OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Information Technology and Ethics/Ethics of Future Robotic Ethics
## How is the ethics in future?
### Robotics Ethics Dilemma in future

The most important concern is safety. Robots have been developed and used only for industrial experts and military use, but now they are used by ordinary people. Robot vacuum cleaners and lawn mowers are already widely used at home, and robot toys are popular with children.
As these robots become more intelligent, who is attacking first or harming is becoming unclear. Should designers be held accountable? Should the user be responsible? Do robots have to take responsibility? Robots have physical robots that can be touched and digital robots that can not be touched. Digital robots are as complex as computer programming. For example, you make financial decisions.
If this intelligent expert software robot has made a huge loss in decision making, who will be responsible for it?

### Robot’s right?

The second serious problem is the second principles of the Asimov robot. We have to obey human orders unconditionally, but human language and natural language programming is that robots are difficult to distinguish who has been commanded. Therefore, although the three principles of Asimov emphasize only the safety of the human, the problem is more serious if the robot has a sense of perception.
If the robot feels pain, does it grant something special rights? If robots possess emotions, should robots be given the right to marry humans?
Should I give personal intellectual property or ownership? This is still a long time story. But we can know that it is not that far from the talk of the animal rights abuse prevention Robots that can have sex with humans have emerged and are now a major issue in society.
# Messier Index/M10

Messier 10 or M10 (also designated NGC 6254) is a w:globular cluster in the w:constellation of w:Ophiuchus.
The object was discovered by w:Charles Messier on w:May 29 w:1764, who cataloged it as number 10 in his list. He described it as a "w:nebula without stars", but later study revealed it as a globular cluster of thousands of stars.
M10 has an apparent diameter of some 20 w:arcminutes, about two-thirds of the w:apparent diameter of the w:Moon. Viewed through medium-sized w:telescopes it appears about half that size (8' to 9'), as its bright core is only 35 light-years across. M10 has a spatial w:diameter of 83 w:light-years and is estimated to be 14,300 light-years away from Earth. Four w:variable stars have been discovered in this cluster.

## External links

* Messier 10, SEDS Messier pages
* Messier 10, Galactic Globular Clusters Database page

## References

* 1 2 3 4 "SIMBAD Astronomical Database". Results for NGC 6254. Retrieved 2006-11-15.
* ↑ distance × sin( diameter_angle / 2 ) = 41.6 ly. radius
# Messier Index/M105

Messier 105 (also known as M105 and NGC 3379) is an w:elliptical galaxy in the w:constellation Leo. Messier 105 is known to have a w:supermassive black hole.

## History

Messier 105 was discovered by w:Pierre Méchain on 24 March w:1781, just a few days after he discovered the nearby galaxies w:Messier 95 and w:Messier 96. This galaxy is one of several that were not originally included in the original w:Messier Catalogue compiled by w:Charles Messier. Messier 105 was included in the catalog only when w:Helen S. Hogg found a letter by Méchain describing Messier 105 and when the object described by Méchain was identified as a galaxy previously named NGC 3379.

## Galaxy group information

Messier 105 is one of several galaxies within the w:M96 Group, a w:group of galaxies in the w:constellation Leo. The group also includes the w:Messier objects M95 and M96.

## External links

* SEDS: Elliptical Galaxy M105
* ESA/Hubble image of M105

## References

* 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 "NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database". Results for M105. Retrieved 2006-11-16.
* ↑ Jensen, Joseph B.; Tonry, John L.; Barris, Brian J.; Thompson, Rodger I.; Liu, Michael C.; Rieke, Marcia J.; Ajhar, Edward A.; Blakeslee, John P. (2003). "Measuring Distances and Probing the Unresolved Stellar Populations of Galaxies Using Infrared Surface Brightness Fluctuations". Astrophysical Journal. 583 (2): 712–726. doi:10.1086/345430. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
* 1 2 K. G. Jones (1991). Messier's Nebulae and Star Clusters (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-37079-5.
* ↑ R. B. Tully (1988). Nearby Galaxies Catalog. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-35299-1.
* ↑ P. Fouque, E. Gourgoulhon, P. Chamaraux, G. Paturel (1992). "Groups of galaxies within 80 Mpc. II - The catalogue of groups and group members". Astronomy and Astrophysics Supplement. 93: 211–233.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
* ↑ A. Garcia (1993). "General study of group membership. II - Determination of nearby groups". Astronomy and Astrophysics Supplement. 100: 47–90.
* ↑ G. Giuricin, C. Marinoni, L. Ceriani, A. Pisani (2000). "Nearby Optical Galaxies: Selection of the Sample and Identification of Groups". Astrophysical Journal. 543: 178–194. doi:10.1086/317070.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
# Messier Index/M1

The Crab Nebula (catalogue designations M1, NGC 1952, Taurus A) is a supernova remnant and pulsar wind nebula in the constellation of Taurus. The nebula was first observed by John Bevis in 1731, and corresponds to a bright supernova recorded by Chinese and Arab astronomers in 1054. It is said that it was visible during the day for months, and remained visible at night for several years.
At X-ray and gamma-ray energies above 30 KeV, the Crab is generally the strongest persistent source in the sky, with measured flux extending to above 10$^{12}$ eV.
Located at a distance of about 6,500 light-years (2 kpc) from Earth, the nebula has a diameter of 11 light-years (3.4 pc) and expands at a rate of about 1,500 kilometers per second.
At the center of the nebula lies the Crab Pulsar, a rotating neutron star, which emits pulses of radiation from gamma-rays to radio waves with a spin rate of 30.2 times per second. The nebula was the first astronomical object identified with a historical supernova explosion.
The nebula acts as a source of radiation for studying celestial bodies that occult it. In the 1950s and 1960s, the Sun's corona was mapped from observations of the Crab's radio waves passing through it, and more recently, the thickness of the atmosphere of Saturn's moon Titan was measured as it blocked out X-rays from the nebula.

## External links

* Data on the Crab Nebula, on a supernova remnants catalogue managed by David A. Green (University of Cambridge)
* The Crab Nebula at ESA/Hubble
* Messier 1, SEDS Messier pages
* Images of the Crab from the Chandra X-ray Observatory
* Chandra page about the nebula
* Images of the Crab from the Hubble Space Telescope
* Lord Rosse's drawings of M1, the Crab Nebula from SEDS
* NightSkyInfo.com - M1, the Crab Nebula
* M1 The Crab Nebula
* Slooh Video Podcast on M1
* M1 The Crab Pulsar in Crab Nebula / Video
* 1 2 3 4 "SIMBAD Astronomical Database". Results for NGC 1952. Retrieved 2006-12-25.
* ↑ Kaplan, D. L.; Chatterjee, S.; Gaensler, B. M.; Anderson, J. (2008), "A Precise Proper Motion for the Crab Pulsar, and the Difficulty of Testing Spin-Kick Alignment for Young Neutron Stars", Accepted for publication in the Astrophysical Journal, 677: 1201, doi:10.1086/529026
* ↑ Carroll, Bradley W.; Ostlie, Dale A., An Introduction to Modern Astrophysics, Second Edition
# Messier Index/M103

Messier 103 (also known as M103, or NGC 581) is an w:open cluster in the w:constellation Cassiopeia. It was discovered by w:Pierre Méchain in w:1781. M103 is at a distance of about 8,000 w:light-years from w:Earth.

## External links

* Open Cluster M103 @ SEDS Messier pages
* Open Cluster M103 @ Skyhound.com
# Messier Index/Cover

The Index of Astronomy Objects
Volume 1
Messier Index
# Messier Index/M100

Messier 100 (also known as NGC 4321) is a w:spiral galaxy about 52.5 million w:light-years away in the w:constellation w:Coma Berenices. It was discovered by w:Pierre Méchain in w:1781. It is one of the brightest galaxies in the w:Virgo cluster. Five w:supernovae have been identified in M100: w:SN 1901B, w:SN 1914A, w:SN 1959E, w:SN 1979C and w:SN 2006X. M100 also has a w:satellite galaxy named w:NGC 4323.

## Other images

* Central region by HST. Credit: w:NASA
* Before and after HST repair mission. Credit: NASA
* SN 2006X in Messier 100. Credit: w:ESO

## External links

* SEDS: Spiral Galaxy 100
* ESA/Hubble Messier 100

## References

* ↑ R. W. Sinnott, editor (1988). The Complete New General Catalogue and Index Catalogue of Nebulae and Star Clusters by J. L. E. Dreyer. Sky Publishing Corporation and Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-933-34651-4. {{cite book}}: |author= has generic name (help)
* 1 2 3 4 5 6 "NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database". Results for NGC 4321. Retrieved 2006-08-31.
* ↑ "Pattern Speeds BIMA-SONG Galaxies with Molecule-Dominated ISMs Using the Tremaine-Weinberg Method". (Ferrarese et al. 1996). Retrieved 2006-08-31.
# Models and Theories in Human-Computer Interaction/Cybernetics and Feedback

Cybernetics is the study of communications of subsystems within a larger system and how the communication is used to maintain a balanced or steady state. One of the primary topics in cybernetics is feedback. There are two types of feedback, positive and negative. Positive feedback reinforces certain behaviors in the system. If the system selects a specific output state based on some input and then receives positive feedback, the system believes it has performed the correct action and will continue to do so in future events. On the other hand, negative feedback signals that the system has performed an incorrect action and must alter its choice in the future. When the system is in a steady state, it used positive and negative feedback to ensure that it is making the correct choices and performing as expected. Another possible state is a growth state. In this case, incorrect feedback is received and an incorrect behavior is reinforced so the system begins to develop flawed logic until it receives proper feedback to correct the error. A third state that can occur is change. In this state the system uses both positive and negative feedback to create a new state or behavior if the current set of states is not sufficient.
# Models and Theories in Human-Computer Interaction/Cybernetics in Intelligent Systems

In this posting, I chose to describe Weiner’s Cybernetics theory. This theory focuses more on the function of a system than the sum of the system’s parts. It is primarily concerned with whether the system is functioning to meet the identified goal of the system.
In cybernetics, a system uses feedback to determine whether or not the system is meeting the goals of the system. For cybernetics to be effective, the system must have pre-identified goals that will determine whether the system is working correctly or is on the right path to meet the goal of the system. If the system receives feedback that matches the system’s goals, the system will keep functioning as it is currently. However, if the system receives feedback that doesn’t match the system’s goals, the system will change its functionality to correct for the feedback that it has received. The goal of cybernetics is to regulate the system’s function to meet the system’s goal. According to Weiner, cybernetics is a part of every intelligent system. The distinction is made between all systems and intelligent systems since there must be a way for the system itself to determine whether or not the system is on the correct path to meet the goal of the system.
As I initially learned about Weiner’s cybernetics theory, I imagined robots programmed with complex software systems. If a robot ran into a wall, it would use the resistance from the wall as feedback. Due to that feedback, the robot would change its action so that it could still meet the goal of going into the next room. The robot would back up, change directions, and attempt to meet the goal again pending feedback that doesn’t meet the goal of the robot’s system.
The more I think about Weiner’s cybernetics theory; I am able to see the theory applicable to every day life. For example, as I sit here writing, I am continuously being interrupted by my 9 week old puppy. While I wouldn’t call him an intelligent system in any other context, he is exhibiting the theory of cybernetics. He is consistently testing everything around him and changing his actions based on feedback that he receives. For example, when he starts chewing on the couch and receives a scolding and a tap on the nose as feedback, he changes his behavior to discontinue chewing on the couch. We then repeated the same process with the living room chair, dining room table, kitchen cabinets, etc.
Although the cybernetics theory was introduced to me in this HCI course, I think applications for this theory could be interdisciplinary. This theory could be a key piece in work done in the English department by implementing it in training programs and user guides. As foreshadowed by my puppy example above, this theory could also be a key aspect of human/animal social development. This theory should be considered when creating and addressing intelligent systems in every field.
# Models and Theories in Human-Computer Interaction/D.Cog and WikiBooks
### D. Cog and WikiBooks (Tyler Liechty)

WikiBooks is a collaborative tool that has the capability to perform within the framework proposed by Hitchins. There are clearly many “Sensory Systems” with each collaborator providing input, and the site itself is a good representation of the “System Memory.” The “Processor” is less obvious, seeming to be the moderators of a given post, some of whom have more administrative power to edit or lock sections, but also by the same users providing the raw input to the site. The Transparency gains of a site like WikiBooks lie in the “System Memory” it is possible to track the changes made to the site by any user, and to determine the order and time scale on which these changes were made, in this aspect it is easier to document the changes that it would be if there were just a face to face discussion, or an edited paper draft of an entry.
Unfortunately the WikiBooks format loses transparency in the quality of the “Sensory Systems” or the users adding the raw input. From an avionics background it is often necessary to verify and validate data from sensors, but with the available semi-anonymity of WikiBooks it is hard to know who is adding the data, how credible the person is, or how valid the data entered by the person are. There are likely some protections to this available to prevent large-scale injection of harmful or irrelevant data, but it takes a good “Processor” to sift through the data to find uncited or invalid data.
# Models and Theories in Human-Computer Interaction/Criticisms of TAM and Diffusion

While both the Technology Acceptance Model and Diffusion Model have been proven as reliable throughout time (hundreds of studies over several decades), both have had their share of criticism.

### Criticisms of the Technology Acceptance Model

Out of the two model, TAM has been more widely talked about, but also the recipient of greater criticism

#### User Reported Data

One of the major issues that is discussed is that the users report the data. While computer feedback is acceptable, humans have a way of distorting data in social situations. Or, might even be unaware of how they actually would adopt technology themselves.

#### Lack of Attitude Variables

Another Criticism is that two additional attitude variables are not taken into account (affective and cognitive). While affective is statistically insignificant, cognitive is. In addition to this it seems that in the case where the new tech is mandatory, the ease of use will affect the self reported results of the technology.

### Criticisms of the Diffusion Model

The diffusion model popularized by Everett Rodgers in his book Diffusion of Innovations, has held up surprisingly well, however, despite it not having the same issues as the TAM, it still has been critiqued.

#### Concerns with Models evidence

In Rodgers book, while extensive, it is largely concerned with data from his agricultural methods and medical practices. This could help explain another criticism that the model is less useful to managers since technologies are not static. The S curve is perhaps not the best method since somewhere along the S curve a new technology might be introduced. In Rodgers isolated system however, this is not seen.

#### Concerns With Communication Process

The Other major concern is that the communication process is one way. The early adopters do not receive feedback from the late majority for example. While this might be true in many circumstances, other times the skeptics have a reason to be skeptical and force a change back to the old technology.
# Models and Theories in Human-Computer Interaction/Cybernetics and its area of study
### Cybernetics and its area of study

Cybernetics derived from a Greek word, which means to steer. Technological system has a property to steer through different directions therefore self-correct to reach a goal. Cybernetics is the most powerful language, describes a system that has goals. It is also an exceptional way of describing how the world works and help developing effective organization, of control and communication in animals and machines. This system also helps us filter out what is irrelevant to a situation and consider only which are relevant. An example of Cybernetics would be opening an email account with Google. Here the goal is to successfully open an account, which may involve several self-correcting steps such as selecting a gender, using a correct area code for mobile phone number, making sure to pick a user name not previously taken by someone else, selecting proper format of password acceptable by system and more. The system will give feedback to the user whenever there is a wrong submission of a required/important field such as mobile number or country selection etc. Finally it will steer the user to successfully open a new email account.
Cybernetics is comprehensive in nature therefore includes physical, technological, biological and social system into account. Many individuals hand tried to define Cybernetics in different ways therefore it could legally have multiple definitions without contradicting itself.
References:
# Models and Theories in Human-Computer Interaction/Cybernetics: Not what I thought it meant

When I hear the word cybernetics, I think sci-fi and artificial intelligence, androids, and other such futuristic sci-fi movie things. I certainly didn't think the word actually arose from real scientific study in the mid 1900s and even less did I expect that it was derived from a Greek word meaning steering, helmsman, or governance depending on where you look. Cybernetics is apparently based on the act of correcting or autocorrecting something, keeping a balance between two or more courses. Such as a person on a highwire, attempting to keep from going too far left or right.
Cybernetics is about, according to Larry Richards, "...electronics, life, society, or mind, and whether they come from science, art, or politics." It is meant to be interdisciplinary by nature, because its main concern is how things govern themselves and keep a balance between extremes. What that means to me, is that there is no one field that it can belong to because so many things keep balances. Living beings, societal systems, the planet, and we would likely discover such governances beyond our planet as well.
Nonetheless, science being what it is, people have begun "specializing" in things like engineering cybernetics and biological cybernetics. Even though the original intent of cybernetics was to be a broad and generalizing science, I personally believe that taking the principals of cybernetics and focusing on one field could still yield great results. Such as a bionic ear that was created a couple years ago.
# Models and Theories in Human-Computer Interaction/Cybernetics - more differences than similarities to AI

Wiener’s Cybernetics - more differences than similarities to AI.
Cybernetics as defined by Wiener is “the science of control and communication, in the animal and the machine” (Wiener, 1948). Or in other words, the art of steermanship (Ashby, 1956).
Connecting control with communication, and acknowledging that both living animals, and non-living machines can operate according to this principle, it defines the interactions of goals, predictions, actions, feedback, and responses in various systems, inherited from both information theory and the philosophy of technology.
Cybernetics can be applied to systems that incorporate feedback loops, where an action taken by the system influences a change in its environment that is then reflected back, provoking a state change within that system. A machine example would be my remote pool heating equipment. It’s set to thermostatically maintain the pool temperature at 88 degrees Fahrenheit. When the temperature drops below that level, it sends a signal to the system, that then turns the heater on to attain the desired temperature again. As the temperature rises and falls it visualizes those state changes on a cloud-based GUI, that I can access from anywhere in the world.
The pre-fix cyber however, has led to many misconceptions about cybernetics, and I admit I was not immune to them as I have been conflating Artificial Intelligence (AI), with Cybernetics. The former presumes that intelligence can be stored and reproduced inside a machine and that the application of reproducing that intelligence is equivalent or greater to that of humans (Minsky, 1968). The latter is concerned with systems that can achieve goals, both simple and complex. Achieving goals requires feedback to course-correct, or steer in order to accomplish them. Thus researchers in the field of AI attempt to build intelligent machines, and practitioners of cybernetics use models of interactions to understand the limits of systems (Pangaro, 1990).
Cited
Ashby R.W. (1956). An Introduction to Cybernetics. Chapman & Hall, London. http://pcp.vub.ac.be/books/IntroCyb.pdf (1999). Wiener, N. (1948). Cybernetics, or control and communication in the animal and the machine. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Technology Press; New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Minsky M. (1968). Semantic Information Processing. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. Pangaro P. (1990). Cybernetics - A Definition. Macmillan Publishing. http://pangaro.com/published/cyber-macmillan.html 20/04/2004