OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# The New International Encyclopædia/Abbott, Benjamin

Edition of 1905. See also Benjamin Abbott on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ABBOTT, Benjamin (1732-96). A Methodist Episcopal minister, born on Long Island, N. Y. He was apprenticed to a hatter in Philadelphia, and subsequently to a farmer in New Jersey. He was converted from a dissipated life when about 40 years old, and immediately became an itinerant Methodist preacher. After sixteen years’ service in New Jersey he was assigned to the Dutchess (N. Y.) circuit in 1789. He was transferred to the Long Island circuit in 1791, to Salem, N. J., in 1792, to the Cecil circuit, Maryland, as presiding elder, in 1793, and died at Salem, N. J., in 1796. He was famous in his day, and is still remembered as a “rousing” preacher. His vehemence was such that he frequently fainted, and generally raised a commotion among his hearers.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Abelin, Johann Philipp

Edition of 1905. See also Johann Philipp Abelin on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ABELIN, ä'be-lḗn, Johann Philipp (?-1633?). A German historian. He wrote under the names Philipp Arlanibäus, Abeleus, and Johann Ludwig Gottfried, or Gothofredus. He produced a number of works still consulted, including the Arma Sueciea (1631-34), and the Inventarium Sueciæ (1632), descriptions of military events of the time. He also founded the Theatrum Europæum (1635-1738), a serial work on contemporary history, for which he compiled the first two volumes. Others of his publications are a Historische Chronika (1633) and an Historia Antipodum (1655). See Droysen, Arlanibäus, Godofredus, Abelinus (1864).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Abbott, Benjamin Vaughan

Edition of 1905. See also Benjamin Vaughan Abbott on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ABBOTT, Benjamin Vaughan (1830-90). An American lawyer, the son of Jacob Abbott. He graduated at the University of the City of New York in 1850, and was admitted to the bar in 1852. In legal practice his brothers Austin and Lyman were associated with him. He produced nearly 100 vohunes of reports and digests of Federal and State laws. In 1865, as secretary of the New York Code Commission, he drafted a penal code which, when adopted by the Legislature, became the basis of the present code. In 1870 President Grant appointed him one of three commissioners to revise the statutes of the United States.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Abbott, Thomas Kingsmill

Edition of 1905. See also Thomas Kingsmill Abbott on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ABBOTT, Thomas Kingsmill (1829—). An Irish scholar. He was born at Dublin and was educated at Trinity College, where he afterward occupied the chair of moral philosophy (1867- 72), of biblical Greek (1875-88), and of Hebrew (after 1879). He wrote the following books: The Elements of Logic (third edition, 1895); Essays, chiefly on the original texts of the Old and New Testaments (1892); A Commentary on Ephesians and Colossians (1897); a translation of Kant's Ethics, with a memoir, and Kant's Introduction to Logic (fifth edition, 1878).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Shaw, Lemuel

Edition of 1905. See also Lemuel Shaw on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
SHAW, Lemuel (1781-1861). An American jurist, born in Barnstable, Mass. He graduated at Harvard in 1800, studied law, and in 1804 was admitted to the bar. The next twenty-six years he spent in private practice in Boston, rising by slow degrees to a commanding position at the Boston bar. He was actively interested in public affairs. He succeeded Chief Justice Isaac Parker, of the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court, in 1830. His service on the bench, covering a period of thirty years, won for him rank as one of the greatest of New England jurists. His decisions in greatly differing fields of law had a remarkable influence on the application of the English common law to American conditions. As an interpreter of constitutional law, too, he rendered services of great value. Although an ardent anti-slavery man, his respect for the law was such as to cause him, in the famous Sims case, to uphold the constitutionality of the Fugitive Slave Law, the passage of which he had in private vigorously opposed.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Shaw, George Bernard

Edition of 1905. See also George Bernard Shaw on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
SHAW, George Bernard (1856—). A British critic, essayist, and dramatist. He was born in Dublin. In 1876 he settled in London and became known as a brilliant writer. Besides the criticism of the fine arts with which he began his journalistic career, he soon took an active part in politics, as a platform speaker and pamphleteer, from the Socialist point of view. He was an early member of the Fabian Society (q.v.). At different times he contributed weekly articles to the Star and the World, and on the drama to the Saturday Review. After moderate success with four novels — The Irrational Knot, Love Among the Artists, Cashel Byron's Profession, and An Unsocial Socialist — he began writing plays which aroused much discussion. They are included in Plays Pleasant and Unpleasant, numbering seven (2 vols., 1898); Three Plays for Puritans (1901); and The Admirable Bashville (1901). In 1889 he edited Fabian Essays, contributing two to the collection, and his writings include many socialistic pamphlets. Among his miscellaneous essays are The Quintessence of Ibsenism (1891) and The Perfect Wagnerite (1898). Shaw's invincible love of paradox has often prevented even those who most fully
recognized the cleverness of his writings from taking him seriously.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Separatists

Edition of 1905. See also Zoar, Ohio on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
SEPARATISTS (Ger. Separatisten). A religious social organization which originated in Württemberg, Germany, about the beginning of the nineteenth century. Its members, seeking a deeper religious life than prevailed in the Church, and freedom from military service, to which they were conscientiously opposed, and refusing to send their children to the clerical schools, where principles contrary to theirs were taught, were severely dealt with. Aided by members of the Society of Friends in England and led by Joseph Bäumeler (q.v.), they came to America in 1817, and were received by Friends in Philadelphia. In the same year they bought a tract of land in Tuscarawas County, Ohio, and founded their settlement of Zoar. In their Code of Principles they avow belief in the ordinary doctrines of evangelical Christianity; all ceremonies are banished and declared useless and injurious; honors due to God, such as uncovering the head or bending the knee, are refused to mortals; separation is declared from all ecclesiastical connections and constitutions; the necessity of the political government is recognized; and fidelity to the constituted authorities is professed. Although a rule of marriage was laid down, complete sexual abstinence was held to be more commendable; and marriage was not practiced till about 1830, after which time it became common. Articles establishing a community of goods and interests were adopted in 1819. An act of incorporation for ‘the Separatist Society of Zoar’ was obtained from the Legislature of Ohio in 1832. Joseph Bäumeler was chosen the principal executive officer, or ‘general agent,’ and continued its spiritual as well as temporal leader till his death in 1853. The members of the society were of two classes, novices and full members. The novices or probationers served for one year before being admitted to membership of the second class. Their obligations were renewed on entering into full membership, and in addition the candidate made a full and final surrender of all his possessions, and of all that he might acquire. Religious services were held on
Sundays, with singing, reading of the Bible, and at the principal meeting a discourse by Bäumeler, or, after his death, the reading of one of his printed discourses, but no audible prayer. Baptism and the Lord's Supper were not recognized. Marriage was not permitted outside of the society. Disputes were settled by arbitration. (See Zoar Community.) Consult Nordhoff, Communistic Societies (New York, 1874); Randall, History of the Zoar Society (Columbus, 1900), with a full account of the dissolution of the society; Hinds, American Communities (Chicago, 1902); Bäumeler, Die wahre Separation, etc. (Zoar, 1856).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Sergel, Johan Tobias

Edition of 1905. See also Johan Tobias Sergel on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
SERGEL, sĕr'gel, Johan Tobias (1740-1814). A Swedish sculptor, born at Stockholm. First a pupil of L'Archevêsque, he studied afterwards in Paris, and after 1767 in Rome, where during a sojourn of twelve years he acquired great reputation. Upon his return to Stockholm, whither he had been summoned by Gustavus III., he was appointed Court sculptor, professor, and in 1810 director of the Academy. The fifteen works of his preserved in the National Museum at Stockholm include a “Faun;” “Cupid and Psyche;” his masterpiece, “Diomedes Stealing the Palladium;” “The Muse of History Recording the Deeds of Gustavus Adolphus,” a group of heroic size; and a colossal “Bust of Gustavus III.” Besides these the “Monument of Gustavus III.” (1808), at the foot of the Slottsbacke (Palace Hill), the “Resurrection,” an altar-piece, and the “Monument to Descartes,” both in the Adolf-Fredriks Kyrka, should be mentioned. For his biography, consult Nyblom (Upsala, 1877).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Senator, Hermann

Edition of 1905. See also Hermann Senator on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​SENATOR, zā̇-nä′tôr, Hermann (1834—). A German physician, born in Gnesen and educated in Berlin. He became professor of clinical medicine at Berlin and principal physician of the Augusta Hospital in 1875, and six years afterwards directing physician in the Charity Hospital. His works are: Untersuchungen über den fieberhaften Prozess und seine Behandlung (1873); Die Albuminurie im gesunden und kranken Zustande (1881 and 1890), Die Krankheiten des Bewegungsapparates und Diabetes mellitus und insipidus (1879); and Die Erkrankungen der Nieren (1895).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Shaw, Henry Wheeler

Edition of 1905. See also Josh Billings on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
SHAW, Henry Wheeler (1818-85). An American humorist, better known as Josh Billings, born at Lanesborough, Mass. He entered Hamilton College, but soon went West, where he remained for twenty-two years, working on steamboats and farms and finally becoming an auctioneer. Then he settled in Poughkeepsie, N. Y., to pursue his latest calling, and began to write humorous sketches for the newspapers. He adopted an amusing phonetic spelling, and over the pen name of ‘Josh Billings’ won great favor in the early sixties. His Farmers' Allminax, published annually (1870-80), sold widely, and he also increased his reputation by lectures in which he affected awkwardness. Afterwards he contributed to the Century under the pen name ‘Uncle Esek.’ and collected his works in 1877. Among American humorists Josh Billings ranks high in pith and point, and is regarded by many as a true moralist.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Shaw, Leslie Mortimer

Edition of 1905. See also L. M. Shaw on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
SHAW, Leslie Mortimer (1848—). An American lawyer, banker, and Cabinet officer, born in Morristown, Vt. He removed to Iowa in 1869, and was educated at Cornell College and at the law school of the University of Iowa. He practiced law at Denison, Ia., where he subsequently became interested in banking. In 1896 he became prominent as a Republican campaign speaker and an earnest advocate of the gold standard. In 1897 and again in 1899 he was elected Governor of Iowa, and in January, 1902, he entered the Cabinet of President Roosevelt as Secretary of the Treasury to fill the vacancy created by the resignation of Lyman J. Gage.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Shaw, Byam

Edition of 1905. See also Byam Shaw on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
SHAW, Byam (1872—). An English figure painter, born in Madras. His family removed to London in 1879, and young Shaw studied under J. A. Vinter and at the Royal Academy schools, and first exhibited in 1893. His subjects are usually mediæval and romantic; his work, powerfully influenced by the Pre-Raphaelite School, is imaginative and decorative and rich in detail, and he is a fine colorist. His pictures include: “Rose Mary” (1893); “Love's Baubles” (1897, bought by the Corporation of Liverpool); “The Queen of Hearts,” and “The Queen of Spades,” and portraits.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Shaw, Albert

Edition of 1905. See also Albert Shaw (journalist) on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
SHAW, Albert (1857—). An American economist and editor, born at Shandon, Butler County, Ohio. He was educated at Iowa College and at Johns Hopkins University. His first important work was his thesis, Icaria: A Chapter in the History of Communism (1883). After editorial work and foreign study, he was made in 1890 professor of international law at Cornell University, but resigned his position to take the editorship (1891) of the American Review of Reviews. He published Municipal Government in Great Britain (1895), Municipal Government in Continental Europe (1895), and an account of the Spanish-American War.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Fontanes, Louis, Marquis de

Edition of 1906. See also Louis-Marcelin de Fontanes on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​FONTANES, fôN′tȧn′, Louis, Marquis de (1757-1821). A French poet and political orator. He was born at Niort, March 6, 1757, and was of an ancient Protestant family of Languedoc. He went to Paris while still a youth, and at twenty-one had attracted attention as poet by Le cri de mon cœur (1778) and La forêt de Navarre (1778). A little later he published a scholarly translation of Pope's Essay on Man (1783). During the early years of the Revolution he was active as a moderate Republican journalist, and before the fall of Robespierre was in hiding for a time. Later he was constrained to take refuge in Hamburg, whence he went to London, and became a close friend of Chateaubriand. While in England he published a much-admired imitation of Gray's “Elegy,” Le jour des morts (1796). He returned to France in 1799, was reinstated in the Institute, of which he had been made a member in 1795, and, warmly espousing the cause of Napoleon, was made member of the legislative body (1802-10), of which he became president in 1804. Here he developed great oratorical talent in praise of the First Consul and Emperor. He was advanced to the Senate (1810), but he adapted himself readily to the Restoration after Leipzig, drew up Napoleon's act of abdication (1814), and was made peer by Louis XVIII. He died in Paris, March 17, 1821. Fontane's works, edited by Sainte-Beuve in two volumes (1837), are models of elegant and correct diction, and show sound literary judgment.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Fontanges, Marie Angélique de Scoraille de Roussille, Duchesse de

Edition of 1906. See also Marie Angélique de Scorailles on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ FONTANGES, fôN′täNzh′, Marie Angélique de Scoraille de Roussille, Duchesse de (1661-81). A mistress of Louis XIV. She was born at the Château of Cropières in Auvergne, as the daughter of the Marquis de Roussille. Maid of honor to Madame, the Duchess of Orleans, she attracted the attention of the King, who made her Duchesse de Fontanges. She is said to have been beautiful, but most prodigal and extravagant, and her career was brief. She bore the King a son, and shortly afterwards died at the Abbey of Port Royal.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Fontarabia

Edition of 1906. See also the disclaimer.
​ FON′TARA′BIA. See Fuenterrabia.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Fontenay-le-Comte

Edition of 1906. See also Fontenay-le-Comte on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ FONTENAY-LE-COMTE, fôNt′nā̇′le-kôNt′. The capital of an arrondissement in the Department of Vendée, France, situated on both banks of the Vendée, 27 miles northeast of La Rochelle (Map: France, E 5). It is an old-fashioned town, with the two fine Gothic churches of Notre Dame and Saint Jean, and in the public square a fountain in Renaissance style, from which the town derives its name; there are also a college and a handsome theatre. There are linen and cloth and saw mills, and three important annual fairs are held. Population, in 1901, 10,512. The town suffered considerably during the religious wars, and was captured by the Royalists in 1793.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Foot-washing

Edition of 1906. See also Foot washing on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
FOOT-WASHING. An Eastern custom of very early times, having its origin in necessities produced by climate and modes of dress, and in the obligations attached to the rites of hospitality. In the most primitive times the feet were without covering, and sandals afforded protection only to the sole. Consequently, after any journey in the heat and sand, bathing the feet, if not absolutely required, was at least convenient and refreshing. From Scripture and other sources, we learn that the servants of a household were accustomed to perform this work for the guests, and thus it became a significant sign of humility. In memory and imitation of the example of Christ at the Last Supper (John xiii.), the earliest Christians were accustomed to regard it as a praiseworthy act of piety. By the end of the fourth century it was specially connected with the observances of the Thursday before Easter, when, at least in the churches of Africa, Gaul, and Milan, it was the custom for the bishop to wash the feet of the newly baptized with solemn ritual observances. When infant baptism became the rule, foot-washing was dissociated from the administration of the sacrament; but as a liturgical custom observed on Maundy Thursday, it became more and more generally practiced. Earlier editions of the Ordo Romanus do not mention it, but the later ones speak of the Pope performing the ceremony for twelve subdeacons. As in monasteries where was a twofold observance, by the brethren among themselves
and by the abbot and others for numerous poor people, so the Pope and other bishops added the washing of the feet of representative poor men, who also received food and gifts. It was also frequently, and is still in some courts (e.g. that of Vienna), practiced by monarchs. At Rome, while the Gospel narrative is sung (from whose first words in Latin, Mandatum novum, ‘a new commandment,’ John xiii. 34, the name of Maundy or Mandate Thursday is derived), the representatives of the Apostles take their seats, dressed in white woolen tunics, and the Pope, in similar attire, sprinkles a few drops of water on the right foot of each, then wipes and kisses it. After this a repast is given, at which the Pope and his Cabinet wait on the old men, who, at the close, take with them the tunics and towels, with the addition of a small gratuity in money. The Anabaptists, at the Reformation, continued the practice. The Moravians revived it, but without strictly enforcing it. In modern times it has been regularly practiced among the Dunkers (see German Baptist Brethren), Winebrennerians, and the Glassites or Sandemanians.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Follen, Eliza Lee (Cabot)

Edition of 1905. See also Eliza Lee Cabot Follen on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
FOLLEN, Eliza Lee (Cabot) (1787-1860). An American author, born in Boston, Mass. She was a friend of William Ellery Channing, and was a stanch abolitionist. Her writings were at one time very popular, and include, besides a Memoir of her husband, Prof. Charles Theodore Follen (1842), Well-Spent Hours (1827); Poems on Occasional Topics (1839); To Mothers in the Free States (1855); and Anti-Slavery Hymns and Songs (1855).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Follen, August

Edition of 1905. See also August Follen on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
FOL'LEN, August, afterward Adolf Ludwig (1794-1855). A German author. He was born in Giessen January 21, 1794. He was imprisoned (1819-21) for political agitation in Berlin, and after his release spent his life in Switzerland. He died in Bern December 26, 1855. He is best known for his anthology of German poetry, Bildersaal deutscher Dichtung (1827), but also for editions of the Nibelungenlied and Gottfried's Tristan und Isolde, for a collection of Latin Hymns (1819), and for translations of the Homeric Hymns (1814) and Tasso's Jerusalem Delivered (1819). His chivalrous romances, e.g. Malegys und Vivian (1829), and his poems, with few exceptions, are not important.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Follen, Charles Theodore Christian

Edition of 1905. See also Charles Follen on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
FOLLEN, Charles Theodore Christian (1795-1840). A German clergyman, scholar, and reformer, brother of the preceding. He was born at Romrod, in Hesse-Darmstadt, and studied theology at Giessen, where be showed himself an ardent believer in the principles of the French Revolution. After some weeks of soldiering against Napoleon in 1814, he returned to his studies in 1818 received an appointment as university lecturer in law. His revolutionary views, however, expressed in radical songs and inflammatory addresses, drove him from Giessen to Jena, and thence to France, to Coire in Switzerland, to Basel, where he was appointed lecturer at the university, and finally, in 1824, to America. In 1825 he was appointed a teacher of German at Harvard College, and, three years later, became teacher of ecclesiastical history and ethics in the divinity school. From 1830 to 1835 he was professor of German literature at Harvard. Later on he preached in the First Unitarian Church of New York City, and in 1839 accepted a call to the pastorate of a church of the same denomination in Lexington, Mass. From the commencement of the anti-slavery movement he was an avowed abolitionist, and a warm friend and associate of Garrison. He lost his life in the burning of the steamboat Lexington on Long Island Sound January 13, 1840. His works, with a Memoir, were published at Boston in 1841.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Fontenay

Edition of 1906. See also Fontenoy, Yonne on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ FONTENAY, fôNt′nā̇′ A small town near Auxerre, in Lower Burgundy. It is memorable for the battle fought there in 841, between the three sons of Louis the Pious, which decided the fate of the Carolingian Empire. The Emperor Lothair, who was defeated, was obliged in 843 to consent to divide the Empire with his two brothers by the Treaty of Verdun (q.v.). From this treaty the kingdoms of modern France and Germany arose.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Fontenay-Mareuil, François du Val, Marquis de

Edition of 1906. See also the disclaimer.
​ FONTENAY-MAREUIL, fôNt′nā̇′mȧ′rẽ′y’, François du Val, Marquis de (c.1594-1665) . A French soldier, diplomat, and historian. He was brought up at the Court of Louis XIII.; served with Mayenne in Spain; with Nevers at Ratisbon; under Boisdauphin at the siege of Soissons (1617); in 1619 in Normandy; at Saint-Jean d'Angély, Clérac, and Montauban (1621); at Saint-Antoine and Montpellier (1622); at the Ile de Ré (1627); and at the sieges of La Rochelle (1628), of Privas, and of Alais (1629). Then his diplomatic career began. He announced the capture of La Rochelle to the Duke of Savoy; escorted Montpensier to the Court; negotiated with Rohan; and from 1630 to 1633 was Ambassador to England. After taking part in various campaigns against the Imperialists and Spaniards, he was Ambassador at Rome from 1640 to 1650. His memoirs, published at Paris, 1826 (vol. i., of the first series of the Collection Pettitot), are both interesting and valuable.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Calif de Bagdad

Edition of 1905. See also the disclaimer.
​ CALIF DE BAGDAD, kȧ′lḗf′ de bȧg′dȧd′, Le. See Boieldieu, F. A.