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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Steinschneider, Moritz

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​Steinschneider, Moritz (1816–1907), Jewish bibliographer, was born in Moravia in 1816. He was the most accomplished bibliographer in the realm of Hebrew literature. His greatest work was his Catalogue of the Hebrew Collection of the Bodleian Library, Oxford, (1852–1860). In this masterly work he settled many questions as to the locality, date and authorship of early printed books, and provided a vast mass of biographical materials. His Jewish Literature (published in German in Ersch and Gruber in 1850, in English in 1857, and in Hebrew in 1899) is a complete survey of its subject. Steinschneider prepared many other catalogues (Leiden, Munich, Hamburg and Berlin). He wrote much on Arabic literature, and was the author of bibliographies on a great variety of subjects. Among them may be named bibliographies of Jewish mathematicians and travellers. His most extensive work after his Bodleian Catalogue was his treatise on Hebrew translations in the middle ages (Die hebräischen Übersetzungen des Mittelalters, 2 vols., 1893). Much of his work appeared in his periodical Hebräische Bibliographie (1859–1882). He died in Berlin in 1907.  ((I. A.))
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Steffens, Henrik

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​STEFFENS, HENRIK (1773–1845), German philosopher, scientist and poet, of Norwegian extraction, was born on the 2nd of May 1773 at Stavanger, and died in Berlin on the 13th of February 1845. At the age of fourteen he went with his parents to Copenhagen, where he studied theology and natural science. In 1796 he lectured at Kiel, and a year later went to Jena to study the natural philosophy of Schelling. He went to Freiberg in 1800, and there came under the influence of Werner. After two years he returned to Copenhagen, but his lectures excited so much disapproval that he took a professorship at Halle in 1804. During the War of Liberation he served as a volunteer in the cause of freedom, and was present at the capture of Paris. From 1811 he was professor of physics at Breslau until 1832, when he accepted an invitation to Berlin. Steffens was one of the so-called Philosophers of Nature, a friend and adherent of Schelling and Schleiermacher. More than either of these two thinkers he was acquainted with the discoveries of modern science, and was thus enabled to correct or modify the highly imaginative speculations of Schelling. He held that, throughout the scheme of nature and intellectual life, the main principle is Individualization. As organisms rise higher in the scale of development, the sharper and more distinct become their outlines, the more definite their individualities. This principle he endeavoured to deduce from his knowledge of geology, in contrast to Lorenz Oken, who developed the same theory on biological grounds. The influence of his views was con- siderable. Not only did Schelling and Schleiermacher modify their theories in deference to his scientific deductions, but the intellectual life of his contemporaries was considerably affected. His lectures in Copenhagen in 1802 were attended by many leading Danish thinkers, such as Oehlenschlager and Grundtvig. Schleiermacher was so much struck by their excellence that he endeavoured, unsuccessfully, to obtain for Steffens a chair in the new Berlin University in 1804, in order that his own ethical teachings should be supported in the scientific department.
His chief scientific and philosophical works are: Beiträge zur innern Naturgeschichte der Erde (1801); Grundzüge der philos. Naturwissenschaft (1806); Anthropologie (1824). He wrote also Ueber die Idee der Universitäten (1835), and Ueber geheime Verbindungen auf Universitäten (1835); works on religious subjects, Karikaturen des Heiligsten (1819–1821); Wie ich wieder Lutheraner wurde und was mir das Luthertum ist (1831); Von der falschen Theologie und dem wahren Glauben (new ed., 1831); poetical works, Die Familien Walseth und Leith (1827); Die vier Norweger (1828); Malcolm (1831), collected in 1837 under the title of Novellen. During the last five years of his life he wrote an autobiography, Was ich erlebte, and after his death was published Nachgelassene Schriften (1846). See Tietzen, Zur Erinnerung an Steffens; Petersen, Henrik Steffens (Ger. trans., 1884); Dilthey, Leben Schleiermachers.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Naupactus

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​NAUPACTUS (Ital. Lepanto, mod. Gr. Epakto), a town in the nomarchy of Acarnania and Aetolia, Greece, situated on a bay on the north side of the straits of Lepanto. The harbour, once the best on the northern coast of the Corinthian Gulf, is now ​almost entirely choked up, and is accessible only to the smallest craft. Naupactus is an episcopal see; pop. about 2500. In Greek legend it appears as the place where the Heraclidae built a fleet to invade Peloponnesus. In historical times it belonged to the Ozolian Locrians; but about 455 B.C., in spite of a partial resettlement with Locrians of Opus, it fell to the Athenians, who peopled it with Messenian refugees and made it their chief naval station in western Greece during the Peloponnesian war. In 404 it was restored to the Locrians, who subsequently lost it to the Achaeans, but recovered it through Epaminondas. Philip II. of Macedon gave Naupactus to the Aetolians, who held it till 191, when after an obstinate siege it was surrendered to the Romans. It was still flourishing about A.D. 170, but in Justinian’s reign was destroyed by an earthquake. In the middle ages it fell into the hands of the Venetians, who fortified it so strongly that in 1477 it successfully resisted a four months’ siege by a Turkish army thirty thousand strong; in 1499, however, it was taken by Bayezid II. The mouth of the Gulf of Lepanto was the scene of the great sea fight in which the naval power of Turkey was for the time being destroyed by the united papal, Spanish and Venetian forces (October 7, 1571). See Lepanto, Battle of. In 1678 it was recaptured by the Venetians, but was again restored in 1699, by the treaty of Karlowitz to the Turks; in the war of independence it finally became Greek once more (March 1829).
See Strabo ix. pp. 426-427; Pausanias x. 38. 10-13; Thucydides i.-iii. passim; Livy, bk. xxxvi. passim; E. L. Hicks and G. F. Hill, Greek Historical Inscriptions (Oxford, 1901), No. 25.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nauplia

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​NAUPLIA, a town in the Peloponnesus, at the head of the Argolic Gulf. In the classical period it was a place of no importance, and when Pausanias lived, about A.D. 150, it was deserted. At a very early time, however, it seems to have been of greater note, being the seaport of the plain in which Argos and Mycenae are situated, and several tombs of the Mycenaean age have been found. A hero Nauplius took part in the Argonautic expedition; another was king of Euboea. The mythic importance of the town revived in the middle ages, when it became one of the chief cities of the Morea. It was captured in 1211 by Godfrey Villehardouin with the help of Venetian ships; a French dynasty ruled in it for some time, and established the feudal system in the country. In 1388 the Venetians bought Argos and Nauplia. In the wars between Venice and the Turks it often changed masters. It was given to the Turks at the peace concluded in 1540; it was recaptured by Venice in 1686, and Palamidhi on the hill overhanging the town was made a great fortress. In 1715 it was taken by the Turks; in 1770 the Russians occupied it for a short time. The Greeks captured it during the War of Independence on the 12th of December 1822, and it was the seat of the Greek administration till 1833, when Athens became the capital of the country. It is the chief town of the department of Argolis (pop. in 1907, 81,943). Pop. about 6000.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nauheim

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​NAUHEIM, or Bad-Nauheim, a watering-place of Germany, in the grand-duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt, situated on the north-east slope of the Taunus Mountains, 24 m. by rail N. of Frankfort-on-Main on the main line of railway to Cassel. Pop. (1905) 5054. It has three Evangelical, a Roman Catholic and an English church. Its thermal waters (84° to 95° F.), although known for centuries, were, prior to 1835, only employed for the extraction of salt. They now yield about 2000 tons annually. The town has several parks, the largest being the Kurpark, 125 acres in extent, in which are the Kurhaus and the two chief springs. The waters, which are saline, strongly impregnated with carbonic acid, and to a less extent with iron, are principally used for bathing, and are specific in cases of gout and rheumatism, but especially for heart affections. Three smaller springs, situated outside the Kurpark, supply water for drinking. In 1899–1900 a new spring (saline) was tapped at a depth of 682 ft. Another attraction of the place is the Johannisberg, a hill 773 ft. high, immediately overlooking the town.
Nauheim, which was bestowed by Napoleon upon Marshal Davout, became a town in 1854. From 1815 to 1866 it belonged to the electorate of Hesse-Cassel, but in 1866 it was ceded to
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Naumachia

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​NAUMACHIA, the Greek word denoting a naval battle (ναῦς, ship, and μάχη, battle), used by the Romans as a term for a mimic sea-fight. These entertainments took place in the amphitheatre, which was flooded with water, or in specially constructed basins (also called naumachiae). The first on record, representing an engagement between a Tyrian and an Egyptian fleet, was given by Julius Caesar (46 B.C.) on a lake which he constructed in the Campus Martius. In 2 B.C. Augustus, at the dedication of the temple of Mars Ultor, exhibited a naumachia between Athenians and Persians, in a basin probably in the horti Caesaris, where subsequently Titus gave a representation of a sea-fight between Corinth and Corcyra. In that given by Claudius (A.D. 52) on the lacus Fucinus, 19,000 men dressed as Rhodians and Sicilians manœuvred and fought. The crews consisted of gladiators and condemned criminals; in later times, even of volunteers.
See L. Friedländer in J. Marquandt, Römische Staatsverwaltung, iii. (1885) p. 558.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Naugatuck

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​NAUGATUCK, a township and borough of New Haven county, Connecticut, U.S.A., on the Naugatuck river, 5 m. S. of Waterbury, with an area of 17 sq. m. in 1906. Pop. (1890) 6218, (1900) 10,541, of whom 3432 were foreign-born, (1910 census) 12,722. It is served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railroad and by interurban electric railways. Among the principal public buildings are the Whittemore Memorial Public Library (1892), a fine high school and the large Salem school (part of the public school system), all given to the borough by John Howard Whittemore of Naugatuck, who in addition endowed the library and the high school. The river furnishes water-power. Among the manufactures are rubber goods, chemicals, iron castings, woollen goods, cutlery, &c. The value of the factory products increased from $8,886,676 in 1900 to $11,009,573 in 1905, or 23·9%. The prominence of the rubber industry here is due to Charles Goodyear (q.v.), who in 1821 entered into partnership with his father Amasa Goodyear for the manufacture of hardware. Vulcanized rubber overshoes were first made in Naugatuck, and in 1843 the Goodyear’s Metallic Rubber Shoe Company was established here. The township was formed from parts of Waterbury, Bethany and Oxford, and was incorporated in 1844; the borough was chartered in 1893; and the two were combined in 1895.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Naulette

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​NAULETTE, a large cavern on the left bank of the Lesse, which joins the Meuse above Dinant, Belgium. Here in 1866 Edouard Dupont discovered an imperfect human lower jaw, now in the Brussels Natural History Museum. It is of a very ape-like type in its extreme projection and that of the teeth sockets (teeth themselves lost), with canines very strong and large molars increasing in size backward. It was found associated with the remains of mammoth, rhinoceros and reindeer. The Naulette man is now assigned to the Mousterian Epoch.
See G. de Mortillet, Le Préhistorique (1900); E. Dupont, Étude sur les fouilles scientifiques exécutées pendant l’hiver (1865–1866), p. 21.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Naumann, Georg Amadeus Carl Friedrich

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​NAUMANN, GEORG AMADEUS CARL FRIEDRICH (1797–1873), German mineralogist and geologist, was born at Dresden on the 30th of May 1797, the son of a distinguished musician and composer. He received his early education at Pforta, studied at Freiberg under Werner, and afterwards at Leipzig and Jena. He graduated at Jena, and was occupied in 1823 in teaching in that town and in 1824 at Leipzig. In 1826 he succeeded Mohs as professor of crystallography, in 1835 he became professor also of geognosy at Freiberg; and in 1842 he was appointed professor of mineralogy and geognosy in the university of Leipzig. At Freiberg he was charged with the preparation of a geological map of Saxony, which he carried out with the aid of Bernhard von Cotta in 1846. He was a man of encyclopaedic knowledge, lucid and fluent as a teacher. Early in life (1821–1822) he travelled in Norway, and his observations on that country, and his subsequent publications on crystallography, mineralogy and geology established his reputation. He was awarded the Wollaston Medal by the Geological Society of London in 1868. He died at Leipzig on the 26th of November 1873.
He published Beiträge zur Kenntniss Norwegens (2 vols., 1824); Lehrbuch der Mineralogie (1828); Lehrbuch der reinen und angewandten Krystallographie (2 vols. and atlas, 1830); Elemente der Mineralogie (1846; ed. 9, 1874; the 10th ed. by F. Zirkel, 1877); Lehrbuch der Geognosie (2 vols. and atlas, 1849–1854, ed. 2, 1858–1872).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Naunton, Sir Robert

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​NAUNTON, SIR ROBERT (1563–1635), English politician, the son of Henry Naunton of Alderton, Suffolk, was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, becoming a fellow of his college in 1585 and public orator of the university in 1594. Walter Devereux, earl of Essex, enabled him to spend some time abroad, sending information about European affairs. Having returned to England, he entered parliament in 1606 as member for Helston, and he sat in the five succeeding parliaments; in 1614 he was knighted, in 1616 he became master of requests and later surveyor of the court of wards. In 1618 his friend Buckingham procured for him the position of secretary of state. Naunton’s strong Protestant opinions led him to favour more active intervention by England in the interests of Frederick V., and more vigorous application of the laws against Roman Catholics. Gondomar, the Spanish ambassador, complained to James, who censured his secretary. Consequently in 1623 Naunton resigned and was made master of the court of wards. He died at Letheringham, Suffolk, on the 27th of March 1635. Naunton’s valuable account of Queen Elizabeth’s reign was still in manuscript when he died. As Fragmenta regalia, written by Sir Robert Naunton, it was printed in 1641 and again in 1642, a revised edition, Fragmenta Regalia, or Observations on the late Queen Elizabeth, her Times and Favourites, being issued in 1653. It was again published in 1824, and an edition edited by A. Arber was brought out in 1870. It has also been printed in several collections and has been translated into French and Italian. There are several manuscript copies extant, and some of Naunton’s letters are in the British Museum and in other collections.
See Memoirs of Sir Robert Naunton (1814).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Naumachius

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​NAUMACHIUS, a Greek gnomic poet. Of his poems 73 hexameters (in three fragments) are preserved by Stobaeus in his Florilegium; they deal mainly with the duty of a good wife. From the remarks on celibacy and the allusion to a mystic marriage it has been conjectured that the author was a Christian.
The fragments, translated anonymously into English under the title of Advice to the Fair Sex (1736), are in Gaisford’s Poëtae minores Graeci, iii. (1823).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Naumburg

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​NAUMBURG, a town of Germany, in the province of Prussian Saxony, the seat of the provincial law courts and court of appeal for the province and the neighbouring districts. It is situated on the Saale, near its junction with the Unstrut, in the centre of an amphitheatre of vine-clad hills, 29 m. S.W. from Halle, on the railway to Weimar and Erfurt. Pop. (1905) 25,137. The cathedral, an imposing building in the Romanesque Transition style (1207–1242), has a Gothic choir at each end, and contains some interesting medieval sculptures. It is remarkable for its large crypt and its towers, a fourth having been added in 1894, the gift of the emperor William II. There are also four other Protestant churches (of which the town church, dedicated to St Wenceslaus and restored in 1892–1894, possesses two pictures by Lucas Cranach the elder), a Roman Catholic church, a gymnasium, a modern school, an orphanage and three hospitals. A curious feature of the town is the custom, which has not yet died out, of labelling the houses with signs, such as the “swan,” the “leopard” and the “lion.” The industries of the place mainly consist in the manufacture of cotton and woollen fabrics, chemicals, combs, beer, vinegar and leather. On the hills to the north of the town, across the Unstrut, lies Schenkelburg, once the residence of the poet Gellert, and noticeable for the grotesque carvings in the sandstone rocks.
In the 10th century Naumburg was a stronghold of the margraves of Meissen, who in 1029 transferred to it the bishopric of Zeitz. In the history of Saxony it is memorable as the scene of various treaties; and in 1561 an assembly of Protestant princes was held there, which made a futile attempt to cement the doctrinal dissensions of the Protestants. In 1564 the last bishop died, and the bishopric fell to the elector of Saxony. In 1631 the town was taken by Tilly, and in 1632 by Gustavus Adolphus. It became Prussian in 1814. An annual festival, with a procession of children, which is still held, is referred to an apocryphal siege of the town by the Hussites in 1432, but is probably connected with an incident in the brothers’ war (1447–51), between the elector Frederick II. of Saxony and his brother Duke William. Karl Peter Lepsius (1775–1853), the antiquary and his more distinguished son Richard the Egyptologist, were born at Naumburg.
See E. Borkowsky, Die Geschichte der Stadt Naumburg an der Saale (Stuttgart, 1897); E. Hoffmann, Naumburg an der Saale im Zeitalter der Reformation (Leipzig, 1900); S. Braun, Naumburger Annalen vom Jahre 799 bis 1613 (Naumburg, 1892); Puttrich, Naumburg an der Saale, sein Dom und andre altertümliche Bauwerke (Leipzig, 1841–1843); and Wispel, Entwickelungsgeschichte der Stadt Naumburg an der Saale (Naumburg, 1903).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Murimuth, Adam

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MURIMUTH, ADAM (c. 1274-1347), English ecclesiastic and chronicler, was born in 1274 or 1275 and educated in the civil law at Oxford. Between 1312 and 1318 he practised in the papal curia at Avignon. Edward II. and Archbishop Winchelsey were among his clients, and his legal services secured for him canonries at Hereford and St Paul's, and the precentorship of Exeter Cathedral. In 1331 he retired to a country living (Wraysbury, Bucks), and devoted himself to writing the history of his own times. His Continuatio chronicarum, begun not earlier than 1325, starts from the year 1303, and was carried up to 1347, the year of his death. Meagre at first, it becomes fuller about 1340 and is specially valuable for the history of the French wars. Murimuth has no merits of style, and gives a bald narrative of events. But he incorporates many documents in the latter part of his book. The annals of St. Paul's which have been edited by Bishop Stubbs, are closely related to the work of Murimuth, but probably not from his pen. The Continuatio was carried on, after his death, by an anonymous writer to the year 1380.
The only complete edition of the Continuatio chronicarum is that by E. M. Thompson (Rolls series, 1889). The preface to this edition, and to W. Stubbs's Chronicles of Edward I. and II., vol. i. (Rolls series, 1882), should be consulted. The anonymous continuation is printed in T. Hog's edition of Murimuth (Eng. Hist. Soc., London, 1846). (H. W. C. D.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Murom

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​MUROM, a town of Russia, in the government of Vladimir, on the craggy left bank of the Oka, close to its confluence with the Tesha, 108 m. by rail S.E. of the city of Vladimir. Pop. (1900), 12,874. Muron has an old cathedral. It is the chief entrepôt for grain from the basin of the lower Oka, and carries on an active trade with Moscow and Nizhniy-Novgorod. It is famed, as in ancient times, for kitchen-gardens, especially for its cucumbers and seed for canaries. Its once famous tanneries have lost their importance, but the manufacture of linen has increased; it has also steam flour-mills, distilleries, manufactories of soap and of iron implements.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Murphy, John Francis

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​MURPHY, JOHN FRANCIS (1853–), American landscape painter, was born at Oswego, New York, on the 11th of December 1853. He first exhibited at the National Academy of Design in 1876, and was made an associate in 1885 and a full academician two years later. He became a member of the Society of American Artists (1901) and of the American Water Color Society.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Murghab

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MURGHAB, a river of Afghanistan, which flows into Russian territory. It rises in the Firozkhoi highlands, the northern scarp of which is defined by the Band-i-Turkestan, and after traversing that plateau from east to west it turns north through deep defiles to Bala Murghab. Beyond this, in the neighbourhood of Maruchak, it forms for a space the boundary-line between Afghan and Russian Turkestan; then joining the Kushk river at Pul-i-Khishti (Tash Kupri) it runs north to Merv, losing itself in the sands of the Merv desert after a course of about 450 m., its exact source being unknown. In the neighbourhood of Bala Murghab it is 50 yds. broad and some 3 ft. deep, with a rapid current. In the lower parts of its course it is flanked by a remarkable network of canals. The ancient city of Merv, which was on its banks, was the great centre of medieval Arab trade, and Buddhist caves are found in the scarped cliffs of its right bank near Panjdeh.