OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Dunfermline, Alexander Seton, 1st Earl of

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​DUNFERMLINE, ALEXANDER SETON, 1st Earl of (c. 1555–1622), was the fourth son of George, 5th Lord Seton, and younger brother of Robert, 1st earl of Winton. He was sent as a boy to Rome, where he studied at the Jesuits’ College with a view to becoming a priest. He turned, however, to the study of law, and after some years’ residence in France was called to the bar about 1577. He was suspected of Romanist leanings by the officials of the Scottish kirk, and was temporarily deprived of the priory of Pluscardine, which had been granted to him by his god-mother, Queen Mary. In 1583 he accompanied his father, Lord Seton, on an embassy to Henry III. of France. His promotion was now rapid: he was made extraordinary lord of session in 1586 as prior of Pluscardine, ordinary lord of session in 1588 as lord Urquhart, judge in 1593, lord president of the court session in 1598, Baron Fyvie in 1597 and chancellor in 1604. In 1595 he was one of the commission formed by James VI. to control the royal finance. The eight commissioners were known from their number as the Octavians, and were relieved of their functions about two years later. Urquhart’s continued influence was, however, assured, in spite of the animosity of the kirk, by his appointment as lord provost of Edinburgh of nine successive years. He showed considerable independence in his relations with James VI., and dissuaded him from his intention of forming a standing army in readiness to enforce his claims to the English crown. He was entrusted with the care of Prince Charles, afterwards Charles I., after the king’s departure for England, and arranged the details of the union between Scotland and England. He became chancellor of Scotland in 1604, and on the 4th of March 1605 he was created earl of Dunfermline. He died at Pinkie House, near Musselburgh, on the 16th of June 1622.
His son Charles, 2nd earl of Dunfermline (c. 1608–1672), was the offspring of his third marriage with Margaret Hay, sister of John, 1st earl of Tweeddale. He signed the National Covenant and was one of the leaders of the Presbyterian party, but as one of the “Engagers” of 1648 he was prevented from holding any public office, and after the execution of Charles I. he joined Charles II. on the continent. He was made privy councillor at the Restoration, extraordinary lord of session and lord of the articles in 1667, and in 1671 lord privy seal. He died in May 1672. The earldom was then held successively by his sons Alexander (d. 1675) and James; but at the latter’s death, at St Germains on the 26th of December 1694, the title became extinct.
See G. Seton, Memoir of Alex. Seton, first Earl of Dunfermline (1882); and Sir Robert Douglas, Scots Peerage, vol. ii. (1906, edited by Sir J. B. Paul).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lumber

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​LUMBER, a word now meaning (1) useless discarded furniture or other rubbish, particularly if of a bulky or heavy character; (2) timber, when roughly sawn or cut into logs or beams (see Timber); (3) as a verb, to make a loud rumbling noise, to move in a clumsy heavy way, also to burden with useless material, to encumber. “Lumber” and “lumber-house” were formerly used for a pawnbroker’s shop, being in this sense a variant of “Lombard,” a name familiar throughout Europe for a banker, money-changer or pawnbroker. This has frequently been taken to be the origin of the word in sense (1), the reference being to the store of unredeemed and unsaleable articles accumulating in pawnbrokers’ shops. Skeat adopts this in preference to the connexion with “lumber” in sense (3), but thinks that the word may have been influenced by both sources (Etym. Dict., 1910). This word is probably of Scandinavian origin, and is cognate with a Swedish dialect word lomra, meaning “to roar,” a frequentative of ljumma, “to make a noise.” The English word may be of native origin and merely onomatopoeic. The New English Dictionary, though admitting the probability of the association with “Lombard,” prefers the second proposed derivation. The application of the word to timber is of American origin; the New English Dictionary quotes from Suffolk (Mass.) Deeds of 1662—“Freighted in Boston, with beames . . . boards . . . and other lumber.”
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lullaby

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​LULLABY, a cradle-song, a song sung to children to “lull” them to sleep; the melody being styled in Fr. berceuse and in Ger. Wiegenlied. “Lull,” cf. Swed. lulla, Du. lullen, &c., is of echoic or onomatopoeic origin, cf. Lat. lallare, to chatter.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lully, Jean-Baptiste

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​LULLY, JEAN-BAPTISTE (c. 1633–1687), Italian composer, was born in Florence. Through the duc de Guise he entered the services of Madame de Montpensier as scullery-boy, and with the help of this lady his musical talents were cultivated. A scurrilous poem on his patroness resulted in his dismissal. He then studied the theory of music under Métra and entered the orchestra of the French court, being subsequently appointed director of music to Louis XIV. and director of the Paris opera. The influence of his music produced a radical revolution in the style of the dances of the court itself. Instead of the slow and stately movements which had prevailed until then, he introduced lively ballets of rapid rhythm. In December 1661 he was naturalized as a Frenchman, his original name being Giovanni Battista Lulli. In 1662 he was appointed music master to the royal family. In 1681 he was made a court secretary to the king and ennobled. While directing a Te Deum on the 8th of January 1687 with a rather long baton he injured his foot so seriously that a cancerous growth resulted which caused his death on the 22nd of March. Having found a congenial poet in Quinault, Lully composed twenty operas, which met with a most enthusiastic reception. Indeed he has good claim to be considered the founder of French opera, forsaking the Italian method of separate recitative and aria for a dramatic consolidation of the two and a quickened action of the story such as was more congenial to the taste of the French public. He effected important improvements in the composition of the orchestra, into which he introduced several new instruments. Lully enjoyed the friendship of Molière, for some of whose best plays he composed illustrative music. His Miserere, written for the funeral of the minister Sequier, is a work of genius; and very remarkable are also his minor sacred compositions. On his death-bed he wrote Bisogna morire, peccatore.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lumbago

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​LUMBAGO, a term in medicine applied to a painful ailment affecting the muscles of the lower part of the back, generally regarded as of rheumatic origin. An attack of lumbago may occur alone, or be associated with rheumatism in other parts of the body. It usually comes on by a seizure, often sudden, of pain in one or both sides of the small of the back, of a severe cutting or stabbing character, greatly aggravated on movement of the body, especially in attempting to rise from the recumbent posture and also in the acts of drawing a deep breath, coughing or sneezing. So intense is the suffering that it is apt to suggest the existence of inflammation in some of the neighbouring internal organs, such as the kidneys, bowels, &c., but the absence of the symptoms specially characteristic of these latter complaints, or of any great constitutional disturbance beyond the pain, renders the diagnosis a matter of no great difficulty. Lumbago seems to be brought on by exposure to cold and damp, and by the other exciting causes of rheumatism. Sometimes it follows a strain of the muscles of the loins. The attack is in general of short duration, but occasionally it continues for a long time, as a feeling of soreness and stiffness on movement. The treatment includes that for rheumatic affections in general (see Rheumatism) and the application of local remedies to allay the pain.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lump-Sucker

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​LUMP-SUCKER, or Lump-Fish (Cyclopterus lumpus), a marine fish, which with another British genus (Liparis) and a few other genera forms a small family (Cyclopteridae). Like many littoral fishes of other families, the lump-suckers have the ventral fins united into a circular concave disk, which, acting as a sucker, enables them to attach themselves firmly to rocks or stones. The body (properly so called) is short and thick, with a thick and scaleless skin, covered with rough tubercles, the larger of which are arranged in four series along each side of the body. The first dorsal fin is almost entirely concealed by the skin, appearing merely as a lump on the back. The lump-sucker inhabits the coasts of both sides of the North Atlantic; it is not rare on the British coasts, but becomes more common farther north. It is so sluggish in its habits that individuals have been caught with sea-weed growing on their backs. In the spring the fish approaches the shores to spawn, clearing out a hollow on a stony bottom in which it deposits an immense quantity of pink-coloured ova. Fishermen assert that the male watches the spawn until the young are hatched, a statement which receives confirmation from the fact that the allied gobies, or at least some of them, take similar care of their progeny. The vernacular name, “cock and hen paddle,” given to the lump-fish on some parts of the coast, is probably expressive of the difference between the two sexes in their outward appearance, the male being only half or one-third the size of the female, and assuming during the spawning season a bright blue coloration, with red on the lower parts. This fish is generally not esteemed as food, but Franz Faber (Fische Islands, p. 53) states that the Icelanders consider the flesh of the male as a delicacy. The bones are so soft, and contain so little inorganic matter, that the old ichthyologists placed the lump-sucker among the cartilaginous fishes.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Luleå

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​LULEÅ, a seaport of Sweden, capital of the district (län) of Norrbotten, on the peninsula of Sandö, at the mouth of the Lule river and the north-west corner of the Gulf of Bothnia. Pop. (1900) 9484. It is connected at Boden (22 m. N.) with the main line of railway from Stockholm to Gellivara and Narvik on Ofoten Fjord in Norway. By this line Luleå is 723 m. N.N.E. of Stockholm. It is the shipping place for the iron ore mined at Gellivara, 127 m. N. by W., and there are smelting works at Karlsvik in the vicinity. Timber is also exported, being floated in large quantities down the Lule. As a rule the port is closed by ice from November to the end of May. The town was almost entirely burnt down in 1887, and its buildings are new—the church (1888–1893), the Norrbotten Museum and a technical school being the most important. Luleå as founded by Gustavus Adolphus was 7 m. higher up the river, but was moved to the present site in 1649.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lumsden, Sir Harry Burnett

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​LUMSDEN, SIR HARRY BURNETT (1821–1896), Anglo-Indian soldier, son of Colonel Thomas Lumsden, C.B., was born on the 12th of November 1821. He joined the 59th Bengal Native Infantry in 1838, was present at the forcing of the Khyber Pass in 1842, and went through the first and second Sikh wars, being wounded at Sobraon. Having become assistant to Sir Henry Lawrence at Lahore in 1846, he was appointed in 1847 to raise the Corps of Guides. The object of this corps, composed of horse and foot, was to provide trustworthy men to act as guides to troops in the field, and also to collect intelligence beyond as well as within the North-West frontier of India. The regiment was located at Mardan on the Peshawar border, and has become one of the most famous in the Indian army. For the equipment of this corps, Lumsden originated the khaki uniform. In 1857 he was sent on a mission to Kandahar with his younger brother, Sir Peter Lumsden, in connexion with the subsidy paid by the Indian government to the amir, and was in Afghanistan throughout the Mutiny. He took part in the Waziri Expedition of 1860, was in command of the Hyderabad Contingent from 1862, and left India in 1869. He became lieutenant-general in 1875, and died on the 12th of August 1896.
See Sir Peter Lumsden and George Elsmie, Lumsden of the Guides (1899).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Gradisca

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​GRADISCA, a town of Austria, in the province of Görz and Gradisca, 10 m. S.W. of Görz by rail. Pop. (1900) 3843, mostly Italians. It is situated on the right bank of the Isonzo and was formerly a strongly fortified place. Its principal industry is silk spinning. Gradisca originally formed part of the margraviate of Friuli, came under the patriarchate of Aquileia in 1028, and in 1420 to Venice. Between 1471 and 1481 Gradisca was fortified by the Venetians, but in 1511 they surrendered it to the emperor Maximilian I. In 1647 Gradisca and its territory, including Aquileia and forty-three smaller places, were erected into a separate countship in favour of Johann Anton von Eggenberg, duke of Krumau. On the extinction of his line in 1717, it reverted to Austria, and was completely incorporated with Görz in 1754. The name was revived by the constitution of 1861, which established the crownland of Görz and Gradisca.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Graduate

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​GRADUATE (Med. Lat. graduare, to admit to an academical degree, gradus), in Great Britain a verb now only used in the academical sense intransitively, i.e. “to take or proceed to a university degree,” and figuratively of acquiring knowledge of, or proficiency in, anything. The original transitive sense of “to confer or admit to a degree” is, however, still preserved in America, where the word is, moreover, not strictly confined to university degrees, but is used also of those successfully completing a course of study at any educational establishment. As a substantive, a “graduate” (Med. Lat. graduatus) is one who has taken a degree in a university. Those who have matriculated at a university, but not yet taken a degree, are known as “undergraduates.” The word “student,” used of undergraduates e.g. in Scottish universities, is never applied generally to those of the English and Irish universities. At Oxford the only “students” are the “senior students” (i.e. fellows) and “junior students” (i.e. undergraduates on the foundation, or “scholars”) of Christ Church. The verb “to graduate” is also used of dividing anything into degrees or parts in accordance with a given scale. For the scientific application see Graduation below. It may also mean “to arrange in gradations” or “to adjust or apportion according to a given scale.” Thus by “a graduated income-tax” is meant the system by which the percentage paid differs according to the amount of income on a pre-arranged scale.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Graces, The

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​GRACES, THE, (Gr. Χάριτες, Lat. Gratiae), in Greek mythology, the personification of grace and charm, both in nature and in moral action. The transition from a single goddess, Charis, to a number or group of Charites, is marked in Homer. In the Iliad one Charis is the wife of Hephaestus, another the promised wife of Sleep, while the plural Charites often occurs. The Charites are usually described as three in number—Aglaia (brightness), Euphrosyne (joyfulness), Thalia (bloom)—daughters of Zeus and Hera (or Eurynome, daughter of Oceanus), or of Helios and Aegle; in Sparta, however, only two were known, Cleta (noise) and Phaënna (light), as at Athens Auxo (increase) and Hegemone (queen). They are the friends of the Muses, with whom they live on Mount Olympus, and the companions of Aphrodite, of Peitho, the goddess of persuasion, and of Hermes, the god of eloquence, to each of whom charm is an indispensable adjunct. The need of their assistance to the artist is indicated by the union of Hephaestus and Charis. The most ancient seat of their cult was Orchomenus in Boeotia, where their oldest images, in the form of stones fallen from heaven, were set up in their temple. Their worship was said to have been instituted by Eteocles, whose three daughters fell into a well while dancing in their honour. At Orchomenus nightly dances took place, and the festival Charitesia, accompanied by musical contests, was celebrated; in Paros their worship was celebrated without music or garlands, since it was there that Minos, while sacrificing to the Charites, received the news of the death of his son Androgeus; at Messene they were revered together with the Eumenides; at Athens, their rites, kept secret from the profane, were held at the entrance to the Acropolis. It was by Auxo, Hegemone and Agraulos, the daughter of Cecrops, that young Athenians, on first receiving their spear and shield, took the oath to defend their country. In works of art the Charites were represented in early times as beautiful maidens of slender form, hand in hand or embracing one another and wearing drapery; later, the conception predominated of three naked figures gracefully intertwined. Their attributes were the myrtle, the rose and musical instruments. In Rome the Graces were never the objects of special religious reverence, but were described and represented by poets and artists in accordance with Greek models.
See F. H. Krause, Musen, Gratien, Horen, und Nymphen (1871), and the articles by Stoll and Furtwängler in Roscher’s Lexikon der Mythologie, and by S. Gsell in Daremberg and Saglio’s Dictionnaire des antiquités, with the bibliography.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Grackle

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* Gracula religiosa.
GRACKLE (Lat. Gracculus or Graculus), a word much used in ornithology, generally in a vague sense, though restricted to members of the families Sturnidae belonging to the Old World and Icteridae belonging to the New. Of the former those to which it has been most commonly applied are the species known as mynas, mainas, and minors of India and the adjacent countries, and especially the Gracula religiosa of Linnaeus, who, according to Jerdon and others, was probably led to confer this epithet upon it by confounding it with the Sturnus or Acridotheres tristis, which is regarded by the Hindus as sacred to Ram Deo, one of their deities, while the true Gracula religiosa does not seem to be anywhere held in veneration. This last is about 10 in. in length, clothed in a plumage of glossy black, with purple and green reflections, and a conspicuous patch of white on the quill-feathers of the wings. The bill is orange and the legs yellow, but the bird’s most characteristic feature is afforded by the curious wattles of bright yellow, which, beginning behind the eyes, run backwards in form of a lappet on each side, and then return in a narrow stripe to the top of the head. Beneath each eye also is a bare patch of the same colour. This species is common in southern India, and is represented farther to the north, in Ceylon, Burma, and some of the Malay Islands by cognate forms. They are all frugivorous, and, being easily tamed and learning to pronounce words very distinctly, are favourite cage-birds.
In America the name Grackle has been applied to several species of the genera Scolecophagus and Quiscalus, though these are more commonly called in the United States and Canada “blackbirds,” and some of them “boat-tails.” They all belong to the family Icteridae. The best known of these are the rusty grackle, S. ferrugineus, which is found in almost the whole of North America, and Q. purpureus, the purple grackle or crow-blackbird, of more limited range, for though abundant in most parts to the east of the Rocky Mountains, it seems not to appear on the Pacific side. There is also Brewer’s or the blue-headed grackle, S. cyanocephalus, which has a more western range, not occurring to the eastward of Kansas and Minnesota. A fourth species, Q. major, inhabits the Atlantic States as far north as North Carolina. All these birds are of exceedingly omnivorous habit, and though destroying large numbers of pernicious insects are in many places held in bad repute from the mischief they do to the corn-crops. (A. N.)
* ↑ By some writers the birds of the genera Acridotheres and Temenuchus are considered to be the true mynas, and the species of Gracula are called “hill mynas” by way of distinction.
* ↑ For a valuable monograph on the various species of Gracula and its allies see Professor Schlegel’s “Bijdrage tot de Kennis von het Geschlacht Beo’ ” (Nederlandsch Tijdschrift voor de Dierkunde i. 1-9).2
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Grado

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​GRADO, a town of northern Spain, in the province of Oviedo; 11 m. W. by N. of the city of Oviedo, on the river Cubia, a left-hand tributary of the Nalon. Pop. (1900) 17,125. Grado is built in the midst of a mountainous, well-wooded and fertile region. It has some trade in timber, live stock, cider and agricultural produce. The nearest railway station is that of the Fabrica de Trubia, a royal cannon-foundry and small-arms factory, 5 m. S.E.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Gradus

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​GRADUS, or Gradus ad Parnassum (a step to Parnassus), a Latin (or Greek) dictionary, in which the quantities of the vowels of the words are marked. Synonyms, epithets and poetical expressions and extracts are also included under the more important headings, the whole being intended as an aid for students in Greek and Latin verse composition. The first Latin gradus was compiled in 1702 by the Jesuit Paul Aler (1656–1727), a famous schoolmaster. There is a Latin gradus by C. D. Yonge (1850); English-Latin by A. C. Ainger and H. G. Wintle (1890); Greek by J. Brasse (1828) and E. Maltby (1815), bishop of Durham.