connexion with this league was formed the “National Federation of Churches and Christian Workers,” which held a convention in 1905.
See C. Silvester Horne, The Institutional Church (London, 1906); G. W. Mead, Modern Methods in Church Work (New York, 1897); R. A. Woods, English Social Movements (New York, 1891).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Insubres

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​INSUBRES (Ἲσομβρες, Ἲνσουβροι), a Celtic people of upper Italy, the most powerful in Gallia Transpadana, inhabiting the country between the Adda, the Ticinus and the Alps. According to Livy (v. 34) they appear to have been a branch of the Aedui in Gallia Transalpina, though others assume that they were Umbrians, a view to some extent supported by the form Is-ombr-es. Livy states that Bellovesus and his Gauls, having crossed the Alps and defeated the Etruscans near the Ticinus, found themselves in the territory of the Insubres (also the name of a pagus of the Aedui). Here they built a city and called it Mediolanum (Milan), after the name of a village in their home in Gallia Transalpina. The name Insubres thus appears applied to the inhabitants (1) of the Aeduan pagus, (2) of the territory in Gallia Transpadana occupied by Bellovesus, (3) to the founders of Mediolanum. From 222 to 195 B.C. the Insubres were frequently at war with the Romans. In 222 they were defeated at Clastidium by M. Claudius Marcellus, who gained the spolia opima by slaying with his own hand their king Viridomarus (Virdumarus), and in 194 they were finally subdued by L. Valerius Flaccus.
See H. Nissen, Italische Landeskunde (1902) ii. 179; A. Holder, Altkeltischer Sprachschatz, ii. (1904).