# Internal Medicine/Diagnosis
## Diagnosing Patients' Illnesses

Diagnosing patients' illnesses stands as the very essence of medical practice. Patients arrive at healthcare facilities, seeking answers to the fundamental question that underpins their health concerns: "What is wrong with me?" This quest for a diagnosis sets the stage for a complex and intricate process that forms the foundation of medical decision-making and patient care.
Within the realm of medical education, the journey toward becoming a proficient physician revolves around mastering the art of assigning a diagnostic label to patients' symptoms and physical manifestations. This process, known as clinical reasoning, involves analyzing patient histories, performing physical examinations, and interpreting diagnostic tests to identify the underlying causes of illnesses. Clinicians take pride in their ability to accurately diagnose medical conditions, often viewing themselves as adept "diagnosticians."
However, the traditional paradigm of mastering a vast array of diseases, understanding their pathophysiology, and recognizing their clinical presentations is now being challenged by new insights, illuminated by the glaring spotlight of diagnostic errors. Despite the extensive training and expertise that clinicians accumulate over years of education and practice, basic internal medicine diseases like asthma, congestive heart failure, and cancer continue to be misdiagnosed at shockingly high rates. Studies reveal that 20–50% of patients with such conditions are either mislabeled with false-positive diagnoses or experience missed or delayed diagnoses, commonly referred to as false negatives.

## The Evolving Science of Diagnosis

The contemporary science of diagnosis is more intricate and multifaceted than ever before. While advanced technologies like molecular genetics and medical imaging contribute significantly to diagnostic capabilities, improvements extend beyond these modalities. Diagnosis draws insights from a myriad of fields, ranging from systems and human factors engineering to cognitive psychology, decision sciences, clinical epidemiology, and health information technology.
To achieve accurate and timely diagnoses, clinicians must recognize that the foundation of diagnosis is not solely built upon their shoulders. It's a collaborative endeavor that involves an intricate infrastructure and a diverse team, with the patient at its core. This holistic approach encompasses a network of specialists, primary care providers, nurses, radiologists, pathologists, and others working collectively to unravel complex medical cases. The patient's role in this collaborative process cannot be overstated; their insights into their own symptoms and experiences contribute crucial information that aids clinicians in arriving at accurate diagnoses.
Within this framework, the clinician's role evolves from being the solitary diagnostic authority to becoming a coordinator of diagnostic efforts. The emphasis shifts to creating a synchronized approach where each team member's expertise is harnessed to achieve more reliable and optimal diagnoses. This transition reflects a departure from the traditional model of a lone expert deciphering medical mysteries and embraces a more encompassing model of collective intelligence.

## Diagnosis Error as a Patient Safety Issue

The past decade has witnessed a growing recognition of diagnostic errors as a paramount patient safety concern. A landmark report from the U.S. National Academy of Medicine (NAM), titled "Improving Diagnosis in Health Care," underscores the gravity of this issue. Patient surveys, malpractice claims, and safety organizations such as the ECRI and the National Patient Safety Foundation have collectively highlighted diagnostic errors as the leading type of medical error.
Defining diagnostic error as the failure to establish an accurate and timely explanation of a patient's health problem or communicate that explanation to the patient, the NAM report brings the intricacies of diagnostic failures into focus. A visual representation through a Venn diagram illustrates the multitude of ways errors can infiltrate the diagnostic process. From failure to inquire about critical history to overlooking a physical examination sign, errors can occur across various stages without necessarily leading to incorrect diagnoses or patient harm. However, the intersection of these factors points to a critical concern, where estimates suggest that a significant number of patient deaths in U.S. hospitals annually can be attributed to diagnostic errors.
The NAM report's eight foundational recommendations serve as a blueprint for addressing this pressing issue. Each recommendation represents a crucial aspect of enhancing diagnostic accuracy, reducing errors, and improving communication to ensure that patients receive timely and appropriate care.

## Rethinking Diagnosis and Diagnostic Errors

The evolution of diagnosis necessitates a paradigm shift in how clinicians approach this fundamental aspect of medical practice. Traditionally, the emphasis has been on "clinician reasoning," encompassing cognitive heuristics and biases that can inadvertently lead to diagnostic errors. This framework categorizes errors into three broad groups: hasty judgments, biased judgments, and inaccurate probability estimates. Cognitive psychology has unveiled a plethora of mental shortcuts or "heuristics" that humans often employ, many of which can facilitate efficient diagnosis but also introduce the potential for error.
Challenging this traditional viewpoint, a new perspective emerges—one that embraces the uncertainties inherent in diagnosis. The clinical landscape is complex, and diagnoses are rarely clear-cut, distinct labels. Rather, diagnoses can be multifaceted, socially constructed, and subject to evolving interpretations over time. This understanding underscores the importance of collaboration with patients and acknowledging their role as essential allies in the diagnostic journey.
Empowering patients with knowledge, encouraging them to ask questions, and fostering an environment where they feel comfortable sharing their concerns are integral components of this evolved approach. The level of health literacy, trust in clinical advice, and previous experiences with the healthcare system shape the dynamics of this collaborative partnership.

## Red Flags and Critical Diagnoses

While embracing the collaborative nature of diagnosis, clinicians must also navigate the intricacies of identifying "red flags" or "alarm symptoms." These cues signal the need for heightened attention and consideration of urgent or severe underlying conditions. The concept of red flags originated in back pain guidelines but has been expanded to encompass various medical conditions. Examples include fever, weight loss, history of malignancy, neurological signs, and other indicators that warrant thorough investigation.
However, achieving a balanced approach is paramount. Diagnostic caution must be exercised to avoid overtesting and overdiagnosis, where unnecessary and potentially harmful tests are ordered without commensurate benefits. Striking the right balance between pursuing critical diagnoses and avoiding excessive testing requires a nuanced understanding of each patient's unique context.

## Learning from Diagnostic Pitfalls

The path to becoming a proficient clinician involves not just absorbing medical knowledge but also learning from the missteps of those who have traversed the diagnostic journey before. Studying common diagnostic pitfalls and understanding how accurate diagnoses went astray are invaluable sources of wisdom for clinicians. This approach equips them with the awareness needed to avoid similar errors and contributes to the collective learning from both personal and shared patterns of mistakes.
Numerous studies have explored prevalent or recurring diagnostic pitfalls. One example is the pitfall of ordering a mammogram for a palpable breast lump and subsequently reassuring the patient based on normal mammogram results. This exemplifies the importance of meticulous assessment and the potential pitfalls of relying solely on test outcomes. By understanding these pitfalls, clinicians enhance their situational awareness and develop strategies to circumvent common traps.

## Fostering a Diagnosis Safety Culture

Creating a diagnosis safety culture is pivotal in facilitating accurate and timely diagnoses. While some clinicians might perceive "safety culture" as an abstract concept with minimal relevance to diagnostic accuracy, it is, in fact, a cornerstone of improved diagnosis. A plethora of studies underscore the dire consequences that stem from organizational cultures that inhibit transparency, learning, and communication. Such cultures cultivate an environment where both staff and patients are hesitant to voice concerns, report errors, or question established diagnostic pathways.
Of utmost significance is the encouragement for patients to actively engage in questioning diagnoses and sharing their perspectives. Patients play a pivotal role in the diagnostic process, providing invaluable insights into their conditions and any deviations from expected treatment outcomes. Therefore, fostering a culture that welcomes patient inquiries and actively addresses their concerns is essential.
High-reliability organizations, which excel in safety and learning, offer a roadmap for establishing a diagnosis safety culture. Attributes such as open communication, a learning-focused environment, leadership commitment to safety, and accountability for safety events align with the requirements of a culture that prioritizes diagnostic accuracy.

## Health Information Technology and the Future

Health information technology (HIT) is deeply intertwined with modern medical practice. Clinicians now spend more time interacting with computers than they do with patients. While concerns have been raised about the encroachment of computers on patient-centered care, HIT's potential to enhance diagnosis cannot be overlooked. In fact, as telemedicine gains prominence, even elements of the physical examination are being conducted through electronic platforms.
HIT has the power to revolutionize diagnosis by facilitating information collection, generating differential diagnoses, and supporting intelligent test ordering. The advent of electronic medical records (EMRs) provides an opportunity to harness technology's capabilities to optimize diagnostic processes. However, historical EMR designs have often prioritized medication ordering, billing, and malpractice documentation over diagnostic workflows. Redesigning EMRs to be diagnosis-centric is imperative to streamline and improve the diagnostic journey.

## Practical Conclusions for Improving Diagnosis

Recognizing the multifaceted challenges in diagnosis, practical approaches are essential for continuous improvement. Enhancing diagnosis involves three key dimensions: reliability, timeliness, and effective communication with patients. Achieving this entails an ongoing commitment to learning, refining diagnostic skills, and fostering a diagnosis safety culture.
Clinicians in training, practicing physicians, nurses, and other healthcare professionals should cultivate a habit of regular self-assessment and improvement in diagnostic practices. They must embrace diagnostic safety measures, foster a culture of open communication, and prioritize collaboration with patients. Ultimately, the goal is to co-produce better diagnostic outcomes that prioritize patient safety and improve the quality of care.