OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Brandeis, Louis Dembitz

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BRANDEIS, LOUIS DEMBITZ (1856- ), American lawyer and jurist, was born in Louisville, Ky., Nov. 13 1856. He was educated in the public schools of his native city and at the Annen Realschule, Dresden, Germany. He graduated from the Harvard Law School in 1877, was admitted to the bar in 1878, and practised in Boston from 1879 to 1916. As a member of the Public Franchise League he took an active part in preserving municipal control of the Boston subway. He was instrumental in securing the passage of the Boston Sliding Scale Gas Act and was a pioneer in the movement for establishing life insurance through savings banks. He opposed the monopoly of transportation by the New Haven railway in New England. He was much interested in labour legislation, acting as counsel for the people in cases involving the constitutionality of fixing hours of labour and a minimum wage in several states. In 1915 he acted successfully as counsel for the Government in the suit brought by the Riggs National Bank in which the bank charged the Secretary of the Treasury and the Comptroller of the Currency with conspiring to wreck it. In Jan. 1916 he was appointed by President Wilson to succeed the late Justice Lamar as associate justice of the United States Supreme Court, being the first Jew to attain this position. He was the author of Other People's Money and Business as a Profession, besides numerous articles on public franchise, business efficiency, labour and trusts. He was prominent in Zionism and in 1914 was made chairman of the provisional committee for Zionist affairs.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Bruce, Sir David

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BRUCE, SIR DAVID (1855–), British bacteriologist, was born at Melbourne May 29 1855. He was educated at Stirling high school and Edinburgh University, where he took his degree of M.B. in 1881. He entered the R.A.M.C. in 1883, and from 1884 to 1889 served in Malta and Egypt. His stay in Malta was marked by his researches into the origin of Malta fever, and in 1887 he discovered the micro-organism of this disease, propounding the theory that it was spread by the use of goats’ milk (see 17.514). In 1889 he became assistant professor of pathology at Netley, and in 1894 went to South Africa, where he remainded until 1901, serving throughout the South African War. In 1902 he became a member of the Army Advisory Board, a post he retained until 1910. For many years Bruce conducted researches into the origin of sleeping-sickness, and in 1894 he discovered the micro-organism not only of that disease but also of nagana (tsetse fly disease), and the method of their dissemination. In 1903 he went to Uganda as director of the Royal Society’s commission for the investigation of sleeping-sickness, and in 1904 proceeded to Malta to carry on further investigations into Malta fever, returning to Uganda in 1908. In every case a great advance in the study of tropical medicine was the result. From 1911 to 1914 he was in Nyasaland, investigating the possible connexion between human and cattle diseases, and in 1914 became commandant of the Royal Army Medical College, holding the post till 1918. Bruce, who was \knighted in 1908, was created K.C.B. in 1918 and retired in 1919. He published many papers on tropical diseases.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Methuen, Barony of

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​METHUEN, BARONY OF. The English title of Baron Methuen of Corsham (Wilts) was created in 1838 for Paul Methuen (1779–1849), who had been a Tory member of parliament for Wilts from 1812 to 1819, and then sat as a Whig for North Wilts from 1833 to 1838. His father, Paul Methuen, was the cousin and heir of the wealthy Sir Paul Methuen (1672–1757), a well-known politician, courtier, diplomatist and patron of art and literature, who was the son of John Methuen (c. 1650–1706), Lord Chancellor of Ireland (1697–1703) and ambassador to Portugal. It was the last-named who in 1703 negotiated the famous “Methuen Treaty,” which, in return for the admission of English woollens into Portugal, granted differential duties favouring the importation of Portuguese wines into England to the disadvantage of French, and thus displaced the drinking of Burgundy by that of port. He and his son were both buried in Westminster Abbey. The 1st baron was succeeded in the title by his son Frederick Henry Paul Methuen (1818–1891), and the latter by his son Paul, 3rd baron (b. 1845), a distinguished soldier, who became a major-general in 1890, and general commanding-in-chief in South Africa in 1907. The 3rd baron joined the Scots Guards in 1864, served in the Ashanti War of 1874 and the Egyptian War of 1882, and commanded Methuen’s Horse in Bechuanaland in 1884–85, and the first division of the 1st Army Corps in the South African War of 1899–1902. (See Transvaal.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Metre

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​METRE (μετρική, sc. τέχνη, from Gr. μέτρον, measure), in prosody, the harmonious and regulated disposition of syllables into verse. Metrical form is distinguished from prose by the uniformity of corresponding lines in relation to the number of syllables and the similarity of final sound (rhyme or assonance), by the repetition of certain letters at regular intervals (in alliterative measure), or merely by the regular succession of ups and downs of intonation. In ancient classic poetry the measure which creates the metrical form consists only of this last quantitative element, which is rhythm.
For the rules and divisions of the various metrical systems, see Verse. For the restricted use of “metre” as a unit of measurement, see Metric System below.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Methuselah

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​METHUSELAH, in the Old Testament, the seventh in descent from Adam, and father of Lamech. According to Genesis v. 21 he lived 969 years (see Bible: Old Testament, § 5, “Chronology”). The name itself has been much discussed. Holzinger interprets it as “man of the javelin”: Hommel prefers “man of Selah,” Selah being the Hebraized form of the Babylonian Sarrahu (i.e. the god Sin), and identifies it with the Ἀμέμψινος of Berossus. The form Methushael, used by the author of Gen. iv. 18 and by some commentators preferred for Gen. v. 21, is variously explained as meaning “man of El” (Ball), or as a transcription (Sayce) of the Babylonian Mutu-ṣa-ili (possibly, “man of the goddess”).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Methven

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​METHVEN, a village and parish of Perthshire, Scotland, 73/4 m. W. by N. of Perth by the Caledonian Railway. Pop. of parish (1901), 1699. Only an aisle remains of the collegiate church founded in 1433 by Walter Stewart, earl of Atholl (d. 1437). One mile east of the village, Methven Castle, dating partly from 1680, occupies a fine situation in a park in which stands the Pepperwell oak, 18 ft. in circumference. At Dronach Haugh near the banks of the Almond, which bounds the parish on the N., the earl of Pembroke defeated Robert Bruce in 1306. At Lynedoch, his estate on the Almond, Thomas Graham (1748–1843), the Peninsular general, afterwards Lord Lynedoch, carried on many experiments in. farming and stock-breeding. He formerly owned Balgowan House, about 3 m. south-west of Methven, where many years after his death the proprietor discovered, during certain alterations, the portrait of Lord Lynedoch’s wife, the Hon. Mrs Graham (a daughter of the 9th Lord Cathcart), one of Gainsborough’s masterpieces, now in the National Gallery in Edinburgh; 4 1/2 m. north-west of Methven, occupying a beautiful position in Glenalmond, is Trinity College, a public school on the English model, the first of its kind in Scotland, founded in 1841 through the efforts of W. E. Gladstone, J. R. Hope-Scott, Dean Ramsay and others, and opened in 1847. In 1851 Charles Wordsworth, the first warden, afterwards bishop of St Andrews, added the chapel. At Tibbermore, or Tippermuir, about 3 m. south-east of Methven, Montrose won the first of a series of battles over the Covenanters on the 1st of September 1644.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Metochita, Theodore

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​METOCHITA, THEODORE [Theodoros Metochites], a Byzantine author, man of learning and statesman, who flourished during the reign of Andronicus II. Palaeologus (1282–1328). After the deposition of his patron by Andronicus III., Metochita was deprived of his office of great logothete (chancellor) and sent into exile. He was soon recalled, but retired from political life to a convent, where he died in 1332. He was a man of very great learning, only surpassed by Photius and Michael Psellus. His pupil Nicephorus Gregoras, who delivered his funeral oration, calls him a “living library.”
Only a few of his numerous works have been preserved. The best known is Ὺπομνηματισμοὶ καὶ σημειώσεις γνωμικαί, Miscellanea philosophica et historica (ed. C. G. Müller and T. Kiessling, 1821), containing some 120 essays; for a list of them see Fabricius, Bibliotheca graeca (ed. Harles), x. 417; in these he chiefly made use of Synesius. Of his rhetorical pieces two have been published by C. N. Sathas in Μεσαιωνικὴ βιβλιοθήκη (1872), and two poems on religious subjects by M. Treu (1895). The poems, dealing mainly with contemporary and personal matters, are written in hexameter, not in the usual “political” verse. Metochita was also the author of works on philosophical and astronomical subjects.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Metope

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​METOPE (Gr. μετόπη, a middle space), a term in architecture for the square recess between the triglyphs in a Doric frieze, which is sometimes filled with sculpture.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Methyl Alcohol

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​METHYL ALCOHOL (CH$_3$OH), the simplest aliphatic alcohol; an impure form is known in commerce as wood-spirit, being produced in the destructive distillation of wood. The name methyl, from Gr. μέθυ, wine, ὕλη wood, explains its origin. Discovered by Boyle in 1661, it was first carefully studied by Dumas and Péligot in 1831; its synthesis from its elements (through methane and methyl chloride) was effected by Berthelot in 1858. It is manufactured by distilling wood in iron retorts at about 500° C., when an aqueous distillate, containing methyl alcohol, acetone, acetic acid and methyl acetic ester, is obtained. This is neutralized with lime and redistilled in order to remove the acetic acid. The distillate is treated with anhydrous calcium chloride, the crystalline compound formed with the alcohol being separated and decomposed by redistilling with water. The aqueous product is then dehydrated with potash or lime. To obtain it perfectly pure the crude alcohol is combined with oxalic, benzoic or acetic acid, and the resulting ester separated, purified, and finally decomposed with potash. Methyl alcohol is also obtained in the dry distillation of molasses. The amount of methyl alcohol present in wood spirit is determined by converting it into methyl iodide by acting with phosphorus iodide; and the acetone by converting it into iodoform by boiling with an alkaline solution of iodine in potassium iodide; ethyl alcohol is detected by giving acetylene on heating with concentrated sulphuric acid, methyl alcohol, under the same circumstances, giving methyl ether.
Pure methyl alcohol is a colourless mobile liquid, boiling at ​66°–67°, and having a specific gravity of 0·8142 at 0° C. It has a burning taste, and generally a spirituous odour, but when absolutely pure it is said to be odourless. It mixes in all proportions with water, alcohol and ether. Its compound with calcium chloride has the formula CaCl$_2$·4CH$_3$·OH, and with barium oxide BaO·2CH$_3$OH. Oxidation gives formaldehyde, formic acid and carbonic acid; chlorine and bromine react, but less readily than with ethyl alcohol. The chief industrial applications are for making denatured alcohol (q.v.), and as a solvent, e.g. in varnish manufacture; it is also used for a fuel; a purer product is extensively used in the colour and fine chemical industries.
Methyl chloride CH$_3$Cl, is a gas, boiling at −23°, obtained by chlorinating methane, or better, from methyl alcohol; wood spirit is treated with salt and sulphuric acid, or hydrochloric acid gas conducted into the boiling spirit in the presence of zinc chloride, the evolved gas being washed with potash and dried by sulphuric acid. It is also prepared by heating trimethylamine hydrochloride. Alcohol dissolves 35 volumes and water 4. Methyl bromide is a liquid, specific gravity 1·73, boiling point 13°; methyl iodide has a specific gravity of 2·19, and boils at 43°.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Meticulous

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​METICULOUS (through Fr. méticuleux, from Lat. meticulosus, timid, cautious; metus, fear), a term meaning pedantically or excessively careful of details, over-scrupulous, laying too much stress on minutiae.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Metonic Cycle

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​METONIC CYCLE, in chronology, a period of 19 years during which there are 235 lunations, so called because discovered by Meton. Computation from modern data shows that 235 lunations are 6939 days, 16·5 hours; and 19 solar years, 6939 days, 14·5 hours. The relation between integral numbers of months and years expressed by Meton’s rule therefore deviates only two hours from the truth. Since 19 Julian years make 6939 days, 18 hours, the relation errs by only 1·5 hour when the Julian year is taken. Meton was an Athenian astronomer (fl. 432 B.C.).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Metonymy

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​METONYMY (Gr. μετωνυμία, change of name, from μετά, denoting change, and ὄνομα, name), a figure of speech, in which the name of one thing is changed for that of another, to which it is related by association of ideas, as having close relationship to one another. Thus “sceptre,” “throne,” “crown,” are used for royal power or authority, “hearth and home” is used for “country,” &c.
“Synecdoche” (Gr. συνεκδοχή, from συνεκδέχεσθαι, to join in receiving) is a rhetorical figure similar to metonymy, in which the part is used for the whole or vice versa, thus “hands” is used for the members of the crew of a vessel; a regiment of infantry is said to number so many “bayonets,” &c.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ashwell, Lena

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​ASHWELL, LENA (1872- ), English actress (see 2.734), at the outbreak of the World War organized a Women's Emergency Corps for rendering services of all kinds to the Allied forces and to refugees, as well as assistance to women at home thrown out of work by the dislocation of industry. She also formed a company of actors and musicians and went with them to France, where they provided excellent and much-appreciated entertainment to the troops when resting. She was made O.B.E. on the institution of the Order of the British Empire Aug. 24 1917.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Astor, William Waldorf Astor, 1st Viscount

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WILLIAM WALDORF ASTOR, 1st Viscount (1848-1919) [see 2.794], died at Brighton Oct. 18 1919. He was in 1916 raised to the peerage, and in 1917 was created a viscount.
His eldest son, Waldorf Astor, 2nd Viscount Astor, born in New York May 19 1879, was educated at Eton and New College, Oxford. In 1911 he successfully contested the Sutton division of Plymouth as a Unionist, but vacated his seat in 1919 on succeeding to his father's peerage. He was chairman of the Government Committee on tuberculosis and of the State Medical Research Committee. During the World War he was inspector of quartermaster-general services, and in 1918 became parliamentary secretary to the Prime Minister. In Jan. 1919 he was appointed parliamentary secretary to the Local Government Board, and retained the same position on the formation of the Ministry of Health in Aug. 1919. His wife, Nancy Witcher Astor, born in Virginia May 19 1879, was the daughter of Chiswell Dabney Langhorne, of an old Virginian family. She married in 1897 Robert Gould Shaw, of Boston, from whom she obtained a divorce in 1903, and in 1906 married Waldorf Astor. When her husband succeeded to the viscountcy, Lady Astor, who had taken much interest in the local affairs of her husband's former constituency in Plymouth, was adopted there as Coalition Unionist candidate for the vacant seat in Parliament. She was elected by a substantial majority Nov. 28 1919, thus becoming the first woman to sit in the House of Commons.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Athletics

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​ATHLETICS: see Sports and Games.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Auction Bridge

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​AUCTION BRIDGE: see Bridge, Auction.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Artsibashev, Mikhail Petrovich

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ARTSIBASHEV, MIKHAIL PETROVICH (1878-), Russian novelist, was born in South Russia Oct. 18 1878. His family was of Tartar descent, and on the mother's side he was a great-grandson of Kosciusko. He at first followed an artistic career, and attained some fame as a caricaturist, but subsequently began writing short stories, followed by novels. In 1912 he was imprisoned for several months by the Imperial Government as a revolutionary.
His collected works were published in Moscow in 10 vols., 1912-7, and contain: — Razskazi (Tales); U poslednei chertiy (At the Extreme Limit, translated into English as The Breaking Point, 1915); Zakon dikarya (The Law of a Misanthrope); Revnost (Jealousy); Voina (War, translated into English 1918 under the same title) and Sanin (translated into English as Sanine, 1915).
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Athos, Mount

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​ATHOS, MOUNT (see 2.851).—In the summer of 1913 the monastic communities of Mount Athos were convulsed by the controversy arising out of the heresy of the Name of God. A Russianmonk named Ilarion, in the western Caucasus, had published a book, under the title of In the Mountains of the Caucasus, in which he argued that the name of God, being part of God, is divine, and therefore to be worshipped. The book was printed at the Pechersk monastery at Kiev, esteemed the special press of the Holy Synod, and its popularity is shown by the fact that it passed into three editions. Its teaching as to the name of God, which claimed to be based on the authority of such eminent saints as St. Gregory Palemon and St. Dmitri of Rostov, was welcomed with enthusiasm by the monks of the monasteries of St. Andrew and St. Pentelemon, its chief exponent being Antony Bulatovich, an ex-officer of the Hussars of the Guard, who had become a monk at St. Andrew's.
The crisis began when Archbishop Antony of Volinsk denounced the doctrine as heretical in The Russian Monk. The monks appealed against this to the Holy Synod; but the synod declared against them and ordered the abbots to repress the heresy. The monks thereupon expelled the abbots by force, and their action was approved by the monastery of Vatopedi, the Greek parent house of St. Andrew's. On the appeal of the abbots the dispute was now referred by the Holy Synod to the court of the Patriarch of Constantinople, and the intervention of the Russian Government was invited. The condemnation of the "heretics" by the Patriarch led to their repudiation by the community of Vatopedi, and at the instance of the Russian ambassador at Constantinople the refractory monasteries were subjected to a rigorous blockade.
This failed to subdue the monks, whom the Archbishop of Volinsk described as "a band of soft-brained idiots led by a vainglorious hussar." It was feared that the heresy, if suffered to make headway, would spread like wildfire among the ignorant Russian peasantry, and Archbishop Nikon was sent to Athos to threaten the recalcitrant brethren with severe temporal and eternal penalties should they remain obstinate. But his reception was worse than cold, and the Russian Government determined to take strong measures. On June 24, 200 Russian soldiers landed on Mount Athos, and a month later 600 of the monks were deported to Russia, where they were distributed as prisoners in various monasteries. The Holy Synod decided that the peculiar tenets of Bulatovich and his followers were to be known and condemned as "the heresy of the Name of God."
See The Times, June 19 and 26 1913.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Auffenberg-Komarow, Moritz, Freiherr von

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​AUFFENBERG-KOMAROW, MORITZ, Freiherr von (1852–), Austrian general of infantry, was born in Troppau. As a young staff officer he served in the army which occupied Bosnia in 1878. He later commanded the XV. Army Corps at Serajevo, and in the autumn of 1911 became Minister of War. The ambitious general had many enemies. His active spirit led him to take a vigorous part in the internal politics of the monarchy, his knowledge of the Hungarian and more especially of the Southern Slav question being intimate. He had attracted the attention of the heir to the throne, the Archduke Francis Ferdinand, who had, in spite of much opposition, secured his appointment as Minister of War; but powerful influences forced him to retire after only a year and a quarter's tenure of the office. He won his title in the World War, as the commander of the IV. Army against the Russians, by the brilliant victory of Komarow at the end of Aug. 1914. After the victory Auffenberg succeeded in the difficult operation of completely changing the front of his entire army, with which he moved southwards in time to take part in the second battle of Lemberg; but the superior strength of the enemy made it impossible for him to avert defeat. The general was then called on to resign his command. In April 1915 he was arrested on an accusation of having as War Minister delivered to an unauthorized person a copy of military instructions with a view to speculation on the Exchange, but the court acquitted him.
Auffenberg wrote two books: Aus Oesterreich-Ungarns Teilnahme am Weltkrieg and Aus Oesterreichs Höhe und Niedergang.