OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# The New International Encyclopædia/Asbjörnsen, Peter Christen

Edition of 1905. See also Peter Christen Asbjørnsen on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ASBJÖRNSEN, ȧs-byẽrn′sen, Peter Christen (1812-85). A distinguished Norwegian student of folk-lore and zoölogy, born at Christiania. He studied at Christiania University, and taught for several years. He made long journeys on foot for scientific purposes, in the course of which he collected popular tales and legends, which, in coöperation with his friend Jörgen Moe, the future Bishop of Christiansand (1838), he published, and later several times supplemented (Norwegian Folk Tales, 1842-44; Norwegian Fairy Tales and Folk Legends, 1845). His scientific researches earned him traveling stipends at intervals from 1846 to 1853. He then studied forestry, and held various official positions in connection with the forest and turf industries from 1860 to 1876, when he was pensioned. He made several important discoveries in deep-sea soundings, and wrote on zoölogy and other scientific subjects; but this side of his work is quite overshadowed by work in folk-lore, which shows literary talent and much originality. He did not, like the Grimms and Arnason, aim merely at reproduction, but retold the stories in settings that illustrated the life and mental horizon of the people, with exquisite bits of natural description that found immediate and wide recognition.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Ass, Feast of the

Edition of 1905. See also Feast of the Ass on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
ASS, Feast of the. A burlesque ceremony highly popular in northern France during the Middle Ages. It was of the nature of a parody on the service of the Church, but seems to have been instituted in good faith and without any intentional irreverence. It degenerated, however, into scurrilous indecency, and was prohibited by the ecclesiastical authorities in the Fifteenth Century. It was variously celebrated in different places; thus, e.g. at Rouen it occurred shortly before Christmas, and consisted in the representation of a little farce, in the principal scene of which Balaam's ass appeared before the altar of the cathedral and uttered a prophecy of the early coming of Christ. See Abbot of Joy.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Assab

Edition of 1905. See also Assab on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
ASSAB, ȧs-säb', or Saba, sä'bȧ. An inlet of the Red Sea, on the African coast, near Bab-el-Mandeb (Map: Africa, J 3). It is about 16 miles long by 5 miles wide, and about 50 feet deep at Busna, the main anchoring-place. Together with two small islands in front of it, Assab was ceded to the Italian Government, in 1881, by an Italian steamship company, which had acquired it in 1869. The town of Assab is situated at the entrance to the bay, and has a population of 500.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Asbury, Francis

Edition of 1905. See also Francis Asbury on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ASBURY, az1)er-i. Francis (1745-1816). The first bishop of the Methodist Episcopal Church ordained in the United States. He was born at Hamstead Bridge, 4 miles northwest ​of Birmingham, Eng., August 20 or 21, 1745. He obtained rudimentary education in a village school; at 18 became a local preacher; at 21 was received by Wesley into the itinerant ministry; and on October 27, 1771, landed in Philadelphia as a missionary in America. It was but three years after the building of the first Methodist church in the country, and there were only about 600 persons of the faith, chiefly in Phila- delphia and New York. When the Revolution began, Asbury sympathized with the people, and while Mr. Rankin, who was the ecclesiastical superior, returned to England, Asbury remained; though, like many other nonjurors, he was sub- jected to suspicion, and at one time to imprison- ment. After about two years of surveillance, the authorities concluded that the scruples of Asbury were not political, but religious, and he was permitted to go free. He improved his op- portunity, and when the war closed there were 83 Methodist ministers at work, and the member- ship reached 14,000. In 1784 the several societies were organized into an Episcopal Church, and Asbury and Thomas Coke were elected, by the conference in Baltimore, Md., 1784, joint superin- tendents. The title bishop was substituted later, which called out a rebuke from Wesley, who, however, approved of Asbury's superintendence. Thenceforward his life was devoted to preaching and the supervision and extension of churches. His labors were incessant, and his biography is itself a good history of the growth of Methodism 'in America. He never married, lest a wife should distract attention from his great work. He was always poor and always generous. In 1785 he laid the foundation for the first Methodist col- lege, and afterwards formed an educational plan for the whole country, by making districts with at least one classical academy in each. He was rather stout, of medium height, with a fresh countenance and a penetrating eye. Wesley alone was his superior as a practical worker and organizer, and the two were alike in zeal and spirit. During his ministry it is estimated that Asbury traveled more than 270,000 miles, visit- ing every part of the country: preached more than 16,000 sermons; ordained over 4000 minis- ters, and presided at 224 conferences. It is largely due to the labors of this indefatigable apostle that Methodism in America owes its excellent organization and wonderful growth. He died at Spottsylvania, Va., March 31, 1816. His only written works were his journals (New York, 1852), which are personally and his- torically of great value. For his biography, con- sult W. P. Strickland (New York, 1858), and Smith (Nashville, 1896).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Assai

Edition of 1905. See also Euterpe (palm) on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
ASSAI, ȧs-sī' (from the native Brazilian name of the palm-tree). A beverage much used at Pará and other places on the Amazon. It is prepared from the fruit of certain species of palm nearly allied to the cabbage palm of the West Indies. (See Areca; and Cabbage Palm.) The assai palms are remarkably slender trees, the most common species (Euterpe edulis) rising to the height of 60 or 80 feet, with a smooth stem only about 4 inches in diameter. The fruit is small, but is produced in great quantity upon branched spadices, which are thrown out horizontally beneath the crown of leaves. It consists of a hard seed, with a very thin covering of a firm pulp or flesh. The tree grows in swamps flooded by the high tides. Warm water is poured upon the fruit; and by rubbing and kneading, a liquid is procured, consisting simply of the pulp of the fruit and water, which is constantly sold in the streets of Pará, and of which the inhabitants are extremely fond. This is assai. It is a thick, creamy liquid, of a purplish color, and a flavor like that of a freshly gathered nut. It is commonly used with the bread made from Manioc (q.v.), called farina, and either with or without sugar. The stem of the assai palm is sometimes used for poles and rafters, and its terminal bud as a cabbage or as a salad with, oil and vinegar; but it is too much valued upon account of its fruit to be often cut down for these purposes. Another species, Euterpe catinga, is found in forests of a dry, sandy soil and very peculiar vegetation, known as catinga forests. The beverage made from it is sweeter than the common kind, but the product of the tree is much smaller.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Asboth, Sándor

Edition of 1905. See also Alexander Asboth on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ASBOTH, ŏsh'bōt, Sándor (Alexander) (1811-68). A Hungarian-American soldier. After fighting under Kossuth (1848-49), he accompanied him to America in 1851, and became a citizen of the United States. During the Civil War he commanded divisions under Frémont and Curtis, as brigadier-general, and was seriously wounded at the battles of Pea Ridge (March 7-8, 1862) and Marianna (September 27, 1864). He resigned with the brevet rank of major-general (August, 1865), and was United States Minister to the Argentine Republic (1866-68), where he died of his wounds.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Assal

Edition of 1905. See also Lake Assal (Djibouti) on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
ASSAL, ȧs-säl'. An important salt-lake in the east of Africa, near the head of the Bay of
Tajura. It is over 8 miles in length, and 4 miles broad, and its surface is over 530 feet below the sea-level. Its shores are covered with salt, which is exported in considerable quantities to Abyssinia.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Batta

See also Batta on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​BAT′TA (from Canarese bhatta, rice in the husk). An allowance in addition to the ordinary pay of officers of the British Army in India. See Pay and Allowances, Military.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Barthel, Melchior

Edition of 1905. See also Melchior Barthel on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
BARTHEL, bär'tel, Melchior (1625-72). A German sculptor. He was born at Dresden, and studied with his father and with Johann Boehme, of Schneeberg (1640-45), and settled at Dresden, where he was appointed sculptor to the court. His principal works are the colossal tomb of the Doge Giovanni Pesaro (Santa Maria dei Frari, Venice); the statue of John the Baptist (Oratory of Santa Maria, Nazareth); and a tomb in San Giovanni e Paolo, Venice. His numerous ivory carvings in the Green Vault at Dresden are considered superior to his more elaborate works.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Batshian

Edition of 1905. See also the disclaimer.
​BATSHIAN, bȧt-shyän′. See Batjan.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Battle, Trial by

Edition of 1905. See also Duel on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
BATTLE, Trial by, or Wager of. The determination of a controversy by a physical combat, conducted in the presence of judges and according to fixed judicial rules. Although “it prevails among all the races from which Britain derived its Teutonic blood,” it was not a legal institution of Anglo-Saxon England, but was introduced into Britain by William the Conqueror. Sir James Fitzjames Stephen has expressed the opinion that “trial by battle was only private war under regulations.” This view is rejected by Pollock and Maitland, however, as well as by other writers, who consider it a social process for the discovery of the truth. “What triumphed was not brute force, but the truth. The combatant who was worsted was a convicted perjurer.” Such was the theory underlying this form of trial.
It was employed both in criminal and civil controversies, but by Bracton's time it was limited to appeals of felony in criminal cases, and to the writ of right in civil cases. In the former, the combat was between the prosecutor of the felony and the alleged felon, unless one or the other was of unfit age or sex, where his or her place might be taken by a champion. In the civil proceeding by writ of right (the final remedy by a claimant of real property who could not rely on recent possession), either party could appear by champion. This led to the use of professional pugilists, and to the business of training and keeping such champions for hire. By the time of Edward I., any defendant to whom trial by battle was offered could decline and demand a trial by jury. On the other hand, the defendant, at least in an appeal of felony, retained the legal right to compel his prosecutor to do battle, until 1819, when the statute of 59 George III., c. 46, enacted that “all appeals of treason, murder, felony, or other offenses shall cease,” and that there should be no wager of battle either in criminal or civil controversies. Attempts had been made during the reigns of James I. and Charles I. to abolish trial by battle,
but without success, and its abolition in 1819 was due to the decision of the Court of King's Bench, in Ashford v. Thornton (reported in 1 Barnewall and Alderson, 405) that the defendant in an appeal of felony, who had demanded trial by battle, was entitled to it as “his lawful mode of trial.” In Scotland this mode of trial came to an end late in the Sixteenth Century, and throughout Britain it was practically obsolete from that time. Consult: Stephen, History of the Criminal Law of England (London, 1883); Pollock and Maitland, History of English Law (2d ed. Boston, 1899); Neilson, Trial by Combat (London, 1890).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Batoni, Pompeo Girolamo

Edition of 1905. See also Pompeo Batoni on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​BATONI, bȧ-tō′nē̇, or BATTONI, Pompeo Girolamo (1708-1787). An Italian painter, born at Lucca. He sought to counteract the mannerism prevalent in his day by reviving the style of Raphael and the earlier classicists. He was the greatest painter of Italy during the middle of the Eighteenth Century, and completed in all about 40 notable works, which are scattered throughout the principal art galleries of Europe. Among the most important of these are: Portraits of the Popes Benedict XIV., Clement XIII., and Pius VI., and of the Emperors Joseph II. and Leopold II.; “Marriage of Saint Catharine” (Quirinal, Rome); “Achilles” (Uffizi, Florence); “Choice of Hercules” (Turin Gallery); “Madonna” (Louvre, Paris); “Magdalen,” “John the Baptist,” and “The Fine Arts” (Dresden Gallery); “Marriage of Cupid and Psyche” (Berlin Museum). His “Magdalen” is universally considered his masterpiece.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Batrachia

Edition of 1905. See also the disclaimer.
​BATRACHIA, bȧ-trā′ki-ȧ (Gk. βάτραχος, batrachos, frog). A word synonymous with Amphibia (q.v.).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Battaks

See also Batak on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​BATTAKS, bät′tȧks, or BATTAS, bät′tȧz. The natives of the northern interior of Sumatra. Physically they are somewhat darker, taller, and stronger than the coast Malays, and are mesocephalic in head-form. One of the most individual of East Indian peoples, they present marked contrasts of culture and seeming savagery. A well-developed village life, agriculture (even including a plow), cattle-breeding of a notable sort, metal-working (even gold-weaving), and the arts of reading and writing, with an alphabet modified from the characters of the Asoka inscriptions, flourish on the one hand; while on the other there exist debt-slavery, permissive polygamy, exocannibalism, and man-eating as a punitory institution, together with primitive ancestor and spirit worship, influenced, as the mythological names, etc., indicate, by Hindu sources. The Battaks proved remarkably unresponsive to the world of Islam, with which they have for centuries been in more or less close contact. The house-architecture of the Battaks, solider than the general Malay type, is a modification of the pile-dwelling of a shore people, to suit the highlands, while in parts of the area the primitive tree-house still survives. Their palisaded kampongs (villages) and other war devices are of interest. A collection of 60 views of houses, landscapes, natives, etc., from the Battak country was published in 1880 by the Penang Photographic Studio. Since the account of the Battaks by Junghuhn in 1847, there have been several studies of this interesting Malay people, the chief of which are: Schreiber, Die Battaländer in ihrem Verhältniss zu den Malaien auf Sumatra (Barmen, 1847); and Brenner, Besuch bei den Kannibalen Sumatras (Wüizburg, 1893).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Baton Rouge

Edition of 1905. See also Baton Rouge, Louisiana on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​BATON ROUGE, băt′on ro͞ozh (Fr., red baton or stick). The capital of Louisiana, 89 miles by rail northwest of New Orleans, on the eastern bank of the Mississippi, and on the Yazoo and Mississippi Valley and the Texas and Pacific railroads (Map: Louisiana, D 3). It is a picturesque city, built on the river bluff, and many of its houses are quaint and old, of French and Spanish styles. Baton Rouge is the seat of the State University, organized in 1860, and contains State educational institutions for the deaf and dumb and blind, orphan asylums. State penitentiary, and State Agricultural Experiment Station. Other features of interest are: The State Capitol, the courthouse, city hall, post-office, high-school building, and a national cemetery. There are extensive manufacturing interests, including lumber, cottonseed products, brick, sugar, and artificial ice. The city is governed, under a charter of 1898, by a mayor, elected every four years, and a city council, which has power of election in departments of police, improvements, finance, and judiciary. Baton Rouge was one of the earliest French settlements in Louisiana. At the beginning of the Revolution it was strongly garrisoned by the English, but in September, 1779, was taken by a large Spanish force under Governor Galvez. Baton Rouge became the capital of the State in 1849, and on January 26, 1861, the Louisiana ordinance of secession was adopted here. On August 5, 1862, a Union force, under Gen. Thomas Williams, was fiercely attacked here by a strong Confederate force under Gen. John C. Breckenridge, the latter being repulsed after two hours of severe fighting, though General Williams lost his life. Population, in 1890, 10,478; in 1900, 11,269.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Batrachomyomachia

Edition of 1905. See also Batrachomyomachia on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​BATRACHOMYOMA′CHIA (Gk. βατραχομυομαχία, ‘The Battle of the Frogs and the Mice,’ from βάτραχος, batrachos, frog + μῦς, mys, mouse + μάχη, machē, battle). A Greek mock-heroic poem, erroneously bearing the name of Homer. The ancients said that its actual author was Pigres of Caria, brother of Queen Artemisia, who joined Xerxes in his invasion of Greece. The poem is a parody on the Iliad, in which the military preparations and contests of beasts, single combats, intervention of the gods, and other Homeric circumstances are described with much humor. Chief critical edition by Ludwich (Leipzig, 1896).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Ghazali, Abu Hamid Mohammed ibn Mohammed al

Edition of 1906. See also Al-Ghazali on Wikipedia; the briefer article on Ghazali at Al-Gazali, Abu Hamid Mohammed.; and the disclaimer.
GHAZALI, gȧ-zä'lḗ, Abu Hamid Mohammed ibn Mohammed al. A celebrated Arabian philosopher, born at Tus in Khorassan. He began his studies in his native town, and continued them at Nishapur. In 1091 he went to Bagdad, at that time a seat of Arabic learning, and became a teacher. His religious views, however, underwent a change, and in consequence he resigned his position after four years. He then made the pilgrimage to Mecca, traveled to Damascus and Jerusalem, and gradually came to adopt an ascetic life. In 1106 he returned to Tus, leaving it again at the solicitation of Mohammed ibn Malik Shah, to teach at Nishapur. He soon came back to Tus, and established a monastery for Sufites and a school for theological studies. Ghazali began with the Aristotelian system, but later turned against it in his Tahafut al-Falasifa (Destruction of Philosophers), a work which was answered by Averroës. His most important work was the Ikhya ulum ad-din (Restoration of Religious Sciences), in which he seeks to remove the dead formalism that had grown up in Islam, and to spiritualize it instead. An ethical work of Ghazali, Ayyuha l-walad (O Child), has been translated into German by Hammer-Purgstall (1838). Among his other works may be mentioned Al-munkidh min addalal, an account of his philosophy, translated into French by Barbier de Meynard in Journal Asiatique (Paris, 1877); Makasid al-falasifa (Tendencies of the Philosophers), of which two chapters were published by Beer (Leyden, 1888); Mizan al-amal, a work on morals, a Hebrew translation of which was published by Goldenthal (1839); and Ad-durrak al-fahira (The Costly Pearl), a work on Mohammedan eschatology (text and French translation by Gautier, Paris, 1878). Ghazali's unpublished works are numerous, and treat of such varied subjects as theology, ethics, jurisprudence, philosophy, and
poetry. Consult Gosche, Ueber Ghazzali's Leben und Werke (Berlin, 1859).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Gernsheim, Friedrich

Edition of 1906. See also Friedrich Gernsheim on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
GERNSHEIM, gĕrns′hīm, Friedrich (1839—). A German composer. He was born at Worms, and studied at Mainz (under Pauer), Frankfort-on-the-Main, at the Leipzig Conservatory, and in Paris. After conducting at Saarbrücken (1861-65) he was called to the Conservatory of Cologne, where he also conducted several musical societies, and in 1873 was appointed to the leadership of the opera orchestra. He was afterwards long associated, as the successor of Bargiel, with the Conservatory at Rotterdam, where he
also conducted the famous ‘Winter Concerts,’ and after 1890 was conductor of the Stern Choral Society in Berlin, one of the most prominent singing societies of Germany. His compositions include symphonies, overtures, choral works, and a great variety of chamber music.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Gessner, Ludwig

Edition of 1905. See also the disclaimer.
GESSNER, gĕs'nẽr, Ludwig (1828-90). A German jurist. He was born at Axthausen, and was educated at Halle, Heidelberg, and Berlin. He held important positions in the German Ministries of War, State, and Foreign Affairs, and wrote a number of valuable contributions to marine and international law, including: Das Recht des neutralen Seehandels (1855); Le droit des neutres sur mer (2d ed. 1876); Zur Reform des Kriegs-Seerechts (1875); “Die Staatsverträge im allgemeinen.” in Holtzendorff's Handbuch des Völkerrechts (1887).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Gildemeister, Johann

Edition of 1906. See also Johann Gildemeister on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
GILDEMEISTER, gĭl'de-mī'stẽr, Johann (1812-90). A German Orientalist, born at Klein-Siemen (Mecklenburg). He studied at Göttingen and Bonn; in 1839 became lecturer in Oriental languages and literatures at Bonn, and in 1844 professor there. From 1845 to 1859 he was at Marburg as professor of theology and Oriental literature, and in the latter year accepted the chair of Oriental languages at Bonn. His publications include: Sexti Sententiæ (1874); Esdræ Liber Quartus Arabice (1877); Idrisii Palæstina et Syria Arabica (1885); and an edition of the Meghaduta and Çrigaratilaka (1840) of Kalidasa. He was one of the founders of the German Oriental Society.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Gildemeister, Otto

Edition of 1906. See also Otto Gildemeister on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
GILDEMEISTER, Otto (1823-1902). A German journalist and translator, born in Bremen. In 1850 he became editor-in-chief of the Weser-Zeitung of Bremen. He is known for his German renderings of Byron's complete works (1864-65; 4th ed. 1888); of a number of plays of Shakespeare, including the historical ones, for the Bodenstedt edition; of Shakespeare's Sonnets (1871); Ariosto's Orlando Furioso (4 vols., 1882); and Dante's Divina Commedia (1888; 3d ed. 1900).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Gerok, Karl

Edition of 1906. See also Karl Gerok on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
GEROK, gā′rṓk, Karl (1815-90). A German preacher and religious poet. He was born at Vaihingen, Württemberg, January 30, 1815, studied at Tübingen, became chief Court preacher in Stuttgart, 1868, and died there January 14, 1890. His sermons, and particularly his religious poetry, were much admired. The chief collection of the latter was entitled Palmblätter (1857), English translation by Brown (London, 1869).