OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Guide to The Lord of the Rings/Places/Gondor

Gondor is a fictional kingdom in J. R. R. Tolkien's writings, described as the greatest realm of Men in the west of Middle-earth by the end of the Third Age.

## Name

Tolkien intended the name Gondor to represent a sample of Sindarin, an Elven language devised by him, and within the books used by the Dúnedain for nomenclature. The word means "land of stone", and is echoed in the text of The Lord of the Rings by the name for Gondor among the Rohirrim, Stoningland. The implications of these names were not explained by the author, although his early writings suggest that this was a reference to the highly developed masonry of Gondorians in contrast to their rustic neighbours'. This view is supported by the Drúedain terms for Gondorians and Minas Tirith—Stonehouse-folk and Stone-city.
A reader once asked Tolkien whether the name Gondor had been inspired by the ancient Ethiopian citadel of Gondar. Tolkien replied that he was unaware of having heard the word before, and that the root Ond went back to an account he had read as a child mentioning ond ("stone") as one of only two words known of the pre-Celtic languages of Britain.
Gondor is often referred to in the books as the South-kingdom or Southern Realm, and together with Arnor as the Númenórean Realms in Exile. Researchers Wayne G. Hammond and Christina Scull have also proposed a Quenya translation of Gondor, Ondonórë.

## References

* ↑ Return of the King, Appendix F, "Of Men", p. 405 harvnb error: no target: Return_of_the_King_1955 (help)
* ↑ Etymologies, entries GOND-, NDOR- harvnb error: no target: Lost_Road_1987 (help)
* ↑ Return of the King, "The Battle of the Pelennor Fields", p. 124–5 harvnb error: no target: Return_of_the_King_1955 (help)
* ↑ Return of the Shadow, "New Uncertainties and New Projections", pp. 379–381 harvnb error: no target: Return_of_the_Shadow (help)
* ↑ Return of the King, "The Ride of the Rohirrim", p. 104–8 harvnb error: no target: Return_of_the_King_1955 (help)
* ↑ Carpenter 1981, no. 324 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFCarpenter1981 (help)
* ↑ Hammond & Scull 2005, "The Great River", p. 347 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFHammondScull2005 (help)
# Guide to The Lord of the Rings/Places/Lonely Mountain

The Lonely Mountain is the goal of the Hobbit.
# General Engineering Introduction/Case Studies

Biomedical Engineering
* Professionalism/Matthias Rath and Cellular Medicine
* Professionalism/Frances Oldham Kelsey and Thalidomide
* Professionalism/The Guatemala Syphilis Experiment
* Professionalism/Peter Buxtun and the Tuskegee Syphilis Study
* Professionalism/David Franklin, Parke-Davis, and Neurontin
* Professionalism/Vioxx: Merck and the FDA
* Professionalism/Love Canal, New York
* Professionalism/Peter Rost and Pfizer
* Professionalism/Resistance to Polio Vaccination in Northern Nigeria
* Professionalism/Kunal Saha and the World Bank
* Professionalism/Hwang Woo-suk and Stem Cells
* Professionalism/Eli Lilly and Zyprexa
* Professionalism/Kit Foshee and Beef Product Incorporated
Chemical Engineering
* Professionalism/Union Carbide and Bhopal
* Professionalism/Myron Mehlman and Mobil Corporation
* Professionalism/Times Beach,Missouri
* Professionalism/Frederic Whitehurst and the FBI
* Professionalism/Jeffrey Wigand and Brown & Williamson
* Professionalism/Deborah Rice and the American Chemistry Council
* Professionalism/Mark Whitacre and Archer Daniels Midland
* Professionalism/Manjunath Shanmughan and the Indian Oil Corporation
* Professionalism/Mectizan Donation Program
Civil Engineering
* Professionalism/Boston's Big Dig Project
* Professionalism/Bruce Boler and the EPA
* Professionalism/Collapse of the TV Antenna in Missouri City, Texas
* Professionalism/Collapse of the “Swinging Bridge,” Heber Springs, Arkansas
* Professionalism/Ed Turner and the City of Idaho Falls
* Professionalism/Jack Gillum and the Hyatt Regency Skywalks
* Professionalism/Satyendra Dubey and the National Highways Authority of India
* Professionalism/URS and the I-35 Bridge
* Professionalism/William LeMessurier and the CitiCorp Building
Computer Science and Engineering
* Professionalism/Aaron Swartz and Information Freedom
* Professionalism/Shawn Carpenter and Sandia National Laboratories
* Professionalism/Mark Klein and Room 641A
* Professionalism/Therac-25
* Professionalism/Kevin Mitnick
* Professionalism/BitTorrent and BitCoin
* Professionalism/Kim Dotcom and Megaupload
* Professionalism/Lulzsec
* Professionalism/Corruption at the National Security Agency
Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering
* Professionalism/Ernest Fitzgerald and the Lockheed C-5A
* Professionalism/Rodney Rocha and Columbia
* Professionalism/The Ford Pinto Gas Tank Controversy
* Professionalism/The Toyota Recalls of 2009-2010
* Professionalism/Mark Lund and the FAA
* Professionalism/The Explosion on ''Deepwater Horizon''
* Professionalism/Roger Boisjoly, Morton Thiokol, and NASA
* Professionalism/The Loss of USS Thresher
* Professionalism/Apollo 1
* Professionalism/Apollo 13
Systems and Information Engineering
* Professionalism/Salvador Castro and Air-Shields, Inc
* Professionalism/The Aviation Safety Reporting System
* Professionalism/Ladbroke Grove Rail Collision
# General Engineering Introduction/Data

Do not collect data unless there is a rational reason to do so. The reasons fall into two categories:
   * isolating problems
   * testing
The biggest problem with data is that it must be presented and analyzed well. Engineers will not quibble about English. They will forgive all sorts of strange behavior. Numbers wake them up. All of a sudden they start paying attention. Then they start asking questions that can cement or ruin your engineering reputation.
For instance, suppose you've designed a mechanism to clean algae off the glass of an aquarium tank that doesn't involve sticking your hands in the water. You want to quantify how clear the glass is. So you measure light intensity from the aquarium hood light before and after the cleaning. More light means a cleaner aquarium.
Here are the typical mistakes:
   * no baseline .. How clean is a traditionally cleaned tank? How clean is the average tank?
   * no possibility of failure .. What does a very dirty tank look like in the data?
   * not enough data .. statistics demands a certain number of samples. One test may not be enough.
   * fascination with outliers
   * bad statistics, randomly fitting lines with no hypothesis
   * expectation blindness
   * narrative not obvious from the data
It is important to have the data in a spreadsheet and at one's finger tips to look at in detail. Trust the raw data. Display it during a presentation. Make only the analysis that you are 100 percent confident of. In future classes you will be taught more about data and how to analyze it. Know your limits. Give the audience a chance to educate you. Learn from the audience in the moment.
Realize that many engineers are more comfortable with numbers than words. They will relax, give advice and be nice ... in their minds. You may feel criticized. They may make you feel like a failure. Have courage. Forgive them. Display the data with silence ... don't talk. See what they do. Agree with them and keep the conversation going. Climb into their minds. Entertain them and you will grow comfortable in a completely different world where numbers don't lie.
# General Engineering Introduction/Communication/Ground rules

From article by Phil Race, "500 Tips on Group Learning," Chapter 14. Kogan Page Limited, 120 Pentonville Road, London, N1 9JN, UK. Distributed by Stylus Publishing Limited, 2283 Quicksilver Drive, Sterling, VA 20166, USA. http://www.styluspub.com/ ©Copyright, Phil Race, 2000. The right of Phil Race to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
Establishing Ground Rules for Groups
1 Own the rules. Below are various starting ground rules for a group. Read them over.
2 Foster a culture of honesty. Successful group work relies on truthfulness. It is dishonest for group members to 'put up with' something they don't agree about, or can't live with. This is just as dishonest as speaking falsely. But remember to temper honesty with tact.
3 You don't have to like others in the group. People work in the team they are in. Matters of personal conflict need to be managed so they don't get in the way of the progress of the group as a whole.
4 Assume collective responsibility. Everyone must live with the group decisions and refraining from articulating their own personal reservations outside the group.
5 Practice listening skills. Every voice deserves to be heard, even if you don't initially agree with the point of view being expressed.
6 Encourage full participation. Group work relies on multiple perspectives. Goup members not to hold back from putting forward their view. Group members also need to value the opinion of others as well as their own.
7 Do your fair share. This does not mean that everyone has to do the same thing. It is best to agree upon how the tasks will be allocated. Be prepared to contribute by building on the ideas of others and validating each other's experiences.
8 Exercise your strength and talent. Allocate tasks according to experience and expertise.
9 Teach others. Personal expertise doesn't grow unless it is taught to others.
10 Keep good records. There needs to be an output to look back upon. This is why there are notebooks and electronic documentation grades. Project points will not be added to your final grade until the project is finished.
11 Work on projects weekly. There is always something to do. Find it. Don't find excuses to not work.
12 Cultivate philanthropy. Subordinate personal needs and wishes and value the project.
13 Think outside the box. Don't kill inspiration. Strike a fair balance between progress and creativity.
14 Come to Class. The time to work on a project alone is at home. Come to class to communicate with your teammates.
# Cell Biology/Membranes/Self-assembly

<< Hydrophobicity | Self-assembly
Self-assembly occurs due to the thermodynamics, if the phospholipids are in a water (or other polar solution) the tails will want to be 'away' from the solution. The could all go to the top (like oil on water), or they could have the tails point toward each other. With the tails pointing toward each other, this could form 2 different formations.
First would be a micelle which would like like a ball with the phospholipid heads on the outside and the tails pointing together like this or in the form of a lipid bilayer:
# Cell Biology/Models/Mice
## Mice

A mouse is one of model mammals in addition to the human.
# Cell Biology/Models/Plant
## Arabidopsis thaliana

Arabidopsis thaliana, common cress, is a model plant.
Etymology: 'Arabidopsis' derived from Greek means 'ressembling to Arabis'.

## External links

Arabidopsis thaliana
# Cell Biology/Membranes/Proteins and channels

<< Semi-permeability and Osmosis | Proteins and channels | Hydrophobicity >>

## Introduction

A common misconception is that the lipid bilayer is just that, a lipid bilayer. This is not true. The plasma membrane is filled with a group of proteins called membrane proteins. Some of these membrane proteins show only contact surfaces with either the inside or the outside of the cell and some of them stick out at both ends. Among other functions these proteins serve to anchor the cells cytoskeletal components to neighboring cells, can actively transport various molecules over the plasma membrane, receive signal molecules on the outside and relay the signal inside the cell. They form the connection with the outside of the cell. As is in the plasma membrane this feature is also documented in the membranes of cell organelles such as the endoplastic reticulum or the Golgi-complex.

## Protein requirements for membrane incorporation

What distinguishes membrane proteins from other proteins? All proteins are formed from 20 aminoacids with varying side chains (hydrophilic, hydrophobic, negatively/ positively charged). When the RNA transcript is translated into the primary structure, the side chains of the string of aminoacids form non-covalent bonds with other side chains in the molecule thus reaching its 3D structure and biological activity. Now, the inside of the cell, including the compartments in the organelles, are water based. For proteins to be active in this area they must be readily soluble and thus hydrophilic on the outside. So the outer side chains of the 3D structure must be hydrophilic. The same holds true for membrane proteins. They will function in a area where part of the protein must reside in hydrophobic conditions, namely the inside of the lipid bilayer. Thus, part of membrane proteins have hydrophobic residues sticking out on the surface to facilitate incorporation in lipid bilayers.
# Cell Biology/Membranes/Semi-permeability and osmosis

<< Cholesterol | Semi-permeability and Osmosis | Proteins and channels >>
The membranes of cells are a fluid, they are semi-permeable, which means some things can pass through the membrane through osmosis or diffusion. The rate of diffusion will vary depending on the its: size, polarity, charge and concentration on the inside of the membrane versus the concentration on the outside of the membrane. When something is permeable it means that something can spread throughout, like (The perfume is permeating the room.). Here is a list of some molecules and how they relate to passing through the membrane without assistance, in other words, through diffusion:

### Hydrophobic Molecules

* O$_2$ - Oxygen
* N$_2$ - Nitrogen
* benzene

### Small uncharged Polar Molecules

* H$_2$O - Water
* urea
* glycerol

### Large Uncharged Polar Molecules

* Glucose
* Sucrose
* nucletide

### Ions

* H$^+$ - Hydrogen ion
* Na$^+$ - Sodium ion
* K$^+$ - Potassium ion
* Ca$^{2+}$ - Calcium ion
* Cl$^-$ - Chloride ion
Various substances will pass through the membranes at varying rates through diffusion.
# Cell Biology/Models/E. coli
## Escherichia coli

Escherichia coli, or E. coli for short, is a model bacterium.
Escherich first found this bacterium living in the colon, so its name is Escherichia coli.
# Cell Biology/Models/Flies
## Flies

Flies have been chosen as model insect. One common fly species for research is Drosophila melanogaster.
Etymology: 'Drosophila' means 'dew-loving'. 'Melanogaster' means 'dark-bellied'. This species is commonly known as common fruit fly or vinegar fly. Their larvae feed on fruits, somehow explaining 'dew-loving'. It has dark belly, which its name describes.
# Cell Biology/Membranes/Phospholipids

Phospholipids | Cholesterol >>
Phospholipids are amphipathic molecules that are made up of a hydrophilic head and a hydrophobic tail. The head group has a 'special' region that changes between various phospholipids. This head group will differ between cell membranes [types of cells] or different concentrations of specific 'head groups'. The fatty acid tails are also differ, but there is always one saturated and one unsaturated 'leg' of the tail.
Phospholipids are 2 fatty acids one saturated and one unsaturated (shown by the double bond) that are linked to a glycerol.

## The Noncovalent Assemblies

For the phospholipid bilayer, even though it consists of hydrophilic heads on the outer membrane, the non-covalent hydrophobic tails of the inner membrane is the key to hold the entire membrane together because there are Van der Waals attractive forces within the cell membrane in which the hydrocarbon tails are closely packed together. With its non-covalent character inside the cell membrane, the hydrophobic molecules can easily pass through the cell membrane through passive diffusion. With this, the cell has control the molecules' movement through the transmembrane proteins complexes such as pores and gates. As for the hydrophilic molecules (such as ions, carbohydrates, proteins, amino acids, and nucleic acids), they require active diffusion in order to pass through the cell membrane because of their polarity and because they are hydrophilic (most non-covalent assemblies of the cell membrane are hydrophobic, such as hydrocarbon chains).
The non-covalent assemblies of the cell membrane can help give rise to bubbles such as liposome, or lipid vesicle, that can deliver drugs into a specific part of the body. The structure of liposome is very similar to the cell membrane's lipid bilayer, and the materials that compose the liposome is identical to cell membrane. Because liposome is a bubble, the structure is shaped like a ring, where the hydrophilic heads are the outer and inner ring while the hydrophobic tails are in between the hydrophilic heads' rings. Because of the ring structure, the liposomes are able to trap aqueous materials such as drugs into their rings. Once the materials are within the ring, the liposomes would deliver them to a specific location in the body, such as cancer cells.
# Cell Biology/Models/Introduction
## How do we know how cells function

In previous lessons, you have learned that all living cells share the same mechanism. They were evolved from an ancestral cell. What it means is that if we know how this cell of one species functions this way, it is likely the other cells of other species function the same. Some cells are easier to study. They reproduce fast, show high adaptation to the environment, being transparent, etc. so it is generally a good idea to focus on these species. At the moment, efforts are being spent mostly on E. coli, yeasts, worms, flies, mice and human.
# Cell Biology/Models/Worms
## Worms

The chosen species is Caenorhabditis elegans.
Etymology: 'Caeno' and 'rhabditis' derived from Greek, means 'recent', referring to Pleistocene epoch (2.5 million to 12000 years BP), and 'rod-like' respectively. 'Elegans' is derived from 'elegant' due to the elegant sinusoidal movement of this nematode.
# Flora of New York/Clade alismatid monocots

| monocots   Acorales : Acoraceae   Acorus americanus (American sweetflag)     Acorus calamus (old world sweetflag)           Alismatales   Tofieldiaceae—Triantha glutinosa (sticky false asphodel)       Araceae   Orontioideeae   Orontium aquaticum (golden club)     Symplocarpus foetidus (skunk cabbage)           Lemnoideae   Spirodela polyrrhiza (common duckmeal)     Lemna spp. (5 duckweeds)     Wolffia spp. (3 watermeals)         Aroideae   Calla palustris (wild calla, water arum)     Peltandra virginica (green arrow arum, tuckahoe)     Arisaema dracontium (green dragon)     Arisaema triphyllum (4 Jack-in-the-pulpit subspp.)                   Alismataceae   Sagittaria spp. (9 arrowheads)     Alisma spp. (3 water plantains)           Butomaceae—Butomus umbellatus (flowering rush)     Hydrocharitaceae   Hydrocharitoideae   Hydrocharis morsus-ranae (European frog’s bit)     Egeria densa (Brazilian waterweed)     Limnobium spongia (American frog’s bit)           Stratiotoideae—       Anacharidoideae—Elodea spp. (3 waterweeds)     Hydrilloideae   Najas spp. (8 water nymphs, naiads)     Hydrilla verticillata (hydrilla, water thyme)     Vallisneria americana (water celery, tape grass)                       Scheuchzeriaceae—Scheuchzeria palustris (pod grass)       Aponogetonaceae (none in NY)       Juncaginaceae—Triglochin spp. (2 arrowgrasses)       Maundiaceae (none in NY)         Posidoniaceae (none in NY)       Ruppiaceae—Ruppia maritima (widgeon grass, ditch grass)     Cymodoceaceae (none in NY)           Zosteraceae—Zostera marina (eel grass}     Potamogetonaceae                           Dioscoreales       Liliales       Asparagales         Poales       Zingiberales     Commelinales | alismatid monocots lilioid monocots commelinid monocots |
# Flora of New York/Clade angiosperms

| angiosperms   Nymphaeales     magnoliids   Piperales       Laurales     Magnoliales         monocots   Acorales       Alismatales       Dioscoreales       Liliales       Asparagales   commelinids     Poales       Zingiberales     Commelinales                       Ceratophyllales   eudicots   Ranunculales       Proteales       Buxales   core eudicots superrosids   Saxifragales   rosids   Vitales   eurosids fabids   Zygophyllales     COM   Celastrales       Malpighiales     Oxalidales     Nfix   Fabales       Rosales       Fagales     Cucurbitales           malvids     Geraniales     Myrtales         Crossosomatales       Sapindales       Brassicales     Malvales                 superasterids   Santalales       Caryophyllales   asterids   Cornales       Ericales   euastrids lamiids   Boraginales     Gentianales     Solanales     Lamiales     campanulids   Aquifoliales       Asterales       Apiales     Dipsacales | alismatid monocots lilioid monocots basal eudicots |
# Flora of New York/Clade basal angiosperms & magnolids

| angiosperms   Amborellales—Amborellaceae       Nymphaeales   Hydatellaceae     Cabombaceae   Brasenia schreberi (watershield)       Cabomba caroliniana (fanwort)       Nymphaeaceae   Nupharoideae—Nuphar spp. (4 pond lilies)     Nymphaeoideae—Nymphaea odorata subspp. (2 water lilies)                Austrobaileyales—Austrobaileyaceae           Canellales   Canellaceae     Winteraceae         Piperales   Aristolochiaceae   Asaroideae   Asarum canadense (wild ginger)     Hexastylis shuttleworthii (large-flowered heartleaf)         Aristolochioideae     Endodeca serpentaria (Virginia snakeroot)       Isotrema macrophyllum (Dutchman's-pipe)     Isotrema tomentosum (woolly Dutchman's-pipe)          Aristolochia clematitis (birthwort)               Piperaceae     Saururaceae—Saururus cernuus (lizard’s tail)             Laurales   Calycanthaceae—Calycanthus floridus (eastern sweetshrub)     Lauraceae     Lindera benzoin (northern spicebush)     Sassafras albidum (sassafras)       Persea americana (avocado)         Magnoliales   Magnoliaceae     Magnolia acuminata (cucumber tree)       Magnolia virginiana (northern sweetbay)     Magnolia spp. (3 introduced southern magnolias)         Liriodendron tulipifera (tulip tree)         Annonaceae—Annonoideae—Asimina triloba (pawpaw)           Chloranthales (none)       monocots       Ceratophyllales     eudicots | basal angiosperms (ANA grade) magnolids |
# Flora of New York/Clade Poales

* The order Poales Small (1903)
* Poales
* "bromeliads"
* Typhaceae
* Sparganium spp. (7 bur-reeds)
* Typha spp. (3 cattails)
* Bromeliaceae (not in NY)
* Rapateaceae (not in NY)
* "xyrids"
* Eriocaulaceae—Eriocaulon spp. (2 pipeworts)
* Xyridaceae—Xyris spp. (5 yellow-eyed grasses}
* "cyperids"
* Mayacaceae (not in NY)
* Thurniaceae (not in NY)
* Juncaceae
* Luzula spp. (8 wood rushes)
* Juncus spp. (36 rushes)
* Oreojuncus spp. (1 highland rush)
* Cyperaceae
* Mapanioideae (not in NY)
* Cyperoideae (17 genera, 370 taxa in NY)
* "restids"
* Restionaceae (not in NY)
* "graminids"
* Flagellariaceae (not in NY)
* Joinvilleaceae (not in NY)
* Ecdeiocoleaceae (not in NY)
* Poaceae (116 genera, 398 taxa in NY)
* ↑ Stevens, P. F. (2001 onwards). Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. Version 14, July 2017 (Page last updated: 05/25/2021). http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/APweb/
* ↑ R.J. Soreng, G. Davidse, P.M. Peterson, F.O. Zuloaga, E.J. Judziewicz, T.S. Filgueiras, O. Morrone & K. Romaschenko (2015). "A World-wide Phylogenetic Classification of Poaceae (Gramineae)." Jnl of Sytematics Evolution, 53: 117-137. https://doi.org/10.1111/jse.12150
* ↑ Soreng, R.J., Peterson, P.M., Romaschenko, K., Davidse, G., Teisher, J.K., Clark, L.G., Barberá, P., Gillespie, L.J. and Zuloaga, F.O. (2017), "A worldwide phylogenetic classification of the Poaceae (Gramineae) II: An update and a comparison of two 2015 classifications." Jnl of Sytematics Evolution, 55: 259-290. https://doi.org/10.1111/jse.12262
* ↑ Bouchenak-Khelladi, Yanis; Muasya, A. Muthama; Linder, H. Peter (2014). "A revised evolutionary history of Poales: origins and diversification". Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society. 175 (1): 4–16. doi:10.1111/boj.12160. ISSN 0024-4074.