OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Foraker, Joseph Benson

See also Joseph B. Foraker on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​FORAKER, JOSEPH BENSON (1846-1917), American politician (see 10.628), died in Cincinnati, May 10 1917. His retirement from the Senate in 1909 followed the publication of certain letters supporting the charge that he had received money from the Standard Oil Company. In 1914 he was again a candidate for the Senate in the Republican primaries, but was defeated by Warren Gamaliel Harding. In 1916 he published Notes on a Busy Life.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Forel, François Alphonse

See also François-Alphonse Forel on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
FOREL, FRANÇOIS ALPHONSE (1841-1912), Swiss geographer, was born at Morges on Lake Geneva Feb. 2 1841. He was trained for and practised in the medical profession, but his life-interest was found in the lake on whose shore he lived, and, from that, in limnology, the science of lakes. The study of Lake Geneva in all its associations led him to that of geology, physics, biology, and anthropology, and he set forth the results of his researches in the three stately volumes of Le Léman (1892-1902). On the science of limnology more generally his standard work is Handbuch der Seenkunde (1901); in this connexion his investigations of the previously mysterious movements of lake-waters known as seiches call for special notice. Among other researches of Forel's, those in seismology and upon Swiss Alpine glaciers are noteworthy. He died at Morges Aug. 7 1912.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Frederick, Archduke of Austria

See also Archduke Friedrich, Duke of Teschen on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
FREDERICK, Archduke of Austria, Duke of Teschen (1856-), Austro-Hungarian field-marshal, was born at Gross-Seelowitz, Moravia, June 4 1856. Like most of the princes of the ruling house he adopted a military career, and served creditably for many years as commandant of the V. (Pressburg) Corps. Subsequently commander-in-chief of the Austrian Landwehr and army inspector, he became, after the murder of the heir to the throne, Archduke Francis Ferdinand, inspector-general at the head of the common Austro-Hungarian army. Archduke Frederick was possessed of a considerable fortune, and was one of the greatest landowners in the monarchy; the Albertina Collection was among his inherited possessions. In the World War he was—from the dynastic point of view—as grandson of the victor of Aspern, Archduke Charles, and as nephew of the victor of Custozza, Archduke Albert, the predestined head of the armed forces of Austria-Hungary. He thought it his duty to accept this heavy responsibility, but, modestly estimating his own powers, left the actual exercise of the command to his chief-of-staff, Conrad von Hötzendorf. In the performance of ceremonial duties, and as mediator for the settlement of the conflicting demands of the military, civil and allied elements, his services were undeniable. In the spring of 1917 Emperor Charles himself took over the supreme command; the Archduke, although the Emperor's representative, no longer appeared in the foreground. He married, in 1878, Princess Isabella of Croy-Dülmen, and of this marriage there were eight daughters and one son, who served as an officer in the World War.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Fredericq, Paul

See also Paul Fredericq on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
FREDERICQ, PAUL (1850-1920), Belgian historian, was born at Ghent, Aug. 12 1850, and was educated at the university of
Liége, where he became professor of history, later (1883) occupying the same position at Ghent. His chief works were Essai sur le rôle politique et social des ducs de Bourgogne dans les Pays-Bas (1875) and Corpus documentorum Inquisitionis hereticae pravitatis Neerlandical (1889-1906, 5 vols.), and many shorter studies, principally on the religious history of the 16th century and the history of the Flemish literature. He was a strong supporter of the Flemish movement, of which he wrote a history, Schets eener Geschiedenis der Vlaamsche Bewegnig (1906-9). On the invasion of Belgium by the Germans he was active in encouraging the patriotic feelings of his countrymen and urging every sort of moral resistance to the enemy, being in consequence deported to Germany (March 16 1916), in company with Prof. H. Pirenne. He was interned successively at Gütersloh, Jena and Bürgel. He returned to Belgium after the Armistice and was appointed rector of Ghent University. His imprisonment, however, had seriously weakened his health, and he died March 23 1920. He was a member of the Academie Royale de Belgique, the Commission Royale d'Histoire and the Academie des Pays-Bas, and his influence on the teaching of history in Belgium was profound. He was converted to Protestantism in his youth, and his tendencies in religion, as in politics, were liberal.
See Ch. Nyrop, L'Arrestation des professeurs beiges et l'Université de Gand (Paris, 1917; also translated into English and Danish); V. Fris, Les deux historiens nationaux exilés pour leur patriotisme (1919).
    (H. P.)
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Frazer, Sir James George

See also James George Frazer on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
FRAZER, SIR JAMES GEORGE (1854-), British anthropologist, was born at Glasgow, Jan. 1 1854. Educated at Helensburgh, Glasgow University and Trinity College, Cambridge, he was elected fellow of his college in 1879 and was called to the bar. In 1907 he was elected professor of social anthropology at Liverpool. His principal work, The Golden Bough, first published in 1890 (2nd ed. 1900) and reissued with enlargements in 12 vols. under seven titles between 1907 and 1915, was an elaborate study of the Greek cults, their origins and their place in the comparative history of religion. He also published Pausanias and other Greek sketches (1900) and Sir Roger de Coverley and other literary pieces (1920). His views on the connexion between magic and mythology are explained in 19.133 and 17.305; those on folklore are described in 10.601.
# A Desk-Book of Errors in English/Q

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quantity is properly applied to that which is measurable, as is "number" to that which may be counted. "A quantity of people"; "a quantity of birds," are both incorrect; substitute the word number in both cases.
quarter of: As applied to time this is incorrect. Such an ambiguity can be avoided by substituting to for of. For example, a quarter of seven is one and three-fourths not a quarter to the hour of seven; yet the phrase "quarter of" is often misapplied to time by persons of average education.
quit is sometimes used incorrectly for cease. You may quit business, but do not ask your companion to "quit fooling."
quite: In general quite means "to the fullest extent, totally, perfectly"; colloquially, it means "very, considerably." It is from the French quitte, meaning "discharged," being the equivalent of the English "quits," a word used in games to designate when the players are even with one another. Therefore such a phrase as "quite a number" is unjustifiable. "Number" is indefinite in its significance just as are also "few," "little," and "some." As Richard Grant White says, "A cup or a theater may be quite full; and there may be quite a pint in a cup or quite a thousand people in the theater; and neither may be ​quite full." Yet Thomas Hughes, author of "Tom Brown's Schooldays," wrote in a letter concerning an intercollegiate boat-race "quite a number of young Americans." The local colloquialism "quite some" is wholly indefensible.
quite so: An undesirable locution, common in England and to some extent in America, and used to signify assent, which should be avoided. "He jabbers like an idiot." "Quite so, quite so."
quite the lady: A vulgarism for "very ladylike."
# A Desk-Book of Errors in English/K

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kettle of fish, pretty: A colloquial phrase for "a perplexing state of affairs," or "a muddle," both of which are preferable expressions.
key, quay: Exercise care in the use of these words. A key is that with which something is opened or disclosed; also, a small low-lying island; a quay is a wharf or landing place where ships discharge ​passen gers or cargo. These words are pronounced alike. Compare dock.
kibosh: A slang term for "humbug." To put the kibosh on, a slang phrase for "to put an end to or stop anything."
kick is not used instead of "protest" by careful speakers, notwithstanding the fact that George Eliot introduced it into literature (see Silas Marner, ch. iv. p. 52). The term is slang.
kid: A common vulgarism for "child" and as such one the use of which can not be too severely condemned.
kid on: A vulgarism used in England for "humbug; hoax; or, try to induce one to believe something that is not true:"—no kid, no kidding: Vulgar terms for "without any humbug." Undesirable locutions.
killing. Compare perfectly.
kinder: For kind of, pronounced as one word, is merely a low vulgarism. The same remark holds of sorter similarly used for "sort of." See kind of.
kindness: When used in the plural is sometimes objected to on the ground that kindness is an abstract noun. "He wishes to express gratitude for many kindnesses." Nothing is commoner than the making of abstract nouns into concrete in this way; "affinities"; "charities"; "His tender mercies are over all His works." Besides, by "many kindnesses" is meant, ​not "much kindness," nor "great kindness," but "kindness manifested in many forms or shown on many occasions, many acts of kindness."
kind of is an American provincialism for somewhat and has no literary authorization. "I am somewhat tired" should be substituted for "I am kind of tired." Again, after kind of do not use the indefinite article. "What kind of man" is preferable to "what kind of a man."
kind of, sort of: Indefinite phrases used by some lexicographers to introduce definitions; as "a kind of bird"; "a sort of box." If the subject treated be a bird of some species or a box of a specific make it is best usage to describe first what it is and then to follow with the characteristics; as, "a bird of the swallow family," "a cage-like box," etc.
king-pin is not a desirable substitute for "chief man" or "person in charge." As a colloquialism it should be avoided.
kinsman. Compare relation.
knife, to: This term should not be used as a substitute for "stab" or "defeat." Although widely used by politicians in the United States the term has no justification outside of ward politics.
knock, to: Slang for "to harass or find fault with continually;" a similar and more recent word used also in this sense is hammer. Both should be avoided.
# A Dictionary of Music and Musicians/Frescobaldi, Girolamo

From volume 1 of the work.
​FRESCOBALDI, Girolamo, the most distinguished organist of the 17th century, born at Ferrara 1587 or 8, as is conjectured from the date on his first composition—1608. He studied under Alessandro Milleville, also a native of Ferrara. Quadrio tells us that he possessed a singularly beautiful voice; and it is certain that while still a youth he enjoyed a great reputation both as singer and organist. In 1608 he was at Antwerp, as he dates from there the preface to his first book of 5-part Madrigals (Antwerp, Phalesio) dedicated to Guido Bentivoglio, Archbishop of Rhodes; but he must have quickly returned to Italy, as his second book was published at Milan in the same year. In 1614 he was in Rome, and by the following year was regular organist at St. Peter's. His first performance there attracted, according to Baini, an audience of 30,000 persons. Froberger was his pupil from Sept. 30, 1637, to April 1641, and thus the noble style of his Organ playing was handed on to other schools. The date of his death is unknown.
[ F. G. ]
[ J. R. M. ]
# A Dictionary of Music and Musicians/Froberger, Johann

From volume 1 of the work.
[ F. G. ]
* ↑ So, and not Frohberger, is the name spelt by the last investigator, Dr. E. Schebek.
* ↑ This alone shows that the received date of his birth, 1635, must be wrong.
# A Dictionary of Music and Musicians/Frezzolini, Erminia

From volume 1 of the work.
[ J. M. ]
# A Dictionary of Music and Musicians/Fritz, Barthold

From volume 1 of the work.
[ M. C. C. ]
# A Dictionary of Music and Musicians/Frottole

From volume 1 of the work.
[ G. ]
# A Dictionary of Music and Musicians/Frichot

From volume 1 of the work.
[ M. C. C. ]
# A Dictionary of Music and Musicians/Frick, Philipp

From volume 1 of the work.
[ M. C. C. ]
# A Dictionary of Music and Musicians/Friberth, Karl

From volume 1 of the work.
[ C. F. P. ]
# A Dictionary of Music and Musicians/Frickenhaus, Fanny

​FRICKENHAUS, Fanny, was born June 7, 1849, at Cheltenham. Her maiden name of Evans was abandoned on her marriage with Mr. Augustus Frickenhaus. She received instruction in music from Mr. George Mount, ​afterwards at Brussels from M. Auguste Dupont, and later from Mr. William Bohrer. Her first important engagement was. on Jan. 11, 1879, at one of the Saturday Evening Concerts, where she played with such success that she was engaged for the remainder of the series. She was next heard at the London Ballad and Promenade Concerts. Since then she has played at all the principal London Concerts, viz. at the Philharmonic March 4, 1886; at the Crystal Palace, where she first appeared Nov. 27, 1880, in Mendelssohn's 'Serenade and Allegro giojoso,' and where she has been since heard in concertos of Mozart, Schütt, and Dupont, the two last for the first time in England; at Mr. Cowen's Concerts Nov. 27, 1880, where she played the Pianoforte Concerto of Goetz for the first time in London; at the Brinsmead Concerts Dec. 19, 1886; in the Prize Concerto of Oliver King, and at the Popular Concerts, where she first appeared Jan. 27, 1883, and has since played with success.
[ A. C. ]
# A Critical Exposition of the Popular 'Jihád'/Introduction/18

[Sidenote: Intolerance—no compulsory conversion enjoined, or took place during Mohammad's life-time.]
18. The subject of the alleged intolerance on the part of Mohammad, the Prophet, towards the unbelievers has been fully discussed in paragraphs 34-39 (pp. 41-51). It is altogether a wrong assumption of European writers that the Koran enjoins compulsory conversion of the unbeliever, or that Mohammad proselytized at the point of the sword. Sir W. Muir writes:—
[Sidenote: Sir W. Muir quoted.]
    "Persecution, though it may sometimes have deterred the timid from joining his ranks, was eventually of unquestionable service to Mahomet. It furnished a plausible excuse for casting aside the garb of toleration; for opposing force to force against those who obstructed the ways of the Lord; and last of all for the compulsory conversion of unbelievers."
Opposing force to force and even redressing our wrongs and re-establishing our imperilled rights is not 'intolerance.' Mohammad did repel the force of his enemies when it was quite necessary for the Moslem self-preservation and protection, but he never compelled any of his enemies or unbelievers, whether a single individual, or a body of men, or a whole tribe, to believe in him. The Koran and history contradict such an allegation. The Koran everywhere in the Meccan and Medinite Suras preaches complete toleration of every religion. History nowhere authentically records any instance of Mohammad's enforcing conversion by means of the sword.

## Footnotes

* ↑ The Life of Mahomet from original sources, by Sir W. Muir, LL.D. New Edition, page 68, London, 1877. See also page 57 of the same.
# A Critical Exposition of the Popular 'Jihád'/Introduction/22

[Sidenote: Disturbed state of the public peace among the tribes surrounding Medina. Internecine wars an obstacle to the propagation of Islam.]
22. Irrespective of the wars prosecuted by the Koreish from the South against Mohammad at Medina, and the constant danger of inroad and attack upon Medina from the neighbouring tribes—a great obstacle in the propagation of Islam which could only be successfully accomplished in a state of peace and tranquility of both parties,—the most important and great tribes in the North and Centre of Arabia were at war against each other during the life of Mohammad, either before his mission from 570 to 610 A.D. or during his public mission from 610 to 632 A.D. The disastrous internecine wars were kept up for scores of years and the evils necessarily inflicted in their progress were not confined to the belligerents only. It required years to remove the evils of war and to efface the traces of misery and sorrow the wars had brought.

## Footnotes

* ↑ The same remarks apply to the wars fought during Mohammad's lifetime but before his public mission.
# A Critical Exposition of the Popular 'Jihád'/Introduction/17

[Sidenote: Caravans, if waylaid, were by reprisal.]
17. As regards the threatened attack on the caravans or capturing of it, there are not any satisfactory grounds of proof; but if they were attacked and captured, I do not see any reason why they should be objected to. When hostilities commence, the first objects that naturally present themselves for detection and seizure are the person and property of the enemy. Even under the International Law of most civilized countries, the legitimacy of appropriating the enemy's property rests on the commencement of the state of war. Under the old customs of war a belligerent possessed the right to seize and appropriate all the property belonging to an enemy's state or its subjects, of whatever kind they be or in whatsoever place where the acts of war are permissible. So those who object to the early Moslems' threatening, or capturing, or appropriating the person or property of the enemy, and call them robbery, rapine or brigandage, show their complete ignorance of the International Law, ancient or modern.
# A Critical Exposition of the Popular 'Jihád'/Introduction/2

[Sidenote: Early wrongs of the Moslems.]
[Sidenote: Justification in taking up arms, if taken.]
2. All the wars of Mohammad were defensive. He and those who took interest in his cause were severely oppressed at intervals, and were in a sort of general persecution at Mecca at the hands of the ungodly and fierce Koreish. Those who were weak and without protection had to leave their city, and twice fly to the Christian land of Abyssinia, pursued by the wrathful Koreish, but in vain. Those who remained at Mecca were subject to all sorts of indignities, malignity and a deprivation of all religious and social liberty, because they had forsaken the inferior deities of the Koreish, and believed in the only ONE GOD of Mohammad, in whose mission they had full belief. Mohammad and his followers had every sanction, under the natural and international law, then and there to wage war against their persecutors with the object of removing the (fitnah) persecution and obtaining their civil rights of freedom and religious liberty in their native city.
# A Critical Exposition of the Popular 'Jihád'/Introduction/20

[Sidenote: Rapid stride of Islam at Medina.]
20. Next year twelve new converts were made from persons who had come to see the Prophet from Medina. They returned as missionaries of Islam, and Islam spread rapidly in Medina from house to house and from tribe to tribe. The Jews looked on in amazement at the people whom they had in vain endeavoured from generations to convince of the errors of polytheism, and to dissuade from the abominations of their idolatry, suddenly of their own accord casting away idols and professing belief in the one True God. Thus speedily without let or hindrance, force or compulsion, did Islam take firm root at Medina and attain to a full and mature growth. There remained not a single house among the Aws and Khazraj tribes of Medina in which there were not believing men and women, excepting the branch of the Aws Allah, who were not converts till after the siege of Medina. At this time there were many Moslems in Mecca, Medina, and Abyssinia, and not a single one of them could be said to have been converted to Islam by compulsion: on the contrary, they were used to be forced to renounce Islam.

## Footnotes

* ↑ "After five centuries of Christian evangelization, we can point to but a sprinkling here and there of Christian converts;—the Bani Hârith of Najrân: the Bani Hanîfa of Yemâma; some of the Bani Tay at Tayma, and hardly any more. Judaism, vastly more powerful, had exhibited a spasmodic effort of proselytizm under Dzu Nowâs; but, as an active and converting agent the Jewish faith was no longer operative."—Muir's Life of Mahomet, Vol. I, page ccxxxix.
* ↑ The Aws or Khazraj were two branches of the Azdite tribes of Yemen from the Kahlanite stock. After their emigration to the North they separated themselves from the Ghassinides and returned to Medina, where they settled.
# A Critical Exposition of the Popular 'Jihád'/Introduction/23

23. Here I will give a brief sketch of the internecine wars which took place among the various Arab tribes during the time of Mohammad.
Wars during Mohammad's Lifetime, between the Arabian Tribes in the North and Centre of Arabia.
Before his mission, 570-610, A.D.
(1.) The battle of Rahrahán between Bani Aamir bin Saasaa and Bani Tamim in Najd, 578, A.D.
(2.) The Bani Abs on the side of Bani Aamir and Bani Zobian on the side of Tamim, 579, A.D., at Sheb Jabala.
(3.) Sacrilegious war at Táyif called Harb fi-jár, 580-590, A.D.
(4.) Several battles between Bani Bakr and Tamim in 604, A.D. and the following years.
During his mission.
(A)—While at Mecca, 610-622, A.D.
(1.) The war of Dáhis between Bani Abs and Zobian, the branches of Ghatafán in Central Arabia; lasted forty years, 568 to 609, A.D.
(2.) The battle of Zú-kár between the Bani Bakr and the Persians in the Kingdom of Hira, 611, A.D.
(3.) The Bani Kinda and Bani Háris attacked Bath Tamim when they had retired to Kuláb in the confines of Yemen and repulsed them.
(4.) The Bani Aws and Khazraj of Medina were at war. The battle of Boás was fought in 615, A.D. The Bani Aws were assisted by two tribes of Ghassan, by Mozeima and the Jewish tribes Nazeer and Koreiza. The Bani Khazraj were supported by Joheina, Ashja and the Jews of Kainuka.
(B)—"While at Medina", 622 to 632, A.D.
(1.) The standing warfare between the Bani Hawázin and the Bani Abs, Zobian, and Ashja of Ghatafán was kept up by assassinations and petty engagements till they become converts to Islam.
(2.) The Koreish fought two battles of Badr and Ohad against the Moslems at Medina in 624 and 625, A.D., respectively.
(3.) Several clans of the great Ghatafán family (the Bani Murra, Ashja and Fezára) the Bani Suleim and Sád, a branch of Hawázin, and Bani Asad from Najd Bedouin tribes, and Bani Koreiza the Jews, had besieged Medina in 627, A.D., in confederation with the Koreish.
(4.) Bani Tamim and Bani Bakr renewed their hostilities, and from 615 to 630, A.D., several battles occurred between them. The last battle was that of Shaitain in 630, A.D.
In this year, after the battle, both the tribes were converted to Islam.
(5.) The Bani Ghaus and Jadila branches of Bani Tay in the north of Medina warred against each other. The war of Fasád continued twenty-five years till they embraced Islam in 632, A.D.
# A Critical Exposition of the Popular 'Jihád'/Introduction/21

[Sidenote: The increasing number of Moslem converts at Mecca after the Hegira.]
21. When the Moslems were obliged to emigrate from Mecca under the severe Koreishite persecutions, all the followers of the Prophet with the exception of those detained in confinement or unable to escape from slavery had emigrated with their families to Medina. But there were many new converts at Mecca since the expulsion of the Moslems. Those unable to fly from Mecca in the teeth of the oppressions of the wrathful Koreish (Sura IV., 77, 79, 100) were increasing. They appealed for deliverance and aid, while the Moslem pilgrims were near Mecca at Hodeibia, six years after the Hegira, and an allusion is made to the great number of the Meccan converts, living at Mecca during that time in Sura XLVIII, 25.