OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Sandemanians

From volume 13 of the work.
An English form of the Scottish sect of Glassites, followers of John Glas (b. 1695; d. 1773) who was deposed from the Presbyterian ministry in 1728, for teaching that the Church should not be subject to any league or covenant, but should be governed only by Apostolic doctrine. Glas's son-in-law, Robert Sandeman (b. 1718; d. 1771), having been for many years an elder in the Glassite sect, removed to London in 1760, where he gathered a congregation at Glovers' Hall, Barbican. Though for the most part he followed the teaching of Glas, he went beyond that doctrine in maintaining that faith is only a simple assent to Divine testimony which differs in no way from belief in ordinary human evidence. In 1764 Sandeman went to America to propagate his views, and founded some congregations there, for which reason the Glassites in America, like those in England, are known as Sandemanians. In England the sect has never been numerous, possessing less than a dozen meeting-places in the whole country, including two in London. It is chiefly known owing to the great chemist Sir Michael Faraday (b. 1791; d. 1867) having officiated as a Sandemanian elder in London in the middle of the nineteenth century. Membership is granted on confession of sin and public profession of faith in the Death and Resurrection of Christ. The new member receives a blessing and the kiss of peace from all present. Each congregation is presided over by several elders, all unpaid, who are elected for their earnestness of conviction and sincerity, and who hold office for life. On the death of an elder the survivors propose for election the name of a suitable member of the congregation, who is then elected by the whole body. The Sandemanians practice a weekly celebration of the Lord's supper, and the agape or love-feast, which takes the form of dining together between the morning and afternoon services. The elders alone preach, but the ordinary members take turns in offering prayers. The ceremonial washing of feet is also performed on certain occasions. They abstain from things strangled and from blood. As they consider that casting lots is a sacred process, they regard all games of chance as unlawful. They practice community of goods to a modified extent, considering all their property as liable to calls on behalf of the Church and the poor. It is also considered wrong to accumulate wealth. If any member differs obstinately from the rest he is expelled and by this system perfect unanimity is secured. They refuse to join in prayer with members of other denominations and to eat and drink with an excommunicated person is held to be a grievous sin. The Sandemanians as a religious body are very obscure and it is difficult to obtain reliable information with regard to them, but the total membership in Great Britain is believed not to exceed two thousand.
BLUNT, Dict. of Sects, Heresies, and Schools of Thought (London, 1874); Dict. Nat. Biog., s. vv. Glas and Sandeman; JONES, Life and Letters of Faraday (London, 1870).
EDWIN BURTON
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Sanction

From volume 13 of the work.
(Lat. sancire, same root as sanctus).
Sanction signifies primarily the authoritative act whereby the legislator sanctions a law, i.e. gives it value and binding force for its subjects. Hence, objectively, the law itself is called sanction inasmuch as it is imposed on the consciences and obedience of subjects; thus ecclesiastical laws are often called sanctiones canonicoe. In more modern language every measure is called a sanction which is intended to further the observation of the law by subjects, whether the reward to whomsoever fulfills it, or the penalty or chastisement inflicted or at least threatened for nonfulfilment, whether it relates to presciptive laws which require something to be done, or to prohibitive laws which require that something be omitted. These sanctions in turn may result from the very nature of the law, which are internal sanctions like those of the natural law, or they may be added by a positive act of the lagislator, and these are external sanctions. Hence sanction is called moral, psychological, legal, or penal, according to the origin or the nature of it. (see ETHICS; LAW; PUNISHMENT.)
A. BOUDINHON
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Sanctuary (1)

From volume 13 of the work.
A consecrated place giving protection to those fleeing from justice or persecution; or, the privilege of taking refuge in such consecrated place. The right of sanctuary was based on the inviolability attached to things sacred, and not, as some have held, on the example set by the Hebrew cities of refuge. It was recognized under the Code of Theodosius (399) and later by that of Justinian. Papal sanction was first given to it by Leo I, about 460, though the first Council of Orange had dealt with the matter in 441. The earliest mention of sanctuary in England was in a code of laws promulgated by King Ethelbert in 600. The right of asylum was originally confined to the church itself, but in course of time its limits were extended to the precincts, and sometimes even to a larger area. Thus, at Beverley and Hexham, the boundaries of sanctuary extended throughout a radius of a mile from the church, the limits being marked by "sanctuary crosses", some of which still remain. In Norman times there were two kinds of sanctuary in England, one belonging to every church by prescription and the other by special royal character. The latter was considered to afford a much safer asylum and was enjoyed by at least twenty-two churches, including Battle, Beverley, Colchester, Durham, Hexham, Norwich, Ripon, Wells, Winchester, Westminster, and York. A fugitive convicted of felony and taking the benefit of sanctuary was afforded protection from thirty to forty days, after which, subject to certain severe conditions, he had to "abjure the realm", that is leave the kingdom within a specified time and take an oath not to return without the king's leave. Violation of the protection of sanctuary was punishable by excommunication. In some cases there was a stone seat within the church, called the "frith-stool", on which it is said the seeker of sanctuary had to sit in order to establish his claim to protection. In others, and more commonly, there was a large ring or knocker on the church door, the holding of which gave the right of asylum. Examples of these may been seen at Durham cathedral, St. Gregory's, Norwich, and elsewhere. The ecclesiastical right of sanctuary ceased in England at the Reformation, but was after that date allowed to certain non-ecclesiastical precincts, which afforded shelter chiefly to debtors. The houses of ambassadors were also sometimes quasi-sanctuaries. Whitefriars, London (also called Alsatia), was the last place of sanctuary used in England, but it was abolished by Act of Parliament in 1697. In other European countries the right of sanctuary ceased towards the end of the eighteenth century.
G. CYPRIAN ALSTON
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Sands

From volume 13 of the work.
Benjamin F. Sands
Rear-admiral United States Navy, b. at Baltimore, Md., 11 Feb., 1812; d. at Washington, D.C., 30 June, 1883. His parents were non-Catholics and he became a convert in 1850, having married a Catholic, Henrietta M. French, sister of Major-General William H. French, U.S.A. He was appointed a midshipman in the navy from his native state, 1 April, 1828, and passed through the successive grades of promotion until he received the rank of rear-admiral, 27 April, 1871, and was placed on the retired list on reaching the age of 62 years, 11 February, 1874. During the Civil War he held several important commands with conspicuous success, and in 1867 was made superintendent of the Naval Observatory at Washington. During his incumbency of this office, which lasted until 1874, he advanced the observatory to a place equal to the most celebrated in Europe. For many years he was a member of the Catholic Indian Bureau in Washington. Notes he left were compiled by his son, F. B. Sands, into the book "From Reefer to Rear Admiral". His son George H. graduated at West Point and served in the U. S. Army. Three others, William F., F. B., and James H., also served in the navy; a daughter, Rosa, became a Visitation nun.
James Hoban Sands
Rear-admiral U.S.N., son of foregoing; b. at Washington, D. C., 12 July, 1845; d. there 26 October, 1911. Following the footsteps of his father he achieved a high reputation in the naval service for daring and seamanship. Appointed to the Naval Academy from Maryland in 1859, from which he graduated four years later, he served with the North Atlantic Blockading Squadron during the Civil War. While only an ensign he was twice recommended by boards of admirals to be advanced in grade for gallantry. After the war he had commands in the West India Squadron, and later had charge of the Brooklyn, Boston, Philadelphia, and Washington Navy Yards. He was made rear-admiral, 11 April, 1902, and commanded at the Naval Academy, 1906-07, introducing a much needed reform in spite of opposition in many quarters. This was his last active duty as he retired in 1907 after a sea service of eighteen years and four months and a shore duty of twenty-two years. His example as a Catholic was a strong influence in the navy in developing a spirit of tolerance towards Catholics in the service, and in making religious practices of whatever creed more respected. His wife was Mary Elizabeth Meade, of the famous Philadelphia family of that name, who became a convert. His son William Franklin was United States Minister to Guatemala, and two of his daughters, Clara and Hilda, became Religious of the Sacred Heart.
Am. Cath. Who's Who (St. Louis, 1911); FUREY in U. S. Cath. Hist. Soc. Hist. Records and Studies (New York, 1911-12); Freeman's Journal (New York) files; U. S. Naval Register.
THOMAS F. MEEHAN
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Sancho de Avila

From volume 2 of the work.
Born at Avila of the Kings, in Old Castile, 1546, and named after the place of his birth; died at Plasencia, in the same province, 6 or 7 December, 1625. He was of a distinguished family but was still more eminent for his saintliness, his vast knowledge, and his success as a preacher. He made his ecclesiastical studies and received his doctorate at the great University of Salamanca. He was afterwards consecrated bishop and held, at different times, the Sees of Murcia, Jaen in Andalusia, Siguenza in Old Castile, in 1615, and, seven years later, Plasencia, where he remained until his death. He had been a confessor of St. Theresa. The following works of his in Spanish are worthy of note: "The Veneration Due to the Bodies and Relics of Saints" (Madrid, 1611); "Sermons" (Baeza, 1615); "The Sighs of St. Augustine", from the Latin (Madrid, 1601, 1626); and, in manuscript, the Lives of St. Augustine and St. Thomas.
William Devlin.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Poor Brothers of St. Francis Seraphicus

From volume 12 of the work.
A congregation of lay brothers of the Third Order of St. Francis, instituted for charitable work among orphan boys and for educating the youth of the poorer classes. The founder was Philip Hoever, born at Obersthöhe, near Cologne, Germany, 1816; a schoolmaster at Breidt and Aachen. Through the influence of Mother Frances Schervier, foundress of the Little Sisters of the Poor of St Francis, Hoever, at Christmas, 1857, dedicated himself with four others to the service of God and of the abandoned men. In 1860 the Brothers obtained a home at Aachen. In the following year (5 Jan.) Cardinal Geissel, Archbishop of Cologne approved the new congregation. When Hoever died in 1864, it had twenty-six members and some postulants. In 1869 the institution received a Catholic orphanage at Moabit, Berlin, and since 1866 it has spread in the United States (Teutopolis, Illinois; Detroit, Michigan; Thenville, Kentucky; and Cincinnati, Ohio). Although in the Austro-Prussian war, 1866, and in the Franco-Prussian war, 1870-71, the Poor Brothers were helpful in the field hospitals, the Prussian Kulturkampf did not spare them; in 1876-77 they had to give up all their houses in Prussia. They retired to Blyerheide on the Dutch frontier, where the new mother-house was erected. After 1888 the Brothers were allowed to return to Prussia, and different houses were founded; Hohenhof in Upper Silesia, 1891; Dormagen on the Rhine, 1902, etc.; in Belgium at Voelkerich, 1900; in Holland at Roermond, 1903. In the United States the Poor Brothers possess a house of education at Mt. Alverno near Cincinnati; and St. Vincent's in Cincinnati. In 1907 the members of the Congregation were 230, of whom 50 were in the United States. The constitutions of the Poor Brothers were approved by Pius X in 1910.
Der selige P. Johannes Hoever und seine Stiftung (Aachen, 1896); HEIMBUCHER, Die Orden und Kongregationen, II (Paderborn, 1907), s. v. Arme Brüder vom hl. Franziscus.
LIVARIUS OLIGER
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Poor Handmaids of Jesus Christ

From volume 12 of the work.
A community founded by Catherine Kasper, a native of Dernbach, Germany. She was born 26 May, 1820, of humble parents, and at an early age resolved to consecrate her life to God. She was animated with the spirit of Mary and the activity of Martha and wished to combine the contemplative and active life in the service of her Master. She and two companions took vows and professed themselves Poor Handmaids of Jesus Christ, on 15 August, 1851. Sister Mary (Catherine Kasper) was chosen mother-general of the newly founded community and continued as such until her death, 2 Feb., 1898, when the community had branches throughout Germany, Austria, England, Holland, and North America.
Mother Mary Kasper had first simply desired that her community be devoted to the sick and needy and especially the orphan; but it soon engaged in the work of teaching and began to conduct in Germany parochial schools, academies, boarding schools, kindergartens, and industrial schools. The Kulturkampfcompelled the sisters to abandon their parochial schools, but they continued the other works of charity. The constitution of the community was temporarily approved by Pius IX in 1870 and finally confirmed by Leo XIII.
Through the Bishop Luers and Rev. Edward Koenig, pastor of St. Paul's Church at Fort Wayne, the community began to labour at Hesse Cassel in the Diocese of Fort Wayne on 3 August, 1863. From this place three sisters were called to Chicago in 1869 by the Very Rev. Peter Fischer, vicar general, to the charge of the German orphan asylum, which opened with twelve children, but now shelters more than six hundred orphans. On 9 May, 1869, the Rockhill property at Fort Wayne was purchased and converted into a hospital. To this was added a convent and chapel in 1883 at a cost of $32,000. The convent is the provincial mother-house of the community in America.
The first parochial school conducted by the sisterhood in this country was St. Paul's in Fort Wayne, of which they took charge on 6 October, 1869. Now the community is represented in the Dioceses of Fort Wayne, Belleville, Alton, Superior, and in the Archdioceses of St. Paul, Chicago, Philadelphia, and St. Louis. The sisters are engaged in teaching, and nursing the sick in hospitals and private homes. Of the 3,500 members which the community now numbers, 500 labour in the United States.
MOTHER M. SECUNDA
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Pontificale

From volume 12 of the work.
(Pontificale Romanum).
A liturgical book which contains the rites for the performance of episcopal functions (e.g. conferring of confirmation and Holy orders), with the exception of Mass and Divine Office. It is practically an episcopal ritual, containing formularies and rubrics which existed in the old Sacramentaries and "Ordines Romani", and were gradually collected together to form one volume for the greater convenience of the officiating bishop. Such collections were known under the names of "Liber Sacramentorum", "Liber Officialis", "Liber Pontificalis", "Ordinarium Episcopale", "Benedictionale", etc. Among these medieval manuscript volumes perhaps the most ancient and most important for liturgical study is the Pontificale of Egbert, Archbishop of York (732-6), which in many respects resembles the present Pontifical. The first printed edition, prepared by John Burchard and Augustine Patrizi Piccolomini, papal masters of ceremonies, was published (1485) in the pontificate of Innocent VIII. Clement VIII published a corrected and official edition in 1596. In his constitution "Ex quo in Ecclesia Dei" he declared this Pontifical obligatory, forbade the use of any other and prohibited any modification or addition to it without papal permission. Urban VIII and Benedict XIV had it revised and made some additions to it, and finally Leo XIII caused a new typical edition to be published in 1888. (See LITURGICAL BOOKS.)
CATALANUS, Pontificale Romanum (Paris, 1850), an important commentary; ZACCARIA, Bibliotheca Ritualis (Rome, 1781).
J.F. GOGGIN
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Pontius Carbonell

From volume 12 of the work.
Born at Barcelona, c. 1250; died c. 1320. Pontius and Carbonell are names frequently met with in Spain, especially in Catalonia. Hence it is difficult to distinguish between the different persons bearing this name in the same century. Pontius entered the Franciscan Order and resided principally in the convent at Barcelona, where he was teacher and confessor to St. Louis, Bishop of Toulouse, during his seven years' captivity. He was also confessor to the Infant Juan of Aragon, Archbishop of Saragossa, to whom he dedicated some of his works. Probably Pontius was superior in 1314. On 25 Sept. of that year he was sent by King James II to his brother, Frederic II, King of Sicily, to entreat him not to give protection to the Fraticelli. On 12 Jan., 1316, and again on 25 Feb., Pontius wrote concerning the result of his mission. Finke has published several of these documents. In a calendar of Franciscan saints drawn up about 1335 at Assisi, Pontius is mentioned as "master and confessor of our holy brother Louis, Archbishop of Toulouse"; and Fr. Antony Vincente, O.P., registers him among the saints of Catalonia. He wrote commentaries on the Old and New Testament, and quotes largely from the Fathers and Doctors of the Church. Several writers hold that he composed the "Catena Aurea Evang.", usually published among the writings of St. Thomas. In defence of this opinion Fr. Martin Perez de Guevara wrote in 1663 a book entitled "Juizio de Salomon etc.", but which was placed on the Index two years later. Not all his works have been published. Nine large folio volumes in Manuscript are preserved in the library of S. Juan de los Reyes at Toledo.
WADDING, Annales, I, V (Rome, 1733); WADDING-SBARALEA (Rome, 1806); JOANNES A S. ANTONIO, Bibliotheca Universa Franciscana (Madrid, 1732); PISANUS, Liber Conformitatum (ed. Quaracchi, 1907); DE ALVA Y ASTORGA, Indiculus Bullarii Seraph. (Rome, 1655); FABRICIUS, Bibliotheca Med. Ævi. (Florence, 1734); COLL, Chronicon Calaloniœ; SIXTUS SENENSIS, Bibliotheca (Naples, 1742); ANTONIO, Bibliotheca, Hisp. Vet. (1798); AMAT, Escrit Catal. (1836); Annalecta Bollandiana, IX (Brussels, 1890); Catalogus Sanctorum Fratrum, ed. LEMMENS (Rome, 1903); FINKE, Quellen (Berlin, 1908).
GREGORY CLEARY
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Apostolic Letters

From volume 1 of the work.
(Litterae apostolicae).
1. The letters of the Apostles to Christian communities or those in authority, i.e. the Pauline Epistles, including the Epistle to the Hebrews, together with the seven Catholic epistles of the other Apostles.
2. Documents issued by the Pope or in his name, e.g. bulls and briefs.
F.M. RUDGE
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Apostolic Prefecture of Caquetá

From volume 3 of the work.
Apostolic prefecture situated in South America on the southern border of the Republic of Colombia, in the angle formed by the Central Cordilleras and the Cordilleras del Caquetá, on the river Caquetá, which, after changing its name into Japura, empties into the Amazon.
According to an agreement of 27 December, 1902, between the Government and the Holy See, this prefecture comprises almost the entire Colombian province of Mocoa; it formerly belonged to the extensive Diocese of Pasto. The decree of erection is dated 20 December, 1904, and the Capuchins of the Spanish province of Cataluna are entrusted with the evangelization of the aborigines, who as yet are in a very low state of civilization, some being even addicted to cannibalism.
In 1906 there were two permanent mission-stations at Mocoa and Sibundoy, with 10 fathers and 3 lay brothers in charge of 14 chapels. About 12,000 converted Indians live among 40,000 heathens. In 1906, 245 baptisms, 130 marriages, and 118 funerals were recorded, and the five Catholic schools numbered 178 children. It is subject not to the Propaganda but to the Congregation of Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs.
Otto Jeron.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/St. Euphrasia

From volume 5 of the work.
Euphrasia, or Eupraxia, Saint, Virgin, b. in 380; d. after 410. She was the daughter of Antigonus, a senator of Constantinople, and a relation of Emperor Theodosius. Her father died shortly after her birth, and her mother, also Euphrasia, devoted her life thenceforth exclusively to the service of God. To carry out this ideal she abandoned the capital, and, with her seven-year-old daughter, repaired to Egypt, where she dwelt on one of her estates, near a convent, and adopted the nuns' austere mode of life. This example aroused in her daughter the desire to enter the convent, and her mother gave her into the care of the superior, that she might be trained in the ascetic life. After her mother's death she declined an offer of marriage made, by the Emperor Theodosius, on behalf of a senator's son, transferred to the emperor her entire fortune, to be used for charitable purposes, and took up, with a holy ardor, the rigorous practices of Christian perfection. She was about thirty when she died. Her feast is celebrated in the Greek Church on July 25, and in the Latin Church on March 13. She is mentioned by St. John Damascene, in his third "Oratio de imaginibus".
J. P. Kirsch
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/St. Eustace

From volume 5 of the work.
Eustace, Saint, date of birth unknown, d. March 29, 625. He was second abbot of the Irish monastery of Luxeuil in France, and his feast is commemorated in the Celtic martyrologies on the 29th of March. He was one of the first companions of St. Columbanus, a monk of Bangor (Ireland), who with his disciples did much to spread the Gospel over Central and Southern Europe. When Columbanus, the founder of Luxeuil, was banished from the Kingdom of Burgundy, on account of his reproving the morals of King Thierry, the exiled abbot recommended his community to choose Eustace as his successor. Subsequently Columbanus settled at Bobbio in Italy. Three years after his appointment (613), when Clothaire II became ruler of the triple Kingdom of France, the abbot of Luxeuil was commissioned, by royal authority, to proceed to Bobbio for the purpose of recalling Columbanus. The latter, however, setting forth his reasons in a letter to the king, declined to return, but asked that Clothaire would take under his protection the monastery and brethren of Luxeuil. During the twelve years that followed, under the administration of the abbot Eustace, the monastery continued to acquire renown as a seat of learning and sanctity. Through the royal patronage, its benefices and lands were increased, the king devoting a yearly sum, from his own revenues, towards its support. Eustace and his monks devoted themselves to preaching in remote districts, not yet evangelized, chiefly in the northeastern extremities of Gaul. Their missionary work extended even to Bavaria. Between the monasteries of Luxeuil in France and that of Bobbio in Italy (both founded by St. Columbanus) connection and intercourse seem to have long been kept up.
JOHN B. CULLEN