OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Monologue

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​MONOLOGUE (from Gr. μονός, alone, and λόγος, speech), a passage in a dramatic piece in which a personage holds the scene to himself and speaks unconsciously aloud. The theory of the monologue is that the audience overhears the thoughts of one who believes himself to be alone, and who thus informs them of what would otherwise be unknown to them. The word is also used in cases when a character on the stage speaks at great length, even though not alone, but is listened to in silence by the other characters. The old-fashioned tragedies of the 17th and 18th centuries greatly affected this convention of the monologue, which has always, however, been liable to ridicule. There is something of a lyrical character about the monologue in verse; and this has been felt by some of the classic poets of France so strongly, that many of the examples in the tragedies of Corneille are nothing more or less than odes or cantatas. The monologues of Shakespeare, and those of Hamlet in particular, have a far more dramatic character, and are, indeed, essential to the development of the play. Equally important are those of Racine in Phèdre and in Athalie. The French critics record, as the most ambitious examples of the monologue in two centuries, that of Figaro in Beaumarchais’s Le Mariage de Figaro and that of Charles V. in Victor Hugo’s Hernani, the latter extends to 160 lines. In the Elizabethan drama, the popularity of Kyd’s Spanish Tragedy, in which Hieronymo spouts interminably, set a fashion for ranting monologues, which are very frequent in Shakespeare’s immediate predecessors and contemporaries. After 1600 the practice was much reduced, and the tendency of solitary heroes to pour forth columns of blank verse was held in check by more complex stage arrangements. After the Restoration the classic tragedies of the English playwrights again abused the privilege of monologue to such a degree that it became absurd, and fell into desuetude.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Monongahela

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​MONONGAHELA, a city of Washington county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the Monongahela river, 31 m. by rail S. of Pittsburg. Pop. (1890), 4096; (1900), 5173 (711 foreign-born and 345 negroes); (1910) 7598. It is served by the Pennsylvania and the Pittsburg & Lake Erie railways, and by electric railways to Pittsburg and Washington, Pa. Monongahela is in a coal region, and the mining of coal is its principal industry. It was laid out as a town in 1792 by Joseph Parkinson, and named by him Williamsport; but it was commonly known as Parkinson’s Ferry until 1833, when it was incorporated as a borough. Four years later the present name was adopted, and in 1873 Monongahela was chartered as a city. It was here that the Whisky Insurrection convention met on the 14th of August 1794.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nérac

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​NÉRAC, a town of south-western France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Lot-et-Garonne, 16 m. W.S.W. of Agen by road. Pop. (1906) town, 4018; commune, 6318. The town, once the capital of the dukes of Albret, is divided by the Baise into two parts, Grand-Nérac on the left bank and Petit-Nérac on the right bank. The river is spanned by a bridge of the 16th century, called the Pont Vieux, and by the Pont Neuf, of modern construction. Narrow winding streets often bordered by old houses ascend from the narrow quays on both banks. From the left bank a staircase leads to the Rue Henri Quatre, where stands a wing of the castle in which Henry IV. lived. A statue of the king stands in one of the squares. The former palace of the Chambre des Comptes is now occupied by the tribunal of commerce, the library and the museum. The church of Grand-Nérac of the 18th century and the church of Petit-Nérac of the 19th century offer no remarkable features. On the left bank of the Baise, above Grand-Nérac, market gardens have taken the place of the old gardens of the Sires d’Albret, but remains of the Palais des Mariannes and of the Pavillon des Bains du Roi de Navarre, both of Renaissance architecture, are left. The famous promenade of La Garenne laid out by Antoine de Bourbon, king of Navarre, stretches for more than a mile along the opposite bank of the river. The remains of a Roman villa, including a fragment of mosaic, have been found there. A road leads from the south end of La Garenne to the ruins of the feudal castle of Nazareth. The Château du Tasta of the 15th century is within a short distance of Nérac. The town has a sub-prefecture, and the industries include brewing and cork-working.
Nérac appears at the beginning of the 11th century as a possession of the monks of St Pierre de Condom. The lords of Albret gradually deprived them of their authority over the town, and at the beginning of the 14th century founded a castle on the left bank of the Baise. In the 16th century the castle was the residence of Henry IV. during much of his youth and of ​Marguerite de Valois, sister of Francis I., of Jeanne d’Albret, and of the second Marguerite de Valois, wife of Henry IV., who held a brilliant court there. Nérac, the inhabitants of which had adopted the Reformed religion, was seized by the Catholics in 1562. The conferences, held there at the end of 1578 between the Catholics and Protestants, ended in February 1579 in the peace of Nérac. In 1580 the town was used by Henry IV. as a base for attacks on the Agenais, Armagnac and Guienne. A Chambre de l’Edit for Guienne and a Chambre des Comptes were established there by Henry IV. In 1621, however, the town took part in the Protestant rising, was taken by the troops of Louis XIII. and its fortifications dismantled. Soon after it was deprived both of the Chambre de l’Edit and of the Chambre des Comptes, and its ruin was completed by the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nöldeke, Theodor

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​NÖLDEKE, THEODOR (1836–), German Semitic scholar, was born at Harburg on the 2nd of March 1836, and studied at Göttingen, Vienna, Leiden and Berlin. In 1859 his history of the Koran won for him the prize of the French Académie des Inscriptions, and in the following year he rewrote it in German (Geschichte des Korans) and published it with additions at Göttingen. In 1861 he began to lecture at the university of this town, where three years later he was appointed extraordinary professor. In 1868 he became ordinary professor at Kiel, and in 1872 was appointed to the chair of Oriental languages at Strassburg, which he resigned in 1906. Nöldeke’s range of studies has been wide and varied, but in the main his work has followed the two lines already indicated by his prize essay, Semitic languages, and the history and civilization of Islam. While a great deal of his work (e.g. his Grammatik der neusyrischen Sprache, 1868, his Mandäische Grammatik, 1874, and his translations from the Arabian of Tabarī, 1881–1882) is meant for specialists, many of his books are of interest to the general reader. Several of his essays first appeared in the Encyclopaedia Britannica, and his article on the Koran, with some others, was republished in a volume called Oriental Sketches. The articles dealing with Persia were republished in a German volume, Aufsätze zur persischen Geschichte (Leipzig, 1887). Among his best-known works are: Das Leben Mohammeds (1863); Beiträge zur Kenntnis der Poesie der alten Araber (1864); Die alttestamentliche Literatur (1868); Untersuchungen zur Kritik des Alten Testaments (1869); Zur Grammatik des klassischen Arabisch (1896); Fünf Moʽallaqat, übersetzt und erklärt (1899–1901); and Beiträge zur semitischen Sprachwissenschaft (1904). He has contributed frequently to the Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen Gesellschaft, the Göttingische gelehrte Anzeigen and the Expositor.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nāgārjuna

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​NĀGĀRJUNA, a celebrated Buddhist philosopher and writer. He is constantly quoted in the literature of the later schools of Buddhism, and a very large number of works in Sanskrit is attributed to him. None of these has been critically edited or translated; and there is much uncertainty as to the exact date of his career, and as to his opinions. The most probable date seems to be the early part of the 3rd century A.D.. He seems to have been born in the south of India, and to have lived under the patronage of a king of southern Kosala, the modern Chattisgarh. Chinese and Tibetan authorities differ as to the name of this monarch; but it apparently is meant to represent an Indian name Sātavāhana, which is a dynastic title, not a personal name. Of the works he probably wrote one was a treatise advocating the Mādhyamaka views of which he is the reputed founder; another a long and poetical prose work on the stages of the Bodhisattva career; and a third a voluminous commentary on the Mahādprajñā-pārāmitā Sūtra. Chinese tradition ascribes to him special knowledge of herbs, of astrology, of alchemy and of medicine. Two medical treatises, one on prescriptions in general, the other on the treatment of eye-disease, are said, by Chinese writers, to be by him. Several poems of a didactic character are also ascribed to him. The best known of these poems is The Friendly Epistle addressed to King Udayana. A translation into English of a Tibetan version of this piece has been published by Dr Wenzel.
Authorities.—H. Wenzel, Journal of the Pali Text Society (1866), pp. 1–32; T. Watters, On Yuan Chwāng, ed. by Rhys Davids and S. W. Bushell (London, 1904–1905). Tāranātha’s Geschichte des Buddhismus in Indien, trans. Anton Schiefner (Leipzig, 1869); W. Wassiljew, Der Buddhismus (Leipzig, 1860). (T. W. R. D.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nīrīz

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​NĪRĪZ, or Nairzīz, a district and town in the province of Fars, Persia. The district has 24 villages and extends from near Istahbamat, south of the Bakhtegan lake, to about 50 m. E. Water is scarce and the plain is not much cultivated in consequence. The produce consists of some grain, cotton, tobacco, &c., but fruit is more abundant. Here, as in the neighbouring Darab district, villages situated in the hills are called madan (mine), and some travellers have in their itineraries indicated a mine in localities where there is none.
The town of Nīrīz is situated in a plain 7 m. from the south-eastern point of the lake, and about 130 m. from Shiraz, and has a population of about 9000. The people of Nīrīz were stanch followers of the Báb (see Bābism), and rose against the government in 1850 and in 1852, with disastrous results. Niriz was formerly known for its manufacture of steel from iron ore brought from Parpa, 40 m. E.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Névé

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​NÉVÉ, or Firn, the name given to the partly consolidated masses of snow and ice which form in the hollows on the sides of mountains below the belt of freshly fallen snow and just above the compact glacier-ice. The névé, which generally consists of broad sheets of great beauty, is formed from the freshly fallen snow during a series of alternate thaws and frosts. These processes are accompanied by a gradual descent down the mountain side, during which the névé suffers consolidation, until it becomes compact glacier-ice. The névé is thus the feeding ground of the glacier (q.v.). The word névé (Lat. nix, nivis, snow) is adopted from the French dialect of the French Alps; firn is German, meaning “last year's (snow).”
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nîmes, Councils of

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​NÎMES, COUNCILS OF (Concilia Nemausensia). Of the four councils held at Nîmes those of 886 and 1284 are relatively unimportant. The synod of 394 adopted seven canons on discipline, which were first printed in 1743 and have not as yet ​made their way into the great collections. At the council of July 1096 Pope Urban II. presided, and sixteen disciplinary canons were adopted, which have many points of contact with the canons of the council of Clermont.
See, for the first council of Nîmes, Lauchert. pp. 183-185; for the others, Hardouin vi. 1. 397, vi. 2. 1747 ff., vii. 903 ff.; full titles under Council. (W. W. R.*)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nābigha Dhubyānī

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​NĀBIGHA DHUBYĀNĪ [Ziyād ibn Mu‛awīiyya] (6th and 7th centuries), Arabian poet, was one of the last poets of pre-Islamic times. His tribe, the Bani Dhubyān, belonged to the district near Mecca, but he himself spent most of his time at the courts of Hira and Ghassan. In Hira he remained under Mondhir (Mundhir) III., and under his successor in 562. After a sojourn at the court of Ghassān, he returned to Hira under Nu‛mān. He was, however, compelled to flee to Ghassan, owing to some verses he had written on the queen, but returned again about 600. When Nu‛mān died some five years later he withdrew to his own tribe. The date of his death is uncertain, but he does not seem to have known Islam. His poems consist largely of eulogies and satires, and are concerned with the strife of Hira and Ghassān, and of the Bani Abs and the Bani Dhubyān. He is one of the six eminent pre-Islamic poets whose poems were collected before the middle of the 2nd century of Islam, and have been regarded as the standard of Arabian poetry. Some writers consider him the first of the six.
His poems have been edited by W. Ahlwardt in the Diwans of the six ancient Arabic Poets (London, 1870), and separately by H. Derenbourg (Paris, 1869, a reprint from the Journal asiatique for 1868).  (G. W. T.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pamphilus (teacher)

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​PAMPHILUS, an eminent promoter of learning in the early, church, is said to have been born, of good family, in Phoenicia (Berytus?) in the latter half of the 3rd century. After studying at Alexandria under Pierius, the disciple of Origen, he was ordained presbyter at Caesarea in Palestine. There he established a theological school, and warmly encouraged students; he also founded, or at least largely extended, the great library to which Eusebius and Jerome were afterwards so much indebted. He was very zealous in the transcription and distribution of copies of Scripture and of the works of various Christian writers, especially of Origen; the copy of the complete works of the last-named in the library of Caesarea was chiefly in the handwriting ​of Pamphilus himself. At the outbreak of the persecution under Maximin, Pamphilus was thrown into prison (A.D. 307) and there, along with his attached friend and pupil Eusebius (sometimes distinguished as Eusebius Pamphili), he composed an Apology for Origen, in five books, to which a sixth was afterwards added by Eusebius. He was put to death in 309 by Firmilian, prefect of Caesarea.
Only the first book of the Apology of Pamphilus is extant, and that but in an imperfect Latin translation by Rufinus. It is printed in Lommatzsch’s edition of Origen, vol. xxiv., and in Routh, Rel. sac. iv. 339 (cf. iii. 487,500, fragments). Photius (Codex 118) gives a short survey of the whole. Jerome mentions Letters to friends, and there may have been other works. Eusebius’ memoir of Pamphilus has not survived. See E. Preuschen in Herzog-Hauck’s Realencyklopädie, and A. Harnack, Altchristl. Litteraturgesch. I. 543.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pamplona

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​PAMPLONA, or Pampeluna, the capital of the Spanish province of Navarre, and an episcopal see; situated 1378 ft. above sea-level, on the left bank of the Arga, a tributary of the Ebro. Pop. (1900), 28,886. Pamplona has a station on the Ebro railway connecting Alsasua with Saragossa. From its position it has always been the principal fortress of Navarre. The old outworks have been partly demolished and replaced by modern forts, while suburbs have grown up round the inner walls and bastions. The citadel, south-west of the city, was constructed by order of Philip II. (1556–1598), and was modelled on that of Antwerp. The streets of the city are regular and broad; there are three fine squares or plazas. The most attractive of these is the arcaded Plaza del Castillo, flanked by the hall of the provincial council and by the theatre. The cathedral is a late Gothic structure begun in 1397 by Charles III. (El Noble) of Navarre, who is buried within its walls; of the older Romanesque cathedral only a small portion of the cloisters remains. The fine interior is remarkable for the peculiar structure of its apse, and for the choir-stalls carved in English oak by Miguel Ancheta, a native artist (1530). The principal façade is Corinthian, from designs of Ventura Rodriguez (1783). The same architect designed the superb aqueduct by which the city is supplied with water from Monte Francoa, some nine miles off. The beautiful cloisters on the south side of the cathedral, and the chapter-house beyond them, as well as the old churches of San Saturnino (Gothic) and San Nicolas (Romanesque), are also of interest to the student of architecture. There are also the bull-ring, capable of accommodating 8000 spectators, the pelota court (el Trinquete) and several parks or gardens. The city is well provided with schools for both sexes; it has also a large hospital.
Pamplona has a flourishing agricultural trade, besides manufactures of cloth, linen stuffs, flour, soap, leather, cards, paper, earthenware, iron and nails. The yearly fair in connexion with the feast of San Fermin (July 7), the patron saint of the city, attracts a large concourse from all parts of northern Spain.
Originally a town of the Vascones, Pamplona was rebuilt in 68 B.C. by Pompey the Great, whence the name Pompaelo or Pompelo (Strabo). It was captured by Euric the Goth in 466 and by the Franks under Childebert in 542; it was dismantled by Charlemagne in 778, but repulsed the emir of Saragossa in 907. In the 14th century it was greatly strengthened and beautified by Charles III., who built a citadel on the site now occupied by the Plaza de Toros and by the Basilica de S. Ignacio, the church marking the spot where Ignatius de Loyola received his wound in defending the place against Andre de Foix in 1521. From 1808 it was occupied by the French until taken by Wellington in 1813. In the Carlist War of 1836–40 it was held by the Cristinos, and in 1875–76 it was more than once attacked, but never taken, by the Carlists.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pampero

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​PAMPERO, the cold south-west wind which blows over the great plains of southern Argentina. The term is somewhat loosely applied to any strong south-west wind in that region, but more strictly to a rain squall or thunderstorm arising suddenly in the prevailing currents from north and north-east. Pamperos are experienced at Buenos Aires on an average about a dozen times in the year, chiefly during October, November and January.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pan

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​PAN (common in various forms to many Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Pfanne; it is generally taken to be an early adaptation in a shortened form of Lat. patina, shallow bowl or dish, from patere, to lie open), a term applied to various sorts of open, flat, shallow vessels. Its application has been greatly extended by analogy, e.g. to the upper part of the skull; to variously shaped objects capable of retaining substances, such as that part of the lock in early firearms which held the priming (whence the expression “flash in the pan,” for a premature and futile effort); or the circular metal dish in which gold is separated from gravel, earth, &c., by shaking or washing (whence the phrase “to pan out,” to obtain a good result). Small ice-floes are also called “pans,” and the name is given to a hard substratum of soil which acts as a floor to the surface soil and is usually impervious to water. For “pan” or “pane” in architecture see Half-timber Work.
The Hindostani pān is the betel-leaf, which, mixed with areca-nut, lime, &c., is chewed by the natives of the East Indies.
The common prefix “pan,” signifying universal, all-embracing (Gr. πᾶς, all), is often combined with the names of races, nationalities and religions, conveying an aspiration for the political or spiritual union of all the units of the nation or creed; familiar examples are Pan-Slavonic, Pan-German, Pan-Islamism, Pan-Anglican, Pan-American.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pamphilus (grammarian)

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​PAMPHILUS (1st century A.D.), a Greek grammarian, of the school of Aristarchus. He was the author of a comprehensive lexicon, in 95 books, of foreign or obscure words (γλώτται ήτοι λέξεις), the idea of which was credited to another grammarian, Zopyrion, himself the compiler of the first four books. The work itself is lost, but an epitome by Diogenianus (2nd century) formed the basis of the lexicon of Hesychius. A similar compilation, called Λειμών (“meadow”; cf. the Prata of Suetonius) from its varied contents, dealing chiefly with mythological marvels, was probably a supplement to the lexicon, although some scholars identify them. Pamphilus was one of the chief authorities used by Athenaeus in the Deipnosophists. Suidas assigns to another Pamphilus, simply described as “a philosopher,” a number of works, some of which were probably by Pamphilus the grammarian.
See G. Thilo in Ersch and Gruber’s Allgemeine Encyclopädie, M. Schmidt, appendix to his edition of Hesychius, (1862) vol. iv.; A. Westermann in Pauly's Real-encyclopädie (1848).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pamphilus (painter)

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​PAMPHILUS, a Greek painter of the 4th century, of the school of Sicyon. He was an academic artist, noted for accurate drawing, and obtained such a reputation that not only could he charge his pupils great sums, but he was also successful in introducing drawing in Greece as a necessary part of liberal education.