OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Turf

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​TURF, the top or surface of earth when covered with grass, forming a coherent mass of mould or soil in which the roots of grasses and other plants are embedded. This is capable of being cut out in solid mat-like blocks, known by the same name. Similarly “peat” (q.v.) when cut in pieces for fuel or other purposes is also styled “ turf ” The term is applied widely to any stretch or sward of trimmed grass-land, and thus by metonymy, to horse-racing and all connected with it, from the owning and running of race-horses to betting. The word “turf” is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Du. turf, Ger. Torf, Dan. törv, &c. It has been connected with Skt. darbha, grass, so called from being matted or twisted together, darbh, to wind. The Teutonic word was adapted in Med. Lat., as turba (cf. Fr. tourbe, Ital. torba), whence was formed turbaria, turbary, the right of digging and cutting turf in common with the owner of the land. (See Commons.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Turi

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​TURI, a Pathan tribe on the Kohat border of the North-West Frontier Province of India. The Turis inhabit the Kurram valley, which adjoins the western end of the Miranzai valley and number nearly 12,000. Though now speaking Pushtu and ranking as Pathans, they are by origin a Turki tribe, of the Shiah sect, who subjected the Bangash Afghans some time early in the ​eighteenth century. They are strong, hardy, and courageous, and make first-rate horsemen. Their early dealings with the British government were inclined to turbulence, and they were concerned in the Miranzai expeditions of 1851 and 1855 (see Miranzai). But the only expedition specially sent against them was the Kurram expedition of 1856 (see Kurram). Since then they have settled down and engaged in trade. During the Second Afghan War they supplied Sir Frederick Roberts with guides and provisions. In 1892 they voluntarily accepted British administration, and they now furnish a large part of the tribal militia in the Kurram Valley.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Turbine

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​TURBINE (Lat. turbo, a whirlwind, a whirling motion or object, a top), in engineering, a machine which applies the energy of a jet of water or steam to produce the rotation of a shaft. It consists essentially of a wheel or chamber provided with a number of blades or vanes upon which the fluid jet impinges; the impelled fluid causes the blades to rotate and also the shaft to which they are attached. Water turbines are treated under Hydraulics, and steam turbines under Steam Engine.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tureen

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​TUREEN, a deep dish or bowl, round or oval in shape, and with a cover, made to serve soup at table. The word is a corruption of the more correct " terrine," an earthenware vessel (Med. Lat. terrineus, made of earth, terra). The corruption is due to mis- spelling in early cookery-books, and an absurd story that the name arose from Marshal Turenne once drinking his soup from his helmet was invented to account for it.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Turbot

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​TURBOT (Rhombus maximus or Psetta maxima), one of the largest and most valuable of the flat-fishes or Pleuronectidae. The turbot, which rarely exceeds a length of two feet, has great width of body, and is scaleless, but is covered with conical bony tubercles. The eyes are on the left side of the body, the lower being slightly in advance of the upper; the mouth is large and armed with teeth of uniformly minute size. The turbot is found all round the coasts of Europe (except in the extreme north), preferring a flat sandy bottom with from 10 to 50 fathoms of water. The broad banks off the Dutch coast are a favourite resort. It is a voracious fish, and feeds on other fish, crustaceans and molluscs. It seems to constantly change its abode, wandering northward during the summer, and going into deeper water in the cold season. The eggs of the turbot, like those of the majority of flat-fishes, are pelagic and buoyant. They are small and very numerous, varying from five to ten millions in fish of 18 to 21 ℔ weight. The young fish are symmetrical and swim ​vertically like the young of other Pleuronectids, but they reach a much larger size before metamorphosis than species of other genera, specimens from ¾ in. to 1 in. in length being frequently taken swimming at the surface of the water and not completely converted into the adult condition. Specimens one year old are from 3 to 45 in. long, some perhaps larger. About 1860 it was estimated that the Dutch supplied turbot to the London market to the value of £80,000 a year. In 1900 the total weight of turbot landed on English and Welsh coasts for the year was according to the Board of Trade returns 60,715 cwt. valued at £252,680. The turbot is also common, though not abundant, in the Mediterranean, and is replaced in the Black Sea by an allied species with much larger bony tubercles (Rh. maeoticus). Both species grow to a large size, being usually sold at from 5 to 10 ℔; but the common turbot is stated to attain to a weight of 30 ℔.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Port Augusta

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​PORT AUGUSTA, a seaport of Frome county, South Australia, on the east shore of Spencer Gulf, 259 m. by rail N.N.W. of Adelaide. Pop. about 2400. It has a fine natural deep and landlocked harbour, and the government wharves have berthing for large vessels. The chief exports are wool, wheat, flour, copper, hides and tallow. Port Augusta is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop and has a cathedral, while its town-hall is the finest in the state, that of Adelaide excepted. It is also the starting point of the Great Northern railway. The largest ostrich farm in Australia lies 8 m. from the town. The neighbourhood is rich in minerals, copper, silver, iron and coal have been found, ​and in 1900 valuable gold quartz reefs were discovered at Tarcoola.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Port Arthur (Manchuria)

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​PORT ARTHUR (Chinese, Lu-shun-k'ou), a fortress situated at the extreme south of the peninsula of Liao-tung in the Chinese principality of Manchuria. It was formerly a Chinese naval arsenal and fortress, but was captured by the japanese in 1894, who destroyed most of the defensive works. In 1898 it was leased to Russia with the neighbouring port of Talienwan, and was gradually converted into a Russian stronghold. In 1905 the lease was transferred to Japan. The port or harbour is a natural one, entirely landlocked except to the south. The basin inside is of limited extent. Barren and rocky hills rise from the water's edge all round. A railway 270 m. long connects the port with Mukden and the trans-Siberian line; there is also railway connexion with Pekin. The harbour is ice-free all the year round, a feature in which it contrasts favourably with Vladivostok.
The Liao-tung peninsula, separated from Korea by the Bay of Korea, and from the Chinese mainland by the Gulf of Liao-tung, runs in a south-westerly direction from the mainland of Manchuria, and is continued by a group of small islands which reach another peninsula projecting from the mainland of China in a north-easterly direction, and having at its north-eastern extremity the port of Wei-hai-wei. The Liao-tung peninsula is indented by several bays, two of which nearly meet, making an isthmus less than 2 m. wide, beyond which the peninsula slightly widens again, this Dart of it having the name of Kan-tun (regent's sword). Two wide bays open on the eastern shore of the latter: Lu-shun-k'ou (Port Arthur) and Talienwan. Both were leased to Russia. Lu-shun-k'ou Bay
is nearly 4 m. long and 1¼ m. wide, the entrance being only 350 yds. wide. The Chinese deepened the bay artificially and erected quays. The road stead is exposed to south-easterly winds, and in this respect the wider Bay of Talienwan is safer. Coal is found near to the port. The climate is very mild, and similar to that of south Crimea, only moister.
While in occupation by the Russians Port Arthur became Europeanized. The military port, Tairen, is a few miles to the north. During the Russo-Japanese war the Japanese assailed Port Arthur both by land and sea and, after repeated assaults, on the rst of January 1905, General Stoessel surrendered the citadel into the hands of the Japanese.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Port Blair

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​Port Blair, the chief place in the convict settlement of the Andaman Islands in the Indian Ocean, situated on the south-east shore of the South Andaman Island, in 11° 42′ N., 93° E. It derives its name from Lieut. Blair, R.N., who first occupied it in 1789, as a station for the suppression of piracy and the protection of shipwrecked crews. Abandoned on account of sickness in 1796, it was not again occupied until 1856. It possesses one of the best harbours in Asia, while its central position in the Bay of Bengal gives it immense advantage as a place of naval rendezvous. (See Andaman Islands.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Port Chester

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​Port Chester, a village of Westchester county, New York, U.S.A., in the south-east part of the state, on Long Island Sound, and about 10 m. N.E. of New York City (26 m. from the Grand Central Station). Pop. (1900), 7440, of whom 2110 were foreign-born; (1910 census), 12,800. It is served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railroad, and by daily steamers to and from New York City. The village is a summer resort as well as a suburban residential district for New York City. Among its public institutions are a library, a park and a hospital. The village has various manufactures, including bolts and nuts, motors for racing boats and automobiles; there are also large planing and wood-moulding mills. The earliest mention of Port Chester in any extant record is in the year 1732. Until 1837 it was known as Saw Pit, on account of a portion of the village, it is said, being used as a place for building boats. During the War of Independence the village was frequently occupied by detachments of American troops. Port Chester was incorporated as a village in 1868.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Port Glasgow

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​PORT GLASGOW, a municipal and police burgh and seaport of Renfrewshire, Scotland, on the southern shore of the Firth of Clyde, 20¼ m. W.N.W. of Glasgow by the Caledonian railway. Pop. (1901), 16,857. The ground behind the town rises to a height of 700 ft. and is partly occupied by villas. Amongst the principal buildings are the town house (1815), with a tower and spire; the town hall (1873); the library (1887) founded by James Moffat, a merchant of the burgh, and the Carnegie Park Orphanage, also provided from the same bequest. Birkmyre Park was opened in 1894. The industries include shipbuilding and allied trades, engineering works, and iron and brass foundries. The area of the port (which has wet and graving docks) amounts to 16 acres, and there are 2000 yds. of quayage. The harbours are accessible at all stages of the tide. The district originally formed part of the parish of Kilmalcolm, the nucleus of the town being the village of Newark attached to the barony of that name. In 1668 it was purchased from Sir Patrick Maxwell of Newark by the Glasgow magistrates, who here constructed a harbour. In 1695 it was erected into a separate parish under the name of New Port Glasgow. In 1710 it became the chief custom-house port for the Clyde, until superseded by Greenock. The graving dock made in 1762 was the first dock of the kind in Scotland. In 1775 Port Glasgow was created a burgh of barony and since 1832 has formed one of the Kilmarnock parliamentary burghs (with Kilmarnock, Dumbarton, Renfrew and Rutherglen). It is governed by a council with provost and bailies. Adjoining the town on the east are the picturesque ruins of Newark Castle, a quadrangular building dating from the end of the 16th century. Formerly the property of the Dennistouns, it now belongs to the Shaw-Stewarts.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Port Hope

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​PORT HOPE, a town and port of entry of Durham county, Ontario, Canada, on the north shore of Lake Ontario, 63 in. N.E. of Toronto by the Grand Trunk railway, and connected with Charlotte, the port for Rochester, New York, by a daily steamboat service. The population, 5585 in 1881, shrunk in 1901 to 4188, but is increasing owing to the popularity of the town as a summer resort. It is picturesquely situated on the side and at the foot of hills overlooking the lake; and Smith's Creek, by which it is traversed, supplies abundant water-power. Trade is carried on in lumber, grain and flour. Trinity College School, a residential school under Anglican control, has a long and creditable history.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Port Hudson

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​PORT HUDSON, a village in East Baton Rouge Parish, Louisiana, U.S.A., on the left bank of the Mississippi, about 135 m. above New Orleans. At the sharp turn of the Mississippi here the Confederates in 1862 built on the commanding bluffs powerful batteries covering a stretch of about 3 m., their strongest fortifications along the Mississippi between New Orleans and Vicksburg. On the night of the 14th of March 1863 Admiral Farragut, with seven vessels, attempted to run past the batteries, commanded by Brigadier-General William M. Gardner, but four of his vessels were disabled and forced to turn back, one, the “ Mississippi ” was destroyed, and only two, the “ Hartford ” and the “ Albatross "' got past. General N. P. Banks's land attack, on the 27th of May, was unsuccessful, the Union loss, nearly 2000, being six times that of the Confederates. A second attack on the 14th of June, entailed a further Union loss of about 1800 men. But on the 9th of July, two days after the news of the surrender of Vicksburg, after a siege of 45 days, General Gardner surrendered the position to General Banks with about 6400 men, 50 guns, 5000 small arms and ammunition, and two river steamers. The Union losses during the siege were probably more than 4000; the Confederate losses about 800. The capture of Vicksburg and Port Hudson secured to the Union the control of the Mississippi.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Port Huron

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​PORT HURON, a city and the county-seat of Saint Clair county, Michigan, U.S.A., at the confluence of the Saint Clair and Black rivers, and at the lower end of Lake Huron, about 60 m. N.N.E. of Detroit. Pop. (1900), 19,158 of whom 7142 were foreign-born; (1910 U.S. census) 18,863. It is served by the Grand Trunk and other railways, and by steamboat lines to Chicago and other ports. A railway tunnel, 6025 ft. long, under the Saint Clair, connects the city with Sarnia, Canada. The tunnel, which has an inside diameter of 20 ft., was constructed by the Grand Trunk railway in 1889–1891 at a cost of about $2,700,000, and was designed by Joseph Hobson (b. 1834). Port Huron is laid out with wide streets, on both sides of the Black river and along the shore of Lake Huron; it has attractive parks and mineral water springs, and is a summer resort. Among its buildings are the court house, the city hall, and a Modern Maccabee Temple—Port Huron being the headquarters of the Knights of the Modern Maccabees (1881), a fraternal society which, in 1910, had a membership of 107,737. Until 1908 Port Huron was the headquarters of the Knights of the Maccabees of the World (founded in 1883; 283,998 members in 1910). Port Huron has large shipping interests, and since 1866 has been the port of entry of the Huron ​customs district. In 1908 its exports were valued at $16,958,080 and its imports at $4,859,120 The city has shipyards, dry docks, large shops of the Grand Trunk railway, publishing houses, and manufactories of agricultural implements, steel ships, automobiles, foundry products, paper and pulp, and toys. In 1904 the city's factory products were valued at $4,789,589.
In 1686 the French established Fort St Joseph, a fortified trading post, which came into the possession of the British in 1761 and was occupied by American troops in 1814. The fort was renamed Fort Gratiot in honour of General Charles Gratiot (1788–1855), who was chief-engineer in General W. H. Harrison's army in 1813–1814, and was chief-engineer of the U.S. Army in 1828–1838. The settlement which grew up round the fort, and was organized as a village in 1840, was also known as Fort Gratiot, and was annexed to Port Huron in 1893. The fort was abandoned during 1837–1848, during 1852–1866, and, permanently, in 1879. The earliest permanent settlement, in what later became Port Huron, was made in 1790 by several French families. This settlement, distinct from that at the fort, was first called La Rivière De Lude, and, after 1828, Desmond. It was platted in 1835, incorporated as a village in 1840 (under its present name), and chartered as a city in 1857.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Port Jackson

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​PORT JACKSON, or Sydney Harbour, a harbour of New South Wales, Australia. It is one of the safest and most beautiful harbours in the world; its area, including all its bays, is about 15 sq. m., with a shore line of 165 m.; it has deep water in every part, and is landlocked and secure in all weathers. The entrance, between two rocky promontories known as North and South Heads, is 2¼ m. wide between the outer heads, and narrows down to 1 m. 256 yds. The port is flanked on both sides by promontories, so that, in addition to a broad and deep central channel, there is a series of sheltered bays with good anchorage. Sydney lies on the southern shore about 4 m. from the Heads. Port Jackson is the chief naval dépot of Australasia, the headquarters of the admiral's station, and is strongly fortified. The harbour has a number of islands, most of which are used for naval or government purposes—Shark Island is the quarantine station, Garden Island has naval foundries, hospital and stores, Goat Island is occupied by a powder magazine, Spectacle Island is used to store explosives, and on Cockatoo Island are important government docks. Port Jackson was discovered by Captain Phillip in 1788, though in 1770 Captain Cook, when coasting north, noticed what looked like an inlet, and named it after Sir George Jackson, one of the secretaries to the Admiralty. Captain Cook passed the harbour without recognizing its capacity; but the cliffs which guard the entrance are 300 ft. high, and no view of the basin can be seen from the masthead. Middle Head, which is opposite the entrance, closes it in, and it is necessary to enter, turn to the south, and then to the west before the best part of the harbour discloses itself.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Union League of America, The

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​UNION LEAGUE OF AMERICA, THE, sometimes called the Loyal League, an organization for political purposes of Northern whites, later of Southern blacks, which originated in Ohio in 1862 when the Confederate military successes and political disaffection in the Northern states made the outlook for the North seem doubtful. Within one year it had spread over eighteen Northern states and among the Unionists of the South. The order raised troops, paid their expenses, sent supplies to the field and distributed political literature. At the close of the war it worked for radical reconstruction of the Southern states, punishment of the Southern leaders, confiscation of property and negro suffrage. The Southern Unionists hoped to make it the nucleus of a new political party, but this was frustrated by the admission of the blacks for political purposes, after which the Southern whites generally deserted the League. After the Freedmen’s Bureau agents and other Northern whites obtained command of the League in the South it became simply a machine to control the votes of the blacks. The League ceased to be important in the North, though headquarters were in New York City. Each Southern state had its grand council and each county one or more councils. A constitution and an elaborate ritual were adopted, making it an oath-bound secret order, whose members were sworn to support one another on all occasions, to vote in elections only for negroes or Northern men, and to overthrow the Southern “white oligarchy.” No ex-Confederate and few Southern Unionists were permitted to join. At each meeting the members were taught from a catechism prepared by Radical members of Congress that they must beware of their white neighbours as their worst enemies, that the Democratic party, to which the Southern whites belonged, had opposed emancipation and was still opposed to any rights for the negro. In order to prevent moral control of the negroes by former masters, the League, by an “exodus order,” required all negroes who were still living with their former masters to find other homes. The negroes were taught the equality of men and the right of the negro to his master’s property. The votes of blacks, during reconstruction, were controlled by the few white Radical leaders. No negro could safely break away and vote independently. Negroes who voted with the mass of the Southern whites were persecuted, beaten or (as in a few cases) killed. The League died out about 1870, but not before it had succeeded, with the Freedmen’s Bureau and other forces, in permanently arraying the blacks and whites into opposing political parties.  (W. L. F.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Uniontown

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​UNIONTOWN, a borough and the county-seat of Fayette county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., about 40 m. S. by E. of Pittsburg. Pop. (1900) 7344 (449 foreign-born); (1910) 13,344. Uniontown is served by the Pennsylvania and the Baltimore & Ohio railways. Coal, iron and natural gas are found in the neighbouring region. The manufactures include glass products, iron, steel, enamel, radiators, coke, flour and bricks. ​The original village was surveyed and laid out in 1776 on land owned by Henry Beeson, and the borough was incorporated in 1796. From 1827 to 1832 Uniontown was the seat of Madison College, formed from Union Academy (founded 1808); in 1832 the college was merged with Allegheny College, of Meadville, Pa. In 1866 the buildings were turned over to the Soldiers’ Orphans’ School (now at Jumonville, a suburb), which occupied them until 1875. In the south-eastern part of the county is the district known as Great Meadows; here George Washington built Fort Necessity in 1754, and General Edward Braddock died and was buried here after his defeat by the French and Indians in 1755.