OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Adams, William Bridges

​ADAMS, WILLIAM BRIDGES (1797–1872) was an ingenious and prolific inventor in the early days of railroads. The invention by which he is best known is the fish-joint for the rails of railways. Before the date of this invention (1847) engineers had failed in all their efforts to contrive a joint which should firmly unite the ends of the rails while allowing fast traffic to be carried over them. Bridges Adams applied the well-known ‘fish’ or overlapping plate to the ends of the rails, and set the joint in the space between two of the supporting ‘chairs,’ instead of immediately over a ‘chair,’ so that the destructive effect of the pressure between the wheels and the chair was avoided. This joint is still universally used on railways. Adams also originated many valuable improvements in rolling stock, and did much to reduce the inordinate weight of the earlier locomotives. For a time he manufactured railway plant at works at Bow, but he was unsuccessful alike in his commercial enterprises and in his inventions. His works failed, and he realised but small profit from any of his many patents; even that for the fish-joint brought him in very little, ​and soon passed out of his hands. He took out no less than thirty-two patents. Besides patents connected with railways he patented improvements in carriages for common roads, in ship propulsion, guns, wood-carving and other machines. He was the author of several books—‘English Pleasure Carriages,’ 1837; ‘Railways and Permanent Way,’ 1854; ‘Roads and Rails,’ 1862—and of memoirs and articles innumerable. He read several papers to the Society of Arts and the Institution of Civil Engineers, and contributed largely to the journal of the first-named society, as well as to many of the scientific and technical periodicals. Besides his writings on technical subjects, he was the author of several political pamphlets, published under the pseudonym of Junius Redivivus. Most of these were issued about the time of the 1832 Reform Bill. He died at Broadstairs, and was buried at St. Peter's. In 1834 he married Sarah Flower [see Adams, Sarah Flower].
[A very full biographical notice in Engineering newspaper, 26 July 1872 (xiv. 63), and a shorter sketch in the Journal of the Society of Arts, 2 August 1872 (xx. 763); Men of the Time (eighth edition).]
H. T. W.
# Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Adda

​ADDA (d. 565), king of Bernicia, the eldest son of Ida, founder of the Anglian kingdom of Bernicia, succeeded his father in 559, and, according to Nennius, reigned eight years. Simeon of Durham and the Chronologia, prefixed to Bishop More's MS. of Bæda, place the reign of Glappa lasting for one year between the reigns of Ida and Adda. The Genealogia in the Appendix to Florence of Worcester makes Adda reign for seven years after the death of his father, and puts Clappa (Glappa) after him. The early Northumbrian chronology is confused and uncertain (see Mon. Hist. Brit. p.75 note). The gradual conquest made by the Bernicians, in which at one time the invaders and at another the natives were victorious, must have made the reign of Adda full of fighting. He died in 565. The name Adda may probably be discerned in conjunction with the patronymic syllable ing in Addington.
W. H.
# Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Hammond, William

​HAMMOND, WILLIAM (fl. 1655), poet, born in 1614, was third son of Sir William Hammond, knt. (d. 1615), of St. Alban's Court, East Kent, by his wife Elizabeth, daughter of Anthony Archer of Bishopsbourne, who was granddaughter of Edwin Sandys [q. v.], archbishop of York, and a niece of George Sandys. He published in 1655 'Poems. By W. H. . . . cineri gloria sera venit,' 8vo, an interesting little volume reprinted in 1816 by Sir Samuel Egerton Brydges. Several poems are addressed to Thomas Stanley, whose mother was a sister of William Hammond, and there is an elegy 'On the Death of my much honoured Uncle, Mr. G. Sandys.' The original edition is scarce, and Brydges's reprint was limited to forty copies. Hammond has commendatory verses before John Hall's 'Horæ Vacivæ,' 1646.
[Brydges's edition of William Hammond's Poems; Burke's Landed Gentry.]
A. H. B.
# Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Hamond

​HAMOND. [See also Hammond and Hamont.]
# Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Hammond, John (1542-1589)

​HAMMOND, JOHN, LL.D. (1542–1589), civilian, whose mother is said to have been a sister of Alexander Nowell, dean of St. Paul's, was baptised at Whalley, Lancashire, in 1542, and was educated at Trinity Hall, Cambridge, where he became fellow, and in 1561 proceeded LL.B. He addressed Queen Elizabeth in a short Latin speech when she visited his college on 9 Aug. 1564 (cf. Nichols, Progresses, iii. 83, where the speech is printed). In 1569 he was created LL.D. and admitted a member of the College of Civilians (Coote, Civilians, p. 48). On 6 Feb. 1569-70 he became commissary of the deaneries of the Arches, Shoreham, and Croydon; in 1573 commissary to the dean and chapter of St. Paul's, London; a master of chancery in 1574; and chancellor of the diocese of London in 1575. He acted on two commissions in 1577, one with reference to the restitution of goods belonging to Portuguese merchants, and the other concerning complaints of piracy preferred by Scotchmen. In 1578 he attended the diet of Smalkald as a delegate from the English government, and in August 1580 went to Guernsey to investigate charges brought by the inhabitants against Sir Thomas Leighton, the governor. In March 1580-1 he took part in the examination by torture of Thomas Myagh, a prisoner in the Tower, charged with treasonable correspondence with Irish rebels.
From 1572 onwards Hammond was an active member of the ecclesiastical court of high commission. In May 1581 he examined Alexander Briant, a Jesuit, under torture in the Tower, and later in the year conducted repeated examinations of Edmund Campion [q. v.], preparing points for discussion out of Sanders's 'De Monarchia' and Bristowe's 'Motives.' On 29 April 1582 he similarly dealt with Thomas Alfield, a seminary priest, who was racked in the Tower. He sat as M.P. for Rye in the parliament meeting on 23 Nov. 1585, and for West Looe in the parliament meeting in October 1586. He probably died in December 1589; his will, dated 21 Dec. 1589, was proved on 12 Oct. 1590. He was father of John Hammond, M.D. [q. v.]
Some of his legal opinions are in Brit. Mus. Harl. MS. 6993 art. 39, and Lansd. MS. 144 art. 24.
[Cooper's Athenæ Cantabr. ii. 75, 544; Strype's Annals, and his Lives of Parker, Grindal, Whitgift, and Aylmer; Howell's State Trials, i. 1078-84.]
S. L. L.
# Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Hammond, John (1551-1617)

1904 Errata appended.
​HAMMOND, JOHN, M.D. (1551–1617), physician, son of John Hammond, LL.D. [q. v.], was born in London in 1551. He was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he graduated B. A. in 1573, and was elected a fellow. In 1577 he took the degree of M.A., and on 30 Aug. 1603 was incorporated M.D. at Oxford. He was elected a fellow of the College of Physicians on 13 May 1608. He was physician to James I and to Henry, prince of Wales, whom he attended in his last illness in 1612. His signature is attached to the original record of the post-mortem examination of the prince preserved in the Record Office, London. His only published work is an address to Dr. Matthew Gwinne [q. v.] ​in Greek verse, prefixed to Gwinne's 'Vertumnus,' 1607. He died in 1617. His youngest son, Henry Hammond [q. v.], was the famous divine; an elder son, Robert, was father of Colonel Robert Hammond [q. v.]
[Munk's Coll. of Phys. i. 147; Gwinne's Vertumnus, 1607; Original State Papers in Record Office, lxxi. 29.]
N. M.
Dictionary of National Biography, Errata (1904), p.146 N.B.— f.e. stands for from end and l.l. for last line
| Page | Col. | Line | |
| 247 | ii | 16 f.e. | Hammond, John (1551-1617): for (1551-1617) read (d. 1617) |
| | | 14 f.e. | omit in 1551 |
# Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Hammond, Samuel

​HAMMOND, SAMUEL, D.D. (d. 1665), nonconformist divine, is said to have been a ‘butcher's son of York.’ When at King's College, Cambridge, he was servitor to Dr. Samuel Collins (1576–1651) [q. v.], professor of divinity at Cambridge, and by the Earl of Manchester's interest obtained a fellowship in Magdalene College. He created a great impression in the university by his preaching in St. Giles's Church, and obtained many pupils and followers. Sir Arthur Hesilrigge [q. v.] took him into the north of England as his chaplain, and he settled for some time as minister in Bishop Wearmouth, but removed ​thence to Newcastle. An order of the common council, dated 5 Nov. 1652, appointed him as preacher at St. Nicholas Church, Newcastle, on Sunday and lecturer on Thursday, at a salary of 100l. At the Restoration he was ejected from his charge at Newcastle, and retired to Hamburg as minister to the society of merchants there. Lord-chancellor Hyde objected to renew the charter of the society of merchants, which was nearly expired, if they retained Hammond, and he was compelled to leave. He went first to Stockholm, where a merchant named Cutler befriended him, and then to Danzig, and finally to London, taking up his abode in Hackney. He died on 10 Dec. 1665.
While at Newcastle Hammond was concerned in the examination and exposure of an impostor named Thomas Ramsay. This man's frauds were exposed in a tract entitled ‘A False Jew: or a Wonderful Discovery of a Scot, baptized at London for a Christian, circumcised at Rome to act a Jew, rebaptized at Hexham for a Believer, but found out at Newcastle to be a Cheat,’ &c., Newcastle, 1653, 4to. The dedicatory epistles are signed by Tho. Weld, Sam. Hammond, Cuth. Sidenham, and Wil. Durant. The tract contains a second title-page and pagination, which is the ‘Declaration and Confession’ published by the impostor under the name of Joseph ben Israel. The minister of Hexham, T. Tillam, supposed himself unfairly treated in this pamphlet, and replied to it by ‘Banners of Love displayed …; or an Answer to a Narrative stuffed with Untruths, by four Newcastle Gentlemen,’ London, 1654, 4to. Hammond also helped to write a tract attacking the quakers, entitled ‘The Perfect Pharise, under Monkish Holines, opposing the Fundamental Principles of the Doctrine of the Gospel, … manifesting himself in the Generation of men called Quakers,’ &c., London, 1654, 4to. Hammond's name comes third among five Newcastle ministers who sign this tract. An introductory epistle ‘to the Reader’ by Hammond appears in a book called ‘God's Judgements upon Drunkards, Swearers, and Sabbath-Breakers,’ &c., London, 1659, 8vo. Calamy mentions with praise a letter from Stockholm as having ‘something of the spirit and style of the martyrs,’ but it was apparently never printed.
[Palmer's Nonconformists' Memorial, iii. 76; E. Mackenzie's Newcastle, i. 282; J. Brand's Newcastle, i. 307; Brit. Mus. Cat.]
R. B.
# Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Cundy, Thomas (1790-1867)

​CUNDY, THOMAS, the younger (1790–1867), architect, was eldest son of Thomas Cundy [q. v.] and Mary Hubert, his wife. He was associated with his father in many of his undertakings, and on his father's death in 1825 succeeded to his connection and also to his position as surveyor to Earl Grosvenor's London estates. This position he held for forty-one years, during which period the extraordinary speculations of Thomas Cubitt [q. v.] were commenced and completed. Cundy practised as an architect only, and among the important works erected or improved from his designs were Hewell Grange, Tottenham Park, Moor Park, Fawsley Park, and others, including alterations to the house and gallery in Grosvenor Street, the London residence of the Duke of Westminster. In later years he was largely employed in erecting churches in the west end of London, among which may be noted Holy Trinity Paddington, St. Paul's, Knightsbridge, St. Barnabas's, St. Michael's, and St. Gabriel's in Pimlico, and others. Cundy resided latterly at Bromley in Kent, and died 15 July 1867, aged 77. He married Arabella, daughter of John Fishlake of Salisbury, by whom he left three sons and one daughter. His third son, Thomas Cundy, the third of that name, was born in 1820, and associated with his father in many of his undertakings. He eventually succeeded to his connection and his position, and occupies a distinguished place in the ranks of his profession.
[Redgrave's Dict. of Artists; Builder, 1867, p. 607; information from Mr. Thomas Cundy.]
L. C.
# Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Cungar

Cyngar
​CUNGAR or CYNGAR, Saint (fl. 500?), anchorite, is said by Capgrave (Nova Legenda, fo. 80) to have been the son of an emperor of Constantinople and of an empress named Luceria, to have come to this country in the time of Dubritius, bishop of Llandaff (d. 612?), and to have founded an oratory, first at the place called, as it is supposed after him, Congresbury in Somerset, and afterwards in Morganwy, Glamorganshire, placing twelve canons in each. He is further said to have received a grant of land from Iva, king of the English (Ina or Ini, king of the West Saxons, res. 725), and to have been called both by English and Welsh Docwin, because he taught (quod doceret) the people the Gospel. While the circumstances of this legend are of course unhistorical, they are not without meaning. Congresbury was probably of some ecclesiastical importance in British times; for either a monastery or at least a church of sufficient size to be called a minster existed there in the days of Alfred, and was granted by that king to Asser [q. v.], bishop of Sherborne. The name Docwin seems to point to Docwinni, one of the three famous sanctuaries of Llandaff diocese. Again, the story of Ini in connection with a foundation at Wells is associated with the false notions that that king was the founder of the Somerset bishopric, and that the see was originally placed at Congresbury, and with the extremely probable notion that Ini really did set up a collegiate church of some kind at Wells, the existence of which accounts for that place being chosen for the see when the bishopric was founded by Edward the Elder. And if we disregard the dates assigned to Cungar, it may well be that the story of the saint coming ​from beyond sea, first to a place now in Somerset, and then going across to the land to which we now appropriate the name of Wales, may be one of the many illustrations of the close connection between Armorica and the lands on either side of the Bristol Channel. St. Cungar's name is preserved in the dedication of the churches of Badgworth, Somerset, of Hope, Flintshire, and of Llangafo, Anglesey.
[Capgrave's Nova Legenda Aurea, fo. 80; Ussher's Brit. Eccles. Antiq. (ed. 1687), 36, 252; Rees's Welsh Saints, 183; Haddan and Stubbs's Councils and Ecclesiastical Documents, i. 150, 158; Hunt's History of Diocese of Bath and Wells, 5, 6.]
W. H.
# Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Cumming, Thomas

​CUMMING, THOMAS (d. 1774), quaker, commonly known as the ‘fighting quaker,’ was a private merchant engaged in the African trade. During a business voyage he contracted an acquaintance with the king of Legibelli (South Barbary), whom he found well disposed to English enterprise, and who, being exasperated with the French, had actually commenced a war against them. He requested the English to protect his trade, and on condition of receiving the sole privilege of trading with the country, Cumming agreed to exert his influence with the English government. After ascertaining the strength of the French positions on the coast, he returned to England, and having formed a plan for an expedition, presented it to the board of trade, by whom it was approved after a critical examination. Many obstacles were placed in his way by the government, but at length the ministry granted a military and naval force, though a much inferior one to that he considered necessary. This force was professedly put under the command of military officers, but Cumming really had the entire direction, and his local knowledge enabled him to guide it in such a manner that it proved entirely successful. Cumming had hoped, as he explained to the Society of Friends, that bloodshed might be avoided, and avowed that otherwise he would not have urged it. This hope, however, was fruitless, and he then took the entire blame on himself, but there is no reason to suppose he was disowned by the Friends. He died 29 May 1774.
[Hume's Hist. x. 96; State Records; Gent. Mag. 1774, 287.]
A. C. B.
# Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Cumming, William (1822?-1855)

​CUMMING, WILLIAM (1822?–1855), the pioneer of modern ophthalmology, was the first to demonstrate that rays of light falling on the human retina might be reflected back to the eye of an observer, and that the fundus of the eye, till then a dark and hidden region, might, under certain conditions of illumination, become visible. This important fact was communicated by him to the Medico-Chirurgical Society of London in June 1846, in a paper ‘On a Luminous Appearance of the Human Eye,’ &c. He never obtained a view of the tissue and vessels of the retina. This was reserved for Helmholtz, who, in a tract of forty-three pages, described his method of viewing these structures by means of a polarising apparatus (‘Beschreibung eines Augenspiegels,’ &c., Berlin, 1851). This was afterwards superseded by a mirror, to which the now familiar name of ‘Ophthalmoscope’ was applied. It underwent many modifications ​ until the whole fundus of the eye, in its healthy and in its morbid state, has been so minutely described and depicted as to be familiar to every medical student.
Cumming was a singularly modest and retiring man, a thoughtful and accurate observer; and had his life been prolonged he would no doubt have further developed his important discovery. He fell into ill health, and died at Limehouse in 1855, aged 33.
J. D.
# Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Cumming, Roualeyn George Gordon-

​CUMMING, ROUALEYN GEORGE GORDON- (1820–1866), the African lion hunter, second son of Sir William Gordon Gordon-Cumming, second baronet of Altyre and Gordonstown, was born on 15 March 1820. He was educated at Eton, but even in his boyhood was distinguished more for his love of sport, especially salmon-fishing and deer-stalking, than for anything else. He entered the East India Company's service as a cornet in the Madras cavalry in 1838, and on his way had his first experience of sport in South Africa; but the climate of the East did not agree with him, and in 1840 he resigned his commission. He then returned to Scotland, and devoted himself to ​deer-stalking; but in his own words he found ‘the life of the wild hunter so far preferable to that of the mere sportsman’ that he obtained an ensigncy in the Royal Veteran Newfoundland Companies. Not finding the opportunities for sport in America which he expected, he exchanged in 1843 into the Cape Mounted Rifles, and once more found himself in Africa. He did not long remain in his new regiment, but resigned his commission at the close of the year, and purchasing a wagon and collecting a few followers, he spent the next five years hunting in the interior of South Africa. In 1848 he returned to England, and in 1850 he published his ‘Five Years of a Hunter's Life in the Far Interior of South Africa,’ a book which had an immense success, and made him the lion of the season. In 1851 he exhibited his trophies of success at the Great Exhibition. He then went about the country lecturing and exhibiting his lion skins for some years, and under the sobriquet of the ‘Lion Hunter’ he obtained great popularity, and made a good deal of money. In 1856 he published a condensed edition of his book as ‘The Lion Hunter of South Africa,’ and in 1858 he established himself at Fort Augustus on the Caledonian Canal, where his museum was a great attraction to all tourists. He was a man of great height and physical strength, with very Scotch features, and he seems to have had a Scotch premonition of death, for he ordered his coffin and made his will just before he died at Fort Augustus on 24 March 1866.
[Preface to the first edition of his book; Gent. Mag. May 1866; private information.]
H. M. S.
# Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Cumming, William (fl.1797-1823)

William Cuming in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.
​CUMMING, WILLIAM (fl. 1797–1823), portrait-painter, was a painter of repute in Dublin towards the close of the eighteenth century, and his female portraits were much admired. Some of his portraits have been engraved, notably James Cuffe, Lord Tyrawley, engraved in mezzotint by John Raphael Smith, Edward Cooke, under-secretary for Ireland, and John Doyle, both engraved in mezzotint by W. Ward. He painted a picture of Christ and Zebedee's Children, which was engraved for Macklin's bible by J. Holloway, and published in 1798. In 1821, when the Royal Hibernian Academy, after a protracted controversy, succeeded in obtaining a charter, Cumming was one of three artists elected by ballot to choose eleven others, and thus form the first fourteen academicians.
[Redgrave's Dict. of Artists; Chaloner Smith's British Mezzotinto Portraits; W. B. Sarsfield Taylor's History of the Fine Arts in Great Britain and Ireland.]
L. C.
# Culture vs. Copyright

Culture
vs.
Copyright
A Diary of a Naïve Philosopher
ANATOLY VOLYNETS
​Culture vs. Copyright A Diary of a Naive Philosopher
    Chapter 1. First Graders on the Magic Planet
    Chapter 2. Inquiry on the Nature of Art
    Chapter 3. Arts and Personality
    Chapter 4. Culture beyond Arts
    Chapter 5. Discrepancies between Two Worlds
    Chapter 6. Three Models
    Chapter 7. On Licensing in Cultural Affairs
    Addendum. Authoright License
Authoright 2013: Text, original: Anatoly Volynets, av@total-knowledge.com Authoright 2013: Cover, original: Olga Gessen, nervalis@gmail.com Authoright 2013: Illustration, original: Sasha Willins, thegreattiny@gmail.com
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Preliminary edition by Sasha Willins, thegreattiny@gmail.com Final edition by Susan Harcajo, susanhorcajo@hotmail.com Layout by Oleksandr Kryvets, sanya@kryvets.com Sources: Electronic files by respective authors Publisher and sponsor of all the works:
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Publisher’s Cataloging-in-Publication (Provided by Quality Books, Inc.)
Volynets, Anatoly.
    Culture vs. copyright : a diary of a naive
philosopher / Anatoly Volynets.
    pages cm
    LCCN: 2013946696
    ISBN-13: 978-0-9889557-0-7
    ISBN-10: 0988955709
    1. Culture--Philosophy. 2. Intellectual property--
Philosophy. 3. Copyright--Philosophy. I. Title. II. Title: Culture versus copyright.
HM621.V65 2014 306'.01
             QBI13-2479
Printed and bound in the United States of America Order and other information: cvc.culturedialogue.org or bit.ly/NIQBVB
To my mother Sofia and father Genrikh
Contents
Acknowledgments
Preface
CHAPTER 1. First Graders on the Magic Planet
CHAPTER 2. Inquiry on the Nature of Art
CHAPTER 3. Arts and Personality
CHAPTER 4. Culture Beyond Art
CHAPTER 5. Discrepancies between Two Worlds
CHAPTER 7. On Licensing in Cultural Affairs
This work is released under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International license, which allows free use, distribution, and creation of derivatives, so long as the license is unchanged and clearly noted, and the original author is attributed—and if you alter, transform, or build upon this work, you may distribute the resulting work only under the same license as this one.
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