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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Raymund of Tripoli

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​RAYMUND OF TRIPOLI, the most famous of the descendants of Raymund of Toulouse, was a great-grandson of his eldest son Bertrand: his mother was Hodierna, a daughter of Baldwin II., and through her he was closely connected with the kings of Jerusalem. He became count of Tripoli in 1152, on the assassination of his father. In 1164 he was captured by Nureddin, and was only released in 1172 after a captivity of eight years. In 1174 he claimed the regency on behalf of Baldwin IV. (at once a minor and a leper), in virtue of his close relationship; and the claim was acknowledged. After two years the regency seems to have passed to Reginald of Chatillon; but Raymund, who had married the heiress of the county of Tiberias, continued to figure in the affairs of the kingdom. His great ability procured him enemies; for two years, 1180–1182, Baldwin IV. was induced by evil advisers to exclude him from his territories. But as Saladin grew more threatening, Raymund grew more indispensable; and in 1184 he became regent for Baldwin V., on condition that, if the king died before his majority, his successor should be determined by the great powers of the West. Raymund conducted the regency with skill, securing a truce from Saladin in II8S; but when Baldwin V. died, in 1186, all went wrong. Raymund summoned an assembly of the barons to Naplous to deliberate on the situation; but while they deliberated, the supporters of Guy de Lusignan (the husband of Baldwin IV.'s sister, Sibylla) acted, and had him crowned, in defiance of the stipulation under which Raymund had become regent. The rest of the barons came over to Guy; and Raymund, left in isolation, retired to Tiberias and negotiated a truce for himself with Saladin. His ambiguous position led contemporaries to accuse him of treasonable correspondence with Saladin; but his loyalty to the Christian cause was nobly shown in 1187, when he reconciled himself to Guy, and aided him in the battle of Hattin, which was engaged, however, in the teeth of his earnest advice. He escaped from the battle wounded, and ultimately retired to Tripoli, where he died (1187).
In the corrupt society of the latter days of the kingdom of Jerusalem, Raymund showed himself at least as disinterested as any other man, and certainly more capable than the rest of his contemporaries. He might have saved Jerusalem, if Jerusalem could have been saved; but his was the 1/ox clarmzntis in deserto. “He is worthy of the throne, ” wrote a contemporary Arabic chronicler: “ he seems destined for it by nature, who has given him pre-eminent wisdom and courage.”  (E. Br.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Raymond of Sabunde

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​RAYMOND OF SABUNDE, or Sabiende (fl. 1434), Spanish scholar, was a teacher of medicine and philosophy and finally regius professor of theology at Toulouse. His Liber noturae sive creaturarnm, f9°c. (written 1454-36), marks an important stage in the history of Natural Theology. The book was directed against the position then generally held, that reason and faith, ​philosophy and theology were antithetical and irreconcilable. Raymond declares that the book of Nature and the Bible are both Divine revelations, the one general and immediate, the other specific and mediate. The Editio Princeps of the book, which found many imitators, is undated but probably belongs to 1484; there are many subsequent editions, one by J. F. von Seidel as late as 1852. In 1595 the Prologus was put on the Index for its declaration that the Bible is the only source of revealed truth. Montaigne (Essays, bk. ii. ch. xii., “An Apologie of Raymond Sebond”) tells how he translated the book into French and found “the conceits of the author to be excellent, the con texture of his work well followed, and his project full of pietie. . . . His drift is bold, and his scope adventurous, for he undertaketh by humane and naturall reasons, to establish and verine all the articles of Christian religion against Atheists.”
See D. Beulet, Un Inconnu célebre: recherche historiques et critiques sur Raymond de Sabunde (Paris, 1875).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ogowé

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​OGOWÉ, one of the largest of the African rivers of the second class, rising in 3° S. in the highlands known as the Crystal range, and flowing N.W. and W. to the Atlantic, a little south of the equator, and some 400 m. following the coast, north of the mouth of the Congo. Its course, estimated at 750 m., lies wholly within the colony of Gabun, French Congo. In spite of its considerable size, the river is of comparatively little use for navigation, as ​rapids constantly occur as it descends the successive steps of the interior tablelands. The principal obstructions are the falls of Dume, in 13° E.; Bunji, in 12° 35′; Chengwe, in 12° 16′; Boué, in 11° 53′; and the rapids formed in the passes by which it breaks through the outer chains of the mountainous zone, between 103/4° and 113/4° E. In its lower course the river passes through a lacustrine region in which it sends off secondary channels. These channels, before reuniting with the main stream, traverse a series of lakes, one north, the other south, of the river. These lakes are natural regulators of the river when in flood. The Ogowé has a large number of tributaries, especially in its upper course, but of these few are navigable. The most important are the Lolo, which joins on the south bank in 12° 20′ E., and the Ivindo, which enters the Ogowé a few miles lower down. Below the Ivindo the largest tributaries are the Ofowé, 400 yds. wide at its mouth (11° 47′ E.), but unnavigable except in the rains, and the Ngunye, the largest southern tributary, navigable for 60 m. to the Samba or Eugénie Falls. Apart from the narrow coast plain the whole region of the lower Ogowé is densely forested. It is fairly thickly populated by Bantu tribes who have migrated from the interior. The fauna includes the gorilla and chimpanzee
The Ogowé rises in March and April, and again in October and November; it is navigable for steamers in its low-water condition as far as the junction of the Ngunye. At flood time the river can be ascended by steamers for a distance of 235 m. to a place called N’Jole. The first person to explore the valley of the Ogowé was Paul du Chaillu, who travelled in the country during 1857–1859. The extent of the delta and the immense volume of water carried by the river gave rise to the belief that it must either be a bifurcation of the Congo or one of the leading rivers of Africa. However, in 1882 Savorgnan de Brazza (the founder of French Congo) reached the sources of the river in a rugged, sandy and almost treeless plateau, which forms the watershed between its basin and that of the Congo, whose main stream is only 140 m. distant. Since that time the basin of the Ogowé has been fully explored by French travellers.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ogre

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​OGRE, the name in fairy tales and folk-lore of a malignant monstrous giant who lives on human flesh. The word is French, and occurs first in Charles Perrault’s Histoires ou contes du temps passé (1697). The first English use is in the translation of a French version of the Arabian Nights in 1713, where it is spelled hogre. Attempts have been made to connect the word with Ugri, the racial name of the Magyars or Hungarians, but it is generally accepted that it was adapted into French from the O. Span, huerco, huergo, uergo, cognate with Ital. orco, i.e. Orcus, the Latin god of the dead and the infernal regions (see Pluto), who in Romance folk-lore became a man-eating demon of the woods.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ogyges

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​OGYGES, or Ogygus, in Greek mythology, the first king of Thebes. During his reign a great flood, called the Ogygian deluge, was said to have overwhelmed the land. Similar legends were current in Attica and Phrygia. Ogyges is variously described as a Boeotian autochthon, as the son of Cadmus, or of Poseidon.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ohligs

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​OHLIGS, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine Province, 17 m. by rail N. of Cologne, on the railway to Elberfeld. Pop. (1905) 24,264. Its chief manufactures are cutlery and hardware, and there are iron-foundries and flour-mills. Other industries are brewing, dyeing, weaving and brick-making. Before 1891 it was known as Merscheid.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Oglethorpe, James Edward

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​OGLETHORPE, JAMES EDWARD (1696–1785), English general and philanthropist, the founder of the state of Georgia, was born in London on the 21st of December 1696, the son of Sir Theophilus Oglethorpe (1650–1702) of Westbrook Place, Godalming, Surrey. He entered Corpus Christi College, Oxford, in 1714, but in the same year joined the army of Prince Eugene. Through the recommendation of the duke of Marlborough he became aide-de-camp to the prince, and he served with distinction in the campaign against the Turks, 1716–17, more especially at the siege and capture of Belgrade. After his return to England he was in 1722 chosen member of parliament for Haslemere. He devoted much attention to the improvement of the circumstances of poor debtors in London prisons; and for the purpose of providing an asylum for persons who had become insolvent, and for oppressed Protestants on the continent, he projected the settlement of a colony in America between Carolina and Florida (see Georgia). In 1745 Oglethorpe was promoted to the rank of major-general. His conduct in connexion with the Scottish rebellion of that year was the subject of inquiry by court-martial, but he was acquitted. In 1765 he was raised to the rank of general. He died at Cranham Hall, Essex, on the 1st of July 1785.
Sir Theophilus Oglethorpe, the father, had four sons and four daughters, James Edward being the youngest son, and another James (b. 1688) having died in infancy. Of the daughters, Anne Henrietta (b. 1680–1683), Eleanor (b. 1684) and Frances Charlotte (Bolingbroke’s “Fanny Oglethorpe”) may be specified as having played rather curious parts in the Jacobitism of the time; their careers are described in the essay on “Queen Oglethorpe” by Miss A. Shield and A. Lang, in the latter’s Historical Mysteries (1904).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ohlau

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​OHLAU, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Silesia, 16 m. by rail S.E. of Breslau, on the left bank of the Oder. Pop. (1905) 9233. It has two Roman Catholic and two Evangelical churches, and a castle. Ohlau is the centre of a tobacco-growing district and has manufactures of tobacco and cigars, machinery, beer, shoes and bricks. It became a town in 1291 and passed to Prussia in 1742. In the 17th and 18th centuries it was often the residence of the dukes of Brieg and of the Sobieski family.
See Schulz, Aus Ohlaus Vergangenheit (Ohlau, 1902).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ohm, Georg Simon

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​OHM, GEORG SIMON (1787–1854), German physicist, was born at Erlangen on the 16th of March 1787, and was educated at the university there. He became professor of mathematics in the Jesuits’ college at Cologne in 1817 and in the polytechnic school of Nuremberg in 1833, and in 1852 professor of experimental physics in the university of Munich, where he died on the 7th of July 1854. His writings were numerous, but, with one important exception, not of the first order. The exception is his pamphlet published in Berlin in 1827, with the title Die galvanische Kette mathematisch bearbeitet. This work, the germs of which had appeared during the two preceding years in the journals of Schweigger and Poggendorff, has exerted most important influence on the whole development of the theory and applications of current electricity, and Ohm’s name has been incorporated in the terminology of electrical science. Nowadays “Ohm’s Law,” as it is called, in which all that is most valuable in the pamphlet is summarized, is as universally known as anything in physics. The equation for the propagation of electricity formed on Ohm’s principles is identical with that of J. B. J. Fourier for the propagation of heat; and if, in Fourier’s solution of any problem of heat-conduction, we change the word “temperature” to “potential” and write “electric current” instead of “flux of heat,” we have the solution of a corresponding problem of electric conduction. The basis of Fourier’s work was his clear conception and definition of conductivity. But this involves an assumption, undoubtedly true for small temperature-gradients, but still an assumption, viz. that, all else being the same, the flux of heat is strictly proportional to the gradient of temperature. An exactly similar assumption is made in the statement of Ohm’s law, i.e. that, other things being alike, the strength of the current is at each point proportional to the gradient of potential. It happens, however, that with our modern methods it is much more easy to test the accuracy of the assumption in the case of electricity than in that of heat; and it has accordingly been shown by J. Clerk Maxwell and George Chrystal that Ohm’s law is true, within the limits of experimental error, even when the currents are so powerful as almost to fuse the conducting wire.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sikh

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​SIKH, a member of the Sikh religion in India (see Sikhism). The word Sikh literally means “learner,” “disciple,” and was the name given by the first guru Nanak to his followers. The Sikhs are divided into two classes, Sahijdhari and Kesadhari. The former were so named from living at ease and the latter from wearing long hair. Both obey the general injunctions of the Sikh gurus, but the Sahijdhari Sikhs have not accepted the pahul or baptism of Guru Govind Singh, and do not wear the distinguishing habiliments of the Kesadhari, who are the baptized Sikhs, also called Singhs or lions. Their distinguishing habiliments are long hair wound round a small dagger and bearing a comb inserted in it, a steel bracelet and short drawers. Neither the Sahijdhari nor the Kesadhari Sikhs may smoke tobacco or drink wine. The prohibition of wine is, however, generally disregarded except by very orthodox Sikhs.
In the census of 1901, the number of Sikhs in the Punjab and North-Western Provinces was returned as 2,130,987, showing an increase of 13·9% in the decade; but these figures are not altogether reliable owing to the difficulty of distinguishing the Sahijdhari from the Kesadhari Sikhs and both from the Hindus. A man is not born a Singh, but becomes so by baptism, the water of which is called amrit or nectar. It is possible that one brother may be a Hindu, while another is a true Sikh.
The Sikhs are principally drawn from the Arora, Jat and Ramgarhia tribes, but any one may become a Sikh by accepting the Sikh baptism. The Aroras are generally merchants or petty dealers. The Jats are agriculturists variously described as Scythian immigrants and as descendants of Rajputs who immigrated to the Punjab from central India. They are of a tougher fibre than the Aroras; sturdy and self-reliant, slow to speak but quick to strike. The Ramgarhias are principally mechanics.
To the temperament of the Jat, the Arora and the Ramgarhia Sikh add the stimulus of a militant religion. The Sikh is a fighting man, and his best qualities are shown in the army, which is his natural profession. Hardy, brave and slow-witted, obedient to discipline, attached to his officers, he makes the finest soldier of the East. In victory he retains his steadiness, and in defeat he will die at his post rather than yield. In peace time he shows a decided fondness for money, and will go wherever it is to be earned. There are some 30,000 Sikhs in the Indian army, and the sect is cherished by the military authorities, who insist on all recruits taking the pahul or Sikh baptism. Many Sikhs are also to be found in the native regiments of east and central Africa and of Hyderabad in the Deccan, and they compose a great part of the police force in the treaty ports of China.  (M.M.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sigwart, Christoph Wilhelm von

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​SIGWART, CHRISTOPH WILHELM VON (1789-1844), German philosopher, was born at Remmingsheim in Württemberg, and died in Stuttgart. He became professor of philosophy at Tübingen, and wrote numerous books on the history of philosophy:—Über den Zusammenhaug des Spinozismus mit der Cartesianischen Philosophie (1816); Handbuch zu Vorlesungen über die Logik (1818, 3rd ed., 1835); Der Spinozismus (1839); and Geschichte der Philosophie (1844).
His son, Christoph von Sigwart (1830-1894), after a course of philosophy and theology, became professor at Blaubeuren (1859), and eventually at Tübingen, in 1865. His principal work, Logik, published in 1873, takes an important place among recent contributions to logical theory. In the preface to the first edition, Sigwart explains that he makes no attempt to appreciate the logical theories of his predecessors; his intention was to construct a theory of logic, complete in itself. It represents the results of a long and careful study not only of German but also of English logicians. In 1895 an English translation by ​Miss H. Dendy was published in London. Chapter v. of the second volume is especially interesting to English thinkers as containing a profound examination of the Induction theories of Bacon, J. S. Mill and Hume. Among his other works are Spinozas neu entdeckter Traktat von Gott, dem Menschen und dessen Glückseligkeit (1866); Kleine Schriften (1881); Vorfragen der Ethik (1886). The Kleine Schriften contains valuable criticisms on Paracelsus and Bruno.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sigynnae

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​SIGYNNAE (Σιγίνναι, Σίγιννοι), an obscure people of antiquity. They are variously located by ancient authors. According to Herodotus (v. 9), they dwelt beyond the Danube, and their frontiers extended almost as far as the Eneti on the Adriatic. Their horses (or rather, ponies) were small, with shaggy long hair, not strong enough to carry men, but very speedy when driven in harness. The people themselves wore a Medic costume, and, according to their own account, were a colony of the Medes. Strabo (xi. p. 520), who places them near the Caspian, also speaks of their ponies, and attributes to them Persian customs. In Apollonius Rhodius (iv. 320) they inhabit the shores of the Euxine, not far from the mouth of the Danube.
The statement as to their Medic origin, regarded as incomprehensible by Herodotus, is doubtfully explained by Rawlinson as indicating that “the Sigynnae retained a better recollection than other European tribes of their migrations westward and Aryan origin”; R. W. Macan (on Herod, v. 9) suggests that it may be due to a confusion with the Thracian Maedi (Μαιδοί). If the last paragraph in Herodotus be genuine, the Ligyes who lived above Massilia called traders Sigynnae, while among the Cyprians the word meant “spears.” The similarity between Sigynnae and Zigeuner is obvious, and it has been supposed that they were the forefathers of the modern gipsies. According to J. L. Myres, the Sigynnae of Herodotus were “a people widely spread in the Danubic basin in the 5th century B.C.,” probably identical with the Sequani, and connected with the iron-working culture of Hallstatt, which produced a narrow-bladed throwing spear, the sigynna spear (see notice of “Anthropological Essays” in Classical Review, November 1908).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sigourney, Lydia Huntley

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​SIGOURNEY, LYDIA HUNTLEY (1791-1865), American author, was born in Norwich, Connecticut, on the 1st of September 1791. She was educated in Norwich and Hartford. After conducting a private school for young ladies in Norwich, she conducted a similar school in Hartford from 1814 until 1819, when she was married to Charles Sigourney, a Hartford merchant. She contributed more than two thousand articles to many (nearly 300) periodicals, and wrote more than fifty books. She died in Hartford, on the 10th of June 1865. Her books include Moral Pieces in Prose and Verse (1815); Traits of the Aborigines of America (1822), a poem; A Sketch of Connecticut Forty Years Since (1824); Poems (1827); Letters to Young Ladies (1833), one of her best-known books; Sketches (1834), Poetry for Children (1834); Zinzendorf, and Other Poems (1835); Olive Buds (1836); Letters to Mothers (1838), republished in London; Pocahontas, and Other Poems (1841); Pleasant Memories of Pleasant Lands (1842), descriptive of her trip to Europe in 1840; Scenes in My Native Land (1844); Letters to My Pupils (1851); Olive Leaves (1851); The Faded Hope (1852), in memory of her only son, who died when he was nineteen years old; Past Meridian (1854); The Daily Counsellor (1858), poems; Gleanings (1860), selections from her verse; The Man of Uz, and Other Poems (1862); and Letters of Life (1866), giving an account of her career. She was one of the most popular writers of her day, both in America and in England, and was called “the American Hemans.” Her writings were characterized by fluency, grace and quiet reflection on nature, domestic and religious life, and philanthropic questions; but they were too often sentimental, didactic and commonplace to have much literary value. Some of her blank verse and pictures of nature suggest Bryant. Among her most successful poems are “Niagara” and “Indian Names.” Throughout her life she took an active interest in philanthropic and educational work.