# The Works of Nicholas Machiavel/Volume 4/The Art of War/Book 3

THE
ART OF WAR.
BOOK III.
THE CONTENTS.
Cosimo.Since we are going to vary the Subject, I beg leave to resign my Office of Interrogator in this conversation; for, as I hate presumption in others, I would not willingly seem guilty of it myself. I therefore lay down the Dictatorship, and give up my authority to any other person in company, that will please to accept of it.
Zanobi. It would have been very grateful to us all, if you had continued in that office; but since you decline it, be pleased at least to say, which of us you depute to succeed you in it.
Cosimo. I desire to leave that to Signor Fabrizio.
Fabrizio. I freely accept it: and think we ​should follow the example of the Venetians, who always appoint the youngest to speak first in their Councils and Assemblies; especially as the art of Speaking well is properly the exercise of youth, and therefore we may suppose young men the best qualified to talk of the several duties and exercises of war, as well as the fittest to put them in execution.
Cosimo. The lot then falls upon you, Luigi: and as I myself am much pleased with my Successor, I make no doubt but he will be equally agreeable to you all. Let us lose no more time however, but return to our Subject.
Fabrizio. I know very well, that in order to shew how an army ought to be drawn up in order of battle, it would be necessary to describe the method in which the Greeks and Romans formed their troops for that purpose: but as this is done at large by ancient Historians, I refer you to them, and omitting several other particulars, shall speak only of such as are absolutely necessary to be adopted by those that would improve our present System of military discipline: for which purpose, I will shew you at the same time, how an army ought to be formed in order of battle at present, how it is to be exercised in sham fights, and in what manner to behave in real engagements. The greatest error then that a General can be guilty of in drawing up an army for battle, is to give it but one front: because in so doing, he commits himself and his fortune entirely to the event of the first conflict and this is the effect of having lost the method, observed by the Ancients, of receiving one line into another: for without that, those in the front can neither be supported nor relieved in the time of action; both which, were effectually performed by the Romans. Now to point out the method by which these things were effected, I must tell you that they divided their Legion into the Hastati, the Principes, and Triarii; the first were ​placed in the front or first line of the army in thick and close array; the Principes in the second line, but in looser order; and the Triarii in the third, with still larger intervals betwixt the men in their ranks, into which they could admit both the Principes and Hastati upon occasion. Besides these, they had their Slingers, Bow-men, and other light-armed Soldiers, who were not incorporated with these ranks, but posted on the right and left betwixt the Cavalry and Infantry in the front. These light-armed forces used to begin the engagment, and if they made any impression upon the enemy (which seldom happened) they pursued their advantage: but if they were driven back, they retreated either along the flanks of the army, or through certain intervals of it left open for that purpose, to cover the Suttlers and Servants, and other unarmed people that followed the camp. After this, the Hastati advanced against the enemy, and if they were repulsed, they retreated leisurely into the spaces left for them amongst the Principes, and again advanced with them to renew the battle: but it this line also was overpowered, it fell back into the Triarii, and all three, being thus joined together, made their third attack with greater vigour and strength than ever; and if that miscarried, the day was lost, because they had no other resource or means of relief left. The Cavalry were stationed on each side of the Infantry, in the form of two wings, and sometimes engaged the enemy's Cavalry, and sometimes supported their own Infantry, as occasion required. This method of renewing the attack three several times, with a continual increase of strength and vigour, can hardly be withstood, except either your fortune be very bad indeed, or the resolution of the enemy much greater than that of your own forces.—The Greeks were strangers to this method of renewing ​the front of their Phalanxes; and though they were very well officered, and consisted of many ranks, yet they made but one body, or rather one front. To relieve each other, one rank did not retire into another (as the Romans did) but one single man advanced into another's place when it was vacant; which was effected in this manner. When their Phalanx was drawn up in files (which we will suppose to consist of fifty men a-piece) with its front towards the enemy, all the six first ranks might engage at once: for their lances (which they called Sarissæ) were so long, that those of the sixth rank reached over the shoulders of the men in the first. In the time of action therefore, if any man in the first rank was either killed or disabled, the man that was next behind him in the second rank presently stepped into his place; the person immediately behind him in the third rank filled the vacancy in the second, and so on; the ranks in the rear continually filling up the deficiencies of those in the front: so that all the ranks were constantly kept full and entire, except the rearmost, which was exhausted at last, because there was no other to reinforce it. These Phalanxes therefore might be wasted away and annihilated by degrees, but seldom could be broken; as the close order and grossness of their body made them in a manner impenetrable.—The Romans at first formed their Legions in this manner, in imitation of the Grecian Phalanx: but growing out of conceit with it at last, they divided them into more corps, as Cohorts and Manipuli, or Companies, being convinced that such bodies have most life and vigour in them, as have the most Officers to animate and inform them, and are divided in such a manner that each division can act separately and support itself. The Swiss Regiments at present, are likewise formed upon the model of the ancient Phalanxes, and follow their method both in closeness of order and relieving their ranks: and ​when they come to engage, they are placed on the flanks of each other, but not in a parallel line. They have no method of receiving the first into the second, if it should be repulsed; but in order to relieve each other, they place one Regiment in the front, another a little behind it on the right; so that if the first is hard pressed, the second may advance to its assistance: a third is placed behind both these, and on the right too, at the distance of a musket-shot; that so, if the other two should be driven back, it may advance to relieve them, and all of them have sufficient room either to retreat or advance without falling foul upon one another; because great bodies cannot be received into each other like little ones; and therefore the little distinct corps, of which the Roman Legions were composed, are the most proper both to receive and relieve each other: and that the method observed by the Swiss is not so good as that which was taken by the ancient Romans, appears very plainly from the Success of the Roman Legions, which always got the better of the Grecian Phalanxes whenever they happened to engage them; because both their arms and armour, and their way of receiving one rank into another, were much better than the arms and discipline, and close order, of the Phalanx.—Now, in order to form an army upon the model of both, I would make the Grecian Phalanx my pattern in some respects, and the Roman Legion in others: and therefore, as I told you before, I would have two thousand Pikemen in my Regiment, armed after the manner of the Macedonian Phalanx, and three thousand men with Swords and Targets like the Roman Legion. I have divided my Regiment into ten Battalions, as the Romans did their Legion into ten Cohorts: like them too, I have appointed Velites to begin the Battle: and as I have retained the arms of both Nations, I would likewise in some measure imitate the order ​and discipline of each: for which reason I have taken care that the five first ranks of every Battalion should consist of Pikemen, and the rest of Targetmen; that so it might be enabled not only to sustain the shock of the enemy's Cavalry in the front, but to make an impression upon their Infantry, and to open it in such a manner to the right and left that the Targetmen may come in to complete the victory. Now if you consider this method, and the nature of these arms, you will find how well they are calculated for that purpose: because the pikes are of admirable service against horse, and amongst Infantry they do no small execution before they come to fight hand to hand: for after that, they are of no use at all: upon which account, the Swiss place one rank of Halberdiers behind every three ranks of Pikemen, to give them room to make use of their pikes; but that room is not sufficient. Placing our Pikemen then in the front, and the Targetmen behind them, they serve both to sustain the enemy's horse, and open and disorder their foot: but after the battle is joined, and they become useless, the Targetmen advance with their Swords, which are weapons that may be managed in the closest fight.
Luigi. We are impatient to hear how you would draw up an army, thus armed and appointed, in order of battle.
Fabrizio. I was just going to do it. You must know then, that a Consular army amongst the Romans did not exceed two Legions; that is to say, about eleven thousand foot, and six hundred horse but they were composed wholly of their own Citizens. Besides these, they were furnished with as many more of both sorts by their friends and allies, which they divided into two bodies, called the right and left wing, and stationed them on each flank of their Main battle; but they never suffered the number of these auxiliaries to surpass ​that of their Legions; though there was generally a larger proportion of Cavalry amongst them than in their own forces. With such an army, consisting of about twenty-two thousand foot, and two thousand good horse, a Consul went upon most expeditions: but when the enemy was very formidable, they sent out two Consuls with two such armies united.—You must know likewise, that in the three principal operations of an army, viz. upon a March, in an Encampment, and in Battle, they constantly posted their legions in the center, rightly judging that the forces in which they reposed the greatest confidence should always be compact and united; as I shall shew you when I come to speak more particularly and distinctly of these three operations. But these auxiliary Infantry, by their union and daily conversation with the legionary Infantry, soon became as serviceable as they were: for they were exercised and disciplined in the same manner, and formed in the same order before an engagement: so that when we know how the Romans drew up one Legion for that purpose, we know in what manner they drew up a whole army: and as I said they formed their Legion in three lines, in such a manner that one line might receive another, I have consequently told you how they drew up their whole army in the day of battle.
To form an army then in order of battle after the manner of the Romans, as they had two Legions, I will take two Regiments; by the arrangement of which, you may see how a whole army is to be drawn up: for if you would add any more, there is nothing further to be done but either to multiply or enlarge the ranks. It will be needless, I suppose, to put you in mind of how many foot a Regiment consists, that there are ten Battalions in it, what sort of arms and armour they have, how many Companies there are, and what Officers in each, what number of Velites and Pikemen both ​ordinary and extraordinary, how many Targetmen, &c. for when I spoke of these things a little while ago, I desired you to take particular notice of them, and to remember them as absolutely necessary to give you a clear idea of the whole arrangement: and therefore, without any repetition of that kind, I shall proceed to draw up my army. For this purpose, I would place the ten Battalions of one Regiment on the left, and the ten of the other on the right. Those on the left are to be formed in this manner.—Post five Battalions on the flank of each other in the front, with an interval of eight feet betwixt every one of them; and let the space which they occupy be two hundred and eighty two feet in breadth, and eighty in depth. In the rear of these five I would place three others, at the distance of eighty feet, one of which should be in a right line with the Battalion that is on the left flank of those in the front; the second with that on the right flank; and the third with that in the center: so that these three will take up as much ground both in breadth and depth as the other five: but though the space betwixt every one of those five is but eight feet, I would have the space betwixt these three to be sixty-six. In the rear of these I would post the two remaining Battalions at the distance of eighty feet, one of them in a right line with that on the left of the three last mentioned, and the other with that on the right; with an interval betwixt one and the other of ninety-two feet. The ground therefore which all these Battalions, thus formed, take up, will be two hundred and eighty-two feet in breadth, and four hundred in depth. The Pikemen extraordinary I would range along the left flank of these Battalions at the distance of forty feet, and I would make an hundred and forty ranks of them of seven men in every rank: so that they would cover the whole left flank of the Battalions draw up in the manner I have described, ​and there would be forty ranks remaining to guard the baggage, Suttlers, and other unarmed people who follow the camp in the rear of the army, after posting the Captains and Corporals in their proper places. Of the three Lieutenant Colonels belonging to them, I would place one at the front, another in the center, and another in the rear. Bur to return to the front of the army; next to the Pikemen extraordinary, I would place the five hundred Velites extraordinary, and allow them to take up a space of eighty feet. Next to them on the left, I would place my Gens d'Armes, and allow them a space of four hundred and fifty feet: and next to them, my light horse, whom I would allow the same space. The ordinary Velites I would leave with their respective Battalions in their proper places, (that is, in the intervals betwixt one Battalion and another) to be attendants as it were upon them; unless I should think fit to put them under the cover of the Pikemen extraordinary; which I would do sometimes, and sometimes I would not, according as it was most for my advantage. The Colonel of the Regiment, with his Colours and Drum, I would place either in the center of that Space which is left betwixt the first and second lines of the Battalions, or in the front of them, or in the interval betwixt the last of the first five and the Pikemen extraordinary, as I saw most convenient; with sixty, or at least thirty picked men about him, who should not only carry his orders properly and distinctly to the different parts of the army, but be able to repel the enemy if he should be attacked.—In this manner I would form the Regiment on the left, which would be just one half of the army, and will occupy a space of five hundred and seventy-two feet in breadth, and four hundred in depth, exclusive of the space taken up by the forty ranks of Pikemen extraordinary that are to guard the baggage, &c. in the rear, which will be two ​hundred feet. The other Regiment I would draw up in the same manner on the right of this, with an interval betwixt them of sixty feet: and at the head of this interval I would place some pieces of Artillery, behind which, the General of the army should take post with his Standard and Drum, and two hundred picked men at least, most of them on foot; of whom there should be ten or more fit to carry any orders; and he himself should be mounted and armed in such a manner that he might command either on horseback or on foot, as occasion required. As for Artillery, ten fifty pounders would be sufficient for the reduction of a town; and I would make use of them rather to defend my Camp than in a field engagement; for my field pieces should be ten or fifteen pounders, and these I would place along the front of the whole army, except the ground was such that I could place them conveniently and safely in the flanks where the enemy could not come at them. This method of drawing up an army may answer the end both of the Grecian Phalanx and the Roman Legion: for you have the Pikemen in the front, and all the rest of the Infantry are so formed in their proper ranks, that either in charging an enemy, or sustaining the charge, they may (like the Phalanx) recruit their front ranks out of those in the rear. On the other hand, if they are so hard pushed that they are obliged to give way, they may retreat into the intervals of the second line, and advance again in conjunction with it to face the enemy: and if they are repulsed the second time, they may retire into the spaces betwixt the Battalions in the third line, and renew the battle with still greater vigour: so that, according to this method, you may reinforce your ranks either in the Grecian or the Roman manner. As to the strength of such an army, no Body can be more compact: for each wing is perfectly well fortified in every part, both with officers and private ​men properly armed, and appointed in such a manner, that if there is any apparent weakness in it, it must be in the rear where the carriages and Suttlers, &c. are stationed; and even those are covered by the Pikemen extraordinary. Being so well fortified therefore on all sides, an enemy cannot attack it anywhere but it will be ready to receive him: for the rear is in no danger; because if the enemy be so strong that he is able to attack you on every side at once, it must be madness in you to take the field against him. But supposing he should be superior to you in number by one third, and his army as well armed and drawn up as your own; if he weakens it in order to attack you in several parts at the same time, and you happen to break in upon him in any one, the day is your own. As to Cavalry, you have nothing to apprehend from them; for the Pikemen which environ you on all sides will sufficiently secure you against their fury, even though your own should be repulsed. Your officers are so conveniently posted, that they may do their duty with ease; and the spaces betwixt one Battalion and another, and betwixt every rank, not only serve to receive each other upon occasion, but give the officers sufficient room to go backwards and forwards with orders from the General. Now as I told you before, that the Romans had about twenty-four thousand men in their armies, I would have our army consist of the same number: and as their auxiliaries learnt their discipline and order from their Legions, I would have our auxiliaries likewise formed upon the model of our Regiments. These things may easily be effected by a little practice: for in adding two other Regiments to the army, or the same number of men that it consists of (let it be what it will) you have nothing to do but to double your ranks by placing twenty Battalions on the left, instead of ten, and as many more on the right; or to extend or contract them, ​according to the nature of the ground, and the posture of the enemy.
Luigi. I perfectly understand you, Sir. Methinks I see your army drawn up for battle. I am impatient to have it begin. For Heaven's Sake do not turn Fabius Maximus upon us: if I do, I am afraid I shall be tempted to abuse you as the Romans did that great man.
Fabrizio. I am ready. The signal is given. Do not you hear our Artillery? It has fired and done but little execution amongst the enemy. The Velites extraordinary and light horse have set up a great shout and begun the attack with the utmost fury. The enemy's Artillery has made one discharge; and being ill-pointed, their balls have gone over the heads of our Infantry without doing them any hurt: but to prevent it firing a second time, our Velites and light horse endeavour to make themselves masters of it: a Body of the enemy post themselves before it; so that the Artillery on both sides is become useless. See with what courage and dexterity our men charge them: the expertness they have acquired by long exercise and discipline, inspires them with confidence: the Battalions move forward in regular pace and good order, with the Gens d'Armes on their flanks to attack the enemy: our Artillery draws off through the space that was lest vacant by the Velites to make room for it. See how the General encourages his men, and assures them of victory. Observe our Velites and light horse returning, and extending themselves along the flanks of our army, to see is they can meet with any of the enemy's light-armed forces there.—The two armies are now engaged: see with what firmness and silence our men receive the charge: do not you hear the General giving his orders to the Gens d'Armes to maintain their ground, and not to advance upon the enemy, nor desert the Infantry upon any account whatsoever? You see a ​party of our light horse have now detached themselves to charge a Body of the enemy's Musketeers that were coming to take us in flank; and how the enemy's Cavalry are advancing to support them: but the Musketeers, to avoid being entangled betwixt them, are retiring to their own army. See with what resolution and dexterity our ordinary Pikemen handle their weapons: but the Infantry on each side are now come so close together that our Pikemen can no longer make any use of their pikes; and therefore, according to their usual discipline, they retreat by degrees till they are received by the Targetmen. You see how a large Body of the enemy's Gens d'Armes have in the mean time disordered our Gens d'Armes on the left, who retire (as they had learnt before) into the Pikemen extraordinary, and being supported by them, not only make head against the enemy again, but repulse them with great slaughter. Now the ordinary Pikemen of the first Battalions have retreated amongst the Targetmen; they leave them to maintain the battle, and behold what havock they make amongst the enemy; with what confidence and security they press upon them; see how close they are engaged with them, they hardly have room to manage their Swords. The enemy are embarrassed and falling into confusion: their pikes are too long to do any further execution, and their swords are of no service against men that are so well secured by their armour. What a carnage! what a number of wounded men! They begin to run away. See, they are flying on the right and on the left. The battle is over; we have gained a glorious victory.—It might have been more complete however, if we had exerted our whole strength. But you see we were under no necessity of employing either our second or third line, as the first was sufficient to do the business: so that I have nothing more to add upon this occasion; except it be to ​answer any objection or doubt you may have to propose.
Luigi. You have carried every thing before you with such amazing rapidity, that I cannot well tell whether I ought to start any objection or not. With submission however to your superior judgment, I will make bold to ask you a question or two. Be so good therefore to tell me, in the first place, why you would suffer your Artillery to fire no more than once: and why you ordered it to be drawn off so soon, without making any sort of use of it afterwards. In the next place, you managed that of the enemy just as you pleased, and had it pointed so ill, that it could do no execution: which indeed I suppose may be the case sometimes; but if it should happen (as I believe it often does) that the shot should take place, what remedy would you prescribe? And since I have mentioned artillery, I will here propose all that I have to say upon that subject, that so we may have no occasion to return to it hereafter. I have heard many people laugh at the arms and armour, and military discipline, of the Ancients, and say they would be of little or no service at all now, since the invention of Artillery, which would break all their ranks, and beat their armour to pieces: so that it would be folly to draw up a body of forces in such order as cannot be maintained, and undergo the fatigue of carrying armour, which can be no means secure them.
Fabrizio. Your objections are of several kinds; and therefore you must have patience if you expect a particular answer to them all. It is true our artillery made but one discharge, and I was in some doubt whether I should suffer even that; because it is of more importance to keep one's self from being hurt, than to annoy the enemy. Now in order to secure yourself from Artillery, you must either keep out of the reach of its shot, or place yourself behind a wall, or a bank, or some fence of ​that kind; there is no other cover that I know of, and that must be very strong. But when an army is drawn up in order to engage, it cannot skulk behind a wall or a bank, nor yet keep at such a distance as not to be annoyed by the enemy's Artillery. Since there is no method then to shelter one's self from it, the General must have recourse to such means as will expose him and his men to the least danger; for which purpose, the best, and indeed the only way, is to make themselves masters of it, is possible, and as soon as they can. To do this, it is necessary that a body of your men should march up, and rush suddenly upon it; but not in close order: because the suddenness of the attack will prevent it from firing more than once; and when your men are thinly drawn up, it cannot do much execution amongst them. Now a compact body of regular forces is not at all proper for this service: for if it moves fast, it must naturally fall into disorder of itself; and if it extend and weakens its ranks, it will presently be broken by the enemy: upon which considerations, I drew up my army in a manner that was most proper for such an attempt; for having placed a thousand Velites in the wings of it, I ordered them to advance, together with the light horse, as soon as our Artillery had fired, to seize upon that of the enemy. This is the reason why would not suffer our own to make a second discharge, lest the enemy should have time to do the same, as they easily might have done, and perhaps before our Artillery was loaded again, if I had not taken these means to prevent it. So that the only way to make the enemy's Artillery of no service, is to attack it as soon as possible: for if they desert it, it falls into your hands of course; but if they defend it, they must place a body of forces before it, and then they will not dare to fire it again, because their own men must be the chief sufferers by it.—These reasons, I think, might be sufficient of them​selves, without quoting any examples to support them: but as antiquity furnishes us with many, I will give you one or two.—When Ventidius had resolved to come to an engagement with the Parthians (whose strength consisted chiefly in their bows and arrows) he suffered them to advance almost to the very entrenchments of his camp before he drew out his army and this he did, that he might fall suddenly upon them, and before they could make use of their arrows. Cæsar tell us, that in a battle with the Gauls, they made so sudden and furious an attack upon him, that his men had not time to throw their darts at the enemy, as the Romans always used to do. Now from these instances, we see, that in order to secure an army in the field from the effects of any weapons or engines that annoy them at a distance, there is no other way, but to march up to them as fast as possible, and get possession of them, if you can, or at least to prevent their effects. Besides all these, I had still another reason which determined me to fire my Artillery no more than once: perhaps it may seem trifling to you; but with me it has much weight. There is nothing that occasions greater confusion and embarrassment amongst a body of men, than to have their sight dazzled or obstructed: a circumstance which has been the ruin of many gallant armies that have been blinded either by the sun or clouds of dust: and what can contribute more to that than the smoke of Artillery? It would be more prudent therefore to let the enemy blind themselves, than to go blindfold yourself to seek them: for which reason, I would either not make any use of Artillery at all, or if I did (to avoid censure now great guns are in such credit) I would plant it in the flanks of my army that so when it was fired, the smoke might not blind the men in my front, where I would have the flower of my army. The effects of that may be seen from the conduct of Epaminondas, ​who going to engage the enemy, caused all his light horse to trot backwards and forwards a great pace in the front of their army, which raised such a dust that it threw them into disorder, and gave him an easy victory over them.—As for my seeming to have pointed the enemy's Artillery as I pleased, and made the shot fly over the heads of our Infantry; I answer, that it much oftener happens so than otherwise: for Infantry stands so low, and it is so nice a matter to manage heavy pieces of cannon well, that if you either elevate or lower them ever so little too much, in one case the balls will fly quite over their heads, and in the other, they strike into the earth, and never come near them: the least inequality of ground likewise is a great preservation to them; for any little bank or brake betwixt them and the Artillery, serves either to intercept the shot, or divert their direction. And as to Cavalry, especially Gens d'Armes (because they are drawn up in a closer order, and stand so much higher than light horse, that they are more exposed to danger) they may continue in the rear of the army till the Artillery has fired. It is certain that small pieces of Cannon and musket-shot, do more execution than heavy Artillery against which, the best remedy is to make a resolute attack upon it as soon as possible: and if you lose some of your men in it, (which must always be the case) surely a partial loss is not so bad as a total defeat. The Swiss are worthy of imitation in this respect: for they never decline an engagement out of fear of Artillery; but always punish those with death who offer to stir out of their ranks, or shew the least sign of being frighted at it. I caused my Artillery therefore to be drawn off as soon as it had been discharged, in order to make room for the Battalions to advance; and made no further mention of it, as a thing of no consequence after the two armies had joined battle.—You say likewise, that many people laugh at the arms and ar​mour, and military discipline of the Ancients, as good for nothing since the Invention of Artillery: whence one would be apt to imagine the Moderns had made effectual provision against it. If so, I should be glad to hear what that provision is; for I confess I know of none, nor do I think it possible to make any, but what I have already mentioned. Why do our Infantry at present wear corslets? and why are our Gens d'Armes covered with armour from head to foot? If they despise this manner of arming among the Ancients, as of no service against Artillery, whey do they continue to use it themselves? I could likewise wish to be informed, why the Swiss, (like the ancients) form their Regiments of six or eight thousand foot, drawn up in close order; and for what reason all other nations have began to imitate them; since that method exposes their armies to no less danger, (with regard to Artillery) than many other institutions that were in vogue amongst the Ancients, but are neglected and laid aside at present? These are questions, which I fancy the people whom you mention cannot easily answer: but if you would propose them to Soldiers of judgment and experience, they would tell you, that they arm themselves in that manner, not because they think such armour will effectually secure them against Cannon balls, but because it will defend them against cross-bows, pikes, swords, and many other offensive weapons, which an enemy may make use of. They will tell you further, that the close order observed by the Swiss, is necessary to make an impression upon the enemy's Infantry, to sustain their Cavalry, and to prevent themselves from being easily broken: so that we see Soldiers have many other things to dread besides Artillery, against which this order, and this sort of arms and armour, serve to secure them. Hence it follows, that the better an army is armed, and the closer and stronger it is drawn up, the less it has to fear: ​and therefore the persons whose opinion you alledged not long ago, must either have had very little experience, or not have considered the matter in the light they ought to have done. For since we find that only the pikes and close order of the Ancients, (still in use amongst the Swiss) have done such wonderful service, and contribute so much to the strength of our armies at present; why may we not conclude, that the rest of the military Institutions observed by the Ancients (but now entirely laid aside and neglected) might be equally serviceable? Besides, as the fury of Artillery does not make us afraid of drawing up our Battalions in close order, like the Swiss; certainly there can be no other disposition contrived that can make us more apprehensive of its effects. Further, if we are not terrified at the enemy's Artillery in laying siege to a town, when it may annoy us with the greatest security, and we can neither come at it, nor prevent its effects, because it is covered by walls; but must endeavour to dismount it with our own Cannon, which perhaps may require much time, and expose us to a continual fire all the while; why should we so much fear it in the field, where we may presently either make ourselves masters of it, or put a stop to its firing? The invention of Artillery therefore, is no reason, in my opinion, why we should not imitate the Ancients in their military discipline and Institutions, as well as their courage: and if this matter had not been thoroughly discussed in a piece lately published, I would have dwelt longer upon it at present: but for brevity's sake I refer you to that discourse.
Luigi. I have read it, and am of opinion upon the whole, that you have sufficiently shewn, that the best remedy against Artillery, is to seize upon it as soon as you can; that is, in a field battle. But suppose the enemy should place it in the flanks ​of their army; where it would still gall you, and yet be so well secured, that you could not make yourself master of it. For in drawing up your army, you may remember that you left an interval of eight feet betwixt every Battalion, and of forty betwixt the Battalions and the Pikemen extraordinary now if the enemy should form their army in the same order, and place their Artillery deep in those intervals, I should think it would annoy you very much, without any risque of being taken, because you could not come at it there.
Fabrizio. Your objection carries much weight with it; and therefore I will endeavour either to take it off, or to find some remedy in that case. I told you before, that the Battalions, when engaged with an enemy, are in constant motion, and of consequence must draw closer and closer to each other; so that if you leave but small intervals betwixt them for the Artillery, they will soon be filled up in such a manner, that it cannot be of any service: but if you make them large, in order to avoid that inconvenience, you must naturally run into a much greater; because you then leave room enough for the enemy to rush into them, and not only seize upon your Artillery, but throw your whole army into confusion. But to make short of the matter, I beg leave to tell you once for all, that it is impossible to place your Cannon betwixt your Battalions, especially such as are fixed upon carriages: for as they are drawn one way, and point another, they must all be turned into a different direction before they can be fired; and to do that, will require so large a space, that fifty pieces would disorder any army: so that they must of necessity be placed somewhere out of the Battalions; and then they may be come at in the manner I have already prescribed. Let us suppose however, that they could be placed within the Battalions, and that we could hit upon some medium, which on one hand would prevent the Battalions ​from frustrating the effects of the Artillery when they drew closer together; and on the other, not leave the intervals betwixt them so large, that the enemy might push into them: I say, that even then a method might be found to elude its force, by opening counter-intervals in the enemy's army, to let your shot pass through without doing any execution. For to secure your Artillery effectually, perhaps you would place it at the very bottom of the intervals betwixt your Battalions; in which case, (to avoid killing your own men) it must be pointed in such a manner, as to throw its shot directly and continually through the interval it is planted in; and therefore, by opening such another interval right over-against it in the enemy's army, they will pass through it without doing them any damage at all: for it is a general rule, always to give way to such things as cannot be opposed; as the Ancients used to do when they were attacked by Elephants and armed Chariots.—You see I gained a victory with an army formed and appointed in the manner I recommended; and I must beg leave to repeat (if what I have already said be not sufficient) that such an army must of necessity defeat any other, at the very first onset, that is armed and drawn up like ours at present, which, for the most part can make but one front, is entirely unprovided with Targets, and not only armed in such a manner, that they cannot defend themselves against an enemy that closes with them, but so formed, that if they post their Battalions flank to flank, they make their lines too thin and feeble; and if they place them in the rear of each other, not having any method of receiving one another, they soon fall into confusion, and are easily broken. And though indeed they are divided into three bodies, called the Van-guard, the Main-battle, and the Rear-guard; yet this division is of no use, except upon a March, or to distinguish them in an encamp​ment: for in engagement they are combined, and therefore all liable to be defeated at once by the first shock.
Luigi. I further observed in your late Battle, that your Cavalry were repulsed, and forced to take cover under the Pikemen extraordinary, by whose assistance, they not only made head against the enemy a second time, but repulsed them in their turn. Now I am persuaded that Pikemen may support Cavalry in a thick and close drawn-up body like the Swiss Regiments: but in your army there are but five ranks of Pikemen in the front, and seven on the flanks; so that I cannot see how they can keep off a body of horse.
Fabrizio. Though I told you before, that six ranks of Pikemen might charge at a time in the Macedonian Phalanx, yet I must now add, that if a Swiss Regiment consisted of a thousand ranks, no more than four or five of them at most could charge at one: for their Pikes being eighteen feet long, three feet we may imagine must be taken up betwixt one hand and the other: so that the first rank would have but fifteen feet to make use of: in the second, besides the three feet betwixt the mens hands, as much more must be taken up by the distance betwixt one rank and another, and then there would be but twelve feet of the pike that could be of any service: the third, for the same reasons, would have but nine feet; the fourth but six; and the fifth but three: the other ranks behind could make no use at all of their pikes, but serve to recruit and support the first five ranks, as we have shewn before. If then five of their ranks could keep off the enemy's Cavalry, why cannot our five do the same, as they likewise have other ranks in their rear to support them, though they have not pikes like the others? And if the ranks of Pikemen extraordinary, which are placed upon the flanks of our army, may seem to you too thin, they may be reduced into a square, ​and posted on the flanks of the two Battalions in the rear; from which place they may succour either the front or rear, and assist the horse upon occasion.
Luigi. Would you always then make use of this form and order of battle, whenever you are to engage an enemy?
Fabrizio. No. I would always suit my order of battle to the nature of my ground, the quality and number of the enemy, as I shall shew you before we part. But I recommended this order not only as the best, (as it certainly is) but as a rule to direct and assist you in forming others: for every art has its general rules and principles upon which it is founded. One thing however, I would have you remember, and that is, never to draw up an army upon any occasion in such a manner, that the front cannot be relieved by the rear: for whoever is guilty of that error, prevents the greatest part of his army from doing him any service at all, and will never gain a victory over an enemy that has the least degree either of courage or conduct.
Luigi. I confess I have still another ojection to the order in which you disposed your army. You made your front consist of five Battalions, posted on the flank of each other: your second line of three: and your third of two. Now I should think it would be better to invert that order: for surely it must be more difficult to break that army which is stronger and stronger the farther you penetrate into it, than another that is weaker and weaker.
Fabrizio. If you will please to recollect that the third line in the Roman Legions was composed of six hundred Triarii only, and that they were placed in the rear, you would drop your objection: for you see that, according to that model, I have placed but two Battalions in the rear, which yet consists of nine hundred men: so that if I have been guilty of any error in following the example ​of the Romans in that respect, it is by making my rear stronger than they did. Now though the authority alone of such an example might serve for a sufficient answer to your objection, yet I will give you my reasons for what I have done.—The front ranks of an army ought always to be thick and compact, because they are so sustain the first shock of the enemy, and have no friends to receive into them: for which reason, they should be close and full of men; otherwise they will be loose and feeble. But as the second line is to receive the first into it upon occasion before it is to engage, there should be large intervals left in it for that purpose; and therefore it must not consist of so many men, as the first: for if the number of them was either larger, or but barely equal, you must either leave no intervals in it, (which would occasion confusion) or if you do, it will be longer than the first, which would be out of proportion, and make a strange appearance. As to what you say of the enemy finding our army weaker and weaker the farther they penetrate into it, it is a manifest error: for they cannot come to engage the second line, till it has received the first into it: so that they will find the second line much stronger than the first was, when they are both united, and the third line still stronger than either of the other two, because they will then have the strength of the whole army to cope with at once: and as the third line is to receive more men than the second, it is necessary it should have larger intervals in it, and consequently consist of fewer men of its own.
Luigi. I am thoroughly satisfied in this point. But if the five Battalions in the front retire into the three that are in the second line; and afterwards those eight into the two that are in the rear, it does not seem possible that the eight Battalions in the second line, much less the ten in the third, can be ​contained in the same space of ground that the first five were.
Fabrizio. To this I answer in the first place, that the space of ground is not the same in that case: for there were intervals betwixt the first five, which are filled up when they retire into the second line, and the second into the third: there was likewise an interval betwixt the two Regiments, and betwixt them and the Pikemen extraordinary, which all together afford them room enough. Besides, the Battalions take up different spaces of ground whilst they keep their ranks, and when they are disordered: for in the latter case, the men either get closer together, or extend themselves. They extend themselves when they are so hard pressed, that they are going to run away; and they keep closer together when they are determined to make an obstinate resistance. I might add, that when the five ranks of Pikemen in the front have done their business, they retire through the intervals betwixt the Battalions, into the rear, to make way for the Targetmen to advance upon the enemy; where they will be ready for any service, in which the General shall think fit to employ them: for in the front they could be of no further use after the two armies were close engaged: and thus the space allotted will be sufficient to contain the whole army. But if it should not, the flanks being composed of men, and not stone walls, can easily open and extend themselves in such a manner as to make room enough.
Luigi. When the five first Battalions retire into the three in the second line, would you have the Pikemen extraordinary, whom you place in the flanks of your army, stand fast in their ranks, and form two horns as it were to the army? or would you have them likewise retire with the Battalions? In the latter case, I cannot imagine whither they ​are to retire, as they have no Battalions in their rear with proper intervals to receive them.
Fabrizio. If the enemy does not attack them at the same time that the Battalions are forced to retire, those Pikemen may continue firm in their station, and take the enemy in the flanks, as they are pressing upon the Battalions in their retreat: but if they are attacked at the same time (as most likely they will be) they also must retire; which they may do very well, though they have no battalions in their rear to receive them, by doubling their ranks in a right line to the center, and receiving one rank into another, in the manner I shewed you a while ago. But to double them in order to retreat, you must observe a different method from that which I then spoke of: for in that case, I told you the first rank must receive the second, the thirth the fourth, and so on: but in this you must begin in the rear instead of the front, that so the ranks may retreat, and not advance in doubling each other. But to answer the whole of what may be objected to the manner in which I conducted the late battle, I must beg leave to tell you again, that I drew it up and caused it to engage, in the first place, to shew you how an army ought to be formed in order of battle; and in the next, how it should be exercised. The order, I make no doubt, you now perfectly comprehend; and as to the exercise, I say that the Regiments ought to be joined together, and exercised in this manner as often as possible; that so the officers may learn to post their Battalions in their proper places: for as every private man should know his own rank, and place in that rank, so every Lieutenant Colonel should know where to station his Battalion in the army, and all of them learn to obey their General. They should likewise know how to join one Battalion with another, and to take their respective posts in an instant for which purpose, the Colours of every Battalion should have their number marked ​upon them in such a manner as to be visible to every one, not only to distinguish the Battalions from one another, but that the Lieutenant Colonel of every Battalion, and his men, may the more easily know where to find each other. The Regiments ought likewise to be numbered, and their numbers marked upon the Colonel's Colours, in order to know which Regiment is posted on the right, and which on the left; what Battalions are placed in the first, second, or third line, &c. There should likewise be regular steps and gradations to preferment in our army: for instance, the lowest officer should be a Corporal, the next above him, a Captain of fifty ordinary Velites, the next, a Captain of a Company in the Battalions, the next, the Lieutenant Colonel of the tenth Battalion, the next, the Lieutenant Colonel of the ninth, the next, the Lieutenant Colonel of the eighth, and so on in succession, till you come to the Lieutenant Colonel of the first Battalion, who should be next in command to the Colonel of the Regiment; to which post no-body should be advanced, till he had passed through all the subordinate degrees just now mentioned. But as there are also three Lieutenant Colonels of the Pikemen extraordinary, and two of the extraordinary Velites, I would have them rank with the Lieutenant Colonel of the tenth Battalion: for I see no absurdity in having six officers of equal rank in the same Regiment, as it may serve to create an emulation amongst them, and excite every one of them to behave himself in such a manner, as to be thought worthy of being preferred to the command of the ninth Battalion. Every one of these officers then knowing where his Corps is to be posted, the whole army will presently be in proper order, as soon as the General's standard is erected. This is the first exercise an army should be accustomed to; that is, to range itself immediately in order of battle upon occasion: for which purpose, it ​should be drawn up and separated again, not only every day, but several times in the day.
Luigi. What other marks of distinction would you have upon the Colours besides their particular number?
Fabrizio. The General's Standard should have the arms of his Prince upon it: the others may have the same, with some variation of the field or colours, as the Prince shall think fit: for that is a matter of no great moment, provided they are sufficient to distinguish one Corps from another. But let us now pass on to another sort of exercise, in which an army ought to be very ready and expert; and that is, the learning to move in due pace and distance, and to keep its ranks when it is in motion. The third kind of exercise is to teach the men to act as they should do, when they are actually engaged with an enemy; to discharge the Artillery, to draw it off; to cause the Velites extraordinary to begin the attack, and then to retire; to make the first line fall back into the second, as if it was hard pressed, and then the second into the third; and afterwards to resume their first Stations; and to use them so frequently to these and other such things, that every man may know every part of his duty, which will soon become easy and familiar to him by practice. The next exercise is to instruct your men in the nature of signals, and how to act by beat of drum, sound of trumpet, or particular motion of the Colours: for such orders as are given by word of mouth, they will easily understand. And as different notes and sounds are of great importance, and have various effects, I will tell you what sorts of military music were used by the Ancients. The Macedonians, as Thucydides informs us, made use of Flutes in their armies, as the most proper instrument to make them move regularly and resolutely, but not with precipitation. The Carthaginians, for the same reason, used harps in their first ​attack: Halyattes, King of Lydia, made use of both: but Alexander the Great, and the Romans, used horns and trumpets, which they thought the fittest instruments to rouse the courage of their men, and inspire them with martial ardour. But as we have imitated both the Greeks and Romans in arming our men, we will also borrow our military music from each of those nations The General then should have its trumpets about him, as the properest instruments to animate his army, and such as may be heard farther than any other. The Lieutenant Colonels and other officers of the Battalions should have small drums and flutes, not to be played upon as they commonly are, but in the same manner that they are sounded at great banquets and other festivities. With these trumpets the General may presently make his army understand when he would have it either halt, or advance, or retreat; when he would have the Artillery discharged, and the Velites extraordinary move forwards; and by various notes and sounds acquaint them with all the different manœuvres he thinks necessary to be made: which Signals should afterwards be repeated by the drums and in this the whole army should frequently be exercised, because it is of the utmost consequence. As to the Cavalry, they may have trumpets too, but of a smaller size and different found. This is all that occurs to my memory at present, as necessary for the forming and exercising an army.
Luigi. I have but one question more to propose, and hope it will not tire your patience if I ask why the Velites extraordinary and light horse in the late battle began the attack with a great shout? whereas there was a dead silence when the rest of the army began to engage. I confess I am at a loss to account for this, and therefore beg the favour of you to explain it to us.
Fabrizio. Various are the opinions of ancient authors concerning this matter; that is, whether ​those that begin the battle should rush on with furious shouts and outcries, or march up to the attack with silence and composure. The latter way is certainly the most proper to preserve good order, and for hearing words of Command more distinctly; the former, to animate your own men, and dismay the enemy: and as I think some regard ought to be had to all these circumstances, I made one part of my army begin with a great shout; the other with profound silence. But I do not think a continual shout can be of any service, but quite the contrary; because it will prevent the General's orders from being heard, which must be attended with terrible consequences; nor it is reasonable to suppose the Romans used any such shouts after the first onset; as we read in many parts of their History, that when their armies were beginning to give way, it was often prevented by the exhortations and reproaches of their Commanders; and that their order of battle was sometimes changed even in the heat of action; which things could not have been done, if the Voice of the officers had been drowned in the shouts of the Soldiers.
THE END OF THE THIRD BOOK.
* ↑ See Pol. Disc. Book II. Chap. xvii
* ↑ See Politic. Disc. book II. chap. xvii.