OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lucilius Junior

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​LUCILIUS JUNIOR, a friend and correspondent of the younger Seneca, probably the author of Aetna, a poem on the origin of volcanic activity, variously attributed to Virgil, Cornelius Severus (epic poet of the Augustan age) and Manilius. Its composition has been placed as far back as 44 B.C., on the ground that certain works of art, known to have been removed to Rome about that date, are referred to as being at a distance from the city. But as the author appears to have known and made use of the Quaestiones Naturales of Seneca (written A.D. 65), and no mention is made of the great eruption of Vesuvius (A.D. 79), the time of its composition seems to lie between these two dates. In favour of the authorship of Lucilius are the facts that he was a friend of Seneca and acquainted with his writings; that he had for some time held the office of imperial procurator of Sicily, and was thus familiar with the locality; that he was the author of a poem on Sicilian subjects. It is objected that in the 79th letter of Seneca, which is the chief authority on the question, he apparently asks that Lucilius should introduce the hackneyed theme of Aetna merely as an episode in his contemplated poem, not make it the subject of separate treatment. The sources of the Aetna are Posidonius of Apamea, and perhaps the pseudo-Aristotelian De Mundo, while there are many reminiscences of Lucretius. It has come down in a very corrupt state, and its difficulties are increased by the unpoetical nature of the subject, the straining after conciseness, and the obtrusive use of metaphor.
Editions by J. Scaliger (1595), F. Jacob (1826), H. A. J. Munro (1867), M. Haupt (in his edition of Virgil, 1873), E. Bährens (in Poetae latini minores, ii), S. Sudhaus (1898), R. Ellis (1901, containing a bibliography of the subject); see also M. Haupt’s Opuscula, i. 40, ii. 27, 162, iii. 437 (notes, chiefly critical); R. Ellis in Journal of Philology, xvi. 292; P. R. Wagler, De Aetna poemate quaestiones criticae (1884); B. Kruczkiewicz, Poema de Aetna Monte (1883, in which the ancient view of the authorship of Virgil is upheld); L. Alzinger, Studia in Aetnam collata (1896); R. Hildebrandt, Beiträge zur Erklärung des Gedichtes Aetna (1900); J. Vessereau (text, translation and commentary, 1905); Teuffel-Schwabe, Hist. of Roman Literature (Eng. trans. §§ 307, 308).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lucretia

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​LUCRETIA, a Roman lady, wife of Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus, distinguished for her beauty and domestic virtues. Having been outraged by Sextus Tarquinius, one of the sons of Tarquinius Superbus, she informed her father and her husband, and, having exacted an oath of vengeance from them, stabbed herself to death. Lucius Junius Brutus, her husband’s cousin, put himself at the head of the people, drove out the Tarquins, and established a republic. The accounts of this tradition in later writers present many points of divergence.
Livy i. 57-59; Dion. Halic. iv. 64-67, 70, 82; Ovid, Fasti, ii. 721-852; Dio Cassius, frag. 11 (Bekker); G. Cornewall Lewis, Credibility of Early Roman History, i.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lucifer (devil)

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​LUCIFER (the Latinized form of Gr. φωσφόρος, “light-bearer”), the name given to the “morning star,” i.e. the planet Venus when it appears above the E. horizon before sunrise, and sometimes also to the “evening star,” i.e. the same planet in the W. sky after sundown, more usually called Hesperus (q.v.). The term “day star” (so rendered in the Revised Version) was used poetically by Isaiah for the king of Babylon: “How art thou fallen from heaven, O Lucifer, son of the morning! how art thou cut down to the ground, which didst weaken the nations” (Is. xiv. 12, Authorized Version). The words ascribed to Christ in Luke x. 18: “I beheld Satan as lightning fall from heaven” (cf. Rev. ix. 1), were interpreted by the Christian Fathers as referring to the passage in Isaiah; whence, in Christian theology, Lucifer came to be regarded as the name of ​Satan before his fall. This idea finds its most magnificent literary expression in Milton’s Paradise Lost. In this sense the name is most commonly associated with the familiar phrase “as proud as Lucifer.”
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lucina

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​LUCINA, goddess of light, a title given to Juno and Diana as presiding over childbirth and bringing children into the light of the world. The full name is lucina dea, “the light-bringing goddess” (lux, light, hence adj. lucinus). It is also given to Hecate (Tibullus 3. 4. 13), as the bringer of terrible dreams, and is used metaphorically as a synonym for child-birth (Virg. Georg, iii. 60; Ovid, Ars. Amai. iii. 785).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lucius

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​LUCIUS, the name of three popes.
Lucius I., pope for eight months (253–254), spent a short period of his pontificate in exile. He is referred to in several letters of Cyprian (see Epist. lxviii. 5) as having been in agreement with his predecessor Cornelius in preferring the milder view on the question as to how the lapsed penitent should be treated. He is commemorated on the 4th of March. (L. D.*)
Lucius II. (Gherardo Caccianemici dal Orso), pope from the 12th of March 1144 to the 15th of February 1145, a Bolognese, successively canon at his native city, cardinal priest of Sta Croce in Gerusalemme, treasurer of the Roman Church, papal legate in Germany for Honorius II., chancellor and librarian under Innocent II., was the successor of Celestine II. His stormy pontificate was marked by the erection of a revolutionary republic at Rome which sought to deprive the pope of his temporal power, and by the recognition of papal suzerainty over Portugal. He was succeeded by Eugenius III.
His letters are in J. P. Migne, Patrol. Lat. vol. 179. A single unreliable writer, Godfrey of Viterbo (in J. M. Watterich, Pontif. Roman. Vitae), is authority for the statement that Lucius II. perished in an attempt to storm the Capitol. See Jaffé-Wittenbach, Regesta pontif. Roman. (1885–1888); J. Langen, Geschichte der römischen Kirche von Gregor VII. bis Innocenz III. (Bonn, 1893); F. Gregorovius, Rome in the Middle Ages, vol. 4, trans. by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, 1896).
Lucius III. (Ubaldo Allucingoli), pope from the 1st of September 1181 to the 25th of November 1185, a native of Lucca and a Cistercian monk, named cardinal-priest of Sta Prassede by Innocent II. and cardinal-bishop of Ostia and Velletri by Adrian IV., succeeded Alexander III. He lived at Rome from November 1181 to March 1182, but dissensions in the city compelled him to pass the remainder of his pontificate in exile, mainly at Velletri, Anagni and Verona. He disputed with the emperor Frederick I. the disposal of the territories of the Countess Matilda. In November 1184 he held a synod at Verona which condemned the Cathari, Paterines, Waldensians and Arnoldists, and anathematized all heretics and their abettors. Lucius died in the midst of preparations for a crusade in answer to appeals of Baldwin IV. of Jerusalem. His successor was Urban III.
His letters are in J. P. Migne, Patrol. Lat. vol. 201. Consult J. M. Watterich, Pontif. Roman. Vitae, vol. 2 (Leipzig, 1862); and Jaffé-Wattenbach, Regesta Pontif. Roman. (1885–1888). See J. Langen, Geschichte der römischen Kirche von Gregor VII. bis Innocenz III. (Bonn, 1893); F. Gregorovius, Rome in the Middle Ages, vol. 4, trans. by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, 1896); P. Scheffer-Boichorst, “Zu den mathildinischen Schenkungen,” in Mittheilungen des österreichen Instituts (1888). (C. H. Ha.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Luck

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​LUCK, a term for good or bad fortune, the unforeseen or unrecognized causes which bring success or failure in any enterprise, particularly used of the result of chances in games of skill or chance (see Probability). The word does not occur in English before the 16th century. It was taken from the Low Ger. luk, a shortened form of geluk, cf. Modern Ger. Glück, happiness, good fortune. The New English Dictionary considers the word to have been introduced from the Low Countries as a gambling term. The ultimate origin is doubtful; it has been connected with the German gelingen, to succeed (cf. Druck, pressure, from dringen), or with locken, to entice.
At Eden Hall in Cumberland, the seat of the Musgrave family, has been long preserved a vessel known as “the luck,” supposed to be of Venetian or Byzantine make, and dating from the 10th century. It is a chalice of enamelled glass, and on its safe preservation the fortunes of the Musgrave family are supposed to depend, in accordance with the rhyme:—
* “Should this cup either break or fall
* Farewell the luck of Edenhall.”
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Luckenwalde

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​LUCKENWALDE, a town in the Prussian province of Brandenburg, on the Nuthe, 30 m. S. of Berlin, on the main line to Dresden and Leipzig. Pop. (1905) 22,263. Its cloth and wool manufactories are among the most extensive in Prussia. Among its other industries are cotton printing and dye works, brewing, and the making of metal and bronze goods.
The site of Luckenwalde was occupied in the 12th century by a Cistercian monastery, but the village did not spring up till the reign of Frederick the Great. It was made a town in 1808.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lucre

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​LUCRE (Lat. lucrum, gain; the Indo-European root is seen in Gr. ἀπολάυειν, to enjoy, and in Ger. Lohn, wages), a term now only used in the disparaging sense of unworthy profit, or money that is the object of greed, especially in the expression “filthy lucre” (1 Tim. iii. 3). In the adjective “lucrative,” profitable, there is, however, no sense of disparagement. In Scots law the term “lucrative succession” (lucrativa acquisitio) is used of the taking by an heir, during the lifetime of his ancestor, of a free grant of any part of the heritable property.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stool-ball

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​STOOL-BALL, a game formerly very popular in England, and commonly considered as the ancestor of cricket. Joseph Strutt, writing in 1801, says of it: "I have been informed that a pastime called stool-ball is practised to this day in the northern parts of England, which consists simply in setting a stool upon the ground, and one of the players takes his place before it, while his antagonist, standing at a distance, tosses a ball with the intention of striking the stool, and this it is the business of the former to prevent by beating it away with the hand, reckoning one to the game for every stroke of the ball; if, on the contrary, it should be missed by the hand and touch the stool, the players change places; the conqueror at this game is he who strikes the ball most times before it touches the stool. I believe the same also happens if the person who threw the ball can catch and retain it when driven back, before it touches the ground." Some variety of the game, with modifications due to the development of cricket, has probably been played even since these days.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stonehaven

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​STONEHAVEN (locally Stanehive), a police burgh, seaport and county town of Kincardineshire, Scotland, 15 m. S.S.W. of Aberdeen by rail. Pop. (1901), 4577. It consists of two quarters, the old town picturesquely situated on the south bank of the Carron and the new on the land between this stream and the Cowie, the two being connected by the bridge which carries the main road from the south to Aberdeen. The principal buildings are the market-house and town hall, and the industries include distilling, brewing, tanning, the making of net, rope and twine and woollen manufactures. The harbour, a natural basin, is protected on the south-east by cliffs and has a quay. The trade is mostly in coal and lime and the exports are chiefly agricultural. The town is an important centre of the fishing industry, and has become a favourite watering-place. On the decay of Kincardine, the original capital, Stonehaven became the county town in 1600, and suffered heavily during the covenanting troubles, Montrose setting it on fire in 1645. The Slug Road to Banchory-Ternan, or Upper Banchory (pop. 1475), 15 m. distant, a favourite residential resort of Aberdeen citizens, begins at Stonehaven. It pursues mainly a north-western direction, at one point being carried over the shoulder of Cairn mon-earn (1245 ft.).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stoneham

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​STONEHAM, a township of Middlesex county, Massachusetts, U.S.A. Pop. (1890), 6155; (1900), 6197; (1910, U.S. census), 7090. Area, 6.6 sq. m. In the township is Spot Pond, a large lake with islets, so named in 1632 by Governor John Wlnthrop and others who then first discovered it; it is a storage basin for the Metropolitan Water District, and supplies Medford, Melrose and Stoneham. A large part (730 acres) of the Middlesex Fells Reservation of the Metropolitan Park System is in Stoneham. The village of Stoneham, with the only post office in the town- ship, is about 9 m. north by east of Boston, and is served by the Boston & Maine railway and by inter-urban electric lines; it has a public library. Steam power was first used in the manufacture of shoes in Stoneham by John Hill & Co., who introduced many labour-saving devices, notably the heeling machine (1862). Stoneham, long a part of Charlestown and first settled about 1668, was incorporated as a township in 1725, but its boundaries have been frequently changed since then.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Storace, Stephen

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​STORACE, STEPHEN (1763-1796), English musical composer, was born in London in 1763. His father, Stefano Storace, an Italian contrabassist, taught him the violin so well that at ten years old he played successfully the most difficult music of the day. After completing his education at the Conservatorio di Sant' Onofrio, at Naples, he produced his first opera, Gli Sposi malcontenti, at Vienna, in 1785. Here he made the acquaintance of Mozart, in whose Nozze di Figaro his sister, Anna Selina Storace, first sang the part of Susanna. Here also he produced a second opera, Gli Equivoci, founded on Shakespeare's Comedy of Errors, and a “Singspiel” entitled Der Doctor und der Apotheker. But his greatest triumphs were achieved in England, whither he returned in 1787. After creating a favourable impression by bringing out his “Singspiel” at Drury Lane, under the title of The Doctor and the Apothecary, Storace attained his first great success in 1789, in The Haunted Tower, an opera which ran for fifty nights in succession. No Song, No Supper was equally successful in 1790; and The Siege of Belgrade scarcely less so in 1791. The music of The Pirates, produced in 1792, was partly adapted from Gli Equivoci, and is remarkable as affording one of the earliest instances of the introduction of a grand finale into an English opera. These works were followed by some less successful productions; but The Cherokee (1794) and The Three and the Deuce (1795) were very favourably received, and the music to Colman's play, The Iron Chest, first performed on the 12th of March 1796, created even a greater sensation than The Haunted Tower. This was Storace's last work. He caught cold at the rehearsal, and died on the 19th of March 1796.
The character of Storace's music is pre-eminently English; but his early intercourse with Mozart gave him an immense advantage over his contemporaries in his management of the orchestra, while for the excellence of his writing for the voice he was no doubt indebted to the vocalization of his sister Anna. This lady was born in London in 1766, completed her education at Venice under Sacchini, sang for Mozart at Vienna, and first appeared at the King's Theatre in London in 1787. After contributing greatly to the success of The Haunted Tower and her brother's later operas, she crowned a long and brilliant career by winning great laurels at the Handel Commemoration at Westminster Abbey in 1791, retired from public life in 1808, and died on the 24th of August 1817. During her stay in Vienna she married John Abraham Fisher, a celebrated violinist; but he used her so cruelly that she refused to bear his name, and in her will—bequeathing property to the amount of £50,000—styled herself “spinster.”
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stonington

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​STONINGTON, a township of New London county, Connecticut, U.S.A., in the S.E. corner of the state, on Long Island Sound. Pop. of the township (1900), 8540 (of whom 1968 were foreign-born), (1910), 9154, including that of the borough of Stonington, 2083. Stonington is served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway, which has repair shops here, by an electric line connecting with New London, Conn., and Westerly, Rhode Island, and, in summer, by steamer to Watch Hill and Block Island. Its harbour is excellent, and it is a port of entry, but its foreign trade is unimportant. The township covers an area of about 45 sq. m., and includes, besides the borough of Stonington, the villages of Mystic, Old Mystic and Pawcatuck (which is closely allied with Westerly, Rhode Island). Among the manufactures of the township are foundry and machine-shop products, printing presses, silk machinery, fertilizers, spools, thread and cotton, and woollen, silk and velvet goods. Ship building and fishing are among the industries. After its settlement in 1649 and the years immediately succeeding by English planters from Rehoboth in Plymouth Colony (to whom a monument was erected in 1889 in Wequetequock Burying Ground), the territory now included in Stonington township was first a part of New London township, and then (1658), in accordance with a boundary decision of the United Colonies of New England, a part (under the name of Southertown) of Suffolk county, Massachusetts, finally reverting to Connecticut in accordance with the new boundaries fixed by the Connecticut royal charter in 1662. In 1664 it gained representation in the General Court of Connecticut; in 1665 the name was changed to Mystic, and in 1666 to Stonington. In the 18th century the village (now the borough) of Stonington (settled in 1752) developed a brisk trade with Boston, Plymouth and the West Indies. Whaling and sealing were for many years important industries and a whaling captain of Stonington, Nathaniel B. Palmer, early in the 19th century, discovered Palmer Land in the Antarctic. The village was the seat of military stores during the War of Independence, and was bombarded by a British frigate in August 1775. In August 1814 another British attack, by a squadron under Commander Thomas M. Hardy, was successfully resisted. The borough of Stonington, the first in the state, was incorporated in 1801.
See R. A. Wheeler, History of the Town of Stonington (New London, 1900).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stoppani, Antonio

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​STOPPANI, ANTONIO (1824–1891), Italian geologist and palaeontologist, was born at Lecco on the 24th of August 1824, He became professor of geology in the Royal Technical Institute of Milan, and was distinguished for his researches on the Triassic and Liassic formations of northern Italy. Among his works were Paléontologie Lombarde (1858–1881); Les pétrifactions d'Ésino (1858–1860); Géologie et paléontologie des conches à Avicula Contorta en Lombardie (1860–1865); Corso di geologia, (3 vols., 1871–1873); and L'Era Neozoica (1881). In this last work the author discussed the glaciation of the Italian Alps and the history of Italy during the Pleistocene age. He died at Milan on the 1st of January, 1891.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stoneman, George

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​STONEMAN, GEORGE (1822–1894), American soldier, was born at Busti, in Chautauqua county, New York, on the 8th of August 1822. He graduated at West Point in 1846, served as second lieutenant with the Mormon battalion in California during the Mexican War, and became a captain in 1855. In February 1861, while in command of Fort Brown, Texas, he disregarded the orders of his superior officer, Major-General D. E. Twiggs, to surrender to the Confederate forces, and escaped with the garrison. He served on McClellan’s staff during the West Virginia campaign, and was commissioned brigadier-general of volunteers and appointed chief of cavalry of the Army of the Potomac in August 1861, in which capacity he took part in the Peninsula campaign and the Seven Days’ Battle. He commanded the III. corps in the Fredericksburg campaign; and was promoted, in November 1862, to be major-general of volunteers. During the Chancellorsville campaign he . made an unsuccessful cavalry raid toward Richmond. In the early months of 1864 he commanded the XXIII. corps, and then, as commander of the cavalry of the department of the Ohio, took part in the Atlanta campaign. While attempting to seize the Confederate prison at Andersonville (July 31, 1864), he was captured at Clinton, Georgia. After his release in October he commanded cavalry in East Tennessee, making successful raids into Virginia and North Carolina, and on the 12th of April 1865 defeated a Confederate force near Salisbury, North Carolina, and captured a large number of prisoners. Afterward he held commands in Tennessee and Virginia until 1868. He was mustered out of the volunteer service in September 1866, but served in the regular army as colonel and brevet-major-general till 1871. He then removed to California, was elected governor by the Democrats, and served from 1883 to 1887. In February 1891 he was made a colonel on the retired list, U.S. Army, and on the 5th of September 1894 died at Buffalo, New York.