# Lentis/Freeway Removal Movements in US Cities

Freeway Removal Movements (FRMs) are campaigns to remove urban roadways on the basis that their negative economic, environmental, and health impacts outweigh benefits to local communities. FRMs combat a history of discrimination in highway siting and are often led by city-specific grassroots organizations. This chapter explores the complex relationship between federal/local governments and community entities, contextualizes the history of the Interstate system and discusses outcomes of example freeway removal projects.

## History of US Highways

The Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956 established the Interstate Highway System (IHS). The Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956 was a product of the "Clay Committee's" (The President's Advisory Committee on the National Highway System) national highway plan. The "Clay Committee" was lead by Lt. Gen. Lucius Clay, a close advisor to President Eisenhower. Within this report, the committee mentioned four points that guided their plan. First, the committee focused on safety, citing 36,000 traffic fatalities each year. Second, the committee discussed poor existing road conditions throughout the country. Interestingly, the committee argued that poor road conditions increased damage to vehicles, hurting consumers and the economy. The third focus was national security from nuclear threats. Specifically, the need for an evacuation route and quick movement of troops for national defense. Finally, the committee cited economic health, arguing that increased population and industry will require more roadways. The Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956 originally authorized $25 billion to construct the IHS (roughly $290 billion in 2024). The IHS was initially expanded to 41,000 miles.

## Impacts and Legacy of Interstate Highway Development

The Interstate Highway System is massive. Currently, the IHS extends almost 49,000 miles. A system of this size requires significant maintenance. As of 2021, the American Society of Civil Engineers Infrastructure Report Card highlights that there is a $786 billion backlog of road and bridge capital needs. The system has numerous impacts, ranging from bulldozed neighborhoods to daily urban commuting methods. Over the first two decades of construction, 475,000 households and 1,000,000 people were displaced by the construction of the IHS. To prevent mass displacement, many communities pushed back against highway construction efforts. These freeway revolts had mixed results. Some neighborhoods, such as SoHo in New York City, were successful in stifling freeway projects. Despite these efforts, the construction disproportionately affected communities of color and neighborhoods with lower education attainment. White neighborhoods with more affluent and better educated residents were more successful in rerouting highway projects.

## Case Studies
#### Boston: The Big Dig

The Big Dig was a highway removal, replacement, and expansion project that relocated the elevated portion of I-93 through Boston's center underground and added a new tunnel the I-90 extension to Logan Airport. At the time, the Big Dig was most expensive highway project in the US. Planning for the project began in the 1980s and construction occurred from 1992 to 2007. The project was initially scheduled to be completed 1998, but ran until 2007. The project was initially budgeted for $2.8 billion (almost $9 billion in 2024), but the actual cost was $14.8 billion (roughly $22.5 billion in 2024). In addition to the tunnels, the Boston Central Artery was replaced by the the Rose Fitzgerald Kennedy Greenway - a 17 acre linear park in the heart of downtown Boston. The Big Dig was equal parts highway removal and expansion. Despite the expansion components, the project still serves as an early example of freeway removal.
The Big Dig faced numerous issues throughout construction and after completion. Namely, the project incurred billions of dollars of cost overruns and years of schedule delays. The Big Dig was plagued by design flaws and leaks. Unfortunately, these issues also caused the death of Milena Del Valle when 26 tons of concrete crushed her car while driving in 2006. Bechtel and Parsons Brinckerhoff (the contractors that oversaw the project) ultimately paid more than $450 million in a settlement due to Del Valle's death and the design and construction flaws.

#### Rochester: Inner Loop

The Inner Loop is a sunken highway that surrounds Rochester, New York's downtown core. Built during 1950's suburban expansion, the highway acts as a "moat" that prevents nearby residents from accessing the central business district. The Inner Loop was primarily constructed in redlined areas (predominantly Black neighborhoods that mortgage lenders discriminated against). One resident who remembers the highway construction said that the noise, dust, and displacement of neighbors was discouraging, but now they've "learned to adapt", so "wouldn't freeway removal be a waste of money?" Since the project's completion in 1965, surrounding neighborhoods have become impoverished and Rochester has lost 34% of its population. Declining economic prospects prompted local officials to consider Inner Loop removal, first mentioning it in a 35-year comprehensive plan from 1999.
Efforts to remove the Inner Loop have focused primarily on the freeway's eastern section. After years of planning and feasibility studies, the city requested a federal TIGER (Transportation Investment Generating Economic Recovery) grant in 2011. Reconnect Rochester, a grassroots advocacy promoting public transportation, supported the removal with a letter to Transportation Secretary Ray LaHood. Their president Michael Governale reasoned that filling in the Inner Loop will "create significant transportation, economic and environmental impacts in Rochester." In 2013, USDOT awarded the city $17.7 million and the renovation was completed four years later. The East Loop neighborhood now features an at-grade boulevard with shops, new housing, and more integrated public transit. East Loop's success has spawned discussion about further highway removal in Rochester, especially the northern section.

#### Syracuse: I-81 Viaduct

The I-81 elevated viaduct highway through Syracuse, New York is in progress for removal. Constructed in the early 1960’s, it served as a vital route connecting downtown to surrounding suburbs via the I-481 loop, and supported trade from Tennessee to Canada. However, its construction had devastating impacts on local Black neighborhoods like the 15th Ward, displacing families, plummeting property values, and increasing pollution related health issues. The New York State Department of Transportation (NYSDOT) conducted a corridor study from 2008 -- 2013 and called for change, concluding that harsh winters and road salt had further exacerbated the viaduct's unsafe deterioration.
NYSDOT's "Community Grid" plan intends to destroy the viaduct, replace it with a boulevard and street-level roads, and reroute traffic to I-481, improving walkability and neighborhood connections. The plan received federal approval in 2022 and is backed by leaders including Syracuse Mayor Ben Walsh, New York Governor Kathy Hochul, and urbanist organizations like the Congress for the New Urbanism. Despite broad support, critics argue that the removal will increase traffic, harm air quality, and disrupt business access. Most opposition comes from the advocacy group "Renew 81 for All," composed of local and suburban business owners, who delayed the viaduct removal with legal battles from 2022 – 2024. In 2024, higher courts overruled these motions and Renew 81 dropped their final lawsuit, leaving a free path forward for the Community Grid. Construction on the project began in 2023, focusing first on upgrading I-481 and key interchanges, but the viaduct will not be demolished until later. Although the project's path is unobstructed, tensions remain over who will shape and benefit from the redevelopment.

## Outcomes of Freeway Removal

Freeway removal projects offer opportunities to reconnect communities, improve walkability, and reduce environmental harm but raise concerns about gentrification and displacement. In places like Rochester and Syracuse, fears of rising property values and government mistrust persist, particularly in neighborhoods previously harmed by highway construction. For example, the 15th Ward in Syracuse remains wary of whether the I-81 redevelopment will genuinely benefit longtime residents. As Charles Garland, a Syracuse legislator and founder of Renew 81 for All, stated: “It’s all about taking down the viaduct so University Hill can be extended into downtown and they can appropriate the surrounding properties".
National trends toward re-urbanization and successful freeway removals have improved public opinion of the practice. Highway removal has also gained traction as a means of rectifying historical discrimination. For example, Rochester's East Loop project led to a proposal to reconnect the predominantly Black Scio St. neighborhood by burying another section of the highway. The ACLU is working with Scio St. residents to ensure that their concerns about the development are heard. Rochester's and other freeway removal projects intend to create policies and redevelopment that improve quality of living while ensuring the areas remain affordable.
Despite concerns, successful projects like Rochester’s Inner Loop have demonstrated potential benefits, including economic revitalization and sustainable urban design. However, opposition from suburban commuters and businesses highlights ongoing tensions over who benefits most from these changes. Balancing community needs, fostering trust, and ensuring equitable redevelopment are critical for achieving lasting, inclusive improvements.

## Future Potential

Although freeway removal is expensive, recent federal legislation will make more projects possible in the near future. In particular, the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (also known as the Bipartisan Infrastructure Deal) authorizes $110 billion in funding for surface transportation from 2022-2027. The effects of this landmark legislation will take time to become visible, but this investment will reshape the urban built environment by promoting climate change mitigation, resilience, equity, and safety for all transit users.

## References

* 1 2 "National Interstate and Defense Highways Act (1956)". National Archives. 2021-09-29. Retrieved 2024-12-06.
* ↑ "Dwight D. Eisenhower and the birth of the Interstate Highway System". www.army.mil. 2018-02-20. Retrieved 2024-12-06.
* 1 2 3 "Inflation Calculator | Find US Dollar's Value From 1913-2024". www.usinflationcalculator.com. 2024-11-13. Retrieved 2024-12-06.
* ↑ "Interstate Frequently Asked Questions". Federal Highway Administration. Retrieved December 6, 2024.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
* ↑ "Roads". ASCE's 2021 Infrastructure Report Card |. 2017-01-17. Retrieved 2024-12-06.
* ↑ "Bulldozed and bisected: Highway construction built a legacy of inequality". www.nbcnews.com. Retrieved 2024-12-06.
* ↑ "Mapping the Effects of the Great 1960s 'Freeway Revolts'" (in en). Bloomberg.com. 2019-07-23. https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-07-23/the-unfinished-history-of-u-s-freeway-revolts.
* ↑ "$14.8 billion later, Big Dig finally complete". NBC News. 2007-12-26. Retrieved 2024-12-06.
* ↑ "Settlement Reached In Big Dig Death Suit - CBS News". www.cbsnews.com. 2008-09-30. Retrieved 2024-12-06.
* ↑ "$450 million settlement covers Big Dig tragedy". NBC News. 2008-01-23. Retrieved 2024-12-06.
* ↑ Staff Reports, Democrat & Chronicle (October 19, 2022). Our reporting mission: How do we measure the success of the Inner Loop reclamation? https://www.democratandchronicle.com/story/news/promo/2022/10/19/dc-reporting-on-the-outcomes-of-the-inner-loop-east-project-in-rochester/69557911007/
* ↑ Andreatta, D. (August 12, 2021). Census: Rochester falls to New York's fourth-largest city. WXXI News. https://www.wxxinews.org/local-news/2021-08-12/census-rochester-falls-to-new-yorks-fourth-largest-city
* ↑ Evans, Malik (2019). "Rochester 2034". Retrieved December 6, 2024.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
* ↑ Governale, M. (September 13, 2011). Inner Loop East Reconstruction Project, Rochester, NY Request for TIGER Grant Assistance. Reconnecting Rochester, https://www.cityofrochester.gov/sites/default/files/migrated/WorkArea-linkit.aspx-LinkIdentifier-id-ItemID-8589950678.pdf
* ↑ Chhibber, H. & McDermott, D. (October 11, 2021). The Inner Loop. From Erie Canal to Inner Loop: Spatial History of Downtown Rochester, New York, https://dmcderm.digitalscholar.rochester.edu/chapter-4/
* 1 2 Zarroli, Jim (June 3, 2023). "Why It's So Hard to Tear Down a Crumbling Highway Nearly Everyone Hates". The New York Times.
* ↑ "I-81 Viaduct Project Overview". Department of Transportation. Retrieved 2024-12-06.
* ↑ "I-81 Viaduct Project Overview". Department of Transportation. Retrieved 2024-12-06.
* ↑ "Court halts $2.25B New York highway project". theconstructionbroadsheet.com. Retrieved 2024-12-06.
* ↑ Steuteville, Robert (2024-02-13). "Syracuse I-81 freeway transformation clears legal hurdle". CNU. Retrieved 2024-12-06.
* ↑ "Court halts $2.25B New York highway project". theconstructionbroadsheet.com. Retrieved 2024-12-06.
* ↑ Kingston, John (2024-02-03). "Plan to replace I-81 in Syracuse with urban boulevard gets court win". FreightWaves. Retrieved 2024-12-06.
* ↑ "Renew 81 drops last legal challenge to I-81 project". WRVO Public Media. 2024-08-08. Retrieved 2024-12-06.
* ↑ Steuteville, Robert (2024-02-13). "Syracuse I-81 freeway transformation clears legal hurdle". CNU. Retrieved 2024-12-06.
* ↑ Sharp, B. (October 13, 2021). Will plans for Inner Loop heal historic wounds or continue legacy of inequality? Democrat & Chronicle, https://www.democratandchronicle.com/story/news/2021/10/13/inner-loop-rochester-ny-impact-on-neighborhoods/8137874002/
* ↑ House, The White (2021-11-06). "Fact Sheet: The Bipartisan Infrastructure Deal". The White House. Retrieved 2024-12-06.