OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Salandra, Antonio

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​SALANDRA, ANTONIO (1853–), Italian statesman, was born at Troia in 1853. He first entered parliament as member for Lucera and from the beginning of his political career he sympathized with the views of Baron Sonnino. When the latter became Treasury Minister in the Crispi Cabinet of 1893, Salandra was chosen under-secretary in that department. He was Minister of Finance in the first Sonnino Cabinet of 1906 and Treasury Minister in the second (1909–10). When in March 1914 Sig. Giolitti resigned, Sig. Salandra was called upon to form the new Cabinet, and he was Premier when the World War broke out in Aug. following. On the death of the Marquis di San Giuliano in Oct. he offered the Foreign Office to his former chief, Baron Sonnino, who accepted it. It was the Salandra Cabinet which took the momentous decision of bringing Italy into the World War on the side of the Allies, and it conducted the Government of the country during the first months of the campaign more successfully than any of the succeeding war Cabinets. On resigning office in June 1916, he continued to support both the Boselli and the Orlando Cabinets. As professor of Constitutional Law in the university of Naples he published several important works on legal subjects, and translated Spencer's Principles of Sociology.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sarrail, Maurice Paul Emmanuel

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SARRAIL, MAURICE PAUL EMMANUEL (1856-), French General, was born at Carcassonne (Aude) April 6 1856. He qualified for both St. Cyr, and the École Polytechnique but chose to enter the former. He passed out Oct. 1 1877 with the distinction of third place and was posted as a sub-lieutenant to the infantry. His regimental service and promotion followed the normal course; he became lieutenant Oct. 1882, captain in 1887, and chef-de-bataillon in 1897. In 1901 he was appointed Commandant of the École Militaire d'Infanterie (St. Maixent), and the following year was promoted lieutenant-colonel. From 1904 to 1906 he held the appointment of Military Commandant of the Palais Bourbon, being made colonel in 1905. In 1907 he became Director of Infantry at the War Office—an appointment which he held 4 years. He was made general-of-brigade in 1908. Three years later he was promoted general-of-division and on Nov. 1 1913 was given command of the VIII. Army Corps, being later (April 24 1914) transferred to the VI. Corps, which he commanded on the outbreak of the World War. But though General Sarrail's military capacity was recognized prior to 1914 it was principally by his semi-political activities that he was best known; and as a member of General André's military cabinet he played a conspicuous part during a very troubled period of French army history. On Sept. 2 1914, after commanding the VI. Corps with credit in the Battle of the Frontiers, he was appointed to succeed Ruffey as commander of the III. Army. This army formed the pivot of the wheel-back of the Allied forces during the retreat to the Marne, and Sarrail maintained it as such on the N.W. front of Verdun, although authorized and indeed ordered to fall back. This left him in an exposed position, but one in which the swinging-in enemy himself might present a flank to Sarrail's attack. His part in bringing about the situation which enabled Joffre to counter-attack was thus as important and as brilliant as Gallieni's on the other flank. During the trench-warfare operations of 1914-15, however, he was less successful, as he was essentially a leader of temperament, and growing friction with Joffre led to his dismissal from this command after the action of Bourdeilles. Almost immediately thereafter, under circumstances described in the article Salonika Campaigns, Sarrail was appointed Commander of the French Army of the East, and at a later date he became commander-in-chief of the Allied forces on that front. The troubled history
of this command, which lasted till his recall in Dec. 1917, is told in the article referred to. After his return to France he saw no further active service. In April 1918 he was placed on the reserve on reaching the age limit. He became a Grand Officer of the Legion of Honour in Nov. 1914 and was awarded a Grand Cross of the same Order in Jan. 1916. He was given the Médaille Militaire in Sept. 1917. Soon after the end of the war he published his account of the Salonika operations under the title Mon Commandement en Orient.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Santayana, George

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SANTAYANA, GEORGE (1863-), American philosopher and writer, was born in Madrid, Spain, Dec. 16 1863. At the age of nine he came to America and was educated at Harvard (A.B. 1886; Ph.D. 1889), where he taught from 1889 to 1912 as instructor, assistant professor, and, after 1907, as professor of philosophy. He then retired to devote his time to literary work. In 1905 he was Hyde Lecturer at the Sorbonne. He was a member of the National Institute of Arts and Letters. His chief work is The Life of Reason: or the Phases of Human Progress (1905-6), 5 vols., entitled respectively Reason in Common Sense; Reason in Society; Reason in Religion; Reason in Art and Reason in Science. His other writings include: Sonnets and Other Verses (1894); Lucifer, a Theological Tragedy (1899); Three Philosophical Poets (1910); Winds of Doctrine; Studies in Contemporary Opinion (1913); Egotism in German Philosophy (1916) and Character and Opinion in the United States; with Reminiscences of William James and Josiah Royce, and Academic Life in America (1920).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Whiting (fish)

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​WHITING, a city of Lake county, Indiana, U.S.A., on the S.W. shore of Lake Michigan, about 10 m. S.E. of Chicago. Pop. (1890) 1408; (1900) 3983 (1397 foreign-born); (1910) 6587. It is served by the Baltimore & Ohio, the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, the Pennsylvania, the Chicago, Indiana & Southern and (for freight only) the Elgin, Joliet & Eastern, the Chicago Terminal Transfer, and the Indiana Harbour Belt railways; and is connected with Chicago and with the surrounding towns by an electric line. The city has a Carnegie library and a public park. Manual training, from the fourth to the twelfth grades, is a feature of the public school system. Whiting adjoins the cities of Hammond and East Chicago, and is practically a part of industrial Chicago, from which it is separated only by a state line. It is a shipping point; the Standard Oil Company has a large refinery here, and among its manufactures are asphaltum for street paving, linoleum and men's garments. Whiting was first settled about 1870, was incorporated as a town in 1895, and chartered as a city in 1903.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Whitlow

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​WHITLOW, a name applied loosely to any inflammation involving the pulp of the finger, attended by swelling and throbbing pain. In the simplest form, which is apt to occur in sickly children, the inflammation results in a whitish vesicle of the skin, containing watery or bloody fluid. In all such cases, where the deeper structures are not implicated, no radical local treatment is needed, although the indication for constitutional treatment. The inflammation is not usually spoken of as whitlow unless it involves the deeper structures of the last joint of the finger, in which case it is associated with intense pain. As the result of a scratch or prick of the finger septic germs enter the skin and give rise to an acute inflammation, with throbbing and bursting pain. If the germs do not spread from that spot, they set up an acute localized attack of erysipelas which may end in a superficial abscess. More often, however, they make their way to the periosteum of the last bone of the finger, and involve it in a devastating inflammation which may end in death (necrosis) of the bone. Sometimes the germs find their way into the tendon-sheath, and, spreading into the palm of the hand, cause a deep abscess with, perhaps, sloughing of the tendon, and leaving a permanently stiffened finger. In some cases amputation of the finger is eventually called for. Whitlow is especially apt to occur in people who are out of health, as in them the micro-organisms of the disease meet with less resistance. So soon, therefore, as the acute stage of the disease is over, tonic treatment, with quinine and iron, is needed. The local treatment of whitlow demands a free incision into the area in which the germs are undergoing cultivation, and the sooner that this is done the better. It is wrong to wait for an abscess to be formed. A prompt incision may actually prevent the formation of abscess, and the easing of the tension of the inflamed tissue by the incision gives immediate relief. Perhaps, even in the early stage of the disease, a bead or two of pus may find exit, but whether there is abscess or not, the depths of the wound should be swabbed out with some strong carbolic or mercuric lotion in order to destroy the germs. The hand should then be placed upon a splint with antiseptic fomentations around the finger. It should, moreover, be kept well raised, or worn in a sling.  (E. O.*)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Whiteside, James

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​WHITESIDE, JAMES (1804-1876), Irish judge, son of William Whiteside, a clergyman of the Church of Ireland, was born on the 12th of August 1804, and was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, being called to the Irish bar in 1830. He very rapidly acquired a large practice, and after taking silk in 1842 he gained a reputation for forensic oratory surpassing that of all his contemporaries, and rivalling that of his most famous predecessors of the 18th century. He defended Daniel O'Connell in the state trial of 1843, and William Smith O'Brien in 1848; and his greatest triumph was in the Yelverton case in 1861. He was elected member for Enniskillen in 1851, and in 1859 became member for Dublin University. In parliament he was no less successful as a speaker than at the bar, and in 1852 was appointed solicitor-general for Ireland in the first administration of the earl of Derby, becoming attorney-general in 1858, and again in 1866. In the same year he was appointed chief justice of the Queen's Bench; and he died on the 25th of November 1876. Whiteside was a man of handsome presence, attractive personality and cultivated tastes. In 1848, after a visit to Italy, he published Italy in the Nineteenth Century; and in 1870 he collected and republished some papers contributed many years before to periodicals, under the title Early Sketches of Eminent Persons. In 1833 Whiteside married Rosetta, daughter of ​William Napier, and sister of Sir Joseph Napier (1804-1882), lord chancellor of Ireland.
See J. R. O'Flanagan, The Irish Bar (London, 1879).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Whiting (Indiana)

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​WHITING, a city of Lake county, Indiana, U.S.A., on the S.W. shore of Lake Michigan, about 10 m. S.E. of Chicago. Pop. (1890) 1408; (1900) 3983 (1397 foreign-born); (1910) 6587. It is served by the Baltimore & Ohio, the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, the Pennsylvania, the Chicago, Indiana & Southern and (for freight only) the Elgin, Joliet & Eastern, the Chicago Terminal Transfer, and the Indiana Harbour Belt railways; and is connected with Chicago and with the surrounding towns by an electric line. The city has a Carnegie library and a public park. Manual training, from the fourth to the twelfth grades, is a feature of the public school system. Whiting adjoins the cities of Hammond and East Chicago, and is practically a part of industrial Chicago, from which it is separated only by a state line. It is a shipping point; the Standard Oil Company has a large refinery here, and among its manufactures are asphaltum for street paving, linoleum and men's garments. Whiting was first settled about 1870, was incorporated as a town in 1895, and chartered as a city in 1903.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Whitfield, John Clarke

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​WHITFIELD, JOHN CLARKE (1770-1836), English organist and composer, was born at Gloucester on the 13th of December 1770, and educated at Oxford under Dr Philip Hayes. In 1789 he was appointed organist of the parish church at Ludlow. Four years later he took the degree of Mus. Bac. at Cambridge, and in 1795 he was chosen organist of Armagh cathedral, whence he removed in the same year to Dublin, with the appointments of organist and master of the children at St Patrick's cathedral and Christchurch. Driven from Ireland by the rebellion of 1798, he accepted the post of organist at Trinity and St John's Colleges, Cambridge, and about the same time assumed the surname of Whitfield, in addition to that of Clarke, by which he had been previously known. He took the degree of Mus. Doc. at Cambridge in 1799, and in 1810 proceeded to the same grade at Oxford. In 1520 he was elected organist and master of the choristers at Hereford cathedral; and on the death of Dr Haig he was appointed professor of music at Cambridge. Three years afterwards he resigned these appointments in consequence of an attack of paralysis, He died at Hereford, on the 22nd of February 1836.
Whitfield's compositions were very numerous. Among the best of them are four volumes of anthems, published in 1805. He also composed a great number of songs, one of which—“Bird of the Wilderness,” written to some well-known verses by James Hogg, the “Ettrick Shepherd”—attained a high degree of popularity. But the great work of his life was the publication, in a popular and eminently useful form, of the oratorios of Handel, which he was the first to present to the public with a complete pianoforte accompaniment.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Whithorn

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​WHITHORN, a royal burgh of Wigtownshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 1118. It is situated near the southern extremity of the peninsula of Machers, 12¼ m. S. of Wigtown by railway. The town consists of one long street running north and south, in which the town-hall is situated. It is famous for its associations with St Ninian or Ringan, the first Christian missionary to Scotland. He landed at the Isle of Whithorn, a small promontory about 3½ m. to the S.E. where he built (397) a church of stone and lime, which, out of contrast with the dark mud and wattle huts of the natives, was called Candida Casa, the White House (Anglo-Saxon, Hwit œrn, Whitherne or Whithorn). This he dedicated to his master St Martin of Tours. Ninian died probably in 432 and was buried in the church. A hundred years later the Magnum Monasterium, or monastery of Rosnat, was founded at Whithorn, and became a noted home of learning and, in the 8th century, the seat of the bishopric of Galloway. It was succeeded in the 12th century by St Ninian's Priory, built for Premonstratensian monks by Fergus " King " of Galloway, of which only the chancel (used as the parish church till 1822) with a richly decorated late Norman doorway, and fragments of the lady chapel, vaults, cellars, buttresses and tombs remain. The priory church was the cathedral church of the see till the Reformation, when it fell into gradual decay. In Roman times Whithorn belonged to the Novantae, and William Camden, the antiquary, identified it with the Leukopibia of Ptolemy. It was made a royal burgh by Robert Bruce.
# A Chinese Biographical Dictionary/Fu Têng

​602 Fu Têng 苻登 (T. 文高). A.D. 344-395. Fifth sovereign of the rebel dynasty known as the Earlier Ch'n, founded by Fu Chien (1) in A.D. 351. A descendant of Fa Chien (2) in the second generation, he was for a time Governor of Ch'ang-an in Shensi, but was ultimately banished to the frontier. When the government of the Chin dynasty fell into confusion, he joined 毛興 Mao Hsing who appointed him his Minister of War and his successor. On the death of Fu P'ei in 386, he assumed the Imperial title. Nine years later he was defeated and slain by Yao Hsing. Canonised by his son Fu Ch'ung as 高皇帝.
# A Chinese Biographical Dictionary/Fêng Fu

​564 Fêng Fu 馮溥 (T. 孔博 and 易齋). A.D. 1608-1691. Graduated as chin shih in 1646, and soon rose to be Vice President of the Board of Civil Office. In 1667 he established an orphanage at Peking, the pattern for many such institutions throughout China. Transferred to the Censorate, he boldly showed up the misgovernment of the Regent Ao-pai and also various abuses in civil and military and judicial administration. In 1670 he became President of the Board of Punishments, and next year a Grand Secretary. He then occupied himself in choosing at a special examination 50 sound scholars, all of whom proved satisfactory officials. At a banquet in 1682, the Emperor, as a mark of favour, personally handed him a goblet of wine, which made him so drunk that he had to be assisted home. Canonised as 文毅.
# A Chinese Biographical Dictionary/Fêng Hou (馮后)

​566 Fêng Hou 馮后. 1st cent. B.C. A lady in the seraglio of the Emperor Yüan Ti of the Han dynasty. On one occasion, when his Majesty was looking at some wild animals, a bear escaped from its cage. All the other ladies fled, shrieking; but Fêng Hou remained, and boldly faced the bear. "I was afraid," she explained to the Emperor, "lest some harm should come to your Majesty's person."
# A Chinese Biographical Dictionary/Fêng I (馮夷)

​568 Fêng I 馮夷. A son of the mythical Hsien Yüan. After death, he became the 水神 God of Water.
# A Chinese Biographical Dictionary/Fu Yao-yü

​603 Fu Yao-yü 傅堯俞 (T. 欽之). A.D. 1024-1091. An upright official of the Sung dynasty, and a vigorous opponent of the reforms of Wang An-shih, for which opposition he was banished to act as a superintendent of pastures. At his death, the Empress said, “Truly he was a perfect man, as it were of gold or jade!”
# A Chinese Biographical Dictionary/Fu Yüeh

​604 Fu Yüeh 傅說. A famous Minister under the Emperor Wu Ting of the Yin dynasty, who reigned B.C. 1324 — 1265. He was originally a poor man, and being unable to subscribe towards the repair of certain roads, worked upon them himself. Just then the Emperor dreamt that God sent him an able Minister; and on seeking for the man according to the features seen in the dream, Fu Yüeh was discovered in a workshed and forthwith received the appointment. At his death he became the constellation known as the 箕 Sieve, which forms a part of Sagittarius.
# A Chinese Biographical Dictionary/Fêng Hou (風后)

​565 Fêng Hou 風后. One of the Six Ministers of the Yellow Emperor, B.C. 2698. His functions appear to have been astronomical and astrological; in addition to which he is said to have assisted in subduing the great rebel Ch'ih Yu.
# A Chinese Biographical Dictionary/Fêng I (馮異)

​567 Fêng I 馮異 (T. 公孫). Died A.D. 34. A native of 父城 Fu-ch'êng in Anhui. He was holding that town for Wang Mang when Liu Hsiu passed with his army, and immediately threw open its gates and attached himself finally to the fortunes of the future Emperor. He served his new master with the greatest fidelity, providing him with food when provisions were absolutely ​unobtainable, and even gathering fuel for a fire to dry his clothes when drenched after a day's march in the rain. For his services in various campaigns he was loaded with honours; yet such was his modesty that when the other generals were discussing their deeds of arms around the camp fire, he would withdraw to solitude under some tall tree. Hence he gained the sobriquet of the 大樹將君 Big-tree Commander. In A.D. 25 Liu Hsiu mounted the throne as Emperor, and in the following year Fêng I was ennobled as Marquis. He was subsequently employed in various military enterprises. Among other achievements, he succeeded in putting down the rebellion of the Red Eyebrows (see Fan Ch'ung). Being summoned to Court, the Emperor introduced him to the other nobles and high officers as "the man who was once my book-keeper and carried firewood on his back for me." He died in camp, and was canonised as 節.
# A Chinese Biographical Dictionary/Fêng Kuo-hsiang

​569 Fêng Kuo-hsiang 馮國相. Died A.D. 1718. A Chinese Bannerman, who aided in repressing the rebellion of Wu San-kuei and commanded the artillery in the expedition against Galdan. He was included in the Temple of Worthies, and canonised as 桓僖.
# A Chinese Biographical Dictionary/Fêng Min-ch'ang

​570 Fêng Min-ch'ang 馮敏昌 (T. 魚山). A.D. 1747—1806. A poet and calligraphist.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Zenján

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​ZENJÁN, or Zanjan, a town of Persia, capital of the Khamseh province, about 205 m. N.W. of Teheran, on the high road thence to Tabriz, at an elevation of 5180 ft. It has a population of about 25,000 and post and telegraph offices, and was one of the original strongholds of the Bábí sectarians, who held it against a large Persian force from May 1850 to the end of the year, when most of them were massacred. It has extensive gardens, well watered by the Zanjaneh river, which flows south of it. The well-stocked bazaar supplies the neighbouring districts.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Zengg

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​ZENGG (Hungarlan, Zeng; Croatian, Senj; Italian, Segna), a royal free town of Hungary, in the county of Lika-Krbava, Croatia-Slavonia, 34 m. S.E. of Fiume, on the Adriatic Sea. Pop. (1900) 3182. Zengg lies at the entrance to a long cleft among the Velebit Mountains, down which the bora, or N.N.E. wind, sweeps with such violence as often to render the harbour unsafe, although the Austrian Lloyd steamers call regularly. Apart from the cathedral of its Roman Catholic bishop, a gymnasium, and some ancient fortifications, the town contains little of interest. It carries on a small trade in tobacco, fish and salt. The island of Veglia faces the town and the port of San Giorgio lies 5 m. S.
The captaincy of Zengg was established, in the 15th century, by King Matthias Corvinus of Hungary, as a check upon the Turks; and subsequently, until 1617, the town became famous as the stronghold of the Uskoks.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Zenith

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​ZENITH (from the Arabic), the point directly overhead; its direction is defined by that of the plumb-line.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Zeno of Tarsus

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​ZENO OF TARSUS, Stoic philosopher and pupil of Chrysippus, belonged to the period of the Middle Stoa. He appears to have accepted all the Stoic doctrines except that he denied the final conflagration of the universe (see Stoics).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Zenobius

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​ZENOBIUS, a Greek sophist, who taught rhetoric at Rome during the reign of Hadrian (A.D. 117-138). He was the author of a collection of proverbs in three books, still extant in an abridged form, compiled, according to Suidas, from Didymus of Alexandria and “The Tarrhaean” (Lucillus of Tarrha in Crete). Zenobius is also said to have been the author of a Greek translation of Sallust and of a birthday poem (γενεθλιακόν) on Hadrian.
Editions by T. Gaisford (1836) and E. L. Leutsch-F . W. Schneidewin (1839), and in B. E. Miller, Milanges de literature grecque (1868); see also W. Christ, Griechische Litteraturgeschichte (1898).