OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mundella, Anthony John

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​MUNDELLA, ANTHONY JOHN (1825–1897), English educational and industrial reformer, of Italian extraction, was born at Leicester in 1825. After a few years spent at an elementary school, he was apprenticed to a hosier at the age of eleven; He afterwards became successful in business in Nottingham, filled several civic offices, and was known for his philanthropy. He was sheriff of Nottingham in 1853, and in 1859 organized the first courts of arbitration for the settlement of disputes between masters and men. In November 1868 he was returned to parliament for Sheffield as an advanced Liberal. He represented that constituency until November 1885, when he was returned for the Brightside division of Sheffield, which he continued to represent until his death. In the Gladstone ministry of 1880 Mundella was vice-president of the council, and shortly afterwards was nominated fourth charity commissioner for England and Wales. In February 1886 he was appointed president of the board of trade, with a seat in the cabinet, and was sworn a member of the privy council. In August 1892, when the Liberals again came into power, Mundella was again appointed president of the board of trade, and he continued in this position until 1894, when he resigned office. His resignation was brought about by his connexion with a financial company which went into liquidation in circumstances calling for the official intervention of the board of trade. However innocent his own connexion with the company was, it involved him in unpleasant public discussion, and his position became untenable. Having made a close study of the educational systems of Germany and Switzerland, Mundella was an early advocate of compulsory education in England. He rendered valuable service in connexion with the Elementary Education Act of 1870, and the educational code of 1882, which became known as the “Mundella Code,” marked a new departure in the regulation of public elementary schools and the conditions of the Government grants. To his initiative was chiefly due the Factory Act of 1875, which established a ten-hours day for women and children in textile factories; and the Conspiracy Act, which removed certain restrictions on trade unions. It was he also who established the labour department of the board of trade and founded the Labour Gazette. He introduced and passed bills for the better protection of women and children in brickyards and for the limitation of their labours in factories; and he effected substantial improvements in the Mines Regulation Bill, and was the author of much other useful legislation. In recognition of his efforts, a marble bust of himself, by Boehm, subscribed for by 80,000 factory workers, chiefly women and children, was presented to Mrs Mundella. He died in London on the 21st of July 1897.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mundt, Theodor

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​MUNDT, THEODOR (1808–1861), German author, was born at Potsdam on the 19th of September 1808. Having studied philology and philosophy at Berlin, he settled in 1832 at Leipzig, as a journalist, and was subjected to a rigorous police supervision. In 1839 he married Klara Müller (1814–1873), who under the name of Luise Mühlbach became a popular novelist, and he removed in the same year to Berlin. Here his intention of entering upon an academical career was for a time thwarted by his collision with the Prussian press laws. In 1842, however, he was permitted to establish himself as privatdocent. In 1848 he was appointed professor of literature and history in Breslau, and in 1850 ordinary professor and librarian in Berlin; there he died on the 30th of November 1861. Mundt wrote extensively on aesthetic subjects, and as a critic he had considerable influence in his time. Prominent among his works are Die Kunst der deutschen Prosa (1837); Geschichte der Literatur der Gegenwart (1840); Aesthetik; die Idee der Schönheit und des Kunstwerks im Lichte unserer Zeit (1845, new ed. 1868); Die Götterwelt der alten Völker (1846, new ed. 1854). He also wrote several historical novels; Thomas Münzer (1841); Mendoza, der Vater der Schelmen (1847) and Die Matadore (1850). But perhaps Mundt’s chief title to fame was his part in the emancipation of women, a theme which he elaborated in his Madonna, Unterhaltungen mit einer Heiligen (1835).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mundrucus

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​MUNDRUCUS, a tribe of South American Indians, one of the most powerful tribes on the Amazon. In 1788 they completely defeated their ancient enemies the Muras. After 1803 they lived at peace with the Brazilians, and many are civilized.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Munden, Joseph Shepherd

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​MUNDEN, JOSEPH SHEPHERD (1758–1832), English actor, was the son of a London poulterer, and ran away from home to join a strolling company. He had a long provincial experience as actor and manager. His first London appearance was in 1790 at Covent Garden, where he practically remained until 1811, becoming the leading comedian of his day. In 1813 he was at Drury Lane. He retired in 1824, and died on the 6th of February 1832.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Muniment

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​MUNIMENT, a word chiefly used in the plural, as a collective term for the documents, charters, title-deeds, &c. relating to the property, rights and privileges of a corporation, such as a college, a family or private person, and kept as “evidences” for defending the same. Hence the medieval usage of the word munimentum, in classical Latin, a defence, fortification, from munire, to defend.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mill

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​MILL (O. Eng. mylen, later myln, or miln, adapted from the late Lat. molina, cf. Fr. moulin, from Lat. mola, a mill, molere, to grind; from the same root, mol, is derived “meal;” the word appears in other Teutonic languages, cf. Du. molen, Ger. mühle), the term given to the apparatus or machinery used in the grinding of corn into flour, and hence applied to similar mechanical devices for grinding, crushing to powder, or pulping other substances, e.g. coffee-mill, powder-mill. “Mill” was first used of the building containing the apparatus, frequently with a word attached descriptive of the motive power, e.g. wind-mill, water-mill, &c. It was not the early word used of the actual grinding mechanism. The old hand-mill was known as a “quern,” a word which appears in this sense in many Indo-European languages; the ultimate root is gar-, to grind. “Quern” (see Flour) is only remotely connected with “churn” (q.v.). The word is also applied to many mechanical devices by which raw material is transformed into a condition ready for use or into a stage preparatory to other processes, e.g. saw-mill, rolling-mill, &c., or still more widely to buildings containing machinery used in manufactures, e.g. cotton-mill. In mining it is applied to various machines used in breaking and crushing the ore (see Ore-Dressing).
In the engineering industries milling machines constitute a very important class of machine tools, the characteristic of which is that rotary cutters are employed for shaping the metal (see Tools). In coins the “milling” is the serrated edge, called “crenneling” by John Evelyn (Discourse on Medals, 1697, p. 225), which is formed on them to prevent clipping and filing. Coins made by the old process of hammering were apt to have irregular edges which invited mutilation; but the introduction of the screw press, which came to be known as a mill (cf. W. Lowndes, Amendm. Silver Coinage, 1695, p. 93), permitted the production of a regular edge with serrations, which in consequence were termed milling. This machine also enabled legends to be impressed round the edges of coins, such as the Decus et tutamen suggested by Evelyn (see W. J. Hocking, Catalogue of the Coins, &c., in the Museum of the Royal Mint, 1906). It was invented about the middle of the 16th century, and has generally been attributed to Guyot Brucher (d. 1556), who was succeeded at the Paris mint by his brother Antoine. Introduced into England by one Eloye Mestrel in 1561, it was used for twelve years, and was then abandoned owing to the opposition of the mint officials to Mestrel, who was executed for counterfeiting and striking money outside the precincts of the Tower of London; but it was again introduced by one Peter Blondeau in 1662, when it permanently superseded hammering. In the United States of America the term “milling” or “milled” is applied to the raised edge on the face of the coin; this is known in the British mint as “marking” (see Mint).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Milicz

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​MILICZ, or Militsch (d. 1374), Bohemian divine, was the most influential among those preachers and writers in Moravia and Bohemia who, during the 14th century, in a certain sense paved the way for the reforming activity of Huss. The date of his birth is not known, but he was in holy orders in 1350, in 1360 was attached to the court of the emperor Charles IV., whom he accompanied into Germany in that year, and about the same time also held a canonry in the cathedral of Prague along with the dignity of archdeacon. About 1363 he resigned all his appointments that he might become a preacher pure and simple; he addressed scholars in Latin, and (an innovation) the laity in their native Czech, or in German, which he learnt for the purpose. He was conspicuous for his apostolic poverty and soon roused the enmity of the mendicant friars. The success of his labours made itself apparent in the way in which he transformed the notorious “Benatki” street of Prague into a benevolent institution, “Jerusalem.” As he viewed the evils inside and outside the church in the light of Scripture, the conviction grew in his mind that the “abomination of desolation” was now seen in the temple of God, and that Antichrist had come, and in 1367 he went to Rome (where Urban V. was expected from Avignon) to expound these views. He affixed to the gate of St Peter’s a placard announcing his sermon, but before he could deliver it was thrown into prison by the Inquisition. Urban, however, on his arrival, ordered his release, whereupon he returned to Prague, and from 1369 to 1372 preached daily in the Teyn Church there. In the latter year the clergy of the diocese complained, of him in twelve articles to the papal court at Avignon, whither he was summoned in Lent 1374, and where he died in the same year, not long after being declared innocent and authorized to preach before the assembly of cardinals. He was the author of a Libellus de Antichristo, written in prison at Rome, a series of Postillae and Lectiones quadragesimales in Latin, and a similar series of Postils (devotional tracts) in Czech.
See Count Lützow, Life and Times of Master John Hus (1909), pp. 27–38.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Milkwort

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​MILKWORT, in botany, the common name for plants of the genus Polygala (natural order Polygalaceae), a large genus widely dispersed in temperate and tropical regions and represented by a few species in Britain. The common species, P. vulgaris, is a small wiry perennial found on heaths and in meadows throughout the British Isles. The stems are 2 to 10 in. long and bear narrow rather tough leaves and small, 1/6 to 1/3 in. long, white, pink, blue, lilac or purple flowers. The flowers (see fig.) are peculiar in form and arrangement of parts; they have five free sepals the two inner of which (b) are large petaloid and winglike, forming the most conspicuous part of the flower; the petals are united below with the sheath of the eight stamens forming a tube split at the base behind; their form recalls that of the pea family. The name Polygala is from the Greek πολύς, much, ​and γάλα, milk, the plant being supposed to increase the yield of milk in cows. Some species with showy flowers are known in cultivation as greenhouse, or hardy annual or perennial, herbs or shrubs. The root of P. Senega, snake-root, a North American species is officinal. Sea milkwort is the common name for Glaux maritima, a small succulent herb found on seashores and in estuaries in the British Isles; it belongs to the primrose order (Primulaceae).
* After Berg & Schmidt, from Strasburger’s Lehrbuch der Botanik, by permission of Gustav Fischer.
* Polygala Senega.
* A, Flower; a, small sepals; b, large sepals; c, keel, representing the  anterior petal; d, its fimbriated edge; e, lateral petals.
* B, The 8 stamens united into a sheath below; h, anthers (magnified).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Military Frontier

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​MILITARY FRONTIER (Ger. Militärgrenze, Slav. Granitza), a narrow strip of Austrian-Hungarian territory stretching along the borders of Turkey, which had for centuries a peculiar military organization, and from 1849 to 1873 constituted a crown-land. As a separate division of the monarchy it owed its existence to the necessity of maintaining during the 16th and 17th centuries a strong line of defence against the invasions of the Turks, and may be said to have had its origin with the establishment of the captaincy of Zengg (a coast town about 35 m. south-east of Fiume) by Matthias Corvinus and the introduction of Uskoks (q.v.) into Croatia. By the close of the 17th century there were three frontier “generalates”—Carlstadt, Warasdin and Petrinia ​or Petrinja (the last also called the Banal). After the defeat of the Turkish power by Prince Eugene it was proposed to abolish the military constitution of the frontier, but the change was successfully resisted by the inhabitants of the district; in fact a new Slavonian frontier district was established in 1702, and Maria Theresa extended the organization to the march-lands of Transylvania (the Szekler frontier in 1764, the Wallachian in 1766).
As a reward for the service it rendered the government in the suppression of the Hungarian insurrection in 1848, the Military Frontier was erected in 1849 into a crown-land, with a total area of 15,182 sq. m. and a population of 1,220,503. In 1851 the Transylvanian portion (1177 sq. m.) was incorporated with the rest of Transylvania; and in 1871 effect was given to the imperial decree of 1869 by which the districts of the Warasdin regiments (St George and the Cross) and the towns of Zengg, Belovar, Ivanič, &c., were “provincialized” or incorporated with the Croatian-Slavonian crown-land. In 1872 the Banat regiments followed suit; and in 1873 the old military organization was abolished in the rest of the frontier. Not till 1881, however, were the Croatian-Slavonian march-lands completely merged in the kingdoms to which they naturally belonged.
The social aspect of the military frontier régime is interesting. The zadruga system of land tenure was artificially kept in existence (see Servia). Watch-towers with wooden clappers and the beacons which flashed the alarm along the whole frontier in a few hours are still features in the landscape.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mill, John

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​MILL, JOHN (c. 1645–1707), English theologian, was born about 1645 at Shap in Westmorland, entered Queen’s College, Oxford, as a servitor in 1661, and took his master’s degree in 1669 in which year he spoke the “Oratio Panegyrica” at the opening of the Sheldonian Theatre. Soon afterwards he was chosen fellow and tutor of his college; in 1676 he became chaplain to the bishop of Oxford, and in 1681 he obtained the rectory of Bletchington, Oxfordshire, and was made chaplain to Charles II. From 1685 till his death he was principal of St Edmund’s Hall; and in 1704 he was nominated by Queen Anne to a prebendal stall in Canterbury. He died on the 23rd of June 1707, just a fortnight after the publication of his Greek Testament.
Mill’s Novum testamentum græcum, cum lectionibus variantibus MSS. exemplarium, versionum, editionum SS. patrum et scriptorum ecclesiasticorum, et in easdem notis (Oxford, fol. 1707), was undertaken by the advice and encouragement of John Fell (q.v.), his predecessor in the field of New Testament criticism; it represents the labour of thirty years, and is admitted to mark a great advance on all that had previously been achieved. The text indeed is that of R. Stephanus (1550), but the notes, besides embodying all previously existing collections of various readings, add a vast number derived from his own examination of many new MSS, and Oriental versions (the latter unfortunately he used only in the Latin translations). Though the amount of information given by Mill is small compared with that in modern editions, it is probable that no one person, except perhaps Tischendorf, has added so much material for the work of textual criticism. He was the first to notice, though only incidentally, the value of the concurrence of the Latin evidence with the Codex Alexandrinus, the only representative of an ancient non-Western Greek text then sufficiently known; this hint was not lost on Bentley (see Westcott and Hort, Introduction to New Testament). Mill’s various readings, numbering about thirty thousand, were attacked by Daniel Whitby (1638–1726) in his Examen as destroying the validity of the text; Antony Collins also argued in the same sense though with a different object. The latter called forth a reply from Bentley (Phileleutherus lipsiensis). In 1710 Kuster reprinted Mill’s Testament at Amsterdam with the readings of twelve additional MSS.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Khiva (town)

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​KHIVA, capital of the khanate of Khiva, in Western Asia, 25 m. W. of the Amu-darya and 240 m. W.N.W. of Bokhara. Pop. about 10,000. It is surrounded by a low earthen wall, and has a citadel, the residence of the khan and the higher officials. There are a score of mosques, of which the one containing the tomb of Polvan, the patron saint of Khiva, is the best, and four large madrasas (Mahommedan colleges). Large gardens exist in the western part of the town. A small Russian quarter has grown up. The inhabitants make carpets, silks and cottons.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Khoi

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​KHOI, a district and town in the province of Azerbaijan, Persia, towards the extreme north-west frontier, between the Urmia Lake and the river Aras. The district contains many flourishing villages, and consists of an elevated plateau 60 m. by 10 to 15, highly cultivated by a skilful system of drainage and irrigation, producing fertile meadows, gardens and fields yielding rich crops of wheat and barley, cotton, rice and many kinds of fruit. In the northern part and bounding on Maku lies the plain of Chaldaran (Kalderan), where in August 1514 the Turks under Sultan Selim I. fought the Persians under Shah Ismail and gained a great victory.
The town of Khoi lies in 38° 37′ N., 45° 15′ E., 77 m. (90 by road) N.W. of Tabriz, at an elevation of 3300 ft., on the great trade route between Trebizond and Tabriz, and about 2 m. from the left bank of the Kotur Chai (river from Kotur) which is crossed there by a seven-arched bridge and is known lower down as the Kizil Chai, which flows into the Aras. The walled part of the town is a quadrilateral with faces of about 1200 yds. in length and fortifications consisting of two lines of bastions, ditches, &c., much out of repair. The population numbers about 35,000, a third living inside the walls. The Armenian quarter, with about 500 families and an old church, is outside the walls. The city within the walls forms one of the best laid out towns in ​Persia, cool streams and lines of willows running along the broad and regular streets. There are some good buildings, including the governor’s residence, several mosques, a large brick bazaar and a fine caravanserai. There is a large transit trade, and considerable local traffic across the Turkish border. The city surrendered to the Russians in 1827 without fighting and after the treaty of peace (Turkman Chai, Feb. 1828) was held for some time by a garrison of 3000 Russian troops as a guarantee for the payment of the war indemnity. In September 1881 Khoi suffered much from a violent earthquake. It has post and telegraph offices.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kholm

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​KHOLM (Polish Chelm), a town of Russian Poland, in the government of Lublin, 45 m. by rail E.S.E. of the town of Lublin. Pop. (1897), 19,236. It is a very old city and the see of a bishop, and has an archaeological museum for church antiquities.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Khonds

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​KHONDS, or Kandhs, an aboriginal tribe of India, inhabiting the tributary states of Orissa and the Ganjam district of Madras. At the census of 1901 they numbered 701,198. Their main divisions are into Kutia or hill Khonds and plain-dwelling Khonds; the landowners are known as Raj Khonds. Their religion is animistic, and their pantheon includes eighty-four gods. They have given their name to the Khondmals, a subdivision of Angul district in Orissa: area, 800 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 64,214. The Khond language, Kui, spoken in 1901 by more than half a million persons, is much more closely related to Telugu than is Gondi. The Khonds are a finer type than the Gonds. They are as tall as the average Hindu and not much darker, while in features they are very Aryan. They are undoubtedly a mixed Dravidian race, with much Aryan blood.
The Khonds became notorious, on the British occupation of their district about 1835, from the prevalence and cruelty of the human sacrifices they practised. These “Meriah” sacrifices, as they were called, were intended to further the fertilization of the earth. It was incumbent on the Khonds to purchase their victims. Unless bought with a price they were not deemed acceptable. They seldom sacrificed Khonds, though in hard times Khonds were obliged to sell their children and they could then be purchased as Meriahs. Persons of any race, age or sex, were acceptable if purchased. Numbers were bought and kept and well treated; and Meriah women were encouraged to become mothers. Ten or twelve days before the sacrifice the victim’s hair was cut off, and the villagers having bathed, went with the priest to the sacred grove to forewarn the goddess. The festival lasted three days, and the wildest orgies were indulged in.
See Major Macpherson, Religious Doctrines of the Khonds; his account of their religion in Jour. R. Asiatic Soc. xiii. 220–221 and his Report upon the Khonds of Ganjam and Cuttack (Calcutta, 1842); also District Gazetteer of Angul (Calcutta, 1908).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Khilchipur

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​KHILCHIPUR, a mediatized chiefship in Central India, under the Bhopal agency; area, 273 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 31,143; estimated revenue, £7000; tribute payable to Sindhia, £700. The residence of the chief, who is a Khichi Rajput of the Chauhan clan, is at Khilchipur (pop. 5121).