OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Computer Go/Glossary
## Chain

A group of stones that are all connected along the lines of the board (vertically or horizontally). All stones in one chain share their liberties. Also "block", "string", or "group".

## Group

Either a synonym for chain or used to refer to several chains considered together that co-operate or that could be trivially connected.

## Liberty

An empty point adjacent to a single stone or chain of stones.

## Point

Either the scoring unit or an intersection on the board. In Tromp-Taylor terminology, a point may be colored black, white, or empty. Using boards, coloring a point black or white means placing a stone of that color on the point. Coloring a point empty, i.e. emptying a point, means removing the stone from it.

## Suicide

Self-capture; a move that does not capture any stones and in which the stone just placed has no liberties.

## Superko

The rule that no move can repeat an earlier board position. In Tromp-Taylor terminology, a move that repeats an earlier grid coloring violates the superko rule. Variants of the rule exist.
# Computer Go/Developer Resources
## Computer Go Test Collection

CGTC contains realistic full-board test problems taken from computer Go games.
http://www.cs.ualberta.ca/~games/go/cgtc/

## GoBase.org's List of Go resources

http://gobase.org/information/computers/

## Overviews of Computer Go techniques

Computer Go: an AI Oriented Survey (2001) - Bruno Bouzy & Tristan Cazenave (PDF)
Computer Go (2002) - Martin Müller (gzipped PDF)
Overzicht van de ontwikkeling van een Go spelend programma - Mark Boon (Dutch)
* Review of the development of a Go playing program (Partial English translation by Markus Enzenberger]
A library of eyes in Go - Thomas Wolf (PDF)
# Chess Opening Theory/1. f4/1...e5/2. fxe5/2...d6/3. exd6/3...Bxd6/4. h4
## 4.h4??

This is a blunder, as it defends against 4...Qh4 but falls to another mate.

## Theory table

| 4 | |
| ... Bg3# | 0-1 |
# Chess Opening Theory/1. f4/1...e5/2. fxe5/2...d6/3. exd6/3...Nf6
## 3...Nf6

This is the Langheld Gambit, a dubious pawn sacrifice to create lots of unknown traps and trick the white players to fall for them.
# Chess Opening Theory/1. f4/1...e6
## 1...e6

This move takes advantage of White's exposed f4-pawn. Also, if White blunders with 2. g4??, Black may apply Fool's mate with 2...Qh4#.
The most common move in this position is 2. Nf3.
When contributing to this Wikibook, please follow the Conventions for organization.
# Chess Opening Theory/1. f4/1...f5
## The Symmetrical Variation

This is not a very popular line for Black because it can lead to a closed and relatively uneventful game if Black copies White's moves. This opening has only 40 games played by masters in the Lichess Master Database. There are two ways of playing this opening: 1. immediately disrupting the closeness with 2.e4, or 2. playing solidly and developing quietly.
Of note here is the Double Duck Formation, which is when White plays d4 and Black responds with d5.

## Statistics
### Approximate Chances

    White wins 25%, Draws 43%, Loses 33%

## Theory Table

For explanation of theory tables, see theory table and for notation, see algebraic notation.
| | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
| Wagner-Zwitersch Gambit | e4 fxe4 | d3 exd3 | Bxd3 Nf6 | Nf3 e6 | = |
| Swiss Gambit | e4 fxe4 | Nc3 Nf6 | g4 ... | ... ... | =/+ |
| | Nf3 Nf6 | g3 g6 | Bg2 Bg7 | O-O O-O | = |
| Double Duck Formation | d4 d5 | | | | = |
When contributing to this Wikibook, please follow the Conventions for organization.

## References

* Nunn's Chess Openings. 1999. John Nunn (Editor), Graham Burgess, John Emms, Joe Gallagher. ISBN 1-8574-4221-0.
* Modern Chess Openings: MCO-14. 1999. Nick de Firmian, Walter Korn. ISBN 0-8129-3084-3.
* Kasparov, Garry, & Keene, Raymond 1989 Batsford chess openings 2. ISBN 0-8050-3409-9.
# Chess Opening Theory/1. f4/1...e5/2. fxe5/2...d6/3. exd6/3...Bxd6/4. Nf3/4...g5/5. h3/5...Bg3
## 5...Bg3#

This is checkmate.
# Chess Opening Theory/1. f4/1...e5/2. g4/2...Qh4
## Bird's Opening/Fool's Mate
## 2...Qh4#

White has played a very poor move and allowed Black the quickest possible checkmate in the opening game of chess. Mate in two moves. The mate almost never occurs in practice but is commonly known among chess players because it is the fastest possible.
When contributing to this Wikibook, please follow the Conventions for organization.

## References

* Kasparov, Garry, & Keene, Raymond 1989 Batsford chess openings 2. ISBN 0-8050-3409-9.
# Chess Opening Theory/1. f4/1...e5/2. fxe5/2...d6/3. exd6/3...Bxd6/4. Nf3/4...g5/5. h3
## 5.h3??

This unfortunate move caused the loss of three white players in Lakdawala's database. While white has stopped g4, the price is far too high, he just allowed Bg3 mate!
# Chess Opening Theory/1. f4/1...e5/2. fxe5/2...d6/3. exd6/3...Bxd6/4. h4/4...Bg3
## 4...Bg3#

This unexpected move checkmates the white king along the e1-h4 diagonal in a resounding fashion.
1.f4 e5 2.fxe5 d6 3.exd6 Bxd6 4.h4?? Bg3#
# Bird Opening
## 2. g4

This move is a blunder, as it allows the fastest possible checkmate in chess, with Black playing 2...Qh4#. This is a variation of the Fool's Mate.
# Crowdsourcing

Crowdsourcing: the Wiki Way of Working explains an approach to organising work that is in some ways the opposite of traditional planning and management. It draws out some lessons from the most visibly successful crowdsourcing projects that support education and research, including Wikipedia. It shows how these community-based projects, despite their unorthodox methods, share educational and scholarly objectives with more traditional institutions and projects. It suggests ways in which those institutions and projects can benefit from working with Wikipedia and the wider Wikimedia community.
It was originally published in February 2014 as an infoKit on the Jisc infoNet site and is reproduced here under its CC-BY-SA licence. It can be read as a series of self-contained points or case-studies, or as a journey from theory to practice. Development of the infoKit was funded by Jisc and Wikimedia UK. The principal author of the text is Martin Poulter. Improvements are welcome to this Wikibook edition of the infoKit.
This is not meant to be a comprehensive manual of crowdsourcing. The topic is also addressed in parts of the Wikibooks Citizen Science and Lentis: The Social Interface of Technology.

## Contents

* Two approaches to complex tasks
* The Wikipedia way
** Division of labour
** Wikipedia, the triumph of crowdsourcing
** Progress without a plan
** The drive for quality
** Summing up
* Free content and open processes
** Making soup with stone
** Intellectual property
** Network effects (the power of one)
** Summing up
* Community design
** Norms and culture
** A shared goal
** The right kind of goal
** Summing up
* Gamification
** Managing motivations
** Recognition and badging in Wikipedia
** Summing up
* Crowdsourcing in practice
** Division of labour for a scholarly database
** Defining progress: geographical data
** Motivation: documenting a town
* Crowdsourcing the restoration and reuse of images
** Keeping everybody happy
** Image restoration
** Contextualisation
** Improving image metadata
** Summing up
* Further reading
* Start
# Cross-Platform Game Programming with gameplay3d/Particles
## Overview

The gameplay::ParticleEmitter class defines all the information needed to simulate and render a system of particles. Particle emitters can be used to represent a multitude of visual effects, such as smoke, steam, fire and explosions; and other atmospheric effects, such as rain and lightning. Once created, the emitter can be set on a gameplay::Node in order to follow an object, or it can be placed within a scene.

## Creating a particle emitter

Use the ParticleEmitter::create method to create a particle emitter.
There are 3 overloads of this function, but the one which you are likely to use most commonly is the overload for creating a particle emitter from a .particle file, which has the following function signature:
If you want to create a particle emitter programmatically, you can use the following overload, which creates an uninitialized ParticleEmitter. The new particle emitter can then be configured using member functions in the ParticleEmitter class.

## .particle files

The following is a commented example of a .particle file created with the "sample-particles" example project, which is a useful particle editor packaged with gameplay3d.
Given the number of fields which need completing in a .particle file, and because it is helpful to see a visual representation of the particle emitter while you are editing it, the "sample-particles" project is probably the easiest way to get started creating and configuring particle emitters.
# Cross-Platform Game Programming with gameplay3d/Tips for optimizing performance
## Textures

* Generally, you should prefer pre-computed mipmaps (e.g. DDS format) over runtime mipmap generation for the following reasons:
** load times are likely to be faster; and
** the quality of the mipmaps will be higher and more consistent across different GPUs.
* Use compressed texture formats (i.e. PVRTC, ATC, ETC, DXT) where possible. This reduces storage space and improves loading times, as well as saving GPU memory bandwidth, which leads to better performance.
* Use texture atlases to minimize OpenGL state changes, which are costly for performance.
# Crowdsourcing/Community design/A shared goal

Wikipedia’s core principles are summed up in "five pillars" which all new users are encouraged to learn. A quick summary is:
* Wikipedia is an encyclopedia
* Wikipedia is neutral
* Wikipedia is free
* Users interact in a civil and respectful manner
* Wikipedia does not work on fixed rules
Which of the pillars is the crucial one for getting people to work together productively, and to discuss each other’s work constructively? The fourth pillar may stand out as the obvious answer because it directly tells users to be civil. However, such rules do not guarantee civil behaviour, or the problems with trolling and abuse in online communities could be solved instantly.
More important is the first pillar, “Wikipedia is an encyclopedia”. This specifies a very constrained kind of literature; an encyclopedia is a summary of already-published knowledge. New users who add personal opinions, personal experience or speculation are told that this is inadmissible irrespective of whether they are right or wrong, because those things are not in scope of an encyclopedia.
If the goal of an article about abortion were to decide “the truth” about abortion, the debate would be unproductive and interminable. In practice, this would not be a shared goal because people would work against each other. Deciding what reputable sources say about abortion, and what opinions are held about abortion by different cultures and groups, is more achievable. There is scope for disagreement, but it is a goal that people with widely different opinions can share.
The drive for quality requires that articles are written in a balanced way, and writing a balanced article usually requires multiple sources and points of view to be represented. This incentivises contributors to write about perspectives that they don’t personally agree with. Paradoxically, the focus on verifiable sources can give the impression that Wikipedia is not interested in or directed towards truth, but this focus actually promotes reliability by directing contributors to reliable sources rather than their subjective responses to the topic.
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# Cross-Platform Game Programming with gameplay3d/Text and Fonts
## Importing fonts into gameplay3d

Gameplay3d supports TrueType fonts, but these must first be converted to a gameplay bundle file (see Cross-Platform Game Programming with gameplay3d/gameplay3d Design Concepts) before use in your project.
Use the following steps to import a font into your project:
* Find or create a TrueType font file (.ttf).
* Pass the .ttf file to the gameplay-encoder command line tool and specify the size you want. A pre-compiled version of gameplay-encoder is available under GamePlay/bin:
* The gameplay-encoder will output a .gpb file.
* Copy the .gpb file to your game's resource directory. (The .ttf file does not need to be included.)
* Import your font into your project as follows:

## Drawing text with a Font

To render using a font:
* first, call Font::start on your font instance to start text drawing;
* second, call Font::drawText to draw some text at a defined location. There are four different overloads for this function, the parameters for which can be found in Font.h; and
* finally, call Font::start to finish text batching for the relevant font and render all drawn text.
Here is an example of loading a font and using it to render the game's frame rate on the screen.

## Batching

It is possible to call Font::drawText multiple times between Font::start and Font::finish in order to draw different text in different places with the same font.

## High-quality text using distance fields

Since version 2.0.0, gameplay3d supports distance field fonts. You can read more about distance field fonts in the Valve paper Improved Alpha-Tested Magnification for Vector Textures and Special Effects but, in short, distance fonts look a lot better than bitmap fonts, particularly at high magnification!
To create a distance field font, use the -f:d option parameter when running gameplay-encoder, e.g.:
# Crowdsourcing/Community design/Norms and culture

Are you free to park anywhere you like? There is a sense in which nothing prevents you from parking your car anywhere that can be reached from the road. You are not physically prevented from parking on your neighbour’s lawn or across the middle of the high street, but this does not mean you are free to do it. Drivers know they can only park in certain places. Elsewhere, they risk getting fined or towed away. So in a physical sense, you can park on people’s lawns, but in a more important cultural sense that actually shapes people’s behaviour, you can’t.
Wikipedia and similar communities have that same distinction between what is technically possible and what is culturally allowable. Technical possibility is determined by the software, but what is culturally allowable is decided in policy, values and community consensus. There is scope for interpretation and for human judgement in deciding what contributors are free to do, just as there is scope for a court to decide if someone’s actions count as murder.
It is technically possible to delete all the text from Wikipedia’s Featured Article, replace journal citations with tabloid newspapers, or to copy articles from a blatantly promotional site. This doesn’t mean that Wikipedia regards you as free to do these things, in fact they would be disastrous, even just as an experiment. For vandals, there are consequences: the edits can be undone and the accounts warned, blocked or banned.
So creating a community-driven site involves establishing and enforcing cultural norms and procedures. These answer such questions as:
* How does the community resolve disputes?
* What distinguishes constructive from unconstructive contributions?
* How do you distinguish good-faith but unconstructive contributions (which require educating or nudging the contributor) from intentional disruption (which requires minimising the future damage they can do)?
* How are disruptive contributions punished? How are constructive contributions rewarded?
* What changes are new users trusted to make, and how can they earn greater trust, or have trust withdrawn?
The transparency and perceived fairness of the answers to these and other questions will affect people’s experience of the community and their willingness to contribute.
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# Crowdsourcing/Community design/Summing up

While there are some "do’s" and "don’ts", the success of Wikipedia is not an easily replicable model, and may even be unique. So in most cases it makes sense not to beat them but to join them. Creating a new volunteer community is hard, but moving digital content into a space where an existing community can work on it is easier.

#### References

* ↑ Masum, H., Rao, A., Good, B.M., Todd, M.H., Edwards, A.M., et al. (2013) ‘Ten Simple Rules for Cultivating Open Science and Collaborative R&D’. PLoS Computational Biology, 9(9) [Online]. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1003244 (Accessed 17 February 2014).
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# Cross-Platform Game Programming with gameplay3d/More about Materials
## Materials, Techniques, Passes and Effects

As you may recall, a Model in gameplay3d is a specific instance of a Mesh, which consists of one or more MeshParts.
In order to render a Model in gameplay3d, each of the MeshParts in that Model must have an associated Material. Since each MeshPart can have a different Material, this allows different parts of the Model to be rendered in a different way. For example, if you have a character that is wearing armor, you could apply a metallic material to that armor while applying simple texturing to the remaining parts of the Model.
A Material contains one or more Technique(s). The idea behind having Techniques is to permit the easy switching of render techniques at runtime, without setting an entirely new material on the MeshPart. As an example, you may have a Model to which you apply a bump mapping Technique when it is near the camera, but you switch to a simple texturing Technique when it is further away in order to improve performance.
Each Technique can have one or more Pass(es), each of which corresponds to a single OpenGL draw call. In order to use multipass rendering techniques, you would add more than one Pass to your Technique.
Passes contain:
* an Effect, which basically represents an GLSL shader program (i.e. vertex and fragment shader);
* various information regarding the render state (e.g. the blend function to be applied, whether depth test is enabled etc.);
* a VertexAttributeBinding, which either encapsulates (or simulates, if you hardware doesn't support it) an OpenGL VAO (vertex attribute object), and sets out how the Mesh's data relates to the inputs in the GLSL shader program.
Phew! That may seem like a long list of things to remember, but you should find that this system provides a lot of flexibility for arranging your rendering behavior in a neat and orderly fashion.

## Help! I can't see my model...

Here are some common reasons why you may not be able to see your model (or it shows up all in black):
* You have not set all the required uniforms used by your shader. Have you remembered to call one of the following functions for every uniform used in your shader?:
** material->getParameter([uniformName])->setValue([uniformValue]);
** material->getParameter([uniformName])->bindValue([insert arguments]); or
** material->setParameterAutoBinding([uniformName], [autobinding name]).
* The mesh used in your model does not contain all the attributes (i.e. per-vertex data) required by your shader. If your model was generated in a 3D modelling program, did the program export all necessary per-vertex data (e.g. tangents and binormal data for bump mapping) required by your shader? Note that the gameplay-encoder can generate tangent and binormal data for an FBX model that does not contain them by using the -tb option.
* Your mesh data is corrupt. This may be a problem if you have created your mesh procedurally, or if there is a bug in the FBX exporter in your 3D modelling program.
# Crowdsourcing/Community design

Wiki software is used by many different sites for different purposes, not all of which become successful crowdsourcing projects. The site has to function as a community that makes positive contributors feel welcome and destructive contributors unwelcome. It has to encourage people with different interests and opinions to build on each other’s work. The direction taken with this design can make or break the success of the project.
* Norms and culture
* A shared goal
* The right kind of goal
* Summing up
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# Electronics Bible/Capacitor

Capacitor is an electronics device made from a 2 parallel plates conductor that can store energy as Electric field

## Capacitance

Capacitance represents capacitor's capability to store energy as Electric field . Capacitor has a symbol $C$ and measured in unit Farad $F$
    $C={\frac {Q}{V}}$
Capacitor can be made from 2 parallel plates
    $C=\epsilon {\frac {A}{l}}$
From above
    $C={\frac {Q}{V}}=\epsilon {\frac {A}{l}}$
    $\epsilon ={\frac {Q}{V}}{\frac {l}{A}}$

## Electricity response of capacitor
### Capacitor and DC electricity

Electric charge
    $Q=CV$
Capacitance
    $C={\frac {Q}{V}}$
Voltage
    $V={\frac {Q}{C}}$

### Capacitor and AC electricity

Voltage
    $v(t)={\frac {1}{C}}\int i(t)dt$
Current
    $i(t)=C{\frac {d}{dt}}i(t)$
Power
    $p(t)={\frac {1}{2}}Cv^{2}(t)$
Impedance
    $Z={\frac {v(t)}{i(t)}}=R_{C}+X_{C}=R+{\frac {1}{\omega C}}\angle -90=R+{\frac {1}{j\omega C}}=R+{\frac {1}{sC}}$
Reactance
    $X_{C}={\frac {1}{\omega C}}\angle -90={\frac {1}{j\omega C}}={\frac {1}{sC}}$
Phase angle
    $Tan\theta ={\frac {1}{\omega T}}$
Time constant
    $T=RC$
# Electronics Bible/Resistor

Resistor is an electronics device made from a straright wire conductor that has capability to resist current flow .

## Resistance

Resistance represents resistor capability to resist current flow . Resistance has a symbol $R$ and measured in unit Ohm $$ . According to Ohm's law,
    $V=IR$
Hence, resistance can be calculated as shown below
    $R={\frac {V}{I}}$
Resistor can be made from a straight wire conductor that has resistance of
    $R=\rho {\frac {l}{A}}$
From above
    $R={\frac {V}{I}}=\rho {\frac {l}{A}}$
    $\rho ={\frac {V}{I}}{\frac {A}{l}}$

## Electricity response of resistor
### Resistor and DC electricity

Voltage
    $V=IR$
Current
    $I={\frac {V}{R}}$
Resistance
    $R={\frac {V}{I}}$
Conductance
    $G={\frac {I}{V}}={\frac {1}{R}}$

### Resistor and AC electricity

Impedance
    $Z={\frac {v}{i}}=R+X_{R}=R\angle 0=R$
Reactance
    $X=0$
Voltage
    $v={\frac {W}{Q}}$
Current
    $i={\frac {Q}{t}}$
Power generated
    $p_{V}={\frac {W}{t}}={\frac {W}{Q}}{\frac {Q}{t}}=vi$
Magnetic field strength
    $B={\frac {\mu i}{2\pi r}}$
Resistance as a function of temperature
    $R(T)=R_{o}+nT$ for conductor . $R(T)=R_{o}e^{nT}$ for semi-conductor
Power loss
    $p_{R}=i^{2}R(T)=mC\Delta T$
Power provided
    $p=p_{V}-p_{R}$

## Resistor circuit
### Series resistor circuit

For N resistors connected in series
Total resistance
    $R_{t}=R_{1}+R_{2}+...+R_{n}$

### Parallel resistor circuit

For N resistors connected in parallel
Total resistance
    ${\frac {1}{R_{t}}}={\frac {1}{R_{1}}}+{\frac {1}{R_{2}}}+...+{\frac {1}{R_{n}}}$

### 2 port resistor circuit

For 2 resistors
    ${\frac {v_{o}}{v_{i}}}={\frac {R_{2}}{R_{2}+R_{3}}}$
For 3 resistors
    ${\frac {v_{o}}{v_{i}}}={\frac {R_{2}+R_{3}}{R_{2}+R_{1}}}$
For 3 resistors
    ${\frac {v_{o}}{v_{i}}}={\frac {1/R_{3}-1/R_{2}}{1/R_{1}+1/R_{2}}}$
# Electronics Bible
## Electronics components

* Resistor
* Capacitor
* Inductor
* Diode
* Transistor
* IC

## Electronics circuit

* Series circuit
* Parallel circuit
* 2 pot circuit
* Integrated circuit/
# Electronics Communication
## Communication

* Information & Signal
* Signal Processing
* Communication Systems

## Communication Components

* Microphone
* Speaker
* Antenna

## Communication Device

* Phone
* Fax
* Computer
* Printer
* Photocopier

## Further reading

* Electronics, Electronics Fundamentals, Electronics Handbook
* Digital Electronics, Circuit Theory, Communication Systems, Signals and Systems