OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# The New Student's Reference Work/American Lion

See also Puma on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
American Lion. See Puma.
# The New Student's Reference Work/American University

See also American University on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
American University, founded in 1893 at Harriman, Tenn., under the denominational auspices of the Christian Church. Its president is James A. Tate, M. C., and it has a teaching faculty of 12 professors, with a student attendance, in 1906 of 317. It has a small library of about 2,500 volumes.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Americus Vespucius

See also Amerigo Vespucci on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Amer'icus Vespu'cius or Amerigo Vespucci (vĕs-pōōt' chē) (1451–1512), an Italian navigator, who in the era of Columbus, about the close of the fifteenth century, made several voyages to the northern coast of South America, and, it is alleged, made one voyage to North America, sailing along the coast of Florida as far north as Chesapeake Bay. There is doubt cast upon some of these voyages, though it is said that at least one of them was made in company with Columbus, while Vespucius wrote and published in his day narratives of all of them. What at least is certain is that the newfound continent came to bear the Florentine navigator's name, though this was not by his own seeking nor from any wish on Vespucius's part to detract from the honor due to Columbus in naming the New World America. What otherwise is known of Vespucius is that he was for a time in the commercial office of the Medici in Florence, and later on became a merchant at Seville, whose business it was to furnish supplies and to fit out vessels engaged in foreign trade. See Fiske's Discovery of America, Thatcher's Continent of America and Harrisse's Discovery of North America.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Kama

See also Kama River on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Kama (kä′ mȧ), the principal branch of the Volga, rises in the Russian province of Vyatka, and after an almost circular course of 1,000 miles joins the Volga about 40 miles below Kazan. The Kama is navigable from Perm, a distance of over 900 miles. It is free from ice a little more than half the year, and is one of the most important highways of commerce between Siberia and St. Petersburg.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Kafiristan

See also Kafiristan on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Kafiristan (kä-fē-rē-stän'), a country of southern Asia, on the southern declivity of the Hindu-Kush Mountains. The area is about 5,000 square miles, and the inhabitants differ from surrounding tribes both in language and religion, all efforts to convert them to the Mohammedan faith having been in vain. They number about 200,000, and are divided into various tribes, which often war with one another, but are united in their love of independence and their hatred of Mohammedanism. Kafiristan, whose native tribes were subdued by the emir of Afghanistan in 1895, has been of late included in the countries under Afghan control, and has been garrisoned partially by the emir's troops. The soil is fertile, yielding sufficient fruit and grain for the inhabitants and furnishing subsistence for large herds of cattle, sheep and goats.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Kabul

See also Kabul on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Kabul (kå' bul) or Cabul was made the capital of Afghanistan by Timur in 1774. It stands 6,000 feet above the sea, and is overshadowed by the once famous fortress of Bala Hissar. The city has a large trade with India and Central Asia; its bazar rivals that of Kandahar; and it is noted for its fruits and its carpets. It is the seat of the reigning emir, and has a mint, a gun-factory and a modern arsenal. Kabul was captured twice by the British (1842 and 1880). Hindus, Jews and Afghan tribesmen make the population (75,000).
# The New Student's Reference Work/Kafirs

See also South Africa Kaffir people on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Kaf'irs, tribes inhabiting the southern portion of the African continent, particularly the coast of southeastern Africa. Their color is not so dark as that of the negroes, though their hair is woolly and they have broad noses and thick lips. Northward they become darker, until at last they blend with the negroes, and their distinctive racial features are lost. They are brave and, for the most part, kind and affectionate to their families. Polygamy is almost universal, wives being purchased with cattle. Their idea of the Supreme Being is very indefinite, but, although deficient in religious sentiment, they are superstitious, and belief in witchcraft is very general. There are some signs of a belief in a future state, the most marked being the worship of their ancestors. Their number is estimated at 2,400,000, chiefly in Cape Colony, Natal, Transvaal and British Bechuanaland.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Kakabeka Falls

See also Kakabeka Falls on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Ka'kabe'ka Falls. Near Port Arthur and Fort William in Thunder Bay District, Ontario. There is a development of 12,000 horse-power electrical energy, and arrangements are being made to utilize the falls to the extent of an additional 30,000 horse-power. The power from these falls supplies Port Arthur and Fort William.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Kalamazoo

See also Kalamazoo, Michigan on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Ka'lamazoo', a city in Kalamazoo County on the river of the same name, southwestern Michigan, noted for its great beauty and the enterprise of its inhabitants. It is situated on the river of the same name, about 40 miles from the eastern shore of Lake Michigan and 140 miles from Detroit. It is reached by a number of railroads; and the city possesses, besides a number of fine churches and schools, the western state normal school and Kalamazoo College, a public library and several music-academies. Kalamazoo has nine paper-mills, stationery and card factories. The Michigan asylum for the insane is located here. Population 39,437.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Kalmucks

See also Kalmyk people on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Kalmucks, a branch of the Mongolian family inhabiting extensive regions in the Chinese and Russian empires. The Tartar name Khalimick signifies renegades. There are four principal tribes. They are a nomadic race, with a barbaric history running back through many centuries. The descendants of the famous Genghis Khan still rule one of the tribes. Wealth with them consists chiefly in flocks and herds. In Russia there now are about 120,000 Kalmucks, living mostly in Astrakhan. In religion most are Buddhists, but some are Mohammedans and a smaller number Christians.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Kaleidoscope

See also Kaleidoscope on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Kaleidoscope (kå-lī' dō-scōp), an ingenious and pleasing optical instrument invented by Brewster in 1817. In its simplest form it consists of a tube in which are placed two mirrors or reflecting planes so hinged together along one edge as to make an angle with each other which is an aliquot part of 180°; while one end of the tube is fitted up with an eye-glass, and at the other end are two glasses, between which are placed little fragments of colored glass or other objects which it is desired to examine. The eye, looking into the tube, perceives these objects reflected many times. There are various modifications of the kaleidoscope which increase its power. It is sometimes used by designers of patterns, to whom it furnishes an almost endless variety of figures.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Napier, William Francis Patrick

See also William Francis Patrick Napier on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Napier, William Francis Patrick, K. C. P., brother of Sir Charles, was born near Dublin, Dec. 17, 1785. He served in the Peninsular campaign and retired as a lieutenant-general. He also wrote a famous History of the War in the Peninsula, The Conquest of Scinde and the Life of Sir Charles Napier. He died at Clapham, London, Feb. 10, 1860. See his Life and Letters, edited by Bruce.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Naples (city)

See also Naples on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Naples (nā' p'lz), until 1860 the capital of the kingdom of Naples, is the largest Italian city and one of the busiest ports, exporting wine, olive-oil, chemicals, perfumery, live animals, animal products, hemp, flax and cereals, and importing cereals, metals, cottons, woolens, earthenware, silks, groceries etc. The well-known proverb: " See Naples and die" originated on account of its attractiveness and delightful climate. Naples lies upon the base and sides of a hill-range rising from the sea and divided into two unequal parts. The most ancient part of the city, in the eastern crescent, is divided from north to south by its oldest street, Via Toledo (now Via di Roma), and is the most populous district of its size in Europe. Back of the wharf extending to Castel del Carmine lies the poorest and most densely-peopled quarter. The city is always full of life, the streets crowded and noisy. There are few buildings of any note, only the forts and gates, university, royal palace, catacombs, national museum and law-courts being worth a visit. It has three large libraries, the national, the university and the Brancacciana. The university, founded in 1224, has 81 professors, and 4,745 students. Population 723,208.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Naples (kingdom)

See also Kingdom of Naples on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Naples, a former kingdom in southern Italy, owed its creation to Greek colonists, the two settlements, Palæopolis and Neapolis, long existing as one community, Parthenope. After the subjugation by Rome only Neapolis remained, and this became Rome's ally. After resisting Pyrrhus and Hannibal, it fell, by treachery, into the control of Sulla's friends, who murdered its people (82 B. C.). Under the empire it became a famous residence place on account of its poets and its climate. After the fall of Rome it sided with the Goths, but was taken by Belisarius (536) and, six years after, by Totila. Soon afterwards the Byzantine emperors acquired it through Narses, and it was made the head of a duchy. As such it revolted and remained independent until conquered by the Normans in the 11th century. In 1266 the popes gave the sovereignty of Naples to Charles of Anjou, but during the reign of Robert I the predominance of the papal party, the ravages of the Germans, the depravity of Juana, Robert's heiress, and the unsuccessful attempts to recover Sicily were the only important events that marked the Angevin rule, which ended with Juana II in 1435. Then succeeded the Aragon rule. Between 1494 and 1504 France and Spain fought for the possession of Naples, but it was united with Sicily, forming the Two Sicilies, and was governed by Spanish viceroys down to 1707. In that year Austria wrested Naples from Spain only to give it in 1735 to Don Carlos, who founded the Bourbon rule. In 1789 it was invaded by the French troops and in 1806, when Napoleon proclaimed his brother Joseph king. In 1808 the crown was given to Joachim Murat, but on his defeat and execution in 1815 the Bourbon monarch was restored. The revolutions of 1821 and 1848 led to the overthrow of the Bourbon government by Garibaldi and to the incorporation of Sardinia and Naples with the kingdom of Italy in 1861. Naples (Napoli) to-day is a province of Italy, with an area of 350 square miles, and a population of 1,354,896. See History of the Kingdom of Naples by Colletta, translated by S. Horner.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Naphtha

See also Naphtha on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Naphtha (năf' thȧ or năp' thȧ) is derived from a Persian word meaning to exude and was originally used to designate the liquid hydrocarbons that ooze from the ground about the Caspian Sea. It was also applied to the natural oils, found universally, and to the oil derived from the Boghead mineral in Scotland. But since the discovery of Scotch paraffine and American petroleum the name has been applied only to the lighter, explosive and unsafe oils and, strictly speaking, to the products of distillation from mineral oils, coal-tar, india-rubber, bones, peat and wood, the latter being known also as methylalcohol. Petroleum (American) contains from 15 to 20 per cent. of naphtha, which is separated into gasoline, benzine and benzoline. The tar derived from the reduction of coal yields from 5 to 20 per cent. The spirit obtained from the destructive distillation of india-rubber is called caoutchin. Bone-naphtha or Dippel's animal-oil is obtained by distillation of bones in the manufacture of animal charcoal.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Napier, Charles James

* related authors: Charles James Napier.
* sister projects: Wikipedia article, quotes, Wikidata item.
See also the disclaimer.
Napier (nāp' yêr), Sir Charles James, a British general, the conqueror of Scinde, was born on Aug. 10, 1782, at London. Being commissioned in his 12th year, he served during the Irish rebellion, and, at the battle (Corunna) in which Sir John Moore died, he was five times wounded and taken prisoner. He served in 1811 in the Peninsula, where he took part at Coa, Busaco—where his jaw was broken and eye injured by a shot—Fuentes d'Oñoro and Badajoz. He also took part in the Anglo-American War of 1812. In 1818 he was made governor of Cephalonia; in 1838 a K. C. B.; and in 1841 was sent to India to command the army of Bombay against the Ameers of Scinde. Here his most remarkable feat was the destruction of the fortification of Emaun Ghur, 1843, followed by the battle of Meanee (Miani), where, with 2,080 English and Sepoys, he defeated 22,000 Baluchs. He died near Portsmouth, Aug. 29, 1853. See the biography by his brother and the short Life by Sir. W. Butler.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Nantes

See also Nantes on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Nantes (nănts, French nänt), the ninth largest city of France and capital of the department of Loire-Inférieure, lies on the right bank of the Loire, 35 miles from its mouth. Demolished between 1865 and 1870, Nantes has grown by nature and by art to be one of the handsomest cities in France. Its unfinished cathedral (1434–1852) contains the celebrated monument to the duke and duchess of Brittany. Among its noteworthy buildings are the ducal castle, the occasional residence of Charles VIII and the place where, on April 13, 1598, Henry IV signed the famous Edict of Nantes; the Church of St. Nicholas, the palace of justice, the theater, postoffice, museum and library of 50,000 volumes. Nantes, the former capital of Brittany, is the scene of the marriage of Anne of Brittany to Louis XI (1499), the embarkation of the Young Pretender (1745) and the arrest of the Duchess de Berri (1832). Population 170,535.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Nanticoke, Pa.

See also Nanticoke, Pennsylvania on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Nan'ticoke, Pa., a borough of Luzerne County, on a branch of the Susquehanna and on the Central of New Jersey, Delaware, Lackawanna and Western and Pennsylvania railroads, 20 miles southwest of Scranton and eight miles from Wilkesbarre, the county-seat. A portion of the town, known as West Nanticoke, lies across the river in Plymouth township. Its chief industry is the shipping and hauling of coal, being in the anthracite coal-mining regions. The chief manufacturing establishments are mining and agricultural implements, flour and grist mills, lumber mills, cigar factories, a canning factory, hosiery mills, two silk-throwing mills and a large knitting factory. Population 18,877.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Nantucket

See also Nantucket, Massachusetts on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Nantuck'et, an island off the southeastern coast of Massachusetts. It is about 15 miles long and much frequented as a summer-resort. The town lies on the north shore. It formerly was a great whale-fishing center. Population 2,962.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Napoleon III

See also Napoleon III of France on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Napoleon III, or Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, the second French emperor, was born at Paris on April 20, 1808. His father was king of Holland and brother of the first emperor, and his mother was the step-daughter of Napoleon I. He was educated by his mother in exile in Switzerland and at the gymnasium at Augsburg, but until 1836, during his life in Switzerland, he essentially was a student and writer. Nevertheless, the prestige of the institutions of Napoleon I cast some reflected light on Charles Louis, who looked with longing eyes toward the throne of France, then occupied by Louis Philippe. Indeed, he went so far in 1836 as to appear among the military at Strassburg and endeavor to win them, but he failed, and was taken and brought to the United States without trial. He, however, again returned to Switzerland, of which government France demanded his expulsion, but it was refused. To avert trouble he went to England, and in 1840 made his second attempt to gain the throne by landing at Boulogne, but was this time taken prisoner and sentenced to imprisonment for life at the fortress of Ham. Here he remained, writing many books and editing the French Dictionaire de la Conversation, until he made his escape to Belgium, May 25, 1846. Immediately upon the success of the workingmen in the Revolution of 1848 he returned to France and was elected to the constituent assembly from Paris and three other districts, but resigned his seat two days after taking it and left France. In September, 1848, he was recalled by his election from five districts and immediately began the canvass for the election to the presidency, which he received by an overwhelming vote. For a while he lived up to his oath of allegiance to the republic, but only as a cloak to place the military under control of his friends and lay plans for the revival of the empire. On Dec. 2, 1851, by force of arms he routed the national assembly and in that month was re-elected for ten years, only to assume the imperial title within a year. The empire being now established, he broke up the political parties, courted the clergy, and adopted a showy foreign policy. This led to the Crimean War and the difficulty with Austria in Lombardy. Though in these operations he enjoyed the support of Great Britain, his relations to Prussia were affected by jealousies which finally led to the Franco-Prussian War, which proved the end of Napoleon's power. He surrendered in September, 1870, and was held a prisoner until the declaration of peace, after which he joined the empress at Chiselhurst, near London, where he died on Jan. 9, 1873. In 1865 he had published a History of Julius Cæsar, which was never finished. See Blanchard Jerrold's Life of Napoleon III and Napoleon the Little by Hugo.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Resonance

See also Resonance on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Resonance (rĕz′ō̇-năns), in physics the process by which one body sets in vibration another body having the same period of vibration. When one attempts to ring a large church-bell, he soon learns that he must pull the rope at certain definite intervals if he wishes to ring with ease. A rowboat moored in quiet water can, without difficulty, be set rocking if one throw his weight, first on one side then on the other, at correct intervals. If two pendulums of the same period be mounted upon one common frame, and then one pendulum be set in vibration while the second is at rest, the second pendulum, soon “picks up” a vibration of considerable amplitude from the first pendulum. These are instances of resonance, taken from mechanics. In acoustics and electricity there also are many illustrations. A tuning-fork held over a tall jar partially filled with water will have its sound much reinforced when the column of air in the jar above the water is capable of vibrating in the same period as the tuning-fork. The sounding-box of the guitar and violin are in resonance with the strings and enable them to give out energy at a more rapid rate. Electrical resonance is frequently employed in wireless telegraphy. For a complete theory of resonance see Donkin's Acoustics.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Respiration

See also Cellular respiration on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Res′pira′tion (in plants) is the process by which most plants set free in their bodies the energy required for doing the work necessary to maintain life and form new parts. It essentially is identical with the respiration of animals. It consists of several separate but related processes: (1) the absorption of oxygen and its union with the protoplasm or with foods by the action of the protoplasm; (2) the decomposition of this unstable substance, resulting finally in the formation of carbon dioxide and water; (3) ridding the body of these waste products. The oxygen is absorbed directly from the water or air by smaller plants, but in the larger it is distributed to the internal tissues by a system of air passages (see Aëration). Through a reverse process the carbon dioxide is got rid of. The chemical details of respiration are not known. It even is uncertain whether it is the living protoplasm or the foods that are oxidized. Neither is it known how the energy is used nor in what form it is set free. Some of it appears as heat, making the body warmer than the surrounding air. But this heat is so quickly lost that it can only be observed when dissipation of it is hindered. In this the plant is like a cold-blooded animal. On account of the carbon dioxide excreted, the plant loses weight, unless supplied with food; thus, if a seed germinate in darkness, after a few weeks the plantlet may have less than half the dry weight of the seed from which it grew.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Rheotropism

See also the disclaimer.
​ Rheot′ropism, the sensitiveness of a plant to the direction of a current of water, to which it responds by changing the rate of growth, which results in a curvature with or against the current. When roots of corn or vetch are grown in moving water, the rate of growth is hastened on the side not struck by the current and slowed on the other side; consequently the tip is turned up-stream. A very slow current will produce the reaction. The exact nature of the stimulus has not yet been determined. See Irritability.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Rhizome

See also the disclaimer.
​ Rhizome (rī́-zōm′). See Root′-Stock.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Rhodes

See also Rhodes on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​ Rhodes (rōdz), an island in the Mediterranean belonging to Turkey, formerly an independent state of ancient Greece. It is about 50 miles long and 20 broad, and is traversed by a chain of mountains, the highest peak reaching a height of 4,070 feet. The island was inhabited at a very early period, and is said to have sent nine ships to the Trojan War. In 404 B. C. the city of Rhodes was founded at the northern extremity of the island, and after that the history of the island is comprised in that of the new city. The city was girt by strong walls surmounted by towers, and was furnished with two good harbors. At the entrance to one of its ports stood a brazen statue of Helios, 70 cubits in height and called the Colossus of Rhodes. Besides this statue, which was one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, there were 3,000 others in the city, of which 100 were colossal. The arts were cultivated in Rhodes, and intellectual activity showed itself long after it had declined in other parts of Greece. After the death of Julius Cæsar, whose side the Rhodians had taken in his contest with Pompey, they were defeated in a naval engagement by Cassius, who entered the city by force, seized the public property and rifled the temples. During several centuries Rhodes remained under the power of the Byzantine emperors. In 1309 it fell into the hands of the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem, who retained possession until 1523, when they were besieged by the Turks and compelled to sail away to Crete; and the island has remained a Turkish possession ever since.