OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Genetic Information/Introduction to Genetic Information

Introduction
There is a growing interest in mathematical study of succession of letters that represent the basic structure of DNA strand. In molecular genetics, these letters are T, G, C and A where they represent thymine, guanine, cytosine and adenine.
DNA is an information molecule that codes sequence of deoxyribonucleotides. Where as messenger RNA (mRNA) is an information molecule coding by sequence of ribonucleotides. In the structure of mRNA is a single stranded molecule where uracil, lettered U takes the place of thymine found in double stranded DNA.
The letters in the information molecules are normally written without gaps and when they are taken three at a time, they are called codons. They produce 64 different combinations of bases. It is this coded sequence in the letters, for example, GATCTAC that we will refer to here as genetic information.
Information in this case is about genes. It may also be information about gene products or our understanding of combinations of inherited family traits.
Modern study of genetic information includes information that regards carrier status and information that is derived from science laboratory tests. The science laboratory tests are often intended to identify mutations or changes in specific genes or chromosomes. There are three ways in which genetic information is gathered in a scientific study. One is usually done by series of physical medical examinations while the other is by taking family histories and, lastly, by engaging direct analysis of genes or chromosomes through detailed biometric processes.
The end result in the flow of genetic information is protein, that is, a functional molecule consisting of sequence of amino acids.
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Table of Contents
# Genetic Information/Overview of Sequence Statistics

General History of Statistics
The historical development of the field of sequence statistics as discussed in this chapter represents the common denominator of genetic biometry. From its onset at the end of pre-dynastic period (about 3100 BCE) associated with Nilotic African graphemics to the present genomic age, sequence statistics considers probability the core of information.
Among the southern Luo in this particular subject, one finds the proverb Obaro nyar Wasare that is intended to conceal the meaning of probability and information research. Kwame Gyeke of Ghana suggests the importance of many proverbs from the Akan people. But this Nilotic proverb is the origin of limiting relative frequency, often recited by the wise people to reveal variation, frequency and estimation of the living being. In the work of Odhiambo Akoko (Paul Mboya 1953), Luo Kitgi gi Timbegi, for example, the science is revealed in the sense that one’s character and behavior in general is by far a reflection on one’s customs and traditions in which one operates.
The proverb teaches a bout kit Wasare concreted by rieko te in linear and circular order and means the amount or measure of understanding as well as the totality of what can be known to come from a parent, Wasare in linear form and taught by a teacher to the daughter of Wasare ma adiera.
Similarly, in decoded Egyptian hieroglyphics, Wasare is the Osiris or Ra whose daughter, mesia is ma adier, the truth, ma’at who is nyar re the daughter of Ra. In effect, from the Luo yud jaot (jaodi) which is finding a consort (Tehuty) and kido which is heredability comes the pharaonic udjat, the “sound eye” and khed, building a mathematical process with a living yardstick. It is this living yardstick that through Latin, metiri and old French, mesure, we get the origins of the English word measure that therefore is the ultimate source of biological mathematics as we know it today to have come from the Luo.
Genetic information relies heavily on modernized conventional concepts of statistics and probability in symbols to which we now turn.
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Table of Contents
# Genetic Information/Probability

History of probability and information
One of the ancient expressions of information dealing with entropy also deals with information and the number of possible outcomes in an event.
The sound eye, udjat, shows it clearly.
Here, for example, is where we find the history of African ways of combining a system of two to a system of three compartments applied by the artists in the graphic form.
Mathematical language shows these expressions, the destroyed parts of Horus' eye, to result into six compartments that exhibit exponential equations of the form: $y=ac^{bx}$ often expressed in the West with the Greek symbol : $\phi (x)=ac^{bx}$. Where c is the base and in this case equals two. This same c in other useful mathematical expressions can be 10 or more often e as an approximated value of natural logarithm. Why logarithm?
The ancient forms of udjat parts are $2^{-1}$, $2^{-2}$, $2^{-3}$, ... Because the base number 2 is raised to powers, -1, -2, -3... that we call exponents, the exponents are the logarithms and they are here with their bases resulting into fractions of unitary numerators equal to respective probabilities for equally likely outcomes of events exemplified by udjat parts.
The hieroglyph P for this particular event was initially represented in the arts by 64 squares in a grid reference where each small square had a unit area. Of all the 64 squares, the debate was centered on one. The information therefore varied inversely with probability as it does in the modern communications theory. Words such as magic and beauty were employed to mean infinity and outcome. The area study was called seked S from which the integral symbol S in calculus would be derived.
Weighted information of each class since the ancient time has always involved multiplying log (1/P) by probability Pi of the class.
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Table of Contents
# Genetic Information
## Contents

* Introduction to Genetic Information
* Overview of Sequence Statistics
** Probability
** Properties of DNA
** Local–Range Properties
** Long–Range Properties
*** Longest Subsequence
**** Correlations
**** Criteria for Nucleotide Level
* Model for Expansion-Mutation
* Simple Sequence Repeats
* Distributions of Length
* Analysis of Spectrum
* Criteria for Entropy
Glossary
References
# Genetic Information/Glossary
## codon

    three consecutive nucleotides in a strand of DNA or RNA that genetically codes for a specific amino acid.
# Geocaching in the UK
## Introduction

Geocaching in the UK is an unofficial guide to the activity of Geocaching in the United Kingdom.
Geocaching is an outdoor treasure-hunting game in which the participants use a Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver or other navigational techniques to hide and seek containers (called "geocaches" or "caches") anywhere in the world. A typical cache is a small waterproof container containing a logbook, pen and "treasure", usually toys or trinkets of little monetary value.

## Chapters

* History
* GPS, PDA and Technology
* Puzzle Caches
* Stories
* Cache Setting
* Contacts

## Guidelines for Contributors

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# Handbook of Management Scales/Alliance transformation
## Alliance transformation (alpha = 0.82, AVE = 0.60)
### Description

An alliance management capability measure was conceptualized and operationalized. It is reflected by five underlying routines: interorganizational coordination, alliance portfolio coordination, interorganizational learning, alliance proactiveness, and alliance transformation.

### Definition

Alliance transformation refers to the extent of routines to modify alliances over the course of the alliance process.

### Items

* We are willing to put aside contractual terms to improve the outcome of our R&D alliances.
* When an unexpected situation arises, we would rather modify an R&D alliance agreement than insist on the original terms.
* Flexibility, in response to a request for change, is characteristic of our R&D alliance management process.

### Source

* Schilke/Goerzen (2010): Alliance Management Capability: An Investigation of the Construct and Its Measurement, Vol. 36, No. 5, pp. 1192–1219.
# Handbook of Management Scales/Ambidexterity

Ambidexteritytext (α = .87 for Exploration) (α = .86 for Exploitation)
Description "Within the technological innovation context, ambidexterity refers to the simultaneous pursuit of exploitative and explorative activities (Tushman and O’Reilly, 1996). As contrasted by March (1991), incremental innovations represent minor changes to existing products and business processes and are considered to be exploitative. Incremental innovation is less risky and creates greater depth of products, which is necessary for short-term success. Radical innovations, which are exploratory in nature, focus on the needs of emerging customers and the internal business process innovations necessary to meet environmental challenges. Greater risk is involved with radical innovations, but such exploratory initiatives are critical to long-term success. While structural ambidexterity centers on the organizational design and creation of separate subunits that support exploration and exploitation, contextual ambidexterity, in contrast, relies on building a set of systems and processes that support such alignment (Simsek, 2009). As young firms tend to have less formal structures due to their liability of newness (Stinchcombe, 1965), they may lack the ability and resources to create a dual structure. Therefore, contextual ambidexterity is particularly relevant to young firms." (Lubatkin, Simsek, Ling & Veiga, 2006: 1521)
Definition Ambidexterity refers to the simultaneous pursuit of exploitative and explorative activities (Tushman and O’Reilly, 1996).
Items Exploration (α = .87 for Exploration) My organization actively looks for novel technological ideas by thinking ‘outside the box’ (0.90) I base my organization's performance by its ability explore new technologies. (0.86) My organization creates products or services that are innovative to the firm. (0.76) My organization looks for creative ways to satisfy my clients’ needs. (0.82) My organization aggressively ventures into new market segments. (0.76) My organization actively targets new customers groups. (0.81)
Exploitation (α = .86 for Exploitation) My organization is committed to improving quality and in lowering costs. (0.74) My organization continuously improves the reliability of its products and services (0.76) My organization increases the levels of automation in its operations. (0.69) My organization constantly surveys existing customers’ satisfaction (0.77) My organization fine-tunes what it offers to keep its current customers satisfied (0.75) My organization penetrates more deeply into its existing customer base compared to their competitors. (0.82)
Source Lubatkin MH, Simsek Z, Ling Y, Veiga JF. 2006. Ambidexterity and performance in small-to medium sized firms: the pivotal role of top management team behavioral integration. Journal of Management 32(5): 646–672.
Tushman ML, O’Reilly CA III. 1996. Ambidextrous organizations: managing evolutionary and revolutionary change. California Management Review 38(4): 8–30.
# Handbook of Management Scales/Alliance structures
## Alliance structures (alpha = 0.83, AVE = 0.63)
### Definition

Alliance structures are defined as organizational units dedicated primarily to the management of strategic alliances.

### Items

* In our firm, there is a great deal of support for the management of R&D alliances through a central unit.
* In our firm, there are departments primarily dedicated to the management of R&D alliances.
* In our firm, there are various employees primarily dedicated to the management of R&D alliances.

### Source

* Schilke/Goerzen (2010): Alliance Management Capability: An Investigation of the Construct and Its Measurement, Vol. 36, No. 5, pp. 1192–1219.

### Comments

Given that a 7-point scale (1 to 7) was used and, thus, 4 would be the ideal mean, the observed means were between 2.05 and 2.88 and, thus, too low. Therefore, the item wording should be modified (e.g., "dedicated" instead of "primarily dedicated").
# Handbook of Management Scales/Alliance portfolio performance
## Alliance portfolio performance (alpha = 0.88, AVE = 0.66)
### Definition

Alliance portfolio performance was defined in terms of performance satisfaction and perceived goal fulfillment of the business unit’s R&D alliances.

### Items

* Overall we are satisfied with the performance of our R&D alliances.
* Generally our R&D alliances satisfy our initial objectives.
* We are satisfied with the knowledge accumulated from participating in R&D alliances.
* Our R&D alliances have been profitable investments.

### Source

* Schilke/Goerzen (2010): Alliance Management Capability: An Investigation of the Construct and Its Measurement, Vol. 36, No. 5, pp. 1192–1219.
# Handbook of Management Scales/Ambiguity intolerance
## Ambiguity intolerance (CR = 0.77)
### Description

Hofstede's five cultural factors are reconceptualized as ten personal cultural orientations: independence, interdependence, power, social inequality, masculinity, gender equality, risk aversion, ambiguity intolerance, tradition, and prudence. A new 40-item scale is developed to measure these personal cultural orientations. Much effort has been invested in ensuring validity, reliability, and cross-cultural measurement equivalence of the new scale.

### Definition

Ambiguity intolerance is the degree to which people can tolerate ambiguity and uncertain situations.

### Items

* I find it difficult to function without clear directions and instructions. (0.77)
* I prefer specific instructions to broad guidelines. (0.75)
* I tend to get anxious easily when I don’t know an outcome. (0.73)
* I feel stressful when I cannot predict consequences. (0.72)

### Source

* Sharma (2010): Measuring Personal Cultural Orientations: Scale Development and Validation. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Vol. 38, No. 6, pp. 787–806
# Handbook of Management Scales/Apparent sincerity
## Apparent sincerity (alpha = 0.58)
### Description

The conceptualization and measurement of the political skill construct was examined and evidence was validated for the Political Skill Inventory (PSI). The results of three investigations, involving seven samples, are reported that demonstrate consistency of the factor structure across studies, construct validity, and criterion-related validity of the PSI. Four key dimensions are identified in the organizational politics literature: social astuteness, interpersonal influence, networking ability, and apparent sincerity.

### Items

Using the following 7-point scale, please place the number on the blank before each item that best describes how much you agree with each statement about yourself (1 = strongly disagree, ..., 7 = strongly agree):
* When communicating with others, I try to be genuine in what I say and do.
* It is important that people believe I am sincere in what I say and do.
* I try to show a genuine interest in other people.

### Source

* Ferris et al. (2005): Development and Validation of the Political Skill Inventory. Journal of Management, Vol. 31, No. 1, pp. 126–152.

### Comments

Cronbach's alpha is too low.
# Handbook of Management Scales/Architectural innovation
## Architectural innovation (alpha = 0.75)
### Description

A comprehensive set of measures is developed to assess an innovation’s locus, type, and characteristics. The measure described on this page is one of these measures. It is found that the concepts of competence destroying and competence enhancing are composed of two distinct constructs that, although correlated, separately characterize an innovation: new competence acquisition and competence enhancement/destruction. Scales are developed to measure these constructs and show that new competence acquisition and competence enhancing/destroying are different from other innovation characteristics including core/peripheral and incremental/radical, as well as architectural and generational innovation types.
Following the typical process of scale construction, the empirical analysis is divided into four stages:
* content face validity analysis with expert judges.
* scale puriﬁcation through exploratory and conﬁrmatory factor analysis.
* assessment of discriminant and convergent validity through analysis of covariance structures.
* nomological validity through the analysis of the effect of innovation characteristics on time to introduction and commercial success.

### Definition

Architectural innovation involves changes in linkages between existing subsystems.

### Items

* INNOVATION led to signiﬁcant changes in the linkages between SUBSYSTEM and at least one subsystem in PRODUCT other than SUBSYSTEM.
* INNOVATION led to signiﬁcant changes in the way SUBSYSTEM interacts with other subsystems.
* INNOVATION led to tighter integration between SUBSYSTEM and at least one other subsystem.
* INNOVATION made the integration of SUBSYSTEM with at least one other subsystem a more important factor inﬂuencing the overall performance of product.

### Source

* Gatignon et al. (2002): A Structural Approach to Assessing Innovation: Construct Development of Innovation Locus, Type, and Characteristics. Management Science, Vol. 48, No. 9, pp. 1103–1122.
# Handbook of Management Scales/Alliance portfolio coordination
## Alliance portfolio coordination (alpha = 0.91, AVE = 0.72)
### Description

An alliance management capability measure was conceptualized and operationalized. It is reflected by five underlying routines: interorganizational coordination, alliance portfolio coordination, interorganizational learning, alliance proactiveness, and alliance transformation.

### Definition

Alliance portfolio coordination pertains to the routines related to the integration of all of a business unit’s R&D alliances.

### Items

* We ensure an appropriate coordination among the activities of our different R&D alliances.
* We determine areas of synergy in our R&D alliance portfolio.
* We ensure that interdependencies between our R&D alliances are identified.
* We determine if there are overlaps between our different R&D alliances.

### Source

* Schilke/Goerzen (2010): Alliance Management Capability: An Investigation of the Construct and Its Measurement, Vol. 36, No. 5, pp. 1192–1219.
# Handbook of Management Scales/Amorality
## Amorality (alpha = 0.83)
### Description

A new measure of Machiavellianism, the Machiavellian Personality Scale (MPS), was developed and validated over two studies. Machiavellianism is conceptualized as one's propensity to distrust others, engage in amoral manipulation, seek control over others, and seek status for oneself. Study 1 developed and tested the factor structure of the scale, whereas Study 2 provided evidence for the convergent, divergent, and criterion-related validity of the MPS. The results of these studies supported the a priori factor structure of the MPS and indicated that it is a valid predictor of such outcomes as job satisfaction, task performance, and counterproductive work behaviors.

### Definition

Amoral manipulation is defined as a willingness to disregard standards of morality and see value in behaviors that benefit the self at the expense of others.

### Items

* I believe that lying is necessary to maintain a competitive advantage over others.
* The only good reason to talk to others is to get information that I can use to my benefit.
* I am willing to be unethical if I believe it will help me succeed.
* I am willing to sabotage the efforts of other people if they threaten my own goals.
* I would cheat if there was a low chance of getting caught.

### Source

* Dahling et al. (2009): The Development and Validation of a New Machiavellianism Scale. Journal of Management, Vol. 35, No. 2, pp. 219-257.
# Handbook of Management Scales/Alliance proactiveness
## Alliance proactiveness (alpha = 0.87, AVE = 0.63)
### Description

An alliance management capability measure was conceptualized and operationalized. It is reflected by five underlying routines: interorganizational coordination, alliance portfolio coordination, interorganizational learning, alliance proactiveness, and alliance transformation.

### Definition

Alliance proactiveness is defined as the extent of routines to identify potentially valuable partnering opportunities.

### Items

* We strive to preempt our competition by entering into R&D alliance opportunities.
* We often take the initiative in approaching firms with R&D alliance proposals.
* Compared to our competitors, we are far more proactive and responsive in finding and “going after” R&D partnerships.
* We actively monitor our environment to identify R&D partnership opportunities.

### Source

* Schilke/Goerzen (2010): Alliance Management Capability: An Investigation of the Construct and Its Measurement, Vol. 36, No. 5, pp. 1192–1219.
# Notions of Probability Theory

Here we introduce the notions of probability theory essential for the understanding of the book. The interested reader is referred to more thorough accounts of probability theory.

## Useful distributions
### Discrete distributions

For a thourough list of discrete distributions and their properties the interested reader is referred to Wikipedia on discrete distributions.

#### Binomial Distribution

The binomial distribution of parameters $n\in {\mathcal {N}}$ and $p\in [0,1]$
$P(X=k)={n \choose k}p^{k}(1-p)^{n-k}$

#### Poisson distribution

The poisson distribution with parameter $\lambda >0$, the intensity
$P(X=k)={\frac {\lambda ^{k}}{k!}}e^{-\lambda }$
# Financial Math FM
## Preface

This wikibook is intended to help prepare and review for the Society of Actuaries (SoA) Financial Math (FM) exam also called Exam 2 by the Casualty Actuarial Society (CAS). If you are looking for a more general introduction to financial math or you don't know what the SoA FM exam is, then this text is probably not for you.
This text will try to follow the SoA FM syllabus with an emphasis on problem solving and usage of financial calculator, in particular BA II Plus.
You may download the most update pdf version of this book by pressing 'Download as PDF' in the left hand side of print version page, or clicking here.

## Table of chapters

* A printable version of Financial Math FM is available.
* About the FM Exam
* Topics in current SOA exam FM syllabus
* Time Value of Money
* Annuities
* Loans
* Bonds
* General Cash Flows and Portfolios
* Immunization
* Interest Rate Swaps
* Determinants of Interest Rates
* Extra topics related to financial economics
* Stochastic Interest
* Derivatives
* Options
* Options Strategies
* Hedging and Investment Strategies
* Forwards and Futures
* Sharpe ratio
* Glossary
* Formulas
* Problems