OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# The New International Encyclopædia/Low, Seth

Edition of 1905. See also Seth Low on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
LOW, Seth (1850—). An American educator and administrator. He was born in Brooklyn; graduated at Columbia College in 1870, and after a short trip abroad, entered the tea and silk house of A. A. Low & Brothers, founded by his father in New York. In 1875 he was admitted a member of the firm, from which, upon its liquidation in 1888, he withdrew with a large fortune. In 1882 he was elected Mayor of Brooklyn by a fair majority on an independent ticket. His administration was characterized by his application of the civil-service system to city offices and the impartial maintenance of efficient service among appointees. In 1884 he was elected to a second term, which expired in 1886. In 1890 he was elected to succeed Dr. F. A. P. Barnard (q.v.) in the presidency of Columbria College. Not a trained scholar, nor an
educator in the specific meaning of the word, he succeeded by his administrative skill in transforming the institution. He increased the college proper in resources, attendance, and general reputation; transferred the site of the institution to the valuable property on Morningside Heights, and vitally united the various schools into one organization, with the title of university, and under the direction, not as theretofore of the respective faculties, but of a university council. Further reforms effected by him include the reorganization of the Law School, the addition of a faculty of pure science, the association with the university of the Teachers College, and the extension of the department of political and social study. He also made to the university a gift of $1,000,000, to be used for the erection of a library building. In 1897, despite the opposition of the organizations of the two great parties, he received 150,000 votes as independent candidate for Mayor of New York City. He was a member of the American delegation to the Czar's Peace Conference at The Hague in 1899, and at various times held other posts of public trust. In 1901, when the revolt against Tammany Hall had become general, he was elected Mayor of New York City on a fusion ticket, whose candidates were pledged especially to break up police corruption, and despite many difficulties, due to the effects of the Tammany ailministration, was able to announce, through a message appearing in the public prints of February 17, 1903, progress in the several municipal departments. He was a founder and the first president of the Bureau of Charities of Brooklyn, and was elected vice-president of the New York Academy of Sciences and president of the American Archæological Institute. His academic dignities include, among others, the degree of LL.D., conferred by the University of the State of New York, Harvard, and Princeton.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Lowell, John (pamphleteer)

Edition of 1905. See also John Lowell, Jr. (lawyer) on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
LOWELL, John (1769-1840). An American political pamphleteer, born at Newburyport, Mass. He graduated at Harvard in 1786; was admitted to the bar in 1789; took up his residence in Boston, became eminent as a lawyer, and was an active, honored, and public-spirited citizen, but refused to take office. He was the author of about twenty-five pamphlets upon the current topics of his time, including: Peace Without Dishonor—War Without Hope (1807); Candid Comparison of the Washington and Jefferson Administrations (1810); and Mr. Madison's War (1812). He was for many years president of the State Agricultural Society, and for his interest and success in horticulture was known as ‘the Columella of the New England States.’
# The New International Encyclopædia/Lund

Edition of 1905. See also Lund on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
LUND, lōōnd. An episcopal city of Sweden, situated 5 miles from the Sound, 11 miles northeast of Malmö (Map: Sweden, E 9). Its cathedral, which is the largest and most beautiful Romanesque building in Scandinavia, dates from the twelfth century. Near it are the university buildings, including the historical museum. The university has faculties of theology, law, medicine, and philosophy; was founded in 1666, and is attended by some 650 students. The chief industries of the town are sugar-refining and the manufacture of machinery. Population, in 1901, 16,621. In the Middle Ages Lund was long the largest city of Scandinavia. In the eleventh century it was the seat of a bishopric, which in 1104 was erected into an archiepiscopal see. The Archbishop of Lund claimed jurisdiction over all the sees of Scandinavia. Lund was often the residence of the Danish kings. The town suffered during the wars between Sweden and Denmark, and passed from the possession of the latter in 1658. Here the treaty of peace was signed in 1679 by which Skåne was permanently confirmed as a part of Sweden.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Lowell

Edition of 1905. See also Lowell, Massachusetts on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
LOWELL, lō'el. An important manufacturing city, and one of the county-seats of Middlesex County, Mass., 26 miles northwest of Boston; at the junction of the Merrimac and Concord rivers, and on the Boston and Maine and the New York, New Haven and Hartford railroads (Map: Massachusetts, E 2). The city has an area of about 12½ square miles. It is regularly laid out, and offers many points of interest, including the Ladd and Whitney Monument, Fort Hill Park, Pawtucket Falls, Rogers Street stone arch bridge, the city hall, Memorial Building, high school, Saint Anne's Church, and the great industrial establishments. Among the institutions are a State Normal School, the Lowell Textile School, Rogers Hall School, a
public library of over 65,000 volumes, Saint John's Hospital, Lowell Hospital, Lowell General Hospital, Old Ladies' Home, Ayer Home for Young Women and Children, and the Theodore Edson Orphanage.
Lowell is one of the greatest textile manufacturing cities in the United States. It derives immense water-power from the falls of the Merrimac River (32 feet), and that afforded by the Concord is also utilized by several mills, though steam is largely employed in many important plants. The textile establishments include cotton, woolen, worsted, knitting, hosiery, felt, and carpet mills, and bleaching and dyeing works. Other extensive manufactures are cartridges, machinery, various kinds of tools, and patent medicines. The government is vested in a mayor, annually elected, who appoints the board of police and, with the consent of the council, the board of health, library and cemetery trustees, and registrars of voters; and a bicameral council which controls elections of all other administrative officials except the chief of department of supplies, school committee, and overseers of the poor, all of whom are chosen by popular election. Lowell spends annually, in maintenance and operation, over $1,300,000, the principal items of expenditure being about $325,000 for schools, $135,000 for the police department, $120,000 for hospitals, asylums, almshouses, etc., $115,000 for the fire department, and $85,000 each for municipal lighting and for the water-works. The city owns and operates the water-works, which were built in 1873 at a cost of over $2,850,000, the entire system now comprising 128 miles of mains. Population, in 1830, 6474; in 1850, 33,383; in 1870, 40,928; in 1880, 59,475; in 1890, 77,696; in 1900, 94,969, including 40,974 persons of foreign birth and 136 of negro descent.
Lowell was founded by the ‘Merrimac Manufacturing Company’ in 1822, and named after Francis C. Lowell (q.v.). The village grew very rapidly from the first. In 1820 it was incorporated as a town and ten years later was chartered as a city. Consult: Illustrated History of Lowell, Massachusetts (Lowell, 1897); Drake, History of Middlesex County (Boston, 1880).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Lowell, Francis Cabot

Edition of 1905. See also Francis Cabot Lowell (businessman) on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
LOWELL, Francis Cabot (1775-1817). An American merchant and manufacturer, the founder of the cotton-manufacturing industry in America. He was born in Boston, the son of Judge John Lowell (q.v.), graduated at Harvard in 1793, and entered upon a mercantile career in Boston. While traveling in England he became convinced that cotton manufacture could be profitably carried on in America, and during the War of 1812, when the necessity for cotton cloth became pressing, he had cotton-looms constructed from his own models and started some cotton-mills, first at Waltham and later on the Merrimac River at a place since named Lowell in his honor.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Lowell, John (jurist)

Edition of 1905. See also John Lowell on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
LOWELL, John (1743-1802). An American jurist. He was born at Newburyport, Mass.; graduated at Harvard in 1760; was admitted to the bar in 1762, and rapidly attained prominence in his profession. He was an enthusiastic patriot, took an active part in the pre-Revolutionary movement in Massachusetts, and after the outbreak of hostilities served for a time as a lieutenant of Massachusetts militia. In 1776 and again in 1777 he was elected from Newburyport to the Provincial Assembly. In 1780 he was a delegate to the State Constitutional Convention, and took a prominent part in drafting the Constitution which was adopted. He is said to have been the author of the declaration in this instrument that ‘all men are born free and equal,’ which was held by the State Supreme Court in 1783 to have abolished slavery in Massachusetts. In 1782-83 he was a member of the Continental Congress, and in 1782 was appointed by that body one of the three judges to try appeals from the local courts of admiralty. In 1784 he was a member of the New York-Massachusetts Boundary Commission, and in 1789 was appointed by President Washington the first judge of the United States District Court in Massachusetts, which office he held until his death.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Lumber State

Edition of 1905. See also the disclaimer.
LUMBER STATE. Maine. See States, Popular Names of.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Austin, William

Edition of 1905. See also William Austin (author) on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​AUSTIN, William (1778-1841). An American lawyer and author, born in Massachusetts. In addition to Letters from London (1804), An Essay on the Human Character of Jesus Christ (1807), and several minor works, he published the legendary tale of Peter Rugg, the Missing Man, in the New England Galaxy (1824-26). Consult Literary Papers of William Austin, with a biographical sketch (Boston, 1890).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Austin (Nevada)

Edition of 1905. See also Austin, Nevada on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ AUSTIN. The county-seat of Lander County, Nev., about 140 miles east by north of Carson City; on the Nevada Central Railroad (Map: Nevada, E 2). It has an elevated location on the slope of the Toyabe Range, and is the centre of a productive mining region. Population, in 1890, 1215; in 1900, not given.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Axayacatl

Edition of 1905. See also Axayacatl on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
AXAYACATL, ä'chȧ-yȧ-kä't'l (Mex., ‘Face-in-the-water’) (?-1477). An Aztec chief, styled in contemporary narratives, Emperor of Mexico. He is reported to have been the father of Montezuma, whom Cortes conquered. About 1467 he led his Aztecs to the conquest of Tehuantepec, and afterwards crushed a rebellion that threatened his capital, the City of Mexico. He died suddenly, about 1477. Half a century later the soldiers of Cortes occupied Axayacatl's ‘palace,’ which was the large communal dwelling of the section of the tribe to which Axayacatl belonged. In one of the rooms they found an immense treasure of gold and silver in ore and bars, with jewels, and many curious articles of manufacture.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Axel

Edition of 1905. See also Absalon on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
AX'EL, or Absalon (1128-1201). Archbishop of Lund, after 1178, and minister and general of Waldemar I. and Canute VI. of Denmark. He was descended from a distinguished Danish family, and in his youth studied at Paris. Axel distinguished himself by wisdom, uprightness, and valor. He drove the Wendish pirates from the Danish coast, attacked them in their own settlements on the island of Rügen, and annexed the island to Denmark. He defeated the Pomeranian prince, Bogislav, in 1184, and made him dependent on Denmark. In the wise legislation of Waldemar and of his son, he had a great part. He promoted learning and art, and to his encouragement we owe the first connected history of Denmark by Saxo Granmiaticus. In building a fortified castle for defense against the pirates, he laid the foundation of the future city of Copenhagen, then an insignificant village inhabited only by fishermen. Owing to this origin, Copenhagen has sometimes been called Axelstadt. Axel lies buried in the Church of Sorö, where he founded a monastery.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Austin (Texas)

Edition of 1905. See also Austin, Texas on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ AUSTIN. The capital of Texas, and county-seat of Travis County, 186 miles west by north of Houston, on the north bank of the Colorado River, which, in its lower course, is navigable for steamboats, and on the Houston and Texas Central, the International and Great Northern, and the Austin and Northwestern railroads (Map: Texas, F 4). It is about 40 feet above the river, and is well built, with wide and shaded streets. ​Capitol Square (10 acres) contains the capitol building, of granite, which cost $3,500,000, and is the largest State capitol in the United States. Other prominent structures are the State land office, county court-house, and the buildings of the State University. There are also the State asylums for the insane, the blind, and the deaf and dumb; institutions for the colored deaf, dumb, and blind; Saint Edward's College; Tillotson Institute (colored); several seminaries and academies. Two bridges span the river, and in 1893, a great dam, one of the largest in the world, was built 2 miles above the city, to provide water and power. But the dam proved a failure, being carried away by a flood. (See Dams and Reservoirs.) The export trade in agricultural produce, live stock, cotton, grain, wool, and hides is very large; and an extensive wholesale trade in groceries, dry goods, drugs, provisions, etc., is carried on. The manufactures include planed lumber, flour, and tanned leather. The government is administered under a revised charter of 1901, by a mayor, elected biennially; a city council, elected one-half by wards and one half at large; and municipal officials, of whom the sanitary inspector, police, pound-master, bridgekeeper, and hospital matron are elected by the council, and all others by popular vote. The water-works and electric-light plant are owned and operated by the city. Austin, originally called Waterloo, was in 1837 named after Stephen F. Austin (q.v.); was incorporated, and then made the capital of the Republic of Texas in 1839; and later became the permanent capital of the State. The first free school in Texas was established here in 1871. Population, in 1890, 14,575; in 1900, 22,358.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Averroës

Edition of 1905. See also Averroes on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
AVERROËS, a-vĕr'rṓ-ēz (Abu’l Walid Mohammed ibn Ahmed ibn Roshd) (c.1126-98). A famous Spanish-Arabian philosopher and jurist, born at Cordova. His father and grandfather had been great jurists. His grandfather wrote works on Arabic civil and religious law, and it was only natural that Averroës should turn to law. At Cordova he studied theology and philosophy under Tofail and medicine under Zuhr. His father instructed him in jurisprudence. By Tofail he was introduced to Abu Yakub Yusuf, the Caliph of Morocco. Averroës, however, did not stay long in Morocco. In 1169 he was appointed judge in Seville, and then at his native town, Cordova. In 1182 he was appointed physician to the Caliph of Morocco, but again he left to take a judgeship in Cordova. Being accused of doctrines contrary to orthodox Mohammedanism, he was deprived of his office and exiled to Lucena, where he lived in great poverty. Again he was called to Morocco, where he died.
Averroës regarded Aristotle as the greatest of all the philosophers, and the one who alone was able to attain perfection. His commentaries on the works of Aristotle (extant in Hebrew and Latin translations) exerted a great influence on the scholastic school in Europe. He opposed the orthodox school, and insisted that the Koran must he explained in the light of reason, and not along mystical lines, as Algazali had done. The latter had written a work against philosophy, The Destruction of Philosophy. This was answered by Averroës in The Destruction of the
Destruction, which was translated into Latin by Locatellus (1497-1529). In medicine Averroës sided with Aristotle as against Galen; his medical work, Colliget, appeared in Latin (Venice, 1482 and 1514). His complete works were published in 1552 at Venice. For more extended bibliography consult Renan, Averroès et l'averroïsme (Paris, 1852); Brockelmann, Geschichte der arabischen Litteratur (Weimar, 1899).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Axe

Edition of 1905. See also Axe on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
AXE (Ger. Ax, Axt, Lat. ascia, Gk. ἀξίνη, axinē). An instrument used for felling trees and chopping wood. The axe is one of the earliest tools used by man, being found among the relics of the Stone, Bronze, and Iron ages. It was fashioned sometimes of syenite or black sandstone, as by the lake dwellers of Europe; of jade, as by ancient peoples of Asia and Asia Minor and by the modern Maoris; of flint or bone, as by the American Indians; of mixed copper and tin, as by the Romans, ancient Mexicans, and South Americans; of copper, as by the Druids. To this day stone axes are used in some of the South Sea Islands. The American axe, the best of modern make, usually consists of a head or butt of wrought iron, heated to a white heat, cut to the desired length, and then, after the eye for the handle is punched through, reheated and pressed between concave dies into proper shape. Again heated, it is grooved on the edge; with borax as a flux, the arched edge-piece of steel is inserted, projecting an inch or more; the iron and steel are then welded at white heat, and after it is hammered, ground to a fine edge, tempered and polished, the head is varnished to prevent rust. Forms and weights vary according to the use to which the tool is to be put. For very hard timber, the edge is narrow and the whole axe heavy. Common forest axes weigh from 3 to 7 pounds. The handle is generally made of hickory, which is not only strong, but elastic. The pickaxe, used for breaking up hard ground, is not an axe in any sense, but rather a hammer. The hatchet (Fr. hachette, a little axe) is for use with one hand only. The ‘francisca,’ at one time the national weapon of the Franks, was a hatchet for throwing, and the tomahawk (q.v.) of the North American Indians was, as is well known, used in a similar manner and in hand-to-hand combat. The adze, a tool used for the chipping or rough planing of horizontal surfaces by carpenters, has its blade at right angles to the handle, and so curved that the plane of the cutting edge, as the instrument is swung into contact, is horizontal. Broad axes, formerly much used for hewing logs into square timbers, are axes with very broad blades, and the cutting edge much less curved than the edge of the regular axe for chopping.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Austin, Stephen Fuller

Edition of 1905. See also Stephen F. Austin on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​AUSTIN, Stephen Fuller (1793-1836). An American pioneer and politician, known as the founder of the State of Texas. He was born in Wythe County, Va., the son of Moses Austin, who originally, from Connecticut, projected the Texan colony which was finally established in 1821 by his son, on the site of the present city of Austin. The latter, by his energy, ability, and hardihood, made the experiment a success; and other colonists settled in the vicinity, until the Americans became so numerous that they held a convention in March, 1833, to form a separate State government. Without heeding the Spanish population they agreed upon a plan, and Austin took it to the City of Mexico to obtain its ratification; but a revolution there prevented a hearing, so he wrote advising the Texans to form the State government without waiting for the consent of the Mexican authorities. This cost him three months' imprisonment and a longer surveillance; but in 1835 he returned to Texas, and took command of the small Revolutionary Army. In Novembcr he went as commissioner to the United States, and endeavored to obtain the recognition of Texas as an independent State. He returned late in 1836, and died on December 27. Consult Yoakum, History of Texas (New York, 1856).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Austin (Minnesota)

Edition of 1905. See also Austin, Minnesota on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ AUS′TIN. A city and the county-seat of Mower County, Minn., 100 miles south of Saint Paul; on Red Cedar River, and on the Chicago Great Western and the Chicago, Milwaukee and Saint Paul railroads (Map: Minnesota, F 7). It is the seat of the Southern Minnesota Normal College, and contains Lafayette Park. Among prominent buildings are the public library (Carnegie), central high school, county court-house, and Saint Augustine's Church (Roman Catholic). The city is surrounded by fertile prairie land, the products of which are principally live stock, butter, wheat, barley, flax, grass seeds, etc. It exports extensively, and has meat-packing establishments, flouring-mills, brick and tile works, foundry, railroad shops, cement-works, creamery, etc. Manufactures are promoted by excellent water-power. Settled in 1854, Austin was incorporated as a village in 1868, and in 1873 was chartered as a city. The government is administered under a charter of 1887 which provides for a mayor, annually elected, and a city council. The city owns its water-works and electric-light plant. Population, in 1890, 3901; in 1900, 5474.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Axholme

Edition of 1905. See also Isle of Axholme on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
AXHOLME, ăks'ṓlm, or Axelholm (AS. holm, island in a river; Engl. holm, hill; islet). An island in the northwest of Lincolnshire, England, formed by the rivers Trent, Don, Idle, and Vicardyke (Map: England, F 3). Area 47,000 acres. It incloses various parishes, of which Epworth is the chief. Abundant crops are raised by small landowners. Formerly a marsh which succeeded an ancient forest, it was reclaimed in 1634, after five years' labor by Vermuyden, a Dutchman, under contract from Charles I. The land became very fertile under Dutch and French Protestant immigrants, which fact antagonized the local peasantry. Litigation ensued, which ended in 1691, by the natives receiving 10,532 acres and the settlers 2868. The accent and physical characteristics of the settlers exist in the present inhabitants. Consult: Peck, Isle of Axholme (1815); Peacock, in Anthropological Review (1870).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Alliance of the Reformed Churches holding the Presbyterian System

Edition of 1905. See also Alliance of the Reformed Churches holding the Presbyterian System on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ALLIANCE of the Reformed Churches holding the Presbyterian System. An alliance formed in London in 1875. It holds councils, which have no legislative authority but great moral weight. In them the various Augustinian non-prelatical and in general presbyterial bodies find representation. They are upward of ninety in number, scattered all over the world, with 25,000,000 adherents. The published reports of the proceedings of these councils contain much valuable matter of all kinds, as papers are read, statistics presented, and many speeches made. The councils have been held at London, 1875; Edinburgh, 1877; Philadelphia, 1880; Belfast, 1884; London, 1888; Toronto, 1892; Glasgow, 1896; Washington, 1899.