OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# The New International Encyclopædia/Bürger, Gottfried August

Edition of 1905. See also Gottfried August Bürger on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
BÜRGER, bụr'gẽr, Gottfried August (1747-94). A German poet. He was born in Molmerswende, the son of a country clergyman, and studied theology at Halle and law at Göttingen, where his poetic genius was fired by the works of Shakespeare and by Percy's Reliques. He became a leading member of the Göttingen Poets' Union (Dichterbund), contributed to its organ, the Musenalmanach, and from 1779 until his death was its editor. The University of Göttingen gave him an honorary degree in 1787, and soon after made him professor (without salary) of philosophy and æsthetics, a curious post for one of dissolute youth and discreditable manhood. The greatest work of his misguided genius was produced while he was still young. His best ballad, Lenore (1773), coincided in date with Goethe's Götz von Berlichingen, and the beginning of the decade of literary storm and stress. Goethe, who was soon to speak of him as a ‘sad example,’ thought his earlier poems ‘worthy of a better age.’ Critics to-day see in them the most potent influence toward the revival of the ballad form in which so much of the best German poetry of the next generation was cast. These ballads are classics familiar to every German schoolboy. Some of the most striking, besides the incomparable Lenore, are Der wilde Jäger, Das Lied vom braven Mann, Die Weiber von Weinsberg, Der Kaiser und der Abt, and Bürger's own favorite Lenardo und Blandine. Bürger also revived the sonnet form in German, and his experiments in it were praised as models by Schiller, who, however, severely criticised some of Bürger's more popular poems. His ballads have retained their
popularity to this day, and his poems have appeared in many editions. His collected works were edited by his friend Reinard (4 vols., 1796). He was introduced to English readers in William and Helen (1775), Walter Scott's version of Lenore. The elder Dumas translated Lenore into French. Burger's imagination was fresh and naïve, but it was not rich or sustained. His taste was more elegant than delicate: his style was studied, though clear and forcible. The moral tone of his poems, virile and almost uniformly noble, contrasts strangely with that of his life. His qualities were those which command popular favor, and his defects those which the majority of readers readily condone. His place in German letters is apparently secure.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Cabiri

Edition of 1905. See also the disclaimer.
​CABI′RI. See Cabeiri.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Cabinet (chamber)

Edition of 1905. See also Cabinet (room) on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​CABINET (Fr. dim. of cabane, cabine, cabin, from Gael, and Irish caban, booth, hut, tent). Originally a small chamber set apart for some special purpose, such as private interviews, or study, or for collections of objects of art or curiosity. Sovereigns, ministers, and other high officials always had such cabinets in connection with larger reception-rooms. The term then came to be applied to the closets or show-cases in which the collections were kept in many such rooms; and even to the collections themselves. Cabinet collections are always supposed to be of small objects, and in this sense we speak of a cabinet picture. Cabinet-work is, by extension, the art of fine woodwork such as was used at one time largely in making the delicate decorative furniture for such rooms and collections.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Ki-Ja

Edition of 1905. See also the disclaimer.
​KI-JA. See Ki-Tse.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Kiblah

Edition of 1905. See also Qibla on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
KIBLAH, kē′blä, or KEBLAH (Ar. Kiblah, that which is opposite, from kabala, to come from the south). The direction of the Kaaba (q.v.), in Mecca, toward which Mohammedans face when in prayer. It is indicated in a mosque by a niche in the wall called the miḥrab. At the outset of his career Mohammed is said to have turned toward the Kaaba when praying; though this is contrary to Sura ii. 110: “The cast and the west is God's; therefore, whichever way ye turn is the face of God.” After his flight to Medina, the Prophet changed the direction of prayer toward Jerusalem in the hope of attracting the Jews. On January 16, 624, recognizing the futility of this hope, he changed the kiblah back again to the Kaaba, justifying this momentous change by a special revelation (Sura ii. 136-145). Consult Sprenger, Das Leben und die Lehre des Mohammed, vol. iii. (Berlin, 1869).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Keppler, Joseph

Edition of 1905. See also Joseph Ferdinand Keppler on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
KEPPLER, Joseph (1838-94). An Austrian cartoonist. He was born in Vienna, February 1, 1838. He studied at the Academy of Fine Arts in Vienna, and contributed cartoons to leading periodicals of that city. He went on the stage as comedian and opera singer, and in 1868 went to Saint Louis, where he also studied medicine. In Saint Louis he established the German Puck, the failure of which caused him to move to New York, where he was employed as caricaturist for Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper from 1872 to 1877. In 1875 he started another German Puck, in partnership with Adolph Schwartzman. The colored political cartoons of this paper became famous, and in 1877 the English edition appeared. Keppler died in New York City, February 19, 1894. He was the first artist to introduce colored cartoons. Much of his success was due to a clever adaptation of classical and historical subjects to modern life.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Kerner, Justinus

Edition of 1905. See also Justinus Kerner on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
KERNER, Justinus (1780-1862). A German poet of the so-called Swabian School. He is best known for his Reiseschatten (1811), poems and dramatic scenes characterized by a dreamy fancy and a peculiar fantastic humor, and for a morbid book on animal magnetism, Die Seherin von Prevorst (1829), which passed through several editions, and aroused much fleeting interest in America. Of his poems the Wanderlied is a universal favorite. He began life as an apprentice in a cloth factory at his native Ludwigsburg, and went in 1804 to study medicine at Tübingen, where he became a friend of Uhland. After two years of travel (1809-11) he practiced medicine at Wildbad (1811), Welzheim (1812), Gaildorf (1815), and Weinsberg (1819). Partial blindness compelled him to give up his profession in 1851. A monument was erected to him at Stuttgart in 1895. Consult Kerner's autobiographical Bilderbuch aus meiner Knabenzeit (Brunswick, 1849; new ed. Frankfort, 1897); Reinhard, Justinus Kerner und das Kernerhaus zu Weinsberg (Tübingen, 1886); Niethammer, Justinus Kerners Jugendliebe (Stuttgart, 1887); Strauss, “Justinus Kerner,” in Kleine Schriften (Berlin, 1866); Watts, Life and Work of Kerner (London, 1884).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Kerner, Anton

Edition of 1905. See also Anton Kerner von Marilaun on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
KERNER, kĕr'nẽr, Anton (1831-98). An Austrian botanist. He was born at Mautern, in Lower Austria. In 1858 he became professor of botany at the Polytechnic Institute at Buda, and in 1860 was elected to the same chair in the University of Innsbruck, a post which he resigned in 1878 to accept the directorship of the botanical garden of Vienna and the professorship of botany in the university there, where his labors continued until his death, in 1898. He established his reputation by publishing a report of his botanical exploration of Hungary, Pflanzenleben der Donauländer (Innsbruck, 1863); and Vegetationsverhältnisse des mittlern und östlichen Ungarn und Siebenbürgen (ib., 1875). In 1864 he published a book upon the culture of alpine plants (Die Kultur der Alpenflanzen); in 1867 finished the publication of the results of his studies with
respect to the limits of vegetation of more than a thousand species of plants, and in 1874 sketched a model botanical garden, Die botanischen Gärten. One of his most important works is Das Pflanzenleben, which first appeared in 1887.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Kilauea

Edition of 1905. See also Kīlauea on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​KILAUEA, kē′lä-o͞o-ā′ȧ. A noted crater in the eastern part of the island of Hawaii, 10 miles from the sea, and 30 miles southwest of the port of Hilo, on the eastern slope of the great volcano of Mauna Loa, 4000 feet above the sea, and 9800 feet below the summit of Mauna Loa (Map: Hawaii, F 4). It forms a great cavity on the side of the mountain, three miles long, two miles wide, and in the parts where the lava is not boiling from 500 to 800 feet deep. The floor of the crater, formed by the lava streams that constantly flow and cool in one or another part of it, accumulates slowly in periods of moderate activity, but is liable to fall in or sink at any time, especially during great volcanic activity, when the lava may escape from vents below. At the southwestern end of this great sink is a small lake called Halemaumau (House of Everlasting Fire), filled with boiling lava which flows through a subterranean channel under the rim of the active craters to the lower level of the main crater-basin, forming small or large streams upon its black surface, which cool quickly. The great eruptions from this crater were those of 1789, 1823, 1832, 1840, and 1868. There seems to be no subterranean connection between the sources of the eruptions from Mauna Loa and Kilauea, each having its periods of terrible activity without seeming to affect the other. Consult Dana, Characteristics of Volcanoes (New York, 1890).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Kifti

Edition of 1905. See also Al-Qifti on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​KIFTI, or IBN AL-KIFTI, ĭb′’n ȧl kēf′tē̇ (Ar. Jimal al-Din abu al-Hasan ‘Alī ibn Yusuf al-Kiftī) (1172-1248). An Arabian vizier and historian. He was born of good family at Kift (Coptos). Upper Egypt, and received a good education there and in Cairo. After Saladin conquered Jerusalem (1187) Al-Kifti went to that city, where his father held an official position under the Sultan. In 1202 he betook himself to Aleppo and there, much against his will, was made vizier by Saladin's son. When the prince died in 1216, Al-Kifti gave up his office, but was again forced to assume public cares from 1219 to 1231, and again from 1236 till his death in 1248. He was an able administrator, and the State prospered under his care; literature and learning flourished. But his best title to fame rests upon his favorite studies, although of his numerous histories all were destroyed in the Mongol invasion (1260) except one. This was his Kitāb Ikhbār al-‘Ulamā biakhbār al-Ḥukamā (“Information of the Wise Men Regarding the History of the Scientists”), a historico-bibliographical work on Greek, Syriac, and Mohammedan philosophers and scientists. Unfortunately, this most important work has come down to us only in the extract made by Ali ibn Mohammed al-Zanzani in 1249. Consult August Müller. “Ueber das sogenannte ta’rīkh al-ḥukamā des Ibn el-Qifti,” in the Proceedings of the Eighth International Congress of Orientalists, vol. i. (Leyden, 1891).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Kind, Johann Friedrich

Edition of 1905. See also Johann Friedrich Kind on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
KIND, kĭnt, Johann Friedrich (1768-1843). A German poet, dramatist, and romancer, born in Leipzig. He began in 1793 the practice of law in Dresden, but abandoned it in 1814 to devote himself exclusively to literary work. With Winkler he edited the Abendzeitung from 1817 to 1826. His poems (5 vols., 1808) are weakly sentimental, but his tales and novels appealed to many readers, and some of his dramas held the stage for a considerable time. He is, however, best remembered for his operatic libretti, Das Nachtlager von Granada (music by Kreutzer), Der Holzdieb (music by Marschner), and, above all, Der Freischütz, imperishable through Weber's famous composition.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Dike

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​Dike. See Jetty.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Dilke, Rt. Hon. Sir Charles Wentworth

See also Sir Charles Dilke, 2nd Baronet on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Dilke (dĭlk), Rt. Hon. Sir Charles Wentworth, an English statesman and author, was born at Chelsea, Sept. 4, 1843. He graduated at Cambridge, and was soon after called to the bar. He published in 1868 a description of his travels in the United States, Australia and New Zealand under the title, Greater Britain. He was elected to Parliament in 1868, was under-secretary for foreign affairs and also president of the SIR CHARLES DILKE local-government board under Gladstone. In 1886 his connection with a divorce case prevented his reëlection to Parliament, but his influence was still felt through his writings. His essays, collected under the title of The Present Position of European Politics, were first published in the Fortnightly Review. He has also published works on the British army, army-reform, imperial defense and the British empire and a work entitled Problems of Greater Britain. In 1892 he was again returned to Parliament.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Dillon, John

See also John Dillon on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Dillon, John, Irish Nationalist member of Parliament and leader of what is known JOHN DILLON, M. P. as the Plan of Campaign, was born at Dublin in 1851, and entered the British Parliament in 1880 as member for Tipperary and since 1885 has sat for East Mayo. He has suffered imprisonment twice (in 1881 and in 1891) for treasonable offenses. He at one time was a close ally of Parnell, and later actively opposed him. He succeeded Mr. Justin McCarthy in 1896 as leader of the Nationalists, and is known “for his intense religious fervor and his transparent sincerity,” though neither political party in the House of Commons has cared to endorse his attitude as an Irish agitator.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Digestion

See also Digestion on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Diges′tion in plants is essentially the same process as in animals. It consists in producing such chemical changes in insoluble foods that they become soluble in water, and consequently fit for absorption or transfer; or, when already soluble, in reducing them to simpler forms. There are no special digestive organs in plants comparable to the alimentary canal of animals, with its connected glands; and likening the leaves to the stomach is misleading. Digestion is usually accomplished by the action of enzymes (which see) or ferments secreted by the living protoplasm. (See Secretion.) In some cases these enzymes are produced in special glands; in others they are formed by the same cells that have other functions. Digestion often occurs outside the plant-body as when the embryo secretes diastase (see Enzymes) to digest the starch stored around it; or when a fungus digests the cellulose of a cell-wall which it is penetrating. Or digestion may occur within the plant-body, as when the starch stored in a potato-tuber is digested in order to be transferred to the growing regions, or the starch-granules formed in a leaf are digested to be carried away to places of use or storage.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Dichotomy

See also Dichotomy on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Dichotomy (in plants). The method of branching in which the tip of the axis divides. The contrasting method is monopodial branching. See Branching.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Dickens, Charles

See also Charles Dickens on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Dick′ens, Charles, a great English novelist, was born at Landport, near Portsmouth, Feb. 7, 1812; and died at Gadshill, near Rochester, England, June 9, 1870. When he was nine years old, the family fell into poor circumstances and moved to one of the poorer quarters of London, where the father was soon after arrested for debt, and Charles was placed in a blacking-factory. Not long after, his father was released and Charles was sent to school once more, where he stayed for three or four years. He then prepared himself to be a journalist, and became reporter on a London paper when he was 22. He then began writing for magazines and journals, and in 1836 his success was assured by the appearance of Pickwick Papers. Others of his works soon followed, and the remainder of his life was a record of one literary success after another. In 1842 Dickens visited America. His American Notes and Martin Chuzzlewit are satirical accounts of American manners and life. In 1850 he founded Household Words, a weekly periodical, in which several of his works appeared as serials. In 1859 this periodical ceased to be published, but Dickens issued another, called All the Year Round, for which were written several other of his novels. Dickens always had a strong liking for the drama, and often acted in private theatricals. His real ability as an actor was shown in his public readings of selections from his works. He gave many of these readings both in England and America, and it is said that his receipts in money from them were more than from all his novels. Perhaps more than any other English writer, Dickens put his own boyhood into his novels. Mr. and Mrs. Micawber are drawn from his own father and mother. David Copperfield, probably his greatest work, is said to be largely a story of his own life; while many others of his characters he had met when a boy, in his work at the blacking-factory, when visiting his father at the debtor’s prison, at the Portsmouth dock where his father was a navy-clerk, or while he was at school. Few novelists are so universally read; probably no one is so universally liked. His characters are taken from actual life, and call out the best sympathies of the reader. Among his works, besides those already noticed, may be mentioned Old Curiosity Shop, Dombey and Son, Little Dorrit, Tale of Two Cities, Our Mutual Friend, A Christmas Carol and The Mystery of Edwin Drood (unfinished). See his Letters and the Life by Forster.
See the works of this author.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Dijon

See also Dijon on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Dijon (dē̇′zhôn′), the former capital of the old duchy of Burgundy and the chief city of the French department of Côte-d' Or, is situated on a plain at the foot of Mt. Afrique, 1,916 feet in height. It is an important place as a part of the inner line of French defenses, and the neighboring hills are crowned with strong forts. It is a well-built town, with broad streets and open squares, boulevards and beautiful surroundings. The Gothic cathedral, which dates from the 13th century, has a spire 301 feet high. Dijon, known to the Romans as Dibio, passed in the 5th century from Burgundy to France. In the 9th century it was ruled by its own counts. In 1007 it was united to the duchy of Burgundy and made its capital. It became French territory in 1479. It yielded to a German army in 1870. Population, 76,847.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Dickinson, Emily

See also Emily Dickinson on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Dickinson, Emily, an American poet, was born at Amherst, Mass., Dec. 10, 1830, and died there, May 15, 1886. A recluse all her life, she wrote much but published little. In 1890, however, a collection of her verse appeared that severe critics recognized as revealing a rare genius and as enriching American literature with minor lyrics of unique form. Another collection was published in 1892, and her letters in 1894.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Diocletian, Valerius Diocletianus

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​Diocletian (dī′ō̇-klē′shan), Valerius Diocletianus, a Roman emperor, was born in Dalmatia in 245, and reigned from 284 to 305. He entered the army and held important commands under the Emperors Probus and Aurelian. After the death of Numerianus he was chosen to succeed him by the troops at Chalcedon. With his reign began a new form of government in Rome. He appointed Maximian as his companion in authority, styling him Augustus, and soon after he appointed Constantius Chlorus and Galerius as subordinate rulers, each with the title of Caesar. Each of the four rulers had a different capital and governed a different region. In 305 Diocletian, being worn out by work, resigned his position as emperor and went to Salona, in Dalmatia, where he died eight years later. His reign has become memorable for the persecution of the Christians.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Downing Street

Edition of 1905. See also Downing Street on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​DOWNING STREET. A street in the ‘West End’ district of London, leading from Whitehall. The Home Office, Foreign Office, Colonial Office, and East India Office are situated in it, and the name is therefore used as a convenient synonym for the central powers of the British Government.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Downs

Edition of 1905. See also Downs on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​DOWNS (AS., OHG. dūn, Ger. Düne, Fr. dune, from Ir. dūn, Welsh din, hill, fort; ultimately connected with AS., Icel. tūn, Engl. town, OHG. zūn, Ger. Zaun, hedge). A term usually applied to hillocks of sand thrown up by the sea or the wind along the seacoast. It is also a general name for any undulating tract of upland too light for cultivation and covered with short grass. It is especially applied to two broad ridges of undulating hills in England south of the Thames, beginning in the middle of Hampshire and running eastward, the one (the North Downs) through the middle of Surrey and Kent to Dover (about 120 miles), and the other (the South Downs) through the southeast of Hampshire and near the Sussex coast to Beachy Head (about 80 miles). Between the two ridges lies the valley of the Weald, from which the chalk strata are supposed to have been removed by denudation. Toward the Weald the descent from both Downs is rapid, while the opposite slopes are gradual. The highest point of the North Downs is Botley Hill, 880 feet, and that of the South Downs, Ditchelling Beacon, 858 feet. These uplands are covered with fine pasture, forming excellent feeding ground for the famous Southdown sheep. The valleys occurring among the hills are usually fertile and admit of cultivation, so that an excellent field is furnished for mixed husbandry.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Downy Mildew

Edition of 1905. See also the disclaimer.
​DOWNY MILDEW. See Mildew.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Downing, Andrew Jackson

Edition of 1905. See also Andrew Jackson Downing on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​DOWN′ING, Andrew Jackson (1815-52). An American nurseryman, landscape gardener, and pomologist, born at Newburgh, N. Y. His influence upon American horticultural development is probably unsurpassed. To him must be accredited the introduction and development of the free or English school of landscape ​gardening in America. He planned the grounds about the National Capitol, the White House, and the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D. C. To his foresight, and to his spirit as communicated to others, we owe our present American system of broad free municipal parks. Downing's monumental work, Fruits and Fruit Trees of America (1845), greatly extended by his brother Charles (q.v.), together with his numerous essays, form the bulk of his contribution to the literature of horticulture. Another important work is the Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening (1841). These essays were first published in the Horticulturist, of which he was editor at the time of his death, and afterwards in book form under the title of Rural Essays (1854), for which book George William Curtis wrote a memoir of Downing. He was drowned while attempting to save the lives of others on the burning Hudson River steamer Henry Clay.