OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Definition

The atomic radius is defined as the measured length from the atomic nucleus to the electron orbital that is in the outermost shell of the atom. Typically in practice, this length is measured by obtaining the distance between identical, adjacent atomic nuclei of the sample element, and this distance is then divided by half. In many cases, the size of the atom of a compound varies depending on the substances that are near it, hence it can be said that the atomic radius can vary slightly depending on what is around it.
The atomic radius is a term used to describe the size of the atom, but there is no standard definition for this value. Atomic radius may refer to the ionic radius, covalent radius, metallic radius, or van der Waals radius. In all cases, the size of the atom is dependent on how far out the electrons extend. The atomic radius for an element tends to increase as one goes down an element group. The electrons become more tightly packed as you move across the periodic table, so while there are more electrons for elements of increasing atomic number, the atomic radius actually may decrease.
Ionic radii are difficult to measure with any degree of certainty, and vary according to the environment of the ion. For example, it matters what the co-ordination of the ion is (how many oppositely charged ions are touching it), and what those ions are.
There are several different measures of ionic radii in use, and these all differ from each other by varying amounts. It means that if we are going to make reliable comparisons using ionic radii, they have to come from the same source.

# Trends
### Across the Period

The atomic radius usually decreases in a period from left to right, due to the fact that nuclear charge increases, which then attracts the electrons that are orbiting and pulls them closer to the nucleus.

### Across the Group

The atomic radius usually increases in a group from top to bottom, due to the fact that an additional energy level is added to the shell, which increases the n value.

# References

* Silberberg, Martin S. Principles of General Chemistry. Boston: McGraw-Hill Higher Education, 2007. Print.
# Radiation Oncology/Radiobiology/Radiation Syndrome

* Acute Radiation Syndrome (ARS) (sometimes known as radiation toxicity or radiation sickness) is an acute illness caused by irradiation of the entire body (or most of the body) by a high dose of penetrating radiation in a very short period of time (usually a matter of minutes)
* The major cause of this syndrome is depletion of immature parenchymal stem cells in specific tissues
* Examples of people who suffered from ARS are the survivors of the Hiroshima and Nagasaki atomic bombs, the firefighters that first responded after the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant event in 1986, and some unintentional exposures to sterilization irradiators
The three classic ARS Syndromes:
* Bone marrow syndrome
* Gastrointestinal (GI) syndrome
* Cardiovascular (CV) / Central Nervous System (CNS) syndrome
The four stages of ARS:
* Prodromal stage (N-V-D stage)
* Latent stage
* Manifest illness stage
* Recovery or death
After consultation, begin the following (as indicated):
* Supportive care in a clean environment (if available, the use of a burn unit may be quite effective)
* Prevention and treatment of infections
* Stimulation of hematopoiesis by use of growth factors
* Stem cell transfusions or platelet transfusions (if platelet count is too low)
* Psychological support
* Careful observation for erythema (document locations), hair loss, skin injury, mucositis, parotitis, weight loss, or fever
* Confirmation of initial dose estimate using chromosome aberration cytogenetic bioassay when possible (although resource intensive, this is the best method of dose assessment following acute exposures)
* Consultation with experts in radiation accident management
# Radiation Oncology/Radiobiology/Radioprotector

Amifostine
* Amifostine (ethiofos) is a cytoprotective adjuvant used in cancer chemotherapy and radiotherapy involving DNA-binding chemotherapeutic agents
* Rasoul Yahyapour et al. Curr Mol Pharmacol. 2018. Radiation Protection and Mitigation by Natural Antioxidants and Flavonoids: Implications to Radiotherapy and Radiation Disasters (PMID: 29921213):
** Amifostine, the first FDA approved radioprotector, has shown some toxicities that limit its usage and efficiency
** Due to these side effects, scientists have researched for other agents with less toxicity for better radioprotection and possible mitigation of the lethal effects of ionizing radiations after an accidental exposure
** Flavonoids have shown promising results for radioprotection and can be administered in higher doses with less toxicity
** Studies for mitigation of ionizing radiation-induced toxicities have concentrated on natural antioxidants
** Detoxification of free radicals, management of inflammatory responses and attenuation of apoptosis signaling pathways in radiosensitive organs are the main mechanisms for radiation protection and mitigation with flavonoids and natural antioxidants
# Radiation Oncology/Radiobiology/Radioresistance

* Sven de Mey et al. Radioresistance of Human Cancers: Clinical Implications of Genetic Expression Signatures. Front Oncol. 2021; 11: 761901. (PMID: 34778082)
* Fabio Busato et al. Biological Mechanisms to Reduce Radioresistance and Increase the Efficacy of Radiotherapy: State of the Art. Int J Mol Sci. 2022 Sep; 23(18): 10211. (PMID: 36142122)
# Radiation Oncology/Radiobiology/Normal Tissue Tolerance

Volume effect and normal tissue complication probability (NTCP) models
* The probability that a given dose of radiation will cause an organ or structure to experience complications considering the specific biological cells of the organ or structure
* The NTCP is used in treatment planning as a tool to differentiate among treatment plans
* A dose-dependent mathematical model to gauge the probability of dose-induced complications in noncancerous tissue
QUANTEC (Quantitative Analysis of Normal Tissue Effects in the Clinic, PMID: 20171515)
# Radiation Oncology/Radiobiology/Radiobiology and lung

RADIATION INJURY IN LUNG:
* Pneumocytes type II —> main target of radiation
** Earliest response to radiation
*** ==> decrease in lamellar bodies
*** ==> increase in alveolar surfactant
** By 18–63 weeks
*** Degeneration & sloughing into alveolar spaces
* Inflammatory cytokines
** IL-1α/β
** TGF-β
** PDGF
** Collagen and fibronectin genes
# Radiation Oncology/Radiobiology/Proteins

* Front Page: Radiation Oncology | RTOG Trials | Randomized Trials
Protein Overview
| Protein | Activity | Pathway |
| PARP | Single strand damage recognition | BER |
| AP endonuclease | Sugar reside excision | BER |
| DNA glycosylase | Base excision | BER |
| DNA ligase I | DNA ligation | BER Long Patch |
| DNA ligase III | DNA ligation | BER Short Patch |
| DNA polymerase β | Nucleotide repair | BER Short Patch |
| DNA polymerase δ/ε | Nucleotide repair | BER Long Patch |
| Flap endonuclease 1 (FEN1) | Endonuclease | BER Long Patch |
| PCNA | Adapter protein | BER Long Patch |
| XRCC1 | Complex with DNA ligase III | BER Short Patch |
| XPA-XPG | ssDNA repair | NER |
| ERCC6 (CSB) | DNA binding | NER |
| ERCC8 (CSA) | ERCC6 binding | NER |
| Mre11-Rad50-Nbs1 (MRN) | DSB recognition Endo/exonuclease | DSB recognition HR |
| BRCA1 | MRN regulation | HR |
| Replication protein A (RPA) | scaffold | HR |
| RAD51 | DNA homologue search | HR |
| BRCA2 | RAD51 loading | HR |
| FANC-D | BRCA2 loading S-phase checkpoint | HR |
| RAD52 | facilitation | HR |
| RAD54 | facilitation | HR |
| TopIIIA | helicase | HR |
| BLM | helicase | HR |
| Ligase I | DNA ligation | HR |
| Ku70/Ku80 | DNA dsb scaffold | NHEJ |
| DNA-PKcs | DNA dsb bridge | NHEJ |
| Artemis | DNA endonuclease | NHEJ |
| Ligase IV | DNA ligation | NHEJ |
| XRCC4 | DNA ligation | NHEJ |
| ATM | dsb response | DNA dsb damage response |
| ATR | ssb response | DNA ssb damage response |
| H2AX | histone | DNA scaffolding |
| p53 | transcription factor | genome control |
| p21 | CDK2/CDK4/cyclin inhibition | cell cycle control |
| cyclinD/CDK4 | G1 phase | cell cycle control |
| cyclinE/CDK2 | S phase | cell cycle control |
| cylinA/CDK2 | S/G2 phase | cell cycle control |
| cyclinB/CDK1 | G2/M phase | cell cycle control |
| Rb | holds E2F in check | cell cycle control |
| E2F | G1 transcription factor | cell cycle control |
| Chk1 | S & G2 checkpoint | cell cycle control |
| Chk2 | S & G2 checkpoint | cell cycle control |
| CDC25A | S & G2 control | cell cycle control |
| CDC25C | S & G2 control | cell cycle control |
| Fas ligand | ligand | apoptosis |
| FAS receptor | receptor | apoptosis |
| FADD | adapter | apoptosis |
| Bid | extrinsic pro-apoptotic | apoptosis |
| caspase 8 | extrinsic pathway initiator | apoptosis |
| Bax/Bak/Bim/Puma | intrinsic pro-apoptotic | apoptosis |
| Bcl-2/Bcl-xL | anti-apoptotic | apoptosis |
| Apaf-1 | apoptosome | apoptosis |
| caspase 9 | intrinsic pathway | apoptosis |
| caspase 3 | apoptosis executor | apoptosis |
| DFF | DNA cleavage | apoptosis |
| IAPs | inhibitors of apoptosis | apoptosis |
# Radiation Oncology/Radiobiology/Growth Factors

* Front Page: Radiation Oncology | RTOG Trials | Randomized Trials
Growth Factors

## ErbB

* Family of 4 receptor tyrosine kinases
** ErbB-1 (EGFR)
** ErbB-2 (her2)
** ErbB-3
** ErbB-4
* Transmembrane proteins, existing as monomers at surface
* When a ligand binds, dimerisation arm becomes untethered, and the proteins dimerize
* Tyrosine kinase activity

## EGFR

* Ligands:
** Epidermal growth factor (EGF): produced by platelets, macrophages, salivary glands, kidneys
** Transforming growth factor alpha (TGF-α): produced by macrophages, brain cells, keratinocytes
** HB-EGF, Amphiregulin, betacellulin, epigen, epiregulin: produced by various cells around the body
Review: PMID 15142631, Herbst R, IJROBP 2004

## EGFR Pathways

* EGFR -> Ras -> Raf -> MEK -> MAPK -> myc -> transcription
* EGFR -> Ras -> Raf -> MEK -> MAPK -> RSK -> S6 -> transcription
* EGFR -> PI3K -> AKT -> mTOR

## PTEN

* PTEN gene encodes a phosphatase, which uses PIP-3, which is also produced by PI3K above. Loss of PTEN therefore increases PIP-3 levels, leading to inappropriate AKT activity, and subsequent protection of cancer cells from apoptosis
* PTEN is a tumor suppressor
* PTEN loss confers resistance to EGFR inhibitors
* Please see PTEN Hamartoma Tumor Syndrome
# Science Fiction Literature/Lost Worlds

The Lost Worlds subgenre of science fiction are those works that pertain to the discovery of lost civilizations or lost worlds. The genre grows directly out of the adventure story Lost World genre antecedents popular just before World War I, such as H. Rider Haggard's works and Edgar Rice Burroughs' The Land That Time Forgot, Tarzan and John Carter series. However, to cross the line into the science fiction genre, the story must at minimum take place in a projected future or make use of technology (usually to reach the lost world) not available to our civilization.
The quintessential example of this genre of fiction is most of Anne McCaffrey's work, particularly her meticulously envisioned Dragonrider series, which takes place on a planet known as Pern, which was colonized but then largely forgotten by a future Earth. McCaffrey's series centers on this lost world's struggles to survive a menace that visits them for fifty years of every 250, and the society that evolved to confront the challenge.
Other important authors who have created and expanded on lost worlds of their own include the following:
* Arthur Conan Doyle - The Lost World
* Jules Verne - The Mysterious Island
* Alan Dean Foster - The Dig
* Brian M. Stableford - lost worlds encountered by the Daedelus Mission
* Gayle Greeno - Methuen
* Ursula K. Le Guin - Hainish
* Larry Niven - Argos, Smoke Ring, and Ymir
* Jack Vance - Tschai, Cadwal
* David Drake - Bellevue, Hafardine, Cantilucca
* Joan D. Vinge - Tiamat
* Robert L. Forward - Gargantua
* Andre Norton - Pax / Astra
# Scienceshow

The Wiki Book on Science Shows - a collection of exciting natural science activities and demonstration experiments!

## Content of the book

* Introduction
* Template for new guide
* All Guides to Demonstration experiments and exercises
* Guides According to Subjects
** Nanotechnology
** Physics
** Chemistry
** Technology and Engineering
** Biochemistry and Biotechnology
** Biology
** Mathematics
** Microtechnology
** Cryogenics
* Teaching Material
* Suppliers
* Equipment
# Science Fiction Literature/Introduction and Historical Overview

Science fiction is the literature of the possible. It generally involves a story grounded in science, whether actual or extrapolated, rather than in magic or myth.
Science fiction flowered as a literary genre in the twentieth century, though it has a long history.

## Precursors of Science Fiction

Here are some of the early works that are considered to be related to science fiction, even if they don't fully align with the definition.
* Lucian of Samosata, ca. 120 - 180
** Vera Historia - This tells of a group of travelers who voyage beyond the Gates of Hercules, are blown off course, and travel all the way to the Moon.
* Cyrano de Bergerac, 1619-1655
** L'Autre monde ou les états et empires de la Lune (French)
* Voltaire, 1694-1778
** Romans — Volume 3: Micromégas (French)

## Science Fiction Begins

* Shelley, Mary Wollstonecraft, 1797-1851
** Frankenstein, or the Modern Prometheus - usually considered to be the first science fiction novel, published in 1818.
** The Last Man
* Edward Bulwer Lytton 1803-1873
** The Coming Race
* W. H. Hudson 1841-1922
** A Crystal Age
* Richard Jefferies 1847-1887
** After London, or Wild England
* Fitz-James O'Brien
** The Diamond Lens
* Mark Twain, 1835-1910
** A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court
* Stevenson, Robert Louis, 1850-1894
** The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde
* H. G. Wells
** The Time Machine
** The War of the Worlds
** The Island of Doctor Moreau
** The Invisible Man
* Jules Verne
** Journey to the Center of the Earth
** 20,000 Leagues under the Sea

## External Links

* [Frankenstein] complete novel available through Project Gutenberg.
* [Precursors of Science Fiction] at Project Gutenberg.
# Scienceshow/Chemistry

Resources on the net
# Science: An Elementary Teacher’s Guide/Water Pressure and Buoyancy
#### Pressure and Buoyancy

Pressure, which is a force exerted upon an object over a given area of space, affects buoyancy when the object is submerged. An object submerged in water will experience a buoyant force equal to the weight of the water that is being displaced by the submersion.
An object will float if the gravitational (downward) force is less than the buoyancy (upward) force. So, in other words, an object will float if it weighs less than the amount of water it displaces. This explains why a rock will sink while a huge boat will float. The rock is heavy, but it displaces only a little water.
Why do ships float on water? Ships float because they displace enough water for the buoyancy force to be greater than the force of gravity acting on the ship. The displaced water attempts to return to its original position, now occupied by the ship, which pushes the ship up. This effect is known as buoyancy force. The strength of the force of gravity pulling down on the ship is affected by its weight. Whichever of these forces is stronger determines if the ship floats or sinks.
How do ships float?
# Science Fiction Literature/Aliens

The story that centers on aliens has long been a staple of science fiction. Perhaps the most famous and earliest work in this subgenre was H. G. Wells' 1898 novel War of the Worlds where invaders from Mars ravage the British countryside for a good time. After invading our humble world, many aliens want to occupy and rule it, usually to strip Earth's resources. Apparently, we aren't doing that fast enough. Sometimes aliens are not portrayed as hostile, but simply different. These aliens, whether individuals or societies, grok that it's better to get along with us Earthlings, and often enlighten, or advance us in our development. Another alien subgenre of science fiction spends little time revealing the aliens to us, but instead focuses on our reaction to learning "We are not alone." The changes we as individuals or as a society undergo forms the basis of the story. Think of Spielberg's movie: Close Encounters of the Third Kind. This subgenre is called the First Contact story. The one final subgenre for the alien tale is the Interspecies Relations story. Sometimes aliens interact with humankind not to conquer or to benefit us, but rather for mysterious purposes of their own. The catch-all category for this subgenre, when one of the other three don't fit, is the Interspecies Relations subgenre.
Examples of prominent authors and some of their works in each of these four subgenres of the alien subgenre of science fiction are the following:

## Alien Invasion and Occupation

Greg Bear Forge of God Series The Forge of God (1987)
John Christopher Tripods Series The City of Gold and Lead (1967)
Arthur C. Clarke Childhood's End (1953)
Samuel R. Delany Babel-17 (1966)
L. Ron Hubbard Mission Earth Series Battlefield Earth (1982) An Alien Affair (1986)
Anne McCaffrey Tower and the Hive Series Damia (1992) Damia's Children (1993)
Ian McDonald Chaga Series Chaga (1995)
Larry Niven Footfall (1985)
Harry Turtledove Colonization Series Down to Earth (2000) Aftershocks (2001)
List of all science fiction books
Aliens and alien societies are still within the realm of science fiction.

## First Contact

Peter F Hamilton Pandora's Star, Judas Unchained

## Interspecies Relations

Flinx series and the Humanx Commonwealth series, Aliens Vs Predator:War, The Chronicles of Riddick, Quozl - Alan Dean Foster
The Mote in God's Eye and The Gripping Hand, Ringworld series - Larry Niven
Solaris - Stanislaw Lem (1961); While Solaris starts as exploration of an unacknowledged first contact situation, ultimately the novel evolves into the exploration of issues regarding interspecies relation dealing with an extremely alien intelligence and problems of miscommunication.
Ender's Game- Orson Scott Card (1985)
# The Science of Programming/SwayPresentations/Objects/Examples2

Examples
How about aspects?
Here's a stack:
Next Previous Top
# The Science of Programming/SwayPresentations/Objects/ExtensionInheritance

Extension Inheritance
Extension inheritance: whereby the subclass adds features not found in the superclass.
Now we make a sub object:
The output is:
Next Previous Top
# The Science of Programming/SwayPresentations/Objects/ClosuresAsObjects

Closures as Objects
From Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs:
Now we can treat account as a constructor:
The closure that translates messages to function calls is a hack.
Next Previous Top
# The Science of Programming/SwayPresentations/Objects/DesignGoals

Design Goals
* Simple
* Expressive
* Minimal keywords
* Functional/Imperative/Object-oriented
* Extensible
* Simple
Next Previous Top
# The Science of Programming/SwayPresentations/Objects/Examples

Examples
How about with?
Let's create an object:
Now let's modify its slots:
Did it work?
Output:
Next Previous Top
# The Science of Programming/SwayPresentations/Objects/Examples3

Examples
Being able to extend a class such that the subclass has the same name is a great way to implement aspects.
As an alternative, here's an instrumented stack using filters:
Then we make and instrument a particular stack:
Not quite right. Anybody?
Next Previous Top
# The Science of Programming/SwayPresentations/Objects/Examples5

Here's a switch using typical Sway syntax:
To implement switch, we start by defining the case function in anticipation of it being filtered.
Remember, a filter takes each statement in turn, so as we saw with filtering pop, one line functions are the best to filter.
The strategy for switch:
* create a filter with the switch expression in scope
* have the filter throw a success exception
* attach the filter to case
* run the body of the switch, looking for success
Next Previous Top
# The Science of Programming/SwayPresentations/Objects/Examples6

So you really want multiple inheritance?
What would you expect the value of z to be?
Next Previous Top
# The Science of Programming/SwayPresentations/Objects/EnvironmentsAsObjects

Environments as Objects
If you are going to use an existing 'object' as an 'Object', then environments are a better choice.
In Scheme, environments are first-class 'objects'.
We need the 'dot' operator:
Now, our account looks like:
Next Previous Top
# The Science of Programming/SwayPresentations/Objects/Examples4

Examples
How about try blocks? Using the Sway proximal block style:
Here's the implementation:
Next Previous Top
# Pokémon/Pokédex/Crawdaunt
## Basic Statistics

* National Index: 342
* Johto Index: 342
* Hoenn Index: 130
* Stage: Stage 1
* Height: 1.1m/3'7"
* Weight: 32.8kg/72.0lb
* Gender Distribution: 50% Male
* Ability: Hyper Cutter/Shell Armor
* Type: Water/Dark
* Species: Rogue
* Egg Group: Water 1/Water 3
* Hatch Steps: 3840
* Catch Rate: 155
* Base Experience: 161
* Max Experience: 1640000
| | HP | Attack | Defense | Speed | Special Attack | Special Defense |
| Base Stats (RB/Y) | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Base Stats (GS/C) | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Base Stats (RS/FL/E) | 63 | 120 | 85 | 55 | 90 | 55 |
| Base Stats (DP/PT/HGSS) | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Base Stats (BW/B2W2) | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Base Stats (XY/ORAS) | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Base Stats (SM/USUM) | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Base Stats (Sword/Shield/BDSP) | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Max Stats (RB/Y) | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Max Stats (GS/C) | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Max Stats (RS/FL/E) | 330 | 372 | 295 | 229 | 306 | 229 |
| Max Stats (DP/PT/HGSS) | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Max Stats (B/W/B2W2) | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Max Stats (X/Y/ORAS) | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Max Stats (SM/USUM) | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Max Stats (Sword/Shield/BDSP) | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Effort Points (Sword/Shield/BDSP) | – | – | – | – | – | – |

## Type Matching

Move types which are good on Crawdaunt: Bug, Electric, Fighting, Grass Move types which are bad on Crawdaunt: Dark, Fire, Ghost, Ice, Steel, Water Move types which don't effect Crawdaunt: Psychic
All other move types are normal effectiveness on Crawdaunt.

## Moveset

| Level | Ruby / Sapphire | Fire Red / Leaf Green |
| Start | Bubble Harden Vicegrip Leer | Bubble Harden Vicegrip Leer |
| 7 | Harden | Harden |
| 10 | Vicegrip | Vicegrip |
| 13 | Leer | Leer |
| 19 | - | Bubblebeam |
| 20 | Bubblebeam | - |
| 22 | - | Protect |
| 23 | Protect | - |
| 25 | - | Knock Off |
| 26 | Knock Off | - |
| 33 | - | Taunt |
| 34 | Taunt | - |
| 38 | - | Crabhammer |
| 39 | Crabhammer | - |
| 43 | - | Swords Dance |
| 44 | Swords Dance | - |
| 51 | - | Crunch |
| 52 | Guillotine | - |
| 56 | - | Guillotine |

### TM/HM

* RS/FL: Aerial Ace, Attract, Blizzard, Brick Break, Cut, Dig, Dive, Double Team, Facade, Frustration, Hail, Hidden Power, Hyper Beam, Ice Beam, Protect, Rain Dance, Rest, Return, Rock Smash, Rock Tomb, Secret Power, Sludge Bomb, Strength, Surf, Taunt, Toxic, Water Pulse, Waterfall

### Evolution

* RS/FL: Ancientpower, Body Slam, Endeavor, Mud Sport

## Trading Cards

* EX Dragon #3 - Crawdaunt
* EX Dragon #13 - Crawdaunt
* EX Team Aqua vs Team Magma #2 - Team Aqua's Crawdaunt
* EX Team Aqua vs Team Magma #14 - Team Aqua's Crawdaunt
* EX Deoxys #6 - Crawdaunt
| Basic: Corphish | Stage 1: Crawdaunt | (No Stage 2) |
# Pokémon/Pokédex/Crocalor
## Description

A red crocodile like Pokémon.

## Base Statistics

A fire type Pokémon.

## Type Matching

Moves that deal 200% of their damage to Crocalor: water, ground, rock Moves that deal 50% of their damage to Crocalor: fire, grass, ice, bug, steel, fairy

## How to Evolve

It evolves from Fuecoco and evolves into Skeledirge.

## Notes

Introduced in Pokémon Scarlet and Violet.
# Pokémon/Pokédex/Crabrawler
## Description

An crab-like Pokémon.

## Base Statistics

A Fighting type Pokémon.

## Type Matching

Moves that deal 200% of their damage to Crabrawler: flying, psychic, fairy Moves that deal 50% of their damage to Crabrawler: bug, rock, dark