# Social psychology

Social psychology, a field of psychology, is the scientific study of how people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others. Social psychologists study conditions that cause groups of people to have certain behaviors, actions, and feelings.

## Quotes

* Most social acts have to be understood in their setting, and lose meaning if isolated. No error in thinking about social facts is more serious than the failure to see their place and function.
** Solomon Asch, Social Psychology (1952), p. 61.
* Social organizations are flagrantly open systems in that the input of energies and the conversion of output into further energy input consists of transactions between the organization and its environment.
** Daniel Katz & Robert L. Kahn (1966), The Social Psychology of Organizations. 2d ed. 1978. p. 16-17
* Managers construct, rearrange, single out, and demolish many “objective” features of their surroundings. When people act they unrandomize variables, insert vestiges of orderliness, and literally create their own constraints.
** Karl E. Weick, Social Psychology of Organizing, (1979). p. 243
* How do people cope when they feel uninformed or unable to understand important social issues, such as the environment, energy concerns, or the economy? Do they seek out information, or do they simply ignore the threatening issue at hand? One would intuitively expect that a lack of knowledge would motivate an increased, unbiased search for information, thereby facilitating participation and engagement in these issues— especially when they are consequential, pressing, and self-relevant. However, there appears to be a discrepancy between the importance/self-relevance of social issues and people’s willingness to engage with and learn about them... Ignorance—as a function of the system justifying tendencies it may activate—may, ironically, breed more ignorance. In the contexts of energy, environmental, and economic issues, the authors present 5 studies that (a) provide evidence for this specific psychological chain...and... illustrate the unfortunate consequences of this process for individual action in those contexts that may need it most.
** On the Perpetuation of Ignorance: System Dependence, System Justification, and the Motivated Avoidance of Sociopolitical Information, by Steven Shepherd and Aaron C. Kay, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, (February 2012)
* A burgeoning literature has begun to establish the dynamic relationship between people and the external systems (i.e., governments, institutions) within which they operate... This literature, although diverse, paints a picture of a social animal who acts not like a dispassionate observer and judge of her or his governmental systems, or one who relies on the government and other institutional systems solely for the provision of tangible, physical goods (e.g., safety, roads, water), but of someone who also leans on the government and other organizations to cope with various psychological needs—needs traditionally thought to be handled by the individual alone or, at the very most, via the individual’s connections to others... It has become clear that people turn to their external systems to regulate a number of relational, existential, and epistemic threats... We leveraged this past research to develop a novel explanation for how people’s tendency to trust in their social systems, and outsource their worries and fears to these systems, can lead to the propagation of ignorance in the context of important social issues.
** On the Perpetuation of Ignorance: System Dependence, System Justification, and the Motivated Avoidance of Sociopolitical Information, by Steven Shepherd and Aaron C. Kay, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, (February 2012)
* These findings provide the first experimental evidence that exposure to God influences goal pursuit and suggest that the ever-present cultural reminders of God can be both burden and benefit for self-regulation.
** Divergent Effects of Activating Thoughts of God on Self-Regulation, Kristin Laurin, Aaron C. Kay and Grainne M. Fitzsimons, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, (January 2012)
* When one considers the ubiquity of religious constructs in everyday life and the fact that our findings do not appear to be restricted to the religiously devout, the implications of the current findings are far reaching. From popular and classic works of fiction, to the news media, to everyday conversation, the social world is replete with mentions of God. The current findings suggest that this exposure may have broad societal consequences for fundamental psychological processes of self-regulation, which in turn underlie much of health, happiness, and human productivity.
** Divergent Effects of Activating Thoughts of God on Self-Regulation, Kristin Laurin, Aaron C. Kay and Grainne M. Fitzsimons, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, (January 2012)
* From an evolutionary perspective, the emotional rewards that people experience when they help others may serve as a proximate mechanism that evolved to facilitate prosocial behavior, which may have carried short-term costs but long-term benefits for survival over human evolutionary history. The robustness of this mechanism is supported by our finding that people experience emotional benefits from sharing their financial resources with others not only in countries where such resources are plentiful, but also in impoverished countries where scarcity might seem to limit the possibilities to reap the gains from giving to others... In highlighting the potential universality of emotional benefits stemming from prosocial spending, the present research adds to the chorus of recent interdisciplinary findings documenting the importance of generosity for human well-being.
** Prosocial Spending and Well-Being: Cross-Cultural Evidence for a Psychological Universal by Lara B. Aknin, Christopher P. Barrington-Leigh, Elizabeth W. Dunn, John F. Helliwell, Justine Burns, Robert Biswas-Diener, Imelda Kemeza, Paul Nyende, Claire E. Ashton-James, and Michael I. Norton, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, (April 2013)
* Awe arises in evanescent experiences. Looking up at the starry expanse of the night sky. Gazing out across the blue vastness of the ocean. Feeling amazed at the birth and development of a child. Protesting at a political rally or watching a favorite sports team live. Many of the experiences people cherish most are triggers of the emotion we focused on here — awe. Our investigation indicates that awe, although often fleeting and hard to describe, serves a vital social function. By diminishing the emphasis on the individual self, awe may encourage people to forego strict self-interest to improve the welfare of others.
** Awe, the Small Self, and Prosocial Behavior, by Paul K. Piff, Pia Dietze, Matthew Feinberg, Daniel M. Stancato, and Dacher Keltner, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, (June 2015)
* In summary, the present research revealed both positive and negative aspects of parents’ aspiration for their children’s academic performance. Although parental aspiration is an important vehicle through which children’s academic potential can be realized, excessive parental aspiration can be poisonous... Excessive parental control or parental over involvement could be factors that may mediate the negative relation between parental overaspiration and children’s achievement.
** Don't Aim Too High for Your Kids: Parental Overaspiration Undermines Students' Learning in Mathematics by Kou Murayama, Reinhard Pekrun, Masayuki Suzuki, Herbert W. Marsh, and Stephanie Lichtenfeld, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, (November 2016)
* Glucose is the main energy fuel supporting the brain's functions and the ingestion of even small doses can improve cognitive functioning... The authors conclude that older adults' preference for positive information is so potent that it can guide the way energy resources are used to support goals relating to positivity. The study is the first to demonstrate that a simple dietary intervention — providing a small dose of glucose — can help older adults retain their positivity even when faced with challenging task conditions.
** Food for Happy Thought: Glucose Helps Older Adults Retain a Positive Mindset American Psychological Association Journal, Psychology and Aging (20 September 2017)
* We find that audiences believe moral commitments should not be broken, and thus that they deride as hypocritical leaders who claim a moral commitment and later change their views. Moreover, they view them as less effective and less worthy of support.
** Hypocritical Flip-Flop, or Courageous Evolution? When Leaders Change Their Moral Minds by Tamar A. Kreps, Kristin Laurin, and Anna C. Merritt, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (November 2017)
* We addressed the question of whether behaviors in school have any long-lasting effects for one‘s later life. Specifically, we investigated the role of being a responsible student, interest in school, writing skills, and reading skills in predicting educational attainment, occupational prestige, and income 11 years... and 50 years... after high school... We found that student characteristics and behaviors in adolescence predicted later educational and occupational success above and beyond parental socioeconomic status, IQ, and broad personality traits. Having higher interest in school was related to higher educational attainment at years 11 and 50, higher occupational prestige at year 11, and higher income at year 50. Higher levels of being a responsible student were related to higher educational attainment and higher occupational prestige at years 11 and 50.
** How You Behave in School Predicts Life Success Above and Beyond Family Background, Broad Traits, and Cognitive Ability, by Marion Spengler, Rodica Ioana Damian, and Brent W. Roberts, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (April 2018)
* Research by a team of Canadian psychologists recently published in the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology suggests that all leaders can actually be divided into two types. The research was built on a simple observation: There are two ways to get ahead. You can dominate people by making them fear you or you can win their loyalty with your intelligence and kindness. The first type of leader tended to adopt a stereotypical "power pose"...Essentially, they intimidate people into following them...Instead of looking down with a scowl, the other type of leader looked up with a smile. These folks were also seen as leaders, but they were viewed as caring and competent rather than dominating. They gained followers through prestige, which they developed by demonstrating their expertise and helping people.
** New Study: There Are 2 Types of Leaders and You Can Spot Them by How They Stand, Jessica Stillman, Inc. (13 Feb 2020)

## See also

* Cognitive psychology
* Industrial and organizational psychology
* Social organization

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