OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Coen, Jan Pieterszoon

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​COEN, JAN PIETERSZOON (1587–1630), fourth governor-general of the Dutch East Indies, was born at Hoorn, and spent his youth at Rome in the house of the famous merchants the Piscatori. In 1607 he sailed from Amsterdam to the Indies as second commercial agent, and remained away four years. He had proved so capable that in 1612 he was sent out a second time at the head of a trading expedition. In the following year he was made a councillor and director-general of the East Indian trade. Afterwards he became president at Bantam, and on the 31st of October 1617 he was promoted in succession to Laurens Reaal to the post of governor-general. To his vigour and intrepidity the Dutch in no small measure owed the preservation and establishment of their empire in the East. He took and destroyed Jacatra, and founded on its ruins the capital of the Dutch East Indies, to which he gave the name of Batavia. In 1622 Coen obtained leave to resign his post and return to Holland, but in his absence great difficulties had arisen with the English at Amboina (the so-called massacre of Amboina), and in 1627 under pressure from the directors of the East India Company he again returned as governor-general to Batavia. In 1629 he was able to beat off a formidable attack of the sultan of Mataram, sometimes styled emperor of Java, upon Batavia. He died the following year.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Cody, William Frederick

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​CODY, WILLIAM FREDERICK (1846– ), American scout and showman, known under the name of “Buffalo Bill,” was born in 1846 in Scott county, Iowa. He first became known as one of the riders of the “Pony Express,” a mail service established in the spring of 1860 by the Central Overland California and Pike’s Peak Express Company to carry the mails overland from Saint Joseph, Missouri, to Sacramento, California, a distance of 1950 m., by means of relays of ponies, each rider being expected to cover about 75 m. daily. Owing to the wildness of the country and the hostility of the Indians, both the riders and the station-keepers led lives of great hardship and danger. The “Pony Express” was discontinued in 1861 upon the completion of the Pacific Telegraph company’s line, and young Cody became a scout and guide for the United States army. In 1863 he formally enlisted in the 7th regiment of Kansas cavalry, in which he served until the close of the Civil War. In 1867 he made a contract with the Kansas Pacific railway to furnish its employees with buffalo meat while the line was being extended through the wilderness, and his name of “Buffalo Bill” was given him from this circumstance. In 1868–1872 he was again an army scout and guide, serving against the Sioux and Cheyennes; and in 1872 was a member of the Nebraska house of representatives. During the Sioux-Cheyenne War of 1876 he served in the 5th United States Cavalry, and at the battle of Indian Creek killed the Cheyenne chief Yellow Hand in single combat. In 1883 he organized his “Wild West Show,” a spectacular performance on a large scale, his first European tour taking place in 1887. In the Nebraska national guard he again served against the Sioux in 1890–1891.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Coello, Alonso Sanchez

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​COELLO, ALONSO SANCHEZ (1515–1590), Spanish painter, according to some authorities a native of Portugal, was born, according to others, at Benifacio, near the city of Valencia. He studied many years in Italy; and returning to Spain in 1541 he settled at Madrid, and worked on religious themes for most of the palaces and larger churches. He was a follower of Titian, and, like him, excelled in portraits and single figures, elaborating the textures of his armours, draperies, and such accessories in a manner so masterly as strongly to influence Velazquez in his treatment of like objects. Many of his pictures were destroyed in the fires that consumed the Madrid and Prado palaces, but many good examples are yet extant, among which may be noted the portraits of the infantes Carlos and Isabella, now in the Madrid gallery, and the St Sebastian painted in the church of San Gerónimo, also in Madrid. Coello left a daughter, Isabella Sanchez, who studied under him, and painted excellent portraits.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Conon (grammarian)

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​CONON, grammarian and mythographer, flourished at Rome in the time of Caesar and Augustus. He was the author of a collection of myths and legends, relating chiefly to the foundation of colonies. The work, dedicated to Archelaus Philopator, king of Cappadocia, contained 50 Narratives (Διηγήματα, Narrationes); an epitome, accompanied by brief criticisms, has been preserved in Photius (cod. 186). The style is good, being founded on the best Attic models, and the whole is agreeable to read. Nicolaus of Damascus is said to have made considerable use of the work (edition by U. Höfer, 1890).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Connemara

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​CONNEMARA, a wild and picturesque district in the west of Co. Galway, Ireland. (See Galway.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Connotation

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​CONNOTATION, in logic, a term (largely due to J. S. Mill) equivalent to Intension, which is used to describe the sum of the qualities regarded as belonging to any given thing and involved in the name by which it is known; thus the term “elephant” connotes the having a trunk, a certain shape of body, texture of skin, and so on. It is clear that as scientific knowledge advances the Connotation or Intension of terms increases, and, therefore, that the Connotation of the same term may vary considerably according to the knowledge of the person who uses it. Again, if a limiting adjective is added to a noun (e.g. African elephant), the Connotation obviously increases. In all argument it is essential that the speakers should be in agreement as to the Intension of the words they use. General terms such as “Socialism,” “Slavery,” “Liberty,” and technical terms in philosophy and theology are frequently the cause of controversies which would not arise if the disputants were agreed as to the Intension or Connotation of the terms. In addition Connotative terms, as those which imply attributes, are opposed to Non-Connotative, which merely denote things without implying attributes. See also Denotation; and any text-books on elementary logic, e.g. T. Fowler or W. S. Jevons.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Connersville

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​CONNERSVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Fayette county, Indiana, U.S.A., situated on White Water river, in the east central part of the state, about 50 m. E. by S. of Indianapolis. Pop. (1900) 6836; (1910) 7738. It is served by the Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton, the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St ​Louis, the Fort Wayne, Cincinnati & Louisville railways, and by the Indianapolis & Cincinnati Traction line (electric). It has a good water-power, and among its manufactures are wagons and carriages, axles, furniture, flour and electric signs. The water-works are owned and operated by the city. Connersville was first settled about the close of the war of 1812; was laid out in 1817 by John Conner, in whose honour it was named; and received a city charter in 1869.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Conon (astronomer)

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​CONON, Greek astronomer and geometrician, flourished at Samos in the 3rd century B.C. He was the friend of Archimedes, who survived him. Conon is best known in connexion with the Coma Berenices (Hair of Berenice). Berenice, the wife of Ptolemy Euergetes, had dedicated her hair in the temple of Arsinoë of Zephyrium (Aphrodite Zephyritis) as an offering to secure the safe return of her husband from his Syrian expedition. It disappeared from the temple, and was declared by Conon to have been placed among the stars. The incident formed the subject of a poem by Callimachus, of which only a few lines are preserved, but we still possess the imitation of it by Catullus. Conon is also considered the inventor of the curve known as the “Spiral of Archimedes.” He wrote a work on astronomy, which contained a collection of the observations of solar eclipses made by the Chaldaeans, and drew up a parapegma, or meteorological calendar, from his own observations. He also investigated the question of the number of points of intersection of two conics, and his researches probably formed the basis of the 4th book of the Conics of Apollonius of Perga.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Conon (general)

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​CONON, son of Timotheus, Athenian general. After having held several commands during the Peloponnesian War, he was chosen as one of the ten generals who superseded Alcibiades in 406 B.C. He was defeated by the Spartan Callicratidas and shut up in Mytilene. The Athenian victory at Arginusae rescued him from his dangerous situation, and as he had not been present at the battle, he was not tried with the other generals, and was allowed to retain his command. In 405, however, the Athenian fleet was surprised by Lysander, at Aegospotami, and Conon with difficulty managed to escape with eight ships to his friend Evagoras, king of Cyprus. On the outbreak of the war between Sparta and the Persians (400) he obtained from King Artaxerxes joint command with Pharnabazus of a Persian fleet. In 394 he defeated the Lacedaemonians near Cnidus, and thus deprived them of the empire of the sea, which they had held since the taking of Athens. Sailing down the Aegean to Athens, he expelled the Lacedaemonian harmosts from most of the maritime towns, and finally completed his services to his country by restoring the long walls and the fortifications of the Peiraeus. According to one account, he was put to death by Tiribazus, when on an embassy from Athens to the Persian court to counteract the intrigues of Sparta; but it seems more probable that he escaped to Cyprus and died there about 390.
See Xenophon, Hellenica, iv. 3. 8; Justin vi. 3; Cornelius Nepos, Conon; Lysias, De bonis Aristophanis, 41-44; Isocrates, Panegyricus, 41; M. Schmidt, Das Leben Konons (1873), with notes and references to authorities.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Connellsville

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​CONNELLSVILLE, a borough of Fayette county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the Youghiogheny river, about 60 m. S.S.E. of Pittsburg. Pop. (1890) 5629; (1900) 7160, including 800 foreign-born; (1910) 12,845. It is served by the Pennsylvania, the Pittsburg and Lake Erie, and the Baltimore & Ohio railways, and by the interurban electric system of the West Penn Railway Co., which has a large power plant near Connellsville. Connellsville is the centre of the Connellsville coke district (in Fayette and Westmoreland counties), which has the largest production in the United States, the output in 1907 (13,089,427 tons) being 32·1% of that of the whole country. Connellsville coke is the standard grade. What is called the Lower Connellsville coke region lies in Fayette county S.W. of the Connellsville district. It is richest near Uniontown, and in 1907 produced 6,310,900 tons of coke, making it second only to Connellsville. The so-called Upper Connellsville (or Latrobe) district, near Latrobe, produced in 1907, 1,030,260 tons of coke. The combined output of these three districts in 1907 was 50·1 % of the total of the entire country. The borough of Connellsville has various manufactures including iron, tin plate, automobiles and various kinds of machinery; and a state hospital for the treatment of persons injured in mines is located here. Connellsville was first settled in 1770, was laid out as a town by Zachariah Connell, in whose honour it was named, in 1793, and was incorporated in 1806. The borough of New Haven (pop. in 1900, 1532) was annexed to Connellsville after the census enumeration of 1900.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Connor, Bernard

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​CONNOR (or O’Connor), BERNARD (1666–1698), English physician, was born in Kerry, Ireland, and after studying at Montpellier and Paris, graduated at Reims in 1691. Having travelled through Italy with the two sons of the high chancellor of Poland, he was introduced at the court of Warsaw, and appointed physician to John Sobieski, king of Poland. In 1695 he went to England, where he lectured at Oxford, London and Cambridge, and became a member of the Royal Society and of the College of Physicians. He was the author of a treatise entitled Evangelium Medici (1697), in which he endeavoured to explain the Christian miracles as due to natural causes, and of a History of Poland (1698). He died in London in 1698.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Conoid

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​CONOID (Gr. κῶνος, cone, and εῖδος, form), in geometry, the solids (or surfaces) formed by the revolution of a conic section about one of its principal axes. If the conic be a circle the conoid is a sphere (q.v.); if an ellipse a spheroid (q.v.); if a parabola a paraboloid; if a hyperbola the surface is a hyperboloid of either one or two sheets according as the revolution takes place about the conjugate or transverse axis, and the surface generated by the asymptotes is called the “asymptotic cone.” If two intersecting straight lines be regarded as a conic, then the principal axes are the bisectors of the angles between the lines; consequently the corresponding conoid is a right circular cone. It is to be noted that all these surfaces are surfaces of revolution; and they, therefore, differ from the surfaces discussed under the same names in the article Geometry: Analytical.
The spheroid has for its Cartesian equation (𝑥$^2$+𝑦$^2$) /𝑎$^2$ +𝑧$^2$/𝑏$^2$＝1; the hyperboloid of one sheet (of revolution) is (𝑥$^2$+𝑦$^2$)/𝑎$^2$−𝑧$^2$/𝑏$^2$＝1; the hyperboloid of two sheets is 𝑧$^2$/𝑐$^2$−(𝑥$^2$+𝑦$^2$)/𝑎$^2$＝1; and the paraboloid of revolution is 𝑥$^2$+𝑦$^2$＝4𝑎𝑧.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Conolly, John

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​CONOLLY, JOHN (1794–1866), English physician, was born at Market Rasen, Lincolnshire, of an Irish family, on the 27th of May 1794. He graduated M.D. at Edinburgh in 1821. After practising at Lewes, Chichester and Stratford-on-Avon successively, he was appointed professor of the practice of medicine at University College, London, in 1828. In 1830 he published a work on the Indications of Insanity, and soon afterwards settled at Warwick. In 1832 in co-operation with Sir Charles Hastings and Sir John Forbes, he founded a small medical association with a view to raising the standard of provincial practice. In later years this grew in importance and membership, and finally became the British Medical Association. In 1839 he was elected resident physician to the Middlesex County Asylum at Hanwell. In this capacity he made his name famous by carrying out in its entirety and on a large scale the principle of non-restraint in the treatment of the insane. This principle had been acted on in two small asylums—William Tuke’s Retreat near York, and the Lincoln Asylum; but it was due to the energy of Conolly in sweeping away all mechanical restraint in the great metropolitan lunatic hospital, in the face of strong opposition, that the principle became diffused over the whole kingdom, and accepted as fundamental. In 1844 he ceased to be resident physician at Hanwell, but remained visiting physician until 1852. He died on the 5th of March 1866 at Hanwell, where in the later part of his life he had a private asylum. His works include Construction and Government of Lunatic Asylums (1847); The Treatment of the Insane without Mechanical Restraints (1856); and an Essay on Hamlet (1863).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Bernard, Charles de

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​BERNARD, CHARLES DE, whose full name was Pierre Marie Charles de Bernard du Grail de la Villette (1804–1850), French writer, was born at Besançon on the 25th of February 1804. After studying for the law, and then taking to journalism, he was encouraged by Balzac (whose Peau de chagrin he had reviewed) to settle in Paris and devote himself to authorship; and the result was a series of volumes of fiction, remarkable for their picture of provincial society and the Parisian bourgeoisie. The best of these are Le Nœud gordien (1838), containing among other short stories Une Aventure de magistrat, from which Sardou drew his comedy of the Pommes du voisin; Gerfaut (1838), considered his masterpiece; Les Ailes d’Icare (1840), La Peau du lion (1841) and Le Gentilhomme campagnard (1847).
His Œuvres complètes (12 vols.), which appeared after his death on the 6th of March 1850, include also his poetry and two comedies written in collaboration with “Léonce” (C. H. L. Laurençot, 1805–1862). A flattering appreciation by Armand de Pontmartin is prefixed to Un Beau-père in this collection. In W. M. Thackeray’s Paris Sketch-book (“On some fashionable French novels”) there is an admirable criticism of Bernard. See also an essay by Henry James in French Poets and Novelists (1884).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Bernard of Chartres

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​BERNARD OF CHARTRES (1080?–1167), surnamed Sylvestris, scholastic philosopher, described by John of Salisbury as perfectissimus inter Platonicos nostri saeculi. He and his brother Theodore were among the chief members of the school of Chartres (France), founded in the early part of the 11th century by Fulbert, the great disciple of Gerbert. This school flourished at a time when medieval thought was directed to the ancient philosophy of Plato and Aristotle, and had perversely come to regard Aristotle as merely the founder of abstract logic and formal intellectualism, as opposed to Plato whose doctrine of Ideas seemed to tend in a naturalistic direction. Thus Bernard is a Platonist and yet the representative of a “return to Nature” which curiously anticipates the humanism of the early Renaissance. John of Salisbury (Metalogicus, iv. 35) attributes to him two treatises, of which one contrasts the eternity of ideas with the finite nature of things, and the other is an attempt to reconcile Plato and Aristotle. The only extant fragments of Bernard’s writings are from a treatise Megacosmus and Microcosmus (edited by C. S. Barach at Innsbruck, 1876). The source of Bernard’s inspiration was Plato’s Timaeus. He maintained that ideas are really existent and are laid up for ever in the mind of God. He further attempted to build up a symbolism of numbers with the view of elaborating the doctrine of the Trinity, and explaining the meaning of unity, plurality and likeness.
See Scholasticism; also V. Cousin, Œuvres inédites of Abelard (Paris, 1836); Hauréau, Philosophie scolastique, i. 396 foll.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Bernard, Jacques

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​BERNARD, JACQUES (1658–1718), French theologian and publicist, was born at Nions in Dauphiné on the 1st of September 1658. Having studied at Geneva, he returned to France in 1679, and was chosen minister of Venterol in Dauphiné, whence he afterwards removed to the church of Vinsobres. As he continued to preach the reformed doctrines in opposition to the royal ordinance, he was obliged to leave the country and retired to Holland, where he was well received and appointed one of the pensionary ministers of Gouda. In July 1686 he commenced his Histoire abrégée de l’Europe, which he continued monthly till ​December 1688. In 1692 he began his Lettres historiques, containing an account of the most important transactions in Europe; he carried on this work till the end of 1698, after which it was continued by others. When Le Clerc discontinued his Bibliothèque universelle in 1691. Bernard wrote the greater part of the twentieth volume and the five following volumes. In 1698 he collected and published Actes et négotiations de la paix de Ryswic, in four volumes 12mo. In 1699 he began a continuation of Bayle’s Nouvelles de la république des lettres, which continued till December 1710. In 1705 he was unanimously elected one of the ministers of the Walloon church at Leiden; and about the same time he succeeded M. de Valder in the chair of philosophy and mathematics at Leiden. In 1716 he published a supplement to Moreri’s dictionary, in two volumes folio. The same year he resumed his Nouvelles de la république des lettres, and continued it till his death, on the 27th of April 1718. Besides the works above mentioned, he was the author of two practical treatises, one on late repentance (1712), the other on the excellence of religion (1714).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Bernard, Mountague

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​BERNARD, MOUNTAGUE (1820–1882), English international lawyer, the third son of Charles Bernard of Jamaica, the descendant of a Huguenot family, was born at Tibberton Court, Gloucestershire, on the 28th of January 1820. He was educated at Sherborne school, and Trinity College, Oxford. Graduating B.A. in 1842, he took his B.C.L., was elected Vinerian scholar and fellow, and having read in chambers with Roundell Palmer (afterwards Lord Selborne), was called to the bar at Lincoln’s Inn in 1846. He was specially interested in legal history and in church questions, and was one of the founders of the Guardian. In 1852 he was elected to the new professorship of international law and diplomacy at Oxford, attached to All Souls’ College, of which he afterwards was made a fellow. But besides his duties at Oxford he undertook a good deal of non-collegiate work; he was a member of several royal commissions; in 1871 he went as one of the high commissioners to the United States, and signed the treaty of Washington, and in 1872 he assisted Sir Roundell Palmer before the tribunal of arbitration at Geneva. In 1874 he resigned his professorship at Oxford, but as member of the university of Oxford commission of 1876 he was mainly responsible for bringing about the compromise ultimately adopted between the university and the colleges. Bernard’s reputation as an international lawyer was widespread, and he was an original member of the Institut de Droit International (1873). His published works include An Historical Account of the Neutrality of Great Britain during the American Civil War (London, 1870), and many lectures on international law and diplomacy.