OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Judd, Sylvester

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​JUDD, SYLVESTER (1813–1853) American Unitarian clergyman and author, was born in Westhampton, Massachusetts, on the 23rd of July 1813. He bore the same name as his father and grandfather; the former (1789–1860) made an especial study of local history of the towns of the Connecticut valley, and wrote a History of Hadley (1863). The son lived in Northampton after his tenth year, was converted in a revival there in 1826, graduated from Yale in 1836, and taught in 1836 at Templeton, Mass., where he first met Unitarians and soon found the solution of his theological difficulties in their views. He entered the Harvard divinity school, from which he graduated in 1840. In the same year he was ordained pastor of the Unitarian church of Augusta, Maine, where he died on the 26th of January 1853. His widest reputation was as the author of Margaret, a Tale of the Real and the Ideal, including Sketches of a place not before described, called Mons Christi (1845; revised 1851), written to exhibit the errors of Calvinistic and all trinitarian theology, and the evils of war, intemperance, capital punishment, the prison system of the time, and the national treatment of the Indians. This story, published anonymously, attracted much attention by its true descriptions of New England life and scenery as well as by its author’s earnest purpose. Richard Edney and the Governor’s Family (1850) is in much the same vein as Margaret. A poem entitled Philo, an Evangeliad (1850) is a versified defence of Unitarianism. He published, besides, The Church, in a Series of Discourses (1854). As a preacher and pastor he urged the desirability of infant baptism. He lectured frequently on international peace and opposed slavery.
See Arethusa Hall, Life and Character of the Rev. Sylvester Judd (Boston, 1857) published anonymously.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Judgment

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​JUDGMENT, in law, a term used to describe (1) the adjudication by a court of justice upon a controversy submitted to it inter partes (post litem contestatam) and determining the rights of the parties and the relief to be awarded by the court as between them; (2) the formal document issuing from the court ​in which that adjudication is expressed; (3) the opinions of the judges expressed in a review of the facts and law applicable to the controversy leading up to the adjudication expressed in the formal document. When the judgment has been passed and entered and recorded it binds the parties: the controversy comes to an end (transit in rem judicatam), and the person in whose favour the judgment is entered is entitled to enforce it by the appropriate method of “execution.” There has been much controversy among lawyers as to the meaning of the expressions “final” and “interlocutory” as applied to judgments, and as to the distinction between a “judgment,” a “decree,” and an “order.” These disputes arise upon the wording of statutes or rules of court and with reference to the appropriate times or modes of appeal or of execution.
The judgments of one country are not as a rule directly enforceable in another country. In Europe, by treaty or arrangement, foreign judgments are in certain cases and on compliance with certain formalities made executory in various states. A similar provision is made as between England, Scotland and Ireland, for the registry and execution in each country of certain classes of judgments given in the others. But as regards the rest of the king’s dominions and foreign states, a “foreign” judgment is in England recognized only as constituting a cause of action which may be sued upon in England. If given by a court of competent jurisdiction it is treated as creating a legal obligation to pay the sum adjudged to be due. Summary judgment may be entered in an English action based on a foreign judgment unless the defendant can show that the foreign court had not jurisdiction over the parties or the subject matter of the action, or that there was fraud on the part of the foreign court or the successful party, or that the foreign proceedings were contrary to natural justice, e.g. concluded without due notice to the parties affected. English courts will not enforce foreign judgments as to foreign criminal or penal or revenue laws.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hauff, Wilhelm

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​HAUFF, WILHELM (1802–1827), German poet and novelist, was born at Stuttgart on the 29th of November 1802, the son of a secretary in the ministry of foreign affairs. Young Hauff lost his father when he was but seven years of age, and his early education was practically self-gained in the library of his maternal grandfather at Tübingen, to which place his mother had removed. In 1818 he was sent to the Klosterschule at Blaubeuren, whence he passed in 1820 to the university of Tübingen. In four years he completed his philosophical and theological studies, and on leaving the university became tutor to the children of the famous Württemberg minister of war, General Baron Ernst Eugen von Hügel (1774–1849), and for them wrote his Märchen, which he published in his Märchenalmanach auf das Jahr 1826. He also wrote there the first part of the Mitteilungen aus den Memoiren des Satan (1826) and Der Mann im Monde (1825). The latter, a parody of the sentimental and sensual novels of H. Clauren (pseudonym of Karl Gottlieb Samuel Heun [1771–1854]), became, in course of composition, a close imitation of that author’s style and was actually published under his name. Clauren, in consequence, brought an action for damages against Hauff and gained his case. Whereupon Hauff followed up the attack in his witty and sarcastic Kontroverspredigt über H. Clauren und den Mann im Monde (1826) and attained his original object—the moral annihilation of the mawkish and unhealthy literature with which Clauren was flooding the country. Meanwhile, animated by Sir Walter Scott’s novels, Hauff wrote the historical romance Lichtenstein (1826), which acquired great popularity in Germany and especially in Swabia, treating as it did the most interesting period in the history of that country, the reign of Duke Ulrich (1487–1550). While on a journey to France, the Netherlands and north Germany he wrote the second part of the Memoiren des Satan and some short novels, among them the charming Bettlerin vom Pont des Arts and his masterpiece, the Phantasien im Bremer Ratskeller (1827). He also published some short poems which have passed into Volkslieder, among them Morgenrot, Morgenrot, leuchtest mir zum frühen Tod; and Steh’ ich in finstrer Mitternacht. In January 1827, Hauff undertook the editorship of the Stuttgart Morgenblatt and in the following month married, but his happiness was prematurely cut short by his death from fever on the 18th of November 1827.
Considering his brief life, Hauff was an extraordinarily prolific writer. The freshness and originality of his talent, his inventiveness, and his genial humour have won him a high place among the south German prose writers of the early nineteenth century.
His Sämtliche Werke were published, with a biography, by G. Schwab (3 vols., 1830–1834; 5 vols., 18th ed., 1882), and by F. Bobertag (1891–1897), and a selection by M. Mendheim (3 vols., 1891). For his life cf. J. Klaiber, Wilhelm Hauff, ein Lebensbild (1881); M. Mendheim, Hauffs Leben und Werke (1894); and H. Hofmann, W. Hauff (1902).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hathras

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​HATHRAS, a town of British India, in the Aligarh district of the United Provinces, 29 m. N. of Agra. Pop. (1901), 42,578. At the end of the 18th century it was held by a Jat chieftain, whose ruined fort still stands at the east end of the town, and was annexed by the British in 1803, but insubordination on the part of the chief necessitated the siege of the fort in 1817. Since it came under British rule, Hathras has rapidly risen to commercial importance, and now ranks second to Cawnpore among the trading centres of the Doab. The chief articles of commerce are sugar and grain, there are also factories for ginning and pressing cotton, and a cotton spinning-mill. Hathras is connected by a light railway with Muttra, and by a branch with Hathras junction, on the East Indian main line.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hattiesburg

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​HATTIESBURG, a city and the county-seat of Forrest county, Mississippi, U.S.A., on the Hastahatchee (or Leaf) river, about 90 m. S.E. of Jackson. Pop. (1890) 1172; (1900) 4175 (1687 negroes); (1910) 11,733. Hattiesburg is served by the Gulf & Ship Island, the Mississippi Central, the New Orleans, Mobile & Chicago and the New Orleans & North Eastern railways. The officers and employees of the Gulf & Ship Island railway own and maintain a hospital here. The city is in a rich farming, truck-gardening and lumbering country. Among its manufactures are lumber (especially yellow-pine), wood-alcohol, turpentine, paper and pulp, fertilizers, wagons, mattresses and machine-shop products. Hattiesburg was founded about 1882 and was named in honour of the wife of W. H. Hardy, a railway official, who planned a town at the intersection of the New Orleans & North-Eastern (which built a round house and repair shops here in 1885) and the Gulf & Ship Island railways. The latter railway was opened from Gulfport to Hattiesburg in January 1897, and from Hattiesburg to Jackson in September 1900. Hattiesburg was incorporated as a town in 1884 and was chartered as a city in 1899. Formerly the “court house” of the second judicial district of Perry county, Hattiesburg became on the 1st of January 1908 the county-seat of Forrest county, erected from the W. part of Perry county.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hattingen

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​HATTINGEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Westphalia, on the river Ruhr, 21 m. N.E. of Düsseldorf. Pop. (1900), 8975. It has two Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church. The manufactures include tobacco, and iron and steel goods. In the neighbourhood are the ruins of the Isenburg, demolished in 1226. Hattingen, which received communal rights in 1396, was one of the Hanse towns.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hauer, Franz, Ritter von

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​HAUER, FRANZ, Ritter von (1822–1899), Austrian geologist, born in Vienna on the 30th of January 1822, was son of Joseph von Hauer (1778–1863), who was equally distinguished as a high Austrian official and authority on finance and as a palaeontologist. He was educated in Vienna, afterwards studied geology at the mining academy of Schemnitz (1839–1843), and for a time was engaged in official mining work in Styria. In 1846 he became assistant to W. von Haidinger at the mineralogical museum in Vienna; three years later he joined the imperial geological institute, and in 1866 he was appointed director. In 1886 he became superintendent of the imperial natural history museum in Vienna. Among his special geological works are those on the Cephalopoda of the Triassic and Jurassic formations of Alpine regions (1855–1856). His most important general work was that of the Geological Map of Austro-Hungary, in twelve sheets (1867–1871; 4th ed., 1884, including Bosnia and Montenegro). This map was accompanied by a series of explanatory pamphlets. In 1882 he was awarded the Wollaston medal by the Geological Society of London. In 1892 von Hauer became a life-member of the upper house of the Austrian parliament. He died on the 20th of March 1899.
Publications.—Beiträge zur Paläontolographie von Österreich (1858–1859); Die Geologie und ihre Anwendung auf die Kenntnis der Bodenbeschaffenheit der österr.-ungar. Monarchie (1875; ed. 2, 1878).
Memoir by Dr E. Tietze; Jahrbuch der K. K. geolog. Reichsanstalt (1899, reprinted 1900, with portrait).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Haug, Martin

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​HAUG, MARTIN (1827–1876), German Orientalist, was born at Ostdorf near Balingen, Württemberg, on the 30th of January 1827. He became a pupil in the gymnasium at Stuttgart at a comparatively late age, and in 1848 he entered the university of Tübingen, where he studied Oriental languages, especially Sanskrit. He afterwards attended lectures in Göttingen, and in 1854 settled as Privatdozent at Bonn. In 1856 he removed to Heidelberg, where he assisted Bunsen in his literary undertakings; and in 1859 he accepted an invitation to India, where he became superintendent of Sanskrit studies and professor of Sanskrit in Poona. Here his acquaintance with the Zend language and literature afforded him excellent opportunities for extending his knowledge of this branch of literature. The result of his researches was a volume of Essays on the sacred language, writings and religion of the Parsees (Bombay, 1862). Having returned to Stuttgart in 1866, he was called to Munich as professor of Sanskrit and comparative philology in 1868. He died on the 3rd of June 1876.
Besides the Essays on the Parsees, of which a new edition, by E. W. West, greatly enriched from the posthumous papers of the author, appeared in 1878, Haug published a number of works of considerable importance to the student of the literatures of ancient India and Persia. They include Die Pehlewisprache und der Bundehesch (1854); Die Schrift und Sprache der zweiten Keilschriftgattung (1855); Die fünf Gathas, edited, translated and expounded (1858–1860); an edition, with translation and explanation, of the Aitareya Brahmana of the Rigveda (Bombay, 1863), which is accounted his best work in the province of ancient Indian literature; A Lecture on an original Speech of Zoroaster (1865); An old Zend-Pahlavi Glossary (1867); Über den Charakter der Pehlewisprache (1869); Das 18. Kapitel des Wendidad (1869); Über das Ardai-Virafnameh (1870); An old Pahlavi-Pazand Glossary (1870); and Vedische Rätselfragen und Rätselsprüche (1875).
For particulars of Haug’s life and work, see A. Bezzenberger, Beiträge zur Kunde der indogermanischen Sprachen, vol. i. pp. 70 seq.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hatto I.

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​HATTO I. (c. 850–913), archbishop of Mainz, belonged to a Swabian family, and was probably educated at the monastery of Reichenau, of which he became abbot in 888. He soon became known to the German king, Arnulf, who appointed him archbishop of Mainz in 891; and he became such a trustworthy and confidential counsellor that he was popularly called “the heart of the king.” He presided over the important synod at Tribur in 895, and accompanied the king to Italy in 894 and 895, where he was received with great favour by Pope Formosus. In 899, when Arnulf died, Hatto became regent of Germany, and guardian of the young king, Louis the Child, whose authority he compelled Zwentibold, king of Lorraine, an illegitimate son of Arnulf, to recognize. During these years he did not neglect his own interests, for in 896 he secured for himself the abbey of Ellwangen and in 898 that of Lorsch. He assisted the Franconian family of the Conradines in its feud with the Babenbergs, and was accused of betraying Adalbert, count of Babenberg, to death. He retained his influence during the whole of the reign of Louis; and on the king’s death in 911 was prominent in securing the election of Conrad, duke of Franconia, to the vacant throne. When trouble arose between Conrad and Henry, duke of Saxony, afterwards King Henry the Fowler, the attitude of Conrad was ascribed by the Saxons to the influence of Hatto, who wished to prevent Henry from securing authority in Thuringia, where the see of Mainz had extensive possessions. He was accused of complicity in a plot to murder Duke Henry, who in return ravaged the archiepiscopal lands in Saxony and Thuringia. He died on the 15th of May 913, one tradition saying he was struck by lightning, and another that he was thrown alive by the devil into the crater of Mount Etna. His memory was long regarded in Saxony with great abhorrence, and stories of cruelty and treachery gathered round his name. The legend of the Mouse Tower at Bingen is connected with Hatto II., who was archbishop of Mainz from 968 to 970. This Hatto built the church of St George on the island of Reichenau, was generous to the see of Mainz and to the abbeys of Fulda and Reichenau, and was a patron of the chronicler Regino, abbot of Prüm.
See E. Dümmler, Geschichte des ostfränkischen Reichs (Leipzig, 1887–1888); G. Phillips, Die grosse Synode von Tribur (Vienna, 1865); J. Heidemann, Hatto I., Erzbischof von Mainz (Berlin, 1865); G. Waitz, Jahrbücher der deutschen Geschichte unter Heinrich I. (Berlin and Leipzig, 1863); and J. F. Böhmer, Regesta archiepiscoporum Maguntinensium, edited by C. Will (Innsbruck, 1877–1886).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hatton, John Liptrot

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​HATTON, JOHN LIPTROT (1809–1886), English musical composer, was born at Liverpool on the 12th of October 1809. He was virtually a self-taught musician, and besides holding several appointments as organist in Liverpool, appeared as an actor on the Liverpool stage, subsequently finding his way to London as a member of Macready’s company at Drury Lane in 1832. Ten years after this he was appointed conductor at the same theatre for a series of English operas, and in 1843 his own first operetta, Queen of the Thames, was given with success. Staudigl, the eminent German bass, was a member of the company, and at his suggestion Hatton wrote a more ambitious work, Pascal Bruno, which, in a German translation, was presented at Vienna, with Staudigl in the principal part; the opera contained a song, “Revenge,” which the basso made very popular in England, though the piece as a whole was not successful enough to be produced here. Hatton’s excellent pianoforte playing attracted much attention in Vienna; he took the opportunity of studying counterpoint under Sechter, and wrote a number of songs, obviously modelled on the style of German classics. In 1846 he appeared at the Hereford festival as a singer, and also played a pianoforte concerto of Mozart. He undertook concert tours about this time with Sivori, Vieuxtemps and others. From 1848 to 1850 he was in America; on his return he became conductor of the Glee and Madrigal Union, and from about 1853 was engaged at the Princess’s theatre to provide and conduct the music for Charles Kean’s Shakespearean revivals. He seems to have kept this appointment for about five years. In 1856 a cantata, Robin Hood, was given at the Bradford festival, and a third opera, Rose, or Love’s Ransom, at Covent Garden in 1864, without much success. In 1866 he went again to America, and from this year Hatton held the post of accompanist at the Ballad Concerts, St James’s Hall, for nine seasons. In 1875 he went to Stuttgart, and wrote an oratorio, Hezekiah, given at the Crystal Palace in 1877; like all his larger works it met with very moderate success. Hatton excelled in the lyrical forms of music, and, in spite of his distinct skill in the severer styles of the madrigal, &c., he won popularity by such songs as “To Anthea,” “Good-bye, Sweetheart,” and “Simon the Cellarer,” the first of which may be called a classic in its own way. His glees and part-songs, such as “When Evening’s Twilight,” are still reckoned among the best of their class; and he might have gained a place of higher distinction among English composers had it not been for his irresistible animal spirits and a want of artistic reverence, which made it uncertain in his younger days whether, when he appeared at a concert, he would play a fugue of Bach or sing a comic song. He died at Margate on the 20th of September 1886.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Loach

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​LOACH. The fish known as loaches (Cobitinae) form a very distinct subfamily of the Cyprinidae, and are even regarded by some authors as constituting a family. Characters: Barbels, three to six pairs; pharyngeal teeth in one row, in moderate number; anterior part of the air-bladder divided into a right and left chamber, separated by a constriction, and enclosed in a bony capsule, the posterior part free or absent. They are more or less elongate in form, often eel-shaped, and naked or covered with minute scales. Most of the species are small, the largest known measuring 12 (the European Misgurnus fossilis), 13 (the Chinese Botia variegata), or 14 in. (the Central Asian Nemachilus siluroides). They mostly live in small streams and ponds, and many are mountain forms. They are almost entirely confined to Europe and Asia, but one species (Nemachilus abyssinicus) has recently been discovered in Abyssinia. About 120 species are known, mostly from Central and South-Eastern Asia. Only two species occur in Great Britain: the common Nemachilus barbatulus and the rarer and more local Cobitis taenia. The latter extends across Europe and Asia to Japan. Many of these fishes delight in the mud at the bottom of ponds, in which they move like eels. In some cases the branchial respiration appears to be insufficient, and the intestinal tract acts as an accessory breathing organ. The air-bladder may be so reduced as to lose its hydrostatic function and become subservient to a sensory organ, its outer exposed surface being connected with the skin by a meatus between the bands of muscle, and conveying the thermo-barometrical impressions to the auditory nerves. Loaches are known in some parts of Germany as “Wetterfisch.”
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Load; Lode

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​LOAD; LODE. The O.E. lád, from which both these words are derived, meant “way,” “journey,” “conveyance,” and is cognate with Ger. Leite. The Teutonic root is also seen in the O. Teut. laidjan, Ger. leiten, from which comes “to lead.” The meanings of the word have been influenced by a supposed connexion with “lade,” O.E. hladan, a word common to many old branches of Teutonic languages in the sense of “to place,” but used in English principally of the placing of cargo in a ship, hence “bill of lading,” and of emptying liquor or fluid out of one vessel into another; it is from the word in this sense that is derived “ladle,” a large spoon or cup-like pan with a long handle. The two words, though etymologically one, have been differentiated in meaning, the influence of the connexion with “lade” being more marked in “load” than in “lode,” a vein of metal ore, in which the original meaning of “way” is clearly marked. A “load” was originally a “carriage,” and its Latin equivalent in the Promptorium Parvulorum is vectura. From that it passed to that which is laid on an animal or vehicle, and so, as an amount usually carried, the word was used of a specific quantity of anything, a unit of weight, varying with the locality and the commodity. A “load” of wheat = 40 bushels, of hay = 36 trusses. Other meanings of “load” are: in electricity, the power which an engine or dynamo has to furnish; and in engineering, the weight to be supported by a structure, the “permanent load” being the weight of the structure itself, the “external load” that of anything which may be placed upon it.