OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# SPARQL/SERVICE - Label

You can fetch the label, alias, or description of entities you query, with language fallback, using the specialized service with the URI <http://wikiba.se/ontology#label>. The service is very helpful when you want to retrieve labels, as it reduces the complexity of SPARQL queries that you would otherwise need to achieve the same effect.
The service can be used in one of the two modes: manual and automatic.

### Automatic Label SERVICE

In automatic mode, you only need to specify the service template, e.g.:
and WDQS will automatically generate labels as follows:
* If an unbound variable in SELECT is named ?NAMELabel, then WDQS produces the label (rdfs:label) for the entity in variable ?NAME.
* If an unbound variable in SELECT is named ?NAMEAltLabel, then WDQS produces the alias (skos:altLabel) for the entity in variable ?NAME.
* If an unbound variable in SELECT is named ?NAMEDescription, then WDQS produces the description (schema:description) for the entity in variable ?NAME.
In each case, the variable in ?NAME should be bound, otherwise the service fails.
Example, showing the list of EU country names and capitals in french. For demonstation also Description and AltLabel are shown
Try it!
In this example WDQS automatically creates the labels ?countryLabel, ?capitalLabel, ?capitalDescription and ?capitalAltLabel.

### Manual Label SERVICE

In the manual mode, you explicitly bind the label variables within the service call, but WDQS will still provide language resolution and fallback.
Manual Label service is mandatory for using labels in some SPARQL functions like
* GROUP_CONCAT
* Aggregate functions MIN, MAX, SUM or AVG
Example:
Try it!
This will consider labels and descriptions in French, German and English, and if none are available, will use the Q-id as the label.
Manual labels can also be used to list labels in more languages, for instance European countries in English, German and French
Try it!
PS: hint:Prior hint:runLast false. is added to prevent error: "there can be only one "run last" join in any group".
It is also possible to write the above query by using rdfs:label directly without the wikibase:label SERVICE:
Try it!

### Languages

You can specify a list of languages to be used as fallback in case a label does not exist in a language You specify your preferred language(s) for the label with one or more of bd:serviceParam wikibase:language "language-code" triples. Each string can contain one or more language codes, separated by commas. WDQS considers languages in the order in which you specify them. If no label is available in any of the specified languages, the Q-id of the entity (without any prefix) is its label.
The Wikidata Query Service website auto-magically replaces [AUTO_LANGUAGE] with the language code of current user's interface. For example, if the user's UI is in French, the SPARQL's code bd:serviceParam wikibase:language "[AUTO_LANGUAGE],de,en" will be converted to bd:serviceParam wikibase:language "fr,de,en" before being sent to the query service.

### References

mw:Wikidata query service/User Manual
# SPARQL/SERVICE - mwapi

Mediawiki API Service allows to call out to Mediawiki API from SPARQL, and receive the results from inside the SPARQL query. The query is initiated by SERVICE with URL wikibase:mwapi. Currently supported Mediawiki endpoints are: *.wikipedia.org, commons.wikimedia.org, www.mediawiki.org, www.wikidata.org, test.wikidata.org.
Currently the following services are supported:
| Service | Documentation | Inputs | Outputs | Description |
| Generator | see here | generator, prop, pprop | title, item, pageid, lastrevid, timestamp | Call any generator API. Use "generator" parameter to specify, and specific generator parameters to further amend the search (see the example below). |
| Categories | see here | titles,cllimit | category, title | Get a list of categories on the page. |
| Search | see here | srsearch,srwhat,srlimit | title | Full-text search in wiki. |
| EntitySearch | see here | search,language,type,limit | item,label | Wikibase entity search, by title. |
Required parameters are in bold. Please refer to the service documentation (linked in Documentation column) for the meaning of input parameters.
Please see full description on Mediawiki API Service documentation page.

### Example finding members of wikipedia category

Try it!

### Depicts statements with Dutch labels, of files in one Commons category

Try it!

### References

* Wikidata query service/User Manual/MWAPI
# TeX/hss
## Description

These commands produce horizontal and vertical glue that is both infinitely stretchable and infinitely shrinkable.

## See also:

* \hskip
* \mskip
* \vskip
* \hfill
* \hfil
* \hfilneg
# TeX/hskip
## Description

The commands \hskip and \vskip produce horizontal and vertical glue respectively, while \mskip produces horizontal glue in math mode. These commands skip over a distance of <dimen1>, which can be stretched by <dimen2> or shrunk by <dimen3>. Either the plus <dimen2>, the minus <dimen3>, or both can be omitted (the omitted values are taken to be zero). Any of <dimen1>, <dimen2> and <dimen3> is a TeX dimension and can be negative.
Should a line break occur immediately before or after one of these commands, then the intended distance/glue will not be inserted!
Example: the following command produces a horizontal glue of 3cm which can be stretched by 5mm:

## See also:

* TeX dimensions
* \mskip
* \hfill
* \hfil
* \hss
* \vss
* \hfilneg
# TeX/hfuzz
## Synopsis

\hfuzz=[length]

## Description

A parameter that allows hbox's to be overfull by [length] before an overfull error occurs.

## Examples

allows hboxes to be up to 1pt overfull before an error occurs.
# TeX/hrule
## Description

The \hrule command ends the current paragraph and inserts a rule. All the parameters are optional, and the preceding word should only be written in the presence of them.
Example : \hrule height 4pt
# TeX/if
## Description

The \if command denotes the start of an if-then-else control structure. The forms <token-1> and <token-2> must expand to tokens. <token-1> and <token-2> can be either a character or a control sequence. If <token-1> and <token-2> both expand to the same character code then <tex-code-1> is processed; otherwise it is ignored. If the \else section is included and <token-1> and <token-2> expand to different character codes, then <tex-code-2> is processed; otherwise it is ignored.

## A small LaTeX example

Here is a small LaTeX example, demonstrating the use of \if.
This example generates the output:
# TeX/goodbreak
## Description

This macro terminates the current paragraph and hints TeX to insert a page break (with a −500 penalty). This macro stands for \par\penalty-500 (you still need to insert a blank after, be it a space or a end of line).
# TeX/hbadness
## Synopsis

\hbadness=[number]

## Description

A parameter that tells TeX at what point to report badness errors (i.e. underfull and overfull error). [number] ranges from 0 to 10000.
# TeX/hfill
## Description

The TeX primitives \hfil, \hfill \vfil, \vfill, \hfilneg, \vfilneg are respectively equivalent in their effect to the command sequences:
In other words, they provide infinite horizontal and vertical glue, where \hfill and \vfill are infinitely larger than \hfil and \vfil respectively.
Please note that while you can use
there is no \hfilll or \vfilll.
The glue produced by these commands never shrinks.

## See also:

* TeX dimensions
* \hskip
* \mskip
* \vskip
* \hss
* \vss
* \hfilneg
# TeX/ht

every box has three properties: height, depth and width. \ht<8bit_box#> return the height of the #box.
# TeX/hyphenation
## Synopsis

\hyphenation{words}

## Description

The \hyphenation{words} command declares allowed hyphenation points where words is a list of words, separated by spaces, in which each hyphenation point is indicated by a '-' character.

## Example

\hyphenation{fortran er-go-no-mic}
Indicates that "fortran" cannot be hyphenated and indicates allowed hyphenation points for "ergonomic". This argument to this command should contain words composed only of normal letters (\catcode 11).
# TeX/par
## Description

Equivalent to a blank line; often used to make command or environment definitions easier to read.
# TeX/penalty
## Description

`\penalty` sets the penalty for a line or page break at that point.
Some penalties are built in to the TeX system and inserted automatically:
* `\binoppenalty` for a line break in math mode after a binary operator.
* `\brokenpenalty` for a page break, where the last line of the previous page contains a hyphenation.
* `\clubpenalty` for a broken page, with a single line of a paragraph remaining on the bottom of the preceding page.
* `\displaywidowpenalty` for a break before last line of a paragraph.
* `\exhyphenpenalty` for hyphenating a word which already contains a hyphen.
* `\floatingpenalty` for splitting an insertion.
* `\hyphenpenalty` for line breaking at an automatically inserted hyphen.
* `\interlinepenalty` for the penalty added after each line of a paragraph.
* `\linepenalty` the badness of each line within a paragraph.
* `\postdisplaypenalty` for a break after a display.
* `\predisplaypenalty` for a break before a display.
* `\relpenalty` for a line break at a relation.
* `\widowpenalty` for a broken page, with a single line of a paragraph (called "widow") remaining on the top of the succeeding page.

## Default

LaTeX for example sets these default values for built in penalties:
# TeX/pretolerance
## Description

The TeX primitive \pretolerance is an integer parameter that is used in TeX's line breaking algorithm as described below. The quantity <integer> is an integer from -1 to 10000.
If \pretolerance is an integer from 0 to 10000, then TeX's line breaking algorithm first attempts to break up a paragraph without hyphenation. In this attempt TeX tries to minimize the badness of each line. If TeX can break up a paragraph so that none of the lines have badness greater than \pretolerance, then TeX accepts it. If this is not possible, TeX will re-attempt to break up the paragraph with the allowance of hyphenation of words. In this second attempt, the integer parameter \tolerance is used instead of \pretolerance. If TeX is unsuccessful in the second attempt an error is reported in the log file.
If \pretolerance is -1, then TeX bypasses the first attempt at breaking a paragraph without hyphenation.
# TeX/parindent
## Description

\parindent is a dimension parameter, where <dim> is any dimension. It is used by TeX to determine the length of the empty box that is added to lists by the \indent command.
# TeX/the

This command is used to get the value of a counter, eg. \the\exno
# TeX/time
## Description

\time is a parameter that TeX initiates to the number of minutes that have completed in the current day. TeX sets this parameter once upon start-up. If, for example, TeX starts at 10:32:45am, then \time would be set to 60*10+32=632, dropping the 45 seconds. This parameter may be changed to <integer> with either of the two equivalent forms above.

## Examples

Recall that the command \number will typeset the decimal representation of whatever follows it, and TeX started at, say, 10:32:04am then
will typeset 632, if the \time parameter has not be redefined since TeX started.
will typeset -45.
# TeX/removelastskip
## Description

This macro removes the last skip length if \lastskip is not 0). Does nothing if \lastskip is 0. This macro does not remove the glue itself (only the implied skip)
# TeX/parskip
## Description

\parskip is a parameter that contains glue. TeX adds this glue to nonempty vertical lists prior to adding the horizontal boxes that result from processing a paragraph; in other words, <glue> is added between each paragraph, but not before the first or after the last paragraph.
# TeX/relax
## Synopsis

\relax

## Description

Donald Knuth describes this as telling TeX to "do nothing." This seems like a pointless control sequence at first thought. However, some control sequences act on tokens that follow it, and \relax tells TeX to stop accepting new tokens for this control sequence. This is sometimes necessary to resolve otherwise ambiguous expressions.

## Examples

The following piece of code looks just fine, but...
... TeX throws an Error "! Missing number, treated as zero. <to be read again> a". TeX just ignores the end-of-line and reads the tokens "\\[a]" as \\[length]. To stop TeX reading into such things just tell it to \relax
so TeX (and you) keep it cool.
# TeX/string
## Synopsis

\string

## Description

\string accepts a single token (a command sequence, a letter, or another character (including special characters like {, $, }), and converts it into a string of characters. The escape character is controlled by the register \escapechar and is "\" in standard TeX. If it equals -1, \string outputs nothing as the escape character.
All characters except space (code=32) are output with category 12 (other character), even if they're letters or special characters. As an exception, space gets the category 10 (space character), but still-concatenated spaces are not merged to one space.
# Real Analysis/Exercises on Derivatives
## On Differentiation

The Calculus wikibook contains many questions that simply practice the differentiation rules. It may cover differentiation rules that we have not covered, but that is because we have yet to define them right now.

## On Derivatives

1. Prove that for any even function $f$ provided that $f'(0)$ is valid, $f'(0)$ must equal 0.
Given a function ƒ such that ƒ(x) = ƒ(-x) ∀x, prove that if ƒ'(0) is valid, ƒ'(0) = 0.
It is easy to prove this using contradiction ($P\land \neg Q{\text{ but }}P\rightarrow Q$).
P in this case is "the function is even". Q in this case is "ƒ'(0) = 0". From there, prove that -Q implies -P, to highlight the contradiction.
Answer
# Real Analysis/Exercises on Derivatives/Answers

We have an even function then ,f'(x)=- f'(-x)
# Saylor.org's Comparative Politics/Social Science and Comparative Politics

Effective comparative study of political systems is rooted in the scientific method. To start off the course, Unit 1 first provides an overview and brief history of scientific inquiry and research methods. We then build on these themes as we focus on the comparative method and outline several “positivist” models of comparison employed by political scientists.
As you review the material, think about if and how the comparative scientific study of politics differs from scientific inquiry focused on natural phenomena. Can we study politics, for example, using the same research methods as a scientist studying microbes or global climate change? Why or why not? Also, should a study of comparative politics be objectively focused on understanding the world “as it is” or should it seek to derive better political models and outcomes?
# Saylor.org's Comparative Politics/The Middle East and the Islamic World

from Wikimedia Commons
# Saylor.org's Comparative Politics/The Nation-State

As introduced in Unit 1,comparative politics enables us to understand how and why nations change, how and why governments in a particular part of the world compare to governments in a different part of the world, and other patterns and regularities between political systems. Before we can begin our work as comparatists, however, we need to learn about the basic unit of comparative political study: the state (or nation-state). In Unit 2, we first examine the history and thinking behind the modern nation state through the contributions of Hobbes and Weber. We will then discuss how states developed in our modern world, challenges to state sovereignty, the psychology of the modern nation-state, and compare totalitarian and authoritarian forms of the state.
As you read through unit 2, reflect on the following questions. Why do we have or need the nation- state? How does the concept of sovereignty tie into the history and characteristics of the state? How has the nation-state evolved since its origin in 1648? Is there an optimum form of state rule? And finally, is the modern nation state static or evolving in its form and function?
# Scienceshow/Guides/Freezing with Liquid Nitrogen
## Purpose

This is a template for new guides and recipes. Make a brief statement about the purpose of this specific guide you're making. Remember that no copyrighted material can be added to this book without the authors explicit accept and please ackowledge sources of information and ideas with links to websites and references.
Status for this guide: Finished, Not yet finished, Check recipes...(leave the appropriate)

## Safety
### Safety Class

Choose a fitting safety class for this description
* Too dangerous! (We do not make this experiment because …)
* Very dangerous (Should only be attempted after careful training)
* Dangerous - Please be aware of this or the other thing... (Untrained people can do this experiment under supervision and guidance)
* Harmless (The most dangerous thing is this insignificant little petitesse)

### Required Safety Equipment

* The show performer: Glasses / Lab coat / Nothing / Fire extinguisher / Wet towel and a bucket of water / Eye flushing bottle
* Audience/participants: Safety screens / Hearing protection (a finger in the ear is often a help).

## Materials

You'll need the following - make a list
* item 1: formula, CAS number, supplier , Safety issues (describe the most important ones), Storage, link to safety datasheet

## Procedure

Preparation time, Performance time, Clean-up time.

### Step by step

* Start by…
* End with explaining how to properly get rid of waste products

### Alternative methods

Other ways to do the experiment

### Dangers

Now the reader knows the experiment, give a closer description of possible dangers.
* Important, be aware of…
* Consider the…

### Other Factors

What other things can sometimes affect the result of the experiment. Maybe the humidity or cleanliness of the glass ware is an issue.

### Show notes

What to consider when preparing. How to make it more spectacular. What can be difficult to achieve 'on stage' that normally is easy when practising.
What other experiments are good to that have in relation to this one?
What should you beware of that can make the experiment boring?

## Explanation
### What's taking place

Here you can give a more quantitative and mathematical description of what happens. What fundamental laws are involved or demonstrated by this experiment etc. Remember to explain jargon/expressions from the laboratory.

### In the real world

Do you meet things like this in daily life - give examples! E.g. Promession (Cryo-burial, an eco-burial)

### Unanswered Questions

Things we do not yet know and should find an answer to - maybe how it actually works etc.

### More Information

* Websites with more info the end.

## Remember

This is just a guide and it can contain both errors and omissions. Always make experiments in small versions before proceeding to larger quantities where things could become dangerous. Ask around if you have any doubts before starting and do not start on a procedure you do not feel you understand and is qualified to perform.
# Scienceshow/Guides/Ferrofluid Synthesis
## Purpose

This is a template for new guides and recipes. Make a brief statement about the purpose of this specific guide you're making. Remember that no copyrighted material can be added to this book without the authors explicit accept and please ackowledge sources of information and ideas with links to websites and references.
Status for this guide: Finished, Not yet finished, Check recipes...(leave the appropriate)

## Safety
### Safety Class

Choose a fitting safety class for this description
* Too dangerous! (We do not make this experiment because …)
* Very dangerous (Should only be attempted after careful training)
* Dangerous - Please be aware of this or the other thing... (Untrained people can do this experiment under supervision and guidance)
* Harmless (The most dangerous thing is this insignificant little petitesse)

### Required Safety Equipment

* The show performer: Glasses / Lab coat / Nothing / Fire extinguisher / Wet towel and a bucket of water / Eye flushing bottle
* Audience/participants: Safety screens / Hearing protection (a finger in the ear is often a help).

## Materials

You'll need the following - make a list
* item 1: formula, CAS number, supplier , Safety issues (describe the most important ones), Storage, link to safety datasheet

## Procedure

Preparation time, Performance time, Clean-up time.

### Step by step

* Start by…
* End with explaining how to properly get rid of waste products

### Alternative methods

Other ways to do the experiment

### Dangers

Now the reader knows the experiment, give a closer description of possible dangers.
* Important, be aware of…
* Consider the…

### Other Factors

What other things can sometimes affect the result of the experiment. Maybe the humidity or cleanliness of the glass ware is an issue.

### Show notes

What to consider when preparing. How to make it more spectacular. What can be difficult to achieve 'on stage' that normally is easy when practising.
What other experiments are good to that have in relation to this one?
What should you beware of that can make the experiment boring?

## Explanation
### What's taking place

Here you can give a more quantitative and mathematical description of what happens. What fundamental laws are involved or demonstrated by this experiment etc. Remember to explain jargon/expressions from the laboratory.

### In the real world

Do you meet things like this in daily life - give examples!

### Uanswered Questions

Things we do not yet know and should find an answer to - maybe how it actually works etc.

### More Information

* Websites with more info the end.

## Remember

This is just a guide and it can contain both errors and omissions. Always make experiments in small versions before proceeding to larger quantities where things could become dangerous. Ask around if you have any doubts before starting and do not start on a procedure you do not feel you understand and is qualified to perform.