OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Murphy, Arthur

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​MURPHY, ARTHUR (1727–1805), Irish actor and dramatist, son of a Dublin merchant, was born at Clomquin, Roscommon, on the 27th of December 1727. From 1738 to 1744, under the name of Arthur French, he was a student at the English college at St Omer. He entered the counting-house of a merchant at Cork on recommendation of his uncle, Jeffery French, in 1747. A refusal to go to Jamaica alienated French’s interest, and Murphy exchanged his situation for one in London. By the autumn of 1752 he was publishing the Gray’s Inn Journal, a periodical in the style of the Spectator. Two years later he became an actor, and appeared in the title-rôles of Richard III. and Othello; as Biron in Southerne’s Fatal Marriage; and as Osmyn in Congreve’s Mourning Bride. His first farce, The Apprentice, was given at Drury Lane on the 2nd of January 1756. It was followed, among other plays, by The Upholsterer (1757), The Orphan of China (1759), The Way to Keep Him (1760), All in the Wrong (1761), The Grecian Daughter (1772), and Know Your Own Mind (1777). These were almost all adaptations from the French, and were very successful, securing for their author both fame and wealth. Murphy edited a political periodical, called the Test, in support of Henry Fox, by whose influence he was called to the bar at Lincoln’s Inn, although he had been refused at the Middle Temple in 1757 on account of his connexion with the stage. Murphy also wrote a biography of Fielding, an essay on the life and genius of Samuel Johnson and translations of Sallust and Tacitus. Towards the close of his life the office of a commissioner of bankrupts and a pension of £200 were conferred upon him by government. He died on the 18th of June 1805.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Murphy, Robert

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​MURPHY, ROBERT (1806–1843), British mathematician, the son of a poor shoemaker, was born at Mallow, in Ireland, in 1806. At the age of thirteen, while working as an apprentice in his father’s shop, he became known to certain gentlemen in the neighbourhood as a self-taught mathematician. Through their exertions, after attending a classical school in his native town, he was admitted to Caius College, Cambridge, in 1825. Third Wrangler in 1829, he was elected in the same year a fellow of his college. A course of dissipation led him into debt; his fellowship was sequestered for the benefit of his creditors, and he was obliged to leave Cambridge in December 1832, After living for some time with his relations in Ireland, he repaired to London in 1836, a penniless literary adventurer. In 1838 he became examiner in mathematics and physics at London University. He had already contributed several mathematical papers to the Cambridge Philosophical Transactions (1831–1836), Philosophical Magazine (1833–1842), and the Philosophical Transactions (1837), and had published Elementary Principles of the Theories of Electricity (1833). He now wrote for the “Library of Useful Knowledge” a Treatise on the Theory of Algebraical Equations (1839). He died on the 12th of March 1843.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Murger, Henry

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​MURGER, HENRY (1822–1861), French man of letters, was born in Paris on the 24th of March 1822. His father was a German concierge and a tailor. At the age of fifteen Murger was sent into a lawyer’s office, but the occupation was uncongenial and his father’s trade still more so; and he became secretary to Count Alexei Tolstoi. He published in 1843 a poem entitled Via dolorosa, but it made no mark. He also tried journalism, and the paper Le Castor, which figures in his Vie de Bohême as having combined devotion to the interests of the hat trade with recondite philosophy and elegant literature, is said to have existed, though short lived. In 1848 appeared the collected sketches called Scènes de la vie de Bohême. This book describes the fortunes and misfortunes, the loves, studies, amusements and sufferings of a group of impecunious students, artists and ​men of letters, of whom Rodolphe represents Murger himself, while the others have been more or less positively identified. Murger, in fact, belonged to a clique of so-called Bohemians, the most remarkable of whom, besides himself, were Privat d’Anglemont and Champfleury. La Vie de Bohême, arranged for the stage in collaboration with Théodore Barrière, was produced at the Variétés on the 22nd of November 1849, and was a triumphant success; it afterwards formed the basis of Puccini’s opera, La Bohême (1898). From this time it was easy for Murger to live by journalism and general literature. He was introduced in 1851 to the Revue des deux mondes. But he was a slow, fastidious and capricious worker, and his years of hardship and dissipation had impaired his health. He published among other works Claude et Marianne in 1851; a comedy, Le Bonhomme Jadis in 1852; Le Pays Latin in 1852; Adeline Protat (one of the most graceful and innocent if not the most original of his tales) in 1853; and Les Buveurs d’eau in 1855. This last, the most powerful of his books next to the Vie de Bohême, traces the fate of certain artists and students who, exaggerating their own powers and disdaining merely profitable work, come to an evil end not less rapidly than by dissipation. Some years before his death, which took place in a maison de santé near Paris on the 28th of January 1861, Murger went to live at Marlotte, near Fontainebleau, and there he wrote an unequal book entitled Le Sabot rouge (1860), in which the character of the French peasant is uncomplimentary treated.
See an article by A. de Pontmartin in the Revue des deux mondes (October 1861).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Murner, Thomas

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​MURNER, THOMAS (1475–1537?), German satirist, was born on the 24th of December 1475 at Oberehnheim near Strassburg. In 1490 he entered the order of Franciscan monks, and in 1495 began a wandering life, studying and then teaching and preaching in Freiburg-in-Breisgau, Paris, Cracow and Strassburg. The emperor Maximilian I. crowned him in 1505 poeta laureatus; in 1506, he was created doctor theologiae, and in 1513 was appointed custodian of the Franciscan monastery in Strassburg; an office which, on account of a scurrilous publication, he was forced to vacate the following year. Late in life, in 1518, he began the study of jurisprudence at the university of Basel, and in 1519 took the degree of doctor juris. After journeys in Italy and England, he again settled in Strassburg, but, disturbed by the Reformation, sought an exile at Lucerne in Switzerland in 1526. In 1533 he was appointed priest of Oberehnheim, where he died in 1537, or, according to some accounts, in 1536. Murner was an energetic and passionate character, who made enemies wherever he went. There is not a trace of human kindness in his satires, which were directed against the corruption of the times, the Reformation, and especially against Luther. His most powerful satire—and the most virulent German satire of the period—is Von dem grossen lutherischen Narren, wie ihn Dr Murner beschworen hat. Among others may be mentioned Die Narrenbeschwörung (1512); Die Schelmenzunft (1512); Die Gäuchmatt, which treats of enamoured fools (1519), and a translation of Virgil’s Aeneid (1515) dedicated to the emperor Maximilian I. Murner also wrote the humorous Chartiludium logicae (1507) and the Ludus studentum freiburgensium (1511), besides a translation of Justinian’s Institutiones (1519).
All Murner’s more important works have been republished in ​critical editions; a selection was published by G. Balke in Kürschner’s Deutsche Nationalliteratur (1890). Cf. W. Kawerau, Murner und die Kirche des Mittelalters (1890); and by the same writer, Murner und die deutsche Reformation (1891); also K. Ott, Über Murners Verhältniss zu Geiler (1896).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tarafa

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​TARAFA [’Amr ibn ul-’Abd ul-Bakrī] (6th cent.), Arabian poet, who, after a wild and dissipated youth spent in Bahrein, left his native land after peace had been established between the tribes of Bakr and Taghlib and went with his uncle Mutalammis (also a poet) to the court of the king of Hira, ’Amr ibn Hind (died 568–9), and there became companion to the king's brother. Having ridiculed the king in some verses he was sent with a letter to the ruler of Bahrein, and, in accordance with the instructions contained in the letter, was buried alive. One of his poems is contained in the Moallakat (q.v.).
His diwan has been published in W. Ahlwardt's The Diwans of the Six Ancient Arabic Poets (London, 1870). Some of his poems have been translated into Latin with notes by B. Vandenhoff (Berlin, 1895). (G. W. T.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Taraxacum

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​TARAXACUM, the name usually applied in medical practice to the common dandelion (q.v.).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tarare

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​TARARE, a town of east-central France, in the department of Rhone, on the Turdine, 28 m. W.N.W. of Lyons by rail. Pop. (1906) 11,643. It is the centre of a region engaged in the production of muslins, tar let ans, embroidery and silk-plush, and in printing, bleaching and other subsidiary processes. Till 1756, when the manufacture of muslins was introduced from Switzerland, the town lay unknown among the Beaujolais mountains. The manufacture of Swiss cotton yarns and crochet embroideries was introduced at the end of the 18th century; at the beginning of the 19th figured stuffs, open-works and zephyrs were first produced. The manufacture of silk-plush for hats and machine-made velvets was set up towards the end of the 19th century. A busy trade is carried on in corn, cattle, linen, hemp, thread and leather.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tarascon

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​TARASCON, a town of south-eastern France, in the department of Bouches-du-Rhone, 62 m. N.W. of Marseilles by rail. Pop. (1906) town, 5447; commune, 8972. Tarascon is situated on the left bank of the Rhone opposite Beaucaire, with which it is connected by a railway bridge and a suspension bridge. The church of St Martha, built in 1187–97 on the ruins of a Roman temple and rebuilt in 1379–1449, has a Gothic spire, and many interesting pictures in the interior. Of the original building there remain a porch, and a side portal flanked by marble columns with capitals like those of St Trophimus at Arles. The former leads to the crypt, where are the tombs of St Martha (1658), Jean de Gossa, governor of Provence under King René, and Louis II., king of Provence. The castle, picturesquely situated on a rock, was begun by Count Louis II. in the 14th century and finished by King René in the 15th, It contains a turret stair and a chapel entrance, which are charming examples of 15th-centuryy architecture, and fine wooden ceilings. The building is now used as a prison. The hôtel-de-ville dates from the 17th century. The civil court of the arrondissement of Arles is situated at Tarascon, which also possesses a commercial court, and fine cavalry barracks. The so-called Arles sausages are made here, and there is trade in fruit and early vegetables. In Tartarin de Tarascon, Alphonse Daudet has satirized the provincial life of Tarascon. Its uneventfulness ​is varied by the fair of Beaucaire, and it used to be the scene of the two fêtes of La Tarasque, the latter in celebration of St Martha's deliverance of the town from a legendary monster of that name. King René presided in 1469, and grand exhibitions of costume and strange ceremonies take place during the two days of the festival. Tarascon was originally a settlement of the Massaliots, built on an island of the Rhone. The medieval castle, where Pope Urban II. lived in 1096, was built on the ruins of a Roman camp. The inhabitants of Tarascon preserved the municipal institutions granted them by the Romans, and of the absolute power claimed by the counts of Provence they only recognized the rights of sovereignty. Tarascon played a bloody part in the White Terror of 1815.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tarai

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​TARAI, or Terai (i.e. “moist land”), the name of the submontane strip of marshy jungle stretching beneath the lower ranges of the Himalaya in northern India. This strip may be said to extend roughly from the Jumna river on the west to the Brahmaputra on the east, though the term is now officially confined to a subdivision of Naini Tal district in the United Provinces; area, 776 sq. m.; population (1901) 118,422. At its northern edge, where the waterless forest tract of the Bhabar ends, a series of springs burst from the surface, and these, increasing and uniting in their progress, form the numerous streams that intersect the Tarai. The Deoha is the great river of the Tarai proper, and is navigable at Pilibhit. Elephants, tigers, bears, leopards and other wild animals are found. Everywhere it is most unhealthy, and inhabited only by tribes who seem proof against malaria. A large portion lies within Nepal.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tarapacá

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​TARAPACÁ, a northern province of Chile, bounded N. by Tacna, E. by Bolivia, S. by Antofagasta, and W. by the Pacific. Area 18,131 sq. m. Pop. (1895) 89,751; (1902, estimated) 101,105. It is part of the rainless desert region of the Pacific coast of South America, and is absolutely without water except at the base of the Andes where streams flow down into the sands and are lost. In some of these places there is vegetation and water enough to support small settlements. The wealth of Tarapacá is in its immense deposits of nitrate of soda (found on the Pampa de Tamarugal, a broad desert plateau between the coast range and the Andes, which has an elevation of about 3000 ft.). The mining and preparation of nitrate of soda for export maintain a large population and engage an immense amount of capital. Silver is mined in the vicinity of Iquique, the capital. The ports of the province are Pisagua, Iquique and Patillos, from which “nitrate railways” run inland to the deposits. Tarapacá was ceded to Chile by Peru after the war of 1879–1883, and was organized as a province in 1884.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tarbell, Edmund C.

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​TARBELL, EDMUND C. (1862–), American artist, was born at West Groton, Mass., on the 26th of April 1862. He was a pupil of the schools of the Boston Museum of Fine Arts and of Boulanger and Lefebvre, Paris, and became a distinguished painter of the landscape, of the figure, and of portraits, winning various important prizes and medals at exhibitions. In 1906 he was elected a National Academician, besides being a member of the Ten American Painters, and he became instructor of painting in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tarbert

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​TARBERT, a fishing village at the head of East Loch Tarbert, an arm of the sea on the west shore of the mouth of Loch Fyne, Argyllshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 1697. The harbour, though it has a narrow entrance, is absolutely safe and can shelter the whole of the Loch Fyne fishing fleet. The pier for the passenger steamers that call here is about 3/4 m. from the village. The coast of the bay is rocky and the cliffs are fringed with young firs, the village itself being quite a pretty place. The herring industry—including a large trade in curing—forms the only industry. The parish church occupies a fine situation. Overlooking the harbour are the ruins of a castle built by Robert Bruce in 1326. The isthmus connecting the districts of Knapdale and Kintyre is little more than one mile wide, and boats used once to be dragged across to the head of West Loch Tarbert, a narrow sea loch nearly ten miles long. A proposal to cut a canal across to shorten the sail to Islay and Jura has never progressed further.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Post and Pair

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​POST AND PAIR, a card game popular in the 16th and 17th centuries. A hand consisted of three cards, a pair royal ranking highest, or failing this, the, highest pair. Another name of the game was Pink.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Posthumous

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​POSTHUMOUS, that which appears or is produced after the author or creator, and thus applied to a literary work or work of art published or produced after its author’s death, or especially to a child born after the death of its father. The Latin postumus, latest, last, from which the word is derived, is formed from post, after, but it was in Late Latin connected with humare, to place in the ground (humus), to bury.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Postern

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​POSTERN (from O. Fr. posterne, posterle, Late Lat. posterula, small back-door, posterus, behind), a small gateway in the enceinte of a castle, abbey, &c., from which to issue and enter unobserved. They are often called “sally ports.” (See Gate.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Posse Comitatus

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POSSE COMITATUS (Lat. “power of a county”), a summons to every male in the county, between the ages of fifteen and twenty, to be ready and apparelled, at the command of the sheriff and the cry of the county, to maintain peace and pursue felons. Ecclesiastical persons, peers and such as laboured under any infirmity were not compellable to attend. Owing to the establishment of county police, the sheriff does not now pursue felons, but by the Sheriffs Act (1887, sec. 8, sub-sec. 2) the calling out of the posse comitatus is expressly authorized if the sheriff finds any resistance in the execution of a writ. In view of the sheriff’s duty to raise, if necessary, the posse comitatus it is no answer by him, for non-execution of a writ, to say that he was resisted.
See P. E. Mather, Sheriff Law.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Terranova

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​TERRANOVA, a town of Sicily, on the S. coast, in the province of Caltanisetta, 74 m. by rail and 41 m. direct E.S.E. of Girgenti. Pop. (1901) 22,019. The poorly built modern town contains no buildings of interest or importance; it stands on a sand-hill near the sea, with a fertile plain (the ancient Campi Geloi) to the N. of it. It has some trade but no port, only an open road stead. It almost certainly occupies the site of the ancient Gela (q.v.). Outside it on the E. are scanty remains of a Doric temple (480–440 B.C.?) of which a single pillar only remains, which was still standing in the 18th century (height about 26½ ft., lower diameter 5⅔ ft.); here some painted decorative terracotta have been found (see Orsi in Atti del Congresso di Scienze Storiche, Rome, 1904, v. 188). Between it and the modern town the stylobate of a large temple was found in 1906. This seems to have been constructed towards the end of the 7th century B.C. on the site of a still earlier edifice. The stylobate measures 115 by 58 ft. A large number of decorative terracotta were found, among them a small helmeted head of Athena: her name recurs upon the lip of a large pithos, and it is probable that the temple was dedicated to her. There is no trace of any object that can be dated after the end of the 6th century B.C., and it is therefore probable that this temple was destroyed when the other was constructed, and that the latter also was dedicated to Athena. On the W. of the town, on the Capo Soprano, was the ancient necropolis, where many tombs of the Greek period have been discovered; the objects found, including many fine Attic vases, are partly in private collections at Terranova itself, partly in foreign museums, while the results of later excavations, including some large terracotta Sarcophagi, are in the museum at Syracuse.
See Orsi in Notizie degli scavi, 1901, 307; 1902, 408; 1907, 38.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Terre Haute

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​TERRE HAUTE, a city and the county-seat of Vigo county, Indiana, U.S.A., on the eastern bank of the Wabash river, about 186 m. S. by E. of Chicago and about 73 m. W. by S. of Indianapolis. Pop. (1890) 30,217; (1900) 36,673, of whom 1520 were negroes and 2952 foreign-born; (1910, census) 58,157. Land area (1906), 8.25 sq. m., of which nearly one-third had been annexed since 1890 and a considerable part since 1900. It is served by the Chicago & Eastern Illinois, the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, the Evansville & Indianapolis, the Evansville & Terre Haute, the Southern Indiana, the Vandalia and several electric interurban railways. It is finely situated on high ground 60 ft. above the river level, and has wide, well-paved streets shaded by oaks and elms. It is the seat of the Indiana State Normal School (1870), which had in 1909 a library of about 50,000 volumes, 52 instructors and an average term enrolment of 988 students, and of the Rose Polytechnic Institute, which was founded in 1874 by Chauncey Rose (1794–1877), was opened in 1883, offers courses in mechanical, electrical, civil and chemical engineering and in architecture, and in 1909 had 22 instructors and 214 students. About 4 m. W. of Terre Haute is St Mary-of-the-Woods (founded in 1840 by the Sisters of Providence, and chartered in 1846), a school for girls. The Emeline Fairbanks Memorial Library (1882) contained 30,000 volumes in 1910, housed in a building erected in 1903 by Mr Crawford Fairbanks in memory of his mother. Terre Haute's industrial and commercial importance is largely due to its proximity to the valuable coal-fields of Clay, Sullivan, Park, Vermilion, Greene and Vigo counties. The total value of its factory product in 1905 was $29,291,654; both in 1900 and in 1905 it ranked second among the manufacturing cities of the state. It is the largest distilling centre in the state and one of the largest in the country, the value of the output of this industry in 1905 being more than half the total value of the city's factory product for the year. The value of the glass product in 1905 was 4.4 per cent. of the value of all factory products of the city, and 1.6 per cent. of the value of all glass manufactured in the United States.
The first settlers at Terre Haute built their cabins near Fort Harrison, which was erected by command of Governor William Henry Harrison in the winter of 1810–11. In 1812 the fort was successfully defended against an attack of the Indians by its commandant Captain Zachary Taylor, and in 1817 was abandoned. After the close of the War of 1812 the town grew rapidly and became an important commercial centre, owing to its river connexions and to the fact that the National (or Cumberland) Road crossed the Wabash here. Terre Haute was incorporated as a town in 1838, became a city in 1853 (under a general state law of June 1852), received a special city charter in 1899, in 1905 was organized as a city of the third class, and became a city of the second class in 1909.