OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# The New Student's Reference Work/Cato, Marcus Porcius (Cato the Younger)

See also Cato the Younger on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Ca′to, Marcus Porcius, called Cato the Younger, the great-grandson of the elder Cato, was born at Rome in 95 B. C., and committed suicide in North Africa in 46 B. C. When only 14 years old, he went with his tutor one day to call upon Sulla, and, seeing the heads of several famous men, who had been put to death by the tyrant, carried away from the house, he asked why some one did not kill him. His tutor answering that no one dared to do so, he exclaimed that he would do it himself, if he would give him a sword. He greatly admired his great-grandfather, and took him as his model in life. He was rich, but lived in a simple manner, always walking instead of riding, wherever he went, and often going barefoot.
He held the office of quæstor, and carried through so many needed reforms that when he left office, he was praised by all classes of citizens. He was an open enemy of the three most powerful men in Rome, Cæsar, Pompey and Crassus, who, he foresaw, would destroy the republic, as they did when they formed the first triumvirate or government of three. Cæsar he had denounced years before as a friend of the traitor Catiline, and after the battle of Pharsalia he set out to join Pompey, now the defeated rival of Cæsar, but, hearing of his death, fled to Africa. He wished to defend Utica, but on the approach of the conqueror the citizens refused to fight. Cato, disdaining to surrender, killed himself after spending the evening talking with his friends and reading Plato's Phædo. His death was for two centuries regarded as the right death for a Stoic by the noblest of Romans.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Cato, Marcus Porcius (The Censor)

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​Ca'to (ka'to), Marcus Porcius (surnamed The Censor), was born at Tusculum in 234 B.C. Marcus Porcius was his proper name. Cato, meaning wise, was a title given him later in life when he held office as censor. He spent his boyhood on his father's farm, and there learned simple manners and ways of living. When 17, he served with great bravery in the army against Hannibal. At the same time he was becoming known as an orator and statesman. Because of his ability and uprightness, he was made consul in 195 B.C., though his family was ​unknown. Made, the next year, governor of Spain, he showed such skill and vigor in putting down a rebellion there, that the people gave him a military triumph on his return to Rome. In 184 he was chosen censor, and at once became very active in using his office to carry out his ideas of simplicity, of honesty in government and of dislike of everything which was new. He put the water-courses, reservoirs and drains in good order; had the taxes collected more cheaply; saw that less money was paid for building the great public buildings; and decided what price should be paid for slaves, clothes, furniture, carriages, etc. Rome was growing rich from the spoils and plunder of her successful wars, and the Romans had caught from the Greeks a liking for fine clothes, great palaces, many slaves and all that made up luxury in life. These new ways of life Cato despised and fought against. The famous saying, “Carthage must be destroyed,” which became a battle-cry of the Romans, was first used by Cato, who never made a speech in the senate without using the appealing, insistent words to inflame the ambitions of the Roman people. He died in 149 B. C.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Castile

See also Kingdom of Castile on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Castile. See Spain.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Catkin

See also Catkin on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Cat'kin, the characteristic flower-cluster of the birches, alders, willows, etc. See Inflorescence.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Castor-Oil

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Castor-Oil, a familiar and simple purgative, derived from the seeds of the castor-oil plant (Ricinus Communis), a native of the Indies. Used as a laxative, it has a nauseous smell and disagreeable taste, which can, however, be partially overcome by using it in capsules of gelatin or by floating the oil on hot coffee. It is considerably used in the arts as a lubricant for machinery, while in the East Indies it is employed as an illuminant as a lamp-oil.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Schurz, Carl

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Schurz, Carl, was born in Liblar, Germany, near Cologne, March 2, 1829. His father was the schoolmaster of the village and was eager to give his boy as good an education as his frugal means would allow. He attended the gymnasium at Cologne, and, though compelled for financial reasons to leave before graduation, he succeeded in gaining entrance at the University of Bonn at 17. While at Bonn he came under the influence of Gottfried Kinkel, a professor of literature and rhetoric, who was earnestly devoted to the revolutionary movement of Europe. Under his influence he took part in the German revolutionary movement of 1848. When this collapsed, Kinkel was condemned to life-imprisonment at hard labor, and Schurz very narrowly escaped and concealed himself in Switzerland. Schurz could not rest until he had, by an almost unequalled feat of daring and skill, liberated his former instructor. He then fled to England where he remained for a short time, afterwards going to France. He kept in close touch with the revolutionary movement, and was a personal friend of Mazzini and Kossuth. In 1852 he came to America, and for fifty years played an important rôle in American political affairs. He was an officer in the union army, and in recognition of his worth Lincoln made him ambassador to Spain. He soon resigned, however, to take a more active part in the war. He was promoted to major-general and took part in the battles of Second Bull Run, Chancellorsville, Gettysburg and Chattanooga. He entered journalism after the war and in this field won great distinction. Mr. Schurz was editor of The New York Evening Post and a contributor to Harper's Weekly. He was senator from Missouri (1869-1875) and secretary of the interior during Hayes' administration (1877-81), and always was an ardent supporter of the Republican party until it began to take up what seemed undemocratic principles. Mr. Schurz always was a strong supporter of Civil Reform, and was made president of the National Civil Service Reform League from 1892 to 1901. After the Spanish War he was one of the strongest opponents of the imperialist policy. As a political orator he exerted great influence. Most important among his publications are his Life of Lincoln, Henry Clay in the American Statesmen Series, Eulogy on Charles Sumner and his Autobiography. His death occurred on May 14, 1906.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Scribe

See also Scribe on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Scribe, a name used among the Jews originally to indicate a military officer, whose business was recruiting soldiers and levying taxes. Later the name was given to those who copied the books of the law, and, as those who copied the law became its best expounders, the word had in the time of Christ come to mean an expounder of the law or a learned man. Scribes were found all over Palestine, and were reverenced by the people as public teachers and lawyers. Some were members of the Sanhedrin or court, and some had public class-rooms, where their disciples sat at their feet. Those who did not fill these higher places were engaged in copying the books of the law and of the prophets and in writing contracts, letters of divorce etc. See Schürer's History of the Jewish People in the Time of Christ.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Schubert, Franz Peter

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​Schubert (sho͞o′bẽrt), Franz Peter, a celebrated musical composer, was born at Vienna, Jan. 31, 1797. Before he was 11 years old he was singing in a church-choir, and was soon sent to the chorister's school of the court-chapel, where he became leader of the school-band. The Erl King, his immortal song, was composed when only 18, and the Mass in F while teaching in his father's school at Lichtenthal. In 1819 one of his songs, The Shepherd's Lament, was given at a concert at Vienna, and his comic operetta, The Twins, was produced at the theater there. As his songs became known, the enthusiasm with which they were received made publishers ready to accept his manuscripts, and as many as 20 songs were published in eight months. He made a tour with Vogl in 1825, delighting everyone with the performance of Schubert's seven songs from the Lady of the Lake, though the songs were afterward sold for only $100. He gave his first and only concert in Vienna in 1828, which was so successful as to put the needy composer, who had been selling some of his best songs at a penny, beyond want for a time. His musical productions are very numerous, as he wrote rapidly and steadily, sometimes composing six or seven songs in a morning. Everything he saw, heard or read suggested a subject; one of his piano-duets was inspired by the song which he heard sung by a Hungarian girl as he passed the kitchen door, and his Hark! Hark! the Lark flashed over him in a beer-garden. His songs are among his finest work, Beethoven, who saw them only on his deathbed, saying: “Surely Schubert has the divine fire.” His compositions include more than 500 songs, ten symphonies, six masses, several operas, cantatas and a host of sonatas. He died on Nov. 19, 1828. See Life by Frost.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Screw-Propeller

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​Screw-Propel′ler, a wheel with two or more radial blades in the form of a helix or spiral, used to propel a vessel. In modern ocean-steamers, there generally are two propellers, one on each side of the keel. The action of the propeller is similar to that of a screw revolving in a fixed nut, the water being more or less fixed as regards the revolving propeller. The screw-propeller was suggested by Bernouille of France in 1752, and in 1801 John Stevens of Hoboken, N. J., made a successful experimental boat with a screw-propeller. But it was not until between 1835 and 1840 that it began to come into general use. Its practical use was then demonstrated by F. P. Smith in England and by Capt. John Ericsson, first in England and later in the United States. Ericsson is generally given the credit of having made the first successful application of the screw-propeller to steam-navigation. At present it is the only method of propulsion used on large steam-vessels. The design of the shape and size of the propeller depends on conditions more or less peculiar to each vessel, and requires not only calculations but often experiments before the best shape is found for a given boat. Propellers are generally made of gun-metal. The dimensions of the propellers and shafts on the transatlantic steamers are very large. For the Celtic, a White Star steamer of 14,259 tons displacement, the two propellers each have a diameter of 20 feet and are carried on steel shafts of 19½ inches diameter. Consult the U. S. Navy Dept.'s professional papers.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Scudder, Horace Elisha

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​Scud′der, Horace Elisha, American man-of-letters, was born at Boston, Mass., Oct. 16, 1838, and graduated at Williams College. After teaching for three years in New York City, he took to writing stories for youth and edited a magazine in their interest. From 1890 to 1898 he edited The Atlantic Monthly, and became a resident of Cambridge, Mass. Here he assiduously pursued a literary life, writing, besides his successful series of The Bodley Books and a brief History of the United States, a monograph on Noah Webster, an historical biography of Washington and a collection of essays and criticisms entitled Men and Letters. He was the editor, also, of the series of volumes of the American Commonwealths and author, jointly with Mrs. Taylor, of the Life of Bayard Taylor. He was one of the writers, moreover, of Bryant and Gay's History of the United States and of Justin Winsor's Memorial History of Boston. Above all, he wrote the classic biography of James Russell Lowell. He died on Jan. 11, 1902,
# The New Student's Reference Work/Sculpture

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​Sculpture (skŭlp'tū̇r), from a Latin word meaning to cut out or carve, is the art of representing the form of an object in a solid substance. When a figure is only partly raised from a background, it is called relief and has different names according to the degree in which it is raised, as bas-relief, meaning low relief. Wood, marble, granite, bronze, gold and ivory are some of the materials used in sculpture, anything that can be cut or molded into shape being used. The Greeks and Romans worked largely in marble, especially the pure, white marble brought from Paros (q. v.) called Parian marble. The art is an ancient one, beginning with the use of memorial stones and the making of images of the gods. The Egyptians are among the earliest nations to use sculpture in their religion, their temples being covered with reliefs, while innumerable statues of gods stood upon their plains. The Sphinx was probably sculptured about 4,000 B. C. The specimens of Assyrian sculpture found ​belong to the 9th and 8th centuries B. C. and are largely bas-reliefs, made on a large scale and of curious forms, as the colossal winged bulls, with human heads, that guarded their palaces. The first monument of classic Greek art which has come down to the present time is the marble statues on the temple of Athena at Ægina, by an unknown author. They now are at Munich. Pheidias, the greatest of Greek sculptors and of the world, known by his great work, the Parthenon, was followed by Praxiteles, Scopas and Lysippus, with such works as the Venus of Milo, Apollo Belvedere and Laocoön. The best artists of Rome were Greeks, and her treasures of art were largely brought from the plundered cities of Greece. For centuries the art of sculpture was almost lost until the 14th and 15th centuries, when Ghiberti made his wonderful gates at Florence and Donatello his statues of St. Mark and St. George, and Michael Angelo towered above all others. The 17th century witnessed only a falling back in the art of sculpture, with no immortal names among the artists; but the names of Houdon, Canova, Chantrey, Gibson, Thorwaldsen and Rude, among others, adorn the 18th century. The art had many followers in the 19th century, as Alfred Stevens of England, with his magnificent monument to the Duke of Wellington, and Barye, Rodin and many others in France, and Powers, Crawford, Greenough, Rogers, MacMonnies and St. Gaudens in the United States. See History of Sculpture by Lübke and History of Greek Sculpture by Murray.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Scutari

See also Üsküdar and Shkodër County on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Scutari (sko͞o′tä-rē), a town in Turkey, on the eastern shore of the Bosporus, opposite Constantinople, of which it is a suburb. It is built on the slopes of a hill, and has handsome mosques, bazars, a dervish college and factories of cotton, silk and leather goods. It is famed for its large cemeteries adorned with great cypress-trees, where many of the Turks from the city are buried, because it is the sacred soil of Asia. During the Crimean War the barracks and hospital of the English troops were at Scutari, and formed the scene of Florence Nightingale's labors. A marble obelisk marks the site of the English burial place. Population from 30,000 to 40,000. Scutari also is a government in Albania; area 4,170 square miles; population 294,100.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Seal

See also Earless seals and Fur seals on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Seal, a carnivorous animal fitted for a life in the water. The animal famous for yielding the valuable fur, called seal-skin, is not a true seals but a kind of sea-lion with ears and more flexible limbs. The true seals have no external ears and their hind limbs are closely united together, being useless on land but very effective in water. The hind limbs of the sea-lions are separated, and are used by the animal when on land. All kinds of seals come on the land or on ice in great numbers during the breeding-season. The true seals vary from four to eight feet in length. Their fur is stiff, and they lack the woolly under fur of the fur-seals. They occur on both sides of the Atlantic. The common harbor-seal is found on British coasts and on those of Europe and North America. It is four or five feet long, usually yellowish gray, with darker spots. The Greenland seals are larger; they congregate on shore in immense numbers for breeding. All true seals are awkward on land, and move by means of the muscles of the trunk, assisted a little by the fore limbs. The hind limbs are entirely passive. A large number (390,174 in 1892) are killed annually for their hides and oil. Seals feed mainly on fish, but also eat crustacea and mollusks. The harbor-seals are sometimes destructive to salmon. The eared-seals, sea-lions, or sea-bears vary greatly in size. The larger ones reach a length of about ten feet. Their hind limbs are flexible and they make considerable journeys inland, but return to the water for food. To this group belong the fur-seals of the northern Pacific. They are of moderate size, a full-grown male being about six feet and a female about four feet in length. These animals breed on the Pribilov, Commander and Robben Islands of the North Pacific and of Bering Sea. Since 1835 they have in a measure been protected by law. The males three years old—at which age their fur is finest—are taken for their skins, with unusually large ones two years old and small ones four years old. From 1871 to 1889, inclusive, about 100,000 animals were taken annually, but they began to show a decline in 1885, and in 1890 only 21,000 skins were secured. In 1895 and 1896 the number was reduced to 16,000 and 15,000 respectively. Controversies in reference to these seal-fisheries arose between the United States, England and Russia. The questions were referred to arbitrators who met in Paris in 1893. In 1896 the United States and Great Britain each appointed a commission to study the life of the seals and the causes for their decline in numbers. The members of the American commission reached the conclusion that the decline in the herds is due to killing females in the open sea, where the sex cannot be readily distinguished. This form of capture should be abandoned, and the hunt for skins should be confined to killing on the land and restricted to three-year-old males. See Allen's Fur-Seal and Other Fisheries of Alaska (Washington, 1889), and Jordan's Report of the Fur Seal Investigations (Washington, 1898).
FUR-SEAL
GREENLAND SEAL
# The New Student's Reference Work/Scylla and Charybdis

See also Between Scylla and Charybdis on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Scylla and Charybdis (sĭl′lȧ and kā̇-rĭb′dĭs), in Greek legend, were two sea-monsters who dwelt on opposite sides of a narrow strait. Scylla had 12 feet, six necks and six mouths, with three rows of teeth in each, and barked like a dog. Charybdis lived on a cliff under a large fig-tree and three times a day she sucked up the waters of the sea, and three times threw them back. Ulysses passed safely between the monsters, but Scylla snatched away six of his sailors. The names are now applied to a whirlpool in the Straits of Messina near Italy. From the difficulty of passing between them without falling into one or the other rises the proverb: To shun Charybdis and fall into Scylla.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Scythians

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​Scythians (sĭth′ĭ-ans), an ancient race of Asia. The name is given either to the Scythians proper, the Scolots, or to all the wandering tribes who lived on the steppes from Hungary to Turkestan. The Scythians proper were a wandering people, living in the treeless plains between the Danube and the Volga. They lived in tent-covered wagons, kept herds of horses, cattle and sheep, fought with bows and arrows on horseback, made drinking-cups of the skulls of their enemies, and worshipped (without images) gods like those of the Aryan Greeks. They seem to have learned some of the arts of civilized life from the Greek colonies, and a Scythian king went to Athens to study under Solon. In the 7th century they invaded Media occupying it ten years, until Cyaxares made all their chiefs drunk at a banquet and slew them. The Scythians of Europe were nearly exterminated by the Sarmatians (q. v.) in the 4th century. The Scythians of Asia overran Parthia (northeastern Persia) about 128 B. C., and founded a kingdom in the eastern part of the empire, so that that part of Asia was called Indo-Scythia In the century before and the century after Christ they invaded northern India, where they held possession for four or five centuries. Consult Mahaffy's The Greek World under Roman Sway.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Spring Eel

Edition of 1905. See also the disclaimer.
​ SPRING EEL. A fish of the small order Opisthomi and family Mastacembelidæ, several species of which occur in the fresh waters of the East Indies; they are eel-like in form, with the dorsal fin very long, and the fore part of it composed of low free spines. Allied to this is a small, curious eel (Derichthys serpentinus) dredged from the depths of the North Pacific. See Plate of Eels.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Springbok

Edition of 1905. See also Springbok on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ SPRINGBOK (Dutch, springing goat). A South African gazelle (Gazella euchore). It is larger than the common deer, and its neck and limbs much longer and more delicate. The general color is fulvous brown on the upper parts, pure white beneath, the colors separated on the flanks by a broad band of deep vinous red. The whole head is white, except a broad brown band on each side from the eye to the mouth, and a brown spot in the centre of the face. The springbok derives its name from the prodigious leaps which it takes either when alarmed or in play, often to the height of seven feet, and sometimes of twelve or thirteen feet. It is one of the most sought-after game animals of South Africa, yet remains numerous. Consult authorities cited under Antelope; and see Plate of Gazelles.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Springer, William McKendree

Edition of 1905. See also William McKendree Springer on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ SPRINGER, William McKendree (1836—). An American jurist and political leader, born at New Lebanon, Ind. He graduated at the Indiana State University in 1858, and for the next four years was a newspaper correspondent and editor. He was admitted to the bar in 1859, and in 1872 became a member of the Illinois Legislature. From 1875 to 1895 he was a member of Congress, where he introduced a resolution which was carried by a large majority, declaring that it would be “unwise, unpatriotic, and fraught with peril to our free institutions” for one man to serve more than two terms in the Presidency. From 1895 to 1899 he was United States Judge of the Northern District of Indian Territory and Chief Justice of the United States Court of Appeals there.