OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tree, Sir Herbert Beerbohm

See also Herbert Beerbohm Tree on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​TREE, SIR HERBERT BEERBOHM (1853–), English actor and manager, was born in London, on the 17th of December 1853, the son of Julius Beerbohm, a London merchant of German parentage; his half-brother, Max Beerbohm (b. 1872), became well known as a dramatic critic, a miscellaneous writer and caricaturist. Taking the stage name of Beerbohm Tree he made his first professional appearance in London in 1876. After some years of varied experience he made a striking success in 1884 as the curate in The Private Secretary, but he was making himself well known meanwhile in dramatic circles as an admirable actor in many roles. In September 1887 he became lessee and manager of the Haymarket theatre, London, where his representations of melodramatic “character” parts, as in Jim the Penman, The Red Lamp, and A Man’s Shadow, were highly successful. His varied talents as an actor were displayed, however, not only in a number of modern dramas, such as H. A. Jones’s Dancing Girl, but also in romantic parts such as Gringoire, and in the production of so essentially a literary play as Henley’s Beau Austin; and in classic parts his ability as a comedian was shown in The Merry Wives of Windsor, in which he played Falstaff, and as a tragedian in Hamlet; his presentations of Shakespeare were notable too as carrying forward the methods of realistic staging inaugurated at the Lyceum under Irving. In 1897 Mr Tree moved to the new Her Majesty’s (afterwards His Majesty’s) theatre, opening with Gilbert Parker’s Seats of the Mighty; but his chief successes were in Stephen Phillips’s poetical dramas, and in his splendid revivals of Shakespeare (especially Richard II. and the Merchant of Venice). The magnificence of the mounting, the originality and research shown in the “business” of his productions, and his own versatility in so many different types of character, made his management memorable in the history of the London stage; and on the death of Sir Henry Irving he was generally recognized as the leader in his profession. His wife (Maud Holt), an accomplished actress, and their daughter Viola, were also prominently associated with him. In 1907 he took his company to Berlin at the invitation of the German emperor, and gave a selection from his repertoire with great success. In the same year he established a school of dramatic art, for the training of actors, in London; and in this and other ways he was prominent in forwarding the interests of the stage. He was knighted in 1909.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tredegar

See also Tredegar on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​TREDEGAR, an urban district in the western parliamentary division of Monmouthshire, England, on the Sirhowy river, 24 m. north of Cardiff, on a joint line of the London & North-western and the Rhymney railways. Pop. (1901), 18,497. It stands at an elevation of about 1000 ft., and owes its existence to the establishment in the beginning of the 19th century of the works of the Tredegar Iron and Coal Company, which employ most of the large industrial population. The place gave the title of Baron Tredegar (c. 1859) to Sir Charles Morgan Robinson Morgan, Bart. (1792–1873), whose grandfather, Sir Charles Gould, Bart., married the heiress of John Morgan of Tredegar and changed his name to Morgan. He was M.P. for Brecknock in 1835–1847. He married a granddaughter of the 1st Lord Rodney. His son Godfrey (b. 1830), who succeeded to the barony, was created Viscount Tredegar in 1905; he had served in the Crimea and taken part in the famous Balaclava charge.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tree

See also Tree on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​TREE (O. Eng. trēo, treow cf. Dan. trae, Swed. träd, tree, trä, timber; allied forms are found in Russ. drevo, Gr. δρῦς , oak, and δόρυ, spear, Welsh derw, Irish darog, oak, and Skr. dāru, wood), the term, applied in a wide sense, to all plants which grow with a permanent single woody stem or trunk of some height, branching out at some distance from the ground. There is a somewhat vague dividing line, in popular nomenclature, between “shrubs” and “trees,” the former term being usually applied to plants with several stems, of lower height, and bushy in growth. The various species to which the name “tree” can be given are treated under their individual titles, e.g. oak, ash, elm, &c.; the articles Fir and Pine treat of two large groups of conifers; general information is provided by the articles Plants and Gymnosperms; tree cultivation will be found under Forests and Forestry and Horticulture; and the various types of tree whose wood is useful for practical purposes under Timber. Apart from this general meaning of the word, the chief transferred use is that for a piece of wood used for various specific purposes, as a framework, bar, &c., such as the tree of a saddle, axle-tree, cross-tree, &c.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tredgold, Thomas

See also Thomas Tredgold on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​TREDGOLD, THOMAS (1788–1829), English engineer, was born at Brandon, near Durham, on the 22nd of August 1788, and at the age of fourteen was apprenticed to a carpenter. In 1808 he went to Scotland, and after working there as a journeyman for five years, obtained employment in London with an architect. He began to practice as a civil engineer on his own account in 1823, but much of his time was devoted to the preparation of his engineering text-books, which gained a wide reputation. They included Elementary Principles of Carpentry (1820), almost the first book of its kind in English; Practical Treatise on the Strength of Cast Iron and other Metals (1824); Principles of Warming and Ventilating Public Buildings (1824); Practical Treatise on Railroads and Carriages (1825); and The Steam Engine (1827). He died in London on the 28th of January 1829.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Trebula

See also Trebula on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​TREBULA, the name of five ancient towns in Italy. (1) Trebula in Samnium, a town of the Caraceni, on the left bank of the Sangro, some 20 m. below Castel di Sangro; the church of the Madonna degli Spineti near Quadri marks the site. It appears to have been a municipium, but we only know of its existence in Hadrian's time. (2) Trebula in Campania, between Saticula and Suessula. The site is probably identical with the hills bearing the modern name Tripaola (about 1000 ft. above sea level) above the entrance to the valley of Maddaloni. It is possibly this Trebula the citizens of which received Latin rights in 303 B.C. Its territory extended as far as the Via Appia, and its place was taken in imperial times by the Vicus Novanensis, on the road itself, near Suessula. (3) Trebula Balliensis (mod. Treglia), also in Campania, 22 m. north of Capua, in the mountains, about 1000 ft. above sea-level. It revolted to Hannibal and was reduced to obedience by Fabius. Remains of walls, aqueduct and tombs exist. Its territory was mentioned in the projected distributions of land in Cicero's time: and its wine was well thought of under Nero. It was a municipium. (4) Trebula Mutuesca in the Sabine country, 2 m. ​east of the point where the Via Caecilia diverges from the Via Salaria. It lies about 1 m. south-west of the modern Monteleone, and an amphitheatre and other remains are visible. In a dedication made there by the consul Mummius in 146 B.C. it is spoken of as a vicus, but when the praefecturae were abolished it became a municipium. The post station of Vicus Novus on the Via Salaria (mod. Osteria Li Massacci) belonged to its territory (see N. Persichetti in Römische Mitteilungen, 1898, p. 193). (5) Trebula Suffenas is generally placed 6 m. south of Reate (mod. Rieti) on the Via Quinctia, but is with considerable probability identified with Ciciliano, 10 m. east of Tivoli, 2030 ft. above sea-level, by O. Cuntz (Jahreshefte des oesterr. arch. Instituts, 1899, ii. 89), who combines the evidence of inscriptions and of the description in Martial (v. 71), with a new interpretation of the Itineraries. There are remains of an ancient road, with substructures in rough polygonal work ascending to it in zigzags.  (T. As.,)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Treble

See also Treble on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​TREBLE (a doublet of "triple", three-fold, from Lat. triplus, triple; cf. "double" from duplus), the term applies, in music, to the high or acute part of the musical system, as opposed to and distinguished from "bass," the lower or grave part. The middle C is the practical division between the parts. The word is also used as equivalent to the "soprano" voice, the highest pitch or range of the human voice, but generally it is confined to a boy's voice of this quality, "soprano" being used of the corresponding female voice. The treble-clef is the G-clef on the second line. The origin of this application of the term "treble," triplus threefold, to the highest voice or part is due to the fact that in the early plain-song the chief melody was given to the tenor, the second part to the alto (discantus) and where a third part (triplum) was added it was assigned to the highest voice, the soprano or treble.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Samaniego, Felix Maria de

See also Félix María de Samaniego on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​ SAMANIEGO, FELIX MARIA DE (1745-1801), Spanish fabulist, was born at Laguardia (Álava) on the 12th of October 1745, and was educated at Valladolid. A government appointment was secured for him by his uncle the count de Peñaflorida. His Fábulas (1781-1784), one hundred and fifty-seven in number, were originally written for the boys educated in the school founded by the Biscayan Society. In the first instalment of his fables he admits that he had taken Iriarte for his model, a statement which proves that he had read Iriarte's fables in manuscript; he appears, however, to have resented their publication in 1782, and this led to a rancorous controversy between the former friends. Samaniego holds his own in the matters of quiet humour and careless grace, and his popularity continues. He died at Laguardia on the 11th of August 1801.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Samara (town)

See also Samara on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​SAMARA, a town of E. Russia, capital of the government of the same name, 305 m. by river S.S.E of Kazan and 261 m. by rail W.N.W. of Orenburg. Its population, which was 63,479 in 1883, numbered 91,672 in 1897. Owing to its situation on the left bank of the Volga, at the convergence of the Siberian and Central Asian railways, it has great commercial importance, especially as a depot for cereals and a centre for flour-milling. A considerable trade is also carried on in animal products, particularly hides. The other industries include iron-foundries, soap, candles, vehicles and glue factories, cooperages, tanneries, breweries and brick-works. The port is the best on the Volga. Three great fairs are held every year. The city, which gives title to a bishop of the Orthodox Greek Church, has three cathedrals, built in 1685, 1730–1735 and 1894 respectively, three public libraries, and a natural history and archaeological museum. It is famous for its kumis (mare’s milk) cures. Its foundation took place in 1586–1591 for the purpose of protecting the Russian frontier against the Bashkirs, the Kalmucks and the Nogai Tatars.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Samarium

See also Samarium on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​SAMARIUM [symbol Sm, atomic weight 150.4 (O=16)], a rare earth metal (see Rare Earths). The separation has been worked at by A. V. Welsbach, L. de Boisbaudran, Urbain and Lacombe (Complex rendus, 1903, 137, pp. 568, 792); Demarcay (ibid. 1900, 130, p. 1019); Benedicks; Feit and Przibylla (Zeit. anorg. Chem., 1905, 43, p. 202) and others. The metal may be obtained by reduction of its oxide with magnesium. It combines with hydrogen to form a hydride. The salts are mostly of yellowish colour. The chloride, SmCl$_3$·6H$_2$O, is a deliquescent solid which when heated in hydrochloric acid gas to 180° C. yields the anhydrous chloride. This anhydrous chloride is reduced to a lower chloride, of composition SmCl$_2$, when heated to a high temperature in a current of hydrogen or ammonia (Matignon and Cazes, Comptes rendus, 1906, 142, p. 183). The chloride, SmCl$_2$, is a brown crystalline powder which is decomposed by water with liberation of hydrogen and the formation of the oxide, Sm$_2$O$_3$, and an oxychloride, SmOCl. The fluoride, SmF$_3$·H$_2$O, was prepared by H. Moissan by acting with fluorine on the carbide. The sulphate, Sm$_2$(SO$_4$)$_3$·8H$_2$O, is obtained by the action of sulphuric acid on the nitrate. It forms double salts with the alkaline sulphates. The carbide, SmC$_2$, is formed when the oxide is heated with carbon in the electric furnace.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Salzkammergut

See also Salzkammergut on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​SALZKAMMERGUT, a district of Austria in the S.W. angle of the duchy of Upper Austria situated between Salzburg and Styria. It forms separate imperial domain of about 250 sq. m. and is famous for its fine scenery, which has gained for it the title of the “ Austrian Switzerland ”; but it owes its name (literally “ salt-exchequer property ”) and its economic importance to its valuable salt mines. It belongs to the region of the Eastern Alps, and contains the Dachstein group with the Dachstein (9830 ft.) and the Thorstein (9657 ft.). In the Dachstein group are found the most easterly glaciers of the Alps, of which the largest is the Karls-Eisfeld, nearly 2½ m. long and 1½ m. broad; the Ischler Alps with the Gamsfeld (6640 ft.), the Höllengebirge with the great Höllenkogel (6106 ft.), and the Schafberg (5837 ft.), which is called the “ Austrian Rigi.” Then comes the Todtes Gebirge, with the Grosser Priel (8246 ft.) and the Traunstein (5446 ft.) on the E. shore of the Traun lake; the Pyhrgas group with the Grosser Pyhrgas (7360 ft.) and the Sengsen or Sensen group, with the Hoher Nock (6431 ft.). The chief lakes are the Traun-see or Lake of Gmunden (1383 ft. above sea-level, 9 sq. m. in extent, 623 ft. deep); the Hallstatter-see or Lake of Hallstatt (1629 ft. above sea-level, 3½ sq. m. in extent, 409 ft. deep); the Atter-see or Kammer-see (1527 ft. abovesealevel, 18 sq. m. in extent, 560 ft. deep), the largest lake in Austria; the Mond-see (1560 ft. above the sea, 9 sq. m. in extent, 222 ft. deep) and the Aber-see or Lake of St Wolfgang (1742 ft. above sea-level, 5½ sq. m. in extent, 369 ft. deep). Salzkammergut had in 1900 a population of over 18,000. The capital of the district is Gmunden, and other places of importance are Ischl, Hallstatt and Ebensee (7656), which are important salt-mining centres. The salt extracted in Salzkammergut amounts to nearly 30% of the total Austrian production. Cattlerearing and forestry form the other principal occupations of the inhabitants.
See Kegele, Das Salzkammergut (Wien, 1897).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Samana Range

See also Samana Range on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​ SAMANA RANGE, a mountain ridge in Kohat district of the N.W. Frontier Province of India, commanding the S. boundary of Tirah. The ridge lies between the Khanki Valley on the N. and the Miranzai Valley on the S., and extends for some 30 m. W. from Hangu to the Samana Suk. It is some 6000 to 7000 ft. high. Beyond the Samana Suk lies the pass, known as the Chagru Kotal, across which the Tirah Expedition marched in 1897. On the opposite hill on the other side of this road is the famous position of Dargai (see Tirah Campaign). After the Miranzai Expedition of 1891 this range was occupied by British troops and eleven posts were established along its crest, the two chief posts being Fort Lockhart and Fort Gulistan. In 1897 all the forts on the Samana were attacked by the Orakzais, and this and the Afridi attack on the Khyber Pass were the two chief causes of the Tirah Expedition. When Lord Curzon reorganized the frontier in 1900, British garrisons were withdrawn from the Samana forts, which are now held by a corps of tribal police 450 strong, called the Samana Rifles.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Salzwedel

See also Salzwedel on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​SALZWEDEL, a town in the Prussian province of Saxony, in a plain on the navigable Jeetze, a tributary of the Elbe, 32 m. N.W. of Stendal and 106 m. by rail N.W. of Berlin, on the line to Bremen. Pop. (1905) 11,122. Salzwedel is partly surrounded by medieval walls and gates. The church of St Mary is a fine Gothic structure of the 13th century with live naves and a lofty spire. The old town hall, burnt down in 1895, has been replaced by a modern edifice. The industries include linen and damask weaving, tanning, brewing and the manufacture of pins, chemicals and machinery, and a brisk river trade is carried on in agricultural produce.
Salzwedel, formerly Soltwedel, was founded by the Saxons, and was from 1070 to 1170 the capital of the old or north Mark, also for a time called the “mark of Soltwedel,” the kernel of Brandenburg-Prussia. The old castle, perhaps founded by Charlemagne, was purchased in 1864 by the king of Prussia. Salzwedel was also a member of the Hanseatic League, and at the beginning of the 16th century seems to have transacted a great part of the inland commerce of North Germany.
See Pohlmann, Geschichte der Stadt Salzwedel (Halle, 1811), and Danneil, Geschichte der königlicheu Burg zu Salzwedel (Salzwedel, 1865).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Samain, Albert Victor

See also Albert Samain on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​SAMAIN, ALBERT VICTOR (1858–1900), French poet, was born at Lille on the 4th of April 1858. He was educated at the lycée of that town, and on leaving it entered a bank as a clerk. He enjoyed no literary associations, and his talent developed slowly in solitude. About 1884 Samain went to Paris, having ​obtained a clerkship in the Préfecture de la Seine, which he held for most of his life. He presently began to send poems to the Mercure de France, and these attracted attention. In 1893 he allowed a friend to print his earliest volume of poems, Au Jardin de l'infante, in a very small edition. This led to the sudden recognition of his talent, and to applause from critics of widely different schools. In 1897 this book was reprinted in a more popular form, with the addition of a section entitled L'Urne penchée. Samain's second volume, Aux flancs du vase, appeared in 1898. His health began to fail and he withdrew to the country, where he died, in the neighbourhood of the village of Magny-les-Hameaux, on the 18th of August 1900. A third volume of his poems, Le Chariot d'or, appeared after his death, with a lyrical drama, Polyphème (1901), which was produced at the Théâtre de l'Œuvre in 1904. The fame of Samain rapidly advanced when he was dead, and the general public awakened to the fact that this isolated writer was a poet of rare originality. He cultivated a delicate, languid beauty of imagery and an exquisite sense of verbal melody without attempting any revolution in prosody or identifying himself with any theory. Samain had no great range of talent, nor was he ambitious of many effects. Samain's natural life was patiently spent in squalid conditions; he escaped from them into an imaginative world of the most exquisite refinement. He has been compared to Watteau and Schumann; in his own art he bore some resemblance to Charles Baudelaire, and to the English poet Arthur O'Shaughnessy.
See also R. Doumic, “Trois Poètes,” in the Revue des deux mondes (Oct. 1900); L. Bocquet, Albert Samain, sa vie, son œuvre (1905); and E. W. Gosse, French Profiles (1905).  (E. G.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Waterspout

See also Waterspout on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​WATERSPOUT, a local vorticular storm occurring over a water-surface, and in origin and form similar to a tornado (q.v.) over the land. A whirling, funnel-shaped cloud, first observed as a pendant fr«m the mass of storm-cloud above, seems to grow downwards, tapering, towards the water-surface, which is violently agitated, and finally (when the spout is fully developed) appears to be drawn up to meet the cloud from above. This appearance is deceptive, as the bulk of the water carried along by the whirling spout is condensed from the atmosphere, and, even when the spout is formed over a salt-water surface, is found to be fresh. Waterspouts occur most frequently over the warm seas of the tropics, but they are not confined to the warmer tropical seasons, or even to low latitudes.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Waterton, Charles

See also Charles Waterton on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​WATERTON, CHARLES (1782–1865), English naturalist and traveller, was born at Walton Hall, near Pontefract, Yorkshire, on the 3rd of June 1782. After being educated at the Roman Catholic college of Stonyhurst, and travelling a short time in Spain, he went to Demcrara to manage some estates belonging to is family. He continued in this occupation for about eight years, when he began those wanderings upon the results of which his fame as a naturalist principally rests. In his first journey, which began in 1812, and the principal object of which was to collect the poison known as curare, he travelled through British Guiana by the Demerara and Essequibo rivers to the frontiers of Brazil, making many natural history collections and observations by the way. After spending some time in England he returned to South America in 1816, going by Pernambuco and Cayenne to British Guiana, where again he devoted his time to the most varied observations in natural history. For the third time, in 1820, he sailed from England for Demerara, and again he spent his time in similar pursuits. Another sojourn in England of about three years was followed by a visit to the United States in 1824; and, having touched at several of the West India islands, he again went on to Demerara, returning to England at the end of the year. In 1828 he published the results of his four journeys, under the title of Wanderings in South America—consisting largely of a collection of observations on the ​appearance, character and habits of many of the animals to be found in British Guiana. Waterton was a keen and accurate observer, and his descriptions are of a graphic and humorous character, rarely to be found in works on natural history. He married in 1829, and from that time lived mostly at Walton Hall, devoting himself to the improvement of his estate, to country pursuits, and to natural history observations. He also published three series of Essays in Natural History (1838, 1844, 1857). He died at Walton Hall on the 27th of May 1865, from the result of an accident. His only son, Edmund Waterton (1830-1887), was an antiquary, who paid special attention to rings; some of those he collected are in the Victoria and Albert Museum.