OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# The New Student's Reference Work/Nymphs

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Nymphs, of Greek mythology, were the female divinities of the lower rank, inhabiting the seas, streams, groves, meadows and pastures, caves, fountains, hills and trees. Of their different classes were Oceanides, nymphs of the great sea; Nereids, of the inner sea; Potameides, of the rivers; Naiads, of fountains, brooks, lakes and wells, and Dryads, of the trees and forests, who were supposed to die with the trees in which they lived. They were the goddesses of moisture, had power of prophecy, and guarded the nourishment and growth of infants. Many of the most beautiful Grecian sculptures are those of nymphs.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Nuthatch

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Nut′hatch, a small creeping bird seen running up and down the trunks of trees, getting its name from its habit of hatching open nuts it has previously wedged in the bark of trees. It is wonderfully nimble, an expert gymnast, finding it no trouble at all to walk along a limb head downward. It has a rather slender, strong straight bill, its sharp claws are well adapted for holding to the bark, the tail is short and square, and is not used in climbing. Its plumage is slate-colored and smooth, not fluffy like its cousin, the chickadee’s. It is seen chiefly in winter, during nesting season seeking seclusion. The white-breasted nuthatch is a common winter bird in the eastern part of the country, its cheerful “Yank! yank! hank! hank!” welcome in the winter stillness; also welcome is the industry and success of its hunting for insect-eggs and larvæ. Other food to its liking, are nuts and seeds. It is frequently seen in friendly association with the titmice. Its slate-colored coat is relieved by black on top of the head and on the wings; its tail is rusty black touched with white; sides of head and under parts white. In the spring it retreats to the deep woods, patiently digs out a hole on a dead limb, lines this hole with feathers and other soft material, making a snug nest for the many white eggs — five to eight, sometimes 10. The red-breasted nuthatch is smaller than the preceding, and is more northerly in its range, nesting from Maine northward and in the mountains farther south.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Nyasaland

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Nyasaland (nē-äs′ sä-lănd), the name given to a British Central Africa protectorate, the country lying immediately south, west and northwest of Lake Nyasa, in East Africa. Its area is 40,980 square miles, population about 1,000,000 natives and nearly 700 Europeans. It has no outside boundaries, but is the region in which the African Lakes company of Glasgow operates in connection with the missionaries of the Church of Scotland, with principal stations at Blantyre and Bandawe. Nine missions are at work, and over 60,000 natives are at school. The company and mission stations were founded on the recommendation of Dr. Livingstone to check the Arab slave trade. It is now under the administration of the British foreign office, by a resident commissioner. Its products are rice, coffee, rubber, ivory and cotton. The capital is Zomba. Some trouble was caused in 1888–90 by the claim of sovereignty made by Portugal; but the sphere of the Portuguese Nyasa company, with a charter from the Portuguese crown, is the region between the Rovuma, Lake Nyasa and the Lurio. There are steamers on the lake and on Shiré River, two railways, telegraphs and 23 postoffices. See Central Africa Protectorate.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Nîmes

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Nîmes (nēm), the capital of Gard, a French department, lies in the valley of the Cevennes. It has narrow, crooked streets, and its principal interest lies in the Roman remains; there being the Corinthian Maison Carrée, now a museum; an amphitheatre seating 20,000; a mausoleum, baths and two gates. The city is the seat of large manufactories of silk, cotton, carpets, shawls, wine, brandy etc. Nimes was settled from Marseilles and became one of the great cities of Gaul. It was in the hands of the Visigoths (465), Franks (507) and Saracens (725); then it belonged to Aragon; but finally it came into the possession of France in 1259 by the treaty of Corbeil. Population 80,605.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Nyasa

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Nyas′a or Nyanja, the most southern of the great East African lakes, is 260 miles from Tanganyika and 400 miles from the east coast. It is 1,570 feet above sea level, very deep, rapidly descending from its high and rocky shores, and measures about 350 miles long by 40 miles broad from east to west. It was known by the Portuguese as Maravi in the 17th century, but was first navigated by Livingstone, and its situation exactly determined in 1859.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Nutrition

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Nutri′tion (in plants), the processes by which food is obtained and utilized. Plants obtain their food (which see) in two ways, by absorption and by manufacture. With a few exceptions, plants which obtain their food ready-made are unable to engulf it and must take it into the body in solution. (See Absorption.) If insoluble in water, they must first digest it. (See Digestion.) All prepared food is derived directly or indirectly from other organisms. A few plants capture small insects for the sake of the food derived from their bodies. Parasites, that is, creatures growing on or in a living being (called, therefore, the host), derive their food directly from it; saprophytes in a similar way obtain their food from a dead organism. There is every possible gradation between parasites and saprophytes; and between saprophytes and green plants, which are able to make all of their food out of inorganic material. Yet many green plants absorb organic matter, i. e., matter once a part of a living being; this is the reason for applying fertilizers and manures to gardens and fields. Many, perhaps all, colorless plants can make the most complex foods (proteids), provided simpler foods and necessary salts are supplied. Only green plants, however, and of these only the green parts, can make carbohydrate foods, like sugars, starch and the like, out of carbon dioxide and water. (See Photosynthesis.) When these foods have been formed in sufficient amount, the green plants can also produce proteids. Most plants make more food than they require. Reserve food is stored, usually in solid form, in special tissues. These storage regions have been greatly improved by cultivation, the common vegetables (seeds, tubers, bulbs, roots, leaves, and even flower buds) being the product of proper breeding and of growing the plants under unusually favorable conditions for nutrition. In its broadest sense, nutrition includes the use of foods in assimilation, respiration and growth. These topics are separately treated. In the course of the chemical processes of nutrition (see Metabolism) a great variety of waste products arise, such as gums, resins, volatile oils, tannins, alkaloids etc. These the plant secretes and removes them thus from its general metabolism. See Secretion.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Nymph

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Nymph (nĭmf), young of insects that undergo only incomplete metamorphosis, do not show marked change of form save in gradual growth of wings; as the young of crickets, grasshoppers, locusts and bugs. See Metamorphosis.
# The New Student's Reference Work/O

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O, the fifteenth letter, is a vowel, and represents seven sounds. It is produced through the rounded lips, and is therefore classified as the labial vowel. Its principal sounds are the long one in bone and the short one in nod. Variants of these are heard in orb, son, do (food) and wolf (book). With other vowels it forms diagraphs and diphthongs. Anciently it was a numeral (11) as well as a letter, O with a bar over it being 11,000. O’ with an apostrophe after it in Irish names is a prefix meaning son of as O’Connell, son of Connell.
# The New Student's Reference Work/G

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G (jē), the seventh letter, is a vocal consonant. It represents two sounds: one simple, as in gave, the other compound, like that of j, as in gin. The first is a guttural, its place being the soft palate and the back of the tongue. The simple sound is called hard g, the compound one soft g. Hard g occurs before a, l, o, r, s or u in the same syllable; at the end of a word; sometimes even before e, I or y. Examples: gay, glad, go, grow, bags and gun; berg; and get, gig and muggy. Soft g usually occurs before e, i or y and in gaol. Examples: gem, engine and stingy. G is silent before final m or n, as in phlegm and sign. So is initial g before n, as in gnostic. In some words, from the French, g equals z, as rouge, G's name and shape, a modified C, come from Latin, probably through French.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Gadski, Johanna

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Gadski (găd' skē), Johanna, German opera singer, born at Anclam, Prussia, 1871. After receiving a musical education at Stettin, she made her début in New York, taking the rôle of Brünhilde in Wagner's opera. She is popular as a singer in England, having sung at Worcester Festival and at Covent Garden. She was enthusiastically received in America during her concert tour in 1899–00 and her reputation has increased in later years. She is particularly successful in her rendering of Wagner.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Fusiyama

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​Fusiyama or Fujiyama (fo͞o′jē̇ -yä′mȧ), a sacred volcano, the loftiest mountain of Japan, stands on the main island, about 60 miles southwest of Tokio. It rises some 12,200 feet above the sea, with a crater 500 feet deep. Its last eruption was in 1707. The cone is free from snow only from July to September, when thousands of white-robed Buddhist pilgrims make the ascent easily enough. A traveler visiting Japan was asked: “Have you seen it?” “What?” he said. “Oh, it; when you see it, you will know it.” And one day when the clouds that had been covering the sky broke away, he saw high up in the heavens the snow-capped peak of Fujiyama, looking like a fairy castle floating on a bank of clouds, and exclaimed, with as much enthusiasm as the Japanese themselves: “Oh! I've seen it! I've seen it!”
# The New Student's Reference Work/Gage, Lyman Judson

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Gage, Lyman Judson, American financier and secretary of the treasury in the McKinley administration, was born at De Ruyter, Madison County, N. Y., on June 28, 1836, and was educated at the academy, Rome, N. Y. For a time he had a junior post in an Oneida bank; but in 1855 he went to Chicago, where he became cashier in the Merchants’ Loan and Trust Company, and in 1868, entering the service of the First National Bank, he rose to be president of the institution. During the Columbian Exposition he acted as president of the board of directors, and has since been president of the Chicago Bankers’ Club, the American Bankers’ Association and of the Civic Federation of Chicago. In March, 1897, he became secretary of the United States treasury, but resigned in 1902. He resides in New York.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Gaines Mill, Battle of

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Gaines Mill, Battle of, one of the famous seven days' battles of McClellan's Peninsular campaign. McClellan had crossed the Chickahominy with a part of his army, leaving Gen. Fitz-John Porter with 35,000 men on the north bank. Here Porter was attacked on June 27, 1862, by the Confederate army, 55,000 strong, under Generals Lee and Stonewall Jackson. After hard fighting all day, the Federals were driven back, and the advantage rested with the Confederates, though the result was not decisive. Porter's loss was nearly 7,000 in killed, wounded and prisoners. The locality is about eight miles northeast of Richmond, Va.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Galahad, Sir

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​Galahad, Sir, in the Arthurian romances, the noblest and purest knight of the Round Table. He was the son of Sir Launcelot of King Arthur's court by marriage with Elaine, the fair daughter of King Pelles, and achieved the honor of winning the Holy Grail, in the quest of which his father and the other knights had failed. The meaning is that Sir Galahad, according to the legend, had been permitted by his sanctity to see the Holy Grail (Sangraal); that is, that he saw not by the eye of faith merely but with his bodily eyes, and touched with his hands the incarnate Savior, reproduced by the consecration of the elements of bread and wine. He therefore takes the "seat perilous" at the banquet of King Arthur and his knights, and becomes king of the Holy City. See Malory's romance of Morte d'Arthur and Tennyson's lyric of Sir Galahad, his Elaine and the Holy Grail in the Idylls of the King.
Sir Galahad—Watts
His strength was as the strength of ten, Because his heart was pure.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Gadsden Purchase

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Gadsden Purchase, a name given to that part of New Mexico and Arizona which was purchased from Mexico by Gen. James Gadsden for the United States on Dec. 30, 1853. The sum of $10,000,000 was paid for the territory, which included an area of 45,535 square miles.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Gainsborough, Thomas

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Gainsborough, Thomas, a noted English landscape-painter, was born in Suffolk, in 1727. When fourteen, he was sent to London to study art. He first established himself in Ipswich, later at Bath and finally at London. He was one of the foundation-members of the Royal Academy in 1768. He died on Aug. 2, 1788. As a portrait-painter he was the only worthy rival of the great Reynolds. In landscape-painting he reached a high rank. See Brock-Arnold's Gainsborough and Constable.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Gabun

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Gabun. See French Congo.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Gainesville, Texas

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Gainesville, Texas, city and county-seat of Cooke County, sixty-five miles north of Fort Worth. It is important as the center of a stock-raising and agricultural region. Its industries include pressed-brick works, carriage and leather-factories, cotton seed-oil and flour-mills, soap-factories and meat-packing establishments. The city has good schools, several churches and the service of two railroads. Population 7,624.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Putnam, Rufus

Edition of 1905. See also Rufus Putnam on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
PUTNAM, Rufus (1738-1824). An American soldier. He was born in Sutton, Mass.; was a millwright's apprentice there from 1754 to 1757; enlisted as a private soldier for service in the French and Indian War in 1757; and became an orderly sergeant in 1759 and an ensign in 1760. While an apprentice he studied diligently during his leisure hours, gaining a fair knowledge of mathematics and history, and after 1760 devoted himself to the study of surveying, in which he soon became markedly proficient. He entered the Continental Army as lieutenant-colonel in May, 1775, planned the defenses at Roxbury, and in August, 1776, was appointed chief engineer of the army with the rank of colonel. Preferring field service, however, he was placed in command of a Massachusetts regiment in November, and in 1777 served with great gallantry in the campaign against Burgoyne. In 1779 he aided his cousin, Israel Putnam, in completing the West Point fortifications, and in 1783 was made brigadier-general. He was a member for several terms of the Massachusetts Legislature, and during Shays's Rebellion was General Lincoln's aide. In 1786 he, with Gen. Benjamin Tupper, organized a company, composed of officers and soldiers of the Revolutionary War, to form a settlement in what is now Ohio. He was one of three directors appointed by this company (the Ohio Company) in 1787 to secure a tract of land from Congress, and, chiefly through his efforts, 1,500,000 acres were obtained at 66 2-3 cents per acre. This tract was located at the junction of the Ohio and Muskingum rivers, whither in 1788 Putnam led the first party of settlers, laying out Marietta (q.v.), the first organized settlement in the Northwest Territory. He was one of the judges of the United States Court in the Northwest Territory from 1790 to 1796, concluded an important treaty with the Indians at Vincennes, Ind., in 1792, was Surveyor-General of the United States from 1796 to 1803, and was a member of the Ohio constitutional convention in 1802. In 1812 he organized the first Bible society west of the Alleghanies. His manuscript diary, an interesting document, has been preserved. There is an autobiography, written in 1812 and also in manuscript, deposited in the college library, Marietta, Ohio. Consult: Journal of General Rufus Putnam, 1757-60 (Albany, 1886); also Cone, Life of Rufus Putnam (Cleveland, 1886).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Puttkamer, Robert Viktor von

Edition of 1905. See also Robert von Puttkamer on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
PUTTKAMER, pụt'kȧ-mẽr, Robert Viktor von (1828-1900). A Prussian statesman, born at Frankfort-on-the-Oder. He studied in 1846-50 at Heidelberg, Geneva, and Berlin, entered the Government service in 1854, and became Regierungspräsident (president of an administrative district) at Gumbinnen in 1871, and at Metz in 1874. In 1873 he was elected to the Reichstag, where he was prominent as a strong Conservative, in 1877 became chief president of the Province of Silesia, and in 1879 Minister of Education and Public Worship. He took measures against the undenominational schools, and made concessions to the orthodox Evangelicals. In 1881 he was appointed Minister of the Interior and vice-president of the Ministry. His conservative administration, and particularly the methods employed by him in favoring the election of Government candidates, was attacked by the Radicals, notably in a speech by Eugen Richter, and disapproved by Frederick III. upon the latter's accession. He therefore resigned (1888), and held no other office until his appointment as chief president of Pomerania by William II. in 1891.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Putnam, George Palmer

Edition of 1905. See also George Palmer Putnam and George Haven Putnam on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
PUTNAM, George Palmer (1814-72). A grandnephew of Israel Putnam, and a New York publisher. He was born in Brunswick, Me., February 7, 1814. At fourteen he entered the bookstore of D. and J. Leavitt, New York. In 1840 he became partner in the house of Wiley & Putnam, of which he established a London branch in 1841. In 1848 he returned to New York and founded the publishing house which later became the firm of G. P. Putnam's Sons. Bookmaking interested him as an art from the beginning. In 1852, with the aid of George William Curtis, he established Putnam's Magazine (discontinued in 1857, revived 1860-70). In 1861 he organized the Loyal Publication Society, suspended his business for three years (1863-66)
to become United States Collector of Internal Revenue, and then refounded his publishing house in conjunction with his sons, George Haven and John Bishop. He was a founder of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, of which he was made honorary superintendent in 1872. He was also Chairman of the Committee on Art at the Vienna Universal Exposition. He died in New York City December 20, 1872. Putnam was the author, among other works, of: Chronology, or an Introduction and Index to Universal History, Biography, and Useful Knowledge (1833); American Book Circular with Notes and Statistics (1843); American Facts, Notes and Statistics Relative to the Government of the United States (1845); The World's Progress — a Dictionary of Dates (1850), and a supplement to this work (1861). His son, George Haven (1844—), was born in London and was educated in New York City, at the Sorbonne, and in Göttingen. He served in the Union Army during the Civil War, and rose to the rank of brevet major. Like his father, he took an ardent interest in copyright law, becoming secretary of the American Publishers' Copyright League in 1887. His publications include: Authors and Publishers (1882, with J. Bishop Putnam); Question of Copyright (1891); The Artificial Mother (1894); and Books and Their Makers in the Middle Ages (1896). To Mason and Lalor's Political Encjiclopcedia he contributed a valuable paper on “Literary Property.”
# The New International Encyclopædia/Pyra, Immanuel Jakob

Edition of 1905. See also Jakob Immanuel Pyra on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
PYRA, pẽ'rȧ, Immanuel Jakob (1715-44). A German poet. He was born in Kottbus, studied theology at Halle, where he joined Lange's Dichterbund, and with Lange lived at Laublingen. The two poets published Freundschaftliche Lieder (1746), which, with their delight in friendship and their unrhymed verse, foretell Klopstock. Pyra boldly, and rather pedantically, attacked Gottsched in 1736 with Erweis dass die Gottschedianische Sekte den Geschmack verderbe (1743), and his premature death was partly due to the bitter personalities with which the attack was returned. Consult Wanick, Immanuel Pyra (Leipzig, 1882).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Pátzcuaro

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PÁTZCUARO, päts'kwȧ-rṓ. A town of Mexico in the State of Michoacán, situated on the south shore of the beautiful Lake Pátzcuaro, 38 miles southwest of Morelia (Map: Mexico, H 8). It is irregularly built, with narrow, crooked streets, but is very picturesque in appearance, being surmounted by a church built on the top of a high hill. It is noted for the manufacture of fine furniture and beautiful featherwork. Population, in 1895, 7082. Pátzcuaro is supposed to have been the ancient capital of the Tarasca Indians.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Putnam, Herbert

Edition of 1905. See also Herbert Putnam on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
PUTNAM, Herbert (1861—). An American lawyer and librarian, born in New York City. He graduated at Harvard in 1883, studied for a time in the Columbia Law School, and in 1886 was admitted to the Minnesota bar. He was librarian of the Minneapolis Athenæum from 1884 to 1887 and of the Minneapolis Public Library from 1887 to 1891; practiced law in Boston from 1892 to 1895; and was librarian of the Boston Public Library from 1895 to 1899, when he became librarian of Congress. In 1898 he was president of the American Library Association.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Puttenham, George

Edition of 1905. See also George Puttenham on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
PUT'TENHAM, George (?-c.1590). The reputed author of a treatise entitled The Arte of English Poesie, contrived into three bookes; the first of Poets and Poesie, the second of Proportion, the third of Ornament (1589). The work has also been claimed for his elder brother, Richard Puttenheim (c.1520-c.1601). It was issued anonymously. In his dedication to Lord Burghley, the publisher asserted that he had received the book without the name of the author. In his Hypercritica (1618), Edmund Bolton said that common fame ascribed the work to “one of the Queen's gentlemen pensioners, Puttenham.” Internal evidence points to one of the brothers as the author; but whether George or Richard is uncertain. The book is the most solid of all the early treatises on poetry in English. Consult the reprint by Edward Arber (London, 1869).