OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pyrolusite

See also Pyrolusite on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​PYROLUSITE, a mineral consisting essentially of manganese dioxide (MnO$_2$), of importance as an ore of manganese. It is a soft, black, amorphous mineral, often with a granular, fibrous or columnar structure, and sometimes forming reniform crusts. It has a metallic lustre, and a black or bluish-black streak, and readily soils the fingers. The specific gravity is about 4.8. Supposed crystals of pyrolusite have been proved to be pseudomorphs after manganite; in fact the mineral often results by the dehydration and oxidation of manganite (Mn$_2$O$_3$⋅H$_2$O), and for this reason it frequently contains a little water. True crystals of manganese dioxide are referred to the rare species polianite: they are tetragonal and isomorphous with cassiterite. Pyrolusite is an alteration product of other manganese minerals—manganite, rhodochrosite, rhodonite, &c. It occurs as irregular masses and nodules in the residual clayey materials resulting from the decomposition of various rocks, for example, limestone. That it is readily deposited from solution is shown by the frequent occurrence of black dendritic markings in the crevices of rocks, excellent examples of which are seen in mocha stone (q.v.) and in the lithographic stone of Solenhofen in Bavaria. It is deposited from the waters of some springs, and manganiferous nodules are dredged from the Hoor of the deep sea.
As an ore it is extensively mined at Ilmenau and several other places in Thuringia, at Vorderehrensdorf near Prossnitz in Moravia, Platten in Bohemia, in North Wales, at several places in the United States (Vermont, Virginia, Arkansas, &c.), Nova Scotia and Brazil. Pyrolusite, together with the rather less important ore, psilomelane, has various economic applications. It is extensively used for the manufacture of spiegeleisen and ferromanganese, and of various alloys, such as manganese-bronze. As an oxidizing agent it is used in the preparation of chlorine and disinfectants (permanganates), and for decolorizing glass: when mixed with molten glass it oxidizes the ferrous iron to ferric iron, and so discharges the green and brown tints, hence the name pyrolusite, from Gr. πῦρ (fire) and λύειν (to wash). As a colouring material, it is used in calico printing and dyeing; for imparting violet, amber and black colours to glass, pottery and bricks; and in the manufacture of green and violet paints. (L. J. S.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pyrophorus

See also Pyrophorus on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​PYROPHORUS (Gr. πῦρ, fire, φέρειν, to bear), a substance which spontaneously inflames on contact with the air. One of the earliest known is that of Homberg, prepared by heating a mixture of alum and finely divided carbon to redness in a closed tube. On opening the tube and emptying out the black residue (consisting of potassium sulphide, aluminium sulphate and carbon) it promptly catches fire. Many readily oxidizable substances, especially when very finely divided, have the same property. Metallic iron and cobalt, when prepared under certain conditions, are pyrophoric, as is also ferrous oxide. Spontaneously inflammable liquids are also known, e.g. certain alkyl metallic compounds, phosphorus dihydride, &c.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Respondent

See also Respondent on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​RESPONDENT (from Lat. respondere, to answer), strictly, one who answers; in law one called upon to answer a petition or other proceeding. In a matrimonial cause the defendant in the suit is called the respondent. The defendant to a quarter sessions appeal is called the respondent, and so generally in appeals is the party, whether plaintiff or defendant, against whom the appeal is brought.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Retable

See also Retable on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​RETABLE (Fr. rétable, a shortened form derived from Med. Lat. retrotabulum), a term of ecclesiastical art and architecture, applied in modern English usage to an altar-ledge or shelf, raised slightly above the back of the altar or communion table, on which are placed the cross, ceremonial candlesticks and other ornaments. Retables may be lawfully used in the church of England (Liddell & Beale, 1860, 14 P.C.).
Foreign usage of the term, as in French, is different, and where the word is kept with this foreign application, the distinction should be observed. The Med. Lat. retrotabulum (modernized retabulum) was applied to an architectural feature set up at the back of an altar, and generally taking the form of a screen framing a picture, carved or sculptured work in wood or stone, or mosaic, or of a movable feature such as the famous Pala d’ Oro in St Mark’s, Venice, of gold, jewels and enamels. The foreign “rétable” is, therefore, what should in English be called a “reredos” (q.v.), though that is not in modern usage a movable feature.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Retail

See also Retail on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​RETAIL, the sale of goods or commodities in small quantities to the immediate consumer, opposed to a sale wholesale or in gross. The O. Fr. retaille, from which the word is taken, meant a piece cut off, from tailler, to cut, Med. Lat. taleare, Lat. talea, a rod, cutting for planting. The English meaning appears in Anglo-French and in the Italian retaglio, selling by the piece. The other meaning of “retail,” to repeat a story, is a transferred sense of an early meaning, “to sell at second hand.” The Latin source is also seen in the related Words “entail,” “tailor,” “detail” and “tally.”
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rest

See also Rest (finance) and Rest (music) on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​REST (O. Eng. rast, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Rüste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place), a cessation from active or regular work, hence a time of relief from mental or manual labour. Specific meanings are for an interval of silence in music, marked by a sign indicating the length of the pause; for the forked support with iron-shod spike carried by the soldier till the end of the 17th century as a rest for the heavy musket; and for the support for the cue in billiards to be used when the striking ball is out of reach of the natural rest formed by the hand. In the medieval armour of the horsed man-at-arms, and later in the armour of the tournament, a contrivance was fixed to the side of the body-armour near the right arm-pit, in which the butt-end of the lance was placed to prevent the lance being driven back after striking the opponent at full charge; hence a knight, as a preliminary to the charge, “laid his lance in rest.” This “rest” is arshortened form of “arrest,” to check, stop, as is seen by the French equivalent, arrêt. Further, “rest,” that which remains over and above, is derived from the French rester, to remain over, Lat. restare, to remain, literally, to stay behind. The principal specific use of this word is in commerce for the balance of undivided profit; it has thus always been the term used by the Bank of England for that which in other banks and companies is called the “reserve” (Hartley Withers, The Meaning of Money (1000). D. 298). The Bank of England “rest” is never allowed to fall below £3,000,000 (see Banks and Banking).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Restraint

See also Medical restraint and Restraint of trade on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​RESTRAINT (from “to restrain,” Lat. restringere, to hold back, prevent), in law, a restriction or limitation. The word is used particularly in three connexions: 1. Restraint on Anticipation. Although it is a principle of English law that there can be no restriction of the right of alienation of property vested in any person under an instrument, equity makes an exception in the case of a married woman, and has laid down the rule that property may be so settled to the separate use of a married woman that she cannot, during overture, alienate it or anticipate the income. Restraint on anticipation attaches only during overture and is therefore removed on widowhood, but it may attach again on remarriage. By the Conveyancing Act 1881, s. 39, a court may however, if it thinks fit, by judgment or order bind a married woman’s interest in her property, with her consent, if it appears to be for her benefit, notwithstanding that she is re stained from anticipating.
2. Restraint of Marriage.—A gift or bequest to a person may have a condition attached in restraint of marriage. This condition may be either general or partial. A condition in general restraint of marriage is void, as being contrary to public policy, although a condition in restraint of a second marriage is not void. A condition in partial restraint of marriage is valid, and may be either to restrain marriage with a particular class of persons, e.g. a papist, a domestic servant, or a Scotsman, or under a certain age.
3. Restraint of Trade.—A contract in general restraint of trade is void as being against public policy. In the leading case of Mitchell v. Reynolds, 1711, 1 Smith L.C., it was laid down that “it is the privilege of a trader in a free country, in all matters not contrary to law, to regulate his own mode of carrying it on according to his own discretion and choice. If the law has regulated or restrained his mode of doing this, the law must be obeyed. But no power short of the general law ought to restrain his free discretion.” It has been suggested that the rule dates from a time when a covenant by a man not to exercise his own trade meant a covenant not to exercise any trade at all—every man being obliged to confine himself to the trade to which he had been apprenticed. However, contracts which are only in partial restraint of trade are good. A contract not to carry on the business of an ironmonger would be bad; but a contract made by the seller of an ironmonger’s business not to compete with the buyer would be good. To make such a contract binding it must be founded on a valuable consideration and must not go beyond what is reasonably necessary for the protection of the other party. This is the tendency also of the law in the United States.
See Matthew on Restraint of Trade (1907).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Respond

See also Respond on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​RESPOND, in architecture, the term given to the half-pier or semi-detached column at the end of a range of piers or columns carrying an architrave or arcade. In Greek temples the respond is known as the anta. The term is also given to the wall pilaster which in Roman and Renaissance work is frequently placed behind the detached columns forming the decoration of a Wall.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Restout, Jean

See also Jean II Restout and Jean-Bernard Restout on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​RESTOUT, JEAN (1692–1768), French painter, born at Rouen on the 26th of March 1692, was the son of Jean Restout, the first of that name, and of Marie M. Jouvenet, sister and pupil of the well-known Jean Jouvenet. In 1717, the Royal Academy having elected him a member on his work for the Grand Prix, he remained in Paris, instead of proceeding to Italy, exhibited at all the salons, and filled successively every post of academical distinction. He died on the 1st of January 1768. His works, chiefly altar-pieces (Louvre Museum), ceilings and designs for Gobelin tapestries, were engraved by Cochin, Drevet and others; his diploma picture may still be seen at St Cloud.
His son, Jean Bernard Restout (1732–1797), won the Grand Prix in 1758, and on his return from Italy was received into the Academy; but his refusal to comply with rules led to a quarrel with that body. Roland appointed him keeper of the Garde Meuble, but this piece of favour nearly cost him his life during the Terror. The St Bruno painted by him at Rome is in the Louvre.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Reszke, Jean de

See also Jean de Reszke on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​RESZKE, JEAN DE (1850–), operatic singer, was born at Warsaw on the 14th of January 1850. His parents were Poles; his father was a state official and his mother a capable amateur singer, their house being a recognized musical centre. After singing as a boy in the Cathedral of Warsaw, he studied law in the university there, but in a few years he abandoned this and went to Italy to study singing. He made his first public appearance, as a baritone, at Venice in January 1874, as Alfonso in La Favorita, and in the following April he sang for the first time in London, appearing at Drury Lane Theatre, and a little later in Paris. He was not entirely successful and retired for a further period of study, during which his voice gained remarkably in the upper register; so that when he made his first reappearance at Madrid in 1879 it was as a tenor, in the title-rôle of Robert le Diable. Jean de Reszke’s great fame as a singer dates from this time. For several seasons he sang regularly in Paris, and he reappeared at Drury Lane in 1887 as Radames. In the next year he was again in London, this time at Covent Garden as Vasco da Gama; this appearance was mainly responsible for the revival of the opera as a fashionable amusement in London. He appeared in London nearly every year from this date until 1900. In 1891 he visited America, and from 1893 to 1899 he was welcomed each year at the Metropolitan Opera House in New York. Jean de Reszke’s most successful parts were the title-rôle of Le Cid, which was written for him by Massenet, and those of Romeo, Lancelot in Elaine, and Lohengrin, Walther von Stolzing, Siegfried and Tristan in Wagner’s operas. In 1904 illness compelled him to retire from the stage, and he subsequently divided his time between teaching singing in Paris and breeding race-horses in Poland.
Jean de Reszke’s younger brother, Edouard, born at Warsaw on the 23rd of December 1855, is also famous as an operatic singer. He appeared for the first time in Paris in April 1896, and has since sung with his brother for many seasons both in London and in New York. His magnificent bass voice and admirable technique earned him fame in such parts as those of Mephistopheles in Faust, Charles V. in Marchetti’s Don Giovanni d’ Austria, Walter in Tell, the Count in Sonnambula, Prince Gudal in Demonio, and Hans Sachs, King Mark, Hunding and Hagen in Wagner’s operas.
# Sacred Books of the East/Volume 3/The Shu/Part 3/Book 2

Book II. The Speech at Kan.
With this Book there commence the documents of the Shû that may be regarded, as I have said in the Introduction, as contemporaneous with the events which they describe. It is the first of the 'Speeches,' which form one class of the documents of the classic.
The text does not say who the king mentioned in it was, but the prevalent tradition has always been that he was Khî, the son and successor of Yü. Its place between the Tribute of Yü and the next Book belonging to the reign of Thâi Khang, Khî's son, corroborates this view.
Kan is taken as the name of a place in the southern border of the principality of Hû, with the lord of which Khî fought. The name of Hû itself still remains in the district so called of the department Hsî-an, in Shen-hsî.
The king, about to engage in battle with a rebellious vassal, assembles his generals and troops, and addresses them. He declares obscurely the grounds of the expedition which he had undertaken, and concludes by stimulating the soldiers to the display of courage and observance of order by promises of reward and threats of punishment.
There was a great battle at Kan. (Previous to it), the king called together the six nobles, (the leaders of his six hosts), and said, 'Ah! all ye who ​are engaged in my six hosts, I have a solemn announcement to make to you.
'The lord of Hû wildly wastes and despises the five elements (that regulate the seasons), and has idly abandoned the three acknowledged commencements of the year. On this account Heaven is about to destroy him, and bring to an end his appointment (to Hû); and I am now reverently executing the punishment appointed by Heaven.*
'If you, (the archers) on the left, do not do your work on the left, it will be a disregard of my orders. If you, (the spearmen) on the right, do not do your work on the right, it will be a disregard of my orders. If you, charioteers, do not observe the rules for the management of your horses, it will be a disregard of my orders. You who obey my orders, shall be rewarded before (the spirits of) my ancestors; and you who disobey my orders, shall be put to death before the altar of the spirits of the land, and I will also put to death your children.'*
* ↑ The crimes of the lord of Hû are here very obscurely stated. With regard to the second of them, we know that Hsiâ commenced its year with the first month of spring, Shang a month earlier, and Kâu about mid-winter. It was understood that every dynasty should fix a new month for the beginning of the year, and the dynasty of Khin actually carried its first month back into our November. If the lord of Hû claimed to begin the year with another month than that which Yü had fixed, he was refusing submission to the new dynasty. No doubt, the object of the expedition was to put down a dangerous rival.
* ↑ The chariots were the principal part of an ancient Chinese army; it is long before we read of cavalry. A war-chariot generally carried three. The driver was in the centre; on his left was an archer, and a spearman occupied the place on his right. They all wore mail.
# Sacred Books of the East/Volume 3/The Shu/Part 4/Book 10

Book X. The Chief of the West's Conquest of Lî
The reigns of seven more kings of Yin or Shang have passed, and this Book brings us to the time of 'Kâu-hsin or Shâu, its last sovereign, B.C. 1154–1123. The House of Kâu begins to come to the front, for 'the Chief of the West' was one of the acknowledged founders of the Kâu dynasty;—whether Khang, known as king Wăn, or his son Fâ, known as king Wû, is uncertain. Khang's father, the duke of Kâu in the present department of Făng-hsiang, Shen-hsî, had been appointed Chief of the West, that is, of all the western portion of the kingdom, embracing Yü's provinces of Yung, Liang, and King. The same jurisdiction descended to his son and grandson. The state of Lî, the conquest of which is mentioned, was in the present department of Lû-an, Shan-hsî, within the royal domain, so that the Chief of the West was no longer confining himself to the west, but threatening the king himself.
Zû Î, a loyal officer, hears of the conquest of Lî, and hurries away to inform the king and warn him of the danger threatening the dynasty through his evil conduct. The king gives no heed to his remonstrances, and Zû Î retires, sighing over the ruin, which he sees is not to be averted.
The Book is classed, it would be hard to tell why, among the 'Announcements.'
The Chief of the West having subdued Lî, Zû Î was afraid, and hastened to report it to the king.
He said, 'Son of Heaven, Heaven is bringing to an end the dynasty of Yin;* the wisest men and the shell of the great tortoise do not presume to know anything fortunate for it.* It is not that the former kings do not aid us, the men of this later time;* but by your dissoluteness and sport you are bringing on the end yourself. On this account Heaven has cast us off, and there are no good harvests to supply us with food.* Men have no regard to their ​heavenly nature, and pay no obedience to the statutes (of the kingdom). (Yea), our people now all wish (the dynasty) to perish, saying, "Why does not Heaven send down its indignation? Why does not (some one with) its great appointment make his appearance? What has the present king to do with us?"'
The king said, 'Oh! was not my birth in accordance with the appointment of Heaven (in favour of my House)?' (On this) Zû Î returned (to his own city), and said, 'Your crimes, which are many, are registered above, and can you still appeal to the appointment of Heaven in your favour?* Yin will perish very shortly. As to all your deeds, can they but bring ruin on your country?'
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rawlinson, George

See also George Rawlinson on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​RAWLINSON, GEORGE (1812–1902), English scholar and historian, was born at Chadlington, Oxfordshire, on the 23rd November 1812, being the younger brother of Sir Henry Rawlinson (q.v.). Having taken his degree at Oxford (from Trinity College) in 1838, he was elected to a fellowship at Exeter College in 1840, of which from 1842 to 1846 he was fellow and tutor. He was ordained in 1841; was Bampton lecturer in 1859, and Camden professor of ancient history from 1861 to 1889. In 1872 he was appointed canon of Canterbury, and after 1888 he was rector of All Hallows, Lombard Street. In 1873 he was appointed proctor in Convocation for the Chapter of Canterbury. He married Louisa, daughter of Sir R. A. Chermside, in 1846. His chief publications are his translation of the History of Herodotus (in collaboration with Sir Henry Rawlinson and Sir Gardner Wilkinson), 1858–60; The Five Great Monarchies, of the Ancient Eastern World, 1862–67; The Sixth Great Oriental Monarchy (Parthian), 1873; The Seventh Great Oriental Monarchy (Sassanian), 1875; Manual of Ancient History, 1869; Historical Illustrations of the Old Testament, 1871; The Origin of Nations, 1877; History of Ancient Egypt, 1881; Egypt and Babylon, 1885; History of Phoenicia, 1889; Parthia, 1893; Memoir of Major-General Sir H. C. Rawlinson, 1898. He was a contributor to the Speaker’s Commentary, the Pulpit Commentary, Smith’s Dictionary of the Bible, and various similar publications; and he was the author of the article “Herodotus” in the 9th edition of the Ency. Brit. He died on the 7th of October 1902.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rawlinson, Richard

See also Richard Rawlinson on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​RAWLINSON, RICHARD (1690–1755), English antiquary and divine, was a younger son of Sir Thomas Rawlinson (1647–1708), lord mayor of London in 1705–6, and a brother of Thomas Rawlinson (1681–1725), the bibliophile. Born on the 3rd of January 1690, he was educated at St Paul’s school, at Eton, and at St John’s College, Oxford. In 1716 he was ordained, but as he was a nonjuror and a Jacobite the ceremony was performed by a nonjuring bishop, Jeremy Collier. Rawlinson then travelled in England and on the continent of Europe, where he passed several years, making collections of manuscripts, coins and curiosities. In 1728 he became a bishop among the nonjurors, but he hardly ever appears to have discharged episcopal functions, preferring to pass his time in collecting books and manuscripts, pictures and curiosities. He died at Islington on the 6th of April 1755. Rawlinson left his manuscripts, his curiosities, and some other property to the Bodleian Library; he endowed a professorship of Anglo-Saxon at Oxford, and was a benefactor to St John’s College.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rawtenstall

See also Rawtenstall on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​RAWTENSTALL, a municipal borough in the Rossendale parliamentary division of Lancashire, England, 171/2 m. N. by W. from Manchester by the Lancashire & Yorkshire railway. Pop. (1901) 31,053. This town is a modern creation of the cotton industry; at the beginning of the 19th century it was a secluded village in the wild hilly district of Rossendale Forest. The cotton and woollen industries employ the majority of the inhabitants, and there are stone quarries in the neighbourhood. The town was incorporated in 1891, and the corporation consists of a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 9535 acres.