OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Spiral

See also Spiral and List of spirals on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​SPIRAL, in mathematics, the locus of the extremity of a line (01 radius vector) which varies in length as it revolves about a fixed point (or origin). Here we consider some of the more important plane spirals. Obviously such curves are con- veniently expressed by polar equations, i.e. equations which directly state a relation existing between the radius vector and the vector angle; another form is the " p, r " equation, wherein r is the radius vector of a point, and p the length of the perpendicular from the origin to the tangent at that point.
The equiangular or logarithmic spiral (fig. 1) is such that as the vectoF angle increases arithmetically, the radius vector increases
flG3.
geometrically; this definition leads to an equation of the form r â€” Ae^, where e is the base of natural logarithms and A, B are constants. Another definition is that the tangent makes a constant angle (a, say) with the radius vector; this leads to p â€” r sin o. This curve has the property that its positive pedals, inverse, polar reciprocal and evolutes are all equal equiangular spirals. A group of spirals are included in the "parabolic spirals " given by the equation r = aO"; the more important are the Archimedean spiral, r â€” a6 (fig. 2) ; the hyperbolic or reciprocal spiral, r = a(?~i (fig. 3) ; and the lituus, r = ad~i (fig. 4). The first-named was discovered by Conon, whose studies were completed by Archimedes. Its " p, r " equation is p = r 2 /V (a 2 +r 2 ), and the angle between the radius vector and the tangent equals the vector angle. The second, called hyperbolic on account of the analogy of its equation (polar) to that (Cartesian) of a hyperbola between the asymptotes, is the inverse of the Archimedean. Its p, r equation is p~ 2 =r~i-\-a~*, and it has an asymptote at the distance a above the initial line. The lituus has the initial line as asymptote. Another group of spirals â€” termed Cotes's spirals â€” appear as the path of a particle moving under the influence of a central force varying as the inverse cube of the distance (see Mechanics). Their general equation is p~? = Ar~' + B,in which A and B can have any values. If B =0, we have p = r^ A, and the locus is the equiangular spiral. If A = i we have p~2=r~z-\-B, which leads to the polar equation r0 = i/VB, i.e. the reciprocal spiral. The more general investigation is as follows: Writing u = r~i we have p~ 2 =Au 2 + B, and since p- 2 = u 2 + (du/d8) 2 (see Infinitesimal Calculus), then Au 2 + B=u 2 + (du/d0) 2 , i.e. (du/de) 2 = (A-i)u 2 + B. The right-hand side may be written as C 2 (u 2 + D r ), C 2 (zt 2 â€” D 2 ), C 2 (D 2 â€” m 2 ) according as A â€” I and B are both positive, A â€” I positive and B negative, and as A â€” 1 negative and B positive. On integration these three forms yield the polar equations u = C sin hDO, w = C cos hDe, and k = C sin D6. Of interest is the spiral r = a0 2 /(8 2 â€” i), which has the circle r = a as an asymptote in addition to a linear asvmptote
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Spion Kop

See also Spion Kop (mountain) and Battle of Spion Kop on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​SPION KOP, a mountain in Natal on the north side of the Tugela River, and 24 m. W.S.W. of Ladysmith. It is celebrated as the scene of a battle (Jan. 24, 1900) in the Transvaal War, in which the British forces under Sir Redvers Bullcr were defeated by the Boers (see Transvaal and Ladysmith). The Spion Kop incident led to much controversy; for an admirable elucidation of the facts see The Times History of the War in South Africa. The name itself (Dutch for " Look-out Hill ") is fairly common as a place-name in South Africa.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Spire Light

See also Spire light on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​SPIRE LIGHT (Fr. lucarne), the term given to the windows in a spire which are found in all periods of English Gothic architecture, and in French spires form a very important feature in the composition. There is an early example in the spire of the cathedral at Oxford; they are not glazed, and have occasionally, if of large size, transoms to strengthen the mullions.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Spinet

See also Spinet on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​SPINET, or Spinnet (Fr. espinette or épinette; Ger. Spinett; Ital. spinetta), names given in England to all small keyboard instruments irrespective of shape, having one string to a note, plucked by means of a quill or plectrum of leather. The earliest name recorded for this instrument is clavicymbalum, which occurs in the rules of the Minnesingers (1404), and also in the Wunderbuch (1440), a MS. preserved in the grand-ducal library at Weimar. This is enriched with pen and ink sketches, amongst which is a series of musical instruments comprising a clavicymbalum, not represented as the rectangular instrument figured by Virdung and Luscinius, but harp- or wing-shaped like the larger and more perfect instrument afterwards known as harpsichord in England (clavecin, clavicymbel).
In Italy the usual early model of spinet was pentagonal or heptagonal, and was generally enclosed in an outer case, from which it was taken for performance. Some of the oldest rectangular specimens merely contain a pentagonal spinet, the corners not being filled in. In the 16th century the rectangular spinets were modelled in Italy on the cassone or wedding coffers, and the keyboard, until the middle of that century, stood out from the case, Rosso of Milan being the first to recess it. Both forms were in use in England until the Restoration, when the transverse or wing form became popular in England, Haward, Stephen Keene and Thomas Hitchcock being the most celebrated English makers at the end of the 17th and beginning of the 18th century.
The mechanism of all spinets, virginals and harpsichords is the same in principle, the principal variation being in the number of strings to each note and the manner in which they are disposed over the soundboard. In the spinets they run parallel or at an obtuse angle to the keyboard. The jack rests on the back of the key-lever, and works through a rectangular hole cut through the soundboard as the key is depressed. The quill or plectrum is embedded in a pivoted tongue near the top of the jack in such a manner that when the tongue is at rest the quill protrudes at right angles just under the string. As the jack rises the quill catches the string and twangs it, causing the tongue, kept in place by a bristle spring, to fall back and thus avoid the string on the return of the jack. A little piece of cloth acting as a damper and attached to the jack rests on the string whenever the key returns to its normal position.
For the history of the spinet, see Pianoforte.
(K. S.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Spinola, Cristoval Rojas de

See also Cristoval Rojas de Spinola on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​SPINOLA, CRISTOVAL ROJAS DE (d. 1695), Spanish ecclesiastic, was general of the Franciscan order in Madrid. He went to Vienna as confessor to the Spanish wife of Leopold I., and became bishop of Wienerisch-Neustadt in 1685. He endeavoured to reconcile the Protestant churches with the Roman Catholic, and at a conference at Hanover in 1683 presented his Regulae circa Christianorum, omnium ecclesiasticum reunionem. The Helmstädt theologians, represented by Gerhard Molanus (1633–1722), at the same time put forward their Methodus reducendae unionis. The discussions were approved by the pope and the emperor, but had no popular feeling behind them, and though the negotiations were continued for ten years, especially between Molanus on the one side and Bossuet on the other, no agreement was reached, for the Protestants could not accept the Council of Trent as authoritative or surrender the matter of communion under both species. Spinola died on the 12th of March 1695.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Spiny Squirrel

See also Spiny squirrel on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​SPINY SQUIRREL, a book-name for a group of African ground squirrels, characterized by the spiny nature of the fur of the more typical forms. They form the genus Xerus, which is split up into a number of subgenera; Xerus rutilus of Abyssinia and East Africa belonging to the typical group, while the striped ​North African X. getulus represents the sub-genus Atlantoxerus. The more typical species are characterized by the coarse spiny hair, the small size, or even absence of the ears, and the long, nearly straight, claws. The skull is narrower and longer than in typical squirrels, and there are distinctive features in the cheek-teeth; but the more aberrant types come much closer to squirrels. Typical spiny squirrels differ from true squirrels in being completely terrestrial in their habits, and live either in clefts or holes of rocks, or in burrows which they dig themselves. (See Rodentia.)
# A Cyclopaedia of Female Biography/Buffet, Margaret

Layout 2
BUFFET, MARGARET,
A Parisian lady, who wrote an interesting eulogy on learned women, besides observations on the French language.
# A Cyclopaedia of Female Biography/Brunoro, Bona Lombardi

Layout 2
BRUNORO, BONA LOMBARDI,
Was born in 1417, in Sacco, a little village in Vattellina. Her parents were obscure peasants, of whom we have but little information. The father, Gabriel Lombardi, a private soldier, died while she was an infant; and her mother not surviving him long, the little girl was left to the charge of an aunt, a hard-working countrywoman, and an uncle, an humble curate.
Bona, in her simple peasant station, exhibited intelligence, decision of character, and personal beauty, which raised her to a certain consideration in the estimation of her companions; and the neighbourhood boasted of the beauty of Bona, when an incident occurred which was to raise her to a most unexpected rank. In the war between the Duke of Milan and the Venetians, the latter had been routed and driven from Vattellina. Piccinino, the Milanese General, upon departing to follow up his advantages, left Captain Brunoro, a Parmesan gentleman, to maintain a camp in Morbegno, as a central position to maintain the conquered country. One day, after a hunting party, he stopped to repose himself, in a grove where many of the peasants were assembled for some rustic festival; he was greatly struck with the loveliness of a girl of about fifteen. Upon entering into conversation with her, he was surprised at the ingenuity and spirited tone of her replies. Speaking of the adventure on his return home, everybody told him that Bona Lombardi had acknowledged claims to admiration. Brunoro, remaining through the summer in that district, found many opportunities of seeing the fair peasant; becoming acquainted with her worth and character, he at last determined to make her the companion of his life; their marriage was not declared at first, but, to prevent a separation, however temporary, Bona was induced to put on the dress of an officer. She accompanied her husband in battle, fought by his side, and, regardless of her own safety, seemed to be merely an added arm to shield and assist Brunoro. He incurring the anger of the King of Naples, was seized by means of an ambuscade, and plunged into a dungeon, where he would probably have finished his days, but for the untiring and well-planned efforts of his wife, who had the happiness of effecting his release on this as also on another occasion.
​Bona was not only gifted with the feminine qualities of domestic affection and a well-balanced intellect; in the hottest battles, her bravery and power of managing her troops were quite remarkable; of these feats there are many instances recorded. She was, however, destined to lose her husband without possibility of recovering him; he died in 1468. When this intrepid heroine, victor in battles, and, rising above all adversity, was bowed by a sorrow resulting from affection, she declared she could not survive Brunoro. She caused a tomb to be made, in which their remains could be united; and, after seeing the work completed, she gradually sank into a languid state, which terminated in her death.
# A Cyclopaedia of Female Biography/Burleigh, Lady Mildred

Layout 2
BURLEIGH, LADY MILDRED,
Eldest daughter of Sir Anthony Cooke, and sister of Anne Bacon, was born at Milton, in 1526. Her education was carefully superintended by her father, and she learned to read and write the Greek and Latin languages with ease and elegance. On presenting the Bible, in Hebrew and other languages, to the University of Cambridge, she sent with it an epistle in Greek of her own composition.
In 1546 she married Sir William Cecil, afterwards Lord Burleigh, lord high-treasurer of England, privy-counseller to Queen Elizabeth, and Knight of the Garter.
Lady Burleigh was very happy in her long marriage of forty-two years; she died, April 4th, 1589, deeply regretted by her husband, who lost in her not only an amiable wife, but a friend whom he had been accustomed to consult on the most important occasions, and whose judgment and knowledge in state affairs was little inferior to his own. She was buried in Westminster Abbey.
After her decease, Lord Burleigh diverted his sorrow by composing ​"Meditations" on his irreparable loss, in which, after expressing his high sense of the admirable virtues of his wife, he enumerates her acts of beneficence and liberality, many of which had, during her life, been carefully concealed from himself.
# A Cyclopaedia of Female Biography/Bulwer, Lady

Layout 2
BULWER, LADY,
Has gained an unfortunate celebrity both from unhappy family ​occurrences, and from the manner in which she has used her talents to avenge her real or fancied injuries. Her maiden name was Wheeler, only daughter of a respectable widow who resided in London. Miss Wheeler is represented to have been "a pale, slender, beautiful girl;" Edward Lytton Bulwer, fresh from college, saw and loved her; they were married against the wishes of his mother. The sequel is too well known to require detail; there was "incompatibility of temper"—unhappiness—separation. It was not till after this last event that Lady Bulwer became an author; we regret to say that her pen has not improved the respect we should like to entertain for one who has suffered. She is unquestionably a woman of talents; but her genius is not always well-directed. There is, throughout her works a sort of daring, a way of writing that seems like loud talking, when you are disposed to beg for less vociferation. "Chevely," her first novel, has some good scenes and fine passages, but it is a book of which we cannot approve; its tendency is wrong, its views of life unsound: still in reading it we feel disposed to make allowance; it appears like the outpourings of a sadly grieved spirit. Her next work, "The Bubble Family" is, in a literary point of view, a better book; yet it is disfigured by a coarse, sailor-like humour, such as would amuse coming from Captain Marryatt; from the pen of a lady it is sadly out of keeping. "Bianca Capello" shows great acquaintance with Italian learning, yet is rather a dull book. Lady Bulwer, however, displays so much information upon this interesting portion of Italian history, that we wonder she did not choose the simple vehicle of memoirs rather than this cumbrous romance. "The Peer's Daughters" is a later novel, and displays a minute knowledge of French history and manners, during the reign of Louis the Fifteenth. Critics have praised this work very highly. She has written other novels.
# A Cyclopaedia of Female Biography/Brunton, Mary

Layout 2
BRUNTON, MARY,
Authoress of "Self-Control" and "Discipline," two novels of superior merit, was born on the 1st of November, 1778. She was a native of Burrey, in Orkney, a small island of about five hundred inhabitants, destitute of tree or shrub. Her father was Colonel Balfour, of Elwick, and her mother was niece of Field-marshal Lord Ligonier, in whose house she had resided before her marriage. Mary was carefully educated, and taught French and Italian by her mother. She was also sent to Edinburgh; but when she was sixteen her mother died, and the whole care of the family devolved on her. At the age of twenty she married the Rev. Mr. Brunton, minister of Bolton, in Haddingtonshire. In 1803, Mr. Brunton was called to Edinburgh, and there his wife had an opportunity of meeting literary persons, and of cultivating her mind. "Self-Control," her first novel, was published anonymously in 1811. The first edition was sold in a month, and a second and third called for. Her next work was "Discipline," a novel of the religious class, to which "Self-Control" belonged. She died in 1818, leaving an unfinished novel called "Emeline," afterwards published with a memoir of the authoress, by her husband.
Her private character was in harmony with her writings; she taught all within the circle of her influence, by her amiable deportment, how beautiful are the characteristics of the true christian lady, as she now teaches the readers of her excellent works the theory of the loveliness of virtue.
# A Cyclopaedia of Female Biography/Buchan, Countess of

Layout 2
BUCHAN, COUNTESS OF.
Sister of the Earl of Fife, crowned Robert Bruce, King of Scotland, at Scone, March 29th., 1306, in place of her brother, whose duty it was, but whose fears prevented him from performing it. She was taken prisoner by Edward the First of England, and, for six years confined in a wooden cage, in one of the towers of Berwick castle.
# A Cyclopaedia of Female Biography/Brun, Madame le

Layout 2
BRUN, MADAME LE,
Was a French artiste or painter, who gained considerable reputation at Paris. Her paintings, historical pieces as well as portraits, were exhibited in the Louvre. Madame de Genlis speaks of the talents of Madame le Brun with much warmth of praise, and complains that the men sought to depreciate her paintings because she was a woman.
# A Cyclopaedia of Female Biography/Bure, Catharine

Layout 2
BURE, CATHARINE,
A learned Swedish lady, whose correspondence with her country-woman, Vandela Skylte, has been printed. It is characterized by elegance of language, correctness of style, and delicacy of expression. She died in 1679, aged seventy-seven.
# A Cyclopaedia of Female Biography/Brunehaut

Layout 2
BRUNEHAUT,
Younger daughter of Athanagilde, king of the Visigoths of Spain, married, in 565, Siegbert, the Frankish king of Metz or Austrasia. Siegbert had resolved to have but one wife, and to choose her from a royal family; his choice fell on Brunehaut, who fully justified his preference. She was beautiful, elegant in her deportment, modest and dignified in her conduct, and conversed not only agreeably, but with a great deal of wisdom. Her husband soon became exceedingly attached to her.
Her elder sister, Galsuinda, had married Chilperic, Siegbert's brother, and king of Normandy. Galsuinda was murdered, through the instigation of Fredegonde, Chilperic's mistress, who then induced Chilperic to marry her. Brunehaut, to avenge her sister's death, persuaded Siegbert to make war upon his brother; and he had succeeded in wresting Chilperic's territories from him, and besieging him in Tournai, when two assassins, hired by Fredegonde, murdered Siegbert in his camp, in 575.
As soon as Brunehaut heard of this misfortune, she hastened to save her son, the little Childebert, heir to the kingdom of Austrasia. She hid him in a basket, which was let down out of a window of the palace she occupied in Paris, and confided him to a servant of the Austrasian Duke Grondebald, who carried him behind him on horseback to Metz, where he was proclaimed king, on Christmas day, 575. When Chilperic and Fredegonde arrived at Paris, they found only Brunehaut, with her two daughters and the royal treasure. Her property was taken from her, her daughters were exiled to Meaux, and she was sent to Rouen.
After this she married her nephew, Chilperic's younger son, became a second time a widow, entered into a war with the nobles of Austrasia, was for a while successful, then defeated, and driven out of the kingdom. She found refuge with her grandson, Theodorick. King of Burgundy, whom she incited to take up arms against his brother Theodebert, whom he pursued to Cologne, and there assassinated. His children, one of whom was an infant, were slain by order of Brunehaut. Theodoric died in 613, and Brunehaut, betrayed by her subjects, and abandoned by her nobles, fell into the hands of Clotaire, son of Fredegonde. He loaded her with insults, accused her of having caused the death of ten kings, or sons of kings, and gave her up to the vengeance of his infuriated soldiery. This Queen, then eighty years old, was carried naked on a litter for three days, and then bound by one arm and one leg 10 the tail of an unbroken colt, which dragged her over rocks and stones till she was nothing but a shapeless mass. Her remains were then burnt.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Wright, Joseph

See also Joseph Wright of Derby on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​WRIGHT, JOSEPH (1734-1797), styled Wright of Derby, English subject, landscape and portrait painter, was born at Derby on the 3rd of September 1734, the son of an attorney, who was afterwards town-clerk. Deciding to become a painter, he went to London in 1751 and for two years studied under Thomas Hudson, the master of Reynolds. After painting portraits for a while at Derby, he again placed himself for fifteen months under his former master. He then settled in Derby, and varied his work in portraiture by the production of the subjects seen under artificial light with which his name is chiefly associated, and by landscape painting. He married in 1773, and in the end of that year he visited Italy, where he remained till 1775. While at Naples he witnessed an eruption of Vesuvius, which formed the subject of many of his subsequent pictures. On his return from Italy he established himself at Bath as a portrait-painter; but meeting with little encouragement he returned to Derby, where he spent the rest of his life. He was a frequent contributor to the exhibitions of the Society of Artists, and to those of the Royal Academy, of which he was elected an associate in 1781 and a full member in 1784. He, however, declined the latter honour on account of a slight which he believed that he had received, and severed his official connexion with the Academy, though he continued to contribute to the exhibitions from 1783 till 1794. He died at Derby on the 29th of August 1797. Wright's portraits are frequently defective in drawing, and without quality or variety of handling, while their flesh tints are often hard. He is seen at his best in his subjects of artificial light, of which the “Orrery” (1766), the property of the corporation of Derby, and the “Air-pump” (1768), in the National Gallery, are excellent examples. His “Old Man and Death” (1774) is also a striking and individual production. An exhibition of Wright's works was brought together at Derby in 1883, and twelve of his pictures were shown in the winter exhibition of the Royal Academy in 1886.
His biography, by William Bemrose, was published in 1885.