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# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/St. Benignus of Dijon

From volume 2 of the work.
Martyr honoured as the patron saint and first herald of Christianity of Dijon (Divio) an old city in the territory of the Gallic tribe of the Lingones (civitas Lingonum, Langres). It is an historical fact that Benignus suffered martyrdom in a persecution of the third century and was publicly honoured as a martyr. His feast falls on 1 November; his name stands under this date in the so-called Martyrology of St. Jerome (ed. Rossi-Duchesne; cf. Acta SS., November, 11, 138). Early in the sixth century no particulars concerning the person and life of Benignus were known at Dijon. According to Gregory of Tours the common people reverenced his grave; but Bishop Gregory of Langres (507 or 507–539 or 540) wished to put an end to this veneration, because he believed the grave to belong to a heathen. Having learned in a vision at night that the burial spot was that of the holy martyr Benignus, he had the tomb in which the sarcophagus lay restored, and he build a basilica over it. About this date there was a sudden appearance of Acts of the martyrdom of the saint, which were brought to Dijon by a pilgrim on the way to Italy (Gregor. Tur., De gloriâ martyrum, I, li; Migne P.L., LXXI, 752). These accounts have no historical basis; according to them St. Polycarp of Smyrna had sent Benignus as a missionary to Dijon, where he had laboured as a priest and had finally died a martyr. For some unknown reason his death is placed in the persecution under Aurelian (270–275). The author had not noticed that the sending by Polycarp and the martyrdom under Aurelian are chronologically irreconcilable. Duchesne has proved that these "Acts" belong to a whole group of legends which arose in the early years of the sixth century and were intended to describe the beginnings of Christianity in the cities of that region (Besançon, Autun Langres, Valence). They are all falsifications by the same hand and possess no historical value.
Acta SS., Nov.. I, 134 sqq.; Duchesne, Fastes épiscopaux de l'ancienne Gaule (Paris, 1894), I. 48 sqq.; Tillemont, Mémoires (ed. 1695), III, 38 sqq,. 603 sqq.; De Belloguet, Origines Dijonnaises (Dijon, 1852); Bougaud, Etude hist. et crit. sur la mission, les actes, et le culte de S. Bénigne (Autun, 1859); Beaune, De la mission de S. Bénigne et du martyre des SS. Jumeaux à Langres (Langres, 1861).
J. P. Kirsch
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/St. Benno

From volume 2 of the work.
Benno, Saint, Bishop of Meissen, b., as is given in biographies written after his lifetime, about 1010; d., probably, June 16, 1106. He is said to have been the son of a Count Frederick von Woldenberg (Bultenburg) and to have been educated by his relative St. Bernward of Hildesheim. But these statements and the date of his birth cannot be proved to be historically correct. It is, however, certain that he was a canon of Goslar about the middle of the eleventh century, and that he was made Bishop of Meissen in 1066. At that time the great struggle between the Emperor Henry IV and the papacy over investiture, which involved the independence of the Church, was raging. Benno took part in the revolt of the Saxon nobles against Henry (1073). In 1075 he was taken prisoner by the emperor, who was then victorious, and kept in prison for a year. As, later, he upheld the party of Pope Gregory VII he was deposed at the synod of Mainz, 1085, by the prelates belonging to the imperial party and Felix, a partisan of the emperor, received the bishopric. Three years later Benno recognized the Antipope Wibert (Clement III) and obtained his see again; at a later date, however, he separated himself from his schismatical party and recognized Urban II (1088-99) as the rightful pope. The authorities of the eleventh and twelfth centuries contain no further information as to his life.
The Diocese of Meissen extended towards the east as far as the River Bober and included Upper and Lower Lausitz, which were inhabited by Slavs. According to later tradition Benno devoted the last years of his life to missions among these heathen tribes. He was reputed to be the founder of the cathedral of Meissen and in after-ages was the most venerated bishop of the diocese. He was canonized by Pope Adrian VI in 1523 (Bull "Excelsus Dominus" in Bullarium Romanum, Turin ed., VI, 18 sqq.) and his relics were, with great solemnity, exposed for veneration, May 16, 1524. Luther took this occation to publish his lampoon "Wider den neuen Abgott and alten Teufel, der zu Meissen soli erhoben werden". After Saxony had adopted Protestantism Duke Albert V of Bavaria had the relics of the saintly bishop transferred to Munich and placed in the church of Our Lady (now the cathedral). Since this time Benno had been the patron saint of Munich-his feast is celebrated June 16. He is represented with a fish and a key; according to a legend he gave the key of the cathedral of Meissen, when starting on his journey to Rome, to one of the canons with the command to throw it into the Elbe as soon as Henry IV should be excommunicated. This was done; after Benno's return a large fish was caught in the Elbe and the key was found hanging to one of its fins, so that the bishop received it again.
J. P. Kirsch.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Telemachus

See also Telemachus on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Telemachus (tĕ-lĕm′a-kŭs), in Greek mythology, the son, by Penelope, of Odysseus or Ulysses, king of Ithaca and hero in the Trojan War, who was noted for his exploits and wanderings. Telemachus, in search of his father, attended by Athené in the guise of Mentor, goes to Pylos and elsewhere, endeavoring to find him. He at last discovers him in the guise of a beggar, when Telemachus was lodging in the house of a shepherd. The king is told how his faithful wife is annoyed by innumerable suitors. Returning to Ithaca both father and son, aided by Athené succeed in slaying these suitors, after which the touching meeting takes place between Odysseus and Penelope. See Ulysses.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Telemeter

See also Rangefinder on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Telem′eter, an instrument for finding the distance of an inaccessible object. In military circles this instrument is generally called a range-finder. Nearly all telemeters are based upon one of two general principles: (1) The image of a distant object, produced by a lens, is geometrically similar to the object itself and depends for its size upon the distance of the object; (2) having chosen a convenient base-line of known length, it is possible by measuring the angle between this base and the direction of the distant object (first at one end of the baseline and then at the other) to compute the distance of the object. A great variety of these instruments have been invented, some adapted to infantry in the field and therefore compact and less accurate, others ​adapted to naval operations in which much larger base-lines and hence much greater accuracy can be obtained.
A similar process when employed by surveyors is called stadia-measurement.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Telepathy

See also Telepathy on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Telep′athy, a term used to cover all cases of impression received at a distance without the normal operation of the recognized sense-organs. It is based on the theory that two minds can communicate independently of the physical body. The subject has been so entangled with clairvoyancy and “fake” forms of hypnotism, that much so-called telepathy is unscientific. But it has been scientifically studied since 1882. The mind initiating the process is the agent, and the other mind the percipient. A common form of the experiment is for the agent to draw a geometrical figure on a card and the percipient, who can neither see, hear, taste, touch nor smell what is being done, reproduces the figure. Prof. Crookes suggests that the process may be one of transference of intense thought by inconceivably minute and rapid ether-waves. Other popular manifestations are the performances of test-mediums and apparitions of a person to some distant friend at the time of the person's death. The verdict of science, however, still is: “Not proven.”
# The New Student's Reference Work/Teniers, David

See also David Teniers the Younger on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​ Teniers (tĕn′yērz), David, The Younger, was born at Antwerp in 1610. His father, also a well-known painter, gave him his first lessons in art. He soon showed a genius, greater than his father's but in the same line, as a colorist and painter of the scenes and incidents of ordinary country-life. He became the most popular of Flemish painters, and was kept busy to meet the demand for his pictures. The governor of the Spanish Netherlands made him gentleman of his bedchamber, and the king of Spain set apart a special gallery for his works. In spite of the number of his paintings — over 1,000 — they bring very high prices. Among them are The Village Wedding, The Bagpipe-Player and The Misers. Teniers died near Brussels, April 25, 1690.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Telephotography

See also Fax on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Tel′ephotog′raphy is a recent improvement on ordinary telegraphy, the advantage of which is to secure an enormous rapidity in the transmission of messages. The invention of the process is due to Anton Pollak and Joseph Virag, two Hungarian scientists. By means of telephotography as many as 150,000 words may under favorable conditions be transmitted per hour. The process does away with “knocking;” and substitutes automatic writing for the slower process of receiving. Fewer operators are needed than under the Morse system, as well as less wire. The message is prepared on an endless strip of paper, so that the writing is represented by five rows of dashes, dots and circles. The currents are transmitted into the receiver along the line by electric branches. The membranes of two telephones in the receiver are agitated and move a mirror, which flashes rays of light so as to photograph the message. The photographs are developed in the machine and automatically cut off when the process is complete.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Tenerife

See also the disclaimer.
​ Ten′erife′. See Canaries.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Boehm-Bawerk

Edition of 1905. See also the disclaimer.
BOEHM-BAWERK, bẽm' bä'vĕrk. See Boehm von Bawerk.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Boehm von Bawerk, Eugen

Edition of 1905. See also Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
BOEHM VON BAWERK, bẽm fṓn bä'vĕrk, Eugen (1851—). An Austrian political economist. He was born in Brünn, Moravia, February 12, 1851, was educated at the University of Vienna, and from 1872 to 1879 continued his study of political economy in Heidelberg, Leipzig, and Jena, under Knies, Roscher, and Hildebrand. He held for a short time a place in the Austrian Ministry of Finance, lectured in 1880 at the University of Vienna, but was called thence to the University of Innsbruck, where he remained till 1889. He then entered once more the Government service, in the department of finance, and was Minister of Finance from June 18 to October 2, 1895. He was then appointed professor in the University of Vienna and became president of one of the superior courts of administration. In 1897-98 he was again Minister of Finance; in 1899 he was called to the House of Peers, and since January, 1900, he has again been in charge of the Ministry of Finance. Boehm von Bawerk is one of the leading economists of the so-called Austrian school. With Karl Menger and others, he has contributed to the development of a theory of value which has received wide acceptance, and has been the cause of still wider discussion, in the economic world. This theory, as elaborated by Boehm von Bawerk, is based largely upon psychological principles. Its chief feature consists in a searching analysis of ‘subjective value.’ In his Kapital und Kapitalzins (1884-89), translated by Smart in 1890 under the title of Capital and Interest, the author makes a brilliant and original study of these two subjects. He does not accept the connuon classification of land, labor, and capital as the three sources of production, but regards the two former only as real sources, while capital is only a means of production. ‘Interest’ is employed as a general term for interest in the common sense, and for profits, and its cause and justification are found in the great principle of the difference in value between present ‘goods’ and future ‘goods.’ The term ‘positive theory of capital’ has been applied to the teachings of which Boehm von Bawerk on the Continent is the chief exponent, and which were discussed at great length in contributions to the Quarterly Journal of Economics from 1890 to 1895. Valuable articles on the subject are those by Bonar in the same publication on the “Austrian Economists” and on the “Positive Theory of Capital,” Vol. III. (1889). Boehm von Bawerk also wrote Einige strittige Fragen der Kapitalstheorie (Vienna, 1900).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Bois de Boulogne

Edition of 1905. See also Bois de Boulogne on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ BOIS DE BOULOGNE, bwä de bo͞o′lō̇′ny’. A famous and beautiful park of Paris covering about 2250 acres. It derives its name from the town of Boulogne-sur-Seine on its south. The park was formed under Napoleon I. out of the old Forêt de Rouvray, and remained in the possession of the State until transferred to the city by Napoleon III. in 1852, since which time it has been the favorite drive of Parisians. The Bois was greatly injured by bombardment during the siege of Paris in 1870'-71, but was soon restored. It contains the great Auteuil and Longchamps race-courses. With the races for the Grand Prix of Longchamps (100,000 francs), held in the early part of June, the Parisian season closes. The Bois contains also the Jardin d'Acclimatation. See Paris.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Bläser, Gustav

Edition of 1905. See also Gustav Bläser on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
BLÄSER, blĕ'zẽr, Gustav (1813-74). A German sculptor. He was born in Düsseldorf, and in 1883 entered the studio of Rauch, with whom he remained for eleven years. In 1845 he went to Rome, whence he was called to Berlin to design one of the eight marble groups adorning the Schlossbrücke, a task in which he was eminently successful. The group executed by him, and entitled “Minerva Leading a Youthful Warrior into Battle,” is considered the best of the series. His subsequent works include: “Saint Matthew, the Apostle,” a statue of colossal proportions (church at Helsingfors); “The Prophet Daniel” (Royal Castle, Berlin); “Borussia” (New Museum, Berlin); the equestrian statue of Frederick William IV. (Rhine Bridge, Cologne); “Hospitality” (National Gallery, Berlin); and busts of Emperor William I., the Empress of Russia, von Alvensleben, von der Heydt, Alexander von Humboldt, Rauch, Abraham Lincoln (Washington), and many others.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Boardman, George Dana

Edition of 1905. See also George Boardman the Younger on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
BOARDMAN, George Dana (1828–1903). An American Baptist clergyman. He was born at Tavoy, Burma, and was educated at Brown University (1852), and at the Newton Theological Institution. He was pastor of the First Church. Philadelphia, from 1864 to 1894. In June, 1899, he established at the University of Pennsylvania the permanent lectureship known as the 'Boardman Foundation in Christian Ethics.' He was president of the Christian Arbitration and Peace Society, and of the American Baptist Missionary Union. His most important production is a monograph. Titles of Wednesday Evening Lectures. It embraces 981 of his lectures, delivered between 1865 and 1880, and comprises a complete exegesis of the Bible. His other writings include The Epiphanies of the Risen Lord (New York, 1879); The Problem of Jesus; Disarmament of Nations (1880); The Coronation of Love: The Two Bibles; The Kingdom (1899); The Church (1901); The Golden Rule (1901).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Bois d'Arc

Edition of 1905. See also the disclaimer.
​ BOIS D'ARC, bwä′därk′. See Osage Orange.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Blümner, Hugo

Edition of 1905. See also Hugo Blümner on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
BLÜMNER, blụm'nẽr, Hugo (1844—). A German classical archæologist, born in Berlin, August 9, 1844. He taught in the universities of Breslau and Königsberg, and has been since 1877 professor in the University of Zürich. He is author and editor of many philological and archæological works, of which the most important are: Die gewerbliche Thätigkeit der Völker des klassischen Altertums (1869); Technologie und Terminologie der Gewerbe und Künste bei Griechen und Römern (4 vols., 1874-88); Leben und Sitten der Griechen (1887); Maximaltarif des Diokletian, with Theodor Mommsen (1893); Pausaniæ Græciæ Descriptio (1896); reviser of Hermann, Griechische Privataltertümer (1881), etc.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Boilly, Louis Léopold

Edition of 1905. See also Louis-Léopold Boilly on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ BOILLY, bwä′yē̇′, Louis Léopold (1761-1845). A French painter, born at La Bassée (Nord). He was at first a portrait painter, and began working in Paris in 1779. He won a considerable popularity as a depicter of the bourgeoisie from the reign of Louis XVI. to the close of the Restoration. He has been credited with no less than five thousand pictures, many of them Revolutionary scenes, and the best belonging to the epoch extending from the Revolution to the Consulate. In design he is firm and accurate, in color generally even. Many of his works were engraved, and he himself did creditable lithographing. His two most famous paintings are perhaps “The Arrival of the Diligence” (1803) and “Isabey's Atelier" (with portraits of twenty-four artists).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Bois de Chypre

Edition of 1905. See also the disclaimer.
​ BOIS DE CHYPRE, bwä′ de shē̇′ pr’. See Elm.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Boer

Edition of 1905. See also Boer on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
BOER, bōōr (Dutch boer, farmer, Ger. Bauer, peasant, Eng. boor, husbandman, rustic). The name given to the Dutch inhabitants of South Africa who are descended from the original settlers of Cape Colony. Separated for centuries from the rest of the world, these people, in their rude pioneer life, preserved their belief in the
stern tenets of early Calvinism, a belief which colored their whole life. When, in 1814, Cape Colony was ceded by Holland to England, the English administrators failed entirely to understand the people with whom they had to deal, and they increased the hostility which the Dutch naturally felt for the English by their drastic legislation against practices which were a part of the religion as well as the life of these simple people, possessing many of the faults as well as many of the virtues of a primitive state of society. As a result there was a series of treks or emigrations, by which the more determined Boers sought to free themselves from British control. The first considerable movement of this kind was the 'great trek' of 1836. The Boers at first attempted to establish themselves in Natal, but they came into collision with the native Kaffirs, who were under British protection, and when Natal became an English colony they removed beyond the Drakenberg Mountains, taking possession of an extensive region on both sides of the Vaal, the principal affluent of the Orange River. Here they founded two states, the Transvaal or South African Republic, in the north, and the Orange Free State in the south. The Boers believed in their right to enslave the natives, and the abolition of slavery under English rule was one of the grievances that led to the trek. This attitude of the Boers won them the hatred of the native peoples. The Sand River Convention of 1852 between commissioners for the Cape Government and for the Boers gave autonomy to the Transvaal, with a reservation against the practice of slavery. The convention of Bloemfontein two years later brought the Orange Free State into being. The Boers have continued to be, for the most part, farmers clinging with the utmost conservatism to their antiquated religious ideas and their primitive mode of life. Their tenacity of purpose and stubborn independence in opposition to the British power in South Africa have won respect for the rugged virtues of their character, although the rudeness of the mass of this people seems to separate them from modern currents of life. The original roughness of the Boer character, however, has been greatly modified in the towns and among those Afrikanders who remained in the more cosmopolitan Cape Colony. For the later and more detailed history of the Boers, see Cape Colony; Orange River Colony; South Africa; and Transvaal.
Consult also: Theal, History of the Boers in South Africa (London, 1888); David Livingstone, The Transvaal Boers (Edinburgh, 1881); F. W. Chesson, The Dutch Boers and Slavery in the Transvaal (London, 1869).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Chic

Edition of 1905. See also Chic on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ CHIC, shē̇k (Fr., probably from Ger. Geschick, fate, destiny, skill, dexterity, knack). A word in modern colloquial use, of foreign origin. The term is used in painting to express the art of giving efficiency in the most dexterous manner possible, with ability and adroitness closely united. The word is also employed in connection with fashion; and, spoken of in this sense, means style, manner, grace, and ‘go.’ Although of German origin, it has been received into general usage through the French, the language which fixed the present form of the word. See Pschutt.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Chicaneau

Edition of 1905. See also Les Plaideurs on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ CHICANEAU, shē̇′kȧ′nō̇′. The judge in Racine's farce Les Plaideurs, whose idée fixe is to hold trials, and who finally turns his own home into a court of inquisition, where his servants and pet animals plead and are convicted.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Chica (dance)

Edition of 1905. See also Chica on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ CHICA (Sp., fem. of chico, small, from Lat. ciccus, trifle). A lively dance, popular in Spain and in South America as well; possibly of Moorish origin.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Chica (liquor)

Edition of 1905. See also Pito (beer) on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ CHICA, chē′kȧ (So. Amer. Indian), Pito, Peso, or Maize Beer. A fermented liquor made from maize or Indian corn. It is much used in some parts of South America. See Beer.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Chicago River

Edition of 1905. See also Chicago River on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ CHICAGO RIVER. A navigable stream in the city of Chicago, which formerly emptied into Lake Michigan, but the direction of whose current has been reversed by the construction of the Chicago Drainage Canal. It is formed by two branches, the North Fork and the South Fork, and it is less than a mile from this junction to Lake Michigan (Map: Chicago, J 9). Nearly 4 miles from the main river, the south branch separates into a west fork and a south fork. The United States Government and the city of Chicago have expended large amounts of money in keeping the river open to navigation. The Illinois and Michigan Canal connects the Chicago River at Bridgeport with the Illinois River at La Salle, a distance of nearly 100 miles, and during 1893-1900 the Chicago Drainage Canal (q.v.) was constructed, connecting the west fork of the south branch and Joliet, on the Des Plaines River, the distance being 28.05 miles. See Chicago.