OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# The New International Encyclopædia/Crédit Mobilier

Edition of 1905. See also Crédit Mobilier on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
CRÉDIT MOBILIER, krắ'dḗ' mṓ'bḗ'yắ'. A well-known financial institution of France. On November 18, 1852, the French Government sanctioned the statutes of a new bank under the name of the Société Générale du Crédit Mobilier, with a capital of 60,000,000 francs. The name was intended as a contrast to the Sociétés du Crédit Foncier, which are of the nature of land banks, and advance money on the security of real or immovable property, while the Crédit Mobilier proposed to give similar aid to the owners of movable property. The declared object of the new bank was especially to promote industrial enterprises of all kinds, such as the construction of railways and the opening of mines, by placing loans and handling stock. Various privileges were conferred upon it under its charter; among others it was allowed to acquire shares in public companies, and to pay calls made upon it in respect of such shares by its own notes or obligations; also to sell or give in security all shares thus acquired. The operations of the society were conducted upon a very extensive scale. In 1854 it subscribed largely to the Government war loan, raised during the Crimean campaign, to the Grand Central Raihvay Company, to the General Omnibus Company of Paris, and to
various other important undertakings. The dividend declared for 1854 was 12 per cent. In 1855 it loaned two sums to the Government — the one of 250,000,000 and the other of 375,000,000 francs. Its operations were vast during this year, and the net dividend declared amounted to 40 per cent. The directors then proposed to avail themselves of their privilege of issuing their own obligations, and thought to issue two kinds of notes — the one at short dates, the other at long dates, and redeemable by installments. The proposed issue was to amount to 240,000,000 francs; but the public became alarmed at the prospect of so vast an issue of paper money, and in March, 1856, the French Government deemed it necessary to prohibit the carrying out of the proposed scheme. This was a severe blow to the institution. In 1856 its dividends did not exceed 22 per cent.; in 1857 they were only 5 per cent. Several attempts to resuscitate its credit failed, and finally, in November, 1871, it was reorganized and put under a new board of management. In 1877 its assets were 77,000,000 francs, but its shares, the par value of which was 500 francs, sold for 200 francs only. In 1878-79 the capital was first reduced to 32,000,000 francs, and then raised to 40,000,000. In 1884 it was a second time reduced to 30,000,000 francs, but the company never regained its lost ground. The Crédit Mobilier was undoubtedly useful in developing the industrial power of France, but its operations were hazardous, and had they not been checked in time, they would in all probability have ended in disaster. See Crédit Mobilier of America.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Critias

Edition of 1905. See also Critias on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
CRITIAS, krĭsh′ĭ-as (Lat., from Gk. Κριτίας, Kritias) ( ? –403 B.C.). An Athenian orator and poet, the pupil both of Socrates and of Gorgias of Leontini. He was a leader in the oligarchical party at Athens, and was exiled after the downfall of the Four Hundred in B.C. 411, but after the subjugation of Athens by the Spartans he returned, and, in B.C. 404, became head of the Committee of Thirty, known as the Thirty Tyrants. In 403 he was killed in the general revolt against their excesses. His literary activity was varied in the fields of oratory, tragic and elegiac poetry, and historical prose. Fragments of his elegies are in Bergk, Poetæ Historicorum Græcorum, vol, ii, (Leipzig, 1900); of his historical work, in Müller, Fragmenta Historicorum Græcorum, vol. ii. (Paris, 1868–83).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Crédit Mobilier of America

Edition of 1905. See also Crédit Mobilier of America scandal on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
CRÉDIT MOBILIER OF AMERICA. A joint-stock company, whose alleged corrupt operations in connection with the building of the Union Pacific Railroad gave rise, in 1872-73, to the greatest Congressional scandal in American history. The company was chartered as the ‘Pennsylvania Fiscal Agency,’ in 1859, was organized for a general loan and contract business in 1863, and was reorganized under the above name in 1867, for the purpose of building the Union Pacific. This work, completed in 1869, was paid for largely in stock and bonds of the Union Pacific, so that the stockholders of the two companies soon came to be identical. The Mobilier stock, at first almost worthless, soon began to pay enormous dividends; suspicions were aroused; and in the Presidential campaign of 1872 the company was charged with gross dishonesty, and many prominent Republicans, including the Vice-President, the Speaker of the House, three Senators, and a number of well-known Representatives, were freely accused by the Democratic press of having been bribed in 1867-71 to use their influence and votes in favor of the Union Pacific, the alleged bribes having consisted of the sale of Mobilier stock to the accused at prices below its actual value. A prolonged investigation, conducted in 1872-73 by special committees in both the Senate and the House, resulted in a recommendation of the expulsion of one Senator, upon which, however, no action was taken, and the censure of two Representatives, Oakes Ames, of Massachusetts, and James Brooks, of New York, respectively for having sold Crédit Mobilier stock to members of Congress ‘with intent to influence the votes of such members,’ and for having, indirectly, received such stock. The scandal caused intense excitement throughout the country, and
the Mobilier Company met with almost universal execration; but subsequent investigation has shown that the charges were greatly exaggerated, and were at least never conclusively proved. Consult: Crawford, The Crédit Mobilier of America, Its Origin and History (Boston, 1880); and Hazard, The Crédit Mobilier of America (Providence, 1881), the latter being a paper read before the Rhode Island Historical Society in February, 1881.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Czaslau

Edition of 1905. See also Čáslav on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​CZASLAU, chäs’lou, Bohem. pron. chäs’läv. A town of Bohemia, about 40 miles east-southeast of Prague (Map: Austria, D 2). The Church of Saint Peter and Saint Paul was the place of burial of the blind Hussite leader Ziska, a fine statue of whom adorns one of the public squares. The town's manufactures include beet-sugar, alcohol, and beer. Between Czaslau and the neighboring village of Chotusitz the Prussians under Frederick the Great gained a decisive victory over the Austrians under Charles of Lorraine. May 17, 1742. Population, in 1890, 8145; in 1900, 9105, mostly Czechs.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Political and Social Science, American Academy of

Edition of 1905. See also American Academy of Political and Social Science on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
POLITICAL AND SOCIAL SCIENCE, American Academy of. A learned society organized in Philadelphia, December 14, 1889, and incorporated February 14, 1891. Its membership has grown rapidly and is now more than two thousand, distributed through the United States and more than 30 foreign countries. Its general advisory committee is composed of representatives of the faculties of the leading American and of several foreign universities: the president and secretary are connected with the University of Pennsylvania, where the annual meeting is held in April. Its object is the promotion of political and social science, by accumulating a library, by offering prizes for specified contributions to science, by publishing papers and reports, and by establishing lecture courses. Its publications are The Annals of the American Academy, a bi-monthly magazine on current political problems, which began July, 1890, with several supplements every year containing translations of foreign works, and a special series of pamphlets, containing the principal papers submitted to the Academy, of which several hundred numbers have been issued.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Portland, Duke of

Edition of 1905. See also Earl of Portland on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ PORTLAND, Duke of. An English title of nobility, borne by the Cavendish-Bentinck family since 1716, when it was conferred upon the heir of William Bentinck (1649-1709), first Earl of Portland, a Dutch general, the friend and adviser of William of Orange, whom he accompanied to England. The more distinguished members of the family have been Lord William Cavendish Bentinck, second son of the third Duke, and Lord William George Frederick Cavendish Bentinck, third son of the fourth Duke. See Bentinck.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Portland (Connecticut)

Edition of 1905. See also Portland, Connecticut on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​PORT′LAND. A town (population, in 1900, 3856) in Middlesex County, Conn., on the Connecticut River, opposite Middletown (q.v.).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Portland (Indiana)

Edition of 1905. See also Portland, Indiana on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​PORTLAND. A city and the county seat of Jay County, Ind., 49 miles south-southeast of Fort Wayne; on the Salamanie River, and at the junction of the Lake Erie and Western and the Grand Rapids and Indiana railroads (Map: Indiana, D 2). It has a public library, established in 1900, and public buildings of considerable merit. The city is in an agricultural region which possesses a supply of natural gas. There are various manufactures, including butter tubs and cases, spokes, handles, brick, flour, etc. The waterworks and electric light plant are owned by the municipality. Population, in 1890, 3725; in 1900, 4798.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Political Offenses

Edition of 1905. See also Political crime on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
POLITICAL OFFENSES. Acts which are considered as injurious to the safety of the State, or which involve a violation of the allegiance due from a subject or citizen to the supreme authority of a nation. Such offenses are to be distinguished from those which merely disturb the public peace, as murder, theft, and the like, and which do not strike at the Government itself.
Political offenses are now usually exempted from extradition treaties. However, England and the United States, to avoid international complications, have passed laws tending to prevent expeditions against foreign governments being fitted out within their territorial limits. The tendency in modern times is to deal leniently with political offenders. For example, although treason is nominally punishable with death in most countries, the sentence is now usually commuted to life imprisonment, as in the case of Col. Arthur Lynch, who was convicted of treason in England after the Boer War. See Citizen; Extradition; Government; Treason.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Luzula

Edition of 1905. See also Luzula on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​LU′ZULA (Neo-Lat., from OIt. luzziola, lucciola, glowworm, from luce, light, from Lat. lux, light; connected with Gk. λεύσσειν, leussein, to see, Skt. ruc, to shine, OChurch Slav. lucha, beam of light, OIr. lōche, lightning, OHG. lioht, Ger. Licht, AS. lēoht, Eng. light). A genus of plants of the natural order Juncaceæ, having soft flat leaves, which are generally covered with thinly scattered longish hairs. They do not grow in wet places, like rushes, but in woods, pastures, and elevated mountainous situations. The English name, wood-rush, has sometimes been given to the whole genus, but is only appropriate to some, of which it is the popular name, as Luzula maxima and Luzula campestris, common American species.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Luzzatti, Luigi

Edition of 1905. See also Luigi Luzzatti on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​LUZZATTI, lo͞o-tsä′tē̇, Luigi (1841— ). An Italian statesman and financier, born in Venice of a Jewish family. He taught for a time in the Instituto Tecnico in Milan, and in 1867 became professor of political economy and constitutional law at Padua. In 1871 he was elected to the House of Deputies, and soon became prominent in matters of finance. He was Minister of the Treasury in Rudini's Cabinet in 1891-92 and 1896-98. An active philanthropist, Luzzatti founded many savings banks and mutual relief associations.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Luzzatto, Samuel David

Edition of 1905. See also Samuel David Luzzatto on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​LUZZATTO, lo͞o-tsä′tō̇, Samuel David (1800-65). A Hebrew scholar and writer on Jewish history. He was born in Triest, received an academic education, and was professor of biblical exegesis in the Rabbinical School at Padua from its foundation in 1829 till his death. He was regarded as one of the chief restorers of Hebrew literature. His published works include: a Hebrew Grammar; an Aramaic Version of Onkelos (1830); Notes on Isaiah (1834); Dialogues on the Cabala, the Zohar, and the Antiquity of the Vowel Points and Accents of the Bible (1852); and Hebrew Notes on the Pentateuch, with a Hebrew Commentary (1850). His writings on Jewish history are also of great merit.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Lévy, Emile

Edition of 1905. See also Émile Lévy on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
LEVY, lắ'vḗ', Emile (1820-90). A French genre and portrait painter. He was born in Paris, August 29, 1826. He was a pupil of Abel de Pujol and Picot, and studied at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts. He won the Grand Prix de Rome in 1854. On his return from Italy he settled in Paris, and devoted himself to portrait painting. He exhibited in the Salon, receiving a first-class medal in 1878, and the Legion of Honor in 1867. Among the more important of his works are: “Noah Cursing Canaan” (1855); “Supper of the Martyrs” (1859); “Death of Orpheus” (1866), Luxembourg Museum; “Love and Folly” (1874); “Infancy” (1885); “The Elements,” Salon of
Ministry of State, Louvre; “Presentation of the Virgin,” Trinity Church, Paris.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Lützow, Karl von

Edition of 1905. See also Karl von Lützow on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
LÜTZOW, Karl von (1832-97). A German art-historian and critic, born at Göttingen. He studied philology and archæology at Göttingen and Munich, and was associated in Berlin with Lübke in editing Denkmäler der Kunst, established himself as a lecturer in Munich in 1858, then edited in Vienna the Recensionem und Mittheilungen über bildende Kunst, and in 1864 became docent of art-history at the Academy, where in 1800 he was also made librarian and custodian of the cabinet of engravings. In 1867 he was appointed professor at the Polytechnicum. His valuable publications include: Die Meisterwerke der Kirchenbaukunst (2d ed. 1871); Die Geschichte der kaiserlich-königlichen Akademie der bildenden Künste (1877); Die vervielfältigende Kunst der Gegenwart (1886 et seq.); Die Kunstschätze Italiens in geographisch-historischer Uebersicht geschildert (2d ed. 1900); and Geschichte des deutschen Kupferstichs und Holzschnitts (1891). He founded the Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst (1866 et seq.), of which he was editor up to the time of his death.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Luzzi, Pietro

Edition of 1905. See also the disclaimer.
​LUZZI, lo͞o′tsē̇, Pietro. See Morto da Feltre.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Löfftz, Ludwig

Edition of 1905. See also Ludwig Löfftz on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
LÖFFTZ, lẽfts, Ludwig (1845—). A German painter, born at Darmstadt. He was a pupil of Kreling and Raupp at Nuremberg, then of Diez at the Academy in Munich, where he became professor in 1879, and of which he was director in 1891-99. His works are not numerous, but are of great perfection. A lofty atmosphere pervades his interiors, treated in the spirit of the Flemish masters, while his religious subjects are imbued with deep feeling and solemn grandeur. Great technical skill and masterly treatment of the chiaroscuro produce the most harmonious effects in all his paintings, which include: “Cardinal Playing the Organ” (1876), a likeness of Franz Liszt; “Avarice and Love” (1879, in the collection of W. H. Vanderbilt, New York), suggestive of Quentin Massys; and “Erasmus in His Study” (Stuttgart Museum). The impressive “Pietà” (1883) won for him the gold medal at the International Exhibition in Munich, and is now in the New Pinakothek, which also contains “Eurydice” (1898). For the Cathedral at Freising he painted a large altarpiece, “Assumption of the Virgin” (1889).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Löwe, Karl

Edition of 1905. See also Johann Carl Gottfried Loewe on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
LÖWE, lẽ've, Karl (1796-1869). A German composer, born at Löbejün, near Halle. He received his musical education at the Francke Institut, Halle, after which he studied under Türk, and in 1814 entered the Singakademie. A few years later he took up the study of theology, and during the same period (1817-19) produced the cantatas Treuröschen, Erlkönig, and Wallhaide. After this he became Cantor of Saint Jacob's Church, Stettin, and teacher at the gymnasium (1820). In 1866 he moved to Kiel. Löwe was one of the first to give artistic form to the ballad. He had a sympathetic voice, which, together with an admirable technique and a thorough mastery of dramatic expression, enabled him to make his song compositions popular throughout the world. His compositions include the opera Die drei Wünsche (1834), 17 oratorios, most of them in manuscript, and 127 songs and other works. An excellent selection of his songs has been published by Peters and Schlesinger (Germany) in the well-known two Löwe Albums
(20 and 16 songs respectively), in which collection are included “Archibald Douglas,” “Tom der Reimer,” “Olaf,” “Erlkönig,” “Heinrich der Vogler.” He died at Kiel.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Lycophron

Edition of 1905. See also Lycophron on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
LY′COPHRON, (Lat., from Gk. Λυκόφρων, Lykophrōn) (flourished third century B.C.). A Greek poet and grammarian. Born at Chalcis, Lycophron lived in later life at Alexandria, where, under Ptolemy Philadelphus (B.C. 283–247), he was distinguished as one of the Pleiad, or band of seven tragic poets. He was intrusted with the arrangement of that part of the Alexandrian library which had to do with comedy. Suidas gives the titles of twenty of his tragedies; according to Tzetzes, he wrote forty-six or fifty-six pieces. The fragments of these are published by Nauck (Trag. Græc. Frag., 2d ed., Leipzig, 1889). Only his Cassandra or Alexandra (Κασσάνδρα or Ἀλεξάνδρα), an iambic poem of 1474 verses, is preserved. The story is simple—in an oracular and obscure style, Cassandra prophesies the downfall of Troy and the subsequent adventures of the Trojan and Argive heroes. Especial attention is paid to the founding of cities. Two passages even foretell the settlement of Æneas in Latium, but these are probably later interpolations. The best edition is that of Holzinger, with a German translation and a commentary (Leipzig, 1895). There is an English translation by Yorke (Cambridge, 1806).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Lützow, Adolf, Baron

Edition of 1905. See also Ludwig Adolf Wilhelm von Lützow on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
LÜTZOW, lụ'tsṓ, Adolf, Baron (1782-1834). A German soldier, remembered as the leader of a famous volunteer corps in the War of Liberation. He was born in Berlin, entered the Prussian Army in 1795, retired as major in 1808, but was restored to active service in 1811, and in February, 1813, was authorized to organize a corps of volunteers, destined to carry on a guerrilla warfare in the rear of the enemy. The corps was named after Lützow and known also, from its uniform, as the ‘Black Troop,’ or ‘Black Riflemen.’ It distinguished itself especially in the engagement around the Göhrde Forest, where Lützow was severely wounded. Having rejoined the army in France, he was taken prisoner in March, 1814, and, his corps being disbanded after the conclusion of peace, he received command of a cavalry regiment. Captured again in the battle of Ligny and delivered at Belle-Alliance, he was appointed colonel and in 1822 promoted to major-general. The valor of the Black Troop is commemorated in the poem “Lützows wilde,
verwegene Jagd,” by Theodor Körner (q.v.), who, as Lützow's adjutant, met his death in battle.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Great Unwashed, The

Edition of 1905. See also Hoi polloi on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​GREAT UNWASHED, The. A designation applied to the multitude. It was used by Sir Walter Scott, and is attributed to Edmund Burke.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Great Wall of China

Edition of 1905. See also the disclaimer.
​GREAT WALL OF CHINA. See Chinese Wall.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Greatorex, Eliza (Pratt)

Edition of 1905. See also Eliza Pratt Greatorex on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​GREATOREX, grāt′ō̇-rĕks, Eliza (Pratt) (1820-97). An American artist, born at Manor Hamilton, Ireland. She came to New York in 1840, and in 1849 married Henry W. Greatorex, the organist and composer. She studied art in New York in 1854-56, and in Paris in 1862. At first she produced many landscape paintings, but afterwards devoted herself to etching and to pen-and-ink work. In 1868 she was elected an associate of the National Academy. About that time she began a series of sketches of historic buildings and scenes in and around New York. She was in Germany in 1870, and in the following year, where she published The Homes of Oberammergau. Returning to the United States, she published: Summer Etchings in Colorado (1873), and Old New York from the Battery to Bloomingdale (1876).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Great Tom

Edition of 1905. See also Tom Tower on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​GREAT TOM. A 17,000-pound bell which hangs in the tower of the Tom Gate of Christ Church, Oxford, and is tolled at closing time, ten minutes after nine, every night.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Greatrakes, Valentine

Edition of 1905. See also Valentine Greatrakes on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​GREAT′RAKES, Valentine (c.1628-83). An Irish soldier and ‘healer,’ born at Affane, County Waterford. At the outbreak of the Irish Rebellion in 1641 he fled to England, and for six years lived in the homes of relatives. From 1649 to 1656 he served in Ireland under Cromwell. About 1661 he felt that he had been given divine healing power, and had what seemed to be remarkable success in ‘touching’ for scrofula, ague, and other diseases, though an exhibition before the King proved a failure. Several pamphlets by medical men and other critics were published, attributing his cures to miraculous agencies, and in 1666 Greatrakes published a vindication of himself entitled A Brief Account, accompanied by numerous testimonials. He retired soon afterwards to his estate at Affane, where he died.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Great Valley

Edition of 1905. See also Great Appalachian Valley on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​GREAT VALLEY. The valley between the Blue Ridge and the Alleghanies (qq.v.).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Greaves, John

Edition of 1905. See also John Greaves on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​GREAVES, John (1602-52). An English mathematician. He was born at Colemore, graduated at Balliol College, Oxford, in 1621, and in 1630 became professor of geometry at Gresham College, London. He traveled in Southern Europe and Egypt, collecting valuable manuscripts, gems, and coins, and making measurements of monuments. In 1643 he was chosen professor of astronomy at Oxford, but five years later was ejected by the Puritans. Among his numerous works were: Pyramidographia, or a Discourse on the Pyramids (1646); A Discourse of the Roman Foot and Denarius (1647); and Elementa Linguæ Persicæ (1649).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Greaves, Launcelot

Edition of 1905. See also The Life and Adventures of Sir Launcelot Greaves on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​GREAVES, Launcelot. The hero of Smollett's novel of the same name.