OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Futurebasic/Language/Reference/sound frequency
## SOUND <frequency>
### Syntax

SOUND pitch,duration [,[volume][,async]]

### Description

This statement plays a tone of the given pitch, duration and volume.
The pitch is expressed as a frequency in cycles per second. The frequency that you specify is converted to the nearest "MIDI note value," which determines the actual note that's played. Middle "C" corresponds to a frequency of 261.625.
The duration is expressed in ticks, and can range from 0 to 32,767. However, the toolbox sound commands require FB to translate the ticks into an integer to represent half-milliseconds. This means you can play a note that is no longer than 32.8 seconds.
The volume can range from 0 through 127. Specifying 0 will result in silence, and 127 will play the sound at the maximum volume specified in the "Sound" control panel. If you omit this parameter, it is treated as 127.
If async is _zTrue, the sound will play asynchronously. If async is _false, or you omit the parameter, the sound plays synchronously. When you play asynchronously, your program starts executing the next statement immediately while the sound is playing in the background. When you play synchronously, the next statement in your program does not execute until the sound has finished playing.
If you are playing notes asynchronously, and your execute a second SOUND statement while another sound is still playing in the background, the new sound won't start playing until the first sound finishes. Note that on some machines, this technique can result in lost sounds. When playing asynchronously it's better to use the SOUND% function to determine when one sound has ended, before attempting to play the next sound.
One way to play sound frequencies is to use negative numbers (from -1 through -127) to represent the note that you wish to play. The table below shows how to use these values.
Image was here
Using the midi table for a guideline, we can create a version of "pop goes the weasel" as follows:

### See Also

SOUND%; SOUND END; SOUND<snd>
# Futurebasic/Language/Reference/spacestring
## SPACE$
### Syntax

stringOfSpaces$ = SPACE$(numChars)

### Description

Returns a string consisting of numChars space characters. numChars must be in the range 0 through 255. SPACE$(0) returns an empty (zero-length) string.

### See Also

PRINT; STRING$
# Futurebasic/Language/Reference/sizeof
## SIZEOF
### Syntax

dataSize = SIZEOF({var|typeName|ptrType^|hdlType^^})

### Description

This function returns the number of bytes of memory allocated for a particular variable var, or the number of bytes allocated for each variable of a particular specified type.
If you specify typeName, it should either be the name of a type defined previously in your program (in a BEGIN RECORD statement or a #DEFINE statement), or the name of one of FutureBasic's built-in types (such as INT, LONG, RECT, etc.). SIZEOF returns the size of a variable of that type.
If you specify ptrType^, then ptrType should be the name of a type which was previously declared to be a pointer to some other type (in a #DEFINE statement). In this case, SIZEOF returns the size of the type that ptrType points to. Note that if you omit the "^" symbol, SIZEOF(ptrType) just returns the size of a pointer variable (usually 4).
If you specify hdlType^^, then hdlType should be the name of a type which was previously declared to be a handle to some other type (in a #DEFINE statement). In this case, SIZEOF returns the size of the type referenced by hdlType. Note that if you omit the "^^" symbols, SIZEOF(hdlType) just returns the size of a handle variable (usually 4).

### Note

SIZEOF(stringVar$) returns the number of bytes reserved in memory for the string variable stringVar$. This is not the same thing as LEN(stringVar$).
If a variable handleVar contains the handle to a relocatable block (of a possibly unknown type), you can use the Toolbox function GETHANDLESIZE to determine the size of the block.

### See Also

TYPEOF; LEN; BEGIN RECORD; #DEFINE
# Futurebasic/Language/Reference/sound snd
## SOUND <snd>
### Description

This statement plays a synthesized sound which is in the "snd" format. The soundIDstring$ parameter identifies the sound you want to play; you can construct this string in any of the following ways:
* By resource name: Set soundIDstring$ to the name of an "snd " resource in a currently open resource file. Don't use a resource name that begins with "%" or with "&", or it will be confused with the other forms discussed below.
* By resource ID number: If %myResID is the resource ID number of an "snd " resource in a currently open resource file, you can prefix the number with a percent sign:
SOUND %myResID
* By "snd " handle: If &mySoundHandle& is a handle to a sound in "snd " format, you can construct the soundIDstring$ parameter as follows:
SOUND &mySoundHandle&
If FB needs to load a resource to play the sound, it does not automatically release the resource after the sound stops. In this case, you should either use purgeable "snd " resources, or you should execute the SOUND END statement to force the resource to be released.
Sounds played using the SOUND <snd> statement are always played asynchronously; that is, your program continues to the next statement immediately, while the sound is playing in the background. However, if you execute a second SOUND <snd> statement while a previous sound is still playing in the background, the new sound won't start playing until the first sound finishes.

### Example

If you want your program to "wait" until a sound finishes before continuing, you can use the function:

### See Also

SOUND%; SOUND <frequency>; SOUND END
# Futurebasic/Language/Reference/sgn
## SGN
### Syntax

signOfExpr = SGN(expr)

### Description

Use this function to determine the "sign" of expr. SGN returns:
* 1 if expr is positive;
* 0 if expr is zero;
* -1 if expr is negative.

### See Also

FOR; ABS
# Futurebasic/Language/Reference/spc
## SPC
### Syntax

SPC(numChars)

### Description

When used with PRINT or LPRINT, this outputs the number of spaces specified by numChars.

### See Also

PRINT; LPRINT; STRING$
# Futurebasic/Language/Reference/sinh
## SINH
### Syntax

result# = SINH(expr)

### Description

Returns the hyperbolic sine of expr. SINH always returns a double-precision result.

### Note

| | e$^x$ - e$^{-x}$ |
| SINH(x) is defined as: | |
| | 2 |

### See Also

ASINH; COSH; TANH; EXP
# Futurebasic/Language/Reference/sound end
## SOUND END
### Syntax

SOUND END

### Description

This statement stops the sound that was initiated with the latest SOUND <frequency> or SOUND <snd> statement. If the sound is an "snd " resource that you played using the SOUND resName$ syntax or the SOUND %resID% syntax, the SOUND END statement also releases the resource.

### See Also

SOUND<frequency>; SOUND<snd>; SOUND%
# Futurebasic/Language/Reference/shutdown
## SHUTDOWN
### Syntax

SHUTDOWN [msg$]

### Description

When used without the msg$ parameter, SHUTDOWN behaves identically as the END statement. If the msg$ parameter is included, the string in msg$ is displayed in an alert box before the program quits.
FB Lite behavior: When you use the "FB Lite" runtime, the string in the msg$ parameter is displayed in the Text Window, rather than in an alert box.

### See Also

END; SYSTEM statement
# Futurebasic/Language/Reference/sin
## SIN
### Syntax

theSine# = SIN(expr)

### Description

Returns the sine of expr, where expr is given in radians. The returned value will be in the range -1 to +1. SIN always returns a double-precision result.

### Note

To find the sine of an angle degAngle which is given in degrees, use the following:
theSine# = SIN(degAngle * pi# / 180)
where pi# equals 3.14159265359

### See Also

ASIN; COS; TAN; USR _sine
# False Friends of the Slavist/Russian-Upper Sorbian
## Русский язык — Hornjoserbšćina

| R. серб USo. južny Serb ‘Serb’ USo. Serb R. лужичанин, лужицкий серб ‘Sorb’ | map |
| R. сербский USo. serbiski ‘Serbian’ USo. serbski R. лужицкий, сербо-лужицкий ‘Sorbian (Lusatian)’ | map |
* For additional information on false friends, see the On-line hypertext bibliography by Daniel Bunčić and Ryszard Lipczuk.
* You can help!
* Have you spotted any mistakes on this page? Would you like to add information about false friends from your own experience, or help enhance this project in other respects?
* Just click the "edit this page" button at the top of this page — it’s easier than you think! If you need advice, see the editing help for this book.
# Advanced Inorganic Chemistry/D4h Molecular Orbitals

The D4h point group are one of the most common molecular symmetry found in nature. For example, the XeF4 molecule belongs to the D4h point group. the XeF4 contains one C4 rotation axis, one C2 rotation axis, and four C2 perpendicular rotation axis, 2σv planes, 2σd planes and 1σh plane, those composed the character table of the D4h Point group.
To compose a Molecular Diagram of a molecule with D4h symmetry group, we should first find the irreducible representation of the ligands and of the center molecule. and then find the SALCS for each of the irreducible representation and finally, compose the molecular diagram. To take an easy example, the Square Planar Complexes.. starting with the sigma orbital of the ligands, the reducible representation of the sigma orbital is the total number of atoms that do not move under each operation. For the Pi orbital, we have to degenerate the pi orbital has two degrees of freedom, thus, the reducible representation of the pi orbital can also be found by using the similar method. and then, by using the projection operation method, we can find the irreducible representations of the ligand's sigma and pi orbital. In this case, the sigma orbital has A1g, B1g, Eu three irreducible representations and the pi orbital has A2g, A2u, B2g, B2u, Eg and Eu.
| | E | 2C4 | C2 | 2C’2 | 2C’’2 | i | 2S4 | σh | 2σv | 2σd |
| sigma | 4 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 2 | 0 |
| Pi | 8 | 0 | 0 | -4 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Move on the central atom, we can find irreducible representation of the valence orbitals on the central atoms by using the character table. The results are as follow:
| Representation | Orbital |
| A1g | s, dz2 |
| B1g | dx2- y2 |
| B2g | dxy |
| Eg | dxz, dyz |
| A2u | Pz |
| Eu | Px, py |
# Applied Science AQA/Working with Radioisotopes
## P03 Working with Radioisotopes
### Context

... to be familiar with....
| Performance outcomes | Pass | Merit | Distinction |
| | To achieve a pass the learner must evidence that they can: | In addition to the pass criteria, to achieve a merit the learner must evidence that they can: | In addition to fulfilling the pass and merit criteria, to achieve a distinction the learner must evidence that they can: |
| PO3 | P7 Follow standard procedure to measure the half-life of one radioisotope. | M7 Relate the results of the experiment to the use of radioisotopes in medical treatments. | D5 Summarise the advantages and disadvantages of alpha, beta and gamma radioisotopes in medical treatments. |

### Brief - and possible practical problems

The first criteria requires some practical work to determine the half-life of a radioisotope. In many schools, this will involve the use of a "protactinium generator".
But, if you do not have one (and can't afford one... although the physics department might be prepared to share in the investment), then there are some alternatives which the exam board would find acceptable. These include different types of simulation:
* VPLab - the Virtual Physics Laboratory - this is a suite of simulations, which includes one called "Half Life" which allows you to gather data to find the half-life of Radon gas.
* Throwing dice. Get a lot of dice. Throw them. remove and count the sixes. repeat until you have none left. Plotting the number thrown against how many times thrown gives you a good exponential graph, from which half-life can be calculated.
(And, if you do have the protactinium generator, the simulations are still a good way to learn about the issues.)
The merit and distinction criteria ask for you to connect the half-life found to real applications.

### Checklist

– relating to criteria skills

### Links

to other sections within this book
to good external websites (including AQA website, wikipedia, relevant applications / companies) - also considering links in spec

### References / Bibliography

of recommended text books
including mapped refs to existing books
Back to Contents
# Applied Science BTEC Nationals/Biomedical Science Techniques
## Content

On completion of this unit a learner should:
    1. Be able to investigate the structure and characteristics of major groups of organisms of medical importance
    2. Understand how the body defends itself against infection
    3. Know how the principles of blood transfusion science relate to haematology
    4. Know the importance of cell pathology as a diagnostic tool
    5. Understand how the chemical make-up of the body influences health and disease.

# Resources

Edexcel recommend the following resources.

## Textbooks

Crocker J C — Molecular Biology in Cellular Pathology (John Wiley & Sons Ltd, 2003) ISBN 0470844752
Hoffbrand V and Mehta A B — Haematology at a Glance (Blackwell Publishing, 2005) ISBN 1405126663
Luxton R — Clinical Biochemistry (Scion Publishing, 2005) ISBN 0750628782
Murphy M F et al — Practical Transfusion Medicine (Blackwell Science, 2000) ISBN 0632051140
National Blood Service — Guidelines for the Blood Transfusion Services in the United Kingdom, 7th Edition (The Stationery Office, 2005) ISBN 0117033715
Provan D et al — Oxford Handbook of Clinical Haematology (Oxford University Press, 2004) ISBN 0198526520
Tortora G J — Principles of Anatomy and Physiology (John Wiley & Sons, 2005) ISBN 0471718718
Tortora G J, Funke B R and Case C L — Microbiology: An Introduction (Benjamin Cummings, 2005) ISBN 0805377522

## Journals

Biomedical Scientist
Journal of Epidemiology
New Scientist
Nursing Times

## Website

BBC.
# Preparation of aspirin

The experimental details given here are given in good faith and are believed to be safe and workable methods. However, the authors cannot take responsibility for the consequences of performing these experiments.
The experiments are written for experienced science teaching staff to use as instructions for a supervised class of students. The experiments are not designed for students or inexperienced members of the public to perform without supervision. If you wish to attempt the experiments, ensure that you have completed a legally adequate risk assessment beforehand and that you work within the constraints of the risk assessment.
2-hydroxybenzoic (‘salicylic’) acid reacts with ethanoic acid and its derivatives to form 2-ethanoylhydroxybenzoic acid (‘aspirin’)

## Chemicals and apparatus

* Round-bottomed flask
* Vacuum filtration apparatus
* Reflux condenser
* Ice-bath
* Beaker, 100 cm$^3$
* Heating mantle
* Balance
* Watch glass
* 2.0 g of 2-hydroxybenzoic (‘salicylic’) acid
* 3.0 cm$^3$ of ethanoic anhydride
* 5 drops of 85% phosphoric (V) acid

## Precautions

* Wear eye protection and laboratory coat at all times.
* Tie back long hair when using Bunsen burners.

## Procedure

* Weigh out approximately but accurately 2.0 g of 2-hydroxybenzoic (‘salicylic’) acid and add it to a round-bottomed 'Quickfit' flask.
* With care, add 3.0 cm$^3$ of ethanoic anhydride to the flask contents.
* Again with care add 5 drops of 85% phosphoric (V) acid and swirl gently to mix the flask contents.
* Using a heating mantle reflux the mixture gently for five minutes.
* Immediately after 5 minutes carefully add 2.0 cm$^3$ of water down the vertical condenser. Note: this will produce a vigorous reaction.
* When the reaction has subsided carefully pour the flask contents into 40 cm$^3$ of cold water in a small beaker.
* Allow the beaker contents to cool, scratching the inside of the beaker with a glass rod if crystallisation does not occur immediately.
* Once crystallisation has started cool the beaker and contents in an ice-bath.
* Filter the solid product using suction (vacuum) filtration and wash the solid with a little cold water.
* Recrystallise the product from the minimum of hot water, filtering and washing as before.
* Dry the material in air, scrape it onto a pre-weighed watch glass and determine the mass of product.

## Treatment of the product

* Determine the percentage yield.
* Carry out a melting point determination.

## Conclusions and comments

* What sort of reaction is occurring? What sort of bond is formed?
* What is the purpose of the phosphoric acid?
* What is the relationship between ethanoic anhydride and ethanoic acid?
* Look up and write a short account of how aspirin is manufactured. How is the 2-hydroxybenzoic acid made?
# Resources

Edexcel recommend the following presources.

## Textbooks

Hogan P, Job B, Baker D and Morley D — Key Maths GCSE: Edexcel Summary and Practise Higher (Nelson Thornes, 2002) ISBN 074876772X
Metcalf P — GCSE Edexcel Maths (Revision Guide) (Collins, 2006) ISBN 0007213611
Parsons R — GCSE Modular Maths: Edexcel Higher Revision Guide (Coordination Group Publications, 2004) ISBN 1841460931
Pledger K (editor) — Edexcel GCSE Maths: Higher Student Book (Heinemann Educational Secondary Division, 2006) ISBN 0435534092

## Journals

Mathematical Association
Mathematical Gazette
Mathematics in Schools

## Websites

BBC GCSE Bitesize
BBC Skillswise
Digitalbrain
University of Birmingham selection of mathematics education sites
GCSE guide
Gcsevise
Mathstutor
# Resources

Edexcel recommend the following resources.

## Textbooks

Freemantle M H — Chemistry in Action (Thomson Learning, 1995) ISBN 1861527128
Fullick A and Fullick P — Chemistry: Evaluation Pack (Heinemann Advanced Science) (Heinemann Educational Secondary Division, 2000) ISBN 043557096X
Hill G and Holman J — Chemistry in Context (Nelson Thornes, 2004) ISBN 0174481918
Hill G and Holman J — Chemistry in Context: Laboratory Manual and Student Guide (Nelson Thornes, 2001) ISBN 0174483074
Lewis E and Berry M — AS and A Level Chemistry (Longman, 2000) ISBN 058233733X
Lewis R and Evans W — Chemistry, 3rd Edition (Palgrave Macmillan, 2006) ISBN 0230000118
Ramsden E N — A-level Chemistry: AND Answers Key (Nelson Thornes, 2004) ISBN 074875301X

## Journals

Education in Chemistry
Royal Society of Chemistry

## Magazine

Allan P — Chemistry Review, e.g.:
* Vol 6(4), March 1997 — Energy issues in industrial chemistry
* Vol 6(5), May 1997 — Cost issues in industrial chemistry.

## Video

Industrial Chemistry for Schools and Colleges (The Royal Society of Chemistry)

## Other publications

Controlling Chemical Reactions — A Case Study (The Chemical Industry Education Centre, University of York)
Cash and Chemicals (The Chemical Industry Education Centre, University of York)
Industrial Chemical Case Studies (The Royal Society of Chemistry)

## Websites

The Sheffield Chemdex.
Physical Sciences Information Gateway.
Royal Society of Chemistry.
# Applied Science BTEC Nationals/Biochemical Techniques
## Content

On completion of this unit a learner should:
    1. Be able to investigate properties of water and biological molecules in living organisms
    2. Understand the structure of proteins
    3. Be able to investigate the factors that affect the activities of enzymes in biological systems
    4. Know the difference between aerobic and anaerobic respiration.

# Resources

Edexcel recommend the following resources.

## Textbooks

Alberts B et al — Essential Cell Biology (Garland Science, 2003) ISBN 0815334818
Boyle M and Senior K — Biology (Collins Advanced Science Series) (Collins Educational, 2002) ISBN 0007136005
Hames D and Hooper N — Instant Notes in Biochemistry (Instant Notes Series) (Bios Scientific Publishers, 2005) ISBN 0415367786
Purves W K — Life: The Science of Biology Volume 1 The Cell and Heredity (WH Freeman & Co Ltd, 2001) ISBN 0716738732
Salway J G — Metabolism at a Glance, 3rd Edition (Blackwell Publishing, 2003) ISBN 1405107162

## Website

Nature
# Prepare, isolate and purify compounds.

One inorganic compound
One organic compound
One substance extracted from a natural or synthetic material

## Procedures.

Safe dispensing of chemicals.
Avoidance of contamination of reagents.
Mixing chemicals safely.
Heating and boiling under reflux.
Control and monitoring of reactions.
Safe disposal of substances.

## Isolation and purification.

Solvent extraction
Evaporation
Filtration (gravity and reduced pressure)
Distillation (simple and fractional)
Paper and thin layer chromatography

# Analyse compounds.

Qualitative analysis of inorganic substances: tests for anions and cations.
Qualitative analysis of organic substances: tests for functional groups; identification of aldehydes and ketones from melting points of derivatives.
Quantitative analysis — volumetric: preparation of standard solutions; titrations.
Qualitative analysis: use of pH meter; use of colorimeter.

# Calculate percentage yield and percentage purity.

Yield: theoretical yield; actual yield; percentage yield
Percentage purity: calculate % purity w/w

# Experiments

Measuring the iron content of iron tablets.
Extracting plasticisers from PVC.
Extracting caffeine from tea.
Synthesis of ethanal by oxidation.
Synthesis of benzoic acid by oxidation.
Synthesis of aspirin by esterification.
Synthesis of ethyl ethanoate by esterification.
Preparation of Kastle-Meyer test reagent.
Extraction and presumptive testing of cocaine.
Synthesis and analysis of iron (II) ethanedioate.

# Resources

Edexcel recommend the following resources.

## Textbooks

Clark J — Calculations in AS/A Level Chemistry (Longman, 2000) ISBN 0582411270
Faust C B — Modern Chemical Techniques (The Royal Society of Chemistry, 1905) ISBN 1870343190
Hill G and Holman J — Chemistry in Context (Nelson Thornes, 2004) ISBN 0174481918
Hill G and Holman J — Chemistry in Context: Laboratory Manual and Student Guide (Nelson Thornes, 2001) ISBN 0174483074
Hunt A — Advanced Level Practical Work for Chemistry (Hodder Murray, 2004) ISBN 0340886722
Levinson R — More Modern Chemical Techniques (The Royal Society of Chemistry, 2001) ISBN 0854049290
MacDonald K — Getting the Message Across: Key Skills for Scientists, 3rd Edition (The Royal Society of Chemistry, 2001) ISSN 14717166 page 12
Ramsden E N — Calculations for A-Level Chemistry (Nelson Thornes, 2001) ISBN 0748758399

## Websites

Royal Society of Chemistry — aspirin activities.
How to read Material Safety Data Sheets — University of Bristol — site also contains links to major manufacturers’ information.
Chemical Industries Association.
Creative Chemistry website (A-level practical work).
Physical Sciences Educational Reviews.
Royal Society of Chemistry.
Practical techniques.
Chemical Industry Education Centre.
# Resources

Edexcel recommend the following resources.

## Textbooks

Fullick A and Fullick P — Chemistry: Evaluation Pack (Heinemann Advanced Science) (Heinemann Educational Secondary Division, 2000) ISBN 043557096X
Hill G and Holman J — Chemistry in Context (Nelson Thornes, 2004) ISBN 0174481918
Hill G and Holman J — Chemistry in Context: Laboratory Manual and Student Guide (Nelson Thornes, 2001) ISBN 0174483074
Lewis E and Berry M — AS and A Level Chemistry (Longman, 2000) ISBN 058233733X

## Journals

Education in Chemistry
Royal Society of Chemistry

## Magazines

Chemistry World
Royal Society of Chemistry

## Websites

Physical Sciences Information Gateway.
Royal Society of Chemistry.