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# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Abbey of Dissentis

From volume 5 of the work.
A Benedictine monastery in the Canton Grisons in eastern Switzerland, dedicated to Our Lady of Mercy. Tradition ascribes its foundation to Sts. Placid and Sigebert, in the year 614, but Mabillon places the date two years earlier. The history of the abbey has been somewhat chequered, but it has at times risen to positions of great importance and influence. It was destroyed by the Avars in 670, when its abbot and thirty monks suffered martyrdom, but was rebuilt by Charles Martel and Abbot Pirminius in 711. Charlemagne visited the abbey on his return journey from Rome in 800 and bestowed upon it many benefactions. Abbot Udalric I (1031-1055) was the first of its superiors to be made a prince of the empire, which dignity was subsequently held by several other of its abbots; many of them also became bishops of the neighbouring sees. In 1581 the abbey was honoured by a visit from St. Charles Borromeo. After enjoying independence for a thousand years it was incorporated into the newly formed Swiss Congregation in 1617, since which date it has, in common with the other five Benedictine abbeys of Switzerland, been subject to the jurisdiction of the president of that Congregation. In 1799 it was burned and plundered by the soldiers of Napoleon's army, when amongst other valuable treasures, a seventh century manuscript chronicle of the abbey perished. The printing press that had been set up in 1729 was also destroyed at the same time, but much of the melted type and other metal was saved and from it were made the pipes of the organ of St. Martin's church at Dissentis, which is still in use. The abbey was rebuilt by Abbot Anselm Huonder, the last of its superiors to enjoy the rank and title of Prince of the Empire. During the nineteenth century the monastery suffered greatly from misfortunes of various kinds, and so great was the relaxation of discipline in consequence that its recovery was almost despaired of. Abbot Paul Birker came from his abbey of St. Boniface at Munich to assist in restoring regular observance, but so little success attended his efforts that he left Dissentis in 1861 and returned to Munich as a simple monk. The abbey has, however, survived those evil times and is in a satisfactory and flourishing condition. Dom Benedict Prevost, the eightieth who has ruled over its fortunes, was abbot in 1908 of a community of between thirty and forty monks, who, among their other duties, served five public oratories and conducted successfully a gymnasium of nearly a hundred boys.
Mabillon, Annales Ordinis Sancti Benedicti (Paris, 1703-1739); Yepez, Chronicon Generale Ord. S. P. N. Benedicti (Cologne, 1603); Brunner, Ein Benediktinerbuch (Würzburg, 1880); Album Benedictinum (St. Vincent's, Penn., 1880).
G. CYPRIAN ALSTON
# Castaldi v. United States/Concurrence Black

* Court Documents
* Case Syllabus
* Opinion of the Court
* Concurring Opinion Black
United States Supreme Court
384 U.S. 886
Castaldi v. United States
Mr. Justice BLACK concurs in the result.
Mr. Justice HARLAN dissents for the reasons stated in his opinion in Cheff v. Schnackenberg, 384 U.S. 373, at 380, 86 S.Ct. 1537, 16 L.Ed.2d 629, at 634.

## Notes

This work is in the public domain in the United States because it is a work of the United States federal government (see 17 U.S.C. 105).
Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse
# Castaldi v. United States/Opinion of the Court

* Court Documents
* Case Syllabus
* Opinion of the Court
* Concurring Opinion Black
United States Supreme Court
384 U.S. 886
Castaldi v. United States
The petitions for writs of certiorari are granted. The judgments are vacated and the cases are remanded to the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York for further proceedings in the light of Shillitani v. United States, 384 U.S. 364, 86 S.Ct. 1531, 16 L.Ed.2d 622.

## Notes

This work is in the public domain in the United States because it is a work of the United States federal government (see 17 U.S.C. 105).
Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse
# Castaway

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* Castaway, in Easton's Bible Dictionary (1897)
* The Castaway, by William Cowper
* The Castaway, by Hallie Erminie Rives
* The Castaway, by Rabindranath Tagore
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Mayan

​Mayan.— Recorded, in the Madras Census Report, as a synonym of Kammālan. The Kamsali goldsmiths claim descent from Maya.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Meda

​Mēda (raised mound). — An exogamous sept of Padma Sālē.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Mehtar

​Mehtar.— A few Mehtars are returned, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as a Central Provinces caste of scavengers. " This name," Yule and Burnell write, § " is usual in Bengal, especially for the domestic ​servant of this class. The word is Pers., comp. mihtar (Lat. major), a great personage, a prince, and has been applied to the class in question in irony, or rather in consolation. But the name has so completely adhered in this application, that all sense of either irony or consolation has perished. Mehtar is a sweeper, and nought else. His wife is the Matranee. It is not unusual to hear two Mehtars hailing each other as Mahārāj! "
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Menasu

​Menasu (pepper or chillies). — An exogamous sept of Kuruba, and gōtra of Kurni.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Medam

​Medam (fight). — An exogamous sept of Dēvānga.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Mettu Kamsali

​Mettu Kamsali.— A synonym of Ojali blacksmith. Mettu means shoes or sandals.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Meikāval

​Meikāval (body-guard of the god). — A name for Pandārams.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Mhāllo

​Mhāllo. — A name for Konkani barbers.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Mellikallu

​Mellikallu. — Under the name Mellikallu or Mallekalu, seventy-six individuals are returned, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as "hill cultivators in Pedakōta village of Vīravalli tāluk of the Vizagapatam Agency, who are reported to constitute a caste by them- selves. They pollute by touch, have their own priests, and eat pork but not beef."
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Meria

​Meria.— At the Madras Census, 1901, twenty-five individuals returned themselves as Meria or Merakāya. They were descendants of persons who were reserved for human (Meriah) sacrifice, but rescued by Government officials in the middle of the last century.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Franciscus Sonnius

From volume 14 of the work.
Theologian, b. at Zon in Brabant, 12 August, 1506; d. at Antwerp, 30 June, 1576. His real name was Van de Velde, but in later years he called himself after his native place. He went to school at Bois-le-Duc and Louvain, and afterwards studied medicine for a time, then theology; in 1536 he received the licentiate and in 1539 the doctorate in theology. After labouring for a short time as a parish priest at Meerbeek and Louvain, he became professor of theology at Louvain in 1544, and attended the Council of Trent in 1546, 1547, and 1551. He was sent to the council first by Bishop Karl de Croy van Doornik, then by Maria of Hungary, the regent of the Netherlands. In 1557 he also took an active part in the religious disputation of Worms. Not long after this Philip II sent him to Rome to negotiate with Paul IV in regard to ecclesiastical matters in the Netherlands, especially as to increasing the number of dioceses and separating the Belgian monasteries from the German, as in the latter heresy was rapidly spreading. In acknowledgment of his successful labours he was appointed Bishop of Bois-le-Duc in 1566, but he was not consecrated until two years later, by Cardinal Granvella. In 1569 he was appointed the first Bishop of Antwerp and in the following year came into possession of his diocese. He did much to strengthen the Church, founding an ecclesiastical court and personally visiting all the parishes of his diocese. He proclaimed at once the decisions of the Council of Trent and established regular meetings of the deaneries. As Bishop of Antwerp, he held two diocesan synods, setting an example that exerted influence far beyond the boundaries of the archbishopric of Mechlin. He showed particular zeal in combatting the errors of Calvinism and wrote for this purpose a clear summary of its teachings for the use of the clergy, under the title "Succincta demonstratio errorum confessionis Calvinistae recenter per has regiones sparsae" (Louvain, 1567). He also wrote a textbook of dogmatics: "Demonstrationum religionis christianae libri tres" (Antwerp, 1564), to which in 1577, after his death, a fourth book was added, "De sacramentis". In 1616 the cathedral chapter and the city erected a monument to him.
GILS AND COPPENS, Nieuwe beschrijving van het bisdom van's Bosch, I (Bois-le-Duc, 1840), 218; Allge. deutsche Biog., XXXIV.
PATRICIUS SCHLAGER
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Franz Georg Benkert

From volume 2 of the work.
German theologian and historical writer, b. 25 September, 1790, at Nordheim, near the mountain district of Rhon, Germany; d. 20 May, 1859, at Coburg. After finishing his studies at the gymnasium in Münnerstadt he studied theology at Würzburg and was ordained priest in 1816. He was first a curate at Gaurettersheim and in 1821, was made vice-principal of the theological seminary at Würzburg. While holding these positions Benkert continued his studies. In 1823 he received a doctorate, having offered the dissertation: "De Duplici Missâ Catechumenorum et Fidelium". From 1823 to 1838 he had the position of principal and in 1838 he was made a cathedral canon and cathedral dean.
At that time, in common with the ecclesiastics of other diocese, the clergy of the Diocese of Würzburg suffered greatly from the religious disease of the age, "Josephinism", and were inclined to a sickly and enervating rationalism. The destructive effects of these rationalistic tendencies showed themselves everywhere in the life of the Church. Even when acting as vice-principal Benkert showed himself deserving of much praise in that he sought to reawaken in the younger clergy the spirit of the Church and to cultivate in them an interest, and a knowledge of, the old theological schools. In 1822 he founded the periodical: "Der Religionsfreund für Katholiken mit Beiträgen religiös gesinnter Manner". He issued the periodical in the desire to increase the influence of his efforts and also to win over the older ecclesiastics.
The periodical appeared in six volumes, 1822-26. It attracted much attention and was copied in France in the "Ami de la Religion". In connection with G. J. Saffenrevter he issued, 1828-40, a continuation of this, his first, periodical, entitled: "Allgemeiner Religions- und Kirchenfreund und Kirchenkorrespondent, eine theologische und kirchenhistorische Zeitschrift". At the same time he published, 1828-34, a periodical entitled "Athanasia, eine theologische Zeitschrift, besonders für die gesamte Pastoral, für Kirchengeschichte, auch für Pädagogik". This appeared in sixteen volumes. He continued the same publication from 1835 to 1840 in connection with J. M. Düx. As Benkert was more apt to be swayed by his zeal for the right than by prudence, he made many enemies, especially among the older clergy. He therefore severed his connection with his periodicals in 1840, and devoted himself to the study of the history of his native district. His historical writings have only a local interest. A larger and more important work which he undertook on the Rhön was never completed.
Kerz, Litteraturzeitung (1824), II, 101 sqq.
PATRICIUS SCHLAGER
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Franz Burkard

From volume 3 of the work.
The name of two celebrated German jurists. One died suddenly at Rain, 9 December 1539. He began to teach canon law at the University of Ingoldstadt in 1519, where he stoutly opposed every endeavor to introduce Lutheranism. In the trial which sentenced Andreas Seehofer, who had taught the new doctrine, to retire to a monastery, Franz and his brother Peter, a professor at the same institution, were the chief prosecutors. As this action was resented by the Lutherans, he defended himself before the university with John Eck and Hauer. The other d. at Bonn, 6 August, 1584. For many years he served the Bavarian chancellor, August Loesch of Petersdorf, as legal advisor. Later the Elector of Cologne, Ernest of Bavaria, made him his private counsellor and chancellor. His stanch defence of Catholicity merited the praise of Blessed Peter Canisius. To quell the religious war resulting from the declaration of tolerance for Protestant worship, a volume over his name, "De Autonomiâ", appeared at Munich in 1586. Its real author, the private secretary of the king, Andreas Erstenberger, in order to save his name, position, and family, was induced by William V of Bavaria to conceal his identity behind the name of the deceased Burkard, as Rudolph II would not countenance any opposition to the Protestants. The book was bitterly assailed by Protestants, but its main positions have not been refuted.
PRANTL, Geschichte der Universität in Ingoldstadt, etc., I, passim; SCHREIBER, Geschichte Bayerns, II, 587; JANNSEN, Geschichte des deutschen Volkes, V, 421-428.
THOS. M. SCHWERTNER
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Franz Christian Gau

From volume 6 of the work.
Architect and archæologist, b. at Cologne, 15 June, 1790; d. at Paris, January, 1854. In 1809 he entered the Académie des Beaux-Arts, Paris, and in 1815 visited Italy and Sicily. In 1817 he went to Nubia, and while there he made drawings and measurements of all the more important monuments of that country, his ambition being to produce a work which should supplement the great work of the French expedition in Egypt. The result of his labours appeared in a folio volume (Stuttgart and Paris, 1822), entitled "Antiquitiés de la Nubie ou monuments inédits des bords du Nil, situés entre la premiére et la seconde cataracte, dessinés et mesurés in 1819". It consists of sixty-eight plates, of plans, sections, and views, and has been received as an authority. His next publication was the completion of Mazois's work on the ruins of Pompeii. In 1825 Gau was naturalized as a French citizen, and later became architect to the city of Paris. He directed the restoration of the churches of Sain-Julien-le-Pauvre, and Saint-Séverin, and built the great prison of La Roquette, etc. With his name also is associated the revival of Gothic architecture in Paris - he having designed and commenced, in 1846, the erection of the church of Sainte-Clotilde, the first modern church erected in the capital in that style. Illness compelled him to relinquish the care of supervising the work, and he died before its completion.
Imperial Dict. Univ. Biog., s.v.; Michaud, Biog. Univ., s.v.
THOMAS H. POOLE
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Claudia

From volume 4 of the work.
(Klaudia), a Christian woman of Rome, whose greeting to Timothy St. Paul conveys with those of Eubulus, Pudens, Linus, "and all the brethren" (II Tim., iv, 21). Evidently, Claudia was quite prominent in the Roman community. The Linus mentioned in the text is identified by St. Irenaeus (Adv. haer., III, iii, 3) with the successor of St. Peter as Bishop of Rome; and in the "Apost. Const." VII, 46, he is called the son of Claudia, Linos ho Klaudias, which seems to imply that Claudia was at least as well known as Linus. It has been attempted to prove that she was the wife of Pudens, mentioned by St. Paul; and, further, to identify her with Claudia Rufina, the wife of Aulus Pudens who was the friend of Martial (Martial, Epigr., IV, 13; XI, 54). According to this theory Claudia would be a lady of British birth, probably the daughter of King Cogidubnus. Unfortunately there is not sufficient evidence to make this identification more than possibly true.
W.S. REILLY
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Claudiopolis (2)

From volume 4 of the work.
A titular see of Bithynia, in Asia Minor. Strabo (XII, 4, 7) mentions a town, Bithynium (Claudiopolis), celebrated for its pastures and cheese. According to Pausanias (VIII, 9) it was founded by Arcadians from Mantinea. As is shown by its coins, it was commonly called Claudiopolis after Claudius. It was the birthplace of Antinous, the favourite of Hadrian, who was very generous to the city; afterwards his name was added to that of Claudius on the coins of the city. Theodosius II (408-50) made it the capital of a new province, formed at the expense of Bithynia and Paphlagonia, and called by him Honorias in honour of the Emperor honorius. Claudiopolis was the religious metropolis of the province (so in all "Notitiae episcopatuum"). Lequien (I, 567) mentions twenty titulars of the see to the thirteenth century; the first is St. Autonomus, said to have suffered martyrdom under Diocletian; we may add Ignatius, a friend and correspondent of Photius. The Turkish name for Claudiopolis is Bolou or Boli. It is now the chief town of a sanjak in the vilayet of Castamouni, with 10,000 inhabitants (700 Greeks, 400 Armenians, few Catholics). The town is on the Filias Sou (River Billaeus). There are no important ruins, but many ancient fragments of friezes, cornices, funeral cippi, and stelae.
Texier, Asie Mineure, 149; Perrot, Galatie et Bithynie, 42-45; Cuinet, Turrquie d'Asie, IV, 508 sq.; Smith, Dict. of Gr. and Rom. Geogr. (London, 1878), s.v. Bithynium.
S. Pétridès.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Clazomenae

From volume 4 of the work.
A titular see of Asia Minor. The city had been first founded on the southern shore of the Ionian Sea (now Gulf of Smyrna), about 15 miles from Smyrna; it was one of the twelve cities of the Ionian Confederation, and reached the acme of its importance under the Lydian kings. After the death of Croesus its inhabitants, through fear of the Persians, took refuge on the island opposite their town (today St. John's Isle), which was joined to the mainland by Alexander the Great; the pier has been restored and is yet used as means of communication between the modern Vourla and the island, on which there is now an important quarantine hospital. Clazomenae is the birthplace of the philosophers Hermotimus and Anaxagoras. The see was a suffragan Ephesus. Lequien (I, 729) mentions two bishops: Eusebius, present at Ephesus and chalcedon, in 431 and 451; and Macarius, at the Eighth Ecumenical Council, in 869. When Smyrna was raised to the rank of a metropolis (perhaps as early as the sixth century) Clazomenae was attached to it, as is shown by Parthey's "Notitiae", 3 and 10. In 1387 it was given again to Ephesus by a synodal act of the patriarch Nilus (Miklosich and Müller, "Acta Patriarchatus Constantinopol.", II, 103). After this date there is no apparent trace of its history; nothing remains of the city except the ancient pier.
S. Pétridès.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Claude de Sainctes

From volume 13 of the work.
French controversialist, b. at Perche, 1525; d. at Crèvecoeur, 1591. At the age of fifteen he joined the Canons Regular of Saint-Cheron, and was sent to the College of Navarre in Paris, where he received the degree of Doctor of Theology (1555) On account of the erudition of his early works and the aptitude which he showed for controversy, he was called to the Conference of Poissy held in 1561 between the Catholics and the Huguenots, at which Theodore of Beza and Father Lainez, general of the Jesuits, were present. He was afterwards deputed to the Council of Trent to represent, with Simon Vigor, the University of Paris. Upon his return he acquired a notable reputation by his sermons and his discussions with Protestants. He published a work against their spoliation of Catholic churches and a vigorous declaration against the doctrines of Calvin and Theodore of Beza; the latter replied and drew upon himself a new attack from Claude de Sainctes. At the same time he charged the King of France by his treatise on "L'ancien naturel des Français" never to tolerate heretics and against these latter he defended the dogma of the Church by an exhaustive treatise on the Eucharist. Through the patronage of the Cardinal of Lorraine, he was appointed to the Bishopric of Evreux (1575). He was very zealous in his efforts to convert Protestants. He assisted at the provincial Council of Rouen (1581) and published its records in French. When the League became active he took sides with it and worked to gain partisans, but the royal troops took possession of Evreux and the bishop was forced to flee. Unfortunately for him there were found among his papers writings in which he approved the murder of Henry III and maintained that one could likewise kill his successor. Arrested and arraigned before the Parlement of Caen, he was condemned to death as guilty of high treason. At the request of the Cardinal of Bourbon and of several bishops, Henry IV commuted his sentence to life imprisonment, and he was confined in the château of Crèvecoeur where he died two months later. His works were published, some in Latin and others in French. The more important are: "Liturgiae sive missae SS. Patrum Jacobi, Basilii J. Chrysostomi" (Greek-Latin, Paris, 1560); "Discours sur le saccagement des églises catholiques par les hérétiques anciens et nouveaux calvinistes" (Paris, 1562); "Traité de l'ancien naturel des Français en la religion chrétienne" (Paris, 1567); "Déclaration d'anciens athéismes de la doctrine de Calvin et de Bèze contre les premiers fondements de la chrétienté" (Paris, 1567); "De rebus Eucharistiae controversis libri X" (Paris, 1575).
DUPIN, Hist.des auteurs ecclesiastiques du XVIe siecle, IV (Paris, 1703), 539; HURTER, Nomencl.
Antoine Degert.