OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Æsop's Fables (V. S. Vernon-Jones)/The Ass and the Dog

THE ASS AND THE DOG
AN Ass and a Dog were on their travels together, and, as they went along, they found a sealed packet lying on the ground. The Ass picked it up, broke the seal, and found it contained some writing, which he proceeded to read out aloud to the Dog. As he read on it turned out to be all about grass and barley and hay—in short, all the kinds of fodder that Asses are fond of. The Dog was a good deal bored with listening to all this, till at last his impatience got the better of him, and he cried, “Just skip a few pages, friend, and see if there isn’t something about meat and bones.” The Ass glanced all through the packet, but found nothing of the sort, and said so. Then the Dog said in disgust, “Oh, throw it away, do: what’s the good of a thing like that?”
# Æsop's Fables (V. S. Vernon-Jones)/The Ass and His Shadow

THE ASS AND HIS SHADOW
A CERTAIN man hired an Ass for a journey in summer-time, and started out with the owner following behind to drive the beast. By and by, in the heat of the day, they stopped to rest, and the traveller wanted to lie down in the Ass’s Shadow; but the owner, who himself wished to be out of the sun, wouldn’t let him do that; for he said he had hired the Ass only, and not his Shadow: the other maintained that his bargain secured him complete control of the Ass for the time being. From words they came to blows; and while they were belabouring each other the Ass took to his heels and was soon out of sight.
# Æsop's Fables (V. S. Vernon-Jones)/The Ass and his Driver

THE ASS AND HIS DRIVER
AN Ass was being driven down a mountain road, and after jogging along for a while sensibly enough he suddenly quitted the track and rushed to the edge of a precipice. He was just about to leap over the edge when his Driver caught hold of his tail and did his best to pull him back: but pull as he might he couldn’t get the Ass to budge from the brink. At last he gave up, crying, “All right, then, get to the bottom your own way; but it’s the way to sudden death, as you’ll find out quick enough.”
# 15 decisive battles of the world Vol 2 (London)

* related portals: wars.
* sister projects: Wikipedia article.
THE
FIFTEEN DECISIVE
BATTLES OF THE WORLD;
FROM MARATHON TO WATERLOO.
By E. S. CREASY, M.A.,
PROFESSOR OF ANCIENT AND MODERN HISTORY IN UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, LONDON; LATE FELLOW OF KING'S COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE.
Those few battles, of which a contrary event would have essentially varied the drama of the world in all its subsequent scenes.—Hallam.
IN TWO VOLUMES. VOL. II.
LONDON: RICHARD BENTLEY, NEW BURLINGTON STREET, Publisher in Ordinary to her Majesty 1851.
LONDON:
Printed by Samuel Bentley and Co.,
Bangor House, Shoe Lane.
CONTENTS
OF
THE SECOND VOLUME.
CHAPTER VIII.
$_{PAGE}$
1
Synopsis of Events between the Battle of Hastings, A.D.
61
CHAPTER IX.
Joan of Arc's Victory over the English at Orleans,
67
Synopsis of Events between Joan of Arc's Victory at Orleans, A.D. 1429, and the Defeat of the Spanish
102
CHAPTER X.
104
Synopsis of Events between the Defeat of the Spanish Armada, A.D. 1588, and the Battle of Blenheim,
149
CHAPTER XI.
$_{PAGE}$
152
Synopsis of Events between the Battle of Blenheim,
195
CHAPTER XII.
196
Synopsis of Events between the Battle of Pultowa, 1709,
222
CHAPTER XIII.
Victory of the Americans over Burgoyne at Saratoga,
226
Synopsis of Events between the Defeat of Burgoyne at
267
CHAPTER XIV.
268
Synopsis of Events between the Battle of Valmy, 1792,
296
CHAPTER XV.
300
This work was published before January 1, 1929, and is in the public domain worldwide because the author died at least 100 years ago.
Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/'Alqama Ibn 'Abada

See also 'Alqama ibn 'Abada on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​‘ALQAMA IBN ‘ABADA, generally known as ‘Alqama al-Fahl, an Arabian poet of the tribe Tamīm, who flourished in the second half of the 6th century. Of his life we know practically nothing except that his chief poem concerns an incident in the wars between the Lakḥmids and the Ghassānids (see Arabia, History). Even the date of this is doubtful, but it is generally referred to the period after the middle of the 6th century. His poetic description of ostriches is said to have been famous among the Arabs. His diwān consists of three qasīdas (elegies) and eleven fragments. Asmaʽ ī considered three of the poems genuine.
The poems were edited by A. Socin with Latin translation as Die Gedichte des ‛Alkama Alfahl (Leipzig, 1867), and are contained in W. Ahlwardt’s The Diwans of the six ancient Arabic Poets (Lond., 1870); cf. W. Ahlwardt's Bemerkungen über die Aechtheit der alten arabischen Gedichte (Greifswald, 1872), pp. 65-71 and 146-168. (G. W. T.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/'Anan Ben David

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​ʽANAN BEN DAVID, a Persian Jew of the 8th century, and founder within Judaism of the sect of Qaraites (Karaites) which set itself in opposition to the rabbinic tradition. `Anan was an unsuccessful candidate for the dignity of Exilarch, and thus his opposition to the rabbanite Jews was political as well as theological. His secession occurred at a moment when the time was ripe for a reaction against rabbinism, and ʽAnan became the rallying point for many opponents of tradition. (See Qaraites.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/'Antara ibn Shaddād

See also Antarah ibn Shaddad on Wikipedia; Antara in the 9th Edition; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​ʿANTARA IBN SHADDĀD, Arabian poet and warrior of the 6th century, was famous both for his poetry and his adventurous life. His chief poem is contained in the Moʽallakát. The account of his life forms the basis of a long and extravagant romance. His father Shaddād was a soldier, his mother Zabūba a negro slave. Neglected at first, he soon claimed attention and respect for himself, and by his remarkable personal qualities and courage in battle he gained his freedom and the acknowledgment of his father. He took part in the great war between the related tribes of Abs and Dhubyān, which began over a contest of horses and was named after them the war of Dāhis and Ghabrā. ​He died in a fight against the tribe of Ṭai. His poems, which are chiefly concerned with fighting or with his love for Abla, are published in W. Ahlwardt’s The Diwans of the six ancient Arabic Poets (London, 1870); they have also been published separately at Beirūt (1888). As regards their genuineness, cf. W. Ahlwardt’s Bemerkungen über die Aechtheit der alten arabischen Gedichte (Greifswald, 1872), pp. 50 ff. The Romance of ʽAntar (Sīrat ʽAntar ibn Shaddād) is a work which was long handed down by oral tradition only, has grown to immense proportions and has been published in 32 vols. at Cairo, 1307 (A.D. 1889), and in 10 vols. at Beirūt, 1871. It was partly translated by Terrick Hamilton under the title ʽAntar, a Bedoueen Romance (4 vols., London, 1820).
For an account of the poet and his works see H. Thorbeckes, Antarah, ein vorislamischer Dichter (Leipzig, 1867), and cf. the Book of Songs (see Abulfaraj), vol. vii. pp. 148-153. (G. W. T.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/'Al-phasi, Isaac

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​’AL-PHASI, ISAAC (1013–1103), Jewish rabbi and codifier, known as Riph, was born near Fez in 1013 and died at Lucena in 1103. ’Al-Phasi means the “man of Fez” (medieval Jews were often named after their birthplaces). He was forced to leave Fez when an old man of 75, being accused on some unknown political charge. He then settled in Spain where he was held in much esteem. His magnanimous character was illustrated by two incidents. When ’Al-phasi’s opponent Isaac ’Albalia died, ’Al-phasi received ’Albalia’s son with the greatest kindness and adopted him as a son. When, again, ’Al-phasi was himself on the point of death, he recommended as his successor in the Lucena rabbinate, not his own son, but his pupil Joseph ibn Migash. The latter became the teacher of Maimonides, and thus ’Al-phasi’s teaching as well as his work must have directly influenced Maimonides. ’Al-phasi’s fame rests on his Talmudical Digest called Halakhoth or Decisions. The Talmud was condensed by him with a special view to practical law. He omitted all the homiletical passages, and also excluded those parts of the Talmud which deal with religious duties practicable only in Palestine. ’Al-phasi thus occupies an important place in the development of the Spanish method of studying the Talmud. In contradistinction to the French rabbis, the Spanish sought to simplify the Talmud and free it from casuistical detail. ’Al-phasi succeeded in producing a Digest, which became the object of close study, and led in its turn to the great Codes of Maimonides and of Joseph Qaro.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/'Alshekh, Moses

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​’ALSHEKH, MOSES, Jewish rabbi in Safed (Palestine) in the later part of the 16th century. He was the author of many homiletical commentaries on the Hebrew Bible. His works still justly enjoy much popularity, largely because of their powerful influence as practical exhortations to virtuous life.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/'Asher Ben Yehiel

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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/'Amora

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​’AMORA (Hebrew for “speaker” or “discourser”), a title applied to the rabbis of the 2nd to 5th centuries, i.e. to the compilers of the Talmud. Each tana—or rabbi of the earlier period—had a spokesman, who repeated to large audiences the discourses of the tana. But the ’amora soon ceased to be a mere repeater, and developed into an original expounder of scripture and tradition.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/'Amr-ibn-Kulthūm

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​ʽAMR IBN KULTHŪM, Arabian poet, author of one of the Moʽallaḳāt. Little or nothing is known of his life save that he was a member of the tribe of Taghlib and that he is said to have died of excessive wine-drinking. Some stories of him are told in the Book of Songs (see Abulfaraj), vol. ix. pp. 181-185.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/'Aqība ben Joseph

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​ʽAQĪBA BEN JOSEPH (c. 50–132), Jewish Palestinian rabbi, of the circle known as tana (q.v.). It is almost impossible to separate the true from the false in the numerous traditions respecting his life. He became the chief teacher in the rabbinical school of Jaffa, where, it is said, he had 24,000 scholars. Whatever their number, it seems certain that among them was the celebrated Rabbi Meir, and that through him and others ʽAqība exerted a great influence on the development of the doctrines embodied in the Mishnah. He sided with Bar Cochebas in the last Jewish revolt against Rome, recognized him as the Messiah, and acted as his sword-bearer. Being taken prisoner by the Romans under Julius Severus, he was flayed alive with circumstances of great cruelty, and met his fate, according to tradition, with marvellous steadfastness and composure. He is said by some to have been a hundred and twenty years old at the time of his death. He is one of the ten Jewish martyrs whose names occur in a penitential prayer still used in the synagogue service. ʽAqība was among the first to systematize the Jewish tradition, and he paved the way for the compilation of the Mishnah. From his school emanated the Greek translation of the scriptures by Aquila.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Alredus, of Beverley

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​ALREDUS, Alured or Aluredus, OF BEVERLEY, was sacristan of the church of Beverley in the first half of the 12th century. He wrote, apparently about the year 1143, a chronicle entitled Annales sive Historia de gestis regum Britanniae, which begins with Brutus and carries the history of England down to 1129. This work was edited by T. Hearne (Oxford, 1716), and at one time enjoyed some reputation as an authority. It is, however, a mere compilation and of no value. Geoffrey of Monmouth and Simeon of Durham are Alured's chief sources. Among the Cottonian MSS. there is a collection of records relating to Beverley, Libertates Ecclesiae S. Johannis de Beverlae, which is attributed to Alured, but on no good authority. (H. W. C. D.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Alsatia

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​ALSATIA (the old French province of Alsace), long a “debatable ground” between France and Germany, and hence a name applied in the 17th century to the district of Whitefriars, between the Thames and Fleet Street, in London, which afforded sanctuary (q.v.) to debtors and criminals. The privileges were abolished in 1697. The term is also used generally of any refuge for criminals.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Alpini, Prospero

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​ALPINI, PROSPERO (Prosper Alpinus), 1553–1617, Italian physician and botanist, was born at Marostica, in the republic of Venice, on the 23rd of November 1553. In his youth he served for a time in the Milanese army, but in 1574 he went to study medicine at Padua. After taking his doctor’s degree in 1578, he settled as a physician in Campo San Pietro, a small town in the Paduan territory. But his tastes were botanical, and to extend his knowledge of exotic plants he travelled to Egypt in 1580 as physician to George Emo or Hemi, the Venetian consul in Cairo. In Egypt he spent three years, and from a practice in the management of date-trees, which he observed in that country, he seems to have deduced the doctrine of the sexual difference of plants, which was adopted as the foundation of the Linnaean system. He says that “the female date-trees or palms do not bear fruit unless the branches of the male and female plants are mixed together; or, as is generally done, unless the dust found in the male sheath or male flowers is sprinkled over the female flowers.” On his return, he resided for some time at Genoa as physician to Andrea Doria, and in 1593 he was appointed professor of botany at Padua, where he died on the 6th of February 1617. He was succeeded in the botanical chair by his son Alpino Alpini (d. 1637). His best-known work is De Plantis Aegypti liber (Venice, 1592). His De Medicina Egyptiorum (Venice, 1591) is said to contain the first account of the coffee plant published in Europe. The genus Alpinia, belonging to the order Zingiberaceae, was named after him by Linnaeus.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Alquifou

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​ALQUIFOU (etymologically the same word as “alcohol”), a lead ore found in Cornwall, used by potters for its green glaze.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Alpujarras, The

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​ALPUJARRAS, or Alpuxarras, THE (Moorish al Busherat, “the grass-land”), a mountainous district of southern Spain, in the province of Granada, consisting principally of valleys which descend at right angles from the crest of the Sierra Nevada on the north, to the Sierras Almijara, Contraviesa and Gádor, which sever it from the Mediterranean Sea, on the south. These valleys are among the most beautiful and fertile in Spain. They contain a rich abundance of fruit trees, especially vines, oranges, lemons and figs, and in some parts present scenes of almost Alpine grandeur. The inhabitants are the descendants of the Moors, who, after the Spanish conquest of Granada in 1492, vainly sought to preserve the last relics of their independence in their mountain fastnesses. Many of the names of places in the ​Alpujarras are of Moorish origin. The district contains many villages of 1000 to 4000 inhabitants, the four largest being Lanjaron, with its ruined castle and chalybeate baths, Orgiba, Trevelez and Ugijar; all situated at a considerable elevation. Trevelez, the highest, stands 5332 ft. above the sea.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Alphonsus a Sancta Maria

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​ALPHONSUS A SANCTA MARIA, or Alphonso de Cartagena (1396–1456), Spanish historian, was born at Carthagena, and succeeded his father, Paulus, as bishop of Burgos. In 1431 he was deputed by John II., king of Castile, to attend the council of Basel, in which he made himself conspicuous by his learning. He was the author of several works, the principal of which is entitled Rerum Hispanorum Romanorum imperatorum, summorum pontificum, nec non regum Francorum anacephaleosis. ​This is a history of Spain from the earliest times down to 1456, and was printed at Granada in 1545, and also in the Rerum Hispanicarum Scriptores aliquot, by R. Bel (Frankfort, 1579). Alphonsus died on the 12th of July 1456.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Almogávares

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​ALMOGÁVARES (from the Arab. Al-Mugavari, a scout), the name of a class of Spanish soldiers, well known during the ​Christian reconquest of Spain, and much employed as mercenaries in Italy and the Levant, during the 13th and 14th centuries. The Almogávares (the plural of Almogávar) came originally from the Pyrenees, and were in later times recruited mainly in Navarre, Aragon and Catalonia. They were frontiersmen and foot-soldiers who wore no armour, dressed in skins, were shod with brogues (abarcas), and carried the same arms as the Roman legionaries—two heavy javelins (Spanish azagaya, the Roman pilum), a short stabbing sword and a shield. They served the king, the nobles, the church or the towns for pay, and were professional soldiers. When Peter III. of Aragon made war on Charles of Anjou after the Sicilian Vespers—30th of March 1282—for the possession of Naples and Sicily, the Almogávares formed the most effective element of his army. Their discipline and ferocity, the force with which they hurled their javelins, and their activity, made them very formidable to the heavy cavalry of the Angevin armies. When the peace of Calatabellota in 1302 ended the war in southern Italy, the Almogávares followed Roger di Flor (Roger Blum) the unfrocked Templar, who entered the service of the emperor of the East, Andronicus, as condottieri to fight against the Turks. Their campaign in Asia Minor, 1303 and 1304, was a series of romantic victories, but their greed and violence made them intolerable to the Christian population. When Roger di Flor was assassinated by his Greek employer in 1305, they turned on the emperor, held Gallipoli and ravaged the neighbourhood of Constantinople. In 1310 they marched against the duke of Athens, of the French house of Brienne. Walter of Brienne was defeated and slain by them with all his knights at the battle of Cephissus, or Orchomenus, in Boeotia in March. They then divided the wives and possessions of the Frenchmen by lot and summoned a prince of the house of Aragon to rule over them. The foundation of the Aragonese duchy of Athens was the culmination of the achievements of the Almogávares. In the 16th century the name died out. It was, however, revived for a short time as a party nickname in the civil wars of the reign of Ferdinand VII.
Authorities.—The Almogávares are admirably described by one who fought with them, Ramon de Muntaner, whose Chronicle has been translated into French by J. A. Buchon, Chroniques étrangères (Paris, 1860). The original text was reprinted and edited by K. Lanz at Stuttgart, 1844. See also the Expedition des “Almugávares” ou routiers catalans en orient, de l’an 1302 à l’an 1311, by G. Schlumberger (Paris, 1902).  (D. H.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Almqvist, Karl Jonas Ludwig

See also Carl Jonas Love Almqvist on Wikipedia; the 9th edition; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​ALMQVIST, KARL JONAS LUDWIG (1793–1866), Swedish writer, was born at Stockholm in 1793. He became a student at Upsala, where his father was professor of theology, in 1808, and took his degree in 1815. He began life under highly favourable auspices; but becoming tired of a university career, in 1823 he threw up the position he held in the capital to lead a colony of friends to the wilds of Wermland. This ideal Scandinavian life soon proved a failure; Almqvist found the pen easier to wield than the plough, and in 1828 he returned to Stockholm as a teacher in the new Elementary School there, of which he became rector in 1829. Now began his literary life; and after bringing out several educational works, he made himself suddenly famous by the publication of his great series of novels, called The Book of the Thorn-Rose (1832–1835). The career so begun developed with extraordinary rapidity; few writers have equalled Almqvist in productiveness and versatility; lyrical, epic and dramatic poems; romances; lectures; philosophical, aesthetical, moral, political and educational treatises; works of religious edification, studies in lexicography and history, in mathematics and philology, form the most prominent of his countless contributions to modern Swedish literature. So excellent was his style, that in this respect he has been considered the first of Swedish writers. His life was as varied as his work. Unsettled, unstable in all his doings, he passed from one lucrative post to another, at last subsisting entirely on the proceeds of literary and journalistic labour. More and more vehemently he espoused the cause of socialism in his brilliant novels and pamphlets; friends were beginning to leave him, foes beginning to triumph, when suddenly all minor criticism was silenced by the astounding news that Almqvist, convicted of forgery and charged with murder, had fled from Sweden. This occurred in 1851. For many years no more was heard of him; but it is now known that he went over to America and settled in St Louis. During a journey through Texas he was robbed of all his manuscripts, among which are believed to have been several unprinted novels. He is said to have appealed in person to President Lincoln, but the robbers could not be traced. The American adventures of Almqvist remain exceedingly obscure, and some of the most remarkable have been proved to be fabulous. In 1865 he returned to Europe, and his strange and sinister existence came to a close at Bremen on the 26th of September 1866. It is by his romances, undoubtedly the best in Swedish, that his literary fame will mainly be supported; but his singular history will always point him out as a remarkable figure even when his works are no longer read. He was another Eugene Aram, but of greater genius, and so far more successful that he escaped the judicial penalty of his crimes. (E. G.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Almonry

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​ALMONRY (Lat. eleemosynarium, Fr. aumônerie, Ger. Almosenhaus), the name for the place or chamber where alms were distributed to the poor in churches or other ecclesiastical buildings. At Bishopstone church, Wiltshire, it is a sort of covered porch attached to the south transept, but not communicating with the interior of the church. At Worcester Cathedral the alms are said to have been distributed on stone tables, on each side, within the great porch. In large monastic establishments, as at Westminster, it seems to have been a separate building of some importance, either joining the gatehouse or near it, that the establishment might be disturbed as little as possible.