OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pulaski, Casimir

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​PULASKI, CASIMIR, Count (1748–1779), Polish soldier, was born in Podolia in 1748, and took a prominent share, under his father Count Joseph Pulaski, in the formation of the confederation of Bar and in the military operations which followed, becoming ultimately commander-in-chief of the Polish patriot forces. Driven into exile about 1772, Pulaski went to America and joined the army of Washington in 1777. He distinguished himself at once in the battle of Brandywine, was made a brigadier-general and chief of cavalry by Congress, and fought at Germantown, and in the battles of the winter 1777–78, after which he raised a mixed corps called the Pulaski legion. At the head of this force he won further distinction in the southern theatre of war, and successfully defended Charleston in May 1779. He was mortally wounded soon afterwards at the unsuccessful attack on Savannah (Oct. 9) and died two days later on board ship. Congress voted a monument to his memory; and though this vote has never been carried into execution, Lafayette laid the corner-stone of a monument in Savannah in 1824, and this was completed in 1855.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sirsa

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​SIRSA, a town of British India, in Hissar district of the Punjab, situated on a dry bed of the river Ghaggar, and on a branch of the Rajputana railway, midway between Rewari and Ferozepur. Pop. (1901) 15,800. It occupies an ancient site, and was refounded in 1837 as the head-quarters of a British district. It is an important centre of trade with Rajputana, and has manufactures of cotton cloth and pottery. The former district of ​Sirsa was part of the territory conquered from the Mahrattas in 1803, when it was almost entirely uninhabited. It required reconquering from the Bhattis in 1818; but it did not come under British administration until 1837. During the Mutiny of 1857 Sirsa was for a time wholly lost to British rule. On the restoration of order the district was administered by Punjab officials, and in the following year, with the remainder of the Delhi territory, it was formally annexed to that province. In 1884 it was subdivided between the districts of Hissar and Ferozepur.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sis

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​SIS (anc. Sision or Siskia, later Flaviopolis or Flavias), the chief town of the Khozan sanjak of the Adana vilayet of Asiatic Turkey, situated on the left bank of the Kirkgen Su, a tributary of the Jihūn (Pyramus) and at the south end of a group of passes leading from the Anti-Taurus valleys to the Cilician plain and Adana. It was besieged by the Arabs in 704 but relieved by the Byzantines. The Caliph, Motawakkil took it and refortified it; but it soon returned to Byzantine hands. It was rebuilt in 1186 by Leo II., king of Lesser Armenia, who made it his capital. In 1374 it was taken and demolished by the sultan of Egypt, and it has never recovered its prosperity. It is now only a big village of some 3000 inhabitants. It has had, however, a great place in Armenian ecclesiastical history from the times of St Gregory the Illuminator to our own. Gregory himself was there consecrated the first Catholicus in A.D. 267, but transferred his see to Vagarshabad (Echmiadzin, Etchmiadzin), whence, after the fall of the Arsacids, it passed to Tovin. After the constitution of the kingdom of Lesser Armenia, the catholicate returned to Sis (1294), the capital, and remained there 150 years. In 1441, Sis having fallen from its high estate, the Armenian clergy proposed to remove the see, and on the refusal of the actual Catholicus, Gregory IX., installed a rival at Echmiadzin, who, as soon as Selim I. had conquered Greater Armenia, became the more widely accepted of the two by the Armenian church in the Ottoman empire. The Catholicus of Sis maintained himself nevertheless, and was supported in his pretensions by the Porte up to the middle of the 19th century, when the patriarch Nerses, declaring finally for Echmiadzin, carried the government with him. In 1885 Sis tried to declare Echmiadzin schismatic, and in 1895 its clergy took it on themselves to elect a Catholicus without reference to the patriarch; but the Porte annulled the election, and only allowed it six years later on Sis renouncing its pretensions to independence. The present Catholicus has the right to prepare the sacred myron (oil) and to preside over a synod, but is in fact not more than a metropolitan, and regarded by many Armenians as schismatic. The lofty castle and the monastery and church built by Leo II., and containing the coronation chair of the kings of Lesser Armenia, are interesting. (D. G. H.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sirocco

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​SIROCCO, a name applied to two quite distinct types of local wind. The first type is the characteristic wind of the winter rainy season in the Mediterranean region, and is associated with the eastern side of local depression or cyclones, in which the weather is moist, cloudy and rainy, the prevailing directions being south and south-east. The second type is the intensely dry dust-laden wind of the desert which receives this name in Sicily and southern Italy especially, where the general direction is south-east or south-west. Local winds of this latter type receive a great variety of names in different parts of the Mediterranean and surrounding regions (see Leveche, Leste, Khamsin, Simoom).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sirohi

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​SIROHI, a native state of India, in the Rajputana agency. Area 1964 sq. m. The country is much broken up by hills and rocky ranges; the Aravalli range divides it into two portions, running from north-east to south-west. The south and south-east part of the territory is mountainous and rugged, containing the lofty Mount Abu, an isolated mass of granite rock, culminating in a cluster of hills, enclosing several valleys surrounded by rocky ridges, like great hollows. On both sides of the Aravallis the country is intersected with numerous water channels, which run with considerable force and volume during the height of the rainy season, but are dry for the greater part of the year. The only river of any importance is the Western Banas. A large portion of the state is covered with dense jungle, in which wild animals, including the tiger, bear and leopard, abound. Many splendid ruins bear witness to the former prosperity and civilization of the country. The climate is on the whole dry; in the south and east there is usually a fair amount of rain. On Abu the average annual rainfall is about 64 in., whereas in Erinpura, less than 50 m. to the north, the average fall is only between 12 and 13 in. Pop. (1901) 154,544, showing a decrease of 17% in the decade, due to the results of famine. Gross revenue £28,000, tribute £450.
During the early years of the 19th century, Sirohi suffered much from wars with Jodhpur and the wild Mina hill tribes. The protection of the British was sought in 1817; the pretensions of Jodhpur to suzerainty over Sirohi were disallowed, and in 1823 a treaty was concluded with the British government. For services rendered during the Mutiny of 1857 the chief received a remission of half his tribute. The chief, whose title is maharao, is a Deora Rajput of the Chauhan clan, and claims descent from the last Hindu king of Delhi. The state is traversed by the Rajputana railway.
The town of Sirohi is 28 m. N. of Abu-road station. Pop. (1901) 5651. It has manufactures of sword-blades and other weapons. The Crosthwaite hospital, which is built and equipped on modern principles, was opened by Sir Robert Crosthwaite in December 1897.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sissek

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​SISSEK (Hungarian, Sziszek; Croatian, Sisak), a town of Croatia-Slavonia, in the county of Agram; situated at the confluence of the Save and Kulpa, 30 m. by rail S.E. by S. of Agram. Pop. (1900) 7047. Sissek has a considerable trade in grain and timber. Its only noteworthy building is an ancient castle, constructed of brick.
As the vestiges of its Roman walls tend to prove, Sissek was a large and flourishing city under Roman rule. Augustus made it ​a military station; Tiberius chose it as his headquarters against the Pannonian rebels; and from Septimius Severus, who made it the centre of a military government, it gained the name of Septimia Sissia. A Segesta, on the Save, is mentioned by Appian, and Strabo distinguishes between this town and the neighbouring Siscia. It seems likely, as St Aymour suggests, that two towns, the native Segesta and the Roman fortress called by Strabo ἡ Σίσκια Φρούριον, ultimately united under the single name of Siscia. In the 3rd century, under Gallienus and Probus, the city contained the chief imperial mint and treasury; and an engraved coffer, found in Croatia, dating from the 4th century, and representing the five foremost cities of the Empire, includes Siscia along with Rome, Byzantium, Carthage and Nicomedia. Its bishopric was removed to Salona, in 441, when Attila appeared, and thenceforward the city declined. For a brief period, in the 7th and 8th centuries, the conquering Slavs made it one of their Zupanates, or governments; but in the 10th century it was sacked by the Magyars, and in 1092 its territories were bestowed upon the cathedral chapter of Agram by Ladislaus I., king of Hungary. Under the walls of its castle, built by this chapter in 1544, the Turks were thrice defeated in 1593. At a fourth venture the city fell, only to be evacuated in 1594. It witnessed a final Turkish defeat in 1641.
See C. de St Aymour, Les Pays sud-slaves de l’Autriche-Hongrie (1883), ch. ii.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sirmur

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​SIRMUR, or Sarmor (also called Nahan, after the chief town), a native state of India, within the Punjab. It occupies the lower ranges of the Himalaya, between Simla and Mussoorie. Area 1198 sq. m. The state is bounded on the N. by the hill states of Balsan and Jubbal, on the E. by the British district of Dehra Dun, from which it is separated by the rivers Tons and Jumna, on the S.W. by Umballa district, and on the N.W. by the states of Patiala and Keonthal. Except a very small tract about Nahan, the chief town and residence of the raja, on the south-western extremity, where a few streams rise and flow south-westward to the Saraswati and Ghaggar rivers, the whole of Sirmur lies in the basin of the Jumna, which receives from this tract the Giri and its feeders the Jalal and the Palur. The Tons, the great western arm of the stream called lower down the Jumna, flows along the eastern boundary of Sirmur, and on the right side receives from it the two small streams Minus and Nairai. The surface generally declines in elevation from north to south; the chief elevations on the northern frontier (Chor peak and station) are about 12,000 ft. above the sea. The valley of the Khiarda Dun, which forms the southern part of the state, is bounded on the S. by the Siwalik range, the hills of which are of recent formation and abound in fossil remains of large vertebrate animals. Though the rocks of Sirmur consist of formations usually metalliferous, the yield of mineral wealth is small. The forests are very dense, so much so that the sportsman finds difficulty in making his way through them in search of deer and other game, with which they abound. The climate of Sirmur varies with the elevation; the northern extremity has very little rain; but large and excellent crops are everywhere to be obtained by irrigation. The population in 1901 was 135,687, showing an increase of 9% in the decade. Estimated gross revenue, £40,000. The chief, whose title is raja, is a Rajput of high lineage. The raja Shamsher Perkash, G.C.S.I., who died in 1898, ruled with remarkable ability and success. A younger son commanded the Imperial Service sappers in the Tirah campaign of 1896-97, and was rewarded with the rank of honorary captain in the Indian army and the distinction of C.I.E. Attempts have been made to establish an iron foundry, and to develop mines of slate and mica.
The town of Nahan is situated about 40 m. S. of Simla, 3057 ft. above the sea-level. The palace of the raja and several other houses are built of stone in European style. It had a population in 1901 of 6256.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sisley, Alfred

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​SISLEY, ALFRED (1840-1899), French landscape painter, was born in Paris in 1839, of English parents. He studied painting under Gleyre, and was afterwards influenced, first by Corot, and then by the impressionists Monet and Renoir. He worked both in France and in England, and made the Seine, the Loing and the Thames the subjects of many pictures that are remarkable for the subtle appreciation of the most delicate colour effects. Success was not given him during his life, which was one of constant poverty and hard struggle. Purchasers of his pictures were few and far between, although the prices rarely exceeded a few pounds. Only after his death, which occurred at Moret-sur-Loing in 1899, did his work find appreciation, and at the Viau sale in Paris, in 1907, his small painting of “The Seine at Port-Marly” realized £52, whilst ten other landscapes sold at prices ranging from £200 to £400. He was essentially a colourist who, like Monet, delighted in recording the changing effects of light in the successive hours of the day, and paid very little attention to composition and draughtsmanship. The impressionist exhibition at the Grafton Galleries, London, in 1905, included several characteristic examples of his work. Sisley is also represented at the Luxembourg in the Caillebotte collection.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Orthonyx

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​ORTHONYX, the scientific name given in 1820, by C. J. Temminck, to a little bird, which, from the straightness of its claws—a character somewhat exaggerated by him—its large feet and spiny tail, he judged to be generically distinct from any other form. The typical species, O. spinicauda, is from southeastern Australia, where it is very local in its distribution, and strictly terrestrial in its habits. It is rather larger than a skylark, coloured above not unlike a hedge-sparrow. The wings are, however, barred with white, and the chin, throat and breast are in the male pure white, but of a bright reddish-orange in the female. The remiges are very short, rounded and much incurved, showing a bird of weak flight. The rectrices are very broad, the shafts stiff, and towards the tip divested of barbs. O. spaldingi from Queensland is of much greater size than the type, and with a jet-black plumage, the throat being white in the male and orange-rufous in the female.
Orthonyx is a semi-terrestrial bird of weak flight, building a domed nest on or near the ground. Insects and larvae are its chief food, and the males are described as performing dancing antics like those of the lyre-bird (q.v.). Orthonyx belongs to the Oscines division of the Passeres and is placed in the family Timeliidae. (A. N.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ortigueira

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​ORTIGUEIRA, a seaport of north-western Spain, in the province of Corunna; on the northern slope of the Sierra de la Faladoira, on the river Nera and on the eastern shore of the Ría de Santa Marta—a winding, rock-bound and much indented inlet of the Bay of Biscay, between Capes Ortegal and Vares, the northern-most headlands of the Peninsula. The official total of the inhabitants of Ortigueira (18,426 in 1900) includes many families which dwell at some distance; the actual urban population does not exceed 2000. The industries are fishing and farming. Owing to the shallowness of the harbour large vessels cannot enter, but there is an important coasting trade, despite the dangerous character of the coast-line and the prevalence of fogs and gales. The sea-bathing and magnificent scenery attract visitors in summer even to this remote district, which has no railway and few good roads.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ortler

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​ORTLER, the highest point (12,802 ft.) in Tirol, and so in the whole of the Eastern Alps. It is a great snow-clad mass, which rises E. of the Stelvio Pass, and a little S. of the upper valley of the Adige (whence it is very conspicuous) between the valleys of Trafoi (N.W.) and of Sulden (N.E.). It was long considered to be wholly inaccessible, but was first conquered in 1804 by three Tirolese peasants, of whom the chief was Josef Pichler. The first traveller to make the climb was Herr Gebhard in 1805 (sixth ascent). In 1826 Herr Schebelka, and in 1834 P. K. T. Thurwieser attained the summit, but it was only after the discovery of easier routes in 1864 by F. F. Tuckett, E. N. and H. E. Buxton, and in 1865 by Herr E. von Mojsisovics that the expedition became popular. Many routes to the summit are now known, but that usually taken (from the Payer Club hut, easily accessible from either Sulden or Trafoi) from the north is daily traversed in summer and offers no difficulties to moderately experienced walkers.  (W. A. B. C.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ortolan, Joseph Louis Elzéar

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​ORTOLAN, JOSEPH LOUIS ELZÉAR (1802–1873), French jurist, was born at Toulon, on the 21st of August 1802. He studied law at Aix and Paris, and early made his name by two volumes, Explication historique des institutes de Justinien (1827), and Histoire de la législation romaine (1828), the first of which has been frequently republished. He was made assistant librarian to the court of cassation, and was promoted after the Revolution of 1830 to be secretary-general. He was also commissioned to give a course of lectures at the Sorbonne on constitutional law, and in 1836 was appointed to the chair of comparative criminal law at the university of Paris. He published many works on constitutional and comparative law, of which the following may be mentioned: Histoire du droit constitutionnel en Europe pendant le moyen âge (1831); Introduction historique au cours de législation pénale comparée (1841); he was the author of a volume of poetry Les enfantines (1845). He died in Paris, on the 27th of March 1873.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Orthography

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​ORTHOGRAPHY (from Gr. ὀρθός, correct, right or straight, and γράφειν, to write), spelling which is correct according to accepted use. The word is also applied, in architecture, to the geometrical elevation of a building or of any part of one in which all the details are shown in correct relative proportion and drawn to scale. When the representation is taken through a building it is known as a section, and when portions of the structure only are drawn to a large scale they are called details.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ortnit

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​ORTNIT, or Otnit, German hero of romance, was originally Hertnit or Hartnit, the elder of two brothers known as the Hartungs, who correspond in German mythology to the Dioscuri. His seat was at Holmgard (Novgorod), according to the Thidrekssaga (chapter 45), and he was related to the Russian saga heroes. Later on his city of Holmgard became Garda, and in ordinary German legend he ruled in Lombardy. Hartnit won his bride, a Valkyrie, by hard fighting against the giant Isungs, but was killed in a later fight by a dragon. His younger brother, Hardheri (replaced in later German legend by Wolfdietrich), avenged Ortnit by killing the dragon, and then married his brother’s widow. Ortnit’s wooing was corrupted by the popular interest in the crusades to an Oriental Brautfahrtsaga, bearing a very close resemblance to the French romance of Huon of Bordeaux. Both heroes receive similar assistance from Alberich (Oberon), who supplanted the Russian Ilya as Ortnit’s epic father in middle high German romance. Neumann maintained that the Russian Ortnit and the Lombard king were originally two different persons, and that the incoherence of the tale is due to the welding of the two legends into one.
See editions of the Heldenbuch and one of Ortnit and Wolfdietrich by Dr. J. L. Edlen von Lindhausen (Tübingen, 1906); articles in the Zeitschrift für deutsches Altertum by K. Müllenhoff (xii. pp. 344-354, 1865; xiii. pp. 185-192, 1867), by J. Seemüller (xxvi. 201-211, 1882), and by E. H. Meyer (xxxviii. pp. 85-87, 1894), and in Germania by F. Neumann (vol. xxvii. pp. 191-219, Vienna, 1882). See also the literature dealing with Huon of Bordeaux.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Orthostatae

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​ORTHOSTATAE (Gr. ὀρθοστάτης, standing upright), the term in Greek architecture given to the lowest course of masonry of the external walls of the naos or cella, consisting of vertical slabs of stone or marble equal in height to two or three of the horizontal courses which constitute the inner part of the wall.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Orthostyle

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​ORTHOSTYLE (Gr. ὄρθος, straight, and στῦλος, a column), in architecture, a range of columns placed in a straight row, as for instance those of the portico or flanks of a classic temple.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sorolla y Bastida, Joaquin

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​SOROLLA Y BASTIDA, JOAQUIN (1863–), Spanish painter, was born in Valencia, and received his art education first in his native town and under F. Pradilla, and then in Italy and Paris. His first striking success he achieved with “Another Margaret,” which was awarded a gold medal in Madrid and was bought for the St Louis Gallery. He soon rose to general fame and became the acknowledged head of the modern Spanish school of painting. His picture of the “Fishermen’s Return” was much admired at the Paris Salon and was acquired by the state for the Luxembourg Museum. His exhibit at the Paris Universal Exposition of 1900 won him a medal of honour and his nomination as Knight of the Legion of Honour. A special exhibition of his works—figure subjects, landscapes and portraits—at the Georges Petit Gallery in Paris in 1906 eclipsed all his earlier successes and led to his appointment as Officer of the Legion of Honour. He is represented at the Berlin National Gallery, at the Venice and Madrid Museums, and in many private collections in Europe and America, especially in Buenos Aires. He painted portraits of King Alphonso and Queen Victoria Eugenie of Spain, and a magnificent portrait group of the family of Don Aureliano de Beruete. Three of his works were shown in London at the Spanish Exhibition, Guildhall, 1901.