OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Le Chambon

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​LE CHAMBON, or Le Chambon-Feugerolles, a town of east-central France in the department of Loire, 71/2 m. S.W. of St Étienne by rail, on the Ondaine, a tributary of the Loire. Pop. (1906) town, 7525; commune, 12,011. Coal is mined in the neighbourhood, and there are forges, steel works, manufactures of tools and other iron goods, and silk mills. The feudal castle of Feugerolles on a hill to the south-east dates in part from the 11th century.
Between Le Chambon and St Étienne is La Ricamarie (pop. of town 5289) also of importance for its coal-mines. Many of the galleries of a number of these mines are on fire, probably from spontaneous combustion. According to popular tradition these fires date from the time of the Saracens; more authentically from the 15th century.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Le Chapelier, Isaac René Guy

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​LE CHAPELIER, ISAAC RENÉ GUY (1754–1794), French politician, was born at Rennes on the 12th of June 1754, his father being bâtonnier of the corporation of lawyers in that town. He entered his father’s profession, and had some success as an orator. In 1789 he was elected as a deputy to the States General by the Tiers-État of the sénéchaussée of Rennes. He adopted advanced opinions, and was one of the founders of the Breton Club (see Jacobin Club); his influence in the Constituent Assembly was considerable, and on the 3rd of August 1789 he was elected its president. Thus he presided over the Assembly ​during the important period following the 4th of August; he took an active part in the debates, and was a leading member of the committee which drew up the new constitution; he further presented a report on the liberty of theatres and on literary copyright. He was also conspicuous as opposing Robespierre when he proposed that members of the Constituent Assembly should not be eligible for election to the proposed new Assembly. After the flight of the king to Varennes (20th of June 1792), his opinions became more moderate, and on the 29th of September he brought forward a motion to restrict the action of the clubs. This, together with a visit which he paid to England in 1792 made him suspect, and he was denounced on his return for conspiring with foreign nations. He went into hiding, but was discovered in consequence of a pamphlet which he published to defend himself, arrested and condemned to death by the Revolutionary Tribunal. He was executed at Paris on the 22nd of April 1794.
See A. Aulard, Les Orateurs de la constituante (2nd ed., Paris, 1905); R. Kerviler, Récherches et notices sur les députés de la Bretagne aux états généraux (2 vols., Rennes, 1888–1889); P. J. Levot, Biographie bretonne (2 vols., 1853–1857).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Le Cateau

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​LE CATEAU, or Cateau-Cambrésis, a town of northern France, in the department of Nord, on the Selle, 15 m. E.S.E. of Cambrai by road. Pop. (1906) 10,400. A church of the early 17th century and a town-hall in the Renaissance style are its chief buildings. Its institutions include a board of trade-arbitration and a communal college, and its most important industries are wool-spinning and weaving. Formed by the union of the two villages of Péronne and Vendelgies, under the protection of a castle built by the bishop of Cambrai, Le Cateau became the seat of an abbey in the 11th century. In the 15th it was frequently taken and retaken, and in 1556 it was burned by the French, who in 1559 signed a celebrated treaty with Spain in the town. It was finally ceded to France by the peace of Nijmwegen in 1678.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Le Daim, Olivier

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​LE DAIM (or Le Dain), OLIVIER (d. 1484), favourite of Louis XI. of France, was born of humble parentage at Thielt near Courtrai in Flanders. Seeking his fortune at Paris, he became court barber and valet to Louis XI., and so ingratiated himself with the king that in 1474 he was ennobled under the title Le Daim and in 1477 made comte de Meulant. In the latter year he was sent to Burgundy to influence the young heiress of Charles the Bold, but he was ridiculed and compelled to leave Ghent. He thereupon seized and held Tournai for the French. Le Daim had considerable talent for intrigue, and, according to his enemies, could always be depended upon to execute the baser designs of the king. He amassed a large fortune, largely by oppression and violence, and was named gentleman-in-waiting, captain of Loches, and governor of Saint-Quentin. He remained in favour until the death of Louis XI., when the rebellious lords were able to avenge the slights and insults they had suffered at ​the hands of the royal barber. He was arrested on charges, the nature of which is uncertain, tried before the parlement of Paris, and on the 21st of May 1484 hanged at Montfaucon without the knowledge of Charles VIII., who might have heeded his father’s request and spared the favourite. Le Daim’s property was given to the duke of Orleans.
See the memoirs of the time, especially those of Ph. de Commines (ed. Mandrot, 1901–1903, Eng. trans. in Bohn Library); Robt. Gaguin, Compendium de origine et gestis Francorum (Paris, 1586)—it was Gaguin who made the celebrated epigram concerning Le Daim: “Eras judex, lector, et exitium”; De Reiffenberg, Olivier le Dain (Brussels, 1829); Delanone, Le Barbier de Louis XI. (Paris, 1832): G. Picot, “Procès d’Olivier le Dain,” in the Comptes rendus de l’Académie des sciences morales et politiques, viii. (1877), 485-537. The memoirs of the time are uniformly hostile to Le Daim.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Le Conte, Joseph

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​LE CONTE, JOSEPH (1823–1901), American geologist, of Huguenot descent, was born in Liberty county, Georgia, on the 26th of February 1823. He was educated at Franklin College, Georgia, where he graduated (1841); he afterwards studied medicine and received his degree at the New York College of Physicians and Surgeons in 1845. After practising for three or four years at Macon, Georgia, he entered Harvard, and studied natural history under L. Agassiz. An excursion made with Professors J. Hall and Agassiz to the Helderberg mountains of New York developed a keen interest in geology. After graduating at Harvard, Le Conte in 1851 accompanied Agassiz on an expedition to study the Florida reefs. On his return he became professor of natural science in Oglethorpe University, Georgia; and from 1852 to 1856 professor of natural history and geology in Franklin College. From 1857 to 1869 he was professor of chemistry and geology in South Carolina College, and he was then appointed professor of geology and natural history in the university of California, a post which he held until his death. He published a series of papers on monocular and binocular vision, and also on psychology. His chief contributions, however, related to geology, and in all he wrote he was lucid and philosophical. He described the fissure-eruptions in western America, discoursed on earth-crust movements and their causes and on the great features of the earth’s surface. As separate works he published Elements of Geology (1878, 5th ed. 1889); Religion and Science (1874); and Evolution: its History, its ​Evidences, and its Relation to Religious Thought (1888). He was president of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 1892, and of the Geological Society of America in 1896. He died in the Yosemite Valley, California, on the 6th of June 1901.
See Obituary by J. J. Stevenson, Annals of New York Acad. of Sciences, vol. xiv. (1902), p. 150.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Le Coq, Robert

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​LE COQ, ROBERT (d. 1373), French bishop, was born at Montdidier, although he belonged to a bourgeois family of Orléans, where he first attended school before coming to Paris. In Paris he became advocate to the parlement (1347); then King John appointed him master of requests, and in 1351, a year during which he received many other honours, he became bishop of Laon. At the opening of 1354 he was sent with the cardinal of Boulogne, Pierre I., duke of Bourbon, and Jean VI., count of Vendome, to Mantes to treat with Charles the Bad, king of Navarre, who had caused the constable, Charles of Spain, to be assassinated, and from this time dates his connexion with this king. At the meeting of the estates which opened in Paris in October 1356 Le Coq played a leading rôle and was one of the most outspoken of the orators, especially when petitions were presented to the dauphin Charles, denouncing the bad government of the realm and demanding the banishment of the royal councillors. Soon, however, the credit of the estates having gone down, he withdrew to his diocese, but at the request of the bourgeois of Paris he speedily returned. The king of Navarre had succeeded in escaping from prison and had entered Paris, where his party was in the ascendant; and Robert le Coq became the most powerful person in his council. No one dared to contradict him, and he brought into it whom he pleased. He did not scruple to reveal to the king of Navarre secret deliberations, but his fortune soon turned. He ran great danger at the estates of Compiègne in May 1358, where his dismissal was demanded, and he had to flee to St Denis, where Charles the Bad and Étienne Marcel came to find him. After the death of Marcel, he tried, unsuccessfully, to deliver Laon, his episcopal town, to the king of Navarre, and he was excluded from the amnesty promised in the treaty of Calais (1360) by King John to the partisans of Charles the Bad. His temporalities had been seized, and he was obliged to flee from France. In 1363, thanks to the support of the king of Navarre, he was given the bishopric of Calahorra in the kingdom of Aragon, which he administered until his death in 1373.
See L. C. Douët d’Arcq, “Acte d’accusation contre Robert le Coq, évêque de Laon” in Bibliothèque de l’Ecole des Chartes, 1st series, t. ii., pp. 350–387; and R. Delachenal, “La Bibliothèque d’un avocat du XIV$^e$ siècle, inventaire estimatif des livres de Robert le Coq,” in Nouvelle revue historique de droit français et étranger (1887), pp. 524-537.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/New Iberia

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​NEW IBERIA, a city of Louisiana, U.S.A., capital of Iberia parish, on the Bayou Teche, in the southern part of the state, about 125 m. W. of New Orleans. Pop. (1890) 3447; (1900) 6815 (3309 negroes); (1910) 7499. It is served by the Southern Pacific, the Franklin and Abbeville, and the New Iberia & Northern railways. Lumber, sugar, cotton and rice are produced in the neighbourhood. At the village of Avery Island, about 10 m. S.E., there are deposits of rock salt. The municipality owns and operates the waterworks and the electric lighting plant. New Iberia was laid out in 1835 and was chartered as a city in 1839.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/New Kensington

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​NEW KENSINGTON, a borough of Westmoreland county. Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the Allegheny river, 18 m. N.E. of Pittsburg. Pop. (1900) 4665 (1042 foreign-born and 86 negroes); (1910) 7707. It is served by the Pennsylvania railroad and by electric railways to neighbouring towns. There are a variety of manufactures. The borough was founded in 1891 and was incorporated in the following year.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/New Granada

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​NEW GRANADA (Span. Nueva Granada), the title under Spanish colonial administration of that part of South America now known as the republic of Colombia, which at one time was extended to include Venezuela and Ecuador. It also was for a time the title of the united territories of Panama and Colombia under republican auspices. The Bogota plateau, then inhabited by a partly civilized Indian nation known to the Spaniards as Chibchas, or Muyscas (the second name seems to have been applied to them through a misunderstanding, the word meaning “men”), was invaded from the Caribbean coast and conquered in 1537 by Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada, who, in honour of his native province, called it the “Nuevo Reino de Granada.” The title at first applied only to the plateau regions of Colombia, as the coast provinces had been previously occupied and named. In 1550 an audiencia real under the viceroyalty of Peru was established at Santa Fé (Bogotà), but in 1564 this isolated group of Spanish settlements was transformed into a presidency. In 1718, owing to the unmanageable size of the viceroyalty of Peru, it was divided and a new viceroyalty was created from the various provinces lying in the north-western angle of the continent, extending from Tumbez northward to the northern limits of Panama, and eastward to the Orinoco, to which the name of Nueva Granada was given. The first viceroy was Pedroza y Guerrero, but his successor, Jorge Villalonga, resumed the title of president, and it was not until 1739 that the title of viceroy was definitely established. The new viceroyalty included the provinces of Tierra Firma (now the republic of Panama); Maracaibo, Caracas, Cumana and Guyana (now included in Venezuela); Cartagena, Santa Marta, Rio Hacha, Antioquia, Pamplona, Socorro, Tunja, Santa Fé, Neiva, Mariquita, Popayan and Pasto (now included in Colombia); and Quito, Cuenca and Guayaquil (now included in Ecuador). In 1777 the provinces of Maracaibo, Caracas, Cumana and Guyana were detached from the viceroyalty to form the captaincy general of Caracas; otherwise it remained as above until the termination of Spanish rule in South America.
For the republic of Colombia (1819–1830), the republic of New Granada (1831–1861), the United States of Colombia (1861–1886), and the republic of Colombia (1886 to date), see Colombia.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Probabilism

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​PROBABILISM (from Lat. probare, to test, approve), a term used both in theology and in philosophy with the general implication that in the absence of certainty probability is the best criterion. Thus it is applied in connexion with casuistry for the view that the layman in difficult matters of conscience may safely follow a doctrine inculcated by a recognized doctor of the church. This view was originated by the monk Molina (1528-1581), and has been widely employed by the Jesuits. In philosophy the term is applied to that practical doctrine which gives assistance in ordinary matters to one who is sceptical in respect of the possibility of real knowledge: it supposes that though knowledge is impossible a man may rely on strong beliefs in practical affairs. This view was held by the sceptics of the New Academy (see Scepticism and Carneades). Opposed to “probabilist” is “probabiliorism” (Lat. probabilior, more likely), which holds that when there is a preponderance of evidence on one side of a controversy that side is presumably right.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Prizren

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​PRIZREN (also written Prisren, Prisrend, Prizrendi, Prezdra and Perzerin), the capital of the sanjak of Prizren, in the vilayet of Kossovo, Albania, European Turkey; 65 m. E. by N. of Scutari, on the river Bistritza, a left-hand tributary of the White Drin. Pop. (1905), about 30,000, chiefly Mahommedan Albanians, with a minority of Roman Catholic Albanians, Serbs and Greeks. Prizren is beautifully situated 1424 ft. above sea-level, among the northern outliers of the Shar Planina. To the north-west a fertile and undulating plain, watered by the White Drin, extends as far as Ipek (42 m.). A good road connects Prizren with the Ferisovich station on the Salonica-Mitrovitza railway (37 m.). The city is the seat of a Roman Catholic archbishop, a Greek bishop, and a Servian theological seminary. Its chief buildings are the citadel and many mosques, one of which is an ancient Byzantine basilica, originally a Servian cathedral. In its bazaars an active trade in agricultural produce, glass, pottery, saddlery, and copper and iron ware is carried on; but the manufacture of fire-arms, for which Prizren was long famous throughout European Turkey, has suffered greatly from foreign competition.
Prizren has sometimes, though on doubtful evidence, been identified with the ancient Tharendus or Theranda. In the 12th century it was the residence of the kings of Servia, and the sanjak of Prizren forms part of the region still called Old Servia (Stara Srbiya) by the Slavs. From the 13th century to the 16th Prizren had a flourishing export trade with Ragusa, and it has always been one of the principal centres of commerce and industry in Albania.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Proa

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​PROA (Malay, prau), the general term in the Malay language for all vessels, from the sampan or canoe to the square-rigged kapal, but in western usage confined to the swift-sailing craft that the pirates of the Indian Ocean made familiar to sailors in eastern waters. The chief points which characterize these vessels are that while the weather-side is rounded the lee-side is flat from stem to stern, that both stem and stern are exactly similar in shape, and that there is asmall similarly shaped hull swung out from the side of the main hull on poles, which acts ​as an outrigger and prevents the vessel heeling over. The main hull carries the mast rigging and an enormous triangular-shaped sail.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Proboscis

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​PROBOSCIS, the trunk of an elephant (Gr. προβοσκίς, πρό, before, βόσκειν, to feed), the long flexible snout of the order of Mammalia called Proboscidea (q.v.), which embraces the elephant and its extinct allies the mammoths and mastodons. The term is also applied to the snout of the tapir and of the “kahan” or proboscis-monkey (Nasalis larvatus), and more particularly to the elongated parts of the mouth of various insect, such as the rostrum or beak of a rhynchophorus beetle, the antlia of Lepidoptera, the sucking mouth of the house-fly, &c. Various worms possess a tubular structure which can be extended at the anterior portion of the body, and some gastropods a sucking tongue, to both of which the name “proboscis” is applied.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Priāpus

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​PRIĀPUS, in Greek mythology, son of Dionysus (or Adonis or Hermes) and Aphrodite (or Chione). He is unknown to Homer and Hesiod. The chief seat of his worship was the coast of the Hellespont, especially at Lampsacus, which claimed to be his birthplace. Thence his cult extended to Lydia, and by way of the islands of Lesbos and Thasos to the whole of Greece (especially Argolis), whence it made its way to Italy, together with that of Aphrodite. Priapus is the personification of the fruitfulness of nature. Sailors invoked him in distress and fishermen prayed to him for success. He gradually came to be regarded as the god of sensuality. His symbol was the phallus, an emblem of productivity and a protection against the evil eye. The first fruits of the gardens and fields, goats, milk and honey, and occasionally asses, were offered to him. He was sometimes represented as an old man, with a long beard and large genitals, wearing a long Oriental robe and a turban or garland of vine-leaves, with fruit and bunches of grapes in his lap. Amongst the Romans, rough wooden images, after the manner of the hermae, with phallus stained with vermilion, were set up in gardens. His image was placed on tombs, as symbolizing the doctrine of regeneration and a future life, and his name occurs on sepulchral inscriptions. In his hand he carried a bill-hook or club, while a reed on his head, shaking backwards and forwards in the wind, acted as a scarecrow.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Prjevalsky, Nikolai Mikhailovich

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​PRJEVALSKY [Przhevalsky], NIKOLAI MIKHAILOVICH (1839-1888), Russian traveller, born at Kimbory, in the government of Smolensk, on the 31st of March 1839, was descended from a noble Cossack family. He was educated at the Smolensk gymnasium, and in 1855 entered an infantry regiment as a subaltern. In November 1856 he became an officer, and four years later he entered the academy of the general staff. From 1864 to 1866 he taught geography at the military school at Warsaw, and in 1867 he was admitted to the general staff and sent to Irkutsk, where he started to explore the highlands on the banks of the Usuri, the great southern tributary of the Amur. This occupied him until 1869, when he published a book on the Usuri region, partly ethnographical in character.
Between November 1870 and September 1873, accompanied by only three men and with ridiculously small pecuniary resources, he crossed the Gobi desert, reached Peking, and, pushing westwards and south-westwards, explored the Ordos and the Ala-shan, as well as the upper part of the Yangtsze-kiang. He also penetrated into Tibet, reaching the banks of the Di Chu river. By this remarkable journey he proved that, for resolute and enduring men, travelling in the central Asian plateaus was easier than had been supposed. The Russian Geographical Society presented him with the great Constantine medal, and from all parts of Europe he received medals and honorary diplomas. The work in which he embodied his researches was immediately translated into all civilized languages, the English version, Mongolia, the Tangut Country, and the Solitudes of Northern Tibet (1876), being edited by Sir Henry Yule. On his second journey in 1877, while endeavouring to reach Lhasa through east Turkestan, he re-discovered the great lake Lop-nor (q.v.), which had not been visited by any European since Marco Polo. On his third expedition in 1879-1880 he penetrated, by Hami, the Tsai-dam and the great valley of the Tibetan river Kara-su, to Napchu, 170 m. from Lhasa, when he was turned back by order of the Dalai Lama. In 1883-1885 he undertook a fourth journey of exploration in the wild mountain regions between Mongolia and Tibet. On these four expeditions he made collections of plants and animals of inestimable value, including nearly twenty thousand zoological and sixteen thousand botanical specimens. Among other remarkable discoveries were those of the wild camel, ancestor of the domesticated species, and of the early type of horse, now known by his name (Equus prjewalskii). Prjevalsky's account of this second journey, From Kulja, across the Tian-Shan, to Lop-nor, was translated into English in 1879. In September 1888 he started on a fifth expedition, intending to reach Lhasa, but on the 1st of November he died at Karakol on Lake Issyk-kul. A monument was erected to his memory on the shores of the lake, and the Russian government changed the name of the town of Karakol to Przhevalsk (q.v.) in his honour.