OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ontology

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​ONTOLOGY (adapted from a modern Latin form ontologia used by Jean le Clerc 1692; Gr. ὤν, ὄντος, pres. part, of εἶναι to be, and λόγος, science), the name given to that branch of philosophy which deals specially with the nature of being (οὐσία) i.e. reality in the abstract. The idea, denoted in modern philosophy by the term “ontology” in contrast to the broader “metaphysics” and the correlative “epistemology,” goes back to such phrases as ὄντως ὄντα, which Plato uses to describe the absolute reality of ideas; Plato, however, uses the term “dialectic” for this particular branch of metaphysics. Aristotle, likewise, holding that the separate sciences have each their own subject matter, postulates a prior science of existence in general which he describes as “first philosophy.” So far, therefore, the science of being is distinguished not from that of knowing but from that of the special forms of being: as to the possibility of objective reality there is no question. A new distinction arises in the philosophy of Wolff who first made “ontology” a technical term. Theoretical philosophy (metaphysics) is by him divided into that which deals with being in general whether objective or subjective, as contrasted with the particular entities, the soul, the world and God. The former is ontology. This intermediate stage in the evolution of the science of being gave place to the modern view that the first duty of the philosopher is to consider knowledge itself (see Epistemology), and that only in the light of conclusion as to this primary problem is it possible to consider the nature of being. The evolution of metaphysics has thus relegated ontology to a secondary place. On the other hand it remains true that the science of knowing is inseparable from, and in a sense identical with that of being. Epistemological conclusions cannot be expressed ultimately without the aid of ontological terms.
For the wider relations of ontology, see further Philosophy.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Onomatopoeia

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​ONOMATOPOEIA, literally the making or formation of words (Gr. ὀνοματοποιία, from ὄνομα, name, ποιεῖν, to make), hence a term used in philology for the formation of words by imitation of natural sounds, e.g. “hiss,” “hush,” “click.” Modern philologists prefer the term “echoism,” “echoic” for this process, as suggesting the imitative repetition of the sounds heard. At one time there was an exaggerated tendency to find in echoism a principal source in the origin and growth of language, ridiculed as the “bow-wow” theory of language; it is now recognized that it has played only a limited part.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Onslow, Earl of

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​ONSLOW, EARL OF, a title borne by an English family claiming descent from Roger, lord of Ondeslowe in the liberty of Shrewsbury in the 13th century. Richard Onslow (1528–1571), solicitor-general and then Speaker of the House of Commons in the reign of Elizabeth, was grandfather of Sir Richard Onslow (1601–1664), who inherited the family estate on the death of his brother. Sir Thomas Onslow, in 1616. Sir Richard was a member of the Long Parliament, and during the great Rebellion was a colonel in the parliamentary army. He was a member of Cromwell’s parliament in 1654 and again in 1656, and was also a member of his House of Lords. His son. Sir Arthur Onslow (1621–1688), succeeded in 1687 by special remainder to the baronetcy of his father-in-law. Sir Thomas Foot, lord mayor of London. Sir Arthur’s son. Sir Richard (1654–1717), was Speaker of the House of Commons from 1708 to 1710, and chancellor of the exchequer in 1715. In 1716 he was created Baron Onslow of Onslow and of Clandon. He was uncle of Arthur Onslow, the famous Speaker (see below), whose only son George became 4th Baron Onslow on the death of his kinsman Richard in October 1776. The 4th baron (1731–1814) had entered parliament in 1754, and was very active in the House of Commons; and in May 1776, just before he succeeded to the family barony, he was created Baron Cranley of Imbercourt. He was comptroller and then treasurer of the royal household, and was present at the marriage of the prince of Wales, afterwards George IV., with Mrs Fitzherbert in 1785. In 1801 he was created Viscount Cranley and earl of Onslow, and he died at his Surrey residence, Clandon Park, on the 17th of May 1814. The second earl was his eldest son Thomas (1754–1827), whose son Arthur George (1777–1870), the 3rd earl, died without surviving male issue in October 1870. He was succeeded by his grand-nephew, William Hillier, 4th earl of Onslow (b. 1853), who was governor of New Zealand from 1888 to 1892; under-secretary for India from 1895 to 1900; and under-secretary for the Colonies from 1900 to 1903. From 1903 to 1905 he was a member of the Conservative cabinet as president of the board of agriculture.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Onslow, Arthur

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​ONSLOW, ARTHUR (1691–1768), English politician, elder son of Foot Onslow (d. 1710), was born at Chelsea on the 1st of October 1691. Educated at Winchester and at Wadham College, Oxford, he became a barrister and in 1720 entered parliament as a member for the borough of Guildford. Seven years later he became one of the members for Surrey, and he retained this seat until 1761. In 1728 he was elected Speaker of the House of Commons, being the third member of his family to hold this office; he was also chancellor to George II.’s queen, Caroline, and from 1734 to 1742 he was treasurer of the navy. He retired from the position of Speaker and from parliament in 1761, and enjoyed an annuity of £3000 until his death on the 17th of February 1768. As Speaker, Onslow was a conspicuous success, displaying knowledge, tact and firmness in his office; in his leisure hours he was a collector of books.
Speaker Onslow’s nephew, George Onslow (1731–1792), a son of his brother Richard, was a lieutenant-colonel and member of parliament for Guildford from 1760 to 1784. He had a younger brother Richard (1741–1817), who entered the navy and was made an admiral in 1799.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Knolles, Sir Robert

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​KNOLLES (or Knollys), SIR ROBERT (c. 1325–1407), English soldier, belonged to a Cheshire family. In early life he served in Brittany, and he was one of the English survivors who were taken prisoners by the French after the famous “combat of the thirty” in March 1351. He was, however, quickly released and was among the soldiers of fortune who took advantage of the distracted state of Brittany, at this time the scene of a savage civil war, to win fame and wealth at the expense of the wretched inhabitants. After a time he transferred his operations to Normandy, when he served under the allied standards of England and of Charles II. of Navarre. He led the “great company” in their work of devastation along the valley of the Loire, fighting at this time for his own hand and for booty, and winning a terrible reputation by his ravages. After the conclusion of the treaty of Brétigny in 1360 Knolles returned to Brittany and took part in the struggle for the possession of the duchy between John of Montfort (Duke John IV.) and Charles of Blois, gaining great fame by his conduct in the fight at Auray (September 1364), where ​Du Guesclin was captured and Charles of Blois was slain. In 1367 he marched with the Black Prince into Spain and fought at the battle of Nájera; in 1369 he was with the prince in Aquitaine. In 1370 he was placed by Edward III. at the head of an expedition which invaded France and marched on Paris, but after exacting large sums of money as ransom a mutiny broke up the army, and its leader was forced to take refuge in his Breton castle of Derval and to appease the disappointed English king with a large monetary gift. Emerging from his retreat Knolles again assisted John of Montfort in Brittany, where he acted as John’s representative; later he led a force into Aquitaine, and he was one of the leaders of the fleet sent against the Spaniards in 1377. In 1380 he served in France under Thomas of Woodstock, afterwards duke of Gloucester, distinguishing himself by his valour at the siege of Nantes; and in 1381 he went with Richard II. to meet Wat Tyler at Smithfield. He died at Sculthorpe in Norfolk on the 15th of August 1407. Sir Robert devoted much of his great wealth to charitable objects. He built a college and an almshouse at Pontefract, his wife’s birthplace, where the almshouse still exists; he restored the churches of Sculthorpe and Harpley; and he helped to found an English hospital in Rome. Knolles won an immense reputation by his skill and valour in the field, and ranks as one of the foremost captains of his age. French writers call him Canolles, or Canole.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Knight, John Buxton

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​KNIGHT, JOHN BUXTON (1843–1908), English landscape painter, was born at Sevenoaks, Kent; he started as a schoolmaster, but painting was his hobby, and he subsequently devoted himself to it. In 1861 he had his first picture hung at the Academy. He was essentially an open-air painter, constantly going on sketching tours in the most picturesque spots of England, and all his pictures were painted out of doors. He died at Dover on the 2nd of January 1908. The Chantrey trustees bought his “December’s Bareness Everywhere” for the nation in the following month. Most of his best pictures had passed into the collection of Mr Iceton of Putney (including “White Walls of Old England” and “Hereford Cathedral”), Mr Walter Briggs of Burley in Wharfedale (especially “Pinner”), and Mr S. M. Phillips of Wrotham (especially two water-colours of Richmond Bridge).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Knights of the Golden Circle

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​KNIGHTS OF THE GOLDEN CIRCLE, a semi-military secret society in the United States in the Middle West, 1861–1864, the purpose of which was to bring the Civil War to a close and restore the “Union as it was.” There is some evidence that before the Civil War there was a Democratic secret organization of the same name, with its principal membership in the Southern States. After the outbreak of the Civil War many of the Democrats of the Middle West, who were opposed to the war policy of the Republicans, organized the Knights of the Golden Circle, pledging themselves to exert their influence to bring about peace. In 1863, owing to the disclosure of some of its secrets, the organization took the name of Order of American Knights, and in 1864 this became the Sons of Liberty. The total membership of this order probably reached 250,000 to 300,000, principally in Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Wisconsin, Kentucky and south-western Pennsylvania. Fernando Wood of New York seems to have been the chief officer and in 1864 Clement L. Vallandigham became the second in command. The great importance of the Knights of the Golden Circle and its successors was due to its opposition to the war policy of the Republican administration. The plan was to overthrow the Lincoln government in the elections and give to the Democrats the control of the state and Federal governments, which would then make peace and invite the Southern States to come back into the Union on the old footing. In order to obstruct and embarrass the Republican administration the members of the order held peace meetings to influence public opinion against the continuance of the war; purchased arms to be used in uprisings, which were to place the peace party in control of the Federal government, or failing in that to establish a north-western confederacy; and took measures to set free the Confederate prisoners in the north and bring the war to a forced close. All these plans failed at the critical moment, and the most effective work done by the order was in encouraging desertion from the Federal armies, preventing enlistments, and resisting the draft. Wholesale arrests of leaders and numerous seizures of arms by the United States authorities resulted in a general collapse of the order late in 1864. Three of the leaders were sentenced to death by military commissions, but sentence was suspended until 1866, when they were released under the decision of the United States Supreme Court in the famous case Ex parte Milligan.
Authorities.—An Authentic Exposition of the Knights of the Golden Circle (Indianapolis, 1863); J. F. Rhodes, History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850 (New York, 1905) vol. v.; E. McPherson, Political History of the Rebellion (Washington, 1876); and W. D. Foulke, Life of O. P. Morton (2 vols., New York, 1899). (W. L. F.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Knobkerrie

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​KNOBKERRIE (from the Taal or South African Dutch, knopkirie, derived from Du. knop, a knob or button, and kerrie, a Bushman or Hottentot word for stick), a strong, short stick with a rounded knob or head used by the natives of South Africa in warfare and the chase. It is employed at close quarters, or as a missile, and in time of peace serves as a walking-stick. The name has been extended to similar weapons used by the natives of Australia, the Pacific islands, and other places.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Knight, Daniel Ridgway

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​KNIGHT, DANIEL RIDGWAY (1845–), American artist, was born at Philadelphia, Penn., in 1845. He was a pupil at the École des Beaux-Arts, Paris, under Gleyre, and later worked in the private studio of Meissonier. After 1872 he lived in France, having a house and studio at Poissy on the Seine. He painted peasant women out of doors with great popular success. He was awarded the silver medal and cross of the Legion of Honour, Exposition Universelle, Paris, 1889, and was made a knight of the Royal Order of St Michael of Bavaria, Munich, 1893, receiving the gold medal of honour from the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, Philadelphia, 1893. His son, Ashton Knight, is also known as a landscape painter.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Knitting

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​KNITTING (from O.E. cnyttan, to knit; cf. Ger. Knütten; the root is seen in “knot”), the art of forming a single thread or strand of yarn into a texture or fabric of a loop structure, by employing needles or wires. “Crochet” work is an analogous art in its simplest form. It consists of forming a single thread into a single chain of loops. All warp knit fabrics are built on this structure. Knitting may be said to be divided into two principles, viz. (1) hand knitting and (2) frame-work knitting (see Hosiery). In hand knitting, the wires, pins or needles used are of different lengths or gauges, according to the class of work wanted to be produced. They are made of steel, bone, wood or ivory. Some are headed to prevent the loops from slipping over the ends. Flat or selvedged work can only be produced on them. Others are pointed at both ends, and by employing three or more a circular or circular-shaped fabric can be made. In hand knitting each loop is formed and thrown off individually and in rotation and is left hanging on the new loop formed. The cotton, wool and silk fibres are the principal materials from which knitting yarns are manufactured, wool being the most important and most largely used. “Lamb’s-wool,” “wheeling,” “fingering” and worsted yarns are all produced from the wool fibre, but may differ in size or fineness and quality. Those yarns are largely used in the production of knitted underwear. Hand knitting is to-day principally practised as a domestic art, but in some of the remote parts of Scotland and Ireland it is prosecuted as an industry to some extent. In the Shetland Islands the wool of the native sheep is spun, and used in its natural colour, being manufactured into shawls, scarfs, ladies’ jackets, &c. The principal trade of other districts is hose and half-hose, made from the wool of the sheep native to the district. The formation of the stitches in knitting may be varied in a great many ways, by “purling” (knitting or throwing loops to back and front in rib form), “slipping” loops, taking up and casting off and working in various coloured yarns to form stripes, patterns, &c. The articles may be shaped according to the manner in which the wires and yarns are manipulated.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Knolles, Richard

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​KNOLLES, RICHARD (c. 1545–1610), English historian, was a native of Northamptonshire, and was educated at Lincoln College, Oxford. He became a fellow of his college, and at some date subsequent to 1571 left Oxford to become master of a school at Sandwich, Kent, where he died in 1610. In 1603 Knolles published his Generall Historie of the Turkes, of which several editions subsequently appeared, among them a good one edited by Sir Paul Rycaut (1700), who brought the history down to 1699. It was dedicated to King James I., and Knolles availed himself largely of Jean Jacques Boissard’s Vitae et Icones Sultanorum Turcicorum (Frankfort, 1596). Although now entirely superseded, it has considerable merits as regards style and arrangement. Knolles published a translation of J. Bodin’s De Republica in 1606, but the Grammatica Latina, Graeca et Hebraica, attributed to him by Anthony Wood and others, is the work of the Rev. Hanserd Knollys (c. 1599–1691), a Baptist minister.
See the Athenaeum, August 6, 1881.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Orizaba (city)

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​ORIZABA (Indian name Ahuaializ-apan, pleasant waters), a city of Mexico in the state of Vera Cruz, 82 m. by rail W.S.W. of the port of Vera Cruz. Pop. (1900) 32,894, including a large percentage of Indians and half-breeds. The Mexican railway affords frequent communication with the City of Mexico and Vera Cruz, and a short line (41/2 m.) connects with Ingenio, an industrial village. Orizaba stands in a fertile, well-watered, and richly wooded valley of the Sierra Madre Oriental, 4025 ft. above sea-level, and about 18 m. S. of the snow-crowned volcano that bears its name. It has a mild, humid and healthful climate. The public edifices include the parish church of San Miguel, a chamber of commerce, a handsome theatre, and some hospitals. The city is the centre of a rich agricultural region which produces sugar, rum, tobacco and Indian corn. In colonial times, when tobacco was one of the crown monopolies, Orizaba was one of the districts officially licensed to produce it. It is also a manufacturing centre of importance, having good water power from the Rio Blanco and producing cotton and woollen fabrics. Its cotton factories are among the largest in the republic. Paper is also made at Cocolapan in the canton of Orizaba. The forests in this vicinity are noted for orchids and ferns. An Indian town called Ahuaializapan, subject to Aztec rule, stood here when Cortes arrived on the coast. The Spanish town that succeeded it did not receive its charter until 1774, though it was one of the stopping-places between Vera Cruz and the capital. In 1862 it was the headquarters of the French.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Orion and Orus

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​ORION and ORUS, the names of several Greek grammarians, frequently confused. The following are the most important, (1) Orion of Thebes in Egypt (5th century A.D.), the teacher of Proclus the neo-Platonist and of Eudocia, the wife of the younger Theodosius. He taught at Alexandria, Caesarea in Cappadocia and Byzantium. He was the author of a partly extant etymological Lexicon (ed. F. W. Sturz, 1820), largely used by the compilers of the Etymologicum Magnum, the Etymologicum Gudianum and other similar works; a collection of maxims in three books, addressed to Eudocia, also ascribed to him by Suidas, still exists in a Warsaw MS. (2) Orus of Miletus, who, according to Ritschl, flourished not later than the 2nd century A.D., and was a contemporary of Herodian and a little junior to Phrynichus (according to Reitzenstein he was a contemporary of Orion). His chief works were treatises on orthography; on Atticisms, written in opposition to Phrynichus; on the names of nations.
See F. Ritschl, De Oro et Orione Commentatio (1834); R. Reitzenstein, Geschichte der griechischen Etymologika (1897}; and article “Orion” in Smith’s Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Oriole

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​ORIOLE (O. Fr. Oriol, Lat. aureolus), the name once applied to a bird, from its golden colouring—the Oriolus galbula of Linnaeus—but now commonly used in a much wider sense. The golden oriole, which is the type of the Passerine family Oriolidae, is a far from uncommon spring-visitor to the British Islands, but has very rarely bred there. On the continent of Europe it is a well-known if not an abundant bird, and its range in summer extends so far to the east as Irkutsk, while in winter it is found in Natal and Damaraland. In India it is replaced by a closely allied form, O. kundoo, the mango-bird, chiefly distinguishable by the male possessing a black streak behind as well in front of the eye; and both in Asia and Africa are several other species more or less resembling O. galbula, but some depart considerably from that type, assuming a black head, or even a glowing crimson, instead of the ordinary yellow colouring, while others again remain constant to the dingy type of plumage which characterizes the female of the more normal form. Among these last are the aberrant species of the group Mimetes or Mimeta, belonging the Australian region, respecting which A. R. Wallace pointed out, first in the Zoological Society’s Proceedings (1863, pp. 26-28), and afterwards in his Malay Archipelago (ii. pp. 150-153), the very curious signs of “mimicry” (see Honey-eater). It is a singular circumstance that this group Mimeta first received its name from P. P. King (Survey, &c. of Australia, ii. 417) under the belief that the birds composing it belonged to the family Meliphagidae, which had assumed the appearance of orioles, whereas Wallace’s investigations tend to show that the imitation (unconscious, of course) is on the part of the latter. The external similarity of the Mimeta and the Tropidorhynchus of the island of Bouru, one of the Moluccas, is perfectly wonderful, and has again and again deceived some of the best ornithologists, though the birds are structurally far apart. Another genus which has been referred to the Oriolidae, and may here be mentioned, is Sphecotheres, peculiar to the Australian Region, and distinguishable from the more normal orioles by a bare space round the eye. Orioles are shy and restless birds, frequenting gardens and woods, and living on insects and fruit. The nest is pocket-shaped, of bark, grass and fibres, and the eggs are white or salmon-coloured with dark spots. The “American orioles” (see Icterus) belong to a different passerine family, the Icteridae. (A. N.)