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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Zither

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​ZITHER (Ger. Zither, Schlagzither, Streichzither; Ital. cithara), a name applied in modern Germany to the ancient cithara (q.v.), to the cittern (q.v.), and to an instrument which is a kind of psaltery, consisting of a shallow sound-chest with ribs having the outline of a flattened jug (termed in German Flaschenform, bottle-shape). In the centre of the sound-board is a rose sound-hole, and the finger-board with frets lies along the straight side of the zither in front of the performer. The number of the strings varies, but 36, 38 and 42 are the most usual. Over the finger-board are four or five strings known as violin, on which the melody is played. These five melody strings are stopped with
No. 1 is only used for passages in double notes and for chords.
the thumb and fingers of the left hand and plucked with the thumb of the right hand, which usually has a thumb ring with plectrum. Nos. 1 and 2 are steel strings; No. 3 of brass, and 4 and 5 of spun wire; the bass is played with the fingers of the right hand, and in order to facilitate the fingering the strings are tuned in fourths and fifths. Most of the other strings from the 6th are of gut. All the strings lie horizontally across the sound-board, being fastened in the usual manner to hitch and wrest pins. The zither is placed on the table in front of the performer, who holds his right arm so that the wrist rests on the side of the zither parallel with the hitch pins, the thumb being over the finger-board.
The foregoing remarks apply to the discant and concert zither; the elegiac or bass zither is of similar construction but larger, and is a transposing instrument, having the same notation as the former, the real sounds being a fourth lower. These zithers are the favourite instruments of the peasants in the Swiss and Bavarian highlands, and are sometimes seen in the concert halls of north and western Germany. The Streichzither, or bowed zither, has a body of heart- or pear-shape similar to that of the cittern, but without the long neck of the latter. The finger-board covers the whole of the sound-board with the exception of a few inches at the tapering end, which is finished off with a raised nut or bridge, the bow being applied in the centre of this gap. The bowed zither has little feet and is placed on a table when being played. There are four strings corresponding to those of the violin or viola, but the tone is nasal and glassy.
The spelling of the word with a “Z” had already become usual in the early 17th century, for, although the instrument described above did not then exist, Cither was the name by which the cittern was known in Germany, and Michael Praetorius, writing in 1618, spells it with both “C” and “Z.”
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Zittau

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​ZITTAU, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, on the left bank of the Mandau, near its confluence with the Neisse, close to the Bohemian and Silesian frontier, 25 m. by rail S.E. of Bautzen, 48 E.S.E. of Dresden and at the junction of lines to Reichenberg (in Bohemia), Eibau and Hermsdorf. Pop. (1905) 34,706. The town hall dates from 1844, and contains a beautiful hall with rich stained glass windows. Among the six Evangelical churches, the following are noticeable: that of St John, rebuilt in 1834–37, with twin spires, and the church of St Peter and St Paul, with its elegant tower, which formerly belonged to an old Franciscan monastery. The latter was restored in 1882 and part of it fitted up as an historical museum. Another wing of this building contains the municipal library of 40,000 volumes and valuable manuscripts. Zittau is well equipped with schools, including a gymnasium and a commercial school, which are both accommodated in the Johanneum, and several technical institutions. There are also a theatre, well-equipped public baths and a richly endowed hospital. Zittau is one of the chief manufacturing towns of Saxony. The leading branch of industry is linen and damask weaving; but woollen stuffs, trimmings, &c., are also produced in the factories of the town, and in the surrounding weaving villages, sixty-six of which, with 113,455 (1900) inhabitants, are included in the municipal jurisdiction. The corporation owns valuable forests on the mountains of Upper Lusatia and other estates, the annual income of which is about £15,000. There are various steam-mills, iron-foundries, brick-fields and potteries near the town, and extensive deposits of lignite.
Zittau is of Wendish origin (Chytawa is its Wendish name), and was made a town by Ottocar II. of Bohemia. It was one of the six towns of the Lusatian League (1346), at which period it belonged to Bohemia. It suffered severely in the Hussite wars and in the Thirty Years' War, and was bombarded and burnt by the Austrians in 1757 during the Seven Years’ War. The musical composer Marschner (1795–1861) was born at Zittau.
See Carpzov, Analecta fastorum Zittaviensium (Leipzig, 1716); Moschkau, Zittau und seine Umgebung (5th ed., Zittau, 1893); and Lamprecht, Wegweiser durch Zittau und das Zittauer Gebirge (Zittau, 1901).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Zirkel, Ferdinand

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​ZIRKEL, FERDINAND (1838–), German geologist and petrographer, was born at Bonn on the 20th of May 1838. He was educated in his native town, and graduated Ph.D. at the university in 1861. In early years he was engaged in teaching geology and mineralogy in Vienna. He became professor of geology in 1863 in the university of Lemberg, in 1868 at Kiel, and in 1870 professor of mineralogy and geology in the university of Leipzig.
His numerous papers and essays include Geologische Skizze von der Westküste Schottlands (1871); Die Struktur der Variolite (1875); Microscopical Petrography (in Report of U.S. Geol. Exploration of 40th Par., vol. vi., 1876); Limurit aus der Vallée de Lesponne (1879); Über den Zirkon (1880). His separate works include Lehrbuch der Petrographie (1866; 2nd ed. 1893, 1894); Die mikroskopische Beschaffenheit der Mineralien und Gesteine (1873).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Zlatoust

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​ZLATOUST, a town of Russia, in the government of Ufa, close to the river Ufa, in a picturesque valley of the middle Urals, 1925 ft. above sea level, 199 m. by rail E.N.E. of the town of Ufa. Pop. 20,973. The town has a first-class meteorological and magnetical observatory, a cathedral and a museum; it is the seat of the mining administration for the Zlatoust district, and has a brisk trade in agricultural produce and manufactured wares.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Znaim

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​ZNAIM (Czech Znojmo), a town of Austria, in Moravia, 50 m. S.W. of Brünn by rail. Pop. (1900) 16,261, mostly German. It is picturesquely situated on the left bank of the Thaya. The site of the former fortifications is occupied by a promenade. The Rauberturm is a relic of the old castle of the margraves of Moravia; the round castle chapel, known as the heathen temple (Heiden Tempel), in the Romanesque style of the 12th century, was at one time considered the most ancient building in Moravia. The Gothic church of St Nicholas was built about 1348 by the emperor Charles IV.; the town house, with a Gothic tower, 250 ft. high, dates from about 1446. The ancient and once powerful Premonstratensian abbey of Bruck, east of the town, is now occupied as barracks.
The present town of Znaim was founded in 1226 by Ottacar I. of Bohemia on the site of Znojmo, the ancient capital of the tributary margraves of Moravia, which had been destroyed in 1145. Znaim is best known to history for the armistice concluded here in 1809 after the battle of Wagram between Napoleon I. and the archduke Charles. In 1866 the Prussians occupied the town from July 13th till September 3rd. The novelist Karl Postl (1793–1864), who wrote under the pseudonym of Charles Sealsfield, was born at Poppitz, 21/2 m. S.W.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Zion

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​ZION, or Sion (Heb. צִיוֹן, perhaps from צהה “to be dry,” צוָּה “to set up,” or צין “to protect”; Arabic analogies favour the meaning “hump,” “summit of a ridge,” and so “citadel”), the name of the Jebusite stronghold at Jerusalem captured by David (2 Sam. v.). Zion (which is synonymous with the Ophel) is properly the southern part of the eastern hill on the top of which was built the temple, so that the name came to be given to the whole hill (2 Kings xix. 31, Isaiah xxiv. 23 and throughout 1 Maccabees), to all Jerusalem (Isaiah i. 27, cf. iv. 3), and even to the nation or its spiritual nucleus. Thus the people of Jerusalem are spoken of as “the daughter of Zion” (Isaiah i. 8), the name being often personified and idealized, especially in Isaiah ii., and in the Psalter, e.g. Ps. lxxxvii. 5, “Every one calls Zion his mother.”
See G. A. Smith, Jerusalem (London, 1908).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Zittel, Karl Alfred von

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​ZITTEL, KARL ALFRED VON (1839–1904), German palaeontologist, was born at Bahlingen in Baden on the 25th of September 1839. He was educated at Heidelberg, Paris and Vienna. For a short period he served on the Geological Survey of Austria, and as assistant in the mineralogical museum at Vienna. In 1863 he became teacher of geology and mineralogy in the polytechnic at Carlsruhe, and three years later he succeeded Oppel as professor of palaeontology in the university of Munich, with the charge of the state collection of fossils. In 1880 he was appointed to the geological professorship, and eventually to the directorship of the natural history museum of Munich. His earlier work comprised a monograph on the Cretaceous bivalve mollusca of Gosau (1863–66); and an essay on the Tithonian stage (1870), regarded as equivalent to the Purbeck and Wealden formations. In 1873–74 he accompanied the Rohlfs expedition to the Libyan desert, the primary results of which were published in Über den geologischen Bau der libyschen Wüste (1880), and further details in the Palaeontographica (1883). Dr Zittel was distinguished for his palaeontological researches. From 1869 until the close of his life he was chief editor of the Palaeontographica (founded in 1846 by W. Dunker and H. von Meyer). In 1876 he commenced the publication of his great work, Handbuch der Palaeontologie, which was completed in 1893 in five volumes, the fifth volume on palaeobotany being prepared by W. P. Schimper and A. Schenk. To make his work as trustworthy as possible Dr Zittel made special studies of each great group, commencing with the fossil sponges, on which he published a monograph (1877–79). In 1895 he issued a summary of his larger work entitled Grundzüge der Palaeontologie (ed. 2, part 1, Invertebrata, revised by Dr Zittel in 1903; the American edition of 1900 by C. R. Eastman is so revised, sometimes in opposition to Zittel’s views, as to be practically an independent work). He was author of Aus der Urzeit (1873, ed. 2, 1875); and Die Sahara (1883). In 1899 he published Geschichte der Geologie und Palaeontologie bis Ende des 19 Jahrhunderts, a monumental history of the progress of geological science (Eng. trans., Mrs Maria M. Ogilvie-Gordon, 1901). Dr Zittel was from 1899 president of the Royal Bavarian Academy of Sciences, and in 1894 he was awarded the Wollaston medal by the Geological Society of London. He died on the 5th of January 1904.
Obituary with portrait and bibliography, by Dr F. L. Kitchin, Geol. Mag. (February 1904).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Vol 7:12

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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Vol 7:13

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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Vol 7:1

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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Vol 7:10

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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Vol 7:11

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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Vol 7:2

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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Vol 7:3

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