# Mirad Grammar/Verbs
## The Verb Stem

    Verbs in Mirad are listed in the dictionary under the present active infinitive (see Mirad Grammar/Verbs#Non-finite Forms), such as yexer....to work. The infinitive minus the er ending is the stem. The stem is used as the base for all other verbal instantiations. The infinitive as listed in the dictionary is usually active in voice, but occasionally a passive infinitive ending in -wer will be lexicalized because it is somehow special, so then, the stem is the infinitive minus the -wer ending. All Mirad verbs are conjugated in the same way and there are no exceptions.
    This shows how to determine the stem of a verb listed in the dictionary:
       Verb Stems SIMPLE INFINITIVESTEM+INFINITIVE ENDING yexer....to workyex+er poser....to (come to a) stoppos+er xer....to dox+er xwer....to happen, be done (PASSIVE)x+wer

### Verb Formants

    The active stem of verbs most often end in one of the following verb formants:
       Verb Formats Verb FormantFunctionExamples -xeraction or causationxer....to do, saxer....to create, agaxer....to magnify, yixer....to use -xlerforceful actionyixler....to employ -xrermore forceful actionyixrer....to wear out -bergestureber....to put, aber....to apply, yujber....to close -blerforceful gestureyujbler....to lock -brermore foreful gestureyobrer....to knock down -serstate or becomingser....to be, eser....to exist, aser....to become, zyaser....to widen, become wider -permotion or goingper....to go, yaper....to ascend, paper....to fly -ieraction toward subjectbier....to take, nier....to consume, ifier.'..to enjoy, dier....to ask -ueraction toward objectbuer....to give, nuer....to supply, ifuer....to please, duer....to suggest -nervarious verbsuxner....to motivate, axner....to behave -dercommunicationder....to say, vader....to affirm, yevder....to judge -drerwritingdrer....to write, teedrer....to report, taxdrer....to record -terknowingter....to know, tester....to understand, teater....to see -fervolitionfer....to want, ifer....to love, ufer....to hate -versome modal verbsyiver....to have a right to, yuver....to have a duty to -kervarious verbsaker....to win, oker....to lose, eker....to play -jeropening/closingijer....to begin, ujer....to end, tajer....to be born, tojer....to die, yijer....to open -lervarious verbsbaler....to press, boler....to support, beler....to carry, daler....to speak -[aiu]rertool useukarer....to shovel, purer....to drive, myekirer....to mill -zerperform an artdazer....to dance, dezer....to act, deuzer...to sing

## Verb Categories

    Verbs have morphological categories, which involve changes to the verb not always found in the dictionary, but developed through rule-bound affixation (such as live, lives, lived, living). They also have lexical categories, which involve derived forms usually listed in dictionaries (enjoy, enjoyable, enjoyment)

### Morphological Categories

       Verbs are inflected with the following morphological categories:
      * 2 STATES: finite, non-finite
      * 4 TENSES: present, past, future, atemporal$^1$
      * 5 ASPECTS: simple, progressive, perfect, imminent, potential
      * 2 VOICES: active, passive
      * 2 MOODS: indicative, hypothetical
    In effect, the PERSON/NUMBER category is not listed above, because this category does not affect the morphology of the Mirad verb form itself. The Mirad verb form stays the same for all persons and numbers. That information is contained in the external subject pronouns governing the verb. In English, for example, the verb "be" has several different forms in the present tense verb form depending on the person and number (I am, you are, he is, we are, etc.), but not so in Mirad. The following chart shows how the English pattern differs from the corresponding single Mirad verb form se for all persons and numbers:
    Verb ser (to be) Unchanged for person/number PERSONNUMBERENGLISHMIRAD 1stSingular I amat se 2nd you areet se 3rd he/she/it isit se 1stPlural we areyat se 2nd you areyet se 3rd they areyit se
    This invariability of person/number exists for all tenses.

### Lexical Categories

       In addition, verbs can be described in terms of the following opposing lexical categories. By lexical, is meant that verbs having different lexical properties are listed in the dictionary and have nothing to do with conjugation.
Verb Lexical Categories :
| STATIVE | DYNAMIC |
| ser....to be | xer....to do |
| INTRANSITIVE | TRANSITIVE |
| agaser....to grow large | agaxer....to magnify |
| SUBJECT-DIRECTED | PATIENT-DIRECTED |
| bier....to take | buer....to give |
| REFLEXIVE | NON-REFLEXIVE |
| utvyixer....to wash up (wash oneself) | vyixer....to wash |
| INCHOATIVE | CAUSATIVE |
| tujper....fall asleep | tujber....put to sleep |
| AUTONOMOUS | DYNAMIC |
| yijer....to open (by itself) | yijber....to (make it) open |
| RECIPROCAL | NON-RECIPROCAL |
| hyuittujber....to kill one another | tujber....to kill |
| GESTURAL | LOCOMOTIVE |
| baser....to stir, budge | paser....to move |
| SUBJECT-ORIENTED | OBJECT-ORIENTED |
| teetyiker....to be hard of hearing | teetyikwer....to be hard to hear |

## Non-finite Forms

    Non-finite verb forms are
      * not conjugated for person or number
      * cannot form a predicate
      * and do not have a subject.
    There are three kinds of non-finite verb forms in Mirad:
      * infinitives: the dictionary lookup form of a verb, ending in -er
      * gerunds: verbal nouns, ending in -en
      * participles: verbal adjectives, ending in -a

### Infinitives

    Verbs are listed in the dictionary under the active voice simple aspect infinitive form, which always ends in er and means to X, or rarely the passive voice simple aspect infinitive form, which ends in wer and means to be Xed. The part of the verb form minus the -er or -wer is the verb stem.
Infinitive Stems :
| INFINITIVE | STEM | ENDING |
| agser....to grow | ags- | -er |
| igxer....to quicken | igx- | -er |
| per....to go | p- | -er |
| xwer....to happen, be done | x- | -wer |
    The infinitive in Mirad is used very much as its counterpart in English. The infinitive can be marked for two aspects (simple, perfect) and two voices (active, passive), as shown in the chart below, where the verb stems are underlined:
Active and Passive Infinitive Stems :
| ASPECT | ACTIVE VOICE | PASSIVE VOICE |
| Simple | igxer....to quicken | igxwer....to be quickened |
| Perfect | igxayer....to have quickened | igxawer....to have been quickened |
    In the above chart,
      * the verb stem is igx- and
      * the infinitive marker is -er;
      * the simple aspect active voice marker is zero;
      * the simple aspect passive voice marker is w;
      * the perfect aspect active voice marker is -ay-;
      * the past aspect passive voice marker is -aw-.
The passive voice infinitive of a verb will not appear in the dictionary unless it has a special meaning, such as xwer to happen. The perfect infinitives are never listed in the dictionary.

### Gerunds

    The gerund is a verbal noun like English playing in playing ball.
    The gerund has two possible aspects (simple and perfect) and two possible voices (active and passive):
Gerund Formation :
| ASPECT | VOICE | ENDING | EXAMPLE |
| Simple | Active | -en | agaxen....magnifiying, magnification |
| Simple | Passive | -wen | agaxwen....being magnified |
| Perfect | Active | -ayen | byekayen....having cured |
| Perfect | Passive | -awen | byekawen....having been cured |
    Note: Intransitive verbs like per to go do not have a passive gerund form.
    Lexicalized gerunds, such as sanxen formation, forming generally appear in the dictionary in the active voice.
    Some examples of gerund usage:
      * (sanxer....to form) Ha sanxen bi hia mar efxa amroni bi jabi.....The forming (or: formation) of this star took millions of years.
      * (deuzer....to sing) Iyta deuzen sa gla via.....Her singing was very beautiful.
      * (poper....to travel) Popen se yika yex.....Traveling is hard work.
      * (teeter....to hear) Teetwen fiay se glatesa av dezuti.....Being heard well is important for actors.
      * (teater....to see) Teaten se vyatexen......Seeing is believing.
      * (uper....to come) His se ha jeb bi Upen.....This is the season of Advent (coming).
      * (tadier....to get married) Ata tadiayen ewa jodi bixa tepzex.....My having married twice drew attention.
      * (aker....to win) At voy ta ita akawen hua nuz.....I did not know about his having won that prize.
    Gerunds, being verb forms, can take direct and indirect objects:
      * At ifxwe bey eta buayen at hua nas.....I am pleased by your having given me that money.
      * Tojben eut voy se kebiyaf.....Killing yourself is not an option.
    The special gerundive ending -eyn gives a nuance emphasizing the action as a single act, much like the English endings -ment or -tion. Here are a few examples showing the difference between -en and -eyn.
      * yanlaxen....combining ≠< yanlaxeyn....combination
      * xen....doing ≠< xeyn....action, deed
      * zayben....advancing ≠< zaybeyn....advancement
    Another special gerundive (but lexical) ending is -un, which expresses the result of an action, eg.:
      * zyegxer....to puncture ≠< zyegxun....a puncture
      * zyeuber....to transmit ≠< zyeubun....a broadcast
      * deuzer....to sing ≠< deuzun....a song

### Participles

    Participles are verbal adjectives and can modify nouns and pronouns. Since they act as adjectives, they have the adjectival ending -a. Participles are marked by aspect (simple, progressive, perfect, imminent, potential) and voice (active, passive).
    The aspect markers per voice are:
Aspect Markers :
| ASPECT | VOICE | FORM | EXAMPLE |
| Progressive | Active | -ea- | tejea....living |
| Progressive | Passive | wea | xwea....happening |
| Perfect | Active $^2$ | -ya | pya....gone (< pyaa$^1$) |
| Perfect | Passive | -wa | xwa....done (< xwaa$^1$), drawa$^2$....written |
| Imminent | Active | -oa | tojoa....about to die |
| Imminent | Passive | -woa | dodelwoa....about to be announced |
| Potential | Active | -ua | tojbua....lethal |
| Potential | Passive | -wua | opoxwua....unstoppable |
    $^1$: The double aa in the perfect endings is reduced to a.
    $^2$: The wa ending is changed to awa after stems ending in a double consonant, the second being l or r. Example: dr- (to write) becomes drawa (written).
    Note 1: The perfect active particple ending in -ya is used only for intransitive verbs like per (to go). He is gone. is expressed by Wit se pya.
    Note 2: The potential aspect, represented by the vowel u is much like the conditional in English, but is not considered a tense in Mirad. For example, tojbu means would kill and the participle tojbua means lethal (referring to something that would/has the potential to kill). More about this in a later section.
    Note 3: There is another form of the progressive participle that falls in the lexical, rather than morphological category, in that such forms are listed in the dictionary as adjectives. For example, in the phrase The animals bothering our bird feeder..., the participle bothering would be oboxea in Mirad. By inserting the letter y between the verb stem and the participial ending, the participle becomes an adjective denoting a propensity or habit, as in bothersome (oboxyea). Such participles are invariably in the active voice. Most such adjectives in English end in -ive as in repulsive or -ly as in wiggly or -ous as in circuitous. Such adjectives in Mirad are listed in the dictionary and end in -yea.
    Adverbial participles can be made from the above adjectival participles, by suffixing the letter y. Examples:
      * Iyt yepa ha tim deuzeay.....She entered the room singing.
      * Ujbaway ha dodal, it pia.....The speech having been finished, he left.
    Also, the above participles can be converted into abstract nouns by suffixing n. Examples:
      * tiluwa....drinkable → tiluwan....potability
      * tojbua....lethal → tojbuan....lethality
      * mansea....shining → he mansean bi iyta deuzen....the brilliance of her singing
      * aakaxyea....inventive → aakaxyean....inventiveness
    Furthermore, these participles can sometimes be pronominalized with s for things and t for people or living things. These forms can, in turn, be pluralized:
      * xwa....done → xwas....what is done, a happening
      * xwa....done → xwasi....happenings, deeds
      * otwa....unknown → otwas....what is not known, a mystery
      * osexea....destroying → osexeas....a destroyer
      * tojbua....lethal → tojbuas....something lethal, a lethal thing
      * tojboa....moribund → tojboati....people about to die, fatal cases
      * tejea....living → tejeat....a living person
      * tejea....living → tejeasi....living things
    There is a special tenseless, nominalized, animate participle used for agent nouns (English one who does something, Xer, Xant, Xist), which refers to a person who habitually does some action, perhaps as a profession or trade. These agent nouns end in -ut.
      * sexut....builder
      * nuut....supplier
      * tojbut....killer
      * ifut....lover
      * akuti....winners
    Note: There is a slight difference of meaning between the tensed participial pronoun ha akeat....the one winning and the non-tensed agent noun ha akut....the winner.
    Similarly, there is a special tenseless, nominalized, inanimate participle used for a thing that performs the action denoted by the verb stem. These agent nouns end in -us.
      * yuxus....aid (a thing that helps)
      * byuxwus....button (a thing that gets touched on the keyboard)
      * paxus....motive (a thing that moves one)
      * jaupus....precedent (a thing that comes before)
    The above -us ending contrasts with the endings -ar (instrument), -ir (machine), -ur (motor, engine), which are physical objects and not always suffixed to a verbal root.

## Finite Forms

    In Mirad, finite verb forms are those that can take a person subject, serve as a predicate, and be conjugated. Finite verb forms are conjugated by using suffixes indicating, through their presence or absence, the following categories:
      * TENSES
         * present
         * past
         * future
         * atemporal
      * MOODS
         * indicative
         * hypothetical
      * ASPECTS
         * simple
         * progressive
         * perfect
         * imminent
         * potential
      * VOICES
         * active
         * passive
         * reflexive
         * reciprocal
    Person and number are not marked on the verb form itself. For example, am, is, are, which change according to the person subject in English, are all expressed with the same verb form in Mirad: se. Thus, at se....I am, et se....you are, it se....he/she/it is, etc.

### Moods

    There are two moods in Mirad:
      * indicative
      * hypothetical.

##### Indicative Mood

          The indicative form of the verb indicates an action or state that occurs in actual time, such as he went, he is going, he will go.
          The indicative mood has three tenses, present, past, future, indicated by the suffixes -e, -a, and -o, respectively.

##### Hypothetical Mood

          Wheras the indicative verb forms expresses actuality in time, the hypothetical mood expresses one of the non-actuality situations below and uses the vowel u.
         * a command , i.e. the IMPERATIVE (Go!)
         * a wish or suggestion, i.e. the HORTATIVE or JUSSIVE (May the king live long!, Let's celebrate!)
         * an unrealized situation, i.e. the SUBJUNCTIVE (It is important that you be early.)
         * an imagined if-then-situation, i.e. the CONDITIONAL (If I were rich, I would be happy.)

### Aspects

    There are five aspects in the Mirad verb system.
      * the SIMPLE aspect (default), i.e. non-progressive, non-perfect, non-imminent, and non-conditional.
      * the PROGRESSIVE aspect, i.e. an action or state on-going in the particular tense, using ey
      * the PERFECT aspect, i.e. an action or state anterior or already completed, using ay
      * the IMMINENT aspect, i.e. an action or state about to happen, using oy
      * the POTENTIAL aspect, i.e. an action potentially happening, using uy

##### The Simple Aspect

       Unless specifically marked, the default aspect is simple, i.e. non-progressive, non-perfect, non-imminent, and non-conditional. Three indicative tenses can be expressed in the simple aspect:
      * Present with e
      * Past with a
      * Future with o.
       An atemporal verb ending in u in the simple aspect is considered hypothetical and expresses three things, depending on how it is used in the sentence:
      * a conditional like I would go (if...)
      * an imperative like Go!
      * a hortative like Let's go!
      * a subjunctive like (It is important that) we go.
       Here is a chart showing the simple, active voice instantiations of the Mirad verb per (to go) with the endings underlined:
Simple Active Conjugation of Per :
| MOOD | TENSE | ASPECT | VOICE | INSTANTIATION | VERB per |
| Indicative | Present | Simple | Active | | At pe....I go |
| Indicative | Past | Simple | Active | | At pa....I went |
| Indicative | Future | Simple | Active | | At po....I will go |
| Hypothetical | Atemporal | Simple | Active | Conditional | At pu....I would go |
| Hypothetical | Atemporal | Simple | Active | Hortative/Optative/Jussive | Van yat pu!....Let's go! |
| Hypothetical | Atemporal | Simple | Active | Imperative | Pu tam!....Go home! |
| Hypothetical | Atemporal | Simple | Active | Subjunctive | Se efwa van et pu.....It is necessary that you go. |
    Note that the last four instantiations are the same tense, but differ in syntax. For example, if the verb form is hypothetical, atemporal, simple, active and has no subject, it operates as an imperative.

#### The Simple Indicative Present Active Tense

             The simple indicative present instantiation is marked with the vowel suffix e and has a non-progressive (habitual) aspect as in English I work or I live. Progressive aspect forms like I am studying are explained later.
                Examples:
                  * At yexe be tam. ....I work at home.
                  * Hia tom se nam. ....This building is a store.

#### The Simple Indicative Past Active Tense

             The simple indicative past tense instantiation is marked with the vowel suffix a and has a non-progressive (punctual) meaning as in English I did something at some particular point in time. The simple past contrasts in aspect with the past progressive (I was doing something) or the present perfect (I have done something), or past potential (I would have done something). The simple past is punctual, that is, it describes an event that occurred at a particular point in time.
                Examples:
                  * Iyt iba ha nyuf zojub. ....She received the package yesterday.
                  * At ujba ha dyes ji iwa jwobi. ....I finished the book three hours ago.
                  * His kyesa exag hijub.....This happened twice today.

#### The Simple Indicative Future Active Tense

             The simple indicative future tense is marked with the vowel suffix o and has the same meaning as in English I will do something at some particular point in the future.
                Examples:
                  * Yit tadso zajab.....They are going to get married next year.
                  * Hua kaxon ujako. ....That solution will work.

#### The Simple Hypothetical Atemporal Active Tense

             A verb form ending in u like pu has no time value and is used to express unreal actions or states, such as the imperative, hortative, conditional, or subjunctive.
                Examples:
                  * Upu him!....Come here! (IMPERATIVE)
                  * Von upu! ....Don't come! (NEGATIVE IMPERATIVE)
                  * Ha edeb fu teater et. ....The king would like to see you. (CONDITIONAL)
                  * Ven at su et, at dolu. ....If I were you, I would be quiet. (CONDITIONAL)
                  * Van yeyt ujaku be yeytia yexneadi. ....May all you (women) succeed in your careers. (HORTATIVE)
                  * Van yat ijbu bay fyadil. ....Let's begin with a prayer. (JUSSIVE)
                  * Se kyitesa van et puu jwa. ....It's important that you arrive early. (SUBJUNCTIVE)
                  * Se kyitesa von et puu jwo.....It's important that you not arrive late. (NEGATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE)
             Hypothetical verb forms ending in -u can be interpreted in various ways, depending on the following syntactical patterns in the sentence:
               * Generally, if a verb form ending in -u begins a sentence and has no subject, then it is an IMPERATIVE (a command). For example, Ipu!, Go away!.
               * If the verb form has a subject not preceded by the complementizers van, ven, or von, then it is probably a CONDITIONAL predicate like At fu per.....I would like to go..
               * If the subject of the verb is preceded by ven....if, then it is a CONDITIONAL clause as in Ven at su nasikat.......If I were a rich man..
               * If the subject is preceded by Van....that/let/may or von....don't, then it is a HORTATIVE wish like Van et yagteju.....May you live long. or a JUSSIVE suggestion like Van yat fyadilu.....Let us pray. or a prohibition like Von tiliu his!....Don't drink this!.

### Voices

    Mirad has four voices:
      * Active
      * Passive
      * Reflexive
      * Reciprocal.

#### Active Voice

    The default voice is active, i.e. the subject of the verb is doing the action.
      * At teata ha kyes.....I saw the event.

#### Passive Voice

    A verb form is converted from active to passive by inserting a w just after the stem of the verb form. The past passive particle ending -waa is usually abbreviated to -wa (done is xwa). However, if the verb stem ends in a consonant plus l or r, then -wa is changed to -awa for ease of pronunciation, eg. drawa....written.
    The following chart shows the distinction between active and passive voice of various verbs:
    Contrasting Active and Passive Voice VERB FORMACTIVEACTIVE EXAMPLEPASSIVEPASSIVE EXAMPLE Infinitive xer to doAt fe xer fi. I want to do well.xwer to be doneEse hyos xwer. There is nothing to be done. Present Participle sexea constructingHa nunxob sexea hia tom... The firm constructing this building...sexewa being constructedHis se sexewa. This is under construction. Present xe do/doesAt xe fi be tixam. I do well in school.xwe is doneHuyenasi hoj xwe. Such things are never done. Past Participle xaa having doneIyt, xaa hya iyta yex,... She, having done all her work,...xwa doneHyas se xwa. Everything is done. Past tojba killedDuhot tojba hwut? Who killed that guy?tojbwa was killedDuhoj wit tojbwa? When was he killed? Hypothetical bakxu healBakxu at! Heal me!bakxwu be healedVan iyt bakxwu. May she be healed.
    Many intransitive verbs cannot be made passive. For example, tajer....to be born is intransitive (takes no object) and has no passive voice form. However, the transitive verb tajber....to bear, give birth can be passive, as in Ha tudet tajbwa zajub.....The child was delivered yesterday (as opposed to Ha tudet taja zajub.....The child was born yesterday.) Notice the following verb:
      * Ha mes uja.....The door opened (by itself). (medio-passive)
      * Ha mes ujpa.....The door came open. (dynamic medio-passive)
      * Ujbu ha mes.....Open the door. (transitive active)
      * Ha mes ujbwa.....The door was opened (by someone). (passive)

#### Reflexive Voice

          A verb is made reflexive by prefixing the reflexive pronoun ut (self), for example:
            * tojber....to kill → uttojber....to kill oneself
            * vyilxer....to wash → utvyilxer....to wash up
            * teater....to see → utteater....to see oneself
            * yalber....to lift → utyalber....to lift oneself → Utyalbu!....Lift yourself up!
            * trer....to know → uttrer....to know oneself → Uttru!....Know thyself!

#### Reciprocal Voice

          A verb is made reciprocal by prefixing the reciprocal pronoun hyuit....one another, for example:
            * tojber....to kill → hyuittojber....to kill one another
            * vyilxer....to wash → hyuitvyilxer....to wash one another
            * teater....to see → hyuitteater....to see one another
          Both the reflexive pronoun and reciprocal pronoun can be used as standalone objects. However, the plural form yut is used if the subject is plural, for example:
            * Yit vyilxa yut.....They (f.) washed up. (= washed selves).
            * Ha twobeti dizeuda hyuit.....The boys laughed at one another.
          The word hyuit is a hybrid of hyit....the same one combined with hyut....the other one.

#### Aspects Revisited

    Mirad verbs have the following aspects:
      * SIMPLE -- this is the default aspect, shown above, i.e. NON-PROGRESSIVE, NON-PERFECT, NON-IMMINENT, and NON-POTENTIAL.
      * PROGRESSIVE -- this is an aspect where the verb describes an on-going action or state spread over time.
      * PERFECT -- this presents the action or state as anterior, or completed prior to another action or state.
      * IMMINENT -- this describes an action or state about to happen.
      * POTENTIAL -- this refers to an action or state where something is possible.

#### The Simple Aspect

    The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Simple aspect. In the active voice, the tense vowels a, e, o, and u are affixed to the stem. In the passive voice, the passive marker consonant w is inserted between the stem and the final tense vowels. The simple present tense refers to actions or states that are habitual (I regularly go to school.), regular (The earth revolves around the sun.), or permanent (Blue is a color.). The simple past refers to actions or states that occurred at a fixed point in time (I did my homework last night.). The simple future refers to actions or states that will occur at some particular point in the future (The sun will rise tomorrow at dawn.). The simple atemporal hypothetical ( = conditional) refers to an imagined action or state that has not be realized (You would make a good president.).
    Simple Aspect ASPECTTENSEMOODACTIVE VOICEPASSIVE VOICE SimplePresentIndicative At xe....I doHas xwe....It is done SimplePastIndicative At xa....I didHas xwa....It was done SimpleFutureIndicative At xo....I will doHas xwo....It will be done SimpleAtemporalHypothetical At xu....I would doHas xwu....It would be done
Note: Absence of tense (Atemporal) + Hypothetical mood = CONDITIONAL

#### The Progressive Aspect

    The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Progressive aspect. The present tense vowel e followed by a buffer consonant, are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is y in the active voice, or w in the passive voice.
    Progressive Aspect ASPECTTENSEMOODACTIVE VOICEPASSIVE VOICE ProgressivePresentIndicative at xeye....I am doingHas xewe....it is being done ProgressivePastIndicative at xeya....I was doingHas xewa....it was being done ProgressiveFutureIndicative at xeyo....I am going to be doingHas xewo....it will be happening ProgressiveAtemporalHypothetical at xeyu....I would be doingHas xewu....it would be happening

#### The Perfect Aspect

    The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Perfect aspect. The past tense vowel a following by a buffer consonant are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is y in the active voice, or w in the passive voice.
    Perfect Aspect ASPECTTENSEMOODACTIVE VOICEPASSIVE VOICE PerfectPresentIndicative At xaye....I have doneHas xawe....It has been done PerfectPastIndicative At xaya....I had doneHas xawa....It had been done PerfectFutureIndicative At xayo....I will have doneHas xawo....It will have been done PerfectAtemporalHypothetical At xayu....I would have doneHas xawu....It would have been done

#### The Imminent Aspect

    The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Imminent aspect (sometimes referred to as the Prospective aspect). The future tense vowel o following by a buffer consonant are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is y in the active voice, or w in the passive voice. Not that only indicative mood imminent tenses are ever used.
    Imminent Aspect ASPECTTENSEMOODACTIVE VOICEPASSIVE VOICE ImminentPresentIndicative At xoye....I am about to doHas xowe....It is about to be done ImminentPastIndicative At xoya....I was about to doHas xowa....It was about to be done

#### The Potential Aspect

    The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Potential aspect. The hypothetical vowel u followed by a buffer consonant are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is y in the active voice, or w in the passive voice. The future potential and hypothetical potential aspects are never used.
    Potential Aspect ASPECTTENSEMOODACTIVE VOICEPASSIVE VOICE PotentialPresentIndicative At xuye....I am to doHas xuwe....It is to be done, it is doable PotentialPastIndicative At xuya....I was to doHas xuwa....It was to be done, it was doable

## Verb Conjugation Chart

    The following chart presents the totality of the Mirad affirmative verb conjugation system using the verb xer....to do and its passive xwer....to be done, happen. The rows beginning with a light blue background are finite forms, while those beginning with light green are non-finite forms.
Verb Conjugation Chart :
| STATE | MOOD | ASPECT | TENSE | VOICE | VOICE |
| STATE | MOOD | ASPECT | TENSE | ACTIVE | PASSIVE |
| Finite | Indicative | Simple | Present | xe does | xwe is done, happens |
| Finite | Indicative | Simple | Past | xa did | xwa was done, happened |
| Finite | Indicative | Simple | Future | xo will do | xwo will be done, will happen |
| Finite | Hypothetical | Simple | | xu would do, do! | xwu would be done, would happen, be done! |
| Finite | Indicative | Progressive | Present | xeye is doing | xewe is being done, is happening |
| Finite | Indicative | Progressive | Past | xeya was doing | xewa was doing, was happening |
| Finite | Indicative | Progressive | Future | xeyo will be doing | xewo will be happening |
| Finite | Hypothetical | Progressive | | xeyu would be doing be doing! | xewu would be happening |
| Finite | Indicative | Perfect | Present | xaye has done | xawe has been done, has happened |
| Finite | Indicative | Perfect | Past | xaya had done | xawa had been done, had happened |
| Finite | Indicative | Perfect | Future | xayo will have done | xawo will have been done, will have happened |
| Finite | Hypothetical | Perfect | | xayu would have done | xawu would have been done, would have happened |
| Finite | Indicative | Imminent | Present | xoye is about to do | xowe is about to be done, is about to happen |
| Finite | Indicative | Imminent | Past | xoya was to be done | xowa was to be done, was to happen |
| Finite | Indicative | Potential | Present | xuye is supposed to do | xuwe is supposed to happen |
| Finite | Indicative | Potential | Past | xuya was supposed to do | xuwa was supposed to be done, was supposed to happen |
| Infinitive | | Simple | | xer to do | xwer to be done, to happen |
| Infinitive | | Perfect | | xayer to have done | xawer to have been done, to have happend |
| Participle | | Progressive | | xea doing | xewa being done, happening |
| Participle | | Perfect | | x(a)ya$^2$ having done | x(a)wa$^1$ done, happened |
| Participle | | Imminent | | xoa about to do | xowa about to happen |
| Participle | | Potential | | xua bound to do | xuwa doable |
| Gerund | | Simple | | xen doing | xwen being done, happening, event |
| Gerund | | Perfect | | xayen having done | xawen having happened |
       Note 1: The perfective passive participle usually ends in -wa, but occasionally the longer form -awa is used, especially if the verb stem ends in a consonant followed by l or r that make the shorter form harder to pronounce, eg. pyuxrwa becomes pyuxrawa (shocked).
       Note 2: Intransitive verbs such as per to go have no passive forms. An expression such as They are gone. would be translated as Yit se pya.

## Negative Forms

    All of the above verb forms are affirmative. The indicative and conditional forms can be made negative by preceding the negative adverb voy (not, 'nt, doesn't, don't). Those forms that are subjunctive, jussive, or imperative ending in -u use the negative subordinate conjunction von (don't, let not, lest).
      * Voy mamilo.....It will not rain. (indicative)
      * Von mamilu.....Let it not rain. (subjunctive)
      * Von yat fuyaku.....Let us not despair. (jussive)
      * At voy te.....I don't know.
      * Von pu!....Don't go. (imperative)
      * At voy xu hus.....I would not do that.

## How to Express Certain English Tenses

    English speakers have some tenses that do not fit into the above schema:
      * The English tense I have been studying French for four years. is translated in Mirad by At tixeye Ferad ji uwa jabi.....I am studying French since four years. (Mirad present progressive tense).
      * The English tense I had been studying is translated in Mirad by At tixeya. (Mirad past progressive tense).
      * The English tense I am going to be starring in that role. is translated in Mirad by At dezdebeyo be hua dezgon. (Mirad future progressive).
      * The modern Black English tense Don't you be doing that. is handled in Mirad by Von et xeyu hus. (Mirad imperative progressive).

## Transitive vs. Intransitive Verbs

    Transitive verbs, which can take a direct object, oppose themselves to intransitive verbs, which do not take a direct object. Some verbs are marked overtly for transitivity.
    Verbs that end in xer (to do, -ify, -ize) are by nature transitive, and often have intransitive counterparts in ser (to be, become, -ify, -ize). Likewise, verbs ending in ber (to put, take) are transitive and have intransitive counterparts in per (to go). Here are some examples:
    Transitive vs. Intransitive TRANSITIVEINTRANSITIVE xer....doser....be agxer....grow (something)agser....grow (up) amxer....heat, make hotamser....become hot, heat up puxer....throwpuser....jump per....gober....put aber....put onaper....get on yaber....raiseyaper....rise poxer....stop (something)poser....(come to a) stop yuber....bringyuper....approach yeber....insertyeper....enter
      * At agxe vobi.....I grow [TRANSITIVE] plants.
      * Ha vobi agseye ig.....The plants are growing [INTRANSITIVE] fast.
      * Poxu ha pur!....Stop [TRANSITIVE] the car!
      * Ha pur posa.....The car stopped [INTRANSITIVE].
      * At yaba ha mis.....I raised [TRANSITIVE] the window.
      * Ha maar yapaye.....The sun has risen [INTRANSITIVE].

### Marking -jer Verbs for Transitivity

    Note the following verbs, whose stems end in j are hard to pronounce with intransitive s and transitive x, so these two endings are placed with p and b, respectively, although the presence of the p is optional, i.e. it's presence or absence can slightly change the meaning from static to dynamic, eg. tujer....to sleep vs. tujper....to fall asleep. The transitive forms can be either active or passive.
       Marking -jer Verbs for Transitivity INTRANSITIVETRANSITIVE STATICDYNAMICACTIVEPASSIVE Ha mes yija The door opened.Ha nasyef yijpa The purse came open.At yijba ha mes. I opened the door.Ha mes yijbwa bey yelput. The door was opened by an intruder Ha mes yuja. The door closed.Ha yanup yujpa. The meeting adjourned.At yujba ha mes. I closed the door.Ha mes yeyfe yujbwer ja sumjob. The door should be closed by bedtime. Ha dezun ijaye. The play has started.Ha par ijpa boy poys. The car started up immediately.At ijba ata tyal. I started my meal.Ha tyal ijbwa jwa. The meal was started early. Ha dezun ujaye. The play has ended.Ata yex ujpaye. My work has come to an end.A ujba ha dyes. I finished the book.Ha dyes hyoj ujbwa. The book never got finished. Ha tob toja zomoj. The man died yesterday evening.Ha tob tojpa. The man dropped dead.Hot tojba ha twob? Who killed the man?Ha twob tojbwa bey ita tayd. The man was killed by his wife. Teju. Live!.Tejpu!. Come alive!.Yat efe tejber ha twob. We need to revive the man.Ha twob yofwa tejbwer. The man could not be revived. Ha tobot taja zojub. The baby was born yesterday.Hoj ha tobot tajpo? When will the baby pop out?Iyt tajba awa twobot zojub. She gave birth to a baby boy yesterday.Ha twobot tajbwa jo eymoj. The baby boy was birthed after midnight. At tija jwe. I woke up on time.It voy tijpa. He did not come to..At tijbo et jwa. I will wake (you) up early.At voy fe tijbwo gra jwa. I don't want to be woken too early. At tujeya. I was sleeping.At tujpeya. I was falling sleep.At tujbo it. I will put (him) to sleep..Ha tobot tujbwo glojo. The baby will be put to sleep soon.

## Reflexive Verbs

    Reflexive verbs, where the object refers back to the subject, work just as in English, where the object is a reflexive pronoun, eg.:
      * At tujboye aut.....I am going to kill myself.
      * Tru eut!....Know thyself!
      * It gobla iut bey goblar.....He cut himself with a knife.
      * Ot yefe yuxer out.....One must help oneself.
    Sometimes, verbs are reflexive lexically and incorporate the reflexivity in the actual verb form using ut as the prefix:
      * uttujber....commit suicide (= self-kill)
      * utboler....support oneself (= self-support)
      * utdider....wonder (= self-ask)
    Sometimes, verbs are used reflexively in Mirad even though they are used simply intransitively in English, eg.:
      * Et efe vyilxer eut.....You need to wash up [= wash yourself]. (or)
      * Et efe utvyilxer.....You need to wash up [= self-wash].

## Omission of Prepositions After Certain Verbs

       Some verbs inherently incorporate a preposition and so it is not necessary to use that assumed preposition before what would normally be an indirect object.
       Inherent Propositions PREPOSITION-INCORPORATING VERBEXAMPLE per....go (to)Pu tam! (Not: Pu bu tam!) Go home. It pa Paris.....He went to Paris. der....say (to), tellDu at eta dyun.....Tell me your name. Du at has.....Tell it to me. peser....wait (for)Pesu at.....Wait for me. buer....give (to)Buu at hua dyes.....Give me that book.
       As in English, in omitting the inherent preposition in a sentence with both a direct object and an indirect object, place the indirect object before the direct object. If the direct object comes first, then the preposition must be overtly specified before the indirect object, eg. Buu at hus.....Give me that. or Buu hus bu at.....Give that to me. See more about this in the chapter on Syntax.

## Causative vs. Inchoative Verbs

    A causative verb has the sense to make something have some quality, whereas an inchoative verbs means to become of take on the quality of something.

### Derived from Adjectives

    Adjectives can be converted into transitive/causative and intransitive/inchoative verbs. Causative verbs are always transitive (taking an object), while inchoative verbs are intransitive (not taking an object). English causative / inchoative verbs often end in -ify like magnify, or -ate, liberate, or ize, like sensitize.
    To derive a causative verb from an adjective, add the suffix xer....to do to either the stem or the whole adjective (with the a ending). Whether you do the former or the latter depends on several factors, but the end result is slightly different in nuance. A verb with adjective stem + xer is slightly more idiomatic or less literal than the adjective stem + axer.
    -axer vs -xer in Transitive Verbs ADJECTIVECAUSATIVE/TRANSITIVECAUSATIVE/TRANSITIVE -xerLITERALIDIOMATIC aga bigagaxer to magnifyagxer to grow ana oneanaxer to unifyanxer to unite yona apartyonaxer to separateyonxer to cut yaga longyagaxer to lengthenyagxer to stretch yuga slowyugaxer to retardyugxer to brake sana formalsanaxer to formalizesanxer to form gea equalgeaxer to equalizegexer to copy, equate jaa priorjaaxer to prioritizejaxer to prepare
    To derive an inchoative verb from an adjective, add the suffix ser....to be to either the stem or the whole adjective.
    Creating Inchoative Verbs ADJECTIVEINCHOATIVE/INTRANSITIVEINCHOATIVE/INTRANSITIVE -serLITERALIDIOMATIC aga bigagaser to get biggeragser to grow ana oneanaser to unifyanser to unite, become united yona apartyonaser to become separateyonser to break
    Be careful to use the transitive, causative verb form when you have a direct object, and the intransitive, inchoative verb form when no direct objects are present or possible, eg.:
      * Ansu ey yet golxwo.....Unite or you will be divided. [INTRANSITIVE]
      * At yontadsa hoj at sa eta jag.....I got divorced when I was your age. [INTRANSITIVE]
      * Hisi agaxo hos et teate.....These will magnify what you see. [TRANSITIVE]
      * Hia tud agseye ig.....This child is growing up fast. [INTRANSITIVE]
      * Ata tayd agxe vosi be oyebzom.....My wife grows flowers out back. [TRANSITIVE]

### Derived from Nouns

    Transitive/causative/active and intransitive/inchoative/passive verbs can also be formed from nouns. The sense of the former is to make be X and of the latter, to become X.
    Verbs Derived from Nouns NOUNTRANSITIVE/CAUSATIVE/ACTIVEINTRANSITIVE/INCHOATIVE/PASSIVE mog....ashmogxer to incineratemogser to become ashes yan....collectionyanxer to collectyanser to get together tad....spousetadxer to marrytadser to get married yom....iceyomxer to freeze/make iceyomser to freeze/become ice mag....firemagxer to burn, set fire tomagser to burn, get burned uk....voidukxer to emptyukser become empty, empty out

### Intermediary Causative Verbs

    Intermediary verbal causatives like have/get my car washed, make/force him go, get one's hair cut are formed by suffixing the causative verb infix -ux- (active) or uxw (passive) to the stem of the verb signifying the action to be arranged or caused by someone other than the subject, eg.:
      * At gorbuxo ata tayeb zamaj.....I will get my hair cut tomorrow.
      * Et voy yafe puxer at.....You cannot make me go.
      * It tojbuxa yit.....He had them killed.
      * At efe vyilxuxer ata par.....I need to have my car washed.
      * Et upuxwa him hesav.....You were made to come here for some reason.
      * At bakambuxo et.....I will have you hospitalized.
      * Et voy yafe deuzuxer at.....You cannot make me sing.
      * At hihiduxwa.....I was tickled (= made to laugh).
      * Eta deuz hihiduxa yat.....Your song tickled us. (= Made us laugh.)
      * Van het ivasuxu weti.....May someone get you guys to be happy.
      * Hua enzyukpur uzpuxa ha pur.....That motorcycle caused the car to veer.

## Subject-directed vs. Patient-directed Verbs

    The directionality of some verbs can be distinguished by the verbal formant infix -i- for an action or motion toward the speaker and -u- for an action or motion away from the speaker toward some patient, eg.:
    Directional Verbs SUBJECT-DIRECTEDPATIENT-DIRECTED bier....to takebuer....to give nier....to consumenuer....to supply nyier....to ordernyuer....to deliver nazunier....win a prizenazunuer....award a prize noysier....pay offnoysuer....charge ojbier....borrowojbuer....lend tadier....get marriedtaduer....marry off papier....take flightpapuer....send off flying pipier....set sailpipuer....dock simbier....take a seatsimbuer....offer a seat tampier....leave hometampuer....arrive home tamier....settle intamuer....shelter nuxbier....to buynixbuer....to sell telier....to eatteluer....to feed gonbier....to participategonbuer....to share tilier....to drinktiluer....to ply with drink teubier....to swallowteubuer....to spit out teatier....to observe, watchteatuer....to show taxier....to memorizetaxuer....to remind alier....to breathe inaluer....to breathe out, expire ilier....to absorbiluer....to pour ifier....to enjoyifuer....to please dier....to askduer....to suggest tier....to learntuer....to inform pier....to departpuer....to arrive kebier....to choosekebuer....to distribute byier....to originatebyuer....to target mempier....to take offmempuer....to land sinier....visualizesinuer....display xier....to resultxuer....to cause yifier....to get up the courageyifuer....to encourage, challenge yafonier....to gain poweryafonuer....to empower trier....to become acquainted withtruer....to acquaint with, introduce to tepzexier....to draw attentiontepzexuer....to focus attention on yekier....to undertakeyekuer....to challenge dyunier....to assume the name ofdyunuer....to bestow the name of abfinier....to take advantage ofabfinuer....to favor telier....to eatteluer....to feed ilier....to absorbiluer...to pour
    In some cases, the directionality can be both ways in a verb, in which case the verb formant infix -ui- (a hybrid form) is used, eg.:
      * nunier ....to purchase (subject-directed)
      * nunuer....to sell (patient-directed)
      * nunuier....to trade (subject & patient-directed)
      * tier....to learn, realize (subject-directed)
      * tuer....to inform, tip off (patient-directed)
      * tuier....to communicate (subject & patient-directed)
      * alier....to breathe in, inhale (subject-directed)
      * aluer....to breathe out, exhale (patient-directed)
      * aluier....to breathe, respire (subject & patient-directed)
      * bier ....to take (subject-directed)
      * buer....to give (patient-directed)
      * buier....to give and take, exchange (subject & patient-directed)

## Bi-radical Verbs

    Some verbs are formed using two verb roots together. Here are some examples:
    Bi-radical Verbs Verb Root 1Verb Root 2Bi-radical Verb nuxer....to paybier....to takenuxbier....to buy nixer....to earnbuer....to givenixbuer....to sell kexer....to seekbier....to takekexbier....to choose uper....to comedier....to askupdier....to invite teater....to seeder....to tellteader....to testify teeter....to heardrer....to writeteadrer....to report teater....to seeper....to goteaper....to visit texer....to thinkder....to saytexder....to mention ke(xer)....to seekpixer....to catchkepixer....to hunt yeker....to tryteexer....to listenyekteexer....to try (in court)

## Verbs with Vectorial Prefixes

    Prepositions and directional adverbs can be prefixed to verbs in order to change their vectorial semantics. A preposition ending in b will assimilate to p before the verb per....to go and a preposition ending in b will lose the b before a verb beginning with b. Here are some examples:
    Verb Prepositional Prefixes PREPOSITION/ADVERBTRANSITIVE VERBINTRANSITIVE VERB ab....onaber....applyaper....get on, mount ob....offober....removeoper....get of, dismount eb....betweeneber....blockeper....intervene yab....upyaber....raiseyaper....rise yob....downyober....take downyoper....descend yub....nearyuber....bring nearyuper....approach yib....faryiber....take awayyiper....go far away yeb....inyeber....insertyeper....enter yeb....inyepuxer....throw inyepuser....jump in oyeb....outoyeber....exposeoyeper....exit oyeb....outoyepuxer....ejectoyepuser....jump out zyu....roundzyuber....rotatezyuper....revolve zya....throughoutzyaber....spreadzyaper....tour av....foravdaler....pleadavper....pursue ov....againstovber....opposeovper....countervene yan....togetheryanber....composeyanper....meet yon....apartyonber....separateyonper....separate iz....directizber....leadizper....head uz....curveduzber....divertuzper....diverge yuz....aroundyuzbexer....surroundyuzper....circulate yiz....beyondyizber....transferyizper....surpass zoy....back, re-zoyber....returnzoyper....go back

## Verbs with Other Semantics-altering Prefixes

    As in English and many other languages, prefixes can be used on verbs to reverse, mitigate, or otherwise alter the semantics:

### Expressing re- with zoy- or gaw-

    The prefix zoy-....back or gaw-$^1$....again are used like the English prefix re-, eg.:
      * ember....to position → zoyember....to reposition, replace
      * buer....to give → zoybuer....to return (an object), give back
      * sanxer....to shape, form → zoysanxer....to reshape, reform, transform
      * zyauber....to broadcast → gawzyauber....to re-broadcast
      * taja....born → gawtaja....reborn
      * aber....to apply → gawaber....to reapply
      * uper....to come → zoyuper....to return (come back)
      * teaper....to visit → gawteaper....to revisit
      * uper....to come → zoyuper....to return, come back
      * buxer....to push → zoybuxer....to repel, push back
      * puxer....to throw → zoypuxer....to reject, throw back, jettison
    Note 1: The prefix gaw- before a consonant is pronounced like the gaw in the English word gawk. It is short for ga awa jod or gawa meaning one more time, again. If the "re-" word means to do something again, then gaw- is used, eg. To reconvene ( = meet again)....gawyanuper If the sense of back is intended, than the prefix zoy- is used, eg. To return ( = come back)....zoyuper. Both prefixes are used in the expression Come back again!....Gawzoyupu!.
    Until we meet again. is expressed by Ju van yat gawyanupo.

### Expressing de-, dis-, un- with lo-

    The prefix lo- reverses the semantics of a verb and is like English dis-, de-, or un-, eg.:
      * saxer....to build, construct → losaxer....to destroy, deconstruct
      * anxer....to unite → loanxer....to disunite
      * xer....to do → loxer....to undo
    Note the difference between o- and lo-.
      * odoparuwa....unarmed (= not armed)
      * lodoparuwa....disarmed (= from the verb lodoparuer....to disarm)

### Expressing co- with yan-

    The prefix yan-....together is used as the English co-, eg.:
      * exer....to operate → yanexer....to cooperate
      * tamer....to dwell → yantamer....to cohabit
      * napber....to put in order → yannapber....to coordinate

### Making Verbs Completive with ik-

    Verbs can be made completive by prefixing them with ik- (fully). Such verbs are comparable to phrasal verbs in English with up and other prepositions as in to eat up. Here are some examples in Mirad:
      * tojber....to kill → iktojber....to kill off, exterminate
      * telier....to eat → iktelier....to eat up
      * ujber....to finish → ikujber....to finish off/up
      * gofler....to rip → ikgofler....to rip up
      * drer....to write → ikdrer....to write down
      * byexer....to beat → ikbyexer....to beat up

### Making Verbs Continuative with je-

    Verbs can be given a continuative nuance with the addition of the prefix je-:
      * daler....to talk → jedalar....to go on talking, to blabber
      * tejer....to live → jetejer....to go on living, to survive
      * yexer....to work → jeyexer....to go on working, to keep working
      * teaxer....to look → jeteaxer....to watch
      * teexer....to listen → jeteexer....to keep listening, to pay attention
      * duler....to insist → jeduler....to nag

### Making Verbs Inchoative with ij-

    Verbs can be given an inchoative nuance with the addition of the prefix ij-:
      * texer....to think → ijtexer....to start to think
      * ifier....to enjoy → ijifier....to start liking
      * tyer....to know → ijtyer....to get to know

### Making Verbs Terminative with uj-

    Verbs can be given a terminative nuance with the addition of the prefix uj-:
      * telier....to eat → ujtelier....to finish eating
      * dyeer....to read → ujdyeer....to finish reading
      * ufteuder....to complain → ujufteuder....to quit carping

### Giving Verbs a Nuance of Pleasure with if-

      * tyoper....to walk → iftyoper....to stroll
      * tuyuxer....to finger → iftuyuxer....to tickle
      * teaxer....to look → ifteaxer....to ogle (voyeuristically)
      * piper....to sail → ifpiper....to go cruising
      * teuder....to shout → ifteuder....to laugh

### Giving Verbs a Nuance of Displeasure with uf-

      * tosier....to feel → uftosier....to get angry
      * eker....to play → ufeker....to fight
      * der....to say → ufder....to express displeasure
      * aluer....to exhale → ufaluer....to huff
      * daler....to talk → ufdaler....to rant

### Giving Verbs a Nuance of Prohibition with of-

      * bier....to take → ofbier....to steal
      * deler....to declare → ofdeler....to ban
      * yeper....to enter → ofyeper....to intrude, break in
      * zeyper....to cross → ofzeyper....to transgress, poach
      * gelxer....to copy → ofgelxer....to pirate, plagiarize
      * bekuluer....to administer medicine → ofbekuluer....to dope
      * nuxuer....to pay → ofnuxuer....to bribe, pay off, suborn

### Giving Verbs a Nuance of Holiness with fya-

      * bexler....to keep → fyabexler....to enshrine
      * buer....to give → fyabuer....to sacrifice
      * der....to say → fyader....to bless
      * daler....to speak → fyadaler....to preach, sermonize
      * diler....to request → fyadiler....to pray
      * deuzer....to sing → fyadeuzer....to chant
      * ifrer....to love dearly → fyaifrer....to worship, adore
      * jader....to predict → fyajader....to prophesy
      * miluer....to sprinkle → fyamiluer....to sprinkle with holy water
      * ojvader....to promise → fyaojvader....to swear
      * xeler....to practice → fyaxeler....to celebrate
      * koser....to hide → fyakoser....to go on a retreat, go into hermitage
      * teazer....perform a show → fyateazer....to perform a miracle

### Giving Verbs a Nuance of Profanity with fyo-

      * der....to say → fyoder....to curse
      * diler....to request → fyodiler....to conjure
      * tyezer....to perform magic → fyotezer....to engage in black magic
      * xer....to do → fyoxer....to sin

### Expressing Good Actions with fi-

      * der....to say → fider....to praise
      * fer....to want → fifer....to mean well
      * xer....to do → fixer....to do well
      * yaker....to expect → fiyaker....to hope
      * yuxer....to help → fiyuxer....to benefit

### Expressing Bad Actions with fu-

      * yevder....to judge → fuyevder....to critique negatively
      * fer....to want → fufer....to will ill
      * der....to say → fuder....to badmouth
      * napxer....to arrange → funapxer....to mess up
      * yuxer....to help → fuyuxer....to abuse

### Expressing More Intense Actions with az-

      * yujber....to close → azyujber....to lock
      * der....to say → azder....to emphasize
      * duer....to suggest → azduer....to urge
      * dizeuder....to laugh → azdizeuder....to guffaw

### Expressing Less Intense Actions with oz-

      * der....to utter → ozder....to whisper
      * duer....to suggest → ozduer....to hint
      * dizeuder....to laugh → ozdizeuder....to chuckle
      * uvteuder....to moan → ozuvteuder....to whimper
      * tyoper....to walk → oztyoper....to limp

### Expressing pre-, fore- with ja-

      * der....to tell → jader....to foretell, predict
      * teater....to see → jateater....to foresee, preview
      * ter....to know → jater....to presage, have foreknowledge of
      * yever....to judge → jayever....to prejudge
      * juder....to date → jajuder....to antedate

### Expressing post-, after- with jo-

      * juder....to date → jojuder....to postdate
      * texer....to think → jotexer....to reflect on, review
      * uvder....to express sadness → jouvder....to mourn, regret
      * ibler....to obtain → joibler....to inherit

### Expressing excessively with gra-

      * telier....to eat → gratelier....to overeat
      * fer....to want → grafer....to covet
      * der....to say → grader....to exaggerate
      * daler....to talk → gradaler....to yammer

### Expressing inadequately with gro-

      * fyinder....to value → grofyinder....to underestimate
      * mageler....to cook → gromageler....to undercook
      * xaer....to perform → groxaer....to underperform

### Expressing counter-, contra- with ov- or oyv-

      * axler....to act → ovaxler....to counteract
      * apyexer....to attack → ovapyexer....to counterattack
      * daler....to speak → ovdaler....to oppose
      * der....to say → oyvder....to contradict
      * ber....to put → oyvber....to reverse, overturn
      * texer....to think → oyvtexer....to contest, disagree
      * per....to go → oyvper....to contravene

### Expressing on behalf, for with av-

      * axler....to act → avaxler....to act on behalf of
      * daler....to speak → avdaler....to advocate, speak on behalf of

### Making Verbs Reflexive with ut- (self-, auto-)

      * tojber....to kill → uttojber....to commit suicide
      * vyovider....to flatter → utvyovider....to flatter oneself
      * zaypuxwer....to be propelled → utzaypuxwer....to be self-propelled
      * fider....to praise → utfider....to brag
      * gober....to decrement → utgober....to autodecrement

### Making Verbs Reciprocal with hyuit- (one another)

      * tojber....to kill → hyuittojber....to kill one another
      * ifer....to love → hyuitifer....to love one another

### Expressing inter-, intra- with eb- (between)

      * tadier....to marry → ebtadier....to intermarry
      * zyaber....to spread → ebzyaber....to intersperse
      * vyexer....to relate → ebvyexer....to interrelate

### Expressing the Opposite of an Action with o- (un-)

      * bexler....to keep → obexler....to release, let go of
      * aynser....to integrate → oaynser....to disintegrate, to decay
      * beler....to carry → obeler....to drop
      * bier....to take → obier....to leave, relinquish
      * boser....to be quiet → oboser....to be upset
      * drer....to write → odrer....to erase
       Note: If the base verb already begins with the negative prefix o-, then the prefix is changed to ol-, eg. obexler....to release → olobexwa....to unreleased

### Expressing a Public or Official Action with do-

       Do- is a stub for dot (society).
      * afder....to allow → doafder....to authorize
      * bier....to take → dobier....to conquer, take over, take control of
      * tojber....to kill → dotojber....to execute
      * buer....to give → dobuer....to dedicate
      * daler....to speak → dodaler....to orate, speak in public
      * deler....to declare → dodeler....to announce
      * drer....to write → dodrer....to publicize, report

### Giving Verbs a Nuance of Truth with vya-

      * der....to say → vyader....to avow, be frank
      * ber....to set, put → vyaber....to control
      * napxer...to arrange, order → vyanapxer....to adjust
      * kexer....to seek → vyakexer....to investiage
      * tuer....to inform → vyatuer....to advise

### Giving Verbs of Nuance of Falseness with vyo-

      * der....to say → vyoder....to lie, to misstate
      * tester....to understand → vyotester....to misunderstand
      * tuer....to inform → vyotuer....to misinform, to deceive
      * xer....to do → vyoxer....to do wrong, fail, misdo
      * yuxler....to serve → vyoyuxler....to betray, to serve unfaithfully

### Making Verbs Positive with va-

      * der....to say → vader....to affirm
      * texer....to think → vatexer....to believe
      * yeker....to expect → vayeker....to presume
      * bier.....to take → vabier....to accept

### Making Verbs Negative with vo-

      * der....to say → voder....to deny
      * texer....to think → votexer....to doubt
      * yeker....to expect → voyeker....to rule out
      * bier.....to take → vobier....to reject

### Making Verbs Suppositional with ve-

      * der....to say → veder....to conjecture
      * texer....to think → vetexer....to suppose, hypothesize
      * yovder....to blame → veyovder....to indict, accuse

### Speeding up Verbs with ig-

      * pier....to leave → igpier....to flee
      * pyoser....to drop → igpyoser....to plummet
      * tyoper....to walk → igtyoper....to run
      * yeper....to enter → igyeper....to rush in

### Slowing up Verbs with ug-

      * paser....to move → ugpaser....to amble
      * teaxer....to look → ugteaxer....to gaze
      * ilper....to flow → ugilper....to trickle
      * tilier....to drink → ugtilier....to sip

### Expressing the Nuance of Suddenness with yok-

      * baxer....to stir → yokbaxer....to startle
      * hihider....to laugh → yokhihider....to burst out laughing
      * teaser....to appear → yokteaser....to suddenly appear
      * yoktojer....to die → yoktojer....to drop dead

### Expressing the Notion of Fixedness with kyo-

      * byaser....to stand → kyobyaser....to stand still
      * kexer....to seek → kyokexer....to hound, stalk
      * teaxer....to look → kyoteaxer....to stare, glare
      * texer....to think → kyotexer....to obsess with, fixate on

### Expression the Notion of Randomness with kye-

      * der....to say → kyeder....to guess, divine
      * per....to per → kyeper....to fluctuate
      * poper....to travel → kyepoper....to wander
      * napxer....to order → kyenapxer....to scramble
      * bier....to take → kyebier....to select

### Expressing the Notion of Change with kya-

      * baser....to make a move → kyabaser....to shift
      * sanxer....to form → kyasanxer....to transform
      * xer....to do/make → kyaxer....to change
      * napxer....to order → kyanapxer....to shuffle
      * dyanxer....to phrase → kyadyanxer....to paraphrase

### Expressing Covert Actions with ko-

      * ber....to put → kober....to hide
      * beler....to carry → kobeler....to smuggle
      * bier....to take → kobier....to steal
      * ebkyaxer....to exchange → koebkyaxer....to traffic
      * exer....to operate → koexer....to spy, operate under cover
      * fler....to wish for → kofler....to covet, be jealous of
      * apyexer....to attack → koapyexer....to ambush, to sneak-attack
      * loexer....to destroy → koloexer....to sabotage

### Expressing Actions with Intentionality with ke-

      * teaxer....to look → keteaxer....to scan
      * vyaxer....to prove → kevyaxer....to experiment
      * tier....to learn → ketier....to be interested in

### Expressing Lateral Actions with ku-

      * buxer....to push → kubuxer....to rebuff, shun
      * der....to say → kuder....to comment, remark
      * tyoper....to step → kutyoper....to step aside

### Expressing Near Actions with yub-

      * der....to say → yubder....to intimate, hint
      * gexer....to equate → yubgexer....to approximate
      * bixer....to pull → yu(b)bixer....to attract, draw near
      * teaxer....to look → yubteaxer....to scrutinize, examine

### Expressing Distance Actions with yib- (far, tele-)

      * drer....to write → yibdrer....to wire, telegraph
      * bixer....to pull → yi(b)bixer....to distract
      * tuier....to communicate → yibtuier....to telecommunicate
      * nyuxer....to deliver → yibnyuxer....to mail, post

### Expressing up-, super- with yab-

      * ber....to put → ya(b)ber....to raise, to put up
      * bixler....to drag → ya(b)bixler....to dredge up
      * uper....to come → yabuper....to come up
      * nogyanxer....to scale → yabnogyanxer....to scale up, escalate

### Expressing down-, sub- with yob-

      * ber....to put → yo(b)ber....to lower, put down
      * kyaber....to shift → yobkyaxer....to downshift
      * musper....to climb → yobmusper....to climb down
      * nogyanxer....to scale → yobnogyanxer....to downscale

### Expressing in- with yeb-

      * ber....to put → ye(b)ber....to insert, put in
      * beler....to carry → ye(b)beler....to import
      * uzber....to bend → yebuzber....to inflect
      * yujber....to close → yebyujber....to enclose, include

### Expressing out-, ex-, extra- with oyeb-

      * ber....to put → oye(b)ber....to put out, expose
      * beler....to carry → oye(b)beler....to export
      * uber....to send → oyebuber....to emit, send out
      * yujber....to close → oyebyujber....to exclude

### Expressing pro-, forward with zay-

      * ber....to put → zayber....to advance, put forward
      * kexer....to seek → zaykexer....to scout out
      * puxer....to throw → zaypuxer....to propel, thrust
      * tyoper....to walk → zaytyoper....to progress, to walk forward

### Expressing back-, retro-, re- with zoy-

      * uber....to send → zoyber....to send back
      * kixer....to bend → zoykixer....to reflect
      * puxer....to throw → zoypuxer....to repel
      * neadper....to track → zoyneadper....to backtrack

### Expressing across, trans-, over-, cross- with zey-

      * per....to go → zeyper....to cross, transit
      * beler....to carry → zeybeler....to transport, convey
      * drer....to write → zeydrer....to transcribe
      * kyober....to fix → zeykyober....to transfix, transplant
      * vyayeker....to check → zeyvyayeker....to crosscheck

### Expressing through, per- with zye-

      * per....to go → zyeper....to permeate, get through
      * kexer....to seek → zyekexer....to rummage, sift through
      * drer....to write → zyedrer....to cross out, draw a line through
      * iluer....to pour → zyeiluer....to soak
      * koper....to sneak → zyekoper....to sneak through

### Expressing all over, widely, all about with zya-

      * ber....to put → zyaber....to spread
      * buer....to give → zyabuer....to distribute
      * ijber....to open → zyaijber....to open wide
      * nuxer....to pay → zyanuxer....to disburse
      * puxer....to throw → zyapuxer....to scatter, cast about

### Expressing mid-, center with ze-

      * ber....to put → zeber....to balance
      * byaser....to stand → zebyaser....to straddle
      * der....to say → zeder....to interject
      * pyoser....to fall → zepyoser....to sag
      * poxer....to stop → zepoxer....to interrupt

### Expressing futurity with oj-

      * ber....to put → ojber....to put off, postpone
      * bier....to take → ojbier....to borrow
      * fer....to want → ojfer....to wish, aspire
      * texer....to think → ojtexer....to plan
      * teater....to see → ojteater....to envision
      * vader....to affirm → ojvader....to promise

### Expressing past with aj-

      * ber....to put → ajber....to pass, relegate to the past
      * der....to say → ajder....to evoke, hearken, recount
      * embier....to occupy → ajembier....to haunt
      * texer....to think → ajtexer....to reminisce, to reflect
      * uvtosder....to express sadness → ajuvtosder....to apologize
      * nexer....to store → ajnexer....to archive

### Expressing present with ej-

      * buer....to give → ejbuer....to present
      * eser....to exist → ejeser....to attend, to be present
      * nuxer....to pay → ejnuxer....to pay cash
      * tuer....to inform → ejtuer....to update
      * uvtosder....to express sadness → ejuvtosder....to apologize

### Expressing a stretched out action with yag- (long)

      * beser....to stay → yagbeser....to linger
      * bexer....to hold → yagbexer....to conserve, preserve
      * daler....to talk → yagdaler....to ramble
      * dodaler....to orate → yagdodaler....to harangue
      * fer....to want → yagfer....to yearn, pine
      * teaxer....to look → yagteaxer....to stare
      * fer....to want → yagfer....to yearn, pine

### Expressing a brief action with yog- (short)

      * drer....to write → yogdrer....to abbreviate
      * teaxer....to look → yogteaxer....to glance at
      * tujer....to sleep → yogtujer....to snooze, nap
      * gobler....to cut → yoggobler....to cut short, truncate

### Some Hybrid Prefixes

The prefix kui- is a hybrid of ku- (lateral) and ki- (diagonal)
      * per....to go → kuiper....to wobble
      * tyoper....to walk → kuityoper....to limp
The prefix zao- is a truncated hybrid of zay- (forward) and zoy- (backwards), eg:
      * baser....to move → zaobaser....to rock
      * per....to go → zaoper....to alternate
      * beler....to carry → kuibeler....to shuttle, ferry
      * pyoser....to fall → kuipyoser....to pendulate
The prefix yaob- is a hybrid of yab- (up) and yob- (down). The final b- is assimilated or dropped before a b or p.
      * baser....to move → yaobaser....to bob
      * per....to go → yaoper....to heave
      * beler....to carry → yaobeler....to shuttle, ferry
      * peper....to ride → yaopeper....to jounce
      * puser....to jump → yaopuser....to hop, bounce
The prefix bui- is a hybrid of bu- (to) and bi- (from), eg:
      * drer....to write → buidrer....to correspond
      * -er....to x → buier....to trade
      * beler....to carry → buibeler....to shuttle, ferry
      * xer....to do → buixer....to push and pull, spring
      * poper....to travel → buipoper....to travel to and fro, travel round trip
The prefix uiz- is a hybrid of uz- (crooked) and iz- (straight), eg:
      * drer....to write → uizdrer....to squiggle
      * der....to say → uizder....to equivocate
      * baser....to move → uizbaser....to wiggle, to squirm
      * per....to go → uizper....to careen, reel
      * paser....to move → uizpaser....to swerve, yaw
The prefix zui- is a hybrid of zu- (left) and zi- (right), eg:
      * drer....to write → uizdrer....to squiggle
      * buxer....to push → zuibuxer....to push around
      * baser....to move → zuibaser....to sway, totter
      * per....to go → zuiper....to zigzag
      * pasler....to shake → zuipasler....to wobble
The prefix aoyeb- is a hybrid of (a)yeb- (in) and oyeb- (out), eg:
      * ber....to put → aoyeber....to insert and extract
      * tiexer....to breathe → aoyetiexer....to breath in and out
      * paper....to fly → aoyepaper....to fly in and out
The prefix aob- is a hybrid of ab- (on) and ob- (off), eg:
      * ber....to put → aober....to put on and off
      * per....to go → aoper....to get on and off, embark and disembark
The prefix vao- is a hybrid of va- (yes) and vo- (no), eg:
      * der....to say → vaoder....to decide
      * daler....to talk → vaodaler....to waffle
      * duder....to answer → vaoduder....to answer yes or no
      * kyaxer....to change → vaokyaxer....to redact
      * texer....to think → vaotexer....to deliberate, vacillate
The prefix uij is a hybrid of uj- (end) and ij- (begin)
      * ber....to put → uijber....to switch off and on
      * daler....to talk → uijdaler....to stutter
The prefix yuij is a hybrid of yuj- (close) and yij- (open)
      * ber....to put → yuijber....to open and close, blink
The prefix huim is a hybrid of hum (there) and him (there)
      * paper....to fly → huimpaper....to fly here and yon
      * per....to go → huimper....to wander
      * kexer....to seek → huimkexer....to search high and low

### Different Nuances of teaxer with Prefixes

      * teaxer....to look, behold, regard
      * aybteaxer....to supervise, look over
      * ajteaxer....to look back on (retrospect)
      * eynteaxer....to squint
      * fizteaxer....to respect
      * fuzteaxer....to disrespect
      * gawteaxer....to review, re-look
      * hyuitteaxer....to look at one another
      * ibteaxer....to ignore
      * igteaxer....to glance, glimpse
      * ifteaxer....to marvel at
      * izteaxer....to view directly, confront, aim
      * jateaxer....to preview
      * jeteaxer....to watch, observe
      * joteaxer....to review
      * kateaxer....to look for
      * keteaxer....to scan
      * kiteaxer....to look askance
      * koteaxer....to peek, spy
      * kozyeteaxer....to peep
      * kozyoteaxer....to peer
      * kuteaxer....to observe
      * kyeteaxer....to browse
      * kyoteaxer....to stare, glare
      * oteaxer....to ignore, overlook
      * ufteaxer....to glare, leer
      * ugteaxer....to gaze
      * yagteaxer....to gape, gawk
      * yebteaxer....to inspect
      * yibteaxer....to view from afar
      * yogteaxer....to glance at
      * yokteaxer....to get a glimpse of
      * yubteaxer....to examine
      * yuibteaxer....to look near and far
      * yuzteaxer....to look around, circumspect
      * yanteaxer....to view together
      * yizteaxer....to look beyond, overlook
      * vyateaxer....to investigate, check out
      * vyoteaxer....to view wrongly
      * zateaxer....to face, confront
      * zayteaxer....to look ahead, expect
      * zoyteaxer....to look back
      * zeyteaxer....to look across
      * ziteaxer....to look to the right
      * zuteaxer....to look to the left
      * zuiteaxer....to look right and left
      * zyateaxer....to look all over, survey
      * zyeteaxer....to look through, peruse
      * zyoteaxer....to squint
      * yobteaxer....to look down
      * yaobteaxer....to look up and down
      * zaoteaxer....to look back and forth
      * yabteaxer....to look up
      * yubketeaxer....to pry
      * uzteaxer....to look indirectly at
      * oyebteaxer....to look out
      * ojteaxer....to peer into the future
      * marteaxer....to star-gaze
      * tabteaxer....to autopsy

## Modal Verbs

    Modal verbs are auxiliary verbs that are usually followed by the main verb in the infinitive or a subjunctive dependent clause and have to do with wanting, permitting, prohibiting, being able, being unable, needing, being obliged to do something, etc.

#### Principal Modal Auxiliary Verbs

    Mirad has a set of modal auxiliary verbs that can be followed by a main verb in the infinitive mode. This is very much like Enlish modal auxiliary verbs in the following examples:
      * I want to go.
      * You must wait.
      * You may stay.
      * I dare say.
    Here is a chart showing the main modal auxiliary verbs in Mirad:
    Principle Modal Auxiliary Verbs TYPEPOSITIVENEGATIVE Permission afer....may ayfer....mightofer....may not oyfer....might not Ability yafer....canyofer....cannot Need efer....need to Obligation yefer....must yeyfer....shouldoyefer....must not oyeyfer....should not Desire fer....want to Enjoyment ifer....love to, enjoy iyfer....like toufer....hate to uyfer....dislike to Courage yifer....dare toyufer....be afraid to, fear Liberty yiver....have a right to, be free toyuver....be bound to, be supposed to Expectation yaker....expect toyoker....be surprised to Conation yeker....try to
    These modal auxiliary verbs are often followed by a verbal infinitive, as in the following examples:
      * At fe ter.....I want to know.
      * Wit yifa yeper.....He dared to enter.
      * Yat yafe teater yet.....We can see you.
      * Duven et yaka aker?....Did you expect to win?
      * Diwe yeku xer ga fi.....Please try to do better.
    If the modal verb is in the hypothetical aspect (conditional), then the sense is somewhat mitigated, as in these examples:
   * At fe per.....I want to go.
   * At fu per.....I would like to go.
   * Et yafe aker.....You can win.
   * Et yafu aker.....You could win.
   * Yet yefe iper.....You must leave.
   * Yet yefu iper.....You ought to leave.
    Post-y-gliding the stem vowel of the modal verb also reduces the strength, for example:
   * At ife et. ....I love you.
   * At iyfe et. ....I like you.
   * Et yefe iper.....You must leave.
   * Et yeyfe iper.....You should leave.
   * Iyt yafe aker.....She can win.
   * Iyt yayfe aker.....She might win.
   * At ufa uda tuz.....I hated that art.
   * At uyfa uda tuz.....I disliked that art.
    The use of l and r intensify the meaning of the auxiliary verbs, eg:
   * Et yuve puer jwe.....You are supposed to arrive on time.
   * Et yuvle tepzexer.....You have to pay attention.
   * Et yuvre buer nas.....You absolutely must give money.
   * At yeka ser yeva.....I tried to be fair.
   * At yekla ujber jwa.....I strove to finish early.
   * At yekra nixer ga nas.....I struggled (= worked hard)) to earn more money.
   * Iyt ife eker zyun.....She loves to play ball.
   * Iyt ifla teater et.....She was delighted to see you.
   * Iyt ifre teaper him.....She adores visiting here.
    Here are some examples showing how these modal verbs are used as auxiliaries:
      * Et afe oyeper ay ifeker.....You may go out and play.
      * Yat efa tujer.....We needed to sleep.
      * Ot ofe mavier him.....One is prohibited to smoke here.
      * Mavier him ofwe.....Smoking here is prohibited.
      * At ife dyeer.....I love to read.
      * Duven et fe yeper?....Do you want to come in?
      * At fu teaper et edjub.....I would like to visit you some day.
      * It ufaye hyaj teaxwer.....He has always hated being looked at.
      * Duven et iyfe per tilami?....Do you like going to bars?
      * At uyfe tijer gra jwa.....I dislike waking up too early.
      * Et yafe xer hyehos et fu.....You can do whatever you like.
      * Et yefer xer ad vyaas.....You must do the right thing.
      * Et yeyfe voy daler huuyen azay.....You should not talk so loud.
      * At yeyfa ter ga fi.....I should have known better.
      * At voy yifu der hyea fuas.....I would not dare say anything bad.
      * Von yufu der hos et tesde.....Don't be afraid to say what you mean.
      * Et yive dier yevanavdut.....You have a right to ask for a lawyer.
      * Yat voy yuvle kyoejer.....We are not bound to stick around.

### Subject-oriented vs. Patient-oriented Modal Verb Forms

       All of these modal verbs can be passive, in which case they are "patient-oriented" rather than "subject-oriented." The participial adjective yafa....able is subject-oriented and refers to a person, whereas the passived adjective yafwa....possible is patient-oriented and refers to a thing or event. Here is a chart of the principal modal verbs and corresponding participial adjectives with this subject/object-orientation distinction shown:
    Subject-oriented vs. Patient-oriented Modal Verb Forms MODAL TYPESUBJECT-ORIENTEDSUBJECT-ORIENTEDPATIENT-ORIENTEDPATIENT-ORIENTED VERBADJECTIVEVERBADJECTIVE Permission afer mayafa allowedafwer be permittedafwa permissable Necessity efer needefa needfulefwer be necessaryefwa necessary, required Prohibition ofer be unallowedofa prohibitedofwer be prohibitedofwa banned Possibility yafer be ableyafa ableyafwer be possibleyafwa possible Obligation yefer mustyefa obligedyefwer be obligatoryyefwa obligatory Duty yeyfer shouldyeyfa supposed, duty-boundyeyfwer be supposedyeyfwa due Impossibility yofer be unableyofa unableyofwer be impossibleyofwa impossible Volition fer wantfa desirousfwer be desirablefwa desirable, wanted Love ifer love iyfer likeifa enamored iyfa fondifwer be loved iyfwer be likedifwa lovable iyfwa likeable Hate ufer hate uyfer dislikeufa averse uyfa displeasedufwer be hated uyfwer be dislikedufwa odious unliked Courage yifer dareyifa daring, braveyifwer be safeyifwa safe Fear yufer be afraidyufa afraidyufwer be a dangeryufwa frightening Joy iver enjoyiva gladivwer be a joyivwa enjoyable Sorrow uver be sorryuva sorry, saduvwer be a shameuvwa regrettable
    Examples of subject-oriented forms:
      * At se yafa xer hes.....I am capable of doing anything.
      * Et ofe teater hia dyezun.....You are not allowed/are prohibited to see this film.
      * Duven at afe per hum?....Am I allowed to go there?
      * Yat fu ter eta dyun.....We would like to know your name.
      * Piti ufe beser be mel.....Fish hate to remain on dry land.
      * At ajay ifa dazer.....I once loved to dance.
      * Et se iva, at yife der.....You are beautiful, I dare say.
      * At yeyfa xer has ga ig.....I should have done it sooner.
      * Von yufu; At yupeye.....Fear not; I am coming.
      * Et yefe puer ja eymaj.....You must arrive before noon.
      * Yet yofe daler je ha dezun.....You people must not talk during the performance.
      * Yat yeyfe (= se yeyfa) aker.....We should (= are bound/supposed/due) to win.
      * At ive teater et bakser.....I'm glad to see you get better.
      * Su iva.....Be happy.
      * At uvu (= su uva) teater et iper.....I would be sad to see you leave.
    Examples of patient-oriented forms:
      * Afwe (= se afwa) mavier him.....It is permissible to smoke here.
      * Ofwe (= se ofwa*) puxer fyumul him.....It is prohibited to throw litter here.
      * Fwe (= se fwa) van yet dolu.....It is desired that you stop talking.
      * Voy yafwe beser him gajob.....It is not possible to remain here any longer.
      * Yofwa av at ivteuder.....It was not possible for me to laugh.
      * Yefwe van et piu ig.....It is essential that you leave quickly.
      * He yeyfwe ober ata tyoyafi?....Is it obligatory to remove my shoes?
      * Ga yux efwo.....More help will be needed.
      * Yuxren se ufwa xetyen.....Slavery is an odious practice.
      * Uvwe van wit oka.....It's a shame that he lost.
       *lofwa is used for unwanted for disambiguation purposes.

### Deriving Causatives from Modal Stems

    Various causative verbs can be formed from modal stems, as shown in the chart below:
    Deriving Causatives from Modal Stems SUBJECT-ORIENTEDPATIENT-ORIENTED afxer....allow (someone to do sthg.)afwaxer....permit (something to be done) efxer....requireefwaxer....necessitate ofxer....prohibitofwaxer....prohibit yafxer....enableyafwaxer....make possible yefxer....obligeyefwaxer....make obligatory yofxer....crippleyofwaxer....disable yifxer....emboldenyifwaxer....make safe yufxer....intimidateyufwaxer....make frightening ifxer....pleaseifwaxer....make pleasant

### Creating Modal Verbs and Adjectives with Modal Stem Suffixes

    Verb stems can be suffixed with modal participles to produce related modal verbs and adjectives. The first chart shows the modal participles themselves that can be suffixed to verb stems. Subject-oriented forms refer only to people, while patient-oriented forms (ending in -wa) refer only to things.
    Modal Suffixes Subject-orientedPatient-oriented -yafa....able to X, -able-yafwa....possible to X -yofa....unable to X-yofwa....impossible to X -ifa....fond of Xing, Xophile-ifwa....enjoyable to X -ufa....averse to Xing, Xophobic-ufwa....unenjoyable to X -yika....hard of Xing-yikwa....hard to X -yuka....comfortable/easy Xing-yukwa....easy to X -yaka....expecting to Xyakwa....expected/likely to X -efa....in need of Xing-efwa....necessary to X -yefa....obliged to X-yefwa....obligatory/due to X -yufa....afraid of Xing-yufwa....frightening to X
    This table shows some of these modal suffixes applied to actual verb and noun stems:
    Modals and Orientation ORIENTATIONPOSITIVE ADJECTIVEPOSITIVE VERBNEGATIVE ADJECTIVENEGATIVE VERB Subject teatyafa able to see, sightedteatyafer be able to seeteatyofa blindteatyofer be blind Patient teatyafwa visibleteatyafwer be visibleteatyofwa invisibleteatyofwer be invisible Subject teetyafa able to hear, hearingteetyafer be able to hearteetyofa deafteatyofer be deaf Patient teetyafwa audibleteetyafwer be audibleteeyofwa inaudibleteeyofwer be inaudiable Subject dalyafa able to speakdalyafer be able to speakdalyofa mute, dumbdalyofer be mute, dumb Subject doabifa patrioticdoabifer be patrioticdoabufa rebelliousdoabufer rebel Subject tosyafa sensitivetosyafer be able to feeltosyofa insensitivetosyofer be numbed Patient tayotyafwa palpabletayotyafwer be palpabletayotyofwa numbtayotyofwer be impalbable, numb Patient testyukwa easy to understandtestyukwaxer make easily understoodtestyikwa hard to understandtestyikwaxer make hard to understand Subject tudyaka pregnant, expectingtudyaker be expecting Patient mamilyakwa likely to rainmamilyakwer to be expected to rainmamilyokwa unlikely to rainmamilyokwer to be unlikely to rain Subject tilefa thirstytilefer be thirsty Subject telefa hungrytelefer be hungry Patient tejefwa vitaltejefwer be vital Subject tujefa sleepytujefer be sleepy Subject nasefa poor, needynasefer be needy Subject dudyefa accountable, responsibledudyefer be responsible Patient texiyefwa noteworthytexiyefwer be noteworthy

## Sensing Verbs

    Verbs involving the senses, such as sight or hearing, follow a similar pattern, as the following chart shows:
Sensing Verbs :
| TYPE | teab....eye teata....visual | teeb....ear teeta....acoustic | teib....nose teita....olfactory | teub....mouth teuta....gustatory | tayob....skin tayota....tactile |
| Receptive Active | teater see | teeter hear | teiter smell | teuter taste | tayoter feel |
| Receptive Passive | teatwer be seen | teetwer be heard | teitwer be smelled | teutwer be tasted | tayotwer be felt |
| Stative | teaser seem | teeser sound | teiser smell | teuser taste | tayoser feel |
| Dynamic Active | teaxer look at | teexer listen | teixer sniff | teuxer taste | tayoxer touch |
| Dynamic Passive | teaxwer be looked at | teexwer be listened to | teixwer be sniffed | teuxwer be tasted | tayoxwer be touched |
| Causative Active | teatuer show | teetuer make hear | teixuer make smell | teuxuer offer a taste | tayoxuer make feel |
| Causative Passive | teatuwer be shown | teetuwer be made to hear | teituwer be made to smell | teutuwer be given a taste | tayotuwer be made to feel |
| Inchoative Active | teatier perceive, catch sight of | teetier catch the sound of | teitier get a whiff of | teutuer get a taste of | tayotier get the sensation of |
| Inchoative Passive | teatiwer be perceived | teetiwer be heard | teitiwer be whiffed | teutiwer be tasted | tayotiwer be felt |
| Negative-Modal Patient-oriented Stative | teatyofer be blind | teetyofer be deaf | teityofer be unable to smell | teityofer be unable to taste | tayotyofer be insensitive |
| Negative-Modal Patient-oriented Stative | teatyofwer be invisible | teetyofwer be inaudible | teityofwer be undetectable odorwise | teityofwer be insipid | tayotyofwer be undetectable by touch |
| Negative-Modal Patient-oriented Causative | teatyofxer blind | teetyofxer deafen | teityofxer desensitize to smell | teutyofxer desensitize to taste | tayotyofxer desensitize |
| Negative-Modal Patient-oriented Causative | teatyofwaxer make invisible | teetyofwaxer make inaudible | teityofwaxer make odorless | teutyofwaxer render tasteless | tayotyofwaxer numb |
    Examples of usage:
   * At teatyofxwa bey ha mani.....I was blinded by the lights.
   * Ha xeus sa teetyofxyea.....The noise was deafening.
   * Hia tit se gla teatiyafa.....This pupil is very perceptive.
   * Hua bekil se teityofwa.....That medicine is odorless (impossible to smell).
   * Teatyofwaxu ha vyuni.....Make the spots invisible.
   * Ha magmeb yonprex tayotyafwa zya ha mir.....The volcano eruption could be felt throughout the world.

## Frequentative Verbs

    Frequentative verbs or repetitive action verbs can be formed with the infix -eg- placed between the verb stem and verb ending, eg.:
       Frequentative Verbs NORMALFREQUENTATIVE pyaser....jumppyaseger....bounce paper....flypapeger....flitter kobirer....stealkobireger....pilfer basrer....shakebasreger....vibrate

## Hybridized Verbs

    Verbs that involve motion directions that change back and forth can be formed by hybridizing the stem vowel or the vowel of the vectorial prefix. Here are some examples:
       Frequentative Verbs FIRST DIRECTIONSECOND DIRECTIONHYBRIDIZED DIRECTION pyaser....jumppyoser....fallpyaoser....bounce, undulate buer....givebier....takebuier....exchange nuer....furnishnier....consumenuier....trade tuer....informtier....learntuier....communicate yaper....ascendyoper....descendyaoper....go up and down zayper....go forwardzoyper....go backzaoper....vacillate vader....affirmvoder....denyvaoder....decide yijber....openyujber....closeuijber....valve baser....stirboser....be stillbaoser....vibrate

## Expressing Habitual Actions and States

    Mirad uses the term gel jubyen (as a habit) to express a verb reflecting habitual action, eg:
      * At tijeya be yiwa jwobi gel jubyen.....I used to wake up at 9 o'clock. (Lit. I was waking up at 9 o'clock as a habit.).
    The term hyujod....one another occasion (or be aj....in the past) is use to express once (upon a time), eg:
      * At sa tuxut hyujod (~ be aj) sa tuxut. ....I once was a teacher.
    The term vyabxelay (routinely) can also be used, eg:
      * Yat eke duz yuz bi ha doym vyabxelay.....We play music around town routinely.

## Expressing an Immediate Past

    To express an immediate past, such as in the sentence "We have just gotten married.", Mirad uses the adverb ejnay (newly) much like the word just in English:
      * Yat tadsaye ejnay.....We have just gotten married.
      * Ejnay tadxwa.....Just married.
      * Wit dokebiwa ejnay.....He was just elected.
      * At ujbaya yex ejnay hoj iyt yebupa.....I had just finished work when she came in.

## Verb Predicate Types

    Mirad verb predicates can be classified as follows:
   * Voice
      * Active (The subject is the doer of the action)
      * Passive (The subject is the receiver of the action)
      * Middle (The subject is both the agent and patient)
      * Reflexive (The subject is also the patient.)
      * Reciprocal (Plural subjects interact.)
   * Stativity
      * Stative (Does not involve action)
      * Dynamic (Action is involved)
   * Valency
      * Impersonal (There is no subject)
      * Transitive (There is an object)
      * Intransitive (There is no object)
      * Auto-transitive (The subject is a patient and there is no agent)
      * Anti-transitive (There is the patient but an agent is assumed)
      * Causative (Subject causes an action to be performed)
      * Copula (X is Y)
   * Other
      * Modal (can, must, should, wants to...)
      * Auxiliary (help to, hope to, prepare to + verb)
      * Motion (run, go, ride...)
      * Communication (say, answer, claim that...)
      * Gesture (put, shake, hit...)
      * State/Stative (be, become, live, be born...)
      * Action/Dynamic (do, act, make)
Verb Predicate Types :
| VOICE | STATIVITY | VALENCY | EXAMPLE |
| active | stative | impersonal, -agent, -object | Mamilo zajub.....It will rain tomorrow. |
| active | stative | impersonal, -agent, +complement | Sa gla oma.....It was very cold. |
| active | stative | impersonal, +subject | Ese het be ha mes.....There is someone at the door. |
| active | stative | copula, subject + noun/adjective complement | Et se ata twud.....You are my son. At aseye epyextipa.....I am becoming angry. |
| middle | stative | auto-transitive, +subject=patient -agent -object | Iyt toja.....She died |
| middle | stative | auto-transitive, +subject=patient +agent -object | Ha mes yija.....The door opened. |
| active | stative | intransitive, +subject -object | Et bokso.....You will get sick. |
| active | stative | transitive, sense, +subject +object | At teate et.....I see you. |
| active | stative | transitive, modal, +subject +verb complement | At fe per.....I want to go. |
| active | stative | intransitive, subject-oriented modal, -subject +verb complement | Yofwe teater.....It is impossible to see. |
| passive | stative | patient-oriented modal, +subject | Mamil yakwe.....Rain is expected. |
| middle | dynamic | anti-transitive, +subject=patient +agent -object | Ha mes yijpa.....The door came open. |
| active | dynamic | intransitive, +subject -object | Ha fab pyosa.....The tree fell. |
| active | dynamic | transitive, +subject +-object | Yit pyoxa ha fab.....They felled the tree. |
| passive | dynamic | intransitive, +subject, -object | Ha fabi pyoxwa.....The trees were felled. |
| active | dynamic | transitive, +subject, +object | Obu eta tef.....Take your hat off. |
| active | dynamic | ditransitive, +subject, +object +object | Von et buu iyt ha nas.....Don't give her the money. |
| active | dynamic | transitive, motion, +subject, +destination/origin | Yupu ha mees.....Approach the bench. Pu tam!....Go home! (you implied) |
| active | dynamic | causative, +subject +object, +agent | At tayegobluxo Jon.....I will get my hair cut by John. |
| passive | dynamic | causative, +subject +object, +agent | At tayegobluxwo.....I will get my hair cut. |
| active | dynamic | auxiliary, ditransitive, +patient +verb object | Yuxu at xer his.....Help me do this. |
| passive | dynamic | auxiliary, ditransitive, +patient +verb object | At tuxwa eker duz.....I was taught to play music. |
| middle | dynamic | reflexive, +subject = patient, -object | Iyt uttojba.....She killed herself. |
| active | dynamic | reciprocal, +subjects = patients | Yit voy hyuitdale gaj.....They don't talk to one another anymore. |
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