# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Arctic Regions

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​ARCTIC REGIONS (see 21.938).—The discovery of the North Pole by Peary in 1909 put a check on sensational endeavours, and turned exploration of the Arctic regions along more strictly scientific lines.
Greenland.—The exploration of Greenland has been continued, with few exceptions, by Danes who, besides throwing much light on problems in physical geography and Eskimo ethnography, have practically completed the map of the coasts.
In 1910 Knud Rasmussen founded the station of Thule in North Star Bay, Wolstenholme Sound, as a trading station and a base for researches. On April 6 1912, accompanied by P. Freuchen and two Eskimo, he set out with dog sledges from Inglefield Gulf to cross the inland ice in search of E. Mikkelsen, from whom nothing had been heard for three years. Rasmussen reached the head of Danmark Fjord on May 9, travelled down the fjord and up Independence Fjord to Navy Cliff, which he left on Aug. 8 to return across the inland ice. The greatest alt. in the march across the interior was 7,300 ft. This expedition confirmed by cartographical evidence the non-existence of Peary Channel, a fact established by M. Erichsen in 1907 but not known until his records were brought home in 1912. In order to recover M. Erichsen's lost diaries a small expedition in the sloop “Alabama” went to East Greenland in 1909. After wintering at Shannon I., E. Mikkejsen, the leader, and I. Iversen made a journey of 1,400 m. which in length and difficulty was one of the most remarkable Arctic journeys on record. Their course was over the inland ice to Danmark Fjord, where Erichsen's records were found. These included his discovery that Peary Channel does not exist and Mikkelsen therefore had to abandon his plan of returning via the W. coast. After mapping Danmark Fjord he and Iversen returned S. by North-East Cape and the coast, eventually reaching their base, where they had to wait nearly two years for a ship to take them home. In 1912 a Swiss expedition under Dr. A. de Quervain made a successful journey across the southern part of the ice-cap, travelling with the help of dog sledges from Torsukatak. Fjord on Disco Bay to Angmagsalik in about 30 days. Their greatest alt. was 8,364 ft.
In 1913 another traverse was made through the heart of Greenland by Capt. J. P. de Koch, Dr. A. Wegener and a Danish seaman. After a winter on the E. coast near Danmark Harbour, during which they mapped Louise Land, they left their base on April 20 with ponies to draw their sledges, and reached Lakse Fjord near Proven on Aug. I. The greatest alt. on the crossing was 9,500 ft.
The second Thule expedition was led by K. Rasmussen in 1916 for the exploration of the N.W. coast of Greenland. Rasmussen was accompanied by Lauge Koch, Dr. Thorild Wulff, H. Olsen and several Eskimo. After an arduous journey of over 700 m. across the ice-cap from Thule, work was started in the neighbourhood of St. George Fjord. Surveys were carried out to De Long Fjord, where they linked up with previous work of Peary. On the return journey Dr. Wulff and Olsen succumbed to the privation of scanty food and bad weather, and the survivors had difficulty in reaching Etah. This expedition found that Nordenskjold Inlet, the supposed western end of Peary Channel, is only 14 m. long. The inland ice in the N.W. of Greenland was found to extend nearly to the coast: consequently the hunting grounds are poor and there are few traces of Eskimo migration. Rasmussen considered it very doubtful if Eskimo ever succeeded in reaching the E. coast via the N. of Greenland.
A third Thule expedition started in 1920 under the leadership of Lauge Koch, who proposed to explore the interior of Peary Land and to fill in certain gaps in the chart of the N.W. coast of Greenland. The expedition established its headquarters in Inglefield Gulf, and it was expected to stay in the field until 1922.
The American Crocker Land expedition, from its base at Etah, surveyed part of the coast between Etah and Hall Basin in 1914–5 and made an hydrographic survey of Foulke Fjord. Its principal work, however, was in Ellesmere Land.
The American Crocker Land Expedition.—This expedition was sent in 1913 by the American Geographical Society and other bodies in the United States to search for Crocker Land, which had been reported by Peary in 1906 as lying to the W. of Grant Land.
D. B. MacMillan, the leader, had with him W. E. Ekblaw and M. C. Tanquary, naturalists, and Lt. F. Green, cartographer. Failing to reach either Pim I. or Flager Bay in Ellesmere Land, winter quarters were established at Etah, where a meteorological station was maintained throughout the duration of the expedition. In March 1914 MacMillan and Green crossed Smith Sound on the ice, traversed Ellesmere Land, and, passing by Bay Fjord and Nansen Sound, reached Cape Thomas Hubbard. Thence a journey N.W. over rough sea ice for 150 m. failed to reveal any trace of land, and the party returned to Etah by the same route. The farthest point reached was lat. 82 30' N., long. 108 22' 30" W. The members of this expedition made several other long journeys. In 1916 Ekblaw crossed Ellesmere Land from Cape Sabine to Bay Fjord and, passing by Nansen Sound, Greely Fjord and Lake Hazen, reached Fort Conger, Greely's former station on Robeson Channel. He returned to Etah across Kennedy Channel and along the shores of Kane Basin. The same year MacMillan made a long journey to Amund Ringnes I. and Christian I. In 1917 a detailed survey was made of the coast of Ellesmere Land from Cape Sabine to Clarence Head, which considerably altered the charts based on the rough surveys of Inglefield, Kane and Hayes. Several expeditions were sent to relieve the explorers at Etah. The first in 1915 met with an accident, and had to winter in North Star Bay; the second in 1916 failed to get through Melville Bay, but the third in 1917 brought back safely those members of the expedition who had not previously returned via the Danish settlements in Greenland.
Beaufort Sea.—Much exploration has been done in and around the Beaufort Sea, although the greater part of that sea is still a blank on our maps.
The ambitious Anglo-American Arctic expedition of 1906–7 achieved relatively little real polar work except a journey from March to May 1907 by E. de K. Leffingwell, E. Mikkelsen, and S. Storkersen from the coast in long. 149° W. across the sea ice to lat. 72° 3' N., long. 149° 44' W. where they got a sounding of no bottom in 620 fathoms. V. Stefansson, who was nominally a member of the expedition, spent his time with the Eskimo in the Mackenzie delta, learning their habits and language in order to equip himself for future explorations. During 1908–12 V. Stefansson and R. M. Anderson were studying the Eskimo in and around Victoria I., where they discovered the so-called blonde Eskimo, who had never previously encountered white men. Stefansson's successful explorations must be attributed largely to his methods. He lived in Eskimo fashion using only Eskimo diet, which enabled him to travel light and avoid the necessity of falling back on a base for supplies. Similar methods have been employed with equal success by Rasmussen and other Danes in Greenland.
In July 1913 Stefansson sailed from Nome with a large expedition, supported by the Canadian Government, for the exploration of the Beaufort Sea and the N.W. shores of Arctic Canada. Capt. R. A. Bartlett was in command of the chief ship, the “Karluk,” ​and the scientific staff included J. Murray, R. M. Anderson and F. Johansen, naturalists; G. S. Malloch, B. Mamen, and J. J. O'Neill, geologists; H. Beuchat and D. Jenness, anthropologists; W. McKinley and B. M. McConnel, meteorologists; and Dr. Forbes Mackay, surgeon. The “Karluk,” with most of the northern party on board, was caught in the ice 20 m. N.E. of Flaxman I. on Aug. 12. The vessel drifted W. until, Sept. 20, when Stefansson and several men were ashore hunting, it broke away during a heavy gale, drifted with the pack until it was crushed, and sank in lat. 72° 8' N., long. 173° 50' W., 60 m. N.E. of Herald I., on Jan. 11 1914. All hands and ample stores were got safely on to the ice. After the loss of a reconnoitring party sent south, Bartlett decided to await the return of daylight before making a move, but Murray, Forbes Mackay, Beuchat and a sailor, eager to attempt the journey, set off for the land, with Bartlett's permission but contrary to his advice. They were seen some days later and never heard of again. On March 12 the survivors landed on Wrangell I. and a week later Bartlett, accompanied by an Eskimo and his crew and seven dogs, set out for the mainland, 160 m. across the ice, to seek help. He reached the shores of Siberia in 17 days, and travelling along the coast via Cape North, reached Emma Harbour, whence he crossed in a whaler to St. Michael. The “King and Wing” rescued the survivors on Wrangell I., and the “Bear” brought them to Nome. Malloch, Mamen and another man had died on the island. The remainder of the expedition, employing several small sloops, did a great deal of useful work. Stefansson, with two companions and a dog team, left Martin Point, Alaska, on March 22 1914, reached lat. 73° N., long. 140° W., and then turned E. to Banks I., landing near Cape Prince Alfred on June 26 and joining his vessel at Cape Kellett. In Feb. 1915 with three companions, Stefansson reached Prince Patrick I., and completed the charting of the coasts. Pushing on he discovered a new island in Gustav Adolf Sea. In 1916 he reached this island, and discovered a second smaller island N. of Ellef Ringnes I. and a third, also small, E. of the first and N. of Melville Island. Ellef Ringnes I. was found to be two islands, and Christian I. was found to be much smaller than had been supposed. Much survey work was also done in Banks I., Victoria I. and the coasts of Dolphin and Union Straits. In 1918 a severe attack of fever compelled Stefansson to hand over the command for the last season's work to S. Storkersen. Storkersen, setting out from Cross I. on the coast of Alaska, travelled over the sea ice to lat. 73° 58' N., long. 147° 50' W. and then returned to the mainland. This journey practically removed from the map the doubtful Keenan Land (reported vaguely in the seventies of last century), while soundings taken during the drift of the “Karluk” and other journeys of the expedition show a narrow continental shelf, and reduce the probability of land existing in the western part of the Beaufort Sea. On the other hand a sounding of only 275 fathoms, about 100 m. N.W. of Isachsen I., indicates the possible occurrence of land in the eastern part of that sea, although Crocker Land has turned out to be a myth. Stefansson's expedition also brought back many observations in anthropology and geology.
Russian Expeditions.—Several ambitious but ill-equipped Russian expeditions sailed for Arctic regions in 1912, but came to grief and accomplished little or nothing. G. L. Sedoff hoped to make Franz Josef Land a base for a march to the Pole. He left Archangel in the “Phoca” and wintered at the Pankratiev Is. in the N. of Noyaya Zemlya. Next summer the “Phoca” (rechristened the “Suvorin”) reached Hooker I., Franz Josef Land. Sedoff set out for the Pole with two companions and 24 dogs. On the death of the leader in the vicinity of Rudolf I. the journey was abandoned. G. L. Brusilov sailed in July 1912 to attempt the north-east passage in the “Santa Anna.” The vessel was beset in the ice in the Kara Sea in lat. 71 N. and drifted a year and a half to the vicinity of Franz Josef Land. Eleven men left the ship in April 1914 in lat. 83° N., long. 63° E. Two of these reached Cape Flora, where the “Phoca” found them; the others perished on the way. Nothing has since been heard of the ship and the remainder of its crew. V. A. Rusanov in the “Hercules” was last heard of in 1912 in Matochkin Shar on his way to the Kara Sea on a voyage of exploration. The Russian Government in 1914 sent the “Eclipse” under Otto Sverdrup to search for Brusilov and Rusanov. Sverdrup passed through the Kara Sea searching the coast eastward to Taimir Land where he wintered in lat. 74° 45' N., long. 92° E. He was able to be of some service to Vilkitski's expedition wintering about 180 m. to the east, but returned to Archangel in Sept. 1915 without having found any trace of the missing expeditions.
Russian efforts to explore the N. coast of Asia in ice-breakers were far more successful, but unfortunately there is every likelihood of the detailed observations which were sent to the Ministry of Marine having been lost. The “Taimir” and “Vaigach,” which Capt. Sergiev had taken from Petropavlovsk to near Cape Chelyuskin the previous Sept., left Anadir in July 1913 under Comm. B. A. Vilkitski and Comrn. P. A. Novopashennoi for an hydrographic survey of the Arctic coast of Siberia. After charting Chaun Bay the vessels separated, the " Vaigach " following the coast westward and the “Taimir” turning N. for the New Siberia Islands. A small new island was discovered E. of this group and named General Vilkitski Island. Bennett I. was found to be much smaller than had been supposed, and no sign of Sannikov Land (reported on more than one occasion to have been seen from Kotelnoi, New Siberia I.) was discovered on the route to Taimir Land. Here the two vessels met, and continued the coast survey. New land was discovered N.W. of Cape Chelyuskin. Nikolas Land extends from lat. 77° 50' N., long. 99° E., to at least lat. 81° N. It was surveyed on the east, where a landing was made in lat. 80° 04' N. The land rises to 1,500 ft., is heavily glaciated, and in geological structure is similar to the mainland. Between Nikolas Land and the mainland two islands were discovered and named Alexis and Starokadomski, each with a greatest width of about 6 miles. The existence of these lands helps to account for the usual obstruction of pack-ice in the waters of the Nordenskjold Archipelago and the Kara Sea. The vessels being prevented by ice from going farther westward, returned eastward along the N. of the New Siberia Is. to Koliuchin Bay (Sept. 29) and back to Vladivostok. In July 1914 Vilkitski set out again with the same vessels. Ice prevented a search of Wrangell I. for Stefansson's men. A new island was discovered in lat. 76 10' N., long. 153 E., and surveyed. The vessels passed N. of the New Siberia Is., again seeing no sign of Sannikov Land, and reached Cape Chelyuskin late in August. Some further surveys of Nikolas Land were made, but ice conditions were bad. Attempts to push westward failed, and by the middle of Sept. winter quarters were found about 100 m. W. of Cape Chelyuskin, the “Taimir” in lat. 76° 41' N., long. 100° 50' E. and the “Vaigach” in lat. 76° 54' N., long. 100° 13' E. The vessels got clear of the ice, and proceeded early in Aug., passed through the Kara Sea without encountering ice, and reached Archangel in Sept. 1915.
Roald Amundsen.—The long-deferred expedition of Roald Amundsen to the polar basin left Norway in June 1918 in the “Maud,” built on an improved model of the “Fram.”
The first winter was passed near Cape Chelyuskin. From there two men were sent home with dispatches via Siberia, but have not been heard of again. In Sept. 1919 the “Maud” continued her voyage through the ice-encumbered Nordenskjold Sea and Laptev Strait. East of the New Siberia Is. Amundsen pushed his vessel into the pack in order to begin his drift across the Arctic Ocean, but on finding that the current was setting S. he abandoned the attempt for the year, and sought winter quarters at Aion I., Chaun Bay. In July 1920 he arrived at Nome in Alaska having completed the north-east passage. Soon after he left for the north to resume his original plan. The “Maud” may be expected to emerge between Greenland and Spitsbergen not later than 1923. The Norwegian Government has arranged for depots of food to be laid on the N. coasts of Greenland and Grant Land. The work was done in 1920 by the Dane, G. Hansen.
See also the article Spitsbergen.
Claims to Sovereignty.—During the last ten years practically all unclaimed Arctic lands have come under the sovereignty of one or other State. The treaty transferring the Danish West Indies to the United States (1917) contained a clause recognizing Denmark's right to extend her economic and political sphere over the whole of Greenland. Soon after the outbreak of the World War Russia notified a formal claim to the Arctic islands lying N. of Asia. In Aug. 1914 Capt. Isliamov hoisted the Russian flag on Franz Josef Land in anticipation of any claim that Austria might sustain by right of discovery. The Supreme Council in 1919 conferred the sovereignty of Spitsbergen and Bear I. on Norway. All the islands of the American Arctic Archipelago are claimed by Canada.
Bibliography.—F. Nansen, In Northern Mists (1911), throws new light on the early history of Arctic exploration. A bibliography of much use but limited scope is by J. M. Hulth, “Swedish Arctic and Antarctic Explorations,” 1758–1910, K. Svenska Vet. Akad. Årsbok för 1910. Les Expéditions polaires depuis 1800: Liste des États-Major, by J. Denucé (1911) covers both Arctic and Antarctic. A useful general “Map of the Arctic Regions” with a list of authorities, appeared in Bull. Amer. Geog. Soc. 45 (1913). The Danish work in Greenland is recorded mainly in Meddelelser om Grönland; in vol. xli. (1913) G. Amdrup, “Report on the Danmark Expedition, 1906–1908”; in vol. lii. (1915) E. Mikkelsen, “Report on the Alabama Expedition, 1909-1912”; in vol. li. (1915), K. Rasmussen, “Report on the First Thule Expedition, 1912”; in vol. liii. (1917), H. P. Steensby, “An Anthropogeographical Study of the Origin of the Greenland Eskimo.” For other Danish work see K. Rasmussen and others, Grönland langs polhavet, udforskningen af Grönland fra Melvillebugten til Kap Morris Jesup: Skildring af den II. Thule Expedition, 1916–18 (1919), also E. Mikkelsen, Lost in the Arctic (1913). Official reports of the Stefansson expedition in Report of the Dept. of Naval Service, Ottawa, 1915, 1916, 1917 and 1918; also Report of the Canadian Arctic Expedition 1913–18 (10 vols. Ottawa, in course of publication); “The Activities of the Canadian Arctic Expedition from 1916–1918,” V. Stefansson, Geog. Rev. Oct. 1918; V. Stefansson, My Life with the Eskimo (1913), and R. A. Bartlett and R. T. Hale, The Last Voyage of the Karluk (1916). For Vilkitski's work see translation from Russian in Geog. Journal vol. liv. pp. 367–375 (1919) and Pelermanns Mitteilungen, vol. lx.. I, 1914. pp. 197–8. Accounts of the Crocker Land expedition are to be found in the Geog. Rev. from 1913 onwards and in U.S. Naval Inst. Proc. vol. xliii., 1917, and vol. xliv., 1918. F. Nansen, “Spitsbergen ​Waters,” Videnskabs. Selskabets Shrifter No. 2 (Kristiania 1915), contains oceanographical investigations in the Barents and Greenland seas.  (R.N.R.B.)