OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Saldern, Friedrich Christoph von

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​SALDERN, FRIEDRICH CHRISTOPH VON (1719–1785), Prussian soldier and military writer, entered the army in 1735, and (on account of his great stature) was transferred to the Guards in 1739. As one of Frederick’s aides-de-camp he was the first to discover the approach of Neipperg’s Austrians at Mollwitz. He commanded a guard battalion at Leuthen, again distinguished himself at Hochkirch and was promoted major-general. In 1760 at Liegnitz Frederick gave him four hours in which to collect, arrange and despatch the spoils of the battle, 6000 prisoners, 100 wagons, 82 guns and 5000 muskets. His complete success made him a marked man even in Frederick’s army. At Torgau, Saldern and Möllendorf (q.v.) with their brigades converted a lost battle into a great victory by their desperate assault on the Siptitz Heights. The manoeuvring skill, as well as the iron resolution, of the attack, has excited the wonder of modern critics, and after Torgau Saldern was accounted the “completest general of infantry alive” (Carlyle). In the following winter, however, being ordered by Frederick to sack Hubertusburg, Saldern refused on the ground of conscience. Nothing was left for him but to retire, but Frederick was well aware that he needed Saldern's experience and organizing ability, and after the peace the general was at once made inspector of the troops at Magdeburg. In 1766 he became lieutenant-general. The remainder of his life was spent in the study of military sciences in which he became a pedant of the most pronounced type. In one of his works he discussed at great length the question between 76 and 75 paces to the minute as the proper cadence of infantry. There can be no question that “Saldern-tactics” were the most extreme form of pedantry to which troops were ever subjected, and contributed powerfully to the disaster of Jena in 1806. His works included Taktik der Infanterie (Dresden, 1784) and Taktische Grundsätze (Dresden, 1786), and were the basis of the British “Dundas” drill-book. See Küster, Charakterzüge des Generalleutenants von Saldern (Berlin, 1792).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Simpson, Sir James Young

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​SIMPSON, SIR JAMES YOUNG (1811–1870), Scottish physician, was born at Bathgate, Linlithgow, Scotland, on the 7th of June 1811. His father was a baker in that town, and James was the youngest of a family of seven. At the age of fourteen he entered the university of Edinburgh as a student in the arts classes. Two years later he began his medical studies. At the age of nineteen he obtained the licence of the College of Surgeons, and two years afterwards took the degree of doctor of medicine. Dr John Thomson (1765–1846), who then occupied the chair of pathology in the university, impressed with Simpson’s graduation thesis, “On Death from Inflammation,” offered him his assistantship. The offer was accepted, and during the session 1837–1838 he acted as interim lecturer on pathology during the illness of the professor. The following winter he delivered his first course of lectures on obstetric medicine in the extra-academical school. In February 1840 he was elected to the professorship of medicine and midwifery in the university. Towards the end of 1846 he was present at an operation per- formed by Robert Liston on a patient rendered unconscious by the inhalation of sulphuric ether. The success of the proceeding was so marked that Simpson immediately began to use it in midwifery practice. He continued, however, to search for other substances having similar effects, and in March 1847 he read a paper on chloroform to the Medico-Chirurgical Society of Edinburgh, in which he fully detailed the history of the use of anaesthetics from the earliest times, but especially dwelt upon the advantages of chloroform over ether. He advocated its use, not only for the prevention of pain in surgical operations, but also for the relief of pain in obstetrical practice, and his uncompromising advocacy of its use in the latter class of cases gave rise to one of the angriest and most widespread controversies of the time. In 1847 he was appointed a physician to the queen in Scotland. In 1859 he advocated the use of acupressure in place of ligatures for arresting the bleeding of cut arteries, but of more importance were his improvements in the methods of gynaecological diagnosis and obstetrics. His contributions to the literature of his profession were very numerous, embracing Obstetric Memoirs and Contributions (2 vols.), Homoeopathy, Acupressure, Selected Obstetrical Works, Anaesthesia and Hospitalism and Clinical Lectures on the Diseases of Women. He also took an active interest in archaeology, and two volumes of his Archaeological Essays, edited by Dr J. Stuart, were published at Edinburgh in 1873. Simpson, who had been created a baronet in 1866, died in Edinburgh on the 6th of May 1870, and was accorded a public funeral; his statue in bronze now stands in West Princes Street Gardens, Edinburgh.
See John Duns, Memoir of J. Y. Simpson (1873); E. B. Simpson, Sir James Simpson (1896) ; and H. L. Gordon, Sir J. Y. Simpson and Chloroform (1897).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Simplicius (philosopher)

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​SIMPLICIUS, a native of Cilicia, a disciple of Ammonius and of Damascius, was one of the last of the Neoplatonists. When, ​in A.D. 529, the school of philosophy at Athens was disendowed and the teaching of philosophy forbidden, the scholars Damascius, Simplicius, Priscianus and four others resolved in 531 or 532 to seek the protection of Chosroes, king of Persia, but, though they received a hearty welcome, they found themselves unable to endure a continued residence amongst barbarians. Before two years had elapsed they returned to. Greece, Chosroes, in his treaty of peace concluded with Justinian in 533, expressly stipulating that the seven philosophers should be allowed “to return to their own homes, and to live henceforward in the enjoyment of liberty of conscience” (Agathias ii. 30, 31). After his return from Persia Simplicius wrote commentaries upon Aristotle's De coelo, Physica, De anima and Categoriae, which, with a commentary upon the Enchiridion of Epictetus, have survived. Simplicius is not an original thinker, but his remarks are thoughtful and intelligent and his learning is prodigious. To the student of Greek philosophy his commentaries are invaluable, as they contain many fragments of the older philosophers as well as of his immediate predecessors. (See Neoplatonism.)
See J. A. Fabricius, Bibliotheca Graeca, ix. 529 seq., who praises very highly Simplicius’s commentary on the Enchiridion; Ch. A. Brandis’s article in Smith’s Dict. of Greek and Roman Biography; E. Zeller, D. Phil. d. Gr. III. ii. 851 seq., also Ch. A. Brandis, “Über d. griech. Ausleger d. ristot. Organons,” in Abh. Berl. Akad. (1833); C. G. Zumpt, “Über d. Bestand d. phil. Schulen in Athen,” ibid. (1842); Chaignet, Histoire de la psychologie des Grecs, v. 357; Zahlfleisch, Die Polemik des S.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Simplon Pass

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​SIMPLON PASS, a pass over the Alps. Not known early save as a purely local route, the Simplon Pass rose into importance when Napoleon caused the carriage road to be built across it between 1800 and 1807, though it suffered a new eclipse on the opening of the Mont Cenis (1871) and St Gotthard railways (1882). The Simplon tunnel was opened in 1906. The pass proper starts from Brieg (Swiss canton of the Valais), which is in the upper Rhone valley and 901/2 m. by rail from Lausanne, past St Maurice and Sion. From Brieg it is about 14 m. up to the pass (6592 ft.), close to which is the hospice (first mentioned in 1235) in the charge of Austin Canons from the Great St Bernard. The road descends past the Swiss village of Simplon, and passes through the wonderful rock defile of Gondo before entering Italy at Iselle (28 m. from Brieg). Here the road joins the railway line through the tunnel, which is 12; m. in length, and 2313 ft. high, being thus both the longest and the lowest tunnel through the Alps. From Iselle it is about 1 1 m. by rail to Domo d'Ossola, whence the Toce or Tosa valley is followed to the Lago Maggiore (23 m.). The new line runs along the W. shore of the Lago Maggiore past Baveno, Stresa and Arona, and so on to Milan. (W. A. B. C.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Simoom

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​SIMOOM, or Samum, the name usually given in Algeria, Syria and Arabia to dust and sand-laden desert winds of the sirocco type. See Sirocco and Khamsin.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Simplicius (pope)

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​SIMPLICIUS, pope from 468 to 483. During his pontificate the Western Empire was overthrown, and Italy passed into the hands of the barbarian king Odoacer. In the East, the usurpation of Basiliscus (475-476), who supported the monophysites, gave rise to many ecclesiastical troubles, which were a source of grave anxiety to the pope. The emperor Zeno, who had procured the banishment of Basiliscus, endeavoured to compound with the monophysite party; and the bishop of Constantinople, who had previously fought on the pope's side for the council of Chalcedon, abandoned Simplicius and subscribed to the henoticon, the conciliatory document promulgated in 482 by the emperor. Simplicius died on the 2nd of March 483, but without settling the monophysite question.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Simpson, Matthew

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​SIMPSON, MATTHEW (1811–1884), American bishop of the Methodist Episcopal Church, was born in Cadiz, Ohio, on the 21st of June 1811. He studied medicine in 1830–1833 and began to practise, and in 1833 was licensed as a preacher of the Methodist Episcopal Church. He was pastor of the Liberty Street Church of Pittsburg in 1835, and of a church at Williamsport (now Monongahela) in 1836. In 1837 he was ordained elder and was appointed professor of natural science in Allegheny College, Meadville, in which Madison College had been merged in 1833; and in 1838 he was elected professor and immediately afterwards president of the newly established Indiana Asbury (now De Pauw) University, Greencastle, Indiana, to which he went in 1839; this position he held until 1848. He was editor of the Western Christian Advocate, which he made a strong temperance and anti-slavery organ, from 1848 to 1852. He was elected a bishop in May 1852, and in 1857, with Dr McClintock, visited Great Britain as a delegate to the British Wesleyan Conference, and travelled in the Holy Land. He was an intimate and trusted friend of President Lincoln, who considered his advice of great value, and at whose grave in Springfield he spoke the last words. He addressed the Garfield Memorial Meeting at Exeter Hall, London, on the 24th of September 1881. He died on the 18th of June 1884 in Philadelphia.
He published A Hundred Years of Methodism (1876) ; a Cydopedia of Methodism (1878); Lectures on Preaching (1879), delivered before the Theological Department of Yale College ; and a volume of his Sermons (1885) was edited by George R. Crooks, whose Life of Bishop Matthew Simpson (New York, 1890) should be consulted.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Simonides of Amorgos

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​Simonides (or Semonides) of Amorgos, Greek iambic poet, flourished in the middle of the 7th century B.C. He was a native of Samos, and derived his surname from having founded a colony in the neighbouring island of Amorgos. According to Suidas, besides two books of iambics, he wrote elegies, one of them a poem on the early history of the Samians. The elegy included in the fragments (85) of Simonides of Ceos is more probably by Simonides of Amorgos. We possess about thirty fragments of his iambic poems, written in clear and vigorous Ionic, with much force and no little harmony of versification. With Simonides, as with Archilochus, the iambic is still the vehicle of bitter satire, interchanging with melancholy, but in Simonides the satire is rather general than individual. His “Pedigree of Women” may have been suggested by the beast fable, as we find it in Hesiod and Archilochus, and as it recurs a century later in Phocylides; it is clear at least that Simonides knew the works of the former. Simonides derives the dirty woman from a hog, the cunning from a fox, the fussy from a dog, the apathetic from earth, the capricious from sea-water, the stubborn from an ass, the incontinent from a weasel, the proud from a high-bred mare, the worst and ugliest from an ape, and the good woman from a bee. The remainder of the poem (96–118) is undoubtedly spurious. There is much beauty and feeling in Simonides’s description of the good woman.
See Fragments in T. Bergk, Poëtae lyrici Graeci; separate editions by F. T. Welcker (1835), and especially by P. Malusa. (1900), with exhaustive introduction, bibliography and commentary.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tauchnitz

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​TAUCHNITZ, the name of a family of German printers and publishers. Karl Christoph Traugott Tauchnitz (1761-1836), born at Grossbardau near Grimma, Saxony, established a printing business in Leipzig in 1796 and a publishing house in 1798. He specialized on the publication of dictionaries, Bibles and stereotyped editions of the Greek and Roman classics. The business was carried on by his son, Karl Christian Phillipp Tauchnitz (1798-1884), until 1865, when the business was sold to O. Holtze. He left large sums to the city of Leipzig for philanthropic purposes. Christian Bernhard, Freiherr von Tauchnitz (1816-1895), the founder of the existing firm of Bernhard Tauchnitz, was the nephew of the first-mentioned. His printing and publishing firm was started at Leipzig in 1837. The Library of British and American Authors, so familiar to travellers on the continent of Europe, was begun in 1841. In 1908 the collection numbered over 4000 volumes. In 1868 he began the Collection of German Authors, followed in 1886 by the Students' Tauchnitz editions. In 1860 he was ennobled with the title of Freiherr (Baron), and in 1877 was made a life member of the Saxon Upper Chamber. From 1866 to 1895 he was British Consul-General for the kingdom and duchies of Saxony. He was succeeded in the business by his son, Christian Karl Bernhard, Freiherr von Tauchnitz.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tatta

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​TATTA, or Thato, an ancient town of British India, in the Sind province of Bombay, 7 m. from the right bank of the main channel of the Indus and 13 m. from a station on the North-Western railway: pop. (1901) 10,783. Tatta was the capital of the Samma dynasty in Lower Sind in the 16th century, and long continued to be the centre of trade in the country, to which it sometimes gave its name in early European travels. An English factory was established here in 1758, but withdrawn after a few years. There are two old mosques, decorated with the coloured tiles characteristic of Sind.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tattersall's

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​TATTERSALL’S, the London horse auction mart, founded in 1766 by Richard Tattersall (1724–1795), who had been stud groom to the second duke of Kingston. The first premises occupied were near Hyde Park Corner, in what was then the outskirts of London. Two “Subscription rooms” were reserve for members of the Jockey Club, and they became the rendezvous for sporting and betting men. Among the famous dispersal sales conducted by “Old Tatt” were those of the duke of Kingston’s stud in 1774 and of the stud of the Prince of Wales (afterwards George IV.) in 1786. The prince often visited Richard Tattersall, and was joint proprietor with him of the Morning Post for several years. He was succeeded by his son, Edmund Tattersall (1758–1810), who extended the business of the firm to France. The third of the dynasty, Richard Tattersall (1785–1859), the eldest of Edmund’s three sons, became head of the firm at his father’s death. He had his grandfather’s ability and tact, and was the intimate of the best sporting men of his time. Another Richard Tattersall (1812–1870), son of the last, then took command of the business. His great-grandfather’s 99-year lease having expired, he moved the business to Knightsbridge. Richard was followed by his cousin, Edmund Tattersall (1816–1898), and he by his eldest son, Edmund Somerville Tattersall (b. 1863).
A son of the second Richard Tattersall, George Tattersall (1817–1849), was a well-known sporting artist. In 1836 he compiled a guide to The Lakes of England illustrated with forty-three charming line drawings, and he showed skill as an architect by building the Tattersall stud stables at Willesden. His experience in this and similar undertakings led him to publish Sporting Architecture (1841). In the same year, under the pseudonym “Wildrake,” he published Cracks of the Day, describing and illustrating sixty-five race-horses. He also contributed illustrations to the Hunting Reminiscences of Nimrod (Charles J. Apperley), the Book of Sports (1843), and the New Sporting Almanack.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tattoo

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​TATTOO, a signal given by beat of drum and call of bugle at nightfall for soldiers to go to quarters when in garrison or to tents when in the field. The earlier word is taploo or laptow, and was borrowed from Du. laploe; the phrase de taploe slaan, to close the taps, and the parallel Ger. Zapfenstreich, literally “tap-stroke” (Zapf, a tap of a cask), show that it meant originally a signal that the “taps” or public-houses were closed for the night.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tatra Mountains

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​TATRA MOUNTAINS (Hungarian Tarczal) or the High Tatra, the highest group in the central Carpathians, and the central group of the whole Carpathian system. They extend between the rivers Waag, Arva, Dunajec and Poprad, and form a sharply defined and isolated group, rising abruptly like a gigantic wall to an altitude of over 8400 ft. in the midst of a high plateau situated 2600 ft. above sea-level. The Tatra Mountains extend through the Hungarian counties of Liptó and Szepes, and with their northern extremities also through the Austrian crownland of Galicia, and have a length of 40 m. and a width varying between 9 and 15 m. The mean altitude is between 6000 and 7500 ft. The principal peaks are:—the Franz-Josef or Gerlsford (Hung. Gerlachfalvi-Csûcs, 8737 ft.), the highest in the Carpathian system; the Lomnitz (Lomniczi-Csûcs, 864 ft.); the Eisthal (Jêgvolgyi-Csûks, 8630 ft.); the Tatraspitze or Hohe Visoka (8415 ft.); the Kesmark (8226 ft.); the Meerau-genspitze (Tengerszem-Csûcs, 8210 ft.); the Schlagendorf (Szalóki-Csûcs, 8050 ft.); and the Krivan (8190 ft.). The principal valleys, which lie at an altitude of 2600 to 3250 ft. above sea-level, and present some of the wildest scenery, are:—the Kohlbach Valley, the Felka Valley, the Valley of Mengsdorf, the Javorina Valley, the Kotlina Valley, in which is the stalactite cavern of Bela, and the Bielka Valley. One of the characteristics of the Tatra are the numerous mountain lakes (112 in number), called by the people “eyes of the sea.” The largest of them are the Lake of Csorba, in the southern part of the group, which has an area of 50 acres; the Grosser Fischsee in the Bielka Valley; and the Wielki Staw, with an area of 85 acres, the largest of the Five Polish Lakes, which lie in the Roztoka Valley.
There are many summer resorts in the Tatra Mountains, the most frequented being Tatrafüred (German, Schmecks), three small villages situated at an altitude of 3250 ft., at the foot of the Schlagendorf peak; and the environs of the Lake of Csorba, which is called the “Pearl of the Tatra.”
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tate, Sir Henry

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​TATE, SIR HENRY, Bart. (1819–1899), English merchant and founder of the National Gallery of British Art, was born at Chorley, Lancashire, in 1819. His father, a minister of religion, put him into business' in Liverpool. He became a prosperous sugar-broker, and about 1874 removed to London, where he greatly increased the operations of his firm and made “ Tate's Cube Sugar ” known all over the world. He had early in his career begun to devote large sums of money to philanthropic and educational purposes. He gave £42,000 to the Liverpool University College, founded in 1881; and a still larger sum to the Liverpool hospitals. Then, when he came to London, he presented four free public libraries to the parish of Lambeth. His interest in art came with later years. He was at first merely a regular buyer of pictures, for which he built a large private gallery in his house at Streatham. Gradually his gallery came to contain one of the best private collections of modern pictures in England, and the owner naturally began to consider what should be done with it after his death. It had always been his intention to leave it to the nation, but in the way of carrying out this generous desire there stood several obstacles. The National Gallery could not have accepted more than a selection from Tate's pictures, which were not all up to the standard of Trafalgar Square; and even when he offered to build a new gallery for them, it was found difficult to secure a suitable site. What Tate offered was to spend £80,000 upon a building if the government would provide the ground; and in 1892 this offer was accepted. A new gallery, controlled by the Trustees of the National Gallery, was built on the site of Millbank Prison. The gallery was opened on 21st July 1897, and a large addition to it was completed just before the donor died. It contained sixty-five pictures presented by him; nearly all the English pictures from the National Gallery painted within the previous eighty years; the pictures purchased by the Royal Academy under the Chantrey Bequest, which had previously hung in South Kensington Museum; and seventeen large works given to the nation by Mr G. F. Watts, R.A. Mr Tate was created a baronet in the year after the Tate Gallery had been opened. He died at Streatham on the 5th of December 1899.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tati

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​Tati, a district of British South Africa forming, geographically, the S.W. corner of Matabeleland, but attached administratively to the Bechuanaland Protectorate. Area about 2500 sq. m. The railway from Cape Town to Bulawayo crosses the territory with a station at Francistown, the principal settlement. Francistown stands 3254 ft. above the sea and is 126 m. S.W. of Bulawayo by rail. The town of Tati, on the river of that name, is 18 m. S.E. of Shashi river railway station. Tati owes its importance to the presence of gold, first discovered by the German traveller, Karl Mauch, in 1864. Mining began in 1868, but it was not until 1895 that work on a large scale was undertaken, and it has been frequently interrupted since that date. The chief mine is the Monarch, situated by the railway. A concession to work the gold-mines, and for other purposes, was obtained in 1887 by Mr S. H. Edwards from Lobengula, the Matabele chief, and the mining rights are vested in a company, thereafter formed, called the Tati Concessions Company. (See Bechuanaland and Rhodesia.)