OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stamford (Connecticut)

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​STAMFORD, HENRY GREY, 1st Earl of (c. 1599–1673), eldest son of Sir John Grey, succeeded his grandfather, Henry Grey as Baron Grey of Groby in July 1614. He married Anne, daughter of William Cecil, 2nd earl of Exeter, the heiress of the borough and manor of Stamford, and in March 1628 was created earl of Stamford. Just before the outbreak of the Civil War he ranged himself definitely among the king’s opponents, and was made lord-lieutenant of Leicestershire. After some operations around Leicester he occupied Hereford, and, when compelled to abandon the city, marched into Cornwall. At Stratton, in May 1643, his troops were beaten by the Royalists; driven into Exeter, Stamford was forced to surrender this city after a siege of three months. The earl, who was certainly no general, was charged with cowardice, and took no further part in the military operations of the war, although once or twice he was employed on other business. The ravages of the Royalists had reduced him to poverty, and, distrusted by the House of Commons, he had great difficulty in getting any compensation from parliament. After a period of retirement Stamford declared for Charles II. during a rising in August 1659, and was arrested, but was soon released. He died on the 21st of August 1673. One of his sons was Anchitell Grey (d. 1702), the compiler of the Debates of the House of Commons, 1667–1694 (10 vols. 1769). His eldest son, Thomas, Lord Grey of Groby (c. 1623–1657), was member of parliament for Leicester during the Long Parliament, and an active member of the parliamentary party. In January 1643 he was appointed commander-in-chief of the forces of the parliament in the midland counties and governor of Leicester. In 1648 he won some credit for his share in the pursuit and capture of the duke of Hamilton; he assisted Colonel Pride to “purge” the House of Commons later in the same year; and he was a member of the court which tried the king, whose death- warrant he signed. A member of the council of state under the Commonwealth, Grey fought against the Scots in 1651, and in February 1655 he was arrested on suspicion of conspiring against Cromwell. He was, however, soon released, but he predeceased his father in April or May 1657.
Thomas (c. 1654–1720), only son of the last named, succeeded his grandfather as 2nd earl of Stamford. He took some part in resisting the arbitrary actions of Charles II., and was arrested in July 1685; then after his release he took up arms on behalf of William of Orange, after whose accession to the throne he was made a privy councillor and lord-lieutenant of Devonshire. In 1697 he became chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, and in 1699 president of the board of trade, being dismissed from his office on the accession of Anne in 1702. From 1707 to 1711, however, he was again president of the board of trade. On his death without children on the 31st of January 1720 his titles passed to his cousin Henry (d. 1739), a grandson of the first earl, from whom the later earls were descended.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stallbaum, Johann Gottfried

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​STALLBAUM, JOHANN GOTTFRIED (1793–1861), German classical scholar, was born at Zaasch, near Delitzsch in Saxony, on the 25th of September 1793. From 1820 until his death on the 24th of January 1861 Stallbaum was connected with the Thomasschule at Leipzig, from 1835 as rector. In 1840 he was also appointed extraordinary professor in the university. His reputation rests upon his work on Plato, of which he published two complete editions: the one (1821–1825) a revised text with critical apparatus, the other (1827–1860) containing exhaustive prolegomena and commentary written in excellent Latin, a fundamental contribution to Platonic exegesis. A separate edition of the Parmenides (1839), with the commentary of Proclus, deserves mention. Stallbaum also edited the commentaries of Eustathius on the Iliad and Odyssey, and the Grammaticae latinae institutiones of Thomas Ruddiman.
See C. H. Lipsius in the Osterprogramm of the Thomasschule (1861); R. Hoche in Allgemeine deutsche Biographie, vol. xxxv.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stanchion

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​Stanchion (Fr. étançon, a wooden post), an architectural term applied to the upright iron bars in windows which pass through the eyes of the saddle bars or horizontal irons to steady the lead lights. The French call the latter traverses, the stanchions montants, and the whole arrangement armature. Stanchions frequently finish with ornamental heads forged out of the iron.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stanyhurst, Richard

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​STANYHURST, RICHARD (1547–1618), English translator of Virgil, was born in Dublin in 1547. His father was recorder of the city, and Speaker of the Irish House of Commons in 1557; 1560 and 1568. Richard was sent in 1563 to University College, Oxford, and took his degree five years later. At Oxford he became intimate with Edmund Campian. After leaving the university he studied law at Furniva's Inn and Lincoln's Inn. He contributed in 1557 to Holinshed's Chronicles "a playne and perfecte description" of Ireland, and a history of the country during the reign of Henry VIII., which were severely criticized in Barnabe Rich's New Description of Ireland (1610) as a misrepresentation of Irish affairs written from the English standpoint. After the death of his wife, Janet Barnewall, in 1579, Stanyhurst went to the Netherlands. After his second marriage, which took place before 1585, with Helen Copley, he became active in the Catholic cause. He spent some time in Spain, ostensibly practising as a physician, but his real business seems to have been to keep Philip II. informed of the state of Catholic interest in England. After his wife's death in 1602 he took holy orders, and became chaplain to the archduke Albert in the Netherlands. He never returned to England, and died at Brussels, according to Wood, in 1618. He translated into English The First Foure Bookes of Virgil his Aeneis (Leiden, 1582), to give practical proof of the feasibility of Gabriel Harvey's theory that classical rules of prosody could be successfully applied to English poetry. The translation is an unconscious burlesque of the original in a jargon arranged in what the writer called hexameters. Thomas Nashe in his preface to Greene's Menaphon ridiculed this performance as his "heroicall poetrie, infired . . . with an hexameter furie . . . a patterne whereof I will propounde to your judgements. . . .
Then did he make heaven's vault to rebounde, with rounce robble hobble Of ruffe raffe roaring, with thwick thwack thurlery bouncing."
This is a parody, but not a very extravagant one, of Stanyhurst's vocabulary and metrical methods.
His son, William Stanyhurst (1602–1663), was a voluminous writer of Latin religious works, one of which, Dei immortalis in corpore mortali patientis historia, was widely popular, and was translated into many languages.
Only two copies of the original Leiden edition of Stanyhurst's translation of Virgil are known to be in existence. In this edition his orthographical cranks are preserved. A reprint in 1583 by Henry Bynneman forms the basis of J. Maidment's edition (Edinburgh, 1836), and of Professor E. Arber's reprint (1880), which contains an excellent introduction. Stanyhurst's Latin works include De rebus in Hibernia gestis (Antwerp, 1584) and a life of St Patrick (1587).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Staple

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​STAPLE, a word which has had a curious and interesting development of meaning. The O. Eng. stapul meant a prop or support, and is to be referred to the root seen in step, stamp, &c.; the meaning is also seen in the cognate Du. stapel, stocks, pile, Ger. Staffel, step of a ladder, &c. The application, in current usage, of the word to a loop of wire or metal with two sharpened points used to fix a pin or bolt, or to fasten wire, &c, to wood, preserves the original sense. A special development in Low German of stapel gave the meaning of an orderly arranged heap of goods or stores, hence a store-house in which goods were arranged in a settled order, the idea of firmness or stability being that which runs through the changes of meaning to which the word has been subjected. This Low German word and sense was adapted in Old French as estaple, mod. étape, and applied to an' established market or town, particularly to one which was the centre of the trade in some Specific commodity. Thence the word has in modern -usage been transferred to a principal or chief commodity or article of consumption.
In English economic history the term "staple" was applied to those towns which were appointed by the king as the centres for the trade of the company of the merchants of the staple. These merchants had a monopoly in the purchase and export of the staple commodities of England, viz. wool, woolfels, leather, tin and lead. The merchants of the staple were the origin of all English trading companies. The trade of the staple towns was under the management of a mayor and constables, sometimes appointed by the merchants themselves, sometimes by the mayor of the town and sometimes by the king himself. W. Stubbs (Const. Hist. vol. ii.) dates the growth of the system from the reign of Edward I. The monopolies of the staple were from time to time abolished and restored, but they were consolidated by a statute of 1353, the number and place of the staples being fixed, the custom declared, and the rights and privileges of the merchants confirmed. (See C. Gross, Gild Merchants; W. Cunningham, Growth of English Industry and Commerce.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stannite

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​STANNITE, a rare mineral consisting of tin, copper and iron sulphide (a sulpho-stannate, Cu$_2$FeSnS$_4$), containing, when pure, tin 27.5, copper 29.5%. It has a metallic lustre, and, when pure, is iron-black in colour: more often, however, it is bronze-yellow, owing to tarnish or to the presence of intimately admixed chalcopyrite: for this reason it is known to miners as "bell-metal-ore" or as "tin pyrites." The hardness is 31/2 and the specific gravity 4.45. It usually occurs as granular to compact masses, rarely as crystals. Minute crystals from Bolivia have been shown to be tetragonal and hemihedral, like chalcopyrite; and to be invariably twinned, giving rise to pseudocubic forms. The mineral has been found in a number of Cornish tin mines, and was formerly worked to a limited extent as an ore. At Zinnwald in Bohemia it occurs with blende and galena, and in Bolivia with silver ores. (L. J. S.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stans

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​STANS, the capital of the eastern half (or Nidwalden) of the Swiss canton of Unterwalden. It stands amid orchards at a ​height of 1493 ft. above the sea-level on a plain at the north foot of the conical Stanserhom (6238 ft). It is, by electric railway, about 2 m. from Stansstad, its port on the south shore of the lake of Lucerne, and 12 m. from Engelberg (with its great Benedictine monastery, founded about 1120), now a much-frequented summer resort, while there is also an electric rail- way from Stans up the Stanserhorn. In 1900 Stans had a population of 2798, all German-speaking and Romanists. Stans was the home of the Winkelried family (q.v.) and has a modern monument to the memory of Arnold von Winkelried, the legendary, hero of the battle of Sempach (1386). In 1481 the holy Nicholas von der Flüe composed at Stans by his advice the strife between the Confederates, while in 1798 many persons were massacred here by the French. (W. A. B. C.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stanton, Elizabeth Cady

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​STANTON, ELIZABETH CADY (1815-1902), American reformer, was born in Johnstown, New York, on the 12th of November 1815, the daughter of Daniel Cady (1773-1859), a Federalist member of the National House of Representatives in 1815-1817 and a justice of the supreme court of New York state in 1847-1855. She was educated at the Johnstown Academy and at the Troy Female Seminary (now the Emma Willard School), where she graduated in 1832. In 1840 she married Henry Brewster Stanton (1805-1887), a lawyer and journalist, who had been a prominent abolitionist since his student days (1832-1834) in Lane Theological Seminary, and who took her on a wedding journey to London, where he was a delegate to the World's Anti-Slavery Convention. He was a member of the New York Senate in 1850-1851, was one of the founders of the Republican party in New York, and from 1868 until his death was on the staff of the New York Sun. Mrs Stanton, who had become intimately acquainted in London with Mrs Lucretia Mott, one of the women delegates barred from the anti-slavery convention, devoted herself to the cause of women's rights. She did much by the circulation of petitions to secure the passage in New York in 1848 of a law giving a married woman property rights; and in the same year on the 19th and 20th of ​June in Seneca Falls (q.v.), whither the Stantons had removed in 1847 from Boston, was held, chiefly under the leadership of Mrs Mott and Mrs Stanton, the first Woman's Rights Convention. She spoke before the New York legislature on the rights of married women in 1854 and on drunkenness as a ground for divorce in 1860, and for twenty-five years she annually addressed a committee of Congress urging an amendment to the Federal constitution giving certain privileges to women. With Parker Pillsbury (1809–1898) she edited in 1867–1870 The Revolution, a radical newspaper, which in 1870 was consolidated with the Christian Enquirer. To the Woman's Tribune she made important contributions, publishing in it serially parts of the Woman's Bible (1895), which she and others prepared, and her personal reminiscences, published in 1898 as Eighty Years and More. With Susan B. Anthony and Mathilda Joslyn Gage she wrote The History of Woman Suffrage (3 vols., 1880–1886). She was president of the National Woman Suffrage Association in 1865–1890. Her daughter, Harriot Stanton Blatch (1856–), also became prominent as a worker for woman's suffrage.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stapledon, Walter de

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​STAPLEDON, WALTER DE (1261–1326), English bishop, was born at Annery in North Devon on the 1st of February 1261. He became professor of canon law at Oxford and chaplain to Pope Clement V. and in 1307 was chosen bishop of Exeter. He went on errands to France for both Edward I and Edward II., and attended the councils and parliaments of his time. As lord high treasurer of England, an office to which he was appointed in 1320, the bishop was associated in the popular mind with the misdeeds of Edward II., and consequently, after the king fled before the advancing troops of Queen Isabella, he was murdered in London by the mob on the 15th of October 1326. Stapledon is famous as the founder of Exeter College, Oxford, which originated in Stapledon Hall, established in 1314 by the bishop and his elder brother, Sir Richard Stapledon, a judge of the king's bench. He also contributed very liberally to the rebuilding of his cathedral at Exeter.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stansfeld, Sir James

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​STANSFELD, SIR JAMES (1820-1898), English politician, was born at Moorlands, Halifax, on the 5th of October 1820, the son of James Stansfeld, a county-court judge. Educated at University College, London, he was called to the bar in 1849. In 1847 he was introduced through his father-in-law, W. H. Ashurst, to Mazzini, with whom he formed a close friendship. In 1859 he was returned to parliament as Radical member for Halifax, which town he continued to represent for over thirty- six years. He voted consistently on the Radical side, but his chief energies were devoted to promoting the cause of Italian unity. He was selected by Garibaldi as his adviser when the Italian patriot visited England in 1862. In 1863 he moved in the House of Commons a resolution of sympathy with the Poles, and two months later was made a junior lord of the admiralty. In 1864, as the result of charges made against him by the French authorities, in connexion with Greco's conspiracy against Napoleon III., Disraeli, in the House of Commons, accused him of being " in correspondence with the assassins of Europe." Stansfeld was vigorously defended by Bright and Forster, and his explanation was accepted as quite satis- factory by Palmerston. Nevertheless he only escaped a vote of censure by ten votes, and accordingly resigned office. In 1865 he was re-elected for Halifax, and in 1866 became under- secretary of state for India. In the first Gladstone admin- istration he held a variety of public offices, finally becoming, in 1871, the first president of the local government board. The remainder of his life was mainly spent in endeavouring to secure the repeal of the Contagious Diseases Acts, and in 1886 this object was attained. In the same year Stansfeld again became president of the local government board. He died on the 17th of February 1898.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stanza

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​STANZA (Low Lat. stantia, Ital. stantia or stanza), properly an apartment or storey in a house, the term being hence adopted for literary purposes to denote a complete section, of recurrent form, in a poem. A stanza is a strophe of two or more lines, usually rhyming, but always recurring, the idea of fixed repetition of form being essential to it. At the close of the 16th century the word stanza began to be used with an adjective to designate a particular species, as the "Spenserian stanza," because Spenser had invented that nine-lined form for his Faerie Queen; or "Ariosto's stanza" as Drayton described what is now known as ottava rima, because Ariosto had written prominently in it. By "stanzaic law" is meant the law which regulates the form and succession of stanzas. The stanza is a modern development of the strophe of the ancients, modified by the requirements of rhyme. (See Verse; Strophe; Spenserian Stanza.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ticinum

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​TICINUM (mod. Pavia, q.v.), an ancient city of Gallia Transpadana, founded on the banks of the river of the same name (mod. Ticino) a little way above its confluence with the Padus (Po). It is said by Pliny to have been founded by the Laevi and Marici, two Ligurian tribes, while Ptolemy attributes it to the Insubres. Its importance in Roman times was due to the extension of the Via Aemilia from Ariminum to the Padus (187 B.C.), which it crossed at Placentia and there forked, one branch going to Mediolanum and the other to Ticinum, and thence to Laumellum where it divided once more—one branch going to Vercellae (and thence to Eporedia and Augusta Praetoria) and the other to Valentia (and thence to Augusta Taurinorum or to Pollentia). The branch to Eporedia must have been constructed before 100 B.C. Ticinum is not infrequently mentioned by classical writers. It was a municipium, and from an inscription we know that a triumphal arch was erected in honour of Augustus and his family, but we learn little of it except that in the 4th century A.D. there was a manufacture of bows there. It was pillaged by Attila in A.D. 452 and by Odoacer in 476, but rose to importance as a military centre in the Gothic period. At Dertona and here the grain stores of Liguria were placed, and Theodoric constructed a palace, baths and amphitheatre and new town walls; while an inscription of Athalaric relating to repairs of seats in the amphitheatre is preserved (A.D. 528–529). From this point, too, navigation on the Padus seems to have begun. Narses recovered it for the Eastern Empire, but after a long siege, the garrison had to surrender to the Lombards in 572. The name Papia, from which the modern name Pavia comes, does not appear until Lombard times, when it became the seat of the Lombard kingdom, and as such one of the leading cities of Italy. Cornelius Nepos, the biographer, appears to have been a native of Ticinum. Of Roman remains little is preserved—there is, for example, no sufficient proof that the cathedral rests upon an ancient temple of Cybele—though the regular ground plan of the central portion, a square of some 1150 yds., betrays its Roman origin, and it may have sprung from a military camp. This is not unnatural, for Pavia was never totally destroyed; even the fire of 1004 can only have damaged parts of the city, and the plan of Pavia remained as it was. Its gates were possibly preserved until early in the 19th century. The picturesque covered bridge which joins Pavia to the suburb on the right bank of the river was preceded by a Roman bridge, of which only one pillar, in blocks of granite from the Baveno quarries, exists under the central arch of the medieval bridge, the rest having no doubt served as material for the latter. The medieval bridge dates from 1351–1354.
See A. Taramelli in Notizie degli scavi (1894), 73 sqq. and reff.  (T. As.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ticket

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​TICKET (O. Fr. estiquet, also estiquette, mod. étiquette, from Ger. stechen, to stick up), by origin a small bill stuck up for the purpose of giving notice or information, hence a small printed or written card or slip, containing a notice, order or the like, and more particularly such an one as embodies the terms under which the party issuing the ticket grants some right, privilege or licence to the party to whom it is issued; where there has been valuable consideration for such given by the holder the ticket is the method by which the parties enter into a contract. The most familiar of this last class of tickets is the passenger's ticket issued by railway companies, tramways or “common carriers” in general. The ticket does not usually contain the whole terms of the contract, but refers to the conditions under which it is issued, to which the holder is considered subject if sufficient notice of them is given. A ticket of admission issued for a theatre, or place of entertainment, constitutes a licence to the holder to occupy and use a seat, whether particularized or not, and such parts of the building as may be open to him. Such a licence can be revoked by the issuer, and the holder may be ejected as a trespasser, subject to his right to bring an action for damages.