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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Masaya

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​MASAYA, the capital of the department of Masaya, Nicaragua, 13 m. W.N.W. of Lake Nicaragua and the city of Granada, on the eastern shore of Lake Masaya, and on the Granada-Managua railway. Pop. (1905), about 20,000. The city is built in the midst of a very fertile lowland region, which yields large quantities of tobacco. The majority of the inhabitants are Indians or half-castes. Lake Masaya occupies an extinct crater; the isolated volcano of Masaya (3000 ft.) on the opposite side of the lake was active at the time of the conquest of Nicaragua in 1522, and the conquerors, thinking the lava they saw was gold, had themselves lowered into the crater at the risk of their lives. The volcano was in eruption in 1670, 1782, 1857 and 1902.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Imidazoles

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| IMIDAZOLES, or Glyoxalines, organic chemical compounds containing the ring system HN | CH = CH | . |
| IMIDAZOLES, or Glyoxalines, organic chemical compounds containing the ring system HN | | | . |
| IMIDAZOLES, or Glyoxalines, organic chemical compounds containing the ring system HN | CH = N | . |
Imidazole itself was first prepared by H. Debus (Ann. 1858, 107, p. 254) by the action of ammonia on glyoxal, 2C$_2$H$_2$O$_2$ + 2NH$_3$ = C$_3$H$_4$N$_2$ + H$_2$CO$_2$ + 2H$_2$O. The compounds of this series may be prepared by the condensation of ortho-diketones with ammonia and aldehydes
| R⋅CO⋅CO⋅R+2NH$_3$+R′⋅CHO=3H$_2$O+ | R⋅C–N | C⋅R′; |
| R⋅CO⋅CO⋅R+2NH$_3$+R′⋅CHO=3H$_2$O+ | ‖ | C⋅R′; |
| R⋅CO⋅CO⋅R+2NH$_3$+R′⋅CHO=3H$_2$O+ | R⋅C–NH | C⋅R′; |
from thioimidazolones by oxidation with dilute nitric acid (W. Marckwald, Ber., 1892, 25, p. 2361); by distillation of hydrobenzamide and similarly constituted bodies; and by the action of phosphorus pentachloride on symmetrical dimethyloxamide, a methylchlorglyoxaline being formed (O. Wallach, Ann., 1877, 184, p. 500).
The glyoxalines are basic in character, and the imide hydrogen is replaceable by metals and alkyl groups. They are stable towards reducing agents, and acidyl groups are only introduced with difficulty.
Imidazole (glyoxaline), C$_3$H$_4$N$_2$, crystallizes in thick prisms which melt at 88-89° C. and boil at 253° C., and are readily soluble in alcohol and in water. It is unaffected by chromic acid, but potassium permanganate oxidizes it to formic acid. It forms salts with acids.
| Lophine (triphenylglyoxaline), | C$_6$H$_5$⋅C–N | C⋅C$_6$H$_5$; |
| Lophine (triphenylglyoxaline), | ‖ | C⋅C$_6$H$_5$; |
| Lophine (triphenylglyoxaline), | C$_6$H$_5$⋅C–NH | C⋅C$_6$H$_5$; |
is formed by the dry distillation of hydrobenzamide, or by saturating an alcoholic solution of benzil and benzaldehyde (at a temperature of 40° C.) with ammonia. It crystallizes in needles which melt at 275° C. It is a weak base. When heated to 300° C. with hydriodic acid and hydrochloric acid, in the presence of some red phosphorus, it yields benzoic acid.
The keto-glyoxalines are known as imidazolones and are prepared by the action of acids on acetalyl thioureas (W. Marckwald, Ber., 1892, 25, p. 2357). Benzimidazole, C$_6$H$_4$N NHCH, is the simplest representative of the benzoglyoxalines and is prepared by the condensation of formic acid with ortho-phenylene diamine. It forms rhombic crystals which melt at 170° C. It is basic in character, and on oxidation with potassium permanganate yields a
| HOOC⋅C–N | CH; (E. Bamberger, Ann., 1893, 273, p. 338). |
| ‖ | CH; (E. Bamberger, Ann., 1893, 273, p. 338). |
| HOOC⋅C–NH | CH; (E. Bamberger, Ann., 1893, 273, p. 338). |
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Immersion

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​IMMERSION (Lat. immersio, dipping), the act of being plunged into a fluid, or being overwhelmed by anything; in astronomy, the disappearance of a heavenly body in the shadow of another, especially of a satellite in the shadow of its primary.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Imeretia

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​IMERETIA, or Imeritia a district in Russian Transcaucasia, extends from the left bank of the river Tskheniz-Tskhali to the Suram range, which separates it from Georgia on the east, and is bounded on the south by Akhaltsikh, and thus corresponds roughly to the eastern part of the modern government of Kutais. Anciently a part of Colchis, and included in Lazia during the Roman empire, Imeretia was nominally under the dominion of the Greek emperors. In the early part of the 6th century it became the theatre of wars between the Byzantine emperor Justinian and Chosroes, or Khosrau, king of Persia. Between 750 and 985 it was ruled by a dynasty (Apkhaz) of native princes, but was devastated by hostile incursions, reviving only after it became united to Georgia. It flourished until the reign of Queen Thamar, but after her death (1212) the country became impoverished through strife and internal dissensions. It was reunited with Georgia from 1318 to 1346, and again in 1424. But the union only lasted forty-five years; from 1469 until 1810 it was governed by a Bagratid dynasty, closely akin to that which ruled over Georgia. In 1621 it made the earliest appeal to Russia for aid; in 1650 it acknowledged Russian suzerainty and in 1769 a Russian force expelled the Turks. In 1803 the monarch declared himself a vassal of Russia, and in 1810 the little kingdom was definitively annexed to that empire. (See Georgia.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Immanuel ben Solomon

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​IMMANUEL BEN SOLOMON (c. 1265–c. 1330), Hebrew poet, was born in Rome. He was a contemporary and friend of Dante, and his verse shows the influence of the “divine poet.” Immanuel’s early studies included science, mathematics and philosophy; and his commentaries on Proverbs, Psalms, Job and other Biblical books are good examples of the current symbolical methods which Dante so supremely used. Immanuel’s fame chiefly rests on his poems, especially the collection (in the manner of Ḥarizi, q.v.) entitled Mehabberoth, a series of 27 good-natured satires on Jewish life. Religious and secular topics are indiscriminately interwoven, and severe pietists were offended by Immanuel’s erotic style. Most popular is an additional section numbered 28 (often printed by itself) called Hell and Paradise (ha-Tophet veha-Eden). The poet is conducted by a certain Daniel (doubtfully identified with Dante) through the realms of torture and bliss, and Immanuel’s pictures and comments are at once vivid and witty.
See J. Chotzner, Hebrew Humour (Lond., 1905), pp. 82-102. (I. A.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Imbros

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​IMBROS, a Turkish island in the Aegean, at the southern end of the Thracian Chersonese peninsula. It forms with Samothrace, about 17 m. distant, a caza (or canton) in the sanjak of Lemnos and province of the Archipelago Isles. Herodotus (v. 26) mentions it as an abode of the historic Pelasgians (q.v.). It was, like Samothrace, a seat of the worship of the Cabeiri (q.v.). The island is now the seat of a Greek bishopric. There is communication with the mainland by occasional vessels. The island is of great fertility—wheat, oats, barley, olives, sesame and valonia being the principal products, in addition to a variety of fruits. Pop. about 92,000, nearly all Turks.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Moreau, Gustave

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​MOREAU, GUSTAVE (1826–1898), French painter, was born in Paris on the 6th of April 1826. His father was an architect, who, discerning the lad’s promise, sent him to study under Picot, a second-rate artist but clever teacher. The only influence which really affected Moreau’s development was that of the painter Chassériau (1819–1857), with whom he was intimate when they both lived in the Rue Frochot, and of whom we find reminiscences even in his later works. Moreau’s first picture was a “Pietà” (1852), now in the cathedral at Angoulême. In the Salon of 1853 he exhibited a “Scene from the Song of Songs” (now in the Dijon Museum) and the “Death of Darius” (in the Moreau Gallery, Paris), both conspicuously under the influence of Chassériau. To the Great Exhibition of 1855 he sent the “Athenians with the Minotaur” (in the Museum at Bourg-en-Bresse) and “Moses putting off his Sandals within Sight of the Promised Land.” “Oedipus and the Sphinx,” begun in 1862, and exhibited at the Salon of 1864, marked the beginning of his best period, during which he chose his subjects from history, religion, legend and fancy. In 1865 he exhibited “Medea and Jason” and “The Young Man and Death”; in 1866, the “Head of Orpheus” (in the Luxembourg Gallery); “Hesiod and the Muse,” a drawing, and “The Peri,” a drawing; “Prometheus” (in the Moreau Gallery); “Jupiter and Europa,” a “Pietà,” and “The Saint and the Poet,” in 1869. After working in obscurity for seven years, he reappeared at the Salon in 1876 with “Hercules and the Hydra,” “Saint Sebastian,” “Salome Dancing” (presented to the Luxembourg by M. Hayem); and in 1878 with “The Sphinx’s Riddle solved.” “Jacob,” and “Moses on the Nile.” Moreau exhibited for the last time at the Salon of 1880, when he contributed “Helen” and “Galatea”; to the Great Exhibition of 1889 he again sent the “Galatea” and “The Young Man and Death.” He took prize medals at the Salon in 1864, 1865, 1869 and 1878. He was made knight of the Legion of Honour in 1875 and officer in 1883. He succeeded Delaunay as professor at the École des Beaux Arts, and his teaching was highly popular. When he died, on the 18th of April 1898, he bequeathed to the state his house, containing about 8000 pictures, water-colours, cartoons and drawings, which form the Moreau Gallery, one of the best organized collections in Paris, arranged by M. Rupp, his executor, and, together with Delaunay and Fromentin, one of his closest friends.
See Ary Renan, Moreau (Paris, 1900); Paul Flat, Le Musée Gustave Moreau (Paris, 1900).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Morcar, Earl

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​MORCAR, EARL (fl. 1066), son of Earl Ælfgar, brother of Edwin, earl of the Mercians. They assisted the Northumbrians to expel Tostig, of the house of Godwin, in 1065 and Morcar was chosen earl by the rebels. Harold, Tostig’s brother, consented to this extension of the power of the Mercian house. In spite of this concession, and the help which he gave them against Tostig and Harold Hardrada, the two brothers left him to fight alone at Hastings. After trying to secure the crown for their own house, they submitted to William, but lost their earldoms. They attempted to raise the North in 1068, and failed ignominiously. They were pardoned, but Morcar afterwards joined Hereward in the Isle of Ely (1071), while Edwin perished in attempting to raise a Welsh rebellion. Morcar died in prison; at what date is unknown.
See E. A. Freeman, Norman Conquest and William Rufus, vol i.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mordecai Ben Hillel

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​MORDECAI BEN HILLEL, a German rabbi, who died as a martyr at Nuremberg in 1298. His great legal (Halachic) work is usually cited as “the Mordecai,” and its value consists in its thorough use of the medieval authorities. It acquired wide authority, and was one of the sources of the Code of Joseph Caro. Mordecai was also the author of Responsa.
See L. Ginzberg in Jew. Ency. ix. 10–13.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Morbhanj

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​MORBHANJ, or Mayurbhanj, a native state of India, in the Orissa division of Bengal. Area 4243 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 610,383, showing an increase of 14·7% in the preceding decade; revenue, £64,000. It contains a large proportion of mountain and forest, where wild elephants are numerous, and also some of the richest iron ores in India. The capital is Baripada (pop. 5613), which is connected by a narrow-gauge line with the Bengal-Nagpur railway.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pantón

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​PANTÓN, a town of north-western Spain, in the province of Lugo; in a mountainous district, watered by the rivers Miño and Cabe. Pop. (1900), 12,088. Livestock is extensively reared, and large quantities of wheat, wine, oats and potatoes are produced. The other industries are distilling and linen manufacture. The nearest railway station is 6 m. east, at Montforte.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Panyasis

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​PANYASIS (more correctly, Panyassis), of Halicarnassus, Greek epic poet, uncle or cousin of Herodotus, flourished about 470 B.C. He was put to death by the tyrant Lygdamis (c. 454). His chief poems were the Heracleias in 14 books, describing the adventures of Heracles in various parts of the world, and the Ionica in elegiacs, giving an account of the founding and settlement of the Ionic colonies in Asia Minor. Although not much esteemed in his own time, which was unfavourable to epic poetry, he was highly thought of by later critics, some of whom assigned him the next place to Homer (see Quintilian, Inst. orat. x. 1. 54). The few extant fragments show beauty and fullness of expression, and harmonious rhythm.
Fragments in G. Kinkel, Epic. poet. fragmenta (1877), ed. separately by J. P. Tzschirner (1842); F. P. Funcke, De Panyasidis vita (1837); R. Krausse, De Panyasside (1891).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pantry

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​PANTRY (O. Fr. paneterie; Med. Lat. panetaria, a bread-shop, from panis, bread), originally a room in a house used for the storage of bread, hence “panter” or “pantler,” an officer of a household in charge of the bread and stores. In the royal household of England the office was merged in that of butler. At coronations the office of “panneter” was held by the lord of the manor of Kibworth Beauchamp; it was his duty to carry the salt-cellar and carving-knives to the royal table, and he kept these as his fee. The last holder of the office was Ambrose Dudley, son of John, duke of Northumberland, at Elizabeth’s coronation. At his death the manor reverted to the Crown. “Pantry” was early widened in meaning to include a room in a house used for the storing of all kinds of food, and is now restricted to the butler’s or parlourmaid’s room, where plate, china, glass, &c., for the use of the table is kept, and duties in connexion with the serving of the table are performed.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Papenburg

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​PAPENBURG, a town in the Prussian province of Hanover, 27 m. by rail S. by W. of Emden, and near the right bank of the Ems, with which it is connected by a canal 3 m. long. Pop. (1905), 7673. It lies in the centre of extensive moors and in appearance resembles a Dutch town. The industries include shipbuilding, oil and glass mills, and manufactures of chemicals, cement, nickel goods and machinery. It is a very prosperous port and its trade, carried on mainly by water, is mostly in the agricultural produce of the extensive moors and pasture lands which lie around it. Papenburg was founded in 1675 and became a town in 1860.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Papeete

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​PAPEETE, the capital of the Pacific island of Tahiti, and the chief port and trading centre, and the seat of government of the French establishments in Oceania. Pop. 4280 (2500 French). The town, lying on the north-west coast of the island, on a beautiful harbour entered by two passages through the protecting reef, and backed by five mountains, is French in character as far as concerns the richer quarters. It has a cathedral, barracks and arsenal, government buildings and a botanical garden. The Chinese quarter and the picturesque native market contrast strongly with the European settlement. Of the entrances to the harbour, which is of fair extent and depth, that of Papeete has about seven fathoms depth; that of Taunoa is shallower, though wider and more convenient.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Paoli, Cesare

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​PAOLI, CESARE (1840–1902), Italian historian and palaeographer, son of senator Baldassare Paoli, was born and educated in Florence. At the age of twenty-one he was given an appointment in the record office of his native city; from 1865 to 1871 he was attached to the Archives of Sienna, but eventually returned to Florence. In 1874 he was appointed first professor of palaeography and diplomatics at the Istituto di Studii Superiori in Florence, where he continued to work at the interpretation of MSS. In 1887 he became editor of the Archivio storico italiano, to which he himself contributed numerous articles. His works consist of a large number of historical essays, studies on palaeography, transcriptions of state and other papers, reviews, &c.
See C. Lupi, “Cesare Paoli,” in the Archivio storico italiano, vol. xxix. (1902), with a complete list of his works.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Paoli, Pasquale

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​PAOLI, PASQUALE (1725–1807), Corsican general and patriot, was born at Stretta in the parish of Rostino. He was the son of Giacinto Paoli, who had led the Corsican rebels against Genoese tyranny. Pasquale followed his father into exile. ​serving with distinction in the Neapolitan army; on his return to Corsica (q.v.) he was chosen commander-in-chief of the rebel forces, and after a series of successful actions he drove the Genoese from the whole island except a few coast towns. He then set to work to reorganize the government, introducing many useful reforms, and he founded a university at Corte. In 1767 he wrested the island of Capraia from the Genoese, who, despairing of ever being able to subjugate Corsica, again sold their rights over it to France. For two years Paoli fought desperately against the new invaders, until in 1769 he was defeated by vastly superior forces under Count de Vaux, and obliged to take refuge in England. In 1789 he went to Paris with the permission of the constituent assembly, and was afterwards sent back to Corsica with the rank of lieutenant-general. Disgusted with the excesses of the revolutionary government and having been accused of treason by the Convention, he summoned a consulta, or assembly, at Corte in 1793, with himself as president and formally seceded from France. He then offered the suzerainty of the island to the British government, but finding no support in that quarter, he was forced to go into exile once more, and Corsica became a French department. He retired to London in 1796, when he obtained a pension; he died on the 5th of February 1807.
See Boswell’s Life of Johnson, and his Account of Corsica and Memoirs of P. Paoli (1768); N. Tommaseo, “Lettere di Pasquale de Paoli” (in Archivio storico italiano, 1st series, vol. xi.), and Della Corsica, &c. (ibid., nuova serie, vol. xi., parte ii.); Pompei, De L’état de la Corse (Paris, 1821); Giovanni Livi, “Lettere inedite di Pasquale Paoli” (in Arch. stor. ital., 5th series, vols. v. and vi.); Bartoli, Historia di Pascal Paoli (Bastia, 1891); Lencisa, P. Paoli e la guerra d’indipendenza della Corsica (Milano, 1890); and Comte de Buttafuoco, Fragments pour servir à l’histoire de la Corse de 1764 à 1769 (Bastia, 1859).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Onondaga

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​ONONDAGA, a tribe of North American Indians of Iroquoian stock, forming one of the Six Nations. The tribal headquarters was about the lake and creek of the same name in New York state. Their territory extended northward to Lake Ontario and southward to the Susquehanna river. They were the official guardians of the council-fire of the Iroquois. Their chief town, near the site of the present Onondaga, consisted of some 140 houses in the middle of the 17th century, when the tribe ​was estimated as numbering between 1500 and 1700. During the 18th century the tribe divided, part loyally supporting the Iroquois league, while part, having come under the influence of French missionaries, migrated to the Catholic Iroquois settlements in Canada. Of those who supported the league, the majority, after the War of Independence, settled on a reservation on Grand river, Ontario, where their descendants still are. About 500 are upon the Onondaga reservation in New York state.
For Onondaga cosmology see 21st Ann. Report Bureau Amer. Ethnol. (1899–1900).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Onosander

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​ONOSANDER, or Onasander, Greek philosopher, lived during the 1st century A.D. He was the author of a commentary on the Republic of Plato, which is lost, but we still possess by him a short but comprehensive work (Στρατηγικός) on the duties of a general. It is dedicated to Quintus Veranius Nepos, consul 49, and legate of Britain. It was the chief authority for the military writings of the emperors Maurice and Leo, and Maurice of Saxony, who consulted it in a French translation, expressed a high opinion of it.
Edition by H. Köchly (1860); see also G. Rathgeber in Ersch and Gruber’s Allgemeine Encyclopädie.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Onteniente

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​ONTENIENTE, a town of eastern Spain, in the province of Valencia; on the right bank of the Clariano or Onteniente, a sub-tributary of the Júcar, and on the Játiva-Villena railway. Pop. (1900) 11,430. Onteniente has a parish church remarkable for its lofty square tower, and a palace of the dukes of Almodovar. There is a large modern suburb outside the old town, which was formerly a walled city; some vestiges of the ramparts still remain. Linen and woollen cloth, paper, brandy, furniture and earthenware are manufactured; and there is some trade in cereals, wine and oil.