OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Marash

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​MARASH (anc. Germanicia-Marasion), the chief town of a sanjak of the same name in the Aleppo vilayet, altitude 2600 ft. situated E. of the Jihan river, at the foot of Mt Taurus. The sanjak lies almost wholly in Mt Taurus, and includes the Armenian town of Zeitun. Marash is prosperous, and has a large trade in Kurd carpets and embroideries. The climate is good, except in summer. Of the population (50,000) about half are Turkish-speaking Armenians. There are a college, church and schools belonging to the American mission, a native Protestant church and a Jesuit establishment. The site, which lies near the mouths of the three main passes over the eastern Taurus—viz. those descending from Geuksun (Cocysus), Albistan-Yarpuz (Arabissus), and Malatia (Melitene)—is shown to have had early importance, not only by the occurrence of Marasi in Assyrian inscriptions, but by the discovery of several “Hittite” monuments on the spot. These, said to have been unearthed, for the most part, near the Kirk Geuz spring above the modern town, are now in Constantinople and America, and include an inscribed lion, once built into the wall of the citadel known in the middle ages as al-Marwani, and several stelae. No more is known of the place until it appears as Germanicia-Caesarea, striking imperial coins with the head of L. Verus (middle of 2nd cent. A.D.). The identification of Marash with Germanicia has been disputed, but successfully defended by Sir W. M. Ramsay; and it is borne out by the Armenian name Kermanig, which has been given to the place since at least the 12th century. Before the Roman period Marash doubtless shared the fortunes of the Seleucid kingdom of Commagene. Germanicia-Marasion played a great part in Byzantine border warfare: Heraclius was there in A.D. 640; but before 700 it had passed into Saracen hands and been rebuilt by the caliph Moawiya. During the 8th and 9th centuries, when the direct pass from Cocysus came into military use, Marasion (the older name had returned into general use) was often the Byzantine objective and was more than once retaken; but after 770, when Mansur incorporated it in “Palestine” it remained definitely in Moslem power and was refortified by Harun-al-Rashid. It was seized by the crusaders after their march across Mt Taurus, A.D. 1097, became an important town of Lesser Armenia and was taken by the Seljuks in 1147. In the 16th century it was added to the Osmanli Empire by Selim I. Marash ​passed with the rest of Syria into Egyptian hands in 1832, and in 1839 received fugitives from the defeat of Nizib, among whom was Moltke. Ibrahim Pasha was encamped near it when directed by his father, at the bidding of the powers, to stay his further advance. Since its reversion to Ottoman power (1840) the history of Marash has been varied only by Armenian troubles, largely connected with the fortunes of Zeitun, for the reduction of which place it has more than once been used as a base. There was less disturbance there in 1895–1896 than in other north Syrian towns. (D. G. H.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Maracaibo (city)

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​MARACAIBO (sometimes Maracaybo), a city and seaport of Venezuela and capital of the state of Zulia (formerly Maracaibo), on the west shore of the broad channel or neck which connects Lake Maracaibo with the Gulf of Venezuela, or Maracaibo, about 25 m. from the mouth of the channel opening into the latter. Pop. (1889), 34,284; (1905), 49,817; there is a considerable German element in the vicinity. The best residential suburb, Haticos, extends along the lake shore toward the south. The city is provided with tramways, telephone service and electric lighting, but the water supply and drainage are inferior. The most important buildings are the executive’s residence, the legislative chambers, the municipal hall, the Baralt theatre, the prison, the market, a hospital and six churches. The city also has a school of arts, a public library, and a public garden. In colonial times Maracaibo had a famous Jesuits’ college (now gone) and was one of the educational centres of Spanish America; the city now has a national college and a nautical school. The industries include shipbuilding, and the manufacture of saddlery and other leather products, bricks and tile, rum, beer, chocolate and coco-nut oil. Maracaibo is chiefly known, however, as one of the principal commercial centres and shipping ports on the northern coast of South America. The bar at the entrance to Maracaibo channel does not admit vessels drawing more than 12 ft., but there is a depth of 30 ft. inside and near the city. Steam communication is maintained on the Catatumbo and Zulia rivers to Villamizar, and on the Escalante to Santa Cruz. The principal exports from Maracaibo are coffee, hides and skins, cabinet and dye-woods, cocoa, and mangrove bark, to which may be added dividivi, sugar, copaiba, gamela and hemp straw for paper-making, and fruits. In 1906, 26% of the coffee exports was of Colombian origin.
Maracaibo was founded in 1571 by Alonso Pacheco, who gave it the name Nueva Zamora. Up to 1668 the entrepôt for the inland settlements was a station named Gibraltar at the head of the lake, but the destruction of that station by pirates in that year transferred this valuable trade to Maracaibo. The city did not figure actively in the War of Independence until 1821 (Jan. 28), when the province declared its independence and sought an alliance with Colombia. This brought to an end the armistice between Bolívar and Morillo, and thenceforward the city experienced all the changing fortunes of war until its final capture by the revolutionists in 1823.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pretty

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​PRETTY, a word usually applied in the sense of pleasing in appearance, without connoting those qualities which are described as beautiful or handsome. In Old English praettig meant tricky, cunning or wily, and is thus used to translate the Latin sagax, astutus, callidus, in a vocabulary of about 1000. Praett meant a trick, and this word is seen in many forms in Dutch, cf. the words prettig, sportive, part, trick. A connexion has been suggested with the Greek πρακτικός, πράττειν, to do, make, through Latin practica, practice, performance; but the New English Dictionary rejects these, as also Celtic sources, as unfounded. From “cunning” to skilful, and thence to its use as a term of general appreciation as is so often used by Pepys, the development is easy.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Preveza

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​PREVEZA, or Prevesa, a seaport of Albania, European Turkey, in the vilayet of Iannina; at the entrance to the Gulf of Arta, an inlet of the Ionian Sea. Pop. (1905), 6500, of whom about four-fifths are 'Christian Albanians or Greeks, and one-fifth Moslems. The town is surrounded by dense olive groves, and most of its houses stand in their own gardens. The harbour is small, and closed to large vessels by a bar of sand; but it is a port of call for the Austrian Lloyd Steamers, and annually accommodates about 1500 small vessels, the majority of which are engaged in the coasting trade. Preveza exports dairy produce, valonia, hides and wool, olives and olive oil. The yearly value of its trade varies from about £70,000 to £80,000. About 3 m. north are the ruins of Nicopolis (q.v.).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Prey

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​PREY (O. Fr. preie, mod. proie, Lat. praeda, booty, from prae and the root hed—seen in prehendere, prendere, to grasp), booty, spoil, plunder taken in war, by robbery, or other violent means; particularly the quarry, the animal killed for food by a carnivorous animal; a beast or bird of prey. A particular usage for that which is saved from any trial of strength or battle is familiar from the Bible (Jer. xxi. 9) “his life shall be unto him for a prey.”
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Priam

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​PRIAM (Gr. Πρίαμος), in Greek legend, the last king of Troy, son of Laomedon and brother of Tithonus. Little is known of him before the Trojan War, which broke out when he was advanced in years. According to Homer (Iliad, iii. 184) in his ​youth he fought on the side of the Phrygians against the Amazons. He had fifty sons and fifty daughters, and possessed immense wealth. He appears only twice on the scene of action during the war—to make arrangements for the duel between Paris and Menelaus, and to beg the body of Hector for burial from Achilles, whom he visits in his tent by night. He was said to have been slain by Neoptolemus, son of Achilles, during the sack of Troy (Virgil, Aeneid, ii. 512). See under Troy, on the legends.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Priapeia

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​PRIAPEIA, a collection of poems (about eighty in number) in various metres on the subject of Priāpus. It was compiled from literary works and inscriptions on images of the god by an unknown editor, who composed the introductory epigram. From their style and versification it is evident that the poems belong to the best period of Latin literature. Some, however, may be interpolations of a later period. They will be found in F. Bücheler's Petronius (1904), L. Müller's Catullus (1870), and E. Bährens, Poetae latini minores, i. (1879).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Prevost, Pierre

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​PRÉVOST, PIERRE (1751-–1839), Swiss philosopher and physicist, son of a Protestant clergyman in Geneva, was born in that city on the 3rd of March 1751, and was educated for a clerical career. But he forsook it for law, and this too he quickly deserted to devote himself to education and to travelling. He became intimate with J. J. Rousseau, and, a little later, with Dugald Stewart, having previously distinguished himself as a translator of and commentator on Euripides. Frederick II. of Prussia secured him in 1780 as professor of philosophy, and made him member of the Akadémie der Wissenschaften in Berlin. He there became acquainted with Lagrange, and was thus led to turn his attention to physical science. After some years spent on political economy and on the principles of the fine arts (in connexion with which he wrote, for the Berlin Memoirs, a remarkable dissertation on poetry) he returned to Geneva and began his work on magnetism and on heat. Interrupted occasionally in his studies by political duties, in which he was often called to the front, he remained professor of philosophy at Geneva till he was called in 1810 to the chair of physics. He died at Geneva on the 8th of April 1839.
Prévost published much on philology, philosophy, and political economy; but he will be remembered mainly for having published, with additions of his own, the Traité de physique of G. L. Le Sage, and for his enunciation of the law of exchange in radiation. His scientific publications included De l'Origine des forces magnétiques (1788), Recherches physico-mécaniques sur la chaleur (1792), and Essai sur le calorique rayonnant (1809).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Prevarication

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​PREVARICATION, a divergence from the truth, equivocation, quibbling, a want of plain-dealing or straightforwardness, especially a deliberate misrepresentation by evasive answers, often used as a less offensive synonym for a lie. The Latin praevaricatio was specifically applied to the conduct in an action at law in which an advocate (prevaricator) in collusion with his opponent put up a bad case of defence. Praevaricare meant literally to walk with the legs very wide apart, to straddle, hence to walk crookedly, to stray from the direct road, various, straddling, being derived from varus, bow-legged, a word which has been connected etymologically with German quer, transverse, across, and English “queer.”
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pluralism

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​PLURALISM (Lat. plus, plures, many, several), a term used generally in the sense of plurality (see below), and in philosophy for any theory which postulates more than one absolutely distinct being or principle of being, opposed to monism. Pluralistic systems are based on the difficulty of reconciling with the monistic principle the principles of variety and freewill. The chief difficulty which besets any such view is that if the elements are absolutely independent, the cosmos disappears and we are left with chaos; if, on the other hand, there is interrelation (as in Lotze's system), the elements are not ultimate in any intelligible sense.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Plutus

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PLUTUS, in Greek mythology, son of Iasion and Demeter, the personification of wealth (πλοῦτος). According to Aristophanes, he was blinded by Zeus because he distributed his gifts without regard to merit. At Thebes there was a statue of Fortune holding the child Plutus in her arms; at Athens he was similarly represented in the arms of Peace; at Thespiae he was represented standing beside Athena the Worker. Elsewhere he was represented as a boy with a cornu copiae. He is the subject of one of the extant comedies of Aristophanes, the Plutus.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Plutarch (philosopher)

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​PLUTARCH, of Athens (c. 350–430), Greek philosopher, head of the Neoplatonist school at Athens at the beginning of the 5th Century, was the son of Nestorius and father of Hierius and Asclepigenia, who were his colleagues in the school. The origin of Neoplatonism in Athens is not known, but Plutarch and his followers (the “Platonic Succession”) claim to be the disciples of Iamblichus, and through him of Porphyry and Plotinus. Plutarch’s main principle was that the study of Aristotle must precede that of Plato, and that the student should be taught to realize primarily the fundamental points of agreement between them. With this object he wrote a commentary on the De anima which was the most important contribution to Aristotelian literature since the time of Alexander of Aphrodisias. His example was followed by Syrianus and others of the school. This critical spirit reached its greatest height in Proclus, the ablest exponent of this latter-day syncretism. Plutarch was versed in all the theurgic traditions of the school, and believed in the possibility of attaining to communion with the Deity by the medium of the theurgic rites. Unlike the Alexandrists and the early Renaissance writers, he maintained that the soul which is bound up in the body by the ties of imagination and sensation does not perish with the corporeal media of sensation. In psychology, while believing that Reason is the basis and foundation of all consciousness, he interposed between sensation and thought the faculty of Imagination, which, as distinct from both, is the activity of the soul under the stimulus of unceasing sensation. In other words, it provides the raw material for the operation of Reason. Reason is present in children as an inoperative potentiality, in adults as working upon the data of sensation and imagination, and, in its pure activity, it is the transcendental or pure intelligence of God.
See Marinus, Vita Procli, 6, 12; Zeller’s History of Greek Philosophy; Bouillet, Ennéades de Plotin, ii. 667–668; Windelband, History of Philosophy (trans. J. H. Tufts, p. 225).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Plutocracy

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​PLUTOCRACY (Gr. πλουτοκρατία, from πλοῦτος, wealth, and κράτος, power), government or power exercised by the possessors of wealth, power obtained by the mere possession of riches; hence a body or ruling class whose influence is due only to their money.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Plurality

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​PLURALITY (O. Fr. pluralité, Late Lat. pluralitas, plural number), in a general sense, a word denoting more than one; applied particularly to the holding of two or more offices by the same person (called then a pluralist). In ecclesiastical law, plurality or the holding of more than one benefice or preferment was always discountenanced, and is now prohibited in England by the Pluralities Act 1838, as amended by the Pluralities Act 1850 and the Pluralities Acts Amendment Act 1885. By the latter act a provision was made that two benefices might be held together, by dispensation of the archbishop on the recommendation of the bishop, if the churches be within four miles of each other, and if the annual value of one does not exceed £200 (see Benefice). It was formerly a practice to evade enactments against plurality by means of commendams, i.e. by committing or commending a benefice to a holder of other benefices until an incumbent should be provided for it. Commendams were abolished by the Ecclesiastical Commissioners Act 1836 (6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 77, § 18). See also Colt v. Bishop of Coventry, 1613, Hob. 140 seq., where much learning on the subject will be found.
In elections, particularly where there are three or more candidates, and no one candidate receives an absolute majority of votes, the excess of votes polled by the first candidate over the second is often termed plurality, especially in the United States.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Plush

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​PLUSH (Fr. peluche), a textile fabric having a cut nap or pile the same as fustian or velvet. Originally the pile of plush consisted of mohair or worsted yarn, but now silk by itself or with a cotton backing is used for plush, the distinction from velvet being found in the longer and less dense pile of plush. The material is largely used for upholstery and furniture purposes, and is also much employed in dress and millinery.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pluto Monkey

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PLUTO MONKEY, a guenon, Cercopithecus (Mona) leucampyx, nearly allied to the Mona (q.v.), which takes its name from the black fur of the under-parts, passing into the blackish grey on the head and back. The violet-coloured face, which has no beard, is fringed by large bushy whiskers and surmounted by a white band above the brows. The range of the species extends from the Congo and Angola to Nyasaland. (See Primates.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Plymouth, Earls of

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​PLYMOUTH, EARLS OF, a title first borne by Charles (1657–1680), an illegitimate son of the English king Charles II. by Catharine Pegge, who was created earl in 1675. The title became extinct on his death in October 1680. In 1682 Thomas Windsor Hickman-Windsor, 7th Baron Windsor de Stanwell (c. 1627–1687), who had fought for Charles I. at Naseby, was created earl of Plymouth. His father was Dixie Hickman of Kew, Surrey, and his mother, Elizabeth, was a sister of Thomas Windsor, 6th Baron Windsor de Stanwell (1596–1641); having inherited the estates of his uncle and taken the additional name of Windsor, the abeyance of the barony of Windsor de Stanwell was terminated in his favour and he became the 7th baron. From 1661–1663 he was nominally governor of Jamaica. His grandson Other (1679–1725) was the 2nd earl, and the earldom became extinct when Henry, the 8th earl, died in December 1843. Called again out of abeyance, the barony of Windsor came in 1855 to Harriet, a daughter of Other Archer, the 6th earl (1789–1833), and the wife of Robert Henry Clive (1789–1854), a younger son of Edward Clive, 1st earl of Powis. She was succeeded in 1869 by her grandson, Robert George Windsor-Clive, who became the 14th Baron Windsor. After serving as paymaster-general in 1891–1892 and first commissioner of works from 1902–1905, Lord Windsor was created earl of Plymouth in 1905.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Podgoritsa

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​PODGORITSA (Croatian, Podgorica), the largest town in Montenegro; on the left bank of the river Moracha, and in a fertile valley which strikes inland for 18 m. from the shores of Lake Scutari to the mountains of central and eastern Montenegro. Pop. (1900), about 5500. Spread out on a perfectly flat plain, Podgoritsa has two distinct parts: the picturesque Turkish quarter, with its mosques and ruined ramparts, and the Montenegrin quarter, built since 1877, and containing a prison and an agricultural college. These quarters are separated by the river Ribnitsa, a tributary of the Moracha. A fine old Turkish bridge crosses the main stream. Podgoritsa receives from the eastern plains and the north-eastern highlands a great quantity of tobacco, fruit, cereals, honey, silk, livestock and other commodities, which it distributes through Plavnitsa, its port on Lake Scutari, and through Riyeka to Cettigne and Cattaro. After being captured from Turkey in 1877, Podgoritsa was in 1878 recognized as Montenegrin territory by the Treaty of Berlin.