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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Wilkinson, Sir John Gardner

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​WILKINSON, SIR JOHN GARDNER (1797–1875), English traveller and Egyptologist, was born on the 5th of October 1797, the son of the Rev. John Wilkinson, a well-known student of antiquarian subjects. Having inherited a sufficient income from his parents, who died when he was young, he was sent by his guardian to Harrow in 1813, and to Exeter College, Oxford, in 1816. He took no degree, and, suffering from ill-health, went to Italy, where he met Sir William Gell, and resolved to study Egyptology. Between 1821 and 1833 he travelled widely in the Nile Valley and began to publish the results. He returned to England in 1833 for the sake of his health, was elected fellow of the Royal Society in 1834, published The Topography of Thebes and General Survey of Egypt (1835) and Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians (3 vols., 1837), and on the 26th of August 1839 was knighted by the Melbourne ministry. In 1842 he returned to Egypt and contributed to the Journal of the Geographical Society an article entitled “Survey of the Valley of the Natron Lakes.” This appeared in 1843, in which year he also published an enlarged edition of his Topography, entitled Moslem Egypt and Thebes, a work afterwards reissued in Murray's series. During 1844 he travelled in Montenegro, Bosnia and Herzegovina, an account of his observations being published in 1848 (Dalmatia and Montenegro, 2 vols.). A third visit to Egypt in 1848–1849 resulted in a further article in the Journal, “On the Country between Wady Halfah and Jebel Berkel” (1851); in 1855 he again visited Thebes. Subsequently he investigated Cornish antiquities, and studied zoology. He died at Llandovery on the 29th of October 1875. To his old school, Harrow, he had already in 1864 presented his collections with an elaborate catalogue.
Besides the works mentioned he published Materia Hieroglyphica (Malta, 1828); Extracts from several Hieroglyphical Subjects (1830); Topographical Survey of Thebes (1830); facsimile of the Turin papyrus (1851), previously edited without the writing on the back of the papyrus by Lepsius; Architecture of Ancient Egypt (1850); A Popular Account of the Ancient Egyptians (1854); important notes in Rawlinson’s Herodotus; Colour and Taste (1858); articles in archaeological and scientific periodicals.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Wilkins, Sir Charles

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​WILKINS, SIR CHARLES (1749?–1836), English Orientalist, was born at Frome, Somersetshire, probably in 1749, and in 1770 he went to India as a writer in the East India Company's service. He was soon attracted to the study of Oriental languages, particularly Sanskrit, and did an important work towards facilitating such study by founding a printing press for these languages, taking a large personal share in the practical work of ​preparing the type. He returned to England in 1786, but continued his study of Sanskrit, and he afterwards became librarian to the East India Company, and examiner at Haileybury on the establishment of the college there in 1805. Wilkins was knighted in 1833 in recognition of his services to Oriental scholarship, and he died in London in 1836. He was a pioneer in the department of learning with which his name was associated, being the first Englishman to acquire mastery of Sanskrit, and to make a thorough study of Indian inscriptions in that script. He compiled a Sanskrit grammar and published several translations from the sacred books of the East, besides preparing a new edition of Richardson’s Persian and Arabic dictionary, and a catalogue of the manuscripts collected by Sir William Jones, who acknowledged his indebtedness to Wilkins, and whom the latter assisted in founding the Asiatic Society of Bengal.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Trefoil

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​TREFOIL (Lat. trifolium, three-leaved plant, Fr. trèfle, Ger. Dreiblatt and Dreiblattbogen), the term in Gothic architecture given to the ornamental foliation or cusping introduced in the heads of window-lights, tracery, panellings, &c., in which the centre takes the form of a three-lobed leaf, one of the earliest examples being in the plate tracery at Winchester (1222–1235); see Quatrefoil.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Treilhard, Jean Baptiste

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​TREILHARD, JEAN BAPTISTE (1742–1810), French revolutionist, was born at Brives (Corrèze). In Paris he gained reputation as an avocat at the parlement, and was a deputy to the states-general in 1789. In the Constituent Assembly he showed great capacity in dealing with the reorganization of the Church and the nationalization of ecclesiastical property. Ineligible, like all the members of the Constituent Assembly, for the Legislative Assembly, he became president of the criminal tribunal of Paris, but failed through lack of firmness. The department of Seine-et-Oise elected him to the Convention, where he attached himself to the group known as the Mountain (q.v.) and voted for the death of Louis XVI. He was a member of the committee of public safety, and became president of the Convention on the 27th of December 1792. Under the Directory he entered the Council of the Five Hundred (of which he was president during the month of Nivose, year IV.), was a member of the Tribunal of Cassation, plenipotentiary at the Congress of Rastatt, and became a director in the year VI. After the coup d’état of 18 Brumaire he became president of the tribunal of appeal and councillor of state. He took an important part in drafting the civil code, the criminal code, the code of civil procedure and the commercial code. He died on the 1st of December 1810 a senator and count of the empire.
See Bonnal de Ganges, “Représentants du peuple dignitaires par Napoleon . . . Treilhard,” in the Revue du monde catholique (7th series, vol. iii., 1900); Guyot d’Amfreville, Vie de J. B. Treilhard (Limoges, 1879).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tregelles, Samuel Prideaux

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​TREGELLES, SAMUEL PRIDEAUX (1813–1875), English theologian, was born, at Wodehouse Place, near Falmouth, on the 30th of January 1813. His parents were Quakers, and he himself for many years was in communion with the (Darbyite) Plymouth Brethren, but afterwards became a Presbyterian.
For a while he worked at the ironworks, Neath Abbey, Glamorgan, and then set up as a private tutor in Falmouth, finally devoting himself to a laborious student life, until he was incapacitated by paralysis in 1870. He received the LL.D. degree from St Andrews and a pension of £200 from the civil list. He died at Plymouth on the 24th of April 1875.
Most of his numerous publications had reference to his great critical edition of the New Testament (1857–1872; see Bible; New Testament, Textual Criticism). They include an Account of the Printed Text of the Greek New Testament (1854), a new edition of T. H. Home’s Introduction (1860), and Canon Muratorianus: Earliest Catalogue of Books of the New Testament (1868). As early as 1844 he published an edition of the Book of the Revelation, with the Greek text so revised as to rest almost entirely upon ancient evidence. Tregelles wrote Heads of Hebrew Grammar (1852), translated Gesenius’s Hebrew Lexicon, and was the author of a little work on the Jansenists (1851) and of various works in exposition of his special eschatological views (Remarks on the Prophetic Visions of Daniel, 1852, new ed., 1864).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tree Frog

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​TREE FROG. Many different groups of tailless Batrachians (see Frog) are adapted to arboreal life, which is indicated by expansions of the tips of the fingers and toes, adhesive disks which assist the animal in climbing on vertical smooth surfaces. These disks do not act as suckers, but adhere by rapid and intense pressure of the distal phalanx and special muscles upon the lower surface, which is also provided with numerous glands producing a viscous secretion.
The best-known tree frog is the little Hyla arborea of continental Europe, rainette of the French, Laubfrosch of the Germans, often kept in glass cylinders provided with a ladder, which the frog is supposed to ascend or descend in prevision of the weather. But recent experiments conducted on scientific principles show that not much reliance can be placed on its prophecies. This frog is one of the smallest of European Batrachians, rarely reaching 2 in. in length; its upper parts are smooth and shiny, normally of a bright grass-green, which may change rapidly to yellow, brown, olive or black; some specimens, deprived of the yellow pigment which contributes to form the green colour, are sky-blue or turquoise blue; the lower parts are granulate and white.
The family Hylidae, of which the European tree frog is the type, is closely related to the Bufonidae or true roads, being distinguished from them by the presence of teeth in the upper jaw and by the claw-like shape of the terminal phalanx of the digits. It is a large family, represented by about three hundred species, two hundred and fifty of which belong to the genus Hyla, distributed over Europe, temperate Asia, North Africa, North and South America, Papua and Australia. Close allies of Hyla are the Nototrema of Central and South America, in which the female develops a dorsal broad pouch in which the young undergo part or the whole of their metamorphoses. The genus Phyllomedusa, also from Central and South America, are quadrumanous; the inner finger and the toe being opposable to the others, and the foot being very similar to the hand. These frogs deposit their spawn between the leaves of branches overhanging water, into which the tadpoles drop and spend their larval life.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Trelawny, Edward John

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​TRELAWNY, EDWARD JOHN (1792–1881), English sailor and friend of Shelley and Byron, was born in London on the 13th of November 1792, the son of an army officer. After a short term in the navy and a naval school, he shipped for India, but deserted at Bombay. For several years he led an adventurous life in India, but about 1813 returned to England, married and settled down. In was early in 1822 that he met Shelley and Byron at Pisa and passed nearly every day with one or both of them until the drowning of Shelley (q.v.) and Williams on the 8th of July. He it was who superintended the recovery and cremation of the bodies, snatching Shelley’s heart from the flames, and who added the lines from the Tempest to Leigh Hunt’s “Cor Cordium”; and, finally, who supplied the funds for Mrs Shelley’s return to England. In 1823 he set out with Byron for Greece, to aid in the struggle for independence. Distressed by his companion’s dilatoriness, Trelawny left him and joined the insurgent chief Odysseus and afterwards married his sister Tersitza. While in charge of the former’s fortress on Parnassus he was assaulted by two Englishmen and nearly killed. Returning to England, he lived for a time in Cornwall with his mother and afterwards in London, where his romantic associations, picturesque person and agreeable manners made him a great social favourite. Permission having been refused him to write the life of Shelley, he began an account of his own life in the Adventures of a Younger Son (1835), followed much later by a second part: Recollections of Shelley and Byron (1858). This gives an admirable portrait of Shelley, and a less truthful one of Byron. He married a third time, but the irregularity of his life estranged him from his wife, and he died at Sompting, near Worthing, on the 13th of August 1881. His ashes were buried in Rome by the side of those of Shelley. The old seaman in Millais’s picture, “The North-West Passage,” in the Tate Gallery, London, gives a portrait of him.
See the Letters of Edward J. Trelawny, edited with Introduction by H. Buxton Forman, C.B. (1910).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tree-shrew

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​TREE-SHREW, any of the arboreal insectivorous mammals of the genus Tupaia. There are about a dozen species, widely distributed over the east. There is a general resemblance to squirrels. The species differ chiefly in the size and in colour and length of the fur. Nearly all have long bushy tails. Their food consists of insects and fruit, which they usually seek for in the trees. When feeding they often sit on their haunches, holding the food, after the manner of squirrels, between their fore paws. The pen-tailed tree-shrew (Ptilocercus lowi), from Borneo, Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula, is the second generic representative of the family Tupaiidae. The head and body, clothed in blackish-brown fur, are about 6 in. long; the tail, still longer, is black, scaled and sparsely haired for the upper two-thirds, while the lower third is fringed on each side with long hairs, mostly white. One shrew from Borneo and a second from the Philippines have been referred to a separate genus under the name Urogale everetti and U. cylindrura, on account of their uniformly short-haired, in place of varied, tails. (See Insectivora.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tree Kangaroo

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​TREE KANGAROO, any individual of the diprotodont marsupial genus Dendrolagus (see Marsupialia). Three species are inhabitants of New Guinea and the fourth is found in North Queensland. They differ greatly from all other members of the family (Macropodidae), being chiefly arboreal in their habits, and feeding on bark, leaves and fruit. Their hinder limbs are shorter than in the true kangaroos, and their fore limbs are longer and more robust, and have very strong curved and pointed claws. The best-known species, Lumholtz' tree kangaroo (Dendrolagus lumholtzi), is found in North Queensland. It was named by Professor Collett in honour of its discoverer, who described it as living on the highest parts of the mountains, in the densest scrub and most inaccessible places. It is hunted by the blacks with trained dingoes; the flesh is much prized by the blacks, but the presence of a worm between the muscles and the skin renders it less inviting to Europeans.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stevenston

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​STEVENSTON, a manufacturing town of Ayrshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901), 6554. It is situated about 1 m. from Saltcoats on the coast of the Firth of Clyde, 29 m. S.W. of Glasgow by the Glasgow & South-Western railway. There are coal-mines, several ironworks—one is among the largest in Scotland—and, on the sandhills along the shore, the works of Nobel’s Explosives Company, which cover an area of a mile, the separate-hut principle being adopted to minimize the risks attendant upon so dangerous an occupation.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stewart, Charles

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​STEWART, CHARLES (1778–1869), American naval officer, was born at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the 28th of July 1778, of poor Irish parents. At the age of thirteen he shipped as cabin boy on a merchant vessel, and soon commanded a ship in the India trade. He entered the United States navy in March 1798 as lieutenant on the frigate “United States,” and in 1800, when in command of the “Experiment,” took the French privateers “Deux Amis” and “Diane.” In 1802–4 he served against Tripoli, first as executive officer of the "Constellation" and then as commander of the “Siren.” In 1806 he became a captain. From 1808 to 1812 he was in the merchant service, but on the outbreak of hostilities against Great Britain returned to the navy, and with Commander William Bainbridge is said to have persuaded President Madison to send the navy to sea instead of using it only for harbour defence. Placed in the command of the “Constellation,” he was closely blockaded at Norfolk. Virginia. In 1813 he was placed in command of the “Constitution,” and in February 1815 captured the “Cyane” and the “Levant,” though the “Levant,” was retaken. Later he commanded the Mediterranean squadron, the Pacific squadron, the home squadron and the Philadelphia navy yard. He was retired in 1855, and became rear-admiral on the retired list in 1862. He died in Bordentown, New Jersey, on the 6th of November 1869. His daughter, Delia Tudor, married, in 1834, John Henry Parnell, and became the mother of the Irish leader. Charles Stewart Parnell.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stewart, Balfour

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​STEWART, BALFOUR (1828–1887), Scottish physicist, was born in Edinburgh on the 1st of November 1828, and was educated at the university of that city. The son of a tea merchant, he was for some time engaged in business in Leith and in Australia, but, returning to his studies of physics at Edinburgh, he became assistant to J. D. Forbes in 1856. Forbes was especially interested in questions of heat, meteorology, and terrestrial magnetism, and it was to these that Stewart also mainly devoted himself. Radiant heat first claimed his attention, and by 1858 he had completed his first investigations into the subject. These yielded a remarkable extension of Pierre Prévost’s “Law of Exchanges,” and enabled him to establish the fact that radiation is not a surface phenomenon, but takes place throughout the interior of the radiating body, and that the radiative and absorptive powers of a substance must be equal, not only for the radiation as a whole, but also for every constituent of it. In recognition of this work he received in 1868 the Rumford medal of the Royal Society, into which he had been elected six years before, Of other papers in which he dealt with this and kindred branches of physics may be mentioned “Observations with a Rigid Spectroscope,” “Heating of a Disc by Rapid Motion in Vacuo,” “Thermal Equilibrium in an Enclosure Containing Matter in Visible Motion,” and “Internal Radiation in Uniaxal Crystals.” In 1859 he was appointed director of Kew Observatory, and there naturally became interested in problems of meteorology and terrestrial magnetism. In 1870, the year in which he was very seriously injured in a railway accident, he was elected professor of physics at Owens ​College, Manchester, and retained that chair until his death, which happened near Drogheda, in Ireland, on the 19th of December 1887. He was the author of several successful textbooks of science, and also of the article on “Terrestrial Magnetism” in the ninth edition of this Encyclopaedia. In conjunction with Professor P. G. Tait he wrote The Unseen Universe, at first published anonymously, which was intended to combat the common notion of the incompatibility of science and religion.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stewart, J.

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​STEWART, J. (?JAMES), of Baldynneis (fl. 1590), Scottish verse writer, is known as the translator of Ariosto’s Orlando Furioso. The work is an abridgment in twelve cantos and has the historical interest of having preceded Sir John Harington’s translation (1591). The volume containing this version and other poems (of indifferent quality) is preserved in the Advocates' Library, Edinburgh. It bears the title Ane Abbregement of Roland Fvriovs, translait ovt of Aroist: togither vith sym Rapsodies of the Avthor’s yovthfvll braine, and last ane Schersing ovt of trew Felicitie; composit in Scotis meiter be J. Stewart of Baldynneis. This MS. appears to be the original which was once in the possession of James VI. Extracts are printed in Irving’s History of Scotish Poetry (1861).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stewart, John

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​STEWART, JOHN (1749–1822), British traveller, was born in London of humble parentage. After an unruly career at school he entered the service of the East India Company at Madras in 1763, but he threw up his position about two years later and became interpreter to Hyder Ali, afterwards serving as a general in his army; subsequently he served the nabob of Arcot, whose chief minister he became. Having enriched himself in this capacity, he began a series of travels through India, Persia, Ethiopia and Abyssinia, which earned him the nickname of “Walking Stewart.” About 1783 he returned to Europe, where he cut a curious figure by wearing Armenian dress. He crossed over to America in 1791 and had various adventures, but soon came back to Europe, and made the acquaintance of Wordsworth in Paris and later of De Quincey in Bath. Becoming short of money, he again went to America, where he supported himself by lecturing. Having returned to Europe, Stewart’s fortunes began to mend. In 1813 a claim he had made against the nabob of Arcot was settled by the East India Company for £10,000, and he took rooms in London and settled down to enjoy life, airing his opinions on literature and art. He died on the 20th of February 1822. De Quincey (see Collected Writings, 1890, vol. iii.) gives various particulars of him.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Wattenbach, Wilhelm

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​WATTENBACH, WILHELM (1819–1897), German historian, was born at Ranzau in Holstein on the 22nd of September 1819. He studied philology at the universities of Bonn, Göttingen and Berlin, and in 1843 he began to work upon the Monumenta Germaniae historica. In 1855 he was appointed archivist at Breslau; in 1862 he became professor of history at Heidelberg, and ten years later professor at Berlin, where he was a member of the directing body of the Monumenta and a member of the Academy. He died at Frankfort on the 21st of September 1897. Wattenbach was distinguished by his thorough knowledge of the chronicles and other original documents of the middle ages, and his most valuable work was done in this field.
His principal book, Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen im Mittelalter bis zur Mitte des 13. Jahrhunderts, is unrivalled as a guide to the sources of the history of Germany in the middle ages; this was first published in 1858, and has passed through several editions. Cognate works are his Anleitung zur lateinischen Paläographie (Leipzig, 1869, and again 1886); and Das Schriftwesen im Mittelalter (Leipzig, 1871, and again 1896). Wattenbach also wrote Beiträge zur Geschichte der christlichen Kirche in Böhmen und Mähren (Vienna, 1849); Geschichte des römischen Papsttums (Berlin, 1876); and Anleitung zur griechischen Paläographie (Leipzig, 1867, and again 1895).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Wattle and Dab

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​WATTLE AND DAB, a term in architecture (Lat. cratitius) applied to a wall made with upright stakes with withes twisted between them and then plastered over. It is probably one of the oldest systems of construction; the Egyptians employed the stems of maize for the upright stakes; these were secured together with withes and covered over with mud, the upper portions of the maize stems being left uncut at the top, to increase the height of the enclosure; and these are thought by Professor Petrie to have given the origin for the cavetto cornice of the temples, the torus moulding representing the heavier coil of withes at the top of the fence wall. Vitruvius (ii. 8) refers to it as being employed in Rome. In the middle ages in England it was employed as a framework for clay chimneys.