OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Salins

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​SALINS, a town-of eastern France, in the department of Jura, on a branch line of the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906) 4293. Salins is situated in the narrow valley of the Furieuse, between two fortified hills, while to the north rises Mont Poupet (2798 ft.). The town possesses an interesting Romanesque church (which has been well restored) and an hôtel de ville of the 18th century. A Jesuit chapel of the 17th century contains a library (established in 1593) and a museum. Salins owes its name to its saline waters, used for bathing and drinking. There are also salt workings and gypsum deposits.
The territory of Salins, which was enfeoffed in the 10th century by the abbey of Saint Maurice in Valais to the counts of Mâcon, remained in possession of their descendants till 1175. Maurette de Salins, heiress of this dynasty, left the lordship to the house of Vienne, and her granddaughter sold it in 1225 to Hugh IV., duke of Burgundy, who ceded it in 1237 to John of Chalon (d.1267) in exchange for the count ship of Chalon-sur-Saône. John’s descendants—counts and dukes of Burgundy, emperors and kings of the house of Austria—bore the title of sire de Salins. In 1477 Salins was taken by the French and temporarily made the seat of the parlement of Franche-Comté by Louis XI. In 1668 and 1674 it was retaken by the French and thenceforward remained in their power. In 1825 the town was almost destroyed by fire. In 1871 it successfully resisted the German troops.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Salieri, Antonio

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​SALICETI, ANTOINE CHRISTOPHE (1757–1809), French revolutionist, was born at Saliceto, in Corsica, on the 26th of August 1757, of a family of Piacenza. After studying law in Tuscany, he became an avocat at the upper council of Bastia, and was elected deputy of the Third Estate to the French states-general in 1789. As deputy to the Convention, Saliceti voted for the death of Louis XVI., and was sent to Corsica on mission to oppose the counter-revolutionary intrigues. But the success of his adversaries compelled him to withdraw to Provence, where he took part in repressing the revolts at Marseilles and Toulon. It was on this mission that he met and helped his compatriot Bonaparte. On account of his friendship with Robespierre, Saliceti was denounced at the revolution of 9 Thermidor, and was saved only by the amnesty of the year IV. He subsequently organized the army of Italy and the two departments into which Corsica had been divided, was deputy to the Council of the Five Hundred, and accepted various offices under the Consulate and the Empire, being minister of police and of war at Naples under Joseph Bonaparte (1806–1809), He died at Naples on the 23rd of December 1809—it has been alleged by poison.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Salimbene

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​SALIMBENE, or more usually Salimbene of Parma (1221–c. 1290), the name taken by the Italian writer, Ognibene di Guido di Adamo. The son of a crusader, Gui di Adamo, and born at Parma on the 9th of October 1221, Ognibene entered the order of the Minorites in 1238, and was known as brother Salimbene. He passed some years in Pisa and other Italian towns; then in 1247 he was sent to Lyons, and from Lyons he went to Paris, returning through France to Genoa, where he became a priest in 1249. From 1249 to 1256 he resided at Ferrara, engaged in writing and in copying manuscripts, but later he found time to move from place to place. His concluding years were mainly spent in monastic retirement in Italy, and he died soon after 1288.
Salimbene was acquainted with many of the important personages of his day, including the emperor Frederick II., the French king St Louis and Pope Innocent IV.; and his Chronicon, written after 1281, is a work of unusual value. This covers the period 1167–1287. Salimbene is a very discursive and a very personal writer, but he gives a remarkably vivid picture of life in France and Italy during the 13th century. The manuscript of the chronicle was found during the 18th century, and passed into the Vatican library, where it now remains. The part of the Chronicon dealing with the period between 1212 and 1287 was edited by A. Bertani and published at Parma in 1857. This edition, however, is very defective, but an excellent and more complete one has been edited by O. Holder-Egger, and is printed in Band xxxii. of the Monumenta Germaniae historica. Scriptores (Hanover, 1905).
See U. Balzani, Le Croniche italiane nel medio evo (Milan, 1884); L. Clédat, De fratre Salimbene et de ejus chronicae auctoritate (Paris, 1878); E. Michael, Salimbene und seine Chronik (Innsbruck, 1889); A. Molmier, Les Sources de l’histoire de France, tome iii. (1903); D. W. Duthie, The Case of Sir John Fastolf and other Historical Studies (1907); G. G. Coulton, From St Francis to Dante (1906).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Salii

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​SALII, the “dancers,” an old Italian priesthood, said to have been instituted by Numa for the service of Mars, although later tradition derived them from Greece. They were originally twelve in number, called Salii Palatini to distinguish them from ​a second college of twelve, Salii Agonales or Collini, said to have been added by Tullus Hostilius; the Palatini were consecrated to Mars, the Collini to Quirinus. All the members were patricians, vacancies being filled by co-optation from young men whose parents were both living; membership was for life, subject to certain exceptions. The officials of the college were the magister, the praesul, and the vates (the leaders in dance and song).
Each college had the care of twelve sacred shields called ancilia. According to the story, during the reign of Numa a small oval shield fell from heaven, and Numa, in order to prevent its being stolen, had eleven others made exactly like it. They were the work of a smith named Mamurius Veturius, probably identical with the god Mamers (Mars) himself. These twelve shields (amongst which was the original one) were in charge of the Salii Palatini. The greater part of March (the birth-month of Mars), beginning from the 1st, on which day the ancile was said to have fallen from heaven and the campaigning season began, was devoted to various ceremonies connected with the Salii. On the 1st, they marched in procession through the city, dressed in an embroidered tunic, a brazen breastplate and a peaked cap; each carried a sword by his side and a short staff in his right hand, with which the shield, borne on the left arm, was struck from time to time. A halt was made at the altars and temples, where the Salii, singing a special chant, danced a war dance. Every day the procession stopped at certain stations (mansiones), where the shields were deposited for the night, and the Salii partook of a banquet (see Horace, Odes, i. 37. 2). On the next day the procession passed on to another mansio; this continued till the 24th, when the shields were replaced in their sacrarium. During this period the Salii took part in certain other festivities: the Equirria (Ecurria) on the 14th, a chariot race in honour of Mars on the Campus Martius (in later times called Mamuralia, in honour of Mamurius), at which a skin was beaten with staves in imitation of hammering; the Quinquatrus on the 19th, a one-day festival, at which the shields were cleansed; the Tubilustrium on the 23rd, when the trumpets of the priests were purified. On the 19th of October, at the Armilustrium or purification of arms, the ancilia were again brought out and then put away for the winter. The old chant of the Salii, called axamenta, was written in the old Saturnian metre, in language so archaic that even the priests themselves could hardly understand it.
See Quintilian, Instit. i. 6. 40; also J. Wordsworth, Fragments and Specimens of Early Latin (1874). The best account of the Salii generally will be found in Marquardt, Römische Staatsverwaltung, iii. (1885) pp. 427-433.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Salina Cruz

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​SALINA CRUZ, a seaport of Mexico, in the state of Oaxaca, at the southern terminus of the Tehuantepec National Railway. It is situated near the mouth of the Tehuantepec river, on the open coast of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, and has no natural harbour. There was only a small Indian village here before Salina Cruz was chosen as the Pacific terminus of the railway. Since then a modern town has been laid out and built on adjacent higher ground. The new port was opened to traffic in 1907 and in 1909 its population was largely composed of labourers. A costly artificial harbour has been built by the Mexican government to accommodate the traffic of the Tehuantepec railway. It is formed by the construction of two breakwaters, the western 3260 ft. and the eastern 1900 ft. long, which curve toward each other at their outer extremities and leave an entrance 635 ft. wide. The enclosed space is divided into an outer and inner harbour by a double line of quays wide enough to carry six great warehouses with electric cranes on both sides and a number of railway tracks. Connected with the new port works is one of the largest dry docks in the world—610 ft. long and 89 ft. wide, with a depth of 28 ft. on its sill at low water. The works were planned to handle an immense volume of transcontinental freight, and before they were finished four steamship lines had arranged regular calls at Salina Cruz; this number has since been largely increased.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Shawnee

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SHAWNEE or Shawano (said to mean “southerner”), a tribe of North American Indians of Algonquian stock. They are said to have been first found in Wisconsin. Under the name Sacannahs towards the end of the 17th century they had their headquarters in South Carolina on the upper Savannah. Moving eastward they came in contact with the Iroquois, by whom they were driven S. again into Tennessee. Thence they crossed the mountains into South Carolina and again spread northward as far as New York state and southward to Florida. Subsequently they recrossed the Alleghany mountains, once more came in contact with the Iroquois and were driven into Ohio. They joined in Pontiac's conspiracy. They fought on the English side in the War of Independence and again in 1812 under Tecumseh. They are now on a reservation in Oklahoma.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Shearer, Thomas

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​SHEARER, THOMAS, English 18th-century furniture designer and cabinet-maker. The solitary biographical fact we possess relating to this distinguished craftsman is that he was the author of most of the plates in The Cabinet Maker's London Book of Prices and Designs of Cabinet Work, issued in 1788 “For the London Society of Cabinet Makers.” The majority of these plates were republished separately as Designs for Household Furniture. They exhibit their author as a man with an eye at once for simplicity of design and delicacy of proportion. Indeed some of his pieces possess a dainty and slender elegance which has never been surpassed in the history of English furniture.
There can be little doubt that Shearer exercised considerable influence over Hepplewhite, with whom there is reason to suppose that he was closely associated, while Sheraton has recorded his admiration for work which has often been attributed to others. Shearer, in his turn, owes something to the brothers Adam, and something no doubt, to the stock designs of his predecessors. There is every reason to suppose that he worked at his craft with his own hands and that he was literally a cabinet-maker—so far as we know, he never made chairs. Much of the elegance of Shearer's work is due to his graceful and reticent employment of inlays of satinwood and other foreign woods. But he was as successful in form as in decoration, and no man ever used the curve to better purpose. In Shearer's time the sideboard was in process of evolution; previously it had been a table with drawers, the pedestals and knife-boxes being separate pieces. He would seem to have been first to combine them into the familiar and often beautiful form they took at the end of the 18th century. The combination may have been made before, but his plate is, in point of time, the first published document to show it.
Shearer, like many of his contemporaries, was much given to devising “harlequin” furniture. He was a designer of high merit and real originality, and occupies a distinguished place among the little band of men, often, like himself, ill-educated and obscure of origin, who raised the English cabinet-making of the second half of the 18th century to an illustrious place in artistic history.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Shears

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​SHEARS, an implement for cutting or clipping. The O. Eng. sceran, to clip, cut, represents one branch of a very large number of words in Indo-European languages which are to be referred to the root skar-, to cut, and of which may be mentioned Gr. κείρειν, Lat. curtus, Eng. “short,” “share,” “sherd,” “score.” For cutting cloth “shears” take the form of a large, heavy pair of scissors with two crossed flat blades pivoted together, each with a looped handle for the insertion of the fingers; for clipping or “shearing” sheep the usual form is a single piece of steel bent round, the ends being shaped into the cutting blades, and the bend or “bow” forming a spring which opens the blades when the pressure used in cutting is released. Another form of the same word, “sheers," is used of an apparatus for hoisting heavy weights, generally known as “sheer-legs.” These consist of two or more uprights meeting at the top, where the hoisting tackle is placed, and set wide apart at the bottom. The masting of ships was formerly carried out from another vessel, a dismasted hulk, hence called a “sheer-hulk,” on which the “sheer-legs” were placed (see Crane). From this word must be distinguished “sheer,” straight, precipitous, also absolute, downright; this is to be connected with Dan. skjaer, clear, bright, Ger. schier, free, clear; the root is also seen in O. Eng. scinan, to shine. The nautical phrase “to sheer off,” to deviate from a course, is due to a similar Dutch use of scheren, to cut, shear, to cut off a course abruptly.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Shawl

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​ SHAWL, a square or oblong article of dress worn in various ways dependent from the shoulders. The term is of Persian origin (shál), and the article itself is most characteristic of the natives of N.W. India and Central Asia; but in various forms, and under different names, the same piece of clothing is found in most parts of the world. The shawls made in Kashmir occupy a pre-eminent place among textile products; and it is to them and to their imitations from Western looms that specific importance attaches. The Kashmir shawl is characterized by the elaboration of its design, in which the “cone” pattern is a prominent feature, and by the glowing harmony, brilliance, depth, and enduring qualities of its colours. The basis of these excellences is found in the very fine, soft, short, flossy under-wool, called pashm or pashmina, found on the shawl-goat, a variety of Capra hircus inhabiting the elevated regions of Tibet. There are several varieties of pashm, but the finest is a strict monopoly of the maharaja of Kashmir. Inferior pashm and Kirman wool — a fine soft Persian sheep's wool — are used for shawl weaving at Amritsar and other places in the Punjab, where colonies of Kashmiri weavers are established. Of shawls, apart from shape and pattern, there are only two principal classes: (1) loom-woven shawls called tiliwalla, tilikár or káni kar — sometimes woven in one piece, but more often in small segments which are sewn together with such precision that the sewing is quite imperceptible; and (2) embroidered shawls — amlikár — in which over a ground of plain pashmina is worked by needle a minute and elaborate pattern.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Shawm

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​SHAWM, Shalm (Fr. chalumeau, chalemelle, hautbois; Ger. Schalmei, Schalmey; Ital. Piffar cenamelle; Lat. calamus, tibia; Gr. αὐλός), the medieval forerunner of the oboe, the treble members of the large family of reed instruments known in Germany as the Pommer (q.v.), Bombart or Schalmey family. Michael Praetorius, at the beginning of the 17th century, enumerates the members of this family (see Oboe); the two of highest pitch are Schalmeys, the first or little Schalmey being in B♭ (third line) or A, and the second, also called cantus or discant, in E or D below. The shawm or Schalmey had a compass of two octaves, the second diatonic octave being obtained by overblowing each of the notes of the first octave an octave higher; the chromatic semitones were produced by half stopping the holes and by cross-fingering. In some instances the reed mouthpiece was half enclosed in a pirouette, a small case having a slit through which that part of the reed which is taken into the mouth of the player was alone exposed, the edges of the slit thus forming a rest for his lips.
In the miniatures of the illuminated MSS. of all countries, more especially from the 14th century, and in early printed books, Schalmeys and Pommers are represented in every conceivable phase of social life in which music takes a part.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Shawnee (Oklahoma)

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SHAWNEE, a city of Pottawatomie county, Oklahoma, U.S.A., on the North Fork of the Canadian river, about 38 m. E.S.E. of Oklahoma city. Pop. (1907) 10,955, including 748 negroes and 20 Indians; (1910) 12,474. Shawnee is served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fé, the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, and the Missouri, Kansas & Texas railways and by interurban electric
lines. The city has two large public parks and a Carnegie library, and is the seat of the Curtice Industrial School. Shawnee is situated in a fine agricultural region, is a shipping-point for alfalfa, cotton and potatoes, is an important market for mules, and has large railway repair shops, and cotton-gins and cotton compresses; among its manufactures are cotton-seed oil, cotton goods, lumber, bricks and flour. Shawnee was first settled in 1895 and was chartered as a city in 1896.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Shays, Daniel

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​SHAYS, DANIEL (1747–1825), American soldier, the leader of Shays's Insurrection in W. Massachusetts in 1786–1787 (see Massachusetts: History), was born in Hopkinton, Massachusetts, in 1747. In the War of Independence he served as second lieutenant in a Massachusetts regiment from May to December 1775, became captain in the 5th Massachusetts regiment in January 1777, and resigned his commission in October 1780. After the collapse of Shays's Insurrection he escaped to Vermont. He was pardoned in June 1788, and died at Sparta, New York, on the 29th of September 1825.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Shaw, Lemuel

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SHAW, LEMUEL (1781-1861), American jurist, was born at Barnstable, Massachusetts, son of the minister of the West Parish there, on the 9th of January 1781. He graduated from Harvard College in 1800, and was admitted to the bar (of New Hampshire and of Massachusetts) in 1804. In 1805 he began to practise law in Boston. He was a prominent Federalist and was a member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives in 1811-1814, in 1820, and in 1829, and of the state Senate in 1821-1822, a delegate to the state constitutional convention of 1820-1821, and chief justice of the Supreme Court of the state from 1830 to 1860. He died in Boston on the 30th of March 1861. As chief justice Shaw maintained the high standard of excellence set by Theophilus Parsons. He presided over the trial in 1850 of Professor John White Webster (1793-1850) for the murder of Dr George Parkman. His work in extending the equity, jurisdiction and powers of the court was especially notable. He was also largely instrumental in defeating an attempt (1843) to make a reduction of salary apply to judges already in office, and an attempt (1853) to abolish the life term of judges. His opinion in Cary v. Daniels (8 Metcalf) is the basis of the present law in Massachusetts as to the regulation of water power rights of riparian proprietors.
See the address by B. F. Thomas in Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society, x. 50-79 (Boston, 1869); and the sketches by Samuel S. Shaw and P. Emory Aldrich in vol. iv. pp. 200-247, of Memorial Biographies of the New England Historic Genealogical Society (Boston, 1885).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Vitebsk (government)

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​VITEBSK, a government of western Russia, with the government of Pskov on the N., Smolensk on the E., Mogilev, Minsk and Vilna on the S., and Courland and Livonia on the W., having an area of 16,978 sq. m. Except on its south-eastern and northern borders, where there are low hills, deeply eroded by the rivers, its surface is mostly flat, or slightly undulating, and more than a million acres are occupied by immense marshes, while there are as many as 2500 small lakes. It is mainly built up of Devonian red sandstones and red clays, but the Carboniferous formations—both the Lower, characterized by layers of coal, and the Upper—crop out in the east. The whole is covered with Glacial and post-Glacial formations, in which remains of extinct mammals and stone implements are found in large quantities. There are numerous burial-mounds containing bones and iron implements and ornaments. The soil is for the most part unproductive. The W. Dvina rises not far from the north-eastern angle of the government, and flows through it, or along its southern boundary, for 530 m. From its confluence with the Kasplya, i.e. for more than 450 m., it is navigable, and, through a tributary, the Ulyanka, it is connected with the Dnieper by the Berezina Canal. The Mezha and Kasplya, tributaries of the W. Dvina, are navigable in spring. The climate is relatively mild, the average yearly temperature at the city of Vitebsk being 40° F. (January 16°.4; July 64°.3). The population was estimated at 1,740,700 in 1906. The government is divided into eleven districts, the chief towns of which are Vitchsk, Drisa, Dvinsk, formerly Dünaburg, Gorodok, Lepel, Lyutsyn, Nevel, Polotsk, Ryezhitsa, Sebezh and Velizh.