# World Cultures/Culture in Europe/Culture of Ukraine
## Introduction

Ukrainian culture is a collection of spiritual and material values ​​created by the Ukrainian people throughout its history. The Ukrainian language has survived centuries of bans and restrictions. Ukrainian engineer Serhiy Korolyov was the mastermind behind the first space rocket, the first manned space rocket, and the first spacewalk. Ukrainians have constructed the world’s largest plane, the An-225 “Mriya”, though it was destroyed the the Russians during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.
Ukraine is situated on the border between the European forest-steppe and the Great Steppe. The forest-steppe has always been inhabited by corn-growers. The nomads kept their cattle in the steppes. The interaction between the nomadic people of the steppe and the settled people of the forest steppe (two absolutely different civilisations) has resulted in the appearance of Ukraine and its people.
Trypillians were skilled craftsmen and ploughmen who lived in the ancient forest-steppes. Archeologists have excavated the remains of their cities. The Cimmerians were the first known people of the steppe. They did not leave behind cities, only graves. Ancient Greeks wrote about them. Scythia was the first known state on Ukrainian territories. They raised cattle on the steppe, and ploughed the land ok the forest-steppe. The herdsmen and ploughmen were considered to be one people. The Goths came from the North-West, but the ploughmen headed by the tribe of Antes together with the Nomadic Huns expelled the invaders and founded the Union of Huns headed by king Attila. The capital of Ukraine, Kyiv, was first mentioned during that time.
The Khazars captured the Ukrainian steppes during the 7th century. Askolod, Oleh, and Ihor the princes of Kyivan Rus fought against them. Prince Sviatoslav the Brave defeated the invaders and concluded a military alliance with the nomads.
The first Ukrainian nation, which flourished from the 9th to 13 centuries was Kyivan Rus (Ukrainian: Київська Русь), and its capital was Kyiv. Rus was a state of grain growers. The first mention of Rus by European chroniclers is in 839 A.D. Volodymyr the Great converted Rus to Christianity, while Yaroslav the Wise and Volodymyr Monomakh gave it a legal code. The Ukrainian steppes united under the rule of the Polotsvians in the 11th century. Yaroslav the Wise together with the Polotsvians expanded north to the Baltic, as a result Rus became one the strongest nations in Europe. The name Ukraine appeared during that time. In Old Ukrainian, Ukraine was a synonym of fatherland. They used the name Rus to describe all the land that was under their control while Ukraine was literally “the land that is ours”. Moscuvy appropriated the name Rus in the 18th century.
Kyiv declines in the 13th century due to dynastic fragmentation and invasions by Mongo-Tatars. Yurii Kochakovych headed the Union with Rus and fight against the Mongols, but failed. The Poltsovians rebelled multiple times. The Principality of Halych and Volyn, and its king Danylo Romanovych resisted the invasion. Danylo managed to defend Volynia, Halychyna, and Poldillia. He had to fight against the Golden Horde, the Poles, and the Teutons. He got the title “King of all Rus”. After the 14th century, Rus was under the rule of the Golden Horde, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and the Kingdom of Poland, though Lithuania controlled most of Ukraine’s territory, and gave autonomy to Ukraine and Belarus. The Poles Controlled Halychyna. It was during that time, that Rus first used the blue and yellow gonfalons. Prince Algirdas liberated Rus lands from the Golden Horde in 1362. The Grand Duchy of Lithuania took control of the steppes. After the foundation of the Polish Lithuanian Commonwealth, Ukraine was annexed to Poland.
The Crimean Khanate was founded in 1441 by the Crimean Tatars, descendants of the Black Sea Polovtsians under the protection of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The Crimean Tatar emblem, taraq tamga, was affirmed at that time. The Crimean state was invaded by the Golden Horde. The Grand Duchy of Lithuania was attacked by Moscuvy and could not help it’s allies, so the Crimean State became a protectorate of the Ottoman Empire.
At the same time, a new state started forming in the steppe - the Zaporozhian Host. Its people are called Cossacks (Ukrainian: Козаки), and its capital the Sich.
The Crimean Khanate Ukraine clashed with the Crimean Khanate during the 15th century. Cossacks defended Ukraine from Slave raids. The Zaporozhian Cossacks are a symbol of Ukrainian identity.
Moscuvy did not stop its aggression against the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, so it had to unite with Poland and create the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Principality of Rus lost its statehood as a result. Conflicts between Ukraine and the Polish overlords started in the 1590s. They asked for help from the Zaporozhian Cossacks. The revolt of Bohdan Khmelnytskyi took place in 1648, after which Ukrainians formed an independent state. Khmelytsky signed an agreement with Moscuvy which later caused the Moscuvite occupation of Ukraine.
Poland attacked the Zaporozhian Host which concluded an alliance with the Crimean Tatars. The Cossacks helped defend the Crimean Khanate from attacks from the East, and the Crimeans helped the Cossacks fight for their Rus heritage. Bohdan Khmelnytskyi and Khan Islam III Giray of Crimea united the lands which have been called since old times by the name “Ukraine” in 1648 to one state, the Hetmanate. The Polish Lithuanian Commonwealth and Moscuvy cooperated against the Hetman State. The Ukrainian and Crimean states had been fighting for 50 years on 2 fronts. Some Glorious victories happened during that time: The victory against the Moscow troops near Konotop by the Cossacks headed by Ivan Vyhovskyi and the Calvary of Mehmed IV Giray.
The ruin period, a 7-year civil war, ended when Hetman Doroshenko expelled the invaders with the help of khan Adil Giray.
The rule of Ivan Mazepa (Ukrainian: Іван Мазепа) is also known as the Mazepa renaissance. Mazepa formed an anti-Mosuvite alliance with Sweden in order to protect the Hetmanate, however the war ended in defeat for the allies. The Moscuvites reigned terror on those loyal to Mazepa. Zaporizhian Cossacks, who got caught were brutally executed, and the Sich was destroyed. Mazepa ended up fleeing to Turkish controlled territory together with his followers. Russian propaganda have since done a lot in order to vilify the Ukrainian hero.
Hetman Pylyp Orlyk wrote the first Ukrainian constitution in 1710, together with the Cossack council. He defeated the Moscovites on the river Prut with help from the Crimeans, but in the end all Rus lands were divided among the enemies. But the Ukrainians did not stop fighting, and even caused the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth to collapse.
After the Partition of Poland in the 18th century, all of Ukraine except Halychyna was absorbed by the Russian Empire. Halychyna was controlled by Austria. Ukrainians were given self government in Austria. Catherine II abolished the Zaporozhian Sich and extended serfdom to the previously free areas. Russia abolished the Crimean Khanate several years later. During the 19th century, Ukrainian culture was heavily repressed in the Russian Empire, but Austria was much freer.
Some of the Zaporozhian Cossacks founded Zadunaiska (Transdanubian) Sich under the protectorate of the Ottoman Empire. The russian government started moving the Cossacks to Kuban and Azov as an attempt to solve the Ukrainian and Crimean problem. Russia started annihilating the traditions, culture, and language of the Cossack, but the Ukrainian intellectuals did not give up. They established education centres and published books. The famous Ukrainian poet Taras Shevchenko was a symbol of the revival. Secret political communities were founded, and the anthem of the current Ukrainian state was written. Crimean Tatars also strengthened their national movements. Their main ideologist was Ismail Hasprynskyi.
Ukraine declared autonomy in June 23, 1917, and independence in January 25, 1918. The Crimean National Republic was also founded. The anthem of the Crimean Tatars was written. During the rule of Hetman Pavlo Skoropadsky, the Ukrainian National Republic was renamed to the Ukrainian State. The name UNR was later restored during the Directory. The West Ukrainian National Republic was founded in 1919, and it united with UNR. Ukraine was occupied in 1920, and the Government-in-exile of the Ukrainian National Republic was founded in Poland. It later moved to France. The lands of Ukraine were again divided between Poland and Russia, but they did not stop fighting.
During the independence of Ukraine 1917-1921, Ukraine adopted the traditional symbols which are the yellow and blue flag, and the trident of Volodymyr the Great. The flag represents the blue sky above wheat fields.
The Soviet occupiers received very little support in Ukraine. The Holodomor was a genocide against the Ukrainian people by the Soviet regime that happened in 1933. Seven Million Ukrainians staved to death.
The borders of Europe changed before WWII, and the Ukrainians of Zakarpattia founded a small Ukrainian nation: Carpatian Ukraine. They even managed to defend it for multiple months.
After the Soviets helped the Nazis occupy Poland in 1939, the Soviet occupation of Ukraine expanded to Halychyna. The Nazis invaded Ukraine in 1941 and left in 1944. The violence of WWII was particularly brutal in Ukraine. Before withdrawing from Western Ukraine, the Soviets shot 20,000 inmates. It is estimated that 6.8 million Ukrainians were killed in WWII. The Germans killed 1.5 million Jews in Ukraine under gruesome circumstances. During the Nazi occupation of Ukraine, the Jewish population was cut in half. In 1944, Stalin ordered to deport the Crimean Tatars from Crimea. It is estimated that 8,000 Crimean Tatars died on the way. From 1957-89 there was a movement to return to Crimea. Only then were the Crimean Tatars allowed to return to Crimea.
During the Nazi occupation, Ukrainians tried to revive their statehood twice: once in Lviv, and once in Kyiv, but the Germans suppressed them. The Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA) was created, and an underground Ukrainian state was founded in 1944. The army of this state fought against the Germans, and then for 10 years against the Soviets. The armed struggle was suppressed in 1954, but the liberation political movement replaced it. The communists made some concessions: joined Crimea to Ukraine, and weakened cultural, language, and political pressure, but the struggle continued.
The Chornobyl Disaster happened in 1986, and shocked the nation. The Soviet empire collapsed like its predecessors. It did not manage to sustain the war against Ukraine. On August 24, 1991 the Ukrainian Parliament declared independence from the Soviet Union. The independence of Ukraine was overwhelmingly supported by a referendum and internationally recognized.
The Revolution of Dignity (Ukrainian: Революція гідності), also known as the Euromaidan Revolution (Ukrainian: Євромайдан) against the corrupt, pro-russian president Viktor Yanukovych. The protests started after he didn’t sign an Association Agreement with the European Union, and as result Yanukkovych fled to Russia. Putin then falsely claimed that Euromadain was a “Nazi” or “neo-Nazi” revolution, and used this as an excuse to invade Crimea. He also started the war in Donbas, falsely claiming that that it’s a “civil war” between the Kyiv authority, and insurgents in Donetsk and Luhansk oblasts.
A major escalation in the Russo-Ukrainian war happened in February 24, 2022 when Russia launched a full scale invasion against Ukraine. The invasion of Ukraine has been described a genocide, and Russia has been classified as a fascist state. The invasion has caused a massive humanitarian crisis in Ukraine. The Russian army has looted the Kherson Art Museum, ans stole most of its collections. In temporarily occupied Crimea, the Russians have done “restorations” to the palace of the Crimean Khan, and have destroyed the unique heritage of Crimean Tatars. Russia disproportionately targets Crimean Tatars in their mobilisation. They have also burned Ukrainian books in temporarily occupied territories. Some of the allies of Ukraine in the war are: Poland, Lithuania, Great Britain, The United States, Canada, Latvia, Estonia, Czechia, and Slovakia.

### Kyivan Cave Monastery
#### A brief history of the Monastry

The Kyivan Cave Monastery is an Orthodox Monastery in Kyiv, the capital of Ukraine. The monastery was founded in the 11th century by Saint Anthony of the Caves. The monastery was supported by the princes and boyars of Kyivan Rus. Many Works were written in the Kyivan Cave Monastery, including but not limited to: “Story about Saints Borys and Hlib“, “Tale of Bygone Years“, “Teachings“, and “ Life of Theodosius of the Caves“. “Teachings” was written by Saint Theodosius of the Caves, while the other three were written by Nestor the Chronicler. Foreign works were also translated in the Kievan Cave Monastery. Architecture and religious art developed in the Kyivan Cave Monastery. Many legends and folk tales were written about the monastery.
The Cumans sacked the Kievan Cave Monastery in 1096. Prince Andrei Bogoliubskii of Vladimir-Suzdal sacked it in 1203. Prince Riuryk (Vasylii) Rostyslavych and the Chernihiv princes sacked it in 1203, and the Mongol hoard led by Khan Batu sacked it in 1240. After each sacking, it was rebuilt and expanded. Prince Semen Olelkovych built it after a period of inactivity, but it was sacked by the Crimean Khanate in 1482. It got rebuilt again, and even received stauropegion status from the Patriarch of Constantinople in the 16th century.
The Church Union of Berestia happened in 1596. In it, the Ruthenian (Ukraine and Belarus) Orthodox Church recognized the Pope as the head of the church, but got to keep the Eastern Rite. After that, the Uniates fought for control over the monastery, but it was retained by the Orthodox Church. The first printing press in Kyiv was established in the Monastery in 1615. It became an important publishing center in Ukraine. The Kyivan Cave Monastery School was opened in 1631, which was merged with Kyiv Epiphany Brotherhood School in 1632 to form the Kyivan Mohyla Academy. In 1688, it became subordinate to the Moscow patriarchate but retained its stauropegion status.
Most of the buildings were damaged in a fire in 1718, as well as the library and the archive. It took over 10 years to restore it. Due to a 1720 prohibition by the Moscuvite government of printing new books, the cultural influence of the monastery was seriously undercut. The russian government seized the property of the monastery, and made it state dependent in 1786. The Russification of the monastery which began at the end of the 18th century increased with time.
The monastery was one of the most famous religious centers in the Orthodox World, and had over 1200 monks and novices prior to the 1917 revolution. It attracted thousands of pilgrims. The most famous sacred objects in the monastery were the relics of monks canonized by Metropolitan Petro Mohyla.
Many of the relics and objects in the monastery were confiscated by the Soviet regime in 1921-22. In 1926, the monastery closed completely and was converted to museums of anti-religious propaganda. The museum was closed in 1936. The main church, The Dormition Cathedral of the Kyivan Cave Monastery, was mined in 1941 by the retreating Soviet Army, and it exploded in November 3, 1941. In 1988, its reconstruction has started, and was completed in 2000 in time for the Independence Day Ceremony.
The larva preserve was restored and renamed to the Kyivan Cave Historical-Cultural Preserve after WWII. Multiple museums and institutions are located there. A Russian Orthodox Monastery was allowed to exist there from the end of WWII to 1961. The Far Caves were ceded to the Orthodox Church during a celebration of 1000 years from the conversation of the Kyivan Rus to Christianity. It became under control of the Ukrainian Orthodox Church-Moscow Patriarchate since 1992. The Ukrainian Orthodox Church-Kyiv Patriarchate pressed for concessions but was unsuccessful. The historical churches were moved to state control in January 5, 2023. In January 7, Metropolitan Epiphanius of the Orthodox Church of Ukraine conducted Christmas service in the Holy Dormition Cathedral. This was the first time in 300 years that Ukrainian language liturgy was sung in the monastery.

#### Kyivan Cave Patericon

The Kyivan Cave Patericon tells about the stories of the monks of the Kyivan Cave Monastery. Two redactions have survived till today: the Tver or Arsenian redaction of 1406, and the Kyiv or Cassianian redaction of 1462. The exact year the original text was written in is unknown, but we know that it was after the year 1215 and before the year 1230. The tales about the rightful and sinful monks were based both on traditions passed orally and on written sources. Some written sources that were used are the Life of Saint Anthony of the Caves and the Kyivan Cave and Rostov chronicles. Unfortunately these sources did not survive. There are later redactions, and they did not significantly modify the original text. However they did add information about Saint Theodosius of the Caves and Saint Isaac, as well as stories about the history of the monastery. The Kyiv Chronicles tell us about later influence of Byzantine Hesychasm. The Patericon was printed by Metropolitan Sylvestr Kosiv in Polish in 1635. It was later printed in Church Slavonic in 1661.
The main topic of the original texts are events that happened in the 11th century. “Moses the Hungarian” and “Theodore and Basil” are written in a novel like style. The tales are in general anti-secular, and encourage a strict ascetic life, though they do demonstrate the decline of monastic life. And example of this is monks owning private property. The text contains not only chronological information about the monastery, but also a wealth of information, both historical and cultural, about monastic and secular life. Themes of wandering monks appear sporadically, and demonology is for the most part absent. Due to the rich vocabulary, simple style, and masterly characterization of individuals, the Kyivan Cave Patericon is considered an outstanding work of Old Ukrainian Literature.

#### Icon Painting

The Kyivan Cave Monastery Icon Painting and Art Studio (Ukrainian: Лаврська іконописна та малярська майстерня) was founded at the late 11th century, and was for many years the center of Ukrainian icon painting. The studio’s distinctive style is evident in its frescoes, icons, and book illuminations. A famous example of book illumination is Kyiv Psalter from 1397. Starting from the late 16th century, they started keeping prints for educational purposes. They were prints of western artists, as well as local artists, and drawings by students. Later it moved to the western style of icon painting instead of the Byzantine one. Book engraving was given prominence under the influence of master Oleksander Tarasevych who was invited by Hetman Ivan Mazepa and Metropolitan Varlaam Yasynsky. The methods of teaching art were modernized in 1763 in accordance to western education models.
The construction of the building was completed in 1883 on the grounds of the larva. It declined during the Soviet occupation of Ukraine, and only a restoration workshop was active. It was destroyed during WWII, but rebuilt in 1953-54, and became a studio for multiple artists. The Icon Painting and Art Studio was revived in 1988, and the Ivan Izhakevych Lavra Art Workshops was established there in the year 2000.

#### Kyivan Cave Monastery Press

The Kyivan Cave Monastery Press was founded in 1615, and during the 17th and 18th centuries, was an important Ukrainian printing and engraving center. The oldest still existing book by the imprimery is the 1616 Horologion. Other notable books are Antolohion (1619), Pamva Berynda's Slavonic-Ruthenian lexicon (1627), the Kyivan Cave Patericon (1661), Innokentii Gizel's Sinopsis (Synopsis, 1674), and Ifika iieropolitika (1712). Many ecclesiastical and liturgical works were printed there, but also primers, hagiographic, Orthodox polemical treatises, didactic works, and literary works. The works were beautifully engraved and ornamented, and as such they were distributed in many Slavic countries, as well as non-Slavic countries such as Greece, Austria, an Moldova. It played a very important role in increasing the level of culture and education in Ukraine during the 16th and 17th century. The tsarist ukase of 1720 forbade it from printing non-religious works, though it continued printing religious works till 1918.

## Ukrainian Legal traditions
### An overview of legal traditions

During the princely era of Ukraine, customary laws were the main sources of law. The Ruska Pravda is the most original legal monument from Kyivan Rus. They did not make distinctions between public and private law and between civil law and criminal law. In the 14th and 15th century, it was known as Ukrainian law in Ukrainian territories under Polish rule, though it was gradually replaced by Polish laws. The Lithuanian-Ruthenian law was developed at the same time, and remained in force in the Polish-Lithuanian, as well as to some extent in the Hetman State. Under Polish and Lithuanian rule, Armenian and Jewish colonies enjoyed internal autonomy. The laws of Ukraine during the Cossack Period were based on Hetman's treaties and legislative acts, as well as the Lithuanian statue, Germanic laws, and court decisions. Ukrainian autonomy was abolished at the late 18th century. Austrian law was introduced in West Ukraine in 1722-25. During the Ukraine’s struggle for independence (1917–20), Ukrainian jurists and legislators did not have time to construct a new law system, so the laws of the former regimes remained except for state and political laws.

#### Customary Laws in Ukraine

Customary laws are also known as unwritten laws, and refer to norms of that have been practiced for a long time in a society, and are considered to be mandatory. They have existed since prehistoric times. The role of customary laws declined as the legislative activity of the state developed. Legal relations in Kyivan Rus were governed by customary laws, though they were eventually codified in Ruska Pravda (Rus' Truth [Law]). After the fall of Kyivan Rus, Ukrainian customary laws continued to operate under Tatar rule, and for a time Poland recognized them as Rus laws.
The Lithuanian Statue, particularly in respect to civil, criminal, and procedural norms, was for most part based on Ancient Ukrainian Customary laws. The authorities of The Grand Duchy of Lithuania believed that old traditions should not be meddled with. If a specific law was lacking, court decisions were based on customary laws. The Hetman state recognized customary laws, and the The Code of Law of 1743 said that if the written law lacked new prescriptions, then the judgment was to be based on ‘ancient, good custom.’ The legal system in Ukraine in the 19th and 20th centuries prior to the Soviet period recognized customary laws, however the Soviet laws did not recognize them at all.

#### Ruska Pravda

Ruska Pravda is considered to be the most important source of Ukrainian-Rus’ laws. It was based on customary laws and compiled in the 11th and 12th century. We have not found the original text, however over 100 transcriptions from the 13th to 18th century exist. The condensed redaction contains 43 articles, and it is divided into four parts. Some historians think the first part, Pravda Iaroslava, dates from 1016, while others think that from the 1030s. The articles of this section carefully define and defend the interests of princes, government officials, and private property. It also has varying fines for murder, depending on the victim’s social rank. The expanded reductions contains 121 articles, and the date of its compilation is a matter of scholarly debate. Some historians date it to the rule of Volodymyr Monomakh, others to the rule of Mstyslav I Volodymyrovych, while others say it was written before 1209. The expanded reduction replaced blood vengeance with monastery fines, and state punishment. Crimes considered serious were punished by banishment and seizure. Examples for such crimes are stealing horses, robbery, and arson. Ruska Pravda also was very clear on civil issues such as loans, interest, land disputes, and wills. Ruska Pravda is an important source of information about the administration of Kyivan Rus, as well as its social differentiation, financial affairs, and agricultural technology.

#### Laws of the Lithuanian-Ruthenian State

The Lithuanian-Ruthenian State included the territories of Ukraine, Belarus, and Lithuania. Originally, the laws of the Lithuanian-Ruthenian State were originally based on the Ruska Pravda, later on the Lithuanian Statue, and also in customary laws. It is considered to be the legal history of Lithuania, Belarus, and Ukraine. The official documents of the Lithuanian-Ruthenian State were published in the spoken Ukrainian language of that time.
The Lithuanian Statue was published in the 16th century, and at the time was one of the most advanced legal codes. The first statue consisted of 13 sections and 243 articles, and was ratified by the diet in Vilnius in 1529. The Second Lithuanian Statue was ratified in 1566 and contains 14 sections and 367 articles. Due to influence of the Volhynian nobility, it is also called the “Volhynian version”. It divided the country to counties and admitted the lower gentry to the diet. The third Lithuanian Statue was compiled after the Union of Lublin in 1569. It contained 14 sections and 488 articles, and was ratified in 1588. This version introduced many Polish concepts to the civil and criminal law, and for the first time there was one code of law for all the entire Lithuanian-Ruthenian State.

## Ukrainian Wandering Bards
### Kobzars

Kobzars were wandering bards who played a Kobza or a Bandura. They performed epic-historical, religious, and folk songs. They first emerged during the time of Kyivan Rus. Churylo and Tarashko are examples of Kobzars who played at the royal courts of Poland. Kobzars frequently accompanied the Zaporozhian Cossacks in their various campaigns. The fortune of the Kobzars declined together with the Hetman State, so they started playing and begging at markets. In the late 18th century, most Kobzars were blind, and they organized Kobzar brotherhoods to protect their interests. Some Kobzars performed in the Russian court. Kobzars were persecuted for Ukrainophile sentiments by the Tsarist régime during the 19th and 20th century, and particularly from 1870. Taras Shevchenko titled his poetic works “Kobzar”.
Kobzars started flourishing again after the Revolution of 1905. The Lysenko Music and Drama School in Kyiv started teaching bandura in 1908. The Kobzars even spread to the Kuban. Examples of famous Kuban Kobzars are A. Chorny, V. Liashchenko, and D. Darnopykh. Kobzars promoted the Ukrainian National cause during the Ukrainian-Soviet War, 1917–21, and many paid for this with their lives.

#### Bandura

A bandura is a Ukrainian musical instrument containing 32-55 strings. A fresco from the 11th century in Saint Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv is the oldest record of an instrument similar to a bandura in Ukraine. The bandura and the kobza are related, though the kobza has fewer string. The bandura was very popular in the Zaporozhian Sich in the 17th and 18th century. The asymmetrical bandura was designed in 1894 by Hnat Khotkevych.

### Duma

A Duma is an lyrico-epic describing events that happened during the Cossack period of Ukraine. A Duma has a different form compared to other works of historical poetry and lyrico-epic. Dumas are divided to uneven periods depending on the unfolding of the story. The length of a line could be from 4 to 40 syllables. Rhyming was also very important. Dumas were usually recited as opposed to being sung, and were accompanied by a bandura, a kobza, or a lira.
Scholars consider the Dumas to be related to the poetic forms that emerged in Ukraine during the 12th century. One famous example of such poem from the 12th century is “Slovo o polku Ihorevi” (“Слово о полку Ігореві, Ігоря сина Святославля, внука Ольгова” or in English “The Tale of Ihor's Campaign, Ihor the Son of Sviatoslav, Grandson of Oleh”. According to Pavlo Zhytetsky, Dumas were a synthetics of “popular creativity” and “bookish-intellectual creativity”. This view is widely accepted. Dumas were based on folk songs and contained archaism as well as Church Slavonic expressions. Volodymyr Peretts called the Dumas “a harmonious synthesis of cultural-individual creativity with folk creativity.” The first mention of Dumas was by Polish historian S. Sarnicki.
There are two main themes of Dumas. The first is about the struggle against Turks and Tatars. The Dumas “The Escape of the Three Brothers from Azov” and “Marusia Bohuslavka” are about Turkish captivity. “Samara Brothers”, “Ivan Konovchenko“, and “Khvedir Bezridny” are examples of Dumas about the heroic deaths of Cossacks. “Samiilo Kishka”, “Oleksii Popovych”, and “Otaman Matiash” are examples of Dumas about returns from campaigns, or successful liberation of Cossacks from slavery. The Dumas “About the Widow and Her Three Sons” and “About the Brother and Sister” are moralizing Dumas. The second theme are about the Cossack-Polish struggle. The Dumas “Khmelnytsky and Barabash”, “The Battle of Korsun”, “Leases”, and “Khmelnytsky’s Moldavian Campaign” are examples of Dumas about the period of Bohdan Khmelnytsky, while “The Duma about Handzha Andyber” and “Duma about Cossack Holota’s Duel with a Tatar” discuss social themes.

## Printing in Ukraine

The first Cyrillic printing press in East Europe was founded by Bavarian Schweipolt. Hist investor was Hungarian János Thurzó. Fiol in Kraków. The first Cyrillic printed book was printed in 1491. Scholars are not sure why two Catholics, neither of whom was Slavic, in Catholic Kraków decided to print Ukrainian books. Ukrainian scholar, Serhiy Yefremov suggested that it was due to the interest of Prince Kostiantyn Ivan Ostrozky. It is unknown what he based his theory on because he was killed by the communists. Belarusian Francysk Skaryna founded his first printing press in Prague, were he printed books in Church Slavonic. He translated 23 books from the Bible.
Professor Orest Matzuk found in 1968 found an index of books from a monastery, and it included: The New Testament in Ukrainian 1511, “Triodion In Kharto” printed in 1527, “Anfolohion” printed in 1542, “Apostol” printed in 1566. He also found 2 documents in Lviv archives. The first one is an appeal of monks from St. Onufia’s Monastery to return to the monastery a printing press which was gifted to them by Stepan Dropan in 1460. The second document explains the opposite side of the conflict, written by a brotherhood, which claims that the printing press by Stepan Dropan should belong to the brotherhood and not to the monastery. These documents prove that there was a printing press in Lviv 100 years before Ivan Fedorovych, and 10 years after Gutenberg. The Soviets censored the story of Stepan Dropan, the first Ukrainian printer.
Ivan Fedorovych (also Fedorov) renewed printing in Ukraine by founding a printing press in Lviv. The Lviv Dormition Brotherhood Press used its equipment, and was very important in the early history of printing in Ukraine. Ivan Fedorovych and Belarusian P. Mstsislavets printed liturgical works in Church Slavonic in Moscow, but were persecuted because they created competition for Moscuvite scribes, so they had to flee to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Lithuanian Hetman H. Khodkevych welcomed them at his estate. Ivan Fedorovych moved to Lviv in 1572, where he resumed his work as a printer. He and his son Hryn Ivanovych published an edition of “Apostolos” in 1574. Fedorovych was also known by the names “Ivan the Muscovite” and “Muscovite printer” - but this was not in order to describe his nationality, only his place of origin. Ivan Fedorovych was placed in charge of the Derman Monastery in 1575 in the service of Prince Kostiantyn Vasyl Ostrozky. He established the Ostroh Press in 1577–79, where the Ostroh Bible was published in 1581, as well as other books. His attempts to reopen his printing shop in Lviv were unsuccessful, and it became the property of Lviv Dormition Brotherhood (later Stauropegion Institute) which used the original design of Ivan Fedorovych until the early 19th century.
The first printing press in Volhynia was the Ostroh Press founded by Ivan Fedorovych at the service of Prince Kostiantyn Vasyl Ostrozky. Other Cyrillic presses are the one at Derman Monastery founded by Prince Ostrozky, the one in Rokhmaniv founded by Kyrylo Stavrovetsky-Tranquillon, the ones in Chetvertnia, Lutsk, and Chorna founded by Pavlo Liutkovych-Telytsia. Pochaiv Monastery Press was founded in 1730.
The Polish Protestant Panivtsi Press functioned in Podilia during te years 1608–11. The Kyivan Cave Monastery Press was founded in 1615, and until the mid-19th century was the largest printing press in Ukraine. Tymofii Verbytsky and S. Sobol founded other printing presses in Kyiv. The printing press of Kyivan Mohyla Academy was founded in 1787, and it later became the printing press of Kyiv Theological Academy.
The first printing presses in left-bank Ukraine were those in Chernihiv of Kyrylo Stavrovetsky-Tranquillon founded in 1646, and Novhorod-Siverskyi Press in Novhorod-Siverskyi founded in 1674-79 which later moved to Chernihiv and became Chernihiv Press.
Tsar Peter I made the presses in Kyiv and Chernihiv subordinated to the Russian Orthodox Church in 1721. In addition, he forbade the printing of all books except church books sanctioned by church sensors in St. Petersburg. The Holy Synod (the highest ruling body of the Russian Orthodox Church established by Peter I to replace the Moscow Patriarchate) strictly censored all books published in Ukraine starting from 1721, and all Ukrainianisms was banned. Several secular printers were founded in the second half of the 18th century and they printed tsarist decrees, government instructions, and Russian books. Metal and mechanical printing was introduced to Ukraine in the early 19th century.

## Brotherhoods in Ukraine: Promotion of Education & Culture
### Brotherhoods

The origins of brotherhoods is from bratchyny which were organized in churches in medieval Ukraine. The earliest mention of bratchyny was in Hypatian Chronicle 1159. Brotherhoods appeared in Ukraine during the 15th century with the rise of the burgher class. The structure of these organisations was adopted from Western medieval brotherhoods (confraternitates) and trade guilds. The brotherhoods originally engaged only in charitable and religious activities. Examples for charitable activities were helping the sick and organising hospitals. Examples of religious activities were maintaining churches and ensuring that church service was carried in ceremonious ways.
During the late 16th and early 17th century, brotherhoods stared playing a historical role - defending the Ukrainian nationality and Orthodox faith, counteracting Catholic expansion and Polonization. The brotherhoods acquired a secular character due to the fact that they primarily consisted of burghers, and were often in opposition to authoritarian practices of the clergy. The brotherhoods promoted cultural and educational activity, as well as revived the life of the church. Brotherhood schools, printing presses, and libraries were also founded. They maintained ties with Cossacks, as well as participated in civic and political life.
In Halychyna, the Kholm region, Podlachia, Volhynia, and the Dnipro River region, existing brotherhoods were reorganized and new ones were founded during the late 16th and early 17th century. Each brotherhood had its own statue (articles, regulations, procedures), and the statues were modelled based on the example of Lviv Dormition Brotherhood. Some Orthodox clerics and nobles, as well as magnates participated in brotherhoods, though the majority of members were merchants and skilled tradesmen.
The Orthodox Church increased its influence during the Hetman State. During that time, the threat to the national identity of Ukraine diminished. Despite the fact that the number of brotherhoods grew, their activity was confined to the religious and charitable sphere, and they dropped their national and civic pursuits.
New brotherhoods were founded in the late 17th and early 18th century in Left-bank Ukraine though their focuses were narrower. They were in Poltava, Novi Sanzhary, Starodub, Sribne, Lebedyn, and Kharkiv. The brotherhood in Sribne supported a hospital. In 1686, the Ukrainian church became subordinate to the Moscow Patriarchate, and later to the Holy Synod. The Muscovites did not approve of the activities of brotherhoods. Brotherhoods were only permitted in 1864, though they had a different aim compared to traditional Ukrainian brotherhoods.
The Polish Sejm passed a law in 1679 that prohibited brotherhoods in right-bank Ukraine from maintaining ties with Eastern patriarchs. The Uniate church firmly established itself in Western Ukraine in the early 18th century. In 1709, the Lviv Dormition Brotherhood accepted the union and the pope gave it its right of stauropegion. The brotherhoods in Halychyna were dissolved by the Austrian regime in 1788.
Brotherhoods were organised in many towns and villages in Ukraine during the 19th and 20th century, thought their only job was helping to run the local parishes. It was only during Ukraine’s struggle for independence during the years 1917-20 that brotherhoods assumed their proper religious and national tasks. The Kyiv Brotherhood of the Resurrection led to the formation of Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox church.
The brotherhoods took care of the religious life of Ukrainian National Republic (UNR) soldiers in certain internment camps during the years 1921-22. The most famous is Brotherhood of the Holy Protectress.
The Ukrainian diaspora organised brotherhoods in the United States and Canada after they organised parishes. The Brotherhood of Saint Nicholas was founded in 1885 in Shenandoah, Pennsylvania. Another brotherhood, also called the Brotherhood of Saint Nicholas was founded in 1905 in Winnipeg, Manitoba. The brotherhoods eventually united into brotherhood associations. Women’s organisations were also founded such as Saint Olha Sisterhood in Jersey City founded in 1897. The Ukrainian Catholic Brotherhood of Canada was established in 1932, and rather than assuming the role of a traditional Ukrainian brotherhood, it adopted the function of a Catholic Action society.
Many Catholic and Orthodox brotherhoods were founded after 1945 in displaced persons camps. Some important brotherhoods found after WWII include Metropolitan Lypkivsky Brotherhood which published the magazine Tserkva i zhyttia from the years 1957 to 1977 bimonthly, Brotherhood of the Holy Protectress which published Dzvin in Argentina, Saint Simon's Brotherhood in Paris, and Saint Volodymyr’s Brotherhood in Toronto. United Ukrainian Orthodox Sisterhoods of the USA was founded by the parish sisterhoods, and it is engaged in publishing and educational activities.
Saint Barbara's Brotherhood is the oldest Catholic brotherhood outside of Ukraine. It was founded in Vienna during the 1870s. In the Ukrainian Catholic eparchy in Australia, the church life is based on brotherhoods. The Ukrainian Catholic Lay Brotherhood of Saint Andrew in Chicago is one of the most famous brotherhoods in the United States. It has published Tserkovnyi kalendar al’manakh annually since 1970. Union of Ukrainian Catholic Brotherhoods and Sisterhoods of America is based in Chicago and was founded in 1976.

### Brotherhood schools

Brotherhoods started founding schools in the 1580s to preserve the Orthodox faith and fight the denationalising influence of Protestant and Catholic schools. The Lviv Dormition Brotherhood established the first brotherhood school in 1586, which was a model for many other brotherhood schools in the Polish-Lithuanian commonwealth, mostly in Ukraine and Belarus. The Lviv Dormition Brotherhood School and Kyiv Epiphany Brotherhood School were the most prominent brotherhood schools. Brotherhood schools appeared even in some villages.
Originally, the language of teaching lectures in was Church Slavonic, while Greek was taught as a second language, though they started using Latin as a primary language due to adopting the curriculum and structure of Jesuit schools). The Ukrainian language was used for catechism starting from 1645, and before that it was used only for examination. Those schools taught classical languages, dialectics, rhetoric, poetics, homiletics, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music (church singing), the secondary education of that time. Some schools also taught Catholic and Orthodox theology. Students in brotherhood schools were judged by their achievements, not by their lineage. The schools had a strict discipline and used physical punishments. Bursas and student residences were offered for poor students and orphans. Lecturers had to have pedagogical training and to set an example for their students by their own behaviour. The contribution of brotherhood schools in the development of Ukrainian culture, and the growth of national and religious conciseness was significant. Brotherhood schools declined at the end of the 17th and 18th century due to the political situation of the time.

#### Lviv Dormition Brotherhood

The Lviv Dormition Brotherhood was founded at the Dormition Church in Lviv by merchants and tradesmen from Lviv. It is the oldest Ukrainian brotherhood, and served as an example for other brotherhoods. Historical references to the brotherhood date back to 1463. Patriarch Joachim V of Antioch and Patriarch Jeremiah II of Constantinople confirmed its charter in 1589. The said that it is subject to the Patriarch of Constantinople and independent from local bishops. All estates, as well as Orthodox Christians from other cities and countries were allowed to be members. The money that the brotherhood earned from membership dues, book sales, donations, and gifts, were used to operate a printing press, school, orphanages, hospitals, and homes for elderly members as well as well as to support the Saint Onuphrius's Church and Monastery and the Dormition Church.
The brotherhood was a leading religious and cultural institution in West Ukraine. It played a key role in fighting for equality with Catholics. The Lviv Brotherhood was one one of the centers of opposition of the Church Union of Berestia, thought they eventually accepted the Union with Rome On April 5, 1709 after its rights were guaranteed by Pope Clement XI. After the Union, the brotherhood limited its activities to church affairs. The Lviv brotherhood was disbanded in 1788 by the Austrian rule, though it was restored in the same year. Russophiles took over it, and its operations continued until 1939.
The brotherhood owned a printing press (Lviv Dormition Brotherhood Press) and a wide publishing program. It printed using the equipment of Ivan Fedorovych. The oldest surviving publication is the the charter of Patriarch Jeremiah II of 1589. Their other publications include the collection of verses “Prosphonima” in honour of Metropolitan Mykhailo Rahoza, and “Adelphotes” - a Greek grammar. The press printed 160,000 copies of 140 titles during the years 1591 to 1722. These include school textbooks, liturgical books, and polemical literature. Its booos spread not only in Ukraine, but also in Romania, Bulgaria, Moldova, Belarus, and Serbia. The import and sales of books from Lviv was against the law in the Russian Empire. The press existed until 1939.
Lviv Dormition Brotherhood School, a “Greek and Ruthenian school” was opened by the brotherhood on October 8, 1586. This was the first brotherhood school in Ukraine. The oldest document in the pedagogical literature of Ukraine is their charter. The organisers were Orthodox burghers and noblemen. Raising the intellectual and spiritual level of the Orthodox Church was one of the main goals. The school admitted not only children of merchants, but also boys from the lower class. The language of instruction was vernacular Ukrainian. The students also studied the following languages as subjects: Old Church Slavonic, Greek (until the 1660s), Latin (from 1604), and Polish. While Catholic and Protestant schools emphasised Latin over Greek, the Lviv school put focused on Greek and Church Slavonic - the sacred languages of Slavic Orthodox Christians. They also studied astronomy, dialectics, grammar, mathematics, music, philosophy, poetics, rhetoric, and theology. The school trained teachers and printed textbooks, thus played a huge role in the development of education in Ukraine, and its neighbouring countries. The school declined in the 18th century, but contiens to exist until 1939.
During the 16th and 17th century, the brotherhood maintained ties with Orthodox countries. The statesmen and hospodars of Moldova corresponded with the brotherhood and supported it. Most of the correspondence happened in the Ukrainian language.

#### Kyiv Epiphany Brotherhood

The Kyiv Epiphany Brotherhood was established by clergymen, Cossacks, nobles, and wealthy burghers at the Kyiv Epiphany Brotherhood Monastery in the Podil district of Kyiv ca 1615 in order to defend the Orthodox faith. It got a lot of support from Hetman Petro Konashevych-Sahaidachny. The Orthodox Kyiv metropoly was restored in 1620, and Theophanes III patriarch of Jerusalem gave the brotherhood stauropegion status, as well as the right to establish a “brotherhood for young men”. The brotherhood was granted a royal charter from king Sigismund III Vasa of Poland. It became a centre of education and culture in Kyiv. The Kyiv Epiphany Brotherhood School was founded in 1615. In 1620, Theophanes granted it a charter to teach “Helleno-Slavonic and Latin-Polish letters”. The school merged with the Kyivan Cave Monastery School in 1631 and formed the Kyivan Mohyla College, later became the Kyivan Mohyla Academy. In 1633, The brotherhood was subordinated to the clergy by Metropolitan Petro Mohyla.
Kyiv Epiphany Brotherhood operated one of the most important Orthodox brotherhood schools in Ukraine. It was founded not long after the brotherhood itself - in 1615-16. They were inspired by Lviv Dormition Brotherhood School, and wanted to reduce the number of Orthodox children who enroll to Catholic schools. It was open to boys for all estates. Its program emphasized on Greek and Church Slavonic. The instructors were from West Ukraine who graduated the Lviv Dormition Brotherhood School, the Ostroh Academy, and Polish and German institutes of high learning. Prominent Orthodox scholars and churchmen became rectors of the school. Financial support and protection from Hetman Petro Konashevych-Sahaidachny greatly benefited the school. Patriarch Theophanes III of Jerusalem, who granted the brotherhood stauropegion after his visit to Kyiv in 1620 also praised its educational work. Kyivan Mohyla College (later the Kyivan Mohyla Academy) was founded in 1632 by a merger of this school with the Kyivan Cave Monastery school.

#### Lutsk Brotherhood of the Elevation of the Cross

Lutsk Brotherhood of the Elevation of the Cross was founded by Herasym Mykulych in 1617. It is a famous Orthodox brotherhood. The members of the brotherhood included aristocrats, bishops, middle class, monks, nobles, and priests. King Sigismund III Vasa of Poland granted them a charter in 1619, and the Patriarch of Constantinople granted it status of stauropegion in 1623. It operated a printing press and a school (Lutsk Brotherhood of the Elevation of the Cross School). The brotherhood started declining after the era of Bohdan Khmelnytsky, but the russian government revived it in 1896 with the intention to “strengthen the Russian people”. It functioned without a charter from 1930, was liquidated by the Polish government in 1931, and received a new charter in 1935. The new charter recognised the roots of the brotherhood from the 17th century but the holdings remained under government jurisdiction. After the Soviet occupation of Lutsk, the brotherhood ceased its activities.
The school of the brotherhood was founded by Lutsk burghers and noblemen who were members of the brotherhood. The date of its establishment was between 1617 to 1620. Its regulations and statues prove that it was inspired by the Lviv Dormition Brotherhood School. It stressed philological training in Greek, Church Slavonic, and Latin. It was open to boys of all estates and economic backgrounds. The school suffered from repressive measures by the Catholic opposition, and declined after the wars of Bohdan Khmelnytskyi.

### Cyril and Methodius Brotherhood

Cyril and Methodius Brotherhood was a secret society founded in Kyiv in December 1845 of January 1846, aiming to create an equal Slavic federation centred at Kyiv. It was named in honour of the missionaries who converted the Slavs to Christianity. Their aim was to convert the Russian Empire to a Republic. Their pan-Slavic ideals were a response to the pan-Germanic movements of the time. They also aimed to:
They wanted:
* to abolish serfdom, and to ensure all estates have equal rights;
* to give all Slavic nations an opportunity to develop their cultures;
* to make education available for the masses;
* and to unify all Slavs in a federated state. Kyiv was meant to be the capital of the federation.
Some famous members of the brotherhood include: Mykola Kostomarov (who Payet founded modern Ukrainian historiography), Vasyl Bilozersky, Oleksander Navrotsky, Mykola Hulak, Dmytro Pylchykov, O. Petrov, Panteleimon Kulish, Opanas Markovych, Yurii Andruzky, Ivan Posiada, M. Savych, and Taras Shevchenko.
The document of the brotherhood, The Books of Genesis of the Ukrainian People, was written by Mykola Kostomarov. He was inspired by the work of Adam Mickiewicz, Books of the Polish People and the Polish Pilgrimage, where he claimed Poland would save all enslaved nations. Kostomarov believed this was the role of Ukraine, who are descendants of Cossacks which lived in a democratic state, and didn’t have neither tzars, nor nobility. The brotherhood wished to transform the empire and that Ukraine would be an equal Republic in a federation.
Alexei Petrov, who was at the time a student of law in Kyiv university denounced the brotherhood. Imperial bureaucrats labeled the organisation’s ideas of “separatist” and “dangerous”. The emperor called them a result of Paris (Polish people in exile) propaganda. At the end, most of the members were not given harsh punishments, as the Russian government did not want to attract attention to the the ideals of the the brotherhood. They also lied about the intentions of the organisation - saying that it aimed to unite all Slavic nations under the tzar. Taras Shevchenko received the harshest punishment, as some of his poems and drawings were personal attacks against the tzar and his wife. He had to serve for 10 years in the imperial army, and lost the right to write, draw, and paint.

## Higher Education in Ukraine
### A brief history of higher education in Ukraine

It’s possible to trace the origin of Ukrainian higher education to the 16-17th century. It was during the religious strife that confessional colleges arose. Orthodox, and later Uniate schools followed the model of Jesuit schools. Despite the fact that these were secondary schools, some of them offered courses typical for academies. Multiple higher colleges were established by the Jesuits in Ukraine and Belarus. Ukrainians could obtain a full higher education only from Jesuit-run academies. The Kyivan Mohyla College was an Orthodox school that offered a partial higher-education. It later revived recognition as an academy in 1701 as the Kyivan Mohyla Academy.
Austrian emperor Joseph II founded Lviv University in 1784. Latin was used as the language of instruction, but the Studium Ruthenum was founded to educate candidates to Greco-Catholic priesthood who did not know Latin. Literary Ukrainian (Ruthenian) was the language of instruction. In 1817, the language of instruction became German. A Ukrainian chair was added in the department of Theology during the Revolution of 1848–9 in the Habsburg monarchy. The central authorities in 1849 and 1860 declared their intentions to gradually convert it to a Ukrainian university. The plan was eventually abandoned under Polish pressure, and Ukrainian and Polish replaced German as the language of instruction. In 1879, polish became the language of internal administration. The establishment of a few Ukrainian chairs did not meet the populations educational needs, and the Ukrainians in Halychyna demanded their own university. The Austrian authorities finally agreed in 1912, but their plans were cut short due to WWI.
Multiple universities were planned in Russian-occupied Ukraine. For example, in 1760, there was a proposal by Hetman Kyrylo Rozumovsky to open a university in Baturyn. In 1805, the first university in Russian controlled Ukraine was opened in Kharkiv. Despite the fact that Russian was the language of instruction, it was the home of Kharkiv Romantic School, and was very important in the National awakening of Ukraine during the 19th century. After students of the Polish school Kremenets Lyceum in Kremenets participated in the Polish Insurrection of 1830–31, the school was closed. Kyiv University was founded in 1837. The first rector was Mykhailo Maksymovych. He also pioneered Ukrainian, ethnography, historical studies, and literary studies. The majority of students during the first generation were Polish, but eventually Ukrainian and Russian students became a majority.
In Lizhyn in 1820, the Bezborodko Gymnasium of Higher Education was founded. It had a nine-year program that was more demanding than of secondary education and competed with what was offered by universities in the Russian Empire. It was later renamed to Nizhyn Lyceum.
Universities received limited autonomy in 1863, but these rights were revoked in 1884. In 1865, the Richelieu Lyceum which up until then offered secondary education was converted to New Russia University (now Odesa National University). In Austrian-ruled Chernivtsi, a German university was founded in 1874. It’s now Chernivtsi National University.
The Russian occupiers didn’t let women receive higher education. Only in 1870, were they permitted to attend public lectures. At Kyiv university the Higher Courses for Women were founded, but the Russian authorities closed them in 1885. After the Revolution of 1905, the situation improved and private schools for women were opened in Kyiv. The Higher Courses for Women were revived in 1905, and renamed to Saint Olha’s Women’s Institute in 1914. Similar schools were founded in other cities such as Odesa and Kharkiv.
After the Revolution of 1905, it was proposed to open courses in Ukrainian studies in universities, however the Russian authorities prohibited it. During the Russian occupation of Ukraine was elitist, and most of the students were from nobility.
New higher schools appeared in Ukraine after the February Revolution of 1917. Some examples are the Ukrainian People's University in Kyiv and the Odesa Agricultural Institute. Existing schools were Ukrainianized, and new subjects were added: history of Ukraine, language, legal history, and literature. In 1918, Hetman Pavlo Skoropadsky transformed the Ukrainian People's University to the Ukrainian State University of Kyiv by decree. New universities were opened in Katerynoslav (now Dnipro), Simferopol, and Kamianets-Podilskyi.
During the Soviet occupation of Ukraine, universities did not have any autonomy at all. The people's commissar of education got to appoint rectors, and they usually considered political credentials more than academic qualifications. In the 20s there were attempts to Ukrainianize Higher Education. Courses about Ukrainian history, language, and literature were added. This ended in 1933, and Ukrainian student body and faculty were purged.
After WWI, the Ukrainian chairs at Lviv University were abolished by the Polish authorities, and even Ukrainian philology was taught in Polish. The Lviv Underground Ukrainian University was founded in 1921. The only officially recognized institution of higher learning that taught in Ukrainian in interwar Poland was the Greek Catholic Theological Academy in Lviv which was founded in 1928.
In 1921, the Ukrainian diaspora founded the Ukrainian Free University in Vienna, though it was later moved to Prague due to support from the Czechoslovak government. The Ukrainian Husbandry Academy was founded in 1922 in Poděbrady, and was transformed in 1935 to the Ukrainian Technical and Husbandry Institute. The Czechoslovak government supported the Ukrainian Higher Pedagogical Institute in Prague from 1923 to 1933.
After WWII, higher education in Ukraine was expanded, however pressure of russification increased. The compulsory entrance examination in Ukrainian language and literature was dropped in 1954, the Russian wasn’t. In 1965, proposals were made to Ukrainianize Higher Education in Ukraine, but were blocked by Moscow.
After Ukraine became independent in 1991, crucial changes were made in the Higher Education system. All schools were classified by their level of ownership: public, private, and communal. Four levels of accreditation have been established, with the fourth level securing the highest degree of autonomy and funding.

### Kyivan Mohyla Academy

Kyivan Mohyla Academy was founded by Petro Mohyla in 1632 as a merger of the Kyiv Epiphany Brotherhood School, and the Kyivan Cave Monastery School. During the 17th and 18th century, it was the leading centre of education in Ukraine. At the time, it had significant intellectual influence over the entire Orthodox world. The founders of the school conceived it as an academy, which was supposed to offer courses in philosophy and theology, and to supervise a network of secondary schools. Completing the Orthodox school system was equal to completing the Jesuit-run Polish academies. King Władysław IV Vasa wanted to avoid such competition, and granted it the rank of a college or secondary school. The school received privileges of an academy only in 1694.
The purpose of the academy was to master the learning and intellectual skills of modern Europe, and to apply them in order to defend the Orthodox faith. Other Orthodox schools emphasised on Church Slavonic and Greek, but Mohyla’s academy on Latin and Polish. The sacred language (Church Slavonic), as well as the literary language (Ruthenian) were still taught, while Greek was relegated to a second place.
The Cossack starshyna had close ties with the academy from the very beginning and provided moral and material support. Hetman Ivan Petrazhytsky-Kulaha approved the plans of Petro Mohyla to open the school and granted it a charter. The Orthodox hierarchy supported the Polish crown in the 1640s against the rebellious Cossacks, however Cossack sons still attended the college. Even future hetmans Ivan Vyhovsky, Ivan Samoilovych, Pavlo Teteria, Ivan Mazepa, and Pavlo Polubotok studied in Kyivan Mohyla Academy. Bohdan Khmelnytsky granted money, land, and privileges to the college. The relationship between the academy and Cossacks was strained due to the academy’s opposition to the Pereiaslav Treaty of 1654, and its activities were disrupted during the Ruin. The Muscovite and Polish armies looted the building and property of the academy multiple times. However during the period of the strong Hetman state, the academy had favourable conditions. Hetman Samoilovych generously supported it, and it begun to flourish. Its golden age was during the reign of Hetman Mazepa, when its enrolment was over 2000, including future prominent Cossack officers.
The expanding power of Muscovy threatened the academy. In 1686, Patriarch of Moscow gained control of Kyiv metropoly. He put added all Kyiv publications to a list of heretic books in order to end the intellectual influence of Kyiv on Muscovy. Printing books in Ruthenian was forbidden, though Patriarch Adrian eased that restriction in 1693. Ukrainian books were still denied entry in Muscovy.
The Golden age of the academy ended after the defeat of Ivan Mazepa in the battle of Poltava. Muscovite troops plundered it. The school stopped admitting students from Polish-controlled Right-Bank Ukraine. The enrolment fell, and by 1711, it was only 161. Peter I banned the publication of texts in Ruthenian, and religious publications in the Ukrainian recension of Church Slavonic. This was a huge blow to the academy.
After the death of Peter I, the school was revived thanks to the administrative talents of Metropolitan Rafail Zaborovsky, as well as the support of Hetman Danylo Apostol. New courses were added in geography, history, mathematics, medicine, and modern languages. In 1738–9, te enrolment was 490, while by 1744–5 it rose all the way it to 1100. Graduates were encouraged to complete their studies abroad, and the sons of many wealthy Cossacks did this.
The Hetmanate was abolished in 1786 by Catherine II, and monasteries were secularised. The academy was thus deprived of its main source of financial support. The importance of the school quickly declined, and it was closed in 1817. It was formally revived in 1991, and was opened for students in its historical building in 1992.

### Lviv National University

Lviv University was founded by Austrian emperor Joseph II. The language of instruction was Latin. Candidates for Greco-Catholic priesthood who did not know Latin could study in literary Ruthenian. The university was transformed to a lyceum in 1805, but was reestablished in 1817.
Students in the faculty of philosophy studied 3 years, while students in the faculties of law, medicine, or theology studied 4 years. In 1847–48 57% of the students were Polish, while 37.4% were Ukrainian. The students actively participated in the Revolution of 1848–49, and demanded to introduce the Polish and Ukrainian languages in teaching and administration of the university. Government forces bombarded the university, and most of the library was destroyed. The Ukrainians won some concessions: Ruthenian chairs in the faculties of theology, language and literature, law, and philosophy.
In 1867, Halychyna became autonomous and the university was gradually Polonized. In 1871, Polish became the language of internal administration, and in 1879, the language of instruction. In 1870, 46 courses were taught in German, 13 in Polish, 13 in Latin, and 7 in Ruthenian (Ukrainian). In 1906, 185 courses were taught in Polish, 19 in Ruthenian, 14 in Latin, and 5 in German. A few more Ukrainian seats were established, with the most notable one being the Second Chair of Universal History headed by Mykhailo Hrushevsky. A separate chair of Ukrainian literature was added in 1900. The appointment of Ivan Franko was blocked by the Austrian government due to his alleged political unreliability.
Student groups in the 1860s and 1870s were divided according to nationalities, and sometimes also according to ideology. The Academic Reading Room, which became one of the largest organizations, was established in 1867 and united Polish and Jewish students. The Academic Circle, which was founded in 1870, was one of the first Ukrainian student group. The Academic Hromada was founded in 1895, and united Ukrainian students with different ideologies.
The Ukrainians demanded Lviv University to be divided to Polish and Ukrainian campuses, but thus never happened. The Committee of Ukrainian Youth (KUM) fought back. The Austrian government agreed to found a Ukrainian university in Lviv in 1912. The university was planned to be opened in 1916, however the plan was prevented by WWI.
As a result of the Ukrainian-Polish War in Halychyna 1918–19, East Halychyna became a part of Poland, and all Ukrainian chairs were abolished. The university was renamed in 1919 to Jan Casimir University, after the king of the Polish-Lithuanian commonwealth who founded the Jesuit Academy in Lviv. Poland claimed Lviv University to be the successor of the Jesuit Academy. Ukrainians demanded a second Ukrainian university in Lviv, and boycotted Lviv university until 1925. The Lviv (Underground) Ukrainian University was founded, but was illegal in Poland. The classes were organized on the areas of Ukrainian civil organizations and in private homes. The university was closed in 1925 due to persecution and a lack of official recognition.
After Ukrainian stopped boycotting Lviv University, their share II students rose. In 1925, 14% of the students were Greco-Catholic (mostly Ukrainians). Lviv university was one of the largest universities in interwar Poland. There was a discrimination against national minorities: Ukrainians could not be more than 15% of admissions, Jews not more than 10%, and Polish people at least 50%. Jews were also segregated in the lecture halls, and physically assaulted. Many famous logicians, mathematicians, and philosophers studied in Lviv University.
After the Soviet occupation of West Ukraine in 1939, the language of the university became Ukrainian, however it became Soviet in spirit. The communists abolished the faculty of theology, and the faculty of medicine became a separate medical institute. The university was names in honour of Ivan Franko in 1940. The communists ignored the relation of the university with Jesuits, and started a wave of terror mostly against Poles, though Jews and Ukrainians were also repressed. More than 68 faculty members were arrested, and 31 were executed. The university was not allowed to operate during the German occupation and its building was occupied by the Gestapo. In 1944, the Soviets re-occupied Lviv, and the university was reopened. The Ukrainization was replaced with Russification which was reversed after the Soviet occupation of Ukraine was over in 1991.
In 1999, the university received the National University status. It was the first university in Ukraine to teach subjects such as economic theory, European studies, and philosophy of science.

### Kharkiv National University

Kharkiv University was founded in 1805 with financial support from local burgers, municipal council, and nobility, and on the initiative of Vasyl Karazyn. At the beginning it has broad autonomy. It has 4 faculties: history-philology, law, medicine, and physics-mathematics. In 1839, a veterinary school was added to the medical facility, and in 1850 became an independent institute. The university had a clinic and a surgical library, art, astronomy, mineralogy, physics, technology, and zoology cabinets, a library, a printing press, and a botanical garden. The Kharkiv Romantic School was formed by students of the university in the 1830s. Before its autonomy was abolished, it was an important cultural force in Ukraine: it introduced western ideas, and recognized the importance of Ukrainian folklore.
In 1835, the university got a new charter that increased the power of central bureaucracy. Rectors and curators needed to be government approved. All publications and lectures were subject to censorship, and scholars were not allowed to travel abroad. The restrictions were gradually lifted after Nicholas I died. In 1863, the powers of the rector and the Professorial Council increased. Funds for libraries, museums, and scientific research were increased. The autonomy of the university was restricted after the assassination of Alexander II. The ministry of education got control appointments and curriculum in 1884. Studies in history of Ukraine, Ukrainian language, and Ukrainian literature expanded despite political interference. Government control was eased after the revolution of 1905, and the development of national consciousness was quickened. In 1906, the ministry of education rejected the proposal of the rector to set up a chair of Ukrainian history and a chair of Ukrainian language and literature, a course about the history of “Little Russian” literature was allowed.
In 1917-1920, during the struggle for Ukrainian independence, the university recognized the cultural and linguistic rights of the Ukrainian people but rejected its political independence. During the Soviet occupation of Ukraine, the autonomy of the university, as well as the positions of rector and vice rector, were abolished. A Bolshevik-appointed commissar had ultimate power over the university. The university was reorganised into multiple institutions. Kharkiv was at the time, the capital of Soviet Ukraine, and also its academic centre. Almost all Ukrianian Studies scholars were arrested in the late 20s and early 30s. Scholars of other topics were also repressed. The institutions were reunited as one university in 1933. The university was renamed after Russian writer Maxim Gorky in 1936, despite the fact that he had no connection to it. The university was partially evacuated to Kazakhstan during WWII. Thousands of academic stuff, professors, and students were killed in the war or died of hunger and diseases.
The university was relocated to the reconstructed Development House during the 1950s and 1960s. In 1991, it maintained its status of a leading university in free Ukraine. It was renamed in honour of Vasyl Karazyn in 1999, and granted National University Status. It has one of the largest and oldest scholarly libraries in Ukraine. It owns more than 3.5 million volumes, 50,000 unique editions, and more than 1000 manuscripts, including the 1704 universal of Hetman Mazepa. It has consistently been ranked among the top universities in Ukraine.

### Kyiv National University

Kyiv University was opened in 1834, and named after “Saint Vladimir” (St. Volodymyr the Great). The university inherited the collection, faculty, and library of Kremianets Lyceum, a Polish school closed by the russian regime. It originally had one faculty - philosophy, with two departments - history and philology, and physics and mathematics. The faculty of law added one year later. The university had a 4 year program, and it was designed to give the students a general education, not a specified one. The autonomy of the university was restricted: the ministry of education had to approve the professors and the deans, and the tsar had to approve the elected rector.
Despite the intention of the university being Russification, it was a centre of national awakening and revolutionary activity. A branch of the Union of the Polish People was uncovered in 1838. Many students and professors were expelled, and the university was closed for half a year. A faculty of medicine was add in 1841 out of the abolished Vilnius Medico-Surgical Academy. Mykola Kostomarov founded the Cyril and Methodius Brotherhood in 1841. New restrictions were imposed following the revolutionary unrest in West and East Europe in 1848. The ministry of education appointed the rectors and deans, and the tzar had to approve them. Lectures had to follow a program which the rector monitored. The faculty of philosophy was abolished. Foreign scholars were not allowed to teach, and Russian scholars were not allowed to study abroad. Student fees were increased, while faculty salaries decreased. Many professors searched for additional jobs, while many seats were vacant. Only at the end of the 1850s, did the situation begin to improve. Faculty members and students started being involved in social issues. Sunday schools were organized, and their language of instruction was Ukrainian. In 1863, universities were given more control over their administration, curricula, and research. The new regime, despite its social liberalism, disapproved of the Ukrainophile movement: it suppressed the Sunday schools, and disbanded the student hromada. Many Polish students were expelled after the Polish Insurrection of 1863–64.
After the assassination of Alexander II, the autonomy of universities was sharply reduced. The ministry of education had the right to appoint deans, professors, and rectors. Student fees were increased, and state funds for the universities decreased. The university was closed for half a year as a result of demonstrations in Kyiv against the new law. Kyiv students supported the general student strike in 1899. 183 students were conscripted into the army as a punishment for participating in the demonstrations. The authorities realized in 1905 that they had to replace the 1884 statue with a more liberal one. Multiple drafts were prepared, but none of them became official.
The faculty members, graduates, and students of Kyiv University participated in the Ukrainian National Movement, however the leadership was hostile to it. Ukrainian students during the Revolution of 1905 demanded 4 chairs with Ukrainian as the language of instruction, and the university itself later requested 2, however nothing came from those requests. Andrii Loboda and Volodymyr Peretts decided in 1907 to lecture in Ukrainian but were banned from continuing. Limited use of the Ukrainian language in Kyiv University was permitted in September 1917. The Provisional Government allowed to use Ukrainian in the chairs of history of Ukraine, history of West Ruthenian Law, literature, and Ukrainian language. According to the Ukrainization policy of Hetman Pavlo Skoropadsky, Kyiv University stayed a Russian institution, and a separate Ukrianian university was established.
During the period of Soviet occupation, the education system of Ukraine was radically reformed. Kyiv University became Kyiv Institute of People's Education. It was restored under the name Kyiv State University as a merger of Kyiv Physical-Chemical-Mathematical Institute and Kyiv Institute of Professional Education. The university was named in honour of Taras Shevchenko in 1939. Widespread purges decimated universities betweeen 1939 to 1941, and some estimates say that 80% of the faculty of Kyiv University were persecuted.
The university was evacuated to Kazakhstan during WWII, were it was unified with Kharkiv University, and formed the Unified Ukrainian State University. The university suffered during the Nazis retreat: the iconic read building was heavily damaged. Its laboratories, librairies, and museum collections were plundered. The university was reopened in January 1944.
Viktor Skopenko was rector of the university during the years 1985–2008, making him the longest serving rector. Under his leadership the university was heavily transformed. The changes mirrored the cultural, political, and social changes that led to the independence of Ukraine. The university was granted a status of national institution of higher learning I 1994, and assumed its current name: Kyiv States University. Today, it is one of the most prestigious institutions of higher education in Ukraine.

### Odesa National University

Odesa University was founded in 1865 on the basis of Richelieu Lyceum which was founded in 1817, during the russian occupation of Ukriane, with the name “New Russia University”. The tsarist regime considered Odesa to be a hotbed of unrest, and opposes the founding a university in the city. However Richelieu Lyceum was eventually granted university status under the pressure of merchants and nobility. The university benefited from the new statute of Russian imperial universities of 1863 which restored the election of professors and rectors, lifted censorship, and reduced administrative surveillance.
The university had 3 faculties: history and philology, physics and mathematics, and law. The students came from a diverse background. Most of the students came from Caucasia, the Don region, and Southern Ukraine, but there were also students from Slavic countries in the Balkans. All instruction was in Russian, however Oleksander Hrushevsky tried to initiate a course in Ukrainian about Ukrainian history in 1906.
The economic conditions of the university were weakened after the Revolution of 1917. Central Rada and the Hetman government promised funding, but the university did not get a lot of assistance. During the 1917-20 struggle for Ukrainian independence, there were attempts to Ukrainianize the university. During the Soviet occupation of Ukraine, the autonomy of the university was practically abolished, and a Bolshevik-appointed commissar received ultimate power.
The university was dissolved in 1930, and its faculties became independent research institutes. The were combined to form the Odesa Institute of People's Education later that year. The policy of Ukrainization had limited success. Multiple institutes were merged again in 1930, and formed the Odesa State University. During the Stalinist terror, students and faculty staff were purged including 2 rectors. Some were executed, while others were sent to labour camps.
The university was evacuated to Krasnodar during WWII, and later to Bayram-Ali in Turkmenistan. During te period of evacuation, student enrolment averaged 250-500. In Odesa itself, the Romanian occupation authorities founded Universitatea din Odesa, which had a student enrolment of 2,000. After the Romanian army retreated from Odesa, Odesa University was reopened with 6 faculties: biology, chemistry, geography, history, physics and mathematics, and philosophy, with more faculties added. During the final years of Stalin’s rule, there was another wave of political repressions which decimated the university.
In the 70s, there was a decrease in investment in science and technology in the U.S.S.R. compared to in the west, which badly affected several innovative fields. However, the university manages to retain its leading role.
Does university remained one of the leading classical universities in independent Ukraine. New majors were added including applied physics, biotechnology, computer engineering, journalism, management, and political science. It received the status of national institution of higher learning in 1999. Today, Odesa university is one of the most prestigious institutions of higher education in Ukraine. In 2021, it ranked the 8th best university in Ukriane, and the 5th best classical university. The university has one of the largest scholarly libraries in Ukriane with over 4 million volumes. It has rare books in multiple languages, and many periodicals. The university operates a botanical garden, the Odesa Astronomical Observatory, and 4 museums.

### Chernivtsi National University

Deputies from Bukovyna submitted a proposal in 1848 to open a university in Chernivtsi, however it was rejected. In 1872, Kostiantyn Tomashchuk, a deputy of the Bukovynian Diet and the Austrian parliament put forward a successful proposal, and the university was opened in 1875. The language of instruction was German, and the explanation for that was that graduated German gymnasiums in Chernivtsi should be able to obtain higher education in German. This happened after the Polonization of Lviv University, and German language universities in Austria were remote.
The students of Chernivtsi University came not only from Bukovyna, but also from Halychyna. Famous people from Halychyna including Ivan Franko, Denys Lukiianovych, and Les Martovych studied in Chernivtsi University. Ukrainian students were on average 20-25 percents of the enrollments. The amount of Romanians was about the same, and the majority of students were German or Jewish. The university promoted German culture and language in Bukovyna, but it also served as a model of interethnic cooperation.
The university was Romanianized during the years 1918-1940. It was names after Ferdinand I of Romania, and late after Carol I. The Ukrainian departments were dissolved, and the Ukrainian professors were dismissed. In the late 30s, all student societies were dissolved except one devoted to the king, monarchy, and “Greater Romania”.
The Soviet occupation of Chernivtsi started in 1940 when northern Bukovyna was annexed and became part of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic. Ukrainian became the language of instruction. During the years 1940-44, it was under Romanian occupation, and again became a Romanian institute. The Soviets reorganized it as Chernivtsi State University in 1944. The theology faculty was abolished. Literary scholar Yevhen Kyryliuk led the movement to name the university after Yurii Fedkovych, however they didn’t receive Soviet consent in 1989. The university has been among the leading higher educational institutions in independent Ukraine. In 2000, it was granted national university status.
Since 1955, the main building of the University has been the former residence of the Orthodox metropolitans of Bukovyna and Dalmatia. In 2011, it became a UNESCO World Heritage. The enrollment is more than 14,000. The university has a botanical garden, a biological research base, a geophysical observatory, a physics laboratory for semiconductor and thermodynamic research, an experimental fish farm, seismological and meteorological stations, and 4 museums. Some of its specialized centres include the Centre for American Studies, the Centre for Euro-Atlantic Integration and Security, the Centre for Czech Studies, the Centre for Romanian Studies, and the Center for Slavic Studies. The library of the university is one of the oldest and largest scholarly universities in Ukraine" As of 2020, it has about 2.6 million books including 70,000 rare books and manuscripts. The “Habsburg Library” is one of the highlights of the library - a collection of 1,400 volumes granted to the university by Habsburg dynasty.

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