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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rogers, James Edwin Thorold

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​ROGERS, JAMES EDWIN THOROLD (1823~1890), English economist, was born at West Meon, Hampshire, in 1823. He was educated at King's College, London, and Magdalen Hall, Oxford. After taking a first-class degree in 1846, he was ordained, and was for a few years a curate in Oxford. Subsequently, however, he resigned his orders. For some time the classics were the chief field of his activity. He devoted himself a good deal to classical and philosophical tuition in Oxford with success, and his publications included an edition of Aristotle's Ethics (in 1865). simu1tane0uS1y' with these occupations he had been diligently studying economics, with ​the result that in 1859 he was appointed professor of statistics and economic science at King’s College, London, a post which he filled till his death. From 1862 to 1867 he also held the position of Drummond professor of political economy at Oxford. During that period he published (in 1866) the first two volumes of his History of Agriculture and Prices in England, dealing with the period 1259–1400, a minute and masterly record of the subject, and the work upon which his reputation mainly rests. Two more volumes (1401–1582) were published in 1882, a fifth and sixth (1583–1702) in 1887, and he left behind him at his death copious materials for a seventh and eighth; In 1868 he published a Manual of Political Economy, and in 1869 an edition of Adam Smith’s Wealth of Nations. In 1875 he collected and edited the Protests of the Lords. An intimate acquaintance with Cobden and John Bright led Rogers to take an active part in politics: he represented Southwark in parliament from 188O to 1885, and Bermondsey from 1885–86, as an advanced Liberal. In 1888, on the death of Professor Bonamy Price, who had succeeded him at Oxford as professor of political economy, he was re-elected to the post, and held it till his death. Previously (in 1883) he had been appointed lecturer in political economy at Worcester College, Oxford. His latter years were mainly spent at Oxford, where he died on the 12th of October 1890. He was celebrated as a caustic wit and humorist. Of his miscellaneous economic and historical writings, which were numerous, the most noteworthy is his Six Centuries of Work and Wages, published in 1884. As an economist, Thorold Rogers did much to promote the historical study of his subject: He was, however, apt to be guided too frequently by political prejudice, and the value of his work suffered from his aggressively contentious spirit.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rogers, Henry

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​ROGERS, HENRY (1806–1877), English Nonconformist divine, was born at St Albans on the 18th of October 1806, and was educated privately and by his father, a surgeon of considerable culture. Rogers was meant to follow his father's profession, but the reading of John Howe turned him to theology, and after qualifying at Highbury College he accepted a call to the Congregational Church at Poole in 1829. In 1832 he was appointed lecturer in logic at Highbury, in 1836 professor of English at University College, London, and in 1839 professor of English, mathematics and mental philosophy at Spring Hill College, Birmingham. In 1836 appeared his Life and Character of John Howe, and in 1837 The Christian Correspondent, a collection of some 400 religious letters “by eminent persons of both sexes.” His contributions to the Edinburgh Review began in 1839 and were collected in volume form in 1880, 1855 and 1874. His most famous book, The Eclipse of Faith, or a Visit to a Religious Sceptic, was published anonymously in 1852 and went through six editions in three years. It drew a Reply from F. W. Newman, which Rogers answered in a Defence (1854). Two volumes of imaginary letters, Selections from the Correspondence of R. E. H. Greyson (an anagram for his own name), appeared in 1857 and show his style at its best. In 1858 'he became principal and professor of theology at the Lancashire Independent College, where he edited the works of John Howe (6 vols., 1862–63) and wrote for the British Quarterly. He retired in 1871, and died at Machynlleth on the 21st of August 1877. Rogers was widely read, and as a Christian apologist carried on the traditions of the 18th century as illustrated by Butler.
See Memoir by Dr R. W. Dale, prefixed to the 8th edition of The Supernatural Origin of the Bible Inferred from Itself (the Congregational Lecture for 1873, delivered by Rogers).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rogers, Robert

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​ROGERS, ROBERT (1727-1784?), American frontier soldier, was born of Irish parentage in 1727, probably at Methuen, Massachusetts, whence his father, James Rogers (often confused with James Rogers, an early settler of Londonderry, N.H.), removed in 1739 to Starktown (now Dunbarton), New Hampshire. During the Seven Years' War he raised and commanded a force of militia, known as Rogers' Rangers, which won a wide reputation for its courage and endurance in the campaigns about' Lake George. He took part in Wolfe's expedition against Quebec, and on the 4th of October 1759 he destroyed an Abnaki Indian village on the St Francis river near its mouth and killed about 200 of its inhabitants. After the Montreal campaign of 1760, in which he served, he was sent by General Amherst to take possession of the north-western posts, occupied Detroit on the 29th of November, and later returned to the east. In 1763, during the Pontiac uprising, he accompanied the relief expedition under James Dalyell to Detroit and took part in the battle of Bloody Bridge on the 31st of July (see PONTIAC). Soon after this he went to England, and in 1765 published in London a Concise Account of North America, containing a Description of the Several British Colonies . . . also an Account of the Several Nations and Tribes of Indians (new edition, Albany, 1883). In 1766-68 he was commandant of Michilimackinac. He spent the next few years in England, and after 1772 was in the service of, the dey of Algiers. At the beginning of the War of Independence he returned to America, and in spite of his protestations of patriotism was considered by Washington and others a Loyalist spy. He was arrested by agents of Congress, but was paroled. His rearrest he considered a release from his parole. He then openly joined the British, and under a commission from General Howe organized a regiment of Loyalists which was known as the Queen's Rangers, and which after his return to England in 1776 was commanded by Capt. John G. Simcoe. In 1779 he was commissioned to raise a regiment to be called the King's Rangers, and he returned for a short time to America; but the command of the Rangers, which soon became a part of the garrison of St John's, Quebec, was taken by his brother James (d. 1792), who had formerly served under Robert. Rogers died in London probably in 1784.
In addition to the Concise Account of North America, he published his Journals (London, 1765), and is supposed to have written, at least in part, Ponteach, or the Savages of America, a Tragedy (London, 1766). See also his “Journal” in the Diary of the Siege of Detroit in the War with Pontiac (Albany, 1860; new edition, 1883), edited by F. B. Hough; and Francis Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe (2 vols., Boston, 1884).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Peonage

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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/People

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​PEOPLE, a collective term for persons in general, especially as forming the body of persons in a community or nation, the “folk” (the O.E. and Teut. word, cf. Ger. Volk). The earlier forms of the word were peple, poeple, puple, &c.; the present form is found as early as the 15th century, but was not established till the beginning of the 16th. Old French, from which it was adapted, had many of these forms as well as the mod. Fr. peuple. The Lat. populus is generally taken to be a reduplication from the root ple,—fill, seen in plenus, full; plebs, the commons; Gr. πλῆθος, multitude.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pepper-corn

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​PEPPER-CORN, the fruit or seed of the pepper plant, hence anything very small or insignificant. Pepper-corn rent is a merely nominal rent, reserved for the purpose of having the tenancy acknowledged by the tenant. Building leases frequently reserve a pepper-corn as rent for the first few years. See Rent.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Peperino

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​PEPERINO, an Italian name applied to a brown or grey volcanic tuff, containing fragments of basalt and limestone, with disseminated crystals of augite, mica, magnetite, leucite, &c. The typical peperino occurs in the Alban Hills, near Rome, and was used by the ancients, under the name of lapis albanus, as a building stone and for the basins of fountains. Other tuffs and conglomerates in Auvergne and elsewhere are also called peperino. The name originally referred to the dark coloured inclusions, suggestive of pepper-corns. In English the word has sometimes been written peperine.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pepper, William

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​PEPPER, WILLIAM (1843-1898), American physician, was born in Philadelphia, on the 21st of August 1843. He was educated at the university of Pennsylvania, graduating from the academic department in 1862 and from the medical department in 1864. In 1868 he became lecturer on morbid anatomy in the same institution, and in 1870 lecturer on clinical medicine. From 1876 to 1887 he was professor of clinical medicine, and in 1887 succeeded Dr Alfred Stillé as professor of theory and practice of medicine. He was elected provost of the university in 1881, resigning that position in 1894. For his services as medical director of the Centennial Exhibition in 1876 he was made knight commander of St Olaf by the king of Sweden. He founded the Philadelphia Medical Times, and was editor of that journal in 1870–1871. He was known particularly for his contributions on the subject of the theory and practice of medicine, and the System of Medicine which he edited in 1885–1886 became one of the standard textbooks in America. Among his contributions to the medical and scientific journals of the day, were "Trephining in Cerebral Diseases" (1871); "Local Treatment in Pulmonary Cavities" (1874); "Catarrhal Irrigation" (1881); "Epilepsy" (1883), and "Higher Medical Education: the True Interest of the Public and the Profession." He died on the 28th of July 1898 at Pleasanton, California.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pepper Tree

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PEPPER TREE, a tree which has no proper connexion with the true pepper (Piper), and is really a member of the natural order Anacardiaceae, being known botanically as Schinus Molle, from the Peruvian name Mulli. It is a native of tropical South America and is grown in the open air in the south of Europe. It is a small tree with unequally pinnate leaves, the segments linear, entire or finely saw-toothed, the terminal one longer than the rest, and all filled with volatile oil stored in large cells or cysts, which are visible to the naked eye and appear like holes when the leaf is held up to the light. When the leaves are thrown upon the surface of water the resinous or oily fluid escapes with such force as violently to agitate them. The flowers are small, whitish, arranged in terminal clusters and polygamous or unisexual, with five sepals, as many petals, ten stamens (as large as the petals in the case of the male flower, very small in the female flower, but in both springing from a cushion-like disk surrounding the base of the three-celled ovary). The style is simple or three-cleft, and the fruit a small, globose, pea-like drupe with a bony kernel enclosing a single seed. The fleshy portion of the fruit has a hot aromatic flavour from the abundance of the resin it contains. The resin is used for medicinal purposes by the Peruvians, and has similar properties to mastic. The Japan pepper tree is Xanthoxylum piperitum the fruits of which have also a hot taste. Along the Riviera the tree is known as Melia Azedarach, or the "Pride of India," is also incorrectly called the pepper tree by visitors.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Worthing

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​WORTHING, a municipal borough and seaside resort in the Lewes parliamentary division of Sussex, England, 61 m. S. by W. from London by the London, Brighton & South Coast railway. Pop. (1901) 20,015. It has a fine marine parade, and a promenade pier, and there is a long range of firm sands. A public park, 21 acres in extent, was opened in 1881. The principal buildings are several modern churches, the town hall (1834), municipal buildings, free library, literary institute, infirmary and convalescent homes. The mother parish of Worthing is Broadwater, the church of which, 1 m. north of Worthing, is a cruciform building, and a fine example of transitional Norman work. A Roman villa, evidence of the existence of pottery works, and a so-called mile-stone, have been discovered at Worthing. The town was incorporated in 1890, and is under a mayor, 8 aldermen and 24 councillors. Area, 1439 acres.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Wotton, William

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​WOTTON, WILLIAM (1666-1727), English scholar, son of the Rev. Henry Wotton, was born in his father's parish of Wrentham, Suffolk, on the 13th of August 1666. He was not yet ten years old when he was sent to Catherine Hall, Cambridge, having by this time a good knowledge of Latin, Greek and Hebrew. He obtained a fellowship at St John's College, and was elected an F.R.S. in 1687. Wotton is chiefly remembered for his share in the controversy about the respective merits of ancient and modern learning. In his Reflections upon Ancient and Modern Learning (1694, and again 1697) he took the part of the moderns, although in a fair and judicial spirit, and was attacked by Swift in the Battle of the Books. During some of his later years Wotton resided in Wales and gave himself to the study of Celtic, making a translation of the laws of Howel Dda, which was published after his death (1730). Having taken holy orders, he was a prebend of Salisbury from 1705 until his death at Busted, Essex, on the 13th of February 1727.
Wotton wrote a History of Rome (1701) and Miscellaneous Discoveries relating to the Traditions and Usages of the Scribes and Pharisees (1718).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Wouwerman, Philip

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​WOUWERMAN, PHILIP (1619–1668), Dutch painter of battle and hunting scenes, was born at Haarlem in May 1619. He learned the elements of his art from his father, Paul Joosten Wouwerman, an historical painter of moderate ability, and he then studied with the landscape painter, Jan Wynants (1620–1679). Returning to Haarlem, he became a member of its gild of painters in 1642, and there he died in May 1668. About 800 pictures were enumerated in John Smith’s Catalogue raisonné (1840) as the work of Philip Wouwerman, and in C. Hofstede de Groot’s enlarged Catalogue, vol. ii. (1909), the number exceeds 1200; but probably many of these are the productions of his brothers Peter (1623–1682) and Jan (1629–1666), and of his many other imitators. His authentic works are distinguished by great spirit and are infinitely varied, though dealing recurrently with cavalry battle-pieces, military encampments, cavalcades, and hunting or hawking parties. He is equally excellent in his vivacious treatment of figures, in his skilful animal painting, and in his admirable and appropriate landscape backgrounds. Three different styles have been observed as characteristic of the various periods of his art. His earlier works are marked by the prevalence of a foxy-brown colouring, and by a tendency to angularity in draughtsmanship; the productions of his middle period have greater purity and brilliancy; and his latest and greatest pictures possess more of force and breadth, and are full of a delicate silvery-grey tone.
See the Catalogue raisonné of the works of the most eminent Dutch and Flemish Painters of the 17th Century, by De Groot, vol. ii. (1909), referred to above.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Wrangel, Karl Gustav von

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​WRANGEL, KARL GUSTAV VON (1613–1676), Swedish soldier, was descended from a family of Esthonian origin, branches ​of which settled in Sweden, Russia and Germany. His father, Hermann von Wrangel (1587–1643), was a Swedish field marshal in Gustavus Adolphus’s wars. Karl Gustav was born near Upsala on the 23rd of December 1613, and at the age of twenty distinguished himself as a cavalry captain in the war against the Army of the League. Three years later he was colonel, and in 1638 major-general, still serving in Germany. In 1644 he commanded a fleet at sea, which defeated the Danes at Fehmarn on the 23rd of October. In 1646 he returned to Germany as a field marshal and succeeded Torstensson as commander-in-chief of the Swedish army in Germany, which post he held during the last three campaigns of the Thirty Years’ War. Under Wrangel and Turenne the allied Swedish and French armies marched and fought in Bavaria and Württemberg. At the outbreak of a fresh Polish war in 1655 Wrangel commanded a fleet, but in 1656 he was serving on land again and commanding, along with the Great Elector of Brandenburg, in the three days' battle of Warsaw. In 1657 he invaded Jutland and in 1658 passed over the ice into the islands and took Kronborg. In 1657 he was appointed admiral and in 1664 general of the realm, and as such he was a member of the regency during the minority of Charles XI. But his last campaign was unfortunate. Commanding, ineffectively owing to his broken health, in the war against Brandenburg, he was recalled after his stepbrother Waldemar, Freiherr von Wrangel (1647–1676), had been defeated at Fehrbellin. He died at Rügen shortly afterwards, on the 5th of July 1676.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Wotton, Nicholas

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​WOTTON, NICHOLAS (c. 1497-1567), English diplomatist, was a son of Sir Robert Wotton of Boughton Malherbe, Kent, and a descendant of Nicholas Wotton, lord mayor of London in 1415 and 1430, and member of parliament for the city from 1406 to 1429. He early became vicar of Boughton Malherbe and of Sutton Valence, and later of Ivychurch, Kent; but, desiring a more worldly career, he entered the service of Cuthbert Tunstall, bishop of London. Having helped to draw up the Institution of a Christian Man, Wotton in 1539 went to arrange the marriage between Henry VIII. and Anne of Cleves and the union of Protestant princes which was to be the complement of this union. He crossed over to England with the royal bride, but, unlike Thomas Cromwell, he did not lose the royal favour when the king repudiated Anne, and in 1541, having already refused the bishopric of Hereford, he became dean of Canterbury and in 1544 dean of York. In 1543 he went on diplomatic business to the Netherlands, and for the next year or two he had much intercourse with the emperor Charles V. He helped to conclude the treaty of peace between England and France in 1346, and was resident ambassador in France from 1546 to 1549. Henry VIII. made Wotton an executor of his will and left him £300, and in 1549, under Edward VI., he became a secretary of state, but he only held this post for about a year. In 1550 he was again sent as envoy to Charles V., and he was ambassador to France during the reign of Mary, doing valuable work in that capacity. He left France in 1557, but in 1558 he was again in that country, helping to arrange the preliminaries of the treaty of Cateau Cambrésis. In 1560 he signed the treaty of Edinburgh on behalf of Elizabeth, and he had again visited the Netherlands before his death in London on the 26th of January 1567.
His brother, Sir Edward Wotton (1489-1551), was made treasurer of Calais in 1540, and was one of those who took part in the overthrow of the protector Somerset. His son, Thomas Wotton (1521-1587) was the father of Sir Henry Wotton (q.v.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Wraith

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​WRAITH, a general term in popular parlance for the appearance of the spirit of a living person. (See “Phantasms of the Living,” under Psychical Research.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sanson, Nicolas

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​SANSON, NICOLAS (1600–1667), French cartographer, wrongly termed by some the creator of French geography, was born of an old Picardy family of Scottish descent, at Abbeville, on the 20th (or 31st) of December 1600, and was educated by the Jesuits at Amiens. In 1627 he attracted the attention of Richelieu by a map of Gaul which he had constructed (or at least begun) while only eighteen. He gave lessons in geography both to Louis XIII. and to Louis XIV.; and when Louis XIII., it is said, came to Abbeville, he preferred to be the guest of Sanson (then employed on the fortifications), instead of occupying the lodgings provided by the town. At the conclusion of this visit the king made Sanson a councillor of state. In 1647 Sanson accused the Jesuit Labbe of plagiarizing him in his Pharus Galliae Antiquae; in 1648 he lost his eldest son Nicolas, killed during the Fronde. Among the friends of his later years was the great Condé. He died at Paris on the 7th of July 1667. Two younger sons, Adrien (d. 1708) and Guillaume (d. 1703), succeeded him as geographers to the king.
Sanson’s principal works are: Galliae antiquae descriptio geographica (1627); Graeciae antiquae descriptio (1636); L’Empire romain (1637); Britannia, ou recherche de l’antiquité d’Abbeville (1638), in which he seeks to identify Strabo’s Britannia with Abbeville; La France (1644); Tables méthodiques pour les divisions des Gaules . . . (1644); L’Angleterre, l’Espagne, l’Italie et l’Allemagne (1644); Le Cours du Rhin (1646); In Pharum Galliae antiquae Philippi Labbe disquisitiones (1647–1648); Remarques sur la carte de l’ancienne Gaule de César (1651); L’Asie (1652); Index geographicus (1653); Geographia sacra (1653); L’Afrique (1656). In 1692 Hubert Jaillot collected Sanson’s maps in an Atlas nouveau. See also Niceron, Mémoires, vols. xiii. and xx.; the 18th-century editions of some of Sanson’s works on Delamarche under the titles of Atlas de géographie ancienne and Atlas britannique; and the Catalogue des cartes et livres de géographie de Sanson (1702).