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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ticking

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​TICKING, a strong linen or cotton fabric usually woven in stripes of colour; blue and pink with white being the most common. The name is derived from a word “tick,” common in various forms to many languages, signifying a case or sheath. ​Ticking is used for mattresses, awnings and tents. In some qualities it is also used as a foundation for embroidery.
White, grey, or brownish warp threads are usually flax, while the coloured threads are often cotton. The weft is flax or tow. The warps of many of the cheaper kinds are made entirely of cotton, and jute is used for weft in the cheapest grades. A feather tick should be made of fine flax yarns set closely, and there should also be a large number of weft threads per inch. Sometimes the inside of the tick is waxed in order to prevent the feathers from working out.
| Fig. 1. | Fig. 2. |
The structure of the fabric is termed a twill, of which four varieties, each showing four units, are illustrated. Fig. 1, the ordinary three-leaf twill, is more extensively used than any other. Occasionally the pattern or twill is in one direction only, but more often the direction is reversed at intervals, thus producing what is technically termed a “herring-bone” or an “arrow-head” twill. Fig. 2 complete on twenty-four threads and three picks shows such a pattern, where the twill is reversed every twelve threads. Figs. 3 and 4 are the four-thread and five-thread straight twills respectively, while fig. 5 is the five-thread sateen twill. These two latter weaves require a great number of threads and picks per inch, and are used only in the finest ticks. The plain weave is occasionally used for cheaper varieties.
| Fig. 3. | Fig. 4. | Fig. 5. |
Mattress ticks and awnings are woven with the same twills, but the colouring of these, especially of the former, is more elaborate.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tickell, Thomas

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​TICKELL, THOMAS (1686–1740), English poet and man of letters, the son of a clergyman, was born at Bridekirk near Carlisle in 1686. After a good preliminary education he went (1701) to Queen's College, Oxford, taking his M.A. degree in 1709. He became fellow of his college in the next year, and in ​1711 university reader or professor of poetry. He did not take orders, but by a dispensation from the Crown was allowed to retain his fellowship until his marriage in 1726. Tickell's success in literature, as in life, was mainly due to the friendship of Addison, who procured for him (1717) an under-secretaryship of state, to the chagrin of Richard Steele, who thenceforth bore Tickell no goodwill. During the peace negotiations with France Tickell published in 1713 the Prospect of Peace. In 1715 he brought out a translation of the first book of the Iliad contemporaneously with Pope's version. Addison's reported description of Tickell's version as the "best that ever was in any language" roused the anger of Pope, who assumed that Addison himself was the author, or had at any rate the principal share in the work. Addison gave Tickell instructions to collect his works, which were printed in 1721 under Tickell's editorship. In 1724 Tickell was appointed secretary to the lords justices of Ireland — a post which he retained until his death, which took place at Bath on the 23rd of April 1740.
Kensington Gardens (1722), his longest poem, is inflated and pedantic. It has been said that Tickell's poetic powers were awakened and sustained by his admiration for the person and genius of Addison, and undoubtedly his best work is the sincere and dignified elegy addressed to the earl of Warwick on Addison's death. His ballad of Colin and Mary was long the most popular of his poems. Tickell contributed to the Spectator and the Guardian.
See " T. Tickell," in Johnson's Lives of the Poets; the Spectator; Ward's English Poets. His Works were printed in 1749 and are included in Chalmers's and other editions of the English Poets.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ticino (river)

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​TICINO (Ger. Tessin, anc. Ticinus), a river of Switzerland and north Italy, which gives its name to the Swiss canton of Ticino (q.v.), and gave it in classical times to the town of Ticinum (Pavia). It rises at the foot of the Gries Pass to the west of Airolo; from Airolo to the Lago Maggiore its valley bears the name of Val Leventina, and is followed as far as Bellinzona by the St Gotthard road and railway. It flows through Lago Maggiore, leaving it at its south end at Sesto Calende, and thence flows S.S.E. into the Po, which it joins a little way south of Pavia.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Perry, Oliver Hazard

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​ PERRY, OLIVER HAZARD (1785-1819), American naval officer, was born at South Kingston, Rhode Island, on the 23rd of August 1785. He entered the navy as midshipman (1799) with his father, Christopher Raymond Perry (1761-1818), a captain in the navy, and saw service against the Barbary pirates. At the beginning of the War of 1812 he was in command of a flotilla at Newport, but was transferred (Feb. 1813) to the Lakes. He served with Commodore Chauncey, and then was sent from Lake Ontario to Lake Erie, where he took up the chief command at the end of March 1813. With the help of a strong detachment of officers and men from the Atlantic coast he equipped a squadron consisting of one brig, six line schooners and one sloop. Other vessels were laid down at Presque Isle (now Erie), where he concentrated the Lake Erie fleet in July. When Captain Perry appeared off Amherstburg, where Captain Robert Heriot Barclay (d. 1837), the British commander, was lying with his squadron, he had a very marked superiority. Captain Barclay, after a hot engagement—the Battle of Lake Erie—in which Captain Perry's flagship the “Lawrence,” a brig, was so severely shattered that he had to leave her, was completely defeated. Perry commanded the “Java” in the Mediterranean expedition of 1815-1816, and he died at Port of Spain in Trinidad on the 23rd of August 1819, of yellow fever contracted on the coast of Brazil.
See O. H. Lyman, Commodore O. H. Perry and the War on the Lakes (New York, 1905).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Perryville

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​ PERRYVILLE, a town of Boyle county, Kentucky, U.S.A., about 10 m. W. of Danville. Pop. (1910), 407. Here on the 8th of October 1863 General Braxton Bragg, in command of the Confederate army of the Mississippi of about 16,000 men, with which he had invaded Kentucky, faced about in his slow retreat across the state and gave battle to the Union army of the Ohio of about 40,000 (of whom only about 22,000 were actually engaged) commanded by Major-General Don Carlos Buell. Bragg's order to attack was disregarded by Major-General Leonidas Polk, who preferred adopting the “defensive-offensive” rather than engage all of Buell's force. Bragg himself came on the field about 10 a.m. and repeated his orders for an attack, but it was 2 p.m. before there was an actual engagement. Then after much delay on Polk's part the Confederate army joined battle with McCook's corps. The Confederate lines were broken and driven back through Perryville, where caissons, ammunition wagons and 140 officers and men were captured. Darkness had now come on, and in the night Bragg withdrew. His losses were reported as 510 killed, 2635 wounded and 251 missing. The Union loss was 845 killed, 2851 wounded and 515 captured or missing. The battle was drawn tactically, but strategically it was a Union victory and it virtually closed Bragg's unsuccessful Kentucky campaign, which is sometimes called the Perryville campaign.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Perseus (astronomy)

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​PERSEUS, in astronomy, a constellation of the northern hemisphere, called after the Greek legendary hero. it is mentioned by Eudoxus (4th century B.C.) and Aratus (3rd century B.C.); Ptolemy and Tycho Brahe catalogued 29 stars, Hevelius 46. The most important member of this constellation is β Persei or Algol (q.v.), a famous variable star. θ Persei is a triple star, composed of one 4th magnitude star and two of the 10th magnitude; ρ Persei is an irregular variable, with a range in magnitude of 3.4 to 4.1. Nova Persei is a “new” star discovered in 1887 and subsequently recognized on Harvard plates by Mrs Fleming in 1895; another new star was discovered by Anderson on the 21st of February 1901, which, after increasing in magnitude, gradually became fainter and ultimately disappeared. There is a nebula surrounding Nova Persei (1901) which was photographed at Yerkes observatory in September 1901; a pair of star clusters, appearing as a bright patch in the Milky Way; and the meteoric swarm named the Perseids, which appear in August and have their radiant in Perseus. (See Meteor.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Perry (Oklahoma)

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​ PERRY, a city and the county-seat of Noble county, Oklahoma, U.S.A., 30 m. N. by E of Guthrie. Pop (1900), 3351 (399 negroes), (1910) 3133. Perry is served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fé railway and by the St Louis & San Francisco system. It is the commercial centre of a large agricultural and stock-raising region, which produces cotton and grain. Perry was settled in 1889.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Perry (beverage)

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​ PERRY (from Fr. poiré, from poire, a pear), an alcoholic beverage, obtained by the fermentation of the juice of pears. The manufacture is in all essentials identical with that of Cider (q.v.).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Perseus of Macedonia

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​PERSEUS OF MACEDONIA (b. c. 212 B.C.), the last king of Macedonia, eldest son of Philip V. He had his brother Demetrius killed, and thus cleared his way to the throne in 179. War broke out with Rome in 171 B.C. when P. Licinius Crassus was sent to attack him. Perseus defeated Crassus at Callinicus in Thessaly, but in 168 he was annihilated at Pydna by L. Aemilius Paulus. He was led in triumph through Rome, and died in captivity at Alba Fucens. (See Macedonia.)
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Wright, Wilbur

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​ WRIGHT, WILBUR (1867-1912), American inventor, was born near Millville, Ind., April 16 1867. He was the son of Milton Wright, a bishop of the United Brethren in Christ. He secured a high-school education in Richmond, Ind., and Dayton, O. Together with his brother Orville he opened a shop for repairing bicycles at Dayton in the early ‘nineties. The Wright brothers early became interested in the problem of flying, and from about 1900 made many experiments with gliding machines at Kittyhawk, N.C. On Dec. 17 1903 such a machine with a petrol motor attached flew 260 yd., the first successful flight of an aeroplane; and on Oct. 5 1905, near Dayton, they accomplished their first successful long flight, more than 24 m., at the speed of 38 m. an hour. In spite of this proof of the practicability of flight in heavier-than-air machines, they were unsuccessful in enlisting financial support in America. In 1908 Wilbur Wright went to France, and on Sept. 21 won the Michelin prize by a flight of 56 miles. This brought him international fame. In Dec. of the same year he made from Le Mans, France, a flight of 77 m. in 2 hours and 20 minutes. In 1909, during the Hudson-Fulton Exposition in New York City, he flew from Governor's I. up the Hudson river to Grant's tomb and back, travelling 21 m. in 33 minutes and 33 seconds. On March 3 1909 Congress awarded the Wright brothers a special medal. Later the U.S. Government purchased a machine for $30,000, and afterwards the invention was officially adopted by the U.S. army. The French patents were sold for $100,000. After 1910 Wilbur Wright gave up public flying and devoted his time to mechanical improvement of the Wright machine. He received many medals and honours from European countries. He died at Dayton, May 30 1912.
His brother, Orville Wright (1871- ), was born at Dayton, O., Aug. 18 1871. He was educated in the Dayton schools, worked with his brother Wilbur in the bicycle repairing business, and was closely associated with him in all his experiments in developing a practicable aeroplane. He shared in the many honours awarded by foreign countries, and after the death of his brother became director of the Wright Aeronautical Laboratory at Dayton. In 1913 he received the Collier trophy for developing the automatic stabilizer. In 1915 he was appointed a member of the U.S. Naval Consulting Board. The same year the Wright Aeroplane Co. sold its patents to a New York syndicate, Orville Wright remaining chief engineer.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Yudenich, Nikolai

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YUDENICH, NIKOLAI (1862-), Russian general, was born in 1862 and entered the army in 1881. Passing out of the General Staff College in 1887, he spent the rest of his military service on the general staff and specially in Turkestan, till in 1902 he became a regimental commander. In the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-5, in which he was wounded, he had the reputation of a valiant and careful chief. He became a general and commander of a rifle brigade in 1905, assistant chief-of-staff of the Caucasian military district in 1907, and chief of the same staff in 1913. Having carefully studied the Caucasus and its army, he was quite prepared for the conduct of operations on this front, and at the beginning of the World War he rendered great services in the crisis and victory of Sarikamish as commander of the II. Turkestan Corps. Soon afterwards he was put in command of all the military forces of the Caucasus, which he held during the operations of 1915 until the arrival of the Grand Duke Nicolai. He continued to serve on this front under the new governor-general and played a leading part in the operations which led to the fall of Erzerum on Feb. 16 1916. In the summer campaign further progress was made, and Baiburt and Erzinjan were taken. Later, when the advance had outrun the organization of the rear, the situation was saved by his prompt manœuvres.
In March 1917, on the departure of the Grand Duke, Gen. Yudenich again undertook the command of the Caucasian armies, but here, as elsewhere, further advance was paralysed by the increasing disorganization of the Russian army. In the course of the civil wars Gen. Yudenich in 1920 carried out a campaign from the Baltic provinces against Petrograd, but unsuccessfully.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Wundt, Wilhelm Max

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WUNDT, WILHELM MAX (1832-1920), German philosopher (see 28.855), died at Leipzig Sept. 1 1920. His principal work was done before 1907. At the outset of the World War he published an address justifying Germany, and his Die Nationen und ihre Philosophen (1915) eulogizes German thought and culture whilst belittling those of England and France.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Yanushkevich, Nikolai

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YANUSHKEVICH, NIKOLAI (1868-), Russian general, was born in 1868 and entered the army in 1888. He passed through the academy of the general staff, and was appointed on the general staff. By 1909 he had reached the rank of general, but all his service was spent in the offices of the War Ministry, out of contact with troops. Very strict as a bureaucrat, he earned the special favour of the War Minister, Sukhomlinov, and, though he was quite untrained in the leading of troops in modern warfare (at the academy of the general staff he had taken an administrative course), he was, thanks to his even temper and enterprise, quickly promoted to the higher posts. Just before the World War he was appointed head of the general staff. Unable to introduce improvements, he limited himself merely to formal direction, which toned in well with the régime which the careless War Minister, Sukhomlinov, had established. With the declaration of war Yanushkevich, as head of the general staff, became the head of the staff of the supreme commander-in-chief. But at the commencement of operations, feeling himself completely unprepared for leadership on active service, he withdrew and left the work in the hands of his subordinates.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Treatise

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​TREATISE, a written composition, dealing fully and systematically with the principles of some subject of serious importance. The M. Eng. tretis, O. Fr. tretis, or treitis, is a doublet of "treaty," which also meant a discourse or account. Both words are to be referred to Lat. tractare, to treat, handle, frequentative of trahere, tractus, to draw. " Treatise " thus would mean, by etymology, something well handled, nicely made.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Trebia

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​TREBIA (mod. Trebbia), a river of Cisalpine Gaul, a tributary of the Padus (Po) into which it falls some 4 m. west of Placentia (Piacenza). It is remarkable for the victory gained on its banks by Hannibal over the Romans in 218 B.C. The latest investigations make it clear that Polybius's account, according to which the battle took place on the left bank of the river, is to be preferred to that of Livy (see W. J. Kromayer in Anzeiger der phil. hist. Klasse der k. Akademie der Wissenschaften, Vienna, October 14, 1908). Its valley is followed past Bobbio by the modern highroad from Piacenza to Genoa (88 m.).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Traù

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​TRAÙ (Serbo-Croatian Trogir; Lat. Tragurium). a seaport of Dalmatia, Austria. Pop. (1900) of town and commune, 17,064. Traù is situated 16 m. W. of Spalato by road, on an islet in the Traù channel, and is connected with the mainland and the adjoining island of Bua by two bridges. The city walls are intact on the north, where a 15th-century fort, the Castel Camerlengo, overlooks the sea. Above the main gateway the lion of St Mark is carved, and the general aspect of Traù is Venetian. Its streets, which are too narrow for wheeled traffic, contain many interesting churches and medieval houses, including the birthplace of the historian Giovanni Lucio (Lucius of Traù), author of De regno Dalmatiae et Croatiae (Amsterdam, 1666). The loggia, built by the Venetians, is a fine specimen of a 16th-century court of justice; and the cathedral is a basilica of rare beauty, founded in 1200 and completed about 1450. It was thus mainly built during the period of Hungarian supremacy; and, in consequence, its architecture shows clear signs of German influence. Among the treasures preserved in the sacristy are several interesting examples of ancient jewellers’ work. Traù has some trade in wine and fruit. It is a steamship station, with an indifferent harbour.
Tragurium was probably colonized about 380 B.C. by Syracusan Greeks from Lissa, and its name is sometimes derived from Troghilon a place near Syracuse. Constantine Porphyrogenitus writing in the 10th century, regards it as a corruption of ἀγγυρίον, water melon, from a fancied similarity in shape. He states that Traù was one of the few Dalmatian cities which preserved its Roman character. In 998 it submitted to Venice; but in 1105 it acknowledged the supremacy of Hungary, while retaining its municipal freedom, and receiving, in 1108, a charter which is quoted by Lucio. After being plundered by the Saracens in 1123, it was ruled for brief periods by Byzantium, Hungary and Venice. In 1242 the Tatars pursued King Bela IV. of Hungary to Traù, but were unable to storm the island city. After 1420, when the sovereignty of Venice was finally established, Traù played no conspicuous part in Dalmatian history.
See T. G. Jackson, Dalmatia, the Quarnero, and Istria (Oxford, 1887); E. A. Freeman, Sketches from the Subject and Neighbour Lands of Venice (London, 1881); and G. Lucio, Memorie istoriche di Tragurio, ora detto Traù (Venice, 1673).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tread-mill

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​TREAD-MILL, a penal appliance introduced by Sir William Cubitt in 1818 and intended by him as a means of employing criminals usefully. It was a large hollow cylinder of wood on an iron frame, round the circumference of which were a series of steps about 71/2 in. apart. The criminal, steadying himself by hand-rails on either side, trod on these, his weight causing the mill to revolve and compelling him to take each step in turn. In the brutalizing system formerly in vogue the necessary resistance was obtained by weights, thus condemning the offender to useless toil and defeating the inventor’s object. The tread-mill, however, was subsequently utilized for grinding corn, pumping water and other prison purposes. The speed of the wheel was regulated by a brake. Usually it revolved at the rate of 32 ft. per minute. The prisoner worked for 6 hours each day, 3 hours at a time. He was on the wheel for 15 minutes and then rested for 5 minutes. Thus in the course of his day’s labour he climbed 8640 ft. Isolation of prisoners at their work was obtained by screens of wood on each side of the mill, converting the working space into a separate compartment. Each prisoner was medically examined before going to the mill.
By the Prison Act 1865 every male prisoner over 16, sentenced to hard labour, had to spend three months at least of his sentence in labour of the first class. This consisted primarily of the tread-mill, or, as an alternative, the crank. The latter consisted of a small wheel, like the paddle-wheel of a steamer, and a handle turned by the prisoner made it revolve in a box partly filled with gravel. The amount of gravel regulated the hard labour; or the necessary resistance was obtained by a brake, by which a pressure, usually of 12 ℔, was applied. The prisoner had to make 8000 or 10,000 revolutions during his 6 hours' work, according to his strength, the number being registered on a dial. The crank too, however, was subsequently made to serve useful purposes. Both tread-mill and crank have gradually been abolished; in 1895 there were 39 tread-mills and 29 cranks in use in English prisons, and these had dwindled down to 13 and 5 respectively in 1901. They are now disused.
The fundamental idea of Cubitt’s invention, i.e. procuring rotary motion for industrial purposes by the weight of men or animals, is very old. “Tread-wheels,” of this type, usually consist of hollow cylinders, round the inner surface of which a horse, dog or man walks, foothold being kept by slabs of wood nailed across at short intervals.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Trebinje

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​TREBINJE, a town of Herzegovina, situated 9m. N.E. of Ragusa, on the small river Trebinjcica, and on a branch of the railway from Metkovic to Castelnuovo, near Cattaro. Pop. (1895), about 1700. Trebinje is built in a low-lying oasis among the desolate limestone mountains, close to the Dalmatian and Montenegrin frontiers. Its half-ruined wall and citadel testify to its former strategic importance. Trebinje was built by the Slavs, probably on the site of a Roman town laid waste by the Saracens in 840. In the tenth century Constantine Porphyrogenitus mentions it as Terbunia. It commanded the road from Ragusa to Constantinople, traversed, in 1096, by Raymond of Toulouse and his crusaders. Under the name of Tribunia or Travunja (the Trebigne of the Ragusans), it belonged to the Servian Empire until 1355. In 1483 it was captured by the Turks.