OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sansovino, Andrea Contucci del Monte

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​SANSOVINO, ANDREA CONTUCCI DEL MONTE (1460–1529), Florentine sculptor, was the son of a shepherd called Niccolo di Domenico Contucci, and was born at Monte Sansavino near Arezzo, whence he took his name, which is usually softened to Sansovino. He was a pupil of Antonio Pollaiuolo, and at first worked in the purer style of 15th-century Florence. Hence his early works are by far the best, such as the terra-cotta altarpiece in Santa Chiara at Monte Sansavino, and the marble reliefs of the “Annunciation,” the “Coronation of the Virgin,” a “Pietà,” the “Last Supper,” and various statuettes in the Corbinelli chapel of S. Spirito at Florence, all executed between the years 1488 and 1492. From 1491 to 1500 Andrea worked in Portugal for the king, and some pieces of sculpture by him still exist in the monastic church of Coimbra. (See Raczinski, Les Arts en Portugal, Paris, 1846, p. 344.) These early reliefs show strongly the influence of Donatello. The beginning of a more pagan style is shown in the statues of “St John baptizing Christ” over the east door of the Florentine baptistery. This group was, however, finished by the weaker hand of Vincenzo Danti. In 1502 he executed the marble font at Volterra, with good reliefs of the “Four Virtues” and the “Baptism of Christ.” In 1505 Sansovino was invited to Rome by Julius II. to make the monuments of Cardinal Ascanio Maria Sforza and Cardinal Girolamo della Rovere for the retro-choir of S. Maria del Popolo. The architectural parts of these monuments and their sculptured foliage are extremely graceful and executed with the most minute delicacy, but the recumbent effigies show the beginning of a serious decline in taste. These tombs became models which for many years were copied by most later sculptors with increasing exaggerations of their defects. In 1512, while still in Rome, Sansovino executed a very beautiful group of the “Madonna and Child with St Anne,” now over one of the side altars in the church of S. Agostino. From 1513 to 1528 he was at Loreto, where he cased the outside of the Santa Casa in white marble, covered with reliefs and statuettes in niches between engaged columns; a small part of this sculpture was the work of Andrea, but the greater part was executed by Montelupo, Tribolo and others of his assistants and pupils. Though the general effect is rich and magnificent, the individual pieces of sculpture are both dull and feeble. The earlier reliefs, those by Sansovino himself, are the best.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sans-Culottes

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SANS-CULOTTES (French for “without knee-breeches”), the term originally given during the early years of the French Revolution to the ill-clad and ill-equipped volunteers of the Revolutionary army, and later applied generally to the ultra-democrats of the Revolution. They were for the most part men of the poorer classes, or leaders of the populace, but during the Terror public functionaries and persons of good education styled themselves citoyens sans-culottes. The distinctive costume of the typical sans-culotte was the pantalon (long trousers)—in place of the culottes worn by the upper classes—the carmagnole (short-skirted coat), the red cap of liberty and sabots (wooden shoes). The influence of the Sans-culottes ceased with the reaction that followed the fall of Robespierre (July 1794), and the name itself was proscribed. In the Republican Calendar the complementary days at the end of the year were at first called Sans-culottides; this name was, however, suppressed
by the Convention when the constitution of the year III. (1795) was adopted, that of jours complémentaires being substituted.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Santa Barbara (California)

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​SANTA BARBARA, a city and the county-seat of Santa Barbara county, in southern California, U.S.A., on the coast plain on the southern slope of the Santa Ynez Mountains. Pop. (1900) 6587 (1143 foreign-born); (1910) 11,659. It is served by the Coast Line of the Southern Pacific railway system. With picturesque surroundings, excellent bathing beach and ideal climate, Santa Barbara is one of the most popular of the health and pleasure resorts of California. The monthly average of the mean temperatures for 23 years (1881–1903 inclusive) varied from 53° in January to 67° in August. Nowhere in California is plant life more varied and beautiful; in the vicinity are walnut, olive, lemon and orange groves. North-west of the city are the valuable oil fields of Santa Barbara county, notably the Santa Maria field, 6 m. S. of Santa Maria, and the region between Lompoc and Santa Maria, first developed in 1903. A presidio (Spanish military post) was established here in 1782, and a Franciscan mission, by Junipero Serra, about four years later. The mission building is well preserved, and is probably the greatest single attraction of Santa Barbara. It is now the Franciscan headquarters of the Pacific coast, and near it is a Franciscan college. Immediately behind it is -the picturesque Mission Canyon. Santa Barbara took part in the revolution of 1829, and in the sectional struggles following leaned to the side of Monterey and the North. It was occupied by the Americans in August 1846, then (without bloodshed) by the Californians in October, and again definitively by the American forces on the 27th of November 1846. In 1850 it was incorporated as a city, though already long a Mexican “ ciudad.” It remained off the railway route until 1887.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Santa Ana (California)

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​SANTA ANA, a city and the county-seat of Orange county, southern California, U.S.A., 34 m. S.E. of Los Angeles. Pop. (1900) 4933 (506 foreign-born); (1910) 8429. It is served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fé, the Southern Pacific and the Pacific Electric railways. The city is situated about 10 m. from the ocean, in the lower western foothills of the Santa Ana mountains. There are numerous artesian wells in the surrounding region, and there is a good irrigation system. (For a description of the irrigation canal see Aqueduct.) Santa Ana is in the orange, lemon and walnut region of southern California, and in the only important celery-growing district of the state; the celery is grown in great quantities in the large district known as the “ Peatlands ” (about 9 m. from the city), which is under laid by a deposit of peat from 1 to 100 ft. deep. Other important products of the county are petroleum, barley, sugar beets, apricots and lima beans. Santa Ana was first platted in 1869 and was incorporated in 1888. Its growth since 1900 has been rapid.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Santa Ana (Salvador)

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​SANTA ANA, the capital of the department of Santa Ana, Salvador, 50 m. by rail N.W. of San Salvador. Pop.(1905) about 48,000. It is situated about 2100 ft. above sea-level, in a valley surrounded by high mountains, which are covered by coffee and sugar plantations and woods. It is the second city of the republic in size, and has broad shady streets and fine open squares. The municipal offices, hospital, literary institute and barracks are noteworthy buildings, and the parish church, Doric in style, is generally regarded as one of the finest in Central America. Cigars, pottery, starch, spirits, sugar and various textiles are manufactured, and the export trade in coffee and sugar has developed rapidly since the opening in 1900 of a railway to San Salvador and the Pacific port of Acajutla.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sanson, Charles Henri

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​SANSON, CHARLES HENRI (b. 1739), public executioner of Paris from 1788 to 1795, was the son of Charles Sanson or Longval, who received in 1688 the office of exécuteur des hautes œuvres de Paris, which became hereditary in his family. Sanson’s brothers exercised the same trade in other towns. In the last days of 1789 Gorsas in the Courrier de Paris accused Sanson of harbouring a Royalist press in his house. Sanson was brought to trial, but acquitted, and Gorsas withdrew the accusation. After the execution of Louis XVI., a statement by Sanson was inserted in the Thermomètre politique (13th February 1793) in contradiction of the false statements made in respect of the king’s behaviour when confronted with death. He surrendered his office in 1795 to his son Henri, who had been his deputy for some time, and held his father’s office till his death in 1840. There is no record of the elder Sanson’s death. Henri’s son Clément Henri was the last of the family to hold the office.
The romantic tales told of C. H. Sanson have their origin in the apocryphal Mémoires pour servir à l’histoire de la Révolution Française par Sanson (2 vols., 1829; another ed., 1831), of which a few pages of introduction emanate from Balzac, and some other matter from Lhéritier de l’Ain. Other Mémoires of Sanson, edited by A. Grégoire (ps. for V. Lombard) in 1830, and by M. d’Olbreuze (6 vols., 1862–1863) are equally fictitious. The few facts definitely ascertainable are collected by G. Lenôtre in La Guillotine pendant la Révolution (1893). Cf. M. Tourneux, Bibliographie de l’histoire de Paris . . . (1890, &c.), vol. i. Nos. 3963-3965, and vol. iv., s.v. “Sanson.”
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Trimmer, Joshua

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​TRIMMER, JOSHUA (1795–1857), English geologist, was born at North Cray in Kent, on the 11th of July 1795. He was son of Joshua Kirby Trimmer of Brentford, and grandson ​of Mrs Sarah Trimmer (1741-1810), authoress of the Story of the Robins (1786). At the age of nineteen he was sent to North Wales to manage a copper-mine for his father; subsequently he was placed in charge of a farm in Middlesex, where he acquired a knowledge of and an interest in soils; in 1825 he became manager (for his father) of slate quarries near Bangor and Carnarvon, and in this district he remained for many years. He discovered the marine shells in the drift of Moel Tryfaen. During the years 1850-1854 he was engaged on the Geological Survey, and surveyed parts of the New Forest in Hampshire. He died in London on the 16th of September 1857.
He published memoirs on the Origin of the Soils which cover the Chalk of Kent; On the Geology of Norfolk, as Illustrating the Laws of the Distribution of Soils (1847); and Proposals for a Geological Survey, specially directed to Agricultural Objects (1850); in this respect he was a pioneer in agricultural geology. He was author also of a useful work Practical Geology and Mineralogy (1841). Obituary by J. E. Portlock, in Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. (1858).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Triglyph

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​TRIGLYPH (Gr. τρεῖς, three, and γλυφή, an incision or carving), an architectural term for the vertically channelled tablets of the Doric frieze, so called because of the angular channels in them, two perfect and one divided—the two chamfered angles or hemiglyphs being reckoned as one. The square sunk spaces between the triglyphs on a frieze are called metopes.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Trigonon

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​TRIGONON, a small triangular harp, occasionally used by the ancient Greeks and probably derived from Assyria or Egypt. The trigonon is thought to be either a variety of the sambuca or identical with it. A trigonon is represented on one of the Athenian red-figured vases from Cameiros in the island of Rhodes, dating from the 5th century B.C., which are preserved in the British Museum. The triangle is here an irregular one, consisting of a narrow base to which one end of the string was fixed, while the second side, forming a slightly obtuse angle with the base, consisted of a wide and slightly curved sound-board pierced with holes through which the other end of the strings passed, being either knotted or wound round pegs. The third side of the triangle was formed by the strings themselves, the front pillar, which in modern European harps plays such an important part, being always absent in these early Oriental instruments. A small harp of this kind having 20 strings was discovered at Thebes in 1823.  (K. S.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Trikkala

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​TRIKKALA (anc. Trika), a town of Greece, capital of the department of Trikkala, and the see of an archbishop, 38 m. W. of Larissa. In winter, when great numbers of Vlach herdsmen take up their quarters in the town, its population exceeds that of Larissa. It has the appearance of a Mussulman town on account of its mosques (only two of which are in use) and it is a centre of trade in wheat, maize, tobacco and cocoons. The town was in ancient times a celebrated seat of the worship of Aesculapius. Pop. (1889), 14,820; (1907) 17,809; of the department, 90,548.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Trilemma

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​TRILEMMA (Gr. τρεῖς, three, λῆμμα, something taken), in logic, an argument akin to the dilemma (q.v.), in which there are three possibilities. By getting rid of two, the third is proved, provided the original three exhaust the number. The terms “tetralemma” (four possibilities) and “polylemma” (many) have also been used.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Trim

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​TRIM, a market town and the county town of Co. Meath, Ireland, on the upper waters of the Boyne, 30 m. N.W. by W. from Dublin on a branch of the Midland Great Western railway. Pop. (1901), 1513. The county buildings are here; monthly fairs are held, and there is considerable trade in corn and flour; but the chief interest of the town lies in its historical associations and remains, enhanced by a beautiful situation. It was the seat of a very early bishopric. A Norman tower, called the Yellow Steeple, is supposed to mark the site of St Patrick’s Abbey of St Mary. Two gates remain from the old town walls. King John’s Castle (incorrectly so called, as this monarch only resided here on the occasion of a visit) was originally founded by Hugh de Lacy in 1173, but a later date is assignable to the greater part of the magnificent moated building, of which the keep, flanking turrets, drawbridge, portcullis and barbican, still testify to its former strength, which was augmented by its frontage to the river. Other smaller fortified buildings are Talbot’s and Scurlogstown Castles; the former erected by Sir John Talbot, lord lieutenant of Ireland in 1415—afterwards earl of Shrewsbury, the latter dating from 1180. About a mile east of the town, the ruins of the abbey of St Peter and St Paul occupy both banks of the river. These include the transitional-Norman cathedral on the north bank, and a castle, guarding the crossing of the river, on the south, together with a chapel and other remains. North of the town ruins may be seen of a Dominican friary of the 13th century. The tower of the old parish church dates from 1449. In the annals of Trim many famous names have a place; Humphrey of Gloucester and Henry of Lancaster were imprisoned here by Richard II. before Henry came to the throne; and Richard, duke of York, and father of Edward IV. held court at the castle, where also several Irish parliaments met until the middle of the 15th century, and a mint was established in 1469. The residence in a house in Dublingate Street of the famous duke of Wellington is commemorated by a Corinthian column and statue. Trim is governed by an urban district council. It was incorporated by Edward III., and returned two members to the Irish parliament until the Union in 1800.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Triforium

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​TRIFORIUM, an architectural term, the origin of which is unknown but probably derived from “ thoroughfarum," as it was used as a passage from one end of the building to the other. The derivation from Lat. tres, tri, three, and foris, door, entrance, does not seem appropriate. The earliest examples are those in the pagan basilicas, where it constituted an upper galley for conversation and business; in the early Christian basilicas it was usually reserved for women, and the same applied to those in the Greek Byzantine Church. In Romanesque and Gothic buildings it is either a spacious gallery over the side aisles or is reduced to a simple passage in the thickness of the walls; in either case it forms an important architectural division in the ​nave of the cathedral or church, and being of less height gives more importance to the ground storey or nave arcade. In consequence of its less height it was usually divided into two arches, which were again subdivided into two smaller arches and these subdivisions increased the scale. On account of the richness of its mouldings and carved ornament in the sculpture introduced in the spandrels, it became the most highly decorated feature of the interior, the triforium at Lincoln being one of the most beautiful compositions of Gothic architecture. Even when reduced to a simple passage it was always a highly enriched feature. In the 15th-century churches in England, when the roof over the aisles was comparatively flat, more height being required for the clerestory windows, the triforium was dispensed with altogether. In the great cathedrals and abbeys the triforium was often occupied by persons who came to witness various ceremonies, and in early days was probably utilized by the monks and clergy for work connected with the church.
From the constructive point of view, the triforium sometimes served very important functions, as under its roof exist arches and vaults carried from the nave to the outer wall, to which they transmitted the thrust of the nave vault; even when the flying buttress was frankly adopted by the Gothic architect and emphasized by its architectural design as an important feature, other cross arches were introduced under the roof to strengthen it.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stall

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​STALL (O. Eng. steall, stael, cf. Du. stal, Ger. and Swed. Stall, a common Teutonic word for a place, station, place for standing in; the root is the Indo-European sta-, to stand, seen also in Latin stabulum, Greek σταθμός, and in stallion, an entire horse, properly one kept in a stall and not worked), a word which means literally a place where one may stand, and so is applied to a separate division in a stable, shed, &c, in which a single horse, cow or other domestic animal may be kept, to a separate booth, bench or table in a market or other building, or in the street, on which goods are exposed for sale by the person owning or licensed to use the same, and in England to the higher-priced seats on the ground floor of a theatre. The word is more particularly applied to a special form of seat in an ecclesiastical building. In cathedrals, monastic churches and the larger parish churches the stalls are fixed seats enclosed at the back and separated at the sides by high projecting arms, and placed in one or more rows on the north and south sides of the choir or chancel, running from the sanctuary to the screen or chancel arch. These separate enclosed seats are properly reserved for the clergy, and more usually the choir are seated in open benches in front of the stalls. In a cathedral the canons and prebendaries have each a stall assigned to them. ​In the chapels of the various knightly orders the stalls are assigned to the members of the order, thus, in St. George's Chapel, Windsor, are the stalls of the Knights of the Garter, in Henry VII.’s Chapel in Westminster Abbey are those of the Knights of the Bath, adorned with the stall plates emblazoned with the arms of the knight occupying the stall, above which is suspended his banner.
Architecturally and artistically considered, the stalls of a cathedral or church are a marked feature of the interior adornment. They are richly carved, and are frequently surmounted by canopies of tabernacle work. The seats generally can be folded back so as to allow the occupant to stand upright or kneel; beneath the seat, especially in monastic churches, is fixed a small bracket, a miserere (q.v.), which affords a slight rest for the person while standing. Among beautiful specimens of carved stalls may be mentioned the Early Decorated stalls in Winchester Cathedral, the Early Perpendicular ones in Lincoln Minster, and the early 15th-century canopies in Norwich Cathedral. The stalls, especially the towering corner-stalls with their ornate carving filled with figures, in Amiens Cathedral are very fine; they date from 1508–1520.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stalybridge

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​STALYBRIDGE, a municipal and parliamentary borough of Cheshire, England; the parliamentary borough extending into Lancashire. Pop. (1901), 27,673. It lies on the river Tame, in a hilly district, 6 m. E. of Manchester, and is served by the London & North-Western, Great Central, and Lancashire & Yorkshire railways. Immediately to the west lie the towns of Dukinfield, and across the river in Lancashire, Ashton-under-Lyne; while 2 m. south of Stalybridge is the town of Hyde. The whole district is thus very densely populated. Stalybridge is one of the oldest seats of the cotton manufacture in this locality, the first cotton mill having been erected in 1776, and the first steam engine in 1795. There are also machine works, nail works, paper mills, and iron and brass foundries. The development of the town is modern, as it was created a market town in 1828, incorporated in 1857, and created a parliamentary borough, returning one member, in 1867. It is under a mayor, 7 aldermen and 22 councillors. Area, 3130 acres.