OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Month

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​MONTH (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Mond, Du. maand, Dan. maaned, &c., and cognate with Lat. mensis, Gr. μήν, &c., in other branches of the Indo-Germanic family; all ultimately from the root seen in the word for the moon in nearly all those languages), originally the period between two returns of the new moon; generally called a lunar and sometimes a synodic or illuminative month. The anomalistic month is the mean time taken by the moon in passing from one perigee to the next; the sidereal month is the mean time in which the moon makes a circuit among the stars; the tropical month is the mean time in which the moon traverses 360° of longitude; the nodical or draconic month is the mean time taken by the moon in passing from one rising node to the next; the solar month is one-twelfth of a tropical year. The lengths of the various months are: synodic＝29·53059 days; anomalistic＝27·55460, sidereal＝27·32166, tropical＝27·32156, nodical＝27·21222, solar＝30·43685. (For the calendar months see Calendar.)
In law a month may mean either a lunar month, that is, a period of twenty-eight days, or a calendar month. At common law, “month” generally means a lunar month, although in mercantile matters it has been generally understood to mean a calendar month, but there is no general exception giving it that meaning in commercial documents. It can only have that meaning where according to the ordinary rules of construction a secondary meaning can be admitted (Bruner v. Moore, 1904, 1 Ch. 305). In bills of exchange or promissory notes month means a calendar month (Bills of Exchange Act, 1882, s. 14 [4]). Where a servant is engaged subject to a month’s notice or payment of a month’s wages month is interpreted as a calendar month (Gordon v. Potter, 1 F. & F. 644). In acts of parliament passed before the year 1850 month, unless otherwise specially interpreted, means lunar month, but in all acts passed since that date, month, unless words be added showing that lunar month was intended, means calendar month (Interpretation Act 1889, s. 3). In the rules of the supreme court and in the county court rules month means a calendar month. In mercantile contracts in computing the period of a month the day from which the time is to begin to run is excluded, but in sentences of imprisonment the day on which the sentence begins is included, so that the numerically corresponding ​day in the month in which the sentence expires would be excluded.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Montgomery (Alabama)

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​MONTGOMERY, a city of Alabama, U.S.A., the capital of the state and the county-seat of Montgomery county, situated (about 162 ft. above the sea) S.E. of the centre of the state, on the left bank of the Alabama river, which is here navigable. Pop. (1900), 30,346, of whom 17,229 were of negro descent and 666 were foreign-born; (1910, census), 38,136. Montgomery is served by the Louisville & Nashville, the Mobile & Ohio, the Atlantic Coast Line, the Seaboard Air Line, the Central of Georgia, and the Western of Alabama railways, and by freight steamers plying between Montgomery and Mobile. Among the principal buildings are the state capitol, near which is a Confederate soldiers’ monument (erected by the women of Alabama), the county court-house, the Federal building, the Carnegie library, the masonic temple and the First National Bank and Bell buildings. The public institutions include the city infirmary and St Margaret’s hospital, the latter under the direction of the Sisters of Charity. The city has about 100 acres of parks, Oak Park being the most important. Situated in the “Cotton Belt” of Alabama, Montgomery handles 160,000–200,000 bales annually. Truck-gardening is an important industry. The Alabama state fair is held here annually. Among the manufactures are fertilizers, machine-shop products, cotton goods, lumber products, cigars, harness, beer, stoneware, and bricks. The value of the factory products in 1905 was $3,877,653 (an increase of 31·7% over that in 1900). The leading newspapers are the Montgomery Advertiser (morning) and the Montgomery Journal (evening).
The site of Montgomery was once occupied by an Indian village known as Ecunchatty. The first permanent white settlement was made in 1814 by Arthur Moore. In 1817 Samuel Dexter of Massachusetts laid out a town and named it New Philadelphia. In 1819 it was united with East Alabama Town, an adjoining settlement on the river, under the present name (in honour of General Richard Montgomery), and a third settlement, Alabama Town, later became a part of Montgomery. Montgomery was first incorporated in 1837. The place soon became the commercial emporium of the Alabama “Cotton Belt.” In 1847 it became the capital of the state instead of Tuscaloosa. On the 7th of January 1861, the State Convention through which Alabama seceded from the Union met in the capitol; at the same place delegates from six states met, on the 4th of February, and organized the Confederate States of America. Montgomery was the capital of the new government (hence the popular name “Cradle of the Confederacy”) until May 1861, when that honour was transferred to Richmond, Virginia. It was the seat of Confederate military factories, and on the 12th of April 1865 it was captured by Federal troops. Montgomery received a new city charter in 1905.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Montgomery, James

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​MONTGOMERY, JAMES (1771–1854), British poet and journalist, son of a Moravian minister, was born on the 4th of November 1771, at Irvine in Ayrshire, Scotland. Part of his boyhood was spent in Ireland, but he received his education in Yorkshire, at the Moravian school of Fulneck near Leeds. He edited the Sheffield Iris for more than thirty years. When he began his career the position of a journalist who held pronounced views on reform was a difficult one, and he twice suffered imprisonment (in 1795 and 1796). His Wanderer of Switzerland (1806), describing the French occupation, attracted considerable attention. The author was described by Lord Byron in a footnote to English Bards and Scotch Reviewers, as “a man of considerable genius,” whose Wanderer of Switzerland was worth a thousand “Lyrical Ballads.” The book had been mercilessly ridiculed by Jeffrey in the Edinburgh Review (1807), but in spite of this Montgomery achieved a wide popularity with his later volumes of verse: The West Indies (1810); The World Before the Flood (1812); Greenland (1819); Songs of Zion (1822); The Pelican Island (1826). On account of the religious character of his poetry, he is sometimes confounded with Robert Montgomery, very much to the injustice of his reputation. His verses were dictated by the inspiring force of humanitarian sentiment, and he was especially eloquent in his denunciation of the slave trade. The influence of Campbell is apparent in his earlier poems, but in the Pelican Island, his last and best Work as a poet, he evidently took Shelley as his model. His reputation now rests chiefly on his hymns, about a hundred of which are still in current use. His Lectures on Poetry and General Literature (1833) show considerable breadth of sympathy and power of expression. A pension of ​£150 was bestowed on him by Sir Robert Peel in 1835. He died at Sheffield on the 30th of April 1854.
His poems were collected and edited by himself in 1841. The voluminous Memoirs, published in seven volumes (1856–1858) by John Holland and James Everett, contain valuable information on English provincial politics.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pnom-Penh

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​PNOM-PENH, a town of French Indo-China, capital, since 1866, of the protectorate of Cambodia and seat of the resident superior. Pop. about 60,000, consisting of Cambodians, Annamese, Chinese, Malays, Indians and about 600 Europeans. It is situated on the Mekong about 173 m. from its mouth at the point where it divides into two arms and is joined by the branch connecting it with the Great Lake (Tonlé Sap). Its position makes it the market for the products of Cambodia, Laos, Upper Burma and part of Siam (dried fish, rice, cotton, indigo, cardamoms, &c.) The town is lighted by electricity. The palace of the king of Cambodia occupies a large space in the Cambodian quarter. The town gets its name from the Pnôm, a central hill surmounted by an ancient pagoda.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pocket

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​POCKET, a small bag, particularly a bag-like receptacle either fastened to or inserted in an article of clothing. As a measure of capacity “pocket” is now only used for hops; it equals 168 ℔. The word appears in Mid. Eng. as poket, and is taken from a Norman diminutive of O. Fr. poke, pouque, mod. poche, cf. “pouch.” The form “poke” is now only used dialectically, or in such proverbial sayings as a “pig in a poke,” and possibly in the “poke-bonnet,” the coal-scuttle bonnet fashionable during the first part of the 19th century, and now worn by the female members of the Salvation Army; more probably the name of the bonnet is connected with “poke,” to thrust forward, dig. The origin of this is obscure. Dutch has poken, pook, a dagger; Swedish påk, a stick.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Poach

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​POACH (probably from Fr. poche, bag, or Eng. “poke,” thrust into), to trespass on private property in pursuit of game or fish; also, generally, to catch game or fish by means or at times not permitted by the law, or in an unsportsmanlike manner (see Game Laws). The etymology is rather obscure, but as used in the independent sense of “poaching” an egg, i.e. cooking by breaking into boiling water, the word appears to be from the same original.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pobêdonostsev, Constantine Petrovich

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​POBÊDONOSTSEV, CONSTANTINE PETROVICH (1827–1907), Russian jurist, state official, and writer on philosophical and literary subjects. Born in Moscow in 1827, he studied at the School of Law in St Petersburg, and entered the public service as an official in one of the Moscow departments of the senate. From 1860 to 1865 he was professor of Russian civil law in the Moscow University, and instructed the sons of Alexander II. in the theory of law and administration. In 1868 he became a senator in St Petersburg, in 1872 a member of the council of the empire, and in 1880 chief procurator of the Holy Synod. He always showed himself an uncompromising Conservative, and never shrank from expressing boldly his opinions. Consequently, in the so-called Liberal camp he was always denounced an an “obscurantist” and an enemy of progress. In the early years of the reign of Alexander II. (1855–1881), Pobêdonostsev maintained, though keeping aloof from the Slavophils, that Occidental institutions were radically bad in themselves and totally inapplicable to Russia. Parliamentary methods of administration, modern judicial organization and procedure, trial by jury, freedom of the press, secular education—these were among the principal objects of his aversion. He ​subjected all of them to a severe analysis in his Reflections of a Russian Statesman (English by R. C. Long, London, 1898). To these dangerous products of Occidental rationalism he found a counterpoise in popular vis inertiae, and in the respect of the masses for institutions developed slowly and automatically during the past centuries of national life. Among the practical deductions drawn from these premises is the necessity of preserving the autocratic power, and of fostering among the people the traditional veneration for the ritual of the national Church. In the sphere of practical politics he exercised considerable influence by inspiring and encouraging the Russification policy of Alexander III. (1881–1894), which found expression in an administrative Nationalist propaganda and led to a good deal of religious persecution. After the death of Alexander III. he lost much of his influence, for Nicholas II., while clinging to his father's Russification policy and even extending it to Finland, disliked the idea of systematic religious persecution, and was not wholly averse from the partial emancipation of the Russian Church from civil control. During the revolutionary tumult which followed the disastrous war with Japan Pobêdonostsev, being nearly 80 years of age, retired from public affairs. He died on the 23rd of March 1907.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pocket-gopher

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​POCKET-GOPHER (i.e. pouched rat), the name of a group of, chiefly North, American rat-like rodents, characterized by the possession of large cheek-pouches, the openings of which are external to the mouth; while their inner surface is lined with fur. The cheek-teeth, which comprise two pairs of premolars and three of molars in each jaw, are in the form of simple prisms of enamel, which do not develop roots. The fore and hind limbs are of approximately equal length, but the second and third front-claws are greatly enlarged, and all the claws are furnished at the base with bristles. The eyes are small, and the external ears rudimentary.
Pocket-gophers, which typify a family, the Geomyidae, spend the whole of their time underground, and are specially organized for such a mode of existence, their powerful claws being adapted for digging, while the bristles on the toes prevent the earth from passing between them. The upper incisor teeth are employed to loosen the ground, like a fork; and the little rodents are able to move both backwards and forwards in their runs. The cheek pouches are employed solely in carrying food, which consists largely of roots. In the typical genus Geomys the upper incisors are groove, but in the allied Thomomys they are smooth. The common pocket-gopher, Geomys bursarius, of the Mississippi Valley measures about 8 in. in length, with a tail of between 2 and 3 in.; its colour being rufous brown and greyish beneath. A well-known representative of the second genus is Thomomys tatpoides, which is considerably smaller than the former. To the farmer and the gardener pocket gophers are an unmitigated source of annoyance. (See Rodentia.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pocket-mouse

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​POCKET-MOUSE, the name of a number of small jerboa-like, chiefly North American rodents belonging to the family Geomyidae, and constituting the genus Perognathus and Heteromys. They are nearly allied to the American kangaroo-rats (see ​Kangaroo-Rat, but differ in having rooted molar teeth. The typical pocket-mouse P. fasciatus, which is a native of Montana, Missouri, and Wyoming, is a sandy-coloured rodent marked with black lines above and with white beneath, and measuring about 6 in. in length, this length being equally divided between the head and body and the tail. (See Rodentia.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Phanocles

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​PHANOCLES, Greek elegiac poet, probably flourished about the time of Alexander the Great. His extant fragments show resemblances in style and language to Philetas, Callimachus and Hermesianax. He was the author of a poem on paederasty. A lengthy fragment in Stobaeus (Florilegium, 64) describes the love of Orpheus for the youthful Calais, son of Boreas and his subsequent death at the hands of the Thracian women. It is one of the best extant specimens of Greek elegiac poetry.
See N. Bach, Philetae, Hermesianactis, et Phanoclis reliquiae (1829), L. Preller, Ausgewählte Aufsätze aus dem Gebiete der classischen Alterthumswissenschaft (1864).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pharaoh

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​PHARAOH (Parʽoh), the Hebraized title of the king of Egypt (q.v.), in Egyptian Per-ʽo, Pheron in Herodotus represents the same. Its combination with the name of the king, as in Pharaoh-Necho, Pharaoh-Hophra, is in accordance with contemporary native usage: the name of the earlier Pharaoh Shishak (Sheshonk) is rightly given without the title. In hieroglyphic a king bears several names preceded by distinctive titles. In the IVth Dynasty there might be four of the latter:
* (1)
identifying him with the royal god Horus, the name is commonly written in a frame
representing the façade of a building, perhaps a palace or tomb, on which the falcon stands.
* (2)
connecting him with the vulture and uraeus goddesses, Nekhabi and Buto of the south and north.
* (3)
a hawk on the symbol of gold, signifying the victorious Horus.
* (4)
the old titles of the rulers of the separate kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt, to be read stni, “butcher(?)” and byti, “beekeeper(?)” The personal name of the king followed (4), and was enclosed in a cartouche
apparently symbolizing the circuit of the sun which alone bounded the king’s rule. Before the IVth Dynasty the cartouche is seldom found: the usual title is (1), and (3) does not occur. In the Vth Dynasty the custom began of giving the king at his accession a special name connecting him with the sun this was placed in the cartouche after (4), and a fifth title was added:
| (5) | Si-rē, “son of the Sun-god,” |
to precede a cartouche containing the personal name. The king was briefly spoken of by his title stni (see 4), or ḥnm-f, “his service,” or Ity, “liege-lord.” These titles were preserved in the sacred writing down to the latest age. An old term for the royal palace establishment and estate was Per-ʽo, “the Great House,” and this gradually became the personal designation of Pharaoh (cf. the Grand Porte), displacing all others in the popular language. (F. Ll. G.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Phanias

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​PHANIAS, of Eresus in Lesbos, Greek philosopher, important as an immediate follower of and commentator on Aristotle, came to Athens about 332 B.C., and joined his compatriot, Theophrastus, in the Peripatetic school. He wrote works entitled Analytica, Categoriae and De interpretatione, which were either paraphrases or critical commentaries, and seem to have added little to Aristotle’s own writings. Alexander of Aphrodisias refers to a work πρὸς Διόδωρον, and Athenaeus quotes from another treatise, Against the Sophists. Outside philosophy, he and Theophrastus carried on the physical investigations of Aristotle, Athenaeus frequently quotes from a work on botany which manifests great care in definitions and accuracy of observation. From Plutarch (Life of Themistocles) we learn that he was regarded as an historian of importance. The chief of his historical works is the Prytaneis Eresii, which was either a history of his native place or a general history of Greece arranged according to the period of the Eresian magistracy. He wrote also works on the Tyrants of Sicily and on tyranny in general. The value of these books is attested by the frequency with which they are quoted on questions of chronology (e.g. by Plutarch, Suidas, Athenaeus). To the history of Greek literature he contributed works on the poets and on the Socratics, both of which are quoted.
He must be distinguished from another Phanias, a Stoic philosopher, disciple of Posidonius. Diogenes Laertius mentions a work of his wherein he compares Posidonius with Panaetius in arguing from physical principles.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Phaltan

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​PHALTAN, a native state of India, in the central division of Bombay, ranking as one of the Satara jagirs. Area, 397 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 45,739, showing a decrease of 31% in the decade. The estimated revenue is £13,000, and the tribute £640. The chief, whose title is nimbalkar, is a Mahratta, tracing his descent to a grantee from a Delhi emperor in the 14th century. The town of Phaltan is 37 m. north-east of Satara; pop. (1901), 9512.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Phanariotes

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​PHANARIOTES, a name derived from Phanar, the chief Greek quarter at Stamboul, where the oecumenical patriarchate is situated, and applied to those members of families resident in the Phanar quarter who between the years 1711 and 1821 were appointed hospodars of the Danubian principalities; that period of Moldo-Wallachian history is also usually termed the Phanariote epoch. It is not to be understood as marking the introduction into the principalities of the Greek element, which had already established itself firmly in both provinces, to both of which Greek princes had been appointed before the 18th century. But whereas the Greek families of earlier introduction gradually became merged in their country of adoption, the later immigrants retained their separate nationality and grew to be powerful agents for furthering the spread of Graecism in the principalities. The person raised to the princely dignity was usually the chief dragoman of the Sublime Porte, and was consequently well versed in contemporary politics and the statecraft of the Ottoman government. The new prince, who was compelled to purchase his elevation with a heavy bribe, proceeded to the country which he was selected to govern, and of the language of which he was in nearly every case totally ignorant, accompanied by a horde of needy hangers-on; he and his acolytes counted on recouping themselves in as short a time as possible for their initial outlay and in laying by a sufficiency to live on after the termination of the prince’s brief authority. It was the interest of the Porte to change the princes as often as possible, as the accession donation thus became due more frequently. When, owing to the numerous cases of treachery among the princes, the choice became limited to a few families the plan was hit upon of frequently shifting the prince from one province to the other: the prince of Wallachia, the richer of the two principalities, was always ready to pay a handsome douceur to avert his transfer to Yassy; the prince of Moldavia was equally ready to bribe his supporters at Constantinople to secure his appointment to Wallachia. To raise funds to satisfy the rapacity of the Porte the princes became past masters in the art of spoliation, and the inhabitants, liable to every species of tax which the ingenuity of their Greek rulers could devise, were reduced to the last stage of destitution. The active part taken by the Greek princes in the revolt of 1820–21 induced the Porte to revert to the appointment of native princes.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Phantasmagoria

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​PHANTASMAGORIA, a name invented by a certain Philipstal in 1802 (from Gr. φάντασμα, phantasm, apparition; and ἀγορά, assembly) for a show or exhibition of optical illusions produced by means of the projecting lantern (q.v.) The word has since been applied to any rapidly or strikingly changing scene, and especially to a disordered or fantastic scene or picture of the imagination.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Phari

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​PHARI, a town of Tibet. It is supposed to be the highest and coldest town in the world, being 15,000 ft. above the sea. As it commands the road between the Chumbi Valley and Lhasa and also one of the chief passes into Bhutan, Phari is of considerable military importance, and is defended by a large fort or Jong, which was occupied by the British expedition of 1904. Phari Jong is supposed to have been built about 1500 A.D., and was enlarged or rebuilt in 1792, under Chinese advice, as a defence against the British. It has the appearance of a medieval castle, and seems to have been built in imitation of the European style.