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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rosegger, Peter

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ROSEGGER, PETER (1843- ), Austrian poet and novelist, known down to 1894 under the pseudonym Petri Kettenfeier, was born at Alpl near Krieglach in Upper Styria, on the 31st of July 1843, the son of a peasant. Until his seventeenth year he was employed as a farm hand and received no regular school education, though he learnt reading and writing from a retired schoolmaster who lived near. Unfit, owing to physical weakness, for the hard labour of agriculture, he was apprenticed to a journeyman tailor, and on his wanderings employed his leisure hours in educating himself. He soon composed poems and wrote stories. Some of these productions he sent in 1864 to Dr Svoboda, the editor of the Graz Tagespost, who, recognizing Rosegger's extraordinary talent, interested himself in the young author, and with the assistance of friends enabled him to study (from 1865-69) at the Handelsakademie of Graz. In 1869, encouraged by Robert Hamerling, Rosegger published his first work, a volume of poems in Styrian dialect, Zither und Hackbrett, which immediately established his reputation. As a result, the provincial diet of Styria accorded him a substantial stipendium (scholarship) for three years, which enabled him to supplement his studies by foreign travel. He now devoted himself entirely to authorship, and in 1876 founded the monthly periodical Der Heimgarten. On the occasion of the centenary of its reorganization the University of Heidelberg conferred upon him, in 1903, the honorary degree of doctor of philosophy.
Rosegger is one of the most fertile authors of recent times. His fresh natural style, sound judgment and his fascinating descriptions of Alpine scenery and the life of its inhabitants have made him one of the most popular authors of Austria and Germany. These characteristics are displayed to great advantage in Die Schriften des Waldschulmeisters (1875), Aus meinem Handwerkerleben (1880), Alpengeschichten (1896), Als ich noch jung war (1895), and in the love-story Mann und Weib (1879), while his simple religious mind is shown in Mein Himmelreich (1901), Erdsegen (1900) and Das ewige Licht (1897), and his attachment to friends in Gute Kameraden (1893) and Persönliche Erinnerungen an Robert Hamerling (1891). Among his other works may be mentioned a volume of poems, Gedichte (1891), a popular play, Am Tage des Gerichts (1892), two books for boys, Waldferien (1887) and Waldjugend (1900), and the stories Das Sünderglöckl (1904), Wildlinge (1906) and I.N.R.I. Frohe Botschaft eines armen Sünders (1905), which has also been translated into English. He has also written several works which are autobiographical in character, such as Waldheimat (1873) and Mein Weltleben (1898).
Rosegger's Ausgewählte Schriften appeared in thirty volumes (1881-94); a popular edition (1895-1900); his Schriften in steirischer Mundart (3 vols., 1894-96). See also A. V. Svoboda, P. K. Rosegger (1886); A. Stern, Studien zur Literatur der Gegenwart (1895); and H. Möbius, P. Rosegger (1903).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rosellini, Ippolito

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ROSELLINI, IPPOLITO (1800-1843), Italian Egyptologist, was born at Pisa. He studied under Mezzofanti at Bologna, and
in 1824 became professor of oriental languages at Pisa University. He is best known as the associate of J. F. Champollion (q.v.), whose studies he shared and whom he accompanied in his Egyptian explorations (1828). On the death of Champollion the publication of the results of their expedition fell to Rosellini (Monumenti dell' Egitto e della Nubia, Florence, 1832-40, 10 vols. fol.).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rosenheim

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ROSENHEIM, a town and watering-place of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria, situated at the confluence of the Mangfall and the Inn, 40 m. by rail S.E. of Munich. Pop. (1905) 15,403. It is an interesting town, with many medieval houses. Among its seven churches the Roman Catholic parish church, with a curious cupola and containing numerous old tombs and effigies, and that of the Holy Ghost (15th century), are remarkable. There are a monastery, two convents, several schools and a hospital. Rosenheim is frequented for its saline and sulphur baths, and there are important saltworks, the brine being conveyed from Reichenhall in pipes; it has also machine factories, metalworks and breweries. Cordage is manufactured, and there is a trade in cattle and grain. Although founded in the 12th century Rosenheim did not become a town until 1864.
See Ditterich, Rosenheim in Oberbayern (Munich, 1870), and Eid, Aus Altrosenheim (Rosenheim, 1906).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rosenkranz, Johann Karl Friedrich

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ROSENKRANZ, JOHANN KARL FRIEDRICH (1805-1879), German philosopher, was born at Magdeburg on the 23rd of April 1805. He read philosophy at Berlin, Halle and Heidelberg, devoting himself mainly to the doctrines of Hegel and Schleiermacher. After holding the chair of philosophy at Halle for two years, he became, in 1833, professor at the university of Königsberg, where he remained till his death on the 14th of July 1879. In his last years he was quite blind. Throughout his long professorial career, and in all his numerous publications he remained, in spite of occasional deviations on particular points, loyal to the Hegelian tradition as a whole. In the great division of the Hegelian school, he, in company with Michelet and others, formed the “centre,” midway between Erdmann and Gabler on the one hand, and the “extreme left” represented by Strauss, Feuerbach and Bruno Bauer.
Of his numerous writings, the following may be mentioned: 1. Philosophical: Kritik der Schleiermacherschen Glaubenslehre (1836); Psychologie oder Wissenschaft vom subjektiven Geist (1837; 3rd ed., 1863); Kritische Erläuterungen des Hegelschen Systems (1840); Vorlesungen über Schelling (1842); System der Wissenschaft (1850); Meine Reform der Hegelschen Philosophie (1852); Wissenschaft der logischen Idee (1858-59), with a supplement (Epilegomena, 1862); Hegels Naturphilosophie und die Bearbeitung derselben durch Vera (1868); Erläuterungen zu Hegels Encyklopädie der philosophischen Wissenschaften (1871). Two other of his works on Hegel are important, the Leben Hegels (1844) and the Hegel als deutscher Nationalphilosoph (1870). Between 1838 and 1840 in conjunction with F. W. Schubert, he published an edition of the works of Kant, to which he appended a history of the Kantian doctrine. 2. Literary and General: Geschichte der deutschen Poesie im Mittelalter (1830); Handbuch einer allgemeinen Geschichte der Poesie (1832-33); Die Pädogogik als System (1848); Aesthetik des Hässlichen (1853); Die Poesie und ihre Geschichte (1885); Studien (1839-47) and Neue Studien (1875-78). He published also an autobiography entitled Von Magdeburg nach Königsberg (1873), which deals with his life up to the time of his settlement at Königsberg.
See Quäbicker, Karl Rosenkranz (1899), and J. Hutchison Stirling, The Secret of Hegel, part 6.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rosemary

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ROSEMARY, botanically Rosmarinus, a Labiate plant, the only representative of the genus and a native of the Mediterranean region. It is a low shrub with linear leaves, dark green above, white beneath, and with margins rolled back on to the under face. The flowers are in small axillary clusters. Each has a two-lipped calyx, from which projects a bluish two-lipped corolla enclosing two stamens, the other two, which are generally present in the family, being deficient. The fruit consists of four smooth nutlets. Botanically the genus is near to Salvia, but it differs in the shorter connective to the anther. Rosemary was highly esteemed by the ancients for its aromatic fragrance and medicinal uses. In modern times it is valued mainly as a perfume, for which purpose the oil is obtained by distillation. It doubtless has slight stimulant properties, such as are common to all volatile oils, which may account for the general belief in the efficacy of the plant in promoting the growth of the hair. Rosemary plays no unimportant part in literature and folk-lore, being esteemed as an emblem of remembrance. “There's rosemary, that's for remembrance,” says Ophelia. Its use in connexion with funeral ceremonies is not extinct in country places to this day, and it was formerly much valued at wedding festivities. The name “ros marinus” or “ros maris,” literally “sea-dew,” was probably given in allusion to its native habitat in the neighbourhood of the sea.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rosenthal, Toby Edward

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​ROSENTHAL, TOBY EDWARD (1848–), American artist, was born at New Haven, Connecticut, on the 15th of March 1848. Removing to San Francisco with his parents in 1855, he there studied painting under Fortunato Arriola. In 1865 he went to Munich, where he was a pupil of the Royal Academy under Strachuber, Raupp and Piloty. Among his more important works are: “ Morning Prayers ” (Leipzig Museum), “ Elaine,” “ Trial of Constance de Beverley,” “ Dancing Lesson During the Empire ” and “ Departure from the Family."
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rosecrans, William Starke

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ROSECRANS, WILLIAM STARKE (1819–1898), American soldier, was born in Kingston, Ohio, on the 6th of September 1819, and graduated in 1842 from the U.S. Military Academy, being appointed to the engineers. After serving (1843–47) as assistant professor at West Point, and in fort construction, he resigned (April 1854) from the army and went into business in Cincinnati. On the outbreak of the Civil War Rosecrans volunteered for service under McClellan and helped raise the Ohio “Home Guards,” with which he served in the West Virginian operations of 1861 in the rank of brigadier-general. He was second in command to McClellan during this campaign, and succeeded to the command when that officer was called to Washington. In the latter part of 1861 Rosecrans conducted further operations in the same region with great skill and success, and early in 1862 he was transferred to the West as a major-general of volunteers. He took part in the operations against Corinth, and when General John Pope was ordered to Virginia, Rosecrans took over command of the Army of the Mississippi with which he fought the successful battles of Iuka and Corinth. Soon afterwards he was ordered to replace D. C. Buell in command of the forces, renamed the Army of the Cumberland about the same time.
In December he advanced against General Braxton Bragg, and on the 31st of December to the 3rd of January was fought the bloody and indecisive battle of Stone River (Murfreesboro), after which Bragg withdrew his army to the southward. In 1863 Rosecrans, refusing to advance until the isolation of Vicksburg (farther west) was assured, did not take the offensive until late in June. The operations thus begun were most skilfully conducted, and Bragg was forced back to Chattanooga (q.v.), whence he had to retire on being once more outmanœuvred. But Rosecrans sustained a great defeat at the battle of Chickamauga (q.v.), and was soon besieged in Chattanooga. He was then relieved from his command. Later he did good service in Missouri, and in March 1865 he was made brevet major-general U.S.A. He resigned in 1867, and in the following year became minister to Mexico. Subsequently he was engaged in many railway and industrial enterprises in that country, as also in California. He was a representative in Congress from California, 1881–85, and register of the treasury, 1885–93. Under an act of Congress he was on the 2nd of March 1889 restored to the rank of brigadier-general, and retired. He died near Redondo, Cal., on the 11th of March 1898. On the 17th of May 1902 his body was reinterred with military honours in the National Cemetery at Arlington, in the presence of President Roosevelt, members of the cabinet and many of his campaigning comrades.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Malot, Hector Henri

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​MALOT, HECTOR HENRI (1830–1907), French novelist and man of letters, the son of a notary, was born at La Bouille (Seine Inférieure) on the 20th of May 1830. He studied law at Rouen and Paris, but literature early absorbed his attention. He collaborated in the Biographie générale of Didot, became literary critic of L’Opinion Nationale, and dramatic critic of the Lloyd français. He is the author of a long series of popular novels dealing with contemporary life, including: a trilogy of domestic novels entitled Victimes d’amour (1859, 1865, 1866); Un Beau frère (1869); Madame Obernin (1870); Le Docteur Claude (1879); Justice (1889). Les Aventures de Romain Kalbris (1869) and Sans famille (1888) are excellent stories for children. A complete edition of Hector Malot’s works appeared in 1894–1897. He died at Vincennes in July 1907.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Malou, Jules Édouard Xavier

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​MALOU, JULES ÉDOUARD XAVIER (1810–1886), Belgian statesman, one of the leaders of the clerical party, was born at Ypres on the 19th of October 1810. He was a civil servant in the department of justice when he was elected to the Chamber of Deputies by his native constituency in 1841, and was for some time governor of the province of Antwerp. He was minister of finance in the coalition ministry of J. B. Nothomb in 1844, and formed with B. T. de Theux a Catholic cabinet in 1846, which was overthrown in the Liberal victory of 1847. Malou ​then became a member of the senate, and his party only regained ascendancy in 1870. The extreme clerical ministry of Baron d’Anethan retired in December 1871 after serious rioting in Brussels, and Malou was the real, though not the nominal, head of the more moderate clerical administrations of de Theux and Aspremont-Lynden (1870–1878). He was wise enough to disavow the noisy sympathy of Belgian Ultramontane politicians with the German victims of the Kulturkampf, and, retaining in his own hands the portfolio of finance, he subordinated his clerical policy to a useful administration in commercial matters, including a development of the railway system. It was only after the fall of the ministry in 1878 that he adopted a frankly clerical policy, and when he became chief of a new government in June 1884 he proceeded to undo the educational compromise of his predecessors in the Frère-Orban ministry. His legislation in favour of the Catholic schools caused rioting in Brussels, and in October the king demanded the retirement of MM. Jacobs and Woeste, the members of the cabinet against whom popular indignation was chiefly directed. Malou followed them into retirement, and died at Woluwe Saint Lambert, in Brabant, on the 11th of July 1886. He was a financier of great knowledge and experience, and his works (of which a long list is given in Koninck’s Bibliographie nationale de Belgique) include three series (1874–1880) of memoirs on financial questions, edited by him for the Chamber of Deputies, besides pamphlets on railroad proposals, mining and other practical questions. His brother Jean Baptiste Malou (1809–1864) was a well-known divine.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Malouet, Pierre Victor, Baron

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​MALOUET, PIERRE VICTOR, Baron (1740–1814), French publicist and politician, was born at Riom (Puy-de-Dôme) on the 11th of February 1740, the son of a lawyer. He entered the civil service and was employed successively at the French embassy in Lisbon, in the administrative department of the duc de Broglie’s army, as commissary in San Domingo from 1767–1774, and, after his return to France, as commissary-general of the marine. In 1776 he was entrusted to carry out plans of colonization in French Guiana, but was superseded in 1779. On his return to France he was well received at court, and the execution of his plans in Guiana was assured. He became intendant of the port of Toulon, and in 1789 was returned to the states-general, where he soon became well known as a defender of the monarchical principle. He emigrated to England in September, 1792, but shortly afterwards sought in vain permission to return to assist in the defence of Louis XVI. His name was erased from the list of emigrants in 1801 by Napoleon, who restored him to his position in the service and sent him to Antwerp as commissioner-general and maritime prefect to superintend the erection of defence works, and the creation of a fleet. He entered the council of state in 1810, but, having offended the emperor by his plainness of speech, he was disgraced in 1812. At the Restoration, Louis XVIII. made him minister of marine; and he died on the 7th of September 1814.
The most important documents for his domestic and colonial policy are a Collection de ses opinions à l’Assemblée Nationale (3 vols., 1791–1792); and Collection de mémoires et correspondances officielles sur l’administration des colonies et notamment sur la Guiane française et hollandaise (5 vols., 1802).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Malstatt-Burbach

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​MALSTATT-BURBACH, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province on the right bank of the Saar (Sarre), which separates it from Saarbrücken. Pop. (1900), 31,195. It lies in the midst of an important coal-mining and industrial district, and is itself little more than a long and narrow row of manufactories and workmen’s houses. The largest factories are engaged in the production of iron, steel and cement. There is a large wharf on the river for the export of coal.
Malstatt received municipal rights in 1321. These, however, were afterwards resigned to the newer town of Saarbrücken, and in 1818 Malstatt and Burbach were two small villages with a joint population of only about 800. About the middle of the century the population began to increase rapidly, in consequence of the development of the mining industry of the district and the extension of the railway system, and in 1874 the two villages were united to form a town.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Prism

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​PRISM (Gr. πρίσμα, properly a thing sawn, πρίζειν , to saw), in geometry a solid enclosed by plane surfaces, two of which, termed the ends, are parallel, equal, similar and similarly situated polygons, and the faces connecting the ends are parallelograms, equal in number to the sides of the polygon. If the faces be perpendicular to the ends the prism is a “right prism,” and the faces are rectangles; otherwise the prism is “oblique.” The axis is the line joining the centres of the ends. It may be generated by moving a plane (corresponding to an end or base) parallel to itself. A prismoid differs from a prism in having for its ends two dissimilar parallel figures. For illustrations see Crystallography, and for the mensuration see that article. In optics the word denotes a triangular prism, i.e. one having a triangle for base, used to decompose white light. (See Refraction and Dispersion.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Priscus (historian)

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​PRISCUS, of Panium in Thrace, Greek sophist and historian, lived during the 5th century A.D. He accompanied Maximin the ambassador of Theodosius the Younger, to the court of Attila (448). During the reign of Marcian (450–457) he also took part in missions to Arabia and the Egyptian Thebaid. Priscus was the author of an historical work in eight books (Βυζαντιακἠ Ἱστορία), probably from the accession of Attila to that of Zeno (433–474). Only fragments of the work remain, but the description of Attila and his court and the account of the reception of the Roman ambassadors is a most valuable piece of contemporary history. Priscus’s style is pure, and his impartiality and trustworthiness entitle him to an honourable place among the writers of his time.
Fragments and life in C. W. Müller, Fragmenta hisloricorum graecorum, iv. 69–110; v. 24–26, ed. B. G. Niebuhr in Bonn, Corpus Scriptorum hist. byzantinae (1829), vol. vi., and L. Dindorf in Historici graeci minores (1870), vol. i. For the embassy to Attila see Gibbon, Decline and Fall, ch. 34.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Prishtina

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​PRISHTINA, Prichtina, or Pristina, the chief town of a sanjak in the vilayet of Kossovo, Albania, European Turkey; on a small tributary of the river Sitnétza, an affluent of the Ibar, and 3 m. E. of the Prishtina station on the Salonica-Mitrovitza railway. Pop. (1905), about 11,000. Prishtina is the seat of a governor-general and of a general of division, and possesses many mosques, a military hospital and a higher class school. The trade is considerable, the exports including chrome, wheat, maize, barley, skins, wine and timber from the magnificent beech forests in the sanjak. The plain of Kossovo (Kossoaopolye, “Field of Blackbirds”), to the west, was the scene of the battle in which the Servian empire was destroyed by the Turks in 1389. To the south-east lies the partly ruined monastery of Grachanitza founded by King Milutin of Servia (1275–1321). Among the frescoes are a remarkable head of Christ in the dome, and portraits of the founder and his queen Simonida, daughter of Andronicus II. Palaeologus.
See G. M. M. Mackenzie and A. P. Irby, Travels in the Slavonic Provinces of Turkey (1877).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Priscus (philosopher)

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​PRISCUS, a Greek Neoplatonist philosopher, of the school of Iamblichus and Aedesius. He died about the year 398 at the age of ninety. The emperor Julian frequently invited him to court on the strength of his reputation in connexion with theurgy. Eunapius says that he was a man of dignified and austere habit. Unlike Maximus, he used his influence over Julian with great moderation. He died during the Gothic invasion of Greece (A.D. 396–98). He is important partly as maintaining the best traditions of philosophy during a period when Neoplatonism as a whole was a parasite of imperial power, and partly as being a connecting link between Iamblichus and Plutarch of Athens.
See Zeller’s Hist. of Greek Phil.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Prisoners' Base

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​PRISONERS' BASE (Prisoners’ Bars), an ancient game much affected by children. The players are divided into two sides, each standing within a base or home marked off at some distance apart. After preliminary songs and war-like challenges, a player on one side runs out and is pursued by one of “the enemy”; if touched he becomes a prisoner of the side to which his captor belongs. If another player from the side of the pursued runs between him and his pursuer, the latter has to follow him, but the last to leave his base is privileged to touch any one of the enemy who left his base before him. The rules of the game are, however, traditional, and necessarily somewhat elastic. The end comes, of course, when all of one side have been captured by the other.