OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Domestic Encyclopædia (1802)/Putrefaction

Edition of 1802.
​PUTREFACTION, is one of the natural processes, by which all organized bodies are dissolved, and reduced into what may be termed their original elements.
The bodies, most liable to putrefaction, are vegetables and animals, especially those abounding with juices; but, if the latter be exhaled, or otherwise extracted, the former may be preserved for almost any length of time. The corruption of such substances may also be prevented by the addition of other matters, that tend either to harden the texture of the body, or to effect an entire decomposition of parts; in consequence of which they are converted into a state resembling that which results from spontaneous putrefaction; so that this process cannot commence. Thus, various kinds of salts, acids, and ardent spirits, indurate the flesh of animals; and are therefore advantageously employed for its preservation. Oils and gums operate in a similar manner; as they exclude the air, which is in some degree essential to complete the process of putrefaction.—See Antiseptics.
In February, 1793, a patent was granted to the late Mr. John Donaldson, for a new method of preserving animal and vegetable substances from putrefaction. His preservative is composed of wheat or barley-meal, and a solution of any common gum or vegetable mucilage. These ingredients are made into a paste, which is to be baked in the moderate heat of an oven, contrived for that purpose; so as to prevent it from either burning or forming a crust: the dry mass is again reduced to a powder, which is now fit for use. The flesh, vegetables, &c. may be either raw, or dressed in such manner as may be found necessary: they are to be packed in wooden boxes, surrounded with the powder, and secluded from the external air.—By this method, it is stated, both animal and vegetable matters may be kept free from corruption, for an indefinite period of time.
# Domestic Encyclopædia (1802)/Quackery

Edition of 1802.
​QUACKERY, or Empiricism, a term of extensive signification; as it relates to all those who pretend to medical knowledge and skill in the exercise of the healing art; though they act upon mere principles of slavish imitation, and the shallow inference drawn from single instances.
If the object with which medicines are administered be duly weighed; and the numerous diseases to which the human frame is exposed, be seriously considered; it must excite the greatest astonishment, that no steps are taken to suppress those insidious pretenders, who, like ephemeral insects preying on the cankered tree, exercise their predatory arts on the purse and constitution of mankind; and, that so sordid a practice should not only be tolerated, but even indirectly countenanced by the highest authority, in an enlightened country. It will probably be objected, that abuses so gross and palpable, are connived at only, on account of the revenue they produce to the Treasury; but, is it compatible with sound policy, justice, and humanity, to supply any deficiency of the State, at the expence of all that is most dear to man—his health? Beside, how often must the moral law be wounded, for the sake of this public sacrifice?—Would any person whose time-piece has received an injury; or whose cattle are attacked with the distemper; or whose dwelling threatens to tumble down, ever think of employing a vagrant in preference to either a professed watch-maker, farrier, or builder? and yet, these considerations are but trivial, when compared to the inestimable value of health! Such impostors generally assume a pompous and mysterious manner; they deal in duplicity of speech and action; always engage to cure, while they represent every case as highly dangerous, in order to enhance their own importance; in short, they are equally afraid, and incapable, of giving a reasonable explanation, or candid opinion: let these harpies of the deluded multitude fairly state their ​successful experiments, not supported by perjury; and compare them with the number of unfortunate victims whose credulity led them to a premature grave. Many instances of this melancholy description have come within our knowledge; and we doubt not but every medical practitioner has cases to produce, where, in consequence of taking quack medicine, his patients were afflicted with inflammations of the bowels; obstructions of the liver, or intestines; and not seldom, with incurable consumption. Humanity can only drop the silent tear of sympathy over the deluded sufferers, while the government alone has the power to suppress and punish these pests of society, and to exercise the same degree of rigorous justice as is shewn to the highway robber and assassin; whose crimes, though apparently more heinous, are less destructive in their influence on society.
# Domestic Encyclopædia (1802)/Rails

Edition of 1802.
​RAILS, are pieces of timber, placed on stair-cases, and also on balusters, both as a support, and to prevent accidents. They also denote those pieces of wood which are fixed within pales, in order to strengthen fences.
In April, 1782, a Patent was granted to Mr. Francis Underwood, for his invention of making and ornamenting every kind of railing, balustrades, or balusters, and pannels for stair-cases, galleries, balconies, &c. both in private houses, and in churches, or other public buildings. His privilege is now expired: but, as a detail of the principles on which he proceeded, would be intelligible only to architects, the curious reader will consult the 7th volume of the Repertory of Arts and Manufactures, where a full specification is inserted.
# Domestic Encyclopædia (1802)/Purging of Horses

Edition of 1802.
​Purging of Horses. See Horse Medicines, vol. ii. p. 489.
# Domestic Encyclopædia (1802)/Purslane

Edition of 1802.
​PURSLANE, the Common, or Portulaca oleracea, L. is a tender exotic plant, which is annually raised either on a hot-bed, or warm border, for culinary purposes: it is propagated from seed, and forms an excellent ingredient in summer salads, but is improper in the winter, on account of its cold and moist nature.—The juice of this plant is sharp, and slightly saline, so that it produces laxative effects, when taken in sufficient quantity.—There are two varieties of the oleracea; one having deep green, and the other, yellow leaves; both of which, however, are produced from the same seed.
# Domestic Encyclopædia (1802)/Punishment

Edition of 1802.
​PUNISHMENT, or the penalty which a person incurs on the commission of a crime, or trespass.
The necessity of adopting rigorous measures, in cases where either natural or public law is violated, has been acknowledged by all civilized nations; among whom various modes of inflicting punishment prevail, according to the nature of the offence; or the peculiarly aggravating circumstances that attended its perpetration. It would ​be equally invidious and foreign to our plan, to enter into any delail respecting the criminal code; yet we are of opinion, that much benefit to the public might result from a different system of coercion in this country, such as would be more adapted to the spirit of the times.—And, though we readily admit, that the present modes and degrees of punishment have been wisely calculated for particular crimes; yet, while so little distinction is made between the robber and the murderer, it is to be feared, nay, daily experience proves, that public examples tend but little to check the progress of vice and immorality. Hence, solitary confinement, and incessant labour, appear to be better means of reformation than the transient terrors of death.
# Domestic Encyclopædia (1802)/Pyrmont-Water

Edition of 1802.
​PYRMONT-WATER, a celebrated mineral spring, discovered at Pyrmont, in the Circle of Westphalia. It is of an agreeable, though strongly acidulated taste, and emits a large portion of gas; which affects the persons who attend at the well, as well as those who drink the fluid, with a sensation somewhat resembling that produced by intoxication.
Pyrmont-water may be advantageously used in all cases of debility, where the constitution ​requires an active tonic, which at the same time does not excite a permanent heat; in bilious vomiting; diarrhœa; and other affections of the alimentary canal; and, when mixed with milk, in cases of the gout. It increases the secretion of urine, and sometimes occasions a temporary eruption of the skin.
The dose varies according to circumstances, and the nature of the patient's complaint; but, in general, the quantity to be taken should not exceed three pints per day.—We have given this brief account of the Pyrmont-water; as it is not only imported into Britain, but also often artificially prepared in the metropolis.
# Domestic Encyclopædia (1802)/Purgatives

Edition of 1802.
​PURGATIVES, or Purging Medicines, are such as evacuate the crudities of the bowels by stool, and which are sometimes called Cathartics.
Purgatives constitute one of the most important branches in the catalogue of drugs: they differ from Laxatives only by the greater expedition with which they operate.—As we state the most useful of such drugs in alphabetical order, it would be needless to repeat the proper doses, or the occasions on which they are employed. These medicines, however, ought to be sparingly administered; for they vellicate or stimulate the fibres of the stomach; and, by abrading the lubricating fluids, the fibres of the interior vessels, and the muscles of the abdomen, become more frequently and unnaturally contracted. Farther, drastic purgatives should be taken with still greater caution; as their stimulating particles often powerfully accelerate the circulation of the blood; an effect, which, in robust constitutions, may sometimes be of service; but, in weakly or nervous persons, especially those of sedentaiy occupations, such medicines are generally productive of bad consequences, and often lay the foundation of a confirmed costiveness.
For those readers, who are apt to meddle with physic, on the slightest occasions, we shall lay down the following rules: 1. Purgatives ought to be taken only in cases where the crudities are disposed for evacuation, and their turgescence obviously tends downward: this circumstance may be ascertained, in acute diseases, by the weight and distention of the abdomen; flatulency; rumbling and pain in the lower belly; and an inclination to stools. 2. They must be cautiously avoided, where Nature appears to make an effort to vomit. 3. Likewise, in great weakness of the bowels. 4. To healthy individuals, whose feces are indurated, drastic purges are exceedingly detrimental; because their disposition to Costiveness (which see), is the best proof of their vigorous habit. 5. If such remedies become necessary, they should be given in the morning, when the first passages are empty; in diseases, during the intermission of paroxysms. Lastly, all nourishment, but particularly solid food, must be withheld previously to the operation of the medicine; nor should the patient be allowed much drink, till the purgative actually begin to produce its effect. Mucilaginous drinks, such as gruel, barley water, &c. are the most proper for this purpose; but, if the bowels are not opened by an ​ordinary dose, intead of resorting to additional drugs, it will be more safe to inject laxative Clysters, which we have already stated under that head.
# Domestic Encyclopædia (1802)/Rain

Edition of 1802.
​RAIN, a well-known meteor, which descends from the clouds in drops of water.
Various conjectures have been formed by natural philosophers, to account for the origin of rain: it appears, however, to be universally allowed, that such phenomenon is produced from the moisture or water which is absorbed from the surface of the globe by the heat of the sun, and conveyed into the atmosphere, whence it is again precipitated upon the earth; though the specific cause is by no means clearly determined.—According to chemical principles, the air itself is a solvent of water, and thus contributes to the formation of rain in the clouds, when they are saturated with aqueous humours. Now, as soon as two such volumes of condensed vapour meet each other in the atmosphere, in different temperatures, the necessary consequence will be precipitation: in a manner similar to that from the vaulted ceiling or window of a cold room, when first heated.
Rain irrigates and softens the earth, thus adapting it to the nourishment of plants.—By falling on lofty mountains, and other elevated situations, this meteor carries down numerous loose particles of earth into the contiguous vallies, which are thereby not only ameliorated, or rendered more fertile; but the air is also purified from noxious exhalations, which are returned to the ground whence they were absorbed; a natural process that remarkably contributes to enrich the soil. Lastly, it moderates the temperature of the air, and affords a supply of water to fountains, brooks, rivers, &c.
But, though gentle showers be in many respects beneficial to mankind, yet vehement rains coming down in torrents occasion great injury; as they are often attended with violent inundations, which wash or carry off the finer particles into rivers, and thus impoverish the land. To remedy, in some degree, this inconvenience, it has been recommended to plant along their banks, orchards, or ​groves of trees, that produce esculent fruit; for, according to practical observers, such trees bear greater abundance in wet, than in dry seasons. As, however, all kinds of grain are liable to be materially damaged by storms of rain, especially after being cut, some agriculturists have advised the erection of barns at convenient distances, on large farms; where corn, &c. may be speedily housed, preserved, and much time, as well as labour, saved in the carriage: but, as these buildings would be exposed to the depredations of dishonest persons, it has farther been recommended to build, contiguously to such barns, cottages, to be inhabited by the labourers employed on the farm; by which expedient the grain will be effectually secured, both from the injuries of the weather, and from the attacks of midnight plunderers.
# Domestic Encyclopædia (1802)/Raisins

Edition of 1802.
​RAISINS, are grapes which have been suffered to remain on the vine, till they have attained to maturity; when they are either dried in an oven, or the fruit being tied together in clusters, and dipped in a ley of wood-ashes, containing a small portion of sweet-oil, is then dried by exposure to the sun without being separated from the branches:—the latter method appears to be preferable.
The best fruits of this description, are those known under the name of sun, and jar-raisins; both of which are dried in the sun; being imported from the southern countries of Europe, and also from the Asiatic provinces of Turkey. They form a principal article of the dessert; and, when properly managed, yield an agreeable wine. For this purpose, let one cwt. of raisins be deprived of their stalks, chopped, and put into a wide, but not too deep vessel. Two-thirds, or fourteen gallons of water, are now to be added, and the whole suffered to stand for fifteen days, being carefully stirred once every day. At the end of that period, the raisins must be strained, pressed, and the liquor obtained from them, poured into another vessel. The remaining third part, or seven gallons of water, should next be added to the fruit, thus pressed, and likewise stand for the space of one week. The liquor is then again to be strained, and the two runnings are to be poured into a barrel, capable of containing twenty-one gallons, together with a quart of brandy. In order to colour the wine, three quarters of a pound of refined sugar must be set on fire, and burnt into a little of the liquor, which ought to be added to the whole; and, as soon as the fermentation ceases, the barrel may be closed, and suffered to stand till its contents are ready for bottling.—Raisin-wine is an agreeable, cooling liquor; but, if it be too often used, or in too large quantities, it is apt to occasion flatulency.
With respect to their properties, raisins are too frequently relished as an article of food, to be considered as a medicine. They are very nutritive, and have been recommended in nephritic complaints (see Kidnies); but if eaten immoderately, they contribute to the decay of the teeth, and occasion painful colics. Raisins are likewise used in pectoral decoctions, and similar medicinal preparations; for which purposes the stones ought to be carefully taken out; and also in all cases, where their astringency is not required.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Bridgewater

See also Bridgwater on Wikipedia; Bridgwater at Wikipedia; Bridgwater in the 11th Edition; and the disclaimer.
BRIDGEWATER, a municipal (and formerly a parliamentary) borough and seaport in Somersetshire, on the Great Western Railway, 29 miles S.S.W. of Bristol. It is Arms of Bridgewater. pleasantly situated in a level and well-wooded country, having on the east the Mendip range and on the west the Quantock hills. The town, which is well built, lies along both sides of the River Parret, here crossed by a handsome iron bridge. It has an ancient Gothic church with a spire 174 feet in height, a town-hall, court-rooms, a jail, a market-place, an infirmary, a free grammar school, and some alms-houses. The river, which is subject to a bore, often two fathoms deep at the mouth, is navigable for vessels of 700 tons up to the town. The customs duties in 1874 were £7227. The chief imports are grain, coals, wine, hemp, tallow, and timber; the exports, agricultural produce, earthenware, cement, plaster of Paris, and bath-bricks, which last constitute the staple trade of the town. The value of the imports in 1874 was £118,509, and of the exports £5011. The town returned two members to parliament till 1870, when the borough was disfranchised. Population in 1871, 10,259. Bridgewater is said to derive its name, which appears in earlier times as Brugge Walter, from a certain Walter de Douay, to whom the manor was presented at the Conquest. In the reign of Henry II. a splendid castle was built and a harbour constructed by William de Briwere; and in 1230 a Grey-Friars' monastery was founded by his son. The castle was taken by the Royalists in 1643, and was almost completely demolished after its capture by the Parliamentary forces in 1645. Admiral Blake was a native of Bridgewater.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Brighton (disambiguation)

See also Brighton (disambiguation) on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
In the 9th edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica, Brighton may refer to:
* Brighton, town, England.
* Brighton, former town, Massachusetts, U.S.A.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Breakwaters

See also Breakwater (structure) on Wikipedia; Breakwater at Wikipedia; Breakwater in the 11th Edition; and the disclaimer.
BREAKWATERS differ from piers in their not being necessarily adapted for commercial purposes. They do not, therefore, require to have roadways for the accommoda tion of traffic, or parapets for keeping water or spray from passing over them. Breakwaters are artificial structures consisting generally of stones or blocks of concrete, built or deposited in deep water. Their object is to tranquillize those portions of the sea which they cover, and which thus become sheltered anchorages. They may be divided into three classes: (1.) Vertical or nearly vertical structures of built masonry for arresting the onshore progress of the waves, and for either reflecting them seawards or deflecting them laterally. (2.) Sloping structures of rubble stones dropped into the sea from timber stages or floating barges, and hence termed pierres perdues, having a sloping face on each side, termed a talus or glacis. These slopes, which, after the blocks have been consolidated, are generally protected above low water by stones set closely together, called pitching, are the angles of repose assumed by the loose blocks under the influence of the waves, and vary in steepness from above high water to below low water, where the force of waves is least. They vary from about 1 foot horizontal to 1 foot vertical to 7 feet horizontal to 1 foot vertical. (3.) What may be termed composite breakwaters are partly sloping and partly vertical, and act by causing the waves to break, and also by partially reflecting them seawards or deflecting them laterally. The new breakwater at Aberdeen and the Dover Admiralty pier, which acts also as a breakwater, are examples of the first class. Plymouth breakwater, which rises with a general sea-slope of from 2 to 5 horizontal to 1 vertical to a height of 23 feet above high water, is an example of the second class. Cherbourg, which slopes from low water to high water, above which level there is a vertical barrier rising to 12 feet above high water, is an example of the third class. Breakwaters, though passive, are nevertheless real agents by which work is done in com bating the waves in one or other of the three modes which have been defined. For further information regarding the design of breakwaters and the details of their construction see Harbours.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Bridgeport

See also Bridgeport, Connecticut on Wikipedia; Bridgeport, Connecticut, on Wikipedia; Bridgeport in the 11th Edition; and the disclaimer.
BRIDGEPORT, a seaport town in the county of Fairfield, Connecticut, United States, is situated on an arm of Long Island Sound, 58 miles N.E. of New York, in 41° 10′ N. lat. and 73° 11′ W. long. It has several iron-foundries and manufactures fire-arms, metallic cartridges, sewing-machines, carriages, harness, locks, blinds, &c. The coasting trade and the fisheries are both extensive. The bar at the mouth of the harbour, which is formed by the Pequonnock Creek, has 13 feet at high water. Bridgeport is the centre of an extensive system of railways, and steamboats ply between it and New York. The township was separated from Stratford in 1821, and the city, formerly called Newfield, was incorporated in 1836. Population in 1870, 19,835.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Bridgewater (disambiguation)

See also Bridgewater (disambiguation) on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
In the 9th edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica, Bridgewater may refer to:
* Bridgewater, or Bridgwater, town, England;
* Francis Egerton, Third Duke of Bridgewater; or
* Rev. Francis Henry Egerton, Eighth Earl of Bridgewater.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, First Edition/Cainito

See also Cainito on Wikipedia, cainito on Wiktionary, and the Encyclopædia Britannica, 1st edition, disclaimer.
​CAINITO, in botany. See Chrysopyllum.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, First Edition/Cajeput

See also Cajeput oil on Wikipedia, cajeput on Wiktionary, and the Encyclopædia Britannica, 1st edition, disclaimer.
​CAJEPUT, an oil brought from the E. Indies, which resembles that of cardamoms.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, First Edition/Canatus

See also Red knot on Wikipedia, canutus on Wiktionary, and the Encyclopædia Britannica, 1st edition, disclaimer.
​CANATUS, in ornithology, the trivial name of a species of tringa. See Tringa.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, First Edition/Canticles

See also Song of Songs on Wikipedia, Canticles on Wikisource, Canticles on Wiktionary, and the Encyclopædia Britannica, 1st edition, disclaimer.
​CANTICLES, a canonical book of the Old Testament. The Talmudists ascribe it to Hezekiah, but the learned are agreed that king Solomon was the author of it; and his name is prefixed to it in the title of the Hebrew text, and of the ancient Greek version.