# Special 301 Report/2014/Section 1

SECTION I. DEVELOPMENTS IN INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS PROTECTION AND ENFORCEMENT
An important part of the mission of USTR is to support and implement the Administration's commitment to protect vigorously the interests of U.S. holders of intellectual property rights overseas while preserving the incentives that ensure access to and widespread dissemination of the fruits of innovation and creativity. IPR infringement, including trademark counterfeiting and copyright piracy, causes significant financial losses for rights holders and legitimate businesses around the world. It undermines key U.S. comparative advantages in innovation and creativity, to the detriment of American businesses and workers. In its most pernicious forms, IPR infringement endangers the public. Some counterfeit products, such as semiconductors, automobile parts, and medicines, pose significant risks to consumer health and safety. In addition, trade in counterfeit and pirated products often fuels cross-border organized criminal networks and hinders the sustainable economic development of many countries.
Because fostering innovation and creativity is essential to U.S. prosperity, competitiveness, and the support of an estimated 40 million U.S. jobs that directly or indirectly rely on intellectual property-intensive industries, USTR works to protect American innovation and creativity with all the tools of U.S. trade policy, including this Report.
Positive Developments
The United States welcomes the following important steps by our trading partners in 2013 and early 2014.
* Algeria – In October 2013, Algeria submitted its instrument of accession to the WIPO Internet Treaties. Adopted in Geneva in December 1996, the treaties are designed to maintain the protection of the rights of authors, performers, and producers of phonograms in the digital age. The treaties entered into force for Algeria on January 31, 2014.
* China – In August 2013, the National People's Congress enacted important amendments to China's Trademark Law, including provisions to combat trademark squatting, expand protection to sound marks, permit multi-class registration, and streamline application and appeal procedures. The United States welcomes these long-sought reforms, but notes that a number of important issues not clarified in the law need to be addressed in implementing regulations that are still under development. The United States will continue to work closely with China to address these concerns as the implementing regulations are drafted, adopted, and enter into force. The United States also looks forward to pending reforms of China's patent, copyright, trade secrets, and other IP- related laws and regulations.
* European Union (EU) – On November 28, 2013, the European Commission introduced a proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on the ​Protection of Undisclosed Know-How and Business Information (Trade Secrets) Against Their Unlawful Acquisition, Use and Disclosure. This Directive would harmonize civil trade secret law throughout the EU. The United States welcomes this important step and looks forward to continued progress on this draft measure specifically, and on EU efforts to protect trade secrets from theft and misappropriation generally.
* Israel – On January 23, 2014, Israel passed patent legislation that satisfied its remaining commitments under a 2010 Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) with the United States. As a result of the successful execution of the MOU, Israel has taken legal and regulatory measures to make its patent system more transparent, efficient, and effective, and was removed from the Watch List earlier this year.
* Italy – Italy is removed from the Watch List in the 2014 Special 301 Report in recognition of the Italian Communications Regulatory Authority's (AGCOM) adoption, on December 12, 2013, of long-awaited regulations to combat copyright piracy over the Internet. The regulations, which entered into force on March 31, 2014, provide notice-and-takedown procedures that incorporate due process safeguards and establish a mechanism for addressing large-scale piracy. The adoption and entry into force of these regulations is a significant achievement, resulting from intensive efforts over many years, which the United States strongly welcomes. We look forward to continuing to work with Italy on our shared commitment to IPR protection and enforcement, and will closely monitor Italy's implementation of these regulations.
* Paraguay – On October 10, 2013, President Cartes signed the implementing regulation (Decree 460) for Law 4798 of 2012 that created the National Directorate of Intellectual Property (DINAPI). DINAPI is now the Paraguayan government authority responsible for the administration of copyrights, trademarks, patents, industrial designs, and geographic indications. Additionally, the law authorizes DINAPI's enforcement arm, the General Enforcement Directorate, to conduct administrative investigations and initiate proceedings at customs checkpoints and businesses.
* Philippines – The Philippines is removed from the Watch List in the 2014 Special 301 Report. This decision was based on the collective weight of a series of significant legislative reforms, a move toward more effective civil and administrative enforcement efforts, IP authorities' sustained and constructive engagement with the U.S. Government and members of the private sector, and commitments to continue to address remaining concerns.
​The United States will continue to work with its trading partners to further enhance IPR protection and enforcement during the coming year.
Best IPR Practices by Trading Partners
USTR highlights the following best practices by trading partners in the area of IPR protection and enforcement.
* USTR continues to encourage trading partners to work with the United States to develop action plans to advance the protection and enforcement of IPR. USTR welcomes the offer of the Government of Bulgaria to develop an action plan, and is working with a number of other trading partners, including the Government of Pakistan, to develop action plans to address the issues discussed in the Special 301 Report. USTR looks forward to continuing to work with these trading partners to finalize and implement these action plans as well as to work with other trading partners on implementing existing action plans.
* USTR supports transparency and meaningful stakeholder participation in the development of laws, regulations, procedures, and other measures as well as meaningful engagement between governments and stakeholders. Stakeholders report that such transparency and participation allows governments to avoid unintended consequences and makes it easier for stakeholders to comply with legislative or regulatory changes once adopted and implemented.
* Cooperation among different government agencies is another example of a best practice. Several countries, including the United States, have introduced IPR enforcement coordination mechanisms or agreements to enhance interagency cooperation. In Paraguay, DINAPI, operational since October 2013, has signed several inter-institutional agreements to enhance cooperation on IPR, including with Paraguayan enforcement agencies that have jurisdiction over customs and other IP-related violations. In Algeria, the National Office of Intellectual Property Rights (ONDA) signed cooperation agreements with Algerian customs and other Algerian law enforcement entities on training and operational coordination to strengthen efforts to interdict illicit goods. The Philippines' National IPR Committee, led by that country's Intellectual Property Office, provides another example of enhanced interagency cooperation. The United States encourages other trading partners to consider adopting similar cooperative IPR arrangements.
* Several trading partners have participated or supported participation in innovative mechanisms that enable government and private sector rights holders to voluntarily donate or license IPR on mutually agreed terms and conditions. In these arrangements, parties use existing IPR to advance innovation and public policy goals. The United ​States was the first government in the world to share its patents with the Medicines Patent Pool, an independent foundation hosted by the World Health Organization (WHO). The United States hopes that additional public and private patent holders will explore voluntary licenses with the Medicines Patent Pool as one of many innovative ways to help improve the availability of medicines in developing countries. The patents that the United States shared were related to protease inhibitor medicines, primarily used to treat drug-resistant HIV infections. In addition, the United States, Brazil, and South Africa are providers in the WIPO Re:Search Consortium, a voluntary mechanism for making IPR and know how available on mutually agreed terms and conditions to the global health research community to find cures or treatments for neglected tropical diseases, and for malaria and tuberculosis. Other countries have joined as supporters.
* Finally, another best practice is the active participation of government officials in capacity building efforts and in training. As further explained in Annex 2, the United States encourages foreign governments to make training opportunities available to their officials, and it actively engages with its trading partners in capacity building efforts both in the United States and abroad.
Initiatives to Strengthen IPR Protection and Enforcement Internationally
The United States works to promote adequate and effective protection and enforcement of IPR through the following mechanisms.
* Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP): The Trans-Pacific Partnership is a key initiative through which the United States seeks to advance multifaceted U.S. trade and investment interests in the Asia-Pacific region by negotiating an ambitious, 21st-century regional trade agreement along with Australia, Brunei Darussalam, Canada, Chile, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Peru, Singapore, and Vietnam, in addition to Japan, which joined negotiations in 2013. The TPP negotiations are being undertaken with this group of like-minded countries with the goal of creating a platform for integration across the region, including strong standards for the protection and enforcement of IPR and for addressing emerging issues in the 21st century.
* Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership (T-TIP): On March 20, 2013, the USTR notified the U.S. Congress of the President's intent to enter into negotiations for a comprehensive trade and investment agreement with the EU. Since that notification, the United States and the EU have held four rounds of negotiations, most recently during the week of March 10, 2014. With respect to IPR, the United States and the EU provide among the highest levels of IPR protection and the most robust IPR enforcement in the world. In T-TIP, the United States is pursuing a targeted approach on IPR that will reflect the shared U.S.-EU objective of high-level IPR protection and enforcement, and sustained and enhanced joint leadership on IPR issues. The United States will seek new ​opportunities to advance and defend the interests of U.S. creators, innovators, businesses, farmers, and workers with respect to strong protection and effective enforcement of IPR, including their ability to compete in foreign markets.
* World Trade Organization (WTO): The multilateral structure of the WTO provides opportunities for USTR to lead engagement with trading partners on IPR issues in several contexts, including through accession negotiations for prospective Members, the Council for Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS Council), and the Dispute Settlement Body. In the past year, the United States sponsored discussions in the TRIPS Council on the positive role of IPR protection and enforcement in contributing to national innovation environments, including with respect to low-cost innovation and social entrepreneurship, and university research and technology transfer partnerships. These discussions, which involved contributions from a broad array of WTO Members, including developed, developing, and least-developed countries, addressed national IP strategies to promote innovation, focusing in particular on the role IP plays in driving critical financing, commercialization, and partnerships to bring ideas to market. The United States has also actively engaged in TRIPS Council discussions on the positive role of IP in promoting climate technology innovation and transfer. These discussions highlighted the global nature of climate technology innovation and the beneficial contributions of IPR protection and enforcement on technology innovation and transfer. Additionally, the United States co-sponsored discussions on IP and sports, with broad engagement from numerous and diverse WTO Members, focusing on the critical relationship between sports (including major sporting events such as the Olympics, World Cup, and national leagues) and IP (including copyright for broadcasting content, patents and trade secrets for cutting-edge sports equipment, and trademarks for branding and sponsorship).
* Bilateral and Regional Initiatives: The United States works with many trading partners to strengthen IPR protection and enforcement through the provisions of bilateral and regional agreements, including trade agreements). In addition, Trade and Investment Framework Agreements (TIFAs) between the United States and numerous trading partners around the world have facilitated discussions on enhancing IPR protection and enforcement.
* Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement (ACTA): On October 5, 2012, Japan became the first signatory to ACTA to deposit its instrument of acceptance. The United States continues to work with Japan and other negotiating parties to bring the ACTA into force. The ACTA effort, launched in October 2007, brought together a number of like-minded countries prepared to embrace strengthened IPR enforcement and cooperative enforcement practices. ACTA signatories are Australia, Canada, Japan, South Korea, Mexico, Morocco, New Zealand, Singapore, and the United States. The European Union ​and 22 EU Member States signed the Agreement in January 2012, but it was not approved by the European Parliament. For signatories, the next step towards bringing the ACTA into force is to deposit instruments of ratification, acceptance, or approval. The ACTA will enter into force for those signatories 30 days following the deposit of the sixth such instrument. The ACTA includes innovative provisions to deepen international cooperation and to promote strong enforcement practices, and will ultimately help sustain American jobs in innovative and creative industries.
* Trade Preference Program Reviews: USTR, in coordination with other agencies, reviews IPR practices in connection with the implementation of trade preference programs, such as the Generalized System of Preferences (GSP) program, and regional programs, including the Caribbean Basin Economic Recovery Act and the Caribbean Basin Trade Partnership Act.
* Enhanced International Cooperation: USTR, in coordination with other U.S. Government agencies, looks forward to continuing engagement with trading partners in bilateral, regional, and multilateral fora to improve the global IPR environment. In addition to the work described above, the United States anticipates engaging with its trading partners on IPR-related initiatives in multilateral and regional fora such as the U.S.-EU Summit, G-8, Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC), World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), and Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD).
​Trade Secrets and Forced Technology Transfer
International and foreign market issues
The Special 301 Report again reflects an emphasis on the need to protect and enforce trade secrets. Companies in a wide variety of industry sectors – including information and communication technologies, services, biopharmaceuticals, manufacturing, and environmental technologies – rely on the ability to protect and enforce their trade secrets and rights in other proprietary information. Indeed, trade secrets are often among a company's core business assets, and a company's competitiveness may depend on its capacity to protect such assets.
Trade secret theft, including industrial and economic espionage, which imposes significant costs on U.S. companies and threatens the security of the United States, appears to be escalating. If a company's trade secrets are stolen, it may be extremely difficult, if not impossible, to recoup past investments in research and development, and future innovation may be compromised. Moreover, trade secret theft threatens to diminish U.S. competitiveness around the globe, and puts American jobs at risk. The reach of trade secret theft into critical commercial and defense technologies poses threats to U.S. national security interests as well.
For these reasons, the United States is concerned by gaps in trade secret protection and enforcement, and the apparent growth of trade secret theft, particularly in China, as reported by various sources, including the Office of the National Counterintelligence Executive (ONCIX). The ONCIX publication titled Foreign Spies Stealing U.S. Economic Secrets in Cyberspace, states that "Chinese actors are the world's most active and persistent perpetrators of economic espionage." Theft may arise in a variety of circumstances, including those involving departing employees, failed joint ventures, cyber intrusion and hacking, and misuse of information submitted to government entities for purposes of complying with regulatory obligations. In practice, effective remedies, including under Chinese law, appear to be difficult to obtain.
The United States urges its trading partners to ensure that they have robust systems for protecting and enforcing trade secrets, including the availability of deterrent criminal penalties for trade secret theft. USTR will monitor developments in this area.
U.S. Government strategy
On February 20, 2013, the U.S. Intellectual Property Enforcement Coordinator (IPEC) issued the Administration Strategy on Mitigating the Theft of U.S. Trade Secrets. The Strategy highlights U.S. efforts to combat the theft of trade secrets that could be used by foreign governments or companies to gain an unfair economic advantage by harming U.S. innovation and creativity, including:
* Focusing diplomatic efforts to protect trade secrets overseas, which include sustained and coordinated engagement with trading partners, the use of trade policy tools (including through the use of the Special 301 Report), cooperation, and training, among others;
* Promoting voluntary best practices by private industry to protect trade secrets, including information security, physical security, and human resources policies;
* Enhancing domestic law enforcement operations, especially through the activities of the Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigations, Department of Defense, and the National IPR Coordination Center;
* Improving domestic legislation to protect against trade secret theft, as exemplified by the Theft of Trade Secrets Clarification Act of 2012, which clarified provisions in the Economic Espionage Act with respect to the theft of trade secret source codes, and the Foreign and Economic Espionage Penalty Enhancement Act of 2012, which increased criminal penalties for economic espionage; and
* Conducting public awareness campaigns and stakeholder outreach to encourage all stakeholders to be aware of the dangers of trade secret theft.
Trade secret theft can be viewed as a form of forced technology transfer that foreign actors may use to undermine U.S. competitive advantage. Foreign governments may also adopt trade-distortive policies, which are sometimes designed to promote "indigenous innovation" by forcing U.S. companies to transfer their technology or other valuable commercial information. Examples of these policies, include, but are not limited to:
* Requiring the transfer of technology as a condition for obtaining regulatory approvals or otherwise securing access to a market, or for allowing a company to continue to do business in the market;
* Directing state-owned enterprises in innovative sectors to seek non-commercial terms from their foreign business partners, including with respect to the acquisition and use or licensing of IPR;
* Failing to effectively enforce IPR, including patents, trademarks, trade secrets, and copyrights, thereby allowing national firms to gain a competitive advantage over their foreign competitors through misappropriation or infringement of the competitor's IPR;
* Failing to take meaningful measures to prevent or deter cyber intrusions and other unauthorized activities;
* Requiring use of, or providing preferences to, products or services in which IPR is either developed or owned locally, including with respect to government procurement;
* Manipulating the standards development process to create unfair advantages for national firms, including with respect to the terms on which IPR is licensed; and
* Requiring the submission of excessive (and often unnecessary) confidential business information for regulatory approval purposes, and failing to appropriately protect such information from unfair commercial use by, and disclosure to, third parties.
​The United States urges that, in formulating policies to promote innovation, trading partners, including India and China, take account of the increasingly cross-border nature of commercial research and development, and of the importance of voluntary and mutually agreed commercial partnerships.
Intellectual Property and the Environment
Strong IPR protection is vital for development, and is critical to responding to environmental challenges, including climate change. IPR protection is essential to facilitate access to today's technologies, and to promote tomorrow's innovation. IPR provides incentives to invest in green technologies, and can promote economic growth and create jobs in the green technology sector. Without such incentives, businesses are reluctant to invest or enter into technology transfer arrangements in countries that lack effective IPR protection and enforcement. IPR is also an important driver of university research in the green technology sector. In the absence of such technologies, society may be deprived of critical advances to meet environmental challenges, including the mitigation of, and adaptation to, climate change.
Certain national policies and practices advanced domestically and in multilateral fora may have the unintended effect of undermining national and global efforts to address serious environmental challenges. For example, India's National Manufacturing Policy promotes the compulsory licensing of patented technologies as a means of effectuating technology transfer with respect to green technologies. India has pressed to multilateralize this approach to green technologies through its proposals in the negotiations under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). These actions will discourage rather than promote the investment in, and dissemination of, green technologies, including those technologies that contribute to climate change adaptation and mitigation.
The United States continues to work to ensure robust IP protection and enforcement, which gives inventors and creators the confidence to: engage in foreign direct investment, joint ventures, local partnerships, and licensing arrangements; collaborate with foreign counterparts; to open research facilities in markets abroad; establish local operations and work with local manufacturers and suppliers; create jobs, including local worker training; and invest in infrastructure for the production, adoption, and delivery of green technology goods and services, without fear of misappropriation of their IPR. Strong IPR protection is, therefore, not only critical to the objective of addressing environmental challenges and developing a global response to climate change, but to national economic growth. The United States promotes strong IPR protection and enforcement as an environmental as well as an economic imperative, providing critical developmental benefits for developing and least-developed countries in particular.
Trends in Trademark Counterfeiting and Copyright Piracy
The problems of trademark counterfeiting and copyright piracy continue on a global scale and involve mass production and sales of a vast array of fake goods, including counterfeit semiconductors, medicines, health care products, food and beverages, automobile parts, such as air bags, aircraft parts, apparel and footwear, toothpaste, toys, shampoos, razors, electronics, batteries, chemicals, sporting goods, motion pictures, and music.
​Consumers, legitimate producers, and governments are harmed by rampant trademark counterfeiting and copyright piracy. Consumers may be harmed by fraudulent and potentially dangerous counterfeit products, including medicines, auto and airplane parts, and semiconductors. Producers face the risk of diminished profits and loss of reputation when consumers purchase fake products, and governments may lose tax revenue and find it more difficult to attract investment. Infringers generally pay no taxes or duties, and often disregard basic standards for worker health and safety and product quality and performance.
An example illustrating the extent of the economic harm arising from such trademark counterfeiting and copyright piracy comes from India. In September 2013, the International Chamber of Commerce and the Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry published a study analyzing seven key industry sectors vulnerable to counterfeiting, piracy, and smuggling, e.g., automotive parts, alcohol, computer hardware, mobile phones, packaged foods, personal goods, and tobacco products. The study concluded that rights holders in 2012 suffered lost sales in India amounting to 21.7 percent or approximately $11.9 billion due to these problems. Collectively, the Indian government's economic loss tied to these illicit activities totaled approximately $4.26 billion, according to the study.
Industry reports trends in counterfeiting and piracy that include:
* Sustained growth in the piracy of copyrighted products in virtually all formats as well as counterfeiting of trademarked goods. The involvement of criminal enterprises continues to rise, often because piracy and counterfeiting offer enormous profits and little risk. Such enterprises require little up-front capital investment, and even when they are detected and prosecuted, the penalties imposed on them in many countries are very low and therefore offer little or no deterrence against further infringements. Instead, the penalties are viewed merely as a cost of doing business;
* Continued growth in the online sale of pirated and counterfeit hard goods that will soon surpass the volume of such goods sold by street vendors and in other physical markets. Enforcement authorities, unfortunately, face difficulties in responding to this trend. Online advertisements for the sale of illicit physical goods that are delivered through express mail shipments or by small consignments are found in many places;
* A continued increase in the use of legitimate services to deliver infringing goods, making it more difficult for enforcement officials to detect these goods;
* An increase in the practice of shipping counterfeit products separately from labels and packaging in order to evade enforcement efforts; and
* The emergence of Media Box piracy, whereby those boxes, often with capability to play high definition content, are loaded with large quantities of pirated works or are configured to facilitate the user's access to websites featuring unlicensed content. This ​problem has been reported in China (including Hong Kong), Indonesia, Malaysia, Taiwan, Thailand, and Vietnam.
The United States continues to urge trading partners to undertake more effective criminal and border enforcement to stop the manufacture, import, export, transit, and distribution of pirated and counterfeit goods. USTR engages extensively with its trading partners through bilateral consultations, trade agreements, and international organizations, to ensure that penalties are deterrent, and include significant monetary fines and meaningful sentences of imprisonment. Additionally, important elements of a deterrent enforcement system include requirements that pirated and counterfeit goods, as well as the materials and implements used for their production, be seized and destroyed, rather than being re-exported or otherwise allowed to reenter the channels of commerce. Such re-export or entrance into the channels of commerce creates IPR enforcement problems and potential health and safety risks for other trading partners or for the original country of importation. Providing enforcement officials with the authority to seize suspect counterfeit trademark or pirated copyright goods during their import or export, or in transit movement, without the need for a formal complaint from a rights holder is also critical to effective enforcement. The U.S. Government supports trading partners through technical assistance and sharing of best practices on enforcement, including destruction of seized goods. (See Annex 2).
The manufacture and distribution of pharmaceutical products bearing counterfeit trademarks is a growing problem that has important consequences for consumer health and safety. Such trademark counterfeiting is one dimension of the larger problem of substandard medicines. The United States notes its particular concern with the proliferation of counterfeit pharmaceuticals manufactured, sold and distributed in trading partners such as Brazil, China, Indonesia, Lebanon, Peru, Russia, and especially in India, the largest source of counterfeit pharmaceuticals shipped to the United States. Reports indicate that anywhere from 10-40 percent of drugs sold in Indian markets are counterfeit and could represent a serious threat to patient health and safety. The U.S. Government, through the United States Agency for International Development, and other agencies, supports programs in Sub-Saharan Africa and elsewhere that assist trading partners in protecting the public against counterfeit medicines introduced into their markets.
In many cases, the bulk active pharmaceutical ingredients (API) that are used to manufacture pharmaceuticals that bear counterfeit trademarks are not made according to good manufacturing practices. Hence, these products may contain sub-standard and potentially hazardous materials. For instance, in China, some domestic chemical manufacturers that produce API have avoided regulatory oversight by failing to declare that bulk chemicals are intended for use in pharmaceutical products. This contributes to China being a major source country for APIs used in counterfeit pharmaceutical products. Although China has taken some welcome steps, such as requiring manufacturers to register with the State Food and Drug Administration, more effective regulatory controls are needed.
Digital, Internet, and Broadcast Piracy
The increased availability of broadband Internet connections around the world is generating many benefits, from increased economic activity and new business models to greater access to and exchange of information. However, this phenomenon has also made the Internet an ​extremely efficient vehicle for disseminating copyright-infringing products, supplanting legitimate opportunities for rights holders. The U.S. Government's 2013 Notorious Markets List includes examples of online marketplaces reportedly engaging in commercial-scale IPR infringement, including sites hosted in or operated by parties located in Canada, China, the Netherlands, Russia, Sweden, Ukraine, and elsewhere.
Piracy over the Internet is a significant concern in many U.S. trading partners. Unauthorized retransmission of live sports telecasts over the Internet continues to be a growing problem for many trading partners, particularly China, and websites that link to infringing content are exacerbating the problem.
U.S. copyright industries also report growing problems with piracy using mobile telephones, tablets, flash drives, and other mobile technologies. In some countries, these devices are pre-loaded with illegal content even before they are sold.
In addition to piracy of music and films, U.S. industry reports the emergence of pirate servers, or "grey shards." Players of cloud-based entertainment software access these unauthorized servers to play copyrighted games that are made available through hacked software or circumvention of technological protection measures, which are used by rights holders to control unauthorized access to, and prevent unauthorized copying of, protected content.
The problem of online piracy is exacerbated due to the development and sale of devices that allow for the circumvention of technological protection measures (TPM). Such devices include "game copiers" and mod chips that make it possible to play pirated games on gaming systems. Software that enables TPM circumvention is also distributed online. For example, SlySoft, a company headquartered and operating in Antigua, developed and sells a program called "Any DVD HD" that enables the user to defeat the encryption technology embedded in Blu-ray Discs that prevents unauthorized reproduction and distribution. Antigua's Copyright Act makes it illegal to manufacture or import for sale or rental any such circumvention device. The consortium of electronic manufacturers, software companies, and motion picture studios that developed these technological protection measures has worked with the criminal enforcement authorities in Antigua for over seven years to enforce this statute and have this case prosecuted. In April 2014, the owner and operator of Slysoft was found guilty of providing tools to circumvent encryption and was fined $30,000. It is unclear whether the Government of Antigua and Barbuda will permit the site to continue operating now that its courts have determined the conduct to be unlawful. The United States will continue to monitor the situation.
The United States continues to have serious concerns regarding Switzerland's system of online copyright protection and enforcement. The United States strongly encourages Switzerland to demonstrate its commitment to copyright protection and to combating online piracy by taking steps to ensure that rights holders can protect their rights. The United States welcomes many aspects of the December 2013 report of the AGUR 12 working group on copyright and urges the Swiss government to move forward expeditiously with measures to appropriately and effectively address copyright piracy in Switzerland. The United States looks forward to working with Swiss authorities in their heightened engagement with respect to this priority issue.
​The United States also encourages trading partners to adopt appropriate measures where needed to address the unauthorized camcording of motion pictures in theaters. The effects of this conduct are not always limited to the market in which this unauthorized recording occurs. For example, as discussed in more detail below, according to the Motion Pictures Distributors Association of India, India has one of the highest rates of piracy of audiovisual works in the world, and in 2012, the motion picture industry experienced losses estimated at $1.1 billion, an increase of 15.79 percent from 2008.
Copies of copyright-protected material, including audiovisual works that have been camcorded, are often distributed without authorization over the Internet. The United States encourages trading partners to enhance enforcement efforts against this form of infringement by: establishing deterrent penalties against camcording; strengthening enforcement against major channels of piracy over the Internet, including with respect to notorious markets; and creating specialized, trained enforcement units and undertaking special initiatives against Internet piracy.
Although copyright piracy over the Internet is rapidly supplanting physical piracy in many markets around the world, the production of, and trade in, pirated optical discs remains a major problems in many regions. In recent years, some trading partners, such as the Czech Republic, Poland, Romania, and Russia, have made progress toward implementing controls on optical media production. Other trading partners still need to adopt and implement legislation or improve existing measures to combat illegal optical disc production and distribution, including China, India, Paraguay, and Vietnam. The United States continues to urge those trading partners who face challenges regarding illegal optical disc production to pass effective legislation to counter this problem, and to enforce existing laws and regulations aggressively.
Finally, the United States encourages trading partners to implement the WIPO Internet Treaties to provide, among other things, protection against the circumvention of technological protection measures and protection for digital rights management information. (See Annex 3).
Caribbean copyright challenges
The United States also would like to highlight serious concerns regarding copyright protection and enforcement in the Caribbean region: music licensing and cable and satellite broadcasting. With respect to music licensing, cable operators and television and radio broadcasters in ten countries in the region reportedly refuse to negotiate with performing rights organizations (PROs) for compensation for public performance of music. In some instances, the local governments themselves appear to control these cable operators and broadcasters, such as the Government of Barbados, which owns and operates MCTV, a local cable provider. At the same time, the PROs assert that they have struggled to advance their legal claims in the local courts, which are backlogged and subject to chronic delays. Even where lawsuits have been decided in favor of the PROs, the PROs report that there are difficulties in obtaining final payment. Rights holders in the music industry have repeatedly identified Barbados, Jamaica, and Trinidad and Tobago as the Caribbean region's most problematic markets because of the relative size of their markets. However, a similar pattern of unlicensed cable-casting and broadcasting of copyrighted music reportedly exists in Antigua and Barbuda, Belize, Dominica, Grenada, Guyana, St. Lucia, and St. Vincent and the Grenadines.
​With regard to cable and satellite broadcasting of copyrighted television programming, Antigua and Barbuda, Barbados, Belize, Dominica, Grenada, Jamaica, St. Kitts and Nevis, St. Lucia, and St. Vincent and the Grenadines currently maintain a statutory licensing regime that includes a requirement to pay royalties to rights holders. Rights holders assert, however, that they have not received royalty payments from any company in any country in the region, with the notable exception of payments made in 2013 by the Government of the Bahamas. Others in the region – including Anguilla, the Cayman Islands, Dominica, Montserrat, Saint Maarten, and the Turks and Caicos Islands – do not maintain statutory licensing regimes, and reportedly fail to intercede when unauthorized companies intercept and retransmit copyrighted content without remuneration. Again, it is important to note that some of these cable companies are currently or formerly government-owned and operated.
The United States urges these governments to address these issues, and looks forward to engaging on these challenges with the Caribbean Community and Common Market (CARICOM), the Organization of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS), and their member governments.
U.S. concerns with respect to music licensing and unauthorized and uncompensated retransmission of copyright-protected content are not limited to Caribbean markets. We will also engage with other trading partners whose markets present similar challenges.
Government Use of Software
Under Executive Order 13103 issued in September 1998, U.S. Government agencies maintain policies and procedures to ensure that they use only authorized business software. Pursuant to the same directive, USTR has undertaken an initiative to work with other governments, particularly in countries that are modernizing their software systems or where concerns have been raised, to stop unauthorized government use of software. Considerable progress has been made under this initiative, leading to numerous trading partners' mandating that only authorized, legitimate software may be used by their government bodies. Further work on this issue remains with certain trading partners, such as China, Costa Rica, India, Morocco, Pakistan, Paraguay, Saudi Arabia, Thailand, Ukraine, and Vietnam. The United States urges trading partners to adopt and implement effective and transparent procedures to ensure legitimate governmental use of software.
Trademark Issues and Domain Name Disputes
Trademarks help consumers distinguish a company's products and services from competing products and services, and thereby serve a critical source identification role. The goodwill represented in a company's trademarks is often one of the company's most valuable business assets. However, in numerous countries legal and procedural obstacles exist to securing and enforcing trademark rights. Additionally, many countries lack transparency and consistency in administrative registration procedures. In other countries, governments often do not provide the full range of internationally-recognized trademark protections. For example, dozens of countries do not offer a certification mark system for use by foreign or domestic industries. The lack of a certification mark system can make it more difficult to secure protection for products with a quality or characteristic that consumers associate with the product's geographic origin.
​Another area of concern for trademark holders is the protection of their trademarks against unauthorized uses under top level domain extensions. U.S. rights holders face significant trademark infringement and loss of valuable Internet traffic because of such uses. A related and growing concern is that certain country code top level domain names (ccTLD) lack transparent and predictable uniform domain name dispute resolution policies (UDRPs). Effective UDRPs should assist in the quick and efficient resolution of these disputes. The United States encourages its trading partners to provide procedures that allow for the protection of trademarks used in domain names, and to ensure that dispute resolution procedures are available to prevent the misuse of trademarks.
Geographical Indications
The United States is working intensively through bilateral and multilateral channels to advance U.S. market access interests and to ensure that the trade initiatives of other countries, including with respect to geographical indications (GIs), do not undercut U.S. industries' market access. GIs typically consist of place names (or words associated with a place) and they identify products or services as having a particular quality, reputation, or other characteristic attributable to their geographic origin.
The U.S. Government is actively involved in promoting and protecting access to foreign markets for U.S. exporters whose products are identified by common names or generic terms, like parmesan and mozzarella for cheese. The United States is pressing its objectives in a variety of contexts, including in the WTO, WIPO and Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) as well as in our bilateral agreements. The United States is also engaging bilaterally to address GI-related concerns, including with Canada, China, Colombia, Costa Rica, El Salvador, the European Union and its Member States, and the Philippines, among others. U.S. goals in this regard include:
* Ensuring that grants of GI protection do not violate prior rights (for example, in cases in which a U.S. company has a trademark that includes a place name);
* Ensuring that grants of GI protection do not deprive interested parties of the ability to use generic or common terms, such as parmesan or mozzarella;
* Ensuring that interested persons have notice of, and opportunity to oppose, or to seek cancellation of, any GI protection that is sought or granted; and
* Opposing efforts to amend the TRIPS Agreement to extend to other products the special protection that is provided to GIs for wines and spirits.
Intellectual Property and Health Policy
Numerous comments in the 2014 Special 301 review highlighted concerns arising at the intersection of IPR policy and health policy.
Intellectual property plays an important role in providing the incentives necessary for the ​development and marketing of new medicines. An effective, transparent, and predictable IP system is necessary for both manufacturers of innovative medicines and manufacturers of generic medicines.
The 2001 WTO Doha Declaration on the TRIPS Agreement and Public Health recognized the gravity of the public health problems afflicting many developing and least-developed countries, especially those resulting from HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, malaria, and other epidemics. As affirmed in the Doha Declaration on the TRIPS Agreement and Public Health, the United States respects a trading partner's right to protect public health and, in particular, to promote access to medicines for all. The United States also recognizes the role of IP protection in the development of new medicines, while being mindful of the effect of IP protection on prices. The assessments set forth in this Report are based on various critical factors, including, where relevant, the Doha Declaration on the TRIPS Agreement and Public Health.
The United States is firmly of the view that international obligations such as those in the TRIPS Agreement have sufficient flexibility to allow trading partners to address the serious public health problems that they may face. Consistent with this view, the United States respects its trading partners' rights to grant compulsory licenses in a manner consistent with the provisions of the TRIPS Agreement and the Doha Declaration on the TRIPS Agreement and Public Health, and encourages its trading partners to consider ways to address their public health challenges while maintaining IPR systems that promote innovation.
The United States also strongly supports the WTO General Council Decision on the Implementation of Paragraph 6 of the Doha Declaration on the TRIPS Agreement and Public Health concluded in August 2003. Under this decision, Members are permitted, in accordance with specified procedures, to issue compulsory licenses to export pharmaceutical products to countries that cannot produce drugs for themselves. The WTO General Council adopted a Decision in December 2005 that incorporated this solution into an amendment to the TRIPS Agreement, and the United States became the first WTO Member to formally accept this amendment. The United States hopes that at least two-thirds of the WTO membership accept this amendment by the current deadline, December 31, 2015, at which point the amendment will go into effect for those Members. The August 2003 waiver will remain in place and available until the amendment takes effect.
The United States will work to ensure that the provisions of its bilateral and regional trade agreements, as well as U.S. engagement in international organizations, including the United Nations and related institutions such as WIPO and the WHO, are consistent with U.S. Government policies concerning IPR and health policy and do not impede its trading partners from taking measures necessary to protect public health. Accordingly, USTR will continue its close cooperation with relevant agencies to ensure that public health challenges are addressed and IPR protection and enforcement are supported as one of various mechanisms to promote research and innovation.
Supporting Pharmaceutical and Medical Device Innovation through Improved Market Access
Among other mechanisms to support pharmaceutical and medical device innovation, USTR has sought to reduce market access barriers, including those that discriminate against U.S. companies ​or are not adequately transparent, in order to facilitate both affordable health care today and the innovation that assures improved health care tomorrow. This year's Special 301 Report highlights concerns regarding market access barriers affecting pharmaceutical and medical device products, particularly in Algeria, Indonesia, and India.
Measures, including those that are discriminatory, nontransparent or otherwise trade-restrictive, have the potential to hinder market access in the pharmaceutical and medical device sector, and potentially result in higher healthcare costs. For example, taxes or tariffs may be levied – often in a non-transparent manner – on imported medicines and the increased expense associated with those levies is then passed directly to healthcare institutions and patients. The United States notes that, according to an October 2012 WTO report titled More Trade for Better Health? International Trade and Tariffs on Health Products, India maintains the highest tariffs on medicines, inputs to medicines, and medical devices among the WTO members identified in the report. These tariffs, combined with other internal charges or measures, such as price controls that appear to exempt domestically developed and manufactured medicines, can hinder the Indian government's efforts to promote increased access to healthcare products.
Moreover, unreasonable regulatory approval delays and non-transparent reimbursement policies can impede a company's ability to exercise its IP rights, and thereby discourage the development and marketing of new drugs and other medical products. The criteria, rationale, and operation of such measures are often nontransparent or not fully disclosed to patients or to pharmaceutical and medical device companies seeking to market their products. USTR encourages trading partners to provide appropriate mechanisms for transparency, procedural and due process protections, and opportunities for public engagement in the context of their relevant health care systems.
U.S. industry has expressed concerns regarding the policies of several trading partners, including Finland, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Korea, New Zealand, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Spain, Turkey, and Taiwan, on issues related to innovation in the pharmaceutical sector and other aspects of health care goods and services. Examples include:
* With respect to New Zealand, U.S. industry has expressed serious concerns about the policies and operation of New Zealand's Pharmaceutical Management Agency (PhARMAC), including, among other things, the lack of transparency, fairness, and predictability of the PhARMAC pricing and reimbursement regime, as well as the negative aspects of the overall climate for innovative medicines in New Zealand; and
* With respect to Turkey, U.S. industry continues to express significant concern regarding the lack of fairness and the slow pace of pharmaceutical manufacturing inspections.
The United States is seeking to establish or continue dialogues with relevant trading partners to address these and other concerns, and encourage a common understanding on questions related to innovation in the pharmaceutical and medical device sectors. The United States also looks forward to continuing its engagement with China, India, and other trading partners to promote fair and transparent policies in this sector.
​The United States, like many countries, faces healthcare challenges, including with respect to aging populations and rising health care costs. The United States shares the objective of continued improvement in the health and quality of life of its citizens, and the objective of delivering efficient, responsive, and cost-effective high-quality health care to its population. The United States looks forward to engaging with its trading partners on the concerns noted above.
Implementation of the WTO TRIPS Agreement
The TRIPS Agreement, one of the most significant achievements of the Uruguay Round (1986-1995), requires all WTO Members to provide certain minimum standards of IPR protection and enforcement. The TRIPS Agreement is the first broadly-subscribed multilateral IPR agreement that is subject to mandatory dispute settlement provisions.
Developed country Members were required to implement the TRIPS Agreement fully as of January 1, 1996. Developing country Members were given a transition period for many obligations until January 1, 2000, and in some cases, until January 1, 2005. Nevertheless, certain Members are still in the process of finalizing implementing legislation, and many are still engaged in establishing adequate and effective IPR enforcement mechanisms.
Recognizing the particular challenges faced by least-developed country (LDC) Members, the United States has worked closely with them and other WTO Members to extend the implementation date for these countries. On June 11, 2013, the TRIPS Council reached consensus on a decision to again extend the transition period under Article 66.1 of the TRIPS Agreement for LDC Members. Under this decision, LDC Members are not required to apply the provisions of the TRIPS Agreement, other than Articles 3, 4 and 5, until July 1, 2021, or until such a date on which they cease to be a LDC Member, whichever date is earlier. Additionally, the LDC Members have until 2016 to implement their TRIPS Agreement obligations for patent and data protection for pharmaceutical products, as proposed by the United States at the Doha Ministerial Conference of the WTO.
The United States participates actively in the WTO TRIPS Council's scheduled reviews of WTO Members' implementation of the TRIPS Agreement and also uses the WTO's Trade Policy Review mechanism to pose questions and seek constructive engagement on issues related to TRIPS Agreement implementation.
WTO Dispute Settlement
The United States continues to monitor the resolution of disputes announced in previous Special 301 reviews. The most efficient and preferred manner of resolving concerns is through bilateral dialogue. Where these efforts are unsuccessful, the United States will not hesitate to use the WTO dispute settlement procedures, as appropriate.
In April 2007, the United States initiated dispute settlement procedures relating to deficiencies in China's legal regime for protecting and enforcing copyrights and trademarks on a wide range of products. In March 2009, the WTO Dispute Settlement Body (DSB) adopted a panel report that upheld two of the claims advanced by the United States, finding that (1) China's denial of copyright protection to works that do not meet China's content review standards is impermissible under the TRIPS Agreement; and (2) China's customs rules cannot allow seized counterfeit ​goods to be publicly auctioned after only removing the infringing mark. With respect to a third claim concerning China's thresholds for criminal prosecution and conviction of counterfeiting and piracy, while the United States prevailed on the interpretation of the important legal standards in Article 61 of the TRIPS Agreement, including the finding that criminal enforcement measures must reflect and respond to the realities of the commercial marketplace, the panel found that it needed additional evidence before it could uphold the overall U.S. claim that China's criminal thresholds are too high. On March 19, 2010, China announced that it had completed all the necessary domestic legislative procedures to implement the DSB recommendations and rulings. The United States continues to monitor China's implementation of the DSB recommendations and rulings in this dispute.
In addition, the United States requested WTO dispute settlement consultations with China concerning certain other Chinese measures affecting market access and distribution for imported publications, movies, and music, and audio-visual home entertainment products (e.g., DVDs, Blu-ray discs, etc.) (AVHE products). The U.S. claims challenged China's prohibition on foreign companies' importation of all products at issue; China's prohibitions and discriminatory requirements imposed on foreign distributors of publications, music, and AVHE products within China; and China's imposition of more burdensome requirements on the distribution of imported publications, movies, and music vis-à-vis their domestic counterparts. On January 19, 2010, the DSB adopted panel and Appellate Body reports that found in favor of the United States on the vast majority of its claims. China committed to bring all relevant measures into compliance with the DSB recommendations by March 19, 2011, and subsequently revised or revoked several measures relating to publications, AVHE products, and music. China did not issue any measures relating to theatrical films, but instead proposed bilateral discussions. The United States and China reached agreement in February 2012 on the terms of a Memorandum of Understanding that provides significantly increased market access for imported films and significantly improved compensation for foreign film producers. The United States continues to review and monitor the steps that China has taken toward compliance in this matter.
Following the 1999 Special 301 review, the United States initiated dispute settlement consultations concerning the EU regulation on food-related GIs, which appeared to discriminate against foreign products and persons, notably by requiring that EU trading partners adopt an "EU-style" system of GI protection, and appeared to provide insufficient protections to trademark owners. On April 20, 2005, the DSB adopted a panel report finding in favor of the United States that the EU GI regulation is inconsistent with the EU's obligations under the TRIPS Agreement and the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1994. On March 31, 2006, the EU published a revised GI Regulation that is intended to comply with the DSB recommendations and rulings. There remain some concerns, however, with respect to this revised GI Regulation, which the United States has asked the EU to address, and the United States intends to continue monitoring this situation. The United States is also working intensively through bilateral and multilateral fora to advance U.S. market access interests, and to ensure that the trade initiatives of other countries, including with respect to GIs, do not undercut our market access.
Interagency Trade Enforcement Center
In his State of the Union address on January 24, 2012, President Obama announced the creation of the Interagency Trade Enforcement Center (ITEC) to take a whole-of-government approach to ​monitoring and enforcing Americans' trade rights around the world. Thereafter, on February 28, 2012, the President issued an Executive Order that established ITEC. As the federal government's primary coordinator of international and domestic trade enforcement, ITEC helps to ensure that America's trading partners abide by their obligations, including by maintaining open markets on a non-discriminatory basis, and by following rules-based procedures in a transparent way. ITEC leverages and mobilizes the federal government's resources and expertise to address unfair foreign trade practices and barriers. In particular, ITEC uses expertise from across the federal government to assist in asserting U.S. trade rights implicated by various international trade agreements and serves as the primary forum within the federal government for agencies to coordinate enforcement of obligations under international trade agreements, including the identification of unfair trade practices and barriers that involve IPR.