OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Louver

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​LOUVER, Louvre or Luffer, in architecture, the lantern built upon the roof of the hall in ancient times to allow the smoke to escape when the fire was made on the pavement in the middle of the hall. The term is also applied to the flat overlapping slips of wood, glass, &c., with which such openings are closed, arranged to give ventilation without the admission of rain. Openings fitted with louvers are now utilized for the purposes of ventilation in schools and manufactories.
The word has been derived from the French l’ouvert, the “open” space. This, Minsheu’s guess, is now generally abandoned. The Old French form, of which the English is an adaptation, was lover or lovier. The medieval Latin lodium, lodarium, is suggested as the ultimate origin. Du Cange (Glossarium, s.v. “lodia”) defines it as lugurium, i.e. a small hut. The English form “louvre” is due to a confusion with the name of the palace in Paris. The origin of that name is also unknown; louverie, place of wolves, is one of the suggestions, the palace being supposed to have originally been a hunting-box (see Paris).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Louvet, Jean

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​LOUVET, JEAN (c. 1370–c. 1440), called the president of Provence, occupied the position of president of the Chambre des Comptes at Aix in 1415. Towards the end of that year he went to Paris with Louis II. of Anjou, king of Sicily, attached himself to the dauphin Charles, and after having been chief steward of the household to Queen Isabella he turned against her. He was one of the principal agents of the Armagnac party, and became the most influential adviser of Charles VII. during the first years of his reign. But his rapacity gained him enemies, and when the constable Arthur, earl of Richmond, attained a preponderating influence over Charles VII. Louvet retired to his captaincy of Avignon. He still remained a personage of importance in his exile, and played an influential part even in his last years.
See Vallet de Viriville in the Nouvelle Biographie générale, and G. du Fresne de Beaucourt, Histoire de Charles VII. (1881–1891). (J. V.*)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Love-bird

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​LOVE-BIRD, a name somewhat indefinitely bestowed, chiefly by dealers and their customers, on some of the smaller short-tailed parrots, from the affection which examples of opposite sexes exhibit towards each other. By many ornithologists the birds thus named, brought almost entirely from Africa and South America, have been retained in a single genus, Psittacula, though those belonging to the former country were by others separated as Agapornis. This separation, however, was neither generally approved nor easily justified, until Garrod (Proc. Zool. Society, 1874, p. 593) assigned good anatomical ground, afforded by the structure of the carotid artery, for regarding the two groups as distinct, and thus removed the puzzle presented by the geographical distribution of the species of Psittacula in a large sense, though Huxley (op. cit. 1868, p. 319) had suggested one way of meeting the difficulty. As the genus is now restricted, only one of the six species of Psittacula enumerated in the Nomenclator Avium of Sclater and Salvin is known to be found outside the Neotropical Region, the exception being the Mexican P. cyanopygia, and not one of the seven recognized by the same authors as forming the nearly allied genus Urochroma. On the other hand, of Agapornis, from which the so-called genus Poliopsitta can scarcely be separated, five if not six species are known, all belonging to the Ethiopian Region, and all but one, A. cana (which is indigenous to Madagascar, and thence has been widely disseminated), are natives of Africa. In this group probably comes also Psittinus, with a single species from the Malayan Subregion. One of the birds most commonly called love-birds, but with no near relationship to any of the above, being a long-tailed though very small parrot, is the budgerigar (Melopsittacus undulatus) now more familiar in Europe than most native birds, as it is used to “tell fortunes” in the streets, and is bred by hundreds in aviaries. Its native country is Australia.  (A. N.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lovedale

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​LOVEDALE, a mission station in the Victoria East division of the Cape province, South Africa. It lies 1720 ft. above the sea on the banks of the Tyumie (Chumie) tributary of the Keiskama river, some 2 m. N. of Alice, a town 88 m. N.W. by rail of East London. The station was founded in 1824 by the Glasgow Missionary Society and was named after Dr John Love, one of the leading members of, and at the time secretary to, the society. The site first chosen was in the Ncera valley. But in 1834 the mission buildings were destroyed by the Kaffirs. On rebuilding, the station was removed somewhat farther north to the banks of the Tyumie. In 1846 the work at Lovedale was again interrupted, this time by the War of the Axe (see Cape Colony: History). On this occasion the buildings were converted into a fort and garrisoned by regular troops. Once more, in 1850, the Kaffirs threatened Lovedale and made an attack on the neighbouring Fort Hare, built during the previous war.
Until 1841 the missionaries had devoted themselves almost entirely to evangelistic work; in that year the Lovedale Missionary Institute was founded by the Rev. W. Govan, who, save for brief intervals, continued at its head until 1870. He was then succeeded by the Rev. James Stewart (1831–1905), who had joined the mission in 1867, having previously (1861–1863), and partly in company with David Livingstone, explored the Zambezi regions. To Stewart, who remained at the head of the institute till his death, is due the existing organization at Lovedale. The institute, in addition to its purely church work—in which no sectarian tests are allowed—provides for the education of natives of both sexes in nearly all branches of learning (Stewart discontinued the teaching of Greek and Latin, adopting English as the classic); it also takes European scholars, no colour distinction being allowed in any department of the work. The institute gives technical training in many subjects and maintains various industries, including such diverse enterprises as farming and printing-works. It also maintains a hospital. The school buildings rival in accommodation and completeness those of the schools in large English cities. The sum paid in fees by scholars (of whom fully nine-tenths were Kaffirs) in the period 1841–1908 was £84,000. The educational and industrial methods initiated at Lovedale have been widely adopted by other ​missionary bodies. Lovedale is now a branch of the work of the United Free Church of Scotland.
See R. Young, African Wastes Reclaimed and Illustrated in the Story of the Lovedale Mission (London, 1902); J. Stewart, Lovedale, Past and Present (London, 1884), and Dawn in the Dark Continent (London, 1903); J. Wells, Stewart of Lovedale (London, 1908).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Louviers

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​LOUVIERS, a town of north-western France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Eure, 171/2 m. S.S.E. of Rouen by road. Pop. (1906) 9449. Louviers is pleasantly situated in a green valley surrounded by wooded hills, on the Eure, which here divides into several branches. The old part of the town, built of wood, stands on the left bank of the river; the more modern portions, in brick and hewn stone, on the right. There are spacious squares, and the place is surrounded by boulevards. The Gothic church of Notre-Dame has a south portal which ranks among the most beautiful works of the kind produced in the 15th century; it contains fine stained glass of the 15th and 16th centuries and other works of art. The hôtel-de-ville, a large modern building, contains a museum and library. The chief industry is cloth and flannel manufacture. There are wool-spinning and fulling mills, thread factories and manufactories of spinning and weaving machinery, and enamel ware; leather-working, dyeing, metal-founding and bell-founding are also carried on. The town is the seat of a sub-prefect and has a court of first instance, a tribunal of commerce, a chamber of arts and manufactures, and a council of trade arbitrators.
Louviers (Lovera) was originally a villa of the dukes of Normandy and in the middle ages belonged to the archbishops of Rouen; its cloth-making industry first arose in the beginning of the 13th century. It changed hands once and again during the Hundred Years’ War, and from Charles VII. it received extensive privileges, ​and the title of Louviers le Franc for the bravery of its inhabitants in driving the English from Pont de l’Arche, Verneuil and Harcourt. It passed through various troubles successively at the period of the League of the Public Weal under Louis XI., in the religious wars (when the parlement of Rouen sat for a time at Louviers) and in the wars of the Fronde.
See G. Petit, Hist. de Louviers (Louviers, 1877).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Robertson, George Croom

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​ROBERTSON, GEORGE CROOM (1842–1892), Scottish philosopher, was born at Aberdeen on the 10th of March 1842. In 1857 he gained a bursary at Marischal College, and graduated M.A. in 1861, with the highest honours in classic sand philosophy. In the same year he won a Fergusson scholarship of £100 a year for two years, which enabled him to pursue his studies outside Scotland. He went first to University ​College, London; at Heidelberg he worked at German; at Berlin he studied psychology, metaphysics and also physiology under du Bois-Reymond, and heard lectures on Hegel, Kant and the history of philosophy, ancient and modern. After two months at Göttingen, he went to Paris in June 1863. In the same year he returned to Aberdeen and helped Alexander Bain with the revision of some of his books. In 1864 he was appointed to help Professor Geddes with his Greek classes, but he gave up the vacations to philosophical work. In 1866 he was appointed professor of philosophy of mind and logic at University College, London. This post he retained until ill-health compelled him to resign a few months before his death in 1892. He lectured on logic, deductive and inductive, systematic psychology and ethical theory. He left little published work. A comprehensive work on Hobbes was never completed, though part of the materials were used for an article in the Encyclopaedia Britannica, and another portion was published as one of Blackwood's “ Philosophical Classics.” Together with Bain, he edited Grote's Aristotle, and was the editor of Mind from its foundation in 1876 till 1891. He was keenly interested in German philosophy, and took every opportunity of making German works on English writers known in the United Kingdom. In philosophy he followed mainly Mill and Bain, but he was acquainted with all philosophical literature. He was associated with his wife (a daughter of Mr Justice Crompton) in many kinds of social work; he sat on the Committee of the National Society for Women's Suffrage, and was actively associated with its president, John Stuart Mill. He warmly supported the admission of women students to University College.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Robert of Gloucester

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​ROBERT OF GLOUCESTER, English chronicler, is known only through his connexion with the work which bears his name. This is a vernacular history of England, from the days of the legendary Brut to the year 1270, and is written in rhymed couplets. The lines are of fourteen syllables, with a break after the eighth syllable. The author gives his name as Robert; the dialect which he uses, and his acquaintance with local traditions, justify the supposition that, he was a monk of Gloucester. He describes, from his own recollections, theibad weather which prevailed in the neighbourhood of Evesham on the day of the battle between the Montfortians and Prince Edward (1265). He also alluded to the canonization of Louis IX. of France, which took place in 1297. He probably wrote about the year 1300. The earlier part of his chronicle (up to 1135) may be from another hand, since it occurs in some manuscripts in a shorter form, and with an exceedingly brief continuation by an anonymous versifier. There is no good reason for the theory that this part was translated from a French original; nor does it contain any undoubted borrowings from French sources. The authorities employed for the earlier part were Geoffrey of Monmouth, Henry of Huntingdon, William of Malmesbury, the English Chronicles, and some minor sources; Robert, in making his recension of it, also used the Brut of Layamon. From 1135 to 1256 Robert is still a compiler, although references to oral tradition become more frequent as he approaches his own time. From 1256 to 1270 he has the value of a contemporary authority. But he is more important to the philologist than to the historian. His chronicle is one of the last works written in Old English.
Robert’s chronicle was first edited by T. Hearne (2 vols., Oxford, 1724); but this text is now superseded by that of W. Aldis Wright (2 vols., Rolls Series, 1887). Minor works attributed to the author are: a Life of St Alban in verse (MS. Ashmole 43); a Life of St Patrick, also in verse (MS. Tanner 17); a Life of St Bridget (MS. C.C.C. Cambridge, 145); and a Life of St Alphege (MS. Cert., Julius D. ix). A Martyrdom of St Thomas Becket and a Life of St Brendan, both attributed to Robert, were printed by the Percy Society in 1845.
See T. D. Hardy’s Descriptive Catalogue of MSS. i. 25, 68, iii. 181–9, 623; K. Brossman, Über die Quellen der Chronik des R. von Gloucester (Striegau, 1887); W. Ellmer in Anglia (1888), x. 1–37, 291–322; H. Strohmeyer, Der Stil der Reimchronik R. von Gloucester (Berlin, 1891). (H. W. C. D.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Robert of Torigni

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​ROBERT OF TORIGNI (c. 1110–1186), medieval chronicler, was prior of Bec in 1149, and in 1154 became abbot of Mont ​St Michel, whence he is also sometimes called Robertus de Monte. He died, according to Potthast, on the 29th of May 1186. He wrote additions and appendices to the chronicle of Sigebert of Genblours, covering the period A.D. 385–1100, and a chronicle in continuation of Sigebert, extending from 1100 to 1186, of great value for Anglo-Norman history. Robert was in a good position to obtain information, for the Mont St Michel was one of the four great centres of pilgrimage in Europe. But he was excessively timid and cautious, and hardly mentions events, like the murder of Becket, which were subjects of controversy. Besides, his style is that of the driest annalist. It is for continental affairs between 1154 and 1170 that his information is especially valuable. His notices of English affairs are slight and sometimes misleading.
The best modern editions are the Chronique de Robert de Torigni, &c., edited by Léo old Delisle for the Soc. de l’histoire de Normandie (Rouen, 1872–1873), and Chronicle of Robert of Torigni, edited, with an introduction, by Richard Howlett (Rolls Series, No. 82, iv. 1889).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Robert the Devil

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​ROBERT THE DEVIL, hero of romance. He was the son of a duke and duchess of Normandy, and by the time he was twenty was a prodigy of strength, which he used, however, only for outrage and crime. At last he learnt from' his mother, in explanation of his wicked impulses, that he was born in answer to prayers addressed to the devil. He was directed by the pope to a hermit, who imposed on him by way of penance that he should maintain absolute silence, feign madness, take his food from the mouth of a dog, and provoke ill-treatment from the common people without retaliating. He became court fool to the emperor at Rome, and delivered the city from Saracen invasions in three successive years in the guise of an unknown knight, having each time been bidden to fight by a celestial messenger. The emperor’s dumb daughter recovered speech to declare the identity of the court fool with the deliverer of the city, but Robert refused the hand of the princess and the imperial inheritance, and ended his days in the hermitage of his old confessor.
The French romance of Robert le Diable is one of the oldest versions of the legend, and differs in detail from the popular tales printed in the 15th and 16th centuries. It was apparently founded on folk-lore, not on the wickedness of Robert Guiscard or any historical personage; but probably the name of Robert and the localization of the legend may be put down to the terror inspired by the Normans. In the English version the hero is called Sir Gowther, and the scene is laid in Germany. This metrical romance dates from the beginning of the 15th century, and is based, according to its author, on a Breton lay. The legend had undergone much change before it was used by E. Scribe and C. Delavigne in the fibretto of Meyerbeer’s opera of Robert le Diable.
See Robert le Diable, ed. E. Löseth (Paris, 1903, for the Soc. des anc. textes fr.); Sir Gowther, ed. K. Breul (Oppeln, 1886); M. Tardel, Die Sage v. Robert d. Teufel in neueren deutschen Dichtungen (Berlin, 1900). Breul’s edition of the English poem contains an examination of the legend, and a bibliography of the literature dealing with the subject. The English prose romance of Robert the Devyll was printed (c. 1510) by Wynkyn de Worde.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Robert the Strong

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​ROBERT THE STRONG (le Fort) (d. 866), count of Anjou and of Blois, is said by Richerus to have been the son of a certain Witichin, but nothing definite is known about his parentage or early life. Quickly attaining a prominent position among the Frankish nobles, he appears as rector of the abbey of Marmoutier in 852, and as one of Charles the Bald’s missi dominici, in 853; but soon afterwards he was among those who rebelled against Charles, and invited the king’s half brother, Louis the German, to invade West Francia. However, after the peace between Charles and Louis in 860 Robert came to terms with his sovereign, who made him count of Anjou and of Blois, and entrusted him with the defence of that part of his kingdom which lay between the Seine and the Loire, a district which had suffered greatly from the ravages of the Normans and the Bretons. By his conduct in many stubborn fights with these foes, Robert thoroughly earned his surname and gained the confidence of the king, who gave him the counties of Nevers and Auxerre. He was killed in battle at Brissarthe in October 866, leaving two sons, Odo, or Eudes, and Robert, both of whom became kings of the Franks. Robert has been compared to the Maccabees, and the fact that he was the ancestor of the Capetian kings of France has invested him with historical importance.
See K. von Kalekstein, Robert der Tapfere (Berlin, 1871); and E. Favre, Éudes, comte de Paris et roi de France (Paris, 1893).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Robert of Courtenay

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​ROBERT OF COURTENAY (d. 1228), emperor of Romania, or Constantinople, was a younger son of the emperor Peter of Courtenay, and was descended from the French king, Louis VI., while his mother Yolande was a sister of Baldwin and Henry of Flanders, the first and second emperors of Constantinople. When it became known in France that Peter of Courtenay was dead, his eldest son, Philip, marquess of Namur, renounced the succession to the Latin empire of Constantinople in favour of his brother Robert, who set out to take possession of his distracted inheritance, which wasj hen ruled by Conon of Béthune as regent. Crowned emperor on the 25th of March 1221, Robert, who was surrounded by enemies, appealed for help to the pope and to the king of France; but meanwhile his lands were falling into the hands of the Greeks. Some little aid was sent from western Europe, but soon Robert was compelled to make peace with his chief foe, John Ducas Vataces, emperor of Nicaea, who was confirmed in all his conquests. Robert promised to marry Eudoxia, daughter of the late emperor of Nicaea, Theodore Lascaris I., a lady to whom he had been betrothed on a former occasion; however, he soon repudiated this engagement, and married a French lady, already the fiancée of a Burgundian gentleman. Heading a conspiracy, the Burgundian drove Robert from Constantinople, and early in 1228 the emperor died in Achaia.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Robert of Jumiéges

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​ROBERT OF JUMIEGES (d. c. 1070), archbishop of Canterbury, was a Norman who became prior of St Ouen at Rouen and then abbot of ]umiéges. A close friend of the future king of England, Edward the Confessor, he crossed over to England with Edward in' 1042, and in 1044 became bishop .of London. In English history Robert appears as the most trusted and the most prominent of the kingis foreign friends, and as the leader of the party hostile to the influence of Earl Godwine. In 1051, although the chapter had already made an election, 'Edward appointed him archbishop of Canterbury. He seems to have been sent by the king on an errand to Duke William of Normandy, and on the return of Godwine from exile in 1052 he fled in great haste from England. He was outlawed and deposed, and he died at ]umiéges about 1070. The treatment of Robert by the English was put forward by William the Conqueror as a pretext for invading England.
See Two Saxon Chronicles, edited by J. Earle and C. Plummer (Oxford, 1892); and E. A. Freeman, History of the Norman Conquest (Oxford, 1870–76).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Melito

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​MELITO, bishop of Sardis, a Christian writer of the 2nd century, mentioned by Eusebius (Hist. Eccl. iv. 21) along with Hegesippus, Dionysius of Corinth, Apollinaris of Hierapolis, Irenaeus, and others, his contemporaries, as a champion of orthodoxy and upholder of apostolic tradition. Of his personal history nothing is known, and of his numerous works (which are enumerated—with quotations—by Eusebius) only a few fragments are extant. They included an Apologia addressed to Antoninus some time between A.D. 169 and 180, two books relating to the paschal controversy, and a work entitled Ἐκλογαί (selections from the Old Testament), which contained the first Christian list of “the books of the Old Covenant.” It excludes Esther, Nehemiah and the Apocrypha. The fragments have been edited with valuable notes by Routh (Reliquiae sacrae, vol. i., 1814). These are sufficient to show that Melito was an important figure in Asia Minor and took much part in the paschal, Marcionite and Montanist controversies.
It seems more than doubtful whether the Apologia of Melito “the Philosopher,” discovered in a Syriac translation by Henry Tattam (1789–1868), and subsequently edited by W. Cureton and by Pitra-Renan, ought to be attributed to this writer and not to another of the same name. The Κλείς (clavis), edited by Pitra-Renan, is a much later Latin collection of mystical explanations of Scripture.
See A. Harnack, Texte und Untersuchungen, i. 240–278 (Leipzig, 1882); Erwin Preuschen, s.v. “Melito” in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopädie, xii., 1903, giving full list of works and bibliography.