OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# English Tort Law/Style Guide and Authors

* Style Guide
* Please follow the style guide. Changes to the guide should be proposed on the Talk page for agreement of consensus between contributors.
* This book is about torts within English law, which is one of three legal systems of the UK. Generally the material should avoid Scots Law and Northern Irish Law, unless relevant to the development of English law. An example is the Scots law case of Donoghue v Stevenson, which has had a major impact on English law.
* The writing style used in the book is British English. If content is added in other varieties of English, it will be changed to British English.
* This book is designed to be fully self contained. It is not an encyclopedia article and there are more minimal links to Wikipedia. Where it is necessary to explain a legal term, it should be linked to an entry in the Glossary within the book.
* The book is also designed to be used in conjunction with the Wikiversity course on English Tort Law.
* The book uses minimal in-line references; please add the full citation in the Bibliography, not within the individual chapters. This also applies to bare URLs and external links - put them in the Bibliography.
* Authors
* This is a list of significant contributors as of April 2017. If you've made a major contribution and wish to be recognised, please add your name below:
* Green Giant
* Pumamama
# English as an Additional Language/General rules of spelling and capitalization

English has many rules on capitalization and spelling, and spelling tends to vary between different dialects (especially British English and American English).

## Capitalization in English

There are several times when letters must be capitalized in English. They are:
1) At the start of a sentence; "The cat is on the bed."
2) The first letter of a proper noun (a month/day/country/language/name etc.) and adjectives, adverbs etc. derived from them; "Peter went to Spain on Tuesday." and "John ate a Spanish dish."
3) In a religious context, when using 'he' to refer to God; "He thought it good."
4) First person singular: “I”.

## Spelling in English

British English and American English have different ways of spelling certain words, especially those with ou in the middle, for example:
1. British English: colour, American English: color. 2. British English: honour, American English: honor.
Another variation is the use of 'z' instead of 's' in certain words in American English. 1. British English: capitalisation, American English: capitalization 2. British English: modernisation, American English: modernization. 3. British English: industrialisation, American English: industrialization. This usually only applies to words that end in -ise and -isation.
# English as an Additional Language/Copular verb to be: past tense

Conjugating copular verb to be is very easy.

## Past Tense of Copular Verb to Be

Copular verb to be is conjugated in this manner:
* 1st person singular: I was.
* 2nd person singular: You were.
* 3rd person singular: He/She/It was.
* 1st person plural: We were.
* 2nd person plural: You were.
* 3rd person plural: They were.
As you can see, 1st and 3rd person singular take was. All other cases take were.
# English-Hanzi/Shanghai

Shanghai is one of the biggest city in China and one of the world's largest cities. It had 23,000,000 people in 2010. It is so big and important that it is a special province-level city ("municipality"), like Beijing, Tianjin, and Chongqing. Right now, it is the biggest port in the world.
上海 是 中国 最大 的 城市 之一，也是 世界上 最大 的 城市 之一。截至 2010年 达到 2300万 人。它 像 北京，天津 和 重庆 一样，是 一个 特殊 的 省级 城市（“直辖市”）。现在，它 是 世界上 最大 的 港口。
# English-Hanzi/Shampoo

Shampoo is a liquid that is used to wash the hair.
洗发水是用来洗头发的液体。
# English-Hanzi/Shellfish

Special:search/shellfish prefix:English-Hanzi/
Shellfish are a kind of water animals with a shell, such as shrimps, crabs, mussels, and oysters.
贝类 是 一种 具有 外壳 的 水生动物，如 虾，蟹，青口，和 蚝。
# English-Hanzi/Sight

Special:search/sight prefix:English-Hanzi/
Special:search/eye prefix:English-Hanzi/
Sight is the sense that is able to see.
视觉 是 能够 看到 的 感官。
# English-Hanzi/Singapore

Singapore is an island and city country in Southeast Asia. It is located about 1 degree north of the equator and is located at the southernmost point of the Malay Peninsula and Eurasia.
新加坡是东南亚的一个岛屿和城市国家。 它位于赤道以北约1度，位于马来半岛和欧亚大陆的最南端。
# English-Hanzi/September

September is the ninth month of a year.
九月 是 一年 的 第九个 月。
# English-Hanzi/Service

A service is something that is provided to somebody through skills, ability, and knowledge.
服务 是 通过 技能，能力 和 知识 提供 给 某人 的 东西。
# English-Hanzi/Shrimp

Special:search/shrimp prefix:English-Hanzi/
Shrimp is a small shellfish having many legs. It is smaller than a prawn. It is used as a food. Its color changes to pink when it is cooked.
虾 是 一种 有 很多 腿 的 小 贝类。它比大虾小。它被用作食物。它的颜色在煮熟时变成粉红色。
# English-Hanzi/Sign

A sign is a mark of something.
标记 是 某事物 的 记号。
# English-Hanzi/Singing

Singing means making music with the voice.
唱歌意味着用嗓音制作音乐。
# English-Hanzi/When the material of perceptual knowledge accumulates

When the material of perceptual knowledge accumulates, it will leap into rational knowledge, which is thought.
当感性认识的材料积累多了，就会飞跃成为理性认识，这就是思想。
# English-Hanzi/When preparing dried beans

When preparing dried beans:
* Wash and discard wrinkled or discolored beans before cooking.
* Soak the beans overnight to soften and shorten the cooking time. Discard water and rinse.
* Boil the beans with plenty of fresh water for at least 10 minutes, then cook over low heat until it becomes soft.
准备干豆时：
* 烹饪前洗净并丢弃起皱或变色的豆子。
* 将豆子浸泡过夜以软化并缩短烹饪时间。 丢弃水并冲洗。
* 用大量淡水煮豆至少10分钟，然后用小火煮至变软。
# English-Hanzi/When the human body is upright

When the human body is upright, the heart must push the blood circulation to overcome the gravity effect of the blood. Moreover, when people are exercising upright, the lower limbs are the main active organs, blood will be more distributed to the lower limbs, and the blood supply to the heart and above organs will be reduced. In contrast, the lower position of the heart and above when crawling is beneficial to blood circulation throughout the body and has a positive effect on the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular diseases.
人体直立时，心脏要推动血液循环，就要克服血液的重力影响。而且人在直立运动时，下肢是主要活动器官，血液会更多地分配到下肢，心脏及其以上的器官血供减少。与此相比，爬行时由于心脏及其以上部位位置的降低，有利于全身的血液循环，对防治心血管疾病有积极作用。
# English-Hanzi/When talking, avoid putting the phone between your ear and shoulder

When talking, avoid putting the phone between your ear and shoulder to prevent neck pain. Please use headset or speakerphone instead.
通话时，避免将手机放在耳朵和肩膀之间，以防止颈部疼痛。 请改用耳机或免提电话。
# English-Hanzi/When hearing loss is the result of injury or damage to the outer or middle ear

When hearing loss is the result of injury or damage to the outer or middle ear, it is called conductive hearing loss.
当听力损失是外耳或中耳受伤或损坏的结果时，称为传导性听力损失。
# English-Hanzi/When it comes to heart health, the two nutrients that are probably the most commonly discussed are fat and sodium

When it comes to heart health, the two nutrients that are probably the most commonly discussed are fat and sodium. However, there are many other nutrients and foods that can affect heart health.
当谈到心脏健康时，可能最常讨论的两种营养素是脂肪和钠。 但是，还有许多其他营养物质和食物会影响心脏健康。
# English-Hanzi/When the muscle is elongated, the muscle spindle is stretched and its nerve activity increases

When the muscle is elongated, the muscle spindle is stretched and its nerve activity increases. This increases the activity of alpha motor neurons, causing muscle fibers to contract, thereby resisting stretching. The second group of neurons also causes opposite muscle relaxation. The reflex function keeps the muscles at a constant length.
当肌肉拉长时，肌肉纺锤被拉伸并且其神经活动增加。 这增加了α运动神经元的活性，导致肌肉纤维收缩，从而抵抗了拉伸。 第二组神经元也会引起相反的肌肉松弛。 反射功能使肌肉保持恒定的长度。
# English-Hanzi/When we look up at the stars in the night sky

When we look up at the stars in the night sky, we can see other stars in the Milky Way. If it is really dark, away from the lights of cities and houses, we can even see the dust belt of the Milky Way.
当我们仰望夜空中的星星时，我们可以看到银河系中的其他星星。如果真的很暗，远离城市和房屋的灯光，我们甚至可以看到银河系的尘带。
# English-Hanzi/When part of the inner layer of the coronary artery becomes hard

When part of the inner layer of the coronary artery becomes hard, coronary heart disease occurs. When suffering from coronary hardening, the inner layer of the coronary artery becomes harder and harder, and builds up calcium, fatty lipids and abnormal inflammatory cells to form a plaque.
当冠状动脉内层的一部分变硬时，就会发生冠心病。 当患有冠状动脉硬化时，冠状动脉的内层变得越来越硬，并积聚钙，多脂脂质和异常的炎症细胞以形成斑块。
# English-Hanzi/When the body lacks sleep, the body is full of stress hormone

When the body lacks sleep, the body is full of stress hormone, which causes fat to deposit in and around the belly.
当身体缺乏睡眠时，身体就会充满压力荷尔蒙，这会导致脂肪沉积在腹部及其周围。
# Coveillance.org/Types of Surveillance

Surveillance is the act of collecting data to monitor or manipulate a person's behavior. The two main types of surveillance are active and passive.
Active surveillance targets an individual.
Passive surveillance is done by mass collecting data and retroactively looking at it, sort of like a "dragnet".
Surveillance can be done via many different types of technology. The main types are listed below.

## Online surveillance

Online behavior is easy to monitor.

### Targeted Ads

Targeted ads collect your personal information as you browse the internet through cookies.

## Outdoor surveillance
### Security Cameras

Watching your neighbor's backyard is legal.

### ALPRs

Automated license plate readers
# Create Vampires/Alternative Spelling
## Alternative Spellings

What Is The Best Way To Spell Vampire?
The common English spelling for vampire seems to be v-a-m-p-i-r-e.
A less common English (or American-English) spelling alternative is spelled v-a-m-p-y-r-e.
Vampire is not considered a phonetic word, meaning the word is not spelled the way it is pronounced.
Although people are not certain why we spell vampire in a manner that is inconsistent with how the word "vampire" is pronounced, some people think this is because the word "vampire" is a foreign word.
According to Dictionary.com, the word orgin for vampire is commonly attributed to a French derivative from German vampir. This word may also be linked with Turkish uber witch, and Russian upyr vampire. "Dictionary.com: Vampire"
In America, a country with many Latin American influences, the word "vampire" is sometimes phonetically spelled: v-a-m-p-a-i-y-e-r [Vam-Pai-Yer]. Although this maybe considered Spanglish, meaning a combination of English and Spanish language influences, the word "vampaiyer" is similar to "vampiro," the Spanish version for "vampire." According to Spanishdict.com, the word "vampire," a noun, has a masculine form "el vampiro," and a feminine form "la vampira." "Spanishdict.com: vampiro
# Create Vampires/Scientific Evidence
## Science:

What is Science?
Science by definition is "the intellectual and practical activity encompassing the systematic study of the structure and behaviour of the physical and natural world through observation and experiment." This complex definition is "Powered by Oxford Dictionaries."
Where in the world of science and technology, does vampirism fit?
From the Wikijournal of Medicine, we learn that "Medicine is the science and practice of the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of disease. Medicine encompasses a variety of health care practices evolved to maintain and restore health by the prevention and treatment of illness."

## Science, Vampaiyerism, and Vampirism

Is There Any Factual Evidence for The Existence of Vampires?
Vampaiyerism is closely associated with vampirism, meaning activities and events closely linked with vampire of folklore, many fictitious vampire creations told about in stories, were characters reflecting actual people who were often drugged, maybe involved with drugs, often reported as dead, may be found buried, maybe associated with fraud, drug abuse, witchcraft, and even "dark magic."
Vampaiyerism and vampirism is seldom associated with Science, yet at times, Science and vampaiyerism, and by close association, vampirism, is connected in public broadcasts, and in the news.
From Wikipedia:
In modern times, the vampire is generally held to be a fictitious entity, although belief in similar vampiric creatures such as the chupacabra still persists in some cultures. Early folk belief in vampires has sometimes been ascribed to the ignorance of the body's process of decomposition after death and how people in pre-industrial societies tried to rationalize this, creating the figure of the vampire to explain the mysteries of death. Porphyria was linked with legends of vampirism in 1985 and received much media exposure, but has since been largely discredited.

## Science vs. Myth

* Create_Vampires/Scientific_Evidence_For_Vampires
* Back to: Create_Vampires
# Coveillance.org/cookie

Cookies are small files that hold personal information such as site settings and preferences. A tracking cookie or third party cookie is a cookie that is not affiliated with the site (e.g., a cookie containing preferences for adwords.com when you are visiting facebook.com).
# Create Vampires/Factual Basis For Vampires
## Create Vampires: Factual Basis For Vampires

People have offered factual explanations for the "un-dead," probably the reasons for vampires found mostly in folklore.
Folk-stories were based on people buried alive, then mistaken for un-dead creatures when they clawed and crawled their way from their premature graves.
The appearance of actual people, mistaken for dead, crawling from graves, started warnings that evolved into what we call the vampire stories and folklore that influences our modern popular culture.
LINK: Create Vampires/Original Fictional Creations
LINK:Create_Vampires/Scientific_Evidence
LINK:Create_Vampires/Scientific_Evidence_For_Vampires
# Create Vampires/Popular Culture
## Popular Culture: Vamps

| Killbill-vol2-logo | Killbill-vol1-logo | Carmilla |
| Kill Bill Plot: Chapter 7: The Lonely Grave of Paula Schulz | Kill Bill | Carmilla |
# Computational Chemistry/Semiempirical quantum chemistry

Previous chapter - Molecular quantum mechanics

### Semi-empirical Philosophies

There is a difference in philosophy between the Pople and Dewar schools. Dewar's parameterisation aims to absorb all the missing parts of the model where SCF is inadequate, (Correlation , relativity, algebraic approximation), into the semi-empirical parameters, whereas Pople's initial idea was to produce cheap practical equivalents of minimal Slater orbital basis SCF calculations which would have all the mathematical niceties and limits of Hartree-Fock theory. In recent times Dewar's ideas and programs have prevailed because computing power has increased to make the real SCF wavefunction routinely computable for all but the largest molecules so MOPAC style programs are used for the largest molecules where Hartree-Fock is still uncomputable.
Programs for linear scaling SCF, where small approximations are made to make the effort scale linearly with the size of the molecule rather than scaling to the power of 4 dictated by the integrals evaluation, are hoping to make uncomputable Hartree-Fock problems a thing of the past.

#### A Brief Technical Description of Semi-Empirical Methods

The ZDO approximation, (Zero Differential Overlap). The first approximation is core-valence separation. The core electron MOs are independent of molecular environment and can be parameterised out. This is a good approximation, the all valence approximation - effective nuclear charges (Za) adjust for the missing inner electrons.
Basis functions belong to individual atoms in semi-empirical methods. In all methods For NDDO, (the most complete approximation i.e. nearest the full Hartree-Fock solution) i.e. all 3 and 4 centre integrals disappear. In CNDO the least complete method the Kroneka deltas are so only integrals like survive. In INDO 1-centre exchange integrals are added to the CNDO set
Remember 2J - K in Hartree-Fock theory.

##### The Invariance Problem

To insure the values of calculated properties do not change with rotated orientations of the molecule:
This is a considerable approximation.
Next Chapter - Geometry optimization
# Computational Physics
## Book Contents

* Introduction - Why Computational Physics? (Alay-e-Abbas)
* Chapter 1 - Numerical Methods and Using spreadsheets to make models (Alay-e-Abbas)
* Chapter 2 - Introduction to Scientific Packages
* Chapter 3 - Introduction to computer graphics
* Chapter 4 - Conceptual modeling and simulation
* Chapter 5 - Using Python3 and C++ to create more-advanced models
# English-Hanzi/Occupational therapy

Occupational therapy can help activities. Assistive technology is usually a tool that helps people with disabilities by improving the use of damaged parts of the limb after amputation. Assistive technology devices can be tailored to the patient, or they can be purchased commercially.
职业疗法可以帮助活动。 辅助技术通常是通过改善截肢后肢体受损部位的使用来帮助残疾人的工具。 辅助技术设备可以为患者量身定制，也可以商业购买。
# English-Hanzi/Ocean

Special:search/ocean prefix:English-Hanzi/
An ocean is a very big sea.
海洋 是 一个 很 大 的 海。
# English-Hanzi/Oceania

Oceania is a continent, including Australia and the nearby islands.
大洋洲 是 一个 洲，包括 Australia 和 附近 的 岛屿。
# English-Hanzi/October

October is the tenth month of a year.
十月 是 一年 的 第十个 月。
# English-Hanzi/Oat

Oat is a cereal food. It is usually eaten as oatmeal. Oat is a nutritious food which can lower cholesterol if eating often.
燕麦是谷类食品。 它通常作为燕麦片食用。 燕麦是一种营养食品，如果经常进食可以降低胆固醇。
# English-Hanzi/Obesity

Special:search/obesity prefix:English-Hanzi/
Special:search/overweight prefix:English-Hanzi/
Overweight and obesity are defined as abnormal or excessive fat accumulation that presents a risk to health. A crude measure of obesity is the body mass index (BMI), a person’s weight (in kilograms) divided by the square of his or her height (in metres). A person with a BMI of 30 or more is generally considered obese. A person with a BMI equal to or more than 25 is considered overweight.
超重 和 痴肥 被 定义 为 对 健康 有 风险 的 异常 或 过度 脂肪 积累。肥胖 的 粗略 度量 是 体重指数（BMI），人 的 体重（以 千克 计）除以 身高（以 米 计）的 平方。 BMI 为 30 或 更高 的 人 通常 被 认为 是 痴肥。 BMI 等于 或 大于 25 的 人 被 认为 超重。
Overweight and obesity are major risk factors for a number of chronic diseases, including diabetes, cardiovascular diseases and cancer. Once considered a problem only in high income countries, overweight and obesity are now dramatically on the rise in low- and middle-income countries, particularly in urban settings.
超重 和 肥胖 是 许多 慢性 疾病 的 主要 危险 因素，包括 糖尿病，心血管疾病 和 癌症。以前 仅 在 高收入 国家 被 视为 问题，超重 和 肥胖 现在 在 低收入 和 中等收入 国家 急剧 增加，特别是 在 城市 地区。
# English-Hanzi/Orbit

An orbit is the path of an object moving around a bigger object in the space.
轨道 是 太空 中 一个 物体 围绕 一个 较大 物体 运行 的 路径。
# English-Hanzi/Orchestra

An orchestra is a large group of musicians playing many different instruments together.
交响乐队是一大群音乐家，他们一起演奏许多不同的乐器。
# English-Hanzi/Nutrient

Special:search/nutrient prefix:English-Hanzi/
A nutrient is a substance in food. It helps living things alive or to grow.
营养素 是 食物 中 的 物质。它 帮助 生物 活着 或 生长。
# English-Hanzi/Odor

Odor is the feeling that is recognized by the nose.
气味 是 被 鼻子 识别 的 感觉。
# Debate/Topics/Religious Circumcision of Children

Although the right to choose religious circumcision for one's self is non-controversial, the right of a caregiver to consent on behalf of a child for non-therapeutic surgery is more contested.
Generally there are two types of argument: Supporters and Opponents.

## Religious freedom

Supporters: Caregivers have a fundamental right to make religious decisions on behalf of children under their care. The state has no right to limit this in any way.
Opponents: Circumcision is sexual assault and is therefore beyond the caregiver's rights of action against another person. Religious freedom must be limited when health decisions are made on behalf of a minor.
# Debate/Topics/Human Rights

There are many countries in the world, many or most of which could be accused of violating the human rights of citizens and non-citizens.
The following countries may violate human rights:
* Afghanistan
* Algeria
* Armenia
* Australia
* Azerbaijan
* Bangladesh
* Belarus
* Brazil
* Cambodia
* People's Republic of China
* Cuba
* Egypt
* Georgia
* Greece
* India
* Indonesia
* Iran
* Iraq
* Israel
* Japan
* Jordan
* Kazakhstan
* Laos
* Lebanon
* Libya
* Malaysia
* Mexico
* Morocco
* Myanmar
* Nepal
* North Korea
* Pakistan
* Russia
* Saudi Arabia
* Syria|
* Thailand
* Turkey
* Turkmenistan
* Tajikistan
* Tunisia
* United Arab Emirates
* United Kingdom
* United States
* Uzbekistan
* Venezuela
* Vietnam
* Yemen
* Zimbabwe
# Debate/Topics/Human Rights/Vietnam

Vietnamese occupation of Kampuchea Krom (south Vietnam) must be stopped to free the suffering Khmer Krom. The victims of this cruel act are the Khmer Krom people who are the indigenous people of the Mekong Delta region. I am one of the Khmer Krom individuals. The State of Vietnam has been violating Khmer Krom's rights far too long and decapitating Khmer Krom's society to the core. Kampuchea Krom's capital is Prey Nokor (former Saigon and today HCM city). We, Khmer Krom, seek justice and the respect of our fundamental rights. Currently Khmer Krom lack all means in everyday life: cannot study our own language, cannot learn about our history, cannot express opinion or speak freely, cannot move around freely, cannot form any institution such as local community or school, cannot conduct or practice our beliefs and religion freely, cannot represent ourselves in governments(locally, provincially, or nationally), cannot participate in law-making process, and most important of all--Khmer Krom are poorest of the poor in the region. This is no exaggeration, but facts.
# Debates in Digital Culture 2019
## Table of Contents

Preamble
Online Communities
Web 2.0
Impression Management
Online Disinhibition
The Quantified Self
Digital Labour
Digital Culture and the Environment
Social (Media) Movements
Contributors
Glossary
# Environmental Health Engineering Theory and Practice/Noise

Noise is unwanted sound judged to be unpleasant, loud or disruptive to hearing. From a physics standpoint, noise is indistinguishable from sound, as both are vibrations through a medium, such as air or water. The difference arises when the brain receives and perceives a sound.

## Useful Off-site Resources

* United States Centers for Disease Control: National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH): Noise and Hearing Loss Prevention
# Environmental Health Engineering Theory and Practice/Occupational Exposure

An occupational exposure limit is an upper limit on the acceptable concentration of a hazardous substance in workplace air for a particular material or class of materials. It is typically set by competent national authorities and enforced by legislation to protect occupational safety and health. It is an important tool in risk assessment and in the management of activities involving handling of dangerous substances.

## Useful Off-site Resources

* World Health Organization: Occupational and Work-related Diseases
# Environmental Health Engineering Theory and Practice/Peer Review

The wiki collection of publications, including well-known Wikipedia, provides an easy means of co-authoring work through a global network of contributors. Some formats, such as Wikipedia, are highly fluid with the possibility for many changes without a high degree of rigor of review. Other formats, such as Wikijournals, are still open to edits but include rigorous peer review process resulting in a static version of the article based upon a publication date. While Wikibooks doesn't offer a formal means of peer review, for Environmental Health Engineering Theory and Practice, our team of co-authors has decided to invite peer review as part of our self-policing before publishing a static PDF version of this book. In this manner, each edition, published in a static PDF format, will be more rigorously vetted than a typical Wikipedia article and perhaps slightly less vigorously policed as compared to a typical Wikijournal article.
We thank the following peers who have agreed to provide their reviews on Environmental Health Engineering Theory and Policy:
LIST TO BE INCLUDED LATER.