OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Gōsāyi or Gōswāmi

​Gōsāyi or Gōswāmi. — The Gōsāyis are immigrant religious mendicants from Northern and Western India. I gather from the Mysore Census Reports that "they mostly belong to the Dandi sub-division. The Gōsāyi is no caste; commonly any devotee is called a Gōsāyi, whether he lives a life of celibacy or not; whether he roams about the country collecting alms, or resides in a house like the rest of the people; whether he leads an idle existence, or employs himself in trade. The mark, however, that distinguishes all who bear this name is that they are devoted to a religious life. Some besmear their bodies with ashes, wear their hair dishevelled and uncombed, and in some instances coiled round the head like a snake or rope. They roam about the country in every direction, visiting especially spots ​of reputed sanctity, and as a class are the pests of society and incorrigible rogues. Some of them can read, and a few may be learned; but for the most part they are stolidly ignorant. Most of them wear a yellowish cloth, by which they make themselves conspicuous. The Gōsāyis, although by profession belonging to the religious class, apply themselves nevertheless to commerce and trade. As merchants, bankers and tradesmen, they hold a very respectable position. They never marry. One of the chief peculiarities of this caste is that Brāhmans, Kshatriyās, Vaisyās, and Sūdras, the two former especially, may, if they choose, become Gōsāyis; but if they do so, and unite with the members of this fraternity in eating and drinking, holding full and free intercourse with them, they are cut off for ever from their own tribes. It is this circumstance which constitutes Gōsāyis a distinct and legitimate caste, and not merely a religious order. At death a horrible custom is observed. A cocoanut is broken on the head of the deceased by a person specially appointed for the purpose, until it is smashed to pieces. The body is then wrapped in a reddish cloth, and thrown into the Ganges. A partial explanation of this practice is furnished in Southern India. The final aim of Hindu religious life is Nirvāna or Mōksham in the next life, and this can only be attained by those holy men, whose life escapes, after smashing the skull, through the sushumnā nādi, a nerve so called, and supposed to pervade the crown of the head. The dying or dead Sanyāsi is considered to have led such a holy life as to have expired in the orthodox manner, and the fiction is kept up by breaking the skull post mortem, in mimicry of the guarantee of his passage to eternal bliss. Accordingly, the dead body of a Brāhman Sanyāsi in Southern India undergoes the ​same process and is buried, but never burned or thrown into the river."
A few Gōsāyis, at the Mysore census, returned gōtras, of which the chief were Achūta and Daridra (poverty-stricken). In the Madras Census Report, 1901, Mandula (medicine man) and Bāvāji are returned as a sub-division and synonym of Gōsāyi. The name Gūse or Gusei is applied to Oriya Brāhmans owing to their right of acting as gurus or family priests.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Gūdavandlu

​Gūdavandlu. — Recorded, in the Nellore Manual, as Vaishnavites, who earn their livelihood by begging. The name means basket people, and probably refers to Sātānis, who carry a basket (gūda) when begging.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Halavakki

​Halavakki.— A Canarese synonym for Būdubudukala.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Gūdala

​Gūdala.—The Gūdalas are a Telugu caste of basket-makers in Vizagapatam and Ganjam. The name is derived from gūda, a basket for baling water. For the following note I am indebted to Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao. The original occupation of the caste is said to have been the collection of medicinal herbs and roots for native ​doctors and sick persons, which is still carried on by some Gūdalas at Sālūru town. The principal occupations, however, are the manufacture of bamboo baskets, and fishing in fresh water.
Like other Telugu castes, the Gūdalas have exogamous septs or intipērulu, e.g., korra (Setaria italica), paththi (cotton), nakka (jackal) and ganti (hole pierced in the ear-lobe). 'The custom of mēnarikam, whereby a man should marry his maternal uncle's daughter, is practiced. Marriage generally takes place before a girl reaches puberty. A Brāhman officiates at weddings. The bride-price (vōli) consists of a new cloth for the bride, and seven rupees for her parents, which are taken by the bridegroom's party to the bride's house, together with some oil and turmeric for the bridal bath, and the sathamānam (marriage badge). A feast is held, and the sathamānam is tied on the bride's neck. The newly married pair are conducted to the house of the bridegroom, where a further feast takes place, after which they return to the bride's home, where they remain for three days. Widows are permitted to remarry thrice, and the voli on each successive occasion is Rs.3, Rs. 2, and Rs. 2-8-0. When a widow is remarried, the sathamānam is tied on her neck near a mortar.
The members of the caste reverence a deity called Ekkaladēvata, who is said to have been left behind at their original home. The dead are cremated, and the chinna rōzu (little day) death ceremony is observed. On the third day, cooked rice is thrown over the spot where the corpse was burnt.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Pope Alexander VIII

From volume 1 of the work.
​Alexander VIII, Pope (Pietro Ottoboni), b. at Venice, April, 1610; elected 5 October, 1689; d. at Rome, 1 February, 1691. He was the son of Marco Ottoboni, chancellor of the Republic of Venice, and a descendant of a noble family of that city. Arms of Alexander VIIIThe future pope enjoyed all that wealth and social position could contribute towards a perfect education. His early studies were made with marked brilliancy at the University of Padua (q. v.), where, in 1627, he secured the doctorate in canon and civil law. He went to Rome, during the pontificate of Urban VIII (1623–44), and was made governor of Terni, Rieti, and Spoleto. For fourteen years he served as auditor of the Rota (q. v.). At the request of the Republic this favoured son was made Cardinal by Innocent X (19 February, 1652), and was later given the Bishopric of Brescia, in Venetian territory, where he quietly spent the best years of middle life. Clement IX made him Cardinal-Datary. He was already an octogenarian when elected to the papacy, and lived but sixteen months, during which time little of importance was done. Louis XIV of France whose political situation was now critical, profited by the peaceful dispositions of the new Pope, restored to him Avignon, and renounced the long-abused right of asylum for the French Embassy. (See Alexander VII.) But the king's conciliatory spirit did not dissuade the resolute Pope from declaring (4 August, 1690) that the Declaration of Gallican Liberties (q. v.), drawn up in 1682, was null and invalid. He assisted his native Venice by generous subsidies in the war against the Turks, and he purchased for the Vatican library the books and manuscripts owned by Queen Christina of Sweden. He condemned the doctrine of a number of variously erroneous propositions, among them (24 August, 1690) the doctrine of "philosophical sin" (see Sin); cf. Denzinger, "Enchiridion Symb. et Defin." (9th ed., Freiburg, 1900), 274–278; and Vacant "Dict. de théol. cath." (Paris, 1903), I, 748–763. Alexander was an upright man, generous, peace-loving, and indulgent. Out of compassion for the poor of well-nigh impoverished Italy, he sought to succour them by reducing the taxes. But this same generous nature led him to bestow on his relations the riches they were eager to accumulate; in their behalf, and to the discredit of his pontificate, he revived sinecure offices which had been suppressed by his predecessor.
For the public documents of his pontificate see Bullarium Romanium (Turin, 1870), XX; Muratori, Annali d'Italia (Milan. 1820), XVI. 200–216; Von Ranke, The Popes of Rome, etc. (ed. Edinburgh, 1847), II, 278 sq., 525 sq.; Gerin, Le Pape Alexandre VIII et Louis XIV d'aprés des documents inédite (Paris, 1878); Bargrave (cited under Alexander VII), chapter on Cardinal Ottoboni.
J. B. Peterson.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Pope Benedict I

Of the first Pontiff who bore the name of Benedict practically nothing is known. The date of his birth is unknown; he d. 30 July, 579. He was a Roman and the son of Boniface, and was called Bonosus by the Greeks (Evagrius, Hist., V, 16). The ravages of the Lombards rendered it very difficult to communicate with the emperor at Constantinople, who claimed the privilege of confirming the election of the popes. Hence there was a vacancy of nearly eleven months between the death of John III and the arrival of the imperial confirmation of Benedict's election, 2 June, 575. He reigned four years, one month, and twenty-eight days. Almost the only act recorded of him is that he granted an estate, the Massa Veneris, in the territory of Minturnae, to Abbot Stephen of St. Mark's "near the walls of Spoleto" (St. Gregory I, Ep. ix, 87, I. al. 30). Famine followed the devastating Lombards, and from the few words the Liber Pontificalis has about Benedict, we gather that he died in the midst of his efforts to cope with these difficulties. He was buried in the vestibule of the sacristy of the old basilica of St. Peter. In an ordination which he held in December he made fifteen priests and three deacons, and consecrated twenty-one bishops.
The most important source for the history of the first nine popes who bore the name of Benedict is the biographies in the Liber Pontificalis, of which the most useful edition is that of Duchesne, Le Liber Pontificalis (Paris, 1886-92), and the latest that of Mommsen, Gesta Pontif. Roman. (to the end of the reign of Constantine only, Berlin, 1898). Jaffé, Regesta Pont. Rom. (2d ed., Leipzig, 1885), gives a summary of the letters of each pope and tells where they may be read at length. Modern accounts of these popes will be found in any large Church history, or history of the City of Rome. The fullest account in English of most of them is to be read in Mann, Lives of the Popes in the Early Middle Ages (London, 1902, passim).
Horace K. Mann.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Pope Anastasius III

From volume 1 of the work.
The one hundred and twenty-third occupant of the Holy See, elected September, 911; d. November, 913. He was a Roman, being the son of a certain Lucian. His reign was marked with moderation, but beyond this history gives no details of his life, except that he was active in determining the ecclesiastical divisions of Germany. He succeeded Sergius III (904-911), and reigned, at most, about two years and two months.
P.L., CXXXI, 1181; JAFFÉ, Regesta Pont. Rom. I, 448: II, 706; HOEFER, Biogr. Univ., I, 477.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Pope Anastasius II

From volume 1 of the work.
A native of Rome, elected 24 Nov., 496; d. 16 Nov., 498. His congratulatory letter to Clovis , on the occasion of the latter's conversion is now deemed a forgery of the seventeenth century (J. Kavet, Bibl. de l ec. des Chartres, 1885, XLVI, 258-59). He insisted in the removal from the diptychs of the name of Acacius, Patriarch of Constantinople, but recognized the validity of his sacramental acts, an attitude that displeased the Romans. He also condemned Traducianisin.
P.L., CXXVIII, 439-450; Lib. Pont. (ed. DUCHESNE), I, 258; HEMMER in Dict. de Theol. Cath., I, 1163-64; THIEL, Epist.Rom. Pont. (1868), II, 82-85, 614-15.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Pope Anastasius IV

From volume 1 of the work.
Crowned 12 July, 1153; d. in Rome, 3 December of the following year. It was during his pontificate and owing to his exertions that the Pantheon was restored. He also granted special privileges to the Order of the Hospitallers of St. John of Jerusalem. He is chiefly known for his attitude towards Frederick Barbarossa and recognition of Wichmann as Bishop of Magdeburg by which he terminated an ecclesiastical quarrel. His extant works consist of some letters and a treatise on the Trinity.
P.L., CLXXXVIII, 985; JAFFÉ, RR. PP., II, 89-102; 719-201, 759; WATTERICH, Pont. Rom. Vitæ (1862), II, 321, 322.
# Canadian Alpine Journal/Volume 1/Number 1/Receipts and Expenditures, Yoho Camp

​A word with regard to these trails of the Yoho valley: They are the outcome of the artistic, engineering skill and keen appreciation of the value of magnificent alpine scenery as a boon to mankind, possessed by the late E. J. Duchesnay. Assistant General Superintendent of the Pacific Division of the Canadian Pacific railway. In the location of the pony trail around the Yoho valley and below Mts. Wapta and Field, every possible vantage point has been grasped with a skill that could only have been realized by a true lover of Nature.
RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURES
for Yoho Camp
Receipts.
| Grant, Government of Alberta | $250 00 |
| Private subscription | 170 00 |
| Paid in for board and accommodation | 458 25 |
| Paid in for distribution among employees | 61 00 |
| Auction sale of ice-axes | 75 75 |
| Surplus supplies sold | 263 87 |
| | ———— | $1,278 87 |
Expenditures.
| Provisions | $613 12 |
| Stationery, printing, postage, telegrams | 38 93 |
| Expressage and freight | 49 60 |
| Wages | 93 00 |
| Camp outfit | 123 95 |
| Distributed among employees | 59 50 |
| Bonuses to outfitters | 239 00 |
| Purchase of ice-axes | 30 00 |
| Railway fares of employees | 5 30 |
| | ———— | $1,252 40 |
| Balance paid in to general fund | | $26 47 |
Arthur O. Wheeler, Chairman of Camp Committee.
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# Canadian Alpine Journal/Volume 1/Number 1/Report of Librarian

REPORT OF LIBRARIAN
The library of the Alpine Club comprises seventeen volumes, all of which have been donated. They may be enumerated in order of donation, as follows:—"The Selkirk Range," two volumes, from the author, A. O. Wheeler; "Dent's Mountaineering," from S. H. Mitchell; "Among the Selkirk Glaciers," by the Rev. W. S. Green, presented by Ferdinand Meinecke; "England and Canada, a Summer Tour between Old and New Westminster," from the author, Sir Sandford Fleming, K.C.M.G.; "Mountain Wildflowers of Canada," by Julia W. Henshaw, the author; "The House of Sport," composite authorship, from S. H. Mitchell; "Climbing in the Himalayas," from Dr. J. Norman Collie, the author; also "Climbs and Explorations in the Canadian Rockies," by H. E. M. Stutfield and Dr. J. Norman Collie, presented by Dr. Collie; "A Guide to Zermatt and the Matterhorn," from Edward Whymper, the author; "Camp Fires in the Canadian Rockies," by Hornaday and Phillips, presented by the Secretary; four volumes of "Appalachia," covering the years of mountaineering in the Rockies and Selkirks, from the Appalachian Mountain Club; an edition de luxe, "California and Alaska and over the Canadian Pacific Railway," by William Seward Webb, presented by W. T. Robson; and "Canada," painted by T. Mower Martin, described by Wilfrid Campbell, the gift of Clark Bros. & Co., Winnipeg.
In addition, the Club has received by purchase the first number of a series of monographs, called "Alpina Americana," to be published yearly by the American Alpine Club.
Mr. Tom Wilson of Banff, himself a collector of Rocky Mountain literature, has kindly volunteered to keep watch for the acquisition of rare old books dealing with early history relating to the Canadian mountains.
It is perhaps worth noting that of the seventeen volumes forming the nucleus of the library, eight were written by our own members, and the Appalachian volumes also contain much matter contributed by members of our Club.
We hope that the library will be augmented during the current year, by many valuable additions, and that the Club will enact some legislation by which these books may be made accessible to members, such as the establishment of a library building at a suitable point in the mountains.
Respectfully submitted.
Jean Parker, Librarian.
This work is in the public domain in the United States because it was published before January 1, 1929.
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# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Arnaldus Villanovanus

From volume 15 of the work.
(ARNALDUS OF VILLANUEVA, or VILLENEUVE, or BACHUONE).
Celebrated in his day as a physician, pharmacist, and alchemist, b. between 1235 and 1240; d. at sea near Genoa, 1312 or 1313. Like much else connected with this very unusual man, most of the details of his life are obscure. The latinized form of his native town is Villanova; there were not a few towns of this name at that period in Spain, France, and Italy. Some identify it with Villanueva in Catalonia, Diocese of Valencia, others with Villeneuve-Loubet in the arrondissement of Grasse, France. He died while on his way to visit the sick pontiff, Clement V. Well versed in the classical languages, Hebrew, and Arabic, he also understood all that was then known of the natural sciences, especially medicine and pharmacology. At Barcelona he had John Casamila as teacher, thought highly of Galen, and among the Arabs cared only for Rhazes. He taught medicine, botany, and alchemy at Barcelona, Montpellier, and Paris. His life was a wandering one; besides the cities just mentioned, he lived for considerable periods of time at Lyons, Avignon, Rome, Florence, Bologna, Naples, and Palermo. He was considered superior to all other physicians and alchemists, so that he was frequently summoned by popes and princes. Thus he was at times at the papal Court during the reigns of Innocent V, Boniface VIII, Benedict XI, and Clement V. He was also the personal physician of Pedro III and James II of Aragon, Robert of Naples, and Frederick II of Sicily. He was repeatedly obliged to go from place to place because the Inquisition in Spain and Paris sentenced him to banishment on account of his fantastic writing, which were at times heretical. Owing to the large number of writings still extant bearing his name, some evidently spurious, others doubtful, it is not easy to judge Villanovanus. His reputation in alchemy was excelled only by that of Raymond Lully, who was regarded as his pupil. Modern criticism has assigned to an earlier age many chemical discoveries that were formerly ascribed to Villanovanus, as acids, alcohol, distillation etc. Yet a number of his works were very important in placing medicine and pharmacology on a scientific basis; besides an independent judgment they show ripe experience and great humanity. Although a layman he wrote much on theology. His alchemistic and astrological bent led him into erroneous opinions regarding the Church, the Mass, Antichrist, the end of the world, and the person of Christ. The first complete edition of his works was issued at Lyons in 1504, reissued at the same place in 1520 and 1532 (folio). The most complete edition is that of Taurellus (Basle, 1585), with a biography of Arnaldus. For the individual works see, in particular, Haser, op. cit. in bibliography below. Several of them were repeatedly reprinted before 1500.
HOEFER, Histoire de la chimie (Paris, 1842); HASER, Geschichte der Medicin (Jena, 1875); VON MEYER, Geschichte der Chemie (Leipzig, 1905); HERGENROTHER-KIRSCH, Handbuch der allgemeinen Kirchengeschichte (2 vols., Freiburg, 1904).
Joseph Rompel.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Armella Nicolas

From volume 11 of the work.
Popularly known as "La bonne Armelle", a saintly French serving-maid held in high veneration among the people, though never canonized by the Church, b. at Campeneac in Brittanny, 9 September, 1606, of poor peasants, George Nicolas and Francisca Neant; d. 24 October, 1671. Her early years were spent in the pious, simple life of the hard-working country folk. When she was twenty-two years of age her parents wished her to marry, but she chose rather to enter service in the neighboring town of Ploermel, where she found more opportunity for her pious works and for satisfying her spiritual needs. After a few years she went to the larger town of Vannes, where she served in several families, and for a year and a half was portress at the Ursuline monastery. She here formed a special friendship with a certain sister, Jeanne de la Nativite, to whom she told from time to time many details of her spiritual life, and who noted down these communications, and afterwards wrote the life of Armella, who could herself neither read nor write. Even the lowly work at the convent did not satisfy her craving for toil and humiliation, and she returned to one of her former employers, where she remained to the end of her life. To her severe trials and temptations she added many works of penance and was rewarded by the growth of her inner life and her intimate union with God. During the last years of her life a broken leg caused her great suffering, patiently borne. Many recommended themselves to her prayers and her death-bed was surrounded by a great number of persons who held her in special veneration. Her heart was preserved in the Jesuit church, and her body was buried in the church of the Ursulines. Near her grave was erected a tablet to "La bonne Armelle"; her tomb is a place of pilgrimage. Armella has been claimed, but without good grounds, as an exponent of Quietism. If some of her expressions seemed tinged with Quietist thought, it is because the controversy which cleared and defined many notions concerning Quietism had not yet arisen. On the other hand her simple, laborious life and practical piety make any such aberrations very unlikely.
JUNGMANN in Kirchenlexikon, s. v. Nicolas; STOLTZ, Legende der Heiligen, 24 October; BUSSON, Vie d'Armelle Nicolas etc. (Paris, 1844); TERSTEEGEN, Select Lives of Holy Souls, I, 2nd ed. (1754).
Edward F. Garesche.