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# The Indian Biographical Dictionary (1915)/Rattigan, Henry Adolphus Byden

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​Ratthgan, Henry Adolphus Byden, Bar-at-Law, Additional Judge, Chief Court, Punjab; called to Bar, 1888; Legal Remembrancer, and Secretary to Punjab Legislative Council, 1900; Offg. Judge, Chief Court, 1904; Temporary Additional Judge, 1905; Confd., 1909. Address: Lahore, Punjab.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Aristides of Thebes

Edition of 1905. See also Aristides of Thebes on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ARISTIDES of Thebes. A Greek painter of the time of Apelles. He lived about the middle of the Fourth Century B.C., and was a son and pupil of Nicomachus. He was noted for power of expression in his work, one of his finest pictures being that of a babe approaching the breast of its mother, who is mortally wounded, and whose face shows her fear lest the child should find blood instead of milk. His works were bought at enormous prices, and one of them was the first foreign painting ever exhibited to the public in Rome. He left two sons, Nicerus and Ariston, to whom he taught his art.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Aristarchus of Samothrace

Edition of 1905. See also Aristarchus of Samothrace on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ARISTARCHUS of Samothrace (B.C. 216–144). A Greek scholar. He was the pupil of Aristophanes of Byzantium, became tutor to the son of Ptolemy Philometor, and succeeded his master as head of the Alexandrian library. He died in Cyprus at the age of 72. Aristarchus represents the highest attainments of philological criticism in antiquity, and his influence dominated all later workers. He gave his attention chiefly to exegesis of the poets, particularly of the Homeric poems; his recension is the basis of our common text of Homer to-day. He wrote an enormous number of exegetical works—according to Suidas over 800—and many special treatises besides. Fragments of his comments are preserved, e.g., in the Venetian scholia to the Iliad. He founded a school of Aristarcheans at Alexandria, which continued to work on classical texts until after the beginning of the Empire. For an account of Aristarchus's Homeric studies, consult Lehrs, De Aristrirchi Studiis Homericis (Königsberg, 1882).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Aristides Quintilianus

Edition of 1905. See also Aristides Quintilianus on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ARISTIDES QUINTILIANUS (Gk. Άρωτείοης Κοϊντιλιανός, Aristeides Kointilianos). A Greek grammarian of about the First Century A.D., and author of a treatise on music which is one of the most valuable of all ancient discussions of that subject. In the first part it treats of the principles of harmonics and rhythm, as laid down by Aristoxenus, but later introduces the Neo-Platonic ideas of the moral effects of music and the connection between musical intervals and the harmony of the universe. It was originally edited by Meibomius, and in 1882 by Jahn. Consult Cäsar, Die Grundzüge der griechischen Rythmik im Anschluss an Aristeides (Marburg, 1861).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Aristides the Just

Edition of 1905. See also Aristides on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​AR'ISTI'DES (Gk. Άριστειδης), Aristeidës), called The Just (c.550-467 B.C.). An Athenian statesman. He was the son of Lysimachus, descended from one of the best families in Athens. His birth is to be placed shortly after the middle of the Sixth Century B.C. At the battle of Marathon (B.C. 490) he was one of the ten Athenian generals who held command successively, each for a single day. In the following year he was chief archon. His policy in State politics was opposed to that of the other great statesman of his time, Themistocles, and the rivalry between these two became so pronounced that the Athenians, in order to obtain quiet, finally resorted to the means of ostracism. Aristides received the necessary vote for banishment, and retired to Ægina, Athens's bitter enemy. The date of this ostracism was apparently B.C. 484. The story is told that on the day of voting, an ignorant citizen, personally unknown to the statesman, being asked why he voted against Aristides, answered; "Because he was tired of hearing him always called The Just." Four years later, when Xerxes invaded Greece, a general amnesty for all exiles was declared by Athens, and in consequence thereof Aristides joined the Athenian fleet at Salamis and took a prominent part in the battle that followed. Being thus restored to favor, he was appointed commander of the Athenian troops that fought at Platæa, in B.C. 479. In B.C. 477 he was joint commander with Cimon of the Athenian contingent in the combined Greek fleet which was engaged in driving the Persians from the Greek cities on the coast of the Ægean Sea. After the fall of Pausanias, he took the chief part in organizing the Delian League. It is said that after the battle of Platæa he carried through a law opening the archonship to the whole body of Athenian citizens. He died poor, in B.C. 467, leaving a son and two daughters. His body was carried to Athens and buried at Phalerum, at the cost of the State.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Aristarchus of Samos

Edition of 1905. See also Aristarchus of Samos on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​AR'ISTAR'CHUS (Gk. Άρίσταρχος, Aristarchos) of Samos. A celebrated ancient astronomer of the Alexandrian School, who made his observations about B.C. 280-264. All his writings have perished, excepting a short essay on the sizes and distances of the sun and the moon. In this he shows the method of estimating the relative distances of the sun and moon from the earth, from the angle formed by the two bodies at the observer's eye when the moon's phase reaches exactly the first or third quarter; i.e., when we see a half moon.
Remembering that the moon's light is simply reflected solar light, it is easy to see from the annexed figure that the three bodies must then form a right-angled triangle, with the moon at the right angle. The angle MES being then observed, we can readily calculate the ratio EM to ES. This is quite correct in theory; but the impossibility of determining when the moon is exactly half illuminated renders the method inaccurate in practice. Besides, in the days of Aristarchus there were no instruments for measuring angles with anything like accuracy. Aristarchus estimated the angle at E at 83° and determined EM to be one-twentieth of ES, the truth being that the angle at E differs only by a fraction of a minute from a right angle, and that EM. the distance of the moon from the earth, is about 1·400 of ES, the distance of the sun. According to some accounts, Aristarchus held, with the Pythagorean School, that the earth moves around the sun. Vitruvius speaks of Aristarchus as the inventor of a kind of concave sun-dial. His essay was first published in Latin (Venice, 1498), then in Greek (Oxford, 1688). and it has since been republished.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Ariste

Edition of 1905. See also Ariste on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ARISTE, a'rest'. A male character in Molière's Les femmes savantes, the common-sense brother of Chrysale. He befriends the lovers, and, through his pardonable falsehood concerning Chrysale's financial loss, exposes the knavery of Trissotin.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Aristeas (magician)

Edition of 1905. See also Aristeas (magician) on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ARISTEAS, A magician of antiquity who rose after his death, and whose soul left and reentered his body according to its pleasure. His earliest appearance is as the teacher of Homer. We also hear of him as having been born, at a period later than Homer, at Proconnesus, an island in the Propontis. He is said to have traveled through the countries north and east of the Euxine, and to have visited the Arimaspi, the Cimmierii, the Hyperborei, and other mythical nations, and after his return and subsequent disappearance to have written an epic poem in three books, called Arimaspia, a composition belonging probably to the Sixth Century B.C.. Aristeas is fabled to have entered a fuller's shop at Proconnesus and there died. Later a traveler appeared who said that he had met him on the road between Cyzicus and Artace. When the fuller's shop was entered no body was found. It was seven years after ​this strange disappearance that he reappeared at Proconnesus and wrote the Arimaspia. He then vanished once more, to reappear for the second time 240 years later at Metapontum, in Italy. He advised the people of Metapontum to build an altar to Apollo, and by its side a statue of himself, saying that he had been present, in the form of a raven, when the god founded the city. Later accounts tell other wonderful stories of Aristeas.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Aristides Ælius

Edition of 1905. See also Aelius Aristides on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ARISTIDES, ÆLius (129-189). A Greek, rhetorician, surnamed Theodorus. son of Eudemon, a priest of Zeus. He enjoyed the teaching of the most famous rhetoricians of his day, Aristocles in Pergamus and Herodes Atticus in Athens; in grammar and literature he was trained by Alexander of Cotyæum. whom he honored with a eulogy still extant. He traveled extensively in Egypt, Asia, Greece, and Italy, exhibiting his art as a speaker. While in Rome in 156 he was attacked by a severe illness, which troubled him seventeen years with slight interruptions; yet he seems to have continued his vocation in spite of it. He stood in such favor with the Emperor Marcus Aurelius that he secured the rebuilding of Smyrna at the imperial expense after its destruction by an earthquake in 178. Of his works, we have two rhetorical treatises and 55 speeches. Of these some are eulogies on deities and cities (e.g. Rome and Smyrna), others declamations like his Panathenaicus, modeled on Isocrates' oration with the same title. Interesting also are the six Sacred Speeches (ιεροἰλόγοι), which report the suggestions made by Æsculapius through his priests for the rhetorician's recovery. Edited by Dindorf (3 vols., Leipzig, 1829).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Aristeas (court officer)

Edition of 1905. See also Aristeas (court officer) on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ARIS'TEAS (Gk. Άριστέας). An officer at the court of Ptolemy Philadelphus. He is said to have been sent by the latter to Jerusalem (B.C. 273), where he obtained from the high-priest Eleazar a genuine copy of the Pentateuch and a body of seventy-two elders who could translate it into Greek. See Hody, De Bibliorum Textu Originali (Oxford, 1705); Dale, Dissertatio super Aristea (Amsterdam, 1705) . See Bible.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Aristides, Saint

Edition of 1905. See also Aristides of Athens on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ARISTIDES, Saint. A Greek Christian apologist, of the First Century, who also taught rhetoric and philosophy. He presented to the Emperor Hadrian an apology for the Christian faith, which was highly esteemed by the early Church. This work is lost, with the exception of a fragment discovered and published at Venice in 1878. His day is August 31.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Frothingham, Richard

Edition of 1906. See also Richard Frothingham, Jr. on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
FROTHINGHAM, Richard (1812-80). An American journalist and historical writer, born in Charlestown, Mass. He was a member of the State Legislature in 1839, 1840, 1842, 1849, and 1850; was Mayor of Charlestown in 1851-53; was a delegate to the National Democratic Conventions of 1851, 1852, and 1876; and from 1852 to 1865 was managing editor of the Boston Post, of which he was also for many years a proprietor. He devoted much of his time to historical study, and published, in addition to pamphlets and magazine articles, a History of Charlestown (1848); History of the Siege of Boston (1849); Life and Times of Gen. Joseph Warren (1865); and The Rise of the Republic of the United States (1871), his most important work.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Fröbel, Julius

Edition of 1906. See also Julius Fröbel on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
FRÖBEL, Julius (1805-93). A German writer and politician, nephew of Friedrich Fröbel. After studying at Munich, Weimar, and Berlin, he went to Switzerland, and in 1833 became professor of mineralogy in the university of Zurich. In the interests of the extreme Radical Party, he edited Der schweizerische Republikaner. In 1844 he established a publishing house at Zurich, and issued several scientific works and many political pamphlets. Some of his works were suppressed by the Government. In 1846 he took up his residence in Dresden, until the Revolution of 1848, when he became a leader of the Democrats and a member of the National Assembly at Frankfort-on-the-Main. He accompanied Robert Blum to Vienna, and was arrested and sentenced to death, but was pardoned by Windischgrätz. After the dissolution of the Parliament he came to the United States; edited a German paper in New York; went, in 1850, to Nicaragua, and afterwards engaged in one or two commercial expeditions to Santa Fé and Chihuahua. In 1855 he edited a journal in San Francisco, and in 1857 returned to Germany. From 1862 to 1873 he edited newspapers in Vienna and Munich. He was German consul at Smyrna from 1873 to 1876, and at Algiers from 1876 to 1889. He retired from active life in 1890. His works include: Aus Amerika (1857-58), translated by himself in 1859 under the title of Seven Years' Travel in Central America, Northern Mexico, and the Far West; Die Wirtschaft des Menschengeschlechts (1870-76); and Ein Lebenslauf (1890-91), his autobiography.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Fuero, Joaquin

Edition of 1906. See also Joaquín Fuero on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
FUERO, Joaquin (1814-67). A Mexican soldier. He was born at Guadalupe Hidalgo, and was educated at the Military College of Segovia, at which he subsequently became professor and vice-president. After suppressing the insurrection of 1840 he was, in 1843, appointed chief of staff of the army division in Tamaulipas, and also fought with distinction in the war with the United States, and received a wound from which he ultimately died. Besides a Spanish translation of General Makenna's Treatise on Military Tactics, he published a Manual del militar, ó tratado completo de instrucción en la ordenanza (1842).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Fuerteventura

Edition of 1906. See also Fuerteventura on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
FUERTEVENTURA fwâr'tắ-vĕn-tōō'rȧ. One of the Canary Islands (q.v.), situated south of Lanzarote, across the Straits of Bacayna (Map: Spain, B 5). Its area is over 650 square miles. There are a number of extinct volcanoes, with a maximum elevation reaching 2800 feet. The soil is only slightly productive, the larger portion being best adapted for grazing. Tree-growth is almost entirely lacking except in the case of a few fruit and nut trees. Population, in 1900, 11,662. Cabras, on the east coast, has a good harbor.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Frothingham, Octavius Brooks

Edition of 1906. See also Octavius Brooks Frothingham on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
FROTH'INGHAM, Octavius Brooks (1822-95). An American Unitarian clergyman. He was born in Boston, November 26, 1822, a son of Rev. Nathaniel Langdon Frothingham. He was graduated at Harvard College in 1843, at the Cambridge Divinity School in 1846, and was settled as pastor of the North Church (Unitarian), Salem, Mass., in 1847. In 1855 he became minister of a church in Jersey City, N. J., where he remained four years. In 1859 he accepted a call to the pastorate of the newly formed Third Unitarian Congregational Church in New York, and remained at that post for twenty years, when ill health compelled his resignation. From the beginning he belonged to the most radical wing of the Unitarians, and the name of his church was finally changed from the ‘Third Unitarian’ to the ‘First Independent Liberal Church of New York,’ the connection with the Unitarian denomination being thereby sundered. After 1881 he resided in Boston, and devoted himself to literary work. He died November 27, 1895. Frothingham was one of the founders of the ‘Free Religious Association,’ and its president for the first twelve years of its existence. He ranked high as a scholar, and as a preacher was impressive and eloquent. He contributed largely to the periodical press, on a great variety of subjects, and published more than two hundred sermons. Other works worthy of mention are: A translation of Renan's Studies of Religious History and Criticism (1864); History of Transcendentalism in New England (1876); History of Boston Unitarianism from 1820 to 1850, including a memoir of his father (1890); and lives of Theodore Parker (1874), Gerrit Smith (1878), George Ripley (1882), William Henry Channing (1886), and David Atwood Wasson (1889).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Frémont, Jules Joseph Taschereau

Edition of 1906. See also Jules-Joseph-Taschereau Frémont on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
FRÉMONT, frắ'môN', Jules Joseph Taschereau (1855—). A Canadian author, born in Quebec, appointed professor of civil law in Laval University in 1893. From 1891 to 1896 he was a member of the Dominion Parliament. His publications include Le divorce et la séparation de corps, and a Compendium of the Dominion Laws of Canada.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Frémy, Edmond

Edition of 1906. See also Edmond Frémy on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
FRÉMY, frắ'mḗ', Edmond (1814-94). A French chemist, born in Versailles. He became professor of chemistry at the Polytechnic School, Paris, in 1846. In 1864 he founded, with Chevreul, a free laboratory at the Museum of Natural Sciences, of which institution he became director in 1879. His researches extended to almost every branch of chemistry. In addition to numerous treatises in the Annales de Chimie et de Physique, he published Traité de chimie générale (7 vols., 3d ed. 1862-65). The Encyclopédie Chimique, a work in 10 volumes, upon which he was engaged for thirteen years, was prepared by him in collaboration with several distinguished scientists, and was completed in 1894.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Fuertes, Estevan Antonio

Edition of 1906. See also Estevan Antonio Fuertes on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
FUERTES, fwâr'tắs, Estevan Antonio (1838-1903). An American civil engineer and educator, born at San Juan, Porto Rico. He graduated at the Troy (N. Y.) Polytechnic Institute in 1857, became a member of the royal corps of engineers in Puerto Rico, and in 1862-63 was director of public works for the western district of the island. In 1863 and 1864 he was assistant engineer, from 1864 to 1869 engineer on the Croton Aqueduct Board, and in the latter capacity
prepared a valuable report on the connection of the Croton water-supply with the manufactures of New York City. In 1870-71 he was the engineer-in-chief of the United States expedition to Tehuantepec and Nicaragua, to investigate the practicability of a trans-isthmian ship-canal. He became dean of the department of civil engineering in Cornell University in 1873, and from 1890 to 1902 was director of the college of civil engineering, and obtained for Cornell an excellent special equipment for this work. He was a member of the American Society of Civil Engineers and other learned organizations, and published numerous scientific articles and reports.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Kinkajou

Edition of 1905. See also Kinkajou on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
KINK'AJOU (probably local native name), or Potto. A South American tropical carnivore (Cercoleptes caudivovulus) of the raccoon family (Procyonidæ), formerly classed with lemurs on account of its woolly aspect, monkey-like dexterity, and strong prehensile tail. Its body is about 18 inches long, and its tail 12 inches; and it is clothed in soft fur, uniform yellowish-brown in color, giving it a lemur-like prettiness, which, with its tamability, makes the little animal an attractive pet. It feeds on the eggs and young of birds, small animals, insects, honey and bees, fruits, and the like; and uses its fore paws with a deftness almost equal to that of a monkey. It is found from Central Mexico to Southern Brazil.
# The New International Encyclopædia/King, Jonas

Edition of 1905. See also Jonas King on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
KING, Jonas (1792-1869). An American missionary. He was born at Hawley, Mass., July 29, 1792, educated at Williams College and Andover Seminary, and engaged in home mission work. To prepare himself for the foreign field he studied Arabic in Paris under De Sacy. From 1822 till 1828 he held the position of professor of Oriental languages in Amherst College, but during the years 1823-25 traveled in the East distributing Bibles and preaching. In 1828 he went to Greece, where his missionary labors at first met with much success. Later he aroused the hostility of the Greek Church, was several times tried on charges of reviling religion and the Church, and even brought in danger of his life. He died at Athens, May 22, 1869. His miscellaneous works in Greek were published at Athens (1859-60). In English he wrote The Oriental Church and the Latin (1865). Consult his life by F. E. H. H. (New York, 1879).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Kinley, David

Edition of 1905. See also David Kinley on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
KIN'LEY, David (1861—). An American economist, born in Dundee, Scotland. He graduated in 1884 at Yale, studied in the University of Wisconsin, and afterwards became professor of economics in the University of Illinois. His publications include: The Independent Treasury of the United States (1893), and a valuable report to the Comptroller of the Currency on The Use of Credit Paper in Our Currency, published in the Report of the Comptroller for the year 1896.