OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# The New International Encyclopædia/Shrapnel

Edition of 1905. See also Shrapnel shell on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​SHRAPNEL. A form of projectile used in field and naval guns and invented by Col. Henry Shrapnel of the British Army. It consists of a shell containing a number of balls, a bursting charge, usually of black powder, and a combination time and percussion fuze. (See Fuze.) The bursting charge may be located either in the front or in the rear of the shell, whose walls are thinner than in the case of ordinary shell. The bursting charge may also be contained in a central tube, as is the case of navy shrapnel, which may be larger than that used in field pieces. Shrapnel is designed for use against troops in open country or for clearing covered spaces, destructive effect over a considerable area rather than penetrative power being desired. With this in view the fuze is so adjusted that the projectile bursts in close vicinity to the target and scatters its fragments and the balls, which may be placed either in metal or wooden frames or plates or in a matrix of resin. In naval warfare shrapnel is used against attack by torpedo boats or small boats. See Projectiles, where United States Army 3.2-inch shrapnel is illustrated; also Canister; Field Artillery.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Shirley, Walter

Edition of 1905. See also the disclaimer.
SHIRLEY, Walter (1725-1786). An English revivalist and hymn-writer. In 1746 he graduated B. A. from New College, Oxford, and became rector of Loughrea, in Galway. Through his cousin the Countess of Huntingdon (q.v.) he became acquainted with Whitefield (q.v.) and the Wesleys (qq.v.), whose opinions he strenuously advocated within the Established Church. Though retaining his living, he made frequent preaching tours through England and Ireland. The revivalist phase of his labors is represented by Gospel Repentance (1760) and Twelve Sermons (1761). He is now best known for several hymns in common use, as “Source of light and power divine.” and “Go, destined vessel, heavenly freighted, go!” (composed on the departure of missionaries to America, 1772).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Shirley, William

Edition of 1905. See also William Shirley on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
SHIRLEY, William (1693-1771). An American colonial governor, born at Preston, in Sussex, England. After being called to the bar, he emigrated to Massachusetts, where he was appointed a commissioner in the boundary dispute between Massachusetts and Rhode Island, and while discharging his duties as such in 1741 was appointed Governor of the colony. He used his influence against the disastrous financial policy of the Legislature and tried to induce that body to grant him a regular salary, but was unsuccessful in both efforts. On the outbreak of King George's War, he organized the expedition which captured Louisburg in 1745. Soon afterwards he persuaded the colonists to apply the money they had received from the British treasury in reimbursement of their expenses on this occasion to the redemption of their paper currency. In 1749 he went to London to urge the settlement of the boundary disputes between the New England and the Canadian colonists, and in 1753 was appointed one of the British commissioners in the fruitless negotiations at Paris. In the latter year he was reinstalled as
Governor of Massachusetts. On the death of Braddock, in 1755, he was appointed commander-in-chief of the British forces in North America, but was soon called to England. Shirley was promoted to the rank of lieutenant-general in 1759, and was for a time Governor of the Bahamas. In 1770 he returned to Massachusetts, where he died. He published a Journal of the Siege of Louisburg (1745); The Conduct of Gen. William Shirley Briefly Stated (1758); and two or three pieces of fiction.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Teeth

See also Tooth (animal) on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Teeth are structures derived from the skin of the mouth, involving both the epidermis and the dermis. Only those of vertebrated animals need be considered. In fishes and snakes they usually are sharp processes without sockets, arising from bones of the jaws and the mouth-parts. In crocodiles and all mammals they are located in sockets. The teeth always show the habits and food of animals, and, therefore, are much used by naturalists in classification. They are of great importance to the students of fossil life, because they are usually well-preserved on account of their hardness. They have been of great service in tracing the evolution of animal life during geological periods. In the herb-eating animals there have been slow changes in the pattern of the crown of molar teeth, which can be read by students like hieroglyphics. The teeth of mammals contain living pulp on the inside provided with nerves and blood-vessels; this is surrounded by dentine or ivory, a bony substance produced from the dermis. The dentine is covered above the jaws by enamel, which is the hardest substance in the human body. The roots are covered with cement, which joins the enamel and sometimes extends into it. When the enamel is broken or worn through, the much softer dentine is exposed; this decays and leads to cavities in the teeth and to their destruction, if the cavities are not cleaned and filled. The typical number of teeth in mammals is 44, 22 on each jaw, and not 32, as most people suppose, because the latter number is found in man. Teeth of mammals are divided into incisors or cutting-teeth, canines or sharp tearing-teeth, premolars which appear earliest, and molars or grinding-teeth. There usually are two sets which appear in succession, the milk-teeth or temporary ones and the permanent set. The teeth are subject to great modifications. The great cutting-teeth of beavers and the tusks of elephants are modified incisors; the tusks of the walrus and those of the wild boar are enlarged canines. The molars or grinding-teeth have a pattern on the crown that is characteristic of the different groups of mammals.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Teheran

See also Tehran on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Teheran (tĕ-h'rän'), capital of Persia, stands 70 miles south of the Caspian Sea, on a wide, stony plain. On the northeast are the Elburz Mountains, the highest peak of which is Demavend, 22,000 feet above the sea. The town is built mainly of mud-houses, packed within a mud-wall 20 feet high and four miles around. The finest building is the bazar of Taki Khan. In the suburbs are the shah's palace, called the ark or citadel, and the castle of the kajars, another royal home. In 1849 a polytechnic school was opened with European professors, introducing science and the western languages. Carpets, shoes, hats and linen goods are manufactured. Teheran was unimportant until made the capital of Persia by Aga Mohammed Khan about 1796. Population 280,000.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Technical Schools

See also Technical school on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Tech'nical Schools. This term embraces all institutions whose object is to prepare its students directly for some particular career or vocation as opposed to those giving a so-called liberal education. Usually, however, it is restricted to that class of schools especially devoted to the investigation and teaching of industrial and mechanical arts and sciences, as civil, mechanical, mining, electrical, chemical and sanitary engineering, architecture, draughting etc. They usually are institutions of college or university grade, to which the titles of engineering schools, institutes of technology, polytechnic institutes and schools of applied science are variously given. The great majority confer only the degree of bachelor of science at the end of the four years' couise and the professional degrees of C.E. and M.E. only after the completion of at least a year's graduate work in residence and three years of successful professional work. They have arisen almost invariably in response to the industrial demands of the district in which they were founded, as, for instance, the Colorado School of Mines. They practically are a development of the last half-century. On the basis of control there are three types of technical schools in the United States: those founded by private individuals and relying for support mainly upon private endowment, e.g. Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute of Troy, N. Y.; those forming a department of some college or university (as in the engineering departments of the Universities of Michigan, Pennsylvania etc.) and usually sharing in the common resources of the university of which they form a part; and those supported largely if not entirely by state government expense, e.g. New Jersey Institute of Technology.
Massachusetts Institute of Technology at Cambridge perhaps is the most famous technical school in America, but many excellent ones are distributed through the whole country. A few of the most prominent, in addition to those already mentioned, are those connected with Columbia, Harvard, Yale, Cornell, Leland Stanford and California Universities, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Armour Institute of Chicago, Michigan School of Mines and Case School of Applied Science of Cleveland.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Teak

See also Teak on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
* TEAK
Teak, the name of Tectona grandis, a member of the verbena family. It is a forest-tree of India, and its timber is prized as by far the most serviceable of all timbers for ship-building. The timber resembles mahogany, and is more durable and much lighter than oak. There also is a teak highly valued for furniture, exquisite carved pieces being offered for sale. The color of the wood is a dark brown.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Teal

See also Teal on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Teal, small ducks belonging to the group of river-ducks. They are abundant in Europe, America and most other parts of the world. There are ten or fifteen kinds in the United States. The two best-known forms are the green-winged and the blue-winged teal. The former is a beautiful little duck, about 14 inches long, abundant during migrations and one of the best ducks as food. It feeds on seeds of grass, small acorns, fallen grapes, water-insects, small snails and worms. The blue-winged teal, with a blue band across the wings, is larger, being about 16 inches long. It is the most numerous of the smaller ducks in the eastern United States. West of the Rocky Mountains it is replaced by the cinnamon teal.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Tecumseh

See also Tecumseh on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Tecumseh (tē-kǔm′sě), a famous chief of the Shawnee Indians, was born near the site of Springfield, O., about 1768. Elskwatawa, his brother, the prophet, preached against the use of the white man's liquor and food, and about 1805 Tecumseh tried to gather all the western Indians into a confederacy against the whites. As a result, 400 gathered at Greenville. In 1811, while the chief was away urging the Seminoles and Creeks to rebel, General Harrison marched oil his encampment to demand that plunder be given up and that the warriors go back to their tribes. The prophet decided to fight, but was worsted and his prestige among the Indians destroyed in the battle of Tippecanoe. On the outbreak of the War of 1812 Tecumseh led a large force to the support of the British in Canada. He was made a brigadier-general in the English service, and fought bravely in several battles. He was wounded at Maguaga and also while bravely defending a ford on General Proctor's retreat before General Harrison. At the siege of Fort Meigs, where he and Proctor held joint command, he saved the lives of the American prisoners. At the battle of the Thames in Canada he believed he would be killed. So he laid aside his general's uniform and sword, and, dressed as an Indian warrior, fought desperately till he was shot (Oct. 5, 1813). It is believed that he was killed by Richard Mentor Johnson. See Life by Benjamin Drake.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Tegner, Esaias

* related authors: Esaias Tegnér.
* sister projects: Wikipedia article, quotes, Wikidata item.
See also Esaias Tegnér on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Tegner (těng′nâr′), Esai′as, a popular Swedish poet, was born at Kyrkerud in 1782. He was graduated and appointed lecturer on aesthetics at the University of Lund. His poem, Sweden, which appeared in 1811, brought widespread popularity. Next year he took charge of a parish, besides the chair of Greek in the university, and yet found time to write, among other works, Axel, a poetic romance, and his epic, Frithiof's Saga, which at once became the most popular poem of Sweden. Its author was at once made bishop of Wexio, sat in the national legislature in the chamber of the clergy, and became noted as a political leader and speaker. When just about to be appointed archbishop, Tegner had an attack of insanity, which he inherited. He recovered his sanity but not his health, and died in 1846. The Children of the Lord's Supper has been finely translated into English verse by Longfellow.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Tehuantepec

See also Isthmus of Tehuantepec on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Tehuantepec (tē-wän'tē-pĕk'), an isthmus of Mexico, between the Bay of Campeche on the Gulf of Mexico and the Bay of Tehuantepec on the Pacific Ocean. Its narrowest part is 130 miles wide. It contains lakes, lagoons and Coatzacoalcos and Tehuantepec Rivers. One of the several plans to join the Atlantic and Pacific by a ship-canal proposed crossing this peninsula, in part by deepening and widening Coatzacoalcos River. The Mexican government on Jan. 23, 1907, opened its interoceanic railway (192.42 miles long) from the mouth of the Coatzacoalcos to the Pacific port of Salina Cruz. It saves 10,797 miles from New York to San Francisco through the Straits of Magellan.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Telautograph

See also Telautograph on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Telau′tograph, an ingenious instrument invented by Elisha Gray, for reproducing autograph-writing, messages, drawings and sketches in facsimile and transmitting such to places distant many miles apart by means of an electric motor driven by a local battery. The message, at the receiving point, is written on the sketch drawn by pencil on a roll of paper drawn over drums, and so arranged that they can be shipped forward by the operator at intervals, as each line of writing or drawing is finished. The receiving-pen, which is a small glass-tube furnished with writing-fluid by capillary attraction, being controlled by the current-impulses from the transmitting pencil, it follows and reproduces all its movements, which are then electrically transmitted.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Telegraph

See also Telegraphy on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Tel′egraph, an instrument for transmitting signals to a distance. Unless otherwise specified the word is generally used to mean the electric telegraph, which is the only one we shall here discuss.
Electric signals appear to have been first transmitted on a commercial scale by Wheatstone and Cooke in England in 1837. At each end of the “line,” which consisted of five insulated metallic wires, they placed five galvanometers. Different combinations of deflections to the right and left indicated different letters. (See Galvanometer.) Later a single galvanometer was used, different combinations of deflections indicating as before different letters. About the same time S. F. B. Morse (q. v.) in America succeeded in perfecting a receiver in which the signals could not only be seen and heard, but were automatically recorded. This is the instrument which was in universal use in the United States until operators learned to read the message by the click of the instrument. Accordingly, for ordinary work a telegraph line is provided at each end with a battery for producing an electric current, a key for opening and closing the circuit and a small electromagnet, with pivoted armature, the so-called sounder or receiver. More recently the Wheatstone bridge has been applied to the telegraph line in such a way that two messages may be sent over a line in opposite directions at the same time. This is called the duplex telegraph. Edison has invented a method for sending two messages over the same line in the same direction at the same time. This is known as the diplex telegraph. By combining these two, four simultaneous messages may be sent. This system is called the quadruplex telegraph. Various plans have been suggested for sending even more than four messages at once. This is called the multiplex telegraph. Rowland (q. v.) perfected a system which will not only transmit six or eight simultaneous messages, but will deliver them printed on a typewriter; and not only so, but the sending instrument of the Rowland telegraph is merely the ordinary keyboard of a typewriter. For details concerning these various systems and concerning the important subject of submarine telegraph, first worked out by Lord Kelvin, the student is referred to the larger treatises.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Rome, Ga.

See also Rome, Georgia on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Rome, Ga., county-seat of Floyd County, on Coosa River, 61 miles northwest of Atlanta. It has iron-foundries and manufactories of plows and nails, and ships cotton. It is the seat of Shorter College. Population 12,099.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Rook

See also Rook (bird) on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Rook, an Old-World bird belonging to the crow family. It is slightly smaller than the common crow. Its plumage is purplish black, with gray on the forehead and throat. The adults lose the feathers on the face, leaving a bare spot about the bill. These birds live in noisy flocks and nest near habitations. They are common in many parts of Europe and Asm, and in late autumn migrate to the east shore of Great Britain and return in the spring.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Root

See also Root on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Root. True roots are developed only by vascular plants, that is, by Pteridophytes (fern-plants) and Spermatophytes (seed-plants). They act either as holdfasts or as absorbing organs or as both. The ordinary soil-roots serve both for anchorage and for absorbing. In structure roots are all alike in general plan, whether they belong to ferns or to pines or to the true flowering plants. Each root consists of an epidermis, a more or less thick cortex and a central, solid, woody cylinder or axis. In the soil-roots a peculiar cap of dead cells covers the delicate growing tip, known as the root-cap. This cap protects the delicate tip-cells as the root burrows through the soil, and it is renewed from beneath as fast as it is worn off on the outside. To aid roots in absorbing, the epidermal cells just behind the root-cap send out long hair-like processes known as root-hairs, which immensely increase the absorbing surface. These root-hairs are very ephemeral, being present only near growing tips and rapidly disappearing from older parts. It is only the youngest roots which have this typical root-structure and do the work of absorption. As a root increases in age, it becomes very much modified in its structure and ceases to absorb, being then merely a channel through which the absorbed material passes to the stem and leaves.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Rome, N. Y.

See also Rome, New York on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Rome, N. Y., a city, county-seat of Oneida County on Mohawk River, 100 miles west of Albany, at the junction of the Erie and Black River Canals. It contains mills and manufactories of iron, brass, copper, furniture, machinery, saddlery, wire and other foods. Rome has admirable public schools, St. Peter’s Academy (R. C.), two libraries and several churches. The city has all the improvements of a progressive city and the service of two railroads. Here is Fort Stanwix, which was successfully defended against St. Leger, and six miles to the southeast the battle of Oriskany was fought during the Revolution. Population 20,497.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Romulus

See also Romulus and Remus on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Rom′ulus, legendary founder and first king of Rome, son of Mars by Rhea Silvia, daughter of King Numitor of Alba Longa, was, so runs the myth, exposed with Remus, his twin-brother, at the foot of the Palatine hill, where he was suckled by a she-wolf, and afterward brought up by the shepherd Faustulus and his wife, Acca Laurentia. In 753 B. C. he founded his city on the Tiber, to which he invited all homeless fugitives in the surrounding country, who carried off Sabine maidens for their wives. After Romulus had firmly established his city and secured peace between the Romans and Sabines, he was carried to heaven in a chariot of fire and later was worshiped as Quirinus.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Romanoff, The House of

See also Romanov on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Romanoff (rṓ-mä′ nṓf), The House of, has furnished the sovereigns of Russia since the beginning of the seventeenth century. Rurik, the chief of the Varangians or Rus, laid the foundation of the Russian empire, and he and his family reigned over it for more than seven centuries. Feodor, the last descendant of the Rurik dynasty, dying childless in 1594, the government fell a prey to many adventurers. The legitimate heir to the throne, Dimitri, of the Rurik dynasty, was assassinated, and no less than four impostors arose, claiming to be the dead Dimitri. Conflicts between aspirants for the crown continued until 1613, when a large number of nobles offered the throne to the king of Poland. A sentiment was aroused against this, and the Russian army drove the Poles from Moscow. They then determined to elect a czar. A council, composed of nobles, clergy and burgesses assembled in Lent of 1613. After several days of strong debate the choice fell to Michael Romanoff, a member of a distinguished though not royal Prussian family in Moscow. He was crowned in April of the same year and reigned for 32 years. His successors in the male line ruled until the death of Peter II in 1730, when the succession reverted to the female line. Another change took place with the death of Elizabeth in 1762, when her nephew, the son of the Duke of Hoistein-Gottorp, a branch of the House of Oldenburg, succeeded to the throne with the title of Peter III, thus founding the House of Romanoff-Oldenburg to which the present reigning family belongs. Frequent intermarriages with German princely families have, however, made the strain far more German than Russian.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Romeo and Juliet

See also Romeo and Juliet on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Ro′meo and Ju′liet, a drama by William Shakespeare, written sometime between 1591 and 1596, first published in 1597. The legend upon which it is founded first appeared in Naples in 1476. It appeared in English in 1562 in The Tragicall Historye of Romeo and Juliet by Arthur Brooke, which furnished the main foundation for this drama. The legend has often been chosen for operatic purposes. The best opera based upon it is that by Gounod, which first appeared in 1867.
See the full text of Romeo and Juliet (Shakespeare).
# The New Student's Reference Work/Romola

See also Romola on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Rom′ola, one of the best of the novels of George Eliot, first published in serial form in the Cornhill Magazine, 1862–3, deals ​
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Individual articles:
* Romulus
* Rook
* Roosevelt, Theodore
with Italian life in the period of the famous Savonarola. It was a period of political as well as religious crisis, for the French were intriguing against the power of the Medici. Savonarola threw his whole weight on the side of Christian simplicity in the reaction against the artistic paganism which the Medici had encouraged. The most notable character in the book is Tito Melema, the handsome but false Greek. Tito wins the hand of Romola, who is the daughter of a blind scholar named Bardi. He plays her false and dies. Meantime Romola’s better self, that which is swayed by the spirit of Savonarola (q. v.) and not the Medici, comes to the front; and she devotes her life to love and charity.