OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Slavonic, Old

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​SLAVONIC, OLD. In the article Slavs (under Languages) will be found a fairly complete account of Old Slavonic in its first form, as it is taken as representing, save for a few peculiarities noticed in their place, the Proto-Slavonic. The reasons are there given for believing it to be the dialect of Slavs settled somewhere between Thessalonica and Constantinople and represented now by the Bulgarians and Macedonians.
After the language had been fixed by the original translations of the New Testament and other Church books it was no more consciously adapted to the dialects of the various peoples, but was used equally among the Croats (whose books were accommodated to the Roman use and written in Glagolitic), Serbs and ​Russians. These insensibly altered them to make the words easier and allowed their native languages to show through; and the same was the case with the Bulgarians, whose language soon began to lose some of the characteristics of O.S. Hence our earliest MSS. already show departure from the norm which can be established by comparison; about a dozen (8 Glagolitic) MSS. and fragments afford trustworthy material dating from the 10th and 11th centuries, but even then the S. Slavs were weak in distinguishing i and y, the Russians mixed up ạ with u, ẹ with ja and so on; but in the actual texts great conservatism prevailed, whereas any additions, such as colophons or marks of ownership, betray the dialect of the writer more clearly, and such scraps and a few deeds are our earliest authorities for Servian and Russian. But the Church language as insensibly modified continued to be the literary language of Croatia until the 16th century, of Russia until 1700, and of Bulgaria, Servia and Rumania until the early part of the 19th century, and is still the liturgical language of Dalmatia, the Balkans, Russia and the Ruthenian Uniates.
Its literature was enriched in the second generation by the works of Clement, bishop of Ochrida, and John, exarch of Bulgaria, and other writers of the time of Tsar Simeon, but it is almost all ecclesiastical in character. Perhaps the most interesting book in Church Slavonic is the Russian chronicle, but that has many old Russian forms. Otherwise certain translations of Greek Apocrypha are of importance, especially when the Greek original is lost, e.g. the Book of Enoch; other Apocrypha in Church Slavonic are said to have been written by Jeremias, a Bogomil priest, but they are probably derived from Eastern sources. The Slavonic text of the Bible is not of importance for textual criticism, as the translation was made late, and even so has never been studied from that point of view. The whole Bible was not finished till the 15th century, some of the less necessary books being translated from the Vulgate.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Slavyansk

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​SLAVYANSK, a town of Russia, in the government of Kharkov, 158 m. by rail S.E. of the town of Kharkov, on the Torets river and close by several salt lakes, from which salt is extracted. Pop. (1897) 15,644. There are soap, candle and tallow-works. Slavyansk carries on a brisk trade in salt, cattle and tallow. The ancient name of Slavyansk was Tor. The town, which is supposed to occupy the site of a former settlement of the Torks (Turks), who inhabited the steppes of the Don, was founded in 1676 by the Russians to protect the salt marshes. Having an open steppe behind it, this fort was often destroyed by the Tatars. Its salt trade became insignificant in the 18th century and only revived towards the end of the 19th century.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sleet

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​ SLEET (either from Nor. sletta, of the same meaning, or related to Ger. Schlosse, hailstone), that form of precipitation of water vapour condensed from the atmosphere, which reaches the ground in a partly frozen condition. Sleet may originate in the upper atmosphere either as rain, in which case, to become partly frozen, it must have fallen into a stratum of air colder than that in which it originated, or as snow, when the opposite must have ​ taken place, i.e. the snow in its descent must have encountered an air-temperature slightly above the freezing-point.
# Royal Naval Biography/Heddington, Thomas

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THOMAS HEDDINGTON, Esq. [Commander.]
Was made a lieutenant in 1795; promoted to his present rank on the 25th Sept. 1806: and appointed agent for prisoners of war at Valleyfield, near Edinburgh, in 1811. He afterwards superintended the impress service at Lynn.
# Royal Naval Biography/Head, Richard John

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RICHARD JOHN HEAD, Esq. [Commander.]
Obtained his first commission on the 12th June, 1807; served as flag-lieutenant to the late Sir Charles V. Penrose, during the period of that officer’s command on the Mediterranean station; and was advanced to his present rank in May 1819. On the 5th July 1827, the officers of the Coast Guard, (Falmouth district), gave him a dinner, on his retiring from the duties of Inspecting Commander. At the same time, they presented him with a snuff-box, of heart of oak, manufactured from a beam of St. Mawe’s castle, of 200 years standing, suitably ornamented, and with an inscription commemorative of the deep feelings of respect which they entertained of his public character as an officer, and in grateful testimony of the many courtesies they had individually received.
# Royal Naval Biography/Hellard, William

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WILLIAM HELLARD, Esq. [Post-Captain of 1812.]
Was made a Lieutenant in 1783; and promoted to the rank of Commander, Dec. 24, 1805, as a reward for his gallant conduct as first of the Defiance 74, Captain Philip C. Durham, at the glorious battle of Trafalgar. His post commission bears date Aug. 12, 1812; at which period he commanded the Snake sloop of war.
Captain Hellard enjoys a pension of 250l. for wounds received prior to the late war. He married, in 1804, a daughter of G. Bettesworth, of Portsea, co. Hants, Esq.
Agent.– J. Hinxman.
# Royal Naval Biography/Hellard, Samuel

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SAMUEL HELLARD, Esq. [Commander.]
Passed his examination in Aug. 1808; obtained his first commission on the 29th Oct. 1810 ; and subsequently served in the Podargus 14, Benbow 74, and Scout 18. The following is taken from the Naval Chronicle for 1815, vol. 34, p. 163:
“A court-martial was lately held on Lieutenant S. Hellard, late of H.M. sloop Scout, for threatening to shoot or drown T. Smith, who had deserted from the said vessel, if he returned; and for disrespect to Captain James Arthur Murray. The court were of opinion that the charges were proved against the said Lieutenant S. Hellard; but, in consideration of his former high character, did only adjudge him to be most severely reprimanded, and to be placed at the bottom of the list of lieutenants of H.M. navy.”
This officer was advanced to his present rank on the 22d July 1830, and appointed an inspecting commander of the coast-guard, April 13th, 1831.
# Royal Naval Biography/Heathcote, Gilbert

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GILBERT HEATHCOTE, Esq. [Post-Captain of 1806.]
Youngest son of Sir William Heathcote, Bart, by Frances, daughter and co-heiress of John Thorpe, of Embley, co. Hants, Esq.
This officer was born in 1779, made a Lieutenant in 1799, advanced to the ranlc of Commander in 1802, and posted Sept. 5, 1806. He had the misfortune to lose the Suffisante sloop of war, on Spike Island, Cork, during a heavy gale of wind, in Dec. 1803. Captain Heathcote married, 1809, Anne, daughter of Charles Syell, of Kinnardy, co. Angus, N.B., Esq.
Agent.– Messrs. Clementson.
# Royal Naval Biography/Hely Hutchinson, Coote

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HON. COOTE HELY HUTCHINSON. [Commander.]
Brother to the Earl of Donoughmore, was made lieutenant in Nov. 1817; appointed to the Phaeton frigate, Captain (now Sir William Augustus) Montagu, fitting out for the Halifax station, Nov. 1st, 1819; and promoted to the rank of commander Jan. 29th, 1822. He married, in 1834, Sophia, daughter of Sir S. S. Hutchinson, Bart.
# Royal Naval Biography/Heaslop, John Colpoys

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JOHN COLPOYS HEASLOP, Esq. [Commander.]
Passed his examination in Oct. 1813, and was made a lieutenant on the 6th of the following month. He ​subsequently served under Captain John Martin Hanchett, in the Diadem troop-ship; Captains Farmery P. Upworth and George M‘Kinley, in the Bulwark 74; Captain Charles Buller, C.B. in the Akbar 50; and Captain Samuel Jackson, C.B. in the Niger 38; from which latter ship he was advanced to the rank of commander, June 21th, 1817.
# Royal Naval Biography/Head, Michael

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MICHAEL HEAD, Esq. [Post-Captain of 1814.]
This officer is a son of Head, M.D. of Halifax, Nova Scotia. His first commission bears date Dec. 10, 1804.
We have stated at p. 422 of Vol. II. Part I. that Lieutenant Head commanded the boats of the Euryalis frigate at the capture and destruction of a Danish gun-boat and two ​transports, June 11, 1805; – the following is a copy of his captain’s official letter on that occasion:–
“H.M.S. Euryalus, in the Great Belt, June 12, 1808.
“Sir,– After having seen the convoy clear, I proceeded in company with H.M. sloop Cruiser, and late yesterday evening discovered several vessels at anchor near the entrance of the Naskon, very close to the shore. We anchored at dark, and I sent Lieutenant Head, with the boats of this ship and the Cruiser, four in number, to destroy them. It is with great pleasure I have to inform you, he executed this service with his usual bravery and judgment, by burning two large vessels fitted for the reception of troops, and capturing a gun-vessel of the largest dimensions, mounting two 18-pounders, and having 64 men on board, moored within half pistol-shot of a battery of three 18-pounders, and the shore lined with troops. Although the enemy defended themselves well, we had but one man slightly wounded; their loss was great, 7 killed and 12 wounded, with many drowned; and they must have suffered on shore from the fire of our boats.
“I beg leave to mention the midshipmen employed, – Messrs. Wemyss, Ricketts, Yeoman, Richard, and Gaymore, of this ship, and Moffatt and Loveday of the Cruiser, for their good conduct on this occasion, and who are, together with the boats’ crews, particularly mentioned by Lieutenant Head. I have the honor to be, &c.
(Signed)“G. H. L. Dundas.”
“Thomas Graves, Esq. Captain H.M.S. Brunswick.”
The subject of this sketch was made commander Dec. 6, 1809; and appointed to the Curlew brig, June 27, 1812. On the 26th Mar. 1813, he captured the American ship letter of marque Volante, pierced for 22 guns, mounting ten 24-pounder carronades and four long nines, with a complement of 85 men. His promotion to post rank took place June 7, 1814.
Captain Head has a brother in the army. One of his sisters married Vice-Admiral Locke; another was the wife of Major James Paterson St. Clair, R.A.
Agent.– I. Clementson, Esq.
# Roosevelt

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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pechlin, Karl Fredrik

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​PECHLIN, KARL FREDRIK (1720–1796), Swedish politician and demagogue, son of the Holstein minister at Stockholm, was educated in Sweden, and entered the Swedish army. He rose to the rank of major-general, but became famous by being the type par excellence of the corrupt and egoistic Swedish parliamentarian of the final period of the Frihetstiden (see Sweden: History); he received for many years the sobriquet of “General of the Riksdag.” Pechlin first appears prominently in Swedish politics in 1760, when by suddenly changing sides he contrived to save the “Hats” from impeachment. Enraged at being thus excluded from power by their former friend, the “Caps” procured Pechlin’s expulsion from the two following Riksdags. In 1769 Pechlin sold the “Hats” as he had formerly sold the “Caps,” and was largely instrumental in preventing the projected indispensable reform of the Swedish constitution. During the revolution of 1772 he escaped from Stockholm and kept quietly in the background. In 1786, when the opposition against Gustavus III. was gathering strength, Pechlin reappeared in the Riksdag as one of the leaders of the malcontents, and is said to have been at the same time in the pay of the Russian court. In 1789 he was one of the deputies whom Gustavus III. kept under lock and key till he had changed the government into a semi-absolute monarchy. It is fairly certain that Pechlin was at the bottom of the plot for murdering Gustavus in 1792. On the eve of the assassination (March 16) the principal conspirators met at his house to make their final preparations and discuss the form of government which should be adopted after the king’s death. Pechlin undertook to crowd the fatal masquerade with accomplices, but took care not to be there personally. He was arrested on the 17th of March, but nothing definite could ever be proved against him. Nevertheless he was condemned to imprisonment in the fortress of Varberg, where he died four years later.
See R. N. Bain, Gustavus III. and his Contemporaries (London, 1905). (R. N. B.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Peck

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​PECK, a dry measure of capacity, especially used for grain. It contains 8 quarts or 2 gallons, and is 1/4 of a bushel. The ​imperial peck contains 554·548 cub. in., in the United States of America 537·6 cub. in. The word is in M.E. pek, and is found latinized as peccum or pekka. In Med. Lat. are found picotinus, “mensura frumentaria,” and picotus, “mensura liquidorum” (Du Cange, Gloss. s.vv.) These words seem to be connected with the Fr. picoter, to peck, of a bird, and this would identify the word with “peck,” a variant of “pick,” a tap or stroke of the beak, especially used of the action of a bird in picking up grain or other food. The sense-development in this case is very obscure, and the name of the measure is found much earlier than “peck” as a variant form of “pick.”
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Peasant

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​PEASANT (O. Fr. paysant, Mod. paysan; Lat. pagensis, belonging to the pagus or country, cf. “pagan”), a countryman or rustic, either working for others, or, more specifically, owning or renting and working by his own labour a small plot of ground. Though a word of not very strict application, it is now frequently used of the rural population of such countries as France, where the land is chiefly held by small holders, “peasant proprietors.” (See Allotments and Metayage).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pecock, Reginald

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​PECOCK (or Peacock), REGINALD (c. 1395–c. 1460), English prelate and writer, was probably born in Wales, and was educated at Oriel College, Oxford. Having been ordained priest in 1421, he secured a mastership in London in 1431, and soon became prominent by his attacks upon the religious position of the Lollards. In 1444 he became bishop of St Asaph, and six years later bishop of Chichester. He was an adherent of the house of Lancaster and in 1454 became a member of the privy council. In attacking the Lollards Pecock put forward religious views far in advance of his age. He asserted that the Scriptures were not the only standard of right and wrong; he questioned some of the articles of the creed and the infallibility of the Church; he wished “bi cleer witte drawe men into consente of trewe feith otherwise than bi fire and swerd or hangement” and in general he exalted the authority of reason. Owing to these views the archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Bourchier, ordered his writings to be examined. This was done and he was found guilty of heresy. He was removed from the privy council and he only saved himself from a painful death by privately, and then publicly (at St Paul’s Cross, Dec. 4, 1457), renouncing his opinions. Pecock, who has been called “the only great English theologian of the 15th century,” was then forced to resign his bishopric, and was removed to Thorney Abbey in Cambridgeshire, where he doubtless remained until his death. The bishop’s chief work is the famous Repressor of over-much weeting [blaming] of the Clergie, which was issued about 1455. In addition to its great importance in the history of the Lollard movement the Repressor has an exceptional interest as a model of the English of the time, Pecock being one of the first writers to use the vernacular. In thought and style alike it is the work of a man of learning and ability.
A biography of the author is added to the edition of the Repressor published by C. Babington for the Rolls Series in 1860. Pecock’s other writings include the Book or Rule of Christian Religion; the Donet, “an introduction to the chief truths of the Christian faith in the form of a dialogue between father and son”; and the Folewer to the Donet. The two last works are extant in manuscript. His Book of Faith has been edited from the manuscript in the library of Trinity College, Cambridge, by J. L. Morison (Glasgow, 1909). See also John Lewis, Life of Pecock (1744; new ed., 1820).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pechora

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​PECHORA, a river of N. Russia, rising in the Urals, almost on 62° N., in the government of Perm. It flows W. for a short distance, then turns N. and maintains that direction up to about 66° 20′ N. It then describes a double loop, to N. and to S., and after that resumes its N. course, finally emptying into the Gulf of Pechora, situated between the White Sea and the Kara Sea. Its total length is 970 m. At its mouth it forms an elongated delta. Although frozen in its upper reaches for 190 days in the year and for 138 days in its lower reaches, it is navigable throughout the greater part of its course. Its drainage basin covers an area of 127,200 sq. m. The principal tributaries are, on the right, the Ilych and the Usa, and on the left the Izhma, the Tsylma and the Sula.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pease, Edward

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​PEASE, EDWARD (1767–1858), the founder of a famous industrial Quaker family in the north of England, was born at Darlington on the 31st of May 1767, his father, Joseph Pease (1737–1808), being a woollen manufacturer in that town. Having retired from this business Edward Pease made the acquaintance of George Stephenson, and with him took a prominent part in constructing the railway between Stockton and Darlington. He died at Darlington on the 31st of July 1858. His second son, Joseph Pease (1799–1872), who assisted his father in his railway enterprises, was M.P. for South Durham from 1832 to 1841, being the first Quaker to sit in parliament. He was interested in collieries, quarries and ironstone mines in Durham and North Yorkshire, as well as in cotton and woollen manufactures, and he was active in educational and philanthropic work. Another son, Henry Pease (1807–1881). was M.P. for South Durham from 1857 to 1865. Like all the members of his family he was a supporter of the Peace Society, and in its interests he visited the emperor Nicholas of Russia just before the outbreak of the Crimean War, and later the emperor of the French, Napoleon III.
Joseph Pease’s eldest son, Sir Joseph Whitwell Pease (1828–1903), was made a baronet in 1882. He was M.P. for South Durham from 1865 to 1885 and for the Barnard Castle division of Durham from 1885 to 1903. His elder son, Sir Alfred Edward Pease (b. 1857), who succeeded to the baronetcy, became famous as a hunter of big game, and was M.P. for York from 1885 to 1892 and for the Cleveland division of Yorkshire from 1897 to 1902. A younger son, Joseph Albert Pease (b. 1860), entered parliament in 1892, and in 1908 became chief Liberal whip, being advanced to the cabinet as chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster in 1910.
Another son of Joseph Pease was Arthur Pease (1837–1898), member of parliament from 1880 to 1885 and again from 1895 to 1898. His son, Herbert Pike Pease (b. 1867), M.P. for Darlington 1898–1910, was one of the Unionist Whips.
The Diaries of Edward Pease were edited by Sir Allred Pease in 1907.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ravine

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​RAVINE, a deep, narrow gorge, cleft or valley in a mountain, worn by the violent rush of water, whence the name, which comes through Fr. from Lat. rapina, violent robbery or plunder (rapère, to seize). The doublet “ravin” or “raven,” robbery, greed, has given place to the more learned form “rapine,” but is still seen in “ravenous,” greedy, voracious.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ravensburg

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​RAVENSBURG, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Württemberg, pleasantly situated amid vine-clad hills on the river Schussen, 12 m. N. of Friedrichshafen on the lake of Constance, by the railway of Ulm. Pop. (1905) 14,614, the great majority of whom are Roman Catholics. Its aspect is medieval; it still retains its walls and nine picturesque towers, the most prominent of which, dating from the 15th century, is known as the “ Mehlsack,” or sack of flour. The town hall is a handsome 15th-century building. The manufactures include linen, cotton, embroidered muslins, pottery, glass and playing-cards. The fruit market is important, and there is trade in cattle, grain and timber. Ravensburg was founded in the 11th century by the Guelphs, and in their ancestral castle on the Veitsburg, which was partially restored in 1892, the Saxon duke, Henry the Lion, was born. In 1180 the town passed to the Hohenstaufens, and a century later it became a free town of the Empire. In the 15th century it was a flourishing commercial place, its chief industry being the manufacture of paper. Annexed to Bavaria from 1803 to 1810, it was ceded to Württemberg in the latter year.
See Hafner. Geschichte von Ravensburg (Ravensburg, 1887).