OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Physics Course/Radiation/Radioactive Decay Radiation
## Radioactivities

Radioactivity is the conversion of one nuclear state to another only happen with elements that has unstable Nuclei . It involves Decay of Radioactive Element accompany by an emission of streams of Charged Particles namely Alpha, Beta , Gamma called Electromagnetic radiation in the form of Invisible Light and a release of enormous Heat Energy into the surrounding calculated by Einstien's Formula
    E = M C$^2$
Where
    $M=(m_{1}-m_{2})$ correspond to difference in mass during the radioactivity .

## Radioactive Decay

Most sources of natural, predictable radiation come from the decay of atomic nuclei, resulting in either alpha - $\alpha$ or beta - $\beta$ particles. In general, $\alpha$ decay is more common among the heavier elements, as it reduces the proton:neutron ratio, while $\beta$ decay is much more prominent among lighter elements, as it converts a neutron into a proton.

### Alpha Decay

    $U^{238}\longrightarrow Th^{234}+He^{4}(\alpha )$
This is the first decay in the famous Uranium decay. U-238 is essentially non-radioactive (especially compared to hyper-active U-235), and has a half-life of over four billion years.

### Beta Decay

    $C^{14}\longrightarrow N^{14}+e(\beta )$
This is the decay that allows for carbon dating, and has a half-life of over 5000 years.

### Gamma Decay

Gamma radiation is much more difficult to come by, as emitting a gamma ray does not allow an atomic nuclei to decay. The most famous source of high-energy gamma rays is what happens when an electron and a positron annihilate:
    $e^{+}+e^{-}\longrightarrow \gamma +\gamma$

## Reference

* Radioactivity
# Physics Course/Radio Waves
### Radio frequency

The wavelength of Radio Electromagnetic Radiation ranging from hundreds of meters to about one millimeter , 10$_{-3}$ - 10$_{-3}$m -10$_2$ m covering a range of frequencies
Radio frequency Electromagnetic Radiation is used in communication of Information .
    In Radio AM, FM , PM waves .
    In Tivi Video waves .
    In Telephone
# Physics Course/Oscillation/Oscillation of Swinging Side by Side

When there is a force acting on a pendulum. The pendulum will swing from side to side for a certain period of time . This type of movement is called oscillation
    $mg=-ly$
    $y={\frac {mg}{l}}=vt$
    $t={\frac {mg}{lv}}$
# Physics Course/Photo Electric Effect
## Photo Electric Effect

Photo Electric Effect is a physical effect observed when there is a Photonic Light shine on object has the capability to release Free Electron into the environment . ie the effect of Light generates Electricity

## Analysis

Energy of Photonic Light
    E = hf
Maximum Energy absorb by object
    E = hfo
Energy of Free Electron
    $E={\frac {1}{2}}mv^{2}$
From above
    $hf=hf_{o}+{\frac {1}{2}}mv^{2}$
    $hf-hf_{o}={\frac {1}{2}}mv^{2}$
In order to release a free electron the velocity of electron has to be greater than 0 . This only happens at
    f > fo
and therefore
    $v={\sqrt {{\frac {2h}{m}}(f-f_{o})}}$

## Summary

Only Photonic Lights of energy hf that has frequency greater than the fresh hold frequency of the material are capable of generate Electricity. Photonic Lights that has capability of generating Electricity includes Visible Light, UV, X, Gamma.
# Physics Course/Physics Constants

    Constant NameDefinition Mass of an electronm$_e$ = 9.1093897 × 10$^{-31}$ kg Mass of a protonm$_p$ = 1.6726231 × 10$^{-27}$ kg Mass of a neutronm$_n$ = 1.6749286 × 10$^{-27}$ kg Elementary chargee = 1.60217653 × 10$^{−19}$ C Unified atomic mass unit1 u = 1.66056×10$^{−27}$ kg Constant in Coulomb's lawK = 8.988 × 10$^9$ N·m$^2$·kg$^{-2}$
    Constant NameDefinition Permeability of vacuumμ$_0$ = 4π × 10$^{−7}$T$^2$·m$^3$·J$^{-1}$ = 12.566370614 × 10$^{−7}$ T$^2$·m$^3$·J$^{-1}$ Permittivity of vacuumε$_0$ = 1/(μ$_0$c$^2$) = 8.854187817 × 10$^{−12}$ C$^2$·J$^{-1}$·m$^{-1}$
    Constant NameDefinition Molar gas constantR = 8.314472 J·mol$^{-1}$·K$^{-1}$ Molar VolumeV$_{mol}$ = 22.41383 m$^3$·kmol$^{-1}$ Avogadro constantN$_A$ = 6.0221415 × 10$^{23}$ mol$^{-1}$
    Constant NameDefinition Absolute zero temperature0 K = −273.15 °C Speed of light in vacuumc = 2.99792458 × 10$^8$ m·s$^{-1}$ Newtonian constant of gravitationG = 6.6742 × 10$^{−11}$ m$^3$·kg$^{-1}$ s$^{-2}$ Planck constanth = 6.6260693 × 10$^{−34}$ J·Hz$^{-1}$ = 4.136 × 10$^{-15}$ eV·s; Planck constant over $2\pi$$\hbar$= 1.05457148 × 10$^{−34}$ J·s Boltzmann's constantk = 1.3806505 × 10$^{−23}$ J K$^{-1}$ Stefan-Boltzmann constantσ = 5.670400 × 10$^{−8}$ W·m$^{-2}$·K$^{-4}$ Bohr radiusa$_0$ = 5.292 × 10$^{−11}$ m Electron radiusr$_e$ = 2.81792 × 10$^{-15}$ Fine structure constantα = e$^2$/(2ε$_0$hc) = 1/137.0359895 = 7.2974 × 10$^{-3}$ Thomson cross-sectionσ$_e$ = 6.652 × 10$^{−29}$ m$^2$
Some values from the 2002 CODATA recommended values of the Fundamental Physical Constants. See Constants Information at NIST.
# Physics Course/Radiation/Black Body Radiation
## Black Body Radiation

It has been observed that any conductor when conducts current exhibit the following phenomenons
* Change in Temperture
* Radiate Light of Radiant Heat Energy
This is known as Black Body Radiation

## Experiment

Connect voltage source with a conductor in a closed loop. Measured the value of current at different frequency. The graph of I - f shows that

## Observations

Radiant Heat energy is a wave travels at speed v = λ f at all frequencies f less than fo carries an energy level E = m v$^2$. At fo, Radiant Heat energy reaches its peak value and travels with speed equals to speed of light in the vaccum v = C = 3 x 10$^8$ carries an energy level E = h fo. At any frequencies greater than fo, Radiant Heat energy remain the same for all frequency f > fo carries an energy level E = h nfo
    FrequencySpeedWavelengthEnergy f < fov = λ fλ = ${\frac {v}{f}}$E = m v$^2$ f = fov = C = λ foλ = ${\frac {C}{fo}}$E = h fo f > fov = C = λ nfoλ = ${\frac {C}{nfo}}$E = h nfo

## Summary

    FrequencySpeedWavelengthEnergy f < fov = λ fλ = ${\frac {v}{f}}$E = m v$^2$ f = fov = C = λ foλ = ${\frac {C}{fo}}$E = h fo f > fov = C = λ nfoλ = ${\frac {C}{nfo}}$E = h nfo
* Every conductor has a maximum absorb energy at Threshold frequency , fo
* Light Wave of Radiant Heat Energy radiates from any current conducting material has a Particle Wave Duality Characteristic . Sometimes it behaves like Particle, sometimes it behaves like Wave.
* Energy is quantized for f > fo and can only have an integer multiply by frequency E = h f
* Short Wavelength calculated $\lambda ={\frac {C}{f}}$
# Physics Course/Periodic Motion
## Periodic Motion

Periodic motion refers to any motion moving at a distance above and below the equilibrium position and this motion keeps repeat itself over a period of time. This type of motion is also called Oscillation .

## Examples

* The moving up and down of a spring
* The swinging side by side of a pendulum

## Analysis
### The moving up and down of a spring

When apply a force on an object of mass m attach to a spring , the spring will move a distance y above and below the equilibrium point
The force acts on the object is
    F = m a
The Restoring Force of spring is given by Hook's law as
    F$_s$ = - k y
When The Net Force on the system is 0 then there is no movement
    F - F$_s$ = 0
    m a = - k y
    y = ${\frac {ma}{k}}$
    a = - ${\frac {k}{m}}y$
    v t = ${\frac {k}{m}}y$
    $t={\frac {k}{m}}{\frac {y}{v}}$
# Prussian Vocabulary by Topic

Lists of Prussian vocabulary sorted by common topics.
Clothes
Body
# Précis of epistemology/Applications

We apply epistemology when we apply the schemas method in all areas where rational intelligence can be exercised. Epistemology gives good principles to recognize all good principles, good schemas to recognize all good schemas, good theories to recognize all good theories, it is like the superscience of all sciences. To acquire good knowledge, one must know how to recognize it and evaluate it when it is found, and one must know how to give oneself the means to acquire it. Epistemological knowledge is always at the heart of knowledge, it accompanies all forms of knowledge. None can do without it, because to know well, we have to know how to recognize good knowledge.
Epistemological knowledge is of paramount importance for the research and evaluation of the principles of science. It enables to explain, to justify, even to correct, the principles of the great scientific theories. Research on principles is applied epistemological research. Examples: quantum physics is much better without the principle of wave packet reduction, because with it the theory is inconsistent. The ZFC theory adopted by most mathematicians is false because it asserts the existence of sets which do not exist. It must be modified to guarantee the truth of our axioms, and that of the theorems.
Epistemology is itself an application of epistemology, because the good knowledge with which we justify all the good knowledge can also be used to justify itself. Psychology, ethics and logic are applications of primary importance for epistemology, because it is itself a psychological and ethical knowledge, which like all sciences respects logic.
The applications of epistemology can be very concrete. In all practical areas where the acquisition and use of good knowledge is of crucial importance, so almost always, a solid epistemological knowledge can prove its usefulness. Pedagogy and cognitive therapy are directly relevant, but more generally most issues of importance to humans depend on our ability to collectively acquire and use knowledge: public health, ecology, economics and finance, justice and democracy, truth and lies in the media, reliability and safety of equipment ...
# Précis of epistemology/About this book

There are two versions of this book, the present one and a french one: Précis d'épistémologie.
The book is completed as it stands but it may evolve, both in french and in english. The first author (Thierry Dugnolle) makes sure that each version is a mirror image of the other.
# Prussian Vocabulary by Topic / Clothes

22 words for clothes
sawinzli = belt
blūzi = blouse
pusnē = boot
kēlms = cap
mantels = coat
sukni = dress
pīrstini = glove
keps = hat
jakki = jacket
wilnis = skirt
maigāsukni = pyjamas
laknā = pants
pēdalaknas = panty hose
šērpi = scarf
nurtwē = shirt
kurpi = shoe
pantuplai = slippers
pēdis = sock
puloweris = sweater
kwardels = underpants
krekleīns = bra
rūkai = clothes
# Précis of epistemology
## Table of Contents

* Reason, a manual
* How the spirit works
* The search for reason
* Logical principles
* The foundations of mathematics
* Spatio-temporal measurement devices
* Quantum theory of multiple destinies
* Computers and power consumption
* The origin and evolution of life and spirit
* Principles of psychiatry

## See also

Principles of science
# Prussian Vocabulary by Topic / Body

50 words for body parts
kērmens = body
kūlns = ankle
irma = arm
rīkisna = back
bārdā beard
krāujā = blood
kruwwins = bloody
enkruwwintun = to bloody
mazgena = brain
laīknan = cheek
lādi = chest
kreklan = breast
skals = chin
aks = eye
bruwī = eyebrow
bruwīka = eyelash
wākan = eyelid
akkis gaīlan = eye white
weīduls = pupil
āuss = ear
alkūns = elbow
prusna = face, appearance
pēda = foot
pīrstan = finger
naguttis = fingernail
mēnsa = flesh, meat
skebbelis = hair
rānkā = hand
delnan = palm
galwā = head
sēran = heart
kulsī = hip
klupstis = knee
nagē = leg
wārss = lip
wānsā = mustache
āustā = mouth
mūss = muscle
winzus = neck
nāsī = nose
kaūlan = bone
petē = shoulder
kjaūtā = skin
māgs = stomach
dānts = tooth
gūrklē = throat
īnstiks = thumb
nagēpirstis = toe
inzuws = tongue
rieša = wrist
# Physics with Calculus/Introduction/Physics

What is physics? Why study physics? Physics, before everything else, is an experimental science, as are many branches of natural and physical sciences. When physicists study a phenomenon, they first observe a pattern in nature, develop a hypothesis how the pattern occurs, and test the hypothesis by experiment. Thus experiment is the sole judge of all scientific truth. This is in contrast to how mathematics or some branches of philosophy works, where one starts out with axioms, or self-evident truths, and proceed by means of logics.
For example, after observing the motion of falling objects, Galileo Galilei hypothesized that the time it takes for an object to fall is independent of its weight. Then he tested his hypothesis, according to legend, by dropping two equal-sized, equal-shaped objects, one made of metal and the other of wood, from the Leaning Tower of Pisa. Also, after observing the motion of a hanging lamp, how, as it moved back and forth, the time it took to complete one oscillation was constant, he made an hypothesis that a period, the time taken for one oscillation, of a pendulum is independent of the amplitude, how large the swing is, and he also tested this hypothesis by measuring the period with pendulums swinging with different amplitudes, everything else being equal. In fact, his invention hinging on this hypothesis is the now well-known grandfather clock.
Note that the observation or the testing of the hypothesis required an accurate measure of time and distance. We will soon come back to this topic in Part 0.
Then, since this is how all science works, how is physics different from other sciences? One thing that separates physics is that the consistent goal of physics is to discover the fundamental laws governing our universe. Instead of simply stating, "The time it takes an object to fall is independent of its weight," a physicist looks for a deeper underlying pattern that explains this observation and other similar occurences in nature as well (and in this case, that underlying pattern is Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation). For this reason, some describe physics as "reverse engineering the universe."
This is what separates physics from other sciences, and what makes it necessary for all scientists and engineers, not just the students planning on pursuing a career in physics, to learn physics.
Previous: Physics with Calculus/Introduction/Textbook Top: Introductions Next: Measurements Alternative: Introduction for Engineers Alternative: Introduction for Chemists Alternative: Introduction for Geologists Alternative: Introduction for Biologists
# Physics with Calculus/Mechanics/Energy
## Kinetic Energy

Kinetic energy is the energy of a mass in motion. In the non-relativistic approximation, kinetic energy is equal to
    $K_{E}={\frac {1}{2}}mv^{2}$
    where m is the mass of the object and v is its velocity.

## Potential Energy

Potential energy in a constant gravitational field is given by:
    $P_{E}=\ mgh$
    where m is the mass of the object, g is the strength of the gravitational field ($9.8m/s^{2}$ on earth) and h is the height of the object.
Work-Kinetic energy relation
    $W=1/2mV_{F}^{2}-1/2mV_{I}^{2}$
Potential energy, kinetic energy relationship
    $K_{E}=P_{E},1/2mV^{2}=mGH$
The law states that P_E (potential energy) is the energy of a given mass and position a certain amount of energy at such a height. When the object is in motion, K_E (kinetic energy), the potential energy is then transfered to kinetic energy. Due to the third law of thermodynamics, which states that energy can not be created or destroyed, but only tranferred, such transfer of energy can occur.
For a given equation, figuring out the work of the position can be done in one of two ways: The calculus method (which involves integration of the function) and the algebraic way (which involves the work kinetic energy relationship)
Calculus method (ex)-the compression of a spring from 1 m to 4 meters
Since integration basically finds the area of the given function (which can also be shown by the graph if possible). If F = Kx, where F is the force, K is the force constant, and x is the distance it was compressed. If the original function is F = Kx, since K is a constant, this then becomes K*(integral)X, which then becomes K*x^2/2.
In order to figure out the work due to a changing amount of velocity, first determine how much "energy" is in the given system. The equation from now on will be mgh + 1/2mV^2 = energy at full height.
# Physics with Calculus/Introduction/For Mathematicians

Math is a wonderful discipline. Too often though, mathematicians focus solely on theoretical mathematics, but this text can aid us in realizing the wonderful applications of math and, in this case, calculus. —Professor M.
Although physics is often thought of as an "applied mathematics" class, the relationship between physics and mathematics is far more interesting than just applying mathematics to the physical world. Often in the development of both physics and mathematics, the innovations in one area have driven new innovations in the other. One interesting example of this is the fact that when Newton wanted to test his theory of gravity he realized a major problem. His law of gravitation calculated the force between the two interacting objects as if all of the mass of the two objects was concentrated at a point at the center of the object. Newton was faced with a serious problem. How could he prove that all of the mass of an extended object could be truly considered to be at a point at the center of the object? This required a new kind of mathematics, and the integral calculus was devised. This illustrates the fact that, historically, the motivation for developing mathematics was often based on real problems. It is often not until later that all of the theoretical aspects of the mathematics are worked out. Although Newton is often credited with inventing the calculus, it is clear that he was very often more interested in developing mathematical models that would solve his scientific problems, and then proving his mathematical assumptions in a theoretical way. It was left to others that followed to put the calculus on the same solid foundation that had been developed for geometry and other branches of mathematics.
Innovations in mathematics can often drive new discoveries in science too. An interesting example of this the study of fractals. When they were first studied there was no practical use for them, but now physics and other sciences use them in the study of systems that are known to be chaotic.
So why would a mathematician want to study physics? It seems that one very powerful answer to this question is that it helps one to see into the minds of many of the great thinkers of the past. What motivated them? What where the challenges that they faced as they developed their ideas? They would often turn to mathematics as the language to express their ideas and solve their problems. The study of mathematics strengthens the tools of the scientist, and the study of science adds fullness to our understanding of mathematics.
# Physics with Calculus/Introduction/Textbook

This is an introductory-level physics textbook for engineering and science students with a strong mathematical background. It is assumed that the student had a year of calculus, covering differentiation and basic integrals. For those less mathematically-inclined, there are other physics textbooks such as the Physics Study Guide. While there are resources available online for the mathematics required for the material, an effort has been made to make this book self-contained in that respect.
Where possible, physical concepts will be first introduced in terms of historical context and descriptions of their significance. Basic mathematical treatments are given with an emphasis on specific examples, and the motivation behind the manipulation of symbols will be explained where mathematical abstraction is necessary. For a more mathematical and fundamental approach, try the Modern Physics.
Top: Introductions Next: Physics with Calculus/Introduction/Physics
# Physics with Calculus/Introduction/For Geologists

Geophysics is useful for finding out what underground material is composed of and for finding hidden ore deposits.
# Physics with Calculus/Mechanics/Energy and Conservation of Energy/Kinetic energy

Kinetic energy is the energy of motion regardless of the direction. Any object (with mass) in motion has kinetic energy. There are several types of kinetic energy. It should be noted that many times several of these types of kinetic energies occur simultaneously.

## Translational

This is the energy due to motion from one location to another. It is defined by the integral of momentum with respect to velocity:
$K=\int \mathbf {p} \,dv=\int m\mathbf {v} \,dv={\frac {1}{2}}m\mathbf {v} ^{2}$

## Rotational

This is the energy due to rotation around one point (the center). It is defined by the integral of angular momentum ($\mathbf {L}$) with respect to angular velocity ($\mathbf {\omega }$):
$K_{r}=\int \mathbf {L} \,d\omega =\int I\mathbf {\omega } \,d\omega ={\frac {1}{2}}I\mathbf {\omega } ^{2}$
# Physics with Calculus/Mechanics/Energy and Conservation of Energy/Potential energy

Potential energy is the energy stored in an object due to its position. There are several types of potential energy.

## Gravitational

Gravitational potential energy, involves the line integral of the force between two objects ($m_{1}$ and $m_{2}$). By Newton's universal law of gravity, the force is
$\mathbf {F} _{g}=-{\frac {Gm_{1}m_{2}}{r^{2}}}\;{\hat {r}}$
We integrate to get potential energy:
$U_{g}(r)=-\int _{\infty }^{r}\mathbf {F} _{g}\,dr'=\int _{\infty }^{r}{\frac {Gm_{1}m_{2}}{r^{2}}}\,dr=-{\frac {Gm_{1}m_{2}}{r}}$
Here, we have taken the reference point (where the potential energy equals zero) to be at $r=\infty$. Sometimes, when dealing with small distances where the difference in acceleration due to gravity will be negligeable we simplify the energy equation by assuming that $r=R+y$, where $R$ is the Earth's radius and $y<<R$ is the height above the Earth's surface. Taking $m_{2}$ to be the mass of the planet:
$F_{g}={\frac {Gm_{1}m_{2}}{R^{2}}}$
$g={\frac {Gm_{2}}{R^{2}}}$.
Note that the vector $g$ points in the $-{\hat {r}}$ direction. Inserting this into the integral for $U_{g}$:
$U_{g}=-\int _{0}^{y}(-m_{1}g{\hat {r}})dr'=m_{1}gy$,
where now, the reference point is on the surface of the Earth.

## Elastic

Elastic potential energy is the energy stored in a compressed or elongated object (a spring, for example). The amount of energy stored in the object depends on spring constant ($k$) and the displacement from the rest position ($x$). It should be noted that the amount of energy is the same regardless whether the object is compressed or elongated. Given the force:
$\mathbf {F} _{s}=-k\mathbf {x}$
We integrate to get energy:
$U_{s}=-\int \mathbf {F} _{s}\,dx=\int -k\mathbf {x} \,dx={\frac {1}{2}}k\mathbf {x} ^{2}$