OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Schwenckfeldians

From volume 13 of the work.
The name of a Protestant sect founded by the nobleman Caspar von Schwenckfeld (b. at Ossig in Silesia in 1489 or 1490; d. at Ulm 10 December, 1561). After studying at Cologne and Frankfort-on-the-Oder Schwenckfeld served at the courts of several Silesian dukes. In 1521 he became a public adherent of the new doctrine preached by the so-called reformers, and was subsequently instrumental in spreading it throughout Silesia. Irreconcilable differences having revealed themselves between his views and the opinions of Luther, he removed in 1529 from Silesia to Strasburg. With his banishment from this city in 1533 opens that period of forced changes of residence which marked the later part of his life. His wanderings were due to persecution exercised against him, mainly by Lutheran preachers who condemned his writings in a meeting held at Schmalkalden in 540. The followers of Schwenckfeld never became very numerous and were organized into congregations only after his death. But they had even then to maintain a secret existence owing to persecution. Toleration was extended to them in Silesia in 1742 by Frederick II. Some members of the sect emigrated in 1734 to America and settled in Pennsylvania. While they have disappeared elsewhere the Schwenckfeldians number at present in the State just mentioned, 850 communicants with 8 churches and 6 ministers (Statistics of Dr. H.K. Carroll in the "Christian Advocate", New York 26 January, 1911). Their church government is congregational and the ministers are chosen by lot. In the Schwenckfeldian teaching such stress is laid on the inner, spiritual, element in religion that it results in an utter depreciation of external worship. The sacraments are retained merely in a symbolical sense. The administration of baptism to infants is discarded as useless; it is considered legitimate for adults, but unnecessary. The presence of Jesus Christ in the Eucharist is denied. The sacramental words "This is My Body; this is My Blood" mean "My Body is this (bread); My Blood is this (wine)", i. e., as bread and wine nourish and strengthen the body, so the Body and Blood of Christ are spiritual food and drink for the soul. Two distinct natures are indeed admitted in the incarnate Christ; but the human element in Him is said to be essentially different from the nature of an ordinary man. It was derived from the very beginning from the Divine substance and was deified by the sufferings, death, and Resurrection of the Saviour.
The numerous works of Schwenckfeld have only incompletely been published. A critical edition is in course of publication under the direction of HARTRANFT, SCHLUTTER, and JOHNSON: Corpus Schwenckfeldianorum, I (Leipzig, 1907); KADELBACH, Ausfuhrliche Gesch. Schwenckfelds u. der Schwenckfelder (Lauban, 1861); KRIEBEL, The Schwenckfelders in Pennslylvania (Lancaster, 1904); LOETSCHER, Schwenckfeld's Participation in the Eucharistic Controversy of the 16th Century (Philadelphia, 1906).
N.A. WEBER
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/School of Tuam

From volume 15 of the work.
(Irish, Tuaim da Ghualann, or the "Mound of the two Shoulders").
The School of Tuam was founded by St. Jarlath, and even during his life (d. c. 540) became a renowned school of piety and sacred learning, while in the eleventh century it rivalled Clonmacnoise as a centre of Celtic art. St. Jarlath was trained for his work by St. Benignus, the successor and coadjutor of St. Patrick, and under this gentle saint's guidance he founded his first monastery at Cluainfois, now Cloonfush, about two miles west from Tuam, and a still shorter distance across the fertile fields from Benignus's own foundation at Kilbannon. Here at Cluainfois, according to a widespread tradition, Saints Benignus and Jarlath and Caillin, another disciple of Benignus, frequently met together to discuss weighty questions in theology and Scripture. The fame of this holy retreat brought scholars from all parts of Ireland, amongst whom were St. Brendan, the great navigator, who came from Kerry, and St. Colman, the son of Lenin, who came from Cloyne. One day Brendan in prophetic spirit told his master that he was to leave Cluainfois and go eastward, and where the wheel of his chariot should break on the journey "there you shall build your oratory, for God wills that there shall be the place of your resurrection, and many shall arise in glory in the same place along with you". Jarlath did not long delay in obeying this inspired instruction. He departed from Cluainfois, and at the place now called Tuam his chariot broke down, and there on the site of the present Protestant, but formerly Catholic, cathedral he built his church and monastic school. And he bade good-bye to Brendan saying, "O holy youth, it is you should be master and I pupil, but go now with God's blessing elsewhere", whereupon Brendan returned to his native Kerry. After the death of St. Jarlath there is little in the national annals about the School of Tuam. There is reference in the "Four Masters", under date 776 (recte 781), to the death of an Abbot of Tuam called Nuada O'Bolcan; and under the same date in the "Annals of Ulster" to the death of one "Ferdomnach of Tuaim da Ghualann", to whom no title is given. At the year 969 is set down the death of Eoghan O Cleirigh, "Bishop of Connacht", but more distinct reference to a Tuam prelate is found in 1085, when the death of Aedh O Hoisin is recorded. The "Four Masters" call him Comarb of Jarlath and High Bishop (Ard-epscoip) of Tuam.
COLGAN, Acta sanctorum HiberniÊ (Louvain, 1645); HEALY, Ireland's Ancient Schools and Scholars (Dublin, 1908); Martyrology of Donegal; Annals of Ulster; Annals of the Four Masters.
JOHN HEALY
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Schäftlarn

From volume 13 of the work.
Formerly a Premonstratensian, now a Benedictine, abbey, situated on the Isar not far from Munich in Upper Bavaria. It was founded in 762 by the priest Waltrich and dedicated to St. Dionysius. Waltrich was the first abbot; later (774-804) he was Bishop of Passau. In 955 the monastery was destroyed by the Hungarians who were then making marauding incursions into Germany. In the eleventh century it was a house of secular canons, of whom there were then many in Bavaria. In 1140 it was refounded by Bishop Otto of Freising as a Premonstratensian monastery under a provost. Little is known of the inner life of the monastery. In 1527 it was destroyed by fire. In 1598 the provostry was raised to an abbey, which continued to exist until 1803, when it was secularized. The church was made a parish church, the monastic buildings were sold and frequently changed hands. In 1845 they were brought by the Congregation of the English Ladies who established here a boarding school for girls. In 1865 Schäftlarn was bought by King Louis I of Bavaria for 92,000 guldens and in 1866 it was given to the Benedictines. At first the monastery was a priory, but it was raised to an abbey, 3 May, 1910. It has now thirteen fathers who conduct an educational institution for boys with a pro-gymnasium. The interior of the monastery church built 1733-64, is one of the best productions of the Munich school of architecture of the eighteenth century; the exterior is unimportant. The buildings, erected during the period 1705-21, are simple.
Monumenta Scheftlariensia in Momenta Boica, VIII (Munich, 1767), 357-76; Annales et notae Scheftlarienses, ed. Jaffe in Mon. Germ. hist. Script.; XVII (Hanover, 1861), 334-50); Necrologium Scheftlar., loc. cit.; Necrologia, III (Hanover, 1905), 116-33; SCHEGLMANN, Geschichte der Sakularisation in rechtrheinischen Bayern, III, Pt. II (Ratisbon, 1908), 341-50.
Klemens Löffler.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Mayotta

See also Mayotte on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Mayotta or Mayotte (mä′yŏt′tȧ) is the chief of the Comoro or Comore Islands, midway between the northern tip of Madagascar and the Mozambique coast, the more important of the others being Grande Comore, Moheli and Anjouan, with a total area of 620 square miles and a population of 47,000, of which Mayotte has 140 square miles and 11,640 inhabitants.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Mazeppa, Ivan Stefanovich

See also Ivan Mazepa on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Mazeppa (mȧ-zep′ȧ), Ivan Stefanovich, hetman or chief of the Cossacks, was born in 1664 of a poor but noble family of Podolia, Poland. He became a page at the court of John Casimir, king of Poland. A jealous nobleman had him stripped naked and bound on his own horse, lying on his back and with his head to its tail, and let the animal loose, leaving Mazeppa to his fate. The horse carried him, senseless from exhaustion, to its native wilds of the Ukraine, according to the usual story. A more likely account is that his horse carried him through woods and thickets and brought him back, torn and bleeding, to his own home. Mazeppa now joined the Cossacks, became secretary to their hetman, Samoilovich, and in 1687 was chosen his successor. He won the confidence of Peter the Great, who loaded him with honors and made him prince of the Ukraine. But when Russia interfered with the freedom of the Cossacks (q. v.), Mazeppa determined to free them from the rule of the czar, and to this end conspired with Charles XII of Sweden. Peter discovered the treason, but long refused to believe it. Mazeppa’s hopes perished in the disastrous battle of Pultowa in 1709, and with Charles he fled to Bender, the Russian fortress in Bessarabia, where he died the same year. His story is the subject of a famous poem by Byron and of two paintings by Vernet.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Maxwell, William Henry

See also William Henry Maxwell on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Maxwell, William Henry, a prominent American educator, since 1898 superintendent of public schools in New York City, was born in Ireland in 1852. He was educated at the College of Belfast and Galway and at Queen’s University, taking his A. B. in 1872 and his A. M. in 1874. In 1874 he emigrated to the United States; and from 1882 to 1898 he superintended the Brooklyn public schools. As superintendent of the New York public schools Mr Maxwell has made indomitable efforts to keep the march of educational facilities apace with the wonderful growth of New York City. In 1901 he was made an honorary LL. D. by Columbia University. In 1904–05 he was president of the National Education Association. He is the author and editor of several textbooks for schools; and many of his short papers and addresses are printed in the proceedings of the N. E. A. (see Index, 1906) and in educational magazines. See, also, the annual reports of the superintendent of schools, New York City.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Mayflower

See also Mayflower on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​May″flow′er, the name of the vessel which in 1620 brought the Pilgrim Fathers from Southampton, England, to Plymouth Rock, Mass., has become a historic word in America. The little vessel was of only 180 tons burden. She arrived at her destination on the 21st of December, 1620. A society of the Mayflower Descendants, now having some 2,000 members, was formed in 1894. The Pilgrims were Congregationalists or Independents in search of a land where they might have full liberty of conscience.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Mazarin, Jules

See also Cardinal Mazarin on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Mazarin (mä′zȧ′răn′), Jules, cardinal and chief minister of France during the youth of Louis XIV, was born on July 14, 1602, at Piscina, Italy. His ability for diplomacy was early seen, and he accompanied a papal legate to the court of France. Here he met Richelieu, who, foreseeing his future, engaged him to further French interests in Italy. In 1639 he openly entered the service of Louis XIII, was naturalized a Frenchman, and through Richelieu’s influence gained a cardinal’s hat. Richelieu further, before his death, recommended Mazarin to the king as his successor. He ruled with less friction than Richelieu, though with almost as great power. The opposition of parliament to his taxes, followed by the arrest of the leaders, brought on the first of the wars of the Fronde. When he had Condé and Conti arrested in 1650, he had to go into exile. He now saw his mistake in separating himself and the queen from every party in the state, and bent all his masterly powers to form a new royal party. In 1653 Mazarin came back in triumph, and from that time his power was re-established, while he quickly regained his popularity. Under his rule the influence of France abroad was greatly increased. He gained the alliance of Cromwell by giving up Dunkirk; made French influence felt in southern Germany by the treaty of Westphalia in 1648; while the league of the Rhine, formed in 1659, and the marriage of Louis XIV in 1659 with the infanta Maria Theresa made France a claimant of the throne of Spain. Mazarin died at Vincennes, March 9, 1661. See Gustave Masson’s Mazarin.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Mazzini, Giuseppe

See also Giuseppe Mazzini on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Mazzini (mät-sē′nē), Giuseppe, an Italian patriot, was born at Genoa on June 22, 1805. He entered its university when only 13, and before he was 19 was a practicing lawyer. In 1821 the sight of the refugees from the unsuccessful rising in Piedmont stirred him to devote himself to freeing his country. As a member of the Carbonari he was imprisoned in 1830. When set free the next year, his life-plan was settled. His first step was the formation of the Young Italy association. The first and last duties of its members were to work to make a free, independent and united nation. The masses were to be educated to understand their rights, and taught to secure them, if need be, by force. Shortly after Charles Albert became king of Sardinia, Mazzini urged him to put himself at the head of the struggle for national independence. His answer was a sentence of banishment. From ​1832 he led “a life of voluntary imprisonment within the four walls of a little room” for over 20 years. During this time he was the most untiring political agitator in Europe, the man most dreaded by its absolute governments. He was always writing, and so eloquently and sincerely that he aroused his followers to an enthusiasm that would dare anything. His organization extended through Italy, and he went to England, where for seven years he struggled hard against poverty, yet managed to help his poorer, ignorant countrymen, the London hand-organ boys, by teaching and civilizing them in night-classes. On the outbreak of the Lombard revolt (1848) Mazzini threw himself into the struggle, though the king of Sardinia sought to win him. When the revolt failed, he made his way to Tuscany. Leghorn received him with wild enthusiasm in February, 1849, the day before the republic was proclaimed at Rome, and elected him her deputy to the republican assembly in the papal city. On March 29 Mazzini was chosen one of three triumvirs with the powers of dictators, but on April 25 the French arrived and in June the republic fell. Mazzini was sentenced to death three times, but in 1866 the sentence was formally rescinded, and he died peacefully at Pisa, Italy, March 10, 1872. Italian nationality is chiefly due to Mazzini, Garibaldi and Cavour. Mazzini prepared the soil, sowed the seed and fostered the growing plants; Garibaldi gathered the ripe fruit; but Cavour gained the final advantage of the harvest. See Marriott’s Makers of Modern Italy.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Maxwell, James Clerk-

See also James Clerk Maxwell on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Max′well, James Clerk-, a very remarkable English physicist and one of the most brilliant and profound minds known to the history of physical science. He was born at Edinburgh, June 13, 1831, and there received his early training, first at the Edinburgh Academy and afterward at the University of Edinburgh. In 1850 he went to Cambridge, from which he graduated in 1854. From 1856 to 1860 he held the chair of physics in Marischal College, Aberdeen, and for the next eight years a corresponding position in King’s College, London. Three years of retirement on his estate at Glenlair intervened between his London residence and his acceptance of the newly created chair of experimental physics at Cambridge, where he lived and worked almost to his death in 1879. Genius showed itself very early in his career; for at 15 a paper of his on a mechanical method of drawing Cartesian ovals was considered worthy of presentation to the Royal Society of Edinburgh. His first great memoir was that which he offered in successful competition for the Adams prize in 1859. In this paper he proved from purely dynamical grounds that the rings of Saturn are made of discrete particles, else those rings would not be stable. His investigations on the Kinetic Theory of Gases placed him with Bernoulli, Clausius and Boltzmann as a founder of that science. Towering above everything else, however, is his Electromagnetic Theory. His work began with a paper on Faraday’s Lines of Force, which he later so extended and perfected that in his Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism we have a complete theory of the entire subject from Faraday’s standpoint, that is, from the point of view which replaces all action at a distance by action through a medium. Ever since its publication in 1873 this n.as been the standard treatment of electricity either in English or in any other language.
As early as 1864 Maxwell predicted that electrical vibrations, if they could be produced, would have the same properties as light-vibrations. It was not until 1888, nearly 20 years after Maxwell’s death, that Hertz showed how to realize these electric oscillations in the laboratory and proved that Maxwell’s equations had predicted the exact truth. These are precisely the electrical vibrations which Marconi and others have employed since 1896 in wireless telegraphy. This discovery of Maxwell’s may be stated more simply, perhaps, by saying that he showed that optics is merely one department of electricity.
His two small volumes on Matter and Motion and the Theory of Heat are marvels of elegance, conciseness and clearness. They should be read by everyone who wishes to know the man. His collected Scientific Papers have recently been published by the Cambridge Press.
Even this brief sketch would be incomplete without adding that, aside from scientific attainments, his modesty, genial humor and high Christian character endeared him to everyone who knew him. A more charming biography than the Life of James Clerk-Maxwell, by his friends Louis Campbell and William Garnett would be difficult to find.
# The New Student's Reference Work/May

See also May on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​May, the fifth month of the year. The first of May has always been a gala day. The May festival goes back to the Floralia festival of the Romans, which probably came in the first place from India. In England, as we learn from Chaucer and Shakespeare, it was customary during the middle ages for all, both high and low — even the court itself — to go out on the first May morning at an early hour “to fetch the flowers fresh.” The fairest maid of the village was crowned with flowers as Queen of the May. Every town and village, too, had its fixed pole — called the Maypole — on which each May-morning were hung wreaths of flowers, and round which the people danced in rings most of the ​day. Roman Catholics celebrate the month as the Virgin’s month.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Mayence

See also Mainz on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Mayence (mä′yŏns′) or Mainz (mīnts), the capital and largest town of the grand-duchy of Rhenish Hesse, Germany, on the Rhine, near its union with the Main. It is a fortified city, with double wall, bastions, outworks and a citadel in the center, and commands both sides of the river. There is a monument to Gutenberg, with a statue by Thorwaldsen and a bronze statue of Schiller in the public squares. The house in which Gutenberg was born still stands, as does the one where he had his first printing-press. Mayence is an old city, having been a place of importance under the Romans. It was the head of the league of Rhenish towns in the 13th century, and through Gutenberg became the bookmaking center. In 1801 it belonged to France, but in 1816 was assigned to Hesse-Darmstadt. Since 1871 it has been a fortress of the German empire. Population 110,634.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Aimara

Edition of 1905. See also Erythrinidae on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​AIMARA, ī̇-mä′rȧ. Any of many large carnivorous fishes of South America, especially common in the Amazonian rivers, some twenty species of which form the heterognathous family Erytlirinidæ and the genus Macrodon. They are also called trahiras.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Aguirre, Lope de

Edition of 1905. See also Lope de Aguirre on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​AGUIRRE, ȧ-gēr'rắ, Lope de (c. 1507-61). A Spanish explorer in Peru, known as the “traitor” and “tyrant.” He was born in Oñate in the province of Biscay, and came to America at an early age. He was in Peru during the period of the insurrections which followed the subjugation of the Incas, and took an active part in most of them. The turbulent spirits who survived these repeated uprisings were finally influenced to join an expedition to search for El Dorado under Pedro de Ursua. They crossed the Andes and started down the headwaters of the Amazon in the early summer of 1560. Aguirre brought about the death of Ursua, and gained great influence over Fernando de Guzman, Ursua's successor. He then forced his companions to renounce their allegiance to Spain and to recognize Guzman as King of Tierra Firme and Peru. He determined to abandon the search for El Dorado and return to Peru, conquer that country, and establish an independent kingdom there. Shortly afterward the newly made king opposed some of his plans, and Aguirre thereupon murdered him, together with his closest friends. Continuing down the Amazon, Aguirre made his way by one of that river's tributaries to the Orinoco, where he built large vessels, in which he sailed to the island of Margarita. He was forced, however, to abandon the plan of fighting his way across Panama and to Peru. Instead, he landed on the coast of Venezuela, marched inland, and was brought to bay and killed at Barquisimeto, early in November, 1561. His last act was to kill his own daughter with a poniard. In a letter addressed to King Philip II., he declared that he had killed twenty persons during the voyage down the Amazon, and the recorded list of those he ordered murdered is more than sixty, including women and priests.
Bibliography. Simon, The Cruise of the Traitor Aguirre, translated by Markham and Bollaert, Chapter XI., Hakluyt Society Publication No. 28 (London, 1861). This account of ​the expedition was derived from members of the party. Consult also Bandelier, The Gilded Man (New York, 1893).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Aimwell

Edition of 1905. See also the disclaimer.
​AIM′WELL. (1) A character in Farquhar's comedy, The Beaux' Stratagem (q.v.). (2) A character in Shirley's The Witty Fair One (q.v.).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Aimé-Martin, Louis

Edition of 1905. See also Aimé Martin on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​AIMÉ-MARTIN, ā̇′mā̇′mär′tān′, Louis. See Martin, Louis Aimé.