OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Ecclesiastical Latin/Vowels

Vowels in Latin are very easy to learn. There are only five of them. This does not mean that there are only five vowel letters, but rather that there are only five vowel sounds.
This point is difficult for English speakers because English has 18 vowel sounds and has employed many spelling rules to differentiate their various sounds or silence.
This kind of spelling convention only exists in English. In Latin there are FIVE vowel sounds, only. Also, there are a total of ZERO silent letters in Latin. If you see the letter, it means you say the letter. If the letter is not said, it is not written.
The Latin vowels are as follows;
A E I O U Y
They can be learned effectively in two groups. Here is group one.
* A sounds like the O in the English word not.
* O sounds like the O in the English word note.
* U sounds like the OO in the English word boot.
These letters never make a different sound than what is above. They may at times sound for a short time or for a long time, with stress or without stress but the actual SOUND of the letter will never change.
Here is group two.
* E sounds like the E in the English word net.
* I sounds like the EE in the English word need.
* Y always sounds like Latin I. It is only used in borrowed words and may be accidently written as the letter I.
Again, it must be pointed out that these vowels will never change the sound they make. Not today, not tomorrow, not next week, not if there is a an E at the end of the word, never.
Latin vowels may be long or short but the idea of long and short in Latin is not the same as that in English. In English we say a vowel is long or short to say that it changes sound. The English letter A will sound with as many as five different sounds depending on the other letters around it or more importantly the word it is used it is just memorized to have a certain sound. The normal way that English speakers think of their vowels is as follows.
A will sound as either short as in Cat, a sound that does not exist in Latin, or as Kate, a sound that sounds to a Latin as EI.
E will sound short as in set, but long as in seat, a sound that is represented by the Latin letter I.
I will sound short as in hill, a sound that does not exist in Latin, or long as in Kite, a sound that sounds to a Latin as AI.
O will sound short as in hot, which sounds to a Latin as A, and long as in Hope, which sounds just as a Latin expects O to sound but with no need for the E as the end of the word.
U will sound short as in cup, but this sound does not exist in Latin, and long as in cute, but this sound will sound like IU or JU in Latin.
Latin words are spelled exactly as they are spoken, so if the vowel sound changes, then the vowel letter will change.
You can practice making sure you are using the correct vowel sounds by saying this;
Ah
Eh
EE
Oh
OOh
which of course in Latin looks like;
A
E
I
O
U
# Ecclesiastical Latin/Sentence1

The first and most basic sentence pattern can be described as follows:
Nominative Noun (NN) + esse. NN + esse.
A noun in the nominative case is expressed followed by the appropriate form of the verb esse.
This sentence pattern is used to say that something exists, i.e. "it is" or "it exists" or "there is".
To say "It is a tree" all that is needed is to take the nominative case of Arbor and then place the correct form of esse after it, i.e. Arbor est.
When using a personal pronoun in Latin, such as "I, you, he, she, we, them", it is not necessary to state the pronoun; the correct form of esse can be used by itself. Latin is described as being a Pro-drop language because it allows the speaker to omit or drop the subject pronoun.
To say "I am" or "I exist" it is not necessary to say "ego sum". It is generally sufficient to say "sum" unless a little more emphasis is required, in which case the word "ego" is used on its own. This can be translated as "I and nobody else". The form "ego sum" would be very rarely used. In the Vulgate translation of the Bible, the translator often uses "ego sum" when Jesus is speaking and this is taken as an affirmation of his Divinity.
Here is another, very similar, sentence pattern:
NN1 NN2 + esse.
In this pattern, the verb normally (but not necessarily) goes at the end of the sentence. Noun One, in the nominative case, is considered to be equal to Noun Two, which is also in the nominative case. This differs from what would be expected in English, where the object form of words must be used after the verb per English Word Order rules.
In English one would say "I am the teacher" but the word "I" has to be changed to "me" if the word order of the sentence changed, as in "The teacher is me". However, Latin does not do this. In both cases the nominative of the noun is used and will not change: "Ego magister sum" or "Magister ego sum."
Since Latin is a Pro-drop language, this sentence pattern will often sound like the first sentence pattern, giving "Magister sum." It is understood that an unspoken "ego" has been dropped.
It should also be pointed out that when using NN1 NN2 + esse it is possible to equate any two nouns, regardless of what grammatical differences may exist between them. A male noun can be equated with a female noun. A singular noun can be equated with a plural noun. A noun with gender can be equated with a noun that does not have gender.
# Project Assignments

This is page where Marknewlyn keeps track of assignments. New contributors can use it to check which sections are unassigned.
* Nix Kalk - Nervous system chapter to start off with:
* 1. Andrew Slaughter - Translating the glossary into indigenous languages & Section 3 Chapters 1 - 3
* Melanie Stefan - Section 1, Chapter 1
* Stephen Kolomyjec - Section 4 chapter 2: Biodiversity
# FHSST Biology/Contents/Index/DCC/Biodiversity
## Chapter 2: Biodiversity

* Biodiversity studies
* Significance and value of Biodiversity
* Threats to biodiversity
* Conservation
** Conservation methods and ethics
** Species extinction
** Red Data book
** Endangered species list
# FHSST Biology/Contents/Index/DCC/Origin of species/Theories/Evolution

Evolution is a gradual process that occurs over time. As a species is exposed to different selection pressures, it is forced to adapt to changes in its surroundings. Thus, a naturalist can observe a change in the features of a species.
# FHSST Biology/Contents

The Free High School Science Texts:
A Textbook for High School Students Studying Biology.
    How to use this textbook
    Revision Techniques
    Useful Information
    Index
    Front Page
To do list
Project Assignments
# FHSST Biology/Contents/How to use this textbook
## How to use this textbook

The South African high school Biology curriculum is built around 3 Learning Outcomes - things that you need to show you can do. Each Learning Outcome has 3 Assessment Standards. These are the things the classroom teacher, or the exam board, will use to test whether you meet the Learning Outcomes.

## Learning Outcomes Overview

* Learning Outcome 1: Scientific Inquiry and Problem Solving Skills
** Focus of Assessment Standard 1: The learner identifies and questions phenomena and plans an investigation.
** Focus of Assessment Standard 2: The learner conducts an investigation by collecting and manipulating data.
** Focus of Assessment Standard 3: The learner analyses, synthesises and evaluates data and communicates findings.
* Learning Outcome 2: Construction and Application of Knowledge
** Focus of Assessment Standard 1: The learner accesses knowledge.
** Focus of Assessment Standard 2: The learner interprets and makes meaning of knowledge in Life Sciences.
** Focus of Assessment Standard 3: The learner shows understanding of how Life Sciences knowledge is applied in everyday life.
* Learning Outcome 3: Life Sciences, Technology, Environment and Society
** Focus of Assessment Standard 1: The learner explores and evaluates the scientific ideas of past and present cultures.
** Focus of Assessment Standard 2: The learner compares and evaluates the uses and development of resources and products and their impact on the environment and society.
** Focus of Assessment Standard 3: The learner compares the influence of different beliefs, attitudes and values on scientific knowledge.
Learning Outcome 1 is testing whether or not you have practical skills. See Useful Information for details of the skills you will need to develop.
Learning Outcome 2 is testing your knowledge of Biology.
Learning Outcome 3 is testing whether you can apply your knowledge to real life situations.

## What do I need to know for the exam?

In school, each Learning Outcome is covered through using the same subject material in different ways. Because of that, this textbook is based on the subject material, and not the Learning Outcomes. In each section we aim to explain how the material should be used, and what skills should be learnt, to meet each of the Learning Outcomes.
The 4 subject areas are:
* Tissues, cells and molecular studies
* Structure, Control and Process in basic life systems of Plants and Humans
* Environmental Studies
* Diversity, Change and Continuity
Read each section through carefully. You can only really start to show that you have certain skills if you know the subject material properly.
We aim to cover everything you should learn from Grade 10 through to Grade 12, since each year builds upon the foundation of the previous year. However, the balance of our explanations will be focused on the Grade 11 and 12 work, since this will not have been tested externally.
Good luck!
# FHSST Biology/Contents/Index

Detailed Index

## Section 1: Tissues, Cells and Molecular Studies
### Chapter 1: Cells and genetics

* Cell Structure
* Micro-organism structure
* Tissues and organs
* DNA and chromosomes
* Cell division
** Mitosis
** Meiosis
* Genes, inheritance and genetic disorders
* Disease and immunity

### Chapter 2: Indigenous knowledge systems and biotechnology

* Food industry
* Traditional techonologies
* Medical biotechnologies
* Genetic engineering
* Cloning
* DNA fingerprinting and forensics

### Chapter 3: Ethics and legislation

* Tissue culture
* Cloning
* Genetic modification
* Beliefs, attitudes and values
** Diseases
** Genetic counselling

## Section 2: Structure, Control and Processes in basic life systems of Plants and Humans
### Chapter 1: Energy

* Photosynthesis
* Energy release

### Chapter 2: Food

* Manufacture and preservation
* Human nutrition
* Related diseases and allergies

### Chapter 3: Mass transport systems

* Plants
** Gaseous exchange
** Water transport
* Humans
** Gaseous exchange, related diseases and allergies
** Blood transport and related diseases
** Blood transfusions and life support systems
** Endocrine system and related diseases
** Excretion

### Chapter 4: Other Systems and ethics

* Nervous system
* Support systems in plants and humans
* Reproduction
** Reproductive systems
** Related diseases
** Reproduction ethics
*** Sperm banks
*** Surrogacy
*** Test Tube babies
*** Abortion
* Sexuality ethics

## Section 3: Environmental Studies
### Chapter 1: Ecosystems

* Biospheres, biomes and ecosystems
* Resources
** Biotic (living) and Abiotic (non-living) resources
** Nutrient cycles
** Energy flow within environments

### Chapter 2: Human Influence

* Air
** Ozone, global warming and the greenhouse effect
** Acid rain
* Land
* Water
* Industrialisation
* Effect of pollutants on humans

### Chapter 3: Resource Management

* Exploitation
* Sustainability
* Eco-tourism
* Rehabilitation of environments
* Waste management
* Air, land and water-born disease management

### Chapter 4: Land issues

* Ownership and use
* Urban decay
* Agriculture
* Nature and game reserves
* Deforestation and desertification
* Political, legal, economic, ethical and environmental influences

### Chapter 5: Local environmental issues
## Section 4: Diversity, Change and Continuity
### Chapter 2: Biodiversity

* Biodiversity studies
* Significance and value of Biodiversity
* Threats to biodiversity
* Conservation
** Conservation methods and ethics
** Species extinction
** Red Data book
** Endangered species list

### Chapter 3: Population studies

* Characteristics
* Growth and fluctuation
* Limiting factors
* Social behaviour
** Predation
** Competition
* Managing populations

### Chapter 5: Origin of species

* Theories
** Evolution
** Mutation
** Adaptation
** Natural selection
** Macro-evolution
** Speciation
** Creationism
* Fossil studies
* South Africa as the cradle of mankind?
* Mass extinction theories
* Biological evidence for evolutionary populations
# FHSST Biology/Contents/Index/DCC/Origin of species
## Chapter 5: Origin of species

* Theories
** Evolution
** Mutation
** Adaptation
** Natural selection
** Macro-evolution
** Speciation
** Creationism
* Fossil studies
* South Africa as the cradle of mankind?
* Mass extinction theories
* Biological evidence for evolutionary populations
# FHSST Biology/Contents/Index/DCC/Population studies
## Chapter 3: Population studies

* Characteristics
* Growth and fluctuation
* Limiting factors
* Social behaviour
** Predation
** Competition
* Managing populations
# FHSST Biology/Contents/Index/ES/Ecosystems
## Chapter 1: Ecosystems

* Biospheres, biomes and ecosystems
* Resources
** Biotic (living) and Abiotic (non-living) resources
** Nutrient cycles
** Energy flow within environments
# FHSST Biology/Contents/Index/DCC/Origin of species/Theories/Creationism

Creationism is a belief that all life in its current form was created by a god or gods. For example some creationists claim that the universe and everything in it was created in 6 days, as is written in the Genesis book of the Christian bible. Creationism rejects Darwinian evolution as an explanation for the origin of life. It is considered an irrational belief with no basis in science.
# Foundations and Current Issues of Early Childhood Education/Chapter 6

6.1 *No Child Left Behind: Effects on Early Childhood Version 1
6.2 No Child Left Behind: Effects on Early Childhood Version 2
6.3 No Child Left Behind: Effects on Early Childhood Version 3
# Foundations and Current Issues of Early Childhood Education/Chapter 5

5.1 Multicultural Issues Version 1
5.2 Multicultural Issues Version 2
5.3 *Multicultural Issues Version 3
# Foundations and Current Issues of Early Childhood Education/Chapter 4

4.1 Kindergarten Readiness Version 1
4.2 *Kindergarten Readiness Version 2
4.3 Kindergarten Readiness Version 3
# Embedded Control Systems Design/Design Patterns/4Cs

* The Wikibook of
* Embedded Control Systems Design
With increasing complexity of embedded systems, there is a need to explicitly control the interaction process instead of implicit definition of the interaction embedded in the different subsystems itself.
To explicitly control the interaction process on a software level, the interaction process is split in different parts, where each part can be handled at a different moment in the design process. These parts are known as the four fundamental "concerns" of system design: communication, computation, configuration and coordination.
* The communication part defines how agents communicate with each other.
* The computation part defines the implementation of the behavior of individual agents. It thus determines what is communicated.
* The configuration part defines the interaction structure, or configuration. It states which agents exist in the system and which agents can communicate with each other, as well as the method of communication. It is a description of where information comes from and where it is sent to.
* The coordination part defines patterns of interaction, i.e. it determines when certain communications take place.
An example of the four fundamental "concerns" of system design can be found in the automotive application section of this wikibook.

## References

* ↑ Coordination in Evolving Systems - By Radestock M. and Eisenbach S.
# Embedded Control Systems Design/Applications

* The Wikibook of
* Embedded Control Systems Design
Introduction
This section discusses some important applications which contain embedded control systems. The aim is to describe each system by means of the structure, classifications and terminologies introduced in the previous chapters of this book. The different applications will be discussed according to the layout of this book:
* Requirements
* Design process
* Application-specific implementations
This chapter will not elaborate on the generic design processes, which have already been discussed in the other chapters. Each of the different sections will rather point out specific aspects that have to be taken into account in the design of the respective application, but might be less important in other designs. The different sections will also point out where these design criteria should be taken into account in a normal design process for these applications.
The goal of this chapter is not to give an exhaustive overview of all the different embedded systems in the different applications, but merely to give an overview of the most important specific systems and demands. There won’t be an overview off all the hard- and software components either, because valuable information on these can be found elsewhere …
The applications treated in this wikibook are:
* Robotics: industrial robots, machine tools, RoboCup soccer robots
* Automotive: cars, trucks, trains
* Aviation: airplanes, helicopters
* Home and Building Automation
* Aerospace: rockets, satellites
* Energy systems: windmills, nuclear plants
* Medical systems: prostheses, revalidation machines
# Embedded Control Systems Design/Asynchronous activities

This chapter explains how to exchange data between two activities that run in parallel, or to synchronize their executions.

## interrupts and ISRs

Interrupts and ISRs (interrupt service routines) are the lowest level of asynchronous activity. All higher levels are built on this foundation. In some cases, the RTOS will handle all the low-level details for you.
We discuss interrupt and ISRs in more detail in other chapters --
* Embedded Control Systems Design/Operating systems
* Embedded Control Systems Design/Real Time Operating systems
* Embedded Control Systems Design/Design Patterns

## threads sharing memory

Exchanging data between two threads sharing memory ...
medium level

## interprocess communication

high level (= Interprocess Communication via asynchronous message passing between processes in separate protected memory areas).

## computer to computer communication

RPC (remote procedure calls) ...

### Software problems

When implementing the software code in a robot, there can be problems with synchronous threads. This section gives some bad programming examples in multithreaded systems. It is illustrated in C-code. They are concerned because it is a first step to understand problems which occur do to concurrent engineering on a higher level.
* When a program has a global variable and synchronous threads, thread 1 might be interrupted before the global variable is written and thread 2 might work on old data. This might still be acceptable, but the outcome of the program isn't what the programmer wants.
* When the global variable changes from a positive to a negative value between lines 4 and 8, none of the conditions are true. There's no function call and this can lead to problems.
* When two threads use the same resources, the principle of mutual exclusion can be used. This can be implemented with a global variable counter. When the counter is negative one thread is blocked before entering the critical section while the other thread is still executing code within this critical section. The first thread sets the global_variable and the second one uses it to do a calculation.
If the first thread decrements the counter and is then preempted, the second thread also decrements the counter and evaluates it afterwards. Both threads can't continue since the counter is at -1 now. There is a deadlock situation in the executed program.
This problem can also arise at a higher level of abstraction. The deadlock situation in petri nets will be described in the following section.

## further reading

* Embedded Control Systems Design/Real Time Operating systems#Interrupt servicing
* Embedded Systems/Interrupts
* Operating System Design/Processes/Interrupt
# Horticulture/An Introduction to Soils

   * The importance of soils
   * Inorganic components
   * Organic components
   * Soil flora and fauna
   * (see w:Soil texture)
   * (see w:Soil structure)
   * Macronutrients
      * First order macronutrients: Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P), Potassium (K)
      * Second order macronutrients: S, Ca, Mg
   * Micronutrients: Fe, Mo, B, Cl, Co, Mn, Cu, Zn
* Soil classification
* Summary (annotated TOC)
# Horticulture/Alnus incana

Speckled Alder :
| Binomial: | Alnus incana |
| Family: | Betulaceae |

## References

The Grey Alder or Speckled Alder (Alnus incana) is an alder with a wide range across the cooler parts of the Northern Hemisphere. It is a small to medium size tree 15-20 m tall with smooth grey bark even in old age, its life span being a maximum of 60-100 years. The leaves are matt green, ovoid, 5-11 cm long and 4-8 cm broad. The flowers are catkins, appearing early in spring before the leaves emerge, the male catkins pendulous, 5-10 cm long, the female catkins 1.5 cm long and 1 cm broad when mature in late autumn. The seeds are small, 1-2 mm long, light brown with a narrow encircling wing. The Grey Alder has a shallow root system, and is marked not only by vigorous production of stump suckers, but also by root suckers, especially in the northern parts of its range.
The Grey Alder is a light-demanding, fast-growing tree that is very tolerant and grows well on poorer soils. In central Europe, it is a colonist of alluvial land alongside mountain brooks and streams, occurring at elevations up to 1500 metres. However, it does not require moist soil, and is a colonist of screes and shallow stony slopes. It is sometimes used for afforestation on non-fertile soils which it enriches by means of its nitrogen-fixing nodules. The wood resembles that of the common alder, but is somewhat paler and of little value.
There are four to six subspecies, some treated as separate species by some authors:
* Alnus incana subsp. incana (Grey Alder). Northern Europe and northwestern Asia, and central and southern Europe in mountains, mainly in the regions of the Alps, Carpathians and the Caucasus.
* Alnus incana subsp. hirsuta (A. hirsuta; Manchurian Alder). Northeastern Asia, and central Asia in mountains.
* Alnus incana subsp. kolaensis. Subarctic northeast Europe.
* Alnus incana subsp. oblongifolia (A. oblongifolia; Arizona Alder). Southwestern North America.
* Alnus incana subsp. rugosa (A. rugosa; Speckled Alder). Northeastern North America.
* Alnus incana subsp. tenuifolia (A. tenuifolia; Thinleaf Alder or Mountain Alder). Northwestern North America.
Several species of Lepidoptera use Grey Alder as a food plant for their caterpillars. See w:List of Lepidoptera that feed on Alders.

## References

* Flora Europaea: Alnus incana
* Flora of North America: Alnus incana