OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# The New International Encyclopædia/Lazarus, Emma

Edition of 1905. See also Emma Lazarus on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​LAZ'ARUS, Emma (1840-87). An American Jewish poetess and philanthropist, born in New York City, July 22, 1849, and privately educated. She was attracted in youth to poetry, and published a volume of poems and translations at the age of eighteen. Admetus and Other Poems followed in 1871, and showed ripening talent; but her first mature work is Alide, a prose romance, based on an episode in Goethe's life (1874). The Spagnoletto, a tragedy (1870), was much praised. Poems and Ballads of Heine followed in 1881, and her original poems. Songs of a Semite, in 1882. When the Jews, expelled in great numbers from Russia, began to appear in destitute multitudes in New York in the winter of 1882. Miss Lazarus interested herself actively in providing technical education to make them self-supporting. She wrote also In Exile (1882), The Crowing of the Red Cock, and The Banner of the Jew (1882). A collection of Poems in Prose (1887) was her last book. Several of her translations from mediaeval Hebrew writers have found a place in the ritual of American synagogues. Her Complete Poems with a Memoir appeared in 1888, at Boston.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Legion of Honor

Edition of 1905. See also Legion of Honour on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​LEGION OF HONOR. A French order of merit founded by Napoleon in 1802 and organized two years later. The distinction was conferred for meritorious conduct in military or civil life. The order comprised in the beginning 3605 chevaliers, 450 officers, 300 commanders, 105 grand officers, and a grand master, the last office being vested in Napoleon himself. All members at their initiation were required to pledge their support to the defense of the State and of the liberties achieved by the Revolution. The order experienced many alterations with the successive changes of dynasties in France. Its present constitution dates from the year 1872, when it was reorganized into five classes—chevaliers, officers, commanders, grand officers, and grand crosses. Stipends ranging from 250 francs for a chevalier to 3000 francs in the case of a grand cross are attached to these dignities. In 1892 the order numbered 43,851 members of all classes, and by law of 1897 the maximum number of additional crosses to be distributed was fixed at 14,320. The emblem of the order is a five-rayed star of white enamel edged with gold, bearing on its obverse the image of the Republic with the inscription Republique Française, and on the reverse two flags with the motto Honneur et Patrie. It is surmounted by a wreath of oak and laurel and is suspended from a red ribbon. Originally the cross bore, instead of the emblem of the Republic, the portrait of Napoleon, and was surmounted by an Imperial crown. The order is also conferred on foreigners, and in some cases upon women.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Mülhausen

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​Mülhausen (mül'hou'zen), a city of Alsace-Lorraine, Germany, on the Ill and the Rhône and on the Rhine Canal, 20 miles northwest of Basel. Its cotton maunfactories employ 75,000 hands, and it has printing and dye works for cotton, linen, calico, wool and silk fabrics and chemical and iron-works. The city was founded before A. D. 717, and became a free, imperial city in 1273. It became a part of France ​in 1798, and after 1829 began to be a noted manufacturing center. Its arrangements for housing and caring for the working-classes are remarkably good. Since the war of 1870-71 Mülhausen has belonged to the German empire. Population 94,498.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Müller, Johannes

See also Johannes Peter Müller on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​ Müller, Johan'nes, a distinguished German physiologist, was born at Coblentz in 1801 and died at Berlin in 1858. He became professor of physiology at Bonn in 1826 and at the University of Berlin in 1833. He is a monumental figure in the history of physiology. By wide observation and experiment he founded comparative physiology. He was the trainer of some of the greatest physiologists, as Ludwig, Du Bois-Reymond, Helmholtz and others. In his work he recognized the close connection between physiology and psychology, and thereby made a beginning in physiological psychology. His work was so remarkable that he gained for himself the title of the greatest physiologist of modern times. He was myriad-minded, and later in life gave his attention to zoology, winning in that field the title of the greatest morphologist of modern times. His Handbook of Physiology (1833) is unsurpassed in the method of handling the subject. His anatomy of some of the lower fishes (myxinoids) is remarkable for accuracy and for his appreciation of the meaning of his discoveries.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Mysore

See also Mysore on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Mysore (mī-sṓr′). See Bangalore.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Myrtle

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Myr′tle, a beautiful evergreen shrub or moderate-sized tree, with glossy leaves, black berries, having a pleasant, spicy odor and white flowers. This is the common myrtle, which is native to the countries of the Mediterranean. Among the ancient Greeks the myrtle was sacred to Venus as the symbol of youth and beauty. Victors in the Olympian games were crowned with wreaths of its leaves. It was frequently used at festivals, has frequent mention in poetry, and reference is made to it in the Bible. The Greeks used myrtle for their dead, the German maiden wears it on her wedding-day. In the United States the classic myrtle and other species are successfully grown as outdoor shrubs in California and the south. The myrtle of Peru and Chile has red berries and comparatively small leaves. The berries have a pleasant flavor and are eaten. The periwinkle, which is a very common running plant in the United States, is often improperly called myrtle.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Nadir

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Nadir (nā′ dẽr), an Arabic word used by astronomers to denote the point just opposite the zenith. The zenith being the point immediately over head, the nadir might be defined as the point immediately under foot. A plumb-bob suspended by a string always points to the nadir and to the zenith, at the same time.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Müller, Friedrich Maximilian

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* MAX MÜLLER
Müller (mü'lẽr), Friedrich Maximilian, was born at Dessau, Germany, Dec. 6, 1823. His father, Wilhelm Müller, one of the greatest German lyric poets, died when Friedrich was four. He took his degree at Leipsic in 1843, and devoted himself to the study of Sanskrit. In 1847 the East India Company commissioned him to edit the Rig-Veda at their expense. In 1854 he became professor of modern languages at Oxford. Müller published treatises on many language-topics, which have done more than the labors of any other single scholar to awaken a taste in England for the science of language, and by his happy illustrations he made subjects attractive that ordinarily are dry. In 1875 he resigned his professorship and edited a series of translations of the Sacred Books of the East. In 1878 he was Hibbert lecturer, in 1890—2 Gifford lecturer. His indefatigable industry was astounding. Among his books are Chips from a German Workshop; Comparative Mythology; The Science of Thought; Physical Religion; The Science of Religion; Language, Mythology and Religion; The Science of Language; and The Origin and Growth of Religion; to say nothing of his Autobiography, his English translation of Kant's Critique of Pure Reason and monographs on a dozen languages. In oriental languages, literatures and religions he was a successful popularizer, but only in Sanskrit did he outrank the specialists. He died at Oxford, England, on Oct. 28, 1900.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Mytilene

See also Lesbos Island on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Mytile′ne. See Lesbos.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Myxomycetes

See also Slime mold on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Myxomycetes (miks-o-mĭ-sē′ tēz), organisms commonly called slime-moulds, which do not seem to be related to any group of plants and have raised the question as to whether they are to be regarded as plants or animals. The ordinary body is a mass of naked protoplasm, called the plasmodium, suggesting the term slime. This body slips along like a gigantic amœba. Slime-moulds are common in forests, upon black soil, fallen leaves, decaying logs, and are slimy, yellow or orange masses, ranging from the size of a pin-head to that of a man’s hand. In certain conditions these slimy bodies come to rest and organize elaborate and often very beautiful spore-cases. As is often remarked, the body of these organisms is animal-like, while the sporangia are plant-like.
# The New Student's Reference Work/N

See also N on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
N (ěn), the fourteenth letter, is a voiced consonant. It is sounded through the nose while the tongue touches the upper front teeth, and is therefore classed as a den-tonasal or linguanasal. It also is a liquid and even a semivowel. When n is followed by a guttural, they form one nasal, as in ring, or the n becomes more nasal and the guttural keeps its own sound, as in rink. If n and the following guttural belong to different syllables, n usually remains n, as in engage. Its commonest sound occurs in done, nasal, ran, but when followed by k or hard g, n becomes the ng of sing, as in sink, single. N preceded by l or m at the end of a word is silent, as in kiln, hymn.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Garonne

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​Garonne (gȧ′rōn′), the principal river in the southwest of France, rises within the Spanish frontier in the Pyrenees, 6,142 feet above the sea. Flowing in a general northwesterly direction, it is joined by several tributaries, and widening into the estuary which bears the name of the Gironde, about 50 miles long, enters the Atlantic at Pointe de Grave. The total length is about 346 miles, and it drains an area of some 22,020 square miles. Ocean-steamers go up the river as far as Bordeaux and small craft as far as Cazeres. At Toulouse it is joined by the Central Canal, which, running eastward to the Mediterranean, forms with the Garonne a means of communication between that sea and the Atlantic. The valley of the Garonne is noted for its beauty.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Garrick, David

See also David Garrick on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Gar′rick, David, a celebrated British actor and dramatist, was born at Hereford, England, Feb. 20, 1717. He studied for a few months under Samuel Johnson, and in 1737 master and pupil set out for London. After some preparation Garrick made his appearance as an actor in 1741. At first he played minor parts, but his success as Richard III was so great that the other theaters were deserted. In 1747 he became manager of Drury Lane theater, which he continued to direct till 1776, when he retired from the stage. During this period Garrick was the great attraction and played continually, his only rest being a trip to the Continent. He died on Jan. 20, 1779, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. As an actor Garrick occupies the first rank. He found the stage given over to formality and tradition, and in their place he left the impress of his own naturalness. He was equally at home in tragedy, comedy and farce. His dramatic productions are of little value. See Percy Fitzgerald's Life of Garrick.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Geological Survey

See also United States Geological Survey on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Ge′olog′ical Survey, United States, is a bureau that was organized by the Department of the Interior in 1879 to bring together the scattered surveys of many western districts and construct geological maps of the United States. The bureau continues to pursue its investigations concerning the products of the country, its mineral resources and the means and possibilities of irrigation. The maps are made in such detail that the scale is never less than four miles to the inch; and is often as large as one mile to the inch. The heights of places are shown by lines, called contours, which represent an equal distance above sea-level. The maps, as they are made, are at once published in folios. The director of the survey issues an annual report. Full information upon the work of the bureau may be gained from the reports of the director, together with Walcott's The United States Geological Survey, Washington, 1895.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Geometry

See also Geometry on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Geom′etry in its origin was the science of measuring the surface of the earth (Greek gē, the earth, and metron, measure). With the ancient Egyptians, for instance, it took the form of mensuration, because of the need of a yearly survey of the lands that were left bare and muddy after each annual overflow of the Nile. Geometry now is the science of form; although, indeed, the exact geometrical forms are seldom found in nature. Perhaps one should begin to teach geometry as the Egyptians learned it, through making simple geometrical measurements and surveys in the play-ground, of baseball diamonds, hopscotch courts, a lawn tennis court and so on. For, according to the strictly logical form of Euclid's teaching, it is seldom that a child perceives the need of geometry or begins with an interest in it. For this reason, top, geometrical properties should be taught in the first place largely by paper-folding and cutting, by the use of models, such as the kindergarten gifts, and by the graphical representation of facts that have to do with the other interests and studies of children. The classic work upon Geometry is still the Elements of Euclid, who wrote about 285 B. C. in the great days of Alexandria. But geometers of the 19th century declined to be bound by the Elements. There arose a new geometry, which began perhaps with Carnot. It certainly is necessary for the teacher of geometry to abandon the logical order of Euclid for a more practical and interesting and, in short, more psychological method.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Garnet

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​Garnet, a mineral found distributed in crystals through many crystalline rocks. The commonest form are crystals of 12 or 24 sides, and the commonest color is some shade of red, but brown, yellow, green and black varieties are known. All garnets contain much silica; in fact, they are silicates; the others' constituents vary, and they are divided into a number of groups, according to what they contain. Among the best-known kinds are alumina-lime garnets, alumina-iron garnets, lime-iron garnets, etc. They also have popular names, as cinnamon-store, oriental garnet, common garnet. The garnets of commerce are brought from Bohemia, Ceylon, Peru and Brazil; and the most esteemed kinds are commonly called Syrian garnets. The stones vary in size from the smallest that can be worked to the size of a hazelnut. Larger ones usually have flaws or impurities.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Garrison, William Lloyd

See also William Lloyd Garrison on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Gar′rison, William Lloyd, an American journalist and abolitionist, was born at WM. L. GARRISON Newburyport, Mass., Dec. 10, 1805. After trying shoemaking and cabinet-making, he became a printer on the Newburyport Herald, and when only 16 began to write for the newspapers, trying to arouse an interest in the slavery-question. In 1824 he became editor of the Herald and accepted some of Whittier's earliest poems, when their author was yet unknown to fame. Later he became editor of the Genius of Universal Emancipation at Baltimore, and was imprisoned for his outspoken antislavery views. In 1831 he founded The Liberator in Boston, without capital or subscribers, a paper which he carried on until slavery was abolished. He was threatened with imprisonment and even with assassination, and a mob severely handled him in Boston in 1835, but he kept to his purpose. He made several visits to England in the interest of the cause he had taken up, and in 1833 he organized the American antislavery society, of which he was afterwards president. He continued his newspaper during the Civil War, and discontinued it in 1865, when the amendment to the constitution prohibiting slavery in the United States was adopted. The same year a number of his friends presented him with $30,000 as a memorial of his services. He died at New York, May 24, 1879. See Life by Johnson.
# The New Student's Reference Work/George, Henry

See also Henry George on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
* HENRY GEORGE
George, Henry, American writer on social and economic subjects, was born at Philadelphia, Sept. 2, 1839, and died at New York, Oct. 29, 1897. In early youth he was apprenticed on a sailing vessel, and went to California, and there applied himself to journalism, founding the San Francisco Post. In the west he zealously addressed himself to the discussion of public affairs, setting forth his views on land reform in a work entitled Our Land and Land Policy. In 1879 appeared his famous work, Progress and Poverty, which created widespread and intelligent interest. He returned to the east in 1880 and published a brochure on The Irish Land-Question, visited Great Britain, and lectured there and in the United States, discussing the land-question and the economic problems of the time. In 1886 he was a candidate for the mayoralty of New York on the United Labor party's ticket, but was defeated. He founded The Standard, which he edited, and also wrote Social Problems, The Land-Question and Protection and Free Trade. To further his theories, he organized single-tax clubs over the country and addressed them on the special topics in which he was zealously interested.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Iztaccihuatl

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Iztaccihuatl (ēs-tȧk-sē′ hwȧt’l), a Mexican volcano, 16,705 feet in height, is situated not far from the volcano of Popocatepetl, near the city of Puebla. Its summit is almost always covered with snow, and its name means white woman from its fancied resemblance to a woman in a white dress. There are no eruptions now from Iztaccihuatl.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Jackdaw

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Jack′daw, a common Old World bird of the crow family, found in Europe, Asia and North Africa. It is smaller than its closest relations, the crow, raven and rook, being about 14 inches in length. Its color is black, with gray at the sides of the neck, and it has a straighter bill than other crows. It builds nests in holes, cavities in rocks, church-towers, chimneys and uninhabited buildings. It feeds chiefly on insects. The jackdaw is easily tamed, and, besides making an interesting pet, can be taught to imitate the human voice.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Jackson, Helen Hunt

See also Helen Hunt Jackson on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Jackson, Helen Hunt (maiden name, Helen Maria Fiske), was born at Amherst, Mass., Oct. 18, 1831. She studied at Ipswich Female Seminary, and in 1852 married Major E. B. Hunt (d. 1863) of the United States engineers. She afterward married William S. Jackson, and lived most of the latter part of her life at Colorado Springs, Colorado. She began to write verses about 1870 over the signature "H. H.," which soon became familiar to magazine readers. She had always been interested in the welfare of the Indians, and her book, A Century of Dishonor, made her their champion. In 1883 Mrs. Jackson was made a commissioner by the government to look into the condition of the mission Indians of California. Her last book, Ramona, which deals with Indian life, leaped at once into great popularity. She died at San Francisco on Aug. 12, 1885.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Jackson (Michigan)

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Jackson, a city and the county-seat of Jackson County, central southern Michigan, lies on both sides of Grand River, which is here crossed by 17 bridges (five of iron), 76 miles west of Detroit and 37 south of Lansing, at the intersection of several railroads. It has a number of flour, paper and planing mills and foundries and machine shops; the Michigan Central locomotive-works, breweries and manufactures of automobiles, furniture, carriages, wagons, boilers and machinery, farming implements, corsets, underwear, etc. There is a flourishing general trade. Within the city-limits and close by are several mines of bituminous coal. The city has handsome churches and public school buildings, Y. M. C. A. building, a masonic temple and a Carnegie Library. Jackson was settled in 1830 .and became a city in 1857. Population 31,433.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Izard, Ralph

See also Ralph Izard on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Iz′ard, Ralph, an American statesman, was born near Charleston, S. C., in 1742, and educated at Cambridge, England. He was a man of large wealth, and pledged his estate to aid in carrying on the war for independence against England. In 1776 congress appointed him a commissioner at the court of the grand duke of Tuscany, and in 1780 he returned to the United States. It is said that no one had the confidence of Washington to a higher degree than Izard and that he was largely instrumental in securing the appointment of General Greene to the southern army. In 1782–83 he was a delegate to the Continental congress, and from 1789 to 1795 was a United States senator from South Carolina. His Correspondence from 1774 to 1784 was published in 1844. He died at South Bay, near Charleston, May 30, 1804.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Jackson (Mississippi)

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Jackson, capital of Mississippi and county-seat of Hinds County, stands on a plain on the right bank of Pearl River, which becomes navigable here. The city lies 45 miles east of Vicksburg and 180 miles north of New Orleans by rail. It is situated in a rich cotton-growing region, and, as the railway and geographical center of the state, it has an important and growing trade. Being the capital, it is the seat of several important state institutions and asylums, Millsap's College (M. E.) and the Bell Haven College for young women. The city is noted for its beautiful residence streets, with houses standing in the midst of gardens. The great industry of the surrounding region is cotton-growing, and in average years, from 30,000 to 40,000 bales are shipped from Jackson. Among its industrial establishments are cottonseed-oil mills, a cotton-compress, foundries and fertilizers, sash, door and blind factories. Population 21,262.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Jackal

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Jack′al, a dog-like animal, smaller than the wolf, inhabiting southern Europe, Asia and northern Africa. It has a pointed muzzle, like a fox, and a bushy tail about one third the length of the body. The common jackal of southern Asia is the best known. It is grayish yellow in color, darker above and lighter below. During the day jackals remain concealed in burrows, caves and sheltered places, but at night they hunt, frequently in packs. They utter a piercing unearthly cry, and the howling of a pack at night is familiar in oriental villages. They feed on smaller mammals, poultry and especially carrion, quarrelling over the latter with the vultures. They shadow wounded animals and haunt battlefields and burying-grounds. When running in packs, they often attack sheep and antelopes. They are easily tamed, and probably represent one of the breeds from which the domestic dog is descended. They are harmless if left unmolested, but when cornered fight desperately.