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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Niccolite

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​NICCOLITE, a mineral consisting of nickel arsenide, NiAs, containing 43·9% nickel and 56·1 % arsenic. Crystals are hexagonal, but are rare and indistinct. It usually occurs as compact masses. A characteristic feature is the pale copper-red colour, with metallic lustre, on the uneven fractured surfaces. It is opaque and brittle, and the streak is brownish-black. The specific gravity is 7·5, and the hardness 51/2. Small quantities of sulphur, iron and cobalt are usually present, and sometimes the arsenic is largely replaced by antimony. Antimonial varieties are known as arite, and form a passage to the isomorphous species breithauptite (nickel antimonide). Niccolite occurs with ores of cobalt. silver and copper at Annaberg and Schneeberg in Saxony, at Sangerhausen and Mansfeld in Prussian Saxony and other localities; it has occasionally been found in Cornwall and Scotland. The original arite (aarite) is from Mount Ar (Aar) near Pic du Midi d’Ossau in the Pyrenees.
The names niccolite (J. D. Dana, 1868) and nickeline (F. S. Beudant, 1832) refer to the presence of nickel (Lat. niccolum). Owing to its copper-red colour the mineral is commonly called “copper-nickel,” the German equivalent of which, Kupfernickel, was used as early as 1694. (L. J. S.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Niccoli, Niccolo de'

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​NICCOLI, NICCOLO DE’ (1363–1437), Italian humanist, was born and died at Florence. He was one of the chief figures in the company of learned men which gathered round Cosimo de’ Medici, who played the part of Augustus to Niccoli’s Maecenas. Niccoli’s chief services to classical literature consisted in his work as a copyist and collator of ancient MSS.; he corrected the text, introduced divisions into chapters, and made tables of contents. His lack of critical faculty was compensated by his excellent taste; in Greek (of which he knew very little) he had the assistance of Ambrogio Traversari. Many of the most valuable MSS. in the Laurentian library are by his hand, amongst them those of Lucretius and of twelve comedies of Plautus. Niccoli’s private library was the largest and best in Florence; he also possessed a small but valuable collection of ancient works of art, coins and medals. He regarded himself as an infallible critic, and could not bear the slightest contradiction; his quarrels with Filelfo, Guarino and especially with Traversari created a great sensation in the learned world at the time. His hypercritical spirit (according to his enemies, his ignorance of the language) prevented him from writing or speaking in Latin; his sole literary work was a short tract in Italian on Latin Orthography, which he withdrew from circulation after it had been violently attacked by Guarino.
See the Life in Traversarii Epistolae (ed. L. Mehus, 1759); G. Voigt, Die Wiederbelebung des klassischen Altertums (1893); G. Zippel, Nicolò Niccoli (Florence, 1890).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nicanor

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​NICANOR, Greek grammarian, son of Hermeias of Alexandria (or Hierapolis), lived during the reign of Hadrian. He chiefly devoted himself to the study of punctuation and the difference of meaning caused by it. Hence he was nicknamed “the Punctuator” (ὁ ςτιγματίας). He is known to have written on the punctuation of Homer and Callimachus. He was possibly the author of a work Περὶ Μετονομασιῶν (On the Change of Names of Places), of which some fragments are preserved in C. W. Müller, Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum, iii. 632.
Edition of the Iliad and Odyssey fragments by L. Friedländer (1850) and O. Carnuth (1875) respectively.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nicephorus Patriarcha

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​NICEPHORUS PATRIARCHA (c. 758–829), Byzantine historian and patriarch of Constantinople (806–815). His father Theodorus, one of the secretaries of the emperor Constantine Copronymus, had been scourged and banished for his zealous support of image-worship, and the son inherited the religious convictions of the father. He was secretary to the imperial commissaries at the council of Nicaea in 787, which witnessed the triumph of his opinions; but, feeling dissatisfied with court life, he retired into a convent. In 806 he was suddenly raised by the emperor Nicephorus I. to the patriarchate of Constantinople, and this office he held until 815, when he accepted deposition rather than assent to the iconoclastic edict promulgated by Leo the Armenian in the previous year. He retired to the cloister of St Theodore, which he himself had founded, and died there in 829. After his death he was included among the saints of the orthodox church.
Nicephorus is the author of a valuable compendium (Breviarium historicum) of Byzantine history from 602 to 770, of a meagre Chronologia compendiaria from Adam to the year of his own death. The former contains an interesting account of the origin and migrations of the Bulgarians. Both will be found, together with some controversial writings and his biography by his pupil Ignatius, also patriarch of Constantinople, in J. P. Migne, Patrologia Graeca, c.; edition of the compendia and life by C. de Boor (1880, Teubner series); see also F. Hirsch, Byzantinische Studien (1876); J. Hergenröther, Photius (1867); C. Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur (1897); Wetzer and Welte’s Kirchenlexikon, ix. (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1895).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tambov (town)

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​TAMBOV, a town of Russia, capital of the government of the same name, 300 m. by rail S.E. from Moscow, on the Tsna river, and on the railway to Saratov. Pop. (1884) 34,000; (1900) 49,208. The town is almost entirely built of wood, with broad unpaved streets, lined with low houses surrounded by gardens; but it is an archiepiscopal see of the Orthodox Greek Church. Woollens, tobacco, oil and various other commodities are manufactured. The trade in grain, and in cattle purchased in the south and sent to Moscow, is far less important than that of Morshansk and Kozlov.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tamburello

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​TAMBURELLO (called in Piedmont Tabasso), a court game popular in Italy, particularly in the northern provinces. It is a modification of the ancient game of Pallone (q.v.), bearing the same general relation to it as Squash does to Racquets. A full-sized Tamburello Court, which need not be as true and even as that for Pallone, is 90 to 100 yards long and half as wide, divided laterally through the middle by a line (cordino) into two equal spaces, the battuta and the rimessa. Three players regularly form a side, each carrying in one hand an implement called tamburello, resembling a tambourine (whence the name), which is a round frame of wood upon which is tightly stretched a cover of horse-hide. A rubber ball about the size of a lawn-tennis ball is used. One of the players opens the service (battuta), which is made from a small square called the trampolino, situated at one corner of the battuta but outside the court. The service must be over the middle line. The ball must then be hit from side to side over the line, the side failing to return it or sending it out of court losing a point. The game is scored like lawn-tennis, four points constituting a game, counting 15+15+10+10. Tamburello, a less expensive game than Pallone, is popular with the lower classes, who use it as a medium for betting.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tammerfors

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​TAMMERFORS (Finnish Tampere), the chief industrial city of Finland, capital of the province of Tavastehus, on the rapids connecting Lakes Näsi-järvi and Pyhä-järvi, 125 m. by rail N.W. of Helsingfors. Pop. (1904) 40,261. Tammerfors is an important centre for the manufacture of cotton, linen, and woollen goods, leather and paper. The town owes its existence as a manufacturing centre to the tsar Alexander I.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tambourine

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​TAMBOURINE (Fr. tambour de Basque; Ger. baskische Trommel, Tambourin, or Schellen-trommel) , a popular instrument of percussion of indefinite musical pitch, used for marking the rhythm in dance or bacchanalian music. The tambourine consists of a flat wooden or metal ring, over one end of which is stretched a parchment or vellum head; in the circumference of the ring are fixed nine or ten metal disks or small bells which jingle as the tambourine is struck by the hand, or merely waved through the air. A tremolo effect is obtained by stroking the head with the finger-tips. In a 14th-century MS. (Brit. Mus. Sloane 3983, fol. 13) a tambourine of modern appearance with a snare bears the inscription “Tympanum.” The tambourine is of the highest antiquity, and was known at different times under the names of timbrel or tabret, tympanon or tympanum, and symphonia.  (K. S.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tamluk

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​TAMLUK, an ancient town of British India, in the Midnapore district of Bengal, on the river Rupnarayan. Pop. (1901) 8805. Under the name of Tamralipta was the capital of the Peacock dynasty, and a seaport at which the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims embarked. It is now 60 m. from the sea, and the ruins of the old city lie deep beneath river silt. It contains the palace of a local raja, and some temples of peculiar construction.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tampico

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​TAMPICO, a city and port of Mexico, in the state of Tamaulipas, on the N. bank of the Panuco river, about 6 m. from the Gulf of Mexico. Pop. (1906) 17,569, including the neighbouring settlements connected with the port works. The climate is hot, humid and unhealthy, and the city has suffered frequently from epidemics of yellow fever. A modern sewer system and waterworks, constructed in 1903–1906, have improved its sanitary condition and will in time reduce its heavy death-rate—about 78 per 1000 in 1903, when an epidemic of yellow fever caused 327 deaths, and the births numbered 512 against 1335 deaths. The eastern and poorer part of the town stands on low ground only 2 or 3 ft. above the river, and is subject to inundations. The western part rises about 150 ft., consists largely of private residences, and is provided with water and good drainage. The business section is well built, largely of stone and brick, and its streets are well paved and provided with gas and electric light. The neighbourhood is swampy and malarial. Tampico has two important railway connexions: the Monterrey and Gulf line running N.N.W. to Ciudad, Victoria and Monterrey, and a branch of the Mexican Central running westward to San Luis Potosi. There is also a line of river boats on the Panuco running up to the mouth of the Tamazunchale about 135 m., and another running to Tamiahua on the lagoon of that name by way of the Tuxpam canal, about 77 m. Industries include an electric light and power plant, factories for making ice, clothing, and fruit conserves, saw-mill, oil refinery, and a shipyard for small river boats. The modern port works, which have made Tampico accessible to a larger class of steamers, include two stone jetties at the mouth of the Panuco, which have increased the depth of water on the bar to 23 ft. at low water and 26 ft. at high water; seven wharves on the N. bank of the river to accommodate fourteen steamers at a time; steel sheds with railway tracks, and railway connexions at the wharves. The depth of water at the wharves varies from 18 to 25 ft. The exports include silver bullion (from San Luis Potosi, Aguascalientes, Torreon and Monterrey), ixtle fibre, sugar, hides, live cattle, cotton-seed cake, deer skins, honey, fustic, sarsaparilla, coffee, rubber, broom-root, copper ores and asphalt.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Shilleto, Richard

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​SHILLETO, RICHARD (1809–1876), English classical scholar, was born at Ulleskelf in Yorkshire on the 2 5th of November 1809. He was educated at Repton and Shrewsbury schools, and Trinity College, Cambridge, and in 1867 was elected a fellow of Peterhouse. His whole life was spent in Cambridge, where he died on the 24th of September 1876. Shilleto was one of the greatest Greek scholars that England has produced, in addition, he had an intimate acquaintance with the Latin and English languages and literature. He published little, being obliged to devote the best years of his life to private tuition. He was the most famous classical “ coach ” of his day, and almost all the best men passed through his hands. His edition of the De falsa legalioue of Demosthenes will always remain a standard work, but his first two books of Thucydides (an instalment of a long-contemplated edition) hardly came up to expectation. His pamphlet Thucydides or Grote? excited a considerable amount of feeling. While it undoubtedly damaged Grote’s reputation as a scholar, it was felt that it showed a want of appreciation of the special greatness of the historian. Shilleto’s powers as a translator from English into Greek (especially prose) and Latin were unrivalled; a selection of his versions was published in 1901. See B. H. Kennedy in Cambridge Journal of Philolagy (1877).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Shilling

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​SHILLING, an English silver coin of the value of twelve pence. The origin of the word is somewhat obscure. There was an Anglo-Saxon coin termed scilling, or scylling, worth about five pence, which is said to be derived from a Teutonic root, skil, to divide, +ling on the analogy of farthing (q.v.). The silver shilling was first struck in 1504, in the reign of Henry VII. In Charles II.’s reign shillings were first issued with milled edges. In George IV.’s reign were issued the so-called “lion shillings,” bearing the royal crest, a crowned lion on a crown, a design reverted to in the coinage of Edward VII. A shilling is token money merely, it is nominally in value the one-twentieth of a pound, but one troy pound of silver is coined into sixty-six shillings, the standard weight of each shilling being 87·27 grains.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Shilluk

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​SHILLUK, a Negro race of the upper Nile valley, occupying the lands west of the White Nile from the Sobat northward for about 360 m., and stretching westward to the territory of the Baggara tribes. They are the most numerous of the Negro tribes of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, and form one great family with the Alur and Acholi (q.v.) and others in the south. Formerly extending as far north as Khartum and constituting powerful Negro kingdom, they are now decadent. They are the only race on the upper Nile recognizing one chief as ruler of all the tribes, the chiefship passing invariably to the sister’s child or some other relative on the female side. The Shilluk towns on the Nile bank are usually placed near to one another. They own large herds of cattle. In physique the Shilluks are typical Negroes and jet black. The men used to wear nothing, the women a calf-skin attached to their girdle, but with the establishment of Anglo-Egyptian control, c. 1900, they gradually adopted clothes. The poorer people smear themselves with ashes. They ornament the hair with grass and feathers in fantastic forms such as a halo, helmet, or even a broad-brimmed hat. When they saw Schweinfurth wearing a broad felt hat they thought him one of them, and were amazed when he took it off. They are skilful as hunters, and especially as fishermen, spearing fish while wading or from ambach rafts. Their arms are spears, shields and clubs. Their religion is a kind of ancestor and nature worship.
See G. A. Schweinfurth, Heart of Africa (1874); W. Junker, Travels in Africa, Eng. ed. (London, 1890–1892); The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, edited by Count Gleichen (London, 1905).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Shimoga

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​SHIMOGA, or Sheemoga, a town and district in the state of Mysore, southern India. The town is situated on the Tunga river, and is the terminus of a branch railway. Pop. (1901) 6240. The area of the district is 4025 sq. m. Its river system is twofold; in the east the Tunga, Bhadra and Varada unite to form the Tungabhadra, which ultimately falls into the Kistna and so into the Bay of Bengal, while in the west a few minor streams flow to the Sharavati, which near the north-western frontier bursts through the Western Ghats by the celebrated Falls of Gersoppa (q.v.).
The western half of the district is mountainous and covered with magnificent forest, and is known as the Malnad or hill country, some of the peaks being 4000 ft. above sea-level. The general elevation of Shimoga is about 2000 ft.; and towards the east it opens out into the Maidan or plain country, which forms part of the general plateau of Mysore. The Malnad region is very picturesque, its scenery abounding with every charm of tropical forests and mountain wilds; on the other hand, the features of the Maidan country are for the most part comparatively tame. The mineral products of the district include iron-ore and laterite. The soil is loose and sandy in the valleys of the Malnad, and in the north-east the black cotton soil prevails. Bison are common in the taluk of Saugor, where also wild elephants are occasionally seen; while tigers, leopards, bears, wild hog, sambhar and chitál deer are numerous in the wooded tracts of the west. Shimoga presents much variety of climate. The south-west monsoon is felt in full force for about 25 m. from the Ghats, bringing an annual rainfall of more than 150 in., but the rainfall gradually diminishes to 31 in. at Shimoga station and to 25 in. or less at Chennagiri. The population in 1901 was 531,736. Rice is the staple crop; next in importance is sugar-cane; areca nuts are also extensively grown; and miscellaneous crops include vegetables, fruits and pepper. The chief manufactures are coarse cotton cloths, rough country blankets, iron implements, brass and copper wares, pottery and jaggery. The district is noted for its beautiful sandal-wood carving.
During the Mahommedan usurpation of Mysore from 1761 to 1799, unceasing warfare kept the whole country in constant turmoil. After the restoration of the Hindu dynasty Shimoga became the scene of disturbances caused by the mal-administration of the Deshast Brahmans, who had seized upon every office and made themselves obnoxious. These disturbances culminated in the insurrection of 1830, which led to the direct assumption of the administration by the British.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Shingle

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​SHINGLE. (1) A Middle English corruption of schindle, from Lat. scindula or scandula, a wooden tile, from scandere, to cut—a kind of wooden tile, generally of oak, used in places where timber is plentiful, for covering roofs, spires, &c. In England they are generally plain, but on the continent of Europe the ends are sometimes rounded, pointed or cut into ornamental form. (2) Water-worn detritus, of larger and coarser form than gravel, chiefly used of the pebbly detritus of a sea-beach. This word is of Norwegian origin, from singl or singling, coarse gravel. It is apparently derived from singla, to make a ringing sound, a form of “to sing,” with allusion to the peculiar noise made when walking over shingle. (3) The word “shingles,” the common name of herpes zoster, a particular form of the inflammatory eruption of the skin known as herpes (q.v.), is the plural of an obsolete word for a girdle, sengle, taken through O. Fr. cengle from Lat. cingulum, cingere, to gird.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Shilluh

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​SHILLUH, or Shlūh (“vagabonds”), the name given by the Arabized Moors to the Berber peoples of southern Morocco. They occupy-chiefly the province of Sus. The name is said to be a corruption of áshlūh (pl. íshláh), a camel-hair tent. They are of fine physique, strong and wiry, and true Berbers in features and fairness. They are as a rule shorter than the Berbers of Algeria (see Berbers and Morocco).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Shildon

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​SHILDON, a market town in the Bishop Auckland parliamentary division of Durham, England, 9 m. N.W. from Darlington by a branch of the North Eastern railway. Pop. of urban district of Shildon and East Thickley (1901) 11,759. At New Shildon or East Thickley are extensive railway engine and wagon works belonging to the railway company. A large coal traffic is handled here, as there are Collieries and foundries in the vicinity.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Shillong

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​SHILLONG, a town of British India, in the Khasi Hills district of Eastern Bengal and Assam. It is situated in 25° 34′ N. and 91° 53′ E., on a plateau 4978 ft. above the sea, 63 m. by cart-road S. of Gauhati, on the Brahmaputra. Pop. (1901) 8384. Shillong practically dates from 1864, when the district headquarters were transferred from Cherrapunji. It was chosen as the seat of government in 1874, when the province of Assam was constituted. Every one of the public buildings and houses that quickly grew up was levelled to the ground by the great earthquake of the 12th of June 1897, but they have since been rebuilt. Cantonments are provided for a battalion of Gurkhas with two guns, and Shillong is the headquarters of the Assam brigade of the 8th division of the Northern army. There are a government high school and a training school for masters. The Welsh Presbyterian mission is active in promoting education. Since 1905, when Dacca became the capital of the new province of Eastern Bengal and Assam, Shillong has declined in importance; but it is still the summer residence of the government and the headquarters of the district.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Shiloh

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​SHILOH, a town of Ephraim, where the sanctuary of the ark was, under the priesthood of the house of Eli. According to 1 Sam. iii. 3, 15, this sanctuary was not a tabernacle but a temple, with doors. But the priestly narrator of Josh. xviii. 1 has it that the tabernacle was set up there by Joshua after the conquest. In Judges xxi. 19 seq. the yearly feast at Shiloh appears as of merely local character. The sanctuary at Shiloh seems to have been destroyed, probably by the Philistines after the battle of Ebenezer; cf. Jeremiah vii. 12 seq. The position described in Judges, loc. cit., gives certainty to the identification with the modern Seilun lying some 2 m. E.S.E. of Khan Labban (Lebonah), on the road from Bethel to Shechem. Here there is a ruined village, on an elevation protected by lofty hills on three sides, and open only towards the south, offering a strong position, which suggests that the place was a stronghold as well as a sanctuary. Fertile land surrounds the hill. The name Seilun corresponds to Σιλοῦν in Josephus. LXX. has Σηλω, Σηλωμ. The forms given in the Hebrew Bible (ש׳לז ,ש׳לה) have dropped the final consonant, which reappears in the adjective ש׳לזנ׳.