# Principles of Political Economy (Mill), vol. 1

This is the seventh edition of the Principles, which was first published 1848.
PRINCIPLES
OF
POLITICAL ECONOMY
WITH
SOME OF THEIR APPLICATIONS TO SOCIAL PHILOSOPHY.
BY
JOHN STUART MILL.
IN TWO VOLUMES.
VOL. I.
SEVENTH EDITION.
LONDON:
LONGMANS, GREEN, READER AND DYER.
1871.
LONDON:
SAVILL, EDWARDS AND CO., PRINTERS, CHANDOS STREET.
COVENT GARDEN.
PREFACE.
The appearance of a treatise like the present, on a subject on which so many works of merit already exist, may be thought to require some explanation.
It might, perhaps, be sufficient to say, that no existing treatise on Political Economy contains the latest improvements which have been made in the theory of the subject. Many new ideas, and new applications of ideas, have been elicited by the discussions of the last few years, especially those on Currency, on Foreign Trade, and on the important topics connected more or less intimately with Colonization: and there seems reason that the field of Political Economy should be re-surveyed in its whole extent, if only for the purpose of incorporating the results of these speculations, and bringing them into harmony with the principles previously laid down by the best thinkers on the subject.
To supply, however, these deficiencies in former treatises bearing a similar title, is not the sole, or even the principal object which the author has in view. The design of the book is different from that of any treatise on Political Economy which has been produced in England since the work of Adam Smith.
​The most characteristic quality of that work, and the one in which it most differs from some others which have equalled and even surpassed it as mere expositions of the general principles of the subject, is that it invariably associates the principles with their applications. This of itself implies a much wider range of ideas and of topics, than are included in Political Economy, considered as a branch of abstract speculation. For practical purposes, Political Economy is inseparably intertwined with many other branches of social philosophy. Except on matters of mere detail, there are perhaps no practical questions, even among those which approach nearest to the character of purely economical questions, which admit of being decided on economical premises alone. And it is because Adam Smith never loses sight of this truth; because, in his applications of Political Economy, he perpetually appeals to other and often far larger considerations than pure Political Economy affords—that he gives that well-grounded feeling of command over the principles of the subject for purposes of practice, owing to which the "Wealth of Nations," alone among treatises on Political Economy, has not only been popular with general readers, but has impressed itself strongly on the minds of men of the world and of legislators.
It appears to the present writer, that a work similar in its object and general conception to that of Adam ​Smith, but adapted to the more extended knowledge and improved ideas of the present age, is the kind of contribution which Political Economy at present requires. The "Wealth of Nations" is in many parts obsolete, and in all, imperfect. Political Economy, properly so called, has grown up almost from infancy since the time of Adam Smith; and the philosophy of society, from which practically that eminent thinker never separated his more peculiar theme, though still in a very early stage of its progress, has advanced many steps beyond the point at which he left it. No attempt, however, has yet been made to combine his practical mode of treating his subject with the increased knowledge since acquired of its theory, or to exhibit the economical phenomena of society in the relation in which they stand to the best social ideas of the present time, as he did, with such admirable success, in reference to the philosophy of his century.
Such is the idea which the writer of the present work has kept before him. To succeed even partially in realizing it, would be a sufficiently useful achievement, to induce him to incur willingly all the chances of failure. It is requisite, however, to add, that although his object is practical, and, as far as the nature of the subject admits, popular, he has not attempted to purchase either of those advantages by the sacrifice of strict scientific reasoning. Though he desires that his treatise should be more than a ​mere exposition of the abstract doctrines of Political Economy, he is also desirous that such an exposition should be found in it.
The present edition, with the exception of a few verbal corrections, corresponds exactly with the last Library Edition and with the People's Edition. Since the publication of these, there has been some instructive discussion on the theory of Demand and Supply, and on the influence of Strikes and Trades Unions on wages, by which additional light has been thrown on these subjects; but the results, in the author's opinion, are not yet ripe for incorporation in a general treatise on Political Economy. For an analogous reason, all notice, of the alteration made in the Land Laws of Ireland by the recent Act, is deferred until experience shall have had time to pronounce on the operation of that well-meant attempt to deal with the greatest practical evil in the economic institutions of that country.
CONTENTS
OF
THE FIRST VOLUME.
* Page
* Preliminary Remarks ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1
* BOOK I.  PRODUCTION.  Chapter I. Of the Requisites of Production.
* § 1.Requisites of production, what ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................29
* 2.The function of labour defined ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................31
* 3.Does nature contribute more to the efficacy of labour in some occupations than in others? ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................33
* 4.Some natural agents limited, others practically unlimited, in quantity ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................34
* Chapter II. Of Labour as an Agent of Production.
* § 1.Labour employed either directly about the thing produced, or in operations preparatory to its production ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................37
* 2.Labour employed in producing subsistence for subsequent labour ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................39
* 3.—in producing materials ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................42
* 4.—or implements ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................44
* 5.—in the protection of labour ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................46
* 6.—in the transport and distribution of the produce ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................47
* 7.Labour which relates to human beings ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................50
* 8.Labour of invention and discovery ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................51
* 9.Labour agricultural, manufacturing, and commercial ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................53
* Chapter III. Of Unproductive Labour.
* § 1. Labour does not produce objects, but utilities ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................55
* 2. —which are of three kinds ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................57
* 3. Productive labour is that which produces utilities fixed and embodied in material objects ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................58
* 4. All other labour, however useful, is classed as unproductive ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................61
* 5. Productive and Unproductive Consumption ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................64
* 6. Labour for the supply of Productive Consumption, and labour for the supply of Unproductive Consumption ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................65
* Chapter IV. Of Capital.
* § 1. Capital is wealth appropriated to reproductive employment ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................68
* 2. More capital devoted to production than actually employed in it ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................71
* 3. Examination of some cases illustrative of the idea of Capital ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................74
* Chapter V. Fundamental Propositions respecting Capital.
* § 1. Industry is limited by Capital ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................79
* 2. —but does not always come up to that limit ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................81
* 3. Increase of capital gives increased employment to labour, without assignable bounds ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................83
* 4. Capital is the result of saving ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................86
* 5. All capital is consumed ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................88
* 6. Capital is kept up, not by preservation, but by perpetual reproduction ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................92
* 7. Why countries recover rapidly from a state of devastation ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................94
* 8. Effects of defraying government expenditure by loans ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................95
* 9. Demand for commodities is not demand for labour ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................99
* 10. Fallacy respecting Taxation ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................111
* Chapter VI. Of Circulating and Fixed Capital.
* § 1. Fixed and Circulating Capital, what ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................114
* 2. Increase of fixed capital, when at the expense of circulating, might be detrimental to the labourers ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................117
* 3. —but this seldom if ever occurs ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................121
* Chapter VII. On what depends the degree of Productiveness of Productive Agents.
* § 1. Land, labour, and capital, are of different productiveness at different times and places ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................126
* 2. Causes of superior productiveness. Natural advantages ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................127
* 3.—greater energy of labour ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................129
* 4.—superior skill and knowledge ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................132
* 5.—superiority of intelligence and trustworthiness in the community generally ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................134
* 6.—superior security ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................139
* Chapter VIII. Of Co-operation, or the Combination of Labour.
* § 1. Combination of Labour a principal cause of superior productiveness ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................144
* 2. Effects of separation of employments analyzed ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................147
* 3. Combination of labour between town and country ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................150
* 4. The higher degrees of the division of labour ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................152
* 5. Analysis of its advantages ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................154
* 6. Limitations of the division of labour ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................162
* Chapter IX. Of Production on a Large, and Production on a Small Scale.
* § 1. Advantages of the large system of production in manufactures ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................164
* 2. Advantages and disadvantages of the joint-stock principle ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................170
* 3. Conditions necessary for the large system of production ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................176
* 4. Large and small farming compared ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................179
* Chapter X. Of the Law of the Increase of Labour.
* § 1. The law of the increase of production depends on those of three elements, Labour, Capital, and Land ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................194
* 2. The Law of Population ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................195
* 3. By what checks the increase of population is practically limited ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................198
* Chapter XI. Of the Law of the Increase of Capital.
* § 1. Means and motives to saving, on what dependent................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................203
* 2. Causes of diversity in the effective strength of the desire of accumulation ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................205
* 3. Examples of deficiency in the strength of this desire ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................208
* 4. Exemplification of its excess ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................216
* Chapter XII. Of the Law of the Increase of Production from Land.
* § 1. The limited quantity and limited productiveness of land, the real limits to production ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................220
* 2. The law of production from the soil, a law of diminishing return in proportion to the increased application of labour and capital ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................221
* 3. Antagonist principle to the law of diminishing return; the progress of improvements in production ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................226
* Chapter XIII. Consequences of the foregoing Laws.
* § 1. Remedies when the limit to production is the weakness of the principle of accumulation ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................236
* 2. Necessity of restraining population not confined to a state of inequality of property ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................237
* 3.—nor superseded by free trade in food ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................241
* 4.—nor in general by emigration ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................245
* BOOK II.  DISTRIBUTION.  Chapter I. Of Property.
* § 1. Introductory remarks ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................249
* 2. Statement of the question ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................251
* 3. Examination of Communism ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................254
* 4.—of St. Simonism and Fourierism ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................263
* Chapter II. The same subject continued.
* § 1. The institution of property implies freedom of acquisition by contract ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................270
* 2.—the validity of prescription ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................272
* 3.—the power of bequest, but not the right of inheritance. Question of inheritance examined ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................273
* 4. Should the right of bequest be limited, and how? ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................279
* 5. Grounds of property in land, different from those of property in moveables ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................284
* 6.—only valid on certain conditions, which are not always realized. The limitations considered ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................285
* 7. Rights of property in abuses ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................291
* Chapter III. Of the Classes among whom the Produce is distributed.
* § 1. The produce sometimes shared among three classes ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................293
* 2. sometimes belongs undividedly to one ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................294
* 3. sometimes divided between two ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................295
* Chapter IV. Of Competition and Custom.
* § 1. Competition not the sole regulator of the division of the produce ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................298
* 2. Influence of custom on rents, and on the tenure of land ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................299
* 3. Influence of custom on prices ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................302
* Chapter V. Of Slavery.
* § 1. Slavery considered in relation to the slaves ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................306
* 2.—in relation to production ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................308
* 3. Emancipation considered in relation to the interest of the slave-owners ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................310
* Chapter VI. Of Peasant Proprietors.
* § 1. Difference between English and Continental opinions respecting peasant properties ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................313
* 2. Evidence respecting peasant properties in Switzerland ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................315
* 3.—in Norway ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................322
* 4.—in Germany ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................326
* 5.—in Belgium ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................332
* 6.—in the Channel Islands ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................338
* 7.—in France ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................341
* Chapter VII. Continuation of the same subject.
* § 1. Influence of peasant properties in stimulating industry ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................347
* 2.—in training intelligence ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................350
* 3.—in promoting forethought and self-control ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................351
* 4. Their effect on population ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................353
* 5.—on the subdivision of land ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................364
* Chapter VIII. Of Metayers.
* § 1. Nature of the metayer system, and its varieties ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................371
* 2. Its advantages and inconveniences ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................372
* 3. Evidence concerning its effects in different countries ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................375
* 4. Is its abolition desirable? ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................388
* Chapter IX. Of Cottiers.
* § 1. Nature and operation of cottier tenure ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................391
* 2. In an overpeopled country its necessary consequence is nominal rents ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................394
* 3.—which are inconsistent with industry, frugality, or restraint on population ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................397
* 4. Ryot tenancy of India ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................399
* Chapter X. Means of abolishing Cottier Tenancy.
* § 1. Irish cottiers should be converted into peasant proprietors ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................404
* 2. Present state of this question ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................412
* Chapter XI. Of Wages.
* § 1. Wages depend on the demand and supply of labour—in other words, on population and capital ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................419
* 2. Examination of some popular opinions respecting wages ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................420
* § 3. Certain rare circumstances excepted, high wages imply restraints on population ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................427
* 4.—which are in some cases legal ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................431
* 5.—in others the effect of particular customs ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................434
* 6. Due restriction of population the only safeguard of a labouring class ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................436
* Chapter XII. Of Popular Remedies for Low Wages.
* § 1. A legal or customary minimum of wages, with a guarantee of employment ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................441
* 2. —would require as a condition, legal measures for repression of population ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................443
* 3. Allowances in aid of wages ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................448
* 4. The Allotment System ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................450
* Chapter XIII. Remedies for Low Wages further considered.
* § 1. Pernicious direction of public opinion on the subject of population ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................456
* 2. Grounds for expecting improvement ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................459
* 3. Twofold means of elevating the habits of the labouring people: by education ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................465
* 4.—and by large measures of immediate relief, through foreign and home colonization ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................467
* Chapter XIV. Of the Differences of Wages in different Employments.
* § 1. Differences of wages arising from different degrees of attractiveness in different employments ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................471
* 2. Differences arising from natural monopolies ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................477
* 3. Effect on wages of a class of subsidized competitors ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................482
* 4. —of the competition of persons with independent means of support ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................485
* 5. Wages of women, why lower than those of men ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................490
* 6. Differences of wages arising from restrictive laws, and from combinations ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................491
* 7. Cases in which wages are fixed by custom ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................493
* Chapter XV. Of Profits.
* § 1. Profits resolvable into three parts; interest, insurance, and wages of superintendence ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................495
* 2. The minimum of profits; and the variations to which it is liable ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................498
* 3. Differences of profits arising from the nature of the particular employment ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................500
* 4. General tendency of profits to an equality ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................502
* 5. Profits do not depend on prices, nor on purchase and sale ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................508
* 6. The advances of the capitalist consist ultimately in wages of labour ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................510
* 7. The rate of profit depends on the Cost of Labour ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................512
* Chapter XVI. Of Rent.
* § 1. Rent the effect of a natural monopoly ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................516
* 2. No land can pay rent except land of such quality or situation, as exists in less quantity than the demand ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................517
* 3. The rent of land consists of the excess of its return above the return to the worst land in cultivation ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................519
* 4.—or to the capital employed in the least advantageous circumstances ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................522
* 5. Is payment for capital sunk in the soil, rent, or profit? ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................525
* 6. Rent does not enter into the cost of production of agricultural produce ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................530
* BOOK III.  EXCHANGE.  Chapter I. Of Value.
* § 1. Preliminary remarks ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................535
* 2. Definitions of Value in Use, Exchange Value, and Price ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................537
* 3. What is meant by general purchasing power ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................538
* 4. Value a relative term. A general rise or fall of values a contradiction ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................540
* 5. The laws of Value, how modified in their application to retail transactions ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................541
* Chapter II. Of Demand and Supply, in their relation to Value.
* § 1. Two conditions of Value: Utility, and Difficulty of Attainment ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................544
* 2. Three kinds of Difficulty of Attainment ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................546
* 3. Commodities which are absolutely limited in quantity ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................548
* 4. Law of their value, the Equation of Demand and Supply ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................550
* 5. Miscellaneous cases falling under this law ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................552
* Chapter III. Of Cost of Production, in its relation to Value.
* § 1. Commodities which are susceptible of indefinite multiplication without increase of cost. Law of their Value, Cost of Production ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................555
* 2.—operating through potential, but not actual, alterations of supply ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................557
* Chapter IV. Ultimate Analysis of Cost of Production.
* § 1. Principal element in Cost of Production Quantity of Labour ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................562
* 2. Wages not an element in Cost of Production ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................564
* 3.—except in so far as they vary from employment to employment ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................566
* 4. Profits an element in Cost of Production, in so far as they vary from employment to employment ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................568
* 5.—or are spread over unequal lengths of time ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................569
* 6. Occasional elements in Cost of Production: taxes, and scarcity value of materials ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................574
* Chapter V. Of Rent, in its relation to Value.
* § 1.Commodities which are susceptible of indefinite ultiplication, but not without increase of cost. Law of their Value, Cost of Production in the most unfavourable existing circumstances ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................577
* 2. Such commodities, when produced in circumstances more favourable, yield a rent equal to the difference of cost ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................580
* 3. Rent of mines and fisheries, and ground-rent of buildings ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................583
* 4. Cases of extra profit analogous to rent ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................586
* Chapter VI. Summary of the Theory of Value.
* § 1. The theory of Value recapitulated in a series of propositions ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................588
* 2. How modified by the case of labourers cultivating for subsistence ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................591
* 3.—by the case of slave labour ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................593
* APPENDIX.
* Substance of three articles in the Morning Chronicle of 11th, 13th, and 16th January, 1847, in reply to MM. Mourner and Rubichon and to the Quarterly Review, on the Subdivision of Landed Property in France ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................597