OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Gonda

See also Gonda district and Gonda, Uttar Pradesh on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​GONDA, a town and district of British India, in the Fyzabad division of the United Provinces. The town is 28 m. N.W. of Fyzabad, and is an important junction on the Bengal & North-Western railway. The site on which it stands was originally a jungle, in the centre of which was a cattle-fold (Gontha or Gothah), where the cattle were enclosed at night as a protection against wild beasts, and from this the town derives its name. Pop. (1901) 15,811. The cantonments were abandoned in 1863.
The district of Gonda has an area of 2813 sq. m. It consists of a vast plain with very slight undulations, studded with groves of mango trees. The surface consists of a rich alluvial deposit which is naturally divided into three great belts known as the tarai or swampy tract, the uparhar or uplands, and the tarhar or wet lowlands, all three being marvellously fertile. Several rivers flow through the district, but only two, the Gogra and Rapti, are of any commercial importance, the first being navigable throughout the year, and the latter during the rainy season. The country is dotted with small lakes, the water of which is largely used for irrigation. On the outbreak of the Mutiny in 1857, the raja of Gonda, after honourably escorting the government treasure to Fyzabad, joined the rebels. His estates, along with those of the rani of Tulsipur, were confiscated, and conferred as rewards upon the maharajas of Balrampur and Ajodhya, who had remained loyal. In 1901 the population was 1,403,195, showing a decrease of 4% in one decade. The district is traversed by the main line and three branches of the Bengal & North-Western railway.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Recidivism

See also Recidivism on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
RECIDIVISM (from Fr. récidiver, to relapse and fall again into the same fault, or repeat the same offence as one committed before), a modern expression for “habitual crime.” The recidivist is now universally known to exist in all civilized countries as one who has adopted wrong-doing and law-breaking as a profession. His persistency is ceaseless and inextinguishable by the ordinary methods of combating crime. Penal justice as generally exercised is unavailing, and is little better than an automatic machine which draws in a vast number within its wheels and casts them out again practically unchanged in character to qualify again for the ineffective treatment. This dangerous contingent is for ever on the move, into prison and out of it and in again; a large proportion of it, the criminal residuum, the very essence of the criminality of a country, resists all processes devised for its regeneration and cure. Nothing will mend it; neither severity nor kindness, neither the most irksome restraints nor the philanthropic methods of moral and educational persuasion. This failure has encouraged some ardent reformers to recommend the system of indefinite imprisonment or the indeterminate sentence, by which the enemy once caught is kept perpetually or for a lengthy period, and thus rendered innocuous. Habitual offenders, it is argued, should be detained as hostages until they are willing to lay down their arms and consent to make no further attempt to attack or injure society. The theory is sound and has been adopted in part in several countries, especially in the United States.
It was not until 1909 that the system of preventive detention was put into operation in the United Kingdom, when, by the Prevention of Crime Act 1908, power was given to the courts to pass on habitual criminals a sentence of preventive detention
in addition to one of penal servitude. This further period may range within limits of from five to ten years, according to the discretion of the court. The English system is hardly more than tentative at present; the machinery is admittedly capable of improvement. The charge of being an habitual criminal has to be inserted in the indictment on which the offender is to be tried, and this cannot be done without the consent of the director of public prosecutions and after certain notice has been given to the officer of the court trying the prisoner and to the offender himself. The decision to charge a prisoner with being an habitual criminal has hitherto rested on the local police authorities, and it has been felt that a more even and a more general application of such a drastic method of treatment would result if the decision were transferred to one authority, and some such reform was foreshadowed by the Home Secretary in a speech in the House of Commons on prison reform on the 20th of July 1910.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Reciprocity

See also Reciprocity on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​RECIPROCITY (Lat. reciprocus, returning back the same way, alternating, probably from re back and pro forward), the condition or state of being reciprocal, i.e. where there is give and take, mutual influence or correspondence between two parties, persons or things. In a more particular sense, reciprocity is a special arrangement between two nations under which the citizens of each obtain advantages or privileges in their trading relations with the other. This meaning of reciprocity, however, bears a different interpretation in European and in American usage. In the former, reciprocity between two nations usually means little more than the extension by one to the other of most favoured nation treatment, i.e. such advantages as it extends to any third country (see Commercial Treaties).
But in the United States reciprocity is the term applied to the concessions or arrangements made between that country and another without reference to any third country. Thus in the United States there are a maximum and minimum tariff, the rates of the maximum tariff being enforced on the goods of those countries which have no reciprocity treaty with the United States, and the rates of the minimum on certain products of those countries which have by a reciprocity treaty given special advantages or concessions to certain products of the United States.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Recklinghausen

See also Recklinghausen on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​RECKLINGHAUSEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Westphalia, 22 m. by rail N.W. of Dortmund on the railway to Münster. Pop. (1905) 44,396. In the neighbourhood are extensive coal-mines and brick-works, and the industries embrace the manufacture of linen, beer, spirits and tobacco.
The county of Recklinghausen belonged to the archbishopric of Cologne until 1803, when it passed to the duke of Arenberg. It was known as the Vest Recklinghausen. In 1810 it was divided by Napoleon between the grand duchy of Berg and France, but was, in 1815, restored to the duke of Arenberg as a fief under Prussian sovereignty.
See Ritz, Die ältere Geschichte des Veste und der Stadt Recklinghausen (Erzen, 1904).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Recess

See also Recess on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​RECESS (Lat. recessus, a going back, withdrawal, from recedere, to withdraw), a term particularly used of a cessation of work or relief from duty, e.g. of the periods during the life of a parliament when it is not sitting. The word is also applied to an indentation in a line, especially of a small alcove sunk in the wall of a room. A particular use is the historical one for the acts and decrees of the Imperial Diet, the recessus I mperii, and also for those of the Hanseatic League. According to Du Change (s.v. Recesses) the reason for the use of this word was that these decrees, &c. (codex deliberationum), were written out antequam a conventibus recedant proceres congregati.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rechabites

See also Rechabites on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​RECHABITES, or Sons or Rechab, a sort of religious order among the Israelites in some respects analogous to the Nazarites (q.v.), with whom they shared the rule of abstinence from wine. They also eschewed the luxuries and pursuits of settled life, and lived in tents, refusing to sow grain as well as to plant Vineyards. They represent a protest against the contemporary Canaanite civilization and a reaction towards the simplicity of life which was felt more strongly in Judah or to the east of the Jordan than in the northern kingdom of Israel. Their “ father,” or founder, was that Jehonadab or Jonadab, son of Rechab, who encouraged Jehu to abolish the Tyrian Baal-worship (2 Kings x.). The order founded by Jehonadab must from its constitution have soon become a sort of hereditary clan, and as such the “ house of Rechab ” appears in Judah after the fall of the northern kingdom and continued to observe the ordinance of Jehonadab till the approach of Nebuchadrezzar drove them for protection into Jerusalem (Jer. xxxv.). Jeremiah promised them as a reward of their obedience that they should never lack a man to represent them (as a priest) before Yahweh, whence perhaps the later Jewish tradition that the Rechabites intermarried with the Levites and so entered the temple service.
Later references to them probably indicate that the term was used as meaning merely ascetes (Euseb., H. E. ii. 23), the particular form of asceticism (q.v.) being less essential. One may compare the modern society of total abstainers known as the “ Rechabites." In I Chron. ii. 55 the “ house of Rechab " is associated with the Kenites (q.v.) as a family of scribes. Their origin is ascribed to Hammath (conceivably the Naphtalite city, Josh. xix. 35), but in 1 Chron. iv. 12 Rechab (so the LXX) is of Calebite descent.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Recipe

See also Recipe and Medical prescription on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​RECIPE, a statement of the materials and ingredients used in the making and preparation of a dish for cooking, a receipt. This is the principal current use, which was first applied to medieval prescriptions from the custom of placing the word, meaning “ take this ” (imperative of Lat. recipere, to receive), often abbreviated R or ℞, at the head of the formula.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Recital

See also Recital on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​RECITAL (from Lat. recitare, to read out, particularly of a public document), an account or repetition of the details of some act, proceeding, fact, &c., particularly, in law, that part of a legal document, such as a lease, which contains a statement of certain facts, e.g. the purport for which the deed is made. In music, the word is used of an instrumental performance given by a single person, and also of a performance of the works of a single composer.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/McCheyne, Robert Murray

See also Robert Murray McCheyne on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​McCHEYNE, ROBERT MURRAY (1813–1843), Scottish divine, was born at Edinburgh on the 21st of May 1813, was educated at the University and at the Divinity Hall of his native city, and held pastorates at Larbert, near Falkirk, and Dundee. A mission of inquiry among the Jews throughout Europe and in Palestine, and a religious revival at his church in Dundee, made him feel that he was being called to evangelistic rather than to pastoral work, but before he could carry out his plans he died, on the 25th of March 1843. McCheyne, though wielding remarkable influence in his lifetime, was still more powerful afterwards, through his Memoirs and Remains, edited by Andrew Bonar, which ran into far over a hundred English editions. Some of his hymns, e.g. “When this passing world is done,” are well known.
See his Life, by J. C. Smith (1910).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/McClintock, John

See also John McClintock (theologian) on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​McCLINTOCK, JOHN (1814–1870), American Methodist Episcopal theologian and educationalist, was born in Philadelphia on the 27th of October 1814. He graduated at the university of Pennsylvania in 1835, and was assistant professor of mathematics (1836–1837), professor of mathematics (1837–1840), and professor of Latin and Greek (1840–1848) in Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pennsylvania. He opposed the Mexican War and slavery, and in 1847 was arrested on the charge of instigating a riot, which resulted in the rescue of several fugitive slaves; his trial, in which he was acquitted, attracted wide attention. In 1848–1856 he edited The Methodist Quarterly Review (after 1885 The Methodist Review); from 1857 to 1860 he was pastor of St Paul’s (Methodist Episcopal) Church, New York City; and in 1860–1864 he had charge of the American chapel in Paris, and there and in London did much to turn public opinion in favour of the Northern States. In 1865–1866 he was chairman of the central committee for the celebration of the centenary of American Methodism. He retired from the regular ministry in 1865, but preached in New Brunswick, New Jersey, until the spring of 1867, and in that year, at the wish of its founder, Daniel Drew, became president of the newly established Drew theological seminary at Madison, New Jersey, where he died on the 4th of March 1870. A great preacher, orator and teacher, and a remarkably versatile scholar, McClintock by his editorial and educational work probably did more than any other man to raise the intellectual tone of American Methodism, and, particularly, of the American Methodist clergy. He introduced to his denomination the scholarly methods of the new German theology of the day—not alone by his translation with Charles E. Blumenthal of Neander’s Life of Christ (1847), and of Bungener’s History of the Council of Trent (1855), but by his great project, McClintock and Strong’s Cyclopaedia of Biblical, Theological and Ecclesiastical Literature (10 vols., 1867–1881; Supplement, 2 vols., 1885–1887), in the editing of which he was associated with Dr James Strong (1822–1894), professor of exegetical theology in the Drew Theological Seminary from 1868 to 1893, and the sole editor of the last six volumes of the Cyclopaedia and of the supplement. With George Richard Crooks (1822–1897), his colleague at Dickinson College and in 1880–1897 professor of historical theology at Drew Seminary, McClintock edited several elementary textbooks in Latin and Greek (of which some were republished in Spanish), based on the pedagogical principle of “imitation and constant repetition.” Among McClintock’s other publications are: Sketches of Eminent Methodist Ministers (1863); an edition of Richard Watson’s Theological Institutes (1851); and The Life and Letters of Rev. Stephen Olin (1854).
See G. R. Crooks, Life and Letters of the Rev. Dr John McClintock (New York, 1876).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/McClintock, Sir Francis Leopold

See also Francis Leopold McClintock on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​M‘CLINTOCK, SIR FRANCIS LEOPOLD (1819–1907), British naval officer and Arctic explorer, was born at Dundalk, Ireland, on the 8th of July 1819, of a family of Scottish origin. In 1831 he entered the royal navy, joining the “Samarang” frigate, Captain Charles Paget. In 1843 he passed his examination for lieutenancy and joined the “Gorgon” steamship, Captain Charles Hotham, which was driven ashore at Montevideo and salved, a feat of seamanship on the part of her captain and officers which attracted much attention. Hitherto, and until 1847, M‘Clintock’s service was almost wholly on the American coasts, but in 1848 he joined the Arctic expedition under Sir James Ross in search of Sir John Franklin’s ships, as second lieutenant of the “Enterprise.” In the second search expedition (1850) he was first lieutenant of the “Assistance,” and in the third (1854) he commanded the “Intrepid.” On all these expeditions M‘Clintock carried out brilliant sleigh journeys, and gained recognition as one of the highest authorities on Arctic travel. The direction which the search should follow had at last been learnt from the Eskimo, and M‘Clintock accepted the command of the expedition on board the “Fox,” fitted out by Lady Franklin in 1857, which succeeded in its object in 1859 (see Franklin, Sir John). For this expedition M‘Clintock had obtained leave of absence, but the time occupied was afterwards counted in his service. He was knighted and received many other honours on his return. Active service now occupied him in various tasks, including the important one of sounding in the north Atlantic, in connexion with a scheme for a north Atlantic cable route, until 1868. In that year he became naval aide-de-camp to Queen Victoria. In 1865 he had been elected a fellow of the Royal Society. He unsuccessfully contested a seat in parliament for the borough of Drogheda, where he made the acquaintance of Annette Elizabeth, daughter of R. F. Dunlop of Monasterboice; he married her in 1870. He became vice-admiral in 1877, and commander-in-chief on the West Indian and North American station in 1879. In 1882 he was elected an Elder Brother of Trinity House, and served actively in that capacity. In 1891 he was created K.C.B. He was one of the principal advisers in the preparations for the Antarctic voyage of the “Discovery” under Captain Scott. His book, The Voyage of the “Fox” in the Arctic Seas, was first published in 1859, and passed through several editions. He died on the 17th of November 1907.
See Sir C. R. Markham, Life of Admiral Sir Leopold M‘Clintock (1909).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/McCombie, William

See also William McCombie on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​McCOMBIE, WILLIAM (1805–1880), Scottish agriculturist, was born at Tillyfour, Aberdeenshire, where he founded the herd of black-polled cattle with which his name is associated. He was the first tenant farmer to represent a Scottish constituency, and was returned to parliament, unopposed, as Liberal member for the western division of Aberdeen in 1868. He died unmarried in February 1880. His work Cattle and Cattle-breeders (1867) passed into a fourth edition in 1886.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/McCormick, Cyrus Hall

See also Cyrus McCormick on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​McCORMICK, CYRUS HALL (1809–1884), American inventor of grain-harvesting machinery, was born at Walnut Grove, in what is now Roane county, W. Va., U.S.A., on the 15th of February 1809. His father was a farmer who had invented numerous labour-saving devices for farmwork, but after repeated efforts had failed in his attempts to construct a successful grain-cutting machine. In 1831, Cyrus, then twenty-two years old, took up the problem, and after careful study constructed a machine which was successfully employed in the late harvest of 1831 and patented in 1834. The McCormick reaper after further improvements proved a complete success; and in 1847 the inventor removed to Chicago, where he established large works for manufacturing his agricultural machines. William H. Seward has said of McCormick’s invention, that owing to it “the line of civilization moves westward thirty miles each year.” Numerous prizes and medals were awarded for his reaper, and he was elected a corresponding member of the French Academy of Sciences, “as having done more for the cause of agriculture than any other living man.” He died in Chicago on the 13th of May 1884.
See Herbert N. Casson, Cyrus Hall McCormick: his Life and Work (Chicago, 1909).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/McCloskey, John

See also John McCloskey on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​McCLOSKEY, JOHN (1810–1885), American cardinal, was born in Brooklyn, New York, on the 20th of March 1810. He graduated at Mt St Mary’s College, Emmitsburg, Maryland, in 1827, studied theology there, was ordained a priest in 1834, and in 1837, after two years in the college of the Propaganda at Rome, became rector of St Joseph’s, New York City, a charge to which he returned in 1842 after one year’s presidency of St John’s College (afterwards Fordham University), Fordham, New York, then just opened. In 1844 he was consecrated bishop of Axieren in partibus, and was made coadjutor to Bishop Hughes of New York with the right of succession; in 1847 he became bishop of the newly created see of Albany; and in 1864 he succeeded to the archdiocese of New York, then including New York, New Jersey, and New England. In April 1875 he was invested as a cardinal, with the title of Sancta Maria supra Minervam, being the first American citizen to receive this dignity. He attended the conclave of 1878, but was too late to vote for the new pope. In May 1879 he dedicated St Patrick’s Cathedral in New York City, whose corner-stone had been laid by Archbishop Hughes in 1858. Archbishop Corrigan became his coadjutor in 1880 because of the failure of McCloskey’s always delicate health. The fiftieth anniversary of his ordination to the priesthood was celebrated in 1884. He died in New York City on the 10th of October 1885. He was a scholar, a preacher, and a man of affairs, temperamentally quiet and dignified; and his administration differed radically from that of Archbishop Hughes; he was conciliatory rather than polemic and controversial, and not only built up the Roman Catholic Church materially, but greatly changed the tone of public opinion in his diocese toward the Church.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/McClure, Sir Robert John le Mesurier

See also Robert McClure on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​M‘CLURE, SIR ROBERT JOHN LE MESURIER (1807–1873), English Arctic explorer, born at Wexford, in Ireland, on the 28th of January 1807, was the posthumous son of one of Abercrombie’s captains and spent his childhood under the care of his godfather, General Le Mesurier, governor of Alderney, by ​whom he was educated for the army. He entered the navy, however, in 1824, and twelve years later gained his first experience of Arctic exploration as mate of the “Terror” in the expedition (1836–1837) commanded by Captain (afterwards Sir) George Back. On his return he obtained his commission as lieutenant, and from 1838 to 1839 served on the Canadian lakes, being subsequently attached to the North American and West Indian naval stations, where he remained till 1846. Two years later he joined the Franklin search expedition (1848–1849) under Sir J. C. Ross as first lieutenant of the “Enterprise,” and on the return of this expedition was given the command of the “Investigator” in the new search expedition (1850–1854) which was sent out by way of Bering Strait to co-operate with another from the north-west. In the course of this voyage he achieved the distinction of completing (1850) the work connected with the discovery of a North-West Passage (see Polar Regions). On his return to England, M‘Clure was awarded gold medals by the English and French geographical societies, was knighted and promoted to post-rank, his commission being dated back four years in recognition of his special services. From 1856 to 1861 he served in Eastern waters, commanding the division of the naval brigade before Canton in 1858, for which he received a C.B. in the following year. His latter years were spent in a quiet country life; he attained the rank of rear-admiral in 1867, and of vice-admiral in 1873.
See Admiral Sherard Osborn, The Discovery of a North-West Passage (1856).