# The Works of Nicholas Machiavel/Volume 4/The Art of War/Book 2

THE
ART OF WAR.
BOOK II.
THE CONTENTS.
Fabrizio.Now we are provided with men, it is time to arm them; for which purpose, let us see what arms where chiefly used ​by the Ancients, and chuse the best. The Romans divided their Infantry into heavy and light-armed Companies: the light armed were called Velites; under which name were included all those that made use of Slings, Bows, and Darts: the greater part of them wore Casques upon their heads for their defence, and a sort of Target or Buckler upon their left arm. They fought in no order, and at a distance from the heavy armed foot, who had helmets which reached down to their Shoulders, Cuirasses, and Brigandines, which covered their bodies and thighs, greaves and gauntlets upon their legs and arms, a shield about four feet long and two broad, plated with an iron rim or border at the top to defend it from the edge of sharp weapons, and another at the bottom to keep it from being damaged by frequent rubbing against the ground. Their offensive weapons consisted of a Sword about a yard long on their left side, a dagger on the right, and a dart in their hand (called pilum) which they threw at the enemy at the first charge. Such were the arms with which the Romans conquered the world. Some old writers indeed say, that besides these, they had a spear like what we call an Espontoon or half pike: but I cannot see how so troublesome a weapon could be made use of by those that carried Shields; which must hinder them from using both hands at once; and for one it must be too unwieldy. Besides, such weapons could be of no service, except in the front of an army where there is room to manage them; which would be impossible in the other ranks: for those (as I shall shew hereafter) must be drawn up thick and close together, since that is the best way of forming an army, though perhaps it may be attended with some inconveniences. All such weapons therefore as exceed the length of four feet are of little or no service in close fight: for if you have one of those Spears, and are obliged to take both ​hands to it (admitting that your Shield was no encumbrance to you) you could not annoy an enemy with it that presses hard upon you: but if you make use of one hand only, in order to avail yourself of your Shield with the other, you must take hold of it by the middle of the Staff; and then there will be so much of it behind you, that those who are upon your back will prevent you from making any use of it. To convince you then that the Romans either never had any such Spears; or that, if they had, they were of little or no service, read the account which Livy gives of their most remarkable battles, and you will find that he very seldom makes mention of any Spears, but tells us, that as soon as they had thrown their darts, they fell upon the enemy with their Swords. I would have nothing at all to do with these Spears then, but trust to the Sword and Buckler, and such other weapons and armour as the Romans made use of.—The armour of the Greeks was not so heavy as that of the Romans: but for offensive weapons, they depended more upon the Spear than the Sword; especially the Macedonian Phalanx, which was armed with Spears above twenty feet long, called Sarissæ, with which they broke in upon the enemy, and yet kept good order in their own ranks: and though some authors say they had shields too; yet I cannot see (for the reasons above-mentioned) how they could manage them and the Spears at the same time. Besides, in the battle betwixt Paulus Æmilius and Perseus King of Macedon, I do not remember any mention made of Shields, but of the Sarissæ only, which were very troublesome to the Romans: so that I imagine the Macedonian Phalanx was like the Swiss Regiments at present, whose strength lies wholly in their Pikes. The Roman Infantry, besides their armour, likewise had crests and plumes upon their casques and helmets, which afforded an agreeable spectacle to ​their friends, and served to strike a terror into their enemies. As to the armour of their Cavalry, it consisted at first of a round shield and a helmet; the rest of their body was uncovered. Their arms were a Sword and a long thin Javelin or Lance with an iron head, so that being incumbered with a Shield and a Lance at the same time, they could use neither of them properly; and their bodies being in a great measure uncovered, were not a little exposed to the enemy. But afterwards they were armed like the infantry; excepting that they still carried a small square shield, and a thicker lance, armed at both ends, that so if one should be broken off, they might avail themselves of the other. With these weapons, and this sort of armour for their horse and foot, the Romans subdued the whole World; and it is reasonable to suppose from their success that they were the best appointed armies that ever existed. Livy himself indeed, when he is comparing their strength with that of an enemy, often tells us, that in their armour, their weapons, their discipline and courage, they were much superior: for which reason I have chosen to speak more particularly of the arms and armour of the Conquerors than of the conquered.—It now remains that I say something of those that are in use at present. The Infantry cover their body with a demi-cuirass, or iron breast-plate which reaches down to their waist; they have a Spear eighteen feet long, called a Pike, and a broad sword by their side: this is their common way of arming themselves: for very few of them have back plates, greaves, or gauntlets, and none at all any casques or helmets; and those few instead of pikes, carry halberds about six feet long with sharp points, and heads something like a battle-axe: they have likewise Musqueteers amongst them, instead of the Slingers and Bowmen employed by the Ancients. These arms and this sort of armour were invented, ​and are still used by the Germans, particularly by the Swiss: for being poor, but desirous at all times to defend their liberties against the ambition of the German Princes, (who are rich and can afford to keep Cavalry, which the poverty of the Swiss will not allow them to do) they are obliged to engage on foot, and therefore find it necessary to continue their ancient manner of fighting, in order to make head against the fury of the enemy's Cavalry. Upon this account they still use the Pike, a weapon that enables them not only to keep off the horse, but very often break and defeat them; and without which, men of the greatest experience in military affairs say, that Infantry are good for little or nothing. The Germans accordingly put so much confidence in this sort of Infantry, that with fifteen or twenty thousand of them they will attack any number of horse; of which we have had many instances of late; and such is the general opinion of their excellence from the many remarkable Services they have done, that since the expedition of Charles VIII. into Italy, all other nations in Europe have adopted the same weapons and manner of fighting; the Spaniards in particular have got very great reputation by it.
Cosimo. Which method of arming would you recommend, the German, or that of the ancient Romans?
Fabrizio. The Romans without doubt; and I will shew you the advantages and disadvantages of them both. The German Infantry are able not only to sustain the shock of Cavalry, but to break them; they are more expeditious upon a march and in forming themselves; because they are not overloaded with arms. On the other hand, they are much exposed to wounds, both at a distance and when they are close engaged, because they are so slightly armed; they are of no great Service in storming a town, or even in a field battle where ​they meet with a vigorous resistance. But the Roman Infantry knew how to deal with Cavalry as well as the German; their armour was such that they were not so liable to be wounded either in close fight or at a distance; they both attacked, and sustained an attack much better, on account of their targets; they did more execution with their swords when they fought an enemy hand to hand, than the Germans can do with their Pikes; and though the latter have Swords, they are not capable of doing any great execution with them, because they have no targets. The Romans were so well armed and so secure under the shelter of their targets, that they were very serviceable in storming a breach. So that they laboured under no other inconvenience but the weight of their armour; which yet they got the better of by accustoming themselves to carry heavy burdens, and to endure all other sorts of hardship and fatigue, which made that matter easy and familiar to them. You must consider likewise that Infantry are often obliged to engage other Infantry and Cavalry together: and that if they cannot sustain the shock of Cavalry, (or even if they can) and are yet afraid of facing another body of Infantry that is better armed and disciplined than themselves, they are of little account. Now if you will compare the German Infantry with the Roman, you will find the former very fit to oppose Cavalry (as I said before), but that they would certainly have the disadvantage, if they were to engage other Infantry that were no better than themselves, if they were armed and appointed like the Romans: so that one is to be preferred to the other, because the German are only fit to cope with horse, but the Roman knew how to deal both with horse and foot.
Cosimo. I should take it as a favour if you would give us some particular instance of this by way of illustration.
​Fabrizio. You will find many in history, where the Roman Infantry have beat infinite numbers of horse, and none where they have been worsted by other Infantry, either through any deficiency in their own arms, or advantage of those in an enemy. For if there had been any deficiency in their own, and they had met with other people that armed their Soldiers better than they did, they could not have made such prodigious conquests, without laying aside their own method and arming themselves in the same or a better manner: but as they never did this, we may fairly conclude they never found any other people who excelled them in that respect. But this cannot be said of the German Infantry: for they have always made bad proof when they have been engaged by other Infantry as obstinate and well conducted as themselves: which must be owing to the advantage the enemy had over them in their arms. Philip Visconti, Duke of Milan, being invaded by an army of eighteen thousand Swiss, sent Count Carmignuola against them, who was at that time Commander in chief of his forces. But Carmignuola having no more than six thousand horse and a small body of foot, and coming to an engagement with them, was presently defeated with great loss. As he was an able Soldier however, he saw what advantage such an enemy had over Cavalry; and having raised another army, he went to look for the Swiss a second time: but when he came near them, he ordered all his Gens d'Armes to dismount and fight on foot; which they did with such success that they killed fifteen thousand of the enemy, and the rest, seeing no possibility of escaping, threw down their arms and surrendered.
Cosimo. How is this to be accounted for?
Fabrizio. I told you a little while ago: but as you seem either to have forgotten, or not to have understood what I said, I will repeat it. When the ​German Infantry, who (as I said before) are but indifferently provided with defensive armour, and make use of the Sword and the Pike for their offensive weapons, come to engage an enemy that is well-armed at all points (as the Gens d'Armes were, whom Carmignuola caused to dismount) they are easily defeated: for the enemy has nothing to do but to receive their pikes upon their targets, and to rush in upon them Sword in hand; after which, the danger is chiefly over: for the German pikes are so long, that they cannot avail themselves of them in close fight, nor will their swords stand them in any great stead, as they are so slightly defended, and are engaged with enemies that are completely armed from head to foot. So that whoever considers the advantages and disadvantages on each side, will see that those who are so poorly armed have no remedy against an enemy that is completely armed, when he charges home, and has sustained the first push of the pikes. For when two armies are resolved to engage, and advance upon each other every moment, they must of necessity soon come close together: and though some of the men in the first ranks on one side, may either be killed or overthrown by the pikes on the other, there will be enow left to carry the day: hence it came to pass, that Carmignuola made such a slaughter amongst the Swiss, with little or no loss on his own side.
Cosimo. It must be considered that Carmignuola's men were Gens d'Armes, though they were on foot, and covered all over with armour, which enabled them to do what they did: I should think it would be a good way therefore, to arm Infantry in the same manner.
Fabrizio. If you would recollect what I said concerning the armour which the Roman Infantry made use of, you would be of another opinion; for men who have casques upon their heads, their bo​dies defended by shields and cuirasses, their legs and arms covered with greaves and gauntlets, are better able to defend themselves against pikes, and to break in upon them, than Gens d'Armes on foot: of which I will give you a modern example or two. A body of Spanish Infantry being transported from Sicily into the Kingdom of Naples, to relieve Gonsalvo da Cardova, who was shut up in Barletta by the French, Monsieur d'Aubigni was sent to oppose their march with some Gens d'Armes and about four thousand Swiss foot. When they came to engage, the Swiss pressed so hard upon the enemy with their pikes, that they soon opened their ranks: but the Spaniards, under the cover of their bucklers, nimbly rushed in upon them with their swords, and laid about them so furiously, that they made a very great slaughter of the Swiss, and gained a complete victory. Every one knows what numbers of Swiss Infantry were cut to pieces at the battle of Ravenna in the same manner: for the Spanish foot having closed with the Swiss, made so good a use of their swords, that not one of the enemy would have been left alive, if a body of French Cavalry had not fortunately come up to rescue them: after which, the Spaniards, however, drew up close together in good order, and made a handsome retreat with little or no loss. I conclude therefore, that no Infantry can properly be called good, but such as are able not only to make head against Cavalry, but against any other sort of Infantry whatsoever: and this must be entirely owing to their discipline and manner of arming, as I have often said before.
Cosimo. How then would you have them armed?
Fabrizio. I would take some of the Roman arms and armour, and some of the German; half of my men should be armed with one, and half with the other; for if in every six thousand foot, three ​thousand were provided with swords and shields like the Romans, two thousand with pikes, and one thousand with muskets, like the Germans, it would be sufficient for my purpose, as I shall shew you presently. For I would place my Pikemen either in the front of the battle, or where I thought the enemy's Cavalry were most likely to make an impression: and the others I would post in such a manner as to support the Pike men, and push forwards when a way was opened for them: which I think would be a better method of arming and drawing up a body of Infantry, than any other that is used at present.
Cosimo. So much for Infantry. I should now be glad to know whether you would recommend the ancient or modern way of arming Cavalry.
Fabrizio. Considering the war saddles and stirrups which are now in use, and were not known to the Ancients, I think men must fit much firmer on horseback at present than they could do formerly. I think likewise, our way of arming is more secure, and that our Gens d' Armes are capable of making a greater impression than any sort of Cavalry the Ancients ever had. I am not of opinion however, that we ought to depend any more upon Cavalry in general than they did in former times: for, (as I said before) we have often seen them shamefully beaten of late by infantry; and indeed they must always come off with the worst when they engage Infantry that are armed and appointed in the manner abovementioned. Tigranes, King of Armenia, brought an army of a hundred and fifty thousand horse into the field (many of whom were armed like our Gens d' Armes at present, and called Cataphratti) against Lucullus the Roman General, whose army consisted only of six thousand horse and fifteen thousand foot: upon which Tigranes said, "they were more like the train of an Ambassador than an army." Nevertheless, when they ​came to engage, the King was routed: and the Historian, who gives us an account of that battle, imputes the defeat entirely to the little service that was done by the Cataphratti, whose faces were covered in such a manner that they could hardly see, much less annoy the enemy, and their limbs so overloaded with heavy armour, that when any of them fell from their horses, they could hardly get up again, or make any use of their arms. I will venture to affirm therefore, that such States as depend more upon Cavalry than Infantry, will always be weak and exposed to ruin; as Italy has been in our times; for we have seen it over-run from one end to the other, and plundered by foreigners, merely because its princes have made little or no account at all of Infantry, and trusted solely to Cavalry. It is right however to have some Cavalry to support and assist Infantry; but not to look upon them as the main strength of an army; for they are highly necessary to reconnoitre, to scour the roads, to make incursions, and lay waste an enemy's country, to beat up their quarters, to keep them in continual alarm, and to cut off their convoys; but in field battles, which commonly decide the fate of nations, and for which armies are chiefly designed, they are fitter to pursue an enemy that is routed and flying than any thing else: and consequently are much inferior to foot.
Cosimo. Here I could wish to have two difficulties resolved. In the first place, every body knows that the Parthians never used any other forces but Cavalry in their wars, and yet they shared the world with the Romans: in the next, I can neither see how Infantry can be able to sustain Cavalry; nor to what the strength of the one, and the weakness of the other is owing.
​Fabrizio. I either told you before, or designed to tell you, that what I intended to say concerning the Art of War should be limited to Europe; and therefore shall think myself excused from accounting for the conduct of the Asiatic nations. I cannot help observing to you, however, that the discipline of the Parthians was quite different from that of the Romans: for the former all fought on horseback, in a loose and irregular manner, which is not much to be depended upon: the latter, on the contrary, fought chiefly on foot in close and regular order: and their success was various according to the nature of the countries in which they happened to fight. For in enclosed places, the Romans generally got the better; and the Parthians had the advantage in large open plains; and indeed the nature of the country they had to defend was very favourable to their manner of fighting; for it was flat and open, a thousand miles from any sea-coast, with so few rivers, that they might sometimes march two or three days together without seeing one, and was also very thin of towns and inhabitants: so that the Roman armies which marched but slowly on account of the heaviness of their armour, and the good order they observed, were much annoyed by an active and light-armed enemy, who always fought on horseback, and were at one place over-night, and perhaps fifty or sixty miles off the next day: in this manner the Parthians availed themselves of their horse with no much success, that they ruined the army conducted by Crassus, and reduced that under the command of Mark Anthony to the utmost distress. But (as I said before) I shall confine myself to Europe alone in what I have to say of these matters, and quote only the examples of the Greeks and Romans in former times, and the Germans at present—Let us come now to the other point if you please, viz. what it is that makes Infantry superior to Ca​valry.—I say then, in the first place, that Cavalry cannot march through all roads, as foot can; and they are slower in their motions, when it is necessary to change their order: for if there should be occasion to retreat when they are advancing, or to advance when they are retreating; to wheel off to the right or left; to move when they are halting, or to halt when they are in motion, it is certain they cannot do it so soon as Infantry; and if they are thrown into confusion by some sudden shock, they cannot rally so easily when the shock is over. Besides, it often happens that a brave and spirited fellow is put upon a pitiful horse, and a coward upon one that is unruly and ungovernable; in either of which cases, some disorder must ensue. Why then should it seem wonderful that a firm and compact body of foot should be able to sustain an attack of Cavalry; especially as horses are sensible animals, and when they are apprehensive of danger, cannot easily be brought to rush into it? You should likewise compare the force that impels them to advance, with that which makes them retreat, and you will then find, that the latter is much more powerful than the former; for in one case, they feel nothing but the prick of a spur, but in the other, they see a rank of pikes, and other sharp weapons presented to them; so that you may see both from ancient and modern proofs, that good Infantry will always be able not only to make head against Cavalry, but generally to get the better of them. But if you object, that the fury with which the horses are driven on to charge an enemy, makes them regard a pike no more than a spur; I answer, that though a horse be upon his career, yet he will bate of his speed when he comes near the pikes; and when he begins to feel the points of them, he will either stand stock still, or wheel off to the right or left. To convince yourself of this, try if you can ride ​a horse against a wall, and I fancy you will find very few, if any, how spirited soever they may be, that can be forced to do it. Julius Cæsar, before an engagement which he had with the Swiss in Gaul, not only dismounted himself, but caused all his Cavalry to dismount, and sent their horses away to a place at some distance from the field of battle, as fitter for flight than to fight upon. Notwithstanding these natural impediments, however, to which Cavalry are subject, a General who commands an army, which consists chiefly of Infantry, should always lead them through roads upon his march, where he cannot be attacked by Cavalry without great trouble and inconvenience; and such roads may easily be found in most countries. If he marches over hills, they will protect him from the fury of their career, which you seem to think irresistible: if he marches through a flat country, the hedges, and ditches, and woods, will generally secure him; every little bank or thicket, how inconsiderable soever, every vineyard or plantation, is sufficient to embarrass Cavalry, and to prevent their acting with any material effect; and if they come to engage, it is probable they may meet with the same impediments in a field of battle as upon a march; for the least obstruction spoils their career, and damps their ardour. The Roman armies, however, I must tell you, put such confidence in their armour and manner of fighting, that if it was in their power to choose one place, that was rough and confined, in order to shelter them from the fury of the enemy's Cavalry, and to prevent them from extending their lines; or another where such Cavalry might act with the greatest advantage, they always made choice of the latter.—But now we have armed our Infantry, it is time to exercise them: let us see therefore in what manner the Romans used to exercise their Infantry before they were suffered to ​engage an enemy; for though soldiers may be well-chosen and armed, they will never be good for any thing if they are not diligently exercised. Now this exercise ought to be of three kinds. In the first place, they must be taught to endure all sorts of hardship and fatigue, as well as to be dexterous and agile: in the next, to handle their arms well: and lastly, to observe orders, and obey command, and to keep their ranks and stations, whether it be upon a march, or in battle, or in encamping; which are the three principal operations of an army, and if they are well executed, a General will come off with reputation even when he loses a battle. The Ancients therefore had very strict laws and ordinances to enforce the constant practice of these exercises in every particular: their youth were accustomed to run races, to leap, to pitch the bar, and to wrestle; all which are very necessary qualifications in Soldiers: for swiftness of foot will enable them to be before-hand with an enemy in seizing an advantageous post, to come upon them on a sudden, and to overtake them when they are flying: if they are nimble and dexterous, they will know how to avoid a blow, and find no difficulty in getting over a fosse or breast-work: and if they are strong, they will be able to carry their arms with more ease; to make a greater impression upon the enemy, or to sustain a shock the better. But above all, they should be inured to carry heavy burdens, which is very necessary: for upon some great and pressing occasions, they may be obliged to carry provisions with them for several days, besides their arms, which they could not do if they were not accustomed to such things: and by these means great dangers are often avoided, and sometimes glorious victories obtained. To accustom their young men to their armour, and to teach them how to handle their arms with dexterity, the ancients used to clothe them in armour which was ​twice as heavy as that which they were to wear in battle; and instead of a sword, they put a thick cudgel in their hands which was loaded with lead in the inside, and much heavier than a sword: after this, they fixed posts in the earth about six feet high, and so firm that no blows could move them; upon which the young men used to exercise themselves with their cudgel and buckler, as if they had been real enemies, sometimes making a stroke at the top, as if it had been the head or face of a man, sometimes at the right or left side, sometimes at the lower part, sometimes advancing briskly upon it, and at others retreating a step or two; by which means they became dexterous and expert, not only in defending themselves, but annoying an enemy, and the weight of their false arms made their true ones seem light and easy to be wielded. The Romans taught their Soldiers rather to thrust than to cut with their swords, because thrusts are more dangerous, harder to be warded off, and he that makes them does not expose his own body so much, and is sooner ready to repeat a thurst than a full stroke. Do not think it strange, however, that the Ancients were so exact and particular in things, which to you, perhaps, may seem trifling and ridiculous: but consider, that when men come to fight hand to hand, every little advantage is of great importance; and I must beg leave to tell you, that several good Authors have entered into a much more minute and circumstantial detail of these matters than I have done: for the Ancients thought nothing conduced more to the welfare and security of their country, than to have a great number of men well-disciplined, exercised, and ready for war; knowing, that neither riches nor magnificence, but the reputation of their arms alone, could keep their enemies in awe and subjection; and that defects in other things may sometimes be remedied, but that in war, where the fatal consequences of ​them are immediately felt, they admit of no remedy. Besides, expertness in these exercises makes men bold and courageous in battle; for instead of being afraid, every one is eager to distinguish himself in such points as he knows he excels in. The Ancients therefore, took great care to make their youth perfect in all military exercises: for they likewise accustomed them to throw darts, that were much heavier than those they carried in war, at the posts I mentioned before, which taught them to be very expert in the use of that weapon, and made their arms strong and muscular. They were also taught how to use the cross-bow, the long-bow, and the sling; and in all these things there were masters appointed on purpose to instruct them: so that when they were called out to serve in the wars, they were so well prepared that they wanted nothing to make them excellent Soldiers, but to be taught how to keep their ranks upon a march or in battle, and to obey orders: which they quickly learnt by being incorporated with others who had served a long time, and were thoroughly experienced in that part of discipline.
Cosimo. What exercises would you recommend to such as are to compose our Infantry at present?
Fabrizio. Most of those which I have already mentioned, as running, wrestling, leaping, carrying heavy arms, the use of the cross-bow, the long-bow, and the musket; which last is a new weapon, you know, but a very useful one. To these exercises I would accustom all the youth in the country, but those in particular who are destined to be Soldiers and for this purpose, I would set aside all holidays and idle times. I would likewise have them taught to swim, which is very necessary; for all rivers have not bridges over them, nor can they expect to find boats always ready to transport them: so that if your Soldiers cannot swim, you will lose many advantages and opportunities of doing great ​things. The reason why the Romans exercised their youth in the Campus Martius was because the Tiber ran close by it; that so when they were fatigued, they might refresh themselves in the river, and learn to swim.—I should also chuse (like the Ancients) to have those properly exercised that are to serve in the Cavalry; because it not only teaches them to ride well, but to avail themselves of their strength in a better manner. For which purpose, they had wooden horses, upon which they exercised themselves, vaulting upon them sometimes with armour on, and sometimes with none, without any assistance, and on either side of the horse: so that upon a signal or word of command from their instructors, they were all either mounted or dismounted in a moment. Now as these exercises both for horse and foot were practiced without any difficulty or inconvenience in former times, they might easily be introduced again amongst the youth of any state if the Governors of it so pleased; as in fact they have been in some of the western nations, where they divide the inhabitants into Classes, which take their respective names from the different sorts of arms they make use of in battle: and as these ​consist of pikes, halberds, muskets, and bows, the man that carry those weapons are called pikemen, halberdeers, musketeers, bowmen, or archers. Every inhabitant is likewise obliged to declare in which of these Classes he chuses to be enrolled: and as some of them cannot be fit to bear arms, either on account of their age or some other impediment, they make a delectus or choice out of each Class, and call those who are thus chosen jurati, because they make them take an oath of fidelity and obedience. These jurati then are called together upon holidays, and exercised in the use of such arms as they take their name from; every Class having its particular place assigned by the Governors of the State, where it is to rendezvous and be exercised; and every man belonging to it, as well as the jurati, is to appear and bring his proportion of money with him to defray the expenses that are occasioned by those meetings. What therefore is actually done by others, I should think might be done by our countrymen: but they are grown so lazy and degenerate that they will not imitate any thing that is good; though it was intirely owing to such exercises that the Ancients had such excellent Infantry, and that the States in the West, abovementioned, have much better at present than we have; for the Romans either exercised them at home during the time of their Republic, or abroad, under the reign of their Emperors, as I have said before; but the Italian States will not exercise them at home, and abroad they cannot, because they are not their own Subjects, and therefore will do nothing but what pleases themselves. Hence it comes to pass, that these military exercises are now wholly neglected, and all manner of discipline is at an end; which is the true reason why many States, especially in this country, are become so weak and contemptible.—But to resume our subject. It is not sufficient to make a good army, that the Soldiers are inured to ​hardships and fatigue, strong, swift, and expert in the use of their arms: they must likewise learn to keep their ranks, to obey the word of command, and signals by drum or trumpet, and to observe good order, whether they halt, advance, retreat, are upon a march, or engaged with an enemy: for without a strict attention to these points, an army will never be good for any thing: as it is certain that a parcel of disorderly and ill-disciplined men, though ever so brave, are not so much to be depended upon as others who are not so courageous by nature, but orderly and well-disciplined; for good order makes men bold, and confusion cowards. But that you may better comprehend what I am going to say, it is necessary to premise, that every nation has had particular corps, or bodies of Soldiers in their Armies and Militias, which though differing in their names, varied but little in the number of men they were composed of; as they generally consisted of six, or at most, of eight thousand. Thus the Romans had their Legions, the Greeks their Phalanxes, the Gauls their Caterva, and the Swiss at present (who are the only people that have any traces of the ancient military institutions left amongst them) what we should call Regiments in our country: but they all divided them into Battalions or smaller bodies, as best suited their purposes. Let us then call them by the name that is most familiar to us, and form them according to the best dispositions that have been made, either by the Ancients or Moderns. Now as the Romans divided their Legion, which consisted of betwixt five and six thousand men, into ten Cohorts, we will also divide our Regiment, which is to consist of six thousand foot, into ten Battalions of four hundred and fifty men a-piece; of whom four hundred should be heavy armed, and the other fifty light armed. Of the heavy-armed, let three hundred have swords and targets, and be called Target​men; another hundred should have pikes, and be called Ordinary Pikemen; the other fifty light-armed men must carry muskets, cross-bows, halberds, and targets, whom we will call by the old name of Ordinary Velites; so that in the ten Battalions there will be three thousand Targetmen, one thousand ordinary Pikemen, and five hundred ordinary Velites that is to say, four thousand five hundred. But as our Regiment is to consist of six thousand men, we must add fifteen hundred more; of whom a thousand must have pikes, and be called Pikemen extraordinary; the other five hundred should be light-armed, and called Velites extraordinary; and thus one half of our Infantry would be composed of Targetmen, and the other of Pikemen, and others armed in a different manner. Every Battalion should have a Lieutenant Colonel, or particular Commander of its own, four Captains, and forty Corporals, besides a Captain and five Corporals of the ordinary Velites. Over the thousand Pikemen extraordinary, there should be three Commanders or Lieutenant Colonels, ten Captains, and a hundred Corporals; in the Velites extraordinary, two Lieutenant Colonels, five Captains, and fifty Corporals. I would then appoint a Colonel or Commander of the whole Regiment, with his Drum and Colours; which every one of the Commanders abovementioned should likewise have: so that the whole would consist of ten Battalions, composed of three thousand Targetmen, a thousand ordinary Pikemen, as many extraordinary, five hundred ordinary Velites, five hundred more extraordinary, in all six thousand: amongst whom, there would be six hundred Corporals, fifteen Lieutenant Colonels, fifteen drums and colours, sixty-five Captains, and the Colonel with his colours and drum.—You see I have been guilty of some repetition: but it is purely to make you understand me the better, and that you may not be ​puzzled or perplexed when I come to speak of drawing up an army in order of battle.—I say then, that all Princes and Governors of Republics should arm their Militia in this manner, and form them into such Regiments; of which they ought to raise as many as their dominions will admit; after which, having divided them into Battalions according to the directions I have just now given, in order to make them perfect in their discipline, it will be sufficient to exercise them Battalion by Battalion: and though one Battalion has not men enow in it to form a competent army of itself, yet by this means, every man may learn to do his own duty. For two things must be observed in all armies: first, that the men be taught what they are to do in their respective Battalions; and next, how every Battalion is to act when it is joined with others to form an army: and those that are ready and expert in the first, will soon learn the second; but such as are not perfect in one, can never be taught the other. Every Battalion then must first be taught separately to keep good order in its own ranks upon all occasions, and in all places; and afterwards, how to act in conjunction with the rest, to attend to the drums and other instruments, by which all motions are regulated and directed in time of battle; to understand from the difference of sounds, whether it is to maintain its ground, or to advance, or retreat, or wheel off, or face about. So that when the men know how to keep their ranks in such a manner that no sort of ground nor any manœuvre can throw them into disorder; when they understand what they have to do by the beat of the drum or sound of the trumpet, and where to take their station, they will soon learn how to act in concert with the other Battalions of their Regiment, when they are assembled to form an army. But as it is necessary to exercise them all together sometimes, the whole Regiment should be assembled ​once or twice a year in time of peace, to be formed like an army with front, flanks and rear in their proper places, and to be exercised for some days, as if they were preparing to engage an enemy. Now since a Commander draws up his forces for battle, either upon sight of an enemy, or in apprehension of one that is not far off, his army should be exercised according to the occasion, and shewn in what order it is not only to march, but to engage, if need should require; with particular instructions how to act, if it should be attacked on this or that side. But when he would prepare his men to attack an enemy that is in sight, he should shew them how and where to begin the attack, whither they are to retreat if they should be repulsed, who are to take their places, what signals, sounds, and words of command they are to observe, and inure them to sham fights in such a manner, that they may be rather desirous than afraid to come to a real one. For it is not the natural courage of men that makes an army bold, but order and good discipline: because, when the first ranks know whither to retreat, and who are to advance in their place if they should be worsted, they will always fight with spirit, having relief so near at hand: nor will the next ranks be daunted at the misfortune of the first, as they are prepared for such an event, and perhaps not sorry for it, because they may think it will give them the glory of a victory which others could not obtain. These exercises are particularly necessary in an army newly raised, and they ought not to be neglected in one that is composed of veterans; for though the Romans were trained up to the use of arms from their youth, yet their Generals always exercised them in this manner with great assiduity for some time before they expected to come to an engagement: and Josephus tells us in his history, that even the very suttlers and rabble that used to folfow their armies, often did good service in battle by ​having seen the Soldiers frequently exercised, and learned to handle their arms, and keep firm in their ranks. But armies composed of new men, which have been raised either for present service, or to be formed into a Militia in order to be employed upon occasion, will be good for nothing at all, if the Battalions are not first exercised separately, and afterwards all together: for as good order and discipline are absolutely necessary, great care ought to be taken to keep them up amongst those that know their duty, and greater still to instruct such as are entirely ignorant of it: to effect which, a wise and able Commander will spare no pains.
Cosimo. You seem to have deviated a little from your point, I think for before you have told us how a single Battallion ought to be exercised, you talk of exercising a whole army, and preparing it for battle.
Fabrizio. You say very true indeed; and I confess my zeal for these exercises and institutions, and my concern at their being now so much neglected, have led me a little out of the way, and occasioned me to break in upon the order I had proposed to myself. But I will return to it.—You may remember that I told you it is of the utmost importance in disciplining a Battalion to make the men keep their ranks well: for which purpose, it is necessary to exercise them in the manner called Snail-fashion; and as I said there should be four hundred heavy-armed foot in a Battalion, I will keep to that number. These four hundred men must be formed into eighty ranks, of five in each rank, which should learn both how to extend themselves, and how to reduce themselves into closer order, whether they are moving slowly or briskly: but in what manner this is to be done, is easier to comprehend by seeing it actually performed than from ​any description; which is not absolutely necessary here, because every one who has the least experience in military affairs knows the method of it, and that its chief use is to accustom the men to keep their ranks. But let us now proceed to draw up a Battalion. There are three principal ways then of doing this: the first and best of which is to draw it up close and compact in the form of an oblong Square: the second is to form it in a square with two wings in front: and the third is to throw it into a square with an area or vacancy in the middle, which is commonly called a hollow square. The first may be effected two ways; one, by doubling the ranks, that is, by receiving the second rank into the first, the fourth into the third, the sixth into the fifth, and so on; that so where there were eighty ranks before with five men in every rank, they may be reduced to forty with ten in a rank, and by doubling them a second time, to twenty with twenty in a rank. This will make an oblong square: for though there will be as many men in the files as in the ranks, yet the men in the ranks must stand so close together as to touch each other, but those in the files must be at least four feet distant one from another: so that the square will be longer from the front to the rear, than from the extremity of the right flank to that of the left; that is, the files will be longer than the ranks. The fifty ordinary Velites belonging to the Battalion must not be mixed with the other ranks, but posted on each flank, and in the rear, when it is formed.—The other way of drawing up a Battalion close and compact in the form of an oblong square is better than this, and therefore I will be more particular in describing it. You remember, I take it for granted, of how many private men and what officers it is to consist, ​and how they are to be armed: without further repetition then, I say, that the Battalion must be formed into twenty ranks, with twenty men in every rank; that is to say, five ranks of Pikemen in the front, and fifteen of Targetmen in the rear: there must be two Captains in the front, and two in the rear: the Lieutenant Colonel or Commander of the Battalion with his Colours and Drum must take post in the interval betwixt the five ranks of Pikemen and the fifteen of Targetmen: the Corporals are to be placed upon the two flanks, one at the extremity of each rank in such a manner, that every one of them may have his men by his side; those on the right will have them on their left, and those on the left will have them on their right: the fifty ordinary Velites should be posted upon the flanks and in the rear of the Battalion. Now in order to throw it into this form, you must draw it up in eighty ranks, with five men in every rank, and placing the Velites by themselves either in the front or the rear, every Captain must put himself at the head of his Company or hundred men, of twenty ranks of five men in each; of which the five front ranks, or those immediately behind him, must be Pikemen, and the rest Targetmen. The Lieutenant Colonel or Commander of the Battalion with his drum and colours, are to be placed in the interval betwixt the pikes and targets of the second Company, and will take up the room of three Targetmen: twenty Corporals must be placed upon the left flanks of the ranks commanded by the first Captain; and twenty more upon the right flanks of the ranks commanded by the last Captain: and it must be observed that the Corporals of the Pikemen must carry pikes themselves, and those of the Targetmen must have Targets and Swords. Your ranks being thus disposed, if you desire to form them in order of battle to face an enemy, you must cause the Captain of the first twenty ranks to halt ​with his men, the Captain of the second twenty, to keep advancing, but inclining a little to the right, close along the flank of the first twenty, till he comes abreast of their Captain, and there to halt himself: the third is then to advance with his men in the same manner by the right flank of the other two Companies, till he is in a line with the two first Captains, and there to halt as they do: after which, the fourth Captain and his Company are to move forward likewise by the right flank of those that are already joined, and halt when he has advanced as far as the other three: all which being executed, two of those Captains must immediately quit the front rank and take post in the rear; and then the Battalion will be formed in an oblong square as it was by the other method. The Velites must likewise be posted on each flank as they were before: one of these ways is called doubling the ranks in a right line; the other, doubling them by the flanks: the former is the easier of the two; the latter more convenient, and may be better adapted to answer different occasions. For in the former you must conform to the number, because five doubled makes ten, ten twenty, twenty forty; so that if you double your ranks in a right line, you cannot make a front of fifteen, or twenty-five, or thirty, or thirty-five, but must be governed in that by the number in your first rank; and as it is often necessary to form a front of six or eight hundred foot, doubling your ranks in a right line would throw the men into confusion. I therefore like the latter method best: and though perhaps there may be more difficulty in it, yet that will soon be surmounted by frequent practice and exercise. I say then it is a matter of the utmost importance to have Soldiers that know how to take their proper Stations in a moment: for which purpose, it is necessary to form them into such Battalions, to exercise them all together, to teach them to march either quick or slow in all di​rections, and to keep such order, that no pass or defile, how rough or difficult soever, can oblige them to break their ranks. For if Soldiers can do this, they are good Soldiers, and may be called Veterans, though they have never seen the face of an enemy: but if they have been in a thousand battles, and are ignorant in this point, they are no better than raw men. What has been said, relates only to drawing up a Battalion in closer order when it is marching in small ranks: but after that has been done, if it should happen to be thrown into disorder, either by the nature of the country through which it is obliged to march, or by an enemy, or by any other accident, and you want to reduce it to its former order immediately; there lies the main point and chief difficulty: to surmount which, much exercise, and practice, and experience are necessary; and therefore the Ancients spared no pains to make their Soldiers ready and expert in rallying whenever they were thrown into confusion. For this purpose, two things, are necessary, viz. that there should be several peculiar marks of distinction in every Battalion; and that the same men should always be placed in the same ranks. For instance, if a man was stationed in the second rank at first, let him continue in it ever after; and not only in the same rank, but in the very same place of it: and that he may not be at a loss how to do that, there must be several peculiar marks to guide and direct him, as I said just now. In the first place, it is necessary the Colours should be such as to be easily distinguished from those of all other Battalions, when several are joined together: in the next, that the Lieutenant Colonels, Captains, and other officers should wear different plumes: and lastly (which is of still more importance) that every Corporal should be distinguished by some particular mark: in which the Ancients were so remarkably careful and exact, that they caused their numbers to be marked upon ​their casques in great figures, as the first, second, third, fourth, and so on: but not thinking that sufficient, every Targetman had the number of his rank and his place in that rank engraved upon his target. When men are thus distinguished from each other, and accustomed to know and keep their respective stations, it is an easy matter to rally them if they are thrown into confusion: for when the Standard is once fixed, the Captains and Corporals will presently know their Stations; and resume them (whether on the right or left) at a due distance from it: the private men likewise, being guided by their usual marks and the difference of Colours, will presently fall into their proper ranks and places: just as when you are to put together the Staves of a barrel, if you have marked them before it was taken to pieces, you may easily do it; but if those Staves have not been marked, you will find it exceeding difficult, if not impossible. These things may soon be learned by frequent practice and exercise, and are not easily forgotten: and thus the new raw men being instructed by the Veterans, a whole Province by such exercise may be made good and experienced Soldiers in time.—It is necessary also to teach your men to move all at a time, when there is occasion, in such a manner as to make either flank or rear become the front, or the front become either the rear or one of the flanks; which may easily be effected by causing every man to face at once towards any particular part, which then will become the front. It is true that when they face to either flank, it will make some alteration and disproportion in the ranks, because the distance which will then be betwixt the front and the rear, will not be so great as that betwixt one extremity of the flanks and the other; which is quite contrary to the form in which a Battalion ought to be drawn up: this however may soon be rectified by well-exercised and experienced Soldiers, and therefore cannot oc​casion any great disorder. But there is another manœuvre of great importance, in which still more readiness and expertness are requisite; and that is, when a whole Battalion is to move all at once like one solid body; for instance, when it is to wheel to the left about in such a manner as to front on that side where the left flank was before: for then those that are on the left at the extremity of the front rank must stand fast, and those that are nearest them on the right must move so slow, that the rest who are farther from them on the right, and those at the other extremity of that rank, may not be obliged to run; otherwise, they will be in great confusion.—Now as it always happens, when a Battalion is attacked on its march from one place to another, that the Companies which are not posted in the front are forced to fight either in one of the flanks or the rear, and the Battalion is under a sudden necessity of making a front where that flank, or perhaps the rear, was before; in order to form those Companies in due proportion and order; all the pikes are to be placed in that flank which is to become the front, and the Corporals, Captains, and Lieutenant Colonel must take their respective posts as in the method of forming a Battalion above described. To effect this then, in forming the Battalion into eighty ranks of five men in every rank, you must put all the Pikemen into the twenty first ranks, with five of their Corporals in the front rank, and five in the last of that Company: and then the other sixty ranks, or three Companies, will wholly consist of Targetmen; in the first and last rank of which there must be five Corporals. The Lieutenant Colonel, with his Standard and Drum, are to take post in the center of the first Company of Targetmen, and the four Captains at the head of their respective Companies. When it is thus formed, if you would have all the Pikemen upon the left flank, you must double the Companies one by one by their right flanks: ​but if you would have them on the right flank, you must double them by the left: and thus the Battalion will have all its Pikemen upon one flank, the Corporals in the front and rear, the Captains in the front, and the Lieutenant Colonel in the center. This is the order it is to observe whilst it is marching: but upon the approach of an enemy, if you would have its front where one of the flanks was before, you have nothing to do but to order your men to face to that flank where the Pikemen are, and then the whole Battalion, with all its ranks and officers, are presently changed, and in the order I described before: for every man will be in his proper station, except the Captains, and they will soon take their posts.—But when a Battalion is marching forwards, and apprehensive of being attacked in the rear, the ranks must be so disposed that the Pikemen may be posted there: for which purpose, five ranks of them should be placed in the rear of every Company, instead of its front where they are usually stationed: in all other respects let the ordinary disposition be observed.
Cosimo. If I remember right, you told us that this manner of exercise is calculated to reduce all the Battalions of a Regiment into the form of an army; and that it was sufficient for such a purpose. But if it should happen that this Battalion of four hundred and fifty men should be obliged to fight by itself, how would you draw it up in that case?
Fabrizio. The Lieutenant Colonel should consider in the first place, where it will be most necessary to place his Pikemen, and to post them there accordingly; which may easily be done without breaking in upon the above mentioned disposition: for though that is the order which should be observed by a Battalion when it acts in conjunction with others against an enemy; yet it may serve upon all other ​occasions. However, in shewing you the two other methods of drawing up a Battalion, which I promised you a little while ago, I will answer your question more particularly: but they are seldom used; and if ever, it is when a Battalion is to act alone and independent upon all others.—In order then to form a Battalion with two wings (or two horns) in the front, you are to dispose your eighty ranks of five men in a rank in this manner. In the first place, you must post a Captain at the head of twenty-five ranks, which are to consist of two Pikemen on the left, and three Targetmen on the right. Next to the five first ranks, let there be twenty more, with twenty Corporals posted in them; all of them betwixt the Pikemen and the Targetmen, except the five which carry pikes; for they must be placed amongst the Pikemen. After these twenty-five ranks thus drawn up, let there be posted another Captain at the head of fifteen ranks of Targetmen. In the interval betwixt this Company and the third, the Lieutenant Colonel, with his Colours and Drum, is to post himself at the head of the third Company, consisting of fifteen ranks more of Targetmen. The third Captain is to take post at the head of the fourth Company, which is to consist of twenty-five ranks, every one of which is to have three Targetmen on the left, and two Pikemen on the right: and after the five first ranks there must be twenty more with Corporals in them posted betwixt the Targetmen and the Pikemen; in the rear of this Company the fourth Captain is to take his Station. If then you would form these ranks thus drawn up into a Battalion with two wings, you must order the first Captain to halt with his twenty-five ranks, and the second to make a motion to the right, and then to advance with his fifteen ranks of Targetmen to double the right flank of the twenty-five ranks that have halted, till he comes a-breast of the rank that is the fifteenth from their rear, and there to halt ​himself. After this, the Lieutenant Colonel, with his fifteen ranks of Targetmen, is to do the same on the right flank of the two first Companies. Last of all, the third Captain, with his twenty-five ranks, and the fourth Captain in the rear of them, is to move to the right, and then advance along the right flank of the other three Companies, but not to halt till his rearmost rank is in a line with their rearmost rank: all which being done, the Captain of the first fifteen ranks of Targetmen must quit his Station, and repair to the left of the rearmost rank, and the fourth Captain to the right of it. In this manner you will have a Battalion of twenty-five ranks, some consisting of five, and others of twenty men: with two wings (one at each angle of the front) each of which will consist of ten ranks of five men a-piece, and a space betwixt the wings large enough to receive ten men a-breast. The Colonel takes post in this open, a Captain at the front of each horn, and another at each angle in the rear of the Battalion; two files of Pikemen and twenty Corporals are placed on each flank. The wings may serve to secure the carriages and baggage, as well as the artillery, if there be any: the Velites may be ranged along the flanks, on the outside of the Pikemen.—Now in order to reduce this horned Battalion into a Hollow Square, you need only to take eight of the rearmost of those fifteen ranks that have twenty men a-piece in them, and place them immediately in the front of the two wings, which will then become the flanks of the Hollow Square. In the Area left in the middle, the Lieutenant Colonel is to take place with his Colours and Drum: and it may likewise receive the carriages and baggage, but not the Artillery, which is to be planted either in the front or on the flanks.—These are the methods that may be taken to form a single Battalion when it is to pass alone through dangerous and suspected places: but the solid Bat​talion, without wings or area in the middle of it, is certainly the best: nevertheless, either one or other of those forms may be necessary sometimes to secure the carriages, baggage, &c. The Swiss have likewise several forms of drawing up their Battalions: one of them is in the shape of a Cross; in the spaces betwixt the arms of which, they place their musketeers to shelter them from the first shock of an enemy; but as such Battalions are only fit to engage separately, and it is my intention to shew in what manner several Battalions united must fight, I shall not give myself the trouble of describing the order they observe.
Cosimo. I think I sufficiently comprehend the method that is to be followed in exercising the men of whom your Battalion consists; but if I mistake not, you said you would add a thousand Pikemen extraordinary, and five hundred Velites extraordinary, to the ten Battalions of which your Regiment is to be composed. Would you not cause them also to be exercised?
Fabrizio. Certainly, and very well too: for I would exercise the extraordinary Pikemen, by Companies at least, if not altogether, in the discipline of the Battalion: for I should employ them more than the ordinary Pikemen, especially upon particular occasions, as in convoys, escorts, plundering, and the like. As to the Velites, it may suffice to exercise them separately at home in their particular method of fighting, without bringing them into the field: for as they are to fight in a loose and detached way, there is no occasion to call them together when the rest of the Battalion is assembled to be disciplined in their own manner. You must. therefore, (as I said before, and beg leave to say again) take great care to exercise your Battalions in such a manner, that the men be taught to keep their ranks, to know their proper stations, to rally or alter their disposition in a moment, when they are either ​got into troublesome defiles, or are apprehensive of being attacked, or disordered by an enemy: for when they are perfect in these things, they will easily comprehend their duty when joined with others to form an army. So that if any Prince or Republic would be at the trouble of establishing this discipline and these exercises, they would always have good Soldiers enow in their dominions to make them superior to their neighbours, and put them in a condition to give law to others, instead of receiving it from them. But such is the degeneracy of the times we live in, and these things are so far from being in any esteem at present, that they are totally neglected and laughed at: which is the reason that our armies are now good for nothing; and that if there be yet any officers or private men amongst us who have the least share of experience, courage, or abilities of any kind, they have no opportunity of shewing them.
Cosimo. How many carriages would you assign to a Battalion?
Fabrizio. In the first place, no Captain or Corporal should be suffered to ride upon a march; and if the Colonel desired to ride, it should be upon a mule, and not upon a horse. I would allow him two baggage horses, one to every Captain, and two betwixt three Corporals; because I would lodge three of them together when they are in camp, as I shall shew in its proper place. So that every Battalion should have six and thirty horses to carry its tents, kettles, hatchets, mattocks, spades, with other such implements and utensils as are necessary in an encampment, and any thing else that may be useful or convenient, if there is room for it.
Cosimo. Though I believe all the officers in your Battalion may be necessary, yet I should be afraid that so many would create confusion.
Fabrizio. That might be the case if they were not all under the command of one person; but as ​they are, they rather serve to preserve and promote good order; and indeed it would be impossible to keep it up without them: for a wall that is weak and tottering in every part, may be better supported by many props and buttresses, though they are but feeble ones, than by a few, be they ever so substantial because their strength cannot be of much service at any considerable distance. For this reason, there ought to be a Corporal over every ten Soldiers in all armies, who should be a man of more spirit and courage, at least of greater authority, than the rest, in order to animate them both by his words and example, and exhort them continually to keep firm in their ranks, and behave themselves like men. How necessary these things are, may plainly appear from the example even of our own armies, all which have their Corporals, Drums, and Colours, though none of them do their duty. As to Corporals, if they would answer the end for which they were first appointed, every one of them should have his particular men under him, should lodge with them, should charge with them, and always be in the same rank: for then they might keep them so regular and compact in their several stations, that it would be almost impossible for any enemy to break or disorder them; and if that should ever happen, they might presently be rallied: but in these times they are employed in other purposes of a different nature, and do nothing as they ought to do, though their pay is considerable. It is the same with regard to Colours, which are still continued, rather to make a fine shew, than for any other use that is made of them. Whereas the Ancients availed themselves of them as guides and directions in case of disorder: for as soon as the Colours were fixed, every man knew his post, and immediately returned to it. They likewise knew how and when to move, and when to halt, by the motion of halting of the Colours: and there​fore it is necessary there should be many different Corps in an army, and that every Corps should have its particular Ensign, and marks of distinction: for then it will know what it has to do, and act with spirit. The Soldiers then are to observe the motion of their Ensigns, and the Ensigns the beat of the Drum; for that, when rightly managed, is a direction to the whole army, which is to act and move in a certain measure and pace, according to its different sounds, that so it may know how to keep due time and order. For this purpose, the Ancients had their pipes and fifes, and other sorts of military music, perfectly adapted to different occasions: and as a man that is dancing, and keeps time with the music, cannot make a false step; so an army that properly observes the beat of its Drums cannot easily be disordered. The Ancients, therefore, used to vary the sounds and notes of their military music according to the occasion, and as they wanted either to excite, or abate, or confirm the ardour of their Soldiers: and as their tunes and marches were different, they gave them different names: the Doric was calculated to inspire men with resolution and firmness; the Phrygian excited martial ardour, or rather fury: for Alexander the Great (as it is said) being at dinner one day, and hearing a Phrygian march sounded, was so transported with it, that he leaped up from the table and drew his sword, as if he had been going to charge an enemy. It would be very useful then, either to revive these measures, or invent new ones for such purposes; but if that cannot be done, those at least should not be neglected or laid aside, which teach Soldiers to obey command: and these may be varied and adapted in such a manner, that by frequent use and exercise, they may learn to distinguish them, and know their signification: but at present our Drums are chiefly employed to make a noise and parade.
​Cosimo. I should be very glad to be informed (if you have ever considered the matter) how it comes to pass that we are so degenerated, and that not only these exercises, but all manner of military discipline, are now fallen into such neglect and disuse amongst us.
Fabrizio. I will give you my opinion of the matter very freely, Sir. You know then, there have been many renowned Warriors in Europe, but few in Africa, and fewer still in Asia: the reason of which is, that the two last mentioned quarters of the world have had but one or two Monarchies, and very few Republics; and that Europe, on the contrary, has had several Kingdoms, but more Republics. Now men become great and excellent, and shew their abilities accordingly as they are employed and encouraged by their Sovereigns, whether they happen to be Kings, Princes, or Republics: so that where there are are many States, there will be many great men; but where there are few of the one, there will not be many of the other. In Asia, there were Ninus, Cyrus, Artaxerxes, Mithridates, and some few others like them. In Africa (without having recourse to the early times of the ancient Egyptians) we read of Massinissa, Jugurtha, and some Carthaginian Commanders of eminent note; the number of whom, however, is very small in comparison of that which Europe has produced: for in this quarter of the world, there have been numbers of great men that we know of, and many more without doubt, whose memories are now extinguished by the malevolence of time: because every State being obliged to cherish and encourage men of merit and abilities, either out of necessity or for other reasons, where there are many different States, there must of course be many great men. Asia, on the contrary, has not produced many extraordinary men: because that quarter of the globe being subject in a great measure to one Monarchy, ​of so large an extent that most parts of it languish in continual inactivity, cannot form any considerable number of men for great and glorious enterprizes. The same may be said of Africa; though indeed there have been more able Commanders in that Country than in Asia; which was owing to the Republic of Carthage: for there will always be a greater number of such men in Republics than in Monarchies; because merit is generally honoured in the former, but feared in the latter: from whence it comes to pass, that able men are cherished and encouraged in one, but discountenanced and suppressed in the other. If we consider Europe in the next place, we shall find that it was always full of Principalities, Kingdoms, and Republics, which lived in perpetual jealousy of each other, and being obliged to keep up good discipline in their armies, were under a necessity of honouring and encouraging military merit. For in Greece, besides the Macedonian Monarchy, there were several Republics, every one of which produced many great and eminent men. In Italy, there were the Romans, the Samnites, the Tuscans, and the Cisalpine Gauls: France, Germany, and Spain abounded with Republics and Principalities: and if we do not read of so many great men in any of them as amongst the Romans, that is owing to the partiality of Historians, who generally follow the stream of fortune, and content themselves with praising the Conqueror. It is But reasonable however to suppose, there were a great many illustrious men amongst the Samnites and Tuscans, as they supported themselves against the Romans an hundred and fifty years. The same may be supposed of France and Spain: but the merit which most authors are so shy of allowing to particular men, they are forward enough to celebrate in whole nations, when they tell us, with what bravery and resolution they exerted themselves in defence of their liberties. Since ​it is manifest then, that where there are many States there will always be many able men, it is certain, that when the number of those States is diminished, the number of such men will likewise decrease by degrees, as the effect must cease when the cause is taken away. Thus, when the Roman Empire had swallowed up all the Kingdoms and Republics in Europe and Africa, and most of those in Asia, merit and abilities met with no countenance any where but at Rome: so that great men began to grow scarcer and scarcer in Europe, as well as in Asia, till at last, there were hardly any to be found; for as all manner of spirit and worth was extinguished, except amongst the Romans, so when they became corrupt, the whole world in a manner was corrupted, and the Scythians poured by swarms into an Empire, which, having extinguished the virtue of most other nations, was not able to preserve its own. And though that Empire was afterwards dismembered by those Barbarians, yet the several parts into which it was cantoned never recovered their pristine vigour; for, in the first place, it is a very difficult matter, and requires a long course of time, to revive good order and discipline when it is once abolished: and in the next, the Christian Religion has wrought such a change in the manners and customs of mankind, that they are now no longer under a necessity of defending themselves with such a degree of obstinacy and despair as they did in former times. For then, all such as were vanquished in battle, where either put to death, or carried into perpetual slavery in the enemy's country, where they spent the remainder of their lives in labour and misery. If a town was taken, it was either demolished, or the inhabitants were stripped of their goods, dispersed all over the world, and reduced to the last degree of poverty and wretchedness: so that the dread of these evils obliged them so keep up good discipline in their armies, and to ​honour all those that excelled in the Art of War. But at present, these terrible apprehensions are in a great measure dissipated and extinguished: for after an army is defeated, those that fall into the hands of the Conqueror are seldom or never put to death; and the terms of their ransom are made so easy, that they do not long continue prisoners. If a town has changed sides an hundred times, it is not demolished, nor are the inhabitants either dispersed or stripped of their possessions: the worst they have to fear is being laid under contribution: so that men now no longer care to submit to the rigour and continual hardships of military discipline, to ward off evils which they are but little afraid of. Besides, the Provinces of Europe are subject too few Heads at present, in comparison of what they were formerly: all France is under the dominion of one King all Spain under that of another; and there are not many Principalities or Republics in Italy; so that the petty States find protection under the wings of the strong, and those that are more powerful are not afraid of utter ruin, even if they should be conquered, for the reasons already given.
Cosimo. But we have seen many towns sacked, and some Kingdoms entirely ruined within these last five and twenty years: examples, which ought to serve as warnings to others to provide for their security by reviving the ancient military discipline and institutions.
Fabrizio. You say very true: but consider what towns those were which buffered in that manner, and you will find they were not States, but inferior members of States: if Tortona was sacked, Milan was not; Capra suffered, but Naples escaped Brescia and Ravenna felt the lash of the Conqueror, but Venice and Rome came off with impunity: so that these examples are not sufficient to make a State change its purpose; but rather determine it to persevere in its resolution, when it sees ​it can at any time redeem itself from destruction by a ransom; for it will not expose itself and its subjects to the continual fatigues of military discipline and exercises, when they seem not only unnecessary, but attended with much trouble and inconvenience. As for the dependent members which ought to be most affected with these examples, it is not in their power to save themselves; and those States which have already been ruined, see their error when it is too late to correct it, whilst others, which have not yet shared the same fate, take no pains to prevent it; chusing to live a lazy indolent life, free from trouble and inconvenience, and to rely upon fortune rather than their own virtue: for seeing there is so small a proportion of virtue now left amongst mankind, that it has but little influence in the affairs of the world, and that all things seem to be governed by fortune, they think it better to follow her train, than contend with her for superiority. To evince the truth of what I have said, if further proof is wanting, let us consider the state of Germany at present, which being full of Principalities and Republics, abounds with great and able Commanders; and indeed, whatsoever is worthy imitation in the military discipline of these times, is owing to those States, which being jealous of their neighbours, and abhorring the thoughts of slavery (a condition which seems not much dreaded in some other countries) take all proper means to defend their liberties, and therefore continue free and respectable.—This, I think, may suffice to shew the causes of our degeneracy, and the present neglect of military discipline amongst us; but I cannot tell whether you are of the same opinion; perhaps what I have said has either not given you the satisfaction you wanted, or not been thoroughly understood, and consequently may have left some doubts upon your mind.
​Cosimo. None at all, Sir, I assure you: on the contrary, I perfectly comprehend what you have said, and am very well satisfied with it; but beg the favour of you to resume our subject, and to let us know in what manner you would dispose your Cavalry in these Battalions, what number of them you would have, and how they should be armed and officered.
Fabrizio. You might think, perhaps, I had forgot that, but I have not; though I have but little to say of Cavalry, for two reasons. In the first place, because the main strength of an army consists in its Infantry; and in the next, Cavalry, even in these times, are much better disciplined than Infantry; and if they are not superior, they are equal however to the Cavalry of the Ancients. I have already shewn how they ought to be exercised; and as to their arms, I would arm both the Gens d'Armes and the light horse as they are armed at present: but the light horse should mostly consist of Cross-bow men, with some musketeers amongst them, which, though of little service in other respects, are yet very necessary to frighten the country people, and drive them from passes, which perhaps they may have undertaken to defend: for they are more afraid of one Musketeer, than of twenty men that are armed in any other manner. With regard to their number (as I proposed at first to take a Roman legion for my model) I should think three hundred good horse in a Regiment would be sufficient; of which a hundred and fifty should be Gens d'Armes, and the rest light horse; with a Captain, a Cornet, fifteen Corporals, and a Drum to each troop: every ten Gens d'Armes should have five baggage horses, and every ten light horsemen, two, which (like those belonging to the Infantry) should carry their tents, kettles, horse-furniture, and other implements and utensils. Do not think this out of ​compass, for every one of our Gens d'Armes have four horses allowed them for that purpose; but that is an abuse; for in Germany they have no other horse than that which they are mounted upon, and only one carriage to every twenty for their baggage. The Roman heavy-armed horse had no more; but the Triarii indeed were always quartered near their Cavalry, and obliged to assist them in dressing and taking care of their horses: an example which might easily be followed in these times, as I shall shew more particularly, when I come to speak of encampments: for surely what was formerly done by the Romans, and is still practiced by the Germans, may be effected at present, and therefore those that omit or neglect these things are much to be blamed. These Squadrons being raised and enrolled in the same manner with the rest of the Regiment, should sometimes be reviewed with the other Battalions, when they are assembled, and exercised in skirmishes and sham-fights with them, to make them well acquainted with each other, and perfect in those exercises. So much for this head. Let us now proceed to draw up an army in such an order of battle, as is most likely to ensure us a victory, when we come to engage an enemy; for this is the end for which all armies are raised, and that so much care and pains are to be taken in disciplining them.
THE END OF THE SECOND BOOK.
* ↑ See Pol. Disc. Book II. Chap. xviii.
* ↑ When the ancient Greeks would upbraid any one with extreme insufficiency, they told them in a proverbial manner, "that he could neither read nor swim." Julius Cæsar was also of opinion, that swimming was of great use in war, and he himself found it so; for chusing most commonly to march on foot, as Alexander the Great also did, he always swam over the Rivers in his way, when expedition was required. When he was in Egypt, being forced to get into a little boat for his safety, and so many people leaping in with him, that it was in danger of sinking, he chose, though he was of an advanced age, to commit himself to the sea, and swam to his fleet, which lay about two hundred paces off, holding his pocket-book above water in his left hand, and drawing his armour in his teeth. Sueton. in J. Cæsare, Sect. 64. Another time, during the war he was engaged in with Petreius and Afranius, he commanded his whole army to pass a River by swimming, without any manner of necessity. ————rapaitque ruens in prælia miles. Quod fugiens timuisset iter, mox uda receptis Membra fovent armis, gelidosque a gurgite, cursu Restituunt artus. Lucan. L. iv. v. 151. &c.
* ↑ That is (I suppose) to teach them how to contract or extend themselves upon occasion, as that animal does.
* ↑ The original says "con la fronte cornuta, i.e. with a horned front:" the word corno in the Italian language, like cornu in the Latin, signifying a horn as well as the wing of an army.
* ↑ The Velites then, we are to suppose, must be stationed as before.