# Domestic Encyclopædia (1802)/Building

Edition of 1802.
​BUILDING is the art of constructing and raising an edifice: in which sense it comprehends as well the expences, as the invention and execution of the design.
In the practice of this useful art, there are five particulars to be principally attended to: 1. Situation; 2. Contrivance, or design; 3. Strength and solidity; 4. Convenience and utiliy; and 5. Elegance. As our aim is not to impart elementary instructions in the art of building, we shall only sketch the most essential rules, by an attention to which, the reader may be enabled to discriminate between good and bad building, and to guard against many common errors.
In laying the foundation of a building, proper care should be taken to ascertain the nature of the soil, either by a crow or rammer; or, which is still better, with a miner's or well-digger's borer, in order to discover whether it is thoroughly sound, and fit to bear the weight that is to be laid upon it. If the foundation be not very loose, it may be improved by ramming in large stones.
With regard to situation, a dwelling-house ought never to be erected near marshes, fens, or a boggy soil, nor too close on the banks of a river, unless it stand on rising ground, at the north or west side of the bank.—See Country House and Farm House.
Contrivance, or design, is of the first importance in building, as a skilful architect will not only make the structure handsome and convenient, but often save great expences; which cannot be avoided when, by hasty and injudicious management, any future alterations become necessary. A model is the most certain way to prevent mistakes, and is superior to the best draughts. But, if the latter be adopted, they should be of the largest size, so that the delineation of all the chimneys, hearths, bed-places, stairs, and the latitude of all doors and windows, in each floor, may be distinctly represented: and if the workmanship be agreed upon by the bulk, it will be useful (for obviating differences and disputes) to insert the length and thickness of the ground plates, breast-summers, girders, trimmers, joists, raisings, and wall-plates; as, also the thickness of the walls, partitions, &c. In timber buildings, the several sizes of the ground-plates, interduces, breast-summers, beams, principal port-braces, quarters, window-posts, door-posts, cellar-beams, principal rafters, &c. should also be minutely ascertained.
Instead of expatiating, in this place, on the strength, utility, and elegance of buildings, it may not be improper to give an abstract of the principal acts of parliament, passed on this important subject; and afterwards compare the ancient method of building with modern improvements.—On re-building the city of London, after the great fire, in 1666, it was enacted, That in every foundation within ​the ground, one brick be added to the thickness of the wall next above the foundation; that no timber be laid within the funnel of any chimney; and that the proper size of timber for ordinary buildings be adapted to certain proportions specified in the act.
For the regulation of building within the Bills of Mortality, and in other specified places, it was enacted in the eleventh year of George I. and the fourth of his present Majesty, that party-walls must be erected of brick or stone; which shall be two bricks and a half thick in the cellar, two bricks thick upward to the garret-floor, &c. Besides, there were several other limitations made respecting the size and disposition of the timber. Every building is to be surveyed, and the person who offends against the statute, in any of the particulars recited, is liable to a penalty of 250l.
During the 18th century, and particularly within the last forty years, great improvements have been made in the art of building; as our modern edifices are more convenient, and elegant, than those of former times. Our ancestors generally inhabited houses with a blind stair-case, low ceilings, and dark windows; the rooms were built at random, without contrivance or symmetry, and often with steps leading from one to the other; so that we might be induced to imagine, they purposely guarded against the influence of light and fresh air. The more happy genius of our age is for light stair-cases, fine sash windows, and lofty apartments. Thus, a house built according to the prevailing taste, excels both in point of compactness and uniformity; insomuch that on the same extent of ground, it affords nearly double the conveniences that could be procured on the old plan. The modern rage for building, however, is apparently attended with this unfavourable effect, that little attention is paid to the quality of the materials, and the strength of the edifice, if speculative monied men attain their object, in erecting houses that may be lett at a certain rent. We believe there are few, perhaps no, instances recorded in ancient history, that dwelling-houses have tumbled down before they were finished or inhabited; such events, however, have occasionally happened, during the last twelve years, especially in the metropolis. Instead of that variegated tinsel ornament betowed on almost every chimney-piece, and other immaterial parts of a mansion, it would be more judicious, and economical, to attend to the quality and durability of bricks, mortar, and timber. Nor do our modern builders, in the erection of their walls, observe that uniformity, which rendered the buildings of the Romans almost indestructible. From the description given in the 493d number of the Philosophical Transactions, by Mr. Arderon, it appears that the ruins of two old towers, belonging to the Roman camp at Castor, in Norfolk, were built in the following ingenious manner: They began first with a layer of bricks, laid flat as in pavements; on that they placed a layer of clay and marl mixed together, and of the same thickness with the bricks; then a layer of bricks, afterwards of clay and marl, then of bricks again; making in the whole three layers of bricks, and two of clay. Over this were placed bricks and lime ​twenty-nine inches, the outside being faced with bricks cut in squares; then brick and clay alternately, as high as the old ruins now remain standing. He adds some remarks on the hardness of the mortar, and durableness of the bricks, the length of which last is found to be 17,4-tenths inches, or a Roman foot and a half; their breadth 11,6-tenths inches, or precisely a Roman foot; and their thickness only 1,3-tenths of an inch. This last circumstance deserves particular notice, and we therefore refer the reader to the article Brick, p. 352.
Many compositions have, with more or less success, been devised for making mortar impenetrable to moisture. The following we believe is one of the most simple and effectual: Mix thoroughly one-fourth of fresh unslacked lime with three-fourths of sand; and let five labourers make mortar of these ingredients, by pouring on water, with trowels, to supply one mason, who must, when the materials are sufficiently mixed, apply it instantly as cement or plaster, and it will become hard as stone. This recipe is given by Mr. R. Dossie, in his second volume of "Memoirs of Agriculture and other Economical Arts," 1771. The author, on this occasion, observes that the lime used should be stone-lime; that previous to its use, it should be preserved from the access of air or wet, and the plaster screened for some time from the sun and wind. He justly remarks, that its excellence arises from the particular attraction between lime and sand, which would be destroyed by slacking the lime. Skimmed milk (says he) is preferable to water; and for the similarity of this mortar to that of the ancients, he refers us to Pliny, Vitruvius, &c.
Another very durable and cheap cement in building, which is particularly designed as a handsome coping of walls, is that of the late P. Wych, Esq. Take four or five bushels of such plaster as is commonly burnt for floors about Nottingham (or, according to Mr. Dossie, a similar quantity of any tarras, plaster, or calcined gypsum); beat it to fine powder, then sift and put it into a trough, and mix with it one bushel of pure coal ashes, well calcined. Pour on the water, till the whole becomes good mortar. Lay this in wooden frames of twelve feet in length on the walls, well smoothed with common mortar and dry, the thickness of two inches at each side, and three inches in the middle. When the frame is moved to proceed with the work, leave an interval of two inches for this coping to extend itself, so as to meet the last frame-work.
In December 1780, Dr. R. Williams obtained the King's patent for his invention of a mortar or stucco for the purpose of buildings. As the term of the exclusive privilege of using this composition is now expired, we shall give the following particulars: Take of sharp, rough, large-grained sand, sifted, washed, dried, and freed from all impurities; of well-burnt lime, slaked, and finely sifted; of curd, or cheese, produced from milk; (the first, fresh made and strongly pressed, to divest it of its whey; the second, whilst perfectly sound, rasped into powder with a grater, or brought into a very light substance with scrapers, or fine-toothed plane irons, in a turner's lathe); and lastly, of water in its natural ​state, in the following proportions, viz. of the cheese, or curd, four pounds; the lime twelve pounds; the sand eighty-four pounds; the water ten pounds. If the sand is not thoroughly dried, or the lime has got damp from the air, the quantity of water must be less than the above proportion; and, on the contrary, when the lime is used as soon as slaked, it may require more; so that the proper stiffness of the mortar, under those circumstances, will regulate the making of the composition.
As the goodness of this mortar depends on the preservation of the natural properties of the cheese, or curd, made use of, all those parts the least tainted or rotten must be rejected; and as the cheese, like the curd produced from skim-milk, is divested of its buttery and oily particles, and on that account possesses a powerful cohesive quality, which makes it better for this work than that made of milk in its rich and pure state; it is at all times to be bought of the wholesale cheese-mongers at a lower price than any other; and being more convenient than the curd, as that will require frequent making, is to be preferred to it, as well as to every other sort of cheese; for less of it is sufficient, only four pounds being allowed to the net hundred weight of all the solid ingredients; more than which might make the mortar too lively to keep in its place without bagging, but less should not be used; as that, on the other hand, would endanger its drying loose and gritty within its surface, hinder it from adhering properly to the walls, and thus reduce it to the level of common mortar. Many tedious and trivial rules are stated by the patentee, relative to the manner of applying this cement, and its preservation in boxes for ready use. Those who wish to acquire additional information concerning this subject, may find the specification of the patent, at full length, in the third volume of the "Repertory of Arts and Manufactures."
In July, 1796, Mr. H. Walker, of Thurmaston, Leicestershire, procured a patent for his invention of a method, by which houses and other buildings, of any description or dimensions, might be erected in one entire mass or body, at a much easier expence, especially in the articles of timber, lime, and workmanship, and which would be equally as durable in themselves, and less liable to accidents by fire, than buildings erected upon the common construction. His process is as follows:
1. The patentee takes an argillaceous earth or natural clay, which he purifies by the usual well-known methods, and compounds it with sand, or broken or pounded pottery or brick, coal-ashes, charcoal, or, in short, with any other of those substances which are adapted to form a good, firm, and durable brick, when properly baked; and he varies the composition according to the nature of the component parts themselves, and the purposes which they are intended to answer; but, for common constructions, he uses the same proportions as brick-makers in general. He then proceeds to mix, knead, and incorporate the said materials, till they are brought to the requisite firmness and tenacity for building; which is nearly such, that the parts of any lump or mass of the same may be readily incorporated with, or joined to, any other similar mass, by moderate blows with a wooden mallet, ​and the occasional addition of a very small portion of water: this composition he calls the prepared material.
2. He constructs floors, walls, and all other buildings, according to this invention, in such a manner that the power of fire, from wood, coal, charcoal, coak, or other combustible matters, may be applied to the external and interior surfaces of the floors, walls, and other parts, by means of fires maintained in cavities left within, which he calls by the name of furnaces.
3. With respect to the particular forms, dimensions, and relative positions of the said floors, walls, and other parts of buildings, and the furnaces left or formed within the same, together with the apertures or communications, for the purposes of ventilating the fires, of suffering the volatile matters to escape, and of converting the whole into one entire mass of brick, by a due communication and continuance of heat, Mr. Walker says, the ground must be rendered solid, and the foundation laid in the usual manner; after which he applies a quantity of the prepared material before alluded to, and beats, rams, or presses it down to the thickness of about six inches; and in width, corresponding with the intended dimensions of the wall, regulated by boards or framing. He then plants upright, at the distance of about thirty inches asunder, in the said layer or bed of prepared material, a number of cylindrical pieces of wood, of about nine inches in diameter each, and eighteen or more inches in length, to serve as moulds for the cavities of the furnaces; and between each of such moulds he places, in the longitudinal direction of the wall, a number of pipes, of wood, or other materials, or rods, of combustible or incombustible matter, for the purpose of forming communications between all the several furnaces, or as many of them as he thinks proper. Then he proceeds to form another layer or bed of the material, to the same height, namely, about six inches, and disposes a number of such pipes, or rods, for the purpose of forming similar communications. In this manner, he constructs the whole, or so much of the wall as he apprehends, at the time, may be conveniently formed, in the raw or unburnt state; taking care, as the work advances, to raise the wooden cylinders, or moulds, that a sufficient portion of them may remain above the surface of the work, to admit of the reception and proper fashioning of each subsequent layer; or he forms the communications between the furnaces, by perforating the wooden moulds, in various places, at right angles to their respective axes; and through the said perforations he passes a bar of iron, or other material, which serves to connect three or more of the said furnace-moulds, and, being afterwards withdrawn, as the work proceeds, leaves cavities of communication, similar to those formed by pipes, rods, &c. in the manner before described. Farther, he opens such a number of horizontal or oblique apertures, or flues, into all the furnaces, and likewise into all the cavities, as may be requisite for admitting, on all sides, the access of atmospheric air. In some instances, he forms the horizontal or oblique apertures, or flues, by disposing, along with the pipes, a suitable number of taper rods, which are afterwards extracted.
4. When the wall is built, he either suffers it spontaneously to ​dry, or promotes this effect by moderate fires in the furnaces. Sometimes by increasing the heat within, and at others, by suitable applications of fire externally, he converts the whole into one entire mass of bricks. By occasional closing or opening of the furnaces at top, or any of the other apertures, in various parts, the intelligent operator will easily understand how to regulate the progress, communication, and effect of the heat, that the conversion into brick may be uniform through the entire mass.
5. The dimensions of the furnaces, the positions and relative distances of the pipes of communication and lateral apertures, and the thickness of the layers of the prepared material, are each susceptible of great variations, according to the nature of this preparation, the activity of the fuel, the proposed solidity or figure of the work, &c.
6. He then forms the remaining parts of the wall, or edifice, by applying additional portions of the prepared material in contact with that already baked; while he also avails himself of proper and suitable external and internal moulds, supports, frames, and other occasional contrivances, well known to builders, for sustaining works, or forming arches, or determining the figure and positions of soft plastic substances.
7. The ground-floor is likewise formed of the prepared material, leaving hollow spaces between the supports beneath, for making fires, ventilated by side apertures, which are provided with numerous holes. When the floor is of considerable thickness, it will require the construction of furnaces, in every respect similar to those before described.
8. The first above the ground floor is made upon suitable temporary framing, in such a manner that the upper surface shall be plane, and the lower concave, so that it may, when baked, support itself, upon the principle of a low arch.
9, and 10. The patentee constructs, bakes, or burns other floors above the first, and also the roof, &c. he closes the apertures, fills up the furnaces, amends the deficiencies, adorns the walls, floors, ceilings, or other parts, with his prepared material, according to the taste and direction of the proprietor.
Various plans have lately been devised for securing buildings, and ships, against fire. We shall, however, mention only that of David Hartley, Esq. who, in April, 1773, obtained a patent for his invention of applying plates of metal and wire, varnished or unvarnished, to the several parts of buildings of ships, so as to prevent the access of fire, and the current of air; securing the several joints by doubling in, over-lapping, soldering, rivetting, or in any other manner closing them up; nailing, screwing, sewing, or otherwise fastening, the said plates of metal in, to, and about, the several parts of buildings, and ships, as the case may require.—Convinced that this method would be too expensive for common buildings, and that it does not afford sufficient security against violent flames, when the contiguous buildings are actually burning, we shall suggest other, and more effectual means of protection, under the article Fire.