OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hadleigh

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​HADLEIGH, a market town in the Sudbury parliamentary division of Suffolk, England; 70 m. N.E. from London, the terminus of a branch of the Great Eastern railway. Pop. of urban district (1901), 3245. It lies pleasantly in a well-wooded country on the small river Brett, a tributary of the Stour. The church of St Mary is of good Perpendicular work, with Early English tower and Decorated spire. The Rectory Tower, a turreted gate-house of brick, dates from c. 1495. The gild-hall is a Tudor building, and there are other examples of this period. There are a town-hall and corn exchange, and an industry in the manufacture of matting and in malting. Hadleigh was one of the towns in which the woollen industry was started by Flemings, and survived until the 18th century. Among the rectors of Hadleigh several notable names appear, such as Rowland Taylor, the martyr, who was burned at the stake outside the town in 1555, and Hugh James Rose, during whose tenancy of the rectory an initiatory meeting of the leaders of the Oxford Movement took place here in 1833.
Hadleigh, called by the Saxons Heapde-leag, appears in Domesday Book as Hetlega. About 885 Æthelflæd, lady of the Mercians, with the consent of Æthelred her husband, gave Hadleigh to Christ Church, Canterbury. The dean and chapter of Canterbury have held possession of it ever since the Dissolution. In the 17th century Hadleigh was famous for the manufacture of cloth, and in 1618 was sufficiently important to receive incorporation. It was constituted a free borough under the title of the mayor, aldermen and burgesses of Hadleigh. In 1635, in a list of the corporate towns of Suffolk to be assessed for ship money, Hadleigh is named as third in importance. In 1636, owing to a serious visitation of the plague, 200 families were thrown out of work, and in 1687 so much had its importance declined that it was deprived of its charter. An unsuccessful attempt to recover it was made in 1701. There is evidence of the existence of a market here as early as the 13th century. James I., in his charter of incorporation, granted fairs on Monday and Tuesday in Whitsun week, and confirmed an ancient fair at Michaelmas and a market on Monday.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hadley, Arthur Twining

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​HADLEY, ARTHUR TWINING (1856–), American political economist and educationist, president of Yale University, was born in New Haven, Connecticut, on the 23rd of April 1856. He was the son of James Hadley, the philologist, from whom, as from his mother—whose brother, Alexander Catlin Twining (1801–1884), was an astronomer and authority on constitutional law—he inherited unusual mathematical ability. He graduated at Yale in 1876 as valedictorian, having taken prizes in English, classics and astronomy; studied political ​science at Yale (1876–1877) and at Berlin (1878–1879); was a tutor at Yale in 1879–1883, instructor in political science in 1883–1886, professor of political science in 1886–1891, professor of political economy in 1891–1899, and dean of the Graduate School in 1892–1895; and in 1899 became president of Yale University—the first layman to hold that office. He was commissioner of the Connecticut bureau of labour statistics in 1885–1887. As an economist he first became widely known through his investigation of the railway question and his study of railway rates, which antedated the popular excitement as to rebates. His Railroad Transportation, its History and Laws (1885) became a standard work, and appeared in Russian (1886) and French (1887); he testified as an expert on transportation before the Senate committee which drew up the Interstate Commerce Law; and wrote on railways and transportation for the Ninth and Tenth Editions (of which he was one of the editors) of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, for Lalor’s Cyclopaedia of Political Science, Political Economy, and Political History of the United States (3 vols., 1881–1884), for The American Railway (1888), and for The Railroad Gazette in 1884–1891, and for other periodicals. His idea of the broad scope of economic science, especially of the place of ethics in relation to political economy and business, is expressed in his writings and public addresses. In 1907–1908 he was Theodore Roosevelt professor of American History and Institutions in the university of Berlin.
Among his other publications are: Economics: an Account of the Relations between Private Property and Public Welfare (1896); The Education of the American Citizen (1901); The Relations between Freedom and Responsibility in the Evolution of Democratic Government (1903, in Yale Lectures on the Responsibilities of Citizenship); Baccalaureate Addresses (1907); and Standards of Public Morality (1907), being the Kennedy Lectures for 1906.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hadria

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​HADRIA [mod. Atri (q.v.)], perhaps the original terminal point of the Via Caecilia, Italy. It belonged to the Praetutii. It became a colony of Rome in 290 B.C. and remained faithful to Rome. The coins which it issued (probably during the Punic Wars), are remarkable. The crypt of the cathedral of the modern town was originally a large Roman cistern; another forms the foundation of the ducal palace; and in the eastern portion of the town there is a complicated system of underground passages for collecting and storing water.
See Notizie degli scavi (1902), 3. (T. As.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hadersleben

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​HADERSLEBEN (Dan. Haderslev), a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein, 31 m. N. from Flensburg. Pop. (1905) 9289. It lies in a pleasant valley on the Hadersleben fjord, which is about 9 m. in length, and communicates with the Little Belt, and at the junction of the main line of railway from Woyens with three vicinal lines. The principal buildings are the beautiful church of St Mary, dating from the 13th century, the theological seminary established in 1870, the gymnasium and the hospital. The industries include iron-founding, tanning, and the manufacture of machines, tobacco and gloves. The harbour is only accessible to small vessels.
Hadersleben is first mentioned in 1228, and received municipal rights from Duke Waldemar II. in 1292. It suffered considerably during the wars between Schleswig and Holstein in the 15th century. In November 1864 it passed with Schleswig to Prussia. Two Danish kings, Frederick II. and Frederick III., were born at Hadersleben.
See A. Sach, Der Ursprung der Stadt Hadersleben (Hadersleben, 1892).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hading, Jane

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​HADING, JANE (1859– ), French actress, whose real name was Jeanne Alfrédine Tréfouret, was born on the 25th of November 1859 at Marseilles, where her father was an actor at the Gymnase. She was trained at the local Conservatoire and was engaged in 1873 for the theatre at Algiers, and afterwards for the Khedivial theatre at Cairo, where she played, in turn, coquette, soubrette and ingénue parts. Expectations had been raised by her voice, and when she returned to Marseilles she sang in operetta, besides acting in Ruy Blas. Her Paris début was in La Chaste Suzanne at the Palais Royal, and she was again heard in operetta at the Renaissance. In 1883 she had a great success at the Gymnase in Le Maître de forges. In 1884 she married Victor Koning (1842–1894), the manager of that theatre, but divorced him in 1887. In 1888 she toured America with Coquelin, and on her return helped to give success to Lavedan’s Prince d’Aurec, at the Vaudeville. Her reputation as one of the leading actresses of the day was now established not only in France but in America and England. Her later répertoire included Le Demi-monde, Capus’s La Châtelaine, Maurice Donnay’s Retour de Jérusalem, La Princesse Georges by Dumas fils, and Émile Bergerat’s Plus que reine.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hadley, James

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​HADLEY, JAMES (1821–1872), American scholar, was born on the 30th of March 1821 in Fairfield, Herkimer county, New York, where his father was professor of chemistry in Fairfield Medical College. At the age of nine an accident lamed him for life. He graduated from Yale in 1842, having entered the Junior class in 1840; studied in the Theological Department of Yale, and in 1844–1845 was a tutor in Middlebury College. He was tutor at Yale in 1845–1848, assistant professor of Greek in 1848–1851, and professor of Greek, succeeding President Woolsey, from 1851 until his death in New Haven on the 14th of November 1872. As an undergraduate he showed himself an able mathematician, but the influence of Edward Elbridge Salisbury, under whom Hadley and W. D. Whitney studied Sanskrit together, turned his attention toward the study of language. He knew Greek, Latin, Sanskrit, Hebrew, Arabic, Armenian, several Celtic languages and the languages of modern Europe; but he published little, and his scholarship found scant outlet in the college class-room. His most original written work was an essay on Greek accent, published in a German version in Curtius’s Studien zur griechischen und lateinischen Grammatik. Hadley’s Greek Grammar (1860; revised by Frederic de Forest Allen, 1884) was based on Curtius’s Schulgrammatik (1852, 1855, 1857, 1859), and long held its place in American schools. Hadley was a member of the American Committee for the revision of the New Testament, was president of the American Oriental Society (1871–1872), and contributed to Webster’s dictionary an essay on the History of the English Language. In 1873 were published his Introduction to Roman Law (edited by T. D. Woolsey) and his Essays, Philological and Critical (edited by W. D. Whitney).
See the memorial by Noah Porter in The New Englander, vol. xxxii. (Jan. 1873), pp. 35-55; and the sketch by his son, A. T. Hadley, in Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. v. (1905), pp. 247-254.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hadrian's Wall

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​HADRIAN’S WALL, the name usually given to the remains of the Roman fortifications which defended the northern frontier of the Roman province of Britain, between the Tyne and the Solway. The works consisted of (1) a continuous defensive rampart with a ditch in front and a road behind; (2) various forts, blockhouses and towers along the rampart; and (3) an earthwork to the south of it, generally called the Vallum, of uncertain use. The defensive wall was probably first erected by Hadrian about A.D. 122 as a turf wall, and rebuilt in stone by Septimius Severus about A.D. 208. See further Britain: Roman.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Maury, Louis Ferdinand Alfred

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​MAURY, LOUIS FERDINAND ALFRED (1817–1892), French scholar, was born at Meaux on the 23rd of March 1817. In 1836, having completed his education, he entered the Bibliothèque Nationale, and afterwards the Bibliothèque de l’Institut (1844), where he devoted himself to the study of archaeology, ancient and modern languages, medicine and law. Gifted with a great capacity for work, a remarkable memory and an unbiassed and critical mind, he produced without great effort a number of learned pamphlets and books on the most varied subjects. He rendered great service to the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres, of which he had been elected a member in 1857. Napoleon III. employed him in research work connected with the Histoire de César, and he was rewarded, proportionately to his active, if modest, part in this work, with the positions of librarian of the Tuileries (1860), professor at the College of France (1862) and director-general of the Archives (1868). It was not, however, to the imperial favour that he owed these high positions. He used his influence for the advancement of science and higher education, and with Victor Duruy was one of the founders of the École des Hautes Études. He died at Paris four years after his retirement from the last post, on the 11th of February 1892.
Bibliography.—His works are numerous: Les Fées au moyen âge and Histoire des légendes pieuses au moyen âge; two books filled with ingenious ideas, which were published in 1843, and reprinted after the death of the author, with numerous additions under the title Croyances et légendes du moyen âge (1896); Histoire des grandes forêts de la Gaule et de l’ancienne France (1850, a 3rd ed. revised appeared in 1867 under the title Les Forêts de la Gaule et de l’ancienne France); La Terre et l’homme, a general historical sketch of geology, geography and ethnology, being the introduction to the Histoire universelle, by Victor Duruy (1854); Histoire des religions de la Grèce antique, (3 vols., 1857–1859); La Magie et l’astrologie dans l’antiquité et dans le moyen âge (1863); Histoire de l’ancienne académie des sciences (1864); Histoire de l’Académie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres (1865); a learned paper on the reports of French archaeology, written on the occasion of the universal exhibition (1867); a number of articles in the Encyclopédie moderne (1846–1851), in Michaud’s Biographie universelle (1858 and seq.), in the Journal des savants in the Revue des deux mondes (1873, 1877, 1879–1880, &c.). A detailed bibliography of his works has been placed by Auguste Longnon at the beginning of the volume Les Croyances et légendes du moyen âge.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mauriac

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​MAURIAC, a town of central France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Cantal, 39 m. N.N.W. of Aurillac by rail. Pop. (1906), 2558. Mauriac, built on the slope of a volcanic hill, has a church of the 12th century, and the buildings of an old abbey now used as public offices and dwellings; the town owes its origin to the abbey, founded during the 6th century. It is the seat of a sub-prefect and has a tribunal of first instance and a communal college. There are marble quarries in the vicinity.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Maurice, St

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​MAURICE [or Mauritius], ST (d. c. 286), an early Christian martyr, who, with his companions, is commemorated by the Roman Catholic Church on the 22nd of September. The oldest form of his story is found in the Passio ascribed to Eucherius, bishop of Lyons, c. 450, who relates how the “Theban” legion commanded by Mauritius was sent to north Italy to reinforce the army of Maximinian. Maximinian wished to use them in persecuting the Christians, but as they themselves were of this faith, they refused, and for this, after having been twice decimated, the legion was exterminated at Octodurum (Martigny) near Geneva. In late versions this legend was expanded and varied, the martyrdom was connected with a refusal to take part in a great sacrifice ordered at Octodurum and the name of Exsuperius was added to that of Mauritius. Gregory of Tours (c. 539–593) speaks of a company of the same legion which suffered at Cologne.
The Magdeburg Centuries, in spite of Mauritius being the patron saint of Magdeburg, declared the whole legend fictitious; J. A. du Bordien La Légion thébéenne (Amsterdam, 1705); J. J. Hottinger in Helvetische Kirchengeschichte (Zürich, 1708); and F. W. Rettberg, Kirchengeschichte Deutschlands (Göttingen, 1845–1848) have also demonstrated its untrustworthiness, while the Bollandists, De Rivaz and Joh. Friedrich uphold it. Apart from the a priori improbability of a whole legion being martyred, the difficulties are that in 286 Christians everywhere throughout the empire were not molested, that at no later date have we evidence of the presence of Maximinian in the Valais, and that none of the writers nearest to the event (Eusebius, Lactantius, Orosius, Sulpicius Severus) know anything of it. It is of course quite possible that isolated cases of officers being put to death for their faith occurred during Maximinian’s reign, and on some such cases the legend may have grown up during the century and a half between Maximinian and Eucherius. The cult of St Maurice and the Theban legion is found in Switzerland (where two places bear the name in Valais, ​besides St Moritz in Grisons), along the Rhine, and in north Italy. The foundation of the abbey of St Maurice (Agaunum) in the Valais is usually ascribed to Sigismund of Burgundy (515). Relics of the saint are preserved here and at Brieg and Turin.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Maurice (emperor)

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​MAURICE (Mauricius Flavius Tiberius) (c. 539–602), East Roman emperor from 582 to 602, was of Roman descent, but a native of Arabissus in Cappadocia. He spent his youth at the court of Justin II., and, having joined the army, fought with distinction in the Persian War (578–581). At the age of forty-three he was declared Caesar by the dying emperor Tiberius II., who bestowed upon him the hand of his daughter Constantina. Maurice brought the Persian War to a successful close by the restoration of Chosroes II. to the throne (591). On the northern frontier he at first bought off the Avars by payments which compelled him to exercise strict economy in his general administration, but after 595 inflicted several defeats upon them through his general Crispus. By his strict discipline and his refusal to ransom a captive corps he provoked to mutiny the army on the Danube. The revolt spread to the popular factions in Constantinople, and Maurice consented to abdicate. He withdrew to Chalcedon, but was hunted down and put to death after witnessing the slaughter of his five sons.
The work on military art (στρατηγικά) ascribed to him is a contemporary work of unknown authorship (ed. Scheffer, Arriani tactica et Mauricii ars militaris, Upsala, 1664; see Max Jähns, Gesch. d. Kriegswissensch., i. 152–156).
See Theophylactus Simocatta, Vita Mauricii (ed. de Boor, 1887); E. Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (ed. Bury, London, 1896, v. 19–21, 57); J. B. Bury, The Later Roman Empire (London, 1889, ii. 83–94); G. Finlay, History of Greece (ed. 1877, Oxford, i. 299–306).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Franciabigio

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​FRANCIABIGIO (1482–1525), Florentine painter. The name of this artist is generally given as Mercantonio Franciabigio; it appears, however, that his only real ascertained name was Francesco di Cristofano; and that he was currently termed Francia Bigio, the two appellatives being distinct. He was born in Florence, and studied under Albertinelli for some months. In 1505 he formed the acquaintance of Andrea del Sarto; and after a while the two painters set up a shop in common in the Piazza del Grano. Franciabigio paid much attention to anatomy and perspective, and to the proportions of his figures, though these are often too squat and puffy in form. He had a large stock of artistic knowledge, and was at first noted for diligence. As years went on, and he received frequent commissions for all sorts of public painting for festive occasions, his diligence merged in something which may rather be called workmanly offhandedness. He was particularly proficient in fresco, and Vasari even says that he surpassed all his contemporaries in this method—a judgment which modern connoisseurship does not accept. In the court of the Servites (or cloister of the Annunziata) in Florence he painted in 1513 the “Marriage of the Virgin,” as a portion of a series wherein Andrea del Sarto was chiefly concerned. The friars having uncovered this work before it was quite finished, Franciabigio was so incensed that, seizing a mason’s hammer, he struck at the head of the Virgin, and some other heads; and the fresco, which would otherwise be his masterpiece in that method, remains thus mutilated. At the Scalzo, in another series of frescoes on which Andrea was likewise employed, he executed in 1518–1519 the “Departure of John the Baptist for the Desert,” and the “Meeting of the Baptist with Jesus”; and, at the Medici palace at Poggio a Caiano, in 1521, the “Triumph of Cicero.” Various works which have been ascribed to Raphael are now known or reasonably deemed to be by Franciabigio. Such are the “Madonna del Pozzo,” in the Uffizi Gallery; the half figure of a “Young Man,” in the Louvre (see also Francia); and the famous picture in the Fuller-Maitland collection, a “Young Man with a Letter.” These two works show a close analogy in style to another in the Pitti gallery, avowedly by Franciabigio, a “Youth at a Window,” and to some others which bear this painter’s recognized monogram. The series of portraits, taken collectively, placed beyond dispute the eminent and idiosyncratic genius of the master. Two other works of his, of some celebrity, are the “Calumny of Apelles,” in the Pitti, and the “Bath of Bathsheba” (painted in 1523), in the Dresden gallery.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Francis I. (emperor)

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​FRANCIS I. (1708–1765), Roman emperor and grand duke of Tuscany, second son of Leopold Joseph, duke of Lorraine, and his wife Elizabeth Charlotte, daughter of Philip, duke of Orleans, was born on the 8th of December 1708. He was connected with the Habsburgs through his grandmother Eleanore, daughter of the emperor Ferdinand III., and wife of Charles Leopold of Lorraine. The emperor Charles VI. favoured the family, who, besides being his cousins, had served the house of Austria with distinction. He had designed to marry his daughter Maria Theresa to Clement, the elder brother of Francis. On the death of Clement he adopted the younger brother as her husband. Francis was brought up at Vienna with Maria Theresa on the understanding that they were to be married, and a real affection arose between them. At the age of fifteen, when he was brought to Vienna, he was established in the Silesian duchy of Teschen, which had been mediatized and granted to his father by the emperor in 1722. He succeeded his father as duke of Lorraine in 1729, but the emperor, at the end of the Polish War of Succession, desiring to compensate his candidate Stanislaus Leszczynski for the loss of his crown in 1735, persuaded Francis to exchange Lorraine for the reversion of the grand duchy of Tuscany. On the 12th of February 1736 he was married to Maria Theresa, and they went for a short time to Florence, when he succeeded to the grand duchy in 1737 on the death of John Gaston, the last of the ruling house of Medici. His wife secured his election to the Empire on the 13th of September 1745, in succession to Charles VII., and she made him co-regent of her hereditary dominions. Francis was well content to leave the reality of power to his able wife. He had a natural fund of good sense and some business capacity, and was a useful assistant to Maria Theresa in the laborious task of governing the complicated Austrian dominions, but his functions appear to have been of a purely secretarial character. He died suddenly in his carriage while returning from the opera at Innsbruck on the 18th of August 1765.
See A. von Arneth, Geschichte Maria Theresias (Vienna, 1863–1879).