OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rousseau, Jacques

See also Jacques Rousseau on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​ ROUSSEAU, JACQUES (1630-1693), French painter, a member of a Huguenot family, was born at Paris in 1630. He was remarkable as a painter of decorative landscapes and classic ruins, somewhat in the style of Canaletto, but without his delicacy of touch; he appears also to have been influenced by Nicolas Poussin. While young Rousseau went to Rome, where he spent some years in painting the ancient ruins, together with the surrounding landscapes. He thus formed his style, which was artificial and conventionally decorative. His colouring for the most part is unpleasing, partly owing to his violent treatment of skies with crude blues and orange, and his chiaroscuro usually is much exaggerated. On his return to Paris he soon became distinguished as a painter, and was employed by Louis XIV. to decorate the walls of his palaces at St Germain and Marly. He was soon admitted a member of the French Academy of the Fine Arts, but on the revocation of the edict of Nantes he was obliged to take refuge in Holland, and his name was struck off the Academy roll. From Holland he was invited to England by the duke of Montague, who employed him, together with other French painters, to paint the walls of his palace, Montague House (on the site of which is now the British Museum). Rousseau was also employed to paint architectural subjects and landscapes in the palace of Hampton Court, where many of his decorative panels still exist. He spent the latter part of his life in London, where he died in 1693.
Besides being a painter in oil and fresco Rousseau was an etcher of some ability; many etchings by his hand from the works of the Caracci and from his own designs still exist; they are vigorous, though coarse in execution.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Routh, Edward John

See also Edward Routh on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​ROUTH, EDWARD JOHN (1831–1907), English mathematician, was born at Quebec on the 20th of January 1831. At the age of eleven he came to England, and after studying under A. de Morgan at University College, London, entered Peterhouse, Cambridge, in 1851. In the mathematical tripos three years later he was senior Wrangler, beating J. Clerk Maxwell, who, however, tied with him for the Smith’s prize. Elected a fellow of his college, he devoted himself to teaching, and quickly- proved himself one of the most successful mathematical “coaches ” ever known at Cambridge. In thirty years, of some 700 pupils who passed through his hands 500 became Wranglers; and for twenty-two successive years, from 1861 to 1882, the senior Wrangler was trained by him. He made considerable contributions to scientific literature, and among his publications were: An Analytical View of Newton’s Principia, with Lord Brougham (1855); an Essay on the Stability of a given State of Motion, which won the Adams prize in 1877; and treatises on the Dynamics of Rigid Bodies, on Analytical Statics, and on the Dynamics of a Particle. He died at Cambridge on the 7th of June 1907.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Routh, Martin Joseph

See also Martin Routh on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​ROUTH, MARTIN JOSEPH (1755–1854), English classical scholar, was born at South Elmham, Suffolk, on the 18th of September 1755. He was educated at Queen’s College, Oxford, and subsequently elected to a fellowship at Magdalen, of which society he became president in 1791. He died at Oxford on the 22nd of December 1854, and retained his physical and intellectual powers to the last. He was the author of editions of the Euthydemus and Gorgias of Plato (1784), to which Dindorf declared himself indebted for his first ideas of Greek criticism, and of Bishop Burnet’s History of his Own Time (2nd ed., 1833) and History of the Reign of King James the Second (1852). Routh was also an authority on patriotic literature, his Reliquiae Sacrae (2nd ed., 1846–48), a collection of the fragments of the Fathers of the 2nd and 3rd centuries, and Scriptorum ecclesiasticorum opuscula praecipua quaedam (2nd ed., 1840) being valuable contributions to ecclesiastical knowledge.
See Gentleman’s Magazine, 1855; J. W. Burgon, Lives of Twelve Good Men (1888).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Routledge, George

See also George Routledge on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​ROUTLEDGE, GEORGE (1812–1888), English publisher, was born at Brampton in Cumberland on the 23rd of September 1812. He gained his earliest experience of business with a bookseller at Carlisle. Proceeding to London in 1833, he started in business for himself as a bookseller in 1836, and as a publisher in 1843, making his first serious success by reprinting the Biblical commentaries of an American writer, Albert Barnes. His fame as a publisher, however, rests chiefly upon the enormous number of cheap books which he issued. A series of shilling volumes called the “Railway Library” was an immense success, including as it did Mrs Harriet Beecher Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s Cabin, and he also published in popular ​form some of the writings of Washington Irving, Fenimore Cooper, Bulwer Lytton and Benjamin Disraeli. He also brought out a number of shilling books in “ Routledge's Universal Library.” Routledge died in London on the 13th of December 1888. After being styled Routledge, Warne & Routledge, his firm changed its name to that of George Routledge & Sons. A branch of the business was established in New York in 1854.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Noblesville

See also Noblesville, Indiana on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​NOBLESVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Hamilton county, Indiana, U.S.A., on the White river, about 20 m. N. by E. of Indianapolis. Pop. (1890) 3054; (1900) 4792 (226 negroes); (1910) 5073, It is served by the Lake Erie & Western, the Central Indiana and the Indiana Union (electric) Traction railways. It is in the natural gas region of the state, and has various manufactures. It was settled about 1825 and incorporated as a town in 1851.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Noakhali

See also Noakhali District on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​NOAKHALI, a town and district of British India, in the Chittagong division of eastern Bengal and Assam. The town, also known as Sudharam, is on a small river channel 10 m. from the sea. Pop (1901) 6520. The District of Noakhali has an area of 1644 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 1,141,728. The district consists of an alluvial tract of mainland, together with several islands at the mouth of the Meghna. In general, each homestead is surrounded by a thick grove of betel- and coco-nut palms, and in the north-western tracts dense forests of betel-nut palms extend for miles. Rice is the great staple of cultivation. The district is very fertile; and, with the exception of some sandbanks and recent accretions, every part of it is under continuous cultivation. The process of alluvion is gradually but steadily going on, the mainland extending seawards. Noakhali is peculiarly liable to destructive floods from the sea, generally caused by southerly gales or cyclones occurring at the time when the Meghna is swollen by heavy rains, and at flood-tides—the tidal bore being sometimes 20 ft. high, and moving at the rate of 15 m. an hour. The cyclone and storm-wave of the 31st of October 1876 was terribly disastrous, sweeping over the whole delta of the Meghna. The loss of human life was estimated at 100,000. The east of the district is served by the Assam-Bengal railway.
The Mahommedan population of the islands at the mouth of the Meghna practised piracy up to a comparatively recent date, and at the beginning of the 17th century Portuguese pirates, under Sebastian Gonzales, occupied Sandwip. They were ultimately reduced to subjection by Shaista Khan, the governor of Bengal, about the middle of the century; and their descendants have sunk to the level of the natives surrounding them, whose dress, customs and language they have, for the most part, adopted. They are Christians, and retain the old Portuguese names. About 1756 the East India Company established factories in Noakhali and Tippera, the ruins of some of which still remain.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nobilior, Marcus Fulvius

See also Marcus Fulvius Nobilior (consul 189 BC) on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​NOBILIOR, MARCUS FULVIUS, Roman general, a member of one of the most important families of the plebeian Fulvian gens. When praetor (193 B.C.) he served with distinction in Spain, and as consul in 189 he completely broke the power of the Aetolian league. On his return to Rome, Nobilior celebrated a triumph (of which full details are given by Livy) remarkable for the magnificence of the spoils exhibited. On his Aetolian campaign he was accompanied by the poet Ennius, who made the capture of Ambracia, at which he was present, the subject of one of his plays. For this Nobilior was bitterly attacked by Cato the Censor, on the ground that he had compromised his dignity as a Roman general. He restored the temple of Hercules and the Muses in the Circus Flaminius, placed in it a list of Fasti drawn up by himself, and endeavoured to make the Roman calendar more generally known. He was a great enthusiast for Greek art and culture, and introduced many of its masterpieces into Rome, amongst them the picture of the Muses by Zeuxis from Ambracia.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nobel, Alfred Bernhard

See also Alfred Nobel on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​NOBEL, ALFRED BERNHARD (1833–1896), Swedish chemist and engineer, was the third son of Emmanuel Nobel (1801–1872), and was born at Stockholm on the 21st of October 1833. At an early age he went with his family to St Petersburg, where his father started torpedo works. In 1859 these were left to the care of the second son, Ludvig Emmanuel (1831–1888), by whom they were greatly enlarged, and Alfred, returning to Sweden with his father, devoted himself to the study of explosives, and especially to the manufacture and utilization of nitroglycerin. He found that when that body was incorporated with an absorbent, inert substance like kieselguhr it became safer and more convenient to manipulate, and this mixture he patented in 1867 as dynamite. He next combined nitroglycerin with another high explosive, gun-cotton, and obtained a transparent, jelly-like substance, which was a still more powerful explosive than dynamite. Blasting gelatin, as it was called, was patented in 1876, and was followed by a host of similar combinations, modified by the addition of potassium nitrate, wood-pulp and various other substances. Some thirteen years later Nobel produced ballistite, one of the earliest of the nitroglycerin smokeless powders, containing in its latest forms about equal parts of gun-cotton and nitroglycerin. This powder was a precursor of cordite, and Nobel’s claim that his patent covered the latter was the occasion of vigorously contested law-suits between him and the British Government in 1894 and 1895. Cordite also consists of nitroglycerin and gun-cotton, but the form of the latter which its inventors wished to use was the most highly nitrated variety, which is not soluble in mixtures of ether and alcohol, whereas Nobel contemplated using a less nitrated form, which is soluble in such mixtures. The question was complicated by the fact that it is in practice impossible to prepare either of these two forms without admixture of the other; but eventually the courts decided against Nobel. From the manufacture of dynamite and other explosives, and from the exploitation of the Baku oil-fields, in the development of which he and his brothers, Ludvig and Robert Hjalmar (1829–1896), took a leading part, he amassed an immense fortune; and at his death, which occurred on the 10th of December 1896 at San Remo, he left the bulk of it in trust for the establishment of five prizes, each worth several thousand pounds, to be awarded annually without distinction of nationality. ​The first three of these prizes are for eminence in physical science, in chemistry and in medical science or physiology; the fourth is for the most remarkable literary work dans le sens d’idéalisme; and the fifth is to be given to the person or society that renders the greatest service to the cause of international brotherhood, in the suppression or reduction of standing armies, or in the establishment or furtherance of peace congresses.
See Les Prix Nobel en 1901 (Stockholm, 1904).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nobili, Leopoldo

See also Leopoldo Nobili on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​NOBILI, LEOPOLDO (1784–1835), Italian physicist, born at Reggio nell’ Emilia in 1784, was in youth an officer of artillery, but afterwards became professor of physics in the archducal museum at Florence, the old habitat of the Accademia del Cimento. His most valuable contributions to science consist in the suggestion of the astatic combination of two needles for galvanometers, and in the invention of the so-called thermomultiplier used by him and M. Melloni. In 1826 he described the prismatically-coloured films of metal, known as Nobili’s rings, deposited electrolytically from solutions of lead and other salts when the anode is a polished iron plate and the cathode is a fine wire placed vertically above it. His papers were mostly published in the Bibliothèque universelle of Geneva. He died at Florence in August 1835.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Robert III., king of Scotland

See also Robert III of Scotland on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​ROBERT III. (c. 1340-1406), king of Scotland, was the eldest son of King Robert II. by his mistress, Elizabeth Mure, and was legitimatized when his parents were married about 1349. In 1368 he was created earl of Carrick, and he took some part in the government of the kingdom until about 1387, when he was disabled by the kick of a horse. It was probably in consequence of this accident that his brother Robert, earl of Fife, and not the crown prince himself, was made guardian of the kingdom in 1389; but the latter succeeded to the throne on his father's death in May 1390. At this time he changed his baptismal name of John, which was unpopular owing to its connexion with John de Baliol, for that of Robert, being crowned at Scone' in August 1390 as King Robert III. Although he probably attended several parliaments the new king was only the nominal ruler of Scotland, the real power being in the hands of his brother, the earl of Fife. In 1399, however, owing to the king's “ sickness of the body, ” his elder son, David, duke of Rothesay, was appointed lieutenant of the kingdom; but this event was followed by an English invasion of Scotland, by serious differences between Rothesay and his uncle, Robert, now duke of Albany, and finally in March 1402 by Rothesay's mysterious death at Falkland. Early in 1406 the king's only surviving son, afterwards King James I., was captured by the English; and on the 4th of April 1406 Robert died, probably at Rothesay, and was buried at Paisley. He married Annabella Drummond (c. 1350-1402), daughter of Sir John Drummond of Stobhall, and, in addition to the two sons already mentioned, had four daughters.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Robert, king of Naples

See also Robert, King of Naples on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​ROBERT (1275-1343), king of Naples, was the son of Charles II., duke of Anjou and king of Naples, and in his youth took part in several expeditions to Sicily with the object of wresting the island from Frederick III. of Aragon. But his efforts, like those of his father and grandfather, proved fruitless, and the Angevins were compelled at last to agree to the peace of Caltabellotta (1302). On the death of Charles in 1309 Robert succeeded to the throne, although his nephew Caroberto (Carlo Roberto), son of his elder brother Charles Martel, who had died before his father, had a prior claim. He was crowned by Pope Clement V. at Avignon, and on the descent into Italy of the emperor Henry VII. was appointed papal vicar in Romagna to resist the imperialists; thenceforth he became the recognized leader of the Guelphs or papal faction in Italy and took part in all the wars against the Ghibellines. On various occasions he obtained for himself or his sons the suzerainty over Rome, Florence, and other cities, and was regarded as the most powerful Italian prince of his day. Pope John XXII. created him papal vicar in Italy against the emperor Louis the Bavarian. In 1320 Robert summoned his kinsman Philip V. of France to Italy, and he waged war against Sicily once more from 1325 to 1341, but failed to drive out the Aragonese. He died in 1343, just as he was about to lead another expedition to the island. Robert was a man of learning, devoted to ​literature, and a generous patron of literary men: he befriended the poet Petrarch, who admired the king so greatly as to express the wish to see him lord of all Italy; while Boccaccio celebrated the virtues and charms of Robert’s natural daughter Maria, under the name of Fiammetta. Dante was perhaps too severe on Robert, whom he described as a re da sermone (word king), and contemporary critics accused him of covetousness, a fault partly excused by his pressing need of money to pay the expenses of his perpetual wars. In spite of his power and influence, his position as a leader of the Guelphs was greatly shaken during the latter years of his reign, while at home he was never able completely to subjugate his rebellious barons.
See G. Villani, Cronache; M. Murena, Vita di Roberto d'Angiò, re di Napoli (Naples, 1770); and Archivio storico Siciliano (1884, viii. 511 seq.).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Robert-Fleury, Joseph Nicolas

See also Joseph-Nicolas Robert-Fleury and Tony Robert-Fleury on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​ROBERT-FLEURY, JOSEPH NICOLAS (1797–1890), French painter, was born at Cologne. He was sent by his family to Paris, and after travelling in Italy returned to France and made his first appearance at the Salon in 1824; his reputation, however, was not established until three years later, when he exhibited “Tasso at the Convent of St Onophrius.” Endowed with a vigorous original talent, and with a vivid imagination, especially for the tragic incidents of history, he soon rose to fame, and in 1850 succeeded Granet as member of the Académie des Beaux-Arts. In 1855 he was appointed professor and in 1863 director of the École des Beaux-Arts, and in the following year he went to Rome as director of the French Academy in that city. Among his chief Works are: “A Reading at Mme. de Sévigné’s,” “Scene of St Bartholomew,” “Henry IV. taken to the Louvre after his Assassination” (1836); “Triumphal Entry of Clovis at Tours” (1838), at the Versailles Museum; “Le Colloque de Poissy” (1840), at the Luxembourg Museum in Paris; “The Children of Louis XVI. in the Temple” (1840); “Marino Faliero”; “An Auto-da-fé,” “Galileo before the Holy Office,” at the Luxembourg Museum; “Christopher Columbus received by the Spanish Court” (1847), at the same gallery; “The Last Moments of Montaigne” (1853); and “Charles V. in the Monastery of Yuste” (1857). He died in Paris in 1890.
His son, Tony Robert-Fleury (1837–), French painter, was born in Paris, and studied under his father and under Delaroche and Léon Coignet. His first picture at the Salon, in 1866, was a large historical composition of the “Warsaw Massacres on April 8, 1861.” In the following year his “Old Women in the Place Navone, Rome” was bought for the Luxembourg Museum, as was also the “Last Day of Corinth” in 1870. In 1880 he painted a ceiling for the Luxembourg, representing “The Glorification of French Sculpture.” Tony Robert-Fleury became president of the Société des Artistes français in succession to Bouguereau. He acquired a great reputation for his historical compositions and portraits; and from his atelier have issued a great number of the best-known painters of our day.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Robert of Auxerre

See also Robert of Auxerre on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​ROBERT OF AUXERRE (c. 1156–1212), French chronicler, was an inmate of the monastery of St Marien at Auxerre. At the request of Milo de Trainel (1155–1202), abbot of this house, he wrote a Chronicon, or universal history, which covers the period between the creation of the world and 1211. For the years previous to 1181 this is merely a compilation from Prosper of Aquitaine, Sigebert of Gembloux and others, but it is an original authority for the period from 1181 to 1211. It is one of the most valuable sources for the history of France during the reign of Philip Augustus, and it also contains information about other European countries, the Crusades and affairs in the East. Molinier, in fact, describes the author as one of the best historians of the middle ages. Robert was evidently a man of great diligence and of sound judgment. Two continuators took the work down to 1228 and it was extensively used by later chroniclers. The original manuscript is now at Auxerre.
The Chronicon was first published by N. Camuzat at Troyes in 1608; the best edition is in Band xxvi. of the Monumenta Germaniae historica. Scriptores, with introduction by A. Holder-Egger. Robert has been identified, but on very questionable grounds, with a certain Robert Abolant, an official of the monastery of St Marien, who died in 1214. See A. Molinier, Les Sources de l'histoire de France, tomes iii. and iv. (1903–1904).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Robert I., king of France

See also Robert I of France on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​ROBERT I. (0 865-923), king of France, or king of the Franks, was the younger son of Robert the Strong, count of Anjou, and the brother of Odo, or Eudes, who became king of the western Franks in 888. Appointed by Odo ruler of several counties, including the county of Paris, and abbot in commend am of many abbeys, Robert also secured the office of duke of the Franks, a military dignity of high importance. He did not claim the crown of France when his brother died in 898; but recognizing the supremacy of the Carolingian king, Charles III., the Simple, he was confirmed in his offices and possessions, after which he continued to defend northern France from the attacks of the Normans. The peace between the king and his powerful vassal was not seriously disturbed until about 921. The rule of Charles, and especially his partiality for a certain Hagano, had aroused some irritation; and, supported by many of the clergy and by some of the most powerful of the Frankish nobles, Robert took up arms, drove Charles into Lorraine, and was himself crowned king of the Franks at Reims on the 29th of June 922. Collecting an army, Charles marched against the usurper, and on the 15th of June 923, in a stubborn and sanguinary battle near Soissons, Robert was killed, according to one tradition in single combat with his rival. Robert left a son, Hugh the Great, duke of the Franks, and his grandson was Hugh Capet, king of France. See F. Lot, Les Derniers Carolingiens (Paris, 1891); and E. Lavisse, Histoire de France, tome ii. (Paris, 1903).