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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Newton, John (English divine)

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​NEWTON, JOHN (1725–1807), English divine, was born in London on the 24th of July 1725 (O.S.). His father, who for a long time was master of a ship in the Mediterranean trade, became in 1748 governor of York Fort, Hudson Bay, where he died in 1751. The lad had little education and served on his father’s ship from 1737 to 1742; shortly afterwards he was impressed on board a man-of-war, the “Harwich,” where he was made a midshipman. For an attempt to escape while his ship lay off Plymouth he was degraded, and treated with so much severity that he gladly exchanged into an African trader. He made many voyages as mate and then as master on slave-trading ships, devoting his leisure to the improvement of his education. The state of his health and perhaps a growing distaste for the slave trade led him to quit the sea in 1755, when he was appointed tide-surveyor at Liverpool. He began to study Greek and Hebrew, and in 1758 applied to the archbishop of York for ordination. This was refused him, but, having had the curacy of Olney offered to him in April 1764 he was ordained by the bishop of Lincoln. In October 1767 William Cowper settled in the parish. An intimate friendship sprang up between the two men, and they published together the Olney Hymns (1779). In 1779 Newton left Olney to become rector of St Mary Woolnoth, London, where he laboured with unceasing diligence and great popularity till his death on the 31st of December 1807.
Like Cowper, Newton held Calvinistic views, although his evangelical fervour allied him closely with the sentiments of Wesley and the Methodists. His fame rests on certain of the Olney Hymns (e.g. “Glorious things of Thee are spoken,” “How sweet the name of Jesus sounds,” “One there is above all others,”) remarkable for vigour, simplicity and directness of devotional utterance.
His prose works include an Authentic Narrative of some Interesting and Remarkable Particulars in the Life of John Newton (1764), a volume of Sermons (1767), Omicron (a series of letters on religion, 1774), Review of Ecclesiastical History (1769) and Cardiphonia (1781). This last was a further selection of religious correspondence, which did much to help the Evangelical revival. Thomas Scott, William Wilberforce, Charles Simeon, William Jay and Hannah More all came under his direct influence. His Letters to a Wife (1793) and Letters to Rev. W. Bull (posthumous, 1847) illustrate the frankness with which he exposed his most intimate personal experiences. A Life of Newton by Richard Cecil was prefixed to a collected edition of his works (6 vols., 1808; 1 vol. 1827). See also T. Wright, The Town of Cowper.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Trapeze

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​ TRAPEZE, or Trapese, a form of swing, consisting of a crossbar suspended by ropes and used for gymnastic exercises, acrobatic displays and the like. The name was so applied in French (trapèze) from the resemblance of the apparatus to a "trapezium" or irregular four-sided figure. The Greek τραπέζιον is a diminutive of τράπεζα, a table, literally a four-footed or four-legged object, being a shortened form of τετράπεζα (τετρα-, four, and πέζα, foot).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Trasimene, Lake

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​ TRASIMENE, LAKE (Lat. Trasumenus Lacus; Ital. Lago Trasimeno), a lake of Umbria, Italy, 12 m. W. from Perugia, 843 ft. above sea-level, 50 m. in circumference, and ​8 m. to 14 m. across. Having no natural outlet, it was formerly subject to sudden rises, which occasioned inundations, and these in turn malaria. An artificial outlet was completed in 1898 from the south-east corner of the lake to the Caina, a small tributary of the Tiber. The work, which is about 4 m. long, cost only about £26,000. It is intended to leave about 2500 acres of land dry, and to convert another 2800 acres of marshy soil into cultivable land. The lake contains three small islands: Isola Maggiore, with a monastery, Isola Minore and Isola Polvese. Standing on a promontory jutting out into the lake is the town of Castiglione del Lago, which possesses a castle of the dukes of Cornia, built by Galeazzo Alessi, the architect of many of the Genoese palaces. Napoleon I. formed a project for draining the lake, which may ultimately be adopted. Here Hannibal disastrously defeated the consul C. Flaminius. Hannibal left his winter quarters in Cisalpine Gaul in the spring of 217 B.C. and crossed the Apennines, probably by the pass now known as the Passo dei Mandrioli (from Forlì to Bibbiena in the upper valley of the Arno). His march was much hindered by marshes (probably those in the Arno valley between Bibbiena and Arezzo). The Roman army under Flaminius was stationed at Arezzo (anc. Arretium), and Hannibal marched past it. Flaminius followed, and Hannibal occupied the heights on the north of the lake between Terontola and Tuoro, commanding the road from Cortona to Perugia, and also those on the east of Tuoro, so that when the Roman army (which had encamped the night before outside the entrance to the small valley of the brook now called Sanguineto, west of Tuoro), unable in the mists of early morning to see the enemy’s forces, had entered the valley, it was surrounded and there was no escape except by forcing a passage. The vanguard succeeded in making their egress on the east by Passignano, but the defeat of the rest of the army was complete, the Romans losing no fewer than 15,000 men.
See T. Ashby in Journal of Philology (1908), and refs.  (T. As.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Trautenau

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​TRAUTENAU (Czech Trutňov), a town of Bohemia, 120 m. E.N.E. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900), 14,777, mostly German. It is situated on the Aupa, a tributary of the Elbe, at the foot of the Riesengebirge, and possesses a beautiful church built in 1283 and restored in 1768. Trautenau is the centre of the Bohemian linen industry and has factories for the manufacture of paper and for the utilization of the waste products of the other mills. Trautenau was founded by German colonists invited to settle there by King Otto Kar II. of Bohemia, and received a charter as a town in 1340. It was the scene of two battles between the Prussians and Austrians on the 27th and the 28th of June 1866.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Traun, Otto Ferdinand, Count von Abensperg und

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​TRAUN, OTTO FERDINAND, Count von Abensperg und (1677–1748), Austrian field marshal, came of a noble family and was born on the 27th of August 1677 at Oldenburg. He was sent to Halle to complete his education, but in 1693 left the university to serve with the Prussian contingent of the allied army in the Low Countries. He saw much service in the War of the Grand Alliance, and at its close entered the imperial army. The War of the Spanish Succession soon followed, and Traun served with distinction in Italy and on the Rhine till 1709, when he became lieutenant-colonel and aide-de-camp to Field Marshal Count Guido Starhemberg (1654–1737) in Spain. A year later, for specially distinguished services, he was made colonel, and in 1712 chief of a regiment of foot. Soon after the close of the war he was again actively employed, and at the action of Francavilla in Sicily (June 20, 1719) he received a severe wound. For his services in this campaign in southern Italy he was promoted General-Feldwachtmeister in 1723. In 1727 he became governor of Messina, and in 1733 attained the rank of lieutenant field marshal. In 1734 he won a European reputation by his defence first of the pass of S. Germano and then of the half-ruined fortress of Capua, which he surrendered, marching out with the honours of war on the 30th of November. He was at once promoted Feldzeugmeister and employed in a difficult semi-political command in Hungary, after which he was made commander-in-chief in north Italy and interim governor-general of the Milanese, in which capacity he received the homage of the army and civil authorities on the accession of Maria Theresa in 1740. In the following year he was made a field-marshal. The Italian campaigns of the War of the Austrian Succession were successfully conducted by him up to 1743, when, on the death of Field-Marshal Count Khevenhüller (q.v.), he was made the principal military adviser of Prince Charles of Lorraine (q.v.), who commanded the Austrians in Bohemia and on the Danube. In this capacity he inspired the brilliant operations which led up to the passage of the Rhine (see Austrian Succession, War of the) and the skilful strategy whereby Frederick of Prussia was forced to evacuate Bohemia and Moravia (1744) without a battle. Traun's last active service was the command of an army which was sent to Frankfurt to influence the election of a new emperor to succeed Charles VII. He died at Hermannstadt on the 18th of February 1748.
See Biographien k. k. Heerführer, herausgegeben v. d. Direktion des k. und k. Kriegsarchiv; Thürheim, F. M. Otto Ferdinand, Graf v. Abensperg und Traun.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Traunstein

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​TRAUNSTEIN, a town and summer resort of Bavaria, situated, at an elevation of nearly 2000 ft., on the river Traun, 73 m. by rail S.E. of Munich. Pop. (1905), 7447. It distils salt from the brine of Reichenhall, whence (22 m. distant) it is brought in pipes. It has an historical museum, four churches (three of which are Roman Catholic), two fine fountains—a monument of the war of 1870–71 and one to King Maximilian II. There are saline baths and breweries. In the vicinity are Empling, with baths of all kinds and a cold water cure establishment on the Kneipp system. Traunstein received civic rights in 1375.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Traquair, Sir John Stewart, 1st Earl of

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​ TRAQUAIR, SIR JOHN STEWART, 1st Earl of (d. 1659), Scottish statesman, was the son of John Stewart, the younger, of Traquair in Peeblesshire, of a branch, originally illegitimate, of the house of Buchan, and was created Baron Stewart of Traquair in 1628 and earl of Traquair in 1633. He was appointed treasurer depute of Scotland and an extraordinary lord of session in 1630, and is said to have given the casting vote against the second Lord Balmerino at his trial in 1634, but afterwards obtained his pardon. From 1636 to 1641 he held the office of lord high treasurer of Scotland, and aided Charles I. in introducing the liturgy. He endeavoured to prevent a conflict by impressing on the king the necessity of caution and the danger of extreme measures against the rioters. He was, however, compelled to publish Charles's proclamation enforcing the use of the liturgy and forbidding hostile demonstrations on pain of treason (1638). This was followed by military measures in which Traquair assisted by secretly conveying munitions of war to Dalkeith Palace. He was, however, obliged to surrender the place with the regalia to the Covenanters (March 1639). After the treaty of Berwick he was appointed the king's commissioner to the assembly at Edinburgh (August 1639), and he assented in writing to the act abolishing episcopacy, but prevented its ratification by adjourning the opening of parliament. His apparent double-dealing made him suspected by both parties, and in 1641 the Scottish parliament issued a warrant for his arrest. In his absence he was sentenced to death, but, although the king secured the remission of this penalty, he was dismissed from his office of treasurer, and in 1644, for repairing to the court and opposing the covenant, he was declared an enemy to religion and fined 40,000 marks. His son, Lord Linton, whom he had sent to Montrose with a troop of horse, withdrew on the eve of the battle of Philiphaugh (September 1645) and it has been supposed that Traquair betrayed Montrose's plans to Leslie. He was readmitted to parliament in 1646, raised cavalry for the “engagement” between the king and the Covenanters, and was captured at Preston (1648). He was released by Cromwell in 1654, and died on the 27th of March 1659. He was succeeded by his only son John (c. 1622-1666), whose descendants held the title until 1861, when on the death of Charles, the 8th earl, it became dormant or extinct.
See also Spalding, Memorialls (Spalding Club); Sir James Balfour, Annals (ed. Haig, 1824); Dict. Nat. Biog. vol. liv.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Trass

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​TRASS, the local name of a volcanic tuff occurring in the Eifel, where it is worked for hydraulic mortar. It is a grey or cream coloured fragmental rock, largely composed of pumiceous dust, and may be regarded as a trachytic tuff. It much resembles the Italian puzzolana and is applied to like purposes. Mixed with lime and sand, or with Portland cement, it is extensively employed for hydraulic work, especially in Holland; whilst the compact varieties have been used as a building material and as a fire-stone in ovens. Trass was formerly worked extensively in the Brohl valley and is now obtained from the valley of the Nette, near Andernach.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Trapezophoron

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​ TRAPEZOPHORON, the Greek term (from τράπεζα, table, and φέρειν, to bear) given to the leg or pedestal of a small side table, generally in marble, and carved with winged lions or griffins set back to back, each with a single leg, which formed the support of the pedestal on either side. In Pompeii there was a fine example in the house of Cornelius Rufus, which stood behind the impluvium. These side tables were known as mensae vasariae and were used for the display of vases, lamps, &c. Sometimes they were supported on four legs, the example at Pompeii (of which the museums at Naples and Rome contain many varieties) had two supports only, one at each end of the table. The term is also applied to a single leg with lion's head, breast and forepaws, which formed the front support of a throne or chair.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Travancore

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​TRAVANCORE, a state of southern India, in political relation with Madras. Area, 7091 sq. m. In 1901 the population was 2,952,157, showing an increase of 15% in the preceding decade. The state stands sixteenth among the native states of India in area and third in population. Travancore extends more than 150 m. along the west coast as far as Cape Comorin, the southernmost point of the peninsula. The Western Ghats rise to an elevation of 8000 ft. and are clothed with primeval forest; .they throw out spurs towards the coast, along which there is a belt of flat country of about 10 m. in width, covered with coco-nut and areca palms, which to a great extent constitute the wealth of the country. The whole surface is undulating, and presents a series of hills and valleys traversed from east to west by many rivers, the floods of which, arrested by the peculiar action of the Arabian Sea, spread themselves out into lagoons or backwaters, connected here and there by artificial canals, and forming an inland line of smooth-water communication for nearly the whole length of the coast. The chief river is the Periyar, 142 m. in length. Other important rivers are the Pambai and its tributary the Achenkoil, the Kallada, and the Western Tambraparni. Iron is abundant and plumbago is worked. Elephants are numerous, and tigers, leopards, bears, bison and various kinds of deer abound in the forests. Travancore has an abundant rainfall, with every variety of temperature. The principal ports are Alleppi, Quilon and Paravur; but there is no real harbour. The state has a fine system of roads, and the Cochin-Shoranur and the Tinnevelly-Quilon railways pass through it. The Periyar irrigation project conducts water through the ghats in a tunnel to irrigate the Madras district of Madura, for which compensation of Rs. 40,000 is annually paid to Travancore. Trade is large and increasing, the chief exports being copra, coir and other coco-nut products, pepper, tea, sugar, areca-nuts, timber, hides, coffee, &c. The capital is Trivandrum. The revenue is £670,000; tribute, £80,000; military force, 1360 infantry, 61 cavalry and 30 artillery with 6 guns. The maharaja of Travancore claims descent from Cheraman Perumal, the last Hindu monarch of united Malabar, whose date is variously given from A.D. 378 to 825. Though he is a Kshatriya, the succession follows the local custom of inheritance through females; consequently his sanad of adoption authorizes him to adopt sisters' sons. For some generations the rulers have been men of education and character, and the state is conspicuous for good administration and prosperity. Education, and female education in particular, is more advanced than in any other part of India. The two dominant sections of the population are the Namburi Brahmins and the Nairs or military caste. Native Christians, chiefly of the Syrian rite, form nearly one-fourth of the whole, being more numerous than in any Madras district.
See V. Nagam Aiya, Travancore State Manual (Trivandrum, 1906).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tallage

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​TALLAGE (med. Lat. tallagium, Fr. tailage, from late Lat. talare, taleare, Fr. tailler, to cut, classical Lat. talea, a cutting, slip; cf. “tally” and the French taille, q.v.), a special tax in England paid by cities, boroughs and royal demesnes. The word, variously interpreted as a part “cut off” from the property taxed, or as derived from the tally (q.v.), first appears in the reign of Henry II. as a synonym for the auxilium burgi, which was an occasional payment exacted by king and barons over and above the annual firma burgi from burgage tenants, since all boroughs after the Norman Conquest came to be regarded as in some lord's demesne. The tax displaced the Danegeld so far as the towns and demesne lands of the Crown were concerned in the second half of the 12th century, and gradually the barons were deprived of the right of tallaging their respective demesnes without royal authorization. The imposition of tallage continued under the immediate successors of Henry II.; the barons failed to secure its prohibition or even limitation at Runnymede, and Henry III. levied it frequently. The amount to be paid was determined during this time by officials of the exchequer in special fiscal circuits through separate negotiations with the various tax-paying communities, the towns usually raising their quota by means of a capitation or poll tax. Its imposition practically ceased by 1283 in favour of a general grant made in parliament, and the king's retention of tallage seemed particularly unnecessary and illogical after burgesses were summoned to parliament. The opinion used to be held that tallage was forbidden by the Confirmatio cartarum, but the Latin version of that document which bears the title De tallagio non concedendo, although cited as a statute in the preamble to the Petition of Right in 1627 and in a judicial decision of 1637, was merely a chronicler's summary of the purposes of the official French document, which did not mention tallage by name. After 1297, however, there were only three levies of the tax: one by Edward I. in 1304; again in 1312 by Edward II. despite the protests of London and Bristol; and finally in 1332, when Edward III. encountered such opposition from parliament that he withdrew the commissions and accepted in its place a grant of a tenth-and-fifteenth. The last time that the king granted leave to the barons to tallage their demesnes was in 1305. The second statute of 1340 formally enacted that the nation should thenceforth not “make any common aid or sustain charge,” including tallage, without consent of parliament.
See William Stubbs, Constitutional History of England, vol. i. sect. 161, vol. ii. sect. 275; D. J. Medley, English Constitutional History, 3rd ed. (London, 1902); Pollock and Maitland, History of English Law, vol. i., 2nd ed.; S. J. Low and F. S. Pulling, Dictionary of English History.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Talienwan

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​TALIENWAN, an open bay or roadstead on the east side of the Liaotung peninsula, Manchuria. It was leased to Russia by China in 1898 with the naval fortress of Port Arthur, from which it is distant 40 m., the lease being transferred to Japan in 1905. The Russian town of Dalny (now Tairen) was built upon the west side of the bay, known as Port Victoria. Being ice-free all the year round, it has an advantage over Niuchwang, which is frozen up for four months in the year. Niuchwang, however, lies much nearer to the great producing and consuming districts of Manchuria. Talienwan is in railway connexion with Niuchwang and Peking and via the Siberian railway with Europe. It was the rendezvous of the British fleet during the Anglo-China war of 1860, whence the names Port Arthur and Port Victoria.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Talisman

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​TALISMAN, a magical charm. The word is often used as a term synonymous with amulet (q.v.), but strictly should be applied to an inanimate object which is supposed to possess a supernatural capacity of conferring benefits or powers, an amulet being that which protects or wards off evil (see Magic). The most common form which the talisman took in medieval or later times was that of a disk of metal or stone engraved with astrological figures, or with magical formulae, of which Abraxas (q.v.) and Abracadabra (q.v.) are the most familiar. The word is derived through the Spanish through Arab. ṭilsamān, plural of ṭilsam, an adaptation of Gr. τέλεσμα, payment. outlay (from τελεῖν, to accomplish), used in Late Gr. of an initiation or mystery and in Med. Gr. of a charm.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Taliessin

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​TALIESSIN, the name of a late 6th century British bard, of whom practically nothing is known except the attribution to him of the collection of poems known as the Book of Taliessin. See the article Celt, § Literature, IV.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Talladega

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​TALLADEGA, a city and the couty-seat of Talladega county, Alabama, U.S.A., 35 m. E. of Birmingham. Pop. (1900) 5056 (2687 negroes); (1910) 5854. It is served by the Southern, the Louisville & Nashville and other railways. Talladega is situated in the foothills of the Blue Ridge, about 560 ft. above sea level. It is the seat of the Alabama Synodical College for Women (Presbyterian, 1903), of Talladega College (Congregational, opened 1867; chartered 1869 and 1889) for the higher education of negroes—the first college for negroes in the state, and of several institutions devoted to the care of the deaf, dumb and blind. Limestone and coal are found in the vicinity. Among the manufactures are cotton goods, cottonseed oil, iron, hosiery, chemicals and fertilizers. There are several mineral springs near the city, and the municipal water supply is derived from a spring in the city. The electric lighting and power plant is operated by water power on Jackson Shoals. Talladega was originally an Indian village. On the 9th of November 1813, it was the scene of a decisive victory of the whites and their Indian allies, 2000 strong, led by Gen. Andrew Jackson, over 1000 “Red Sticks,” or Creek Indians, who were hostile to the extension of white settlements in Indian territory.