OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/White, Robert

See also Robert White (engraver) on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​WHITE, ROBERT (1645–1704), English engraver and draughtsman, was born in London in 1645. He studied engraving under David Loggan, for whom he executed many architectural projects; his early works also include landscapes and engraved title-pages for books. He acquired great skill in portraiture, his works of this class being commonly drawn with black-lead pencil upon vellum, and afterwards excellently engraved in line. Portraits executed in this manner he marked ad vivum, and they are prized by collectors for their artistic merit and their authenticity. catalogued 275 portrait engravings by White, including the likenesses of many of the most celebrated personages of his day; and nine portraits engraved in mezzotint are assigned to him by J. Chaloner Smith. White died at Bloomsbury, London, in 1704. His son, George White, who was born about 1671 and died about 1734, is also known as as an engraver and portrait-painter.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/White, Joseph Blanco

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​WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841), British theologian and poet, was born at Seville on the 11th of July 1775. He was educated for the Roman Catholic priesthood; but after his ordination (1800) religious doubts led him to escape from Spain to England (1810), where he ultimately entered the Anglican Church, having studied theology at Oxford and made the friendship of Arnold, Newman and Whately. He became tutor in the family of the last-named when he was made archbishop of Dublin (1831). While in this position he embraced Unitarian views; and he found an asylum amongst the Unitarians of Liverpool, where he died on the 20th of May 1841.
White edited El Español, a monthly Spanish magazine in London, from 1810 to 1814, and afterwards received a civil list pension of £250. His principal writings are Doblado's Letters from Spain (1822); Evidence against Catholicism, (1825); Second Travels of an Irish Gentleman in Search of a Religion (2 vols., 1834); Observations on Heresy and Orthodoxy (1835). They all show literary ability, and were extensively read in their day. He also translated Paley's Evidences and the Book of Common Prayer into Spanish. He is best remembered, however, by his sonnet "Night and Death" ("Mysterious Night! when our first parent knew"), which was dedicated to S. T. Coleridge on its appearance in the Bijou for 1828 and has since found its way into several anthologies. Three versions are given in the Academy of the 12th of September 1891.
See Life of the Rev. Joseph Blanco White, written by himself, with portions of his Correspondence, edited by John Hamilton Thorn (London, 3 vols., 1845).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Whitbread, Samuel

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​WHITBREAD. SAMUEL (1758-1815), English politician, came of a Bedfordshire Nonconformist family; his father had made a considerable fortune as owner of the well-known brewery associated with his name. Educated at Eton and St John's College, ​Cambridge (after originally going to Christ Church, Oxford), he began by entering the brewing business; but after his marriage with the daughter of the 1st Earl Grey in 1789 he took to politics, and in 1790 was elected for Bedfordshire as a Whig, attaching himself to Fox. He became known as a social and financial reformer and a constant assailant in parliament of all sorts of abuses. It was on his motion in 1805 that Lord Melville was impeached for financial maladministration of the navy, and he conducted the case for the prosecution. His Poor Law bill in 1807, an elaborate Radical scheme, came to nothing. Whitbread continued to be a constant speaker in parliament, and the principal representative of Liberal criticism, a monument of opposition tactics. He opposed the regency, championed the princess of Wales, and led the peace party; and the caricaturists were busy with his personality. In 1809 he became chairman of the committee for rebuilding Drury Lane theatre, and for some time he was immersed in controversies connected with it, which eventually seem to have unstrung his mind, for he committed suicide on the 6th of July 1815. The Whitbread influence in Liberal politics continued to be very strong in Bedfordshire in later generations, his son William Henry (from 1818 to 1837) and grandson Samuel (from 1852 to 1895) representing Bedford for many years.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Whitchurch

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​WHITCHURCH, a market town in the Newport parliamentary division of Shropshire, England, 171 m. N.W. from London on a joint line of the London & North-Western and Great Western railways, and the terminus of the Cambrian railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 5221. Malting and cheese-making are the principal industries. The church of St Alkmund, rebuilt in the 18th century, retains the fine tomb of John Talbot, first earl of Shrewsbury, who fell at the battle of Bordeaux (1453). The town hall and other public buildings are modern. The grammar school was founded in 1550, and here (c. 1791) Reginald Heber, Bishop of Calcutta, was educated. The parish of Whitchurch extends into Cheshire.
Whitchurch was at first known as Westun and belonged before the Conquest to King Harold, but was afterwards granted to Earl Roger, of whom William de Warenne was holding it at the time of the Domesday Survey. The name is said to have been altered to Whitchurch or Album Monasterium on account of a stone church built there soon after 1086. The manor appears to have been held by a younger branch of the Warenne family, from whom it passed by marriage to the families of Lestrange and Talbot. It was sold by the Talbots to Thomas Egerton, from whom it passed to the earls cf Bridgwater and eventually to the present owner, Earl Brownlow. Whitchurch is mentioned as a borough in the 14th century, and was governed by a bailiff, but its privileges, which sprang up with the castle, appear to have disappeared after its decay. The town has never been represented in parliament nor noted for any trade except agriculture. In 1228 John Fitz-Alan received the right of changing the day of the market he held at Whitchurch from Thursday to Monday, and in 1362 a fair lasting three days from the feast of SS. Simon and Jude was granted to John Lestrange. Lord Brownlow granted the market rights to the local authority.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/White, Henry Kirke

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​WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806), English poet, was born at Nottingham, the son of a butcher, on the 21st of March 1785. He was destined at first for his father's trade, but after a short apprenticeship to a stocking-weaver, was eventually articled to a lawyer. Meanwhile he studied hard, and his master offered to release him from his contract if he had sufficient means to go to college. He received encouragement from Capel Lofft, the friend of Robert Bloomfield, and published in 1803 Clifton Grove, a Sketch in Verse, with other Poems, dedicated to Georgiana, duchess of Devonshire. The book was violently attacked in the Monthly Review (February 1804), but White was in some degree compensated by a kind letter from Robert Southey. Through the efforts of his friends, he was entered as a sizar at St John's College, Cambridge, spending a year beforehand with a private tutor. Close application to study induced a serious illness, and fears were entertained for his sanity, but he went into residence at Cambridge, with a view to taking holy orders, in the autumn of 1805. The strain of continuous study proved fatal, and he died on the 19th of October 1806. He was buried in the church of All Saints, Cambridge. The genuine piety of his religious verses secured a place in popular hymnology for some of his hymns. Much of his fame was due to sympathy inspired by his early death, but it is noteworthy that Byron agreed with Southey in forming a high estimate of the young man's promise.
His Remains, with his letters and an account of his life, were edited (3 vols., 1807-1822) by Robert Southey. See prefatory notices by Sir Harris Nicolas to his Poetical Works (new ed., 1866) in the "Aldine Edition" of the British poets; by H. K. Swann in the volume of selections (1897) in the Canterbury Poets; and by John Drinkwater to the edition in the "Muses' Library." See also J. T. Godfrey and J. Ward, The Homes and Haunts of Henry Kirke White (1908).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/White, Hugh Lawson

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​WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840), American statesman, was born in Iredell county, North Carolina, on the 30th of October 1773. In 1787 he crossed the mountains into East Tennessee (then a part of North Carolina) with his father James White (1737-1815), who was subsequently prominent in the early history of Tennessee. Hugh became in 1790 secretary to Governor William Blount, and in 1792-1793 served under John Sevier against the Creek and Cherokee Indians, and in the battle of Etowah (December 1793), according to the accepted tradition, killed with his own hand the Cherokee chief Kingfisher. He studied in Philadelphia and in 1796 he was admitted to the bar at Knoxville. He was a judge of the Superior Court of Tennessee in 1801-1807, a state senator in 1807-1809, and in 1800-1815 was judge of the newly organized Supreme Court of Errors and Appeals of the state. From 1812 to 1827 he was president of the State Bank of Tennessee at Knoxville, and managed it so well that for several years during this period it was the only western bank that in the trying period during and after the War of 1812 did not suspend specie payments. In 1821-1824 he was a member of the Spanish Claims Commission, and in 1825 succeeded Andrew Jackson in the United States Senate, serving until 1840 and being president pro tem, in 1832-1834. In the Senate he opposed internal improvements by the Federal government and the recharter of the United States Bank, favoured a protective tariff and Jackson's coercive policy in regard to nullification, and in general supported the measures of President Jackson, though his opposition to the latter's indiscriminate appointments caused a coolness between himself and Jackson, which was increased by White's refusal to vote to expunge the resolutions of a former Senate censuring the president. In 1830, as chairman of the Committee on Indian Affairs, he secured the passage of a bill looking to the removal of the Indians to lands west of the Mississippi. He was opposed to Van Buren, Jackson's candidate for the presidency in 1836, was himself nominated in several states as an independent candidate, and received the twenty-six electoral votes of Tennessee and Georgia, though President Jackson made strong efforts to defeat him in the former state. About 1838 he became a Whig in politics, and when the Democratic legislature of Tennessee instructed him to vote for Van Buren's sub-treasury scheme he objected and resigned (Jan. 1840). His strict principles and his conservatism won for him the sobriquet of "The Cato of the United States Senate." He died at Knoxville on the 10th of April 1840.
See Nancy N. Scott (ed.), A Memoir of Hugh Lawson White (Philadelphia, 1856).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/White, Andrew Dickson

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​WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832-), American educationist, was born in Homer, New York, on the 7th of November 1832. He graduated at Yale (A.B.) in 1853, studied at the Sorbonne in 1854, and at the University of Berlin in 1855-1856, meanwhile serving as attache at the United States Legation at St Petersburg in 1854-1855. He was professor of history and English literature in 1857-1863, and lecturer on history in 1863-1867 at the University of Michigan. In 1864-1867 he was a member of the New York state Senate, and as chairman of the Committee on Education took an active part in formulating the educational features of the bill under which Cornell University (q.v.) was incorporated (1865). At Mr Cornell's suggestion Mr White drew up a plan of organization for the institution, and in 1867 became its first president, which post he held continuously until 1885, serving thereafter as a member of the board of trustees and of its executive committee. During his administration he greatly strengthened the curriculum of the university, to which he gave his architectural library, and, upon his retirement, his historical and general library of about 20,000 volumes (including bound collections of pamphlets) and about 3000 unbound pamphlets, which was installed in a special room in the main library building of the university. In recognition of this gift the departments of history and political science of the university have been named the President White School of History and Political Science. In 1870 President Grant appointed Benjamin F. Wade, Mr White and Samuel G. Howe a commission to visit Santo Domingo and report on the advisability of the president's project for annexing it to the United States, and in 1895 he was appointed by President Cleveland a member of the commission established to determine the boundary between Venezuela and British Guiana. Dr White was United States minister to Germany in 1879-1881, and to Russia in 1892-1894, and was United States ambassador to Germany in 1897-1903. In 1899 he was president of the American delegation at the Hague Peace Conference. He received the degree of LL.D. from the University of Michigan (1867), from Cornell (1886), from Yale (1887), from St Andrews, Scotland (1902), from Johns Hopkins, (1902), and from Dartmouth (1906); L.H.D. from Columbia (1887) and D.C.L. from Oxford (1902). He was also made an officer of the Legion of Honour, was awarded the royal gold medal of Prussia for arts and sciences in 1902, was president of the American Historical Association, of which he was a founder, in 1884, and was actively identified with various other learned bodies.
His publications include The Greater States of Continental Europe (1874); A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom (2 vols., 1896), his most important work, his Autobiography (2 vols., New York, 1905) and Seven Great Statesmen (1910).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Newton, Alfred

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​NEWTON, ALFRED (1829–1907), English zoologist, was born at Geneva on the 11th of June 1829. In 1854 he was elected travelling fellow of Magdalene College, Cambridge, of which he had been an undergraduate, and subsequently visited many parts of the world, including Lapland, Iceland, Spitsbergen, the West Indies and North America. In 1866 he became the first professor of zoology and comparative anatomy at Cambridge, a position which he retained till his death. His services to ornithology and zoogeography were recognized by the Royal Society in 1900, when it awarded him a Royal medal. He wrote many books, including Zoology of Ancient Europe (1862), Ootheca Wolleyana (begun in 1864), Zoology (1872), and a Dictionary of Birds (1893–1896). The last, still a standard work, was an amplification of the numerous articles on birds which he contributed to the 9th edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, and which with comparatively slight revision are retained in the present edition. He contributed many memoirs to scientific societies, and edited The Ibis (1865–1870), the Zoological Record (1870–1872), and Yarrell’s British Birds (1871–1882). He died at Cambridge on the 7th of June 1907.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Newton (Kansas)

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​NEWTON, a city and the county-seat of Harvey county, Kansas, U.S.A., about 27 m. N. of Wichita. Pop. (1905) 6601; (1910) 7862. It is served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fé (of which it is a division point and which has shops here), and the Missouri Pacific railways. Newton is the centre of the settlements of the German-Russian Mennonites, a thrifty people, who immigrated in 1873 and subsequently; Bethel College (opened 1893) is a Mennonite secondary school, and there is a Mennonite hospital. Newton is a supply and distributing point for the surrounding agricultural and stock-raising region, and has various manufactures. The municipality has natural gas for heating, lighting and manufacturing. Newton was first settled in 1871, was chartered as a city in 1872, and in 1910 adopted a commission form of government.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Newton, John (American general)

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​NEWTON, JOHN (1823–1895), American general and engineer, was born in Norfolk, Virginia, on the 24th of August 1823, and graduated second in his class at the U.S. Military Academy in 1842. From 1842 to 1861 he was engaged in the construction of coast defences and the improvement of waterways; he was assistant professor of engineering in the Military Academy from 1843 to 1846, became a captain in 1856, and took part as chief engineer in the Utah expedition of 1857–1858. He served as an engineer in the Virginian campaign of 1861, and was promoted brigadier-general, U.S.V., in September. He especially distinguished himself in the Seven Days’ battle and at Antietam, and after the battle of Fredericksburg was made major-general, U.S.V. In the Chancellorsville campaign Newton took part in the storming of Marye’s Heights at Fredericksburg, on the 3rd of May 1863, and at the battle of Gettysburg he was for a time in command of the I. Corps. He had already received the brevet of lieutenant-colonel for his services at Antietam, and he now became brevet colonel for his services at Gettysburg. Later he was transferred to Sherman’s army, and as a division commander under General Oliver O. Howard took part in the Atlanta campaign. For gallant conduct at Peach Tree Creek he was made brevet brigadier-general, and at the close of the war was made brevet major-general, U.S.A. Returning to regular engineering duty after the war, he was stationed at New York from 1866 to 1884. His most important work there was the improvement of the Hudson river, and especially the removal of the obstructions to shipping in the dangerous entrance to the East river from Long Island Sound, known as Hell Gate. Under two of the largest obstructions—Hallet’s Point and Flood Rock, with a surface of three acres and nine acres respectively shafts were sunk from the shore, and tunnels were bored in every direction. In these tunnels thousands of pounds of explosives were placed, and the rocks were blown into fragments. In March 1884 he became Chief of Engineers, with the rank of brigadier-general, and held this position until his retirement from the army, at his own request, in August 1886. In 1887–1888 ​he was commissioner of public works in New York City, and from 1888 until his death, on the 1st of May 1895, he was president of the Panama railway.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Newton-in-Makerfield

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​NEWTON-IN-MAKERFIELD, or Newton-le-Willows, an urban district in the Newton parliamentary division of Lancashire, England, 151/2 m. W. of Manchester by the London & North-Western railway. Pop. (1891) 12,861; (1901) 16,699. At a short distance from the town is a moated Elizabethan half-timbered house, and also an ancient barrow of great extent. The Liverpool farm reformatory school is in the neighbourhood. The industrial establishments include foundries, printing and stationery works, paper mills, glass works and sugar refineries. Coal abounds in the neighbourhood.
The township of Newton-in-Makerfield, gave its name in Saxon times and in the reign of William the Conqueror to one of the hundreds of Lancashire. The barony was held by the Banastres from the conquest to 1286 and passed successively to the Langtons, Fleetwoods and Leghs. It does not seem that the barons were ever summoned to parliament, and the title, like all parliamentary titles, has fallen into disuse since the abolition of feudal tenures. The courts-baron and courts-leet are held twice annually. The township returned two members to parliament from 1559 to 1831, but was disfranchised by the Reform Act of 1832. There was a market here at least as early as 1558 which is now discontinued. Near the town a party of Highlanders were taken prisoners in 1648 by Cromwell’s troops, and hanged in an adjoining wood, still called Gallow’s Cross.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Newry

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NEWRY, a seaport, market town and parliamentary borough (returning one member) of Co. Down, Ireland, on the Newry water and Newry canal at the extreme head of Carlingford Lough. Pop. (1901) 12,405. It is 73 m. N. of Dublin by the Great Northern railway. A railway owned by the London & North-Western company connects Newry with the deep-water harbour at Greenore; and there is an electric railway to Bessbrook in Co. Armagh. The western part, called Ballybot, is connected with the eastern part, or old town, by four bridges over the canal and four over the tidal water. The situation of the town is striking, the Newry Mountains and Slieve Gullion on the west, and the Mourne Mountains on the east, enclosing the narrow valley in which it lies. Newry is one of the most important ports of the province of Ulster, and in connexion with several sub-ports farther down the river is the outlet for the trade of a very extensive district. The port admits vessels of 2000 tons to Victoria Docks, 3 m. from the town, but vessels drawing 15 ft. can go up the ship canal to the Albert Basin, 3 m. from the sea. The principal exports are grain, eggs, cattle, linen cloth and flax, and the imports include timber, groceries and coal. In the neighbourhood granite of a fine quality is quarried, and the towns possesses rope and sail works, breweries, distilleries, flour-mills and tanneries. It is governed by an urban district council. In 1175 an abbey was founded here by Maurice McLoughlin, king of Ireland. The abbey was converted in 1543 into a collegiate church for secular priests, and was dissolved by Edward VI., who granted it to Sir Nicholas Bagenal, marshal of Ireland. Bagenal made it his private residence, and laid the foundations of its prosperity. In 1689 Newry was set on fire by the duke of Berwick when in retreat before Schomberg. Charters were granted to the town by James I. and James II. By the charter of James I. it sent two members to parliament, but as the Union in 1800 it was restricted to one member. Until 1898 a portion of Newry was situated in Co. Armagh. A mile N.E. of the town is a notable rath or enclosure, taking its name of Crown rath from traditional single encounters between native princes in contention for the sovereignty.