OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Monk

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​MONK (O. Eng. munuc; this with the Teutonic forms, e.g. Du. monnik, Ger. Mönch, and the Romanic, e.g. Fr. moine, Ital. monacho and Span. monje, are from the Lat. monachus, adapted from Gr. μοναχός, one living alone, a solitary; μόνος, alone), a member of a community of men living a life under vows of religious observance; the term is properly confined to a member of a Christian community, but is sometimes applied to members of Buddhist and Mahommedan religious brotherhoods. The Greek and Latin name was first used of the hermits, but was early widened to embrace the coenobites. The term “monk” should not be used either of “friars” or of “canons regular.” (See Monasticism.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Monk, Maria

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​MONK, MARIA (c. 1817–1850), an adventuress and impostor, who, coming to New York in 1835, claimed to have escaped from the Montreal nunnery of the Hotel Dieu, concerning which, and the practices prevalent there, she circulated sensational charges in Awful Disclosures by Maria Monk (1836). Over 200,000 copies of this book and a sequel were sold, and a violent anti-Catholic agitation resulted. She was finally exposed as a woman of bad character, and her story proved to be absolutely false, but not until she had deceived many people of good standing.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Monkey

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​MONKEY, a term apparently applicable to all members of the order Primates (q.v.) except man and perhaps the larger apes. In zoology it may be used in this wider sense, as inclusive of all the Primates except man and lemurs; but it may also be employed in a more restricted application, so as to denote all ordinary “monkeys” as distinct from baboons on the one hand and the tail-less man-like apes on the other. The word appears in English first in the 16th century. The Low-German version of Reynard the Fox (Reinke de Vos, 1479) calls the son of Martin, the ape, Moneke; and the French version has Monnekin, Monnequin; these are apparently Teutonic diminutives of a word for ape which occurs in several Romanic languages, e.g. Fr. monne, It. monna, &c.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Monkhouse, William Cosmo

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​MONKHOUSE, WILLIAM COSMO (1840–1901), English poet and critic, was born in London on the 18th of March 1840. His father, Cyril John Monkhouse, was a solicitor; his mother’s maiden name was Delafosse. He was educated at St Paul’s School, quitting it at seventeen to enter the board of trade as a junior supplementary clerk, from which grade he rose eventually to be the assistant-secretary to the finance department of the office. In 1870–1871 he visited South America in connexion with the hospital accommodation for seamen at Valparaiso and other ports; and he served on different departmental committees, notably that of 1894–1896 on the Mercantile Marine Fund. He was twice married: first, to Laura, daughter of James Keymer of Dartford; and, secondly, to Leonora Eliza, daughter of Commander Blount, R.N. He died in London on the 20th of July 1901. Cosmo Monkhouse was one of those who have not only a vocation, but an avocation. His first bias was to poetry, and in 1865 he issued A Dream of Idleness and Other Poems, a collection strongly coloured by his admiration for Wordsworth and Tennyson. It was marked by exceptional maturity, and scarcely received the recognition it deserved. Owing perhaps to this circumstance, it was not till 1890 that he put forth Corn and Poppies, a collection which contains at least one memorable effort in the well-known “Dead March.” Five years later appeared a limited edition of the striking ballad of The Christ upon the Hill, illustrated with etchings by Mr William Strang. After. his death his poetical output was completed by Pasiteles the Elder and other Poems (including The Christ upon the Hill). In 1868 Monkhouse essayed a novel, A Question of Honour. Then, after preluding with a Life of Turner in the “Great Artists Series” (1879), he devoted himself almost exclusively to art criticism. Besides many contributions to the Academy, the Saturday Review, the Magazine of Art and other periodicals, he published volumes on The Italian Pre-Raphaelites (1887), The Earlier English Water-Colour Painters (1890 and 1897), In the National Gallery (1895) and British Contemporary Artists (1899). He was a contributor to the Dict. Nat. Biog. from the beginning. Monkhouse also wrote an excellent Memoir of Leigh Hunt in the “Great Writers Series” (1887). As an art critic Monkhouse’s judgments were highly valued; and he had the rare gift of differing without offending, while he invariably secured respect for his honesty and ability. As a poet, his ambition was so wide and his devotion to the art so thorough, that it is difficult not to regret the slender bulk of his legacy to posterity.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Monk, James Henry

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​MONK, JAMES HENRY (1784–1856), English divine and classical scholar, was born at Buntingford, Herts. He was educated at Charterhouse School and Trinity College, Cambridge, and in 1809 was elected professor of Greek in succession to Porson. The establishment of the classical tripos was in great measure due to his efforts. In 1822 he was appointed dean of Peterborough; in 1830, bishop of Gloucester (with which the see of Bristol was amalgamated in 1836). He is best known as the author of a Life of Bentley (1830) and as the editor (with C. J. Blomfield) of Porson’s Adversaria (1812).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Monkswell, Robert Porrett Collier, 1st Baron

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​MONKSWELL, ROBERT PORRETT COLLIER, 1st Baron (1817–1886), English judge, was born at Plymouth, on the 21st of June 1817, and was the son of a prominent merchant of Quaker extraction. He was educated at Oxford, was called to the bar in 1843, and went the western circuit. He obtained a high reputation by his successful defence of Brazilian pirates in 1845; ​they were, indeed, convicted at the assizes, but Collier ultimately procured their escape upon a point of law which the judge had refused to reserve. He was elected member of parliament for Plymouth in the Liberal interest in 1852, and in 1859 was appointed counsel to the admiralty and judge-advocate to the fleet. In this capacity he gave in 1862 an opinion in favour of detaining the Confederate rams building in the Mersey, which would have saved his country much money and much credit if it had been acted upon. In 1863 he became solicitor-general, and in 1868 attorney-general, and in 1869 successfully passed a bankruptcy bill. In 1871 he was appointed by Mr Gladstone one of four new judges upon the judicial committee of the privy council, although it was expressly provided by the act creating these offices that none of them should be filled by a law-officer of the Crown. This prohibition was evaded by making Collier a judge of common pleas, and transferring him after a few days to the privy council. This arrangement was unanimously condemned by public opinion, and gave the Gladstone cabinet a serious blow. He officiated, nevertheless, with distinction until his death on the 3rd of November 1886, and was raised to the peerage as Baron Monkswell in 1885. He was a man of many accomplishments, and especially distinguished as an amateur painter, frequently exhibiting landscapes at the Royal Academy and elsewhere. In his younger days he had been noted as a clever caricaturist. He was succeeded in the peerage by his elder son, Robert (b. 1845), who, after taking a first class in law at Cambridge, went to the bar, and became (1871) conveyancing counsel to the treasury, and (1885–1886) an official examiner of the High Court, and, taking to politics as a Liberal, under-secretary for war (1895). The younger son, John Collier (b. 1850), inherited his father’s artistic tastes, and became a well-known painter.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Monmouth

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​MONMOUTH (Welsh Mynwy), a municipal and contributory parliamentary borough, and the county town of Monmouthshire, England, 18 m. S. of Hereford, on the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901), 5095. It is picturesquely situated at the confluence of the Wye and the Monnow, between the two rivers, and is almost surrounded by hills. Portions of the town walls remain, and there is a picturesque old gateway on the Monnow bridge; but there are only insignificant ruins of the castle, which was originally a Saxon fortress, and was twice taken by the Parliamentary forces during the Civil War. Besides the churches—that of St Mary, completed in 1882 on an ancient site, and the chapel of St Thomas, a late Norman structure—the principal buildings are the town-hall, the Rolls Hall and the free grammar school, which was founded in 1614, and educates about 150 boys on the usual lines of a public school. A statue of Henry V., who was born in its castle, stands in the market-place. With Newport and Usk, Monmouth forms the Monmouth parliamentary district of boroughs, returning one member.
Monmouth (Monemuta) from the coincidence of position is supposed to be the Blaestium of Antoninus. Situated between the Severn and the Wye its strategic importance was early recognized by the Saxons, who fortified it against the Britons, while in later years it played a leading part in Welsh border warfare. At the time of the Domesday Survey the castle was in the custody of William Fitz Baderon. Henry III. granted it, together with the lordship of the borough, to his son Edmund Crouchback, through whose descendants both borough and castle passed into the duchy of Lancaster. Since the 18th century the dukes of Beaufort have been lords of the borough. Monmouth was a borough by prescription as early as 1256, and was governed by a mayor in 1461, but was not incorporated until 1550 under the title of “Mayor, Bailiffs and Commonalty.” This charter was confirmed in 1558, 1606 and 1666, a recorder and town clerk being added to the constitution. In accordance with the act of 1535–1536 Monmouth as county town obtained the right of representation in parliament; the earliest returns existing are for 1553, since which date one member has been returned regularly. Wednesday and Saturday markets were confirmed to Monmouth in 1550, with the further proviso that no others were to be held within five miles of the borough. Friday is now the weekly market-day. At the same time an annual three-days’ fair, which still exists, was granted on Whit-Tuesday and successive days. During the 16th and 17th centuries the manufacture of Monmouth caps was an important industry, fostered by legislation and mentioned by Fuller in his Worthies of England.
See Charles Heath, The Town of Monmouth (Monmouth, 1804).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Monmouth, Battle of

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​MONMOUTH, BATTLE OF (1778), a battle in the American War of Independence. The prospect of an alliance between France and America in 1778 induced the British to concentrate their forces. Sir Henry Clinton, who had succeeded Sir W. Howe in command, determined to abandon Philadelphia, captured in the previous year, and move his troops direct to New York through New Jersey. Washington, who had spent the winter at Valley Forge, Pennsylvania, and had materially recruited his army, immediately marched to intercept the British, and overtook them near Monmouth Court House (now Freehold), New Jersey, on the 28th of June 1778. A strong detachment of Americans under General Charles Lee was sent forward to harass the enemy’s rear and if possible cut off a portion of their long baggage train. Clinton strengthened his rearguard, which turned upon the Americans and compelled them to retreat. When Washington, who was well up with his main body, heard of Lee’s retreat, he spurred forward and exerted himself in forming a strong line of battle in case the British continued their determined attack. Warm words passed between Washington ​and Lee, which subsequently led to the latter’s court-martial and suspension for a year. The readjusted American line was composed of the divisions of Lafayette, Greene, Alexander and Patterson, while Wayne’s brigade, which had been in Lee’s advance from the first, was posted in a favourable position. The British attacked this line and a warm, though brief, engagement ensued. Both sides encamped at night on the ground occupied. The British, having accomplished their object in delaying Washington’s pursuit, continued their march the next day towards New York. Washington turned to the left, crossed the Hudson above, and encamped for the remainder of the season at White Plains, New York, within striking distance of the city. Each side suffered about the same loss in the battle, that of the British being 400 (60 due to sunstroke), the American somewhat less. In this engagement Lieut.-Colonel Henry Monckton (1740–1778) of the British Grenadiers was killed in leading a charge.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Oskaloosa

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​OSKALOOSA, a city and the county-seat of Mahaska county, Iowa, U.S.A., about 62 m. S.E. of Des Moines. Pop. (1900) 9212, of whom 649 were foreign-born and 344 were negroes; (1910 U.S. census) 9466. It is served by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, and the Iowa Central railways, and by interurban electric lines. The city is built on a fertile prairie in one of the principal coal-producing regions of the state. At Oskaloosa is held the Iowa yearly meeting of the Society of Friends; and the city is the seat of Penn College (opened 1873), a Friends' institution, and of the Iowa Christian College (incorporated as Oskaloosa College in 1856 and reincorporated under its present name in 1902). At the village of University Park (incorporated in 1909), a suburb adjoining the city on the E., is the Central Holiness University (1906; coeducational), where the annual camp meeting of the National and Iowa Holiness Associations is held. Coal-mining is the most important industry in the surrounding region. There are deposits of clay and limestone in the vicinity, and among the city's manufactures are drain and sewer tile, paving and building bricks, cement blocks, and warm-air furnaces; in 1905 the factory products were valued at $779,894. Oskaloosa was first settled in 1843; it was selected in 1844 by the county commissioners as a site for the county-seat, and was chartered as a city in 1853. It is said to have been named in honour of the wife of the Indian chief Mahaska (of the Iowa tribe), in whose honour the county was named; a bronze statue of Mahaska (by Sherry E. Fry, an Iowa sculptor) was erected here in 1909.
See W. A. Hunter, “History of Mahaska County,” in Annals of Iowa, vols. vi.-vii. (Davenport, Iowa, 1868–1869), published by the Iowa State Historical Society.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Osiander, Andreas

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​OSIANDER, ANDREAS (1498–1552), German reformer, was born at Gunzenhausen, near Nuremberg, on the 19th of December 1498. His German name was Heiligmann, or, according to others, Hosemann. After studying at Leipzig, Altenburg and Ingolstadt, he was ordained priest in 1520 and appointed Hebrew tutor in the Augustinian convent at Nuremberg. Two years afterwards he was appointed preacher in the St Lorenz Kirche, and about the same time he publicly joined the Lutheran party, taking a prominent part in the discussion which ultimately led to the adoption of the Reformation by the city. He married in 1525. He was present at the Marburg conference in 1529, at the Augsburg diet in 1530 and at the signing of the Schmalkald articles in 1537, and took part in other public transactions of importance in the history of the Reformation; that he had an exceptionally large number of personal enemies was due to his vehemence, coarseness and arrogance in controversy. The introduction of the Augsburg Interim in 1548 necessitated his departure from Nuremberg; he went first to Breslau, and afterwards settled at Königsberg as professor in its new university at the call of Duke Albert of Prussia. Here in 1550 he published two disputations, the one De lege et evangelio and the other De justificatione, which aroused a controversy still unclosed at his death on the 17th of October 1552. While he was fundamentally at one with Luther in opposing both Romanism and Calvinism, his mysticism led him to interpret justification by faith as not an imputation but an infusion of the essential righteousness or divine nature of Christ. His party was afterwards led by his son-in-law Johann Funck, but disappeared after the latter’s execution for high treason in 1566. Osiander’s son Lukas (1534–1604), and grandsons Andreas (1562–1617) and Lukas (1571–1638), were well-known theologians.
Osiander, besides a number of controversial writings, published a corrected edition of the Vulgate, with notes, in 1522, and a Harmony of the Gospels—the first work of its kind—in 1537. The best-known work of his son Lukas was an Epitome of the Magdeburg Centuries. See the Life by W. Möller (Elberfeld, 1870).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Osiris

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​OSIRIS, one of the principal gods of the ancient Egyptians. See Egypt, section Egyptian Religion.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Oshima

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​OSHIMA, a group of three small islands belonging to Japan, lying southwards of Kiushiu, in 30° 50′ N. and 130° E. Their names, from west to east, are Kuroshima, Iwo-shima and Takashima. Kuro-shima rises to a height of 2475 ft., and Iwo-shima has an active volcano 2480 ft. high. These islands are not to be confounded with Oshima, the most northerly island of the Izu-noshichito, or with the northern group of the Luchu Islands. There are several other islands of the same name in Japan, Oshima signifying “big island.” One of the best known lies off the Kii promontory, and has been the scene of many maritime disasters.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Oshkosh

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​OSHKOSH, a city and the county-seat of Winnebago county, Wisconsin, U.S.A., about 75 m. N.N.W. of Milwaukee, on the W. shore of Lake Winnebago at the mouth of the Upper Fox river. Pop. (1900) 28,284, of whom 7356 were foreign-born (including 4500 from Germany), and 16,942 of foreign parentage (including 10,655 of German and 1015 of Bohemian parentage); (1910 census) 33,062. Oshkosh is served by the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, the Chicago & Northwestern and the Minneapolis, St Paul & Sault Ste. Marie railways, by river steamboat lines connecting with other Fox River Valley cities, with the Wisconsin river at Portage, and with the Great Lakes at Green Bay, and by interurban electric lines connecting with Fond du Lac on the S., Green Bay on the N. and Omro on the W. The city lies on both sides of the Fox river, here spanned by six steel bridges, and stretches back to Lake Butte des Morts, an expansion of the Fox. North Park (60 acres), on the lake front, ​is the most noteworthy of its parks; and there are Chautauqua grounds on the lake front. Yacht races take place annually on Lake Winnebago. Among the public buildings are the City Hall, Post Office, Winnebago County Court House, Public Library (22,000 volumes). Oshkosh is the seat of a State Normal School (1871), the largest in the state. The principal industries are the manufacture of lumber and of lumber products, although the former, which was once of paramount importance, has declined with the cutting of neighbouring forests. In 1905 the value of the city’s factory product was $8,796,705, the lumber, timber and planing mill products being valued at $4,671,003, the furniture at $751,511 and the waggons and carriages at $475,935. Oshkosh is an important wholesale distributing centre for a large part of central Wisconsin. Farming and dairying are important industries in the vicinity.
Under the French régime the site of Oshkosh was on the natural route of travel for those who crossed the Fox-Wisconsin portage, and was visited by Marquette, Joliet and La Salle on their way to the Mississippi. There were temporary trading posts here in the 18th century. About 1827 the first permanent settlers came, and in 1830 there were a tavern, a store and a ferry across the river to Algoma, as the S. side of the river was at first called. The settlement was first known as Saukeer, but in 1840 its name was changed to Oshkosh in honour of a Menominee chief who had befriended the early settlers and who lived in the vicinity until his death in 1856. The real prosperity of the place began about 1845 with the erection of two saw mills; in 1850 Oshkosh had 1400 inhabitants, and between 1860 and 1870 the population increased from 6086 to 12,663. In July 1874 and April 1875 the city was greatly damaged by fire.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Osman (pasha)

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​OSMAN (1832–1900), Turkish pasha and mushir (field marshal), was born at Tokat, in Asia Minor, in 1832. Educated at the military academy at Constantinople, he entered the cavalry in 1853, and served under Omar Pasha in the Russian War of 1853–56, in Wallachia and the Crimea. Appointed a captain, in the Imperial Guard, he went through the campaigns of the Lebanon in 1860 and of Crete in 1867 to 1869, under Mustapha Pasha, when he distinguished himself at the capture of the convent of Hagia Georgia, and was promoted lieut.-colonel. He served under Redif Pasha in suppressing an insurrection in Yemen in 1871, was promoted major-general in 1874, and general of division in 1875. Appointed to command the army corps at Widin in 1876 on the declaration of war by Servia, he defeated Tchnernaieff at Saitschar and again at Yavor in July, invaded Servia and captured Alexinatz and Deligrad in October, when the war ended. Osman was promoted to be mushir, and continued in the command of the army corps at Widin. When the Russians crossed the Danube in July 1877, Osman moved his force to Plevna, and, with the assistance of his engineer, Tewfik Pasha, entrenched himself there on the right flank of the Russian line of communication, and gradually made the position a most formidable one. He repulsed the three general assaults of the Russians on the 20th and 30th July and the 11th September, inflicting on them great loss—some 30,000 men in the three battles. He held the position, after being closely invested, until the 9th December, when, compelled by want to cut his way out, he was severely wounded and forced to capitulate. This famous improvised defence of a position delayed the Russians for five months, and entailed their crossing the Balkan range in the depth of winter after the third battle of Plevna. The sultan conferred on Osman the Grand Cross of the Osmanie in brilliants and the title of “Ghazi” (victorious), and, when he returned from imprisonment in Russia, ​made him commandant of the Imperial Guard, grand-master of the artillery and marshal of the palace. In December 1878 he became war minister, and held the post, with a small break, until 1885. He died at Constantinople, in the palace built for him by the sultan near Yildiz Kiosk, on the 14th of April 1900, and his body was buried with great pomp in the Sultan Muhammad Mosque.