OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Hacking NEC PC Games/Understanding Game Disks
## Structure of a Game Disk

The structure of a disk (called it's "geometry") is determined when it formatted. Disk geometry elements include sides, tracks, and sectors.
* sectors (also called "cylinders") are the lowest level of disk organization. The bytes within a disk are evenly divided into sectors, each with their own number. Sector sizes matter because a given file must consist of at least one sector, thus for each file on the disk needs its own sector and takes up at least that many bytes. Common sector sizes for game disks include 128, 256, and 512 bytes. (128 bytes is the absolute minimum the hardware will permit).
* tracks (also called "heads") are groupings of sectors. There are usually 18 sectors per track, of which there may be anywhere from 40 to 320 tracks depending on the size of the sectors and the disk.
* sides are the highest level of disk organization, and simply refer to the top and bottom sides of the disk, either of which may contain tracks and sectors. If a disk has two sides, half the tracks will on top and the other half on the bottom.

## Layout of a Game Disk
### Master Boot Sector

If the disk is a system disk, it will begin with a master boot sector (MBR) containing an interrupt service table, the location of the root directory (expressed as a sector ordinal), and a pointer to the start of the operating system (also as a sector ordinal). The master boot sector may actually contain more than one sector, but there will never been sectors (or files) in between parts of the MBR.

### File Attribution Table

If files on the disk have parts that are non-contiguous, or there is the potential for this, a file attribution table (FAT) may exist after the MBR (if there is one). These are generally similar to those created by MS-DOS for floppies. If the disk has a FAT but is not a system disk, the FAT will be the first thing on the disk. The FAT is an accounting of the positions of files on disk (in terms of sector) and the specific sectors they inhabit.

### Root

The root directory is the top of the files hierarchy and all other files are contained either within it or in sub-directories inside of it. If the disk is not a system disk and has no FAT, the root will be the first thing on the disk. The root directory consists of a list of all files within it, their positions either in the FAT (if it exists) or directly on the disk (in terms of sector and possibly track and head), and their respective lengths (in terms of absolute size, and sectors inhabited).

### Sub-directories and files

* Files are the most basic unit of data the operating system can retrieve. Files consist of sectors, the organization of which may be described in a FAT.
* Sub-directories are named collections of files. Nominally containers of files, they are in fact files in their own right, and are present in the FAT if there is one. Their structure is identical to that of the root directory.

### File Attribution Table Copy

If a FAT exists it may have a backup copy, usually halfway through the disk but sometimes immediately after the original.
# Open Scholarship Policy Observatory (Volume 1)/Three Defining Statements on Open Access: Budapest, Bethesda and Berlin

In 2002 and 2003, three major statements were released which offered definitions of open access. Peter Suber has referred to these statements as the “BBB definition” of open access, and they have fundamentally shaped the Open Access movement. These statements are:
* The Budapest Open Access Initiative, February 2002 (our PDF copy)
* The Bethesda Statement on Open Access Publishing, June 2003 (our PDF copy)
* The Berlin Declaration on Open Access to Knowledge in the Sciences and Humanities, October 2003 (our PDF copy)
# Character Encodings/Code Tables/Windows

* Code page 1169
* Code page 1361 (FreeDOS) (Latin-3)
* Code page 58595
* Code page 58596
* Code page 58598
# C Shell Scripting/Passwords

This chapter shows an example script, a password generator.
Source code:
Lessons:
* C shell doesn't have an easy way to calculate a random number like Bourne shell.
* Backslashes are required to put statements are multiple lines.
* Arrays are base one.
* Extracting the first character of a string is not built-in and requires extra work.
# AQA A-Level Physics

$_{<A-levelPhysics}$
This book is designed to help students who are studying the AQA Specification A syllabus to understand the topics covered, as well as explaining the way in which questions are asked in exams and how they differ from other examining bodies. Edited for the new Syllabus - from 2016)

## AS Topics
### Measurements and their Errors

* Use of SI Units
* Limitation of Physical Measurements
* Estimation of Physical Quantities
* Scalars and vectors

### Particles and Radiation

* Atomic structure
* Particles and Anti-particles
** Constituents of the particle
** Forces
** Particle-Antiparticle interactions
** Creation and annihilation
** Creation and annihilation 2
** Conserving and illustrating interactions
* Quarks and sub-atomic particles

### Electromagnetic Radiation and Quantum Phenomena

* The photoelectric effect
* The photon
* Energy Levels and Spectra
* Mass and energy
* Waves and particles

### Waves

* Progressive waves
* Longitudinal and transverse waves
* Superposition and Stationary Waves
* Interference
* Diffraction
* Reflection, refraction and optics

### Mechanics

* Scalars and vectors
* Moments
* Motion along a straight line
* Projectile motion
* Newton's laws of motion
* Momentum
* Work, energy and power
* Conservation of energy

### Materials

* Density
* Springs
* Deformation of Solids
* Momentum
* Materials Summary Page

### Current Electricity

* Charge and Current
* Voltage and Power
* IV Characteristics
* Resistivity
* Circuits
* Potential divider
* EMF and Internal resistance

## A2 Only Content
### Further Mechanics

* Circular Motion
* Simple Harmonic Motion
* Forced Vibrations, Damping and Resonance

### Thermal Physics

* Thermal energy
* Ideal gases
* Molecular kinetic theory model

### Fields

* Gravitational Fields
* Electric Fields
* Capacitance
* Magnetic Fields
* Alternating currents
* Oscilloscope
* Comparison of Fields

### Thermal Physics

Specific Heat Capacity
Latent Heats
Gas Laws
Kinetic Theory

### Radioactivity

* Evidence for the nucleus
* Alpha, Beta and Gamma radiation
* Radioactive decay
* Nuclear Instability
* Nuclear Radius

### Nuclear Energy

* mass and energy
* Induced fission
* Safety aspects
* Binding Energy

## Optional Topics

Pupils study one of these:

### Astronomy and Cosmology

* Telescopes
** Astronomical Telescopes with Two Converging Lenses
** Reflecting Telescopes
** Single Dish Telescopes (Radio, IR, UV, X-ray)
** Large Diameter Telescopes and their Merits
* Classification of Stars
** Luminosity
** Absolute Magnitude
** Temperature
** Spectral Classes
** HR Diagram
** Supernovae, Neutron Stars, and Black Holes
* Cosmology
** Doppler Effect
** Hubble's Law
** Quasars
** Detection of Exoplanets

### Turning Points in Physics
## General Resources

* List of formulas
* Past paper questions
# Digital Electronics/Logic NAND
## Logic NAND

NAND gates are one of the two basic logic gates (the other being NOR gates) from which any other logic gates can be built. Due to this property, NAND and NOR gates are sometimes called "universal gates". However, modern integrated circuits are not constructed exclusively from a single type of gate. Instead, EDA tools are used to convert the description of a logical circuit to a netlist of complex gates (standard cells) or transistors (full custom approach).

## Combinational Gates
### NOT

A NOT gate is made by joining the inputs of a NAND gate. Since a NAND gate is equivalent to an AND gate followed by a NOT gate, joining the inputs of a NAND gate leaves only the NOT part.
Truth Table :
| Desired Gate | NAND Construction |
| Truth Table Input AOutput Q 01 10 ||

### AND

An AND gate is made by following a NAND gate with a NOT gate as shown below. This gives a NOT NAND, i.e. AND.
Truth Table :
| Desired Gate | NAND Construction |
| Truth Table Input AInput BOutput Q 000 010 100 111 ||

### OR

If the truth table for a NAND gate is examined or by applying De Morgan's Laws, it can be seen that if any of the inputs are 0, then the output will be 1. However to be an OR gate, if any input is 1, the output must also be 1. Therefore, if the inputs are inverted, any high input will trigger a high output.
Truth Table :
| Desired Gate | NAND Construction |
| Truth Table Input AInput BOutput Q 000 011 101 111 ||

### NOR

A NOR gate is simply an OR gate with an inverted output:
Truth Table :
| Desired Gate | NAND Construction |
| Truth Table Input AInput BOutput Q 001 010 100 110 ||

### XOR

An XOR gate is made by connecting four NAND gates as shown below. This effectively represents the formula: (A NAND (A NAND B)) NAND (B NAND (A NAND B)).
Truth Table :
| Desired Gate | NAND Construction |
| Truth Table Input AInput BOutput Q 000 011 101 110 ||

### XNOR

An XNOR gate is constructed using five NAND gates. Three of the gates are connected in an OR topology. A logical expression for this arrangement is ((A OR B) NAND (A NAND B)).
Truth Table :
| Desired Gate | NAND Construction |
| Truth Table Input AInput BOutput Q 001 010 100 111 ||

## External links

* Using Logic Gates

## Reference

* Floyd, Thomas, L. (1997), Digital Fundamentals (6th ed.), Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, ISBN 0133984885.
* ↑ "Understanding Digital Electronics: An In-Depth Exploration". digital electronics led lcd tv service center. Retrieved 2024-12-19.
# Engineering Acoustics/Characterizing Damped Mechanical Systems
## Characterizing Damped Mechanical Systems

Characterizing the response of Damped Mechanical Oscillating system can be easily quantified using two parameters. The system parameters are the resonance frequency ($'''wresonance'''$ and the damping of the system $'''Q(qualityfactor)orB(TemporalAbsorption''')$. In practice, finding these parameters would allow for quantification of unknown systems and allow you to derive other parameters within the system.
Using the mechanical impedance in the following equation, notice that the imaginary part will equal zero at resonance.
($Z_{m}=F/u=R_{m}+j(w*M_{m}-s/w)$)
Resonance case:($w*M_{m}=s/w$)

## Calculating the Mechanical Resistance

The decay time of the system is related to 1 / B where B is the Temporal Absorption. B is related to the mechanical resistance and to the mass of the system by the following equation.
$B=Rm/2*Mm$
The mechanical resistance can be derived from the equation by knowing the mass and the temporal absorption.

## Critical Damping

The system is said to be critically damped when:
$Rc=2*M*sqrt(s/Mm)=2*sqrt(s*Mm)=2*Mm*wn$
A critically damped system is one in which an entire cycle is never completed. The absorption coefficient in this type of system equals the natural frequency. The system will begin to oscillate, however the amplitude will decay exponentially to zero within the first oscillation.

## Damping Ratio

$DampingRatio=Rm/Rc$
The damping ratio is a comparison of the mechanical resistance of a system to the resistance value required for critical damping. Rc is the value of Rm for which the absorption coefficient equals the natural frequency (critical damping). A damping ratio equal to 1 therefore is critically damped, because the mechanical resistance value Rm is equal to the value required for critical damping Rc. A damping ratio greater than 1 will be overdamped, and a ratio less than 1 will be underdamped.

## Quality Factor

The Quality Factor (Q) is way to quickly characterize the shape of the peak in the response. It gives a quantitative representation of power dissipation in an oscillation.
$Q=wresonance/(wu-wl)$
Wu and Wl are called the half power points. When looking at the response of a system, the two places on either side of the peak where the point equals half the power of the peak power defines Wu and Wl. The distance in between the two is called the half-power bandwidth. So, the resonant frequency divided by the half-power bandwidth gives you the quality factor. Mathematically, it takes Q/pi oscillations for the vibration to decay to a factor of 1/e of its original amplitude.
Back to Main page
# A Link Rot Bestiary/Chapter 3 : Soft 404

Soft 404 is a URL that serves content different from the original. For example, http://www.foxnews.com/us/2009/09/13/tennis-great-jack-kramer-dead/ redirects to https://www.foxnews.com/us
Soft 404s most commonly manifest as redirects, as in the foxnews example. However they can also be static pages where the content has changed, this is called content drift. The classic example is a weather reports. Other examples are sports scores, and financial prices.
Soft 404s can be domain name squatters, blank pages, content management changes, spam sites, bot blockers, rate limiters; the possibilities are endless. Conceptually, the page is returning a status of 200, but is also not returning the intended content, in-effect a 404 and thus "soft".

## Detection methods

Soft 404s are notoriously difficult to detect. This section describes some methods.

### Key phrases

Downloading the HTML content of a page and searching for known key phrases like "No page found". This method has limitations because of the wide variety of phrases in English, much less many other languages in the world.

### URL analysis

URLs can be analyzed for soft 404s. In the above foxnews.com example, it is apparent the redirect URL has a much shorter path than the original URL. Likewise if a URL itself contains "404" such as .com/404.htm

### Logging rules

Soft 404s are most often the result of redirects. This is because websites make changes but fail to leave a redirect, rather defaulting everything to a home page (foxnews.com example above). Knowing this, it is possible to query a large number of URLs within a single domain, and record the source URL and redirect URL in a 2-column table. It might look like:
    <source URL 1> <redirect URL 1>
    <source URL 2> <redirect URL 2>
    <source URL 3> <redirect URL 1>
    <source URL 4> <redirect URL 4>
    <source URL 5> <redirect URL 1>
Here we see in column 2, the "redirect URL 1" repeats 3 times. This is a strong signal of a soft 404. Once the soft 404 table is generated, rules can be added so the next time it runs it knows to treat as a dead link.

### Third party packages

Third party packages for soft 404 detection:
* "soft404: a classifier for detecting soft 404 pages", machine learning
# Deutsch

* German - the German wikibook, a free textbook for learning the German language
* Deutschkurs für Anfänger - a german course for absolute beginners
* German for tourists - this wikibook is aimed at teaching the basics of German to travellers visiting Germany who do not know the language
* Freistil - annotated german texts
* BLL German - the Bite-sized Language Lessons for German
# Character Encodings/Code Tables/MS-DOS/Code page 906
## Code page 906

Code page 906 (CCSID 906) is a code page used by the IBM 3812, like code page 907. It is a modification of Code page 850.
Each character appears with its equivalent Unicode code-point.
Code page 906 :
| | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | A | B | C | D | E | F |
| 8x 128 | Ç 00C7 | ü 00FC | é 00E9 | â 00E2 | ä 00E4 | à 00E0 | å 00E5 | ç 00E7 | ê 00EA | ë 00EB | è 00E8 | ï 00EF | î 00EE | ì 00EC | Ä 00C4 | Å 00C5 |
| 9x 144 | É 00C9 | æ 00E6 | Æ 00C6 | ô 00F4 | ö 00F6 | ò 00F2 | û 00FB | ù 00F9 | ÿ 00FF | Ö 00D6 | Ü 00DC | ø 00F8 | £ 00A3 | Ø 00D8 | × 00D7 | ƒ 0192 |
| Ax 160 | á 00E1 | í 00ED | ó 00F3 | ú 00FA | ñ 00F1 | Ñ 00D1 | | | ¿ 00BF | | ¬ 00AC | ½ 00BD | ¼ 00BC | ¡ 00A1 | « 00AB | » 00BB |
| Bx 176 | œ 0153 | Œ 0152 | Ÿ 0178 | | | Á 00C1 | Â 00C2 | À 00C0 | | ‘ 2018 | ’ 2019 | “ 201C | ” 201D | ¢ 00A2 | ¥ 00A5 | |
| Cx 192 | | | | | | | ã 00E3 | Ã 00C3 | FSP 2007 | | | ≤ 2264 | ≥ 2265 | ≠ 2260 | | ¤ 00A4 |
| Dx 208 | | | Ê 00CA | Ë 00CB | È 00C8 | | Í 00CD | Î 00CE | Ï 00CF | | | Ŀ 013F | ŀ 0140 | ¦ 00A6 | Ì 00CC | ĳ 0133 |
| Ex 224 | Ó 00D3 | ß 00DF | Ô 00D4 | Ò 00D2 | õ 00F5 | Õ 00D5 | µ 00B5 | | | Ú 00DA | Û 00DB | Ù 00D9 | | | | |
| Fx 240 | SHY 00AD | ± 00B1 | | ¾ 00BE | ¶ 00B6 | § 00A7 | ÷ 00F7 | | ° 00B0 | | · 00B7 | ¹ 00B9 | ³ 00B3 | ² 00B2 | ■ 25A0 | NBSP 00A0 |
Symbols and punctuation  Differences from code page 850

## References

* ↑ "IBM i Globalization: Code pages". Archived from the original on 16 July 2012.
* ↑ "Code Page 906" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-01-21.
# Minesweeper/Game Patterns

To become proficient at the game you must learn to recognize patterns in the playing field. In the following text:
* c = left click
* m = mine
* n = any number
* w = wall
* x = don't know/don't care

## Line patterns
### Pattern: Row of Ones

Given :
Play :
# Hacking NEC PC Games
## Who this book is for

This book may be of interest to you if you are wanting
* to hack a NEC PC game to change the way it plays
* to translate a NEC PC game into a different language
* to extract or replace NEC PC game assets
* to have an idea of how your own NEC PC game might be structured
The techniques in this book are broadly applicable to PC games made in Japan before Windows 3.1.

## Topics covered

* common program designs of NEC PC games
* memory management in NEC PC games
* algorithms commonly used in NEC PC games
* common tools for hacking NEC PC games

## Table of contents

* Game Analysis
* Recognizing play modes
* Elements of a NEC PC Game
* Memory Layout of NEC PC Games
* Understanding the Operating System
* Understanding Game Disks
* How to hack NEC PC Games
* Moving assets to HDD
* Figuring out Image Formats
* Area formats and Dialogue
# Chess Opening Theory/1. g4
## 1. g4?! · Grob's Attack

Grob's Attack is generally considered to be one of the worst starting moves, and is possibly the single worst starting move, for White. However, if White knows enough theory and Black is caught by surprise, this opening can be playable even at relatively high levels. An unprepared player with Black can be led into dangerous territory, especially if they fixate on attempting to win the g4-pawn early.
With decent play from Black and slight inaccuracies by White, Black can establish a relatively large or even decisive advantage. White’s move significantly compromises their kingside's pawn structure, and places the g-pawn on an unusual square that is difficult to defend without giving Black the initiative and compromising the kingside further, as well as making kingside castling severely disadvantageous. Some players argue that, as compensation, White influences more kingside space and can fianchetto the kingside bishop, contributing to influence across the board, as well as discouraging ... Nf6 due to g5 kick. The general plan and idea is similar to the Polish Opening mirrored horizontally. But, kingside space is usually completely ignored since f5, g5, and h5 are rarely played by Black, and Black may just develop the kingside knight to e7, avoiding the kick threat. Also, Black can occupy and take control of the centre, and continually threaten the pawn, gaining initiative.
There are no major lines in Grob’s Attack. Play tends to vary between Grob's Gambit, 1. ... d5 2. h3, e3, g5, or c4, and there are not many officially named lines. As an example for this, one of the most commonly played officially named Grob variations is called the Coca-Cola Gambit.

## Statistics

No statistics as 1. g4?! occurs extremely rarely among serious chess players.

## Stockfish Line

Stockfish 17 - 79MB - Depth 22: 1. g4 d5 2. c4 Bxg4 3. Bg2 Nf6 4. cxd5 c6 5. h3 Bh5 6. dxc6 Nxc6 7. Qa4 Rc8 8. Nc3 e5 9. Nf3 Bd6 10. d3 O-O 11. Be3 Bb4 12. O-O Bxc3 13. bxc3 h6 14. Rfe1 b6 15. Rab1 Nd5 16. Bd2 Qd6 17. Qh4 Nf4 18. Bxf4 Bxf3 19. Bd2 Bxg2 20. Kxg2 Ne7 21. c4 Ng6 22. Qe4 f5 23. Qd5+ Qxd5+ 24. cxd5 Rc2 25. Red1 Kf7 -0.4

## Theory table

| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 |
| g4?! d5 | Bg2 c6 | h3 e5 | d4 e4 | c4 Bd6 | =/+ |
| ... ... | ... Bxg4!? | c4 c6 | cxd5 cxd5 | Qb3 | -+ |
| ... e5 | d3 d5 | Bg2 Nc6 | h3 Nge7 | -+ |

## All possible Black's moves

| Quick Navigation | Na6 a6 a5 | b6 b5 | Nc6 c6 c5 | d6 d5 | e6 e5 | Nf6 f6 f5 | g6 g5 | Nh6 h6 h5 |

## References

* Michael Basman (1989). The Killer Grob. Pergamon chess openings. ISBN 0080371310.
* Claude Bloodgood (2010). The Tactical Grob. Ishi Press. ISBN 487187866X.
* Kasparov, Garry, & Keene, Raymond 1989 Batsford chess openings 2. ISBN 0-8050-3409-9.
For explanation of theory tables, see theory table and for notation, see algebraic notation.
When contributing to this Wikibook, please follow the Conventions for organization.
# Grob's Attack
## 1...d5

Black responds by taking up central space as well as threatening capture on g4. This is a sound response to 1. g4, as opposed to the more instinctual 1...e5. Although White’s g4 pawn is at risk, they can also just sacrifice it, in return receiving an improvement in their position through development, though Black will still be in a much better position. As a result, 2. Bg2 is commonly played, to which Black most commonly responds 2...c6, protecting the d5-pawn although it it is already protected by Black's queen, or 2...Bxg4, gaining the pawn at the cost of a slight loss of time as well as developing the queenside bishop.

## Statistics

No stats as 1. g4 occurs rarely among serious chess players.

## Theory table

For explanation of theory tables, see theory table and for notation, see algebraic notation.
1.g4
| 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
| Bg2 c6 | h3 e5 | d4 e4 | c4 Bd6 | =/+ |
| h3 |
When contributing to this Wikibook, please follow the Conventions for organization.

## References

* Michael Basman (1989). The Killer Grob. Pergamon chess openings. ISBN 0080371310.
* Kasparov, Garry, & Keene, Raymond 1989 Batsford chess openings 2. ISBN 0-8050-3409-9.
# History of wireless telegraphy and broadcasting in Australia/Topical/Biographies/Harold Learmonth Hobler
### Harold Learmonth Hobler
#### Potted Biography

* Hobler, Harold Learmonth "Hal" - 1906(Qld)-1984(Qld) - Licences: 1217 Rockhampton (1921-1924); 4DO Receive Rockhampton (1923-1924); 4DO Rockhampton (1925-1939, 1946-1980+) - Qualifications: cc; AOCP 110, 1925, No. 12 in Qld; CPRT 1003, 1928 - amateur operator; amateur broadcaster; radio club (WIAQ, JOTA); business proprietor (picture theatre); WW2 (Army, CMF, 1940-1947) - QSLs: Remnant of QSL collection (250+) acquired ex Ebay by SSD & donated to NFSA Canberra as part of the Adrian Peterson/ARDXC Heritage QSL Collection - Relationships: Cousin of Cecil Forde Hobler - Electoral Rolls: theatre manager (Rockhampton, 1930-1937); theatre proprietor (Rockhampton, 1943); soldier (Bulimba, 1943); theatre proprietor (Rockhampton, 1949); theatre manager (Rockhampton, 1958-1963); property owner (Rockhampton North, 1968-1977) - TroveTag: "1217-4DO - Harold Learmonth Hobler"

#### Comprehensive Biography

A comprehensive biography of Harold Learmonth Hobler has not yet been prepared for this Wikibook, however the following resources have been assembled in preparation:
* Research - Harold Learmonth Hobler - Summary of research to date
* Transcriptions and Notes - Harold Learmonth Hobler - More than 180 transcriptions (Reads like a biography)
* Photos, QSL cards and other graphics - Harold Learmonth Hobler - Nothing uploaded as yet, but many relevant QSLs held
* Incubator of Wikipedia Article on Harold Learmonth Hobler - Coming real soon now!
Key internet links:
Nothing identified as yet