OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kaufbeuren

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​KAUFBEUREN, a town in the kingdom of Bavaria, on the Wertach, 55 m. S.W. of Munich by rail. Pop. (1905), 8955. Kaufbeuren is still surrounded by its medieval walls and presents a picturesque appearance. It has a handsome town hall with fine paintings, an old tower (the Hexenturm, or witches’ tower), a museum and various educational institutions. The most interesting of the ecclesiastical buildings is the chapel of St Blasius, which was restored in 1896. The chief industries are cotton spinning, weaving, bleaching, dyeing, printing, machine building and lithography, and there is an active trade in wine, beer and cheese. Kaufbeuren is said to have been founded in 842, and is first mentioned in chronicles of the year 1126. It appears to have become a free imperial city about 1288, retaining the dignity until 1803, when it passed to Bavaria. It was formerly a resort of pilgrims, and Roman coins have been found in the vicinity.
See F. Stieve, Die Reichsstadt Kaufbeuren und die bayrische Restaurationspolitik (Munich, 1870); and Schröder, Geschichte der Stadt und Katholischen Pfarrei Kaufbeuren (Augsburg, 1903).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kaufmann, Constantine Petrovich

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​KAUFMANN, CONSTANTINE PETROVICH (1818–1882), Russian general, was born at Maidani on the 3rd of March 1818. He entered the engineer branch in 1838, served in the campaigns in the Caucasus, rose to be colonel, and commanded the sappers and miners at the siege of Kars in 1855. On the capitulation of Kars he was deputed to settle the terms with General Sir W. Fenwick Williams. In 1861 he became director-general of engineers at the War Office, assisting General Milutin in the reorganization of the army. Promoted lieut.-general in 1864, he was nominated aide-de-camp-general and governor of the military conscription of Vilna. In 1867 he became governor of Turkestan, and held the post until his death, making himself a name in the expansion of the empire in central Asia. He accomplished a successful campaign in 1868 against Bokhara, capturing Samarkand and gradually subjugating the whole country. In 1873 he attacked Khiva, took the capital, and forced the khan to become a vassal of Russia. Then followed in 1875 the campaign against Khokand, in which Kaufmann defeated the khan, Nasr-ed-din. Khokand north of the Syrdaria was annexed to Russia, and the independence of the rest of the country became merely nominal. This rapid absorption of the khanates brought Russia into close proximity to Afghanistan, and the reception of Kaufmann’s emissaries by the Amir was a main cause of the British war with Afghanistan in 1878. Although Kaufmann was unable to induce his government to support all his ambitious schemes of further conquest, he sent Skobeleff in 1880 and 1881 against the Akhal Tekkés, and was arranging to add Merv to his annexations when he died suddenly at Tashkend on the 15th of May 1882.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kaup, Johann Jakob

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​KAUP, JOHANN JAKOB (1803–1873), German naturalist, was born at Darmstadt on the 10th of April 1803. After studying at Göttingen and Heidelberg he spent two years at Leiden, where his attention was specially devoted to the amphibians and fishes. He then returned to Darmstadt as an assistant in the grand ducal museum, of which in 1840 he became inspector. In 1829 he published Skizze zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der europäischen Thierwelt, in which he regarded the animal world as developed from lower to higher forms, from the amphibians through the birds to the beasts of prey; but subsequently he repudiated this work as a youthful indiscretion, and on the publication of Darwin’s Origin of Species he declared himself against its doctrines. The extensive fossil deposits in the neighbourhood of Darmstadt gave him ample opportunities for palaeontological inquiries, and he gained considerable reputation by his Beiträge zur näheren Kenntniss der urweltlichen Säugethiere (1855–1862). He also wrote Classification der Säugethiere und Vögel (1844), and, with H. G. Brown (1800–1862) of Heidelberg, Die Gavial-artigen Reste aus dem Lias (1842–1844). He died at Darmstadt on the 4th of July 1873.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kauri pine

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​KAURI PINE, in botany, Agathis australis, a conifer native of New Zealand where it is abundant in forests in the North Island between the North Cape and 38° south latitude. The forests are rapidly disappearing owing to use as timber and to destruction by fires. It is a tall resiniferous tree, usually ranging from 80 to 100 ft. in height, with a trunk 4 to 10 ft. in diameter, but reaching 150 ft., with a diameter of 15 to 22 ft.; it has a straight columnar trunk and a rounded bushy head. The thick resiniferous bark falls off in large flat flakes. The leaves, which persist for several years, are very thick and leathery; on young trees they are lance-shaped 2 to 4 in. long and 1/4 to 1/2 in. broad, becoming on mature trees linear-oblong or obovate-oblong and 3/4 to 11/2 in. long. The ripe cones are almost spherical, erect, and 2 to 3 in. in diameter; the broad, flat, rather thin cone-scales fall from the axis when ripe. Each scale bears a single compressed seed with a membranous wing. The timber is remarkable for its strength, durability and the ease with which it is worked. The resin, kauri-gum, is an amber-like deposit dug in large quantities from the sites of previous forests, in lumps generally varying in size from that of a hen’s egg to that of a man’s head. The colour is of a rich brown or amber yellow, or it may be almost colourless and translucent. It is of value for varnish-making.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Formey, Johann Heinrich Samuel

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​FORMEY, JOHANN HEINRICH SAMUEL (1711–1797), Franco-German author, was born of French parentage at Berlin on the 31st of May 1711. He was educated for the ministry, and at the age of twenty became pastor of the French church at Brandenburg. Having in 1736 accepted the invitation of a congregation in Berlin, he was in the following year chosen professor of rhetoric in the French college of that city and in 1739 professor of philosophy. On the organization of the academy of Berlin in 1744 he was named a member, and in 1748 became its perpetual secretary. He died at Berlin on the 7th of March 1797. His principal works are La Belle Wolfienne (1741–1750, 6 vols.), a kind of novel written with the view of enforcing the precepts of the Wolfian philosophy; Bibliothèque critique, ou mémoires pour servir à l’histoire littéraire ancienne et moderne (1746); Le Philosophe chrétien (1750); L’Émile chrétien (1764), intended as an answer to the Émile of Rousseau; and Souvenirs d’un citoyen (Berlin, 1789). He also published an immense number of contemporary memoirs in the transactions of the Berlin Academy.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Formosa (Argentine)

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​FORMOSA, a northern territory of the Argentine republic, bounded N. by Bolivia, N.E. and E. by Paraguay, S. by the Chaco Territory, and W. by Salta, with the Pilcomayo and Bermejo forming its northern and southern boundaries. Estimated area, 41,402 sq. m. It is a vast plain, sloping gently to the S.E., covered with marshes and tropical forests. Very little is known of it except small areas along the Bermejo and Paraguay rivers, where attempts have been made to form settlements. The unexplored interior is still occupied by tribes of wild Indians. The climate is hot, the summer temperature rising to a maximum of 104° F. Timber-cutting is the principal occupation of the settlers, though stock-raising and agriculture engage some attention in the settlements on the Paraguay. The capital, Formosa (founded 1879), is a small settlement on the Paraguay with a population of about 1000 in 1900. The settled population of the territory was 4829 in 1895, which it was estimated had increased to 13,431 in 1905. The nomadic Indians are estimated at 8000.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Forner, Juan Bautista Pablo

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​FORNER, JUAN BAUTISTA PABLO (1756–1799), Spanish satirist and scholar, was born at Mérida (Badajoz) on the 23rd of February 1756, studied at the university of Salamanca, and was called to the bar at Madrid in 1783. During the next few years—under the pseudonyms of “Tomé Cecial,” “Pablo Segarra,” “Don Antonio Varas,” “Bartolo,” “Pablo Ignocausto,” “El Bachiller Regañadientes,” and “Silvio Liberio”—Forner was engaged in a series of polemics with García de la Huerta, Iriarte and other writers; the violence of his attacks was so extreme that he was finally forbidden to publish any controversial pamphlets, and was transferred to a legal post at Seville. In 1796 he became crown prosecutor at Madrid, where he died on the 17th of March 1799. Forner’s brutality is almost unexampled, and his satirical writings give a false impression of his powers. His Oración apologética por la España y su mérito literario (1787) is an excellent example of learned advocacy, far superior to similar efforts made by Denina and Antonio Cavanilles; and his posthumous Exequias de la lengua castellana (printed in the Biblioteca de autores españoles, vol. lxiii.) testifies to his scholarship and taste.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Formia

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​FORMIA (anc. Formiae, called Mola di Gaeta until recent times), a town of Campania, Italy, in the province of Caserta, from which it is 48 m. W.N.W. by rail. Pop. (1901) 5514 (town); 8452 (commune). It is situated at the N.W. extremity of the Bay of Gaeta, and commands beautiful views. It lay on the ancient Via Appia, and was much frequented as a resort by wealthy Romans. There was considerable imperial property here and along the coast as far as Sperlonga, and there are numerous remains of ancient villas along the coast and on the slopes above it. The so-called villa of Cicero contains two well-preserved nymphaea with Doric architecture. Its site is now occupied by the villa Caposele, once a summer residence of the kings of Naples. There are many other modern villas, and the sheltered hillsides (for the mountains rise abruptly behind the town) are covered with lemon, orange and pomegranate gardens. The now deserted promontory of the Monte Scauri to the E. is also covered with remains of ancient villas; the hill is crowned by a large tomb, known as Torre Giano. To the E. at Scauri is a large villa with substructions in “Cyclopean” work. The ancient Formiae was, according to the legend, the home of the Laestrygones, and later a Spartan colony (Ὁρμίαιδιὰ τὸ εὔορμον, Strabo v. 3. 6, p. 233). It was a Volscian town, and, like Fundi, received the civitas sine suffragio from Rome in 338 (or 332 B.C.) because the passage through its territory had always been secure. This was strategically important for the Romans, as the military road definitely constructed by Appius Claudius in 312 B.C., still easily traceable by its remains, and in part followed by the high-road, traversed a narrow pass, which could easily be blocked, between Fundi and Formiae. In 188 B.C., with Fundi, it received the full citizenship, and, like it, was to a certain extent under the control of a praefectus sent from Rome, though it retained its three aediles. Mamurra was a native of Formia. Cicero possessed a favourite villa here, and was murdered in its vicinity in 43 B.C., but neither the villa nor the tomb can be identified with any certainty. It was devastated by Sextus Pompeius, and became a colony, with duoviri as chief magistrates, under Hadrian. Portus Caietae (the modern Gaeta) was dependent upon it.
See T. Ashby, “Dessins inédits de Carlo Labruzzi,” in Mélanges de l’école française de Rome (1903), 410 seq. (T. As.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Formula

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​FORMULA (Lat. diminutive of forma, shape, pattern, &c., especially used of rules of judicial procedure), in general, a stereotyped form of words to be used on stated occasions, for specific purposes, ceremonies, &c. In the sciences, the word usually denotes a symbolical statement of certain facts; for example, a chemical formula exhibits the composition of a substance (see Chemistry); a botanical formula gives the differentia of a plant; a dentition formula indicates the arrangement and number of the teeth of an animal.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Formeret

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​FORMERET, a French architectural term for the wall-rib carrying the web or filling-in of a vault (q.v.).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Formosus

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​FORMOSUS, pope from 891 to 896, the successor of Stephen V. (or VI.). He first appears in history when, as bishop of Porto, he was sent on an embassy to the Bulgarians. Having afterwards sided with a faction against John VIII., he was excommunicated, and compelled to take an oath never to return to Rome or again to assume his priestly functions. From this oath he was, however, absolved by Marinus, the successor of John VIII., and restored to his dignities; and on the death of Stephen V. in 891 he was chosen pope. At that time the Holy See was engaged in a struggle against the oppression of the princes of Spoleto, and a powerful party in Rome was eager to obtain the intervention of Arnulf, king of Germany, against these dangerous neighbours. Formosus himself shared this view; but he was forced to yield to circumstances and to consecrate as emperor Lambert, the young son of Guy of Spoleto. Guy had already been consecrated by Stephen V., and died in 894. In the following year Arnulf succeeded in seizing Rome, and Formosus crowned him emperor. But, as he was advancing on Spoleto against Lambert, Arnulf was seized with paralysis, and was forced to return to Germany. Overwhelmed with chagrin, Formosus died on the 4th of April 896. The discords in which he had been involved continued after his death. The validity of his acts was contested on the pretext that, having been originally bishop of Porto, he could not be a legitimate pope. The fundamental factor in these dissensions was the rivalry between the princes of Spoleto and the Carolingian house, represented by the king of Germany. The body of Formosus was disinterred in 897 by Stephen VI., and treated with contumely as that of a usurper of the papal throne; but Theodore II. restored it to Christian burial, and at a council presided over by John IX. the pontificate of Formosus was declared valid and all his acts confirmed. (L. D.*)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Fosbroke, Thomas Dudley

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​FOSBROKE, THOMAS DUDLEY (1770–1842), English antiquary, was born in London on the 27th of May 1770. He was educated at St Paul’s school and Pembroke College, Oxford, ​graduating M.A. in 1792. In that year he was ordained and became curate of Horsley, Gloucestershire, where he remained till 1810. He then removed to Walford in Herefordshire, and remained there the rest of his life, as curate till 1830, and afterwards as vicar. His first important work, British Monachism (2 vols., 1802), was a compilation, from manuscripts in the British Museum and Bodleian libraries, of facts relating to English monastic life. In 1799 Fosbroke had been elected fellow of the Society of Antiquaries. The work for which he is best remembered, the Encyclopaedia of Antiquities, appeared in 1824. A sequel to this, Foreign Topography, was published in 1828. Fosbroke published many other volumes. He died at Walford on the 1st of January 1842.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Fosse Way

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​FOSSE (or Foss) WAY, the Early English name of a Roman road or series of roads in Britain, used later by the English, running from Lincoln by Leicester and Bath to Exeter. Almost all the Roman line is still in use as modern road or lane. It passes from Lincoln through Newark and Leicester (the Roman Ratae) to High Cross (Venonae), where it intersects Watling Street at a point often called “the centre of England.” Hence it runs to Moreton-in-the-Marsh, Cirencester, Bath and Ilchester, crosses the hills near Chard, Axminster and Honiton, and enters Exeter. Antiquaries have taken it farther, usually to Totnes, but without warrant. (See further under Ermine Street.) (F. J. H.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Forum Clodii

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​FORUM CLODII, a post station on the Via Clodia, about 23 m. N.W. of Rome (not 32 m. as in the Antonine Itinerary), situated above the western bank of the Lacus Sabatinus (mod. Lake of Bracciano), and connected with the Via Cassia at Vacanae by a branch road which ran round the N. side of the lake (Ann. Inst., 1859, 43). The site is marked by the church of SS. Marcus, Marcianus and Liberatus, which was founded in the 8th or 9th century A.D. Inscriptions mentioning the Foro-Clodienses have come to light on the spot; and an inscription of the Augustan period, which probably stood over the door of a villa, calls the place Pausilypon—a name justified by the beauty of the site.
See Notizie degli scavi (1889), 5; D. Vaglieri, ibid. (1895), 342.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Foss, Edward

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​FOSS, EDWARD (1787–1870), English lawyer and biographer, was born in London on the 16th of October 1787. He was a solicitor by profession, and on his retirement from practice in 1840, he devoted himself to the study of legal antiquities. His Judges of England (9 vols., 1848–1864) is a standard work, characterized by accuracy and extensive research. Biographia Juridica, a Biographical Dictionary of English Judges, appeared shortly after his death. He assisted in founding the Incorporated Law Society, of which he was president in 1842 and 1843. He died of apoplexy on the 27th of July 1870.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Fossanuova

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​FOSSANUOVA, an abbey of Italy, in the province of Rome, near the railway station of Sonnino, 64 m. S.E. of Rome. It is the finest example of a Cistercian abbey, and of the Burgundian Early Gothic style, in Italy, and dates from the end of the 12th to the end of the 13th century. The church (1187–1208) is closely similar to that of Casamari. The other conventual buildings also are noteworthy. Thomas Aquinas died here in 1274.
See C. Enlart, Origines françaises de l’architecture gothique en Italie (Paris, 1894) (Bibliothèque des écoles françaises d’Athènes et de Rome, fasc. 66).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Forum Appii

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​FORUM APPII, an ancient post station on the Via Appia, 43 m. S.E. of Rome, founded, no doubt, by the original constructor of the road. Horace mentions it as the usual halt at the end of the first day’s journey from Rome, and describes it as full of boatmen and cheating innkeepers. The presence of the former was due to the fact that it was the starting-point of a canal which ran parallel to the road through the Pomptine Marshes, and was used instead of it at the time of Strabo and Horace (see Appia, Via). It is mentioned also as a halting place in the account of Paul’s journey to Rome (Acts xxviii. 15). Under Nerva and Trajan the road was repaired; one inscription records expressly the paving with silex (replacing the former gravelling) of the section from Tripontium, 4 m. N.W., to Forum Appii; the bridge near Tripontium was similarly repaired, and that at Forum Appii, though it bears no inscription, is of the same style. Only scanty relics of antiquity have been found here; a post station was placed here by Pius VI. when the Via Appia was reconstructed.  (T. As.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Fossano

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​FOSSANO, a town and episcopal see of Piedmont, Italy, in the province of Cuneo, 15 m. N.E. of it by rail, 1180 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 7696 (town), 18,175 (commune). It has an imposing castle with four towers, begun by Filippo d’Acaia in 1314. The cathedral was reconstructed at the end of the 18th century. The place began to acquire some importance in the 13th century. It appears as a commune in 1237, but in 1251 had to yield to Asti. It finally surrendered in 1314 to Filippo d’Acaia, whose successor handed it over to the house of Savoy. It lies on the main line from Turin to Cuneo, and has a branch line to Mondovì.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Forum Traiani

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​FORUM TRAIANI (mod. Fordongianus), an ancient town of Sardinia, on the river Thyrsus (Tirso), and a station on the Roman road through the centre of the island from Carales to Olbia and Turris Libisonis. Many of its ruins have been destroyed since 1860. The best preserved are the baths, erected over hot mineral springs. The tanks for collecting the water and the large central piscina are noteworthy. The bridge over the Tirso has been to some extent modernized. On the opposite bank are the scanty remains of an amphitheatre. Not far off is a group of nuraghi, of which that of St Barbara in the commune of Villanova Truschedda is one of the finest.
See Taramelli in Notizie degli scavi (1903), 469.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Leda

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​LEDA, in Greek mythology, daughter of Thestius, king of Aetolia, and Eurythemis (her parentage is variously given). She was the wife of Tyndareus and mother of Castor and Pollux, Clytaemnestra and Helen (see Castor and Pollux). In another account Nemesis was the mother of Helen (q.v.) whom Leda adopted as her daughter. This led to the identification of Leda and Nemesis. In the usual later form of the story, Leda herself, having been visited by Zeus in the form of a swan, produced two eggs, from one of which came Helen, from the other Castor and Pollux.
See Apollodorus iii. 10; Hyginus, Fab. 77; Homer, Iliad, iii. 426, Od. xi. 298; Euripides, Helena, 17; Isocrates, Helena, 59; Ovid, Heroides, xvii. 55; Horace, Ars poetica, 147; Stasinus in Athenaeus viii. 334 c.; for the representations of Leda and the swan in art, J. A. Overbeck, Kunstmythologie, i., and Atlas to the same; also article in Roscher’s Lexikon der Mythologie.