OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Browne, Peter

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​BROWNE, PETER (?1665–1735), Irish divine and bishop of Cork and Ross, was born in Co. Dublin, not long after the Restoration. He entered Trinity College, Dublin, in 1682, and after ten years’ residence obtained a fellowship. In 1699 he was made provost of the college, and in the same year published his Letter in answer to a Book entitled “Christianity not Mysterious," which was recognized as the ablest reply yet written to Toland. It expounds in germ the whole of his later theory of analogy. In 1710 he was made bishop of Cork and Ross, which post he held till his death in 1733. In 1713 he had become somewhat notorious from his vigorous pamphleteering attack on the fashion of drinking healths, especially “to the glorious and immortal memory.” His two most important works are the Procedure, Extent, and, Limits of the Human Understanding (1728), an able though sometimes captious critique of Locke’s essay, and Things Divine and Supernatural conceived by Analogy with Things Natural and Human, more briefly referred to as the Divine Analogy (1733). The doctrine of analogy was intended as a reply to the deistical conclusions that had been drawn from Locke’s theory of knowledge. Browne holds that not only God’s essence, but his attributes are inexpressible by our ideas, and can only be conceived analogically. This view was vigorously assailed as leading to atheism by Berkeley in his Alciphron (Dialogue iv.), and a great part of the Divine Analogy is occupied with a defence against that criticism. The bishop emphasizes the distinction between metaphor and analogy; though the conceived attributes are not thought as they are in themselves, yet there is a reality corresponding in some way to our ideas of them. His analogical arguments resemble those found in the Bampton Lectures of Dean Mansel. Browne was a man of abstemious habits, charitable disposition, and impressive eloquence. He died on the 27th of August 1735.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Browne, Sir James

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​BROWNE, SIR JAMES (1839–1896), Anglo-Indian engineer and administrator, was the son of Robert Browne of Falkirk in Scotland. He was educated at the military college, Addiscombe, and received a commission in the Bengal engineers in 1857. He served in the expedition against the Mahsud Waziris in 1860, being mentioned in despatches, and in 1863 in the Umbeyla campaign, when he was three times mentioned. In January 1875 he became superintendent of works for the building of the Indus bridge. In 1877 he was promoted lieutenant-colonel, and in 1878–1879 accompanied Sir Donald Stewart as political officer during the Afghan War. He took part in several engagements, was mentioned in despatches, and received the C.B. In 1881 he became colonel, and in 1882 commanded the Indian engineer contingent sent to Egypt, being present at the battle of Tell-el-Kebir. For his services in Egypt he received the 3rd class of the Osmanieh Order and the khedive’s star. In 1884 he was appointed engineer in chief of the Sind-Pishin railway. In 1888 he was made a K.C.S.I, and in 1889 quarter-master-general for India. In 1892 he was appointed agent to the governor-general in Baluchistan, in succession to Sir Robert Sandeman, his intimate experience of the Baluchis, gained during his railway work, having specially fitted him for this post. He died suddenly on the 13th of June 1896. Sir James Browne was a man of splendid courage and physique, and many tales are told of the personal prowess which, together with his sympathetic knowledge of the natives, made him a popular hero among the frontier tribesmen.
See General McLeod Innes, The Life and Times of Sir James Browne (1905).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Browne, William George

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​BROWNE, WILLIAM GEORGE (1768–1813), English traveller, was born at Great Tower Hill, London, on the 25th of July 1768. At seventeen he was sent to Oriel College, Oxford. Having had a moderate competence left him by his father, on quitting the university he applied himself entirely to literary pursuits. But the fame of James Bruce’s travels, and of the first discoveries made by the African Association, determined him to become an explorer of Central Africa. He went first to Egypt, arriving at Alexandria in January 1792. He spent some time in visiting the oasis of Siwa or Jupiter Ammon, and employed the remainder of the year in studying Arabic and in examining the ruins of ancient Egypt. In the spring of 1793 he visited Sinai, and in May set out for Darfur, joining the great caravan which every year went by the desert route from Egypt to that country. This was his most important journey, in which he acquired a great variety of original information. He was forcibly detained by the sultan of Darfur and endured much hardship, being unable to effect his purpose of returning by Abyssinia. He was, however, allowed to return to Egypt with the caravan in 1796; after this he spent a year in Syria, and did not arrive in London till September 1798. In 1799 he published his Travels in Africa, Egypt and Syria, from the year 1792 to 1798. The work was full of valuable information; but, from the abruptness and dryness of the style, it never became popular. In 1800 Browne again left England, and spent three years in visiting Greece, some parts of Asia Minor and Sicily. In 1812 he once more set out for the East, proposing to penetrate to Samarkand and survey the most interesting regions of central Asia. He spent the winter in Smyrna, and in the spring of 1813 travelled through Asia Minor and Armenia, made a short stay at Erzerum, and arrived on the 1st of June at Tabriz. About the end of the summer of 1813 he left Tabriz for Teheran, intending to proceed thence into Tartary, but was shortly afterwards murdered. Some bones, believed to be his, were afterwards found and interred near the grave of Jean de Thevenot, the French traveller.
Robert Walpole published, in the second volume of his Memoirs relating to European and Asiatic Turkey (1820), from papers left by Browne, the account of his journey in 1802 through Asia Minor to Antioch and Cyprus; also Remarks written at Constantinople (1802).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Browne, James

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​BROWNE, JAMES (1793–1841), Scottish man of letters, was born at Whitefield, Perthshire, in 1793. He was educated at Edinburgh and at the university of St Andrews, where he studied for the church. He wrote a “Sketch of the History of Edinburgh,” for Ewbank’s Picturesque Views of that city, 1823–1825. In 1826 he became a member of the Faculty of Advocates, and obtained the degree of LL.D. from King’s College, Aberdeen. His works include a Critical Examination of Macculloch’s Work on the Highlands and Islands of Scotland (1826), Aperçu sur les Hiêroglyphes d’Égypte (Paris, 1827), a Vindication of the Scottish Bar from the Attacks of Mr Broughton, and History of the Highlands and Highland Clans (1834–1836). He was appointed editor of the Caledonian Mercury in 1827; and two years later he became sub-editor of the seventh edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, to which he contributed a large number of articles. He died in April 1841.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Browne, Isaac Hawkins

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​BROWNE, ISAAC HAWKINS (1705–1760), English poet, was born on the 21st of January 1705 at Burton-upon-Trent, of which place his father was vicar. He was educated at Lichfield, at Westminster school, and at Trinity College, Cambridge. After taking his M.A. degree he removed to Lincoln’s Inn, and was called to the bar, but never practised. He was the author of “Design and Beauty,” a poem addressed to his friend Joseph Highmore the painter; and of “The Pipe of Tobacco” which parodied Cibber, Ambrose Philips, Thomson, Young, Pope and Swift, who were then all living. He was elected to Parliament through private interest in 1744 and again in 1747 for the borough of Wenlock in Shropshire. In 1754 he published his chief work, De Animi Immortalitate, a Latin poem much admired by the scholars of his time. The best of the many translations of these verses is by Soame Jenyns. Browne is said by Johnson to have been “one of the first wits of this country.” He was a brilliant talker in private life, especially when his tongue was loosed by wine; but he made no mark in public life. He died in London on the 14th of February 1760.
Two editions of his Poems on Various Subjects, Latin and English, were published in 1767 by his son Isaac Hawkins Browne (1745–1818), the author of two volumes of essays on religion and morals. One of these was printed for private circulation, and is said to have contained a memoir. A full account by Andrew Kippis in Biographia Britannica (1780) includes large extracts from his poems.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Clotilda, Saint

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​CLOTILDA, SAINT (d. 544), daughter of the Burgundian king Chilperic, and wife of Clovis, king of the Franks. On the death of Gundioc, king of the Burgundians, in 473, his sons Gundobald, Godegesil and Chilperic divided his heritage between them; Chilperic apparently reigning at Lyons, Gundobald at Vienne and Godegesil at Geneva. According to Gregory of Tours, Chilperic was slain by Gundobald, his wife drowned, and of his two daughters, Chrona took the veil and Clotilda was exiled. This account, however, seems to have been a later invention. At Lyons an epitaph has been discovered of a Burgundian queen, who died in 506, and was most probably the mother of Clotilda. Clotilda was brought up in the orthodox faith. Her uncle Gundobald was asked for her hand in marriage by the Frankish king Clovis, who had just conquered northern Gaul, and the marriage was celebrated about 493. On this event many romantic stories, all more or less embroidered, are to be found in the works of Gregory of Tours and the chronicler Fredegarius, and in the Liber historiae Francorum. Clotilda did not rest until her husband had abjured paganism and embraced the orthodox Christian faith (496). With him she built at Paris the church of the Holy Apostles, afterwards known as Ste Geneviève. After the death of Clovis in 511 she retired to the abbey of St Martin at Tours. In 523 she incited her sons against her uncle Gundobald and provoked the Burgundian war. In the following year she tried in vain to protect the rights of her grandsons, the children of Clodomer, against the claims of her sons Childebert I. and Clotaire I., and was equally unsuccessful in her efforts to prevent the civil discords between her children. She died in 544, and was buried by her husband’s side in the church of the Holy Apostles.
There is a mediocre Life in Mon. Germ. Hist.: Script. rer. Merov., vol. ii. See also G. Kurth, Sainte Clotilde (2nd ed., Paris, 1897).  (C. Pf.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Clothier

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​CLOTHIER, a manufacturer of cloth, or a dealer who sells either the cloth or made-up clothing. In the United States the word formerly applied only to those who dressed or fulled cloth during the process of manufacture, but now it is used in the general sense, as above.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Cloud-burst

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​CLOUD-BURST, a sudden and violent storm of rain. The name probably originated from the idea that the clouds were solid masses full of water that occasionally burst with disastrous results. A whirlwind passing over the sea sometimes carries the water upwards in a whirling vortex; passing over the land its motion is checked and a deluge of water falls. Occasionally on high lands far from the sea violent storms occur, with rain that seems to descend in sheets, sweeping away bridges and culverts and tearing up roads and streets, being due to great and rapid condensation and vortical whirling of the resulting heavy clouds (see Meteorology).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Cloudberry

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​CLOUDBERRY, Rubus Chamaemorus, a low-growing creeping herbaceous plant, with stem not prickly, and with simple obtusely lobed leaves and solitary white flowers, resembling those of the blackberry, but larger—one inch across,—and with stamens and pistils on different plants. The orange-yellow fruit is about half an inch long and consists of a few large drupes with a pleasant flavour. The plant occurs in the mountainous parts of Great Britain, and is widely distributed through the more northerly portions of both hemispheres. In northern Denmark and Sweden the fruit is gathered in large quantities and sold in the markets.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Cloth

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​CLOTH, properly a covering, especially for the body, clothing, then the material of which such a covering is made; hence any material woven of wool or hair, cotton, flax or vegetable fibre. In commercial usage, the word is particularly applied to a fabric made of wool. The word is Teutonic, though it does not appear in all the branches of the language. It appears in German as Kleid, dress (Kleidung, clothing), and in Dutch as kleed. The ultimate origin is unknown; it may be connected with the root kli- meaning to stick, cling to, which appears in “clay,” “cleave” and other words. The original meaning would be either that which clings to the body, or that which is pressed or “felted” together. The regular plural of “cloth” was “clothes,” which is now confined in meaning to articles of clothing, garments, in which sense the singular “cloth” is not now used. For that word, in its modern sense of material, the plural “cloths” is used. This form dates from the beginning of the 17th century, but the distinction in meaning between “cloths” and “clothes” is a 19th-century one.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Clough, Anne Jemima

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​CLOUGH, ANNE JEMIMA (1820–1892), English educationalist, was born at Liverpool on the 20th of January 1820, the daughter of a cotton merchant. She was the sister of Arthur Hugh Clough, the poet. When two years old she was taken with the rest of the family to Charleston, South Carolina. It was not till 1836 that she returned to England, and though her ambition was to write, she was occupied for the most part in teaching. Her father’s failure in business led her to open a school in 1841. This was carried on until 1846. In 1852, after making some technical studies in London and working at the Borough Road and the Home and Colonial schools, she opened another small school of her own at Ambleside in Westmorland. Giving this up some ten years later, she lived for a time with the widow of her brother Arthur Hugh Clough—who had died in 1861—in order that she might educate his children. Keenly interested in the education of women, she made friends with Miss Emily Davies, Madame Bodichon, Miss Buss and others. After helping to found the North of England council for promoting the higher education of women, she acted as its secretary from 1867 to 1870 and as its president from 1873 to 1874. When it was decided to open a house for the residence of women students at Cambridge, Miss Clough was chosen as its first principal. ​This hostel, started in Regent Street, Cambridge, in 1871 with five students, and continued at Merton Hall in 1872, led to the building of Newnham Hall, opened in 1875, and to the erection of Newnham College on its present basis in 1880. Miss Clough’s personal charm and high aims, together with the development of Newnham College under her care, led her to be regarded as one of the foremost leaders of the women’s educational movement. She died at Cambridge on the 27th of February 1892. Two portraits of Miss Clough are at Newnham College, one by Sir W. B. Richmond, the other by J. J. Shannon.
See Memoir of Anne Jemima Clough, by Blanche Athena Clough (1897).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Clouded Leopard

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​CLOUDED LEOPARD (Felis nebulosa or macroscelis), a large arboreal cat from the forests of south-east Asia, Sumatra, Java, Borneo and Formosa. This cat, often called the clouded tiger, is beautifully marked, and has an elongated head and body, long tail and rather short limbs. The canine teeth are proportionately longer than in any other living cat. Little is known of the habits of the clouded leopard, but it preys on small mammals and birds, and rarely comes to the ground. The native Malay name is Arimaudahan (“tree-tiger”). The species is nearly related to the small Indian marbled cat (F. marmorata), and Fontaniers cat (F. tristis) of Central Asia. (R. L.*)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Fahlcrantz, Christian Erik

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​FAHLCRANTZ, CHRISTIAN ERIK (1790–1866), Swedish author, was born at Stora Tuna in Sweden on the 30th of August 1790. His brothers, Carl Johan (1774–1861), the landscape-painter, and Axel Magnus (1780–1854), the sculptor, became hardly less distinguished than himself. In 1804 he entered the university of Upsala; in 1821 he became tutor in Arabic, and in 1825 professor of Oriental languages. In 1828 he entered the church, but earlier than this, in 1825, he published his Noachs Ark, a successful satire on the literary and social life of his time, followed in 1826 by a second part. In 1835 Fahlcrantz brought out the first part of his epic of Ansgarius, which was completed in 1846, in 14 cantos. In 1842 he was made a member of the Swedish Academy, and in 1849 he was made bishop of Vesterås, his next literary work being an archaeological study on the beautiful ancient cathedral of his diocese. In the course of the years 1858–1861 appeared the five volumes of his Rom förr och nu (Rome as it was and is), a theological polemic, mainly directed against the Jesuits. He died on the 6th of August 1866. His complete works (7 vols., Örebro, 1863–1866) were issued mainly under his own superintendence.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Fahrenheit, Gabriel Daniel

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​FAHRENHEIT, GABRIEL DANIEL (1686–1736), German physicist, was born at Danzig on the 14th of May 1686. For the most part he lived in England and Holland, devoting himself to the study of physics and making a living, apparently, by the manufacture of meteorological instruments. He was the author of important improvements in the construction of thermometers, and he introduced the thermometric scale known by his name and still extensively used in Great Britain and the United States (see Thermometry). He also invented an improved form of hygrometer, a description of which, together with accounts of various observations and experiments made by him, was published in the Phil. Trans. for 1724. He died in Holland on the 16th of September 1736.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Fafnir

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​FAFNIR, in Scandinavian mythology, the son of the giant Hreidmar. He was the guardian of the hoard of the Nibelungs and was killed by Sigurd.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Fagging

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​FAGGING (from “fag,” meaning “weary”; of uncertain etymology), in English public schools, a system under which, generally with the full approval of the authorities, a junior boy performs certain duties for a senior. In detail this custom varies slightly in the different schools, but its purpose—the maintenance of discipline among the boys themselves—is the same. Dr Arnold of Rugby defined fagging as “the power given by the supreme authorities of the school to the Sixth Form, to be exercised by them over the lower boys, for the sake of securing a regular government among the boys themselves, and avoiding the evils of anarchy; in other words, of the lawless tyranny of brute force.” Fagging was a fully established system at Eton and Winchester in the 16th century, and is probably a good deal older. That the advantages of thus granting the boys a kind of autonomy have stood the test of time is obvious from the fact that in almost all the great public schools founded during the 19th century, fagging has been deliberately adopted by the authorities. The right to fag carries with it certain well-defined duties. The fag-master is the protector of his fags, and responsible for their happiness and good conduct. In cases of bullying or injustice their appeal is to him, not to the form or house master, and, except in the gravest cases, all such cases are dealt with by the fag-master on his own responsibility and without report to the master. Until recent years a fag’s duties included such humble tasks as blacking boots, brushing clothes, and cooking breakfasts, and there was no limit as to hours; almost all the fag’s spare time being so monopolized. This is now changed. Fagging is now restricted to such light tasks as running errands, bringing tea to the “master’s” study, and fagging at cricket or football. At Eton there is no cricket fagging, and at most schools it is made lighter by all the fags taking their turn in regular order for one hour, so that each boy has to “fag” but once in so many weeks. At Rugby there is “study-fagging”—two fags being assigned to each Sixth Form boy and made responsible for the sweeping out and tidying up of his study alternately each week,—and “night-fagging”—running errands for the Sixth between 8.30 and 9.30 every evening,—and each boy can choose whether he will be a study-fag or night-fag. The right to fag is usually restricted to the Sixth Form, but at Eton the privilege is also granted the Fifth, and at Marlborough and elsewhere the Eleven have a right to fag at cricket, whether in the Sixth or not.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Fagniez, Gustave Charles

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​FAGNIEZ, GUSTAVE CHARLES (1842–), French historian and economist, was born in Paris on the 6th of October 1842. Trained at the École des Chartes and the École des Hautes Études, he made his first appearance in the world of scholarship as the author of an excellent book called Études sur l’industrie et la classe industrielle à Paris au XIII $^e$ et au XIV $^e$ siècle (1877). This work, composed almost entirely from documents, many unpublished, opened a new field for historical study. Twenty years later he supplemented this book by an interesting collection of Documents relatifs à l’histoire de l’industrie et du commerce en France (2 vols., 1898–1900), and in 1897 he published L’Économie sociale de la France sous Henri IV, a volume containing the results of very minute research. He did not, however, confine himself to economic history. His Le Père Joseph et Richelieu (1894), though somewhat frigid and severe, is based on a mass of unpublished information, and shows remarkable psychologic grasp. In 1878 his Journal parisien de Jean de Maupoint, prieur de Ste Catherine-de-la-Couture was published in vol. iv. of the Mémoires de la société de l’histoire de Paris et de l’Île de France. He wrote numerous articles in the Revue historique (of which he was co-director with Gabriel Monod for some years) and in other learned reviews, such as the Revue des questions historiques and the Journal des savants. In 1901 he was elected member of the Académie des Sciences Morales et Politiques.