OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# The New International Encyclopædia/Radecke, Robert

Edition of 1905. See also Robert Radecke on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
RADECKE, rä'dĕ-ke, Robert (1830—). A German composer. He was born in Dittmannsdorf, in Silesia, and received his musical training in the Conservatory of Leipzig. In 1853 he became musical director of the Court Theatre of that city. He removed to Berlin soon after, played second violin in Laub's quartet, and gave many successful concerts. He was made royal Kapellmeister in 1871, and in 1891 succeeded Haupt as director of the Royal Institute for Church Music. An artist of ability on pianoforte, organ, and violin, Radecke is best known for his compositions, which include two orchestral overtures, König Johann and Am Strande; the operetta Die Mönkgüter (1824); and, above all, for his many songs.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Radegundis, Saint

Edition of 1905. See also Radegund on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
RAD'EGUN'DIS, Saint (519-87). The patron saint of Poitiers, in France. She was the daughter of Berthar, a prince of Thuringia. Having been carried as a prisoner to the country of the Franks in the twelfth year of her age by Clotaire I., King of the district whose capital was Soissons, she was educated in the Christian religion, and when she reached a mature age was induced, reluctantly, to become the wife of Clotaire. Her own wish having been to become a nun, her married life was in great measure given up to works of charity and religion. In 544, her husband having murdered her brother, she fled from the palace and retired to the monastery at Noyon. Afterwards she founded a monastery at Poitiers, in which she lived as a simple sister, but which she endowed richly, not only with money and
lands, but also with relics and other sacred objects. It was on the occasion of the translation to her church at Poitiers of a relic of the holy cross that the poet Vexantius Fortunatus composed the celebrated hymn Vexilla Regis Prodeunt.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Radde, Gustav Ferdinand Richard

Edition of 1905. See also Gustav Radde on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
RADDE, rȧd'de, Gustav Ferdinand Richard (1831-1903). A German-Russian naturalist and traveler, born at Danzig. After accompanying the Russian expedition to Southeast Siberia (1855-60) and going with Von Baer on his scientific trip through Southern Russia (1862), he founded at Tiflis the Museum of the Caucasus, of which he became director. In this capacity he traveled through Upper Armenia (1871), Northern Persia (1879), Daghestan (1885 and 1894), Khorasan (1886), and along the eastern coast of the Black Sea (1890). Among his works are: Reisen im Süden von Ostsibirien (1862-64); Vier Vorträge über den Kaukasus (1874); Die Chews'uren und ihr Land (1878); in Russian a description of his voyage with the grand dukes Alexander and Sergeis Mikhailovitch (1892); Das Ostufer des Pontus (1894); and Die Sammlungen des kaukasischen Museums (1900 et seq.).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Radeberg

Edition of 1905. See also Radeberg on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
RADEBERG, rä'de-bĕrK. A town in the Kingdom of Saxony. Germany, situated about ten miles northeast of Dresden (Map: Germany, E 3). It has glass works, paper mills, and manufactures of nails, safes, furniture, etc. Population, in 1900, 12,918.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Philippopolis

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​Philippopolis (fĭl′ĭp-pŏp′ō̇-lĭs), capital of eastern Rumelia or southern Bulgaria (q. v.), on the navigable Maritza, 110 miles from Adrianople. It manufactures silk, cotton, tobacco and leather. Population 45,707, of whom half are Bulgarians, the remainder being Turks, Greeks etc. Philippopolis was occupied by the Russians in 1878, and in 1885 a revolution broke out here which led to the incorporation of eastern Rumelia (q. v.) with Bulgaria.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Philistines

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​Philistines (fĭl-ĭs′tĭnz) (strangers), a people mentioned in the Bible as in frequent conflict with the Jews. They lived on the coast of the Mediterranean to the southwest of Judea. It has been asserted that they originated in prehistoric Crete. Their first appearance as enemies of Israel was during the period of the Judges. They were subject to five princes who ruled over Gaza, Ashdod, Askalon, Gath and Ekron. In the time of Eli they were so powerful that they even carried away the ark. Saul, the first king of Israel, was engaged in frequent conflicts with them, and both he and his sons fell in a disastrous battle against them at Gilboa. David won many victories over them, and under Solomon most of their territory was annexed, and they continued in subjection to Judah until the reign of Ahaz, three hundred years later, when they revolted and made great havoc in the territory of Judah. Hezekiah, the son and successor of Ahaz, however, subdued them and brought them to obedience, without the aid of the Egyptians. Under the later kings of Judah they appear, from the menaces of the prophets, to have brought many calamities on the Jews — if they did not recover their full independence. In the time of the Maccabees the Philistines were Syrian subjects, and in the time of Herod the Great they appear no longer to have an existence as a separate race or nation, even the name of their country being merged in that of Palestine.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Phillips, Wendell

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​Phillips, Wen′dell, the distinguished orator and abolitionist, was born of wealthy and aristocratic parentage at Boston, Mass., Nov. 29, 1811. After several years' study in the public Latin school he entered Harvard, from which he graduated in 1831. While yet in his collegiate course Phillips was noted not only for superior scholarship but for oratorical gifts and marked purity and dignity of character. In 1834, having taken a three years' course of legal study, Phillips was admitted to the bar at Boston. A little more than a year after entering upon the practice of his profession he saw the mobbing of Garrison (q. v.) at Boston, which made a deep and lasting impression and awoke serious thought upon the evils of slavery. It was in Faneuil Hall that Phillips, then only 26, delivered the first of those marvelous philippics that did so much to arouse antislavery sentiment, the occasion being a meeting to denounce the murder of Lovejoy at Alton, Ill., for advocating anti-slavery sentiments in his paper published at that place. From that time Phillips continued the faithful and unflinching opponent of slavery, raising his voice against it throughout the land and devoting his gifts and varied powers to the single purpose of its abolition and destruction. Although the matter of Phillips' speeches was nearly always fiery and impassioned, his delivery as well as his manner was invariably calm, reserved, perfectly easy and natural, giving him a power over audiences that compelled interest and attention, even when they most disagreed with him. Very appropriately was he called The Unagitated Agitator. He died at Boston on Feb. 2, 1884.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Philoctetes

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​Philoctetes (fil-ok-tē′tēz), a famous archer, the friend and armor-bearer of Hercules, who bequeathed him his bow and poisoned arrows. As one of the suitors of Helen he led seven ships against Troy; but being bitten in the foot by a snake or, according to one account, wounded by his own arrows, as his wound gave forth an unendurable stench, the Greeks left him on Lemnos, where he remained ten years. But an oracle declaring that Troy could not be taken without the aid of Philoctetes, Ulysses and Neoptolemus were sent to Lemnos to bring him to the Grecian camp, where, healed by Æsculapius or his sons, he slew Paris and otherwise assisted in the capture of Troy.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Phillips Exeter Academy

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​Phil′lips Ex′eter Academy, preparatory school in Exeter, N. H., for boys of exceptionally high standing. It was founded in 1781 by Dr. John Phillips, a wealthy and philanthropic citizen of Exeter. It was founded on a broad foundation and has been manned by men who were capable of inspiring pupils with a desire for the best in life. Few institutions even of higher learning have attracted students from a wider field. Among its matriculants in 1906—7 were students from thirty-three states, the District of Columbia, Hawaii and five foreign countries. Its growth during the last decade was marked. Attendance increased from 192 to 443, buildings from 9 to 17, instructors from 10 to 21 and the annual income from $37,000 to $150,000. It is distinctively a preparatory school. About seventy-five ​per cent. of its graduates actually go to college.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Phillipsburg, N. J.

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​Phillips′burg, N. J., a city of Warren County, on Delaware River, opposite Easton, Pa., where the river is crossed by two iron bridges. It is situated in a fine agricultural, limestone and iron-ore region. Besides extensive ironworks, a rolling-mill, boiler and machine works and a reaper and mower factory, there are a silk-mill and railroad-shops for three railroads. There are good public, parochial and business schools, several churches, municipal buildings and a public library. Population 13,903.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Philology

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​Philology (fĭ-lŏl′ō̇-gy̆). This word is derived from two Greek words, philos, a friend, and logos, a word; and like many other words it has varied greatly in its meaning. In the time of Plato it meant the love of discussion, confined mainly to the moral and social questions in which Plato delighted; and the method of discussion was the Socratic one of asking questions. At Alexandria the philologer gave attention to all the knowledge of his day, brought together for the first time in its great library; but the scholars of Alexandria applied themselves especially to the study of the older Greek literature. It widened again at the revival of learning to include the study of grammar, rhetoric, literature, poetry, archæology — in a word, all the “humane” studies. Since the middle of the 19th century the word has been used in a more restricted sense. Whereas philology formerly meant the study of literature, it is now limited to the study of languages, apart from the literature embodied in them. It is the science which deals with the origin, development and general structure of languages and of language as a whole. In its progress not only has great light been thrown on the origin of different languages; but they have been classified and grouped, and many languages which seemed to have no points of similarity have been traced to a common origin. Sir William Jones, the great oriental linguist, declared that “no philologer could examine Sanskrit, Greek and Latin without believing them to have sprung from the same source, which, perhaps, no longer exists. There is a similar reason, though not quite so forcible, for believing that both the Gothic and the Celtic had the same origin with the Sanskrit.” There are two main classes of languages: Those which show no signs of inflection — for example, those in which the plural of man is not formed by a vowel-change (as our men) nor by an added suffix (as in Latin homin-es), but by a combination of two words (as our man-kind); and second, those which are inflected in greater or less degree. This class is divided into two great families: the Semitic, comprising Hebrew Aramaic, Arabic, Syriac; the Indo-Germanic or Aryan family, the chief languages of which are Sanskrit, Armenian, Albanian, Latin, Celtic, Teutonic or Germanic and Slavonic. See Isaac Taylor's Origin of the Aryans.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Philæ

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​ Philæ (fī′lḗ), an island in the Nile, near Assuan and south of Syene in Nubia. It is situated near the first cataract, and is a small granite rock, fringed with rich verdure, about 1,200 feet long and 450 broad, almost covered with ancient buildings of great architectural beauty. The kiosk, Pharaoh's bed, a roofless hall, belongs to the Greek and Roman period, and consists of fourteen great columns with capitals of various patterns, joined at the lower part by solid walls, 63 feet long and 48 feet wide. The great temple of Isis, to whom the island was sacred, was built by the Ptolemies. It contains representations of the birth, bringing up, death and embalmment of Osiris. It was converted into a Christian church in A. D. 557. See Assuan Dam.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Phonetics

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​ Phonet′ics, the science of the sounds of the human voice. Sound is produced by the expulsion of air from the lungs through the windpipe. When this air in its passage through the throat sets the vocal cords in vibration, voice is produced. After passing through the throat the voice enters the mouth or nose or both. As a practical science, phonetics comprehends not only a knowledge of the sounds uttered in human speech, but the invention or discovery of an alphabetical symbol to represent each. The sounds are of two kinds: Fixed sounds, where the cavities of the mouth remain unchanged during the passage of the air; and glides, where these cavities are constantly changing or, in other words, where the utterance is variously modified by the tongue, palate, lips and teeth. The former sounds are called vowels, and in English are represented by the letters, a, e, i, o, u, y; the latter sounds are called consonants, that is, with-sounders, as they are sounded with the vowels, but not alone. The great variations in spelling and pronouncing English have long been a source of perplexity to foreigners learning our language, and have caused many “phonetic reformers” to arise, with plans for producing uniformity; but none of these has ever been adopted, except in the case of a few words. Perhaps the reason of this is that, however “irregular” may be the spelling of so many words, yet the forms in which they are written have become as firmly fixed in our mental habit as are the sounds they represent and the ideas conveyed by those sounds; hence we can never consent to any changes, except those that are gradual and proceed as by a growth. Another difficulty in the phonetic reform would be that, even if it were possible to devise a fixed alphabetical symbol for every sound or combination of sounds, to which all good writers would conform, the pronunciation of words would at once begin to vary and in time our spelling and pronunciation might be as “irregular” as now.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Phœnixville, Pa.

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​ Phœnixville, Pa., a borough in Chester County, at the confluence of Schuylkill River and French Creek, 23 miles from Philadelphia. It manufactures silk, cotton goods, hosiery and matches, but of greatest importance is its iron industry. It contains rolling-mills, blast-furnaces, bridge-works and iron-mills, including one of the largest plants in the country. Phœnixville has good schools, a public library, a park and a hospital. The waterworks are owned and operated by the borough, and it has the service of two railroads. Population 10,743.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Piedmont

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​Pied'mont, the northwest of Italy, comprising the modern provinces of Turin, Alessandria, Cuneo and Novara. Area, 11,336 square miles; population 3,423,854. Much of its land is reclaimed by irrigation and made highly productive. The system of irrigation is well-nigh perfect. It is watered by the upper Po. The country is rich in Waldensian memories.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Piedmont Region, The

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​Piedmont Region, The, is a part of the Atlantic coastal plain of the United States, lying further inland than the low and level area nearest the ocean, but continuous with it. There is a real geographical difference between the Piedmont region and the coastal plain proper, for the former is higher, more rugged and geologically older and based upon harder strata of rock. There is a falls' line between the Piedmont region and the coastal plain proper, where most of the coastal rivers, in leaving the harder for the softer strata of rock, have worn a series of rapids and precipitous falls. The Piedmont region in the south is from two to three hundred miles broad; but in the north, especially in New York, very narrow.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Piero dei Franchesi

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​Piero dei Franchesi. See Francesca, Piero della.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Phœbus

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​ Phœ′bus (“the bright”), an epithet and afterwards a name of Apollo. It had reference to the youthful beauty of the god and to the radiance of the sun, when, at a later period, Apollo became identified with Helios the sun-god.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Phœnix

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​ Phœ′nix, the name of a mythical Egyptian bird, which is said to have burned itself, when a new phœnix arose out of its ashes.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Phœnix, Ariz.

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​ Phœnix, Ariz., a city, the county-seat of Maricopa County and the capital of the territory; situated on the Santa Fé, Prescott and Phœnix and Maricopa and Phœnix railroads, in the south-central part of the territory. It was settled in 1870 and incorporated in 1881. It is in a mining ​region with good farm-land in the valleys, in which are extensive olive-groves, and controls a large trade in live-stock, grain, hay, honey, wines, oranges and other fruits. The chief industrial interests are the stockyards, machine-shops and jobbing houses. Among the public buildings are the capitol, agricultural experiment-station, insane asylum, court-house, city-hall, churches and schools. It is provided with good schools, both public and private. An Indian school here deserves special mention. It has more than 400 students, and, besides its regular course of instruction, has departments that teach manual training. Government is vested in a mayor, who holds office for two years, and a council. Population 11,134.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Pierce, Franklin

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* FRANKLIN PIERCE
Pierce, Franklin, fourteenth president of the United States, was born in New Hampshire, Nov. 23, 1804. He early came into political prominence in his native state. In 1837 he was elected to the United States senate, of which he was the youngest member. In 1842 he resigned his seat. He was a Democrat of the Jacksonian school and a zealous advocate for the admission of Texas, with or without slavery. He volunteered as a private in the Mexican War, but President Polk made him a brigadier-general. In 1852 he received the Democratic nomination for the presidency and obtained the electoral votes of all the states, save Vermont, Massachusetts, Tennessee and Kentucky. During his administration the Missouri Compromise was repealed by the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska bill. At the close of his administration he spent three years in Europe; returned home to Concord; but took no part in politics. He died at Concord, N. H., Oct. 8, 1869.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Pierre, So. Dak.

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​Pierre, So. Dak., the capital of the state and county-seat of Hughes County, is situated near the site of old Port Pierre, about the center of South Dakota. The fort was founded in 1829, and was named after one of its early fur traders. It has good public schools, Pierre University (Presbyterian) and a governmental, Indian industrial school. Pierre is on the Missouri River and has the service of the Chicago and Northwestern Railroad. Population 3,656.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Amesbury, Mass.

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Amesbury (āmz' bĕr-ĭ), Mass., a town in Essex County, on the Merrimac River, 27 miles from Salem and 45 from Boston. It has manufactories of cotton and woolen goods, machinery, carriages, boots and shoes, hats, etc. From 1836 it was for many years the residence of the poet Whittier. Population, 9,849.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Amethyst

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Am'ethyst (ăm' ē-thĭst), a purple variety of rock crystal or quartz. Its name comes from the Greek, meaning "to prevent intoxication," and was given it because of the idea held by the ancients that liquor drunk from a cup made of amethyst would not intoxicate. It is found in Brazil, Ceylon, India and many other places, and is much worn in the form of rings, seals, etc. The oriental amethyst is a variety of the sapphire.
# The New Student's Reference Work/American Institution

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American Institution, an institution founded at Washington, D. C., in 1891, with the design of providing advanced instruction for graduates of other colleges, and subsequently placed under the auspices of the Methodist Episcopal Church, with John F, Hurst, D. D., LL. D., as its first chancellor. Its working organization is as yet hardly planned out, though its purposed scope is large and important as a post graduate university and of coeducational character.
# The New Student's Reference Work/American School at Athens, The

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American School at Athens, The. The American School of Classical Literature, Art and Antiquities, in Athens, was founded in 1881 at the suggestion of Professor Charles Eliot Norton. It is supported partly by endowment and partly by contributions from American colleges and universities. It affords opportunities for advanced study of ancient Greek civilization, and carries on archæological investigations. It has made important excavations in Argos, Crete and other places. The results of the studies and excavations are reported in the American Journal of Archæology..
# The New Student's Reference Work/Ames, Fisher

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Ames (āmz), Fisher (born 1758, died 1808), an American orator, statesman and political writer. He graduated at Harvard College at the age of 16, and after a few years entered the law. At the same time his essays in the Boston newspapers under the names "Camillus" and "Brutus," made him well known. He was a member of the Massachusetts convention which ratified the Constitution in 1788, and was the first representative in Congress from his district, which then included Boston. He was especially famous for his energy and eloquence in debate.
# The New Student's Reference Work/American Literature

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American Literature. See Literature.
# The New Student's Reference Work/American School in Rome

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American School in Rome. This school was founded in 1895 by the Archæological Institute of America, and is supported by a number of American colleges and universities and by private gifts. In 1906, it had an endowment fund of nearly $100,000. The school is under the immediate superintendence of a resident professor, the director, who is assisted by a faculty of four specialists. The object of the school is "to promote the study of classical literature in its bearing upon antiquities and history; of classical, Etruscan and Italic art and archæology, including topography, palæography and epigraphy; and of the art and archæology of the early Christian, the mediæval, and the renaissance periods within the boundaries of Italy." The school year extends from October to July. Part of this time is usually spent in study in Greece.