OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lindsay (family)

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​LINDSAY, the family name of the earls of Crawford. The family is one of great antiquity in Scotland, the earliest to settle in that country being Sir Walter de Lindesia, who attended David, earl of Huntingdon, afterwards King David I., in his colonization of the Lowlands early in the 12th century. The descendants of Sir Walter divided into three branches, one of which held the baronies of Lamberton in Scotland, and Kendal and Molesworth in England; another held Luffness and Crawford in Scotland and half Limesi in England; and a third held Breneville and Byres in Scotland and certain lands, not by baronial tenure, in England. The heads of all these branches sat as barons in the Scottish parliament for more than two hundred years before the elevation of the chief of the house to an earldom in 1398. The ​Lindsays held the great mountain district of Crawford in Clydesdale, from which the title of the earldom is derived, from the 12th century till the close of the 15th, when it passed to the Douglas earls of Angus. See Crawford, Earls of.
See A. W. C. Lindsay, afterwards earl of Crawford, Lives of the Lindsays, or a Memoir of the Houses of Crawford and Belcarres (3 vols., 1843 and 1858).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lindet, Jean Baptiste Robert

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​LINDET, JEAN BAPTISTE ROBERT (1749–1825), French revolutionist, was born at Bernay (Eure). Before the Revolution he was an avocat at Bernay. He acted as procureur-syndic of the district of Bernay during the session of the Constituent Assembly. Appointed deputy to the Legislative Assembly and subsequently to the Convention, he attained considerable prominence. He was very hostile to the king, furnished a Rapport sur les crimes imputés à Louis Capet (10th of December 1792), and voted for the death of Louis without appeal or respite. He was instrumental in the establishment of the Revolutionary Tribunal and contributed to the downfall of the Girondists. As member of the Committee of Public Safety, he devoted himself particularly to the question of food-supplies, and it was only by dint of dogged perseverance and great administrative talent that he was successful in coping with this difficult problem. He had meanwhile been sent to suppress revolts in the districts of Rhône, Eure, Calvados and Finistère, where he had been able to pursue a conciliatory policy. Without being formally opposed to Robespierre, he did not support him, and he was the only member of the Committee of Public Safety who did not sign the order for the execution of Danton and his party. In a like spirit of moderation he opposed the Thermidorian reaction, and defended Barère, Billaud-Varenne the Collot d’Herbois from the accusations launched against them on the 22nd of March 1795. Himself denounced on the 20th of May 1795, he was defended by his brother Thomas, but only escaped condemnation by the vote of amnesty of the 4th of Brumaire, year IV. (26th of October 1795). He was minister of finance from the 18th of June to the 9th of November 1799, but refused office under the Consulate and the Empire. In 1816 he was proscribed by the Restoration government as a regicide, and did not return to France until just before his death on the 17th of February 1825. His brother Thomas made some mark as a Constitutional bishop and member of the Convention.
See Amand Montier, Robert Lindet (Paris, 1899); H. Turpin, Thomas Lindet (Bernay, 1886); A. Montier, Correspondance de Thomas Lindet (Paris, 1899).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lindley, Nathaniel Lindley, Baron

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​LINDLEY, NATHANIEL LINDLEY, Baron (1828– ), English judge, son of John Lindley (q.v.), was born at Acton Green, Middlesex, on the 29th of November 1828. He was educated at University College School, and studied for a time at University College, London. He was called to the bar at the Middle Temple in 1850, and began practice in the Court of Chancery. In 1855 he published An Introduction to the Study of Jurisprudence, consisting of a translation of the general part of Thibaut’s System des Pandekten Rechts, with copious notes. In 1860 he published in two volumes his Treatise on the Law of Partnership, including its Application to Joint Stock and other Companies, and in 1862 a supplement including the Companies Act of 1862. This work has since been developed into two text-books well known to lawyers as Lindley on Companies and Lindley on Partnership. He became a Q.C. in January 1872. In 1874 he was elected a bencher of the Middle Temple, of which he was treasurer in 1894. In 1875 he was appointed a justice of common pleas, the appointment of a chancery barrister to a common-law court being justified by the fusion of law and equity then shortly to be brought about, in theory at all events, by the Judicature Acts. In pursuance of the changes now made he became a justice of the common pleas division of the High Court of Justice, and in 1880 of the queen’s bench division. In 1881 he was raised to the Court of Appeal and made a privy councillor. In 1897, Lord Justice Lindley succeeded Lord Esher as master of the rolls, and in 1900 he was made a lord of appeal in ordinary with a life peerage and the title of Baron Lindley. He resigned the judicial post in 1905. Lord Lindley was the last serjeant-at-law appointed, and the last judge to wear the serjeant’s coif, or rather the black patch representing it, on the judicial wig. He married in 1858 Sarah Katherine, daughter of Edward John Teale of Leeds.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lindo, Mark Prager

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​LINDO, MARK PRAGER (1819–1879), Dutch prose writer, of English-Jewish descent, was born in London on the 18th of September 1819. He went to Holland when nineteen years of age, and once established there as a private teacher of the English language, he soon made up his mind to remain. In 1842 he passed his examination at Arnhem, qualifying him as a professor of English in Holland, subsequently becoming a teacher of the English language and literature at the gymnasium in that town. In 1853 he was appointed in a similar capacity at the Royal Military Academy in Breda. Meanwhile Lindo had obtained a thorough grasp of the Dutch language, partly during his student years at Utrecht University, where in 1854 he gained the degree of doctor of literature. His proficiency in the two languages led him to translate into Dutch several of the works of Dickens, Thackeray and others, and afterwards also of Fielding, Sterne and Walter Scott. Some of Lindo’s translations bore the imprint of hasty and careless work, and all were very unequal in quality. His name is much more likely to endure as the writer of humorous original sketches and novelettes in Dutch, which he published under the pseudonym of De Oude Herr Smits (“Old Mr Smits”). Among the most popular are: Brieven en Ontboezemingen (“Letters and Confessions,” 1853, with three “Continuations”); Familie van Ons (“Family of Ours,” 1855); Bekentenissen eener Jonge Dame (“Confessions of a Young Lady,” 1858); Uittreksels uit het Dagboek van Wijlen den Heer Janus Snor (“Extracts from the Diary of the late Mr Janus Snor,” 1865); Typen (“Types,” 1871); and, particularly, Afdrukken van Indrukken (“Impressions from Impressions,” 1854, reprinted many times). The last-named was written in collaboration with Lodewyk Mulder, who contributed some of its drollest whimsicalities of Dutch life and character, which, for that reason, are almost untranslatable. Lodewyk Mulder and Lindo also founded together, and carried on, for a considerable time alone, the Nederlandsche Spectator (“The Dutch Spectator”), a literary weekly, still published at The Hague, which bears little resemblance to its English prototype, and which perhaps reached its greatest popularity and influence when Vosmaer contributed to it a brilliant weekly letter under the fanciful title of Vlugmaren (“Swifts”). Lindo’s serious original Dutch writings he published under his own name, the principal one being De Opkomst en Ontwikkeling van het Engelsche Volk (“The Rise and Development of the British People,” 2 vols. 1868–1874)—a valuable history. Lodewyk Mulder published in 1877–1879 a collected edition of Lindo’s writings in five volumes, and there has since been a popular reissue. Lindo was appointed an inspector of primary schools in the province of South Holland in 1865, a post he held until his death at The Hague on the 9th of March 1879.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lindesay, Robert

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​LINDESAY, ROBERT, of Pitscottie (c. 1530–c. 1590), Scottish historian, of the family of the Lindesays of the Byres, was born at Pitscottie, in the parish of Ceres, Fifeshire, which he held in lease at a later period. His Historie and Cronicles of Scotland, the only work by which he is remembered, is described as a continuation of that of Hector Boece, translated by John Bellenden. It covers the period from 1437 to 1565, and, though it sometimes degenerates into a mere chronicle of short entries, is not without passages of great picturesqueness. Sir Walter Scott made use of it in Marmion; and, in spite of its inaccuracy in details, it is useful for the social history of the period. Lindesay’s share in the Cronicles was generally supposed to end with 1565; but Dr Aeneas Mackay considers that the frank account of the events connected with Mary Stuart between 1565 and 1575 contained in one of the MSS. is by his hand and was only suppressed because it was too faithful in its record of contemporary affairs.
The Historie and Cronicles was first published in 1728. A complete edition of the text (2 vols.), based on the Laing MS. No. 218 in the university of Edinburgh, was published by the Scottish Text Society in 1899 under the editorship of Aeneas J. G. Mackay. The MS., formerly in the possession of John Scott of Halkshill, is fuller, and, though in a later hand, is, on the whole, a better representative of Lindesay’s text.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lindley, John

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​LINDLEY, JOHN (1799–1865), English botanist, was born on the 5th of February 1799 at Catton, near Norwich, where his father, George Lindley, author of A Guide to the Orchard and Kitchen Garden, owned a nursery garden. He was educated at Norwich grammar school. His first publication, in 1819, a translation of the Analyse du fruit of L. C. M. Richard, was followed in 1820 by an original Monographia Rosarum, with descriptions of new species, and drawings executed by himself, and in 1821 by Monographia Digitalium, and by “Observations on Pomaceae,” contributed to the Linnean Society. Shortly afterwards he went to London, where he was engaged by J. C. Loudon to write the descriptive portion of the Encyclopaedia of Plants. In his labours on this undertaking, which was completed in 1829, he became convinced of the superiority of the “natural” system of A. L. de Jussieu, as distinguished from the “artificial” system of Linnaeus followed in the Encyclopaedia; the conviction found expression in A Synopsis of British Flora, arranged according to the Natural Order (1829) and in An Introduction to the Natural System of Botany (1830). In 1829 Lindley, who since 1822 had been assistant secretary to the Horticultural Society, was appointed to the chair of botany in University College, London, which he retained till 1860; he lectured also on botany from 1831 at the Royal Institution, and from 1836 at the Botanic Gardens, Chelsea. During his professoriate he wrote many scientific and popular works, besides contributing largely to the Botanical Register, of which he was editor for many years, and to the Gardener’s Chronicle, in which he had charge of the horticultural department from 1841. He was a fellow of the Royal, Linnean and Geological Societies. He died at Turnham Green on the 1st of November 1865.
Besides those already mentioned, his works include An Outline of the First Principles of Horticulture (1832), An Outline of the Structure and Physiology of Plants (1832), A Natural System of Botany (1836), The Fossil Flora of Great Britain (with William Hutton, 1831–1837), Flora Medica (1838), Theory of Horticulture (1840), The Vegetable Kingdom (1846), Folia Orchidacea (1852), Descriptive Botany (1858).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hemimorphite

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​HEMIMORPHITE, a mineral consisting of hydrous zinc silicate, H$_2$Zn$_2$SiO$_5$, of importance as an ore of the metal, of which it contains 54.4%. It is interesting crystallographically by reason of the hemimorphic development of its orthorhombic
crystals, these are prismatic in habit and are differently terminated at the two ends. In the figure, the faces at the upper end of the crystal are the basal plane k and the domes o, p, l, m, whilst at the lower end there are only the four faces of the pyramid P. Connected with this polarity of the crystals is their pyroelectric character—when a crystal is subjected to changes of temperature it becomes positively electrified at one end and negatively at the opposite end. There are perfect cleavages parallel to the prism faces (d in the figure). Crystals are usually colourless, sometimes yellowish or greenish, and transparent; they have vitreous lustre. The hardness is 5, and the specific gravity 3.45. The mineral also occurs as stalactitic or botryoidal masses with a fibrous structure, or in a massive, cellular or granular condition intermixed with calamine and clay. It is decomposed by hydrochloric acid with gelatinization; this property affords a ready means of distinguishing hemimorphite from calamine (zinc carbonate), these two minerals being, when not crystallized, very like each other in appearance. The water contained in hemimorphite is expelled only at a red heat, and the mineral must therefore be considered as a basic metasilicate, (ZnOH)$_2$SiO$_3$.
The name hemimorphite was given by G. A. Kenngott in 1853 because of the typical hemimorphic development of the crystals. The mineral had long been confused with calamine (q.v.) and even now this name is often applied to it. On account of its pyroelectric properties, it was called electric calamine by J. Smithson in 1803.
Hemimorphite occurs with other ores of zinc (calamine and blende), forming veins and beds in sedimentary limestones. British localities are Matlock, Alston, Mendip Hills and Leadhills; at Roughten Gill, Caldbeck Fells, Cumberland, it occurs as mammillated incrustations of a sky-blue colour. Well-crystallized specimens have been found in the zinc mines at Altenberg near Aachen in Rhenish Prussia, Nerchinsk mining district in Siberia, and Elkhorn in Montana. (L. J. S.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hen

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​HEN, a female bird, especially the female of the common fowl (q.v.). The O. Eng. hæn is the feminine form of hana, the male bird, a correlation of words which is represented in other Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Hahn, Henne, Dutch haan, hen, Swed. hane, hönne, &c. The O. Eng. name for the male bird has disappeared, its place being taken by “cock,” a word probably of onomatopoeic origin, being from a base kuk- or kik-, seen also in “chicken.” This word also appears in Fr. coq, and medieval Lat. coccus.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hemingburgh, Walter of

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​HEMINGBURGH, WALTER OF, also commonly, but erroneously, called Walter Hemingford, a Latin chronicler of the 14th century, was a canon regular of the Austin priory of Gisburn in Yorkshire. Hence he is sometimes known as Walter of Gisburn (Walterus Gisburnensis). Bale seems to have been the first to give him the name by which he became more commonly known. His chronicle embraces the period of English history from the Conquest (1066) to the nineteenth year of Edward III., with the exception of the years 1316–1326. It ends with the title of a chapter in which it was proposed to describe the battle of Creçy (1346); but the chronicler seems to have died before the required information reached him. There is, however, some controversy as to whether the later portions which are lacking in some of the MSS. are by him. In compiling the first part, Hemingburgh apparently used the histories of Eadmer, Hoveden, Henry of Huntingdon, and William of Newburgh; but the reigns of the three Edwards are original, composed from personal observation and information. There are several manuscripts of the history extant—the best perhaps being that presented to the College of Arms by the earl of Arundel. The work is correct and judicious, and written in a pleasing style. One of its special features is the preservation in its pages of copies of the great charters, and Hemingburgh’s versions have more than once supplied deficiencies and cleared up obscurities in copies from other sources.
The first three books were published by Thomas Gale in 1687, in his Historiae Anglicanae scriptores quinque, and the remainder by Thomas Hearne in 1731. The first portion was again published in 1848 by the English Historical Society, under the title Chronicon Walteri de Hemingburgh, vulgo Hemingford nuncupati, de gestis regum Angliae, edited by H. C. Hamilton.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hemsterhuis, François

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​HEMSTERHUIS, FRANÇOIS (1721–1790), Dutch writer on aesthetics and moral philosophy, son of Tiberius Hemsterhuis, was born at Franeker in Holland, on the 27th of December 1721. He was educated at the university of Leiden, where he studied Plato. Failing to obtain a professorship, he entered the service of the state, and for many years acted as secretary to the state council of the United Provinces. He died at the Hague on the 7th of July 1790. Through his philosophical writings he became acquainted with many distinguished persons—Goethe, Herder, Princess Amalia of Gallitzin, and especially Jacobi, with whom he had much in common. Both were idealists, and their works suffer from a similar lack of arrangement, although distinguished by elegance of form and refined sentiment. His most valuable contributions are in the department of aesthetics or the general analysis of feeling. His philosophy has been characterized as Socratic in content and Platonic in form. Its foundation was the desire for self-knowledge and truth, untrammelled by the rigid bonds of any particular system.
His most important works, all of which were written in French, are: Lettre sur la sculpture (1769), in which occurs the well-known definition of the Beautiful as “that which gives us the greatest number of ​ideas in the shortest space of time”; its continuation, Lettre sur les désirs (1770); Lettre sur l’homme et ses rapports (1772), in which the “moral organ” and the theory of knowledge are discussed; Sopyle (1778), a dialogue on the relation between the soul and the body, and also an attack on materialism; Aristée (1779), the “theodicy” of Hemsterhuis, discussing the existence of God and his relation to man; Simon (1787), on the four faculties of the soul, which are the will, the imagination, the moral principle (which is both passive and active); Alexis (1787), an attempt to prove that there are three golden ages, the last being the life beyond the grave; Lettre sur l’athéisme (1787).
The best collected edition of his works is by P. S. Meijboom (1846–1850); see also S. A. Gronemann, F. Hemsterhuis, de Nederlandische Wijsgeer (Utrecht, 1867); E. Grucker, François Hemsterhuis, sa vie et ses œuvres (Paris, 1866); E. Meyer, Der Philosoph Franz Hemsterhuis (Breslau, 1893), with bibliographical notice.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Henbane

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​ ​a thick fleshy root, from the crown of which arises in spring a branched flowering stem, usually much taller and more vigorous than the flowering stems of the annual plants. The biennial form is that which is considered officinal. The radical leaves of this biennial plant spread out flat on all sides from the crown of the root; they are ovate-oblong, acute, stalked, and more or less incisely-toothed, of a greyish-green colour, and covered with viscid hairs; these leaves perish at the approach of winter. The flowering stem pushes up from the root-crown in spring, ultimately reaching from 3 to 4 ft. in height, and as it grows becoming branched, and furnished with alternate sessile leaves, which are stem-clasping, oblong, unequally-lobed, clothed with glandular clammy hairs, and of a dull grey-green, the whole plant having a powerful nauseous odour. The flowers are shortly-stalked, the lower ones growing in the fork of the branches, the upper ones sessile in one-sided leafy spikes which are rolled back at the top before flowering, the leaves becoming smaller upwards and taking the place of bracts. The flowers have an urn-shaped calyx which persists around the fruit and is strongly veined, with five stiff, broad, almost prickly lobes; these, when the soft matter is removed by maceration, form very elegant specimens when associated with leaves prepared in a similar way. The corollas are obliquely funnel-shaped, of a dirty yellow or buff, marked with a close reticulation of purple veins. The capsule opens transversely by a convex lid and contains numerous seeds. Both the leaves and the seeds are employed in pharmacy. The Mahommedan doctors of India are accustomed to prescribe the seeds. Henbane yields a poisonous alkaloid, hyoscyamine, which is stated to have properties almost identical with those of atropine, from which it differs in being more soluble in water. It is usually obtained in an amorphous, scarcely ever in a crystalline state. Its properties have been investigated in Germany by T. Husemann, Schroff, Höhn, &c. Höhn finds its chemical composition expressed by C$_{18}$H$_{28}$N$_2$O$_3$. (Compare Hellmann, Beiträge zur Kenntnis der physiolog. Wirkung des Hyoscyamins, &c., Jena, 1874.) In small and repeated doses henbane has been found to have a tranquillizing effect upon persons affected by severe nervous irritability. In poisonous doses it causes loss of speech, distortion and paralysis. In the form of extract or tincture it is a valuable remedy in the hands of a medical man, either as an anodyne, a hypnotic or a sedative. The extract of henbane is rich in nitrate of potassium and other inorganic salts. The smoking of the seeds and capsules of henbane is noted in books as a somewhat dangerous remedy adopted by country people for toothache. Accidental poisoning from henbane occasionally occurs, owing sometimes to the apparent edibility and wholesomeness of the root.
See Bentley and Trumen, Medicinal Plants, 194 (1880).