OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# The New Student's Reference Work/Packard, Alpheus Spring

See also Alpheus Spring Packard on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Pack′ard, Alpheus Spring, an American naturalist, was born at Brunswick, Me., Feb. 19, 1839, graduated from Bowdoin in 1861, and became assistant to Agassiz at Cambridge. After taking part in several scientific expeditions, he became state entomologist of Massachusetts and professor of zoology and geology at Brown University. He was widely known as an entomologist and zoologist; founded and for about 20 years edited The American Naturalist; and for five years (1877–82) was a member of the national entomological commission. During the Civil War he was assistant surgeon to the Maine Volunteers, and for about a year did much service in the field. Afterwards, for a time, he was librarian and custodian of the Society of Natural History at Boston. He also for a number of years was curator and a director at Peabody Institute, and an authority on agricultural insect pests. He died in 1905. Besides many technical papers, his publications include Guide to the Study of Insects, Our Common Insects, Zoology, Entomology for Beginners, Text-Book of Entomology, The Mammoth Cave, Life History of Animals, Half Hours with Insects, Observations on Glacial Phenomena, Insects Injurious to Trees, A Naturalist on the Labrador Coast and Lamarck: the Founder of Evolution.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Paisley

See also Paisley, Renfrewshire on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Pais′ley, a city in Renfrewshire, Scotland, is situated on the White Cart, three miles above the Clyde and six from Glasgow. It was first heard of in 1157, was burned by the English in 1307, and suffered in the Reformation in 1561. It was made a free burgh in 1488. The chief public edifices are the municipal buildings, courthouse, the county buildings and library and museum. The manufacture of Paisley shawls has become extinct, but the works of cotton thread, dyeing, bleaching, tartans, woolen shawls, chemicals, starch, corn flour, carpets, and distilling and brewing flourish. Population 84,477.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Paine, Thomas

See also Thomas Paine on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Paine, Thomas, an English writer and free thinker, was born in Norfolk, Jan. 29, 1737, and became staymaker, marine, schoolmaster, exciseman and tobacconist in turn. In 1774 he sailed for America. In 1776 his pamphlet Common Sense appeared, followed a year later by The Crisis. While he was serving as a private at Trenton, Congress gave him the position of secretary of the committee of foreign affairs, but he lost the post in 1779 and was appointed clerk of the Pennsylvania legislature. In 1785 he was given $3,000 and the New Rochelle farm by Congress. He returned to England in 1787, and in 1791-92 published his Rights of Man and the famous reply to Burke's Reflections upon the French Revolution. This work caused much trouble and he fled to Paris, where he was elected to the national convention which tried Louis XVI. Favoring the king, he offended Robespierre and was imprisoned eleven months. Before his arrest he had written Part One of The Age of Reason, and Parts Two and Three appeared in 1795 and 1807. In this he decried atheism and Christianity and advocated deism. He returned to America in 1802, became a drunkard, and died at New York, June 8, 1809. See Leslie Stephen's History of English Thought in the 18th Century.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Paleobotany

See also Paleobotany on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Pa′leobot′any, the science which deals with fossil plants. It is the correlative of paleontology, which deals with fossil animals. It is the function of paleobotany to work out the history of plant-life on the earth. This involves the determination, as far as possible, of plants which have lived in successive ages and the relations of those of one age to those of previous and succeeding ages. The science is as yet but poorly developed.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Paine, Robert Treat

See also Robert Treat Paine on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Paine, Robert Treat, an American statesman, was born at Boston, March 11, 1731. He was a graduate of Harvard and a student of theology and law. He was chaplain in 1755 of the provincial army of the northern border, and became prominent in the contests preceding the Revolution, being a delegate of the convention called in 1768 at Boston and in 1770 managing the prosecution of Captain Preston for firing on the people. He was a member of the General assembly of Massachusetts in 1773 and 1774 and of the Continental Congress from 1774 to 1778, and also signed the Declaration of Independence. He was judge of the supreme court of Massachusetts and attorney-general for ten years He died at Boston, May 11, 1814.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Palatinate

See also Palatinate (region) and Upper Palatinate on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Palatinate (pȧ-lăt′ĭn-ât), the name of two German states united before 1623. They were called the Upper and the Lower Palatinate, the Upper being what now is the kingdom of Bavaria, and the Lower lying on both sides of the Rhine and bounded by Mainz, Treves, Lorraine, Alsace, Baden and Württemberg. The capital was Heidelberg. The Rhenish Palatinate was established as an hereditary possession as early as the 11th century, and in 1216 it was granted to the duke of Bavaria, and this and the Bavarian territory were held by the Bavarian house. In 1559 the Rhenish territory and the electoral vote passed to Frederick III; afterward to Frederick V; and finally to his son. In 1801 France took possession of the western part and gave the eastern to Bavaria, Nassau and Hesse-Darmstadt. The left bank was restored to Germany in 1815, the larger part going to Bavaria, the rest being divided among other provinces. Today two districts of Bavaria are known as the Palatinate proper (Rheinpfalz) with an area of 2,372 square miles (population 937,085) and Upper Palatinate (Oberpfalz), with an area of 3,862 square miles (population 600,284). The capital of the latter is Ratisbon (Regensburg) on the Danube, population 52,624.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Pampas

See also Pampas on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Pam′pas, properly the large, treeless plains of the Argentine Republic in South America. They rise in terraces from the coast to the foot of the Cordilleras, and extend about 2,000 miles long by 500 miles broad. The northeastern portion is very fertile and the pampas are used almost exclusively for grazing purposes, but the rest is barren and dry, abounding in strips of desert, the soil being of sandy clay. The level districts of Peru, 180,000 square miles in extent and covered by trees, are also called pampas.
# The New Student's Reference Work/P

See also P on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
P (pē), the sixteenth letter, is a voiceless consonant. It is articulated at the lips, and is called a sharp labial, as in cup,pea, spy. Initial p before n, sh, s and t is silent, as in pneumatic, psalm, pshaw, ptarmigan. P also is silent in accompt, corps, raspberry, receipt, sempstress. No native English word begins with pn, ps or pt.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Palatine Hill

See also the disclaimer.
​Pal′atine Hill. See Rome.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Penn College

Edition of 1905. See also William Penn University on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ PENN COLLEGE. A coeducational Friends' college at Oskaloosa, Iowa, founded in 1873, and comprising collegiate and preparatory courses, with departments of biblical instruction and a summer school. It had in 1902 an attendance of 242 collegiate and 124 preparatory students, 15 instructors, and a library of 6000 volumes. The college property was valued at $200,000, and the grounds and buildings at $150,000. The endowment was $100,000, with an income of $15,000.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Pennamite-Yankee War

Edition of 1905. See also the disclaimer.
​ PENNAMITE-YANKEE WAR. See Wyoming Valley.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Pennant's Marten

Edition of 1905. See also the disclaimer.
​ PENNANT'S MARTEN. See Fisher.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Penni, Gianfrancesco

Edition of 1905. See also Gianfrancesco Penni on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ PENNI, pĕn′ē̇, Gianfrancesco, called ‘Il Fattore’ (c.1488-c.1528). An Italian painter, born in Florence. He was one of the favorite pupils and a friend of Raphael, and with Giulio Romano was his legatee and artistic executor. He painted from Raphael's designs in the Loggia of the Farnesina, and the Vatican, completed the “Coronation of the Virgin” for Monteluce, and copied the “Transfiguration” and the “Entombment.” Besides these paintings he is said to have worked on the cartoons, and to have executed the “Visitation” in the Madrid Museum, and the “Madonna del Passeggio,” in the Bridgewater Gallery, after Raphael's designs. His original work is of little importance.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Pennacook

Edition of 1905. See also Pennacook on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​PEN′NACOOK (nut place, or crooked place). A confederacy of Algonquian tribes formerly occupying the Merrimac River basin and adjacent region in New Hampshire, Massachusetts, and southern Maine. They occupied a middle ground between the Southern New England tribes, with whom the English had dealing, and the Abnaki and others of the north, who were under French influence. Their early treaties were with the English, but their later alliances were with the French. The capital of the confederacy and the residence of the head chief, Passaconaray, was at Amoskeag, the present Manchester, New Hampshire. Wamesit village, with Pawtucket Falls, was the great rendezvous during the fishing season. When first known to the English they were estimated at 3000, which was probably below their real number, under the rule of the noted chief and medicine man, Passaconaway. He was friendly to the whites and invited the English to settle upon the Merrimac. Before his death, about 1669, he saw almost his whole country in the hands of the whites and was himself obliged to petition for enough ground to live upon. In the mean time his people had been reduced by smallpox and other introduced diseases to about 1200. On the outbreak of King Philip's War in 1675, one or two of the Pennacook bands joined the hostile Indians, but the greater portion, under Wanalancet, the son of Passaconaway, remained on friendly terms with the English until, angered by the treacherous seizure of a number of their people, they abandoned their country and fled, part to the French in Canada, others to the Mohican on the Hudson. Those who removed to Canada were finally settled at Saint Francis, Quebec Province.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Pennant-winged Nightjar

Edition of 1905. See also Pennant-winged nightjar on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ PENNANT-WINGED NIGHTJAR. A nightjar (Macrodipteryx vexillarius) of equatorial Africa, in which one of the quill feathers in each wing is greatly elongated and has a vane only near the end. The bird is rare and little known; but has been observed in the daytime seated upon the ground with the two modified wing-feathers held perfectly erect, their feathery tips fluttering among the grass heads, from which they were scarcely to be distinguished. Compare Standardwing.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Pennine Alps

Edition of 1905. See also the disclaimer.
​ PENNINE ALPS. See Alps.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Pennant

Edition of 1905. See also pennant on Wiktionary; and the disclaimer.
​ PENNANT (variant of pennon, with excrescent t, possibly associated by popular etymology with pendant, from OF., Fr. pennon, sort of flag, augmentative of OF. penne, from Lat. penna, feather, wing). A narrow flag or streamer tapering from the “hoist” to the “fly” or tip. In the signal codes pennants are two to five times as long as they are wide. The old commodores' ‘broad pennant’ was a ‘swallow-tail' flag. The pennant of the ‘senior officer present' is blue and nearly equilateral. The narrow pennant worn by all vessels commissioned in the Government service is carried at the main and signifies that she is of a public character. See Colored Plates of Flags of the United States, and International Signal Code with the article Signals, Marine.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Pennell, Joseph

Edition of 1905. See also Joseph Pennell on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ PENNELL, pĕn′el, Joseph (1860—). An American etcher, illustrator, and author, born in Philadelphia. He was a pupil of the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts and the Pennsylvania School of Industrial Arts. He showed the picturesque possibilities of old Philadelphia in a series of clever etchings, and also executed many Italian and several English subjects, such as the “Thames Embankment,” and the “Nelson Monument.” He is one of the best of American etchers. His work is clean, strong, and intelligent, and is characterized by sharp contrasts of light and shade. He received honorable mentions and medals at Paris, Philadelphia, and Chicago, and a first class gold medal at the Paris Exposition of 1900. Some of the books which he illustrated, and the text for which usually was prepared by his wife, Elizabeth Robins Pennell, include A Canterbury Pilgrimage (1885); An Italian Pilgrimage (1886); Our Sentimental Journey through France and Italy (1888); Pen Drawing and Pen Draughtsmen (1889); Our Journey to the Hebrides (1889); To Gypsy Land (1893); Modern Illustration (1895); The Illustration of Books (1896); and The Alhambra (1896).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Pennant, Thomas

Edition of 1905. See also Thomas Pennant on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ PEN′NANT, Thomas (1726-98). A British naturalist, born at Downing, near Holywell, in Flintshire, and educated at Queen's College, Oxford. In 1754 he visited Ireland, and about this time began those tours of the British Islands, the published accounts of which contributed greatly to his reputation. In 1761 he began his British Zoölogy, the first part of which was published five years later. This work and his History of Quadrupeds (1781) were long held in the highest esteem by scientists. Among his other writings are: Tour in Scotland (1771); Tours in Wales (1810); Arctic Zoölogy (1784-87); and Outlines of the Globe (1798-1800). Consult: The Literary Life of the Late Thomas Pennant, Esq., By Himself (London, 1793); Parkins, Memoir, in Rhys's edition of the Tours in Wales (1883); and Jardine, Memoir, in “The Naturalist's Library,” vol. xv.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Pringle-Pattison, Andrew Seth

Edition of 1905. See also Andrew Seth Pringle-Pattison on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ PRINGLE-PAT′TISON, Andrew Seth (1856—). A British philosopher. He was born at Edinburgh; was educated there and in Germany; became professor of logic, rhetoric, and metaphysics at Saint Andrews (1887), and professor of logic and metaphysics at Edinburgh in 1891. In 1898 he assumed the name Pringle-Pattison on succeeding to the Haining estate. He has published: The Development from Kant to Hegel (1882); Essays in Philosophical Criticism, with R. B. Haldane (1883); Scottish Philosophy (1885); Hegelianism and Personality (1887); Man's Place in the Cosmos (1897); Two Lectures on Theism (1897).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Principal and Surety

Edition of 1905. See also Principal (commercial law) on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ PRINCIPAL AND SURETY. A phrase descriptive of two persons who are indebted to a third, but whose relations are such as to make it the duty of the principal to discharge the debt and save the surety harmless therefrom. See Guaranty; Suretyship; and the authorities there cited.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Prindle, Cyrus

Edition of 1905. See also Cyrus Prindle on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ PRIN′DLE, Cyrus (1800-77). An American abolitionist and one of the founders of the Wesleyan Church of America. He was born in Vermont, and entered the New York Conference in 1821; an abolitionist in principle, he was removed from important appointments to the poorest; in 1843 with others he seceded from the Methodist Episcopal Church and founded the Wesleyan Church; when the work of the Church was done, with about 100 others of his ministerial associates, he came back to the Methodist Episcopal Church.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Pringle, John

Edition of 1905. See also John Pringle on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ PRINGLE, prĭṉ′g‘l, Sir John (1707-82). An English physician, born at Stitchel, Roxburghshire, and educated at Saint Andrews, at Edinburgh, at Leyden, and in Paris. In 1734 he was appointed professor of metaphysics and moral philosophy in Edinburgh University. He settled in London in 1748, where he became physician to the Queen in 1761 and to the King in 1774. His most important work was done as an army sanitarian, in which field his Observations on the Diseases of the Army (1752) is regarded as a classic. His life by Kippis is prefixed to Six Discourses Delivered at the Royal Society (London, 1783).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Prinsep, James

Edition of 1905. See also James Prinsep on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ PRIN′SEP, James (1799-1840). An English architect and Orientalist, who studied under Pugin, the celebrated architect. Owing to impaired eyesight, he gave up for a time his studies, and went out to India (1819), where he became in turn assistant assay-master in the Calcutta mint, assay-master in the Benares mint, and eventually assay-master in the Calcutta mint (1832). At Benares he designed the mint, built a bridge over the Karamasa and took down and restored the minarets of the Mosque of Aurungzebe. At Calcutta he constructed a canal between the Hugli and the Sunderbands. In numismatics he won distinction by Useful Tables Illustrative of Indian History. At Calcutta he edited Gleanings in Science, afterwards the journal of the Asiatic ​Society, of which he became secretary. Giving his attention to antiquities, he succeeded in deciphering inscriptions which had hitherto baffled scholars. Weakened in health, he returned toEngland in 1838, and died two years later. Consult the Essays on Indian Antiquities, Historic, Numismatic, and Palæographic, of the Late James Prinsep . . . with Memoir by Henry Thoby Prinsep, edited by Thomas (London, 1858).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Principe, Il

Edition of 1905. See also The Prince on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ PRINCIPE (prē̇n′chē̇-pe), Il (It., the Prince). A celebrated short political treatise by Niccoli Machiavelli (1513) showing how a ruler might gain and extend absolute power. Cesare Borgia was presumably the model for the prince, and the dissimulation and treachery advocated to attain success made Machiavelli's principles synonymous with political infamy. A modern view has credited him with ardent longing for Italian unity and with the purpose of portraying merely the methods of his day.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Principia

Edition of 1905. See also Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​PRINCIP′IA (Lat., principles). A famous mathematical treatise in Latin, by Sir Isaac Newton (1687). It consists of three parts, two on the motions of bodies and one on the solar system, and contains the full development of Newton's great discovery, the principle of universal gravitation.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Princities

Edition of 1905. See also the disclaimer.
​ PRINCITES. See Agapemone.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Pringle, Thomas

Edition of 1905. See also Thomas Pringle on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ PRINGLE, Thomas (1789-1834). A Scottish poet, born at Blaiklaw, Teviotdale, Roxburghshire. He was educated at the University of Edinburgh. In 1811 he became clerk in the register office, Edinburgh, and with his friend, Robert Story, began writing clever satirical verse. A poem contributed to Hogg's Poetic Mirror (1816) resulted in a friendship with Scott. Helped by James Cleghorn, he edited Blackwood's Edinburgh Monthly Magazine (six numbers, April to September, 1817). Having quarreled with the publisher, he resigned, and Blackwood's Magazine (established October, 1817) took the place of the older periodical. In 1820, to better his fortune, Pringle sailed for South Africa, where he formed the settlement of Glen-Lynden, became librarian at Cape Town, founded an academy, and started a Whig newspaper and a magazine, both of which were suppressed by the Government. Returning to England (1826), he became secretary to the Anti-Slavery Society (1827). In his new position he displayed great energy. He died just as he was about to sail for South Africa, on December 5, 1834. Pringle's works comprise a collection of his early poems entitled Ephemerides (1828); African Sketches (1834), composed of poems inspired by South Africa and the “Narrative of a Residence in South Africa.” The latter volume contains “The Emigrants” and “A Farm in the Desert,” Pringle's finest poems. Editions by Conder (1835) and Ritchie (1838) contain biographical sketches.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Pringsheim, Nathanael

Edition of 1905. See also Nathanael Pringsheim on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ PRINGSHEIM, prīngs′hīm, Nathanael (1823-94). A German botanist, born at Wziesko, near Landsberg, Silesia. For a time he studied medicine, associated himself with the Liberal political movement, and then turned definitely to natural science, in which cryptogamic botany soon became his specialty. After studying at the universities of Breslau, Leipzig, Berlin, and Paris, he submitted, at Berlin, an essay Zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der Achlya prolifera and became a lecturer there. As a result of his essays Grundlinien einer Theorie der Pflanzenzelle (1854) and Ueber die Befruchtung und Keimung der Algen und das Wesen des Zeugungsaktes (1855-57), he was chosen in 1858 a member of the Royal Academy of Scientists. In 1857 he founded the Jahrbuch für wissenschaftliche Botanik, which he edited up to the time of his death. He was professor of botany at Jena from 1864 to 1868 and then returned to his lectureship at Berlin, but he had little interest in teaching and devoted himself almost entirely to research. In 1882 he founded and became the first president of the German Botanical Society. Pringsheim, Thuret, and Bornet are regarded as the founders of the scientific study of the algæ, and the German was one of the first investigators to prove the existence of a sexual process in this kind of vegetation. During the last twenty years of his life his attention was directed more to plant physiology than to the morphological questions in which he won his greatest successes. He made extensive researches in the effect of light on plants and developed a new, though not wholly satisfactory, theory of the function of chlorophyll. He was one of the foremost cryptogamic botanists of the nineteenth century. Among his works which were published in four volumes at Jena in 1895-96, are the following: Beiträge zur Morpholoqie der Meeresalgen (1862); Ueber die Embryobildung der Gefässkryptogamen und das Wachstum von Salvinia natans (1863); Ueber Paarung von Schwärmsporen (1869); Weitere Nachträge zur Morphologie und Systematik der Saprolegniaceen (1873); Untersuchungen über das Chlorophyll (1874). ​
# The New Student's Reference Work/Nutation

See also the disclaimer.
Nuta′tion, regular bending of plant parts, such as bud scales, flower leaves, stems etc., due to unequal growth on the sides. The stimulus inciting it may be light, heat or gravity. (See Irritability.) Thus the flowers of the tulip and crocus are sensitive to temperature changes of a few degrees, opening with rising and closing with falling temperature, because the growth of the outer face is hastened and that of the inner face retarded, and vice versa. When a cylindrical stem has its growth hastened on every side in regular succession, the tip describes a more or less regular circle, as in twining plants like the hop and morning glory. Some nutations are apparently spontaneous.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Nutmeg

See also Nutmeg on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Nut′meg. See Spices.