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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Shairp, John Campbell

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​SHAIRP, JOHN CAMPBELL (1819-1885), Scottish critic and man of letters, was born at Houstoun House, Linlithgowshire, on the 30th of July 1819. He was the third son of Major Norman Shairp of Houstoun, and was educated at Edinburgh Academy and Glasgow University. He gained the Snell exhibition, and entered at Balliol College, Oxford, in 1840. In 1842 he gained the Newdigate prize for a poem on Charles XII., and took his degree in 1844. During these years the “Oxford movement” was at its height. Shairp was stirred by Newman's sermons, and he had a great admiration for the poetry of Keble, on whose character and work he wrote an enthusiastic essay; but he remained faithful to his Presbyterian upbringing. After leaving Oxford he took a mastership at Rugby under Tait. In 1857 he became assistant to the professor of humanity in the university of St Andrews, and in 1861 he was appointed to that chair. In 1864 he published Kilmahoe, a Highland Pastoral, and in 1868 he republished some articles under the name of Studies in Poetry and Philosophy. In 1868 he was presented to the principalship of the United College, St Andrews, and lectured from time to time on literary and ethical subjects. A course of the lectures was published in 1870 as Culture and Religion. In 1873 Principal Shairp helped to edit the life of his predecessor J. D. Forbes, and in 1874 he edited Dorothy Wordsworth's charming Recollections of a Tour in Scotland. In 1877 he was elected professor of poetry at Oxford in succession to Sir F. H. Doyle. Of his lectures from this chair the best were published in 1881 as Aspects of Poetry. In 1877 he had published The Poetic Interpretation of Nature, in which he enters fully into the “old quarrel,” as Plato called it, between science and poetry, and traces with great clearness the ideas of nature in all the chief Hebrew, classical and English poets. In 1879 he contributed a life of Robert Burns to the “English Men of Letters” series. He was re-elected to the chair of ​poetry in 1882, and discharged his duties there and at St Andrews till the end of 1884. He died at Ormsary, Argyllshire, on the 18th of September 1885. In 1888 appeared Glen Desseray, and other Poems, edited by F. T. Palgrave.
See W. A. Knight's Principal Shairp and his Friends (1888).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Shah Shuja

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​SHAH SHUJA (1780?-1842), king of Afghanistan, was the son of Timur Shah, and grandson of Ahmad Shah, founder of the Durani dynasty. After conspiracies that caused the dethronement of two brothers, Taman Shah and Mahmud Shah, he became king in 1803. He was, however, in his turn driven out of Afghanistan in 1809 by Mahmud Shah, and found refuge and a pension in British territory. Distrusting the attitude of the Amir Dost Mahommed towards Russia, Lord Auckland in 1839 attempted to restore Shah Shuja to the throne against the wishes of the Afghan people. This policy led to the disastrous first Afghan War. After the retreat of the British troops from Kabul, Shah Shaja shut himself up in the Bala Hissar. He left this retreat on the 5th of April 1842, and was immediately killed by the adherents of Dost Mahommed and his son Akbar Khan.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Shahjahanpur

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​SHAHJAHANPUR, a city and district of British India, in the Bareilly division of the United Provinces. The city is on the left bank of the river Deoha or Garra, 507 ft. above the sea-level, with a station on the Oudh and Rohilkhand railway, 768 m. N.W. of Calcutta, and a military cantonment. Pop. ​(1901) 75,128. It was founded in 1647 during the reign of Shah Jahan, whose name it bears, by Nawab Bahadur Khan, a Pathan. His mosque is the only building of antiquarian interest. There is a manufacture of sugar, but no great trade.
The District of Shahjahanpur has an area of 1727 sq. m. It consists of a long and narrow tract running up from the Ganges towards the Himalayas, and is for the most part level and without any hills. The principal rivers are the Gumti, Khanaut, Garai and Ramganga. To the north-east the country resembles the tarai in the preponderance of waste and forest over cultivated land, in the sparseness of population and in general unhealthiness. Between the Gumti and the Khanaut the country varies from a rather wild and unhealthy northern region to a densely inhabited tract in the south, with a productive soil cultivated with sugar-cane and other remunerative crops. The section between the Deoha and Garai comprises much marshy land;but south of the Garai, and between it and the Ramganga, the soil is mostly of a sandy nature. From the Ramganga to the Ganges in the south is a continuous low country of marshy patches, alternating with a hard clayey soil that requires much irrigation in parts. Shahjahanpur contains a number of jhils or lakes, which afford irrigation for the spring crops. The climate is very similar to that of most parts of Oudh and Rohilkhand, but moister than that of the Doab. The annual rainfall averages about 37 in. In 1901 the population was 921,535. The principal crops are wheat, rice, pulse, millets, sugar-cane and poppy. The district suffered very severely from the famine of 1877–1879. It is traversed by the Lucknow-Bareilly section of the Oudh and Rohilkhand railway, with a branch northwards from Shahjahanpur city. At Rosa is a large sugar refinery and rum distillery.
Shahjahanpur was ceded to the English by the nawab of Oudh in 1801. During the Mutiny of 1857 it became the scene of open rebellion. The Europeans were attacked when in church; three were shot down, but the remainder, aided by a hundred faithful sepoys, escaped. The force under Lord Clyde put a stop to the anarchy in April 1858, and shortly afterwards peace and authority were restored.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Scott, Michael

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​SCOTT, MICHAEL (1789–1835), British author, was born at Cowlairs, near Glasgow, on the 30th of October 1789, the son of a Glasgow merchant. In 1806 he went to Jamaica, first managing some estates, and afterwards joining a business firm in Kingston. The latter post necessitated his making frequent journeys, on the incidents of which he based his best known book, Tom Cringle's Log. In 1822 he left Jamaica and settled in Glasgow, where he engaged in business. Tom Cringle's Log began to appear serially in Blackwood's Magazine in 1829. Scott's second story, The Cruise of the Midge, was also first published serially in Blackwood's in 1834–1835. The first appearance in book-form of each story was in Paris in 1834. Both stories were originally published anonymously, and their authorship was not known till after Scott's death at Glasgow, on the 7th of November 1835.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Scott, David

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​SCOTT, DAVID (1806–1849), Scottish historical painter, brother of William Bell Scott, was born at Edinburgh in October 1806, and studied art under his father, Robert Scott, the engraver. In 1828 he exhibited his first oil picture, the “Hopes of Early Genius dispelled by Death,” which was followed by “Cain, Nimrod, Adam and Eve singing their Morning Hymn,” “Sarpedon carried by Sleep and Death,” and other subjects of a poetic and imaginative character. In 1829 he became a member of the Scottish Academy, and in 1832 visited Italy, where he spent more than a year in study. At Rome he executed a large symbolical painting, entitled the “Agony of Discord, or the Household Gods Destroyed.” The works of his later years include “Vasco da Gama encountering the Spirit of the Storm,” a picture—immense in size and most powerful in conception—finished in 1842, and now preserved in the Trinity House, Leith; the “Duke of Gloucester entering the Water Gate of Calais” (1841); the “Alchemist” (1838), “Queen Elizabeth at the Globe Theatre” (1840) and “Peter the Hermit” (1845), remarkable for varied and elaborate character painting; and “Ariel and Caliban” (1837) and the “Triumph of Love” (1846), distinguished by beauty of colouring and depth of poetic feeling. The most important of his religious subjects are the “Descent from the Cross” (1835) and the “Crucifixion—the Dead Rising” (1844). Scott also executed several remarkable series of designs. Two of these—the Monograms of Man and the illustrations to Coleridge’s Ancient Mariner—were etched by his own hand, and published in 1831 and 1837 respectively, while his subjects from the Pilgrim’s Progress and Nichol’s Architecture of the Heavens were issued after his death. He died in Edinburgh on the 5th of March 1849.
See W. Bell Scott, Memoir of David Scott, R.S.A. (1850), and J. M. Gray, David Scott, R.S.A., and his Works (1884).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Scourge

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SCOURGE (Ital. scoriada, from Lat. excoriare, to flay, corium, skin), a whip or lash, especially one used for the infliction of punishment. The typical scourge (Lat. flagellum) has several
thongs or lashes attached to a single handle, as in the modern “cat-o'-nine-tails.” The scourge or flail, and the crook, are the two symbols of power and domination depicted in the hands of Osiris in ancient Egyptian monuments; these show the unchanging form of the instrument throughout the ages.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Scott, William Bell

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​SCOTT, WILLIAM BELL (1811-1890), British poet and artist, son of Robert Scott (1777-1841), the engraver, and brother of David Scott, the painter, was born in Edinburgh on the 12th of September 1811. While a young man he studied art and assisted his father, and he published verses in the Scottish magazines. In 1837 he went to London, where he became sufficiently well known as an artist to be appointed in 1844 master of the government school of design at Newcastle-on-Tyne. He held the post for twenty years, and did good work in organizing art-teaching and examining under the Science and Art Department. He did much fine decorative work, too, on his own account, notably at Wellington Hall, in the shape of eight large pictures illustrating Border history, with life-size figures, supplemented by eighteen pictures illustrating the ballad of Chevy Chase in the spandrels of the arches of the hall. For Penhill Castle, Perthshire, he executed a similar series, illustrating The King's Quhair. After 1870 he was much in London, where he bought a house in Chelsea, and he was an intimate friend of Rossetti and in high repute as an artist and an author. His poetry, which he published at intervals (notably Poems, 1875, illustrated by etchings by himself and Alma-Tadema), recalled Blake and Shelley, and was considerably influenced by Rossetti; he also wrote several volumes of artistic and literary criticism, and edited Keats, “L.E.L.,” Byron, Coleridge, Shelley, Shakespeare and Scott. He resigned his appointment under the Science and Art Department in 1885, and from then till his death (22nd November 1890) he was mainly occupied in writing his reminiscences, which were published posthumously in 1802, with a memoir by Professor Minto. It is for his connexion with Rossetti's circle that Bell Scott will be chiefly remembered.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Scoundrel

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SCOUNDREL, a rogue, a rascal. Etymologists have referred the word to various sources; but Skeat (Etym. Dict.) refers it to the provincial or Scottish scunner (O. Eng. scunian, to shun), to shrink back in fear or loathing.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Scott, Alexander

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​SCOTT, ALEXANDER (fl. 1550), Scottish poet, was probably a Lothian man, but particulars of his origin and of his life are entirely wanting. It is only by gathering together a few scraps of internal evidence that we learn that his poems were written between 1545 and 1568 (the date of the Bannatyne MS., the only MS. authority for the text). Allan Ramsay was the first to bring Scott’s work to the notice of modern readers, by printing some of the poems in his Ever Green. In a copy of verses (“Some Few of the Contents”) on the Bannatyne MS., he thus refers to Scott:
* “Licht skirtit lasses, and the girnand wyfe,
* Fleming and Scot haif painted to the lyfe.
* Scot, sweit tunged Scot, quha sings the welcum hame
* To Mary, our maist bony soverane dame;
* How lyflie he and amorous Stuart sing!
* Quhen lufe and bewtie bid them spred the wing.”
The sketch is just, for Scott’s poems deal chiefly with female character and with passion of a strongly erotic type. He is “sweit tunged,” for his technique is always good, and his lyrical measures show remarkable accomplishment. In this respect he holds his own with the best of the “makars” represented in the Bannatyne MS. In what may appear excessive coarseness to present-day taste, he makes good claim to rival Dunbar and his contemporaries. The poems referred to by Ramsay are “Ane Ballat maid to the Derisioun and Scorne of Wantoun Wemen,” “Ane New Yeir Gift to the Queen Mary quhen scho come first Hame, 1562,” and some or all of his amorous songs (about 30 in number). Of these “To luve unluvit,” “Ladeis, be war,” and “Lo, quhat it is to lufe” are favourable examples of his style. No early Scots poet comes nearer the quality of the Caroline love-lyric. His Justing and Debait vp at the Drum betwix W [illiam] Adamsone and Johine Sym follows the literary tradition of Peblis to the Play and Christis Kirk on the Grene. He has left verse-renderings of the 1st and 50th Psalms.
The first collected edition was printed by D. Laing in 1821; a second was issued privately at Glasgow in 1882. The latest edition is that by James Cranstoun (Scottish Text Society, 1 vol., 1896).  (G. G. S.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Scott, Robert

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​SCOTT, ROBERT (1811–1887), English divine and lexicographer, was born on the 26th of January 1811, at Bondleigh in Devonshire, where his father was rector. Educated at Shrewsbury School and Christ Church, Oxford, after a brilliant university career he was elected fellow of Balliol, where he was tutor from 1835 to 1840. After holding successively the college livings of Duloe and South Luffenham, in 1854 he was elected master of Balliol. This office he held, together (from 1861) with that of the professorship of the exegesis of Holy Scriptures, down to 1870, when he accepted the deanery of Rochester. As master of Balliol he kept the college up to the high level it had attained under his predecessor Dr Jenkyns. As a Greek scholar, he had few equals among his contemporaries. His great literary achievement, which may be said to constitute his life's work, was his collaboration with Dean Liddell in the Greek lexicon which bears their names. He died at Rochester on the 2nd of December 1887.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stilted

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​STILTED, a term in architecture, given to anything raised above its usual level; it is usually applied to the arch, which is said to be stilted when its centre is raised above the capital or impost. In Byzantine architecture this was frequently done in order to give more importance to the twin arches of the windows, and less to the shaft which divided them. In Romanesque and Gothic work the stilted arch was often employed in the semi-circular apses, where in consequence of the closer juxtaposition of the columns round the apse the arches were much narrower than those of the choir; in order, however, that the apex of all the arches should be of the same height, the apse arches were stilted.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stinde, Julius

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​STINDE, JULIUS (1841–1905), German author, was born at Kirchnüchel near Eutin on the 28th of August 1841, the son of a clergyman. Having attended the gymnasium at Eutin, he was apprenticed in 1858 to a chemist in Lübeck. He soon tired of the shop, and went to study chemistry at Kiel and Giessen where he proceeded to the degree of doctor of philosophy. In 1863 Stinde received an appointment as consulting chemist to a large industrial undertaking in Hamburg; but, becoming editor of the Hamburger Gewerbeblatt, he gradually transferred his energies to journalism. His earliest works were little comedies, dealing with Hamburg life, though he continued to make scientific contributions to various journals. In 1876 Stinde settled in Berlin and began the series of stories of the Buchholz family, vivid and humorous studies of Berlin middle-class life by which he is most widely known. He died at Olsberg near Kassel on the 7th of August 1905.
The first of the series Buchholzens in Italien (translated by H. F. Powell, 1887) appeared in 1883 and achieved an immense success. It was followed by Die Familie Buchholz in 1884 (translated by L. D. Schmitz, 1885); Frau Buchholz im Orient in 1888; Frau Wilhelmine (Der Familie Buchholz letzter Teil; translated by H. F. Powell, 1887) in 1886; Wilhelmine Buchholz' Memoiren, in 1894; and Hotel Buchholz; Ausstellungserlebnisse der Frau Wilhelmine Buchholz, in 1896. Under the pseudonyms of Alfred de Valmy, Wilhelmine Buchholz and Richard E. Ward, he also published various other works of more or less merit, among which his Naturphilosophie (1898) deserves special mention; his Waldnovellen (1881) have been translated into English.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stilpo

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​STILPO [Stilpon], Greek philosopher of the Megarian school (q.v.), was a contemporary of Theophrastus and Crates. Intellectually in agreement with the Megarian dialectic, he followed the practical ethics of the Cynics both in theory and in practice. He extolled the Cynic ἀπαθεία (loosely, self-control) as the principal virtue. Cicero (De fato, 5) describes him as a man of the highest character. Suïdas attributes twenty dialogues to him, but of these no fragments remain. Among his followers were Menedemus and Asclepiades, the leaders of the Eretrian school of philosophy. Seneca (Epistle 9) shows how closely allied Stilpo was to the Stoics (q.v.).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stink-wood

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​STINK-WOOD, in botany, a South African tree, known botanically as Ocotea bullata, and a member of the family Laurineae. Other names for it are Cape Walnut, Stinkhout, Cape Laurel and Laurel wood. It derives its name from having a strong and unpleasant smell when fresh felled. It is used for building in South Africa and is described by Stone (Timbers of Commerce, p. 174) as “the most beautiful dark-coloured wood that I have yet met with.” It is said to be a substitute for teak and equally durable. The wood is dark walnut or reddish brown to black with a yellow sap-wood, and the grain extremely fine, close, dense and smooth.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stipend

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​STIPEND, a fixed periodical payment or salary for services rendered. The word is particularly used of the income from an ecclesiastical benefice or of the salary paid to any minister of religion. In the United Kingdom a paid magistrate or justice of the peace, appointed by the Crown on the advice of the home secretary for certain boroughs are termed “stipendiaries” or “stipendiary magistrates” (see Justice of the Peace). The Latin stipendium (for stipipendium) is derived from stips, a gift, contribution (originally a heap of coins, stipare, to press; mass together) and pendere, to weigh out, pay. This was applied first to the pay of the army, and hence was used in the sense of ​military service, in such phrases as stipendia facere, and of a campaign, e.g. vicena stipendia meritis (Tac. Ann. i. 17). It also meant a tax or impost, payable in money.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stirling, James Hutchison

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​STIRLING, JAMES HUTCHISON (1820-1909), Scottish philosopher, was born at Glasgow on the 22nd of June 1820. He was educated at Glasgow University, where he studied medicine and philosophy. For a short time he practised as a doctor in Wales, but gave up his profession in order to continue his philosophical studies in Germany and France. From 1888 to 1890 he was Gifford lecturer at the university of Edinburgh and published his lectures in 1890 (Philosophy and Theology). He was an LL.D. of Edinburgh University, and foreign member of the Philosophical Society of Berlin. He died in March 1909. His principal works are: The Secret of Hegel (1865; new ed. 1893); Sir William Hamilton: The Philosophy of Perception; a translation of Schwegler's Geschichte der Philosophie (1867; 12th ed., 1893); Jerrold, Tennyson and Macaulay, &c. (1868); On Materialism (1868); As Regards Protoplasm (1869; 2nd ed., 1872); Lectures on the Philosophy of Law (1873); Burns in Drama (1878); Text-Book to Kant (1881); Philosophy in the Poets; Darwinianism; Workmen and Work (1894); What IS Thought? Or the Problem of Philosophy; By Way of a Conclusion So Far (1900); The Categories (1903). Of these the most important is The Secret of Hegel, which is admitted, both in England and in Germany, to be among the most scholarly and valuable contributions to Hegelian doctrine and to modern philosophy in general. In the preface to the new edition he explains that he was first drawn to the study of Hegel by seeing the name in a review, and subsequently heard it mentioned with awe and reverence by two German students. He set himself at once to grapple with the difficulties and to unfold the principles of the Hegelian dialectic, and by his efforts he introduced an entirely new spirit into English philosophy. Closely connected with the Secret is the Text-Book to Kant, which comprises a translation of the Critique with notes and a biography. In these two works Dr Stirling endeavoured to establish an intimate connexion between Kant and Hegel, and even went so far as to maintain that Hegel's doctrine is merely the elucidation and crystallization of the Kantian system. “The secret of Hegel,” he says in the preliminary notice to his great work, “may be indicated at shortest thus: Hegel made explicit the concrete universal that was implicit in Kant.”
The sixth part of the Secret contains valuable criticisms on the Hegelian writings of Schwegler, Rosenkranz and Haym, and explains by contrast much that has been definitely stated in the preceding pages. Of Dr Stirling's other works the most important is the volume of Gifford Lectures, in which he developed a theory of natural theology in relation to philosophy as a whole. As Regards Protoplasm contains an attempted refutation of the Essay on the Physical Basis of Life by Huxley.