OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# A Critical Exposition of the Popular 'Jihád'/Chapter 8/43

[Sidenote: 43. The interceptions, if occurred, were justified by way of reprisals.]
Let us suppose that these alleged interceptions of the Meccan caravans by the Moslems did actually take place, as related by the biographers of Mohammad, were they not all justified by the International Code of the Arabs, or the ancient usage and military law of nations. It has been proved beyond all dispute that the Meccans were the first aggressors in persecuting the Moslems, and expelling them from their dear homes at Mecca with the unbearable annoyance, they caused the converts of the new faith in the peaceful prosecution of their religion; taking all these causes of offence into consideration, as well as the International law and the law of Nature, the Moslems might be said to have law and justice both on their sides in waging war with their harassers for the restoration of their property and homes, and even in retaliating and making reprisals until they attained the object long sought by them. When the Meccans, on their own part, had first trumpeted hostility against the Moslems, the right of self-defence, as well as military necessity, compelled the latter to destroy their property, and obstruct the ways and channels of communication by which their traffic was prospering; for, "from the moment one State is at war with another, it has, on general principles, a right to seize on all the enemy's property of whatsoever kind and wheresoever found, and to appropriate the property thus taken to its own use, or to that of the captors."

## Footnotes

* ↑ Wheaton's Elements of International Law, p. 419, Boston, 1855; Lieber's Miscellaneous Writings; Political science, Vol. II, p. 250, Philadelphia, 1881.
# A Critical Exposition of the Popular 'Jihád'/Chapter 8/41

[Sidenote: 41. The nine alleged interceptions of the Koreish caravans.]
It has been asserted by European biographers of Mohammad that several caravans of the Koreish going to and from Syria were intercepted and waylaid by the Moslems soon after the Hegira. The alleged incursions are as follow:
(1.) Seven months after Mohammad's arrival at Medina, an expedition headed by Hamza surprised a caravan under the conduct of Abu Jahl.
(2.) A month later a party led by Obeida was dispatched in the pursuit of another caravan guided by Abu Sofian.
(3.) After the expiration of another month, a third inroad headed by Sad proceeded to lie in ambush for the Koreish caravan on the way it was expected to pass.
(4.) Nearly twelve months after the Hegira, a fourth attempt was undertaken to plunder a caravan of the Koreishites by Mohammad himself at Abwa.
(5.) In the succeeding month Mohammad again marched to Bowat with the sole aim of despoiling a caravan composed of precious freight under the immediate escort of Omeya-bin Khalf.
(6.) After the lapse of two or three months Mohammad set out to Osheira to make aggression on another rich caravan proceeding to Syria led by Abu Sofian.
All these expeditions are said to have been not attended by any success on the part of the Moslems, the vigilance of the caravans in all cases eluding the pursuit made after them.
(7.) In Rajab A.H. 2, a small band composed of some six persons was ordered to march to Nakhla to lie in wait there for the caravan of the Koreish. The party had a scuffle at Nakhla, in which a man of the convoy was killed; while two prisoners and the pilfered goods were taken to Medina. Hereupon Mohammad was much displeased, and told Abdallah-bin Jahsh, "I never commanded thee to fight in the sacred month."
(8.) The caravan of the Koreish, which on its passage had safely escaped the chase of the Moslems, as already described in No. 6, was on its way back to Mecca. Mohammad anticipated their return, and prepared an attack, which terminated in the famous battle of Badr.
(9.) All these predatory inroads to intercept the caravans of Mecca are said to have happened during the first and the second year of the Hegira, or before the battle of Badr. It remains for me now to mention the only remaining instance of Moslem's foray upon the Koreishite caravan, which took place in the sixth year A.H. at Al-Is. The attack was completely successful.

## Footnotes

* ↑ I have closely followed Sir W. Muir in these expeditions; vide The Life of Mahomet, Vol. III, pp. 64-69.
# A Critical Exposition of the Popular 'Jihád'/Chapter 8/42

[Sidenote: 42. The interceptions were impossible under the circumstances in which Mohammad was placed.]
I have already explained (from paras. 21-24) that these early expeditions, numbered 1 to 8, are not corroborated by authentic and trustworthy traditions, and I have also given the probable nature of those marked 4, 5 and 6.
It was impossible for Mohammad and his adherents, situated as they were, to make any hostile demonstrations or undertake a pillaging enterprise. The inhabitants of Medina, where the Prophet with his followers had sought a safe asylum, and at whose invitation he had entered their city, had solemnly bound themselves on sacred oaths to defend Mohammad, so long as he was not himself the aggressor, from his enemies as they would their wives and their children. Mohammad, on his own part, had entered into a holy compact with them not to plunder or commit depredations.
Upon these considerations it was impossible that the people of Medina would have permitted or overlooked the irruptions so often committed by Mohammad upon the caravans of the Koreish: much less would they have joined with their Prophet, had he or any of his colleagues ventured to do so. But granting that the Medinites allowed Mohammad to manifest enmity towards the Koreish by a display of arms, or that no restraint was put by them upon him when he encroached upon the territories of the neighbouring tribes, and that the caravans were molested without any grounds of justice, was it possible, I ask, for the people of Medina to avoid the troubles they would be necessarily involved in by the refuge they had given to their Prophet? They had long suffered from internal feuds, and the sanguinary conflict of Boás, a few years ago, which had paralyzed their country, and humiliated its citizens, was but too fresh in their memory yet.

## Footnotes

* ↑ "The people of Medîna were pledged only to defend the Prophet from attack, not to join him in any aggressive steps against the Coreish." Muir's Life of Mahomet, Vol. III, p. 64.
* ↑ Bokharee relates from Obada-bin Sámat with the usual chain of narrators, that "I am one of the Nakeebs who pledged to the Prophet. We pledged that we will not join any other god with the God, and will not commit theft, and will not commit fornication, and will not commit murder, and will not plunder." Saheeh of Bokharee, Book of Campaigns, chapter on Deputations from Ansárs.
# A Critical Exposition of the Popular 'Jihád'/Chapter 9/45

[Sidenote: 45. Mr. Poole quoted.]
Before reviewing the truth and falsity of evidence in each of these cases, and showing how far the Prophet was privy to them, I will avail myself of a quotation from Mr. Stanley Lane Poole, who has remarked with his usual deep discernment and accurate judgment, in his Introduction to Mr. E.W. Lane's Selections from the Koran:
"The execution of the half-dozen marked Jews is generally called assassination, because a Muslim was sent secretly to kill each of the criminals. The reason is almost too obvious to need explanation. There were no police or law-courts, or even courts-martial, at Medina; some one of the followers of Mohammad must therefore be the executer of the sentence of death, and it was better it should be done quietly, as the executing of a man openly before his clan would have caused a brawl and more bloodshed and retaliation, till the whole city had become mixed up in the quarrel. If secret assassination is the word for such deeds, secret assassination was a necessary part of the internal government of Medina. The men must be killed, and best in that way. In saying this I assume that Mohammad was cognisant of the deed, and that it was not merely a case of private vengeance; but in several instances the evidence that traces these executions to Mohammad's order is either entirely wanting or is too doubtful to claim our credence."

## Footnotes

* ↑ Selections from the Kur-án by Edward William Lane, with an Introduction by Stanley Lane Poole. Intro., p. xliv: Trübner & Co., London, 1879.
# A Complete Collection of the English Poems which have obtained the Chancellor's Gold Medal in the University of Cambridge/Australasia

AUSTRALASIA,
BY
WINTHROP MACKWORTH PRAED,
OF TRINITY COLLEGE.
1823.
* ↑ This sketch of the death of a New Zealander, and of the superstition which prevents the offering of any consolation or assistance, under the idea that a sick man is under the immediate influence of the Deity, is taken from the narrative of the death of Duaterra, a friendly chieftain, recorded by Mr. Nicholas, vol. ii. p. 181.
* ↑ From the coast of Australasia the last despatches of La Peyrouse were dated.—Vid. Quarterly Review for Feb. 1810.
# A Complete Course in Dressmaking

* Lesson I: Introduction
* Lesson II: Aprons and House Dresses
* Lesson III: Underwear
* Lesson IV: Blouses
* Lesson V: Skirts
* Lesson VI: Dresses
* Lesson VII: Coats
* Lesson VIII: Draping and Pattern Making
* Lesson IX: Infants' Clothes
* Lesson X: Children's Clothes
* Lesson XI: Boy's Clothes
* Lesson XII: Men's Clothes and Index
This work is in the public domain in the United States because it was published before January 1, 1929.
The longest-living author of this work died in 1968, so this work is in the public domain in countries and areas where the copyright term is the author's life plus 55 years or less. This work may be in the public domain in countries and areas with longer native copyright terms that apply the rule of the shorter term to foreign works.
Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse
# A Complete Collection of the English Poems which have obtained the Chancellor's Gold Medal in the University of Cambridge/Athens

ATHENS,
BY
WINTHROP MACKWORTH PRAED,
OF TRINITY COLLEGE.
1824.
NOTE.
Several images in the early part of the poem are selected from passages in the Greek Tragedians,—particularly from the two well known Choruses in the Œdipus Coloneus and the Medea.
The death of Lord Byron took place after the day appointed for the sending in of the exercises; and the allusion to it has, of course, been introduced subsequent to the adjudication of the prize.
# A Complete Collection of the English Poems which have obtained the Chancellor's Gold Medal in the University of Cambridge/Bannockburn

BANNOCKBURN,
BY CHARLES SANGSTER, SCHOLAR OF ST. JOHN'S COLLEGE.
1839.
"From scenes like these old Scotia's grandeur springs."—Burns.
# A Complete Collection of the English Poems which have obtained the Chancellor's Gold Medal in the University of Cambridge/Timbuctoo

First published as 'Timbuctoo: A Poem (in blank verse) which obtained the Chancellor's Gold Medal at the Cambridge Commencement, by A. Tennyson, Trinity College' in Prolusiones Academicæ (1829). In common with all reprints of the original, “ravish’d sense” is misprinted “lavish'd sense ”; the correct reading is only to be found in the first edition. The poem was never reprinted by the author; but three or four scattered lines of it appear in the “Ode to Memory” (1830) and in “The Lover’s Tale” (1833). [Based on The Bibliography of Tennyson (1896), by Richard Herne Shepherd, pp.4-5].
TIMBUCTOO,
BY A. TENNYSON, OF TRINITY COLLEGE.
1829.
# A Complete Collection of the English Poems which have obtained the Chancellor's Gold Medal in the University of Cambridge/Waterloo

WATERLOO,
BY
George Erving Scott,
OF TRINITY HALL,
1820.
$\scriptstyle {\left.{\begin{matrix}\ \\\\\ \ \end{matrix}}\right\}\,$
* ↑ The battle of Rocroi, on the eve of which, according to Voltaire (Siécle de Louis XIV.), the Prince, having made all his dispositions, slept so soundly, that they were obliged to awaken him for the engagement.
* ↑ This epithet can, of course, only refer to the use made of the weapon by the French against the wounded and helpless.
# A Complete Collection of the English Poems which have obtained the Chancellor's Gold Medal in the University of Cambridge/Boadicea

BOADICEA,
BY
WILLIAM WHEWELL, Of Trinity College.
1814.
# A Complete Course in Dressmaking/Lesson 1

A COMPLETE COURSE IN
DRESSMAKING
BY
ISABEL DeNYSE CONOVER
LESSON I
INTRODUCTION
NEW YORK
EDWARD J. CLODE
COPYRIGHT, 1921, 1922, BY EDWARD J. CLODE
Entered at Stationers’ Hall
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
* What does style mean to you?
* Clothes etiquette: clothes that suit the place and the season
* Correct mourning
* How to use your fashion magazines
* What is your type?
* Becoming colors
* Combining colors
* Your sewing machine
* Regulating the tensions
* Proper thread and needles
* Sewing machine attachments
* Hand sewing
* Seams and their uses
* How to take measurements
* Sewing equipment
* How to study
* Test questions
Layout 2
This work is in the public domain in the United States because it was published before January 1, 1929.
The longest-living author of this work died in 1968, so this work is in the public domain in countries and areas where the copyright term is the author's life plus 55 years or less. This work may be in the public domain in countries and areas with longer native copyright terms that apply the rule of the shorter term to foreign works.
Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse
# A Dictionary of Music and Musicians/Amicis, Dominico de'

From volume 1 of the work.
[ J. M. ]
# A Dictionary of Music and Musicians/Ambros, August

From volume 1 of the work.
[ E. D. ]
# A Dictionary of Music and Musicians/Amicis, Anna de

From volume 1 of the work.
[ J. M. ]
# A Dictionary of Music and Musicians/Amilie

From volume 1 of the work.
​AMILIE, OR THE LOVE TEST, a romantic opera in three acts, words by J. T. Haines, music by W. M. Rooke. Produced at Covent Garden Theatre Dec. 2, 1837, and ran for more than twenty nights.
# A Dictionary of Music and Musicians/Amner, John

From volume 1 of the work.
[ E. F. R. ]
# A Dictionary of Music and Musicians/Ambrogetti, Giuseppe

From volume 1 of the work.
[ J. M. ]
# A Dictionary of Music and Musicians/Amen

From volume 1 of the work.
[ G. ]
# A Dictionary of Music and Musicians/Amner, Ralph

From volume 1 of the work.
[ E. F. R. ]
# A Dictionary of Music and Musicians/Ambrosian Chant

From volume 1 of the work.
​AMBROSIAN CHANT. The ecclesiastical mode of saying and singing Divine Service, set in order by St. Ambrose for the cathedral church of Milan about A.D. 384. We have little historical information as to its peculiarities. That it was highly impressive we learn from the well-known passage in St. Augustine's 'Confessions,' book ix. chap. 6.
It has been stated without proof, and repeated by writer after writer on the subject, that St. Ambrose took only the four 'authentic' Greek modes, being the first, third, fifth, and seventh of the eight commonly called the Gregorian ​Tones, from being all used in the revision of the Roman Antiphonarium by St. Gregory the Great at a subsequent date (A.D. 590). But St. Ambrose's own statement in his letter to his sister St. Marcelina is merely that he wished to take upon himself the task of regulating the tonality and the mode of execution of the hymns, psalms, and antiphons that were sung in the church he had built at Milan. It must be confessed that we really know little or nothing of the system and structure of the Ambrosian melodies, and no existing records show anything essentially different from Gregorian plainsong.
The subject of Byrd's anthem 'Bow Thine ear, Lord,' originally written to the words ' Ne irascaris domine,'
has always been quoted, since Dr. Crotch published his 'Specimens,' as a portion of the plainsong of St. Ambrose. A comparison of the liturgical text and ritual of Milan and Rome shows a different setting of the musical portions of the mass, as well as many variations in rubrics and in the order and appropriation of various portions to the celebrant and assistants, in the two uses. Thus the 'Gloria in excelsis' precedes the Kyrie in the Milan and follows it in the Roman Mass. The setting of the intonation of this, as taken from the missals of the two, may be here given as a specimen of the differences in the plainsong.
Roman.
Milanese.
These intonations of the Creed
Roman.
Milanese.
will also serve to show the kind of difference still discernible in the two rites.
But the principal boon bestowed on the Church by St. Ambrose was the beautiful rhythmical hymns with which he enriched the musical service of Milan Cathedral. Many hymns are called Ambrosian because written after his manner; but some ten of the ancient hymns are from his own pen, among which may be mentioned 'Veni Redemptor Gentium' and 'Eterna Christi munera' (Hymnal Noted, Nos. 12, 36).
[ T. H. ]
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Aird, Sir John

See also Sir John Aird, 1st Baronet on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​AIRD, SIR JOHN, 1st. Bart (1833-1911), British engineer, was born in London Dec. 3 1833, the only child of John Aird, contractor for gas and water plant. He joined his father's business at 18, and was entrusted with the removal of the Crystal Palace buildings from Hyde Park and their reerection at Sydenham. He took part in many enterprises at home and abroad, such as the Hampton and Staines reservoirs, the waterworks of Amsterdam, Copenhagen, Moscow, Bahia, Para, Calcutta, Simla and Berlin, and later (in the joint firm of Lucas & Aird, afterwards John Aird & Co.) the St. John's Wood railway, the Hull & Barnsley railway and docks, the W. Highland railway and the great Assuan dam across the Nile. He represented N. Paddington in Parliament as a Unionist from 1887 to 1005, and was its first mayor in 1900. In 1901 he was created a baronet. He made a fine collection of pictures by British painters, the illustrated catalogue to which was printed in 1884. He died at Beaconsfield, Bucks., Jan. 6 1911.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Akhwan Movement

See also Ikhwan on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
AKHWAN MOVEMENT, a religious revival or reform, confined mostly to the Nejd districts of Arabia. The term akhwan, or ikhwan, signifies “brethren,” and the tenets of the brotherhood are those of Wahabism revived and intensified (see 28.245). The movement, recognized by Ibn Sa'ud, Emir of Nejd, had taken definite shape after 1910; and in 1921 it still seemed likely to have far-reaching effects upon the attitude of the people of Central Arabia towards other Arabian communities and even to the outer world.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ainley, Henry

See also Henry Ainley on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​AINLEY, HENRY (1879- ), English actor, was born at Leeds Aug. 21 1879, and was educated for business; but a meeting with George Alexander and an engagement for a "walking-on" part turned his thoughts to the stage, and he joined F. R. Benson's touring company for two years. He then appeared at the Lyceum theatre, London, in 1900 as Gloucester in Henry V., and in 1902 at the St. James's theatre as Paolo in Stephen Phillips's Paolo and Francesco. He played Orlando in As You Like It both at the Comedy theatre in 1906 and at His Majesty's theatre in 1907. In 1910 he appeared there again in many Shakespearean parts, and in 1914 he played Leontes and Malvolio in Granville Barker's production of The Winter's Tale and Twelfth Night at the Savoy theatre. After serving during the World War he began management at the St. James's theatre with Tolstoy's Reparation in 1919, following it up by a production of Julius Caesar early in 1920. In 1921 he played Prospero in The Tempest at the Aldwych theatre, and John Beal in Lord Dunsany's If.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Aitken, John

See also John Aitken (meteorologist) on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
AITKEN, JOHN (1839–1919), British physicist, was born at Falkirk Sept. 18 1839. He was educated at Falkirk grammar school and Glasgow University, and trained as marine engineer at R. Napier & Sons, Glasgow. He lived at Falkirk, where he carried out his great experiments on atmospheric dust in relation to the formation of clouds and mists (1882), on the formation of dew (1885, see 8.136) and on the laws of cyclones (1891). His instrument for counting the dust particles in the air (see 8.714, 18.279) has been utilized in principle by many later workers. He also invented new forms of thermometer screens and powerfully aided the development of meteorology. He was elected F.R.S. in 1889 and was awarded the Royal medal in 1917. He also received the Keith medal (1886) and Gunning prize (1897) from the Royal Society of Edinburgh, in whose Transactions and Proceedings most of his valuable contributions were published. He died at Falkirk Nov. 14 1919.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Albert, Duke of Württemberg

See also Albrecht, Duke of Württemberg on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
ALBERT, DUKE OF WÜRTTEMBERG (1865-), German general, the son of Duke Philip of Württemberg, was born in Vienna on Dec. 23 1865. As the King and Queen of Württemberg had no male heir, he was as nearest agnate the heir presumptive to the Württemberg throne. He passed through the different grades of a military career and was appointed general in command of the XI. Army Corps at Cassel in 1906 and in 1908 was entrusted with the command of the Württemberg Army Corps. In 1913 he was advanced to the rank of Generaloberst (colonel-general, immediately below field-marshal) and was appointed Inspector-General of the 6th Army Inspection. At the outbreak of the World War he took over the leadership of the 4th Army on the western front, was advanced to the rank of field-marshal-general in 1916 and appointed chief-in-command of the group of armies on the front in Alsace-Lorraine, which fought under his leadership till the end of the war. Since then he has lived as a private citizen on his Württemberg estates. He married in 1902 the late Archduchess Margarete Sophie of Austria, the sister of the Archduke Francis Ferdinand who was assassinated at Sarajevo.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Alexeyev, Mikail

See also Mikhail Alekseyev on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​ALEXEYEV, MIKAIL (1857–1918), Russian general, was born in 1857, and entered the army in 1876. He completed his studies at the General Staff College in 1890, and joined the Russian General Staff. In 1904 he became a general. He took part in the war with Turkey in 1877–8. During the Russo-Japanese War he was the director of the operations on the staff of the II. Army. After further staff service he became in 1912 commander of the XIII. Army Corps. At the outbreak of the World War he was nominated chief of the staff of the south-western front. The first operations were skilfully carried on by him, and the great Russian victory in Galicia in 1914 was his work. In March 1915 he was called to command the group of armies of the north-western front. A stupendous task awaited him here; eight armies were confided to him, but these masses were destitute of all means of combat. The events in Galicia in April 1915 had their repercussion further north, where the position became desperate, and the army seemed lost. But by the end of Aug. the armies ​were saved, thanks to the energy and ability of their commander. In Aug. 1915 he was nominated chief of the headquarters of the supreme command, and worked there with the Emperor, who had just assumed the supreme command. He served in this capacity during the successful campaign of 1916, until in Nov. a breakdown, of health compelled him to give up his office. After the revolution of March 1917 he became commander-in-chief, but in May 1917 he was dismissed. Recalled by Kerensky in Sept. he remained at headquarters only 12 days in order to exercise a steadying influence during the conflict between Kornilov and Kerensky, and then left, being unable to work with men who he considered had brought misfortune and shame on his country. At the commencement of the Bolshevik regime he went to the south of Russia, where he soon became the leader of the "Volunteer Army," and took the field against the Bolsheviks. He died of heart disease Oct. 10 1918.