OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# The New Student's Reference Work/Alliteration

See also Alliteration on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Al'litera'tion is the frequent recurrence, met with often in English poetry and occasionally in prose composition, of the same letter or sound at the beginning of recurring words. "Alliteration's artful aid" is a familiar example. Instances of it are often met with in the Elizabethan writers and in those of early Anglo-Saxon times, chiefly in the poets. Examples are occasionally found in prose, where, when skilfully used and combined with assonance, alliteration heightens the effect of what is written or said; but its use, in both prose and verse, is often more of a trick in a writer, and should therefore be sparingly indulged in. In Shakespeare it is often met with, as in the phrase occurring in the song in The Tempest, "full fathom five thy father lies"; it is also frequently found in Spenser, and in Langland's Piers Plowman, as well as in the modern German writers, such as Goethe and Heine, where it is occasionally used with pleasing effect. Fine examples are also to be found in Tennyson and Swinburne. Among other modern English authors Coleridge, moreover, uses it as an embellishment of his verse, thus:
"The fair breeze blew, the white foam flew,  The furrow followed free."
How much the use of alliteration is the mere trick of a writer may be seen in the couplet:
"Cossack commanders cannonading come,  Dealing destruction's devastating doom."
Much of alliteration's use will moreover be familiar to many in the proverbs and phrases in current speech, as in "life and limb," "out of house and home," "the bonnie bairn," "with peril and pain," "warring words," "the scum of the streets," "a vile varlet," "a dainty dame," "zeal, zest," "a rascally rogue," "the merry month of May," etc. See Guest's English Rhythms.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Allotropy

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Allotropy (ăl-lŏt-rō' pŷ) or Allotropism, a chemical term to explain a conversion or change in physical property, but not in substance, in certain bodies. More explicitly, it is the property or capability which certain bodies show of assuming different forms and qualities under a presumed diversity of molecular arrangement. Examples of allotropic conditions are seen in carbon, sulphur, phosphorus and oxygen; practical instances are carbon (1) in its soft state, as in plumbago, black lead and charcoal and (2) (hard and crystallized) as in the diamond. Phosphorus is another instance of this dual property: (1) as a colorless wax-like solid, poisonous and dangerously inflammable and (2) as a red powder with neither of these destructive qualities. Similar contrasts are seen in oxygen and ozone.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Alluvium

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Allu'vium', the name given to the masses of sand, earth and gravel brought down by currents of water and spread over plains, forming what is called alluvial land. Thus the Ganges, the Nile, the Amazon and the Mississippi have formed their deltas. It is estimated that the Mississippi every year carries down enough sediment to cover 268 square miles of land with a layer of earth one foot deep. The so-called bottom lands are those formed by alluvial deposits. Along rivers it is sometimes formed into terraces by the rising of floods to different heights.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Allison, William B.

See also William B. Allison on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Allison, William B., an American statesman, was born in Ohio in 1829. He went to Iowa and was on the governor's staff, helping to enlist volunteers at the outbreak of the war. He was elected to Congress in 1862 and served four terms in the house. In 1873 he was made United States senator, and was re-elected in 1878, 1884, 1890, 1896, 1902 and 1908. He died Aug. 4, 1908.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Alloy

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Alloy', a mixture of two or more metals melted together. Some of the metals, when combined with other metals, are rendered more serviceable for certain uses. Thus copper alone is not fit for castings, and is too tough to be easily worked by tools, but when alloyed with zinc, forming brass, it can be cast, rolled or turned. Gold and silver, also, when pure are very soft and easily worn out. They are hardened by alloying them with other metals in different proportions. The silver coins of the United States are made up of nine parts of silver and one of copper, while the gold coins consist of nine parts gold and the other part is divided into one-quarter silver and three-quarters copper. Alloys are generally harder and much more fusible than would be indicated by the hardness and fusibility of the component metals. Besides the alloys that have been mentioned, some important ones are bell-metal and bronze consisting of copper and tin; type-metal, containing lead and antimony and sometimes tin also; German-silver, composed of copper, nickel and zinc; and solder, which is ordinarily made of lead and tin. Alloys of which one metal is mercury are called amalgams.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Allston, Washington

See also Washington Allston on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Allston (awl' ston), Washington, (born 1779, died 1843), an American historical painter and poet. A native of South Carolina, he was graduated at Harvard in 1800. He pursued the study of his art in Charleston, London, Paris and Rome. During his studies he formed a close friendship with the great painter, Benjamin West, and also with Coleridge and Thorwaldsen. He practised his profession mainly at Boston and Cambridge. Allston was of a deeply religious nature, and many of his pictures are scenes from the Bible. As a writer, he was also eminent. His friend Coleridge says of him that he was surpassed by no man of his age in artistic and poetic genius.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Almagro, Diego D'

See also Diego de Almagro on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Almagro, Diego D' (äl-mä' grō, dē-ā' gō) (born 1464, died 1538), one of Pizarro's officers during the conquest of Peru. He was named from the Spanish town where he was picked up as a foundling. In Peru he became famous and wealthy, though he could neither read nor write. After Peru had been conquered, he began the conquest of Chile, but, recalled by a Peruvian rebellion, subdued it and captured Cuzco. He quarreled with Pizarro, was attacked, defeated and imprisoned by him, and put to death by his order.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Alligator

See also Alligator on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Al'ligator, a large reptile found in the rivers and swamps of the southern United States, and also in South America. It is closely related to the crocodile of the Eastern Hemisphere, and is commonly confused with it, but differs in having a broader head, a blunter snout, more teeth and other small peculiarities. The adults rarely attain 12 feet in length. Its back and sides are covered with very hard plates, but it is easily wounded in the belly. Its natural food is fish, muskrats, etc., and it is extremely fond of dog-meat. The female alligator lays from 50 to 60 eggs and buries them in sand, where the heat of the sun hatches them. As soon as hatched the young seek the water. Many doubtful stories are in circulation regarding the habits of both adults and the young.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Alma-Tadema, Sir Lawrence

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Alma-Tadema (äl' mä-täd' ā́-mä), Sir Lawrence, a distinguished British artist, was born at Dronryp, in the Netherlands, January 8, 1836. He settled in England in 1873 where he was given knighthood and made a Royal Academician. His paintings chiefly deal with classical subjects, and are distinguished for their careful composition and accuracy and for the beauty and finish of their coloring. In 1905 he received the Order of Merit. Entrance to a Roman Theater and The Vintage, are two of his works. His later paintings include The Way to the Temple, A Reading from Homer, Sappho, A Roman Emperor and The Triumph of Titus. He died June 24, 1912.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Hading, Jane

Edition of 1905. See also Jane Hading on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
HADING, ȧ'dāN', Jane (1859—). The stage-name of Jeanne-Alfrédine Tréfouret, a French actress, born at Marseilles. Her first appearance on the stage, she has recorded, was when she was three years old. At the age of fourteen, after dramatic studies at the Conservatoire of her native city, she began her career in Algiers and Cairo. She first appeared in Paris in 1879, when she sang in La petite mariée and La belle Lurette. She was engaged in 1885 at the Gymnase, under the direction of M. Victor Koning, who afterwards was her husband, and she established her popularity by her enormous success in Ohnet's Le maître de forges; in Frou Frou (1886) she added still further to her reputation. She contributed to the success of M. Lavedan's Prince d'Aurec in June, 1892, and afterwards joined the Comédie Française. Sardou chose her for the title rôle of his Marcelle in 1896. She appeared in many parts of Europe and in South
America, as well as in the United States, where she became best known by her tours with Coquelin in 1888 and 1894.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Hagenbach, Peter von

Edition of 1905. See also Peter von Hagenbach on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
HAGENBACH, Peter von (?-1474). Grand Bailly of Alsace. He was a soldier under Charles the Bold of Burgundy, who appointed him Grand Bailly of Alsace, where his cruelties caused general protest from the neighboring Swabian and Swiss communities, and may be said to have led to the war between Switzerland and Burgundy, which resulted in the complete ruin of Charles. Consult: Kirk, History of Charles the Bold (London, 1863-68), and Barante, Histoire des ducs de Bourgogne (Paris, 1824-26).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Hadik von Futak, Andreas, Count

Edition of 1905. See also András Hadik on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
HADIK VON FUTAK, hä'dĭk fṓn fōō'tȧk, Andreas, Count (1710-90). An Austrian general, born on the island of Schütt (formed by the Danube, between Pressburg and Komorn), of an ancient noble family of Hungary. He distinguished himself in the wars against France and Prussia by his bravery and strategical skill. He was advanced to the rank of general in 1747. In the second year of the Seven Years' War (1757) he suddenly made a descent on Berlin and levied upon the city a tribute of 300,000 thalers, which he distributed among his soldiers. After the treaty of peace (1763) he became Governor of Transylvania. He was commander-in-chief of the Austrian Army during the Turkish campaign of 1789, but was compelled by illness to resign his command to Laudon. His diary contains much interesting information on the military history of the eighteenth century.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Hadith

Edition of 1905. See also Hadith on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
HAD'ITH (Ar. hadith, tradition, from hadatha, to occur). The general designation in Arabic for a story or tradition, but more specifically applied to the traditions about Mohammed, the prophet's sayings and doings, which, as a complement to the Koran, form, together with it, the supreme authority for all religious and legal questions of the Mohammedans. Originally the traditions were transmitted orally; but the danger of their being entirely forgotten gradually led to their being written down in the first centuries after Mohammed. The earlier collections, however, possess only individual authority, and make no claim to systematic arrangement or comprehensiveness. Such collections are known as musnads, ‘genealogical chains,’ from the fact that each tradition is traced back to its ultimate authoritative source. Eight of such musnad collections are known to us, though many more were produced. The higher class of Hadith literature, however, is represented by collections termed musannat, ‘systematized,’ in which the traditions are divided according to subjects and treated with reference to their ritualistic, historical, and ethical import. The attempt is made to carry each utterance of the prophet back from one source to the other, until a contemporary of Mohammed is reached, and if the chain is complete the tradition is considered to be of the first class; the value of the defective traditions varies again according to the number of links missing, and the names of those who have transmitted the traditions. It will be seen that in this way the door is opened for almost endless variety of opinions as to the exact value of this or that tradition. The principal and most authoritative collections of traditions are those of Bokhari, Moslim, Abu Daud, Tirmidi, Nasa'i, and Maja. Of these again, which were all produced in the ninth century, the most important code is the Sahih of Bokhari (810-870), who, it is said, spent sixteen years of his life in traveling through the length and breadth of the land for the purpose of collecting such traditions, and who singled out, from a number of 60,000, about 7270, as alone genuine. Besides numerous editions published within the last fifty years in the Orient, a standard European edition of the Sahih was published by the later Professor Krehl, Le recueil des traditions musulmanes, par . . . al-Bokhari (Leyden, 1862-68). The six authoritative Hadith collections are far from exhausting the Hadith literature. Every generation, almost, produced collections of traditions aiming to fill out gaps or to determine the value of traditions. In this way an enormous Hadith literature grew up which is fully discussed by Goldziher, in his Mohammedanische Studien, vol. ii. (Halle, 1890). See Sunna; Mohammedanism; Koran.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Hadjemis

Edition of 1905. See also Hadjemi people on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
HADJEMIS, hăj'ḗ-mĭz. A name applied to the Iranian population of that part of Persia between Ispahan and Teheran, including also the Talych and Mazandarani of the shores of the Caspian. In stature they are generally above the average; their head form is dolichocephalic, or tends to be such. See Persia, section Ethnology.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Hadley, Arthur Twining

Edition of 1905. See also Arthur Twining Hadley on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
HADLEY, Arthur Twining (1850—). An American educator, who became president of Yale University in 1899. He was born at New Haven, Conn., the son of Prof. James Hadley. He graduated at Yale in 1876, and pursued advanced studies at Yale and Berlin. In 1879-83 he was tutor in Yale College. He was university lecturer on railroad transportation from 1883 to 1886; commissioner of labor statistics for Connecticut from 1885 to 1887; professor of political science at Yale University, 1886-98; and in 1899 was made president. He was president of the American Economic Association, 1897-99. In 1885 he published Railroad Transportation: Its History and Its Laws, which at once gained him the position of an authority on the subject; it was translated into Russian in 1886, and into French in 1887. In the same year he was summoned as expert witness before the Cullom State Committee, which drafted the Interstate Commerce Law. He also published: Report on the Labor Question (1885); Report on the System of Weekly Payments (1886); Economics (1896); Education of the American Citizen (1901). He contributed numerous essays on political and economic subjects to scientific and popular periodicals, and is the author of the articles on transportation in Lalor's Cyclopædia of Political Science. President Hadley's writings place him in the first rank among American economists.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Hagenbach, Karl Rudolf

Edition of 1905. See also Karl Rudolf Hagenbach on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
HAGENBACH, hä'gen-bäG, Karl Rudolf (1801-74). A German theologian. He was born March 4, 1801, at Basel, where his father was professor of anatomy and botany. After being professor extraordinary at Basel (1824), he became full professor in 1828. He lectured to public audiences, and afterwards published several courses of lectures on the nature and history of the Reformation, on the early history of the Church, and on the Church history of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, which were gathered into a collected edition (1869-72), and after his death edited by F. Nippold (Leipzig, 1885-87). The portion relating to the history of the Reformation in Germany and Switzerland was translated by E. Moore (Edinburgh, 1878-79), and that on the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries by J. F. Hurst (New York, 1869). Two other of his popular yet scholarly works have been translated — A Text-Book of the History of Doctrine (orig. Leipzig, 1840; 6th ed. by Benrath, 1888; trans. from the 5th ed., Edinburgh, 1880); and his Theological Encyclopædia and Methodology (orig. Leipzig, 1833; 12th ed. by Reischle, 1889; worked over by Crooks and Hurst, New York, 1884; new ed. 1891). He was an admired preacher (Predigten, Basel, 1858-75), and a poet (Gedichte, Basel, 1846). He edited the Kirchenblatt für die reformierte Schweiz (from 1845 to 1868); also the valuable series of biographies of the reformers of the Reformed Church, with selections from their writings (Leben und Schriften der Väter und Begründer der reformierten Kirche, Elberfeld, 1857-62, 10 vols.), to which he contributed the lives of Œcolampadius and Myconius (1859). He died in Basel, June 7, 1874. Consult his brief autobiography in Erinnerungen an K. R.
Hagenbach (Basel, 1874); and the fuller sketch by Eppler (Gütersloh, 1875).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Hagenbeck, Karl

Edition of 1905. See also Carl Hagenbeck on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
HAGENBECK, hä'gen-bĕk, Karl (1844—). A German trainer of animals and circus manager. He was born at Hamburg, where his father in 1852 established a considerable trade in animals. The business, which subsequently passed into the hands of the son, was greatly enlarged by him. In order to obtain animals from Africa and other countries, several transports were annually sent out from Hamburg. He later traveled through Europe, giving ethnological exhibitions representing the life of the various races of Africa, Oceaniea, and of the far North. In 1886 he visited the United States, where he conceived the idea of organizing a circus. During the Chicago Exposition (1893) he revisited America, bringing with him about 1000 animals, including lions, tigers, bears, leopards, and wild boars. Hagenbeck has been styled ‘the Moltke of menagerie-owners.’
# The New International Encyclopædia/Hager, Albert David

Edition of 1905. See also Albert David Hager on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
HA'GER, Albert David (1817-88). An American geologist, born in Chester, Vt. Having obtained a common-school education, he was appointed assistant naturalist of Vermont in 1856, assistant State geologist under Edward Hitchcock from 1857 to 1861, State geologist from 1861 to 1870, and Vermont Commissioner to the Paris Exposition of 1867. From 1870 to 1877 he was State geologist of Missouri, and in the latter year was appointed librarian of the Chicago Historical Society. He published Geology of Vermont (2 vols., 1861, with Prof. Edward Hitchcock) and other reports of surveys in his native State and in Missouri.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Abbot of Joy

Edition of 1905. See also the disclaimer.
​ABBOT OF JOY (Abbé de Liesse). The title bestowed upon the chief of a brotherhood founded at Lille. Accompanied by a suite of officers and servants who bore before him a standard of red silk, he presided over the games which were held at Arras and the neighboring towns during the period of the carnival, coming under the general title of “Feast of the Ass” (q.v.). See also Misrule, Lord of.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Abbott, Austin

Edition of 1905. See also Austin Abbott on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​AB′BOTT, Austin, LL.D. (1831-96). An American lawyer, born in Boston, Mass., the son of Jacob Abbott. He graduated at the University of the City of New York in 1851 and was admitted to the bar in the following year. He was in partnership with his brothers, Benjamin Vaughan and Lyman (afterward editor of the Outlook). He gained a national reputation as counsel for Theodore Tilton in his suit against Henry Ward Beecher. He aided his brother Benjamin in the preparation of his well-known digests of laws, and published many legal text books. He also wrote, in collaboration with his two brothers, two novels, Matthew Caraby and Conecut Corners. He was an able lecturer on law and was Dean of the Law School of the University of the City of New York from 1891 until his death.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Abbott, Edward

Edition of 1905. See also Edward Abbott (priest) on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ABBOTT, Edward, D.D. (1841—). An American clergyman, journalist, and author, born at Farmington, Me. He graduated in 1860 at the University of New York, studied from 1860 to 1862 at the Andover Theological Seminary, and in 1863 served in the United States Sanitary Commission at Washington and with the Army of the Potomac. He was ordained in 1863 to ​the Congregational ministry, :iiul was pastor of Pilgrim Church, Cambridge, Alass., from 1805 to liHi'J. From 18(i!l to 1878 he was associate editor of the Coiigrri/atwiirilist, and from 1878 to 1888 editor of the Literary World, whose direction he again assumed in 1895. In 1879 he was ordained a priest of the Protestiint Episcopal Church anil appointed rector of St. James's parish, Cambridge. His pulilications include The Conrcrsdiioiis of Jesus (1875), and Phillips Brooks (1900).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Abbot of Misrule

Edition of 1905. See also Lord of Misrule on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​AB′BOT OF MISRULE′. See Misrule, Lord of.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Abbott, Charles Conrad

Edition of 1905. See also Charles Conrad Abbott on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ABBOTT, Charles Conrad (1843—). An American archæologist and naturalist, born at Trenton, N. J. He studied medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, and served as a surgeon in the Federal Army during the Civil War. From 1876 to 1889 he was assistant curator of the Peabody Museum in Cambridge, Mass., to which he presented a collection of 20,000 archæological specimens, and he has given freely to other archæological collections. His book Primitive Industry (1881) detailed the evidences of the presence of pre-glacial man in the Delaware Valley, and is a valuable contribution to archæology. He has also published many books on out-door observation, such as A Naturalist’s Rambles About Home (1884). His other works, besides some fiction, include: Upland and Meadow (1886); Wasteland Wanderings (1887); Outings at Odd Times (1890); Clear Skies and Cloudy (1899); and In Nature’s Realm (1900).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Abbotsford

Edition of 1905. See also Abbotsford, Scottish Borders on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​AB′BOTSFORD. The estate of Sir Walter Scott, situated on the south bank of the Tweed, about three miles from Melrose Abbey. Before it became, in 1811, the property of Scott, the site of the house and grounds of Abbotsford formed a small farm known as Clarty Hole. The new name was given it by the poet, who loved thus to connect himself with the days when Melrose abbots passed over the fords of the Tweed. On this spot, a sloping bank overhanging the river, with the Selkirk Hills behind, he built at first a small villa, now the western wing of the mansion. He afterward added the remaining parts of the building, on no uniform plan, but with the desire of combining some of the features (and even actual remains) of those ancient works of Scottish architecture which he most loved. The result was a picturesque and irregular pile, which has been aptly called “a romance in stone and lime.” The property has remained in Scott’s family now to the fourth generation. Consult: Irving’s Abbotsford (London, 1850); Lockhart’s Life of Scott (Edinburgh, 1838), and Mary Scott’s Abbotsford (New York, 1893).