OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# The science of finance
## Table of Contents

* Introduction
* What is wealth?
* Income
* Where does the money come from?
* The value of a risk-free project
* Risk calculation
* The cost and the benefit of risk
* The value of a risky project
* Thierry against the dragon Crypto
* Bibliography
# Statistical Analysis: an Introduction using R/R/Matrices

Essentially, a matrix (plural: matrices) is the two dimensional equivalent of a vector. In other words, it is a rectangular grid of numbers, arranged in rows and columns. In R, a matrix object can be created by the matrix function, which takes, as a first argument, a vector of numbers with which the matrix is filled, and as the second and third arguments, the number of rows and the number of columns respectively.
R can also use array objects, which are like matrices, but can have more than 2 dimensions. These are particularly useful for tables: a type of array containing counts of data classified according to various criteria. Examples of these "contingency tables" are the HairEyeColor and Titanic tables shown below.
# Statistical Analysis: an Introduction using R/R/Lists
## Notes

* ↑ There are actually 3 types of allowed numbers: "normal" numbers, complex numbers, and simple integers. This book deals almost exclusively with the first of these.
* ↑ This is not quite true, but unless you are a computer specialist, you are unlikely to use the final type: a vectors of elements storing "raw" computer bits, see ?raw
# Statistical Analysis: an Introduction using R/R/Functions

Most arguments to a function are named. For example, the first argument of the citation function is named package. To provide extra clarity, when using a function you can provide arguments in the longer form name=value. Thus
does the same as
refers to a function, whereas
is a "string" of text. This is useful, for example when providing titles for plots, etc.

## Notes

* ↑ you can use either single (') or double (") quotes to delimit text strings, as long as the start and end quotes match
# Statistical Analysis: an Introduction using R/R/Help on a function
#### Help on a function

* x (a vector specifying the list of items from which to choose)
* size (the number of times to pick an item)
* replace (a TRUE or FALSE value to indicate whether items should be put back into the list after each pick)
* prob (a vector of probabilities, used if we are not equally likely to pick each item)
# Statistical Analysis: an Introduction using R/R/Missing data

is.na(some.missing) [1] FALSE TRUE
# Statistical Analysis: an Introduction using R/R/Logical operations

* < (less than) and <= (less than or equal to)
* > (greater than) and >= (greater than or equal to)
* == (equal to) and != (not equal to)
Even more flexibility can be gained by combining logical vectors using and, or, and not. For example, we might want to identify which US states have an area less than 10 000 or greater than 100 000 square miles, or to identify which have an area greater than 100 000 square miles and which have a short name. The code below shows how can be used to do this, using the following R symbols:
* & ("and")
* | ("or")
* ! ("not")
When using logical vectors, the following functions are particularly useful, as illustrated below
* which identifies which elements of a logical vector are TRUE
* sum can be used to give the number of elements of a logical vector which are TRUE. This is because sum forces its input to be converted to numbers, and if TRUE and FALSE are converted to numbers, they take the values 1 and 0 respectively.
* ifelse returns different values depending on whether each element of a logical vector is TRUE or FALSE. Specifically, a command such as ifelse(aLogicalVector, vectorT, vectorF) takes aLogicalVector and returns, for each element that is TRUE, the corresponding element from vectorT, and for each element that is FALSE, the corresponding element from vectorF. An extra elaboration is that if vectorT or vectorF are shorter than aLogicalVector they are extended by duplication to the correct length.

## Notes

* ↑ Note that, when using continuous (fractional) numbers, rounding error may mean that results of calculations are not exactly equal to each other, even if they seem as if they should be. For this reason, you should be careful when using == with continuous numbers. R provides the function all.equal to help in this case
* ↑ But unlike ifelse, it can't cope with NA values
* ↑ For this reason, using == in if statements may not be a good idea, see the Note in ?"==" for details.
* ↑ These are particularly used in more advanced computer programming in R, see ?"&&" for details
# Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Model year

The model year is encoded in position 10 of North American VIN codes. Besides the three letters that are not allowed in the VIN itself (I, O and Q), the letters U and Z and the digit 0 are not used for the year code. Note that the year code can be the calendar year in which a vehicle is built, or a model or type year allocated by the manufacturer. The year 1980 was encoded by some manufacturers, especially General Motors and Chrysler, as "A" (since the 17-digit VIN wasn't mandatory until 1981, and the "A" or zero was in the manufacturer's pre-1981 placement in the VIN), yet Ford and AMC still used a zero for 1980. Subsequent years increment through the allowed letters, so that "Y" represents the year 2000. 2001 through 2009 are encoded as the digits 1 through 9, and subsequent years are encoded as "A", "B", "C", etc.
| Code | Years |
| A | 1980, 2010 |
| B | 1981, 2011 |
| C | 1982, 2012 |
| D | 1983, 2013 |
| E | 1984, 2014 |
| F | 1985, 2015 |
| G | 1986, 2016 |
| H | 1987, 2017 |
| J | 1988, 2018 |
| K | 1989, 2019 |
| L | 1990, 2020 |
| M | 1991, 2021 |
| N | 1992, 2022 |
| P | 1993, 2023 |
| R | 1994, 2024 |
| S | 1995, 2025 |
| T | 1996, 2026 |
| V | 1997, 2027 |
| W | 1998, 2028 |
| X | 1999, 2029 |
| Y | 2000, 2030 |
| 1 | 2001, 2031 |
| 2 | 2002, 2032 |
| 3 | 2003, 2033 |
| 4 | 2004, 2034 |
| 5 | 2005, 2035 |
| 6 | 2006, 2036 |
| 7 | 2007, 2037 |
| 8 | 2008, 2038 |
| 9 | 2009, 2039 |
# Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Overview

Vehicle Identification Numbers (VINs) are used to uniquely identify motor vehicles. Prior to 1980 there was not an accepted standard for these numbers, so different manufacturers used different formats. Modern day VINs consist of 17 characters that do not include the letters I, O or Q.

## Parts of the VIN

Modern Vehicle Identification Number systems are based on two related standards originally issued by the ISO in 1979 and 1980, ISO 3779 and ISO 3780, respectively. Compatible but somewhat different implementations of these ISO standards have been adopted by the European Union and the United States of America.
The VIN is composed of the following sections:
| Standard | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 |
| ISO 3779 | WMI | WMI | WMI | VDS | VDS | VDS | VDS | VDS | VDS | VIS | VIS | VIS | VIS | VIS | VIS | VIS | VIS |
| North American / EU > 500 vehicles / year | Manufacturer Identifier | Manufacturer Identifier | Manufacturer Identifier | Vehicle Attributes | Vehicle Attributes | Vehicle Attributes | Vehicle Attributes | Vehicle Attributes | Check Digit | Model Year | Plant Code | Sequential Number | Sequential Number | Sequential Number | Sequential Number | Sequential Number | Sequential Number | Sequential Number | Sequential Number |
| North American / EU < 500 vehicles / year | Manufacturer Identifier | Manufacturer Identifier | Manufacturer Identifier | Vehicle Attributes | Vehicle Attributes | Vehicle Attributes | Vehicle Attributes | Vehicle Attributes | Check Digit | Model Year | Plant Code | Manufacturer Identifier | Manufacturer Identifier | Manufacturer Identifier | Sequential Number | Sequential Number | Sequential Number |

## Vehicle Descriptor Section

The 4th through 9th positions in the VIN are the Vehicle Descriptor Section or VDS. This is used, according to local regulations, to identify the vehicle type and may include information on the platform used, the model, and the body style. Each manufacturer has a unique system for using this field. Most manufacturers since the 1980s have used the 8th digit to identify the engine type whenever there is more than one engine choice for the vehicle. Example: for the 2007 Chevrolet Corvette U= 6.0L V8, E= 7.0L V8.

### North American Check Digits

Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Check digit

## See also

* w:VIN Etching

## References

* ↑ United States Federal VIN Requirements (Title 49, Chapter V, Part 565)
# Turkish/Derivation

As new concepts are invented, languages naturally need to invent new vocabulary to accommodate for them. This is done through derivation, the process of creating new words from existing words. In Turkish, this is mostly done through suffixation, and subsequently, Turkish contains a large number of derivational suffixes for this job.

## Background

Before the language reform of 1928, derivation through Arabic inflection was commonplace. While words derived in this manner are still common in Turkish, the productivity of these methods have decreased substantially, and as such, learning these principles are not worth the learner's time. Some examples of nouns derived in this manner are as follows:
Examples of Arabic Derivation :
| Zulüm | Zalim | Mazlum |
| Oppression | Oppressor | Oppressed |
| Hüküm | Hâkim | Mahkûm |
| Verdict | Judge | Convict |
| Emir | Amir | Memur |
| Order | Chief | Officer |
| Kabul | Kabil | Makbul |
| Acceptance | Able | Acceptable |
| Sükûn | Sakin | Meskûn |
| Silence | SilentResident | Residential |
In its place, a large number of derivational suffixes were introduced. Some of these suffixes were loaned from other Central Asian languages, some of them were reintroduced from Old Turkic, some of them were dialectical suffixes used in rural dialects, and some were outright invented for the reform. With this, a number of loanwords were replaced with native Turkish ones.
Examples of replaced loanwords :
| Loanword | Replacement | Translation |
| Harp | Savaş | War |
| Mektep | Okul | School |
| Hikâye | Öykü | Story |
| Nazır | Bakan | Minister |
| İlim | Bilim | Science |

## Structure of this chapter

According to Turkish grammarians, there are 4 kinds of derivational suffixes:
* Suffixes deriving nouns from other nouns
* Suffixes deriving verbs from nouns
* Suffixes deriving nouns from verbs
* Suffixes deriving verbs from other verbs
The most productive and regular category out of these is the 4th one, suffixes deriving verbs from other verbs. As such, most of these suffixes have their own article in the chapter about verbs. All other kinds of derivational suffixes are covered in this chapter's articles.
In addition to suffixiation, another method of derivation is compounding. This form of derivation is covered in greater detail in Turkish/Noun Constructions, and the subchapter about auxiliary verbs.
# Turkish/Conjunctions

Conjunctions in Turkish are not used as commonly as in European languages. Almost all conjunctions in Turkish are of Arabic and Persian origin, with very few exceptions. Most of the time, using a conjunction sounds worse if it can be substituted with a converb. For example, the second of the following examples sound better than the first one:
* Okula gitmedim çünkü hastaydım
* Hasta olduğum için okula gitmedim
(Both mean I didn't go to school, because I was sick)
Some English conjunctions have no Turkish equivelant conjunction, and using a converb is sometimes mandatory.

## Logical conjunction

The cumulative sense of the English "A and B" can be expressed several ways:
* A ve B (an Arabic borrowing);
* B ile A (ile is also a postposition);
* A, B de.
For the adversative sense of "but" or "only", there are ama and fakat (both Arabic), also yalnız (which is also an adjective corresponding to "alone").
For emphasis: hem A hem B "both A and B".

## Logical disjunction

For the sense of English "(either)…or":
* A veya B;
* ya A veya B;
* ya A ya da B.
The pattern of the last two can be extended:
* ya A ya B veya C;
* ya A ya B ya da C.

## Logical non-disjunction

* Ne A ne B "Neither A nor B":
(slogan on placard at demonstration);
* Ne A ne B ne C "Not A or B or C."

## Implication

* B, çünkü A "B, because A".
* ((Eğer)) A'ysa, (o zaman) B'dir. "If A, then B." ("Eğer" is not generally used.)
Both çünkü and eğer are Persian; the latter is not generally needed, because the conditional form of the verb is available.

## The conjunction ki

The Persian conjunction ki brings to Turkish the Indo-European style of relating ideas (#Lewis [XIII,15]):
Thus ki corresponds roughly to English "that", but with a broader sense:
The following is from a newspaper:
(Source: Cumhuriyet 19 July 2005.)
# Turkish/Computing in Turkish

Typing in Turkish isn't as hard as you think. However, be aware that there are some major differences.

## Keyboard layout

Turkish has two different keyboard layouts: Turkish-F and Turkish-Q, both of which are quite commonly used.

### Turkish-F

This keyboard layout was designed in 1955 by İhsan Yener. During its design, the Turkish Language Academy (TDK) investigated letter frequencies in Turkish and used this statistical basis to design the Turkish-F keyboard. It provides a balanced distribution of typing effort between the hands - 49% for the left hand and 51% for the right.

### Turkish-Q
## Using these keyboard layouts on your computer

You don't have to buy a new keyboard to be able to use these layouts. Below you can find instructions on how to implement these layouts on Windows or MacOSX. Unfortunately information on how to do this on various Linux distros is currently unavailable.

### On Windows

* Click on Start
* When the Start menu opens up, click on Control Panel
** If you are on Category View, click on Date, Time, Language and Regional Options, then Regional and Language Options.
** If you are on Classic View, click on Regional and Language Options.
* Click on the Languages tab.
* Under Text services and input languages, click on the Details button.
* Click on the Add button.
* Here you will find a large list of languages. Choose Turkish, then tick the Keyboard layout/IME tick box. This will enable you to choose from a wide range of different keyboard layouts. Choose either Turkish-F or Turkish-Q (preferably the latter). Then click OK.
* The Turkish language (and your chosen keyboard layout) has just been added to your list of Installed services. To easily switch between English and Turkish, click on the Language bar... button under Preferences.
* When that window pops up, tick the following tick boxes:
** Show the Language bar on the desktop.
** Show text labels on the Language bar.
* Then click OK.
* Now that you've done that, click on the OK or Apply buttons to have your changes saved.

### On macOS

* Open “System Preferences” (gears icon)
* Click on “Language & Region” and add Turkish to your list.
* Go back to the main menu, and choose “Keyboard”.
* In the fourth tab, “Input Methods” click the + button and search for Turkish. You’ll see 2 variants of the F-keyboard and 2 variants of the Q keyboard.
* Select one or multiple, and click “Add”.
* Close the Window.
* That's all. Once you've done this, a little flag ( for English, for Turkish) will appear in the top bar of your screen. You can use this to change languages, and as a shortcut to your Keyboard settings. Alternatively, use ctrl-space to switch between input methods.
# Turkish/Geography/Turkey

Turkey is made up of 7 regions:
* Marmara bölgesi - Marmara region
* Ege bölgesi - Aegean region
* Karadeniz bölgesi - Black sea region
* İç Anadolu bölgesi - Central Anatolian region
* Akdeniz bölgesi - Mediterranean region
* Doğu Anadolu bölgesi - Eastern Anatalion region
* Güneydoğu Anadolu bölgesi - Southeastern Anatolian region
# Turkish/Geography

I know, this doesn't sound like the average language lesson to you, but if you want to visit Turkey and/or Northern Cyprus, you'll have to know these things.
* Turkey
* Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus
# Turkish/Contributions to this Wikibook
## Contributions

Contributions have been made to this Wikibook by the following:
* I.P. address 195.174.81.84 - created this book
* Runningfridgesrule - extreme heavy-duty revamp
* User:Srhat
* User:khateeb88 - Currently learning Turkish and will help in any way I can, especially vocab
* User:Sinus46 - Revamps in the grammar section
If you have contributed to this book in any way, please do not hesitate to add yourself to this list, with your Wikibooks username (if not your I.P. address) and what you have done for the benefit of this book.
Please make sure you read Turkish/About this book before contributing so that this book can have a consistent style.

## Templates

* Please don't forget to add {{Turkish/TOC}} template to the bottom of each page.
* Also please use {{Turkish/Navigation}} template to make navigation easier.
* You can use {{Turkish/Letter}} template to give link to a letter's description page
* Use {{Turkish/Tooltip}} template to add a text with tooltip (i.e. explanations that become visible when the user hovers its mouse pointer over the text)
* Use {{tr/word}} or templates to add tooltip for Turkish words.
* Use {{tr/suff}} or {{Turkish/Suffix}} template to add tooltip for suffixes. Because this template has predefined suffixes and knows which letters are changeable, you don't need to write tooltip and color the changeable letters. If the suffix you used with this template doesn't have a predefined tooltip, add that suffix and its explanation to {{Turkish/Suffix/Predefined}}.
* Use {{turkish/c}} or template to color text to emphasize something (to indicate changeable letters etc.)
* Use {{Turkish/Table}} to create tables, see Turkish/Pronunciation and Alphabet/Consonant Classifications and Harmony page for usage examples.
* Use {{Turkish/Box}} to create collapsible or normal boxes for exercises, notes to the reader, etc. See Turkish/Pronunciation and Alphabet/Vowel Classifications and Harmony for usage examples
For usage instructions, see template pages.

## To do list

* Tense pages on the "grammar" section should look like Turkish/Seen Past Tense.

## References

Below are some books (either available on the Internet or not) and some other online resources that can be used as a reference. Please add any resources that you find useful to the list.
* FSI Language Courses Turkish - Courses and lots of audio recordings prepared by US government and they are now publicly available. All resources are in public domain so all of the contents can be used in this book (audio recordings etc.)
* Geoffrey Lewis, Turkish Grammar.
# Wildlife Gardening/Ecosystem/Allegheny-Cumberland Dry Oak Forest and Woodland
## Gallery of taxa
### Native canopy trees

* Acer rubrum
* Carya alba/Carya tomentosa
* Carya glabra
* Oxydendrum arboreum
* Pinus virginiana
* Quercus alba
* Quercus coccinea
* Quercus falcata
* Quercus prinus/Quercus montana

### Native shrubs

* Castanea dentata
* Amelanchier arborea
* Gaultheria procumbens

### Native herbaceous plants

* Desmodium ochroleucum
* Lesquerella globosa/Physaria globosa
* Scutellaria montana

### Native insects

* Autochton cellus (golden-banded skipper) Adult, dorsal view.
* Callophrys irus (frosted elfin) Adult, ventral view of wings.
* Melanoplus serrulatus (Serrulate Melanoplus)
* Synanthedon castaneae (Chestnut Clearwing Moth)

### Native amphibians

* Pseudacris brachyphona (Mountain Chorus Frog)

### Native birds

* Coccyzus erythropthalmus (Black-billed Cuckoo)

### Native mammals

* Canis rufus (Red Wolf)
* Mustela nivalis (Least Weasel)
* Neotoma floridana haematoreia (Southern Appalachian Woodrat) species not subspecies
* Puma concolor couguar (Eastern Cougar)

### Native reptiles

* Anolis carolinensis (Green Anole)
* Cemophora coccinea copei (Northern Scarletsnake)
* Coluber constrictor (North American Racer)
* Crotalus horridus (Timber Rattlesnake)
* Heterodon platirhinos (Eastern Hog-nosed Snake)
* Plestiodon anthracinus anthracinus (Northern Coal Skink)
* Plestiodon inexpectatus (Southeastern Five-lined Skink)
* Sceloporus undulatus (Eastern Fence Lizard)
* Tantilla coronata (Southeastern Crowned Snake)
* Virginia valeriae pulchra (Mountain Earthsnake) Same species possibly different subspecies.
* Virginia valeriae valeriae (Eastern Earthsnake) Same species possibly different subspecies.
# Wildlife Gardening/Evaluation tables/Floating and emergent plants/Northeastern United States

Native aquatic plants of West Virginia :
| Taxon | Amphibians and fishes | Birds | Mammals | Reptiles | Invertebrates | Plants and fungi | Notes |
| Nymphaea odorata, the fragrant water-lily. Flower and pad-like leaves pictured. | 4 ! | 4 ! | 4 ! | 4 ! | 4 ! | 4 ! | |
# Wildlife Gardening/Evaluation tables/Shrubs/Northeastern United States

Native shrubs of West Virginia :
| Taxon | Amphibians and fishes | Birds | Mammals | Reptiles | Invertebrates | Plants and fungi | Notes |
| Ceanothus americanus, the New Jersey tea shrub. | 4 ! | 4 ! | 6 ! | 4 ! | 6 ! | 4 ! | |
Shrubs and understory trees to check:
* Acer pennsylvanicum
* Acer spicatum
* Alnus serrulata
* Amelanchier arborea
* Amelanchier canadensis
* Amelanchier laevis
* Amorpha fructicosa
* Aralia spinosa
* Aronia arbutifolia
* Aronia melanocarpa
* Asimina triloba
* Baccharis halimifolia
* Carpinus caroliniana
* Castanea pumila
* Ceanothus americanus
* Celtis occidentalis
* Cephalanthus occidentalis
* Chionanthus virginicus
* Clethra alnifolia
* Comptonia peregrina
* Cornus alternifolia
* Cornus amomomum
* Cornus florida
* Cornus racemosa
* Cornus sericea
* Corylus americanus
* Dirca palustris
* Euonymus americanus
* Hamamelis virginiana
* Hydrangea arborescens
* Ilex decidua
* Ilex glabra
* Ilex opaca
* Ilex verticillata
* Itea virginica
* Kalmia angustifolia
* Kalmia latifolia
* Lindera benzoin
* Magnolia virginiana
* Marella pennsylvanica
* Ostrya virginiana
* Rhododendron arborescens
* Rhododendron atlanticum
* Rhododendron calendulaceum
* Rhododendron maximum
* Rhododendron periclymenoides
* Rhododendron prinophyllum
* Rhododendron viscosum
* Rhus copallina
* Rhus glabra
* Rhus typhina
* Rosa blanda
* Rosa carolina
* Rosa palustris
* Rosa setigera
* Rosa virginiana
* Salix discolor
* Salix nigra
* Salix sericea
* Sambucus canadensis
* Sassafras albidum
* Spiraea alba
* Spiraea tomentosa
* Ulmus rubra
* Vaccinium angustifolium
* Vaccinium corymbosum
* Viburnum acerifolium
* Viburnum dentatum
* Viburnum nudum
* Virburnum prunifolium