OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Meteorology/Troposphere

* Meteorology
* Introduction to Meteorology and the Atmosphere
* Introduction to the Definitions
* Makeup of the Atmosphere
* Layers of the Atmosphere
* Troposphere
* Stratosphere
* Mesosphere
* Thermosphere
* Ionsphere
* Variations
* Ozone
* Dynamic Meteorology
* Heating and Temperature
* Moisture
* Atmospheric Stability
* Clouds and Precipitation
* Air Pressure
* Air Mass
* Circulation
* Patterns
* Thunderstorms
* Tornadoes
* Tropical Cyclones
* Pollution
* Optics
Troposphere
The troposphere begins at the Earth's surface and extends up to 4–12 miles (6–20 km) high varying from the equator to the poles. At the equator it is around 11–12 miles (18–20 km) high, at 50°N and 50°S, 5½ miles and at the poles just under four miles high. The troposphere is the most dense layer of the atmosphere due to it containing 75% of the atmosphere's mass. And is composed of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, small traces of other gases, and almost all of the atmosphere's water vapor. As the gases in this layer decrease with height, the air becomes thinner. Therefore, the temperature in the troposphere also decreases with height. As you climb higher, the temperature drops from about 62 °F (17 °C) to -60 °F (-51 °C). However, sometimes the temperature does not decrease with height in the troposphere, but increases. Such a situation is known as a temperature inversion. Temperature inversions limit or prevent the vertical mixing of air. Such atmospheric stability can lead to air pollution episodes with air pollutants emitted at ground level becoming trapped underneath the temperature inversion.
The troposphere is the layer where most of the world's weather takes place. Since temperature decreases with altitude in the troposphere, warm air near the surface of the Earth can readily rise, being less dense than the colder air above it. In fact air molecules can travel to the top of the troposphere and back down again in a just a few days. Such vertical movement or convection of air generates clouds and ultimately rain from the moisture within the air, and gives rise to much of the weather which we experience. The troposphere is capped by the tropopause, a region of stable temperature. Air temperature then begins to rise in the stratosphere. Such a temperature increase prevents much air convection beyond the tropopause, and consequently most weather phenomena, including towering cumulonimbus thunderclouds, are confined to the troposphere.
# Meteorology/Introduction to Meteorology and the Atmosphere

* Meteorology
* Introduction to Meteorology and the Atmosphere
* Introduction to the Definitions
* Makeup of the Atmosphere
* Layers of the Atmosphere
* Troposphere
* Stratosphere
* Mesosphere
* Thermosphere
* Ionsphere
* Variations
* Ozone
* Dynamic Meteorology
* Heating and Temperature
* Moisture
* Atmospheric Stability
* Clouds and Precipitation
* Air Pressure
* Air Mass
* Circulation
* Patterns
* Thunderstorms
* Tornadoes
* Tropical Cyclones
* Pollution
* Optics

## Introduction

When it comes to the weather, there is nothing more common on the news other than sports. People don't pay much attention to the weather until they have an issue with it or are planning something for outside. They rarely think about what goes into making that weather report or how weather works. Hopefully this book will tell you those things and maybe a little more. So next time you see a weather forecaster make a mistake, you can understand why.
# Meteorology/Makeup of the Atmosphere

* Meteorology
* Introduction to Meteorology and the Atmosphere
* Introduction to the Definitions
* Makeup of the Atmosphere
* Layers of the Atmosphere
* Troposphere
* Stratosphere
* Mesosphere
* Thermosphere
* Ionsphere
* Variations
* Ozone
* Dynamic Meteorology
* Heating and Temperature
* Moisture
* Atmospheric Stability
* Clouds and Precipitation
* Air Pressure
* Air Mass
* Circulation
* Patterns
* Thunderstorms
* Tornadoes
* Tropical Cyclones
* Pollution
* Optics

## The Atmosphere

Gas Content of the Atmosphere :
| Gas | Percent Composition | Percent Composition |
| Nitrogen (N$_2$) | 78 | .080 |
| Oxygen (O$_2$) | 20 | .946 |
| Argon (Ar) | 0 | .934 |
| Carbon Dioxide (CO$_2$) | 0 | .038 |
| Neon (Ne) | 0 | .00182 |
| Helium (He) | 0 | .000524 |
| Methane (CH$_4$) | 0 | .00015 |
| Hydrogen (H$_2$) | 0 | .00005 |
The big blue wonder, filled with the air we breathe and pollution we create. As most everyone knows, we breathe in Oxygen. It's actually quite amazing that it is not the primary ingredient in the atmospheric mixture known as air, Nitrogen is instead. All kinds of gases make up the atmosphere, but a few stand out in our day to day lives, such as Oxygen, Carbon Dioxide, and Ozone.
You hear about Carbon Dioxide polluting the atmosphere on the news, in papers, in books, your parents, friends or teachers, but it isn't all bad. Carbon Dioxide is one of the gases that helps to keep our planet and us warm and not freeze to death. Of course, there is a bad side. Too much carbon dioxide will cause the earth to heat up and become too hot.
Ozone is a gas that most have heard of but don't know much about. Ozone, or O$_3$, is Oxygen that has grouped into a group with three Oxygen atoms reather than the normal two. It helps us keep out harmful Ultra-Violet rays that could possibly burn our skin, cause cancer, or even cause death. Of course, most have heard of the "Ozone hole," but most don't realise that there is more than one hole and they are constantly growing. We will look into Ozone, the Ozone holes, and the problems it can cause later on.

## Layers

Just from looking up, you wouldn't be able to tell that the atmosphere has layers. Indeed it does, just as a cake has layers of sometimes different flavours. These layers and the icing that holds them together are found almost exactly similarly in the atmosphere. Each of these layers provides a different purpose to our planet and weather. They will be discussed in depth more in the next section.
# Meteorology/Mesosphere

The Mesosphere is the layer of the Earth's Atmosphere directly above the Stratosphere. The Mesosphere is 50 to 85km (30 to 50 mi) above the Earth's surface. Temperature decreases as altitude increases. Temperatures in the Upper Mesosphere can drop as low as -100°C (-150°F) depending on latitude and season. An average of 40 tons of meteors enter the atmosphere per day.
# Meteorology/Stratosphere

* Meteorology
* Introduction to Meteorology and the Atmosphere
* Introduction to the Definitions
* Makeup of the Atmosphere
* Layers of the Atmosphere
* Troposphere
* Stratosphere
* Mesosphere
* Thermosphere
* Ionsphere
* Variations
* Ozone
* Dynamic Meteorology
* Heating and Temperature
* Moisture
* Atmospheric Stability
* Clouds and Precipitation
* Air Pressure
* Air Mass
* Circulation
* Patterns
* Thunderstorms
* Tornadoes
* Tropical Cyclones
* Pollution
* Optics
Stratosphere This layer of atmosphere is continuing to Troposphere. The range of atmosphere in this layer is 20 – 48 km. The border between the troposphere and stratosphere is called the “Tropopause” and the higher border is connecting to ozone layer. The temperature at 20 km. is starting at -60 Degree Celsius. The temperature will increase 2 Degree Celsius in every kilometer of height. At 48 km. from ground the air temperature is 0 Deg. Celsius. The component of the atmosphere in this layer is 19.9 percent of air mass. However, the weather in this layer is well than stratosphere, because the air is drier than stratosphere. If we are compare the density of air mass in this layer and the lower layer. We will know the density of air mass in this layer is big lighter than the lower layer. Some groups of cirrus clouds will buoyant in this layer. For airplanes, they will cruise in the lower attitude of this layer.
# Saylor.org's Ancient Civilizations of the World/The Black Death
## Overview

The "Black Death" is the name given to the pandemic of bubonic plague which devastated Europe between 1346 and 1353, with the peak years being 1348-1350. The plague was caused by the Yersinia pestis bacterium carried by the Oriental rat flea living on black rats. The infected rats from China and Central Asia had made their way to the Crimea and the Mediterranean with the cargo of merchants along the Silk Road. This incidence of bubonic plague is estimated to have wiped out between 30 and 60 percent of Europe's population at the time, reducing total world population from 450 to 350-375 million in the 14th century. Because the Yersinia pestis bacterium killed so many and required uninfected hosts in order to survive, the years of mass pandemic in Europeans ended quickly. However, the plague remained a perennial problem for Europeans until the 19th century. The bacterium would survive in the fleas of European rats but would inevitably infect a number of previously uninfected people every year, but never again to the extent of the Black Death years.

## Symptoms

The most prominent symptom of the bubonic plague is the development of buboes in the groin, neck or armpits. A bubo is a swelling of lymph nodes that appears like a blister the size of an egg which oozed pus or bled when opened. An accompanying symptom is the development of acral gangrene and necrosis, the premature death of cells, leaving the skin and digits of the infected black and rotted.

## Consequences

Apart from the 75-200 million Europeans estimated to have perished from the plague in the 14th century, the years of the Black Death had a profound effect on the culture of Europe. Because 14th century science could not fully grasp why the plague had spread a number of explanations from God's wrath to Jews poisoning wells was offered by contemporary Europeans. These rumors about Jews led to some of the most infamous persecutions of the Medieval world. Hundreds of Jewish communities across Europe were destroyed in retribution for the perception that they had been the perpetrators of the Black Death.
In addition, the very real possibility that Europeans might at any minute become infected and die led to a widespread cultural phenomenon of living for the moment, as explored in Giovanni Boccacio's work The Decameron. Another cultural consequence of the Black Death was the artistic motif of the Danse Macabre, or Dance of Death. Numerous works of European art at the time depict dancing skeletons to remind people the fragility and brevity of their lives as well as the emptiness of earthly possessions and distinctions.
# Saylor.org's Ancient Civilizations of the World/The Arab Empire of the Umayyads
## The Arab Empire of the Ummayyads: Caliphate and civil war (632–750)

With Muhammad's death in 632, disagreement broke out over who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim community. Umar ibn al-Khattab, a prominent companion of Muhammad, nominated Abu Bakr, who was Muhammad's companion and close friend. Others added their support and Abu Bakr was made the first caliph. Abu Bakr's immediate task was to avenge a recent defeat by Byzantine forces, although he first had to put down a rebellion by Arab tribes in an episode known as the Ridda wars, or "Wars of Apostasy".
His death in 634 resulted in the succession of Umar as the caliph, followed by Uthman ibn al-Affan, Ali ibn Abi Talib and Hasan ibn Ali. The first caliphs are known as al-khulafā' ar-rāshidūn ("Rightly Guided Caliphs"). Under them, the territory under Muslim rule expanded deeply into Persian and Byzantine territories. When Umar was assassinated in 644, the election of Uthman as successor was met with increasing opposition. In 656, Uthman was also killed, and Ali assumed the position of caliph. After fighting off opposition in the first civil war (the "First Fitna"), Ali was assassinated by Kharijites in 661. Following this, Mu'awiyah seized power and began the Umayyad dynasty, with its capital in Damascus.
These disputes over religious and political leadership would give rise to schism in the Muslim community. The majority accepted the legitimacy of the three rulers prior to Ali, and became known as Sunnis. A minority disagreed, and believed that Ali was the only rightful successor; they became known as the Shi'a. After Mu'awiyah's death in 680, conflict over succession broke out again in a civil war known as the "Second Fitna". The Umayyad dynasty conquered the Maghrib, the Iberian Peninsula, Narbonnese Gaul and Sindh. The local population of Jews and indigenous Christians, persecuted as religious minorities and taxed heavily, often aided Muslims to take over their lands from the Byzantines and Persians, resulting in exceptionally speedy conquests.
The Umayyad aristocracy viewed Islam as a religion for Arabs only; the economy of the Umayyad empire was based on the assumption that a majority of non-Muslims (Dhimmis) would pay taxes to the minority of Muslim Arabs. A non-Arab who wanted to convert to Islam was supposed to first become a client of an Arab tribe. Even after conversion, these new Muslims (mawali) did not achieve social and economic equality with the Arabs. The descendants of Muhammad's uncle Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib rallied discontented mawali, poor Arabs, and some Shi'a against the Umayyads and overthrew them with the help of the general Abu Muslim, inaugurating the Abbasid dynasty in 750 and moved the capital to Baghdad.
# Simple Guide to Minecraft/Adventure

Adventure mode is the same as Survival, except the player can only break blocks with tools with the CanDestroy NBT tag and place blocks with the CanPlaceOn NBT tag. It is often used in player made maps to prevent griefing.
# Simple Guide to Minecraft
## Disclaimer

We are not affiliated, associated, authorized, endorsed by, or in any way officially connected with Mojang Studios, or Microsoft, or any of its subsidiaries or its affiliates.
The name Minecraft as well as related names, marks, emblems and images are registered trademarks of their respective owners.

## Introduction

This book, A Simple Guide to Minecraft, is about Minecraft, a 3D sandbox game by Mojang Studios, created in 2009. Its purpose is to introduce new players to basic mechanics of the game, such as crafting, building, trading, and basic redstone.
Notes: This book is not meant to be a directory of all blocks/mobs/items, as it is meant to be a simple guide to help new players. For all blocks/mobs/items, see other online resources, such as the Minecraft Wiki linked below. The content within this book only includes information about the base game, without modifications.
Before editing, please read the Manual of Style.
# Simple Guide to Minecraft/Creative

Creative mode is a thrilling and boundless gameplay experience in Minecraft, offering players the freedom to unleash their creativity and build without limitations.
In Creative mode, players have access to an extensive inventory of items and blocks from the start. There are no restrictions on resources, allowing players to build magnificent structures and landscapes without the need for gathering or crafting. This mode is ideal for players who want to focus solely on their imaginative endeavors.
The day-night cycle in Creative mode does not affect gameplay, as there are no hostile mobs to contend with. Players can freely explore the vast and diverse biomes, such as lush forests, towering mountains, expansive deserts, and shimmering oceans. These environments serve as a canvas for players to shape their visions and construct breathtaking creations.
With an abundance of blocks and items at their disposal, players can build structures of any scale and complexity. From grand castles and towering skyscrapers to intricate redstone contraptions and sprawling cities, the possibilities are limited only by the imagination. Creative mode empowers players to experiment with different architectural styles, experiment with landscaping, and create stunning works of art.
Collaborative multiplayer in Creative mode allows players to join forces with others, working together to bring their collective visions to life. By sharing resources and ideas, players can collaborate on ambitious projects, constructing entire worlds that showcase their combined talents.
Creative mode also encourages players to engage in imaginative gameplay beyond construction. They can experiment with redstone circuitry, creating elaborate mechanisms and contraptions. Players can design puzzle maps, adventure maps, or mini-games, sharing their creations with others to enjoy.
In this mode, the focus is on unrestricted creativity, enabling players to shape their own virtual realms and explore the endless possibilities within Minecraft. With the absence of survival elements, players can fully dedicate their time to constructing awe-inspiring structures, fostering their artistic skills, and indulging in the limitless potential of their imaginations.
Creative mode is the ultimate outlet for expression and invention in Minecraft. It offers an immersive and liberating experience where players can transform the world according to their wildest dreams, making it a paradise for builders, architects, and anyone seeking an unbounded sandbox for their creativity to thrive.
For more information, please see the Survival Tutorials page.
# Simple Guide to Minecraft/Enchanting

The enchanting process in Minecraft is one that can be seen as complicated. However, this page will help you crush the confusion that stands in between the clear window of level 30 enchanting. Enchanting is a simple thing that takes little practice (though practice does help) to master, even small youtube videos on this subject are very helpful and could answer many question that this article might fail to bring to subject.
To start you will need a few late game items. One of the most noticeable on this list being the use of a Diamond Pickaxe. See the full list below:
* An Enchanting Table (Enchantment Table in Minecraft: Bedrock Edition) Crafted with 4 obsidian (thus the Diamond Pickaxe), 2 diamonds, and one book.
* 0-15 Bookshelves (Depends on enchantment level, see Enchantment Levels section for further information.)
* Lapis Lazuli 1-3 (Preferably a stack of 64)
Gather your materials (listed above) to begin, if you don't have 15 bookshelves, skip the second step, if you do, continue as normal.
The first step is to place down you're enchanting table/enchantment table on a flat space, it can be inside a house, on a flat turf, of floating in the middle of the End.
The second step is to place your 15 bookshelves in the configuration shown below (Important note: make sure there are no blocks obscuring the view between the bookshelves and the enchanting table):
And the third and final step is to place your Lapis Lazuli and your item in the enchanting table and click the enchant level you want. And there you go, you have enchanted for your first time.
# Spanish/Exercises/Regular Verbs - Solutions

Soluciones a los ejercicios. Solutions to the exercises

### Fill in the blank

Por favor, rellena los espacios en blanco con la forma correcta del verbo: Please, fill in the blank with the correct form of the verb:
1. Nosotros aprendemos español. We learn Spanish.
2. Yo compro un libro. I buy a book.
3. Carmen y Roberto viajan a Mexico. Carmen and Roberto travel to Mexico.
4. Ana habla ingles. Ana speaks English.
5. Tú bebes una cerveza. You drink a beer.
6. Susana escribe una carta. Susana writes a letter.
7. Los niños estudian para el examen. The children study for the exam.
8. Fernando y Lucas cantan una cancion. Fernando and Lucas sing a song.
9. Tú lees un libro. You read a book.
10. Vosotros subís las escaleras. You (plural) climb the stairs.
Enlace a los Ejercicios Link to exercices
Enlace a la lección 3 Link to the lesson 3.
# Spanish/Exercises/Stem Changing Verbs

^Lesson 4^

### Fill in the blank

Please fill in the blank with the correct form of the verb:
1. Yo ____________________ (cerrar) la puerta. I close the door.
2. Tú _______________________ (perder) tus llaves. You lost your keys.
3. ¿_________________________(preferir) usted la langosta? Do you prefer lobster?
4. Nosotros _______________________ (entender) los ejercicios. We understand the exercises.
5. Felipe y Juan ______________________(empezar) las prácticas de gramática. Felipe and Juan begin the grammar practices.
6. Ellos ____________________ (querer) almorzar. They want to eat lunch.
7. La chica _____________________ (perder) su pañuelo. The girl loses her handkerchief.
8. ¿Qué ______________________ (pensar)? What do you -singular- think?
9. Sofía _______________________ (entender) a Julio. Sofía understands Julio.
10. Yo no ______________________ (querer) la ensalada. I don't want the salad
Bonus: Argentinian voseo
2. Vos _____________________ (perder) tus llaves. You lose your keys.
8. ¿Qué ______________________ (pensar)? What do you -singular- think?
* Yo _____ciero________________ (cerrar) la puerta. I close the door.
* Tú ______pierdes_________________ (perder) tus llaves. You lost your keys.
Soluciones a los ejercicios Solutions to the exercises
^Lesson 4^
# Spanish/Exercises/¿Adónde vas a ir?

Welcome to the exercises related to lesson 8 of ¡Aprovéchalo! The answers can be found here. Also, try translating the dialogue at the top of the lesson page.

## The Simple Future tense

Put the following into the simple future tense.
* Como a las seis.
* Juegan al fútbol.
* Almuerza a las seis.
* Me peino a las tres.
* Vivimos en un piso en Inglaterra.
* Se llama Miguel.
* ¿Duermes a la una?
* Sois de Escocia.
* Tengo doce años.

## In the future...

Put the following in chronological order.
* Pasado mañana
* El año próximo
* La semana que viene
* Mañana por la noche
* El mes que viene
* En el futuro
* Mañana por la mañana

## Holidays

Fill in the gaps in the following text. You might not need to put anything in the gap.
    El año (1)____ viene, voy (2)____ ir (3)____ México en tren. Voy a (4)____ dos semanas allí. Normalmente, paso solamente una semana, pero (5)____ gustaría (6)____ relajarme totalmente.
    Voy a alojarme en (7)____ chalet familiar con hombres amables que (8)____ en (9)____ Estados Unidos también. El chalet cobra (10)____ veinte euros (11)____ noche.
    Cuando allí, hay (12)____ para hacer. Vamos a tomar (13)____ sol durante el día, y (14)____ la noche, vamos a bailar y (15)____ de juerga. También, (16)____ encanta la comida allí - los huevos (17)____ fantásticos. (18)____ a cenar en un restaurante diferente cada noche.
    Finalmente, (19)____ voy a ir a México porque quiero aprender (20)____ idioma - español es fantástica.

## Stem-Changing Verbs

Conjugate the following verbs in the present tense.
* Pensar
* Tener
* The following are all verbs you have learnt. Say if they are stem-changing, or not, and say if they're E=>IE or O/U=>UE.
** Jugar
** Comer
** Almorzar
** Querer
** Vivir
** Cenar
** Entender
** Poder
# Spanish/Exercises/Telling Time

^Lesson 2^

## Translate the following into Spanish

* It's quarter past one.
* It's two o'clock.
* It's twenty minutes after five.
* It's midnight.
* It's six o'clock.
* It's half past ten.
* It's five minutes to eleven.
* It's ten minutes to noon.
Soluciones a los ejercicios Solutions to exercices
^Lesson 2^
# Spanish/Exercises/Telling Time - Solutions

* Es la una y cuarto.
* Son las dos (en punto).
* Son las cinco y veinte.
* Es medianoche.
* Son las seis (en punto).
* Son las diez y media.
* Son las once menos cinco.
* Es mediodía menos diez.