OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Aletrium

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​ALETRIUM (mod. Alatri), a town of the Hernici, about 6 m. due N. of Frusino, Italy, mentioned in 306 B.C. for its fidelity to Rome. In Cicero’s time it was a municipium, and continued in this position throughout the imperial period. It is chiefly remarkable for its finely preserved fortifications constructed of tetrahedral and polygonal blocks of local limestone well jointed, with maximum dimensions of about 3 by 11/2 ft.; the outer circuit of the city wall measures about 21/2 m. It is almost entirely an embanking wall, as is the rule in the cities of this part of Italy, with a maximum height, probably, of about 30 ft. Two of the gates (of which there were perhaps five) are still to some extent preserved, and three posterns are to be found. In the centre of the city rises a hill (1647 ft.) which was adopted as the citadel. Remains of the fortifications of three successive periods can be traced, of which the last, perhaps a little more recent than that of the city wall, is the best preserved. In the first two periods the construction is rough, while in the third the blocks are very well and finely jointed, and the faces smoothed; they are mostly polygonal in form and are much larger (the maximum about 10 by 6 ft.) than those of the city wall. A flat surface was formed partly by smoothing off the rock and partly by the erection of huge terrace walls which rise to a height of over 50 ft., enclosing a roughly rectangular area of 235 by 115 yds. Two approaches to the citadel were constructed, both passing through the wall; the openings of both are rectangular. The architrave of the larger, known as Porta di Civita, measures about 17 ft. in length, 5 ft. in height, 6 ft. in thickness; while that of the smaller is decorated with three phalli in relief. Later, though probably in ancient times, a ramp was added on the northern side. In the centre of the arx was a building on the site of the present cathedral, of which only a small portion is preserved. Remains of a high-pressure aqueduct, which supplied the town with water and was constructed with other public buildings (Corp. Inscr. Lat. x., Berlin, 1883, p. 5807) by L. Betilienus Varus, may still be traced. A temple was excavated in 1889 about 1/2 m. to the north of the town, and many fragments of the painted terra-cottas with which it was decorated were found. A reconstruction of it has been erected in the Museo di Villa Giulia at Rome. The present town (pop. in 1901, 15,322) has a picturesque aspect, and contains many buildings in the Gothic style.
See R. Bassel, Centralblatt der Bauverwaltung, 1881, 121, p. 134; H. Winnefeld, Römische Mitteilungen, 1889, 126; G. Fiorelli in Notizie degli Scavi, 1882, 417.  (T. As.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Alexander, George

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​ALEXANDER, GEORGE (1858– ), English actor, whose family name was Samson, was born in Reading on the 19th of June 1858, the son of a Scottish manufacturer. He went into business in London after leaving school, but having acted as an amateur he determined to make the stage his profession. His first appearance was at Nottingham in 1879, and after some seasons of provincial experience he made his first London appearance as Caleb Deecie in Two Roses in 1881 with Irving at the Lyceum. He was selected by W. S. Gilbert to support Mary Anderson in Comedy and Tragedy, returned for a time to the Lyceum, where he was Irving’s principal associate, especially as Faust (1886) and Macduff (1888); and, after starting successfully under his own management at the Avenue Theatre in 1890 with Dr Bill, in 1891 became manager of the St James’s Theatre. There he produced a number of successful plays, notably Oscar Wilde’s Lady Windermere’s Fan and The Importance of being Earnest, Pinero’s Second Mrs Tanqueray, The Princess and the Butterfly, His House in Order and The Thunderbolt; C. Haddon Chamber’s The Idler ; H. A. Jones’s Masqueraders; Alfred Sutro’s John Glayde’s Honour and The Builder of Bridges; Carton’s Liberty Hall and The Tree of Knowledge; Anthony Hope’s Prisoner of Zenda and Rupert of Hentzau; and Stephen Phillips’s Paolo and Francesca, himself playing the leading parts with great distinction. In 1907 he was elected a member of the London County Council as a municipal reformer, but continued to act regularly at the St James’s.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Alethiology

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​ALETHIOLOGY (from the Gr. ἀλήθεια, truth), an uncommon expression for the doctrine of truth, used by Sir William Hamilton in his philosophic writings when treating of the rules for the discrimination of truth and error.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Aleurites

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​ALEURITES (Gr. ἀλευρίτης, pertaining to ἄλευρον, ground meal, from ἀλεῖν, to grind), a genus of trees belonging to the natural order Euphorbiaceae. Aleurites moluccana, or triloba, is widely cultivated throughout the tropical and sub-tropical parts of the world for its fruit, which is about the size of a walnut, and contains several seeds which are rich in oil. The oil is extracted and used for food and light; it is known in India as kekuna, and the tree as the “candle-nut.” In the Sandwich Islands the nuts are strung upon strips of wood and used as torches. The oil is exported to Europe for candle-making. A. cordata flourishes in China, where it is known as the varnish-tree, on account of the lac contained in its seeds.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Alexander, John White

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​ALEXANDER, JOHN WHITE (1856– ), American painter, was born in Allegheny, Pennsylvania, on the 7th of October ​1856. He was left an orphan when very young, became an illustrator for Harper’s Magazine, studied in Europe, became a pupil of the Royal Academy at Munich, and also worked in Venice, in Holland and in Paris, where he attracted much attention by his exhibition at the Salon of two female portraits entitled “Gris” and “Noir.” He became a member of the Société Nationale des Beaux Arts (Paris), of the National Academy of Design (New York), of the International Society (London), and of the Vienna and Munich Societies of Painters. In 1901 he was made a Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. He executed decorative panels for the Congressional Library, Washington, D.C., and a large decoration for the Carnegie Institute, Pittsburg, Pennsylvania; and his works include numerous portraits and subject pictures.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Alessi, Galeazzo

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​ALESSI, GALEAZZO (1512–1572), Italian architect, was born at Perugia, and was probably a pupil of Caporali. He was an enthusiastic student of ancient architecture, and his style gained for him a European reputation. Genoa is indebted to him for a number of its most magnificent palaces, and specimens of his skill may be seen in the churches of San Paolo and Santa Vittoria at Milan, in certain parts of the Escurial, and in numerous churches and palaces throughout Sicily, Flanders and Germany.
See Rossi, Di Galeazzo Alessi memorie (Perugia, 1873).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Alexander, Archibald

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​ALEXANDER, ARCHIBALD (1772–1851), American Presbyterian divine, was born, of Scottish-Irish descent, in that part of Augusta county which is now Rockbridge county, Virginia, on the 17th of April 1772. After completing his preliminary education in the little school at Lexington, Virginia, which later developed into Washington and Lee University, he came under the influence of the religious movement known as the “great revival” (1789–1790) and devoted himself to the study of theology. Licensed to preach in 1791, he was engaged for several years as an itinerant Presbyterian preacher in his native state, and acquired during this period the facility in extemporaneous speaking for which he was remarkable. He was president of Hampden-Sidney College from 1796 to 1807, with a short intermission (in 1801–1802), and in 1807 became pastor of Pine Street Church, Philadelphia. In 1812 he became first professor in the newly established Presbyterian Theological Seminary at Princeton, New Jersey, where he remained until his death at Princeton on the 22nd of October 1851, filling successively the chairs of didactic and polemic theology (1812–1840), and pastoral and polemic theology (1840–1851). He married, in 1802, Janetta Waddel, the daughter of the celebrated blind preacher, James Waddel (1739–1805), whose eloquence was described in William Wirt’s Letters of a British Spy (1803). Dr Alexander wrote a considerable number of theological works, which had a large circulation. Among these may be mentioned his Brief Outline of the Evidences of the Christian Religion (1825), which passed through several editions, and was translated into various languages; The Canon of the Old and New Testament Ascertained; or the Bible Complete without the Apocrypha and Unwritten Traditions (1826); A History of the Israelitish Nation (1852), and Outlines of Moral Science (1852), the last two being published posthumously.
See the biography (New York, 1854) by his son James W. Alexander.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Alexander, Francis

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​ALEXANDER, FRANCIS (1800–1881), American portrait-painter, was born in Windham county, Connecticut, in February 1800. Brought up on a farm, he taught himself the use of colours, and in 1820 went to New York City and studied painting with Alexander Robertson. He spent the winters of 1831 and 1832 in Rome, and then for nearly a decade he lived in Boston, Massachusetts, where he had considerable vogue, and where in 1842 he painted a portrait of Charles Dickens. One of his best portraits is that of Mrs Fletcher Webster in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts. He died in 1881 in Florence.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Agrapha

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The earliest modern collection of such sayings was by Cotelerius, Ecclesiae Graecae Monumenta (1677–1688), followed by J. E. Grabe, Spicelegium (1698 and 1700), and J. B. Fabricius, Codex Apocryph. N. T. (2nd ed., 1719). See also A. Resch, Agrapha (Leipzig, 1889); J. H. Ropes, Die Sprüche Jesu (Leipzig, 1896); and the article “Sayings” in J. Hastings’ Dictionary of Christ and the Gospels.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Agricola, Gnaeus Julius

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​AGRICOLA, GNAEUS JULIUS (A.D. 37–93), Roman statesman and general, father-in-law of the historian Tacitus, was born on the 13th of June A.D. 37 (according to others, 39) at Forum Julii (Fréjus) in Gallia Narbonensis. His father, Julius Graecinus, having been put to death by Caligula, Agricola was brought up by his mother Julia Procilla. After studying philosophy at Massilia, he entered the army and served (59) under Suetonius Paulinus in Britain. In 61 he returned to Rome, where he married Domitia Decidiana, a Roman lady of distinction. In 63 he was quaestor in Asia, in 65 tribune, in 68 praetor, and when Vespasian was proclaimed emperor, he immediately declared himself his supporter. In 70 he was appointed to the command of the 20th legion in Britain, then stationed at Deva (Chester). On his return to Rome at the end of three years he was made censor, raised to the rank of patrician, and appointed governor of Aquitania (74–78). Appointed consul suffectus in the following year, he was admitted into the college of pontiffs and made governor of Britain. In the same year he betrothed his daughter to Tacitus. Although the legation of Britain lasted as a rule only three years, Agricola held the post for at least seven and succeeded in reconciling the inhabitants to Roman rule and inducing them to adopt the customs and civilization of their conquerors. His military achievements were equally brilliant. After conquering the Ordovices in North Wales and the island of Mona (Anglesey), during the next two years he carried his victorious arms to the Taüs (Tay; others read Tanaus, perhaps the north Tyne), and in his fourth campaign fortified the country between Clota and Bodotria (the firths of Clyde and Forth) as a protection against the attacks ​of the Caledonians. Having explored the coasts of Fife and Forfar, he gained a decisive victory over the Caledonians under Galgacus at the Graupian hill (see Britain, Roman.) His successes, however, had aroused the envy and suspicion of Domitian. He was recalled to Rome, where he lived a life of studied retirement, to avoid the possibility of giving offence to the tyrant. He died in 93, poisoned, it was rumoured, by the emperor’s orders. The Life of Agricola by his son-in-law Tacitus is practically a panegyric or funeral oration.
See Urlichs, De Vita et Honoribus Agricolae (1868); Dio Cassius xxxix. 50, lxvi. 20: Mommsen, Provinces of the Roman Empire (Eng. trans., 1886), i. 183-184, 194.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Agricola, Johannes

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​AGRICOLA (originally Schneider, then Schnitter), JOHANNES (1494–1566), German Protestant reformer, was born on the 20th of April 1494, at Eisleben, whence he is sometimes called Magister Islebius. He studied at Wittenberg, where he soon gained the friendship of Luther. In 1519 he accompanied Luther to the great assembly of German divines at Leipzig, and acted as recording secretary. After teaching for some time in Wittenberg, he went to Frankfort in 1525 to establish the reformed mode of worship. He had resided there only a month when he was called to Eisleben, where he remained till 1526 as teacher in the school of St Andrew, and preacher in the Nicolai church. In 1536 he was recalled to teach in Wittenberg, and was welcomed by Luther. Almost immediately, however, a controversy, which had been begun ten years before and been temporarily silenced, broke out more violently than ever. Agricola was the first to teach the views which Luther was the first to stigmatize by the now well-known name Antinomian (q.v.), maintaining that while the unregenerate were still under the Mosaic law, Christians were entirely free from it, being under the gospel alone. In consequence of the bitter controversy with Luther that resulted, Agricola in 1540 left Wittenberg secretly for Berlin, where he published a letter addressed to the elector of Saxony, which was generally interpreted as a recantation of his obnoxious views. Luther, however, seems not to have so accepted it, and Agricola remained at Berlin. The elector Joachim II. of Brandenburg, having taken him into his favour, appointed him court preacher and general superintendent. He held both offices until his death in 1566, and his career in Brandenburg was one of great activity and influence. Along with Julius von Pflug, bishop of Naumburg-Zeitz, and Michael Helding, titular bishop of Sidon. he prepared the Augsburg Interim of 1548. He endeavoured in vain to appease the Adiaphoristic controversy (see Adiaphorists.) He died during an epidemic of plague on the 22nd of September 1566. Agricola wrote a number of theological works which are now of little interest. He was the first to make a collection of German proverbs which he illustrated with a commentary. The most complete edition, which contains seven hundred and fifty proverbs, is that published at Wittenberg in 1592; a modern one is that of Latendorf, 1862.
See Cordes, Joh. Agricola’s Schriften möglichst verzeichnet (Altona, 1817); Life by G. Kawerau (1881), who also wrote the notice in Hauck-Herzog, Realencyk. für prot. Theol., where other literature is cited.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Agricola, Martin

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​AGRICOLA, MARTIN (c. 1500–1556), German musician, was born about 1500 in Lower Silesia. His German name was Sohr or Sore. From 1524 till his death he lived at Magdeburg, where he occupied the post of teacher or cantor in the Protestant school. The senator and music-printer Rhau, of Wittenberg, was a close friend of Agricola, whose theoretical works, providing valuable material concerning the change from the old to the new system of notation, he published. Agricola was also the first to harmonize in four parts Luther’s chorale, Ein’ feste Burg.
Four other Agricolas are known as composers between the end of the 15th century and the middle of the 17th.
In the 18th century we find Burney, in the course of his tour in Germany (1772), much impressed by Johann Friedrich Agricola (1720–1774), court composer and director of the royal chapel to Frederick the Great. This Agricola was a pupil of Bach, and a fine organist and clever writer on music, especially on operatic style, the problems of which were beginning to be raised by French writers-and composers in preparation for the work of Gluck.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Agricola, Rodolphus

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​AGRICOLA, RODOLPHUS (properly Roelof Huysmann) (1443–1485), Dutch scholar, was born at Baflo, near Groningen, in 1443. He was educated at Louvain, where he graduated as master of arts. After residing for some time in Paris, he went in 1476 to Ferrara in Italy, and attended the lectures of the celebrated Theodorus Gaza (1400–1478) on the Greek language. Having visited Pavia and Rome, he returned to his native country about 1479, and was soon afterwards appointed syndic of Groningen. In 1482, on the invitation of Johann von Dalberg, bishop of Worms (1445–1503), whose friendship he had gained in Italy, he accepted a professorship at Heidelberg, and for three years delivered lectures there and at Worms on the literature of Greece and Rome. By his personal influence much more than by his writings he did much for the promotion of learning in Germany; and Erasmus and other critics of the generation immediately succeeding his own are full of his praises. In his opposition to the scholastic philosophy he in some degree anticipated the great intellectual revolution in which many of his pupils were conspicuous actors. He died at Heidelberg on the 28th of October 1485. His principal work is De inventione dialectica, libri iii., in which he attempts to change the scholastic philosophy of the day.
See T. F. Tresling, Vita et Merita Rudolphi Agricolae (Groningen, 1830); v. Bezold, R. Agricola (München, 1884): and Ihm, Der Humanist R. Agricola, sein Leben und seine Schriften (Paderb., 1893).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Agricola, Christoph Ludwig

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​AGRICOLA, CHRISTOPH LUDWIG (1667–1719), German landscape painter, was born and died at Regensburg (Ratisbon). He spent a great part of his life in travel, visiting England, Holland and France, and residing for a considerable period at Naples. His numerous landscapes, chiefly cabinet pictures, are remarkable for fidelity to nature, and especially for their skilful representation of varied phases of climate. In composition his style shows the influence of Caspar Poussin, while in light and colour he imitates Claude Lorraine. His pictures are to be found in Dresden, Brunswick, Vienna, Florence, Naples and many other towns of both Germany and Italy.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Agricola, Johann Friedrich

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​AGRICOLA, JOHANN FRIEDRICH (1720–1774), German musician, was born at Dobitschen in Saxe-Altenburg, on the 4th of January 1720. While a student of law at Leipzig he studied music under Johann Sebastian Bach. In 1741 he went to Berlin, where he studied musical composition. He was soon generally recognized as one of the most skilful organists of his time; and in 1751, as the result of a comic opera, Il Filosofo convinto in amore, performed at Potsdam, he was made court composer to Frederick the Great. He died in Berlin on the 1st of December 1774. In 1759, on the death of Karl Heinrich Graun, he was appointed conductor of the royal orchestra. Besides several operas of merit, he composed instrumental pieces and church music. His reputation chiefly rests, however, on his theoretical and critical writings on musical subjects. He wrote under the pseudonym of Flavio Anicio Olibrio.
# "Chet" (Yates)

By KATHERINE M. YATES
"Chet." With six illustrations. 12mo, cloth, $1.25.
What the Pine Tree Heard. Boards, postpaid, 50 cents. Limp leather, $1.00.
The Grey Story Book. Octavo, boards, postpaid, 50 cents.
On the Way There. Octavo, white leatherette, postpaid, 50 cents. Limp leather, $1.00.
At the Door. Octavo, tan leatherette, postpaid, 50 cents. Limp leather, $1.00.
Through the Woods. Octavo, green leatherette, postpaid, 50 cents. Limp leather, $1.00.
By the Wayside. Octavo, white leatherette, postpaid, 50 cents.
Cheery and the Chum. Octavo, cloth colored illustrations, 50 cents.
A. C. McCLURG & CO., Publishers
"CHET"
by Katherine M. Yates Author of "On the Way There," "At the Door," "Cheery and the Chum," etc.
Illustrated by H. S. De Lay
Third edition
Chicago A. C. McCLURG & CO. 1912
Preface
ONCE upon a time—I begin it thus, because it is such a very old story—a person stood before the painting of a sunset. Presently he turned to the artist. "I never saw such colors as those in a sunset," he said.
And the artist looked at him and smiled:—"But, my friend," he said, "don't you wish that you could?"
And so, should any of my readers feel tempted to say:—"I know no children like these," I would reply to them:—"But don't you wish that you did?"
K. M. Y.
    Chicago, June 1, 1909.
CONTENTS
ILLUSTRATIONS
This work is in the public domain in the United States because it was published before January 1, 1929.
The longest-living author of this work died in 1951, so this work is in the public domain in countries and areas where the copyright term is the author's life plus 72 years or less. This work may be in the public domain in countries and areas with longer native copyright terms that apply the rule of the shorter term to foreign works.
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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Anabasis

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​ANABASIS (ἀνάβασις, a march up country), the title given by Xenophon (q.v.) to his narrative of the expedition of Cyrus the younger against his brother, Artaxerxes of Persia, 401 B.C., and adopted by Arrian for his history of the expedition of Alexander the Great.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Anabolism

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​ANABOLISM (Gr. ἀνά, up, βολή, a throw), the biological term for the building up in an organism of more complex from simpler substances, constructive metabolism. (See Physiology.)