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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ram Mohan Roy

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​RAM MOHAN ROY (1774–1833), Indian religious reformer, and founder of the Brahma Samaj (q.v.) or Theistic Church, was born at Radhanagar, in the district of Hugli, Bengal, in May 1774. He was the son of a small landowner, and in his early life acquired a knowledge of Persian, Arabic and Sanskrit, besides his own vernacular, Bengali. At the age of sixteen he first assailed idolatry in his Bengali work, entitled The Idolatrous Religious System of the Hindus. This gave offence to his orthodox father, and Ram Mohan left home and spent some years in travel. At the age of twenty-two he began his study of the English language, and he also acquired a knowledge of other modern and ancient European languages. On the death of his father he obtained an appointment under the British government in 1800, from which he retired in 1814, settled down in Calcutta, and devoted himself to religious reform. He had already inaugurated a circle for discussing the absurdities of idol worship, and published a striking book in Persian called Tuhfat-al-Muwahhiddin (“A Gift to Monotheists”). On his settlement in Calcutta he established a little friendly society (Atmiya Sabha), which met weekly to read the Hindu scriptures and to chant monotheistic hymns. In 1820 he issued a selection from the Christian Gospels entitled The Precepts of Jesus the Guide to Peace and Happiness. He also wrote Bengali works on the Vedanta philosophy, translated some of the Upanishads, entered into controversies with Christian missionaries, and on the 23rd of January 1830 definitely established the Brahma Samaj “for the worship and adoration of the Eternal, Unsearchable, Immutable Being who is the Author and Preserver of the Universe.” He gave his support to the governor-general, Lord William Bentinck, for the abolition of the suttee rite, i.e. the custom of permitting Hindu widows to burn themselves on the funeral pyre of their husbands. He also worked hard to spread education among his fellow-countrymen, and to improve the quality and the prestige of the native press. In 1830 the emperor of Delhi bestowed on Ram Mohan the title of raja, and sent him to England as his agent. Raja Ram Mohan Roy gave his evidence before the Select Committee of the House of Commons on the judicial and revenue systems of India. He presented petitions to the House of Commons in support of the abolition of the suttee rite, and had the satisfaction of being present in the House when the appeal against such abolition was rejected on the 11th of July 1832. As the first educated and eminent Indian who had come to England, he received cordial welcome from learned men; and Bentham addressed him as an “intensely admired and dearly beloved collaborator in the service of mankind.” Ram Mohan also visited France and contemplated a voyage to America, but a sudden attack of brain fever led to his death on the 27th of September 1833. He was buried at Bristol, where a tomb was erected by his friend Dwarka Nath Tagore.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ralph

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​RALPH (d. 1122), archbishop of Canterbury, called Ralph de Turbine, or Ralph d’Escures from his father’s estate of Escures, near Séez in Normandy, entered the abbey of St Martin at Séez in 1079, and ten years later became abbot of this house. Soon afterwards he paid a visit to England, where his half-brother, Seffrid Pelochin, was bishop of Chichester, and in 1100 he took refuge in England from the violence of Robert of Belesme, passing some time with his friends St Anselm and Gundulf. In March 1108 he succeeded Gundulf as bishop of Rochester. After Anselm’s death in April 1109 Ralph acted as administrator of the see of Canterbury until April 1114, when he himself was chosen archbishop at Windsor. In this capacity he was very assertive of the rights of the archbishop of ​Canterbury and of the liberties of the English church. He claimed authority in Wales and Scotland, and he refused to consecrate Thurstan as archbishop of York because the latter prelate declined to profess obedience to the archbishop of Canterbury. This step involved him in a quarrel with the Papacy, and he visited Rome, but was unable to obtain an interview with pope Paschal II., who had left the city. In spite of peremptory orders from Paschal's successors, Gelasius II. and Calixtus II., the archbishop still refused to consecrate Thurstan, and the dispute was unsettled when he died on the 20th of October 1122.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ramaḍān

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​RAMADAN, the month of the Mahommedan year in which absolute fasting from dawn to sunset is required. The law is laid down in Koran 179-184, and is as follows: A fast had always been a part of religion. In Islam it was to fall in this month because in it the Koran was revealed, and it was holier than the others. It was to begin when the new moon was actually seen, and last until sight of the next new moon; to extend each day from the time when a white thread could be distinguished from a black one and until nightfall; to be absolute in that time as to food, drink, women. The daytime should be passed, by preference, in retreat (i 'tikdj') in the mosque in pious exercises; during the night all otherwise lawful things to be lawful. The sick and those on a journey might be excused, but should fast thereafter an equivalent number of days. Unexcused breaking of the fast might be atoned for by feeding of the poor. The last ten days of the month are regarded as especially sacred; these Mahomet himself used to pass in retreat. In the course of them falls the “ Night of Decree, ” or “ of Power ” (Koran xc. 1), but its exact date is not known. On it intercourse between heaven and earth is peculiarly open, and many wonders take place. Fasting in Ramadan is reckoned one of the five pillars, or absolute requirements, of Islam. It is followed by the Lesser Festival, the first three days of the month Shauwal (see BAIRAM). Naturally, during it all the activities of life are reduced to a minimum, and those who can afford it turn night into day as much as possible.
For details see Hughes, Dictionary of Islam, 535 ff.; Sell, Faith of Islam, 279 ff.; Sprenger, Leben Mohammads, iii. 56 ff.; Snouck Hurgronje, Mekka, 51, 77 ff.; Meakin, The Moors, 247 ff.; Juynboll, De Mohammedaansche Wet, 108 ff.
(D. B. Ma.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ralph de Guader

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RALPH DE GUADER, earl of Norfolk (fl. 1070), was the son of a Norman who had held high positions in East Anglia, perhaps that of earl, in the reign of Edward the Confessor (c. 1055). His son Ralph fought on the Norman side at Hastings, and was made earl of Norfolk by William the Conqueror. In 1075 the king's refusal to sanction his marriage with the sister of Roger, earl of Hereford, caused the two earls to revolt. They were easily defeated, though Ralph sent to Denmark for ships and went there himself to fetch them. Ralph forfeited his English lands, and took refuge in Brittany on his wife's estate. In 1076, having plotted against Duke Hoel of Brittany, he was besieged at Dol, and the Conqueror came to Hoel's aid; but Ralph finally made his peace. Both he and his wife took part in the first crusade (1099), and died on the road to Palestine.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ram, Pierre François Xavier de

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​RAM, PIERRE FRANÇOIS XAVIER DE (1504-1865), Belgian churchman and historian, was born at Louvain in 1804. He took orders early, and was appointed professor of poetry at the seminary of Malines, and archivist of the diocese. During the years immediately before the revolution of 1830, Ram, who was much influenced by Lamennais, was active in bringing about a coalition of Liberals and Catholics against the Dutch government established by the Powers on the fall of Napoleon, and in endeavouring to give a democratic character to the policy of his church. He declined to stand as a member of the Belgian assembly, and applied himself wholly to teaching and to editing or composing historical books. As professor of philosophy at Malines he succeeded in bringing about the foundation of the Catholic university, which was transferred to Louvain in 1834. He was rector of the university till his death in 1865.
The best known of his publications is the Documents relatifs aux troubles du pays de Liege 1455-1505, published by the Commission royale de l'Histoire de Belgique (Brussels, 1844). A Notice sur la vie et les travaux de M gr P. F. X . de Ram, by J. J. Thonissen, will be found in the Annuaire de l'Académie royale de Belgique (Brussels, 1866).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rambert, Eugène

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​RAMBERT, EUGÈNE, (1830–1886), Swiss author, was born at Sâles near Swiss Clarens on the 6th of April 1830, the eldest son of a Vaudois schoolmaster, from whom he received his education. When in 1845 his father lost his post, owing to the religious disputes, Rambert became a teacher in Paris, and later a tutor in England and at Geneva. When the affairs of the family improved, Rambert was able to pursue his studies for the ministry, but he was more attracted by literature, and in 1845 became professor of French literature at the academy of Lausanne, and in 1860 at the Federal polytechnic school at Zürich, where he remained till 1881, when he again became professor at Lausanne. His principal work, Les Alpes suisses (5 vols., 1866–1875; republished with large additions, according to his own scheme, in 6 vols., 1887–1889), is a mine of miscellaneous information on the subject. He also published several volumes of poetry, as well as a volume entitled Écrivains nationaux (1874, republished 1889), and biographies of the pietist Vinet (1875), of the poet Juste Olivier (1879) and of the artist Alexandre Calame (1883). He died on the 21st of November 1886.
Rambert's Dernières Poesies were edited (1903) by Henri Warnery, whose Eugène Rambert (Lausanne, 1890) contains a critical estimate.
(W. A. B. C.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Scull

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​SCULL (the same word as “skull” cf. Swed. skål, basin, hufvud-skål, skull of the head), a light oar with blade more concave than the ordinary racing oar and with shorter hehn, thus allowing the user to hold one in each hand. “Sculling” is therefore the propulsion of a boat by one person with a pair of sculls. The word is also applied to the propulsion of a boat by one scull worked over the stern, the blade being swept through the water from side to side, turning diagonally at each stroke; the sculler usually stands. The principles of sculling with a pair of sculls are the same as those of rowing (q.v.). For the type of boat used in racing see Boat. The Wingfield Sculls, a race which forms the English Amateur championship, was instituted in 1830. It is rowed from Putney to Mortlake. The Diamond Challenge Sculls, instituted in 1844, are rowed for at Henley Regatta. The earliest professional championship sculling race was rowed on the Thames in 1831. Since 1876, when an Australian (E. Trickett, of Sydney) beat J. H. Sadler, the professional championship of the world has been held by Australians or Canadians; the principal champions have been E. Hanlan (Toronto), 1880–1884, W. Beach (New South Wales), 1884–1887; other names are H. E. Searle, J. Stanbury, G. Towns and R. Arnst (New Zealand). Most of the races have been rowed on the Paramatta river. In August 1910 the race was rowed on the Zambezi between E. Barry of England and Arnst, the latter winning.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Scuttle

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​ SCUTTLE, a term formerly applied to a broad flat dish or platter; it represents the O. Eng. scutel, cognate with Ger. Schüssel, dish, derived from Lat. scutella, a square salver or tray, dim. of scutra, a platter, probably allied to scutum, the large oblong shield, as distinguished from the clypeus, the small round shield. The name survives in the coal-scuttle, styled “purdonium” in English auctioneers' catalogues, which now assumes various forms. “Scuttle” in this sense must be distinguished from the word meaning a small opening in the deck or side of a ship, either forming a hatchway or cut through the covering of the hatchway; from which to “scuttle” a ship means to cut a hole in the bottom so that she sinks. This word is an adaptation of O. Fr. escoutille, mod. écoutille, from Span. escotilla, dim. of escoti, a sloping cut in a garment about the neck. The Spanish word is cognate with Du. school, Ger. Schoss, lap, bosom, properly the flap or projecting edge of a garment about the neck, O. Eng. sceat, whence “ sheet.” The colloquial “scuttle,” in the sense of hurrying away, is another form of “scuddle,” frequentative of “scud,” to run, which, like its variant “scoot,” is another form of “shoot.”
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Scylax of Caryanda

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​ SCYLAX OF CARYANDA (in Caria), Greek historian, lived in the time of Darius Hystaspis (521–485 B.C.), who commissioned him to explore the course of the Indus. He started from Caspatyrus (Caspapyrus in Hecataeus; the site cannot be identified: see V. A. Smith, Early Hist. of India, 2nd ed., 1908, 34 note), and is said by Herodotus (iv. 44) to have reached the sea, whence he sailed west through the Indian Ocean to the Red Sea. Scylax wrote an account of his explorations, referred to by Aristotle (Politics, vii. 14), and probably also a history of the Carian hero Heracleides prince of Mylasae, who distinguished himself in the revolt against Darius (Herodotus v. 121). This work is the earliest known Greek history which centred round the achievements of a single individual. Suïdas (s.v.), who mentions the second work, confounds the older Scylax with a much later author, who wrote a refutation of the history of Polybius, and is presumably identical with Scylax of Halicarnassus, a statesman and astrologer, the friend of Panaetius spoken of by Cicero (De div. ii. 42). Neither of these, however, can be the author of the Periplus of the Mediterranean, which has come down to us under the name of Scylax of Caryanda. This work is little more than a sailor's handbook of places and distances all round the coast of the Mediterranean and its branches, and then along the outer Libyan coast as far as the Carthaginians traded. Internal evidence shows that it must have been written long after the time of Herodotus, about 350 B.C.
Editions by B. Fabricius (1878) and C. Müller in Geographici Graeci minores, i., where the subject is fully discussed; see also G. F. Unger, Philologus, xxxiii. (1874); B. G. Niebuhr, Kleine Schriften, i. (1828); and E. H. Bunbury, History of Ancient Geography, i.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Scullery

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​SCULLERY, a back-kitchen, the place where dishes, plates, kettles, &c., are washed and cleaned, and the rough work connected with the domestic service of a house is performed. The Med. ​Lat. scutellarius, keeper of dishes and plates (scutella), became in O. Fr. escueillier or sculier, whence in English sculler, squiler, &c. A “sergeaunt-squylloure” is found amongst the officials of the royal household; and the Promptorium parvulorum, dating about 1400, glosses lixa, a sutler or camp-cook, by “squyllare, dysche-wescheare.” “Scullion,” a kitchen-wench, has been naturally connected with scullery, but is derived from O. Fr. escouillon, dish-cloth, cf. Span. escobillon, spring for a gun, ultimately from Lat. scopa, birch tree, scopae, broom of birch twigs.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Scutari (Turkey)

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​SCUTARI (Turkish, Uskudar, anc. Chrysopolis), a town of Turkey in Asia, on the E. shore of the Bosporus, opposite Constantinople of which it forms the 9th Cercle Municipale. Its painted wooden houses and white minarets piled upon the slopes of the shore and backed by the cypresses of the great cemetery farther inland present a very picturesque appearance from the sea. The town contains eight mosques, one of them, the Valideh Iami, built in 1547, of considerable beauty. Other remarkable buildings are the vast barracks of Selim III. and a hospital used during the Crimean War (see Nightingale, Florence). The chief industry of Scutari is the manufacture of silk, muslin and cotton stuffs. The population is estimated at 105,500, of which two-thirds are Mahommedan. The most striking feature of Scutari is its immense cemetery, the largest and most beautiful of all the cemeteries in and around Constantinople; it extends over more than 3 m. of undulating plain behind the town. Between Scutari and Haidar Pasha the English army lay encamped during the Crimean War, and in a cemetery on the Bosporus are buried the 8000 English who died in hospital. At Haidar Pasha is the terminus of the Angora, Konia and Smyrna railways. Chrysopolis (“Golden city”), the ancient name of Scutari, most probably has reference to the fact that there the Persian tribute was collected, as at a later date the Athenians levied there a tenth on the ships passing from the Euxine. Scutari was formerly the post station for Asiatic couriers (Uskudar = courier), as also down to the introduction of steam the terminus of the caravan routes from Syria and Asia.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Woodstock (Ontario)

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​WOODSTOCK, a town and port of entry of Oxford county, Ontario, Canada, 80 m. S.W. of Toronto by rail, on Cedar creek, the Thames river and the Grand Trunk and Canadian Pacific railways. Pop. (1901) 8833. It is in one of the best agricultural sections of the province, and has a large export trade in cheese, butter and farm produce. Organs, pianos and agricultural implements are manufactured. It contains a residential school, under the control of the Baptist church, affiliated with McMaster University, Toronto.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Woodward, John

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​WOODWARD, JOHN (1665–1728), English naturalist and geologist, was born in Derbyshire on the 1st of May 1665. At the age of sixteen he went to London, where studied with Dr Peter Barwick, physician to Charles II. In 1692 he was appointed professor of physic in Gresham college. In 1693 he was elected F.R.S., in 1695 was made M.D. by Archbishop Tenison and also by Cambridge, and in 1702 became F.R.C.P. While still a student he became interested in botany and natural history, and during visits to Gloucestershire his attention was attracted by the fossils that are abundant in many parts of that county; and he began to form the great collection with which his name is associated. His views were set forth in An Essay toward a Natural History of the Earth and Terrestrial Bodies, especially Minerals, &c. (1695; 2nd ed. 1702, 3rd ed. 1723). This was followed by Brief Instructions for making Observations in all Parts of the World (1696). He was author also of An Attempt towards a Natural History of the Fossils of England (2 vols., 1728 and 1729). In these works he showed that the stony surface of the earth was divided into strata, and that the enclosed shells were originally generated at sea; but his views of the method of formation of the rocks were entirely erroneous. In his elaborate Catalogue he described his rocks, minerals and fossils in a manner far in advance of the age. He died on the 25th of April 1728, and was buried in Westminster Abbey.
By his will he directed that his personal estate and effects were to be sold, and that land of the yearly value of one hundred and fifty pounds was to be purchased and conveyed to the University of Cambridge. A lecturer was to be chosen, and paid £100 a year to read at least four lectures every year, on some one or other of the subjects treated of in his Natural History of the Earth. Hence arose the Woodwardian professorship of geology. To the same university he bequeathed his collection of English fossils, to be under the care of the lecturer, and these formed the nucleus of the Woodwardian museum at Cambridge. The specimens have since been removed to the new Sedgwick museum.
A full account of Woodward's life and views and a portrait of him are given in the Life and Letters of the Rev. Adam Sedgwick, by J. W. Clark and T. McK. Hughes, where it is mentioned that his paper, read before the Royal Society in 1699, entitled Some Thoughts and Experiments concerning Vegetation, “shows that the author should be ranked as a founder of experimental plant-physiology, for he was one of the first to employ the method of water-culture, and to make refined experiments for the investigation of plant-life.”
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Woolsey, Theodore Dwight

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​WOOLSEY, THEODORE DWIGHT (1801-1889), American educationalist, was born in New York City on the 31st of October 1801. He was the son of a New York merchant, a nephew of Timothy Dwight, president of Yale, and a descendant of Jonathan Edwards. He graduated at Yale in 1820, was a tutor at Yale in 1823-1825, studied Greek at Leipzig, Berlin and Bonn in 1827-1830, became professor of Greek language and literature at Yale in 1831, and was elected president of the college and entered the Congregational ministry in 1846. He resigned the presidency in 1871, and died on the 1st of July 1889 in New Haven. During his administration the college grew rapidly, the scientific school and the school of fine arts were established, and the scholarly tone of the college was greatly improved. Much of his attention in his last years was devoted to the American commission for the revision of the authorized version of the New Testament, of which he was chairman (1871-1881). He prepared excellent editions of Alcestis (1834), Antigone (1835), Prometheus (1837) and Gorgias (1843). He published several volumes of sermons and wrote for the New Englander, of which he was a founder, for the North American Review, for the Princeton Review and for the Century, and his Introduction to the Study of International Law, designed as an Aid in Teaching and in Historical Studies (1860) and his Divorce and Divorce Legislation (1882) went through many editions. He also wrote Political Science, or the State Theoretically and Practically Considered (1877), and Communism and Socialism, in their History and Theory (1880). His son, Theodore Salisbury Woolsey (b. 1852), became professor of international law at Yale in 1878. He was one of the founders of the Yale Review (1892, a continuation of the New Englander), and is the author of America's Foreign Policy (1892).