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# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Jason

From volume 8 of the work.
A Greek name adopted by many Jews whose Hebrew designation was Joshua (Jesus). In the Old Testament, it is applied to three or four persons connected with the period of the Machabees.
I. JASON, THE SON OF ELEAZAR
In 161 B.C., he was sent to Rome by Judas Machabeus to secure an alliance offensive and defensive (I Mach., viii, 177 sqq.).
II. JASON
The father of the Antipater who was one of the ambassadors sent by Jonathan, in 144 B.C. to renew the former treaty with the Roman (I Mach., xiv, 22). This Jason is perhaps to be identified with Jason, the son of Eleazar.
III. JASON OF CYRENE
A Jewish historian who lived in the second century B.C., and whose work is made know to us by the Second Book of Machabees, which professes to be its direct "Epitome" (II Mach., ii, 24, 27, 32). Jason's work, divided into five books, dealt, apparently in great detail, with the history of the Machabees and the wars of the Jews against Antiochus Epiphanes, and his son Eupator (II Mach., ii, 20 sqq.). In the "Epitome" five parts may still be distinguished, corresponding probably to the five books of Jason, and ending respectively with iii, 40; vii, 42; x, 9; xiii, 26; xv, 37. Jason composed his work in Greek, not long after 160 B.C., at which date the Second Book of the Machabees closes its narrative. He was thus contemporary with the events which he chronicled.
IV. JASON, THE HIGH-PRIEST
This unworthy son of Simon the Just purchased at great price from Antiochus Epiphanes the deposition of his brother Onias III from the high-priesthood. During the three years of his own pontificate, he did all in his power to corrupt the faith and morals of the youth of Jerusalem (II Mach., iv, 7-17). On the occasion of the games celebrated at Tyre, in honour of Hercules, he sent a Jewish deputation with a large sum of money which he intended to be spent on pagan sacrifices; at the request of his envoys, however, it was devoted to building galleys. He was finally supplanted by Menelaus, his own envoy to Antichus, took refuge among the Ammonites (II Mach., iv, 23-26), captured Jerusalem next year, but had to soon flee again among the Ammonites, wandered in different places, and ultimately died miserably at Sparta.
FRANCIS E. GIGOT
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Jassus

From volume 8 of the work.
A titular see of Caria, and suffragan of Aphrodisias. The city was founded by colonists from Argos at an unknown date, and was re-established after a war with the natives of Caria by the people of Miletus. It is situated at the inner end of a gulf, on an islet now connected with the continent by a narrow strip of land; according to Polybius its walls were ten stadia in circumference. Its fisheries (Strabo, XIX, ii, 21) are yet famous. During the Peloponnesian War Jassus was taken by the Lacedaemonians, and later it was captured by Philip of Macedon, who was compelled by the Romans to return it to King Ptolemy of Egypt. Numerous Greek inscriptions found among its ruins aid in the reconstruction of its domestic history. Four of its bishops are known: Themistius in 421, Flacillus in 451, David in 787, and Gregory in 878 (Lequien, "Oriens Christianus", I, 913). The see is mentioned in the "Nova Tactica", tenth century (Gelzer, "Georgii Cyprii descriptio orbis romani", nos. 340, 1464), and more recently in the "Notitiae Espiscopatuum". It is now called Asin-Kaleh, and is a small town in the sanjak of Mentéché and the Turkish province of Smyrna. In 1835 Texier visited it and found it completely ruined and deserted, its walls of white marble, also theatres, several burial sites, and mausolea still standing; since then the Turks have carried away most of the material for building purposes.
Spon and Wheler, Voyages, I (Amsterdam, 1679), 1273; Chandler, Travels in Asia Minor, 226; Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography, II (London, 1878), 5; Waddington, Inscriptions d'Asie mineure, n. 251-312; Texier, Asie mineure (Paris, 1862), 632-37; Bulletin de correspondance hellenique, V, 491-506; VIII, 454-58; XI, 213-18; XIII, 23-37; XIV, 614; XV, 545-48.
S. VAILHÉ
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Jealousy

From volume 8 of the work.
Jealousy is here taken to be synonymous with envy. It is defined to be a sorrow which one entertains at another's well-being because of a view that one's own excellence is in consequence lessened. Its distinctive malice comes from the opposition it implies to the supreme virtue of charity. The law of love constrains us to rejoice rather than to be distressed at the good fortune of our neighbour. Besides, such an attitude is a direct contradiction of the spirit of solidarity which ought to characterize the human race and, especially, the members of the Christian community. The envious man tortures himself without cause, morbidly holding as he does, the success of another to constitute an evil for himself. The sin, in so far as it defies the great precept of charity, is in general grievous, although on account of the trifling matter involved, as well as because of the lack of deliberation, it is often reputed to be venial. Jealousy is most evil when one repines at another's spiritual good. It is then said to be a sin against the Holy Ghost. It is likewise called a capital sin because of the other vices it begets. Among its progeny St. Thomas (II-II:36) enumerates hatred, detraction, rejoicing over the misfortunes of one's fellow, and whispering. Regret at another's success is not always jealousy. The motive has to be scrutinized. If, for instance, I feel sorrow at the news of another's promotion or rise to wealth, either because I know that he does not deserve his accession of good fortune, or because I have founded reason to fear he will use it to injure me or others, my attitude, provided that there is no excess in my sentiment, is entirely rational. Then, too, it may happen that I do not, properly speaking, begrudge my neighbour his happier condition, but simply am grieved that I have not imitated him. Thus if the subject-matter be praiseworthy, I shall be not jealous but rather laudably emulous.
JOSEPH F. DELANY
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Neocæsarea (1)

From volume 10 of the work.
A titular see, suffragan of Hierapolis in the Patriarchate of Antioch sometimes called Cæsarea as in "Georgii Cyprii Descriptio orbis romani" (ed. Gelzer, 1882). Among its bishops were Paul, whose hands were burned by order of Licinius and who attended the Council of Nicæa in 325 (Theodoret, "Hist. eccl.", I, VII); Meletius, opposed to the Council of Ephesus in 431; Patricius (451) and John (553). In the sixth-century "Notitia episcopatuum" of Anastasius (Echos d'Orient, Paris, X, 145) this see is mentioned as a suffragan of Hierapolis. According to Procopius (De Ædificiis II, 9), Justinian accomplished great things there. Neocæsarea was a fort on the Euphrates, not far from Zeugma. Chabot thinks its site was the actual ruins of Balkiz (La frontière de l'Euphrate de Pompée à la conquête arabe, Paris, 1907, 278 sq.).
LE QUIEN, Oriens christianus, II (Paris, 1741), 947; GELZER, Georgii Cyprii Descriptio orbis romani (Leipzig), 151; CHABOT, Journal asiatique, II (Paris, 1900), 279 sq.
S. VAILHÉ.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Nectarius

From volume 10 of the work.
(Nechtarios), Patriarch of Constantinople, (381-397), died 27 Sept, 397, eleventh bishop of that city since Metrophanes, and may be counted its first patriarch. He came frorn Tarsus of a senatorial family and was praetor at Constantinople at the time of the second general council (381). When St. Gregory Nazianzen resigned his occupation of that see the people called for Nectarius to succeed him and their choice as ratified by the Council (Socrates, "H.E.", V), before August, 381. Sozomen (H.E., VII, 8) adds that Nectorius, about to return to Tarsus, asked Diodorus, Bishop of Tarsus, if he could carry any letters for him. Diodorus, who saw that his visitor was the most suitable person to become Bishop of Constantinoble, persuaded Meletius, Bishop of Antioch, to add his name to the list of candidates presented by the council to the emperor. The emperor then to every one's surprise, chose Nectarius, who was not yet baptized, and in neophyte's robe he was consecrated bishop. Tillemont (Mémoires, IX, 486) doubts this story. Soon after Nectarius' election the Council passed the famous third canon giving Constantinople rank immediately after Rome. A man of no very great power, Nectarius had an uneventful reign with which St. Gregory was not altogether pleased ("Ep." 88, 91, 151, etc; Tillemont, op. cit., IX, 488). Suspected of concessions to the Novarians (Socrates, V, 10; Sozomen, VII, I2), he made none to the Arians, who in 388 burnt his house (Socrates, V, 13). Palsamon says that in 394 he held a synod at Constantinople which decreed that no bishop should be deposed without the consent of several other bishops of the same province (Harduin, I, 955). The most important event, however, is that, according to Socrates (V, 19) and Sozomen (VII, 16), as a result of a public scandal Nectarius abolished the discipline of public penance and the office of penitentiary hitherto held by a priest of his diocese. The incident is important for the history of Penance. Nectarius preached a sermon about the martyr Theodore still extant (P.G. XXXIX, 1821-40, Nilles "Kalendarium manuale", II, 96-100). He was succeeded by St. John Chrysostom and appears as St. Nectarius in the Orthodox Menaion for 11 October (Nilles, op. cit. I, 300; "Acta SS". May, II, 421).
ADRIAN FORTESCUE
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Negligence

From volume 10 of the work.
(Lat. nec, not, and legere, to pick out).
The condition of not heeding. More specifically it is here considered as the omission, whether habituaI or not, of the care required for the performance of duties, or at any rate, for their full adequate discharge. In the teaching of St. Thomas, it is rated not only as a characteristic discernible in the commission of all sins, but also as a special sin in itself. Its particular deformity he judges to be the imputable lack of satisfying such solicitude as is here and now demanded for the satisfying of obligations. He therefore assigns prudence as the virtue to which it is directly opposed. What has been said applies also to actions which are not of precept, once it is resolved to undertake them. Negligence, according to St. Thomas, is initially at least a lack of promptness of will, and is quite distinguishable from torpor or slipshodness in execution. It is not commonly esteemed to be more than a venial sin. There are, however, two notable exceptions to this statement:
Negligence is a factor to be reckoned with in determining the liability of one who has damaged another in any way. In the court of conscience the perpetrator of damage can only be held responsible and bound to restitution when his action has been attended with moral culpability, i.e. has been done freely and advertently. The civil law exacts the exercise of diligence whose measure is established according to the different subject matter involved. The absence of this degree of care on the part of an agent is assumed by the civil law to be culpable, and is punished with the penalties provided. Thus the common law generally distinguishes three classes of negligence as follows: gross negligence is the failure to employ even the smallest amount of care, such as any person, no matter how heedless, would use for the safeguarding of his own interests; ordinary negligence is the failure to exercise ordinary care, such as a person of ordinary capacity and capable of governing a family would take of his own affairs; slight neglience is the failure to bring to bear a high degree of care, such as very thoughtful persons would maintain in looking after their own interests. The civil law may and does impose the obligation of reparation for harm wrought not only where ordinary and gross negligence are shown, but also at times when only slight negligence holds good likewise in conscience, once the decision of the judge decreeing it has been rendered.
JOSEPH F. DELANY
# Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)/General Staff

Edition of 1921; disclaimer.
GENERAL STAFF, ordinarily a group of officers acting as an advisory board to the commander-in-chief of an army, each member of which is responsible for the detailed working out of the chief's orders in one particular field. The general staff of a commanding general may be compared to the cabinet of a premier in civil government. There is also a Great General Staff, not subservient to any commanding field officer, which plans the tactics and strategy of the whole national army. This system of military organization was first adopted in Germany. In the United States a General Staff Corps was first established by an act of Congress passed in 1903. Frequent amendments have since been made to the original act, notably in 1918, after the World War, when a thorough reorganization took place. The Chief of Staff of the United States Army in 1920 was General Peyton C. March, who occupied this position during the war with the Central Powers. Under his authority there were four chiefs of divisions; Chief of the Executive Division, the War Plans Division, the Purchase of Supplies Division and the Army Operations Division. Each of these chiefs is directly responsible to the Chief of General Staff and Secretary of War. The General Staff as a whole, together
with the Secretary of War, is responsible for the working out of all the plans of campaign of the United States Army in the field. See Military Organization, United States.
# Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)/George, Lake

Edition of 1921; disclaimer.
​GEORGE, LAKE, called also HORICON, a beautiful lake, 32 miles long, near the E. border of New York State. It forms the head-waters of Lake Champlain, is studded with hundreds of picturesque islands, and its shores contain several favorite summer resorts, especially the village of Caldwell or Lake George. Here was fought the battle of Lake George, in which the French and Algonquins, under Baron Dieskau, were utterly defeated by the English and Iroquois under Sir William Johnson, Sept. 8, 1755.
# Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)/George, St.

Edition of 1921; disclaimer.
​GEORGE, ST., the especial patron of chivalry, and tutelary saint of England. Though venerated both in the Eastern and Western Churches, his history is extremely obscure. The story in the “Acta Sanctorum” (“Deeds of the Saints”) is that he was born of noble Christian parents in Cappadocia, became a distinguished soldier, and, after testifying to his faith before Diocletian, was tortured and put to death at Nicomedia, April 23, 303.
# Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)/George, St. (Bermudas)

Edition of 1921; disclaimer.
​GEORGE, ST., one of the Bermudas. It is about 3 miles long and ½ mile broad, is fortified, and contains a port of the same name, which is a British military station.
# Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)/General

Edition of 1921; disclaimer.
GENERAL, the title of a military office of varying importance in different countries. In the United States this office was created by Congress for General Grant and that of lieutenant-general for General Sherman. After the death of General Grant the office was conferred on General Sherman and General Sheridan was promoted to lieutenant-general, and on the death of General Sherman the office was revived for General Sheridan, and in 1917 for John Joseph Pershing. That of lieutenant-general was revived in 1895 for Maj.-Gen. John M. Schofield, and again in 1901, when Maj.-Gen. Nelson A. Miles was appointed its incumbent. When the office of lieutenant-general has expired by law the senior major-general becomes the commanding officer of the army, under direction of the President. There
are over 200 generals of different grades on the retired list.
# Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)/General Education Board

Edition of 1921; disclaimer.
GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD, an organization established for the purpose of distributing gifts made by John D. Rockefeller for educational purposes, and chartered by Congress in 1903. Over $50,000,000 have been given by Mr. Rockefeller to the Board. The Board generally makes its gifts to agencies and institutions already in existence and does not undertake independent educational work. The gifts of the Board are mainly devoted to the promotion of practical farming in Southern States; to the establishment of public high schools in Southern States; to the promotion of institutions of higher learning; and to schools for negroes. For all these purposes the Board has expended large sums, which, of course, were assigned only after a careful study of the needs and conditions of the recipients. The investigations which preceded the gifts of the Board were perhaps of as great importance to the development of education in the United States as the gifts themselves. The Board consists of 17 members and maintains headquarters in New York City. In 1920 the president was W. Buttrick, and the secretary, A. Flexner.
# Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)/George, Order of St.

Edition of 1921; disclaimer.
​GEORGE, ORDER OF ST., the name of numerous orders which have been founded in honor of St. George. They include (1) a military order instituted in Russia in 1769 by the Empress Catharine II. as a reward of military achievements. It consists of four classes, to which a fifth, intended for non-commissioned officers and privates, was added in 1807. (2) An order instituted in Bavaria by the Emperor Charles VII. (Charles Albert) in 1729, and reorganized by King Louis II. in 1871. Since the reorganization the order, which had previously been a mere decoration for the nobility, has devoted itself to such services as the care of the wounded on battlefields, etc. (3) An order instituted by Ernest Augustus of Hanover in 1839. (4) A Sicilian military order, instituted by Joseph Napoleon, Feb. 24, 1808, and remodeled by King Ferdinand IV. in 1819. (5) The name under which the order of the Garter was first instituted in England.
# Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)/George Junior Republic

Edition of 1921; disclaimer.
​GEORGE JUNIOR REPUBLIC, a community of boys and girls near Freeville, N. Y., about 10 miles east of Ithaca, founded in 1895 by William R. George. The purpose of the community is to afford to neglected, reckless, and unfortunate children an opportunity to acquire an education and character necessary to lead a useful life. It is the outcome of an experiment made by Mr. George for a number of years, consisting of taking between 150 and 250 children from the city slums to his country home during their vacation. The organization of the Republic is modeled upon that of the United States. The age of admission is 12 to 18 years, and children from any part of the United States may be admitted. Defectives are not admitted if their condition is known. The institution was in successful operation for many years and its success resulted in the foundation of similar establishments in various parts of the country. These were all independent of each other and of the original institution, but eventually the National Association of Junior Republics was formed. The parent establishment in New York was seriously criticized in respect to its conduct in 1913, and difficulties about meeting its budget eventually resulted in a decision of the trustees to close the institution in 1914. At that time, Mr. George's offer to take over the institution was accepted.
# Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)/General Theological Seminary

Edition of 1921; disclaimer.
GENERAL THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY, the most important Protestant Episcopal seminary in the United States. It was established in 1817 in New York City by order of the General Convention, and began its work in 1819. From 1820 to 1822 the seminary was located in New Haven, but in the latter year was re-established in New York. For many years it suffered from the lack of the necessary financial backing. This condition, however, was remedied during the administration of Eugene A. Hoffman, which began in 1878 and lasted until his death in 1902. Through his own large gifts, as well as a result of his ability to interest other wealthy men, the seminary was established on an independent basis. The regular course covers three years. A graduate course is also offered. The degrees of D. D. and B. D. are conferred. The seminary is controlled by a Board of Trustees. No tuition fees are charged and there are many prizes and scholarships available. In 1921 the number of students was 71, and the number of teachers, 15. The governing official was H. E. Fosbroke, D. D.
# Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)/George's Channel, St.

Edition of 1921; disclaimer.
​GEORGE'S CHANNEL, ST., the arm of the sea which separates Ireland from Wales S. of the Irish Sea. From Holyhead and Dublin on the N. to St. David's Head and Carnsore Point it extends about 100 miles, with a breadth varying from 50 to 70 miles.
# Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)/Putnam, Israel

Edition of 1921; disclaimer.
PUTNAM, ISRAEL, an American general in the Revolutionary War; born in Danvers, Mass., in 1718. He was a farmer until the French and Indian war broke out, when, at the age of 36, he took service in the English army having command of a company of “rangers.” When the dispute between his country and England commenced, he was created Major-General by Congress; and at Bunker Hill, New York, and during Washington's retreat through New Jersey, he showed himself one of the bravest of the patriot leaders. In 1779 he was stricken with paralysis. His character is well depicted by the inscription on his tomb: “He dared to lead where any dared to follow.” He died in 1790.
# Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)/Ramadan

Edition of 1921; disclaimer.
​RAMADAN, the ninth month in the Mohammedan year. In it Mohammed received his first revelation, and every believer is therefore enjoined to keep a strict fast throughout its entire course, from the dawn—when a white thread can be distinguished from a black thread—to sunset. During the night, however, the most necessary wants may be satisfied—a permission which, practically, is interpreted by a profuse indulgence in all sorts of enjoyments. The sick, travelers, and soldiers in time of war are temporarily released from this duty, but they have to fast an equal number of days at a subsequent period when this impediment is removed. Nurses, pregnant women, and those to whom it might prove really injurious are expressly exempt from fasting.
# Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)/Rambaud, Alfred Nicolas

Edition of 1921; disclaimer.
​RAMBAUD, ALFRED NICOLAS, a French historian; born in Besançon, Doubs, France, July 2, 1842. Of his works the most important is the "History of French Civilization" (3 vols. 1885), which is used as a text-book in nearly all universities. His other publications include: "French Domination in Germany, 1792-1804" (1874); "Germany Under Napoleon I." (1874); "The French and the Russians," etc., (1877); "History of Russia" (1878); "History of Civilization in France" (1887). He died Nov. 10, 1905.
# Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)/Putnam, William Le Baron

Edition of 1921; disclaimer.
PUTNAM, WILLIAM LE BARON, an American jurist; born in Bath, Me., May 26, 1835; was a member of a commission to arrange with the British government the rights of American fishermen in Canadian waters in 1887; served also as a commissioner under the treaty
of Feb. 8, 1896, between the United States and Great Britain; and was appointed a judge of the United States Circuit Court in 1892. Died 1918.