OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/University of Avignon

From volume 2 of the work.
Subarticle of Avignon.
The University of Avignon (1303-1792), developed from the already existing schools of the city, was formally constituted in 1303, by a Bull of Boniface VIII. With Boniface, King Charles II of Naples should be considered as one of its first great protectors and benefactors. The faculty of law, both civil and ecclesiastical, existed for some time almost exclusively, and always remained the most important department of the university. Pope John XXIII erected (1413) a faculty of theology, the students of which were for a long time only few in number. The faculty of arts never acquired great importance; that of medicine developed especially only in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The Bishop, since 1475 Archbishop, of Avignon was chancellor of the university. The vice-legate, generally a bishop, represented the civil power (in this case the pope) and was chiefly a judicial officer, ranking higher than the Primicerius (Rector). The latter was elected by the Doctors of Law, to whom, in 1503, were added four theologians and, in 1784, two Doctors of Medicine. The pope, spiritual head and, after 1348, temporal ruler of Avignon, exercised in this double capacity great influence over the affairs of the university. John XXIII granted it (1413) extensive privileges, such as special university jurisdiction and exemption from taxes. Political, geographical, and educational circumstances forced the university, during the latter period of its existence, to look to Paris rather than to Rome for favour and protection. It disappeared gradually during the French Revolution, and ceased to exist in 1792.
RASHDALL, The Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages (Oxford,1895), II, 170-179; FOURNIER, Les status et privilèges des univ.francaises (Paris, 1890-94), II, 301-535; MARCHAND, L'université d'Avignon (Avignon, 1884).
N.A. WEBER
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/University of Bonn

From volume 2 of the work.
(RHEINSCHE FRIEDRICH-WILHELMS-UNIVERSITÄT).
An academy was founded at Bonn in 1777by Max Friedrich, Prince-Archbishop of Cologne. To secure its support he ordered that every monastery and convent within the archdiocese should either provide two professors or contribute a certain sum of money. He also endeavoured to obtain the papal sanction, but failed. In 1784 Kaiser Joseph II raised the academy to the rank of a university, and the inauguration took place 20 November, 1786. In this first period the university suffered from Febronianism and Rationalism. The leaders were Hedderich (1744-1808), Dereser (1757-1827), and Schneider (1756-94). Pius VI in a Brief of 24 March, 1790, called the archbishop's attention to the deplorable condition of the university, but without result. In 1794 the French invasion obliged the professors to suspend their courses, and in 1797 the university was closed. It was restored in 1818 by King Freidrich Wilhelm III. Among its professors of theology were George Hermes (1775-1831), Achterfeldt (1788-1879), and Braun (1801-63), originators of the movement known as Hermesianism. Some of their followers, e.g. Elverich (1796-1886), joined the "Old Catholics", a party which also had as adherents Reusch (1825-1900) and several other members of the faculty. Their action led finally to their suspension and excommunication after having created a division among both professors and students of theology. The other departments of the university developed rapidly under the direction of Niebuhr (1776-1831) and Arndt (1769-1860) in history, A. W. Schlegel (1767-1845) in literature, Nasse (1778-1851) in medicine, Kekule (1829-96) and Mohr (1806-79) in chemistry, Clausius (1822-88) in physics, Von Rath (1830-88) in mineralogy, Preyer (1841-97) and Pfluger (1829-) in physiology. Since 1868 new buildings have been provided for the scientific departments either in Bonn or in Pappelsdorf. The university comprises at present the Catholic faculty of theology, the Protestant faculty of theology, and the faculties of law, medicine, and philosophy. There are 284 instructors and 3488 students. In 1905-06, the Catholic faculty of theology had 309 students, the Protestant 80. The library contains 350,000 volumes.
E.A. PACE
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/University of Copenhagen

From volume 4 of the work.
It was founded by a Bull which Sixtus IV issued 19 June, 1475, at the request of King Christian I. This Bull authorized the primate, the Archbishop of Lund, to establish a university in any place selected by the king; and the latter, by letters patent of 4 Oct., 1478, laid the foundation at Copenhagen. The Bishop, Dean, and Provost of Roskild and the Dean of Copenhagen were appointed conservators. The statutes, drawn up by the Archbishop of Lund and promulgated 28 Nov., 1479, followed closely those of Cologne. From Cologne also the new university received its first professors. The most distinguished among these, before the Reformation, was the Carmelite, Povel Helgesen (Paul Helia, q. v.) writer of important controversial and historical works. Both he and Bishop Lage Urne, chancellor of the university, vigorously opposed the advances of Protestantism in Denmark. The university suffered severely during the religious upheaval, but was reorganized under King Christian III by the Lutheran theologian, Johann Bugenhagen (1539), called for that purpose from Wittenberg. In the conflagration of 1728 the university buildings were almost totally destroyed, but were at once restored by King Christian VI (1732). Notable among the professors during the modern period are Holberg, Oehlenschlager, Rask, Madvig, and Oersted. The university comprises at present the faculties of theology, law, medicine, philosophy, and sciences, with 97 professors and about 2000 students. The library contains 350,000 volumes and 6500 manuscripts.
RASHDALL, The Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages (Oxford, 1895), II, 291; MATZEN, Kiobenhavns Universitets, Retshistorie (Copenhagen, 1879); RORDAM, Kiobenhavns Universitets historie fra 1537 til 1621 (Copenhagen, 1868-74).
E. A. PACE.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/University of Bordeaux

From volume 2 of the work.
The University of Bordeaux was founded during the English domination, under King Henry VI, in 1441, by a Bull of Pope Eugenius IV, at the demand of the archbishop's officials, Pierre Berland being at the time archbishop, and of the Aquitanian councillors. It did not, however, receive official recognition from the king until the reign of Louis XI. According to the terms of the Bull, it was to be organized on the model of the studium of the University of Toulouse. The Archbishop of Bordeaux was the chancellor for life. It included all the different faculties; theology, canon law, civil law, arts, etc. On account of the constant lack of endowment, the University of Bordeaux, from the time of its foundation until the French Revolution, never had any remarkable standing. After the Revolution, when the universities were reorganized in France by the Government, Bordeaux was one of the cities chosen to be the seat of a university. During the nineteenth century it had a brilliant career, especially in the field of medicine, among its professors being such men as Azam, Pitres, and others who were famous on account of their pathological researches.
BARCKHAUSEN, Status et reglements de l'ancienne université de Bordeaux (Libourne and Bordeaux, 1886); GAULLIEUR, Histore du collège de Guyenne (Paris, 1874); DENIFLE, Universit. Des Mittelaltres (1885); FOURNIER, Les statuts et privilèges des universités françaises depuis leur fondation jusqu'en 1789 (Paris, 1890-92); Histoire de la science du droit en france (Paris, 1892); RASHDALL, Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages (Oxford, 1895), II, pt. I.
G.M. SAUVAGE
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/University of Cologne

From volume 4 of the work.
Though famous all through the Middle Ages for its cathedral and cloister schools and for eminent scholars — Albertus Magnus, St. Thomas Aquinas, and Duns Scotus — Cologne had no university until near the end of the fourteenth century, when Urban VI, at the instance of the Town Council, issued (21 May, 1388) the Bull of foundation. The university was inaugurated the following year with twenty-one magistri and 737 matriculated students. Further privileges were granted by Boniface IX (1389, 1394), Duke Wilhelm von Geldern (1396), and Emperor Frederick III (1442); while special favour was shown the university by Gregory XII (1406), Nicholas V (1447), and Pius II; the last-named Pope addressed his "Bull of Retractation" (In minoribus agentes) to the Rector and University of Cologne (26 April, 1463). The university was represented at the Councils of Constance and Basle, and was involved in the controversy regarding the authority of council and pope. It took sides with the antipope Felix V, but eventually submitted to Nicholas V. The Renaissance movement met with opposition at Cologne, though among its professors were the humanists Caesarius, Buschius, Glareanus, Gratius, Phrissemius, and Sobius. During the same period may be mentioned the theologians Arnold of Tongres and Hoogstraaten, O.P. All these were involved in the conflict which centred about Reuchlin (q.v.) and which did the university great harm. The "Epistolae obscurorum virorum" were directed against the theologians of Cologne. At the time of the Reformation, but few of the professors joined the Protestant movement; the university as a whole was strong in its defence of the Catholic Faith and some of its students, as Cochlaeus and Eck, were afterwards foremost champions of the Church. Failing on the other hand to introduce the reforms needed in its own work and organization, the university declined rapidly during the sixteenth century. The vicissitudes of war, lack at means, and withdrawal of its students reduced it to a nominal existence in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. In 1786 the founding of the University of Bonn (q.v.) decided the fate of Cologne, which was unable to withstand its more vigorous rival. The French troops entered Cologne in October, 1794; in April, 1796, the university was closed.
RASHDALL, Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages (Oxford, 1895, II, 25); BIANCO, Die alte Universitaet Koeln (Cologne, 1855), KEUSSEN, Die Matrikel d. Universitaet Koeln 1389 bis 1559 (Bonn, 1892); DENIFLE, Die Universitaeten des Mittelalters (Berlin, 1885).
E.A. PACE
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/University of Barcelona

From volume 2 of the work.
This was an outgrowth of the ecclesiastical schools founded in the eleventh century. To these were added gradually the chairs held by the Dominicans in their convent and those established in the Academia by the Kings of Aragon. In 1430, the town council of Barcelona took measures for the founding of a Stadium Generale in order to prevent the migration of their young men to Lerida and to the foreign universities of Paris, Toulouse, and Bologna. But the university as such dates from 1450, the year in which its charter was granted by Alfonso V of Aragon and confirmed by the Bull "Constitutus in Speculo" of Pope Nicholas V. The pope conferred upon the new university all the privileges enjoyed by the University of Toulouse and authorized the erection of chairs in theology, canon and civil law, arts, and medicine. The young institution had to struggle with all sorts of difficulties. For nearly a century it had no buildings adapted to its purposes. In 1544, however, it entered upon a new era, with suitable structures and equipment, and in 1567 it received the richly endowed priory of St. Ann, formerly held by the Order of St. John. The teaching of grammar and rhetoric was entrusted to the Jesuits (1576) and the diocesan seminary was affiliated to the university (1568). In 1714 the Faculties, with the exception of that of medicine, were transferred to Cervera. By royal decree of Charles III, a college of surgery was established at Barcelona in 1764. The Faculties returned from Cervera to Barcelona in 1823, and in 1837 the new university was formally inaugurated. It withstood the disturbances that occurred in 1840 and 1856, passed under State control in 1857, and was provided with additional buildings (1863-73). At present it has five Faculties: philosophy and letters, law, science, medicine, and pharmacy, with 56 instructors and 1,900 students. The Archives of the Crown of Aragon, founded in 1346, contain 3,759,314 documents, and the library about 2,000 manuscripts.
La Fuente, Historia de las Universidades (Madrid, 1884), I; Zarate, De la Instruccion Publica en Espana (Madrid, 1855); RASHDALL, Universities of Europe in the M. A. (Oxford, 1895), II, Pt. 1, 94.
E.A. PACE
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/University of Caen

From volume 3 of the work.
Founded in 1432 by Henry VI of England, who was then master of Paris and of a large part of France. In the beginning it included only faculties of canon and civil law. To these were added, in 1437, a faculty theology and a faculty of arts, and, in 1438, a faculty of medicine. The English having been repulsed from Paris, the purpose of these additions and of the many priviliges granted by Henry VI was to give the students the same advantages they would have found in Paris, and thus prevent their going to the university of the capital. On the petition of the Estates of Normandy, Pope Eugenius IV granted a Bull of erection to the university and appointed the Bishop of Bayeux as chancellor (30 May, 1437). All those admitted to degrees were required to take an oath of fidelity to the Roman Pontiff, and to pledge themselves never to attempt anything against the interests of the church. The ceremony of the solemn inauguration took place in 1439, the first rector being an Englishman, Michael of Tregury, afterwards Archbishop of Dublin. From the beginning the University of Paris opposed very strongly the founding of a university at Caen. In 1433 protests were sent to the chancellor of the kingdom and to the Parlement of Paris. The same year the delegates of the university to the council of Basle were instructed to ask for the suppression of the university at Caen. Later a petition was also sent to Eugenius IV. Notwithstanding this opposition, the university of Caen developed. In 1445 Henry VI declared it the only university in France enjoying the royal privileges. When Caen was conquered by the French in 1450, King Charles allowed the university to continue as before. It was, however, a mere toleration until the king should reach a final decision. This was given on 30 October, 1452, when Charles VII created anew the university of Caen and gave it a new charter, ignoring altogether its former charter and privileges, and granting the same privileges enjoyed by French universities. Like the other universities in France, the University of Caen disappeared at the time of the French Revolution. The present university, founded in 1894, was fifty instructors and 750 students.
RASHDALL, The Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages (Oxford, 1895), II, Pt. I, 194; FOURNIER, Les Statutes et privilèges des universités françaises (Paris, 1892), III, Pt. I, 145; DE BOURMONT, La foundation de l'université de Caen in Bulletin de la societé des antiquaires de Normandy (Caen, 1894), XII; CHEVALIER, Topo-bibliogr., 541.
C.A. DUBRAY
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Julius Caesar Scaliger

From volume 13 of the work.
(It., DELLA SCALA).
Humanist, b. at Riva on Lake Garda in 1484; d. at Agen, France, 21 Oct., 1558. He was brought to France as physician to Antonio de la Rovera, Bishop of Agen, and became a French citizen under the name of Jules Cesar de l'Escale de Bordonis. He took part in the discussion concerning Ciceronianism and began his career as a humanist by a violent work against Erasmus, "Oratio pro Cicerone contra Erasmum" (Paris 1531). He defended the absolute perfection of Cicero's style and denounced Erasmus as a mere proof corrector, a parasite, and a parricide. Erasmus kept silence. In 1536 Scaliger issued a still more violent discourse. The two discourses were combined: "Adversus D. Erasmum orationes duae eloquentiae romanae vindices cum auctoris opusculis" (Toulouse, 1621). He wrote a more solid work in a calmer tone in "De causis linguae latinae libri XIII" (Lyons, 1540; Geneva, 1580), in which he analyzed the correct style of Cicero and indicated 634 mistakes of Valla and his predecessors. He was the first to attempt a systematic treatise on poetry: "Poetices libri octo" (Lyons, 1561; Leyden, 1581; Heidelberg, 1607). The general principles of this work are derived from Aristotle whom he calls "imperator noster; omnium bonarum artium dictator perpetuus". Like Aristotle he makes imitation the basis of all poetry. He spoiled his work by exaggerations; not only does he place Virgil above Homer but he places the Homeric epics below the "Hero and Leander" of Musaeus, a poet of the Byzantine period; it is true that Scaliger identifies him with the legendary Musaeus, a disciple of Orpheus (Poet., V, 2). He declared that Seneca was not surpassed in grandeur by any of the Greek tragedians. This last opinion was not without its consequences; it explains the excessive liking of Shakespeare, Corneille, and many of their contemporaries for the tragedies of Seneca.
Scaliger is also the author of the following works: "De comicis dimensionibus" (Lyons, 1539); "Exotericarum exercitationum de subtilitate ad H. Cardanum" (Paris, 1537; Basle, 1560); "Poemata" (Geneva, 1574; Heidelberg, 1600); "Epistolae et Orationes " (Leyden, 1600). He translated into Latin Aristotle's "Natural History" (Toulouse 1619), the "Insomniae" of Hippocrates, and wrote commentaries on the treatises on plants of Theophrastes and Aristotle. As a physician he was much interested in botany; he demonstrated the necessity of abandoning the classification of plants based on their properties and of establishing one based on their distinctive characteristics. He was violent, vain, and given to exaggeration. His faults spoiled pleasing natural gifts and wide learning.
NISARD, Les gladiateurs de la republique des lettres aux XVe XV/e, et XVlle siecles, I (Paris, 1860), 305-400; SAlNTSBURY, History of literary criticism, II (Edinburgh and London, 1902), 69; LINTILHAC, De J. C. Scaligeri Poetica (Paris, 1887); SANDYS, A History of Classical Scholarship, II (Cambridge, 1908), 177.
PAUL LEJAY
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Jus Spolii

From volume 8 of the work.
(RIGHT OF SPOIL; also called JUS EXUVIARUM and RAPITE CAPITE)
Jus Spolii, a claim, exercised in the Middle Ages, of succession to the property of deceased clerics, at least such as they had derived from their ecclesiastical benefices. It was an outcome of ancient canons which forbade clerics to dispose by will of goods accruing from their ecclesiastical office. These canons were gradually relaxed because of the difficulty of distinguishing between ecclesiastical and patrimonial property. Abuses then arose. Churches were despoiled at the death of their incumbents. Bishops and archdeacons seized for the cathedral the spoil of abbeys and other benefices, on the pretence that all other churches were but offshoots of the cathedral. After the fall of the Western Empire any one present at the death of a cleric felt at liberty to carry off whatever property of the deceased, ecclesiastical or otherwise, he could seize (rapite capite, seize and take). As the civil power became more conscious of itself it began to restrain this indiscriminate plunder. The sovereign claimed for himself the "Jus Spolii" in the case of deceased bishops, while the smaller feudal lords laid similar claim to the property of all clerics who died in their domains. Councils (Tribur, 895; Trosly, 909; Clermont, 1095; II Lateran, 1139) of the Church legislated against these abuses, finally obtaining a renunciation of this so-called right. In the thirteenth century the Roman Church put forth in a modified way the same claim, and it eventually became a principle of canon law that the goods of beneficed ecclesiastics, dying intestate, belonged of right to the papal treasury. This right however was not allowed in France, Germany, Belgium, or Portugal. In the Kingdom of Naples a compromise was made at the close of the sixteenth century, whereby the right was renounced for an annual payment to the papal treasury.
SÄGMÜLLER in Kirchenlex., s. v. Spolienrecht; FERRARIS, Bibliotheca prompta jur. can., s. v. Spolium; OJETTI, Synop. Rer. Mor. et Jur. Pont., s. v. Spolium.
ANDREW B. MEEHAN.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Julius Peter Garesché

From volume 6 of the work.
Soldier; born 26 April, 1821, near Havana, Cuba; killed at the battle of Stone River, Tennessee, U.S.A., 31 December, 1862. He was sent to Georgetown College, Washington, in 1833, and remained there four years. There he was appointed to the U.S. Military Academy, at West Point, and graduated with the class of 1841, receiving his commission as a second-lieutenant in the Fourth Artillery. The five subsequent years were spent on the frontier and in garrison duty. During the Mexican War he served with distinction, and was appointed assistant adjutant-general, with the rank of captain in 1855. Wherever he was stationed, Garesché always took an active part in the affairs of the Church. In Washington he organized the first local conference of the St. Vincent de Paul Society, and during his residence at the capital acted as its president. He contributed frequently on Catholic, social and political questions, to the New York "Freeman's Journal" and "Brownson's Quarterly Review", and in September, 1851, in recognition of his services to the Church, received from Pius IX the decoration of a Knight of St. Sylvester. When the Civil War broke out, he declined a commission as brigadier-general of volunteers, and was made chief of staff, with the rank of lieutenant-colonel in the regular army, to General William S. Rosecranz. In this capacity he participated in the operations of the Army of the Cumberland. At the battle of Stone River, he was killed by a cannon-ball, while leading a column in a gallant attempt to regain a lost day.
LOUIS GARESCHÉ, Biography of Lieut.-Col. Julius P. Garesché (Philadelphia, 1887); SHEA, History of Georgetown College (New York, 1891); Cyclopaedia of Amer. Biog. s.v.
THOMAS F. MEEHAN