OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Forlì

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​FORLÌ (anc. Forum Livii), a town and episcopal see of Emilia, Italy, the capital of the province of Forlì, 40 m. S.E. of Bologna by rail, 108 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 15,461 (town); 43,321 (commune). Forlì is situated on the railway between Bologna and Rimini. It is connected by steam tramways with Ravenna and Meldola, and by a road through the Apennines with Pontassieve. The church of S. Mercuriale stands in the principal square, and contains, besides paintings, some good carved and inlaid choir stalls by Alessandro dei Bigni. The façade has been considerably altered, but the campanile, erected in 1178–1180, still exists; it is 252 ft. in height, square and built of brickwork, and is one of the finest of Lombard campanili. The pictures in this church are the work of Marco Palmezzano (1456–1537) and others; S. Biagio and the municipal picture gallery also contain works by him. The latter has other interesting pictures, including a fresco representing an apprentice with pestle and mortar (Pestapepe), the only authentic work in Forlì of Melozzo da Forlì (1438–1494), an eminent master whose style was formed under the influence of Piero della Francesca, and who was the master of Palmezzano; the frescoes in the Sforza chapel in SS. Biagio e Girolamo are from the former’s designs, though executed by the latter. The church also contains the fine tomb (1466) of Barbara Manfredi. The cathedral (Santa Croce) has been almost entirely rebuilt since 1844. The Palazzo del Podestà, now a private house, is a brick building of the 15th century. The citadel (Rocca Ravaldina), constructed about 1360–1370, and later rebuilt, is now used as a prison. Flavio Biondo, the first Renaissance writer on the topography of ancient Rome (1388–1463), was a native of Forlì.
Of the ancient Forum Livii, which lay on the Via Aemilia, hardly anything is known. In the 12th century we find Forlì in league with Ravenna, and in the 13th the imperial count of the province of Romagna resided there. In 1275 Forlì defeated Bologna with great loss. Martin IV. sent an army to besiege it in 1282, which was driven out after severe fighting in the streets; but the town soon afterwards surrendered. In the 14th and 15th centuries it was under the government of the Ordelaffi; and in 1500 was taken by Caesar Borgia, despite a determined resistance by Caterina Sforza, widow of Girolamo Riario. Forlì finally became a part of the papal state in 1504. (T. As.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Formalin

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​FORMALIN, or Formaldehyde, CH$_2$O or H·CHO, the first member of the series of saturated aliphatic aldehydes. It is most readily prepared by passing the vapour of methyl alcohol, mixed with air, over heated copper or platinum. In order to collect the formaldehyde, the vapour is condensed and absorbed, either in water or alcohol. It may also be obtained, although only in small quantities, by the distillation of calcium formate. At ordinary temperatures formaldehyde is a gas possessing a pungent smell; it is a strong antiseptic and disinfectant, a 40% solution of the aldehyde in water or methyl alcohol, sold as formalin, being employed as a deodorant, fungicide and preservative. It is not possible to obtain the aldehyde in a pure condition, since it readily polymerizes. It is a strong reducing agent; it combines with ammonia to form hexamethylene tetramine, (CH$_2$)$_6$N$_4$, and easily “condenses” in the presence of many bases to produce compounds which apparently belong to the sugars (q.v.). It renders glue or gelatin insoluble in water, and is used in the coal-tar colour industry in the manufacture of para-rosaniline, pyronines and rosamines. Several polymers have been described. Para-formaldehyde, or trioxymethylene, obtained by concentrating solutions of formaldehyde in vacuo, is a white crystalline solid, which sublimes at about 100° C. and melts at a somewhat higher temperature, changing back into the original form. It is insoluble in cold water, alcohol and ether. A diformaldehyde is supposed to separate as white flakes when the vapour is passed into chloroform (Körber, Pharm. Zeit., 1904, xlix. p. 609); F. Auerbach and H. Barschall (Chem. Zentr., 1907, ii. p. 1734) obtained three polymers by acting with concentrated sulphuric acid on solutions of formaldehyde, and a fourth by heating one of the forms so obtained. The strength of solutions of formaldehyde may be ascertained by the addition of excess of standard ammonia to the aldehyde solution (hexamethylene tetramine being formed), the excess of ammonia being then estimated by titration with standard acid. On the formation of formaldehyde by the oxidation of methane at high temperatures, see W. A. Bone (Journ. Chem. Soc., 1902, 81, p. 535; 1903, 83, p. 1074). Formaldehyde also appears to be a reduction product of carbon dioxide (see Annual Reports of the Chemical Society).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Forman, Simon

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​FORMAN, SIMON (1552–1611), English physician and astrologer, was born in 1552 at Quidham, a small village near Wilton, Wiltshire. At the age of fourteen he became apprentice to a druggist at Salisbury, but at the end of four years he exchanged this profession for that of a schoolmaster. Shortly afterwards he entered Magdalen College, Oxford, where he studied chiefly medicine and astrology. After continuing the same studies in Holland he commenced practice as a physician in Philpot Lane, London, but as he possessed no diploma, he on this account underwent more than one term of imprisonment. Ultimately, however, he obtained a diploma from Cambridge university, and established himself as a physician and astrologer at Lambeth, where he was consulted, especially as a physician, by many persons of rank, among others by the notorious countess of Essex. He expired suddenly while crossing the Thames in a boat on the 12th of September 1611.
A list of Forman’s works on astrology is given in Bliss’s edition of the Athenae Oxonienses; many of his MS. works are contained in the Bodleian Library, the British Museum and the Plymouth Library. A Brief Description of the Forman MSS. in the Public Library, Plymouth, was published in 1853.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hasbeya

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​HASBEYA, or Hasbeiya, a town of the Druses, about 36 m. W. of Damascus, situated at the foot of Mt. Hermon in Syria, overlooking a deep amphitheatre from which a brook flows to the Hasbāni. The population is about 5000 (4000 Christians). Both sides of the valley are planted in terraces with olives, vines and other fruit trees. The grapes are either dried or made into a kind of syrup. In 1846 an American Protestant mission was established in the town. This little community suffered much persecution at first from the Greek Church, and afterwards from the Druses, by whom in 1860 nearly 1000 Christians were massacred, while others escaped to Tyre or Sidon. The castle in Hasbeya was held by the crusaders under Count Oran; but in 1171 the Druse emirs of the great Shehāb family (see Druses) recaptured it. In 1205 this family was confirmed in the lordship of the town and district, which they held till the Turkish authorities took possession of the castle in the 19th century. Near Hasbeya are bitumen pits let by the government; and to the north, at the source of the Hasbāni, the ground is volcanic. Some travellers have attempted to identify Hasbeya with the biblical Baal-Gad or Baal-Hermon.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Haslemere

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​HASLEMERE, a market-town in the Guildford parliamentary division of Surrey, England, 43 m. S.W. from London by the London & South-Western railway. It is situated in an elevated valley between the bold ridges of Hindhead (895 ft.) and Blackdown (918 ft.). Their summits are open and covered with heath, but their flanks and the lower ground are magnificently wooded. The hills are deeply scored by steep and picturesque valleys, of which the most remarkable is the Devil’s Punch Bowl, a hollow of regular form on the west flank of Hindhead. The invigorating air has combined with scenic attraction to make the district a favourite place of residence. Professor Tyndall built a house on the top of Hindhead, setting an example followed by many others. On Blackdown, closely screened by plantations, is Aldworth, built for Alfred, Lord Tennyson, who died here in 1892. George Eliot stayed for a considerable period at Shottermill, a neighbouring village. Pop. of Haslemere (1901), 2614; of Hindhead, 666.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Harzburg

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​HARZBURG, a town of Germany, in the duchy of Brunswick, beautifully situated in a deep and well-wooded vale at the north foot of the Harz Mountains, at the terminus of the Brunswick-Harzburg railway, 5 m. E.S.E. from Goslar and 18 m. S. from Wolfenbüttel. Pop. (1905), 4396. The Radau, a mountain stream, descending from the Brocken, waters the valley and adds much to its picturesque charm. The town is much frequented as a summer residence. It possesses brine and carbonated springs, the Juliushall saline baths being about a mile to the south of the town, and a hydropathic establishment. A mile and a half south from the town lies the Burgberg, 1500 ft. above sea-level, on whose summit, according to tradition, was once an altar to the heathen idol Krodo, still to be seen in the Ulrich chapel at Goslar. There are on the summit of the hill the remains of an old castle, and a monument erected in 1875 to Prince Bismarck, with an inscription taken from one of his speeches against the Ultramontane claims of Rome—“Nach Canossa gehen wir nicht.”
The castle on the Burgberg called the Harzburg is famous in German history. It was built between 1065 and 1069, but was laid in ruins by the Saxons in 1074; again it was built and again destroyed during the struggle between the emperor Henry IV. and the Saxons. By Frederick I. it was granted to Henry the Lion, who caused it to be rebuilt about 1180. It was a frequent residence of Otto IV., who died therein, and after being frequently besieged and taken, it passed to the house of ​Brunswick. It ceased to be of importance as a fortress after the Thirty Years’ War, and gradually fell into ruins.
See Delius, Untersuchungen über die Geschichte der Harzburg (Halberstadt, 1826); Dommes, Harzburg und seine Umgebung (Goslar, 1862); Jacobs, Die Harzburg und ihre Geschichte (1885); and Stolle, Führer von Bad Harzburg (1899).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hasdeu, Bogdan Petriceicu

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​HASDEU, or Hăjdeu, BOGDAN PETRICEICU (1836–1907), Rumanian philologist, was born at Khotin in Bessarabia in 1836, and studied at the university of Kharkov. In 1858 he first settled in Jassy as professor of the high school and librarian. He may be considered as the pioneer in many branches of Rumanian philology and history. At Jassy he started his Archiva historica a Romaniei (1865–1867), in which a large number of old documents in Slavonic and Rumanian were published for the first time. In 1870 he inaugurated Columna lui Traian, the best philological review of the time in Rumania. In his Cuvente den Bătrăni (2 vols., 1878–1881) he was the first to contribute to the history of apocryphal literature in Rumania. His Historia critica a Romanilor (1875), though incomplete, marks the beginning of critical investigation into the history of Rumania. Hasdeu edited the ancient Psalter of Coresi of 1577 (Psaltirea lui Coresi, 1881). His Etymologicum magnum Romaniae (1886, &c.) is the beginning of an encyclopaedic dictionary of the Rumanian language, though never finished ​beyond the letter B. In 1876 he was appointed director of the state archives in Bucharest and in 1878 professor of philology at the university of Bucharest. His works, which include one drama, Rasvan şi Vidra, bear the impress of great originality of thought, and the author is often carried away by his profound erudition and vast imagination. Hasdeu was a keen politician. After the death of his only child Julia in 1888 he became a mystic and a strong believer in spiritism. He died at Campina on the 7th of September 1907.  (M. G.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hasdrubal

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​HASDRUBAL, the name of several Carthaginian generals, among whom the following are the most important:—
1. The son-in-law of Hamilcar Barca (q.v.), who followed the latter in his campaign against the governing aristocracy at Carthage at the close of the First Punic War, and in his subsequent career of conquest in Spain. After Hamilcar’s death (228) Hasdrubal, who succeeded him in the command, extended the newly acquired empire by skilful diplomacy, and consolidated it by the foundation of New Carthage (Cartagena) as the capital of the new province, and by a treaty with Rome which fixed the Ebro as the boundary between the two powers. In 221 he was killed by an assassin.
Polybius ii. 1; Livy xxi. 1; Appian, Hispanica, 4-8.
2. The second son of Hamilcar Barca, and younger brother of Hannibal. Left in command of Spain when Hannibal departed to Italy (218), he fought for six years against the brothers Gnaeus and Publius Scipio. He had on the whole the worst of the conflict, and a defeat in 216 prevented him from joining Hannibal in Italy at a critical moment; but in 212 he completely routed his opponents, both the Scipios being killed. He was subsequently outgeneralled by Publius Scipio the Younger, who in 209 captured New Carthage and gained other advantages. In the same year he was summoned to join his brother in Italy. He eluded Scipio by crossing the Pyrenees at their western extremity, and, making his way thence through Gaul and the Alps in safety, penetrated far into Central Italy (207). He was ultimately checked by two Roman armies, and being forced to give battle was decisively defeated on the banks of the Metaurus. Hasdrubal himself fell in the fight; his head was cut off and thrown into Hannibal’s camp as a sign of his utter defeat.
Polybius x. 34-xi. 3; Livy xxvii. 1-51; Appian, Bellum Hannibalicum, ch. lii. sqq.; R. Oehler, Der letzte Feldzug des Barkiden Hasdrubals (Berlin, 1897); C. Lehmann, Die Angriffe der drei Barkiden auf Italien (Leipzig, 1905). See also Punic Wars.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hase, Carl Benedict

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​HASE, CARL BENEDICT (1780–1864), French Hellenist, of German extraction, was born at Sulza near Naumburg on the 11th of May 1780. Having studied at Jena and Helmstedt, in 1801 he made his way on foot to Paris, where he was commissioned by the comte de Choiseul-Gouffier, late ambassador to Constantinople, to edit the works of Johannes Lydus from a MS. given to Choiseul by Prince Mourousi. Hase thereupon decided to devote himself to Byzantine history and literature, on which he became the acknowledged authority. In 1805 he obtained an appointment in the MSS. department of the royal library; in 1816 became professor of palaeography and modern Greek at the École Royale, and in 1852 professor of comparative grammar in the university. In 1812 he was selected to superintend the studies of Louis Napoleon (afterwards Napoleon III.) and his brother. He died on the 21st of March 1864. His most important works are the editions of Leo Diaconus and other Byzantine writers (1819), and of Johannes Lydus, De ostentis (1823), a masterpiece of textual restoration, the difficulties of which were aggravated by the fact that the MS. had for a long time been stowed away in a wine-barrel in a monastery. He also edited part of the Greek authors in the collection of the Historians of the Crusades and contributed many additions (from the fathers, medical and technical writers, scholiasts and other sources) to the new edition of Stephanus’s Thesaurus.
See J. D. Guigniaut, Notice historique sur la vie et les travaux de Carl Benedict Hase (Paris, 1867); articles in Nouvelle Biographie générale and Allgemeine deutsche Biographie; and a collection of autobiographical letters, Briefe von der Wanderung und aus Paris, edited by O. Heine (1894), containing a vivid account of Hase’s journey, his enthusiastic impressions of Paris and the hardships of his early life.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hase, Karl August von

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​HASE, KARL AUGUST VON (1800–1890), German Protestant theologian and Church historian, was born at Steinbach in Saxony on the 25th of August 1800. He studied at Leipzig and Erlangen, and in 1829 was called to Jena as professor of theology. He retired in 1883 and was made a baron. He died at Jena on the 3rd of January 1890. Hase’s aim was to reconcile modern culture with historical Christianity in a scientific way. But though a liberal theologian, he was no dry rationalist. Indeed, he vigorously attacked rationalism, as distinguished from the rational principle, charging it with being unscientific inasmuch as it ignored the historical significance of Christianity, shut its eyes to individuality and failed to give religious feeling its due. His views are presented scientifically in his Evangelisch-protestantische Dogmatik (1826; 6th ed., 1870), the value of which “lies partly in the full and judiciously chosen historical materials prefixed to each dogma, and partly in the skill, caution and tact with which the permanent religious significance of various dogmas is discussed” (Otto Pfleiderer). More popular in style is his Gnosis oder prot.-evang. Glaubenslehre (3 vols., 1827–1829; 2nd ed. in 2 vols., 1869–1870). But his reputation rests chiefly on his treatment of Church history in his Kirchengeschichte, Lehrbuch zunächst für akademische Vorlesungen (1834, 12th ed., 1900).
His biographical studies, Franz von Assisi (1856; 2nd ed., 1892), Katerina von Siena (1864; 2nd ed., 1892), Neue Propheten (Die Jungfrau von Orleans, Savonarola, Thomas Münzer) are judicious and sympathetic. Other works are: Hutterus redivivus oder Dogmatik der evang.-luth. Kirche (1827; 12th ed., 1883), in which he sought to present the teaching of the Protestant church in such a way as Hutter would have reconstructed it, had he still been alive; Leben Jesu (1829; 5th ed., 1865; Eng. trans., 1860); in an enlarged form, Geschichte Jesu (2nd ed., 1891); and Handbuch der prot. Polemik gegen die röm.-kath. Kirche (1862; 7th ed., 1900; Eng. trans., 1906).
For his life see his Ideale und Irrtümer (1872; 5th ed., 1894) and Annalen meines Lebens (1891); and cf. generally Otto Pfleiderer, Development of Theology (1890); F. Lichtenberger, Hist. of German Theology (1889).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hashish

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​HASHISH, or Hasheesh, the Arabic name, meaning literally “dried herb,” for the various preparations of the Indian hemp plant (Cannabis indica), used as a narcotic or intoxicant in the East, and either smoked, chewed or drunk (see Hemp and Bhang). From the Arabic hashīshīn, i.e. “hemp-eaters,” comes the English “assassin” (see Assassin).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Gozo

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​GOZO (Gozzo), an island of the Maltese group in the Mediterranean Sea, second in size to Malta. It lies N.W. and 31/4 m. from the nearest point of Malta, is of oval form, 83/4 m. in length and 41/2 m. in extreme breadth, and has an area of nearly 25 m. Its chief town, Victoria, formerly called Rabato (pop. in 1901, 5057) stands near the middle of the island on one of a cluster of steep conical hills, 31/2 m. from the port of Migiarro Bay, on the south-east shore, below Fort Chambray. The character of the island is similar to that of Malta. The estimated population in 1907 was 21,911.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Gozlan, Léon

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​GOZLAN, LÉON (1806–1866), French novelist and play-writer, was born on the 1st of September 1806, at Marseilles. When he was still a boy, his father, who had made a large fortune as a ship-broker, met with a series of misfortunes, and Léon, before completing his education, had to go to sea in order to earn a living. In 1828 we find him in Paris, determined to run the risks of literary life. His townsman, Joseph Méry, who was then making himself famous by his political satires, introduced him to several newspapers, and Gozlan’s brilliant articles in the Figaro did much harm to the already tottering government of Charles X. His first novel was Les Mémoires d’un apothicaire (1828), and this was followed by numberless others, among which may be mentioned Washington Levert et Socrate Leblanc (1838), Le Notaire de Chantilly (1836), Aristide Froissart (1843) (one of the most curious and celebrated of his productions), Les Nuits du Père Lachaise (1846), Le Tapis vert (1855), La Folle du logis (1857), Les Émotions de Polydore Marasquin (1857), &c. His best-known works for the theatre are— ​La Pluie et le beau temps (1861), and Une Tempête dans un verre d’eau (1850), two curtain-raisers which have kept the stage; Le Lion empaillé (1848), La Queue du chien d’Alcibiade (1849), Louise de Nanteuil (1854), Le Gâteau des reines (1855), Les Paniers de la comtesse (1852); and he adapted several of his own novels to the stage. Gozlan also wrote a romantic and picturesque description of the old manors and mansions of his country entitled Les Châteaux de France (2 vols., 1844), originally published (1836) as Les Tourelles, which has some archaeological value, and a biographical essay on Balzac (Balzac chez lui, 1862). He was made a member of the Legion of Honour in 1846, and in 1859 an officer of that order. Gozlan died on the 14th of September 1866, in Paris.
See also P. Audebrand, Léon Gozlan (1887).