# Mirad Grammar/print version

Mirad, formerly known as Unilingua, is an artificially constructed auxiliary language (conlang) developed and published in 1966 by the now-deceased Paris-based author Noubar Agopoff as a serious medium for easy and logical international communication. Mirad, which means world speech, and is pronounced mee-RAHD, is categorized by constructed language experts as taxonomic or ontological, because its vocabulary is mapped letter-by-letter to a semantic ontology or thesaurus. Also, the word-stock of Mirad is considered a priori, meaning that there is no deliberate association with words or roots in existing natural languages. The vocabulary is from scratch, yet based on internal lexical and semantic rules that help the learner to construct and deconstruct derivations sytematically, logically, mnemonically, and consistently. The author claims in his book Unilingua -- Langue universelle auxiliaire that this language is well-suited for universal, logical communication because it is based on principles already exploited globally by sciences like mathematics and chemistry, where symbolic formulas are constructed in accordance with strict rules and a limited sequence of symbols understood by all practitioners.

## Principles

Mirad is constructed on the following principles:
      * Every vowel has numeric, vectorial, scalar, semantic, or grammatical value.
      * Every consonant is meaningful either lexically or grammatically.
      * Word derivation is systematic, consistent, analogical, and mnemonic.
      * Words are as ontologically unambiguous as possible.
      * Words are as short and as easy to pronounce as possible.
      * Inflection and derivation of words is regular and predictable.
      * Word opposites differ only in the stem vowel (iva....happy; uva....sad).
      * Words that have similar meanings will share all but one or two letters (iva....happy; ivra ....joyful).
      * All words in the language are constructed from fewer than 500 building blocks.
      * Vocabulary in specialized and scientific fields is built on internationally agreed conventions.
      * The grammatical rules are regular and as simple as possible.
      * The vocabulary is totally a priori and neutral and not based on any existing language.
      * Formatives (derivational and inflexional prefixes, infixes, and suffixes) are nonexponential, that is, each one has only one purpose or meaning. In other words, the language is non-fusional.

## Changes from earlier version

    This book contains a revision of the language with additions and modifications to the original. The principal changes are:
      * The writing system now consists only of letters of the Latin alphabet, with no diacritics.
      * The letter w was added to mark the passive voice of verbs, among other things.
      * The letter s was changed to sound like the s in English sun.
      * The letter x was changed to sound like the sh in English show.
      * The letter c was changed to sound like the ch in English chair.
      * The letter h was added, mainly to create a systematic set of determiners like this, that, and every.
      * The letter q was added for certain scientific words and outside-imported words such as daiqiri or Qatar.
      * Grammatical cases were eliminated and replaced by prepositions.
      * Some prepositions and conjunctions were changed or added.
      * The definite article ha (the) was introduced.
      * Much new vocabulary was added and some words were altered.
      * The system of determiners was overhauled.
      * The manner of encoding names of chemicals, metrical units, and other entities was changed.
      * The language was gender-neutralized but provided the means to mark gender where necessary.
      * Zoological and botanical terms in Unilingua were differentiated by semi-random numerical scaling (apet....horse, epet....ox, etc.). This has been changed in Mirad to a systematic prefixation of syllables to the base name where the syllables come from the Linnaean Taxonomy.

## Conventions in this book

    In this book:
      * Words in Mirad are boldfaced.
      * Words in English that are translations of Mirad are italicized.
      * Technical grammatical terms in English are both boldfaced and italicized.
    For example:
      * The Mirad word van means that and is a positive subordinating conjunction.

## External links

* Earlier version of Mirad (Unilingua)
* Agopoff, author of Unilingua
* Wikipedia: Constructed_Language
* Mirad Thesaurus (a wikibook)
* Mirad Lexicon (a wikibook)

## References

* ↑ Agopoff, Noubar. Unilingua: Langue universelle auxiliaire, D-2647-66

## Vocabulary Built on Native Roots

    In English, we have many words like ichthyology, which baffle younger speakers of the language, because they are borrowed from a foreign language, in this case, classical Greek. This word, which could just as easily and more rationally be the Anglicized fishlore, means the science of fish. If a word in English relates to fish, why is fish not a part of the word? Even for modern day Greeks to understand the word ιχθυολογία (ichthyologia), they have to know the ancient root ιχθύς (ichthys) for fish, which has long been supplanted by the current word everyone uses, ψάρι (psari). What I'm saying is that the vocabulary of English, as is the case in many other natural languages, is a hodgepodge of borrowings, irregular spellings, and words cobbled from obscure roots that have little recognizability for the average speaker.
    While English is a melting pot of words, there are some languages that do less borrowing and less non-discriminate formation of words that do not associate with one another through some root or pattern. Icelandic, for example, does not borrow very much from other languages and its words are formed using roots familiar to speakers of that language. The Icelandic word for library is bokasafn, which literally, is book collection ( = saving). Any child in that language knows what the word means immediately, because it is composed of root words that are obvious. The English word library makes sense only if you know the Latin roots libr- (book) and -ary (place of).
    Arabic, by contrast, is a language that has a system of word-building based on a rational association of consonants and vowel patterns, such that most words relating to books and writing contain the three consonants k-t-b. Over the centuries, the system has been polluted with irregularities, but at least the consciousness of associations of words based on a root pattern is there and is still used today to coin new words.
    In Turkish, the bulk of words having to do with knowledge contain the native root bil. Because of this, most of these words will be grouped on the same pages in a dictionary. For example: bildik known, bildirim announcement, bilecen know-it-all, bilgi knowledge, bilgili knowledgeable, bilgin scholar, etc. A word such as unknowability inevitably contains the root bil and can be learned fairly easily by a young student of the language.
    Mirad has a vocabulary-building system with approximately 500 morphemes (word atoms or vocabulary building blocks) that are used to form derived words in the same sense family in accordance with a set of word-building rules. Words that are related semantically will share the same bulk of letters. For example, iva (happy), ivla (glad), and ivra (delighted) share the root morpheme iv- and differ only in one letter. The opposite of happy is derived by switching the vowel in the root morpheme from i to the negative counterpart u, such that uva means sad. Similarly, uvla (woeful) and uvra (tragic) are opposite counterparts to the extended iv- words.
    In Mirad, every letter of a word has some semantic or grammatical function. All words are part of a system. If you know the word for to lengthen, then you automatically know the word for to shorten. The rules for deriving new words from existing words are consistent across the language. In Mirad, there is no such thing as irregular conjugation of verbs as in English write, wrote, written. Nouns are pluralized in one way only across the board, unlike the multiple, unpredictable ways German and Arabic words are pluralized. Prepositions have one meaning, as contrasted with the multiple, inscrutable meanings of Russian or Latin prepositions.
    Words in Mirad are pronounced as they are written, with no exceptions. One letter is used for one sound. Only Roman letters are used in the alphabet, and there are no pesky diacritics (accents). Word stress is regular.
    What if we took this root association to the maximum degree and ensured that all words in a language were constructed on logical, associational, and regular principles with roots that are obvious to the learner? That would be the way Mirad does it.

## Deriving Opposites by Vowel-switching

    A very simple principle in Mirad is that a good portion of the vocabulary can be guessed by the learner without looking up words in the dictionary. All descriptive adjectives can be changed to their opposite with a simple change of vowel. For example, if you know fia (good), then you automatically know fua (bad). This is possible by knowing the rule of contrastive vowels: i is a positive vowel and contrasts with u, a negative vowel. Similarly, a contrasts with o, so that the opposite of aza (strong) is--you guessed it--oza (weak). In fact, if you know that e is an intermediate vowel, then you understand that eza means moderate. These simple principles of word-building mean that students of the language can cut down on their learning time by at least 50%.

## Using Consonants and Vowels to Vary Domains

    Another principle is that the beginning and/or closing consonants of a word in Mirad give you clues as to the meaning. All sentient creatures have the final stem consonant t, such that dat (friend), tot (god), at (I), tuzut (artist), and pit (fish) all refer to sentient creatures. The root stems of all words having to do with communication, begin with the letter d, eg. der (to say), dud (answer), dyes (book), dal (speech), etc. The internal vowels of root stems very often indicate concepts such as sky, land, sea or up vs. down, or zeroth, first, second, or toward the speaker vs. away from the speaker, and on and on.

## Scalarization

    In English, as in many other languages, there was probably some attempt to associate words in this way. Take for example, the series sing, sang, sung, song, singer, songstress or drip, drop, droop, dribble. More often than not, there is very little association among English words that are obviously distinguished by the one feature, size, eg. mountain, hill, knob, bump, pimple. In Mirad, these are all distinguished regularly by a scalarizing enumerative vowel. The Mirad days of the week are not a series of Roman- or Teutonic-related concepts, Moon-day, Tiw's-day, Woden's-day, Thor's-day, Freya's-day, Saturn-day, and Sun-day, all of which are a matter of memorization by the child or student of the language. Mirad days of the week consist rather of a series of words numerically arranged "day-one, day-two, day-three, etc." This is actually the approach taken by quite a few natural languages like Portuguese.
    The months, too, ought to be learned in 10 seconds, by knowing that an internal vowel of the root expresses the numerical order of the months. Again, there are some natural languages that do this. By knowing that jiab means month one, January, then by knowing how to count in the language, the word for September can be readily deduced as jiyub (month nine, yu being the number for 9).

## Taxonomy

    The formulaic language of chemistry is a pretty good likeness of Mirad. There is a world-recognized symbolic, taxonomic relationship between H$_2$O and C$_2$O. Similarly, in Mirad, the stem vowels of the names of animals indicate their primary habitat: air, land, sea, or combinations of these. Other combinations of letters indicate whether the animal is domestic, predatory, wild, etc. From then on, its enumeration is based on factors such as commonness, taxonomic relationships, etc. Likewise, with human and animal body terms, the stem vowel indicates location on the body, such as head, trunk, or limbs. Then another vowel delineates in a directional way where on the head: upper, middle, lower, and so forth. Just by looking at the word for a body part for the first time, by knowing the system, you can tell at least approximately that it is, say, a higher joint of the arm. Color words are based on their position on nature's color spectrum. Governmental and courtly powerholders and other hierarchical elements are ranked by an ordinal vowel, eg. adeb (emperor), edeb (monarch), ideb (prince), udeb (duke), etc. The names of the planets are enumerated by their relative distance from the sun, so: amer (planet 1 = Mercury), emer (planet 2 = Mars), imer (planet 3 = Earth), etc. Zoological and botanical names are based on the international Linnean Taxonomy.

## Mnemonics

Words in the language can be mnemonically associated to body terms by changing the initial domain consonant accordingly, so, while teb means head, xeb in the x or work/action domain is boss, deb in the social/political domain is leader, etc.
    The following chart shows in this mnemonic echoing in action, where the letters before -ub suggest the domain:
       Mnemonic Echoing DOMAINWORD human (body)tub....arm work/actionxub....subsidiary, branch plantsfub....limb, branch, bough(of a tree) fishpitub....fin birdspatub....wing animalpotub....paw land-sea animalpeitub....flipper shoetyoyafub....(scuba-diving) flipper vegetationvub....shoot, sprig, twig society/politicsdub....minister, department head buildingtomub....wing (of a building) landmub....promontory rivermifub....oar thingssub....ramification, offshoot tablesemub....flap (of a table) rotating thingszyufub....rudder flatzyifub....paddle roundzyub....lobe

## Conclusion

Mirad uses many different techniques to short-cut the difficulty of learning new words or recognizing terms. The vowels, consonants, mnemonics, scalarization, taxonomy and many other methods are used to make the vocabulary as rational and intuitive as possible. Unlike in most natural languages, words like snow and sleet are going to have sounds in common in Mirad. I have never found a language other than Mirad where the words for ice, water, and steam are derived from one another even though we all know they are actually all H$_2$O in different temperature states.

## The Alphabet

    Mirad uses the Roman alphabet as in Modern English. There is an upper case (majuscules or capital letters) and a lower case (miniscules or small letters). The upper case letters are used for capitalization exactly as in English. Mirad, at least for non-foreign words, uses no diacritic marks such as the brève, the grave accent, or the dieresis. The order of the alphabet is the same as in English. The letters, though, are pronounced as shown in the chart. Note that there is a pattern: The vowel of each Mirad letter name changes to the single vowel letter before it. For example, the vowel in the name for letter f changes to e following the letter e in the alphabetic sequence. The Mirad letter name for j is ji because it is just beyond the vowel letter i in the alphabetic sequence. Uppercase letters have a Mirad letter name beginning in ag, a prefix meaning big.
       Alphabet A-N Lowercaseabcdefghijklmn Mirad Letter Name abacadaefegeheijikilimini UppercaseABCDEFGHIJKLMN Mirad Letter Name agaagbaagcaagdaageagfeaggeagheagiagjiagkiagliagmiagni
       Alphabet O-Z Lowercaseopqrstuvwxyz Mirad Letter Name opokorosotouvuwuxuyuzu UppercaseOPQRSTUVWXYZ Mirad Letter Name agoagpoagkoagroagsoagtoaguagvuagwuagxuagyuagzu
    The letters c and q are used only to represent words and names imported into Mirad from other languages, or for words in which letters of the alphabet are used to spell out chemical terms, metric units, country names, languages, and other terms based on existing world standards like ISO.

## Letter Names

    Spelling a word aloud means uttering the word's Mirad letter names in succession left to right. If the letter is a upper case, then the letter name is preceded by ag-....big, eg.:
   * anxwa is spelled aloud as a-ni-xu-wu-a
   * Mirad is spelled aloud as agmi-i-ro-a-da
    Note that age for E and agge for G need to be carefully distinguished. The former, age is pronounced a-ge, while the latter, agge, is pronounced ag-ge.

## Capitalization

    Capitalization in Mirad is handled almost exactly as in English:
   * The first word of a new sentence is capitalized.
      * At ife et.....I love you.
      * Iyt da: "At ife et."....She said, "I love you."
   * All proper nouns are capitalized, including names of people, organizations, books, languages, countries, etc.
      * Mirad....Mirad
      * Ferom....France
      * ha Feromati....the French
      * Alica be Flisem....Alice in Wonderland
      * ha Yoongun....The Pentagon
   * Acronyms are capitalized.
      * ZUYX....NATO.
      * DXV....FBI.
   * If a verb or adjective is based on a proper noun, the proper noun part of the word gets capitalized.
      * Deumxer....to Germanify
      * loNazixer....to de-Nazify
      * Irolim-ulza....Kelly (= Ireland) green.
   * The planets and inhabitants of planets are capitalized.
      * Ha tyod bi Imer.....The people of Earth.
      * Ha Umerati upeye.....The Martians are coming.
   * The word god is capitalized if referring to a religion's one, true god, otherwise not.
      * Ha toti se futipa.....The gods are angry.
      * Fyadilu bu Tot.....Pray to God.
      * Van yat fyadilu bu Allah.....Let's pray to Allah.
    Unlike in English, though:
   * The days of the week, the months of the year, and the seasons are not capitalized.
      * juab....Monday
      * jieb....February
      * jeub....Winter

## Punctuation

    Punctuation is handled as in English, with the following exception:
   * A colon (:) is used in direct quotations, as opposed to the comma (,) used in English, eg.:
       He said, "Let there be light."....It da: "Van esu man."
    Here is a chart showing punctuation marks and symbols along with their names in Mirad:
       Punctuation Marks and Symbols ENGLISHSYMBOLMIRAD MARKS (siyn) period.nodsiyn comma,grunsiyn colon:ennodsiyn semi-colon;nodgrunsiyn question mark?didsiyn exclamation point!yoksiyn single quote'aona gedsiyn double quote"eona gedsiyn hyphen-naydsiyn dash, em dash--eona nadsiyn underscore, low line_oybnadsiyn vertical line|aonadsiyn wave dash~pyaon nadsiyn forward slash, solidus/zaya kinad backward slash, reverse solidus\zoya kinad double slash//eona kinad apostrophe'oysunsiyn left parenthesis right parenthesis( ) zua uzkun yebyujarsiyn zia uzkun yebyujarsiyn left angle bracket right angle bracket< ]zua gun yebyujarsiyn zia gun yebyujarsiyn left square bracket right square bracket[ ]zua izkun yebyujarsiyn zia izkun yebyujarsiyn left curly bracket right curly bracket{ }zua uzyua yebyujarsiyn zia uzyua yebyujarsiyn ellipsis...innodsiyn caret^garsiyn SYMBOLS (siun) ampersand&aysiun at sign@asiun percent sign%asoynsiun hash tag, pound sign, number sign#sagsiun asterisk*marsiun dollar sign?Usodansiun/
    Note: Most of these marks and symbols are on a standard English-language keyboard. Mathematical symbols are not listed here, nor are most accent marks like "grave accent". See the Mathematical Expressions section of Numbers.

## Text Direction

    Text in Mirad is written from left to right with spaces between words.

# Consonants
## Consonant graphemes and phonemes

    The following chart shows the correspondence of the consonants and their phomemic values in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA):
Correspondence of Consonant Graphemes and Phonemes :
| Grapheme | b | c | d | f | g | h | j | k | l | m | n | p | q | r | s | t | v | x | z |
| Phoneme | /b/ | /t͡ʃ/ | /d/ | /f/ | /g/ | /h/ | /ʒ/ | /k/ | /l/ | /m/ | /n/ | /p/ | /k/ | /ɽ/ | /s/ | /t/ | /v/ | /ʃ/ | /z/ |

## Pronunciation of Consonants

    The following chart shows the Mirad consonants with their phonemic values in the IPA:
Consonants :
| | | Labial | Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Glottal |
| Nasal | Nasal | /m/ | /n/ | | | |
| Plosive | voiced | /b/ | /d/ | | /g/ | |
| Plosive | unvoiced | /p/ | /t/ | | /k/ | |
| Affricate | voiced | | | | | |
| Affricate | unvoiced | | | /t͡ʃ/ | | |
| Fricative | voiced | /v/ | /z/ | /ʒ/ | | |
| Fricative | unvoiced | /f/ | /s/ | /ʃ/ | | /h/ |
| Approximate | Approximate | | /l/ | | | |
| Flap | Flap | | /ɽ/ | | | |
    The phonemes /r/ and /l/ are consonant liquids and behave in a special way in forming words in Mirad.
    In Mirad, every consonant has a one-to-one correspondence with a single phoneme (ideal sound). Mirad does not use digraphs like sh or ph to represent consonant sounds. There are no double consonants, although sometimes a consonant will come together with the same consonant in the same word, but not the same syllable. There are no silent consonants. Also, there are no letters in "native" Mirad with diacritical marks like é or ñ.
    Here are the letters that are pronounced somewhat differently from English:
   * The letter x is pronounced like an sh in English, or a ch in French.
   * In native Mirad words, h is pronounced like the h in English hand. It is sometimes used to simulate foreign sounds like the ch in Yiddish lachayim (to life!), or German Bach. If h comes at the end of a word, it is silent, but, being a consonant, it can serve to move the stress to the word-final syllable, as in Allah, pronounced a-LA.
   * The letter j is pronounced like the zh in Russian Zhivago or the ge in English mirage.
   * The letter s is always unvoiced as English ss and never sounds like a z.
   * The letter g is always a hard sound as in English gap, not as in English wage.
   * The letter c represents the unvoiced affricative sound t͡ʃ like the ch in English church. Some chemical names and metric units use the letter c, such as calilk (chlorine).
   * The unvoiced plosives p, t, and k are pronounced without the puff of breath that sometimes follows them in their English counterparts. The corresponding consonants in French are exact equivalents.
   * The consonant r should be a flap or trill like the r in Brit. Eng. very or the single, intervocalic r in Spanish pero.
   * The consonant q is usually pronounced as a k, but in foreign borrowings or proper names, it may be pronounced according to context.
   * The consonants in the Mirad alphabet correspond one-to-one with phonemes. There are no cases of consonant sounds being represented in native words by digraphs as in English ph, sh, ch, or th. For example, the sh sound in English is represented by x in Mirad. The English ch sound is represented in Mirad with the letter c. There are no equivalents in Mirad for the English sounds th in this or the th in think, but the combination th in foreign borrowings is pronounced as it is in the source language.
    Here is a chart showing the phonetic values of Mirad consonants:
Consonants :
| MIRAD CONSONANT/ SEMI-CONSONANT GRAPHEME | IPA | ARTICULATION | NEAREST EQUIVALENTS |
| b | [b] | unaspirated voiced bilabial plosive | French bon, English boy |
| c | [tʃ] | unvoiced palato-alveolar affricate | English child, Spanish chico |
| d | [d] | unaspirated voiced alveolar plosive | French de, English dog |
| f | [f] | unvoiced labio-dental fricative | English fog |
| g | [g] | unaspirated voiced velar plosive | French gare, English good (always hard, even before e and i). |
| h | [h] [x] | glottal fricative | English house (used in some foreign words and names as a kh-like sound like German Bach. Not pronounced at the end of foreign borrowings like Allah or Arkansah. |
| j | [ʒ] | voiced palatal fricative | French je or English mirage. |
| k | [k] | unaspirated unvoiced velar fricative | French carte, English skip (without aspiration). |
| l | [l] | voiced post-alveolar lateral approximant | English love or French bel (never a dark l as in English bell. |
| m | [m] | voiced bilabial nasal | English mother. |
| n | [n] [ŋ] | voiced alveolar nasal | English nobody Before g or k, like English fang. |
| p | [p] | unvoiced bilabial plosive | French pain, English span (without aspiration). |
| q | - | - | (Only used in foreign words, or some chemical names, where it has various k-like or guttural pronunciations). |
| r | [r] | alveolar flap | Spanish mira or Italian Roma or British Eng. 'very. |
| s | [s] | unvoiced alveolar fricative | Always hard as in English safe (never a z sound as in rose). |
| t | [t] | unaspirated unvoiced alveolar plosive | French tous, English stop (without aspiration). |
| v | [v] | voiced labial-dental fricative | English very. Spanish and German speakers need to beware: this is not a bilabial consonant, nor is it an f sound. |
| x | [ʃ] | unvoiced post-alveolar fricative | English shape or French cher |
| z | /z/ | voiced alveolar fricative | English zone. German speakers, beware. Mirad z is pronounced like a German s, as in sehr, not like z as in zehn, which sounds more like ts. |

# Vowels

    Mirad vowels are divided into simple and glided vowels. The simple vowels are single letters, while the complex vowels have one or more semi-vowel glides (y or w) prefixed or suffixed.

### Simple Vowels

The Mirad graphemes (alphabetic letters) used to represent the simple vowel phonemes (minimal meaningful sounds) are as follows:
Vowel Graphemes and Phonemes :
| Grapheme | a | e | i | o | u |
| Phoneme | /a/ | /e/ | /i/ | /o/ | /u/ |

### Pronunciation of Simple Vowels

    The simple vowels are pronounced as they are in many European Latin-based languages. The table below gives their phonetic values and some close examples in Spanish and French, and not-so-close examples in English.
Simple Vowels :
| VOWEL | IPA$^1$ | SPANISH | FRENCH | ENGLISH APPROXIMATION |
| a | [a] | mano | à | father |
| e | [e] | hecho | et | day $^2$ |
| i | [i] | si | si | see$^2$ |
| o | [o] | no | de l'eau | so$^3$ |
| u | [u] | tu | ou | too$^3$ |

### Glided Vowels

    Glided vowels are those preceded or followed by the semi-vowel glides y or w. This chart shows the possible glided vowels, their IPA equivalents, and their approximate pronunciations using English and other languages.
Glided Vowels :
| GLIDED VOWELS | IPA$^1$ | PRONUNCIATION |
| PRE-Y-GLIDED VOWELS |||
| ya | [ja] | Eng. yacht, Fr. hiacinthe |
| ye | [je] | Eng. yet, Fr. grillé (grilled) |
| yi | [ji] | Eng. yeast*, Fr. bouilli |
| yo | [jo] | Eng. yoke*, Fr. maillot |
| yu | [ju] | Eng. you*, Fr. piou-piou |
| PRE-W-GLIDED VOWELS |||
| wa | [wa] | Eng. water, Fr. gouache (poster paint) |
| we | [we] | Eng. wet, Fr. ouais (yes) |
| wi | [wi] | Eng. wee$^2$, Fr. oui (yes) |
| wo | [wo] | Eng. woke$^2$ |
| wu | [wu] | Eng. woo$^2$ |
| POST-Y-GLIDED |||
| ay | [aɪ] | Eng. sight, Sp. hay (there is) |
| ey | [eɪ] | Eng. day, Sp. rey (king) |
| iy | [iɪ] | Eng. see, Fr. bille (marble) |
| oy | [oɪ] | Eng. boy, Sp. hoy (today) |
| uy | [uɪ] | Eng. gooey, Sp. muy (very) |
| POST-W-GLIDED |||
| aw | [ɔ] | Eng. awe |
| ew | [eʊ] | colloq. Eng. Tell me! |
| iw | [iʊ] | Eng. eew! (sound of disgust), Du. niew (new) |
| ow | [oʊ] | Eng. know, foe |
| uw | [uʊ] | Eng. goo |
| PRE-Y-POST-W-GLIDED |||
| yaw | [jaʊ] | Eng. yaw |
| yew | [jeʊ] | Eng. yell (very rare) |
| yiw | [jiʊ] | Eng. yield (very rare) |
| yow | [joʊ] | Eng. yo bro! |
| yuw | [juʊ] | Eng. you |
| CIRCUM-Y-GLIDED |||
| yay | [jaɪ] | Eng. yikes |
| yey | [jeɪ] | Eng. yea! |
| yiy | [jiɪ] | Eng. yeesh! (sound of disgust) |
| yoy | [joɪ] | Eng. yoink ( = New Jyoizy ) |
| yuy | [juɪ] | Eng. Hughie |
| PRE-W-POST-Y-GLIDED |||
| way | [waɪ] | Eng. wise, Fr. ouailles (flock) |
| wey | [weɪ] | Eng. way |
| wiy | [wiɪ] | Eng. wee! (sound of fun) |
| woy | [woɪ] | Eng. woy (rhymes with boy) |
| wuy | [wuɪ] | Eng. wooish (rhymes with gooey) |
    In Mirad, the above glided vowels are considered single vowels for the purposes of grammar, syllabification, and stress.
    Note 1: International Phonetic Alphabet. See chart and click on sounds at.
    Note 2: Without the typical y-glide at the end of the English vowel. The vowel should be pure, as in the Romance languages of Europe.
    Note 3: Without the typical w-glide at the end of the English vowel. The vowel should be pure, as in the Romance languages of Europe.
    Every syllable in Mirad contains one and only one vowel. A y when final or followed by a consonant is used to post-y-glide or diphthongize the previous vowel and is therefore considered part of the syllable in which that vowel is the nucleus (see case 2, below). Similarly, the liquids r and l, when final or followed by a consonant are considered to be a part of the syllable where the preceding vowel is the nucleus (see case 4, below). Two vowels in a row form two syllabic nuclei (see cases 3, 6, and 7, below). How syllables are divided is important for determining where the stress accent goes in a word (see Mirad_Grammar/Stress, below).
Syllabification :
| CASE | EXAMPLE | SYLLABIFIED |
| 1 | ama.....hot | a-ma |
| 2 | ayma.....warm | ay-ma |
| 3 | aymsea.....warming up | aym-se-a |
| 4 | pixwa....caught | pix-wa |
| 5 | upayo....will have come | u-pa-yo |
| 6 | vyaa....true | vya-a |
| 7 | vyaay....truly | vya-ay |
| 8 | vay....indeed | vay |
| 9 | tambwa....settled | tam-bwa |
| 10 | faof....plank | fa-of |
| 11 | twoyba....he-she | twoy-ba |
       Although stress in Mirad is not marked and is not phonemic, i.e. not semantically distinctive, in all words of more than one syllable, the stress occurs on the last, non-final vowel, including glided vowels. The following chart gives some examples:
Stress :
| Mirad Word | With Stress and Syllabification Marked |
| tejna....vital | tej-na |
| igay....quickly | i-gay$^1$ |
| alayn....eleventh | a-layn |
| Mirad....Mirad | Mi-rad |
| booka....tired | bo-o-ka$^2$ |
| bookan....fatigue | bo-o-kan |
| akea....winning | a-ke-a |
| oyse....lacks | oy-se |
| byoskyin....pendulum | byos-kyin |
| pyaon....wave | pya-on |
| tooyba....female | to-oy-ba |
    $^1$ Here ay is a single post-y-glided vowel, and final, so it is not stressed.
    $^2$ Two vowels in a row are pronounced in two syllables.
    Here is a small passage where the stress of vowels in shown by boldfacing:
       Hya tobi taje yiva ay gea be utfiz ay doyivi. Yit bulwe texyaf ay tyaf ay yeyfe hyuitaxler tidyenay.
       All men are born equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act toward one another as brothers.
    Phonotactics refers to the patterns in which the phonemes of a language may combine to form sequences. The possible syllabic patterns of Mirad are given below in a chart.
    For the purposes of this chart:
      * Y stands for the semi-vowel glides y or w.
      * L stands for the liquids r and l.
      * C stands for consonants other than glides or liquids.
      * A stands for simple vowels.
      * N stands for the nasal consonants m or n.
      * + means 1 to 3 of the foregoing letter
      * Parentheses indicate that a letter is optional.
      * Bracketing indicates a choice of letters or patterns.
    Syllables in native Mirad are shaped according to the following pattern constraints:
Phonotactics :
| ALLOWABLE SYLLABIC PATTERNS | EXAMPLES |
| (C)[LG]A+(Y)(L)(C) | o, ay, xwa, gyo, gra, toyb, glays, alp mayr, hyos, va, xwa, gyo, gla, gre, vya, lo, wa, yu, gaw |
| ...A(Y)N(C)[sx] | mamp, yomx, yank, yons, eynx |
   * Two non-glide/liquid/non-nasal consonants cannot appear together in the same syllable, except in foreign-imported words.
   * Two glides or liquids cannot come together in one syllable except in foreign-imported words.
    Mirad words can be categorized as the following parts of speech, followed by their inflectional and derivational subcategories:
SUBSTANTIVES
* Nouns ( = sunduni)
   * Common Nouns
      * Countable Nouns (tam....house, ewa tami....two houses)
         * Animate Nouns (tob....person)
         * Inanimate Nouns (pur....car)
         * Gender-Neutral Nouns (nyem....box)
         * Male-Specific Nouns ( twob....man)
         * Female-Specific Nouns ( toyb....cow)
         * Singular Nouns (sem....table)
         * Plural Nouns ( semi....tables)
      * Uncountable Nouns
         * Mass Nouns (miek....sand, gla miek....a lot of sand)
         * Deverbal Nouns ( ~ Gerunds/Infinitives/Abstractions) (melyexen....farming, melyexer....to farm, ifon....love, xeyn....deed)
         * Deadjectival ( ~ Abstract) Nouns (vian....beauty)
   * Proper Nouns
      * Full names (Usom....United States)
      * Acronyms (EA....EU)
* Pronouns ( = avduni)
   * Personal Pronouns (iyt....she)
   * Reflexive Pronouns (aut....myself)
   * Possessive Pronouns ( atas....mine)
   * Deictic ( ~ Demonstrative) Pronouns (hus....that)
   * Quantitative Determiner Pronouns (glati....many of them)
   * Reciprocal Pronouns (hyuit....one another)
VERBS ( = erduni)
* Tenses
   * Present (pe....goes)
   * Past (pa....went)
   * Future (po....will go)
   * Atemporal (pu!....Go!)
* Aspects
   * Progressive (peye....is going, peya....was going)
   * Perfect (paye....has gone, paya....had gone)
   * Imminent (poye....is about to go, poya....was to go)
   * Potential (puye....is apt to go, puya....was apt to go)
* Moods
   * Hypothetical (pu....would go, [van has] pu....[that it] go)
   * Indicative (po...will go, pe....goes)
* Voices
   * Active (It yijba ha mes.....He opened the door.)
   * Passive (Ha mes yijbwa.....The door was opened.)
   * Medio-passive (Ha mes yija.....The door opened.)
* Transitivity
   * Transitive (besa....stayed)
   * Intransitive ( bexa....held)
* Dynamicity
   * Static (tujeye....is sleeping)
   * Dynamic (tujpa....fell asleep)
* Focus
   * Subject-oriented (yafe....is able)
   * Patient-oriented (yafwe....is possible)
MODIFIERS
* Adjectives ( = aduni)
   * Deictic Adjectives ( ~ Determiners) (duhoa?....which?, hyea....any)
   * Descriptive Adjectives (via....beautiful)
   * Denominal Adjectives (vensona....conditional)
   * Pronominal ( ~ Possessive) Adjectives) (yata....our)
   * Deverbal Adjectives ( ~ Participles) (tejea....living, obwa....removed)
   * Numeric Adjectives (awa....one, ewa....two)
* Adverbs (ayduni)
   * Inherent adverbs (voy....not)
   * Derived adverbs (ikay....fully)
CONNECTORS
* Prepositions ( = ebduni)
   * Simple Prepositions (av....for)
   * Complex Prepositions (be zam bi....in front of, yib bi....far from)
* Conjunctions ( = yanxduni)
   * Coordinating (ay....and, ey....or)
   * Subordinating (van....that, ven....if)
   * Correlative (hyaewa...ay....both...and)
   * Adverbial (johus....then, avhus....therefore)
PARTICLES ( = dunesi)
* Interjections ( = tipduni) (hey!....Yoohoo!, hway!....bravo!)
* Cardinal Numbers (a....one, e....two)
* Letter Names (a, ba, ca)
* Onomatopeia (pao!, xux!)
* Abbreviations (a.g.....etc., a.k.....e.g.)

## Noun Types

    Nouns in Mirad can be distinguished in the following 7 ways:
      * common vs. proper
      * concrete vs. abstract
      * countable vs. mass
      * gender-neutral vs. masculine/feminine
      * singular vs. plural
      * animate vs. inanimate
      * full form vs. acronym
          Common vs. Proper Nouns COMMONPROPER tam....houseEmer....Venus yagsim....benchFerom....France dyes....bookNotre Dame...Notre Dame tej....lifeTot....God
          Concrete vs. Abstract Nouns CONCRETEABSTRACT tab....bodyifon....love mil....wateroyman....coolness deuz....songdeuzen....singing
    Abstract nouns include gerunds, i.e. nouns which are nominalized derivations of verbs like deuzen....singing < deuzer....to sing or osexen....destruction < osexer....to destroy. Infinitives like deuzer....to sing are also considered abstract nouns.
          Countable vs. Mass Nouns COUNTABLEMASS pat....birdpattel....bird food patayebi....featherspatayebyan....plumage megi....rocksmil....water
    In native Mirad, all common nouns in their singular dictionary lookup form end in a consonant. Proper nouns sometimes end in a vowel, such as Roma....Rome. Plural common countable nouns end in the vowel i (pat....bird ⇒ pati....birds).
          Gender-neutral vs. Gendered GENDER-NEUTRALFEMININEMASCULINE tob....human beingtoyb....womantwob....man edeb....monarchedeyb....queenedweb....king ted....parentteyd....mothertwed....father
          Singular vs. Plural Nouns SINGULARPLURAL dom....citydomi....cities gon....partgoni....parts jub....dayjubi....days
          Inanimate vs. Animate Nouns INANIMATEANIMATE mam....skypot....animal tom....buildingaot....person job....timetobet....child
          Full form vs. Acronym FULL FORMACRONYM Anxwa Doobi....United NationsAD....UN Mir Nunuien Xob....World Trade OrganizationMNX....WTO
    The above noun type distinctions are relevant in various parts of Mirad's grammar.

## Pluralization of Common Nouns

    A singular countable common noun always ends in a consonant and is made plural by suffixing the pluralizing marker -i. So, the plural of pur....car is puri....cars. In noun phrases, for example, where a noun is modified by an article and adjective, only the noun is pluralized, that is, there is no agreement across word boundaries as in many European languages (la belle fleur →les belles fleurs). The plural suffix -i is the only way nouns in Mirad are inflected. All other changes to nouns are derivational in nature, eg. genderization, augmentation, diminution, capitalization, etc.
    Pluralization of Nouns SINGULARPLURAL tam....housetami....houses toyb....womantoybi....women tej....lifeteji....lives ha via dom....the beautiful cityha via domi....the beautiful cities

## Modifying Nouns with the Definite Article

    In Mirad, there is only a single noun-modifying article, the invariable definite article ha (the). There is no indefinite article like English a / an. A noun is considered indefinite or general unless modified by the definite article ha (which in reality is a definite deictic determiner, discussed with other deictic determiners in the later section on Mirad Grammar/Determiners#Deictic Determiners). The definite article ha is positioned, as in English, before the noun and before any other adjectives or modifiers of that noun. It is invariable, in that it does not vary for gender, number, or case as in German or Spanish. The definite article acts like its counterpart in English, as shown in the following chart:
    Use of the Definite Article MIRADENGLISHSPECIFICITY tama houseindefinite, no article ha tamthe housedefinite ha tamithe housesdefinite, plural tejlifegeneral, no article fitejawa teja life well-livedindefinite, no article ha tej (...ho at bayse)the life (... that I have)specific FeradFrenchlanguage name, already specific, no article IvanIvanperson's name, no article Ifliu yivan!Cherish freedomabstraction, no article Ha yivani ho yat ifie.The freedoms that we enjoy.abstraction specified Yata yivani...Our freedoms...abstraction specified with possessive pronoun, no article
    Speakers of French and other European languages should take note that general concepts like love, life, freedom do not employ the definite article unless they refer to a specific instance, such as in the phrases the love that dare not speak its name or the life well-lived or the freedoms we possess. The names of languages and countries are also considered already specific, and so as in English, they do not take a definite article as they might in some European languages. Names of persons do not take the definite article as they do in modern Greek, unless in a phrase like "the Ivan I once knew."

## Proper Nouns

    Proper nouns, such as names of people, places, languages, etc., are capitalized as in English. The formation of country names and languages is discussed in Countries of the World and Languages of the World. It can be said here, though, that country names end in -m; the inhabitants of those places end in -t or pl. -ti; and the languages they speak end in -d. Language names are capitalized, eg. At tixe Ferad. (I study French.). In fact, this is the case for all parts of speech derived from a proper name, eg. Usoma tel Feramxweye. American food is being Frenchified.. French speakers beware; this is not like in French. And German speakers beware, too! Not all nouns are capitalized; only ones that are proper, such as names of people, companies, languages, countries, etc.
    Names of people, cities, etc. are spelled in Mirad to best reflect the foreign pronunciation, but also to remain recognizable. For example:
      * Xikago....Chicago
      * Paris....Paris
      * Munxen....Munich/München
      * Beijing....Beijing
      * Nu York....New York
      * Nu Orlinz....New Orleans
      * Xampanya....Champagne
      * Méhiko Dom....Mexico City
      * Waxington....Washington
      * Seol....Seoul
      * Xeykspir....Shakespeare
    An inhabitant of a city is formed by adding -t or -at to the name, depending on whether it ends in a vowel or consonant, respectively, eg. Parisat....a Parisian or Waxingtonati....Washingtonians. Chicago's main newspaper is expressed in Mirad as ha aaga jubdindref bi Xikago. The English preposition in used before cities and states is translated by be in Mirad, eg. At tambese be Paris.....I live in Paris.

## Noun Modifiers: Placement and Agreement

    Nouns can be modified by various qualitative, quantitative, and deictic adjectives, which all precede the noun. These modifiers come in the same order as in English. There is no gender or number agreement between the modifiers and the noun, except that numeric adjectives, such as ewa....two naturally are followed by a noun in the plural number.
    Noun Modifiers MiradEnglish ha ewa aga tamithe two big houses gla ifxea taximany pleasant memories hya fia tobevery good man ha yaga via mepithe long, beautiful roads gra vua sexentoo much ugly construction ata aja tejimy past lives

## Noun Linkage

    Nouns can be
      * linked with a preposition or conjunction, where the prepositional/conjunctional phrase follows the head noun, or
      * juxtaposed, where the modifier noun is separated by a space and comes before the head noun, or
      * compounded, where the modifier noun is prefixed to a headword, or
      * hyphenated, where two equal elements are joined by a hyphen.
    Examples:
       Noun Linkage LINKAGE EXAMPLECONSTRUCTION Ivan ay Maria....Ivan and Marianouns linked associatively by the conjunction ay (and) ha tam ey ha par....the house or the carnouns linked associatively by the conjunction ey (or) hyati oy ha toybi....all but the womennouns linked associatively by the conjunction or (but) nyandras boy eta dyun....a list without your namenouns linked associatively by the preposition boy (without) tej bi nasuk....a life of povertynouns linked associatively by the preposition bi (of) ha tam bi Maria ....Mary's house (the house of Marynouns linked possessively by the preposition bi (of) job bi aga ivan....a time of great joynouns linked associatively by the preposition bi (of) dyes ayv ha Ea Mira Dropek....a book about the Second World Warnouns linked associatively by the preposition ayv (about) dropek jwabeni....war preparationsmodifier noun dropek (war) juxtaposed with the head noun jwabeni (preparations) dom yuzpur....a city busmodifier noun dom (city) juxtaposed with the head noun yuzpur (bus) tojojfon....a death wishmodifier noun toj (death) compounded with the head noun ojfon (wish) jogatanyaf....youth leaguemodifier noun jogat (youth) compounded with the head noun anyaf (league) maj-moj....a day-and-nighttwo or more equal, opposed nouns hyphenated
    The X bi Y prepositional construction must always be used for possession by a named person, eg. ha tam bi Sam (Sam's house = the house of Sam). The methods of noun linkage otherwise follow the English pattern in most all cases. Pronominal possession such as his car is discussed in the section on personal pronouns. The preposition bi....of is used in partitive expressions like tilzyeb bi vafil....a glass of wine (but: vafil tilzeb....wine glass, where wine modifies the glass associatively). More about this and other prepositions or conjunctions can be found in the section on Mirad Grammar/Prepositions or Mirad Grammar/Conjunctions.
    Details on how noun vocabulary is derived appears in the section on Mirad Grammar/Vocabulary Formation.

## Noun Derivational Affixes

    Nouns can be divided into:
      * simple nouns such as pur....vehicle
      * compound nouns such as bixpur....train < bix....pull + pur....vehicle
      * derived nouns such as fabyan....forest < fab....tree + -yan a suffix meaning collection
    Derived nouns can be formed by attaching nominal suffixes or prefixes to words or roots. A list of nominal suffixes to form derived nouns is shown in the following table. More can be read about noun derivation in the section on vocabulary-building.

### Noun Suffixes

    Noun Derivational Suffixes SUFFIXMEANINGBASE ONTO WHICH SUFFIX IS ADDEDEXAMPLES -agbignountam....house → tamag....mansion tyal....meal → tyalag....banquet tilar....spoon → tilarag....ladle -anabstact quality -ness -hood, -ityadjective stemvia....beautiful → vian....beauty yeva....fair → yevan....fairness, equity toba....human → toban....humanity, humanness, manhood -aygbig and cutenountam....house → tamayg....cozy mansion kapet....dog → kapetayg....wolfie -ambok-itis, inflammationnounbuixtaib....tendon → buixtaibambok....tendonitis -dlanguage speech utteranceadjective and other stemsEnigem....English → Eniged....English (language) Mira....of the world → Mirad....Mirad (world speech) ekpet....horse →ekped....neigh, whinny -drun-gramnoun stemstiib....heart → tiibdrun....cardiogram -dra/i/ur-graphnoun stemsam....heat → amdrar....thermograph -dren-graphymostly noun stemsyib....far → yibdren....telegraphy -efneed ofvarious stemstel....food→telef....hunger iga....fast→igef....emergency til....drink→ tilef....thirst -enpresent gerund -ing -tion -mentverb stemifi-....enjoy →ifien....enjoyment deuz-....sing→deuzen....singing ax-....act → axlen....acting -eynpresent gerund -tion -mentverb stemx-....do →xeyn....deed s-....to be→seyn....essence jaup-....preceed → jaupeyn....precedent -essmaller counterpart thingnountef....hat→ tefes cap saun....kind→ saunes....sample dreuz....poem → deuzes....stanza mek....dust, powder→mekes....speck, grain -etsmaller counterpart personnountwob....man → twobet....boy toyb....woman→ toybet....girl -iflove of -philianountel....food → telif....gourmandise doab....homeland → doabif....patriotism dyes....book → dyesif....bibliophilia, love of books -igquicknoun and verb stemman....light → manig....flash pyex....stroke→pyexig....swat yopap-....dive, fly down → yopapig....swoop -imroom, chambervarious stemsfyadil-....to pray →faydilim....chapel magel-....to cook → magelim....kitchen tof-....to dress → tofim....dressing room -indoctrine, dogma, -ismvarious stemstot....god → totin....religion, theism otofa....nude→otofin....nudism yufr-....terror → yufrin....terrorism -kyaoxar-statnoun stemsam....heat → amkyaoxar....thermostat -nabstract nounvarious stemsze....in the middle of → zen....center za....in front of →zan....face byi....since, starting with → byin....source go....less→ gon....part -amhouse buildingvarious stemsnun-....merchandise → nunam....store til drink → tilam....bar, tavern fyadil-....to pray → fyadilam....church -(e)mplacevarious stemsduho-? what-?→ duhom?....where? yex....work → yexem....worksite ab....on, above → abem....top, surface kua....lateral→kum....side -umcompartment boothvarious stemsteuzibar....telephone → teuzibarum....telephone booth -yemenclosure, boxvarious stemsekpet....horse →ekpetyem....corral b-....put → byem....position -udoffspring, baby ofnounekpet....horse→ekpetud....foal -wudson ofnounekpet....horse→ekpetwud....colt -uyddaughter ofnounekpet....horse→ekpetuyd....filly -oglittlenountab body→ tabog....corpuscle ekpet....horse → ekpetog....pony tyal....meal → tyalog....snack golbun....cut → golbunog....cutlet -oyglittle and cutenountam....house → tamoyg....cottage gafapayt....chicken →gafapaytoyg....chickadee mimpar....boat → mirparoyg....dingy -nagar-ometernounam....heat → amnagar....thermometer -ar, -ir, -urtool, machine, engineusu. verb stemp-....to go→ pur....car dr-....to write → drar....pencil gobl-....to cut → goblar....knife yaobl-....to lift up and down → yaoblur....elevator, lift yaoblir....lift, crane dop....military → dopar....gun dopur....machine gun dopir....artillery, cannon -sthing, object, the X oneadjectiveaa first → aas....first one, first thing otwa....unknown → otwas....mystery, an unknown tejea....living → tejeas....living thing -(s)onabstract thing issuevarious stemsif-....to love→ifon....love ov against→ ovon....obstacle aza strong → azon....force yika....difficult → yikson....problem -(s)unobject thing result of an actionvarious stemsvyua....dirty → vyun....spot tamb-....settle →tambiun....settlement gofr- shred → gofrun....scrap, shred hyo....not a single→ hyosun....not a single thing -tpersonadjectiveea second → eat....second one, second person fya-....holy → fyat....holy one, saint ujna....last→ujat....last one, last person Usoma....American →Usomat....an American -tajbus-ogen, producernounom....cold, cry- → omtajbus....cryogen -tunscience of, -ologynountot....god → tottun....theology tob....man → tobtun....anthropology vob....plant →vobtun....botany -tuynpseudo-sciencenounmar....star → martuyn....astrology -tuintheorynounvyelan....relativity→ vyelantuin....theory of relativity -tyenskill, craftnounsur....engine → surtyen....engineering -(t)indoctrine, -ismnounzaypas-....progress → zaypasin....progressivism -tut, tuyt (f.)scientist -ologist -istnountot....god → tottut....theologist tob....man → tobtuyt....woman anthropologist vob....plant→ vobtut....botanist -ufhate of, -phobianounmil....water → miluf....hydrophobia totin....religion → totinuf....hatred of religion toyb....woman → toybuf....misogyny -ut, uyt (f.)agent, one who Xes, -er, -ant, -istverb stembek-....treat → bekuyt....female nurse pop-....travel→poput....traveler ak-....win → akut....winner --yafability to, power -abilityverb stemteat-....to see → teatyaf....ability to see tex-....to think → texyaf....cognition test-....to understand → testyaf....comprehension nos-....to spend → nosyaf....spending power t-....to know → tyaf....cognizance -yafwanpossibility, -abilityverb stemteat-....to see → teatyafwan....visibility -yofinability to, disabilityverb stemteat-....to see → teatyof....blindness teet-....to hear → teetyof....deafness pas-....to move→pasyof....paralysis tuj-....to sleep → tujyof....insomnia -yofwanimpossibilityverb stemteat-....to see → teatyofwan....invisibility -yagbig and ugly, longnountetwid....uncle→ tetwidyag....dirty old uncle toyb....woman → toybyag....hag -yancollection, grouping -arynountob....man → tobyan....mankind mar....star → maryan....constellation fab....tree → fabyan....forest dyes....book→ dyesyan....library -yenmanner, kindnoundal....talk →dalyen....parlance sex-....build →sexyen....structure -yefduty, obligationverb stemdud-....to answer → dudyef....responsibility byok-....to ache → byokyef....punishment -yikdifficulty toverb stemteeter....to hear → teetyik....difficulty hearing tiex-....to breathe → tiexyik....difficulty breathing, asthma -yoglittle and uglynountam....house →tamyog....shack anpiat....duck → anpiatyog....ugly duckling kod....secret → kodyog....little dirty secret -yuffear of, -phobianounserpyet....snake→ serpyetyuf....fear of snakes mil....water → milyuf....hyrophobia -yukease ofverb stempes- to wait → pesyuk....patience kovyox- to fool → kovyoxyuk....gullibility, foolhardiness

### Differences between -en, -eyn, and -un

    The noun suffixes -en, -eyn, and -un create nominalized forms from verb stem, but are a bit confusing. The suffix -en is equivalent to the English -ing and forms a gerundive. The suffix -eyn is a slight variation and refers to a single action or state. The ending -un forms a word meaning the result of an action and is often a thing. Sometimes -eyn is used instead of -un where the latter has a special meaning. Here are some examples:
      * xer....to do
         * xen....doing
         * xeyn....deed
         * xun....fact
      * yugxer....to slow up
         * yugxen....deceleration
         * yugxun....bottleneck
      * der....to say
         * den....saying
         * deyn....utterance, a saying
         * dun....word
      * ujer....to end
         * ujen....ending eg. I like ending on a happy note.
         * ujeyn....an ending, finale eg. This play's finale was emotional.
         * ujun....end, tail end eg. The road came to a sudden end.

### Examples of the Suffix -yen

    Wording Ending in -yen Base WordDerivation ajtyod....past peopleajtyodyen....tradition d-....to saydyen....expression akpas....winning moveakpasyen....tactic dre(r)....to writedreyen....writing system amal....atmosphereamalyen....weather an-....singleanyen....quirk, idio- axl-....to actaxlyen....behavior aot....personaotyen....character, personality ty-....to know howtyen....skill, craft x-....to doxyen....profession ze-....middlezeyen....means bas-....gesturebasyen....body language tex....thoughttexyen....opinion es-....to existesyen....state kya-....changekyayen....version p-....to gopyen....pace, gait yex-....to workyexyen....line of work tayot-....to feeltayotyen....texture

### Noun Prefixes

    Prefixes can also be attached to nouns to create derivatives. Here are some common productive ones:
    Noun Prefixes PrefixMeaningBase NounDerivations aa-first, arch-deb....leader dezun....performance tat....angelaadeb....premier azdezun....premiere aatat....archangel ab-superior, sur-, ondonab....rank dout....gentleman dyun....nameabdonab....superior rank abdout....aristocrat abdyun....title, surname an-one, uni-, mono-zyukpar....wheeled vehicle dungon....syllableanzyukpar....unicycle andungon....monosyllable ao-verticalnab....rankaonab....column aoyeb-in-and-outbelen....carryingaoyebelen....import-exports aov-for-and-againstdalson....subjectaovdalson...controversy ayb-over-, super-dras....script ilp....flow mas....nameaybdrun....superscript aybilp....overflow aybmas....ceiling ayn-holo-dras....script meg....stone sag....numberayndras....hologram aynmeg....hololith aynsag....integer aj-past, pre-, fore-din....story gex....equityajdin....history ajgex....revenge az-stronghihid....laugh ojvad....promise tos....feelingazhihid....guffaw azojvad....covenant aztos....passion do-publicdel....statement did....question vyab....ruledodel....announcement dodid....inquiry dovyab....law eb-inter-, dia-dal....statement ifek....gram kyax....changeebdal....dialog ebifek....interlude ebkyax....interchange eyn-semi-, hemi-, half-il....liquideynil....semi-liquid en-bi-, di-, two-zyukpar....wheeled vehicleenzyukpar....bicycle eg-normalbyen....manneregbyen....norm ej-step-, currenttwid....brother din....storyejtwid....step-brother ejdin....current news item ev-a-, neutraltotin....deismevtotin....atheism fi-eu-, bene-dyen....expression tos....feeling fon....willfidyen....euphemism fitos....euphoria fifon....benevolence fyi-helpfuldal....talkfyidal....advice fu-caco-, mal-, ill-, dys-seux....sound fon....will tos....feelingfuseux....cacophony fufon....ill-will, malevolence futos....dysphoria fyu-wastemil....water pelt...insect mul....stufffyumil....waste water fyupelt....pest fyumul....garbage fya-holydin....story buun....gift byekut....healerfyadin....gospel fyabuun....oblation, offering fyabyekut....shaman, witchdoctor fye-fantasy, mytho-din....story diyn....tale mir....worldfyedin....myth, fantasy fyediyn....fairy-tale, fable fyemir....fantasia, fantasy-world fyo-eviltat....angelfyotat....demon gab-plusnix....earninggabnix....interest gaw-re-aklen....conquestgawaklen....reconquest ge-equi-, iso-, even-eksag....score kyin....weightgeeksag....tie gekyin....equilibrium gel-homo-, like-, simul-dredun....speling san....formgeldredun....homograph gelsan....isomorph, clone gla-multi-, plur-, poly-gon....partglagon....plurality gra-too, hyper-bik....cautiongrabik....hypercaution gwa-macro-, super-mor....universegwamor....macrocosm gwo-micro-, mini-drenod....dot nog....degreegwodrenod....microdot gwonog....minimum hyi-homo-, sametoobif....gender preferencehyitoobif....homosexualtiy hyu-hetero-, different, other-, allo-, xeno-toobif....gender preference mer....planet san....shapehyutoobif....heterosexuality hyumer....alien planet hyusan....allomorph hya-omni-, pan-, all-doobin....nationalismhyadoobin....pan-nationalism hye-any, whateversaun....kindhyesaun....any kind hyo(s)-nothingten....knowledgehyosten....ignorance hyuit-mutualfizuen....respecthyuitfizuen....mutual respect ig-fastdidyan....questionnaireigdidyan....pop quiz ij-initial, headdun....word miap....streamijdun....prologue ijmiap....headstream ik-fullnuxen....paymentiknuxen....liquidation il-liquidok....lossilok....leak imwetmel....soilimmel....loam, wetland in-tri-, threegoblun....cutingoblun....trisection iv-happydin....storyivdin....comedy iz-straight, orth-, rect-, directfin....quality mep....pathizfin....rectitude izmep....beeline, vector ja-before, pre-bik....cautionjabik....precaution je-continuousdodal....speechjedodal....harangue jo-after, post-dren....writingjodren....postscript jwa-proto-, eo-, earlyajdin....history ejob....modern erajwaajdin....protohistory jwaejob....eocene jwe-promptpuen....arrivaljwepuen....on-time arrival jwo-latter, latemoj....nightjwomoj....late night ku-side, aside, lateralbux....push deyn....sayingkubux....rebuff kudeyn....remark ki-diagonal, slantnad....line texyen....opinionkinad....diagonal, slant kitexyen....bias ko-hide, covertd....utterance exut....operative flen....desire jadrun....plankod....secret koexut....spy koflen....envy kojadrun....plot kya-change, para-, re-'bax....movement dyan....phrase din....story naz....value napxen....orderingkyabax....shift kyadyan....paraphrase kyadin....version kyanaz....variable kyanapxen....reordering, shuffling kye-haphazardden....saying fyun....harm kaxun....findkyeden....guesswork kyefyun....danger kyekaxun....discovery kyo-fixedbyen....manner deyn....saying doneg....social classkyobyen....habit kyodeyn....cliché kyodoneg....caste kyi-heavyazon....force tes....meaning bal....pressurekyiazon....gravity kyites....importance kyibal....strain kyu-lightazon....force mamilkyuazon....ballast kyumamil....drizzle lo-dis-, de-, un-bexun....possession bokulxen....toxification box...quietlobexun....dispossession, divestment lobokulxen....detoxification lobox....disquiet mak-electro-, e-ebdras....letter nagar....metermakebdras....email maknagar....electrometer o-not, un-bik....careobik....neglect ob-off-goflun....rip fub....branchobgoflun....stub obfub....offshoot oge-unequal, aniso-izonan...orientationogeizonan....anisotropy ogel-hetero-, differenttoobifan....sexual preferenceogeltoobifan....heterosexuality oyb-under-, sub-, infra-mos....floor neg....leveloybmos....basement oybneg....sublevel of-unauthorizedbirun....grab dresini....drawings gelxun....copyofbirun....loot ofdresini....grafitti ofgelxun....plagiarism og-smallsoni....mattersogsoni....trivia oj-future, fore-buen....giving deyn....utteranceojbuen....lending ojdeyn....forecast ok-lossbuun....gift tos....feelingokbuun....sacrifice oktos....heartache ov-against, counter-, contra-adabinut....imperialist apyex....attackovadabinut....anti-imperialist 'ovapyex....counterattack oz-weakduun....suggestionozduun....hint ug-slowdal....speech ilok....leak teax....lookugdal....drawl ugilok....seepage ugteax....gaze ui-'horizontalnab....rankuinab....row un-quadri-, tetra-, four-drezun....poem yan....collectionundrezun....quatrain unyan....tetrad uj-endak....win dun....word jud....dateujak....success ujdun....epilogue ujjud....deadline ukemptydal....talk mel....soil nod....pointukdal....blather ukmel....desert uknod....puncture ut-self-, sui-, aut(o)-tojben....killing dab....governmentuttojben....suicide utdab....autarchy uv-saddeuzun'....song dolen....silence kyeuj....fateuvdeuzun....dirge uvdolen....sulking uvkyeuj....tragedy uf-hatedal....speech tos....feelingufdal....rant uftos....anger uz-crooked, curved, arcaybmas....roof dopar....weapon kunad....edgeuzaybmas....vault, arch uzdopar....bow, arch uzkunad....rim va-yesbien....taking diun....request dud....answervabien....acceptance vadiun....claim vadud....assent ve-maybetexen....thinking yovdeyn....inculpationvetexen....supposition veyovdeyn....indictment vo-notexen'....thinking fon....willvotexen....doubting vofon....disinclination vya-truedeyn....utterance dud....answer nad....linevyadeyn....avowal vyadud....solution vyanad....guideline vye-relativedren....writingvyedren....correspondence vyo-wrong, mis-bek....treatment dat....friendvyobek....mistreatment vyodat....false friend yan-together, con-dal....talkyandal....conversation yon-apartbyex....strikeyonbyex....breach yov-shamebixen....pulling byok....pain if....pleasureyovbixen....seduction yovbyok....punishment yovif....schadenfreude yab-up, super-, high-, hyper-dom'....city dot....societyyabdom....uptown yabdot....high society yabnan-hypso-, acro-, heightdren....recordingyabnandren....hypsography yaob-up-and-downyuijar....valve pusen....jumpingyaobyuijar....piston yaopusen....bouncing yaz-swollen, protruding, convexdal....talk buk....wound tiub....bellyyazdal....bombast yazbuk....boil, blister yaztiub....potbelly yez-flush, along, para-baktut....medic mel....terrainyezbaktut....paramedic yezmel....meadow yiz-beyond, meta-, ultra-, hyper-doobin....nationalism dreniv....textyizdoobin....ultra-nationalism yizdreniv....hypertext yoz-sunken, concavenad....lineyoznad....groove, gutter yaoz-saw-toothed, convex-concavenad....line goblar....knifeyaoznad....tilde yaozgoblar....saw yuz-around, circ-, circum-, peri-pipen....navigation teaxar....scope tyop....walkyuzpipen....circumnavigation yuzteaxar....periscope yuztyop....stroll yeb-in-, intro-, inner-dungab....affix dem....yardyebdungab....infix yebdem...courtyard oyeb-out-, extro-, outer-dom....city dovyaban....legalityoyebdom....outskirts oyebdovyaban....extralegality yib-tele-, fardrir....typewriter teaxar....viewer, scopeyibdrir....teletype yibteaxar....telescope yibajancient, archaeo-, paleo-deyn....utterance tun....scienceyibajdeyn....archaism yibajtun....archaeology yub-near, para-gexen....equaling kex....searchyubgexen....approximation yubkex....examination yubaj-recent, ceno- yob-down, sub-, supra-doneg....class gol....divisionyobdoneg....low class yobgol....subdivision za-front, fore-, pre-, northdungab....affix dyun....name mer....planetzadungab....prefix zadyun....forename zamer....north ze-middle, mid-dom....city jub....dayzedom....downtown zejub....midday zo-behind, backbex....hold bix....pullzobex....delay zobix....drag zay-forward, pro-bix....pull bux....pushzaybix....protraction zaybux....propulsion zey-across, trans-, meta-dras....script ilp....flowzeydras....transcript zeyilp....crosscurrent zoy-re-, retro-, backaxlen....action kix....bend mag....fire mav....flashzoyaxlen....reaction zoykix....reflection zoymag....retrofire zoymav....flashback zya-widedodal....speech drurun....printoutzyadodal....propaganda zyadrurun....poster zye-through, per-, trans-, dia-belun....cargo muf....rod bwas....something putzyebelun....shipment zyebuxmuf....ramrod (through-push-rod) zyebwas....metaphor zyi-flat, plat-dyen....expression melyaz....mountain mos....floorzyidyen....platitude zyimelyaz....plateau zyimos....platform zyo-narrowbex....hold bix....pull gun....anglezyobex....clasp, grip zyobix....tension zyogun....acute angle zyu-round, roto-, cyclo-abaun....cover drurun....printout tom....buildingzyuabaun....dome zyudrurun....rotograph zyutom....tower

## Gender

    Nouns in Mirad are gender-neutral, unless those relating to people, animals, and sometimes clothing are altered to be specifically male/male-oriented or female/female-oriented. To create the male or male-oriented form of an otherwise gender-neutral noun, prefix the vowel of the semantically-significant syllable with the letter w. To create the female or female-oriented form, suffix the vowel of the semantically-significant syllable with y. If the noun is an agent noun with the suffix -ut, that is, a noun that means "one who does something as an occupation or behavior", the ending -ut is changed to -uyt for the female form, but the male form stays the same. The reason for this is that the addition of a w to the agentive ending could be confused with the verbal passive marker w (see the chapter on Mirad Grammar/Verbs. The chart below shows how this works:
       Making Nouns Gender-specific NEUTRALMALE/MALE-ORIENTEDFEMALE/FEMALE-ORIENTED tob....human being, persontwob....mantoyb....woman tobet....childtwobet....boytoybet....girl tad....spousetwad....husbandtayd....wife ejtad....step spouseejtwad....step-husbandejtayd....step-wife ajtad....ex-spouseajtwad....ex-husbandajtayd....ex-wife ted....parenttwed....fatherteyd....mother datif....sweetheartdwatif....boyfrienddaytif....girlfriend yapet....pigyapwet....boaryapeyt....sow edeb....monarchedweb....kingedeyb....queen apat....fowlapwat....roosterapayt....hen tiuv....underweartiwuv....briefstiuyv....panties vapet....antelopevapwet....deervapeyt....doe deuzut....singerdeuzut....singerdeuzuyt....songstress tud....childtwud....sontuyd....daughter
    For gender specification in pronouns, see Mirad Grammar/Pronouns, below).

## Adjective Types

    Adjectives, which are words that modify nouns, can be of the following types and subcategories:
      * descriptive
         * qualitative, like iva (happy), fia (good), oga (small)
         * denominal ( ~ noun-derived), like doma (urban) < dom (city) or teaba (ocular) < teab (eye)
         * deverbal ( ~ verb-derived), (participles) like tejea (living) < tejer (to live) or twa (known) < ter (to know)
         * preposition-derived, like aba (upper) < ab....on top of or zoa (posterior) < zo (behind)
      * determinative
         * deictic ( ~ demonstrative, indefinite), like hia (this), huyena (such), haewa (both)
         * numeric, like awa (one), ea (second), iona (triple)
         * quantitative, like ga (more), glo (few), gra (too much)
         * pronominal ( ~ possessive), like ata (my), duhota? (whose), hyeta (anyone's)
    Descriptive adjectives are the main focus of this section. Determinative adjectives (determiners) behave differently and are discussed under Determiners. Deverbal adjectives, usually referred to as participles, are treated in the section on Verbs, since they are formed from verbs. Pronominal determiners (i.e. possessive adjectives) are treated under both the section on Determiners and the section on Pronouns.

## Descriptive Adjectives

    All descriptive adjectives end in the adjectival marker vowel a.
    Adjective-marking suffix STEMMEANINGADJECTIVE fi-qualitative root base wordfia....good purnoun meaning vehiclepura....vehicular dalw-passive stem of the verb speakdalwa....spoken abpreposition meaning onaba....superior
    Such adjectives precede the noun or noun phrase they modify:
      * aga tam....a big house
      * ha fia toyb....the good woman
      * ata boka twed....my sick father
      * fia ilzyebi bi vafil.....good bottles of wine
      * yata dooba doof....our national flag
    Adjectives do not agree in number or gender with the noun they modify.
       doba xeut....state agent can also be expressed as the noun compound dobxeut. Dob means a state.
       pata bok....avian illness can be compounded as patbok, literally bird illness.
    Note: Compounded nouns often have an idiomatic meaning not exactly equal to their separate parts. More about this in the later section on vocabulary-building.

## Comparing Adjectives by Degree

    As in English, descriptive adjectives can be compared by degree. To do this, a quantitative determiner of degree (ga, ge, etc.) is placed before the adjective, producing positive / negative comparative, equalitative, superlative, and other degree expressions as in the following table. The quantitative determiners themselves that are used in these comparative expressions are discussed in detail in a later section on Quantitative Determiners.
    Modification of Adjectives by Degree QUANTITATIVE DETERMINERMODIFICATION BY DEGREE ga....morega fia (vyel)....better (than) ge....as, equallyge fia (vyel)....as good (as) go....lessgo fia (vyel)....less good (than) gao....more or lessgao fia....good more or less gla....verygla fia....very good glay....soglay fia....so good gle....rather/quitegle fia....rather/quite good glo....not veryglo fia....not very/slightly/barely good gra....toogra fia....too good gre....enoughgre fia....good enough gro....not enoughgro fia....not good enough gwa....mostgwa fia (bi, be)....best (of, in) gwe....just, merelygwe fia....merely good gwo....leastgwo fia (bi, be)....least good (of, in)
    The relative conjunction vyel is used to translate English as in an equalitative comparison or than in a non-equalitative comparison. Examples:
      * Ata tam se ga aga vyel etas.....My house is bigger than yours.
      * Hia tam voy se ge aga vyel atas.....This house is not as big as mine.
      * His se ha gwa aga tam bi yata yubem.....This is the biggest house in our neighborhood.
    Unlike in English, where comparative forms can be irregular (smaller, more intense, better), there are no exceptions in the comparison of Mirad adjectives and adverbs.

## Deriving Substantives from Adjectives

    Adjectives can be suffixed to derive various noun substantives:
      * Abstract quality noun: -n
      * Thing having a quality: -s
      * Person having a quality: -t
    Deriving Substantives from Adjectives ADJECTIVEQUALITYPERSONTHING fia....goodfian....goodnessfiat....a good personfias....a good thing yeva....justyevan....justiceyevat....a fair personyevas....a fair thing joga....youngjogan....youthjogat....a youthjogas....something new
    The substantives ending in -s and -t can be referred to as deadjectival pronouns, because they act like pronouns but are derived from adjectives.

## Reversing the Semantics of Adjectives

    Descriptive adjectives can be negated by prefixing o. If the adjective being semantically reversed already begins with the prefix o, then the first semantic reversing prefix becomes ol. This has the effect of English un- or non- in words like unlike, unhappy, and nonessential or the Greek privative prefix a(n)- in words like asymmetric or anomalous.
    Prefixing the syllable lyo or ov has an even stronger semantic effect. It denotes the polar opposite of the adjective and can mean "anti-".
    In cases where the o- creates an ambiguous word, lo- or -ol is substituted, depending on whether the base adjective begins with a consonant or a vowel, respectively. Note this in the last two words of the following chart:
    Reversing the Semantics of Adjectives NORMALNEGATED twa....knownotwa....unknown ega....normaloega....abnormal eflawa....essentialoeflawa....nonessential geyla....similarogeyla....dissimilar iva....happyoiva....unhappy data....friendlyodata....unfriendly lyodata....inimical ovdata....hostile dota....socialodota....unsocial lyodota....barbarian ovdota....antisocial ifwa....lovedoifwa....unloved fwa....wantedlofwa....unwanted ofwa....prohibitedolofwa....unprohibited

## Polarization of Base Word Adjectives

    Base word adjectives are polarized adjectives that fall into the following pattern categories:
      * [iu]Ca (such as ifa, uja, ika, uka, etc.)
      * C[iu]a (such as fia, fua, via, vua, etc.)
      * [aeu]Ca (such as aja, eja, uja, yava, yeva, yova, etc.)
      * C[aeu]a (such as vaa, vea, vua, etc.)
    In the case of the i/u vowel adjectives, those adjectives with i are positive and are contrasted with those with u, which are negative, eg.:
       I/U Polarized Adjectives PositiveNegative fia....goodfua....bad iva....happyuva....sad via....beautifulvua....ugly
    In the case of the a/e/u vowel adjectives, those adjectives with a are positive; those with e are intermediate, and those with o are negative, eg.:
       A/E/U-Polarized Adjectives PositiveIntermediateNegative yava....innocentyeva....fairyova....guilty aja....pasteja....presentoja....future aga....bigega....normaloga....small

## Deintensifying the Sense of Adjectives

    The semantic strength of qualitative adjectives can often be deintensified by following the ordinal vowel or stem vowel with the glide y. Examples follow:
       Mitigated Adjectives NORMALDEINTENSIFIED oma....coldoyma....cool ama....hotayma....warm yufa....afraidyuyfa....shy yiva....freeyiyva....loose via....beautifulviya....pretty ifwa....lovediyfwa....liked yefwa....obligatoryyeyfwa....due ufwa....hateduyfwa....disliked

## Adjectival Derivational Endings

    All descriptive adjectives end in at least the suffix a. Many adjectives are derived from other parts of speech, using one of more of the following derivational endings.
    Adjectival Derivative Endings ENDINGTRANSITION TYPEMEANINGBASE WORDDERIVED ADJECTIVE -aN->ADJrelating to, oftot....god tob....man dom....citytota....divine toba....human doma....urban -ayaN->ADJfull of, -ful, -ousmil....water yazmel....mountain tes....meaningmilaya....watery, aquaous yazmelaya....mountainous tesaya....meaningful --ikaN->ADJfull of, -ful, -ousmil....water yazmel....mountain tes....meaningmilika....watery, aquaous yazmelika....mountainous tesika....meaningful -oyaN->ADJempty of, -less, -freeteb....head level....sugar tes....meaningteboya....headless leveloya....sugar-free tesoya....meaningless -ukaN->ADJempty of, -less, -freeteb....head level....sugar tes....meaningtebuka....headless leveluka....sugar-free tesuka....meaningless -yenaN->ADJlike, -ish, -ytot....god tob....man dom....citytotyena....godly, godlike tobyena....manly, virile domyena....urbane -eaV->ADJ-ing, -ent, -antags-....grow tej-....live kyas-....changeagsea....growing, crescent tejea....living, alive kyasea....changing, variant -yeaV->ADJ-ive, tending todal-....talk tox-....forget vad-....affirmdalyea....talkative toxyea....forgetful vadyea....affirmative -waV->ADJ-eddal-....talk tox-....forget vad-....affirmdalwa....spoken toxwa....forgotten vadwa....affirmed -oaV->ADJ-about to, apt totoj-....die kyes-....happen tajb-....give birthtojoa....moribund kyesoa....imminent tajboa....about to deliver -uaV->ADJ-able, potentially Vtojb-....kill bukx-....harm akuj-....succeedtojbua....lethal bukxua....dangerous akujua....potentially successful -yafaV->ADJ-abletest-....understandtestyafa....able to understand -yafwaV-ADJ-able, possible to Xtest-....understandtestyafwa....understandable -yofaV->ADJunable toteat-....seeteatyofa....blind -yofwaV->ADJimpossible to, un-X-ableteat-....seeteatyofwa....invisible -yukaV->ADJcomfortable Xingpes-....waitpesyuka....patient -yukwaV->ADJeasy to Xtest-....understandtestyukwa....clear -yikaV->ADJhard of Xingteet-....hearteetyika....hard of hearing -yikwaV->ADJhard to Xteet-....hearteetyikwa....hard to hear -ifaV->ADJfond of Xing, -phile/-ict-....know dyes....booktifa....curious dyesifa....bibliophilic -ifwaV->ADJloved bytyod-....peopletyodifwa....popular -ufaV->ADJX-hating, -phobic, aversetob-....man yex....worktoybufa....anthrophobic yexufa....lazy, work-averse -ufwaV->ADJhated byhyat....everyonehyatufwa....universally hated -yifaV->ADJbravetoj....deathtojyifa....brave in the face of death -yufaV-ADJafraid of Xtot....godtotyufa....god-fearing -yufwaV->ADJfeared by Xgla....muchglayufwa....much-feared -yefaV->ADJdue to Xdud-....answerdudyefa....answerable, responsible -yeyfaV->ADJliable to Xfyuzi-....get punishedfyuziyeyfa....liable to be punished -yefwaV->ADJX-worthyfid-....praisefidyefa....praiseworthy -yakwaV->ADJexpected to Xmamil-....rainmamilyakwa....likely to rain -valkaN->ADJ-safe, -proofmil....watermilvalka....waterproof -avaN->ADJpro-Xtej....lifetejava....pro-life -evaN->ADJ-neutraltoob....gendertoobeva....gender-neutral -ovaN->ADJanti-Xdropek....wardropekova....anti-war -yivaN->ADJ-freeyef....debtyefyiva....debt-free -yuvaN->ADJ-boundyef....duty vya-....truth dofin....moralyefyuva....duty-bound vyayuva....loyal dofinyuva....scrupulous -azaN->ADJstrong-Xedfon....will tip....temperamentfonaza....strong-willed tipaza....stern -ozaN->ADJweak-Xedtip....temperamenttipoza....weak-hearted -izaN->ADJstraight-Xedtep....mind dal....speechtepiza....logical daliza....frank -uzaN->ADJcrooked-Xedtep....mind dal....speechtepuza....illogical daluza....devious -okyaN->ADJabsent-Xedtad....spouse ted....parenttadokya....widowed tedokya....orphaned -igaN->ADJfast-Xedtuyub....fingertuyubiga....nimble -ugaN->ADJslow-Xedtep....mindtepuga....slow-witted, dull -agaN->ADJbig-Xedtiib....hearttiibaga....big-hearted, generous -ogaN->ADJsmall-Xedtep....mindtepoga....small-minded -yigaN->ADJhard-Xedtip....temperamenttipyiga....stern, strict -yugaN->ADJsoft-Xedtip....temperamenttipyuga....lax, lenient

## Adverb Types

    Adverbs are words that modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. There are two types of adverbs in Mirad, namely:
      * derived adverbs
      * inherent adverbs.

### Derived Adverbs

    Adverbs can be derived from descriptive adjectives by suffixing the adverbial marker y, eg.:
    Derived Adverbs ADJECTIVEADVERB fia....goodfiay....well yeva....fairyevay....fairly uja....finalujay....finally ejna....newejnay....newly teyda....maternalteyday....maternally
    At the end of sentences or clauses, common one-syllable-stem adverbs can be shortened by removing the ay ending:
      * Iyt deuze fi.....She sings well.
      * At upo ig.....I'll come quickly.
    Otherwise, the full adverb form is used, eg.:
      * Yet yefe ugay fiaser.....You people must slowly improve.
      * At tojo ivay, tea van at beaye fia tej.....I will die happily knowing that I've had a good life.

### Inherent Adverbs

    There are some words in the language that are inherently invariable adverbs and do not take the ay ending, because they are not formed from adjectives, or because they already end in ay. Here are the most common examples:
       Inherent Adverbs yab....up yaob....up and down(a)yeb$^1$....in oyeb....out aoyeb....in and outyob....downyub....near yuib....near and faryib....far oyib....not far ab....on ayb....above aob....of and oneb....between eyb....amongob....off oyb....underub....towardib....away bay....with/alongbey....by/viaboy....withoutbyu....as far (as)byi....since vay....indeedvey....perhapsvoy....not za....in front (of) zay....ahead zya....throughout zao....back and forthze....to/at the middle (of) zey....across zye....throughzo....in back (of) zoy....backzu....on the left (of) zui....right and leftzi....on the right (of) uz....on a curve uiz....zigzigiz....straight, directly yez....alongyuz....aroundyiz....beyond oyiz....not beyond ga....more gao....more or lessge...equallygo....less gay....alsogey....evengoy....no more/except gaj....stillgoj....no longer yan....togetheryon....apart ja....before jao....before and after jay....alreadyje....meanwhile jey....meanwhilejo....after joy...nextju....untilji....since
    Note 1: Ayeb is almost always shortened to yeb.
    The words in the above chart that are underlined can also serve as prepositions (See Prepositions).
    The words underlined below are considered adverbial because they can modify verbs. For example:
      * At teaxa yab.....I looked up. (= At yabteaxa.)
      * Duven et hyej upo zoy?.....Will you ever come back. (= ...zoyupo?)
      * Et po yib be tej......You will go far in life. (= Et yipo...)
      * At voy se eta ted.....I am not your father.
      * Pu zu, jogat!....Go left, young man! (= Zupu...)
      * Yat vay sa hum.....We were indeed there.
      * It pa oyeb.....He went outside. (= It oyepa.)
      * Iyt gay deuze.....She also sings.
      * Yit yexe gey be moji.....They work even nights.
      * Ha tobud gaj tujeye.....The baby is still sleeping.
      * Yat yefe yexer yan.....We must work together. (= ...yanyexer.)
      * His vey upo yon.....This may come apart. (= ...yonupo.)
      * Hit se jay toja.....This one is already dead.
      * Hut se voy toja.....That one is not dead.
      * At popeyo zya.....I will be traveling all around. (= zyapopeyo.)
      * Et byase yon.....You stand apart.
      * Van yet besu yan.....Stay together, guys.
    Many of the above adverbs can be prefixed to verbs, nouns, and even adjectives to indicate motion in various directions. (Keep in mind that the b or p can be assimilated to the first letter of per (go) or ber (put). For example:
      * yeb (in) + per (go) = yeper (to enter) [NOT: yebper]
      * oyeb (out) + bier (take) = oyebier (to take out) [NOT: oyebbier]
      * yab (up) + per (go) = yaper (to rise) [NOT: yabper]
      * yob (up) + kima (sloped) = yobkima (downward-sloping)
      * yub (near) + per (go) = yuper (to approach) [NOT: yubper]
      * yib (far) + daler (talk) = yibdaler (to telephone)
      * yiz (beyond) + per (go) = yizper (to surpass)
      * yez (along) + per (go) = yezper (to go along)
      * yuz (around) + pipen (sailing) = yuzpipen (circumnavigation)
      * zay (ahead) + paser (move) = zaypaser (to advance)
      * zao (back and forth) + baser (move) = zaobaser (to rock)
      * ze (to the middle) + jaga (aged) = zejaga (middle-aged)
      * zye (through) + teatyafwa (visible) = zyeteatyafa (transparent)
      * zey (across) + mep (road) = zeymep (bridge)
      * zoy (back) + nogea (gradual) = zoynogea (retrogressive)
      * iz (straight) + nad (line) = iznad (vector)
      * zi (to the right) + kum (side) = izkum (right side)
      * zu (far) + tuyab (hand) = zutuyaba (left-handed)
      * uz (on a curve) + nad (line) = uznad (curve)
      * yan (together) + up (come) = yanup (a meeting)
      * yon (apart) + ber (put) = yonber (to separate)

## Word Order of Adverbs

    The word order of adverbs is fairly free, as in English. But, to avoid ambiguity, the adverb should be placed immediately before or after the sentence element it modifies, eg.:
      * It deuze vi.....He sings beautifully.
      * Et yefe xer gwa ig.....You must do it as quickly as possible.
      * Et hyoj ako fika ivan.....You will never gain perfect happiness.
      * At voy te. (OR) At te voy. ....I do not know.

## Comparison of Adverbs by Degree

    Adverbs can be compared just as adjectives with the use of Quantitative Determiners. The words than, compared to, and as are translated by the relative conjunction vyel (than, compared to, with respect to)
    Comparison of Adverbs by Degree POSITIVE+/=/- COMPARATIVE+/- SUPERLATIVE yikay....easilyga yikay vyel....more easily than ge yikay vyel....as easily as go yikay vyel....less easily than(ha) gwa yikay....(the) most easily (ha) gwo yikay....(the) least easily
    Examples:
      * At pipe ga fi vyel et.....I swim better than you.
      * Yat tra hua twob go fi vyel yet.....We knew that man less well than you guys.
      * Eta tayd deuza ha gwa vi be ha ebyek.....Your wife sang the most beautifully in the competition.
      * Et xa has ha gwa fu vyel hyet.....You did it the worst compared to anyone.
      * Dalu ge azay vyel et yafe.....Speak as loudly as you can.
    Determiners are words that specify or point out the context of nouns and other parts of speech. The English determiner this, for example, specifies a noun for its proximity to the current context. In English, demonstrative pronouns/adjectives/adverbs, possessive pronouns/adjectives, quantifiers like more and very, and numeric expressions like both fall under this category.

## Types of Determiners

    Determiners in Mirad fall into the following categories:
       Types of Determiners TYPEALSO KNOWN ASENGLISH EXAMPLES Deictic Demonstrative Pronouns/Adjectives/Adverbsthe, this, some, every, which?, when Pronominal Possessive Pronouns/Adjectives my, anybody's, one's own Quantitative Quantifiersmore, less, very Numerical Numerals/Fractions/Ordinals/Dates, etc.one, half, first
    Furthermore, as for part of speech, determiners can be adjectives, pronouns, or adverbs. As adjectives, determiners can itemize or classify. As pronouns, they can refer to one or more persons (male or female) or things. As adverbs, they can specify circumstance, i.e. time, place, degree, kind, age, frequency, and so forth.

## Deictic Determiners

    Deictic determiners are words which point out or specify other words as to their context, including what grammarians often call demonstratives. All deictic determiners in Mirad begin with the letter h. The letters following the h indicate the grammatical and semantic category.
    Deictic determiners include the following traditional grammatical categories:
      * Demonstrative adjectives like this, that, those, that one
      * The definite article the (which is really a demonstrative adjective like those above.)
      * Demonstrative pronouns like this, that, those, that one
      * Interrogative and relative pronouns like who, which, that
      * Indefinite adjectives like any, some, all, something, such, etc.
      * Indefinite pronouns like any, some, all, something, such, etc.
      * Pronouns, adjectives, and adverbs of quantity like so much, that many, how many?, very, etc.
      * Adverbs of circumstance:
         * time like when, now, ever
         * place like there, here, somewhere
         * manner like how, thus, somehow
         * kind like so, age this year old
         * direction like that way, any which way
         * reason why?, for that reason, for no reason
         * degree this (well), so (good), how (bad)
         * frequency like how often, so often, never
         * age like this old, how old?, of any age

### Deictic Prefixes

    There is a whole set of correlative deictic prefixes, which are joined to circumstantial stub category suffixes to derive pronoun, adjective, and adverb determiners. In some grammars, these words are called wh-question words and their pointed answers. For example, QUESTION: Who is your wife? ANSWER: This is my wife. (or) QUESTION: Where is your house? ANSWER: My house is here. These word forms are called correlative because they relate to one another in way that can be mapped to a table.
    Here are the Mirad deictic classification prefixes:
    Deictic Prefixes CLASSIFICATIONDEICTIC PREFIX Interrogative duho-...?....what?, which? Relative ho-....which, that Exclamatory hoo-....how...! Definite ha-....the Indefinite he-....some, a certain Proximal hi-....this, these Immediate hii-....the following Distal hu-....that, those Intensive huu-....such, so, what a...! Distributive hya-....every, all, each Indeterminate hye-....any, whatever Negative hyo-....no, not any Identical hyi-....the same, the very Non-identical hyu-....the other, another, else
    Note: The Identical (hyi-) and Non-identical prefixes (hyu-) can optionally be substituted with ge- (same) and oge- (different), respectively.

### Circumstantial Category Suffixes

    The table below shows word stub suffixes that indicate the circumstantial category of deictic expressions. They are called stubs, because they are reduced word forms. The combination of deictic prefixes and circumstantial stub suffixes produce a matrix of deictic correlatives, seen later in this chapter. Use of the stub instead of the long form is a matter of optional economy. A few categories do not have stubs.
    Category Stubs CATEGORYSTUBLONG FORMQUESTION WORD EXAMPLE Person -ttob...personduhot?....who? Thing -ssun...thingduhos?....what? Place -mnem...placeduhom?....where? Time -jjob...timeduhoj?....when? Manner -yenbyen...mannerduhoyen?....how? Kind -yenasyena...of a styleduhoyena?....what kind of? Degree -glanog...degreeduhogla fi?....how well? Quantity -glasag...numberduhogla pati?....how many birds? Mass -glaglan...amountduhogla mil?....how much water? Frequency -xagxag...frequencyduhoxag?....how often? Reason -savsavduhosav?....why? Age -jagjag...ageduhojag?....how old?
    There can be other circumstantial categories other than those listed above, such as "direction", "order", etc. eg. Duhomep wit pa?....Which way did he go?.

### Charts of Correlative Deictic Determiners

    Here is are three tables showing the matrix of correlative deictic determiners. Note that the determiners belong to three parts of speech, 1) adjectives, 2) pronouns, and 3) adverbs:
    PART OF SPEECHENDING Adjective-a Pronoun-t(i), -s(i) Adverb(no ending)

#### Deictic Determiner Adjectives

    All deictic determiner adjectives in in -a and are used to modify nouns.
    Correlative Deictic Determiner Adjectives SELECTIVE -aPOSSESSIVE -taKIND/MANNER -yenaQUANTITY -glaAGE -jagaFREQUENCY -xaga Interrogative duhoa? which?duhota? whose?duhoyena? what kind of?duhogla? how much/many?duhojaga? how old?duhoxaga? how frequent? Relative hoa whichhota whosehoyena what kind ofhogla how much/manyhojaga how oldhoxaga how frequent Exclamatory hooa what a...!hoogla look how much/many...!hoojaga how old a...! Definite ha$^1$ thehatas the person’shayena of the kindhagla of the amounthajaga of the agehaxaga of the frequency Indefinite hea some/a certainheta someone'sheyena some kind ofhegla somehejaga somewhat oldhexaga sometimes Proximal hia thishita this person’shiyena this kind ofhigla this muchhijaga this oldhixaga this often Immdediate hiia the followinghiita the follow person’shiiyena the following kind ofhiigla to the following degreehiijaga of the following agehiixaga of the following frequency Distal hua thathuta that person’shuyena that kind ofhugla that much/manyhujaga of that agehuxaga that often Intensive huua such ahuuta such a person’shuuyena such kind ofhuugla so much/manyhuujaga of such an agehuuxaga so often Negative hyoa nohyota nobody’shyoyena no kind ofhyogla no amount/number ofhyojaga of no agehyoxaga of zero frequency Distributive hya$^1$ everyhyata everybody’shyayena every kind ofhyagla allhyajaga of every agehyaxaga always Indeterminate hyea whichever/any$^2$hyeta whoseverhyeyena whatever/any kind ofhyegla however much/manyhyejaga however oldhyexaga however frequent Identical hyia the samehyita the same person’shyiyena the same kind ofhyigla just ashyijaga just as oldhyixaga just as often Non-identical hyua the otherhyuta someone else'shyuyena another kind ofhyugla not as much/manyhyujaga of another agehyuxaga not as often
    Note 1: The determiners ha (the) and hya (every) are shortened forms of haa and hyaa. Also, ha is commonly called a "definite article".
      * While hya means every or all, the word hyawa is used for each.
      * The possessive adjective forms in the above table ending in -ta such as hyeta....whosever cannot be pluralized by the ending -tia. To say other people's, use the expression bi hyuti (Lit. of others).
      * The ho- words are relative, meaning that they can serve to form relative clauses like the following:
         * Ha toyb, hota twad se Bill,....The woman, whose husband is Bill,
         * At voy te hos et tepfe.....I don't know what you mean.
         * At teste hogla et fie iyt.....I understand how much you love her.
      * The hoo- words are exclamatory and are used in expressions like the following:
         * Hoogla iva se at van et upa!....How glad I am that you came!
         * Hooa jub his saye!....What a day this has been! (Hooa is pronounced ho-O-a as three syllables.)
    Note 2: The indeterminant determiners can also be translated with no matter what, no matter where, etc.

#### Deictic Determiner Pronouns

    All deictic determiner pronouns end either in -t for persons or -s for things. They can be singular or plural (-i).
    Correlative Deictic Determiner Pronouns THING -s THINGS -siPERSON -t PERSONS -tiKIND OF THING -yenas KINDS OF THINGS -yenasiAMOUNT -glas NUMBER OF THINGS -glasiNUMBER OF PEOPLE -glati Interrogative duhos? what? duhosi? what (things)?duhot? who? duhoti? who (pl.)duhoyenas? what kind of thing? duhoyenasi? what kinds of things?duhoglas how much? duhoglasi? how many things?duhoglati? how many people? Relative hos what hosi whathot who hoti whohoyenas what kind of thing hoyenasihoglas how much hoglasi how manyhoglati how many Exclamatory hoos what a thing! hoosi what things!hoot what a person! hooti what people!hooglas what an amount! hooglasi what a number!hoglati what a number of people! Definite has it hasi they/themhat he/she/him/her hati they/themhayenas the king of thing hayenasi the kind of thingshaglas the amount haglasi the number of thingshaglati the number of people Indefinite hes something hesi some thingshet someone heti someheyenas some kind of thing heyenasi some kinds of thingheglas some heglasi some thingsheglati some people Proximal his this hisi thesehit this person hiti these peoplehiyenas this kind of thing hiyenasi these kinds of thingshiglas this much higlasi this manyhiglati this many people Immediate hiis the following thing hiisi the following thingshiit the following person hiiti the following peoplehiiyenas the following kind of thing hiiyenasi the following kinds of thingshiiglas the following amount hiiglasi this following number of thingshiiglati the following number of people Distal hus that husi thosehut that person huti those peoplehuyenas that kind of thing huyenasi those kinds of thingshuglas that much huglasi that manyhuglati that many people Intensive huus such a thing huusi such thingshuut such a person huuti such peoplehuuyenas such a kind of thing huuyenasi such kinds of thingshuuglas so much huuglasi so manyhuuglati so many people Negative hyos nothing hyosi none of themhyot nobody hyoti none of themhyoyenas no kind of thing hyoyenasi no kinds of thingshyoglas none hyoglasi nonehyoglati none Distributive hyas everything hyasi all of themhyat everybody hyati all of themhyayenas every kind of hyayenasi all kinds of thingshyaglas all of it hyaglasi all of themhyaglati all of them Indeterminate hyes anything hyesi anyhyet anybody hyeti any of themhyeyenas any kind of hyeyenasi whatever thingshyeglas any of it hyeglasi any of themhyeglati whoever Identical hyis the same thing hyisi the same thingshyit the same person hyiti the same peoplehyiyenas the same kind of hyiyenasi the same kinds of thingshyiglas as much hyiglasi as manyhyiglati as many people Non-identical hyus something else hyusi other thingshyut someone else hyuti other peoplehyuyenas another kind hyuyenasi other kindshyuglas another amount hyuglasi another number of thingshyuglati another number of people
    Concerning the above chart, note the following:
      * The interrogative determiners all begin with duho-, which means say which, and are technically imperatives. Duhom?, for example, means Tell (me) the place.... The o-stem forms without the du- are used as relative clause heads, eg. At po hom et po. I will go where you go.
      * Interrogatives usually come at the beginning of a sentence as in English, eg. Duhos se eta dyun? What is your name?
      * Determiners come first before any other epithets of a noun, eg. Hia aga jaga tam... This big old house....
      * Person and Thing determiners can be made selective by inserting a before the final t or s, eg. Duhot? means Who?, while Duhoat? means Which one (of several persons)?

#### Deictic Determiner Adverbs

    All deictic determiner adverbs refer to a circumstance.
    Correlative Deictic Determiner Adverbs CIRCUMSTANCE-->PLACE -mTIME -jMANNER -yenDEGREE -glaFREQUENCY -xagREASON -sav Interrogative duhom? where?duhoj? when?duhoyen? how?dugla? how (very)?duxag? how often?duhosav? why? Relative hom wherehoj whenhoyen howhogla how (very)hoxag how oftenhosav because Exclamatory hooyen and how!hoogla how very...! Definite ham the placehaj the timehayen the mannerhagla just ashaxag as frequentlyhasav the reason Indefinite hem somewherehej sometimeheyen somehowhegla somewhathexag somewhat oftenhesav for some reason Proximal him herehij nowhiyen this wayhigla thishixag this oftenhisav for this reason Immediate hiim the following placehiij the following timehiiyen the following wayhiigla to the following degreehiixag at the following frequencyhiisav for the following reason Distal hum therehuj thenhuyen that wayhugla to that degreehuxag that oftenhusav therefore Intensive huum such a placehuuj at such a timehuuyen in such a wayhuugla so (very)huuxag so oftenhuusav for such a reason Negative hyom nowherehyoj neverhyoyen in no wayhyogla not at allhyoxag not oncehyosav for no reason Distributive hyam everywherehyaj alwayshyayen in every wayhyagla fullyhyaxag alwayshyasav for every reason Indeterminate hyem anywherehyej wheneverhyeyen howeverhyegla howeverhyexag however oftenhyesav for whatever reason Indentical hyim at the same placehyij at the same timehyiyen in the same wayhyigla ashyixag as oftenhyisav for the same reason Non-identical hyum somewhere elsehyuj some other timehyuyen otherwisehyugla not ashyuxag not as oftenhyusav for some other reason
    Concerning the above chart, note the following:
      * The interrogative determiners all begin with duho-, which means say which, and are technically imperatives. Duhom?, for example, means Tell (me) the place.... The o-stem forms without the du- are used as relative clause heads, eg. At po hom et po.....I will go where you go.
      * There are is a category not shown in the table:
         * hoo-, used to form exlamatory determiners like Hoogla flia!....How marvelous! or Hooa via jub!....What a beautiful day!.
      * Person determiners can be specified for gender. A determiner is made female by inserting a y after the ordinal, or male by inserting a w before the ordinal, eg. Huyti....those females or Hwit....this guy.
      * Interrogatives usually come at the beginning of a sentence as in English, eg. Duhos se eta dyun?....What is your name?
      * Determiners come first before any other epithets of a noun, eg. Hia aga jaga tam.......This big old house....
      * Person and Thing determiners can be made selective by inserting a before the final t or s, eg. Duot? means Who?, while Duhoat? means Which one (of several persons)?
         * Duhoas?'....Which one? (things), Hias....This one, etc.
         * Duhoati?....Which ones? (people), Huati....Those, etc.
         * Duhoyat?....Which of us?, Hyeyat....Any of us, etc.
         * Duhoyet?....Which of you?, Hyayet....All of you, etc.
         * Duhoyit?....Which of them?, Hyoyit....None of them, etc.
      * Also not included in the above chart is a related interrogative, which is a complementizer.
         * Duven...?.... (Question introducer) Is it true that...?, Say whether...
            * Duven et se tadxwa?....Are you married? (= Say whether you are married.)
      * The adverbs of degree in the above chart (duhogla?, etc.) are interchangeable with adverbs ending in -nog....degree (duhonog?....to what degree?, how...?, henog....somewhat)
      * Other deictic determiner adverbs of circumstance exist and are not on the above chart:
         * duhomep?....which way?
            * humep....that way
         * duhobyun?....to what end?
            * hyobyun....for no purpose
         * duhoizon?....in which direction?
            * 'hyaizon....in every direction
         * duhosauna....what kind of
            * hyesauna....any kind of

#### Examples of Deictic Determiner Usage

      * Duhos se eta dyun?....What is your name? (Duhos is pronounced du-HOS)
      * Duhot se iyta twad?....Who is her husband?
      * Duhowat se iyta twad?....Which one of the guys is her husband? (selective)
      * Duhoti fe eker?....Who (pl.) want to play?
      * Hyas se fia.....Everything is fine.
      * Hyat tre et.....Everyone knows you.
      * Hyot tre at.....Nobody knows me.
      * Hyati ekeye fi.....All of them are playing well.
      * Hyoti ekeye fi.....None of them are playing well.
      * Hyet yafe eker.....Anyone can play.
      * Hyes yafwe.....Anything is possible.
      * At fe hyuyenat be ata ekutyan.....I want someone else on my team.
      * Huuyenati fyuxe yata oj.....Such people harm our future.
      * Et yefe tepier hiisi.....You must bear in mind the following things.
      * Duhoyen et xa hus......How did you do that?
      * Duhosav iyt pia huugla jwa?....Why did she leave so early?
      * Hwita tam se ga aga.....This guy's house is bigger.
      * At voy ayse ha dyuni bi huyti.....I don't have those women's names.
      * Duhoa tam se etas?....Which house is yours?
      * Huua tej et ayse!....What a life you have!
      * Duhoyena dyezuni ifxe et?....What kind of movies do you like?
      * Duhota tef okwa?....Whose hat was lost?
      * Hota tef okwa bese otwas.....Whose hat was lost remains a mystery.
      * Ha tob ta yata dyuni.....The man knew our names.
      * Hoyena dini at ife, et ufe.....The kind of stories I love, you hate.
      * Hea mepi gawdyunxwo.....Certain streets will be renamed.
      * Heyena fukyes uxaye purilp nyaunx.....Some kind of accident has caused a traffic jam.
      * Heta abtaf kaxwa be ha zatem......Someone's coat was found in the foyer.
      * Hia dyes se ata gwafwas.....This book is my favorite.
      * Hiia duni se ofwa.....The following words are prohibited.
      * Hiiyena axlyen voy afwu.....The following sort of behavior would not be allowed.
      * Hiyena axlyen voy vayafwo.....This type of behavior will not be tolerated.
      * Hita tim so yolza.....This person's room will be blue.
      * Hua mas efwe gawvozilbwer.....That wall needs to be repainted.
      * Huua dini yufxe tudi.....Such stories scare children.
      * Huyena duni voy yeyfwe yixwer za at.....Such words should not be used in front of me.
      * Hwuta tam magseye.....That guy's house is on fire.
      * Hyoa din se ga kyitesa.....No story is more important.
      * Hyoyena tes tesiyafwe.....No such meaning can be inferred.
      * Hyota jatexdras sa ga fia.....Nobody's plan is better.
      * Hyos oboxe huyt.....Nothing bothers that gal.
      * Hya mepi izpe Roma.....All roads lead to Rome.
      * Hya ha mepi se ebwa.....All the roads are blocked.
      * Hya twob yefe xer ita gon.....Every man must do his part.
      * Hyayena telami ese be hia domep.....All manner of restaurants exist on this street.
      * Hyata tej se uka bi yaobi.....Everyone's life is full of ups and downs.
      * Hyaewa domi agsaye.....Both cities have grown.
      * Hyea voz so fia.....Any color will be fine.
      * Hyeyena til se aysyafwa.....Any kind of drink is available.
      * Hyeta ved se ge ifa vyel atas.....Anyone's guess is as good as mine.
      * Hyea tim et fe et yafe ayser.....Whatever room you want, you can have.
      * Hyia/(Ha gea) fukyesi kyese glaxag.....The same accidents occur frequently.
      * Hyiyena/(Ha geyena) dyezuni teaxuwa zajub.....The same kind of films were shown yesterday.
      * Hyita/(Ha geta) dyun yixwa gajod.....The same person's name was used again.
      * Hyua dyezun sa ga ifuyea.....The other movie was more entertaining.
      * Hyuyena/(Ogeyena) som teasu ga fia.....Another kind of furniture would look better.
      * Hyuta/(ogeta) texyen se ge fyia.....Someone else's opinion is equally valid.
      * Ha dyuni bi hiyti voy dodrawe.....These women's names have not be make public.
      * Ha dyuni bi hwiiti voy dodrowe.....The following males' names will not be publicized.
      * Hijaga tobweti voy afwo him.....Boys of this age will not be allowed here.
      * Duhom et tambese?....Where do you live?
      * At tambese hum.....I live there.
      * Et tambese hom ha mep uje.....You live where the road ends.
      * Duhom yet peye?....Where are you guys going?
      * Et yafe per hyem et fu.....You can go anywhere you would like.
      * Duhom et byise?....Where are you from? (Lit: Where do you originate.
      * Duhoj et taja?....When were you born?
      * At voy tajaya huj.....I had not been born then.
      * Et yeyfe duder hiiyen.....You should respond in the following way.
      * Ot voy yefe daler huuyen.....One must not talk in such a manner.
      * Et pia hesav.....He left for some reason.
      * Duhoyen et iyfe hia vifil?....How do like this wine?
      * Voy se fia axler hiyen.....It is not good to act this way.
      * Duhosav et tadsa huugla jwa?....Why did you marry so late?
      * Ha twob pia hyosav.....The man left for no reason.
      * Hwat pia hosav it efa per hem.....The guy left because he needed to go somewhere.
      * Hyeta texyen so fia.....Anyone's opinion will be fine.
      * Duhota dyes se his?....Whose book is this?
      * Bi hoti se hia dyesi?....Whose are these books?
      * Hyata tili yebexe yom.....Everyone's drinks contain ice.
      * Et se gaj geyenat( ~ hyiyenat).'....You are still the same kind of person.
    The semantic reverser o- can be prefixed to some of the above deictic determiners:
       Ohyat tiste Platon.....Not everyone understands Plato.
       Ohut!'....Not that person!
       At iyfe gwa apovili, oy ohuas!....I like most beers, but not that one!
    If the definite article or any other deictic determiner is omitted before a noun, then it has the effect of the English indefinite article a / an with a singular noun or some with a plural noun. For example:
      * Yat tilia ha tilyeb bi vifil.....We drank the glass of wine., vs.
      ** Yat tilia tilyeb bi vifil.....We drank a glass of wine.
      * Yat tilia ha tilyebi bi vifil.....We drank the glasses of wine., vs.
      ** Yat tilia tilyebi bi vifil.....We drank (some) glasses of wine.
      * Yat tilia awa tilyeb bi vifil.....We drank one glass of wine., vs.
      ** Yat tilia ha awa tilyeb bi vifil.....We drank the one glass of wine.
      * Yat tilia ewa tilyebi bi vifil.....We drank two glasses of wine., vs.
      ** Yat tilia ha ewa tilyebi bi vifil.....We drank the two glasses of wine., vs.
      ** Yat tilia hya ewa tilyebi bi vifil.....We drank both glasses of wine.
      * Yat tilia owa tilyeb bi vifil.....We drank no/zero glasses (=not a single glass) of wine.
      * Yat tilia ea tilyeb bi vifil.....We drank another/a second glass of wine., vs.
      ** Yat tilia ha ea tilyeb bi vifil.....We drank the second glass of wine., vs.
      ** Yat tilia ea tilyebi bi vifil.....We drank second glasses of wine., vs.
      ** Yat tilia ha ea tilyebi bi vifil.....We drank the second glasses of wine.
    If an indefinite article sense is needed for clarity, the words awa (one) or hea (some, a certain) can be used, eg.:
      * At igteata awa tob yiztyoper.....I glimpsed a man walk by.
      * Wit zoyupo hea juab.....He will come back on a / a certain / some Monday.

#### Selective vs. Non-Selective Forms

    The deictic interrogative determiner pronoun duhot? means who(m) and contrasts with its selective counterpart duhoat?, which means which one?. All the selective determiners refer to one or more things or persons from a selectable pool of things or persons.
    The following sentences illustrate the use of the above determiner pronouns:
      * Duhot aka zajuba ek?....Who won yesterday's game?
      * Duhoat bi ha akuti sa ha gwa fiat?....Which one of the winners was the best?
      * Duhota tam se hus?....Whose house is that?
      * Duhotas se hus?....Whose is that?
      * Duhotia deuzi et gaife?....Whose songs do you prefer?
      * Duhotias et gaife?....Whose do you prefer?
      * Duhos se eta dyun?....What is your name?
      * Duhosi se eta gaifuni?....What are your preferences?
      * Duhoa deuzi se eta gwa fiasi?....Which songs are your best?
      * Duhoasi se eta gwa fiasi?....Which ones are your best?
      * Bi hia deuzuti, hoat et gaife?....Of these vocalists, which one do you prefer?
      * Hiiti yaneko hijub.....The following people will compete today.
      * Duhoati se gwa fia?....Which ones are best?
      * Duhoti et teexe gwa jodi?....Who (all) do you listen to the most often?
      * Hoat at teexe gwaxag draye ejna deuz.....The one I listen to the most has written a new song.
      * Ejna deuz? At voy teste hoas et tede.....New song? I don't understand which one you mean.
      * Hias.....This one.
      * Vo. Huasi se ga fia.....No. Those are better.
      * His se jub av ivxelen.....This is a day for celebration.
      * Va. Hia jub. At tese hijub.....Yes. This day. I mean To-day.
      * Husi sa ha jubi, ata dat!....Those were the days, my friend!
      * Duhos se eta dyun?....What is your name?
      * Duhot aka ha igpek?....Who won the race?
      * Hyas uja fi.....Everything ended well.
      * Hyasi uje.....All things come to an end.
      * Hyayenasi vey kyesu.....All sorts of things might happen.
      * Hyos yokxa at.....Nothing surprised me.
      * Hyot ta hot ako.....Nobody knew who would win.
      * Hoayti fu pier yefe.....Those females who would like to leave may.
      * Hyet yefe eker hia ifek.....Anyone can play this game.
      * Huyenasi voy afwo.....Such things will not be permitted.
      * Hua twob voy taxe hia toyb.....That man does not remember this woman.
      * Hwuti yanyexe fi.....Those guys work well together.
      * Huuyti hyaj yubixe tepzex.....Such females always attract attention.
      * At jay teataye hiyenasi.....I've seen such things before.
      * Huyenwat voy vabiwu.....A guy like that would not be accepted.
      * Duhoyenasi weti iyfe xer je ha maj.....What kinds of things do you guys like to do during the day?

### Numerical Deictic Determiners

    Sometimes, a deictic determiner specifies numerical information. This chart shows those forms:
    Number-incorporating Deictic Determiners ADJECTIVEINANIMATE PRONOUNANIMATE PRONOUNPRONOMINAL DETERMINERPOSSESSIVE PRONOUN hawa$^1$ the onlyhawas the only thing hawasi the only thingshawat the only one (person) hawati the only oneshawata the only person'shawatas the only one's hawatasi the only one's (things) hyawa* eachhyawas each onehyawat each personhyawata each person'shyawatas each one's hyawatasi each one's (things) hyaewa bothhyaewasi both (things)hyaewati both (people)bi hyaewati both person'shas bi hyaewati both person's hasi bi hyaewati both persone's (things) hyaiwa all threehyaiwasi all three (things)hyaiwati all three (people)hyaiwata all three person'shas bi hyaiwati all three person's hasi bi hyaiwati all three person's (things) ohyawa not everyohyawas not everythingohyawat not everyoneohyawata not every person'sohyawatas not everyone's ohyawatasi not everyone's (things) hyoawa not a singlehyoawas not a single thinghyoawat not a single personhyowata not a single person'shyowatas not a single person's hyowatasi not a single person's (things) hyeawa eitherhyeawas either onehyeawat either one (person)hyeawata either one'shyeawatas either one's hyeawatasi either one's (things) hyeewa any twohyeewasi any two thingshyeewati any two peoplebi hyeewati any two person'shas bi hyeewati any two persons' hasi bi hyeewati any two persons' (things) hyeowa neitherhyeowas neither onehyeowat neither personhyeawata neither person'shyeowatas neither one's hyeowatasi neither one's (things) hyuawa anotherhyuawas another onehyuawat anotherhyuawata another'shyuawatas another's hyuawatasi another's (things) hyuowa no otherhyuowas nothing elsehyuowat nobody elsehyuowata no other'shyuowatas no other's hyuowatasi no other's (things) gawa$^2$ anothergawas another onegawat another (person)gawata another'sgawatas another's gawatasi another's (things)
       1Hawa and hyawa are short for haawa and hyaawa, respectively.
       2Gawa is short for ga awa, yet one.

#### Notes on Numerical Deictic Determiners

    Examples using the above number-incorporating deictic determiners:
      * Ohyawat se iva bay eta vaod.....Not everyone is happy with your decision.
      * Hyaewasi yafwe uxer yata efi.....Both (things) can serve our needs.
      * Hyeawa tim ivlaxo at.....Either room will satisfy me.
      * Hyeowas oivlaxo at.....Neither one will dissatisfy me.
    Note:
      * hyua means another (an alternative). Ex. At fu hyua til.....I would like another (a different) drink.
      * hyuawa means another (an additional). Ex. At fu hyuawa til.....I would like another (an additional) drink.
      * ha hyua means the other (the alternative). Ex. At fu ha hyua til.....I would like the other drink.
    Similarly, hya means every, all, while hyawa means each, and hyaha....all the, ex:
      * Hya dom ayse tebixea suni teaxer.....Every city has interesting things to see.
      * Hya domi ayse tebixusi.....All cities have things of interest.
      * Hyaha domi ayse tebixusi.....All the cities have things of interest.
      * Hyawa dom ayse tebixun.....Each city has something of interest.
    Also, ha means the, while hawa means the only, eg.:
      * Ha twob hu at gwa ife se et.....The man I most love is you.
      * Hawa toyb nazea ata tepzex se et.....The only woman worth my attention is you.
    By appending y to hawa, we get the adverb haway....only, solely, eg;
      * Haway et nize ata tepzex.....Only you deserve my attention..
    The singular person pronouns in the above chart can be converted into pronominal determiners by adding the adjective suffix a, eg.:
      * Hyawata tej se ge glatesa vyel hyutas.....Each one's life is as important as another's.
      * Hyeowata dyun se vyama.....Neither person's name is real.
    However, the plural person pronouns in the above chart use the preposition bi (of) to form possessives, eg.:
      * Ha teji bi hyaiwati se kyebukuwa.....The lives of all three are in danger.
    The above singular pronominal determiners can, in turn, be converted into inanimate pronouns with the suffix -s.
      * Hyawatas se glatesa.....Each one's is important.
      * Hyeowatas se vyama.....Neither's is real.
    The plural pronominal determiners can be nominalized with the use of bi, eg:
      * Hyaiwasi bi huti se kyebukuwa.....All three of theirs' are in danger.
    Correlative Number-incorporating Deictic Determiners are handled as follows:
      * Hyeawa A ey B....either A or B
      * Hyeowa A oy B....neither A nor B
      * Hyaewa A ay B....both A and B
      * Hawa A, voy B....only A, not B
elsewhere.
    The different, somewhat confusing, meanings of how are illustrated here:
      * Duhoyen wit xa hus?....How did he do that?.... (Equivalent to Be duha byen...?....In what way...?) (ADVERB OF MANNER)
      * Duhoyen et xeye?....How are you doing?.... (This is the normal way of saying How are you? or How do you do? (ADVERB OF MANNER)
      * Duhoyena sa ha dyezun?.... How was the film?.... (How here is an ADJECTIVE OF KIND, and thus ends in -a.)
      * Duhonog (= Duhogla) aga it se?....How big is he?.... (ADVERB OF DEGREE)
      * Huunog (= Huugla) iyfla et se!....How nice you are!.... (ADVERB OF EMPHATIC DEGREE)
    The conjunction as is expressed most often using relative pro-adverbs of manner:
      * Xu hoyen at de.....Do as I say. = (in) the way that...
      * Xu hyiyen (~ geyen) at xe.....Do as I do. ( = (in) the same way that...)
      * Xu hiiyen:....Do as follows. ( = (in) this hereby manner...)
    However, the preposition/conjunction gel (like, as) can be substituted:
      * Xu gel at de.....Do as I say.
    Many of the determiner adverbs in the above chart can be used in relative clauses, eg:
      * At teato et hoj et puo him.....I will see you when you get here.
      * It xa has hosav tosa yefa.....He did it because (for the reason that) he felt compelled.
      * Hyehom et po, et so ga iva.....Wherever you go, you'll be happier.
      * Hyet te ha did, yabu eta tuyab.....Whoever knows the answer, raise your hand.
      * At te hoyen et xa is.....I know how you did it.
    See more about this in the section on relative clauses under Syntax.

### Pronominal Deictic Determiners

    Some words in Mirad incorporate deictic prefixes with pronouns and pronominal adjectives, as shown in the following chart:
    Pronominal Deictic Determiners Pronoun 1st Person Plural2nd Person Plural3rd Person Plural duhoyat which of usduhoyet which of youduhoyit which of them heyat some of usheyet some of youheyit which of them hyayat each of ushyayet each of youhyayit each of them hyeyat any of ushyeyet any of youhyeyit any of them hyoyat none of ushyoyet none of youhyoyit none of them Pronominal Adjective 1st Person (Plural)2nd Person (Plural)3rd Person (Plural) duhoyata which of ourduhoyet which of yourduhoyita which of their heyata some of ourheyeta some of yourheyita which of their hyayata each of ourhyayeta each of yourhyayita each of their hyeyata any of ourhyeyeta any of yourhyeyita any of their Singular/(Plural) Possessive Pronoun 1st Person (Plural)2nd Person (Plural)3rd Person (Plural) duhoyatas(i) which of oursduhoyetas(i) which of yoursduhoyitas(i) which of theirs heyatas(i) some of oursheyetas(i) some of yoursheyitas(i) which of theirs hyayatas(i) each of ourshyayetas(i) each of yourshyayitas(i) each of theirs hyeyatas(i) any of ourshyeyetas(i) any of yourshyeyitas(i) any of theirs hyoyatas(i) none of ourshyoyetas(i) none of yourshyoyitas(i) none of theirs
    The above possessive pronouns refer to things. If you replace the final -s or -si, to -t or -ti, then they become animate and refer to people, eg.:
      * Ese ewa tudi him. Duhoyitas se his?....There are two children here. Which one of theirs is this?
    All of the forms in the above chart can also be expressed as separate words, eg.:
      * Duhoyet? ~ Duhoat bi yet?....Which one of you?
      * Hyayat ~ Hyaglati bi yet....All of us.
      * Hyoyatasi ~ Hyogla yatasi....All of ours (things)
Note:
      * Awayat ~ Awat bi yat....one of us
      * Hyaewayet ~ Hyaewat bi yet....both of you
      * Hyaiwayit ~ Hyaiwat bi yit....all three of them

### Quantitative Deictic Determiners

    The deictic prefixes can be combined with gla to form quantitative expressions acting as adverbial or adjectival determiners, and substantives (pronouns referring to things or people):
    Quantitative Deictic Determiners ADVERBIAL / ADJECTIVAL DETERMINERINANIMATE SINGULAR PRONOUNINANIMATE PLURAL PRONOUNANIMATE PLURAL PRONOUN Interrogative duhogla? how?/how much?/how many?duhoglas? how much?duhoglasi? how manyduhoglati? how many (people)? Relative hogla as many/muchhoglas how muchduhoglasi how manyduhoglati how many (as) Definite hagla how/as much/as manyhaglas as muchhaglasi as manyhaglati as many (people) Indefinite hegla somewhat/some/someheglas someheglasi someheglati some (people) Proximal higla this/this much/this manyhiglas this muchhiglasi this manyhiglati this many (people) Distal hugla that/that much/that manyhuglas that muchhuglasi that manyhuglati that many (people) Intensive huugla so very, so much, so manyhuuglas so muchhuuglasi so manyhuuglati so many (people) Negative hyogla none, not veryhyoglas none of ithyoglasi none of them hyoglati none Distributive hyagla totally/all/allhyaglas all of ithyaglasi all of themhyaglati all Indeterminate hyegla however/any/anyhyeglas any of ithyeglasi any of themhyeglati any number of them Identical hyigla as/as much/as many, equallyhyiglas the same amounthyiglasi the same numberhyiglati as many (people) Non-identical hyugla not as much/not as much/not as manyhyuglas a different amounthyuglasi a different number of thingshyuglati a different number of people
    Here are some examples showing how these quantitative determiners are used:
      * Et deuze huugla fi.....You sing so well.
      * At se hegla booka.....I am somewhat tired.
      * Duhogla pati et teata hijub?....How many birds did you see today?
      * At teata vyavay hugla tami.....I saw exactly that many houses.
      * Iyt fe hyiglas vyel et.....She wants the same amount as you.
      * Duhoglati yantexe yet?....How many (people) agree with you?
      * Hyoglati yantexe.....None agree.
      * Yit fu heglasi.....They would like some (of them).
      * Et yafe bier hyehoglasi et fe.....You can take however many you want.
      * Besu bay at hogla job et fe.....Stay as long with me as you want.
      * At se huugla booka.....I am so tired.
    NOTE: The following determiners are synonymous and interchangeable:
      * hegla = gle = henog (somewhat, to some degree)
      * hyigla = ge = hyinog (as, equally, to the same degree)
    The determiner huugla can be used as an exclamatory adverb, eg.:
      * Huugla et agsaye!....How you have grown!
      * Hua twob jagsaye huugla!....That man has aged so much!
      * Hia jotul se huugla fiteluza!....This dessert is sooo delicious!

## Pronominal Determiners

    Pronominal Determiners are what are more often called possessive adjectives such as my or your and are discussed in a subsection of Pronouns.

## Quantitative Determiners

    Quantitative determiners act in one of several ways, they:
      * specify mass, uncountable, singular nouns for relative AMOUNT, eg. much happiness, less work
      * specify countable nouns for relative NUMBER, eg. one apple, two birds, many places
      * specify adverbs, adjectives, and verbs for relative DEGREE, eg. how poorly, very good, eat too much.
    From these, pronominalized quantitative determiners for PERSONS and THINGS can be derived.
      * Inanimate singular pronouns are formed by adding s for AN AMOUNT OF A THING
      * Inanimate plural pronouns are formed by adding si for A NUMBER OF THINGS
      * Animate plural pronouns are formed by adding ti for A NUMBER OF PERSONS.
    The following table presents most of these word forms (Note that the determiners are in a plus (+), equal (=), or minus (-) row.):
Quantitative Determiners :
| Adverb / Adjective | Adverb / Adjective | Singular Pronoun | Plural Pronoun | Plural Pronoun |
| Degree/Amount/Number | Degree/Amount/Number | Amount | Number of Things | Number of People |
| + | ga....more | gas....more (stuff) | gasi....many (things) | gati....many (people) |
| = | ge....as, as much, as many | ges....as much (stuff) | gesi....as many (things) | geti....as many people |
| - | go....less, fewer | gos....less (stuff) | gosi....fewer (things) | goti....fewer (people) |
| + | gla....very, much, many glay....so, so much, so many glaa....several | glas....much (stuff) glays....so much stuff) | glasi....many (things) glaysi....so many (things) glaasi....several things | glati....many (people) glayti....so many (people) glaati....several people |
| = | gle....rather, quite a lot, quite a few | gles....quite a lot (of stuff) | glesi....quite a lot (of things) | gleti....quite a few (people) |
| - | glo....slightly, a little, few | glos....a little bit | glosi....a few (things) | gloti....few (people) |
| + | gra....too, too much, too many | gras....too much (stuff) | grasi....too many (things) | grati....too many (people) |
| = | gre....enough | gres....enough (stuff) | gresi....enough (things) | greti....enough (people) |
| - | gro....insufficiently, too little, too few | gros....too little | grosi....too few | groti....too few (people) |
| + | gwa....most | gwas....the most (stuff) | gwasi....the most (things) | gwati....most people |
| = | gwe....just so (much/many) | gwes....just so much | gwesi....just so many | gweti....just so many (people) |
| - | gwo....least | gwos....the least (stuff) | gwosi....the least (number of) | gwoti....the least number (of people) |
    Examples Using Graded Quantitative Determiners
       Adverbs of degree modifying an adjective:
         * At se gla iva.....I am very happy.
         * Et sa gra uga.....You were too slow.
       Adverbs of Degree modifying another adverb:
         * Twobi dale ge igay vyel toybi.....Men talk as fast as women.
         * Yat yexe ga igay vyel yet.....We work faster (= more quickly) than you.
       Adjectives quantifying a singular mass noun:
         * Ga nas efwo.....More money will be needed.
         * Gra nas noxwa.....Too much money was spent.
       Adjectives quantifying a plural countable noun (= things or people):
         * At ayse gro sari.....I've got too few tools.
         * Gla tami osexwa.....Many houses were destroyed.
         * Yat efe gla ga valkdibuti.....We need many more policemen.
       Pronouns referring to a mass amount of something (= stuff):
         * Gas ilokeye.....More (stuff) is leaking.
         * Et dileye gras.....You are asking for too much (stuff).
         * Yat kexo gwas.....We will seek as much (stuff) as possible.
         * At iba gwes.....I received just the right amount.
       Pronouns referring to a countable number of things:
         * Hisi se fia oy yat fe gasi.....These (items) are good but we want more (items).
         * At teate drilari oy grosi.....I see pens, but too few.
       Pronouns referring to a countable number of people:
         * Grati xaye vyoki be hia yexem.....Too many (people) have made mistakes at this work site.
         * Glati dyunwe oy gloti kebiwe.....Many are called but few are chosen.

## Numerical Determiners

    This category of determiners, which includes cardinal, ordinal and other number words like two, a tenth, and first, is such a vast topic that it is treated in its own chapter Mirad_Grammar/Numbers

## Types of Numbers

    Numerals are words used to vocalize numbers, which are scalar symbols used to count and quantify things and people. For example the numeral two is how the number 2 is read or spoken. Mirad uses Arabic numbers (0, 1, 2, 3...), as in all Western World languages.
    Numerals can be various parts of speech:
      * numeric nouns (The score was six to four.)
      * numeric pronouns (I want two. Give me the fifth one.)
      * numeric determiners (Five days ago. The fifth day. A double dose.)
      * prefixes (monochrome, bicentennial, triangle)
      * rootwords (anxer....to unite, onxer....to annihilate)
    Number-based words include:
      * cardinal numbers (one, two, three... used in counting and arithmetic)
      * ordinal numbers (first, second... indicating ordered position)
      * multiplicative numbers (double, triple, foursome...)
      * fractional numbers (half, third, hundredth...)
      * frequency numbers (once, twice, thrice...)
      * miscellaneous number-based words (only, percentage, annihilate)

## Cardinal Numbers

    The cardinal numbers are words used in counting and reciting numerals such as telephone numbers, social security numbers, and zip codes, and in arithmetic. They are also used as the so-called "ordinal" stem vowels of words that relate to one another in a scalar, hierarchical, or some other ontological relationship. See this in the chapter on Vocabulary Formation.

### Units

   * The cardinal unit numerals are formed from the simple and pre-y-glided vowels.
       Units 0123456789 oaeiuyoyayeyiyu zeroonetwothreefourfivesixseveneightnine
      * Ata yibdalar sag se 703-842-6190 (pronounced: ye-o-i-yi-u-e-ya-a-yu-o).....My telephone number is....
      * At tambese 114 (pronounced: a-a-u) Maple Street.
      * E gab e se u.....Two plus two is four.

### Decades

      * The decade formant -l- is used to form the decades. Followed by -o....zero, we have the base decade numerals. These can be used for number recitation, arithmetic, and as numeric adjectives followed by plural nouns:
       Decades with the -l- Formant 102030405060708090 aloeloilouloyoloyaloyeloyiloyulo tentwentythirtyfortyfiftysixtyseventyeightyninety
       By changing the o....zero in lo to other cardinal unit numerals, the numerals within decades can be generated as follows:
       Decadal Counting ala....11ela....21ila....31ula....41yola....51yala....61yela....71yila....81yula....91 ale....12ele....22ile....32ule....42yole....52yale....62yele....72yile....82yule....92 ........................... alyu....19elyu....29ilyu....39ulyu....49yolyu....59yalyu....69yelyu....79yilyu....89yulyu....99
      * At ayse alo dati.....I have ten friends.
      * It yafe sagder byu alyo.....He can count up to fifteen.
      * Yulyu gob alo gese yilyu.....Ninety-nine minus ten equals eighty-nine.

### Hundreds

      * By adding the hundreds formant s, you get the hundreds:
       Hundreds with the -s- Formant 100200300400500600700800900 asoesoisousoyosoyasoyesoyisoyuso
       All the in-between numerals of the hundreds can be generated by modifying the so ending with the units and decades:
         * asa....101
         * asale....112
         * usyulyu....599

### Thousands

      * The thousands are generated with the formant r:
       Note: The number categories starting with the thousands on up end in -o and are separated from the rest of a number by a space.
       Thousands 100020003000400050006000700080009000 aroeroirouroyoroyaroyeroyiroyuro
         * aro....1,000
         * aro a....1,001
         * ero isi....2,300
         * yoro yasula....5,641

### Millions

      * The millions are generated with the formant ml:
       Millions with the -ml- Formant 1,000,0002,000,0003,000,0004,000,0005,000,0006,000,0007,000,0008,000,0009,000,000 amloemloimloumloyomloyamloyemloyimloyumlo
         * emlo yala....2,000,051
         * umlo esu....4,000,204
         * yumlo usyoro isyala....9,405,361

### Billions

      * The billions are generated with the formant mr;
       Billions 1,000,000,0002,000,000,0003,000,000,0004,000,000,0005,000,000,0006,000,000,0007,000,000,0008,000,000,0009,000,000,000 amroemroimroumroyomroyamroyemroyimroyumro
    In numbers ending in -ro (thousand), -mlo (million), and -mro (billion), these numbers keep the -o and are separated by a space from the other elements of the number.
         * imro emlo yoro asyula....three billion, two million, five thousand, one hundred fifty one
         * iro asyulyo....3,195
         * yamlo asyulyo....6,000,195
         * alomro yelyomlo asyilyaro yusele....10,075,186,922

### Trillions etc.

    The trillions are generated with the word garale, which means 10 to the positive power of 12 or 10$^{12}$.
    These numbers do not combine with surrounding numbers.
      * i garale....3,000,000,000
      * eso garale....200,000,000,000
    Even higher numbers are shown in the Number Chart later in this chapter.

## Numeric Determiners

    Numeric Determiners are adjectives based on numerals that modify a following noun.

### Integers

    The unit numeric integer determiners, which are used to quantify nouns, consist of the cardinal units followed by the unit formant wa. The noun following the numeric determiner is plural if the number is greater than one. The wa formant is used on unit numerals when they are stand-alone, not when they are part of a larger number. In contrast with English usage, "zero" is followed by a singular noun (zero box vs. zero boxes. Think of it as not a single box).
       Standalone Unit Numeric Determiners owa tamawa tamewa tamiiwa tamiuwa tamiyowa tamiyawa tamiyewa tamiyiwa tamiyuwa tami no/zero housesone housetwo housesthree housesfour housesfive housessix housesseven houseseight housesnine houses
    If a unit number is used in forming larger numbers like 13 or 204, no wa is used.
       In a sequence of noun modifiers, the numerical determiner goes in the same place as in English, eg:
      * Ata iwa gajaga twidi bese bay at.....My three older brothers live with me.
      * Hia uwa tomi losexwo.....These four buildings will be destroyed.
      * At fu ewa ey iwa gouni.....I would like two or three pieces.
    The numeric determiners beyond the units do NOT take the -wa suffix. For example, ala tami....eleven houses.
       Numeric Determiners modifying a singular or plural noun MiradEnglishWa BehaviorPluralization Behavior owa tamno houses, zero housesThe numeral is a unit, so wa is suffixed.The numeral is less than 2, so the noun is singular. awa tamone house, a house"" ewa tamitwo houses"The numeral is greater than 2, so the noun is plural. iwa tamithree houses"" uwa tamifour houses"" yowa tamifive houses"" yawa tamisix houses"" yewa tamiseven houses"" yiwa tamieight houses"" yuwa taminine houses"" alo tamiten housesThe numeral is not a unit so no wa is suffixed." ase tamia hundred two houses"" ero iwa tamitwo thousand three housesThe numeral i is a unit, so wa is suffixed." iro alo tamithree thousand ten housesThe numeral alo is not a unit, so wa is not suffixed."
    Numeric determiners can be pronominalized as things and persons by suffixing s or t, respectively. These can, in turn, be pluralized by suffixing i. Furthermore, person pronouns can be feminized with a y before the t. The s suffix is short for sun....thing or suni....things. The t ending is short for aot....person or aoti....persons. For example:
      * Et ayse awa tam. At gey ayse awas. (singular inanimate pronoun)....You have one house. I have one too.
      * At aysa alo drari. Hij at ayse anay ewasi (plural inanimate pronoun).....I had ten pencils. Now I only have two.
      * Esa asoti yeb be ha duzam. (plural animate pronoun).... There were a hundred people in the concert hall.
      * Yat yefe kebier awoyt bi huti. (singular animate female pronoun)....We must choose one female person from those people.

### Ordinals

    Ordinal numeric determiners (= ordinals) like first, second, etc. are formed from the cardinal numerals by adding the adjectival ending a to the cardinal numeral. A variation of this is with the word nap (order) inserted:
    Ordinal Numeric Determiners Cardinal NumeralOrdinal Numeric DeterminerVariation with nap (order) o....zerooa....zerothonapa....zeroth a....oneaa....firstanapa....first e....twoea....secondenapa....second i....threeia....thirdinapa....third alo....tenaloa....tenthalonapa....tenth asu....104asua....104thasunapa....104th garale....trilliongaralea....trillionthgaralenapa....trillionth
    Note: ana is an adjective meaning only, single, eg. Iyt se ana tud.....She is an only child. As an adverb, anay means only, eg. At yexe anay be tam.....I work only at home.
    There are other ordinal adjectives that are not based on numbers:
    Ordinal Words Not Based on Numbers Root WordOrdinal Word ij....beginningijna or ijnapa....first uj....endujna or ujnapa....last aj....pastajna or ajnapa....ex-, former, previous oj....futureojna or ojnapa....future, upcoming ej....presentejna or ejnapa....current, new, present ja....beforejana or janapa....previous, last, foregoing jo....afterjona or jonapa....next, following za....in front ofzana or zanapa....next zo....behindzona or zonapa....last (previous, foregoing)
    Ordinal determiners and adjectives can be converted to adverbs by adding the suffix y to the adjectival counterparts:
    Ordinal Adverbs ADJECTIVEADVERB aa....firstaay....firstly anapa....firstanapay....primarily ea....secondeay....secondly ujna....lastujnay....finally
    Ordinal determiners can be converted to animate pronouns (persons) with the suffix t and inanimate pronouns (things) with the suffix s. These, in turn, can be pluralized with the suffix i. Neutral-gender animate pronouns can be made specifically masculine or feminine by changing at to wat for the former, and to ayt for the latter:
      * ha aas....the first thing
      * ha aat....the first person
      * ha aati....the first people
      * hua aayt....that first female
      * ha enapas....the second thing
      * ewat....another guy
      * Ha ujnati so ha ijnati.....The last shall be first.
      * ha zanapat....the next fellow
    Again, in the sequencing of stacked adjectival elements, the order is as in English, that is: <deictic or pronominal determiner> | <ordinal determiner> | <cardinal numerical determiner> | <adjective>
      * hua uwa aga tami....those four big houses
      * ha aa alo oga tami....the first ten little houses
      * ata anapa ewa oga tudi....my first two little children
Note: Ordinal numeric determiners are not to be confused with ordinal vowels, which are used to derive scalar iterations of nouns. Cardinal numbers are used in the latter case, eg.:
      * dob....state (1st level)
      * dab....government (2nd level derivative)
      * deb....leader (3rd level derivative)
      * dib....administration (4th " " )
      * dub....minister (5th " " )

### Fractions

    Fractional numeric determiners ( = fractions) like half and quarter are formed by adding -yn for those functioning as nouns, -yna for adjectives, -ynay for adverbs, or -yn for prefixes, to the respective cardinal number.
Fractional Numeric Determiners :
| CARDINAL NUMERAL | FRACTION AS NOUN | AS ADJECTIVE | AS ADVERB | AS PREFIX | AS VERB |
| o....zero | oyn....a void, vacuum, null | oyna....null, nil | -- | oyn-....devoid of | oynxer....annihilate, nullify |
| a....one | ayn....whole | ayna....entire, whole | aynay....entirely | ayn-....holo-, whole-, all- | aynxer....integrate |
| e....two | eyn....a half | eyna....half | eynay....halfway | eyn-....half-, semi-, hemi-, demi- | eynxer....halve |
| i....three | iyn....a third | iyna....third | iynay....by a third | iyn-....terci- | iynxer....cut in third |
| u....four | uyn....a quarter | uyna....quarter | uynay....quarterly | uyn-....quadri- | uynxer....quarter |
| alo....ten | aloyn....a tenth | aloyna....tenth | aloynay....by a tenth | aloyn-....deci- | aloynxer....decimate |
| aso....hundred | asoyn....hundredth, percent | asoyna....hundredth | asoynay....by a hundredth | asoyn-....centi- | asoynxer....cut by a hundred |
    Here are some examples:
   * His uxo ha oynxen bi yata mir.....This will cause the anihilation of our world.
   * Ha ayna mir te ayv et.....The whole world knows about you.
   * Is se gas vyel ha ayn bi isa goni.....It is more than the whole of its parts.
   * Ferad se ayndyana dalzeyn.....French is a holophrastic language.
   * Et yafe bier eyn bi is.....You can take half of it.
   * Yat yefo eynxer eta yexnix.....We will have to halve your salary.
   * Hus sa eynvyan.....That was a half-truth.
   * Eso eynzyunida dropek.....There is going to be a hemispheric war.
   * Duven his se eynutexea dopar?....Is this a semi-automatic weapon?
   * Iynxu hua absakpovel.....Cut that pie in thirds.
   * It yeyfe bixwer ay uynxwer.....He should be drawn and quartered.
   * Hia nas se aloyn bi hos yat nixa zojab.....This money is a tenth of what we earned last year.
   * Ha dep aloynxwu.....The army would be decimated.
   * Ewa asoyni bi ha dityan baksa.....Two percent (=hundredths) of the citizenry got sick.
   * Hia tom se anay asoyn ge aga vyel hua tom.....This building is only a hundredth as big as that building.
   * Hwut se oyntofa.....That guy is naked.
    The fractional adverbs can be used as in these examples:
   * Et so aynay dudyefa av eta xeyni.....You will be wholly accountable for your actions.
   * Iyt eynay tikabeloka.....She almost (= halfway) threw up.
    Pronominalizations like half of it, a third of them:
      * Eynas sa fia.....Half of it was good.
      * Eynasi sa fua.....Half of them (things) were bad.
      * Esa uwa tobi se hua fukyes. Eynati toja.....There were four people in that accident. Half (of them) died.
      * Iynati bi yet se vyaka.....A third of you are right.
      * Uynati bi yat yantexe.....A quarter of us agree.
      * Alo asoyni bi hia dyesi fyunxwa.....Ten percent of these books were ruined.

### Multiples

    Multiplicative numeric determiners ( = multiples) like double, triple can be formed by adding -on to the respective cardinal numeral if the numeral is monosyllabic, otherwise just -n. These noun forms can be adjectivized with the suffix -a. They can also serve as prefixes on animate nouns, inanimate nouns, and prefixes, as the following chart shows. The prefix ending, -n is often dropped.
    Multiplicative Numeric Determiners CARDINAL NUMERALMULTIPLE AS NOUN...AS ADJECTIVE...AS ADVERB...AS PREFIX...AS VERB-MAKER o....zerooon....nulloona....nilon-....zero-onxer....cancel, zero out a....oneaon....singleaona....singleaonay....singlyan-....uni-/mono-anxer....unify e....twoeon....twosome, doubleeona....doubleeonay....doublyen-....di-/bi-enxer....double i....threeion....threesome, tripletiona....tripleionay....triplyin-....tri--inxer....triple u....fouruon....quartetuona....quadrupleuonay....quadruplyun-....quadri-/tetra-unxer....quadruple yo....fiveyoon....quintetyoona....quintupleyoonay....quintuplyyoon-*....quinti-/penta-yoonxer*....quintuple ya....sixyaon....sextetyaona....sextupleyaonay....sextuplyyaon-*....sexi-/hexa-yaonxer*....sextuple alo....tenalon....decadealona....decadicalonay....by a multiple of tenalon-....deca-alonxer....multiply by ten aso....hundredason....hundredfoldasona....hundredfoldasonay....by a hundredfoldason-....hecato-asonxer....multiply by a hundred
       * An extra o is added to these prefixes to avoid ambiguity with yan meaning together and yon meaning apart.
    The multiplicative noun dozen is expressed by aleon.
   * Aleoni bi pati yizpapa.....Dozens of birds flew by.
    By adding the suffix -at to the noun multiple, we get groupings of people. The -na- in some of these words can be omitted, thereby simplifying the words:
   * aonat or aot ....solo, single, person
      * aonatser of aotser....become single, become a person
      * aonawat....singleton
   * eonat or eot....duo, pair, twosome, couple
      * eotxer....to copulate
      * eontajat....twin
   * ionat or iot....trio, threesome, trinity
      * iotxer....to do a threesome
      * Ionatin....Trinitarianism
      * iontajati....triplets
   * uonat or uot ....quartet, foursome
      * uontajat....quadruplet
   * yoonat or yoot....quintet, group of five people
      * yoontajati....quintuplets
      * yoonati....quintets
    By adding the suffix -un instead of -on, we get the following:
   * aun....unit
      * auna....unitary, individual
      * aunser....unite
      * aunyan....series
         * aunyana....serial
   * eun....pair
      * euna....even, paired, binary
      * oleuna....odd, non-binary, uneven, unpaired
         * oleunat....odd man out
         * eunxer....even out
    Some examples where the above multiple determiners and derivatives are used:
      * Yat naptyopa be eo(na)ti yez bi ha mep.....We marched in twos (= pairs) down the street.
      * Asonati upo bay yat bu hia ovdal.....Hundreds (of people) will come with us to this protest.
      * Hia ivxel xwe enjabay.....This celebration happens biennially.
      * Iyt se untupokyat.....She is a quadriplegic. (Lit: x 4+limb+loss+person)
      * Diwe sagu ha auni.....Please count the units.
      * Yet gafisa aronay!....You all have improved a thousandfold!
      * Tob se entyoyaba sat.....Man is a bipedal creature.
    Note: Sometimes the multiple prefix ending in -on in the numbers below ten is shortened to -n in common words:
      * anzyuk....monocycle
      * enzyuk....bicycle
      * ingun....triangle
      * ungun....quadrangle
      * yoongon....pentagon
      * yaongon....hexagon
    Note: The prefixes for penta-/quinti- and hexa-/sext- must keep the -on so as to distinguish them from the prefixes yon....apart and yan....together. This rule does not apply to numbers inside chemical names and formulas (See Coding Chemical Elements).
      * yoongona....quintipartite BUT: yonper....separate, go apart
      * yaongun....hexagon BUT: yanuper....meet, come together

## Number Chart

    The following chart shows numbers in Mirad as symbols, adjectives, pronouns, prefixes, and verbs:
Number Chart :
| MULTIPLE | MULTIPLE | MULTIPLE | MULTIPLE | MULTIPLE | FRACTION | FRACTION | FRACTION | FRACTION |
| SYMBOL | ADJECTIVE | NOUN | PREFIX$^1$ | VERB | SYMBOL | NOUN | PREFIX | VERB |
| 0 | owa zero | oon nonentity, null oot nobody | on- zero- | onxer nullify | 1/0 | oyn zeroth | oyn- nihil- | oynxer anihilate |
| 1 | awa one aa first ana single, lone | aon unit aot solo, individual | an- uni-, mono- | anxer unify | 1/1 | ayn whole | ayn- holo- | aynxer integrate |
| 2 | ewa two ea second ena dual ensuana binary | eon double eot duo, pair, couple eontajat twin | en- bi-, di- | enxer double eotxer copulate | 1/2 | eyn half | eyn- semi- | eyxner halve |
| 3 | iwa three ia third insuana ternary | ion triple iot trio, threesome iontajat triplet | in- tri- | inxer triple | 1/3 | iyn third | iyn- terci- | iynxer split into three |
| 4 | uwa four ua fourth | uon quadruple uot quartet, foursome uontajat quadruplet | un- tetra- | unxer quadruple | 1/4 | uyn fourth uynjab quarter | uyn- quadri- | uynxer quarter |
| 5 | yowa five yoa fifth | yoon quintuple yoot quintet yoontajat quintuplet | yoon-$^2$ penta- | yoonxer quintuple | 1/5 | yoyn fifth | yoyn- quint- | yoynxer cut in fifths |
| 6 | yawa six yaa sixth | yaon sextuple yaot sextet yaontajat sextuplet | yaon-$^3$ hecto- | yaonxer sextuple | 1/6 | yayn sixth | yayn- hexi- | yaynxer cut in sixths |
| 7 | yewa seven yea seventh | yeon septuple yeot septet yeontajat septuplet yejub week | yen- hepto- | yenxer mult seven | 1/7 | yeyn seventh | yeyn- hepti- | yeyxner cut in sevenths |
| 8 | yiwa eight yia eighth | yion octuple yiot octet yiontajat octuplet | yin- octo- | yinxer mult eight | 1/8 | yiyn eighth | yiyn- octi- | yiynxer cut in eighths |
| 9 | yuwa nine yua ninth | yuon nonuple yuot set of nine yuontajat nonuplet | yun- nona- | yunxer mult nine | 1/9 | yuyn nineth | yuyn- novi- | yuynxer cut in ninths |
| 10 | alo ten aloa tenth alosuana decimal | alon tenfold alojab...decade | alon- deca- | alonxer increase by a factor of ten | 1/10 | aloyn tenth | aloyn- deci- | aloynxer decimate |
| 100 10$^4$ | aso hundred asoa hundredth | ason hundredfold asojab century | ason- heca- | asonxer increase a hundredfold | 1/100 10$^{-2}$ | asoyn hundredth percentage cent | asoy- centi- | asoynxer divide by a hundred |
| 1,000 10$^3$ | aro thousand aroa thousanth | aron thousandfold arojab millennium | aron- kilo- | aronxer divide by a thousand | 1/1000 10$^{-3}$ | aroyn thousandth | aroy- milli- | aroynxer |
| 1,000,000 10$^6$ | amlo million amloa millionth | amlon millionfold | amlon- mega | amlonxer multiply by a million | 10$^{-6}$ | amloyn millionth goryan | amloyn- micro- | amloynxer divide by a million |
| 10$^9$ | amro billion amroa billionth | amron billionfold | amron- giga- | amronxer multiply by a billion | 10$^{-9}$ | amroyn- nano- | amroynxer divide by a billion | |
| 10$^{12}$ | garale$^3$ trillion garalea trillianth | garalen trillionfold | garalen- tera | | 10$^{-12}$ | goralen- pico- | goralen trillionth | |
| 10$^{15}$ | garalyo quadrillion garalyoa quadrillionth | garalyon quadrillionfold | garalyon- peta- | | 10$^{-15}$ | garalyon- femto- | goralyon quadrillionth | |
| 10$^{18}$ | garalyi quintillion garlyia quintillionth | garalyin quintillionfold | garalyin- exa- | | 10$^{-18}$ | goralyin- atto- | goralyin quintillianth | |
| 10$^{21}$ | garela sextillion garelaa sextillionth | garelan sextillionfold | garelan- zetta- | | 10$^{-21}$ | gorelan- zepto- | gorelan sextillionth | |
| 10$^{24}$ | garele septillion garelea septillionth | garelen eptillionfold | garelen- yotta- | | 10$^{-24}$ | gorelen- yocto- | gorelen septillionth | |
| 10$^{27}$ | garelye octillion garelyea octillionth | garelyen ctillionfold | garelyen- ronna- | | 10$^{-27}$ | gorelyen- ronto- | gorelyen octillionth | |
| 10$^{30}$ | garilo nonillion gariloa nonillionth | garilon nonillionfold | garilon- quetta- | | 10$^{-30}$ | gorilon- quecto- | gorilon nonillionth | |
      * Note 1: Sometimes the final -n on the numeric prefix is dropped, especially as an ordinal vowel in scalar words, eg. anapa first, atistam elementary school.
      * Note 2: An extra o is inserted into this prefix to distinguish it from yon- dis-, apart
      * Note 3: An extra o is inserted into this prefix to distinguish it from yan- con-, together
      * Note 4: Garale is short for alo gar ale ten to-the-power-of 12. By the same token, gorale is short for alo gor ale ten to-the-power-of-minus 12

# Metric Units

    Mirad uses the International System of Units (SI) for rendering measurement units. These symbols are pronounced as if you were spelling each letter out (see the alphabet. Bear in mind that majuscules (uppercase letters are prefaced with the word ag- (big). Similarly, Greek letters are rendered by their Greek names (ω = omega, Ω = Omega). The measurement unit names are followed by nak (measurement unit).
       SI base units ENGLISH UNIT NAME SYMBOLIC ABBREVIATION QUANTITY UNIT MIRAD PRONUNCIATION second s time sonak meter m length minak kilogram kg mass kigenak ampere A electric current aganak kelvin K thermodynamic temperature agkinak Mole mol amount of substance miolinak candela cd luminous intensity cadanak
    Here are SI derived units with special names and symbols:
       SI derived units with special names and symbols ENGLISH NAME SYMBOLIC WRITTEN ABBREVIATION QUANTITY UNIT MIRAD PRONUNCIATION radian rad plane angle roadanak steradian sr solid angle soronak hertz Hz frequency aghezunak newton N force, weight agninak pascal Pa pressure, stress agpoanak joule J energy agjinak watt W power agwunak coulomb C electric charge agcanak volt V electrical potential difference agvunak farad F capacitance agfenak ohm Ω electrical resistance Omeganak Siemens S electrical conductance agsonak Weber Wb magnetic flux agwubanak tesla T magnetic flux density agtonak henry H inductance aghenak degree Celsius °C temperature nogagcanak lumen lm luminous flux liminak lux lx illuminance lixuak becquerel Bq radioactivity agbakonak gray Gy absorbed dose (of ionizing radiation) aggeyunak sievert Sv equivalent dose (of ionizing radiation) agsovunak katal kat catalytic activity kiatonak byte b 8 bits of information banak
    Also, here are some non-SI units that are very convenient and acceptable:
       Convenient non-SI units ENGLISH NAME SYMBOLIC WRITTEN ABBREVIATION QUANTITY UNIT MIRAD PRONUNCIATION litre L volume aglonak or litr(i) hectare ha area heanak or hektar(i) ton t area tonak or ton(i) decibel dB loudness daagbanak or decibel(i) fathom ftm depth of water fetominak
    The following chart shows how in Mirad to pronounce coherent derived unit formulae in terms of base units. Note that the backslash means per or divided by and is pronounced gol. The symbol x means times and is pronounced gal. The superscript number is a power and is pronounced gar plus the number (with -wa, if a unit number). The negative superscript number is pronounced gor plus the number (again, with -wa if a unit number). See Arithmetical Expressions for further information on these terms.
       Examples of coherent derived units in terms of base units NAME SYMBOLIC FORMULA DERIVED QUANTITY TYPICAL SYMBOL MIRAD PRONUNCIATION square meter m$^2$ area A minak-gar-ewa cubic meter m$^3$ volume V minak-gar-iwa meter per second m/s speed, velocity v minak-gol-sonak meter per second squared m/s$^2$ acceleration a minak-gol-sonak-gar-ewa reciprocal meter m$^{−1}$ wavenumber σ, ṽ minak-gor-awa vergence (optics) V, 1/f kilogram per cubic meter kg/m$^3$ density ρ kigenak-gol-minak-gar-iwa kilogram per square meter kg/m$^2$ surface density ρ$_A$ kigenak-gol-minak-gar-ewa cubic meter per kilogram m$^3$/kg specific volume v minak-gar-iwa-gol-kinak-ge ampere per square meter A/m$^2$ current density j aganak-gol-minak-gar-ewa ampere per meter A/m magnetic field strength H aganak-gol-minak mole per cubic meter mol/m$^3$ concentration c minolinak-gol-minak-gar-iwa kilogram per cubic meter kg/m$^3$ mass concentration ρ, γ kinak-ge-gol-minak-gar-iwa candela per square meter cd/m$^2$ luminance L$_v$ canak-da-gol-minak-gar-ewa
    The SI has a whole list of prefixes that act as multipliers (macro) or dividers (micro) of the above and other measurement units. For example, a kilometer is a meter times a 1,000 (macro unit), whereas a millimeter is a meter divided by a 1,000 (micro unit). Banak means byte, so garale-banak is terabyte. This breaks down to 10$^{12}$ bytes. Here is a table showing the Mirad macro and micro prefixes:
    Scalar Metrics MACROMICRO BASE 10US/UK NAMEMIRAD PREFIX....SI PREFIXSI SYMBOLBASE 10(US/UK NAME)MIRAD PREFIX....SI PREFIXSI SYMBOL 1onean- *... mono-, uni-1/1wholeayn-....holo-, uni- 2twoen-....bi-1/2halfeyn-....demi-, di- 3threein-....tri-1/3thirdiyn-....terci- 4fourun-....tetra-1/4fourthuyn-....quadri- 5fiveyoon- *....penta-1/5fifthyoyn....quinti- 6sixyaon-....hexa-1/6sixthyayn....sexti- 7sevenyeon-....hepta-1/7seventhyeyn....septi- 8eightyion....octo-1/8eighthyiyn....octi- 9nineyuon....nona-1/9ninthyuyn....novi- 10tenalon-....deca-da1/10tenthaloy-....deci-d 10$^2$hundredaso-....hecto- **h10$^{-2}$hundredthasoy-....centi-c 10$^3$thousandamso-....kilo-k10$^{-3}$thousandth)amsoy-....milli-m 10$^6$millionamlo-....mega-M10$^{-6}$millionthamloy-....micro-r 10$^9$billion /milliardamro-....giga-G10$^{-9}$billionth/ milliardthamroy-....nano-n 10$^{12}$trillion /billiongarale-....tera-T10$^{-12}$trillionth / billionth)gorale-....pico-p 10$^{15}$quadrillion)/ billiardgaralyo-....peta-P10$^{-15}$quadrillionth) / billiardthgoralyo-....femto-f 10$^{18}$quintillion / trilliongaralyu-....exa-E10$^{-18}$quintillionth)/ trillionthgoralyu....atto-a 10$^{21}$sextillion)/ trilliardgarela-....zetta-Z10$^{-21}$sextillionth / trilliardthgorela....zepto-z 10$^{24}$septillion)/ quadrilliongarelu-....yotta- Y10$^{-27}$septillionth / quadrillionthgorelu....yocto-y
    *Note: The -n or -on can sometimes be omitted in macro-prefixation, especially where there is no ambiguity. The -n (but NOT the -yn) in the micro prefixes can also sometimes be omitted.
    **Note: The gar (to a plus power) and gor (to a minus power) forms are alternatives for the numeric prefixes beyond 100. For example, billion (10$^9$) could be expressed as garyu-(ten) to the 9th power, while billionth could be expressed by goryu ((ten) to the minus 9th power). The prefix garya- is composed of the positive exponential operator gar (to the power of), followed by the number 6. The prefix gorale- is composed of the negative exponential operator gor (to the root of), followed by the number 12.
The macro and micro values can also be represented with abbreviated symbols, which can be pronounced in Mirad as spelled out alphabetics. Greek letter are rendered by their names in Greek. Upper case equivalents are preceded with ag-. Here is a table showing grams:
    Kg Metrics With Abbreviated Symbols MACROMICRO SYMBOL (EXPANSION)MIRAD PRONUNCIATIONSYMBOL (EXPANSION)MIRAD PRONUNCIATION dag (decagram)daagenak(decigram)dagenak hg (hectogram)hegenakcg (centigram)cagenak kg (kilogram)kogenakmg (milligram)migenak Mg (macrogram)agmigenakμg (microgram)mugenak Gg (gigagram)aggegenakng (nanogram)nigenak Tg (teragram)agtogenakpg (picagram)pogenak Pg ( petagram)agpogenakfg (femtogram)fegenak Eg (exagram)agegenakag (attogram)agenak Zg (zettagram)agzegenakzg (zeptogram)zegenak Yg (yottagram)agyugenakyg (yoctogram)yugenak
    The squared and cubed representations of the above are followed by gar e (squared) and gar i (cubed), respectively:
      * 10 km²....(pronounced as:) alo kominaki gar e
      * 12 mm³....(pronounced as:) ale miminaki gar i

# Expressing Frequency

    There are two ways to form determiners of frequency:
      * Using jod(i) meaning occasion(s), instance(s), time(s), or
      * Using xag meaning frequency
    Here is a chart showing the most common frequency determiners:
    Frequentative Determiners "JOD" METHOD"XAG" METHODMEANING duhogla jodi?duhoxag?how often?, how many times? hogla jodihoxaghow often, how frequently hagla jodihaxagthe frequency hegla jodihexagsometimes, on some occasions higla jodihixagthis often, this many times hugla jodihuxagthat often, that many times, so many times huugla jodihuuxagso often, so many times hyogla jodihyoxagnever hyagla jodihyaxagalways, at all times hyegla jodihyexagany number of times, however often hyigla jodihyixagas often, the same number of times hyugla jodihyuxagnot as often, some other number of times ga jodigaxag (vyel)more often (than) ge jodigexag (vyel)as many times (as), as often (as) go jodigoxag (vyel)less often (than) gla jodiglaxagmany times, often gle jodiglexagquite a few times, quite often glo jodigloxagnot so many times, seldom gra jodigraxagtoo often gre jodigrexagoften enough gro jodigroxagtoo seldom gwa jodigwaxagas often as possible, most often, most times gwe jodigwexagan average number of times gwo jodigwoxagleast often, as seldom as possible owa jodoxagnever, at no time, zero times awa jodaxagonce, one time awa ga jodga axagagain, once more ewa jodiexagtwice, two times iwa jodiixagthrice, three times alo jodialoxagten times
    Examples:
      * Duhoxag et pe ha tayegoblam?....How often do you go to the barber shop?
      * Duhogla jodi et akaye hia ekun?....How many times have you won this game?
      * At teataye hua dyezun iwa ey uwa jodi.....I have seen that film three or four times.
      * At teataye is huugla jodi (or: huuxag) van at bokseye.....I have seen it so many times that I am getting sick.
      * Hus xwaye gaxag vyel et te.....That has happened more often than you know.

# Mathematical Expressions

    Mathematical vocabulary is based mostly on deriviatives of the degree word ga....more.

## Chart of Mathmatical Components

    The following chart shows mathematical operator verbs and derived terms:
Arthmetic Expressions :
| VERB | OPERATION | PATIENT | SUBJECT | OPERATOR | SIGN | RESULT |
| gaber add | gaben addition | gabwas addend, summand | gabus augend | gab plus + | gabsiyn plus sign | gabix sum |
| galer multiply | galen multiplication | galwas multiplicand | galus multiplier factor | gal times x | galsiyn times sign | galix product |
| garer raise to the power of | garen exponentiation | garwas base | garus exponent | gar raised to the power of | garsiyn exponent sign | garix power |
| gazer logarithmize | gazen logarithmization | gazwas base | gazus antilogarithm | gaz log | | gazix logarithm |
| gober subtract | goben subtraction | gobwas subtrahend | gobus minuend | gob minus - | gobsiyn minus sign | gobix difference |
| goler divide | golen division fraction | golwas dividend numerator | golus divisor denominator | gol divided by ÷ | golsiyn division sign | golix quotient |
| gorer derive the nth root of | goren root extraction | gorwas radicand | gorus degree | gor the nth root of √ | gorsiyn radical sign | gorix root |
| gexer equal | gexen equation | gexwas thing being equated | gexus equator | ge equal to = | gesiyn equal sign | gexix equation solution |

## How to Verbalize Math Expressions

      * 1 + 1 = 2.....A gab a gese e.
      * 3 - 1 = 2.....I gob a gese e.
      * 2 x 4 = 8.....E gal u gese yi.
      * 10 % 2 = 5.....Alo gol e gese yu.
      * 5$^2$ = 25.....Yo gar e gese elyu.
      * 2$^3$ = 8.....E gar i gese yi.
      * 4 √2 = 2 = 2.....U gor e gese e.
      * log$_{10}$ 1000 = 3.....Aro gaz alo gese i.
    Note 1: gese (equals) can be substituted with se (is), eg.:
      * E gab e se u.....Two plus two is four.
    Note 2: If numbers are used as numeric adjectives, the units take the suffix -wa, eg.:
      * Ewa lafebi gab awa afeb gese vavol.....Two oranges plus one apple equals a salad.
    Examples of mathematical expressions:
      * E gab e gese u.....Two plus two equals four.
      * E gal i gese ya.....Two times three equals six.
      * I gar e gese yu.....Three to the second power equals nine.
      * E gob e gese o.....Two minus two equals zero.
      * Yu gol i gese i.....Nine divided by three equals three.
      * Yu gor i gese i.....Nine cubed equals three.
      * Aso gor e gese alo.....One hundred squared equals ten.
      * Aro gaz alo gese i.....Log$_{10}$(1000) = 3. (= Logarithm of a thousand to base ten equals three)

## Decimal Expressions

    Decimal expressions like 2.5 use the word nod....point as in English.
      * Hia bavol kyinse ga vyel 10.8 (alo nod yiwa) kigenaki.....This tomato weighs more than 10.8 (ten point eight) kilograms.

# Calendar and Time Expressions

       The word for calendar is judar. The sections below explain how calendar expressions are formed and used:

### Basic Calendar Units

    Time is divided using the following basic terms:
    Calendar Units MIRADENGLISH jobtime jabyear jebseason jibmonth jubday jwob*hour jwab*minute jweb*second
* Note: These would ordinarily be jyob, jyab, and jyeb respectively, but the w glide is much easier to pronounce after the letter j, and is therefore substituted.

## Other Calendar Units

    Other calendar units are formed through the agglutination of numerical stubs to some of the time units above:
    Other Calendar Units MIRADENGLISHNUMERICAL FORMULA rojabmilleniumyear x 1,000 sojabcenturyyear x 100 lojabdecadeyear x 10 eynjabhalf yearyear x 1/2 uynjabquarteryear x 1/4 yajibsemestermonth x 6 yejubweekday x 7 yejubujweekendday x 7 end eynjwobhalf hourhour x 1/2
    This, next, last, etc. are expressed as follows:
    Day Pointers MIRADENGLISH hijub hia yejub hijabtoday this week this year zojub zoyejub zajabyesterday last week last year zajub zayejub zajabtomorrow next week next year hujub huyejub hujabthat day that week that year jazojub ja ewa yejubi jazojabthe day before yesterday two weeks ago the year before last jozajub jo ewa yejubi jozajabthe day after tomorrow two weeks from now the year after next Duhajub?Which day? hyajubevery day hyejubany day hejubsomeday hejubisome days

## Seasons of the Year

    Seasons of the year are expressed by internally scalarizing the word for season jeb:
    Seasons of the Year MIRADENGLISH jeabspring jeebsummer jeibautumn, Fall jeubwinter
    Examples of usage:
      * be jeab....in spring
      * ja jeeb....before summer
      * ju jeib....until autumn
      * ji jeub....since winter
      * je ha jeb....during the season
      * ub ha uj bi jeeb....toward the end of summer
      * eb jeab ay jeeb....between spring and summer
      * jeeba gemoj....vernal equinox
      * jeiba fayebi....autumn leaves
      * jeba til....seasonal drink
      * jeubyena jebmalyen....wintry climate
      * jeabyena malyen....spring-like weather
      * jeuben....hibernation
      * hijeab....this season
      * zajeab....next season
      * zojeab....last season
      * hyajeab....every season

## Months of the Year

    Months of the year are expressed by internally scalarizing the word for month jib:
    Months of the Year MIRADENGLISH jiabJanuary jiebFebruary jiibMarch jiubApril jiyobMay jiyabJune jiyebJuly jiyibAugust jiyubSeptember jilobOctober jilabNovember jilebDecember
    Some expressions using the months:
      * be jilob....in October
      * ja jiyab....before June
      * lojo zajiyeb....by next July (lojo = not after)
      * hijib....this month
      * zojib....last month
      * zajib....next month
      * bi-jib-bu-jiba jobnis....month-to-month rent
      * jibay....monthly
      * jibi joy....months later
      * jiba sindryen....monthly magazine
      * hujiba jobnis....that month's rent
      * hya ionjib....every trimester
      * jiber....menstruate
      * byi zojilob....since last October
      * ub zejib....toward mid-month

## Days of the Week

    Days of the week are expressed by internally scalarizing the word for day jub:
    Days of the Week MIRADENGLISH juabMonday juebTuesday juibWednesday juubThursday juyobFriday juyabSaturday juyebSunday
    Here are some common terms relating to days of the week:
    Day Expressions MIRADENGLISH Duhojub?Which day? hojub hu...the day that... hejubsomeday hijubtoday hujubthat day hyijub(on) the same day hyajubevery day hyejubany day zajubyesterday zojubtomorrow ha jajub be ha jana jubthe day before, (on) the previous day ha jojub be ha jona jubthe day before, (on) the previous day jazojubthe day before yesterday jozajubthe day after tomorrow hya ea jubevery other/second day hyajub boy juyebevery day except Sunday yejubweek hiyejebthis week yejubujweekend yexjub (or) zeyejubweekday enyejuba(y)bi-weekly zoyejublast week
    Examples of Usage:
      * (be) juyob....on Friday
      * ju juib....until Wednesday
      * ji zojub....since yesterday
      * lojo jubuj....by [Lit: not after] day's end
      * jo zajub....after tomorrow
      * je ha jub....during the day
      * bi juab bu juub....from Monday to Friday
      * yejubuja ponpop....a weekend getaway

## Parts of the Day

    Here are the principal parts of a day:
Parts of the Day :
| DAYTIME | NIGHTTIME |
| maj....daytime, day | moj....nighttime, night |
| bi maj....A.M. | bi moj....P.M. |
| jamajij....pre-dawn | jamojij....pre-dusk |
| majij....daybreak, dawn | mojij....dusk |
| amaryap....sunrise, sunup | amaryop....sunset, sundown |
| jwamaj....morning zajwamaj....tomorrow morning hijwamaj....this morning zojwamaj....yesterday morning hujwamaj....that morning hyajwamaj....every morning | jwamoj....evening zajwamoj....tomorrow evening hijwamoj....this evening zojwamoj....yesterday evening hujwamoj....that evening hyajwamoj....every evening |
| zemaj....noon | zemoj....midnight |
| jozemaj....afternoon | jozemoj....after midnight |
| majuj....day's end | jwomoj....late night |
      * Examples of Usage:
      * At tijpa ja majij.....I woke up before dawn.
      * At iyfe tuyjer be ha jwoa jozemaj.....I like to nap in the late afternoon.
      * It yexe bi amaryap bu amaryop.....He works from sunup to sundown.
      * Be gwa jwamoji, at teaxe sinibar.....Most evenings, I watch television.

## Expressing Dates

    The following is a how a date (jud) is normally expressed:
      * be juab, 11 jieb 2018 joK.....on Monday, February 11th, 1918 A.D.
    A date like 2018 can be expressed as twenty eighteen (elo alyi) or two thousand eighteen (ero alyi).
    The day 11 in the above expression is pronounced ala.
    The acronym for B.C. is jaK, short for ja Krist (before Christ).
    The acronym for the de-Christianized "BCE", meaning Before the Common/Current Era is expressed in Mirad with jaEJ (ja ha Eja Joeb).
    The acronym for A.D. is joK, short for jo Krist (after Christ).
    The acronym for the de-Christianized C.E. is EJ, shoft for ha Eja Joeb (the Current Era).
    Other date expressions follow:
      * be ha 1800 jabi (alyi aso jabi)....In the 1800's (eighteen hundreds)
      * ja ha 20a (eloa) asojab....before the 20th (twentieth) century
      * eb 1920 (yulo elo) ay 2001 (emso awa)....between 1920 (nineteen twenty) and (two thousand one)
      * hyaje hua alojab....throughout that decade
      * At yexa hum je gla jabi.....I worked there for [Lit: during] many years.
      * Ujbu his lojo jiyab.....Finish this by [Lit: not after] May.
      * Iyt so him ub ha uj bi 2 (ewa) jiab.....She will be here toward the end of January 2nd.
      * At taja je ha Tejika Eloni.....I was born in the Roaring Twenties.

## Telling Time

    Clock time expressions use mostly the word jwob (hour) or jwobi (hours).
    Times of the day are expressed in the 24-hour European system, or what might be called by Americans "military clock time." So, 3PM in U.S. parlance should be expressed in Mirad as 15 hours (ulo jwobi), which is the same as 15:00 or 15 hundred hours.
    The usual time-of-day question is Se duhojwob?....What time is it? [Lit: is what-hour?]
    The typical answer is in the format Se alo (jwobi) yuwa. (Lit: (It) is ten hours five). The use of jwobi is optional, but if jwobi is modified by awa....one, then the singular form jwob is used.
    Here are some typical answers:
      * Se awa jwob.....It is one o'clock AM [Lit: It is one hour.]
      * Se ewa jwobi.....It is two o'clock AM [Lit: It is two hours.]
      * Se ale jwobi.....It is twelve o'clock AM.
      * Se alyu jwobi elo.....It is 15:30 (3:30 PM).
      * Se eli jwobi ali.....It is 23:13 (11:13 PM).
      * Se elu jwobi.....It is 24:00 (12 PM).
    The words jwob and jwobi can be abbreviated as j..
      * be elo j.....At 8:00 PM
    The designation AM and PM can be used but are not necessary in the 24-hour clock system:
      * bi maj....(AM)
      * bi moj.... (PM)
      * Se vyavay 15:10 (= alu alo).....It is exactly 7:10 P.M.. [Lit: It is exactly fifteen ten.]
      * Et sa jwoa bey alo jwabi.....You were late by 10 minutes. [Lit: You were late by ten minutes.]
      * Has ijo yuz 21:30 (= ela jwobi ilo).....It will begin around 10:30 PM.
      * Puu him lojo jwoa vyel 15:00 j.....Get here no later than 3 PM.
      * Ha yuzpar puo hum yeb 10 jwabi.....The bus will arrive there within 10 minutes.
      * Ha jwobar izeade$^1$ 17:00.....The clock says [Lit. indicates] 5 PM.
      * Yit pua be 3 j. be ha nod.....They arrived at 3 on the dot.
          Note 1: izeade (indicates) can be substituted with de (says).
    Note the following clock time idioms:
    Clock Idioms MIRADENGLISH jwaearly jweon time jwolate Se vyavay elo j.It is exactly 8 PM. yub bi zemaj or yuz bi zemaj.around noon ub zemojtoward midnight yeb bi jwebiwithin seconds alo jwabi ja hijten minutes ago [= before now] lojo 3 j.no later than / by 3 o'clock AM. jwobayhourly / by the hour / on the hour Hia pop efxe 2 1/2 (= ewa gab eyn) jwobi.This trip takes (Lit: necessitates) 2 1/2 hours. ju awa jwob bi hijuntil one hour from now ji zojub be 10a j.since yesterday at 10 o'clock. je ha jana 12 jwabifor/during/over the last 12 minutes ja ojo 10 j.before / by 10 AM. lojo 10 jwobi.by / in / within 10 hours. jo 10 j.after 10 o'clock AM. At saye him ji ewa jwobi.I have been here for [= since] two hours.

# Expressing Age

    Many expressions relating to age are built on the Mirad word for age: jag.
    The typical question is:
      * Et se duhojaga?....How old are you? (Lit. what-aged)
    A typical answer is:
      * At se eli (jabi) (jaga).....I am twenty-three (years old).
    The word jaga can be left understood, as well as the word jabi....years:
      * At se ilo.....I am thirty.
    Here is a list of important age expressions and categories:
* duhojaga?....how old?
* hojoga....of which age
* hajaga....of the age
* hejaga....of some age
* hijaga....this old
* hujaga....that old
* huujaga....so old
* hyajaga....of every age
* hyejaga....of any age
* hyijaga / gejaga....of the same age, as old
* hyujaga / ogejaga....of a different age
* zejaga .... middle-aged
* jaga....old
* jayga....oldish
* joga....young
* joyga .... youngish
* gle jaga....rather old, oldish
* gla jaga....very old
* gra jaga....too old, super-aged
* gro jaga....under-aged, minor
* ge jaga....as old, of the same age
* awa (jab) jaga....one year old
* ewa (jabi) jaga....two years old
* alo (jabi) jaga....ten years old
* ga jaga vyel et....older than you
* ga joga vyel at....younger than me
* ge joga vyel iyt....as young as her
* ha gwa jagat bi ata tidetyan....the youngest of my siblings
* gajagat .... an elder
* grojagat....a minor
* alojagat....a ten-year-old
* aloynjagat....a teenager
* jagat .... old person, elder, senior
* jagwat .... old man
* jagayt .... old woman
* jogat....a youth
* jogwat....a boy
* jogayt....a girl
* grejat....an adult, someone of age
* jagseat....an adolescent
* jagsyat/agsyat....a grownup
* yilojagat....an octogenarian
* asojagat....a centenarian
* tud .... child, offspring
* twud .... male child, son
* tuyd .... female child, daughter
* tudet .... baby, infant
* tobet .... youth, young person
* twobet .... boy, young man
* toybet .... girl, young woman, maiden
    Some other examples of usage:
      * Et jagseye fi.....You are aging well.
      * At voy jogseye hyegla.....I am not getting any younger.
      * His se taam av ha jagati.....This is a home for the elderly.
      * Gawaku eta jogan!....Regain your youth!
      * At se ga jaga vyel ha yazmeli.....I am older than the hills.
      * Teaxu ata gwa joga tud.....Look at my youngest child.
      * Yat ife yata awajagat.....We love our one-year-old.
      * Jagseatan se yika joob bi tej.....Adolescence is a difficult period of life.
      * Agsu!....Grow up!
    Note the difference:
      * agaser....to get bigger
      * agser....to grow

# Currency Nomenclature

    The ISO abbreviation for the currency expressions from various countries of the world are used to form the Mirad equivalents. The lowercase ISO code abbreviation for a particular country's denomination is spelled out in Mirad alphabetics and then the letter n is suffixed (mnemonic for nas....money). Then, since a monetary unit can be considered a proper noun, the first letter is capitalized, eg.:
      * The ISO code abbreviation for "U.S. dollar" is "USD".
      * Lowercase is "usd"
      * Spelled out in Mirad alphabetics is u so da.
      * This, with n suffixed, results in usodan.
      * Finally, the first letter is capitalized, giving Usodan.
      * Pluralized, Usodan becomes Usodani (= U.S. dollars).
      * The Euro is therefore Euron.
      * The Thai baht is Toheban.
      * The Russian ruble is Rouban.
    The ISO codes can be found at List of circulating currencies. A portion of that file is replicated here:
Currencies :
| English Currency Name | Currency symbol | ISO code | Mirad Name |
| Jordanian dinar | JD | JOD | Jiodan |
| Moroccan dirham | DH | MAD | Miadan |
| Australian dollar | $ | AUD | Audan |
| Bitcoin | ₿ | (BTK?) | Batokin |
| Brunei dollar | $ | BND | Banidan |
| Eastern Caribbean dollar | $ | XCD | Xucadan |
| Hong Kong dollar | $ | HKD | Hekidan |
| New Zealand dollar | $ | NZD | Nizudan |
| Singapore dollar | $ | SGD | Sogedan |
| United States dollar | $ | USD | Usodan |
| Armenian dram | ֏ | AMD | Amidan |
| Euro | € | EUR | Euron |
| Central African CFA franc | Fr | XAF | Xuafen |
| CFP franc | Fr | XPF | Xupofen |
| Swiss franc | Fr | CFN | Cufenin |
| West African CFA franc | Fr | XOF | Xuofen |
| Netherlands Antillean guilder | ƒ | ANG | Anigen |
| Danish krone | kr | DKK | Dakikin |
| Turkish lira | ₺ | TRY | Toroyun |
| Mauritanian ouguiya | UM | MRU | Miroun |
| Sterling | £ | GBP | Gebapon |
| Saint Helena pound | £ | SHP | Sohepon |
| South African rand | R | ZAR | Zuaron |
| Russian rouble | ₽ | RUB | Rouban |
| Indian rupee | ₹ | INR | Iniron |
| Israeli new shekel | ₪ | ILS | Ilison |
    The hundredth fractional unit for most currencies can be converted into Mirad by appending the word -asoyn to the end of the Mirad name of the currency.
    For example:
      * The American cent is Usodan-asoyn.
      * The Euro cent is Euron-asoyn.
      * The British penny is Gebapon-asoyn.
    In context, all of the above can be abbreviated to asoyn.
    The symbol used for each currency can also be taken from the Wikipedia table referenced above. The symbol precedes the number and a comma is used for the thousand breaker and a period is used for the decimal breaker. For example:
      * Five point six Euros ==> Yowa nod yawa Euroni ==> €5.6
      * Two thousand nine dollars ==> Emro yuwa Usodani ==> $2,009
    Note: : The bitcoin has no ISO code, so it is arbitrarily translated into Mirad as Batokin (for BTK). Its billionth fractional unit is called a satoshi and is translated into Mirad as Batokin-amroyn.
    Other monetary vocabulary:
      * nas....money
         * nasa....monetary
         * nasyen....currency
         * nases....change
         * nasmug....coin
         * syagnas....cash
            * syagnasuer....to cash
      * ejnux....debit, cash
      * ojnux....credit
      * nasyef....debt
      * ojbier....to borrow
      * ojbuer....to lend
      * drefnas....paper money
      * nasdrev....bill, note, banknote
         * alo Usodan nasdrev....ten dollar bill
      * nax....price
      * nayx....cost
      * namper....to shop
      * nusbier....to buy
      * nisbuer....to sell
      * nun....merchandise, product
      * nuer....to supply
      * nuxer....to pay
      * nyuxer....to deliver
      * nier....to demand
      * nixer....to earn
      * nyixer....to order
      * nexer....to save
      * nyexer....to stock
      * noxer....to spend
      * nyoxer....to waste
      * kyaxler nas....convert money
      * nasokrer....go bankrupt
      * nasam....bank
      * nuien....trade
      * nuiem....market
      * nam....store

## Pronoun Categories

    Pronouns are words that substitute for explicit nouns. For example, the pronoun I stands for the person standing at this place. The pronoun this stands for the thing or person nearest. The pronoun big one stands for a person or thing of some stature.
    In this grammar, pronouns are divided into three categories:
      * personal pronouns
      * deictic determiners
      * deadjectival pronouns
    Deictic determiners like who?, this, that, such a, all, anything are discussed in a later chapter called Determiners.
    Deadjectival pronouns are discussed in the chapter on Adjectives, because they are basically pronouns built from an adjective or adjective stem, such as:
      * fia....good
      * fiat....a good guy
      * fias....a good thing
      * ha gwa fiasi....the best ones
    This chapter discusses personal pronouns.

## Personal Pronouns

    In Mirad, personal pronouns can be classified by the following features:
      * person
         * 1st
         * 2nd
         * 1st & 2nd hybrid
         * 3rd
      * specificity
         * person-specific
         * generic
         * reciprocal
         * reflexive
      * gender
         * gender-neutral
         * masculine
         * feminine
      * case
         * subject
         * direct object
         * indirect object
      * animacy
         * animate
         * inanimate
      * other
         * emphatic
         * possessive
    The chart below shows the principal personal pronouns, but does not include hybrid, reciprocal, emphatic, and possessive forms.
       Personal Pronouns PERSON TYPE ANIMACY GENDER SINGULAR PLURAL 1st Specific Animate Neutral at....I, me yat....we, us 2nd et....you yet....you, you all 3rd it....he, she, him, her yit....they, them Masculine wit....he, him Feminine iyt....she, her Inanimate Neutral is....it yis....they, them Generic Animate ot....one, they yot....people Reflexive ut....self yut....selves

### Animacy

    If a Mirad pronoun ends in -t, the pronoun is animate. If the pronoun ends in -s, the pronoun is inanimate.
    The Mirad 3rd person specific animate pronouns it (he/she), iyt (she), wit (he), and yit can refer to any animate or pseudo-animate creatures such as animals, babies, dolls, angels, gods, or monsters. However, Mirad it cannot refer to non-animate things such as tables, ideas, abstractions, plants, etc. Instead, the 3rd person inanimate pronoun is (singular) or yis (plural) is used. A deictic determiner (this/that, these/those) can also be used in such cases, as discussed in the chapter on Determiners, eg.:
      * Eta dom se via. At iyfe is.....You house is beautiful. I like it.
      * Ata dyun se Pierre. Is se Feroda.....My name is Pierre. It's French.
      * Tej se vira, oy is uje gra ig.....Life is wonderful, but it ends too soon.
      * Teaxu hua amaryop. Has se via.....Look at that sunset. It (=the thing) is beautiful. In this case, is and the determiner has are synonymous.
    If the English word they or them refers to inanimate objects, concepts, or abstractions, then the Mirad 3rd person inanimate plural pronoun isi is used, eg.:
      * At ujba dyeer ha dyesi. Isi sa gla fia.....I finished reading the books. They were very good.
    Note that the endings -t and -s alternate regularly in the language for things and persons.

### Gender

    Personal pronouns are gender-neutral, except that the 3rd singular animate pronoun it (he/she) can be made to express gender by prefixing w for masculine or inserting y before the final t for feminine. This is optional and only used where needed to differentiate referents.
      * it....he/she/him/her
      * iyt....she/her
      * wit....he/him
      * ita....his/her
      * iyta....her
      * wita....his
      * iut....himself/herself
      * iuyt....herself
      * wiut....himself
      * iuta....his/her own
      * iuyta....her own
      * wiuta....his own
    In rare cases, distinguishing other personal pronouns for gender might be possible:
      * wat....I/me, as a male
      * eyt....you, a female

### Number

    All plural personal pronouns begin with y:
      * yat....we, us
      * yet....you (all)
      * yit....they, them (m. or f.)
      * yot....people
      * yut....themselves
    Plural personal pronouns do not express gender.

### Case

    Personal pronouns in Mirad do not express case with inflected forms such as he vs. him or she vs. her, or they vs. them in English. Rather, the position in the sentence or prepositions do the job.
      * Et teate at.....You see me. (subject)
      * At teate et.....I see you. (direct object)
      * Yat teate yit.....We see them. (subject)
      * Yit teaate yat.....They see us. (direct object)
      * Du at din.....Tell me a story. (indirect object)
      * Buu is bu at.....Give it to me. (indirect object)
    Tell me a story. can also be expressed in Mirad as Du din bu at. (Tell a story to me.). Some verbs in Mirad like der (to tell), buer (to give), and uper (to come) have a built-in dative notion and do not require the preposition bu (to) if the object pronoun immediately follows the verb.

### Expressing Pronouns with Quantitative Elements

    Here are some possible personal pronouns with quantitative elements:
      * awat bi yat....one of us
      * ewat bi yet....two of you
      * Hyaewat bi yit....both of them
      * hya yat....we/us all
      * anay wet....only you (m.)
      * duhot bi yet?....who of you?
      * Hyawas se fia.....Each one is good.
    The above terms involve deictic determiners, which are discussed in the chapter on Determiners, as well as numbers, discussed in Numbers.

### Generic Pronouns

    The third person generic pronouns ot and yot are used as in English one and they, people (meaning unspecifed persons), as in the following examples:
      * Ot yefe xer ha yakwas.....One must do what is expected.
      * Yot de van et vyode hyoj.....They/People say you never lie.

### Hybrid Pronouns

    Mirad offers two special hybrid 1st & 2nd person pronouns, aet and ayet, which mean, respectively, I and you (dual) and I and you (plural). These are used only where the situation calls for it, eg.:
      * Aet yeyfe tadser.....You and I should get married.
      * Ayet efe yanbeser.....You people and I need to stick together.

### Reflexive Personal Pronouns

    Reflexive personal pronouns like English myself, yourself, etc. are formed by postfixing a u just before the final t. Reflexive personal pronouns are invariable for gender. Translating iut as herself depends on the context.
    Reflexive Pronouns PERSONSINGULARPLURAL 1st specific animate aut....myselfyaut....ourselves 2nd specific animate eut....yourselfyeut....yourselves 3d specific animate iut....himself/herselfyiut....themselves 3d specific inanimate ius....itselfyius....themselves 3d generic animate out....oneselfyout....people themselves
    Reflexive pronouns do not have gendered forms, because they hearken back to personal pronouns which can be gendered.
    The above reflexive pronouns can be adjectivized, as in the following:
      * auta tam....my own house
      * yiuta byen....their own way
      * iusa volz....its own color
    These in turn can be pronominalized, as in the following:
      * At bese yub bi autati.....I stay nearby my own (people).
      * Eutas se ga fia.....You own is better.
      * Iyt bexe iutasi.....She has her own things.
    Examples of personal pronoun usage:
      * At yafe teater aut be ha sinzyef.....I can see myself in the mirror.
      * Iyt yubteaxa iut.....She examined herself.
      * Tru eut!....Know thyself.
      * Yat yeyfe tadser.....We should get married.
      * Iyt vey tojbo iut.....She may kill herself.
      * Ot yefe ifer out.....One must love oneself.
      * Yot glaxag voy ife yout.....People often don't love themselves.
      * Yet ufe yeut.....You (people) hate yourselves.
      * Yet yeyfe yovser yeut.....You people should be ashamed of yourselves.
      * Yat ufe yet.....We hate you.
      * Upu eker bay yat.....Come play with us.
      * At aut voy movie.....I myself do not smoke.
    The reflexive pronoun ut....self can sometimes be prefixed (with no variation in gender or number) to a verb to form a reflexive version of that verb, or it can be prefixed to other parts of speech to mean auto-, or self-, eg.:
      * tojber....kill → uttojber....commit suicide
      * vyixer....clean → utvyixer....wash up, clean oneself, self-clean
      * exer....function → utexer....function automatically, self-run
      * izber....pilot → utizber....auto-pilot, self-drive
      * exut....operator → utexut....automaton
      * deber....rule → utdebea....autocratic, self-ruling
      * tejdin....biography → uttejdin....autobiography
      * fider....praise → utfider....boast (= self-praise)

### Emphatic Personal Pronouns

    Emphatic personal pronouns can be formed by following the personal pronoun with the reflexive correspondent, eg.:
    Emphatic Personal Pronouns PERSONGENDERSINGULARPLURAL 1stneutral at aut....I myself, me myselfyat yaut....we ourselves, us ourselves 2nd et eut....you yourselfyet yeut....you yourselves 3rd it iut....the person him or herselfyit yiut....they themselves masculine wit iut....he himselfwit wiut....they themselves feminine iyt iut....she herselfyit yiut....they themselves
Note: Gender is not expressed in personal reflexive pronouns. Only the personal specific pronouns express gender, and then only optionally.
    Examples:
      * At aut voy vatexe Tot.....I myself don't believe in God.
      * At jateate yet yeut be hua dezyem.....I foresee you yourselves on that stage.
      * Iyt iut voy sa hum.....She herself was not there.

### Reciprocal Personal Pronouns

    The animate reciprocal personal pronoun....one another, each other is translated with hyuit, which is a melding of hyut (the other person) and hyit (the same person). This is an invariable pronoun and does not express gender or number, but refers to sentient beings.
      * Yat yefe ifer hyuit.....We must love one another.
    This reciprocal pronoun can be converted to a pronominal determiner by suffixing a, as in hyuita....one another's, mutual, reciprocal:
      * Yat tobweti yefe fiyzaxer hyuita fwasi.....We guys must respect one another's wishes.
    The inanimate reciprocal personal pronoun....one another, each other is translated with hyuis, which is a hybridization of hyus (the other thing) and hyis (the same thing. This is an invariable pronoun and does not express gender or number, but refers to inanimate objects, concepts, and abstractions.
      * Meri glexag yanpyexe hyuis.....Planets sometimes crash into each other.
      * Syaagiri dale bay hyuis hyaj.....Computers talk with one another all the time.
    This reciprocal pronouns can sometimes be used as a prefix, eg.:
      * Yat yefe hyuitifer.....We must love one another.
      * Hyuitfiyz....mutual respect
      * Hyuisloyexen....mutual destruction.

### Possessive Adjectives and Pronouns

    Possessive adjectives are derived from pronouns by adding the adjectival ending a to the end of the pronoun, as follows:
      * at....I, me → ata....my
      * aut....myself → auta....my own
      * yat....we, us → yata....our
      * yaut....ourselves → yauta....our own
      * iut....himself/herself → iuta....his/her own
      * hyuit....one another → hyuita....one another's
    In turn, these possessive adjectives can be pronominalized with singular and plural forms referring to things. The following chart shows these forms:
       Possessive Adjectives and Pronouns Adjective Pronoun Singular (thing) Plural (things) ata....my atas....mine atasi....mine auta....my own autas....your own autasi....your own aeuta....your and my own, our own aeutas....your and my own, our own aeutasi....your and mine, our own eta....your etas....yours etasi....yours euta....your own eutas....your own eutasi....your own ita....his/her itas....his/hers itasi....his/hers iuta....his/her own iutas....his/hers own iutasi....his/hers own wita....his witas....his witasi....his wiuta....his own wiutas....his own wiutasi....his own iyta....her iytas....hers iytasi....hers iuyta....her own iuytas....her own iuytasi....her own hyuita....one another's hyuitas....one another's hyuitasi....one another's isa....its isas....its isasi....its iusa....its own iusas....its own iusasi....its own ota....one's otas....one's otasi....one's outa....one's own outas....one's own outasi....one's own yata....our yatas....ours yatasi....ours yauta....our own yautas....our own yautasi....our own yaeta....your and ours yaetas....yours and ours yaetasi....yours and ours yaeuta....your and our own yaeutas....yours and our own yaeutasi....yours and our own yeta....your yetas....yours yetasi....yours yeuta....your own yeutas....your own yeutasi....your own yita....their yitas....theirs yitasi....theirs yiuta....their own yiutas....their own yiutasi....their own yisa....their yisas....theirs yisasi....theirs yiusa....their own yiusas....their own yiusasi....their own yota....people's yotas....people's yotasi....people's youta....people's own youtas....people's own youtasi....people's own
    Examples of possessive adjectives and pronouns in use.
      * Ata tej se fia.....My life is good.
      * Yata twed.......Our father...
      * Ota fyadili yeyfe ser dola.....One's prayers should be silent.
      * At voy teata ita dyes.....I did not see his/her book.
      * At tre wita twed.....I know his father.
      * Yat yefe ovmasber yatasi.....We must protect our own [pl. things].
      * Etasi naze ga vyel atasi.....Yours are worth more than mine.
      * Biku yeutasi.....You guys, mind your own business (= things).
      * Yat toybeti fe ayser yauta nig.....We gals want to have our own space.
      * Hia vafil bayse iusa toleuz.....This wine has its own taste.
    In rare cases, inanimate possessive pronouns like, say, yatasi (our own [things]) can be animated by changing the s to a t, yielding yatati (our own [people]), as in Ha Feromati ife vafil. Yatati gey.....The French people love wine. Ours do too.

### Translating various uses of it in English

    When translating English it referring to animate creatures such as babies, animals, dolls, angels, ghosts, and monsters, the Mirad third person animate personal pronouns it he/she/it, iyt she, or wit he is used, eg:
      * At eke bay ha epet hosav at iyfe it / iyt / wit.....I play with the dog because I like it / her / him.
    When translating English it referring to an inanimate object or abstraction, the inanimate personal pronoun is can be used.
      * At teasa ha dyezun ay at iyfa is gla.....I saw the movie and I liked it a lot.
      * Ha mes sa yija oy at voy ta is.....The door was open but I didn't know it.
    Deictic determiners like this and that can also be used. Read more about that in the chapter on Determiners.
    If it introduces a non-previously-mentioned abstraction in English or has no antecedent, then the it is left unexpressed in the Mirad equivalent sentence. For example:
      * Mamilo.....It will rain. ( = Will rain.)
      * Se fia van et upa.....It is good that you came. ( = Is good that you came.)
      * Sa via jub bay et.....It was a beautiful day with you. ( = Was a beautiful day...)
      * Voy se yuka yaprer hia yazmel.....It is not easy to climb this mountain. ( = Is not easy...)

## The Verb Stem

    Verbs in Mirad are listed in the dictionary under the present active infinitive (see Mirad Grammar/Verbs#Non-finite Forms), such as yexer....to work. The infinitive minus the er ending is the stem. The stem is used as the base for all other verbal instantiations. The infinitive as listed in the dictionary is usually active in voice, but occasionally a passive infinitive ending in -wer will be lexicalized because it is somehow special, so then, the stem is the infinitive minus the -wer ending. All Mirad verbs are conjugated in the same way and there are no exceptions.
    This shows how to determine the stem of a verb listed in the dictionary:
       Verb Stems SIMPLE INFINITIVESTEM+INFINITIVE ENDING yexer....to workyex+er poser....to (come to a) stoppos+er xer....to dox+er xwer....to happen, be done (PASSIVE)x+wer

### Verb Formants

    The active stem of verbs most often end in one of the following verb formants:
       Verb Formats Verb FormantFunctionExamples -xeraction or causationxer....to do, saxer....to create, agaxer....to magnify, yixer....to use -xlerforceful actionyixler....to employ -xrermore forceful actionyixrer....to wear out -bergestureber....to put, aber....to apply, yujber....to close -blerforceful gestureyujbler....to lock -brermore foreful gestureyobrer....to knock down -serstate or becomingser....to be, eser....to exist, aser....to become, zyaser....to widen, become wider -permotion or goingper....to go, yaper....to ascend, paper....to fly -ieraction toward subjectbier....to take, nier....to consume, ifier.'..to enjoy, dier....to ask -ueraction toward objectbuer....to give, nuer....to supply, ifuer....to please, duer....to suggest -nervarious verbsuxner....to motivate, axner....to behave -dercommunicationder....to say, vader....to affirm, yevder....to judge -drerwritingdrer....to write, teedrer....to report, taxdrer....to record -terknowingter....to know, tester....to understand, teater....to see -fervolitionfer....to want, ifer....to love, ufer....to hate -versome modal verbsyiver....to have a right to, yuver....to have a duty to -kervarious verbsaker....to win, oker....to lose, eker....to play -jeropening/closingijer....to begin, ujer....to end, tajer....to be born, tojer....to die, yijer....to open -lervarious verbsbaler....to press, boler....to support, beler....to carry, daler....to speak -[aiu]rertool useukarer....to shovel, purer....to drive, myekirer....to mill -zerperform an artdazer....to dance, dezer....to act, deuzer...to sing

## Verb Categories

    Verbs have morphological categories, which involve changes to the verb not always found in the dictionary, but developed through rule-bound affixation (such as live, lives, lived, living). They also have lexical categories, which involve derived forms usually listed in dictionaries (enjoy, enjoyable, enjoyment)

### Morphological Categories

       Verbs are inflected with the following morphological categories:
      * 2 STATES: finite, non-finite
      * 4 TENSES: present, past, future, atemporal$^1$
      * 5 ASPECTS: simple, progressive, perfect, imminent, potential
      * 2 VOICES: active, passive
      * 2 MOODS: indicative, hypothetical
Note 1: The term "atemporal" means that tense is not marked. For example, in Mirad, Pu! is the imperative of the verb per....to go. It means Go! and is atemporal. The -u ending is an atemporal hypothetical mood marker.
    In effect, the PERSON/NUMBER category is not listed above, because this category does not affect the morphology of the Mirad verb form itself. The Mirad verb form stays the same for all persons and numbers. That information is contained in the external subject pronouns governing the verb. In English, for example, the verb "be" has several different forms in the present tense verb form depending on the person and number (I am, you are, he is, we are, etc.), but not so in Mirad. The following chart shows how the English pattern differs from the corresponding single Mirad verb form se for all persons and numbers:
    Verb ser (to be) Unchanged for person/number PERSONNUMBERENGLISHMIRAD 1stSingular I amat se 2nd you areet se 3rd he/she/it isit se 1stPlural we areyat se 2nd you areyet se 3rd they areyit se
    This invariability of person/number exists for all tenses.

### Lexical Categories

       In addition, verbs can be described in terms of the following opposing lexical categories. By lexical, is meant that verbs having different lexical properties are listed in the dictionary and have nothing to do with conjugation.
Verb Lexical Categories :
| STATIVE | DYNAMIC |
| ser....to be | xer....to do |
| INTRANSITIVE | TRANSITIVE |
| agaser....to grow large | agaxer....to magnify |
| SUBJECT-DIRECTED | PATIENT-DIRECTED |
| bier....to take | buer....to give |
| REFLEXIVE | NON-REFLEXIVE |
| utvyixer....to wash up (wash oneself) | vyixer....to wash |
| INCHOATIVE | CAUSATIVE |
| tujper....fall asleep | tujber....put to sleep |
| AUTONOMOUS | DYNAMIC |
| yijer....to open (by itself) | yijber....to (make it) open |
| RECIPROCAL | NON-RECIPROCAL |
| hyuittujber....to kill one another | tujber....to kill |
| GESTURAL | LOCOMOTIVE |
| baser....to stir, budge | paser....to move |
| SUBJECT-ORIENTED | OBJECT-ORIENTED |
| teetyiker....to be hard of hearing | teetyikwer....to be hard to hear |

## Non-finite Forms

    Non-finite verb forms are
      * not conjugated for person or number
      * cannot form a predicate
      * and do not have a subject.
    There are three kinds of non-finite verb forms in Mirad:
      * infinitives: the dictionary lookup form of a verb, ending in -er
      * gerunds: verbal nouns, ending in -en
      * participles: verbal adjectives, ending in -a

### Infinitives

    Verbs are listed in the dictionary under the active voice simple aspect infinitive form, which always ends in er and means to X, or rarely the passive voice simple aspect infinitive form, which ends in wer and means to be Xed. The part of the verb form minus the -er or -wer is the verb stem.
Infinitive Stems :
| INFINITIVE | STEM | ENDING |
| agser....to grow | ags- | -er |
| igxer....to quicken | igx- | -er |
| per....to go | p- | -er |
| xwer....to happen, be done | x- | -wer |
    The infinitive in Mirad is used very much as its counterpart in English. The infinitive can be marked for two aspects (simple, perfect) and two voices (active, passive), as shown in the chart below, where the verb stems are underlined:
Active and Passive Infinitive Stems :
| ASPECT | ACTIVE VOICE | PASSIVE VOICE |
| Simple | igxer....to quicken | igxwer....to be quickened |
| Perfect | igxayer....to have quickened | igxawer....to have been quickened |
    In the above chart,
      * the verb stem is igx- and
      * the infinitive marker is -er;
      * the simple aspect active voice marker is zero;
      * the simple aspect passive voice marker is w;
      * the perfect aspect active voice marker is -ay-;
      * the past aspect passive voice marker is -aw-.
The passive voice infinitive of a verb will not appear in the dictionary unless it has a special meaning, such as xwer to happen. The perfect infinitives are never listed in the dictionary.

### Gerunds

    The gerund is a verbal noun like English playing in playing ball.
    The gerund has two possible aspects (simple and perfect) and two possible voices (active and passive):
Gerund Formation :
| ASPECT | VOICE | ENDING | EXAMPLE |
| Simple | Active | -en | agaxen....magnifiying, magnification |
| Simple | Passive | -wen | agaxwen....being magnified |
| Perfect | Active | -ayen | byekayen....having cured |
| Perfect | Passive | -awen | byekawen....having been cured |
    Note: Intransitive verbs like per to go do not have a passive gerund form.
    Lexicalized gerunds, such as sanxen formation, forming generally appear in the dictionary in the active voice.
    Some examples of gerund usage:
      * (sanxer....to form) Ha sanxen bi hia mar efxa amroni bi jabi.....The forming (or: formation) of this star took millions of years.
      * (deuzer....to sing) Iyta deuzen sa gla via.....Her singing was very beautiful.
      * (poper....to travel) Popen se yika yex.....Traveling is hard work.
      * (teeter....to hear) Teetwen fiay se glatesa av dezuti.....Being heard well is important for actors.
      * (teater....to see) Teaten se vyatexen......Seeing is believing.
      * (uper....to come) His se ha jeb bi Upen.....This is the season of Advent (coming).
      * (tadier....to get married) Ata tadiayen ewa jodi bixa tepzex.....My having married twice drew attention.
      * (aker....to win) At voy ta ita akawen hua nuz.....I did not know about his having won that prize.
    Gerunds, being verb forms, can take direct and indirect objects:
      * At ifxwe bey eta buayen at hua nas.....I am pleased by your having given me that money.
      * Tojben eut voy se kebiyaf.....Killing yourself is not an option.
    The special gerundive ending -eyn gives a nuance emphasizing the action as a single act, much like the English endings -ment or -tion. Here are a few examples showing the difference between -en and -eyn.
      * yanlaxen....combining ≠< yanlaxeyn....combination
      * xen....doing ≠< xeyn....action, deed
      * zayben....advancing ≠< zaybeyn....advancement
    Another special gerundive (but lexical) ending is -un, which expresses the result of an action, eg.:
      * zyegxer....to puncture ≠< zyegxun....a puncture
      * zyeuber....to transmit ≠< zyeubun....a broadcast
      * deuzer....to sing ≠< deuzun....a song

### Participles

    Participles are verbal adjectives and can modify nouns and pronouns. Since they act as adjectives, they have the adjectival ending -a. Participles are marked by aspect (simple, progressive, perfect, imminent, potential) and voice (active, passive).
    The aspect markers per voice are:
Aspect Markers :
| ASPECT | VOICE | FORM | EXAMPLE |
| Progressive | Active | -ea- | tejea....living |
| Progressive | Passive | wea | xwea....happening |
| Perfect | Active $^2$ | -ya | pya....gone (< pyaa$^1$) |
| Perfect | Passive | -wa | xwa....done (< xwaa$^1$), drawa$^2$....written |
| Imminent | Active | -oa | tojoa....about to die |
| Imminent | Passive | -woa | dodelwoa....about to be announced |
| Potential | Active | -ua | tojbua....lethal |
| Potential | Passive | -wua | opoxwua....unstoppable |
    $^1$: The double aa in the perfect endings is reduced to a.
    $^2$: The wa ending is changed to awa after stems ending in a double consonant, the second being l or r. Example: dr- (to write) becomes drawa (written).
    Note 1: The perfect active particple ending in -ya is used only for intransitive verbs like per (to go). He is gone. is expressed by Wit se pya.
    Note 2: The potential aspect, represented by the vowel u is much like the conditional in English, but is not considered a tense in Mirad. For example, tojbu means would kill and the participle tojbua means lethal (referring to something that would/has the potential to kill). More about this in a later section.
    Note 3: There is another form of the progressive participle that falls in the lexical, rather than morphological category, in that such forms are listed in the dictionary as adjectives. For example, in the phrase The animals bothering our bird feeder..., the participle bothering would be oboxea in Mirad. By inserting the letter y between the verb stem and the participial ending, the participle becomes an adjective denoting a propensity or habit, as in bothersome (oboxyea). Such participles are invariably in the active voice. Most such adjectives in English end in -ive as in repulsive or -ly as in wiggly or -ous as in circuitous. Such adjectives in Mirad are listed in the dictionary and end in -yea.
    Adverbial participles can be made from the above adjectival participles, by suffixing the letter y. Examples:
      * Iyt yepa ha tim deuzeay.....She entered the room singing.
      * Ujbaway ha dodal, it pia.....The speech having been finished, he left.
    Also, the above participles can be converted into abstract nouns by suffixing n. Examples:
      * tiluwa....drinkable → tiluwan....potability
      * tojbua....lethal → tojbuan....lethality
      * mansea....shining → he mansean bi iyta deuzen....the brilliance of her singing
      * aakaxyea....inventive → aakaxyean....inventiveness
    Furthermore, these participles can sometimes be pronominalized with s for things and t for people or living things. These forms can, in turn, be pluralized:
      * xwa....done → xwas....what is done, a happening
      * xwa....done → xwasi....happenings, deeds
      * otwa....unknown → otwas....what is not known, a mystery
      * osexea....destroying → osexeas....a destroyer
      * tojbua....lethal → tojbuas....something lethal, a lethal thing
      * tojboa....moribund → tojboati....people about to die, fatal cases
      * tejea....living → tejeat....a living person
      * tejea....living → tejeasi....living things
    There is a special tenseless, nominalized, animate participle used for agent nouns (English one who does something, Xer, Xant, Xist), which refers to a person who habitually does some action, perhaps as a profession or trade. These agent nouns end in -ut.
      * sexut....builder
      * nuut....supplier
      * tojbut....killer
      * ifut....lover
      * akuti....winners
    Note: There is a slight difference of meaning between the tensed participial pronoun ha akeat....the one winning and the non-tensed agent noun ha akut....the winner.
    Similarly, there is a special tenseless, nominalized, inanimate participle used for a thing that performs the action denoted by the verb stem. These agent nouns end in -us.
      * yuxus....aid (a thing that helps)
      * byuxwus....button (a thing that gets touched on the keyboard)
      * paxus....motive (a thing that moves one)
      * jaupus....precedent (a thing that comes before)
    The above -us ending contrasts with the endings -ar (instrument), -ir (machine), -ur (motor, engine), which are physical objects and not always suffixed to a verbal root.

## Finite Forms

    In Mirad, finite verb forms are those that can take a person subject, serve as a predicate, and be conjugated. Finite verb forms are conjugated by using suffixes indicating, through their presence or absence, the following categories:
      * TENSES
         * present
         * past
         * future
         * atemporal
      * MOODS
         * indicative
         * hypothetical
      * ASPECTS
         * simple
         * progressive
         * perfect
         * imminent
         * potential
      * VOICES
         * active
         * passive
         * reflexive
         * reciprocal
    Person and number are not marked on the verb form itself. For example, am, is, are, which change according to the person subject in English, are all expressed with the same verb form in Mirad: se. Thus, at se....I am, et se....you are, it se....he/she/it is, etc.

### Moods

    There are two moods in Mirad:
      * indicative
      * hypothetical.

##### Indicative Mood

          The indicative form of the verb indicates an action or state that occurs in actual time, such as he went, he is going, he will go.
          The indicative mood has three tenses, present, past, future, indicated by the suffixes -e, -a, and -o, respectively.

##### Hypothetical Mood

          Wheras the indicative verb forms expresses actuality in time, the hypothetical mood expresses one of the non-actuality situations below and uses the vowel u.
         * a command , i.e. the IMPERATIVE (Go!)
         * a wish or suggestion, i.e. the HORTATIVE or JUSSIVE (May the king live long!, Let's celebrate!)
         * an unrealized situation, i.e. the SUBJUNCTIVE (It is important that you be early.)
         * an imagined if-then-situation, i.e. the CONDITIONAL (If I were rich, I would be happy.)

### Aspects

    There are five aspects in the Mirad verb system.
      * the SIMPLE aspect (default), i.e. non-progressive, non-perfect, non-imminent, and non-conditional.
      * the PROGRESSIVE aspect, i.e. an action or state on-going in the particular tense, using ey
      * the PERFECT aspect, i.e. an action or state anterior or already completed, using ay
      * the IMMINENT aspect, i.e. an action or state about to happen, using oy
      * the POTENTIAL aspect, i.e. an action potentially happening, using uy

##### The Simple Aspect

       Unless specifically marked, the default aspect is simple, i.e. non-progressive, non-perfect, non-imminent, and non-conditional. Three indicative tenses can be expressed in the simple aspect:
      * Present with e
      * Past with a
      * Future with o.
       An atemporal verb ending in u in the simple aspect is considered hypothetical and expresses three things, depending on how it is used in the sentence:
      * a conditional like I would go (if...)
      * an imperative like Go!
      * a hortative like Let's go!
      * a subjunctive like (It is important that) we go.
       Here is a chart showing the simple, active voice instantiations of the Mirad verb per (to go) with the endings underlined:
Simple Active Conjugation of Per :
| MOOD | TENSE | ASPECT | VOICE | INSTANTIATION | VERB per |
| Indicative | Present | Simple | Active | | At pe....I go |
| Indicative | Past | Simple | Active | | At pa....I went |
| Indicative | Future | Simple | Active | | At po....I will go |
| Hypothetical | Atemporal | Simple | Active | Conditional | At pu....I would go |
| Hypothetical | Atemporal | Simple | Active | Hortative/Optative/Jussive | Van yat pu!....Let's go! |
| Hypothetical | Atemporal | Simple | Active | Imperative | Pu tam!....Go home! |
| Hypothetical | Atemporal | Simple | Active | Subjunctive | Se efwa van et pu.....It is necessary that you go. |
    Note that the last four instantiations are the same tense, but differ in syntax. For example, if the verb form is hypothetical, atemporal, simple, active and has no subject, it operates as an imperative.

#### The Simple Indicative Present Active Tense

             The simple indicative present instantiation is marked with the vowel suffix e and has a non-progressive (habitual) aspect as in English I work or I live. Progressive aspect forms like I am studying are explained later.
                Examples:
                  * At yexe be tam. ....I work at home.
                  * Hia tom se nam. ....This building is a store.

#### The Simple Indicative Past Active Tense

             The simple indicative past tense instantiation is marked with the vowel suffix a and has a non-progressive (punctual) meaning as in English I did something at some particular point in time. The simple past contrasts in aspect with the past progressive (I was doing something) or the present perfect (I have done something), or past potential (I would have done something). The simple past is punctual, that is, it describes an event that occurred at a particular point in time.
                Examples:
                  * Iyt iba ha nyuf zojub. ....She received the package yesterday.
                  * At ujba ha dyes ji iwa jwobi. ....I finished the book three hours ago.
                  * His kyesa exag hijub.....This happened twice today.

#### The Simple Indicative Future Active Tense

             The simple indicative future tense is marked with the vowel suffix o and has the same meaning as in English I will do something at some particular point in the future.
                Examples:
                  * Yit tadso zajab.....They are going to get married next year.
                  * Hua kaxon ujako. ....That solution will work.

#### The Simple Hypothetical Atemporal Active Tense

             A verb form ending in u like pu has no time value and is used to express unreal actions or states, such as the imperative, hortative, conditional, or subjunctive.
                Examples:
                  * Upu him!....Come here! (IMPERATIVE)
                  * Von upu! ....Don't come! (NEGATIVE IMPERATIVE)
                  * Ha edeb fu teater et. ....The king would like to see you. (CONDITIONAL)
                  * Ven at su et, at dolu. ....If I were you, I would be quiet. (CONDITIONAL)
                  * Van yeyt ujaku be yeytia yexnadi. ....May all you (women) succeed in your careers. (HORTATIVE)
                  * Van yat ijbu bay fyadil. ....Let's begin with a prayer. (JUSSIVE)
                  * Se kyitesa van et puu jwa. ....It's important that you arrive early. (SUBJUNCTIVE)
                  * Se kyitesa von et puu jwo.....It's important that you not arrive late. (NEGATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE)
             Hypothetical verb forms ending in -u can be interpreted in various ways, depending on the following syntactical patterns in the sentence:
               * Generally, if a verb form ending in -u begins a sentence and has no subject, then it is an IMPERATIVE (a command). For example, Ipu!, Go away!.
               * If the verb form has a subject not preceded by the complementizers van, ven, or von, then it is probably a CONDITIONAL predicate like At fu per.....I would like to go..
               * If the subject of the verb is preceded by ven....if, then it is a CONDITIONAL clause as in Ven at su nasikat.......If I were a rich man..
               * If the subject is preceded by Van....that/let/may or von....don't, then it is a HORTATIVE wish like Van et yagteju.....May you live long. or a JUSSIVE suggestion like Van yat fyadilu.....Let us pray. or a prohibition like Von tiliu his!....Don't drink this!.

### Voices

    Mirad has four voices:
      * Active
      * Passive
      * Reflexive
      * Reciprocal.

#### Active Voice

    The default voice is active, i.e. the subject of the verb is doing the action.
      * At teata ha kyes.....I saw the event.

#### Passive Voice

    A verb form is converted from active to passive by inserting a w just before the last vowel of the verb form. The past passive particle ending -waa is usually abbreviated to -wa (done is xwa). However, if the verb stem ends in a consonant plus l or r, then -wa is changed to -awa for ease of pronunciation, eg. drawa....written.
    The following chart shows the distinction between active and passive voice of various verbs:
    Contrasting Active and Passive Voice VERB FORMACTIVEACTIVE EXAMPLEPASSIVEPASSIVE EXAMPLE Infinitive xer to doAt fe xer fi. I want to do well.xwer to be doneEse hyos xwer. There is nothing to be done. Present Participle sexea constructingHa yansyem sexea hia tom... The firm constructing this building...sexewa being constructedHis se sexewa. This is under construction. Present xe do/doesAt xe fi be tistam. I do well in school.xwe is doneHuyenasi hoj xwe. Such things are never done. Past Participle xaa having doneIyt, xaa hya iyta yex,... She, having done all her work,...xwa doneHyas se xwa. Everything is done. Past tojba killedDuhat tojba hwut? Who killed that guy?tojbwa was killedDuhaj it tojbwa? When was he killed? Hypothetical bakxu healBakxu at! Heal me!bakxwu be healedVan it bakxwu. May he be healed.
    Many intransitive verbs cannot be made passive. For example, tajer....to be born is intransitive (takes no object) and has no passive voice form. However, the transitive verb tajber....to bear, give birth can be passive, as in Ha tudet tajbwa zajub.....The child was delivered yesterday (as opposed to Ha tudet taja zajub.....The child was born yesterday.) Notice the following verb:
      * Ha mes uja.....The door opened (by itself). (medio-passive)
      * Ha mes ujpa.....The door came open. (dynamic medio-passive)
      * Ujbu ha mes.....Open the door. (transitive active)
      * Ha mes ujbwa.....The door was opened (by someone). (passive)

#### Reflexive Voice

          A verb is made reflexive by prefixing the reflexive pronoun ut (self), for example:
            * tojber....to kill → uttojber....to kill oneself
            * vyilxer....to wash → utvyilxer....to wash up
            * teater....to see → utteater....to see oneself
            * yalber....to lift → utyalber....to lift oneself → Utyalbu!....Lift yourself up!
            * trer....to know → uttrer....to know oneself → Uttru!....Know thyself!

#### Reciprocal Voice

          A verb is made reciprocal by prefixing the reciprocal pronoun hyuit....one another, for example:
            * tojber....to kill → hyuittojber....to kill one another
            * vyilxer....to wash → hyuitvyilxer....to wash one another
            * teater....to see → hyuitteater....to see one another
          Both the reflexive pronoun and reciprocal pronoun can be used as standalone objects. However, the plural form yut is used if the subject is plural, for example:
            * Yit vyilxa yut.....They (f.) washed up. (= washed selves).
            * Ha twobeti dizeuda hyuit.....The boys laughed at one another.
          The word hyuit is a hybrid of hyit....the same one combined with hyut....the other one.

#### Aspects Revisited

    Mirad verbs have the following aspects:
      * SIMPLE -- this is the default aspect, shown above, i.e. NON-PROGRESSIVE, NON-PERFECT, NON-IMMINENT, and NON-POTENTIAL.
      * PROGRESSIVE -- this is an aspect where the verb describes an on-going action or state spread over time.
      * PERFECT -- this presents the action or state as anterior, or completed prior to another action or state.
      * IMMINENT -- this describes an action or state about to happen.
      * POTENTIAL -- this refers to an action or state where something is possible.

#### The Simple Aspect

    The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Simple aspect. In the active voice, the tense vowels a, e, o, and u are affixed to the stem. In the passive voice, the passive marker consonant w is inserted between the stem and the final tense vowels. The simple present tense refers to actions or states that are habitual (I regularly go to school.), regular (The earth revolves around the sun.), or permanent (Blue is a color.). The simple past refers to actions or states that occurred at a fixed point in time (I did my homework last night.). The simple future refers to actions or states that will occur at some particular point in the future (The sun will rise tomorrow at dawn.). The simple atemporal hypothetical ( = conditional) refers to an imagined action or state that has not be realized (You would make a good president.).
    Simple Aspect ASPECTTENSEMOODACTIVE VOICEPASSIVE VOICE SimplePresentIndicative At xe....I doHas xwe....It is done SimplePastIndicative At xa....I didHas xwa....It was done SimpleFutureIndicative At xo....I will doHas xwo....It will be done SimpleAtemporalHypothetical At xu....I would doHas xwu....It would be done
Note: Absence of tense (Atemporal) + Hypothetical mood = CONDITIONAL

#### The Progressive Aspect

    The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Progressive aspect. The present tense vowel e followed by a buffer consonant, are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is y in the active voice, or w in the passive voice.
    Progressive Aspect ASPECTTENSEMOODACTIVE VOICEPASSIVE VOICE ProgressivePresentIndicative at xeye....I am doingHas xewe....it is being done ProgressivePastIndicative at xeya....I was doingHas xewa....it was being done ProgressiveFutureIndicative at xeyo....I am going to be doingHas xewo....it will be happening ProgressiveAtemporalHypothetical at xeyu....I would be doingHas xewu....it would be happening

#### The Perfect Aspect

    The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Perfect aspect. The past tense vowel a following by a buffer consonant are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is y in the active voice, or w in the passive voice.
    Perfect Aspect ASPECTTENSEMOODACTIVE VOICEPASSIVE VOICE PerfectPresentIndicative At xaye....I have doneHas xawe....It has been done PerfectPastIndicative At xaya....I had doneHas xawa....It had been done PerfectFutureIndicative At xayo....I will have doneHas xawo....It will have been done PerfectAtemporalHypothetical At xayu....I would have doneHas xawu....It would have been done

#### The Imminent Aspect

    The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Imminent aspect (sometimes referred to as the Prospective aspect). The future tense vowel o following by a buffer consonant are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is y in the active voice, or w in the passive voice. Not that only indicative mood imminent tenses are ever used.
    Imminent Aspect ASPECTTENSEMOODACTIVE VOICEPASSIVE VOICE ImminentPresentIndicative At xoye....I am about to doHas xowe....It is about to be done ImminentPastIndicative At xoya....I was about to doHas xowa....It was about to be done

#### The Potential Aspect

    The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Potential aspect. The hypothetical vowel u followed by a buffer consonant are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is y in the active voice, or w in the passive voice. The future potential and hypothetical potential aspects are never used.
    Potential Aspect ASPECTTENSEMOODACTIVE VOICEPASSIVE VOICE PotentialPresentIndicative At xuye....I am to doHas xuwe....It is to be done, it is doable PotentialPastIndicative At xuya....I was to doHas xuwa....It was to be done, it was doable

## Verb Conjugation Chart

    The following chart presents the totality of the Mirad affirmative verb conjugation system using the verb xer....to do and its passive xwer....to be done, happen. The rows beginning with a light blue background are finite forms, while those beginning with light green are non-finite forms.
Verb Conjugation Chart :
| STATE | MOOD | ASPECT | TENSE | VOICE | VOICE |
| STATE | MOOD | ASPECT | TENSE | ACTIVE | PASSIVE |
| Finite | Indicative | Simple | Present | xe does | xwe is done, happens |
| Finite | Indicative | Simple | Past | xa did | xwa was done, happened |
| Finite | Indicative | Simple | Future | xo will do | xwo will be done, will happen |
| Finite | Hypothetical | Simple | | xu would do, do! | xwu would be done, would happen, be done! |
| Finite | Indicative | Progressive | Present | xeye is doing | xewe is being done, is happening |
| Finite | Indicative | Progressive | Past | xeya was doing | xewa was doing, was happening |
| Finite | Indicative | Progressive | Future | xeyo will be doing | xewo will be happening |
| Finite | Hypothetical | Progressive | | xeyu would be doing be doing! | xewu would be happening |
| Finite | Indicative | Perfect | Present | xaye has done | xawe has been done, has happened |
| Finite | Indicative | Perfect | Past | xaya had done | xawa had been done, had happened |
| Finite | Indicative | Perfect | Future | xayo will have done | xawo will have been done, will have happened |
| Finite | Hypothetical | Perfect | | xayu would have done | xawu would have been done, would have happened |
| Finite | Indicative | Imminent | Present | xoye is about to do | xowe is about to be done, is about to happen |
| Finite | Indicative | Imminent | Past | xoya was to be done | xowa was to be done, was to happen |
| Finite | Indicative | Potential | Present | xuye is supposed to do | xuwe is supposed to happen |
| Finite | Indicative | Potential | Past | xuya was supposed to do | xuwa was supposed to be done, was supposed to happen |
| Infinitive | | Simple | | xer to do | xwer to be done, to happen |
| Infinitive | | Perfect | | xayer to have done | xawer to have been done, to have happend |
| Participle | | Progressive | | xea doing | xewa being done, happening |
| Participle | | Perfect | | x(a)ya$^2$ having done | x(a)wa$^1$ done, happened |
| Participle | | Imminent | | xoa about to do | xowa about to happen |
| Participle | | Potential | | xua bound to do | xuwa doable |
| Gerund | | Simple | | xen doing | xwen being done, happening, event |
| Gerund | | Perfect | | xayen having done | xawen having happened |
       Note 1: The perfective passive participle usually ends in -wa, but occasionally the longer form -awa is used, especially if the verb stem ends in a consonant followed by l or r that make the shorter form harder to pronounce, eg. pyuxrwa becomes pyuxrawa (shocked).
       Note 2: Intransitive verbs such as per to go have no passive forms. An expression such as They are gone. would be translated as Yit se pya.

## Negative Forms

    All of the above verb forms are affirmative. The indicative and conditional forms can be made negative by preceding the negative adverb voy (not, 'nt, doesn't, don't). Those forms that are subjunctive, jussive, or imperative ending in -u use the negative subordinate conjunction von (don't, let not, lest).
      * Voy mamilo.....It will not rain. (indicative)
      * Von mamilu.....Let it not rain. (subjunctive)
      * Von yat fuyaku.....Let us not despair. (jussive)
      * At voy te.....I don't know.
      * Von pu!....Don't go. (imperative)
      * At voy xu hus.....I would not do that.

## How to Express Certain English Tenses

    English speakers have some tenses that do not fit into the above schema:
      * The English tense I have been studying French for four years. is translated in Mirad by At tixeye Ferad ji uwa jabi.....I am studying French since four years. (Mirad present progressive tense).
      * The English tense I had been studying is translated in Mirad by At tixeya. (Mirad past progressive tense).
      * The English tense I am going to be starring in that role. is translated in Mirad by At dezdebeyo be hua dezgon. (Mirad future progressive).
      * The modern Black English tense Don't you be doing that. is handled in Mirad by Von et xeyu hus. (Mirad imperative progressive).

## Transitive vs. Intransitive Verbs

    Transitive verbs, which can take a direct object, oppose themselves to intransitive verbs, which do not take a direct object. Some verbs are marked overtly for transitivity.
    Verbs that end in xer (to do, -ify, -ize) are by nature transitive, and often have intransitive counterparts in ser (to be, become, -ify, -ize). Likewise, verbs ending in ber (to put, take) are transitive and have intransitive counterparts in per (to go). Here are some examples:
    Transitive vs. Intransitive TRANSITIVEINTRANSITIVE xer....doser....be agxer....grow (something)agser....grow (up) amxer....heat, make hotamser....become hot, heat up puxer....throwpuser....jump per....gober....put aber....put onaper....get on yaber....raiseyaper....rise poxer....stop (something)poser....(come to a) stop yuber....bringyuper....approach yeber....insertyeper....enter
      * At agxe vobi.....I grow [TRANSITIVE] plants.
      * Ha vobi agseye ig.....The plants are growing [INTRANSITIVE] fast.
      * Poxu ha pur!....Stop [TRANSITIVE] the car!
      * Ha pur posa.....The car stopped [INTRANSITIVE].
      * At yaba ha mis.....I raised [TRANSITIVE] the window.
      * Ha maar yapaye.....The sun has risen [INTRANSITIVE].

### Marking -jer Verbs for Transitivity

    Note the following verbs, whose stems end in j are hard to pronounce with intransitive s and transitive x, so these two endings are placed with p and b, respectively, although the presence of the p is optional, i.e. it's presence or absence can slightly change the meaning from static to dynamic, eg. tujer....to sleep vs. tujper....to fall asleep. The transitive forms can be either active or passive.
       Marking -jer Verbs for Transitivity INTRANSITIVETRANSITIVE STATICDYNAMICACTIVEPASSIVE Ha mes yija The door opened.Ha nasyef yijpa The purse came open.At yijba ha mes. I opened the door.Ha mes yijbwa bey yelput. The door was opened by an intruder Ha mes yuja. The door closed.Ha yanup yujpa. The meeting adjourned.At yujba ha mes. I closed the door.Ha mes yeyfe yujbwer ja sumjob. The door should be closed by bedtime. Ha dezun ijaye. The play has started.Ha par ijpa boy poys. The car started up immediately.At ijba ata tyal. I started my meal.Ha tyal ijbwa jwa. The meal was started early. Ha dezun ujaye. The play has ended.Ata yex ujpaye. My work has come to an end.A ujba ha dyes. I finished the book.Ha dyes hyoj ujbwa. The book never got finished. Ha tob toja zomoj. The man died yesterday evening.Ha tob tojpa. The man dropped dead.Hot tojba ha twob? Who killed the man?Ha twob tojbwa bey ita tayd. The man was killed by his wife. Teju. Live!.Tejpu!. Come alive!.Yat efe tejber ha twob. We need to revive the man.Ha twob yofwa tejbwer. The man could not be revived. Ha tobot taja zojub. The baby was born yesterday.Hoj ha tobot tajpo? When will the baby pop out?Iyt tajba awa twobot zojub. She gave birth to a baby boy yesterday.Ha twobot tajbwa jo eymoj. The baby boy was birthed after midnight. At tija jwe. I woke up on time.It voy tijpa. He did not come to..At tijbo et jwa. I will wake (you) up early.At voy fe tijbwo gra jwa. I don't want to be woken too early. At tujeya. I was sleeping.At tujpeya. I was falling sleep.At tujbo it. I will put (him) to sleep..Ha tobot tujbwo glojo. The baby will be put to sleep soon.

## Reflexive Verbs

    Reflexive verbs, where the object refers back to the subject, work just as in English, where the object is a reflexive pronoun, eg.:
      * At tujboye aut.....I am going to kill myself.
      * Tru eut!....Know thyself!
      * It gobla iut bey goblar.....He cut himself with a knife.
      * Ot yefe yuxer out.....One must help oneself.
    Sometimes, verbs are reflexive lexically and incorporate the reflexivity in the actual verb form using ut as the prefix:
      * uttujber....commit suicide (= self-kill)
      * utboler....support oneself (= self-support)
      * utdider....wonder (= self-ask)
    Sometimes, verbs are used reflexively in Mirad even though they are used simply intransitively in English, eg.:
      * Et efe vyilxer eut.....You need to wash up [= wash yourself]. (or)
      * Et efe utvyilxer.....You need to wash up [= self-wash].

## Omission of Prepositions After Certain Verbs

       Some verbs inherently incorporate a preposition and so it is not necessary to use that assumed preposition before what would normally be an indirect object.
       Inherent Propositions PREPOSITION-INCORPORATING VERBEXAMPLE per....go (to)Pu tam! (Not: Pu bu tam!) Go home. It pa Paris.....He went to Paris. der....say (to), tellDu at eta dyun.....Tell me your name. Du at has.....Tell it to me. peser....wait (for)Pesu at.....Wait for me. buer....give (to)Buu at hua dyes.....Give me that book.
       As in English, in omitting the inherent preposition in a sentence with both a direct object and an indirect object, place the indirect object before the direct object. If the direct object comes first, then the preposition must be overtly specified before the indirect object, eg. Buu at hus.....Give me that. or Buu hus bu at.....Give that to me. See more about this in the chapter on Syntax.

## Causative vs. Inchoative Verbs

    A causative verb has the sense to make something have some quality, whereas an inchoative verbs means to become of take on the quality of something.

### Derived from Adjectives

    Adjectives can be converted into transitive/causative and intransitive/inchoative verbs. Causative verbs are always transitive (taking an object), while inchoative verbs are intransitive (not taking an object). English causative / inchoative verbs often end in -ify like magnify, or -ate, liberate, or ize, like sensitize.
    To derive a causative verb from an adjective, add the suffix xer....to do to either the stem or the whole adjective (with the a ending). Whether you do the former or the latter depends on several factors, but the end result is slightly different in nuance. A verb with adjective stem + xer is slightly more idiomatic or less literal than the adjective stem + axer.
    -axer vs -xer in Transitive Verbs ADJECTIVECAUSATIVE/TRANSITIVECAUSATIVE/TRANSITIVE -xerLITERALIDIOMATIC aga bigagaxer to magnifyagxer to grow ana oneanaxer to unifyanxer to unite yona apartyonaxer to separateyonxer to cut yaga longyagaxer to lengthenyagxer to stretch yuga slowyugaxer to retardyugxer to brake sana formalsanaxer to formalizesanxer to form gea equalgeaxer to equalizegexer to copy, equate jaa priorjaaxer to prioritizejaxer to prepare
    To derive an inchoative verb from an adjective, add the suffix ser....to be to either the stem or the whole adjective.
    Creating Inchoative Verbs ADJECTIVEINCHOATIVE/INTRANSITIVEINCHOATIVE/INTRANSITIVE -serLITERALIDIOMATIC aga bigagaser to get biggeragser to grow ana oneanaser to unifyanser to unite, become united yona apartyonaser to become separateyonser to break
    Be careful to use the transitive, causative verb form when you have a direct object, and the intransitive, inchoative verb form when no direct objects are present or possible, eg.:
      * Ansu ey yet golxwo.....Unite or you will be divided. [INTRANSITIVE]
      * At yontadsa hoj at sa eta jag.....I got divorced when I was your age. [INTRANSITIVE]
      * Hisi agaxo hos et teate.....These will magnify what you see. [TRANSITIVE]
      * Hia tud agseye ig.....This child is growing up fast. [INTRANSITIVE]
      * Ata tayd agxe vosi be oyebzom.....My wife grows flowers out back. [TRANSITIVE]

### Derived from Nouns

    Transitive/causative/active and intransitive/inchoative/passive verbs can also be formed from nouns. The sense of the former is to make be X and of the latter, to become X.
    Verbs Derived from Nouns NOUNTRANSITIVE/CAUSATIVE/ACTIVEINTRANSITIVE/INCHOATIVE/PASSIVE mog....ashmogxer to incineratemogser to become ashes yan....collectionyanxer to collectyanser to get together tad....spousetadxer to marrytadser to get married yom....iceyomxer to freeze/make iceyomser to freeze/become ice mag....firemagxer to burn, set fire tomagser to burn, get burned uk....voidukxer to emptyukser become empty, empty out

### Intermediary Causative Verbs

    Intermediary verbal causatives like have/get my car washed, make/force him go, get one's hair cut are formed by suffixing the causative verb infix -ux- (active) or uxw (passive) to the stem of the verb signifying the action to be arranged or caused by someone other than the subject, eg.:
      * At gorbuxo ata tayeb zamaj.....I will get my hair cut tomorrow.
      * Et voy yafe puxer at.....You cannot make me go.
      * It tojbuxa yit.....He had them killed.
      * At efe vyilxuxer ata par.....I need to have my car washed.
      * Et upuxwa him hesav.....You were made to come here for some reason.
      * At bakambuxo et.....I will have you hospitalized.
      * Et voy yafe deuzuxer at.....You cannot make me sing.
      * At hihiduxwa.....I was tickled (= made to laugh).
      * Eta deuz hihiduxa yat.....Your song tickled us. (= Made us laugh.)
      * Van het ivasuxu weti.....May someone get you guys to be happy.
      * Hua enzyukpur uzpuxa ha pur.....That motorcycle caused the car to veer.

## Subject-directed vs. Patient-directed Verbs

    The directionality of some verbs can be distinguished by the verbal formant infix -i- for an action or motion toward the speaker and -u- for an action or motion away from the speaker toward some patient, eg.:
    Directional Verbs SUBJECT-DIRECTEDPATIENT-DIRECTED bier....to takebuer....to give nier....to consumenuer....to supply nyier....to ordernyuer....to deliver nunier....to buynunuer....to sell nazunier....win a prizenazunuer....award a prize noysier....pay offnoysuer....charge ojbier....borrowojbuer....lend tadier....get marriedtaduer....marry off papier....take flightpapuer....send off flying pipier....set sailpipuer....dock simbier....take a seatsimbuer....offer a seat tampier....leave hometampuer....arrive home tamier....settle intamuer....shelter nuxbier....to buynixbuer....to sell telier....to eatteluer....to feed gonbier....to participategonbuer....to share tilier....to drinktiluer....to ply with drink teubier....to swallowteubuer....to spit out teatier....to observe, watchteatuer....to show taxier....to memorizetaxuer....to remind alier....to breathe inaluer....to breathe out, expire ilier....to absorbiluer....to pour ifier....to enjoyifuer....to please dier....to askduer....to suggest tier....to learntuer....to inform pier....to departpuer....to arrive kebier....to choosekebuer....to distribute byier....to originatebyuer....to target mempier....to take offmempuer....to land sinier....visualizesinuer....display xier....to resultxuer....to cause yifier....to get up the courageyifuer....to encourage, challenge yafonier....to gain poweryafonuer....to empower trier....to become acquainted withtruer....to acquaint with, introduce to tepizier....to pay attention totepizuer....to draw attention to
    In some cases, the directionality can be both ways in a verb, in which case the verb formant infix -ui- (a hybrid form) is used, eg.:
      * nunier ....to purchase (subject-directed)
      * nunuer....to sell (patient-directed)
      * nunuier....to trade (subject & patient-directed)
      * tier....to learn, realize (subject-directed)
      * tuer....to inform, tip off (patient-directed)
      * tuier....to communicate (subject & patient-directed)
      * alier....to breathe in, inhale (subject-directed)
      * aluer....to breathe out, exhale (patient-directed)
      * aluier....to breathe, respire (subject & patient-directed)
      * bier ....to take (subject-directed)
      * buer....to give (patient-directed)
      * buier....to give and take, exchange (subject & patient-directed)

## Verbs with Vectorial Prefixes

    Prepositions and directional adverbs can be prefixed to verbs in order to change their vectorial semantics. A preposition ending in b will assimilate to p before the verb per....to go and a preposition ending in b will lose the b before a verb beginning with b. Here are some examples:
    Verb Prepositional Prefixes PREPOSITION/ADVERBTRANSITIVE VERBINTRANSITIVE VERB ab....onaber....applyaper....get on, mount ob....offober....removeoper....get of, dismount eb....betweeneber....blockeper....intervene yab....upyaber....raiseyaper....rise yob....downyober....take downyoper....descend yub....nearyuber....bring nearyuper....approach yib....faryiber....take awayyiper....go far away yeb....inyeber....insertyeper....enter yeb....inyepuxer....throw inyepuser....jump in oyeb....outoyeber....exposeoyeper....exit oyeb....outoyepuxer....ejectoyepuser....jump out zyu....roundzyuber....rotatezyuper....revolve zya....throughoutzyaber....spreadzyaper....tour av....foravdaler....pleadavper....pursue ov....againstovber....opposeovper....countervene yan....togetheryanber....composeyanper....meet yon....apartyonber....separateyonper....separate iz....directizber....leadizper....head uz....curveduzber....divertuzper....diverge yuz....aroundyuzbexer....surroundyuzper....circulate yiz....beyondyizber....transferyizper....surpass zoy....back, re-zoyber....returnzoyper....go back

## Verbs with Other Semantics-altering Prefixes

    As in English and many other languages, prefixes can be used on verbs to reverse, mitigate, or otherwise alter the semantics:

### Expressing re- with zoy- or gaw-

    The prefix zoy-....back or gaw-$^1$....again are used like the English prefix re-, eg.:
      * ember....to position → zoyember....to reposition, replace
      * buer....to give → zoybuer....to return (an object), give back
      * sanxer....to shape, form → zoysanxer....to reshape, reform, transform
      * zyauber....to broadcast → gawzyauber....to re-broadcast
      * taja....born → gawtaja....reborn
      * aber....to apply → gawaber....to reapply
      * uper....to come → zoyuper....to return (come back)
      * teaper....to visit → gawteaper....to revisit
      * uper....to come → zoyuper....to return, come back
      * buxer....to push → zoybuxer....to repel, push back
      * puxer....to throw → zoypuxer....to reject, throw back, jettison
    Note 1: The prefix gaw- before a consonant is pronounced like the gaw in the English word gawk. It is short for ga awa jod or gawa meaning one more time, again. If the "re-" word means to do something again, then gaw- is used, eg. To reconvene ( = meet again)....gawyanuper If the sense of back is intended, than the prefix zoy- is used, eg. To return ( = come back)....zoyuper. Both prefixes are used in the expression Come back again!....Gawzoyupu!.
    Until we meet again. is expressed by Ju van yat gawyanupo.

### Expressing de-, dis-, un- with lo-

    The prefix lo- reverses the semantics of a verb and is like English dis-, de-, or un-, eg.:
      * saxer....to build, construct → losaxer....to destroy, deconstruct
      * anxer....to unite → loanxer....to disunite
      * xer....to do → loxer....to undo
    Note the difference between o- and lo-.
      * odoparuwa....unarmed (= not armed)
      * lodoparuwa....disarmed (= from the verb lodoparuer....to disarm)

### Expressing co- with yan-

    The prefix yan-....together is used as the English co-, eg.:
      * exer....to operate → yanexer....to cooperate
      * tamer....to dwell → yantamer....to cohabit
      * napber....to put in order → yannapber....to coordinate

### Making Verbs Completive with ik-

    Verbs can be made completive by prefixing them with ik- (fully). Such verbs are comparable to phrasal verbs in English with up and other prepositions as in to eat up. Here are some examples in Mirad:
      * tojber....to kill → iktojber....to kill off, exterminate
      * telier....to eat → iktelier....to eat up
      * ujber....to finish → ikujber....to finish off/up
      * gofler....to rip → ikgofler....to rip up
      * drer....to write → ikdrer....to write down
      * byexer....to beat → ikbyexer....to beat up

### Making Verbs Continuative with je-

    Verbs can be given a continuative nuance with the addition of the prefix je-:
      * daler....to talk → jedalar....to go on talking, to blabber
      * tejer....to live → jetejer....to go on living, to survive
      * yexer....to work → jeyexer....to go on working, to keep working
      * teaxer....to look → jeteaxer....to watch
      * teexer....to listen → jeteexer....to keep listening, to pay attention
      * duler....to insist → jeduler....to nag

### Making Verbs Inchoative with ij-

    Verbs can be given an inchoative nuance with the addition of the prefix ij-:
      * texer....to think → ijtexer....to start to think
      * ifier....to enjoy → ijifier....to start liking
      * tyer....to know → ijtyer....to get to know

### Making Verbs Terminative with uj-

    Verbs can be given a terminative nuance with the addition of the prefix uj-:
      * telier....to eat → ujtelier....to finish eating
      * dyeer....to read → ujdyeer....to finish reading
      * ufteuder....to complain → ujufteuder....to quit carping

### Giving Verbs a Nuance of Pleasure with if-

      * tyoper....to walk → iftyoper....to stroll
      * tuyuxer....to finger → iftuyuxer....to tickle
      * teaxer....to look → ifteaxer....to ogle (voyeuristically)
      * piper....to sail → ifpiper....to go cruising
      * teuder....to shout → ifteuder....to laugh

### Giving Verbs a Nuance of Displeasure with uf-

      * tosier....to feel → uftosier....to get angry
      * eker....to play → ufeker....to fight
      * der....to say → ufder....to express displeasure
      * aluer....to exhale → ufaluer....to huff
      * daler....to talk → ufdaler....to rant

### Giving Verbs a Nuance of Prohibition with of-

      * bier....to take → ofbier....to steal
      * deler....to declare → ofdeler....to ban
      * yeper....to enter → ofyeper....to intrude, break in
      * zeyper....to cross → ofzeyper....to transgress, poach
      * gelxer....to copy → ofgelxer....to pirate, plagiarize
      * bekuluer....to administer medicine → ofbekuluer....to dope
      * nuxuer....to pay → ofnuxuer....to bribe, pay off, suborn

### Giving Verbs a Nuance of Holiness with fya-

      * bexler....to keep → fyabexler....to enshrine
      * buer....to give → fyabuer....to sacrifice
      * der....to say → fyader....to bless
      * daler....to speak → fyadaler....to preach, sermonize
      * diler....to request → fyadiler....to pray
      * deuzer....to sing → fyadeuzer....to chant
      * ifrer....to love dearly → fyaifrer....to worship, adore
      * jader....to predict → fyajader....to prophesy
      * miluer....to sprinkle → fyamiluer....to sprinkle with holy water
      * ojvader....to promise → fyaojvader....to swear
      * xeler....to practice → fyaxeler....to celebrate
      * koser....to hide → fyakoser....to go on a retreat, go into hermitage
      * teazer....perform a show → fyateazer....to perform a miracle

### Giving Verbs a Nuance of Profanity with fyo-

      * der....to say → fyoder....to curse
      * diler....to request → fyodiler....to conjure
      * tyezer....to perform magic → fyotezer....to engage in black magic
      * xer....to do → fyoxer....to sin

### Expressing Good Actions with fi-

      * der....to say → fider....to praise
      * fer....to want → fifer....to mean well
      * xer....to do → fixer....to do well
      * yaker....to expect → fiyaker....to hope
      * yuxer....to help → fiyuxer....to benefit

### Expressing Bad Actions with fu-

      * yevder....to judge → fuyevder....to critique negatively
      * fer....to want → fufer....to will ill
      * der....to say → fuder....to badmouth
      * napxer....to arrange → funapxer....to mess up
      * yuxer....to help → fuyuxer....to abuse

### Expressing More Intense Actions with az-

      * yujber....to close → azyujber....to lock
      * der....to say → azder....to emphasize
      * duer....to suggest → azduer....to urge
      * dizeuder....to laugh → azdizeuder....to guffaw

### Expressing Less Intense Actions with oz-

      * der....to utter → ozder....to whisper
      * duer....to suggest → ozduer....to hint
      * dizeuder....to laugh → ozdizeuder....to chuckle
      * uvteuder....to moan → ozuvteuder....to whimper
      * tyoper....to walk → oztyoper....to limp

### Expressing pre-, fore- with ja-

      * der....to tell → jader....to foretell, predict
      * teater....to see → jateater....to foresee, preview
      * ter....to know → jater....to presage, have foreknowledge of
      * yever....to judge → jayever....to prejudge
      * juder....to date → jajuder....to antedate

### Expressing post-, after- with jo-

      * juder....to date → jojuder....to postdate
      * texer....to think → jotexer....to reflect on, review
      * uvder....to express sadness → jouvder....to mourn, regret
      * ibler....to obtain → joibler....to inherit

### Expressing excessively with gra-

      * telier....to eat → gratelier....to overeat
      * fer....to want → grafer....to covet
      * der....to say → grader....to exaggerate
      * daler....to talk → gradaler....to yammer

### Expressing inadequately with gro-

      * fyinder....to value → grofyinder....to underestimate
      * mageler....to cook → gromageler....to undercook
      * xaer....to perform → groxaer....to underperform

### Expressing counter-, contra- with ov- or oyv-

      * axler....to act → ovaxler....to counteract
      * apyexer....to attack → ovapyexer....to counterattack
      * daler....to speak → ovdaler....to oppose
      * der....to say → oyvder....to contradict
      * ber....to put → oyvber....to reverse, overturn
      * texer....to think → oyvtexer....to contest, disagree
      * per....to go → oyvper....to contravene

### Expressing on behalf, for with av-

      * axler....to act → avaxler....to act on behalf of
      * daler....to speak → avdaler....to advocate, speak on behalf of

### Making Verbs Reflexive with ut- (self-, auto-)

      * tojber....to kill → uttojber....to commit suicide
      * vyovider....to flatter → utvyovider....to flatter oneself
      * zaypuxwer....to be propelled → utzaypuxwer....to be self-propelled
      * fider....to praise → utfider....to brag
      * gober....to decrement → utgober....to autodecrement

### Making Verbs Reciprocal with hyuit- (one another)

      * tojber....to kill → hyuittojber....to kill one another
      * ifer....to love → hyuitifer....to love one another

### Expressing inter-, intra- with eb- (between)

      * tadier....to marry → ebtadier....to intermarry
      * zyaber....to spread → ebzyaber....to intersperse
      * vyexer....to relate → ebvyexer....to interrelate

### Expressing the Opposite of an Action with o- (un-)

      * bexler....to keep → obexler....to release, let go of
      * aynser....to integrate → oaynser....to disintegrate, to decay
      * beler....to carry → obeler....to drop
      * bier....to take → obier....to leave, relinquish
      * boser....to be quiet → oboser....to be upset
      * drer....to write → odrer....to erase
       Note: If the base verb already begins with the negative prefix o-, then the prefix is changed to ol-, eg. obexler....to release → olobexwa....to unreleased

### Expressing a Public or Official Action with do-

       Do- is a stub for dot (society).
      * afder....to allow → doafder....to authorize
      * bier....to take → dobier....to conquer, take over, take control of
      * tojber....to kill → dotojber....to execute
      * buer....to give → dobuer....to dedicate
      * daler....to speak → dodaler....to orate, speak in public
      * deler....to declare → dodeler....to announce
      * drer....to write → dodrer....to publicize, report

### Giving Verbs a Nuance of Truth with vya-

      * der....to say → vyader....to avow, be frank
      * ber....to set, put → vyaber....to control
      * napxer...to arrange, order → vyanapxer....to adjust
      * kexer....to seek → vyakexer....to investiage
      * tuer....to inform → vyatuer....to advise

### Giving Verbs of Nuance of Falseness with vyo-

      * der....to say → vyoder....to lie, to misstate
      * tester....to understand → vyotester....to misunderstand
      * tuer....to inform → vyotuer....to misinform, to deceive
      * xer....to do → vyoxer....to do wrong, fail, misdo
      * yuxler....to serve → vyoyuxler....to betray, to serve unfaithfully

### Making Verbs Positive with va-

      * der....to say → vader....to affirm
      * texer....to think → vatexer....to believe
      * yeker....to expect → vayeker....to presume
      * bier.....to take → vabier....to accept

### Making Verbs Negative with vo-

      * der....to say → voder....to deny
      * texer....to think → votexer....to doubt
      * yeker....to expect → voyeker....to rule out
      * bier.....to take → vobier....to reject

### Making Verbs Suppositional with ve-

      * der....to say → veder....to conjecture
      * texer....to think → vetexer....to suppose, hypothesize
      * yovder....to blame → veyovder....to indict, accuse

### Speeding up Verbs with ig-

      * pier....to leave → igpier....to flee
      * pyoser....to drop → igpyoser....to plummet
      * tyoper....to walk → igtyoper....to run
      * yeper....to enter → igyeper....to rush in

### Slowing up Verbs with ug-

      * paser....to move → ugpaser....to amble
      * teaxer....to look → ugteaxer....to gaze
      * ilper....to flow → ugilper....to trickle
      * tilier....to drink → ugtilier....to sip

### Expressing the Nuance of Suddenness with yok-

      * baxer....to stir → yokbaxer....to startle
      * hihider....to laugh → yokhihider....to burst out laughing
      * teaser....to appear → yokteaser....to suddenly appear
      * yoktojer....to die → yoktojer....to drop dead

### Expressing the Notion of Fixedness with kyo-

      * byaser....to stand → kyobyaser....to stand still
      * kexer....to seek → kyokexer....to hound, stalk
      * teaxer....to look → kyoteaxer....to stare, glare
      * texer....to think → kyotexer....to obsess with, fixate on

### Expression the Notion of Randomness with kye-

      * der....to say → kyeder....to guess, divine
      * per....to per → kyeper....to fluctuate
      * poper....to travel → kyepoper....to wander
      * napxer....to order → kyenapxer....to scramble
      * bier....to take → kyebier....to select

### Expressing the Notion of Change with kya-

      * baser....to make a move → kyabaser....to shift
      * sanxer....to form → kyasanxer....to transform
      * xer....to do/make → kyaxer....to change
      * napxer....to order → kyanapxer....to shuffle
      * dyanxer....to phrase → kyadyanxer....to paraphrase

### Expressing Covert Actions with ko-

      * ber....to put → kober....to hide
      * beler....to carry → kobeler....to smuggle
      * bier....to take → kobier....to steal
      * ebkyaxer....to exchange → koebkyaxer....to traffic
      * exer....to operate → koexer....to spy, operate under cover
      * fler....to wish for → kofler....to covet, be jealous of
      * apyexer....to attack → koapyexer....to ambush, to sneak-attack
      * loexer....to destroy → koloexer....to sabotage

### Expressing Actions with Intentionality with ke-

      * teaxer....to look → keteaxer....to scan
      * vyaxer....to prove → kevyaxer....to experiment
      * tier....to learn → ketier....to be interested in

### Expressing Lateral Actions with ku-

      * buxer....to push → kubuxer....to rebuff, shun
      * der....to say → kuder....to comment, remark
      * tyoper....to step → kutyoper....to step aside

### Expressing Near Actions with yub-

      * der....to say → yubder....to intimate, hint
      * gexer....to equate → yubgexer....to approximate
      * bixer....to pull → yu(b)bixer....to attract, draw near
      * teaxer....to look → yubteaxer....to scrutinize, examine

### Expressing Distance Actions with yib- (far, tele-)

      * drer....to write → yibdrer....to wire, telegraph
      * bixer....to pull → yi(b)bixer....to distract
      * tuier....to communicate → yibtuier....to telecommunicate
      * nyuxer....to deliver → yibnyuxer....to mail, post

### Expressing up-, super- with yab-

      * ber....to put → ya(b)ber....to raise, to put up
      * bixler....to drag → ya(b)bixler....to dredge up
      * uper....to come → yabuper....to come up
      * nogyanxer....to scale → yabnogyanxer....to scale up, escalate

### Expressing down-, sub- with yob-

      * ber....to put → yo(b)ber....to lower, put down
      * kyaber....to shift → yobkyaxer....to downshift
      * musper....to climb → yobmusper....to climb down
      * nogyanxer....to scale → yobnogyanxer....to downscale

### Expressing in- with yeb-

      * ber....to put → ye(b)ber....to insert, put in
      * beler....to carry → ye(b)beler....to import
      * uzber....to bend → yebuzber....to inflect
      * yujber....to close → yebyujber....to enclose, include

### Expressing out-, ex-, extra- with oyeb-

      * ber....to put → oye(b)ber....to put out, expose
      * beler....to carry → oye(b)beler....to export
      * uber....to send → oyebuber....to emit, send out
      * yujber....to close → oyebyujber....to exclude

### Expressing pro-, forward with zay-

      * ber....to put → zayber....to advance, put forward
      * kexer....to seek → zaykexer....to scout out
      * puxer....to throw → zaypuxer....to propel, thrust
      * tyoper....to walk → zaytyoper....to progress, to walk forward

### Expressing back-, retro-, re- with zoy-

      * uber....to send → zoyber....to send back
      * kixer....to bend → zoykixer....to reflect
      * puxer....to throw → zoypuxer....to repel
      * neadper....to track → zoyneadper....to backtrack

### Expressing across, trans-, over-, cross- with zey-

      * per....to go → zeyper....to cross, transit
      * beler....to carry → zeybeler....to transport, convey
      * drer....to write → zeydrer....to transcribe
      * kyober....to fix → zeykyober....to transfix, transplant
      * vyayeker....to check → zeyvyayeker....to crosscheck

### Expressing through, per- with zye-

      * per....to go → zyeper....to permeate, get through
      * kexer....to seek → zyekexer....to rummage, sift through
      * drer....to write → zyedrer....to cross out, draw a line through
      * iluer....to pour → zyeiluer....to soak
      * koper....to sneak → zyekoper....to sneak through

### Expressing all over, widely, all about with zya-

      * ber....to put → zyaber....to spread
      * buer....to give → zyabuer....to distribute
      * ijber....to open → zyaijber....to open wide
      * nuxer....to pay → zyanuxer....to disburse
      * puxer....to throw → zyapuxer....to scatter, cast about

### Expressing mid-, center with ze-

      * ber....to put → zeber....to balance
      * byaser....to stand → zebyaser....to straddle
      * der....to say → zeder....to interject
      * pyoser....to fall → zepyoser....to sag
      * poxer....to stop → zepoxer....to interrupt

### Expressing futurity with oj-

      * ber....to put → ojber....to put off, postpone
      * bier....to take → ojbier....to borrow
      * fer....to want → ojfer....to wish, aspire
      * texer....to think → ojtexer....to plan
      * teater....to see → ojteater....to envision
      * vader....to affirm → ojvader....to promise

### Expressing past with aj-

      * ber....to put → ajber....to pass, relegate to the past
      * der....to say → ajder....to evoke, hearken, recount
      * embier....to occupy → ajembier....to haunt
      * texer....to think → ajtexer....to reminisce, to reflect
      * uvtosder....to express sadness → ajuvtosder....to apologize
      * nexer....to store → ajnexer....to archive

### Expressing present with ej-

      * buer....to give → ejbuer....to present
      * eser....to exist → ejeser....to attend, to be present
      * nuxer....to pay → ejnuxer....to pay cash
      * tuer....to inform → ejtuer....to update
      * uvtosder....to express sadness → ejuvtosder....to apologize

### Expressing a stretched out action with yag- (long)

      * beser....to stay → yagbeser....to linger
      * bexer....to hold → yagbexer....to conserve, preserve
      * daler....to talk → yagdaler....to ramble
      * dodaler....to orate → yagdodaler....to harangue
      * fer....to want → yagfer....to yearn, pine
      * teaxer....to look → yagteaxer....to stare
      * fer....to want → yagfer....to yearn, pine

### Expressing a brief action with yog- (short)

      * drer....to write → yogdrer....to abbreviate
      * teaxer....to look → yogteaxer....to glance at
      * tujer....to sleep → yogtujer....to snooze, nap
      * gobler....to cut → yoggobler....to cut short, truncate

### Some Hybrid Prefixes

The prefix kui- is a hybrid of ku- (lateral) and ki- (diagonal)
      * per....to go → kuiper....to wobble
      * tyoper....to walk → kuityoper....to limp
The prefix zao- is a truncated hybrid of zay- (forward) and zoy- (backwards), eg:
      * baser....to move → zaobaser....to rock
      * per....to go → zaoper....to alternate
      * beler....to carry → kuibeler....to shuttle, ferry
      * pyoser....to fall → kuipyoser....to pendulate
The prefix yaob- is a hybrid of yab- (up) and yob- (down). The final b- is assimilated or dropped before a b or p.
      * baser....to move → yaobaser....to bob
      * per....to go → yaoper....to heave
      * beler....to carry → yaobeler....to shuttle, ferry
      * peper....to ride → yaopeper....to jounce
      * puser....to jump → yaopuser....to hop, bounce
The prefix bui- is a hybrid of bu- (to) and bi- (from), eg:
      * drer....to write → buidrer....to correspond
      * -er....to x → buier....to trade
      * beler....to carry → buibeler....to shuttle, ferry
      * xer....to do → buixer....to push and pull, spring
      * poper....to travel → buipoper....to travel to and fro, travel round trip
The prefix uiz- is a hybrid of uz- (crooked) and iz- (straight), eg:
      * drer....to write → uizdrer....to squiggle
      * der....to say → uizder....to equivocate
      * baser....to move → uizbaser....to wiggle, to squirm
      * per....to go → uizper....to careen, reel
      * paser....to move → uizpaser....to swerve, yaw
The prefix zui- is a hybrid of zu- (left) and zi- (right), eg:
      * drer....to write → uizdrer....to squiggle
      * buxer....to push → zuibuxer....to push around
      * baser....to move → zuibaser....to sway, totter
      * per....to go → zuiper....to zigzag
      * pasler....to shake → zuipasler....to wobble
The prefix aoyeb- is a hybrid of (a)yeb- (in) and oyeb- (out), eg:
      * ber....to put → aoyeber....to insert and extract
      * tiexer....to breathe → aoyetiexer....to breath in and out
      * paper....to fly → aoyepaper....to fly in and out
The prefix aob- is a hybrid of ab- (on) and ob- (off), eg:
      * ber....to put → aober....to put on and off
      * per....to go → aoper....to get on and off, embark and disembark
The prefix vao- is a hybrid of va- (yes) and vo- (no), eg:
      * der....to say → vaoder....to decide
      * daler....to talk → vaodaler....to waffle
      * duder....to answer → vaoduder....to answer yes or no
      * kyaxer....to change → vaokyaxer....to redact
      * texer....to think → vaotexer....to deliberate, vacillate
The prefix uij is a hybrid of uj- (end) and ij- (begin)
      * ber....to put → uijber....to switch off and on
      * daler....to talk → uijdaler....to stutter
The prefix yuij is a hybrid of yuj- (close) and yij- (open)
      * ber....to put → yuijber....to open and close, blink
The prefix huim is a hybrid of hum (there) and him (there)
      * paper....to fly → huimpaper....to fly here and yon
      * per....to go → huimper....to wander
      * kexer....to seek → huimkexer....to search high and low

### Different Nuances of teaxer with Prefixes

      * teaxer....to look, behold, regard
      * aybteaxer....to supervise, look over
      * ajteaxer....to look back on (retrospect)
      * eynteaxer....to squint
      * fizteaxer....to respect
      * fuzteaxer....to disrespect
      * gawteaxer....to review, re-look
      * hyuitteaxer....to look at one another
      * ibteaxer....to ignore
      * igteaxer....to glance, glimpse
      * ifteaxer....to marvel at
      * izteaxer....to view directly, confront, aim
      * jateaxer....to preview
      * jeteaxer....to watch, observe
      * joteaxer....to review
      * kateaxer....to look for
      * keteaxer....to scan
      * kiteaxer....to look askance
      * koteaxer....to peek, spy
      * kozyeteaxer....to peep
      * kozyoteaxer....to peer
      * kuteaxer....to observe
      * kyeteaxer....to browse
      * kyoteaxer....to stare, glare
      * oteaxer....to ignore, overlook
      * ufteaxer....to glare, leer
      * ugteaxer....to gaze
      * yagteaxer....to gape, gawk
      * yebteaxer....to inspect
      * yibteaxer....to view from afar
      * yogteaxer....to glance at
      * yokteaxer....to get a glimpse of
      * yubteaxer....to examine
      * yuibteaxer....to look near and far
      * yuzteaxer....to look around, circumspect
      * yanteaxer....to view together
      * yizteaxer....to look beyond, overlook
      * vyateaxer....to investigate, check out
      * vyoteaxer....to view wrongly
      * zateaxer....to face, confront
      * zayteaxer....to look ahead, expect
      * zoyteaxer....to look back
      * zeyteaxer....to look across
      * ziteaxer....to look to the right
      * zuteaxer....to look to the left
      * zuiteaxer....to look right and left
      * zyateaxer....to look all over, survey
      * zyeteaxer....to look through, peruse
      * zyoteaxer....to squint
      * yobteaxer....to look down
      * yaobteaxer....to look up and down
      * zaoteaxer....to look back and forth
      * yabteaxer....to look up
      * yubketeaxer....to pry
      * uzteaxer....to look indirectly at
      * oyebteaxer....to look out
      * ojteaxer....to peer into the future
      * marteaxer....to star-gaze
      * tabteaxer....to autopsy

## Modal Verbs

    Modal verbs are auxiliary verbs that are usually followed by the main verb in the infinitive or a subjunctive dependent clause and have to do with wanting, permitting, prohibiting, being able, being unable, needing, being obliged to do something, etc.

#### Principal Modal Auxiliary Verbs

    Mirad has a set of modal auxiliary verbs that can be followed by a main verb in the infinitive mode. This is very much like Enlish modal auxiliary verbs in the following examples:
      * I want to go.
      * You must wait.
      * You may stay.
      * I dare say.
    Here is a chart showing the main modal auxiliary verbs in Mirad:
    Principle Modal Auxiliary Verbs TYPEPOSITIVENEGATIVE Permission afer....may ayfer....mightofer....may not oyfer....might not Ability yafer....canyofer....cannot Need efer....need to Obligation yefer....must yeyfer....shouldoyefer....must not oyeyfer....should not Desire fer....want to Enjoyment ifer....love to, enjoy iyfer....like toufer....hate to uyfer....dislike to Courage yifer....dare toyufer....be afraid to, fear Liberty yiver....have a right to, be free toyuver....be bound to, be supposed to Expectation yaker....expect toyoker....be surprised to Conation yeker....try to
    These modal auxiliary verbs are often followed by a verbal infinitive, as in the following examples:
      * At fe ter.....I want to know.
      * Wit yifa yeper.....He dared to enter.
      * Yat yafe teater yet.....We can see you.
      * Duven et yaka aker?....Did you expect to win?
      * Diwe yeku xer ga fi.....Please try to do better.
    If the modal verb is in the hypothetical aspect (conditional), then the sense is somewhat mitigated, as in these examples:
   * At fe per.....I want to go.
   * At fu per.....I would like to go.
   * Et yafe aker.....You can win.
   * Et yafu aker.....You could win.
   * Yet yefe iper.....You must leave.
   * Yet yefu iper.....You ought to leave.
    Post-y-gliding the stem vowel of the modal verb also reduces the strength, for example:
   * At ife et. ....I love you.
   * At iyfe et. ....I like you.
   * Et yefe iper.....You must leave.
   * Et yeyfe iper.....You should leave.
   * Iyt yafe aker.....She can win.
   * Iyt yayfe aker.....She might win.
   * At ufa uda tuz.....I hated that art.
   * At uyfa uda tuz.....I disliked that art.
    The use of l and r intensify the meaning of the auxiliary verbs, eg:
   * Et yuve puer jwe.....You are supposed to arrive on time.
   * Et yuvle tepzexer.....You have to pay attention.
   * Et yuvre buer nas.....You absolutely must give money.
   * At yeka ser yeva.....I tried to be fair.
   * At yekla ujber jwa.....I strove to finish early.
   * At yekra nixer ga nas.....I struggled (= worked hard)) to earn more money.
   * Iyt ife eker zyun.....She loves to play ball.
   * Iyt ifla teater et.....She was delighted to see you.
   * Iyt ifre teaper him.....She adores visiting here.
    Here are some examples showing how these modal verbs are used as auxiliaries:
      * Et afe oyeper ay ifeker.....You may go out and play.
      * Yat efa tujer.....We needed to sleep.
      * Ot ofe mavier him.....One is prohibited to smoke here.
      * Mavier him ofwe.....Smoking here is prohibited.
      * At ife dyeer.....I love to read.
      * Duven et fe yeper?....Do you want to come in?
      * At fu teaper et edjub.....I would like to visit you some day.
      * It ufaye hyaj teaxwer.....He has always hated being looked at.
      * Duven et iyfe per tilami?....Do you like going to bars?
      * At uyfe tijer gra jwa.....I dislike waking up too early.
      * Et yafe xer hyehos et fu.....You can do whatever you like.
      * Et yefer xer ad vyaas.....You must do the right thing.
      * Et yeyfe voy daler huuyen azay.....You should not talk so loud.
      * At yeyfa ter ga fi.....I should have known better.
      * At voy yifu der hyea fuas.....I would not dare say anything bad.
      * Von yufu der hos et tesde.....Don't be afraid to say what you mean.
      * Et yive dier yevanavdut.....You have a right to ask for a lawyer.
      * Yat voy yuvle kyoejer.....We are not bound to stick around.

### Subject-oriented vs. Patient-oriented Modal Verb Forms

       All of these modal verbs can be passive, in which case they are "patient-oriented" rather than "subject-oriented." The participial adjective yafa....able is subject-oriented and refers to a person, whereas the passived adjective yafwa....possible is patient-oriented and refers to a thing or event. Here is a chart of the principal modal verbs and corresponding participial adjectives with this subject/object-orientation distinction shown:
    Subject-oriented vs. Patient-oriented Modal Verb Forms MODAL TYPESUBJECT-ORIENTEDSUBJECT-ORIENTEDPATIENT-ORIENTEDPATIENT-ORIENTED VERBADJECTIVEVERBADJECTIVE Permission afer mayafa allowedafwer be permittedafwa permissable Necessity efer needefa needfulefwer be necessaryefwa necessary, required Prohibition ofer be unallowedofa prohibitedofwer be prohibitedofwa banned Possibility yafer be ableyafa ableyafwer be possibleyafwa possible Obligation yefer mustyefa obligedyefwer be obligatoryyefwa obligatory Duty yeyfer shouldyeyfa supposed, duty-boundyeyfwer be supposedyeyfwa due Impossibility yofer be unableyofa unableyofwer be impossibleyofwa impossible Volition fer wantfa desirousfwer be desirablefwa desirable, wanted Love ifer love iyfer likeifa enamored iyfa fondifwer be loved iyfwer be likedifwa lovable iyfwa likeable Hate ufer hate uyfer dislikeufa averse uyfa displeasedufwer be hated uyfwer be dislikedufwa odious unliked Courage yifer dareyifa daring, braveyifwer be safeyifwa safe Fear yufer be afraidyufa afraidyufwer be a dangeryufwa frightening Joy iver enjoyiva gladivwer be a joyivwa enjoyable Sorrow uver be sorryuva sorry, saduvwer be a shameuvwa regrettable
    Examples of subject-oriented forms:
      * At se yafa xer hes.....I am capable of doing anything.
      * Et ofe teater hia dyezun.....You are not allowed/are prohibited to see this film.
      * Duven at afe per hum?....Am I allowed to go there?
      * Yat fu ter eta dyun.....We would like to know your name.
      * Piti ufe beser be mel.....Fish hate to remain on dry land.
      * At ajay ifa dazer.....I once loved to dance.
      * Et se iva, at yife der.....You are beautiful, I dare say.
      * At yeyfa xer has ga ig.....I should have done it sooner.
      * Von yufu; At yupeye.....Fear not; I am coming.
      * Et yefe puer ja eymaj.....You must arrive before noon.
      * Yet yofe daler je ha dezun.....You people must not talk during the performance.
      * Yat yeyfe (= se yeyfa) aker.....We should (= are bound/supposed/due) to win.
      * At ive teater et bakser.....I'm glad to see you get better.
      * Su iva.....Be happy.
      * At uvu (= su uva) teater et iper.....I would be sad to see you leave.
    Examples of patient-oriented forms:
      * Afwe (= se afwa) mavier him.....It is permissible to smoke here.
      * Ofwe (= se ofwa*) puxer fyumul him.....It is prohibited to throw litter here.
      * Fwe (= se fwa) van yet dolu.....It is desired that you stop talking.
      * Voy yafwe beser him gajob.....It is not possible to remain here any longer.
      * Yofwa av at ivteuder.....It was not possible for me to laugh.
      * Yefwe van et piu ig.....It is essential that you leave quickly.
      * He yeyfwe ober ata tyoyafi?....Is it obligatory to remove my shoes?
      * Ga yux efwo.....More help will be needed.
      * Yuxren se ufwa xetyen.....Slavery is an odious practice.
      * Uvwe van wit oka.....It's a shame that he lost.
       *lofwa is used for unwanted for disambiguation purposes.

### Deriving Causatives from Modal Stems

    Various causative verbs can be formed from modal stems, as shown in the chart below:
    Deriving Causatives from Modal Stems SUBJECT-ORIENTEDPATIENT-ORIENTED afxer....allow (someone to do sthg.)afwaxer....permit (something to be done) efxer....requireefwaxer....necessitate ofxer....prohibitofwaxer....prohibit yafxer....enableyafwaxer....make possible yefxer....obligeyefwaxer....make obligatory yofxer....crippleyofwaxer....disable yifxer....emboldenyifwaxer....make safe yufxer....intimidateyufwaxer....make frightening ifxer....pleaseifwaxer....make pleasant

### Creating Modal Verbs and Adjectives with Modal Stem Suffixes

    Verb stems can be suffixed with modal participles to produce related modal verbs and adjectives. The first chart shows the modal participles themselves that can be suffixed to verb stems. Subject-oriented forms refer only to people, while patient-oriented forms (ending in -wa) refer only to things.
    Modal Suffixes Subject-orientedPatient-oriented -yafa....able to X, -able-yafwa....possible to X -yofa....unable to X-yofwa....impossible to X -ifa....fond of Xing, Xophile-ifwa....enjoyable to X -ufa....averse to Xing, Xophobic-ufwa....unenjoyable to X -yika....hard of Xing-yikwa....hard to X -yuka....comfortable/easy Xing-yukwa....easy to X -yaka....expecting to Xyakwa....expected/likely to X -efa....in need of Xing-efwa....necessary to X -yefa....obliged to X-yefwa....obligatory/due to X -yufa....afraid of Xing-yufwa....frightening to X
    This table shows some of these modal suffixes applied to actual verb and noun stems:
    Modals and Orientation ORIENTATIONPOSITIVE ADJECTIVEPOSITIVE VERBNEGATIVE ADJECTIVENEGATIVE VERB Subject teatyafa able to see, sightedteatyafer be able to seeteatyofa blindteatyofer be blind Patient teatyafwa visibleteatyafwer be visibleteatyofwa invisibleteatyofwer be invisible Subject teetyafa able to hear, hearingteetyafer be able to hearteetyofa deafteatyofer be deaf Patient teetyafwa audibleteetyafwer be audibleteeyofwa inaudibleteeyofwer be inaudiable Subject dalyafa able to speakdalyafer be able to speakdalyofa mute, dumbdalyofer be mute, dumb Subject doabifa patrioticdoabifer be patrioticdoabufa rebelliousdoabufer rebel Subject tosyafa sensitivetosyafer be able to feeltosyofa insensitivetosyofer be numbed Patient tayotyafwa palpabletayotyafwer be palpabletayotyofwa numbtayotyofwer be impalbable, numb Patient testyukwa easy to understandtestyukwaxer make easily understoodtestyikwa hard to understandtestyikwaxer make hard to understand Subject tudyaka pregnant, expectingtudyaker be expecting Patient mamilyakwa likely to rainmamilyakwer to be expected to rainmamilyokwa unlikely to rainmamilyokwer to be unlikely to rain Subject tilefa thirstytilefer be thirsty Subject telefa hungrytelefer be hungry Patient tejefwa vitaltejefwer be vital Subject tujefa sleepytujefer be sleepy Subject nasefa poor, needynasefer be needy Subject dudyefa accountable, responsibledudyefer be responsible Patient texiyefwa noteworthytexiyefwer be noteworthy

## Sensing Verbs

    Verbs involving the senses, such as sight or hearing, follow a similar pattern, as the following chart shows:
Sensing Verbs :
| TYPE | teab....eye teata....visual | teeb....ear teeta....audial | teib....nose teita....olfactory | teub....mouth teuta....gustatory | tayob....skin tayota....tactile |
| Receptive Active | teater see | teeter hear | teiter smell | teuter taste | tayoter feel |
| Receptive Passive | teatwer be seen | teetwer be heard | teitwer be smelled | teutwer be tasted | tayotwer be felt |
| Stative | teaser seem | teeser sound | teiser smell | teuser taste | tayoser feel |
| Dynamic Active | teaxer look at | teexer listen | teixer sniff | teuxer taste | tayoxer touch |
| Dynamic Passive | teaxwer be looked at | teexwer be listened to | teixwer be sniffed | teuxwer be tasted | tayoxwer be touched |
| Causative Active | teatuer show | teetuer make hear | teixuer make smell | teuxuer offer a taste | tayoxuer make feel |
| Causative Passive | teatuwer be shown | teetuwer be made to hear | teituwer be made to smell | teutuwer be given a taste | tayotuwer be made to feel |
| Inchoative Active | teatier perceive, catch sight of | teetier catch the sound of | teitier get a whiff of | teutuer get a taste of | tayotier get the sensation of |
| Inchoative Passive | teatiwer be perceived | teetiwer be heard | teitiwer be whiffed | teutiwer be tasted | tayotiwer be felt |
| Negative-Modal Patient-oriented Stative | teatyofer be blind | teetyofer be deaf | teityofer be unable to smell | teityofer be unable to taste | tayotyofer be insensitive |
| Negative-Modal Patient-oriented Stative | teatyofwer be invisible | teetyofwer be inaudible | teityofwer be undetectable odorwise | teityofwer be insipid | tayotyofwer be undetectable by touch |
| Negative-Modal Patient-oriented Causative | teatyofxer blind | teetyofxer deafen | teityofxer desensitize to smell | teutyofxer desensitize to taste | tayotyofxer desensitize |
| Negative-Modal Patient-oriented Causative | teatyofwaxer make invisible | teetyofwaxer make inaudible | teityofwaxer make odorless | teutyofwaxer render tasteless | tayotyofwaxer numb |
    Examples of usage:
   * At teatyofxwa bey ha mani.....I was blinded by the lights.
   * Ha xeus sa teetyofxyea.....The noise was deafening.
   * Hia tit se gla teatiyafa.....This pupil is very perceptive.
   * Hua bekil se teityofwa.....That medicine is odorless (impossible to smell).
   * Teatyofwaxu ha vyuni.....Make the spots invisible.
   * Ha magmeb yonprex tayotyafwa zya ha mir.....The volcano eruption could be felt throughout the world.

## Frequentative Verbs

    Frequentative verbs or repetitive action verbs can be formed with the infix -eg- placed between the verb stem and verb ending, eg.:
       Frequentative Verbs NORMALFREQUENTATIVE pyaser....jumppyaseger....bounce paper....flypapeger....flitter kobirer....stealkobireger....pilfer braser....shakebraseger....vibrate brasea....shakingbrasegea....vibrating

## Hybridized Verbs

    Verbs that involve motion directions that change back and forth can be formed by hybridizing the stem vowel or the vowel of the vectorial prefix. Here are some examples:
       Frequentative Verbs FIRST DIRECTIONSECOND DIRECTIONHYBRIDIZED DIRECTION pyaser....jumppyoser....fallpyaoser....bounce, undulate buer....givebier....takebuier....exchange nuer....furnishnier....consumenuier....trade tuer....informtier....learntuier....communicate yaper....ascendyoper....descendyaoper....go up and down zayper....go forwardzoyper....go backzaoper....vacillate vader....affirmvoder....denyvaoder....decide yijber....openyujber....closeuijber....valve baser....stirboser....be stillbaoser....vibrate

## Biradical Verbs

    There are a few verbs in Mirad which are composed of two verb roots, called biradical verbs. Sometimes the last letter of the first verb root gets dropped. Here are a few:
       Biradical Verbs Root 1Root 2Biradical Verb kex-....to seekbi-....to takekebier....to choose kox-....to hidebi-....to takekobier....to steal kox-....to hidep-....to gokoper....to sneak kox-....to hidegeldr-....to copykogeldrer....to plagiarize kox-....to hidef-....to wantkofer....to covet kax-....to reveald-....to saykader....to disclose kax-....to revealteax-...to lookkateaxer....to locate teat-....to seep-....to goteaper....to visit teat-....to seed-....to tellteader....to testify tax-....to rememberdr-....to writetaxdrer....to record teat-....to seeyof-....to be unableteatyofer....to be blind teet-....to heardr-....to writeteedrer....to report teet-....to hearp-....to goteeper....to attend teet-....to heartu-....to informteetuer....to notify teet-....to hearyik-....have a hard timeteetyiker....to strain to hear teet-....to hearyof-....to be unableteetyofer....to be deaf tes-....to meand-....to saytesder....to explain

## Expressing Habitual Actions and States

    Mirad uses the term gel jubyen (as a habit) to express a verb reflecting habitual action, eg:
      * At tijeya be yiwa jwobi gel jubyen.....I used to wake up at 9 o'clock. (Lit. I was waking up at 9 o'clock as a habit.).
    The term hyujod....one another occasion (or be aj....in the past) is use to express once (upon a time), eg:
      * At sa tuxut hyujod (~ be aj) sa tuxut. ....I once was a teacher.
    The term vyabxelay (routinely) can also be used, eg:
      * Yat eke duz yuz bi ha doym vyabxelay.....We play music around town routinely.

## Expressing an Immediate Past

    To express an immediate past, such as in the sentence "We have just gotten married.", Mirad uses the adverb ejnay (newly) much like the word just in English:
      * Yat tadsaye ejnay.....We have just gotten married.
      * Ejnay tadxwa.....Just married.
      * Wit dokebiwa ejnay.....He was just elected.
      * At ujbaya yex ejnay hoj iyt yebupa.....I had just finished work when she came in.

## Verb Predicate Types

    Mirad verb predicates can be classified as follows:
   * Voice
      * Active (The subject is the doer of the action)
      * Passive (The subject is the receiver of the action)
      * Middle (The subject is both the agent and patient)
      * Reflexive (The subject is also the patient.)
      * Reciprocal (Plural subjects interact.)
   * Stativity
      * Stative (Does not involve action)
      * Dynamic (Action is involved)
   * Valency
      * Impersonal (There is no subject)
      * Transitive (There is an object)
      * Intransitive (There is no object)
      * Auto-transitive (The subject is a patient and there is no agent)
      * Anti-transitive (There is the patient but an agent is assumed)
      * Causative (Subject causes an action to be performed)
      * Copula (X is Y)
   * Other
      * Modal (can, must, should, wants to...)
      * Auxiliary (help to, hope to, prepare to + verb)
      * Motion (run, go, ride...)
      * Communication (say, answer, claim that...)
      * Gesture (put, shake, hit...)
      * State/Stative (be, become, live, be born...)
      * Action/Dynamic (do, act, make)
Verb Predicate Types :
| VOICE | STATIVITY | VALENCY | EXAMPLE |
| active | stative | impersonal, -agent, -object | Mamilo zajub.....It will rain tomorrow. |
| active | stative | impersonal, -agent, +complement | Sa gla oma.....It was very cold. |
| active | stative | impersonal, +subject | Ese het be ha mes.....There is someone at the door. |
| active | stative | copula, subject + noun/adjective complement | Et se ata twud.....You are my son. At aseye epyextipa.....I am becoming angry. |
| middle | stative | auto-transitive, +subject=patient -agent -object | Iyt toja.....She died |
| middle | stative | auto-transitive, +subject=patient +agent -object | Ha mes yija.....The door opened. |
| active | stative | intransitive, +subject -object | Et bokso.....You will get sick. |
| active | stative | transitive, sense, +subject +object | At teate et.....I see you. |
| active | stative | transitive, modal, +subject +verb complement | At fe per.....I want to go. |
| active | stative | intransitive, subject-oriented modal, -subject +verb complement | Yofwe teater.....It is impossible to see. |
| passive | stative | patient-oriented modal, +subject | Mamil yakwe.....Rain is expected. |
| middle | dynamic | anti-transitive, +subject=patient +agent -object | Ha mes yijpa.....The door came open. |
| active | dynamic | intransitive, +subject -object | Ha fab pyosa.....The tree fell. |
| active | dynamic | transitive, +subject +-object | Yit pyoxa ha fab.....They felled the tree. |
| passive | dynamic | intransitive, +subject, -object | Ha fabi pyoxwa.....The trees were felled. |
| active | dynamic | transitive, +subject, +object | Obu eta tef.....Take your hat off. |
| active | dynamic | ditransitive, +subject, +object +object | Von et buu iyt ha nas.....Don't give her the money. |
| active | dynamic | transitive, motion, +subject, +destination/origin | Yupu ha mees.....Approach the bench. Pu tam!....Go home! (you implied) |
| active | dynamic | causative, +subject +object, +agent | At tayegobluxo Jon.....I will get my hair cut by John. |
| passive | dynamic | causative, +subject +object, +agent | At tayegobluxwo.....I will get my hair cut. |
| active | dynamic | auxiliary, ditransitive, +patient +verb object | Yuxu at xer his.....Help me do this. |
| passive | dynamic | auxiliary, ditransitive, +patient +verb object | At tuxwa eker duz.....I was taught to play music. |
| middle | dynamic | reflexive, +subject = patient, -object | Iyt uttojba.....She killed herself. |
| active | dynamic | reciprocal, +subjects = patients | Yit voy hyuitdale gaj.....They don't talk to one another anymore. |
    Prepositions are words that connect and show a relationship between a noun or noun phrase and the rest of the sentence. In Mirad, prepositions are simple monosyllables or phrases. Prepositions, as in English, are positioned before the noun or noun phrase they connect.

## Simple Prepositions

    In Mirad, there are single-word and multi-word prepositions. Single-word prepositions are called simple propositions.
    Here is a chart of simple prepositions. Most are spatial, but some are temporal, relational, or mathematical.
    Simple Prepositions POSITIVENEUTRALNEGATIVE SPATIAL ab....on, uponeb....betweenob....off, off of ayb....over, aboveeyb....among, amidoyb....under, below bu....tobe....atbi....from, of byu....as far as, up tobey....by, viabyi....since, starting with ub....toward ib....away from za....in front ofze....at the middle ofzo....behind, in back of zya....throughoutzye....through zu....(to the) left (of)zey....acrosszi....(to the) right (of) TEMPORAL ja....beforeje....during, whilejo....after lojo....no later than, by ju....until ji....since RELATIONAL bay....withbey....by, via, withboy....without av....forvyel....than, as, compared to, aboutov....against ayv....aboutoyv....despite ay....andey....or oey....noroy....but, except MATHEMATICAL ge....equal tooge....unequal to gab....plus, +gaob....plus or minusgob....minus, - gal....times, ×gel....like ogel....unlikegol....divided by, ÷ gar....to the power of, ˆgor....to the root of, √
    The most versatile and useful preposition is be, which means at as a general locative when used literally, but is used before many nouns and noun phrases when the meaning is idiomatic. Some examples follow:
      * Yat se be tam.....We are at home. (literal, general locative)
      * Yat se be dropek.....We are at war. (idiomatic)
      * At teata et be yibsin.....I saw you on television. (idiomatic)
      * Be Ejna York ese mamyabtomi.....In New York, there are skyscrapers. (general locative)
    The preposition bi can mean of or from. Here are some examples:
      * Hus se tam bi ifron.....That is a house of worship.
      * At tyopa bi ha nam bu ata pur.....I walked from the store to my car.
      * Bi him bu hyajob.....From here to eternity.
      * Ha tajnem bi Tom se him.....Tom's birthplace is here.
      * His sa ha gwaifwa tuzun bi eta teyd.....This was your mother's favorite piece of art.
    As you can see above, bi is used to form the possessive form of nouns and names.
    Examples showing how single-word prepositions are used:
      * Ha dyes se ab ha sem.....The book is on the table.
      * Von pyosu ob ha abtamas!....Don't fall off the roof!
      * Ha pati papa ayb ata tam.....The birds flew over my house.
      * It kosa oyb ha yagsim.....He hid under the bench.
      * Simbiu eb hut ay at.....Take a seat between that person and me.
      * Yat teje eyb fiati.....We live among good people.
      * Duhos se nax bi pop bu ay bi Boston?....What is the cost of a trip to and from Boston?
      * His se ifek bi kyen.....This is a game of luck.
      * Duven et sa be hua duzun zomoj?....Were you at that concert last night?
      * Yit se embwa be ha zenod bi ha mapil.....We are positioned at the hub of this storm.
      * Iyt tyopa byu ha mis.....She walked up to/as far as the door.
      * Ha twob tojbwa bey goblar.....The man was killed with/by a knife.
      * Et xu ga fiay ser bay at vyel boy at.....You would do better to be with me than without me.
      * Teaxu ib ha amar.....Look away from the sun.
      * Von teaxu iz ub ha man.....Don't look directly toward the light.
      * Iyt simpa za at. ....She sat in front of me.
      * Et yeyfe simbier zo hua toyb.....You should sit in back of that woman.
      * Embu has zu ha mis.....Put it to the left of the door.
      * At simpo zi et.....I will sit to the right of you.
      * Ha pat besa ze ha tim.....The bird stayed in the middle of the room.
      * Mil upeye zye ha yijun.....Water is coming through the opening.
      * Bikiu je pen zey ha domep......Take care when going across the street.
      * Eso ivan zya ha mir.....There will be happiness throughout the world.
      * His xwo ja zajub. ....This will happen before tomorrow.
      * Esa mapil je ha moj.....There was a storm during the night.
      * Ju zamaj.....Until tomorrow morning.
      * At voy teataye et ji zoyejub.....I have not seen you since last week.
      * Diwe xu hes av at.....Please do something for me.
      * Hia dyes se ayv dalzeyntun.....This book is about linguistics.
      * Hia dyen se din vyel ewa fiuti.....This book is a story about two lovers.
      * Datan se ga fia vyel nas.....Friendship is better than money.
      * Hos se ge fua vyel has hu yat xoa zojab.....Nothing is as bad as what we underwent last year.
      * Yit yexeya ov yat.....They were working against us.
      * Ha vakdibut dopoxa at oyv ata azovdeyni.....The police officer arrested me despite my protests.
      * Et ay Bob yeyfe ser dati.....You and Bob should be friends.
      * Duhot ako, et ey at?....Who will win, you or I?
      * Hyat oy hwut ta ha dud.....Everyone but that guy knew the answer.
      * Et voy se gel at.....You are not like me.
      * Et se hyagla ogel at.....You are totally unlike me.
      * E gab e gese u.....Two plus two equals four.
      * U gob e gese e.....Four minus two equals two.
      * E gal e gese u.....Two times two equals four.
      * E gol e gese a.....Two divided by two equals one.
      * U gar e gese asya.....Four squared (4$^2$) equals sixteen. (Lit: Four to the power of two...)
      * Alya gor e gese u.....The square root (√16) of sixteen is four. (Lit: Sixteen to the minus power of two...)

## Phrasal Prepositions

    Some prepositions involve multiple word expressions, that is, phrasal prepositions.

### Phrasal Prepositions Using Adverbs

    There are certain directional adverbs that can play a part in forming phrasal prepositions, but cannot act as prepositions in and of themselves:
       Adverbs Used in Phrasal Prepositions yub....nearyib....far iz....directly, straightuz....indirectly, roundabout yab....upyeb....in oyeb....outyob....down yiz....beyondyez....along, flushyuz....around zay....forward, aheadzoy....back
    The next chart lists some phrasal prepositions using the above adverbs:
       Phrasal Prepositions Using Adverbs PHRASAL PREPOSITIONEXAMPLE yub bu....near to, close toAt fe tujer yub bu et.....I want to sleep close to you. yib bi....far fromHa amar se yib bi ha imer.....The sun is far from the earth. yab bu....up toIt fu paper yab bu ha mam.....He would like to fly up to the sky. yab bi....up fromSu yab bi ha sim.....Get up from the bed. yab bey....up (by way of)Yat tyoyapo yab bey ha meab.....We will walk up the hill. yab be....up atHa yipet kaxwa yab be ha tam.....The cat was found up at the house. yob bu....down toIgpu yob bu ha obmos.....Run down to the cellar. yob bi....down fromHa tat upa yob bi ha mam.....The angel came down from the sky. yob bey....down (by way of)Iyt igtyoyapa yob bey ha meab.....She ran down the hill. yob be....down atHa dyes kaxwa yob be ha obem.....The book was found down at the bottom. yob ab....down atHas kaxwa yob ab eta oybmos.....It was found down on your floor. yeb be....in, insideEta teyd se yeb be ha tam.....Your mother is in(side) the house. yeb bu....intoIt pyasa yeb bu ha mip.....He jumped into the river. yeb bi....in fromUpu yeb bi ha oma oyebem.....Come in from the cold outdoors. yez bay....along with, flush withUpu yez bay at.....Come along with me. oyeb be....out in/atHa tudi sa oyeb be ha zodeym.....The children were out in the backyard. oyeb bi....out fromYepu oyeb bi ha om.....Come in out from the cold. oyeb bu....out toYat fu peper oyeb bu ha meim.....We'd like to ride out to the countryside. iz bu....straight toPu iz bu fyomir! ....Go straight to hell! iz zoy bi....right back fromIt upu iz zoy bi ha yexim.....He came right back from the office. zay bu....on to, forth to, ahead toHa bixpur popa zay bu zona doym.....The train traveled on to the next town. zey bi....across fromAt simbeseya zey bi et.....I was sitting across from you. zoy bi....back fromAt se zoy bi ha yexim.....I am back from the office. zoy bu....back toPu zoy bu ha nam.....Go back to the store. zoy be....back atDuven et se zoy be tam?....Are you back at home?
    Some simple prepositions can also be combined into prepositional phrases:
      * Ha yipet yapra ab bu ha abtamas.....The cat climbed onto the roof.
      * He yepet pyosa ob bi ha sem.....The dog fell off (from) the chair.
      * Pu zey bu ha hyua kum bi ha domep.....Go across to the other side of the street.
      * At simbeseya iz zey bi et.....I was sitting just across from you.

### Phrasal Prepositions Using Spatial Nouns

    The following chart shows how prepositions and directional adverbs can be joined with the spatial ending -(e)m meaning place (or others) to be form spatial nouns, which, in turn, can be used in idiomatic prepositional phrases:
    Spatial Nouns Built on Prepositions or Adverbs ab....onabem....top abned....upper surface abmas....roof eb....betweenebem....interstice ebjob....interval ebnod....intersection ebmas....partition ob....offobem....bottom obned....lower surface obmas....foundation ayb....aboveaybem....area above aybmas....ceiling oyb....belowoybem....area below oybmas....floor eyb....amongeybem....midst yab....upyabem....upstairs, upper area yabneg....top level yob....downyobem....downstairs, lower area yobneg....bottom level yeb....inyebem....inside, interior, indoors yebnig....inner space oyeb....outyobem....outside, exterior, outdoors za....in front ofzam....front, foreground zan....face ze....in the middle ofzem....middle zenod....center, hub zen....center zenad....median zo....behindzom....back, rear, background zi....rightzim....right area zikum....left side ziizon....right direction imer....east zu....leftzum....left area zukum....left side zuizon....left direction umer....west iz....straightizmep....direct route iznad....vector izon....direction uz....indirectlyuzmep....detour uznad....curve uzon....deviation yub....nearyubem....vicinity yubkum....near side yubaj....recent past yib....faryibem....distance yibkum....far side yibnod....pole yiboj....distant future yuz....aroundyuzem....perifery yuznad....perimeter yuznig....environment yiz....beyondyizem....area beyond yiznod....extremity
    The following chart shows phrasal prepositions that can be created with the use of the spatial nouns in the previous section or other nouns. These phrases are considered idiomatic, because they are abbreviated by the omission of the definite article ha in front of the noun:
    Idiomatic Phrasal Prepositions AT SOMEWHERETO SOMEWHEREFROM SOMEWHERE be abem bi....at the top ofbu abem bi....to the top ofbi abem bi....from the top of be obem bi....at the bottom ofbu obem bi....to the bottom ofbi obem bi....from the top of be ebem bi....in the area betweenbu ebem bi....to the area betweenbi ebem bi....from the area between be aybem bi....above, overbu aybem bi....to the area abovebi aybem bi....from the area above be oybem bi....below, underbu oybem bi....to the area belowbi oybem bi....from the area below be eybem bi....amidzye eybem bi....through the midst ofbi eybem bi....from the midst of be zam bi....at the front ofbu zam bi....to the front ofbi zam bi....from the front of be zem bi....at the middle ofbu zem bi....to the middle ofbi zem bi....from the middle of be zom bi....at the back ofbu zom bi....to the back ofbi zom bi....from the back of be zim bi....at the right ofbu zim bi....to the right ofbi zim bi....from the right of be zum bi....at the left ofbu zum bi....to the left ofbi zum bi....from the left of be yubem bi....in the vicinity ofbu yubem bi....to the vicinity ofbi yubem bi....from the vicinity of be yibem bi....at a distance frombey azon bi....by dint ofbe avon bi....in favor of be ubem bi....in the direction ofbay ux bi....with assistance frombe byux bay....in touch with be yabem bi....in the upper reaches ofbe vyen bu....in relation todoytaxwa bay....associated with be yobem bi....in the bottom area ofbe ned bi....on the level ofbe mep bu....on the way to, en route be yebem bi....on the inside of, insidebe oyebem bi....on the outside of, outsidebu oyebem bi....to the exterior of bey mep bi....by way of, viabe kum bi....beside, at the side ofbe ij bi....at the start of be uj bi....at the end ofbey uxun bi....by means ofbe kunad bi....at the edge of be nod bi....at the point ofbe yebem bi....at the interior of, insidebe oyebem bi....at the exterior of, outside be nad bay....in line withbe uznod bi....alongsidebe tes bi....in the sense of be teas bi....in the guise ofbe san bi....in the form ofbe yanx bi....in conjunction with be bol bi....in support ofbe gab bu....in addition tobe dyun bi....in the name of be avson bi....on behalf ofbe vyeson bi....on the subject ofbay yux bi....with the aid of

## Separable Verb Prefixes

    Verbal prefixes that formed from prepositions and adverbs can usually be "unpacked", that is, treated as separate words. This works like separable verbs in German. The following table demonstrates how that works:
    Separable Verb Prefixes VERB-BOUNDUNPACKEDENGLISH Zyulmap yuzpa yata tam.Zyulmap pa yuz bi yata tam.The tornado circled/went around our house. (= went around) Ha yux bi yams yeyfe yobnogxwer.Ha yux bi cal yeyfe nogxwer yob.The use of carbon should be downscaled. (= scaled down) Yat zaybuxo hia dovyabdren.Yat buxo hia dovyabdren zay.We shall advance this legislation. (= push forward)

# Types of Conjunctions

    Conjunctions are words that join or introduce clauses. There are two major types of conjunctions, with some minor categories, noted below:
       1. Coordinating Conjunctions
            * Simple Linking Conjunctions, such as and, or, but
            * Correlative Conjunctions, such as either...or, neither...or, both...and
            * Adverbial Coordinating Conjunctions, such as then, also, therefore
       2. Subordinating Conjunctions
            * Complementizing Conjunctions, such as that, if, whether, lest
            * Relative Conjunctions, such as as, when, because, while

## Coordinating Conjunctions

    Mirad has three types of coordinating conjunctions, as shown in the following charts:

### Simple Linking Conjunctions

    Simple Linking Conjunctions CONJUNCTIONEXAMPLE ay....andAt oveko ay at ako. I will compete and I will win. ey....orBosu ey at tuyapyexo et. Be still or I will spank you. oy....butIt yeka oy it oka. He tried but he lost. oey....norAt voy tilo oey at telo. I shall not drink, nor shall I eat. bayhus....yetAt ayse hyas at fe, bayhus at voy se iva. I have everything I want, yet I'm not happy. avhus....soHa amar yapaye, avhus et yefe sumpier. The sun has risen, so you must get up out of bed.

### Correlative Coordinating Conjunctions

    The following conjunctions come in pairs:
    Correlative Coordinating Conjunctions CONJUNCTIONEXAMPLE hyaewa...ay....both...andAt hyaewa dyede ay dre Mirad. I both read and write Mirad. hyeawa...ey....either...orEt yafe hyeawa beser ey pier. Se eta kebiun. You can either stay or leave. It's your choice. hyoawa...oey....neither...norYat hyoawa move oey tile. We neither smoke nor drink. voy hyawa...oy (gay)....not only...but (also)At voy hyawa deuze oy gay at daze. I not only sing but also I dance. ven....avhus....if...thenVen et te ha dud, avhus du has. If you know the answer, then say it. ha...ha....the...theHa ga et tixe, ha ga et akujo. The more you study, the more you'll succeed. ga yukay...vyel....rather...thanAt oku ga yukay vyel vyoeker. I'd rather lose than cheat. ji van...iz huj....no sooner...thanJi van ha dezut yepa, iz huj ha hyaydeux ija. No sooner did the actor enter than the applause began. huugla...van....so/such...thatHa map sa huugla aza van ha fab pyoxwa. The wind was so strong that the tree was felled. ven...ey (voy)....whether...or (not)Ven et te is ey voy, at tadioye. Whether you know it or not, I am about to get married.

### Adverbial Coordinating Conjunctions

    Some grammars call these conjunctive adverbs:
    Adverbial Coordinating Conjunctions CONJUNCTIONEXAMPLE jo hus / joy then, next, after thatYat deuza, jo hus hyat daza. We sang, then everyone danced. je hus / jey meanwhileJe hus, at ujba hyas. Meanwhile, I finished everything. av hus so, thereforeIt vuda at, av hus at pia. He insulted me, so I left. (gey) ov hus nevertheless, even so, despite that, yet, howeverAt yexa kyotepay, ov hus, at ujoka. I work diligently, yet I failed. gel hus / gelay likewise, also, similarlyAt daze. Gel hus, at deuze. You dance; likewise, I sing. hyiyen / geyen in the same way, likewiseYit xa fi; hyiyen, et xo gay fi. They did well; in the same way, you will too. ogel hus / ogelay otherwise, elseDu hes, ogel hus, piu. Say something, otherwise, leave. gay alsoEt yeka; gay, et ujaka! You tried; also, you succeeded! be nem (bi hus) instead (of that)Hyot fida iyt; be nem bi hus, yit fuda iyt. Nobody praised her; instead, they badmouthed her. huyen thus, in that wayTixu jestay; huyen, et ujako. Study diligently; in that way, you'll succeed. husav for that reason, so, thereforeAt voy ifeyie has; husav, at pio. I'm not enjoying it, so I will leave. vray as a matter of fact, actually, in factVray, et se vyasa. In fact, you're right. gel jos consequently, as a consequenceIt baksa; gel jos, it toja. He got sick; as a consequence, he died. gel xin as a resultAt voy tixa; gel xin, at okuja. At didn't study; as a result, I failed. ga vyel hus moreover, what's moreMamila. Ga vyel hus, esa mamxeus. It rained. Moreover, there was thunder. be hyua duni in other wordsAt voy da ha vyan; be hyua duni, at vyoda. It did not tell the truth; in other words, I lied. jey meanwhile, in the meantimeHa toboti xeya gla xeus; jey, at jesa tixer. The children were making a lot of noise; meanwhile, I continued to study. ovay on the contraryHa tam voy se aga; ovay, has se gle oga. The house is not big; on the contrary, it's rather small. bi hyua teasgun on the other handAt voy deuze. Bi byua teagun, at eke duzar. I don't sing. On the other hand, I play a musical instrument. gey bay hus still, even soVoy esa duz, gey bay hus, ha xej sa ifxea. There was no music. Even so, the event was entertaining. ujnay finally, in the endUnjnay, hyoa fus xwa. In the end, nothing bad happened.

## Subordinating Conjunctions

    Subordinating Conjunctions introduce three types of dependent or subordinate clauses:
       1. Adjectival subordinate clauses (also called relative clauses)
            * He is the guy that earned the most this year. The subordinate clause modifies a noun in the main clause. Adjectival clauses are introduced in Mirad by the relative complementizer ho. Relative clauses are discussed in the Relative Clauses section of the chapter on Verbs.
       2. Nominal subordinate clauses (also called factive clauses)
            * I knew that she would come. The subordinate clause is the object or complement of a verb in the main clause. Nominal subordinate clauses are introduced by one of the factive complementizers van, ven, or von, depending on whether the subordinate clause is positive, conditional, or negative.
       3. Adverbial subordinate clauses (also called circumstantial clauses).
            * Did you see where they went?. The subordinate clause is an adverbial clause modifying a verb in the main clause for time, place, manner, and other circumstances. Adverbial subordinate clauses are introduced by relative deictic adverbs like hom....where, hoj....when, and hosav....why.

### Complementizers

       The complementizers above are part of an overall scheme. In the chart below, the six complementizers act:
         * as a clause linker, where the complementizer introduces a clause that is a statement of FACT or CONDITION, or
         * as a sentence introducer, where the complementizer introduces a sentence that is a command/wish, a prohibition, or a yes-no question. Some of these complementizers can act in either or both roles. In actuality, all of the complementizers introduce or link a subordinate clause; it's just that in some cases, the main clause is left unexpressed.
    Complementizers TYPECOMPLEMENTIZERCLAUSE LINKERSENTENCE INTRODUCER Positive / Hortative vanthat, the fact thatMay....(something happen), Let....(something happen) Conditional venif, whether-- Negative / Prohibitive vonlest, that...notDon't Anti-Conditional ovenunless-- Interrogative Duven...?--Is it true that, say whether..., do(es)? Relative hothat, which, who(m)--
    Examples of these conjunctions linking a main and subordinate clause:
      * At ta van et upo.....I knew that you would come. (FACTIVE)
      * At xa is av van et testu.....I did it so that you would understand.
      * At voy ta ven et upo.....I did not know whether you would come. (CONDITIONAL)
      * Ven et te ha dud, du has.....If you know the answer, say it. (CONDITIONAL)
      * At yufa von et upu.....I feared lest you might come. (PROHIBITIVE)
      * At voy upo oven et upo gay.....I will not come unless you come, too. (ANTI-CONDITIONAL)
      * At fe teater ha tob ho xa his.....I want to see the man who did this. (RELATIVE)
      * At fe teater hoa tob xa his.....I want to see which man did this.
      * Iyt akeye oyv van iyt bayse yofi.....She is winning despite the fact that she has disabilities.
    Example of these conjunctions introducing different types of sentences:
      * Van yat fyadilu.....Let us pray. (Hortative, i.e., A WISH)
      * Van yit teliu avol!....Let them eat bread.
      * Van ha edweb yagteju.....May the king live long.
      * Duven et te ha dud?....Do you know the answer? (YES/NO QUESTION)
      * Duven et se tadxwa.....Are you are married. (SAY WHETHER...)
      * Von (et) yufu.....Don't (you) be afraid. (Prohibitive, i.e., AN INJUNCTION)
      * Von hus xwu.....Let that not happen. (NEGATIVE HORTATIVE)
    The sentence-initial interrogative complementizer Duven (Is it true that?) is used to introduce a yes/no question. The word can be analyzed as a command meaning Say whether... where Say... is the main clause in the imperative mood.
      * Duven et se tadokyayt?....Are you a widow? (= Say whether you are...).
    Av van + a predicate in the hypothetical mood expresses a "so that, in order that" clause, eg.:
      * At uzba ata teb av van at yafu teater hos xowe$^*$.....I turned my head so that I could see what was about to happen.
    Using the negative complementizer, von, the above sentence could be rephrased as:
      * At uzba ata teb av von at teatu hos xowe.....I turned my head so that I wouldn't see what was about to happen.
    Since the subject is the same in both clauses, the sentence could be expressed more easily with an infinitive:
      * At uzba ata teb av (~ ov) teater hos xowe.....I turned my head so as (not) to see what was about to happen.
    * xowe means is about to happen/be done. Unlike English, there is no relative sequencing of tenses in conjoined clauses. "I knew she would come." is rendered in Mirad with direct sequences of tenses, i.e. as "I knew that she will come." Also, unlike English, the "that" conjunction cannot be left out: At ta van iyt upo.

### Conjunctions with the subordinate conjunctions van/ven/von

       Conjunctions introducing nominal subordinate clauses consist of a preposition followed by the positive complementizer van, the conditional complementizer ven, or the negative complementizer von. English can use a bare preposition as a conjunction, as in the sentence "He will grow up before you notice it." However, Mirad requires the complementizer, much as in French, where "avant" (before) must be accompanied by "que" when followed by a clause ("Il se grandira avant que tu ne le remarques.") Here is a chart showing the most important of these conjunctions:
       Subordinating conjunctions with van and ven CONJUNCTIONEXAMPLE ja van beforeDu hay ja van et pio. Say hi before you leave. je van while, as long asJe van at so him, at xo gle yex av et. While I'm here, I'll do some work for you. jo van afterAt buo et has jo van et nuso. I will give it to you after you pay. ojo van by the timeOjo et puo him, at piayo. By the time you get here, I will have departed. ju van untilYat voy ijo ju van et puo him. We won't start until you get here. ji van sinceAt voy teataya huyenas ji van et sa hum. I had not seen such a thing since you were there. gey ven even ifGey ven et yontexe, at bolo et. Even if you disagree, I'll support you. gel ven as ifYat yeyfe axler gel ven yat teata hyos. We should act as if we saw nothing. gey ov van even though, thoughGey ov van ha pansin sa gra yaga, at ifia has. Even though the movie was too long, I enjoyed it. ov van (al)though, despite the fact thatAt po ov van at voy fe. I'll go, although I don't want to. av van so (that)It utifbua av van hyuti teju. He sacrificed himself so that others might live. av von lest, so that...notIt utifbua av von hyuti toju. He sacrificed himself so that others might not die (= lest others might die). Buwa van in as much as, given thatBuwa van iyt se tadiwa, at voy byuxo iyt. Given that she's married, I won't touch her. Hij van now thatHij van et se him, biu hegla kafeyl. Now that you're here, have some coffee. Vakuwa van provide thatVakuwa van et se yukoma, at hoydo. Provided you're comfortable, I will say my goodbyes. ven ifVen yat fe iber ixuni, yat yefe yexer ga jestay. If we want to get results, we must work harder. ven whetherVen et ijbo ha yexes obyose et. Whether you finish the job is up to you. Oven unlessOven et do hyuyen, at dolo. Unless you say otherwise, I will be silent.

### Conjunctions as Circumstantial Clause Headers

       If the conjunction contains a deictic adverb like where, when, how, etc., then the relative form of the deictic adverb is used. The most common of these begin with ho- or hye- and behave as in English.
       Subordinating Conjunctions CONJUNCTIONCIRCUMSTANCEEXAMPLES hoj whenTIMEHoj et pua, ha if ija. When you arrived, the fun began. hyej wheneverTIMEHyej et dale, at hihide. Whenever you talk, I laugh. hom wherePLACEAt voy te hom it pa. I don't know where he went. hyem whereverePLACEEt yafe per hyem et fu. You can go wherever you'd like. hyam everywherePLACEHyam at pe, et se hum. Everywhere I go, you're there. hosav whyCAUSEDuven et te hosav it xa his? Do you know why he did it? hosav becauseCAUSEIt xa has hosav it fa teatuer yat hes. He did it because he wanted to show us something. hoyen how, asMANNERXu hoyen et fu van hyuti axlu ub et. Do as you'd want others to act toward you. hogla asDEGREEYexu hogla ugay et efe. Work as slowly as you need to. hyegla however much (that)DEGREEDalu hyegla et efo. Talk however much you need to. hoglas as much (as)QUANTITYAt telio hoglas at fe. I will eat as much as I want.
    Other conjunctions of circumstance are sometimes used. This is not a complete list.

## Assertive Interjections

    Interjections in Mirad include the assertive expressions yes, no and maybe:
    Common Assertive Interjections Va!Yes! Ve!Maybe!, Perhaps! Vo!*No!
    * Not to be confused with voy, which translates the English adverb not, as in Vo, wit voy se tadxwa.....No, he is not married.
    Examples:
      * Va. At se otadxwa.....Yes. I am unmarried.
      * Va. At se vay otadxwa.....Yes. I am indeed/really unmarried.
      * Va, vay.....Yes, indeed.
      * Va ay vo. Hus vey se vyaa.....Yes and no. That may be true.
      * Va ey vo?....Yes or no?
      * Ve. At te voy valay.....Maybe. I don't know for sure.
      * Vo. At voy vatexe et.....No. I don't believe you.
      * Vo! Dilwe von xu hus.....No! Please don't do that.
      * Et se Amerikama, vao?....You're American, yes or no?
      * Ven va, (van et) xu has.....If so, (let you) do it.
      * Ven vo, von (et) xu has.....If not, don't (you) do it.
    There are also some hybrid combinations of the above assertive expressions:
    Hybrid Interjections Vao?Yes or no? Vea!Maybe so! Veo!*Maybe not!

## Other interjections

    There is a group of common interjections called the H interjections, because they all begin with the letter h:
    Greetings Initial Greeting hay!Hello!, Hi! Vocative Greeting hey!Hey!, O!, Oh! Terminal Greeting hoy!Goodbye!, Bye! Proximal Specifier hiy!Voici!, Here is... Distal Specifier huy!Voila!', There is... Positive Exclamation hyay!Great! Wow!, Bravo!, Woopee!, Hurrah! Surprise Exclamation hyey!What a...!, Oh!, Well! Negative Exclamation hyoy!What a pity!, It's a shame!, Woe is...!, Darn it!, Yikes!, Boo! Expression of Thanks hway!$^1$ Thanks! Expression of Welcome hwey!You're welcome!, Please Expression of Sorrow hwoy!Sorry!, Excuse me! Expression of Joy hwiy!Whee!, O la la! Expression of Pain hwuy!Ouch!, Ow!, That hurts! Laughter hihi! Ha ha!, Hee hee! Lamentation huhu! Boo hoo!, Woe is me!, Oy veh! Admiration hwaw!$^2$Wow!, What a show! Disgust hwow!$^3$Yuck!, Eeoow!, Gross!
    $^1$Pronounced like English why. Mirad hw is pronounced like English wh.
    $^2$Pronounced like English wh+aw.
    $^3$Pronounced like English wh+oh.
    Examples:
      * Hay! Ata dyun se Johan.....Hi! My name is John.
      * Hey, Johan! Duhoyen et xeye?....Hey, John, how are you doing?
      * Hey, Tot!....O, God!
      * Hoy. At teato et zajub.....Bye. I will see you tomorrow.
      * Hiy ha dyen ho et dila.....Here's the book you requested.
      * Hiy Tob.....Behold Man. (Ecce Homo).
      * Hiy ata dyundraf.....Here's my caling card.
      * Huy! Se xwa.....Voilà! It's done.
      * Huy hos at yaka.....There's what I expected.
      * Hyay et!....Good for you!
      * Hyay! Et utnaze his......Bravo! You deserve this.
      * Hway! Et sa gla fitipa......Thanks.! You were very kind.
      * At fu hwayder et.....I'd like to congratulate you.
      * Hwey!....You're welcome!
      * Et efe hwoyder at.....You need to apologize to me.
      * Fi. Hwoy.....Ok. I'm sorry.
      * Hyey via imaj! ....Oh, what a beautiful morning!
      * Hyey At ta voy van et upo.....Oh! I didn't know you were coming.
      * Hyoy at.....Woe is me.
      * Hyoy! Ga fia fikyen jonay.....Pity!. Better luck next time.
      * Hwoy. At yefe hyoder et.....Sorry. I must take leave of you.
      * Hihi! Hus sa gla diza.....Ha ha! That was very funny.
      * Von hihidu.....Don't laugh.
      * Huhu!.....Oy!
      * Ha tudet voy poxo huhuder.....The baby won't stop crying.
    Vulgar expletives are not offered here, but may arise naturally in daily speech.
    Note: The English expression Please can be expressed in various ways:
      * Hwey! Yepu.....Please! Come in. (Hwey can also mean you're welcome in answer to thank-you.
      * Diwe von (et) tyopu ab ha vaz.'....Please (= it is requested) don't walk on the grass.
      * Diwe van et yanupu yat.'....Please (= it is asked that) join us.
      * Diwe!....Please!
      * Xu (at) (ha) fis bi yubeler at hua tyoyafi.....Please (= do (me) (the) favor of) bring me those shoes.
    Stronger forms of please include dilwe....it is requested or dirwe....it is begged.
    Many of the interjections in this section can be made into verbs with the addition of -der (to utter), eg.:
      * hayder....greet, say hi
      * heyder....address, call out to, wave down
      * hoyder....say goodbye to
      * hyayder....congratulate
      * hwayder....thank
      * hwoyder....apologize, excuse oneself, say you're sorry
      * hihider....laugh
      * huhuder....boo, cry
    There is a class of words in Mirad which are called hybrids, i.e. cross-combinations of opposite words that mean something and something else or something or something else. For example, in English, swinging is "moving BACK-AND-FORTH", or, questions can be of the type "YES-OR-NO". The vowels in these directionals are, for euphonic purposes, ao, eo, or ui. These alternating expressions are often used as adverbs or verbal prefixes. Here is an incomplete list of such expressions, the elements decomposed, and examples of their usage:
    Hybrid Expressions Opposite ElementsHybrids ab....on ob....offaoper....get on and off aober....take on and off bu....to, give bi...from, takebuinax....round trip fare buipar....shuttle bus buier....trade ga....more go....lessgao....more-or-less hum....there him....herehuimpoper....travel here and yon hus....that his....thishuisbier....select between this and that hyas....everything hyos....nothinghyaoson....all-or-nothing matter hyut....another hyit....the same personhyuita....mutual hyuitifer....love one another tej....life toj....deathteoja ebyem....life-and-death situation u....away/west i....toward/eastuinab....row uinada....horizontal Uiyanmel....Eurasia a....up/north o....down/southaonab....column aonada....vertical pyaoser....to bounce uz....crooked iz....straightuizpaser....careen, stagger uizder....to equivocate ub....toward ib....awayuipeni....comings and goings uj....end ij....beginninguijbar....on-off switch uga....slow iga....fastuigpar....scooter va....yes vo....novaoder....decide vaotexer....wonder vaodid....yes-or-no question yuja....closed yija....openyuija....open-and-shut yuijar....valve manyuijar....light switch teabyuijer....blink yab....up yob....downyaoblir....elevator (up-and-down taker) yaoblar....lever yaopyaser....jump up and down yaobsum....bunkbed ayeb$^1$....in oyeb....outaoyebar....piston (in-and-out-device) za....front zo....backzaobaser....rock zaopaser....swing zu....left/west zi....right/eastzuibaser....wobble zuipaser....zigzag zuimera....east-west zuituyaba....ambidextrous malza....white molza....blackmaolza....gray yav-....innocent yov-....guiltyyaovyek....trial (Lit: innocent-guilty-test) zyu-....round zyi-....flatzyuis....oval, ellipse up-....come ip-....go, leavemimuip....tide (Lit: sea-come-go) uipeni....comings and goings uv-....sad iv-....happyuivdin....tragicomedy
    $^1$This is a long form of yeb (in) that contrasts with oyeb (out).
    Keep in mind that if a hybrid word ends in b, the b assimilates by dropping from per (to go) and ber (to put) words, eg:
      * aob + ber = aober
      * uib + per = uiper

## Exclamations Using the H-words

    Many common exclamatory expressions in Mirad use words that begin with the letter h:
    Common Exclamatories MIRADENGLISHEMOJI Hay!Hello!🙋 Hey!Hey!, Oh...!, Yahoo! Hoy!Bye!🙋 Hiy...Here is / Here comes... / Voici Huy...There's... / There goes... / Voilà Hway!*Great! / Good for you! / Congratulations!, wow! / hurray! Hwey!Oh my! / Goodness gracious! / Well! Hwoy!Too bad! / What a shame! / Sorry!/ oy! Hyay!Thanks! 🙏 Hyey!Your're welcome! / That's ok. Hyoy!Sorry! 😢 Hihi!Ha ha! / That's funny! Huhu!Boo hoo!
    * Pronounced like English why.
    The above h-exclamations can be made into verbs by suffixing forms of -der....to utter, eg.:
      * hyay....thanks ⇒ hyayder....to thank
         * At fu hyayder et av hos et xa.....I'd like to thank you for what you did.
      * hihi....ha ha ⇒ hihider....to laugh ⇒ hihiduer....to make laugh
         * Et hihidua.....You made me laugh.

## Expressions by Category
### Offering Suggestions

   * If I were you,.......Ven at su et,...
   * In my opinion,.......Be ata texyen,...
   * Speaking personally,.......Dalea av aut,...
   * If I might suggest,.......Ven at duyafu,...
   * I would suggest that.......At duu van...
   * You would be well-advised to X.......Et su fiduwa Xer...
   * Have you thought of Xing...?....Duven et vyetexaye Xen...?
   * Why not X...?....Duhosav voy Xer...?

### Asking for Suggestions

   * What would you do if...?....Duhos et xu ven...?
   * I'd like your opinion on.......At fu eta texyen vyel...
   * Please advise me on.......Diwe fyidu at vyel...

### Dispensing Advice

   * I think you should X....,At texe van et yefu Xer
   * If I were you,.......,Ven at su et,...
   * You would be wrong to X.....Et su vyoa Xer.
   * It would be good if.......Et su fia ven...
   * I warn you that.......At jwatue et van...

### Requests

   * Would you mind Xing...?....Duven oboxu et Xer...?
   * May I X...?....Duven at yafu Xer...?
   * I'd like to X.......At fu Xer...
   * Could you possibly X.......Duven et yafu hyeyen Xer...
   * I would be much obliged if you were to X.......At su gla yefxwa ven et Xu...
   * Please do me the favor of Xing.......Diwe xu at ha avun bi Xer...
   * Could I ask you to X?....Duven at yafu dier et Xer?

### Asking for Opinions

   * I'd like to know you opinion on.......At fu ter eta texyen vyel...
   * Tell me what you think about.......Du at hos et texe vyel...

### Offering Opinions

   * It seems to me that.......Tease at van...
   * I believe that.......At vatexe van...
   * I don't think that.......At votexe van...
   * We don't feel that.......Wat voy tose van...
   * I must say.......At dyefe...
   * As far as I'm concerned.......Auta texyen se van...
   * Personally, .......Aotay, ...
   * I am convinced that.......At se vatexuwa van...

### Expressing Preferences

   * Which do you prefer, X or Y?....Duhaas et gaife, X ey Y?
   * Would you like to X...?....Duven et fu Xer...
   * I would prefer to X... ....At gaifu Xer...
   * It doesn't matter to me whether.......Av at, getese ven...
   * I don't mind if.......Av at glotese ven...

### Expressing Intentions

   * Do you intend to X?....Duven et ojtexe Xer?
   * What are you going to do?....Duhos et xo?
   * He is determined to X.......It vafe Xer...
   * I would like to X.....At fu Xer.
   * We would like you to X.....Wat fu van et Xu.

### Permission and Prohibition

   * May I come in?....Duven at afe yeper?
   * Is that permitted?....Duven hus afwe?
   * Parking is prohibited.....Purkoxwen ofwe.
   * Do not walk on the grass.....Von tyope ab ha vab.
   * You are authorized to X.....Et se afdwa Xer.
   * No entry.....Von yepu. ~ Yepen ofwe.
   * You must not cry.....Et yofe huhuder.
   * Permit me to say.......Afxu at der...

### Obligation and Necessity

   * You must pay attention.....Et yefe tepzexer.
   * You should leave.....At yefu ~ yeyfu iper.
   * I have to go.....At yefe per.
   * You are obliged to X.....Yet yefxwe Xer.
   * We need your help.....Yat efe yeta yux.
   * It is urgent that you respond.....Igefwe van et dudu.
   * I am asking you to X.....At dieye et Xer.
   * He demands that you X.....Wit dire van et Xu.
   * It is required that you stay longer.....Dirwe van et besu gaj.

### Agreement

   * Yes, I agree with you.....Va, at yantexe et.
   * He disagreed with me.....It yontexa at.
   * My opinion differs from yours.....At texyen ogelse etas.
   * This book will concur with me.....Hia dyes geltexo at.
   * I don't accept your view.....At voy vabie eta texgun.
   * I reject the concept that.......At vobie ha tyun van...
   * What you said is entirely true.....Hos et da se aynay vyaa.
   * What a great idea!....Huu agala teyen!
   * Your application has been approved.....Eta didras fivadawe.
   * Blessed be this food.....Van hia tel fyadwu.
   * We are glad that you came.....Yat se iva van et upa.

### Disagreement

   * No, that's wrong.....Vo, hus se vyoa.
   * You are lying.....Et vyodeye.
   * I disagree with your opinion.....At yontexe eta texyen.
   * We don't approve of you actions.....Yat voy fivade eta axleni.
   * I cannot accept the fact that.......At vabiyofe van...
   * Do you refuse to answer?....Duven et vobie duder?
   * That's out of the question.....Hus se vabiyofwa.
   * I must decline that suggestion.....At yefe voder hua dul.
   * We condemn your views.....Yat fuvade eta texguni.
   * I must disapprove of your actions.....At fuvadyefe eta axleni.
   * Your statement be damned!....Eta del fyodwu!
   * It's a pity (~ shame) that you don't understand.....Se yov van et voy teste.
   * I hate the fact that.......At ufe van...
   * It is sad that you have to leave now.....Se uva van et yefe pier hij.

### Affirmation, Quibbling, Negation

   * Yes.....Va.
   * Yes, indeed.....Va, vay.
   * Certainly ~ Of course....Vla(y).
   * True.....Vya.
   * Truly.....Vyay.
   * Maybe.....Ve.
   * Maybe so.....Vey va.
   * Maybe not.....Vey vo.
   * Possibly.....Vey.
   * Probably.....Vle(y)
   * Hardly.....Yikay.
   * Almost.....Yubge.
   * Barely.....Haway gwe.
   * Exactly.....Gwe.
   * No.....Vo.
   * Most certainly not.....Vlo.
   * Perhaps no.....Vey vo.
   * Yes and no.....Vao.
   * False.....Vyo.
   * Absolutely not.....Abray voy.
   * In no way.....Hoyen.
   * In no way whatever.....Hyoyen.

### Certainty, Probability, Possibility, and Capability

   * I'm sure she'll come.....At se vlata van iyt upo.
   * It is not certain that.......Voy se vlatwa van...
   * It is probable that.......Se vlea van...
   * You'll probably change your mind.....Et vley kyaxer eta texyen.
   * In all likelihood,.......Gwa vley,...
   * It might rain.....Vey mamilo.
   * It will definitely rain.....Vlay mamilo.
   * What is the probability that it will rain?....Duhos se ha vlean van mamilo?
   * It is conceivable that she will win.....Texiyafwe van iyt ako.
   * It would be inconceivable.....Texiyofwu.
   * I am persuaded that nothing will happen.....At se vatexuwa van hyos xwo.
   * It could be true.....Has yafwu ser vyaa. ~ Has syafwu vyaa.
   * Those results are impossible.....Hua ixuni se yofwa.
   * The odds of that happening.......Ha kyensagi van hus xwo...
   * I can't understand you.....At yofe tester et. ~ At voy yafe tester et.
   * Could you speak a little louder?....Duven et yafu daler ga az?
   * It is not impossible that.......Voy se yofwa van...
   * I would not be surprised if.......At voy yoku ven...
   * Am I expected to be early?....Duven at yakwe ser jwaa?
   * I doubt they will survive.....At vlotexe van yit yiztejo.
   * She suspected that I'd be late.....Iyt vetexa van at so jwo.
   * She assumed that I would be.......Iyt vletexa van at so...
   * I bet you know.....At vlede van et te.
   * You can't know for sure.....Et yofe ter vlay.
   * That's impossible to predict.....Hus jadyofwa. ~ Hus se yofwa jader.
   * I will be unable to X.....At yofo Xer.

### Apologies

   * I'm sorry but.......At se tipuva oy...
   * Excuse me but.......Yovobu at oy...
   * Please forgive me.....Diwe yovobu at.
   * It pains me to say.......Byokxe at der...
   * It is sad to say.......Se uva der...
   * It is regrettable that.......Se uvtexyafwa van...
   * They expressed their regrets.....Yit uvtaxde.
   * I regret my crimes.....At zoyuvtose ata doyovi.
   * I regret to inform you that.......At uvtose tuer et van...

### Thanks

   * Thank-you for your kind words.....Hyay av eta tipifa duni.
   * I shall be forever grateful......At so byu hyaj ivtaxika.
   * I am much obliged for your gift.....At se gla yefxwa av eta fibun.
   * Thank-you very much!....Hyay hyay! ~ Ivtaxwo! ~ Gla yefxwa! ~ Gla naxtwe.
   * I appreciate your help.....At nazte eta yux.
   * Your words are much appreciated.....Eta duni gla naztwe.

### Best Wishes

   * Congratulations!....Hyay! ~ Yanfyaztos!
   * I congratulate you!....At hyayde et! ~ At yanfyaztosde et!
   * Best wishes to you!....Fia ojfoni av et!
   * Happy birthday!....Iva tajjub!
   * May your day be blessed!....Van eta jub fyadwu! ~ Fyadwu eta jub!
   * I wish you a good trip!....At ojfe et fia pop!
   * Bon voyage!....Fia pop!
   * Season's greetings!....Iva jeb!
   * Merry Christmas!....Iva Kristtaj!
   * Happy New Year! ~ Nowruz!....Iva Ejna Jab!
   * Happy Anniversary!....Iva jabzyus!
   * Happy Hannukka!....Iva Hanuka!
   * Get well soon!....Fibaksu ig!
   * Good luck on your exams!....Fikyen be eta vyaoyeki!
   * I wish you every success!....At ojfe et hya akuj!
   * Good luck! (~ Mazel Tov!)....Fikyen!
   * Be well!....Baksu!
   * Long live the king!....Van ha edeb yagteju! ~ Yagteju ha edeb!
   * Vive la France!....Hyay Ferom!
   * Bravo! ~ Well done! ~ Congratulations!....Hyay!
   * Get better soon! ~ Speedy Recovery!....Baksu ig! ~ Byekwu ig!

### Common Greetings

   * Hello!....Hay!
   * Hey!....Hey!
   * Goodbye!....Hoy!
   * Good day!....Fijub!
   * Good morning!....Fimaj!
   * Good afternoon!....Fijwomaj!
   * Good evening!....Fijwamoj!
   * Goodnight!....Fimoj!
   * How are you?....Duhoyen et se?
   * How are you doing?....Duhoyen et xeye?
   * I'm doing fine.....At xeye fi.
   * What's new?....Duhos se ejna?
   * See you later! ~ Au revoir!....Ju ha gawteat!
   * Be well!....Su baka!
   * Sleep well!....Tuju fi!
   * What's happening?....Duhos kyeseye?
   * Until then!....Ju huj!
   * Take care!....Bikiu!

### Announcements

   * We are pleased to announce the birth of.......Yat ifie dotuer ha taj bi...
   * I am happy to say that.......At se iva der van...
   * I am sorry to report that.......At se uva dotuer van...
   * It is with deep sorrow that we announce the death of.......Bay gla uvan, yat dotue ha toj bi...
   * Ladies and Gentlemen, please be seated.....Duyti ay Dwuti, diwe simbiu.
   * Welcome to the stage: X!....Fiupdiu bu ha dezyem: X!
   * I would like to introduce you to our speaker, X.....At fu tyuer yet yata dalut: X.
   * Attention! ~ Hear ye, hear ye!....Tepzexu!

### Regrets and Condolences

   * I'm very sorry for your loss.....At uvtose eta ok.
   * My condolences on the death of.......Ibu ata yanuvtosi av ha toj bi...
   * I am so sorry.....At se huugla uvtosika.
   * Alas!....Hyoy!
   * I share your grief.....At yantipuvie et.
   * I regret having done that.....At ajuvtose xaer hus.
   * I apologize for my actions.....At ajuvtosde (~ hyoyde) ata axleni.
   * We were terribly upset to hear the news that.......Yat gla yobaxwa teeter ha tuun van...

### Invitations and Responses

   * You are hereby invited to join us.......Yet hiyen updiwe yanser yat...
   * Welcome to our home.....Fiupu yata toom.
   * Would you like to dine with us?....Duven yet fu tyaler bay yat?
   * Be my guest!....Updiwe!
   * I would be happy to come.....At su iva uper.
   * Sorry, but I am otherwise engaged then.....Hyoy, at se hyuyen yuvlaxwa huj.
   * Unfortunately, I must decline.....Fukyenay, at yefe vobier.

### Establishing Parallels

   * On the one hand...,on the other.......Ayen...,hyuyen ....
   * Just as...so, too.......Gwe gel van...gey gel van...
   * What is more,.......Gayen,...
   * Furthermore,.......Gayen,...
   * Added to this,.......Gabwa bu his,...
   * By the same token,.......Geyen,...
   * As far as...is concerned,.......Vyelea...
   * As for.......Ayv...

### Enumerating

   * or...or even.......ey...ey gey...ey ujay
   * but finally.......oy ujay...
   * First of all.......Ujnay...
   * Next, but not least.......Zanapay, oy voy gwo...

### Favorable Comparisons

   * far superior to....gla fia vyel
   * We can't compete with....Yat yofe yanyeker bay
   * has the edge over....se gyoay fia vyel

### Unfavorable Comparisons

   * was nowhere near as good as.......sa yib bi ser ge fia vyel'
   * is no match for....yofe yanyeker bay
   * is far inferior to....se gla oba vyel
   * does not measure up to....voy se be neg bi
   * bears no comparison with....voy se vyegexyafwa bay

### Similar Comparison

   * is equivalent to....genaze
   * on a par with....gekyinse
   * corresponds to....vyegexe
   * can be likened to....se vyegexyafwa bu

### Asking an Opinion

   * What do you thing of X?....Duhos et texe ayv X?
   * What is your opinion on X?....Duhos se eta texyen vyel X?
   * What is your attitude to X?....Duhos se eta tepkin ub X?
   * How do you see...Xing?....Be eta texyen, duhoyen...Xo?

### Expressing an Opinion

   * In my opinion,....be ata texyen,
   * As I see it,....Be ata duni,
   * Personally, I believe that.......Aotay, at vatexe van...
   * It seems to me that.......Tease at van...
   * I dare say (that).......At dyife van...
   * As far as I'm concerned,....Ven et didu at,
   * It is our belief that....Se yata vatex van
   * I'm convinced that.......At se vetexuwa van...

### Saying What You Like

   * I would like to X.......At fu Xer...
   * I would prefer to X.......At gaifu Xer...
   * I very much enjoy Xing.....At gla ifie Xen.
   * I have a weakness for X.....At ayse ozan av X.
   * I love chocolate.....At ifle dyofyel.
   * I adore ballet.....At ifre dyaz.
   * Do you like dogs?....Duven et iyfe yepeti?
   * I am very pleased to meet you.....At se gla ifxwa trier et.

### Saying What You Don't Like

   * I am not keen on seafood.....At voy iyfe piit.
   * Do you dislike X?....Duven et uyfe X?
   * I hate X.....At ufe X.
   * I can't stand (~bear) the thought of Xing.....At yofe xorer ha tex bi Xen.
   * That is disgusting.....Hus se ufxea.
   * I despise rude people.....At ufre fubyenati.

### Expressing Indifference

   * I don't care about X.....At voy bikse vyel X.
   * It doesn't matter to me.....Voy bikxe at (or: Getese bu at.)
   * That doesn't matter.....Hus voy glatese.
   * I couldn't care less about X.....X trefxe at hyohen.

### Giving Reasons

   * Why did you do that?....Duhosav et xa hus?
   * I came because.......At upa hosav van...
   * Because of X...?....Be ux bi X...?
   * As a result of X...?....Gel ix bi X...?
   * In order to X.......Av Xer...
   * So that we would understand.......Av van yat testu...
   * Therefore,.......Av hus,...
   * As a result,.......Gel ix,...
   * As a consequence,.......Gel jos,...
   * As a result of X....Gel ix bi X
   * As a consequence of X....Gel jos bi X
   * I don't understand why.......At voy teste hosav van...
   * This is due to the fact that.......His se ux bi van...
   * Given that.......Twa van...
   * The child died for lack of X.....Ha tud toja bi oys bi X.
   * This happened by illegal means.....His kyesa bey odovyaba zeyeni.
   * Tell me why you did it.....Duhosav et xa has.
   * So, leave!....Av hus, ipu!
   * I think, therefore I am.....At texe, av hus, at ese.

### Correspondence Greetings

   * Dear Sir....Hey Dwut
   * Dear Madam....Hey Duyt
   * Dear beloved.......Hey ifwa...
   * To Whom it May Concern:....Hey Hyet:
   * Yours truly, X....Hoy, X...

# Euphemisms

    Mirad sometimes offers polite ways to express certain things that might sound too direct or rude in normal conversation. Here are some examples:
    Euphemisms POLITE DIRECT ujpon....final rest toj ....death ujponxelam....final rest ceremony house tojxelam....mortuary ujpondin....final rest story tojdin....obituary, death notice eftim....necessity room fyusulsom....toilet (waste appliance) pontim....rest room fyusulsom....toilet twoobgon....male part tiyub....penis ogoblawa....uncut, uncircumcized otiyugoblawa....un-penis-cut xer sag a....to do a number one tiyabiler....to pee (lit: bladder-fluid-do) xer sag e....to do a number two tikyeler....to defecate, sh-t (lit: anus-fluid-do) milxer....to urinate, to pee, lit. to make water tiyabiler....to urinate (lit: bladder-fluid-do)
Mirad Gammar/Acronyms and Abbreviations
    Onomatopoeia refers the words in languages that represent sounds as they are heard by the speakers of those languages. They are the noise words you see in comics, such as pow or bang bang. These charts show equivalent sound words in Mirad. Often, they are reduplicated, hyphenated expressions like pop-pop. Any onomatopoetic word can be made into an action verb by suffixing some form of -der, if a human or animal vocalization, or -xer if it is a noise made by an object. Some example:
      * hihi....ha ha
         * hihider....to laugh
      * plop-plop....plop, splat
         * plop-plopxer....to go plop, to go splat

## Human Sounds
### Consuming food or drink

| Language | Biting | Eating food | Drinking | Swallowing |
| English | chomp, crunch | yum yum | slurp | gulp |
| Mirad | nyam-nyam, krac-krac | yum-yum | slup-slup | glu-glu |

### Body sounds

| Language | Heart-beating | Belching | Vomiting | Coughing | Flatulence | Sneezing | Snoring | Yawning |
| English | thump thump | burp | barf | cough cough | toot, fart | achoo | zzzz | ho-hum, yawn |
| Mirad | tump-tump | brup-brup | blug-blug | kah-kah | hwuf-hwuf | acuh-acuh | zii-zuu | yaa-yaa |

### Cries of Distress

| Language | Baby crying | Scream | Shriek |
| English | wah wah | ow, ouch, yeow, | eek |
| Mirad | waa-waa | awc-awc | iik-iik |

### Expression of Positive Emotions

| Language | Laughter | Kiss |
| English | ha ha | mwa |
| Mirad | hihi | mwa-mwa |

### Interrupted Speech

| Language | Hushing | Pausing or thinking |
| English | shh, shush | uh, um, er |
| Mirad | xux-xux | hum-hum |

### Others

| Language | Laughter | Kissing | Crying |
| English | ha ha | mwa | boo hoo |
| Mirad | hihi | mwa-mwa | huhu |

## Non-human Noises
### Objects

| Language | Balloon bursting | Canon, gunfire, machine gun | Crash | Door or floor creaking | Engine back-firing | Knocking | Dull strike | Falling strike | Sharp strike | Wet strike | Crunching, cracking (of sticks, bones, etc.) |
| English | pop | kaboom, pow, ra-ta-tat | wham, bang | bam, crash | put-put | knock knock, tap tap, bang bang, rap | bump, thud, thump | plop, splat, thunk | clang, clink, clank, clunk, chink, dink, tink, plink, ding, ping, conk | splash, splish, splosh, splat | crunch, crack |
| Mirad | pop-pop | bum-bum | krax-krax | bam-bam | pat-pat | bang-bang, tap-tap | bop-bop, dump-dump | plop-plop, slap-slap | cink-cink, tink-tink, konk-konk | splax=splax, splox-splox, splak-splak | krunc-krunc, krak-krak |

### Machinery

| Language | Camera shutter | Car engine revving | Car horn honking | Clock ticking | Door bell ringing | Keyboard striking | Telephone ringing | Siren wailing | Train whistling |
| English | click | vroom vroom | beep beep | tick tock | ding dong, bing bong | click clack | ring ring, ringaling | wee-woo, awooga | choo choo |
| Mirad | klik-klik | vrum-vrum | bip-bip | tik-tuk | din-don | klik-kluk | riin-riin | ninu-ninu | cu-cu |

### Physical and natural phenomena

| Language | Electricity flowing | Electric shock | Fire | Rain | Thunder | Steam hissing | Water dripping | Wind blowing |
| English | buzz | zap | crackle | pitter-patter | crack, kaboom, rumble | psss | drip drop, plink plonk | swish, whizz, wheeze, howl, sigh |
| Mirad | bzuu-bzuu | psiit-psiit | knit-knut | plip-plop | bum-bum | psii | plik plok | kxuu-kxuu, hwuu-hwuu |

## Animal Noises

    Animal noises are formed by replacing the final -t of an animal name to a form of -der, eg.:
       kapet....dog
          kapeder....to bark, to bow-wow
       fepet....cat
          fepeder....to meow, to mew
       bopet....cattle
          bopeder....to moo
       kapyot....wolf
          kapyoder....to howl
       serpyet....snake
          serpyeder....to hiss
    Here is a fuller list. If you replace the final der of the noise word with t, you'll get the animal that produces it.
      * afekpeder....to bray, to hee-haw
      * akorpelder....to chirp
      * akpyader....to squawk, to screech
      * alcerpoder....to bellow
      * anpiader....to quack, to honk
      * anpiyeder....to croak, to rivet
      * ansanpiader....to honk
      * appelader....to buzz, do drone, to thrum
      * apwader....to cockadoodledoo, to crow
      * bopeder....to beloow, to low, to moo
      * bradepiider....to creak
      * bubopoder....to snort
      * cerpoyder....to bleat
      * cihempelder....to chirp
      * dipelader....to buzz
      * ekpeder....to hinny, to neigh, to whinny, to sneer
      * elpoder....to trumpet
      * epleder....to wail
      * famarpoder....to shriek
      * fepeder....to meow, to mew, to purr
      * fepyoder....to growl
      * fumuspoder....to dook
      * gafapader....to crow
      * gafapayder....to cluck
      * gafapaytuder....to cheep
      * gepiader....to cry
      * gipiader....to quack
      * hirpaspader....to squall, to squeal
      * kampoder....to hum
      * mefapader....to gobble
      * stripyader....to hoot
      * urpyoder....to growl, to roar
      * yopyeder....to croak

## Introduction

    In order to facilitate word-building and to maximize comprehension and decipherability of words, certain meanings and functions have been attached to consonants and vowels.
    The vocabulary of Mirad is composed of base words and derived words.
    The vocabulary is built on base words, that is, indivisible, building-block words. The choice of the root of these words (formed generally from two or three letters) is determined by:
      * The meaning of each letter of the word.
      * The importance of the group of ideas that this word evokes in its proper sense and in the sense that is directly opposite it, eg.: fixed vs. variable.
      * How frequently the word and its derivations are used in the language.
      * The geometric system of vocabulary construction (see a later section on what this is all about).
      * The logic of its composition.
      * The mnemonic associations this word suggests.
    The words derived from base words in turn follow very simple laws called vocabulary-building rules, which are spelled out below.

## Base Words

    Base words are elements of vocabulary that cannot be broken down any further and which serve as the basis for many derived words in the language. Base words are divided into two groups:
      * Group 1: consisting of nouns
      * Group 2: consisting of prepositions, adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions, determiners, and verbs.

## Base words of Group 1

    Base words of Group 1 (nouns) are composed of three letters:
         * The first, a consonant called the classifier
         * The second, a vowel or vowel cluster called the ordinal
         * The third, a consonant called the generic
       Examples:
Base Word Composition :
| CLASSIFIER | ORDINAL | GENERIC | MEANING |
| t | o | b | man |
| d | o | t | society |
| p | o | t | animal |
| f | o | b | plant |

## Base words of Group 2

    Base words of Group 2 (everything but nouns) are composed of one or two letters, not including grammatical endings. If one letter, it is a consonant or sometimes a vowel(*). If two letters, they consist of a consonant + vowel combination or a vowel + consonant combination. Here are some examples (the hyphen at the end means that the base word does not stand alone, but is followed in usage by a grammatical ending such as -er (verb infinitive marker) or -a (adjective marker):
Some Examples of Group 2 Base Words :
| b-....put | p-....go |
| s-....be | x-....do |
| d-....say | t-....know |
| ab....on | ob....off |
| bu....to | bi....from |
| if-....love | uf-....hate |
| fi-....good | fu-....bad |
| va....yes | vo....no |
| vya$^*$-....true | vyo-....false |
| a....one | o....zero |
       * As mentioned above, "vowel" in this case may include complex vowels, i.e. those preceded and/or followed by one of the glides y or w. So, for purposes here, ya, ye, yi, yo, yu, wa, and other pre- and post-glided vowels, are considered "complex vowels".

## Consonants and Their Meanings

       The classifier (initial letter) and generic (final letter) in group 1 base words (nouns) are consonants. Also, group 2 base words almost always have one consonant. So, you need to be familiar with the general meaning of the consonants in the Mirad alphabet, as shown in the following chart:
Consonants and Their Meanings :
| CONSONANT | GROUP 1 CLASSIFIER | GROUP 1 GENERIC | GROUP 2 CLASSIFIER | IN NUMBERS |
| b | organ, health | organism | gesture, position | |
| d | society | family | communicating | |
| f | vegetation | textile, clothing | volition, attributes | |
| g | -- | measurement | quantity, attributes | |
| j | time | time | time | |
| k | -- | health | change, risk, attributes | |
| l | -- | element, food, liquid, nature | -- | l = ten |
| m | nature | place, building, furniture | temperature, light | ml = million mr = billion |
| n | commerce | -- | -- | |
| p | animal, vehicle | motion | movement | |
| r | -- | tool, machine, cosmos | -- | r = thousand |
| s | form, image, furniture | thing | being, form, thing | s = hundred |
| t | human, body | person, animal | intelligence, knowing | |
| v | plant, color | linen | truth, attributes | |
| x | action | -- | action, doing, making | |
| z | -- | precious, art | spatial, attributes | |
    The following consonants have semantic functions rather than, or in addition to semantic values:
      * l and r: Liquids used after vowels to intensify the semantics of a word, eg.: baer....to lean, baler....to press, barer....to crush;
      * y: Glide used 1) before a stem vowel to intensify the semantics of a word, eg. voa....negative -> vyoa....false, or 2) after a vowel to de-intensify the semantics of a word, eg. ama....hot -> ayma....warm.
      * h: Used functionally only in certain interjections like hoy....goodbye and determiners like his....this, and has no semantic value.
      * w: Has no semantic value of its own, but is used only 1) to form the masculine gender of nouns and pronouns, eg. tob....person -> twob....man, or 2) to form the passive voice of verbs, eg. uber....to send -> ubwer....to be sent, or 3) to form a numerical unit marker, eg. awa....one, or 4) sometimes to substitute for y when this letter would cause ambiguity or difficulty in pronunciation with other consonants eg. jwo....late, instead of jyo.
      * n: In addition to its semantic values, functions often 1) as a buffer letter, as in ana....only, or 2) as a suffix to derive a nominal abstraction from an adjective, such as fian....goodness from fia....good, or from a verb, such axnen....behaving from axner....to behave.

## Vowels and Their Meanings

    Ordinal vowels in Mirad have meanings or values of the following types:
      * meronymic
      * hierarchical
      * scalar
      * geo-specific
      * oppositional/polar
      * vectorial
      * directional and positional
      * special

### Ordinal Vowel Values

       The numerical value of ordinal vowels is shown in the chart below. The vowels beginning with y are considered pre-y-glided vowels. These numeric values serve as the "ordinal vowel" in scaled base words. See the section on Vowels.
       Numeric Values of Vowels Ordinal Voweloaeiuyoyayeyiyu Cardinal Number 0123456789

### Meronymic Vowel Gradation

       Ordinal vowels can be used as the stem vowel in Group 1 base words to form a meronymic series. (This gradation can also be called taxonomic. The top element, or hypernym, has zero (o) as its defining vowel. The others are hyponyms or meronyms, and have incrementally higher numbers of their ordinal vowel. Tab (body) is the first meronym of tob (human being), the hypernym or zeroth element.
       Meronymic Series Rank Meronymic 0 tob....humanfob....plantvob....crop 1 tab....bodyfab....treevab....grass 2 teb....headfeb....fruitveb....tuft 3 tib....trunkfib....trunkvib....stalk 4 tub....armfub....branchvub....shoot 5 tyob....legfyob....rootvyob....tuber
    The words that descend from the base word are called subordinal words, hyponyms, or meronyms. A hypernym is a word that is higher in the taxonomy.

### Hierarchical Vowel Values

       Ordinal vowels can be used as the stem vowel in Group 1 base words to form a hierchical series where the top element has zero (o) as its defining vowel. The others are subordinate elements and have incrementally higher numbers that define a descending series related to that top element.
Hierarchical Vowel Gradation :
| Rank | Hierarchy | Hierarchy | Hierarchy | Hierarchy |
| 0 | dob....state | dot....society | tod....family | xob....organization |
| 1 | dab....government | dat....friend | tad....spouse | xab....staff |
| 2 | deb....leader | det....associate | ted....parent | xeb....boss |
| 3 | dib....ministry | dit....citizen | tid....sibling | xib....department |
| 4 | dub....minister | dut....gentleman | tud....child | xub....branch |

### Scalar Vowel Gradation

       Ordinal vowels can also be used as the stem vowel in Group 1 base words to form a scalar series, where each member of the series is a smaller or less important component as it descends.
Scalar Series :
| Rank | Scalar | Scalar | Scalar |
| 0 | mos....masonry | som....furniture | tom....building |
| 1 | mas....wall | sam....cabinet | tam....house |
| 2 | mes....door | sem....table | tem....hall |
| 3 | mis....window | sim....chair | tim....room |
| 4 | mus....stairs | sum....bed | tum....closet |

### Geo-specific Vowel Gradation

    Ordinals can have geo-specific values, that is values, related to the sky, land, sea, outer space, and underground.
Geo-specific Vowel Values :
| Ordinal | Mirad Color | English Color |
| o | outer space, top level | mop....orbit | mom....outer space | mol....nature | dop....military | pop....voyage |
| a | air, gas, sky | map....wind | mam....sky | mal....air | dap....air force | pap....flight |
| e | ground, soil, solid | mep....road | mem....land | mel....soil | dep....army | pep....ride |
| i | liquid, water, sea | mip....river | mim....sea | mil....water | dip....marines | pip....navigation/swim |
| u | underground, mineral, substance | mup....tunnel | mum....underground | mul....mineral | | pup....tunneling |

### Spectral Ordinal Vowel Gradation

       The basic color terms use the natural order of the spectrum to determine the ordinal vowels:
Spectral Ordinal Vowel Gradation :
| Order | Mirad | English |
| 0 | olza$^1$ | blank, of no color |
| 1 | alza | red |
| 2 | elza | orange |
| 3 | ilza | yellow |
| 4 | ulza | green |
| 5 | yolza | blue |
| 6 | yalza | purple |
| 7 | yelza | pink$^2$ |
       1) In the natural spectrum, there really is no 0th order. The colors black and white are rendered in Mirad by the words molza and malza, which are polar opposites based on the roots mo for dark and ma- for light.
       2) Properly indigo, but humans have a hard time distinguishing purple and indigo.

### Oppositional (or Polar) Vowel Values

    In Group 2 stems:
Oppositional Vowel Values :
| a ⇔ ya | intermediate | i ⇔ yi |
| ⇑ positive ⇓negative | e ⇔ ye | ⇑ positive ⇓negative |
| o ⇔ yo | value | u ⇔ yu |
      * positive a contrasts with negative o (av....for vs. ov....against)
      * positive ya contrasts with negative yo (yava....innocent vs. yova....guilty)
      * positive i contrasts with negative u (fia....good vs. fua....bad)
      * positive yi contrasts with negative yu (yiva....free vs. yuva....bound)
      * e and ye are in-between values (eva....neutral, yeva....fair)
       Group 1 Oppositional Vowel Gradation positiveintermediatenegative aga....bigega....normaloga....small yava....innocentyeva....justyova....guilty ava....foreva....neutralova....against aker....to wineker....to riskoker....to lose yak....expectationyek....attemptyok....surprise fia....goodfua....bad ifer....loveufer....hate yifa....braveyufa....afraid
    Some Group 1 base words have ordinal vowel stems that exhibit oppositional values:
    The Group 1 base word bok (illness) is a good example:
    Group 1 base word with oppositional values NEGATIVEINTERMEDIATEPOSITIVE bak....healthbek....treatmentbok....illness byak....hygienebyek....curebyok....pain byoyk....ache blok....suffering brok....agony baak....sanitationbook....fatigue bik....carebuk....wound buyk....sore

### Vectorial Vowel Values

    These ordinal vowels have to do with directions, up, down, south, left, etc.
                   a
             u ← e → i
                   o
          a....on, above, north (ab....on, zamer....north)
          e....center, middle, equator (eb....between, ze....center)
          o....off, below, south (ob....off, zomer....south)
          i....right, east (zi....right, zimer....east)
          u....left, west (zu....left, zumer....west)

### Directional and Positional Vowel Values

Directional and Positional Vowel Values :
| A ||||||||
| U | | a ↓ | ↓ a | ↑ ya | ya ↑ | | I |
| U | u → | | e | ye | | → i | I |
| U | → u | | e | ye | | i → | I |
| U | → yu | | E | E | | yi → | I |
| U | yu → | | | | | → yi | I |
| U | | ↑ o | o ↑ | yo ↓ | ↓ yo | | I |
| O ||||||||
       Explanation of the above chart:
         * If the vowel is capitalized, it indicates a positional value. It is used in its lowercase spelling as a prefix in Group I words.
         * The non-capitalized vowels (including y-glides) indicate directional values.
         * If the vowel is underlined, it means that it is placed before the classifier consonant (prefixed) in verbs
         * Otherwise, a normal vowel means that it is placed after the classifier consonant (infixed) in Group 2 words.
Explanation of the Vowel Meanings Chart :
| A | position | | on, above, north | zamer....north |
| a | movement | (free) | on | baer....lean |
| a | movement | (contact) | onto | aber....put on |
| ya | movement | (free) | up, ascend | byaer....lift |
| ya | movement | (contact) | up, get up, set up | yaber....raise |
| O | position | | under, lower, south | zomer....south |
| o | movement | (free) | off | boer....hang |
| o | movement | (contact) | on the bottom of, underneath | oper....get off |
| yo | movement | (free) | down | pyoser....fall |
| yo | movement | (contact) | fall | yoper....rise |
| U | position | | left, west | zumer....west |
| u | movement | (free) | move toward the center, come | uber....send |
| u | movement | (contact) | reach the center, arrive | pyuer....reach |
| yu | movement | (free) | near, approach | yuber....approach |
| yu | movement | (contact) | near, reach | byuser....touch |
| I | position | | right, east | zimer....east |
| i | movement | (free) | from the center out, go away | pier....go away |
| i | movement | (contact) | from the center out, leave | iper....leave |
| yi | movement | (free) | away, go far | yiper....go far |
| yi | movement | (contact) | from afar, originate | pyiser....originate |
| E | position | | center, equator | zemer....equator |
| e | rest | | between | eb....between |
| e | rest | | at, stay, hold | bexer....hold |
| ye | movement | | in, into, enter | yeper....enter |
| ye | | (contact) | contain | byeer....contain |

### Special value of certain vowels

    The prefixes a- or an- meaning one, sole, singular.
      * aot....person
      * anot....individual
    Also, the prefix yan- meaning together contrasts with yon-....apart.
      * yanber....to compose
      * yonber....to separate
    The letter y is prefixed to the vowels of personal pronouns to make them plural:
      * at....I, me as opposed to yat....we, us
      * et....you as opposed to yet....you (pl.), you all
      * it....he, she, him, her as opposed to yit....they, them
    The letter y is post-fixed to vowels to change the gender to specifically feminine:
      * it....he, she, him, her as opposed to iyt....she, her
      * tob....person, human being as opposed to toyb....woman
    The letter w is prefixed to vowels to change the gender to specifically masculine:
      * it....he, she, him, her as opposed to wit....he, him
      * tob....person, human being as opposed to twob....man

### The Meaning of Group 1 Base Words

       The meaning of the base words of Group 1 comes from the combination of the values of the classifier (initial) and the generic (final) consonants.
       The ordinal vowel of those Group 1 base words has a 1) scalar/hierachical, 2) geo-spatial, 3) oppositional, 4) vectorial/positional, or 5) mnemonic values.
       The following table shows some Group 1 bases words, the meaning of their consonants, and the type of ordinal vowel scalarity:
Group 1 Zeroth-level Scalar Base Words and Meanings of the Consonants :
| BASE WORD | CLASSIFIER CONSONANT | GENERIC CONSONANT | SCALARITY TYPE |
| tob....person | t = human | b = organism | meronymic |
| tof....clothing | " " " | f = fabric | meronymic |
| tod....family | " " " | d = society | hierchical |
| tom....building | " " " | m = place | vectorial/positional |
| tov....lingerie | " " " | v = linen | meronymic |
| tol....nourishment | " " " | l = food | oppositional |
| top....soul, spirit | " " " | p = motion | meronymic |
| dob....state | d = society | b = organism | hierarchical |
| dop....military | " " " | p = movement | geo-specific |
| dot....society | " " " | t = human | hierarchical |
| dom....city | " " " | m = place | geo-specific |
| job....time | j = time | b....organism | hierarchical |
| fob....vegetation | f = vegetable | b = organism | meronymic |
| vob....crop | v = plant | b = organism | meronymic |
| vos....flower | " " " | s = thing | meronymic |
| volz....color | " " " | lz = color, art | spectral |
| som....furniture | s = thing | m = place | scalar |
| mos....masonry | m = place, nature | s = thing | scalar |
| mor....universe | " " " | r = machine, system | scalar |
| mom....outer space | " " " | m = place | geo-specific |
| mol....nature | " " " | l = substance | geo-specific |
| mop....orbit | " " " | p = movement | geo-specific |
| pot....animal | p = movement | t = human, animal | geo-specific |
| bok....illness | b = organ | k = condition | oppositional |
| nom....place | n = commercial | m = place | special |
| nog....degree | " " " | g = measurement | special |
| nof....cloth | " " " | f = cloth | special |
| nov....linen | " " " | v = linen | special |
| nod....point | " " " | d = communication | special |
| xob....organization | x = action | b = organism | hierarchical |

#### Special Arrangement

    Other Group 1 nouns, listed in the chart below, have an ordinal vowel which is not so much geo-specific or hierarchical per se, but rather special in some fashion. The consonants, especially the classifier consonant, have meanings like those in the above chart.
* d- communication
* daz dance
* dyaz ballet
* dez theater
* diz comedy
* duz music
* dyez cinema
* din story
* dun word
* dyun name
* dyan sentence
* dyes book
* deup rhythm
* dr- write
* drof board
* draf card
* dref paper
* drov cardboard
* drav notebook
* drev page
* drez poetry
* drar pencil
* drir typewriter
* drur printer
* m- nature
* mag fire
* mak electricity
* mog ash
* meg stone
* mef brick
* mug metal
* muk mineral
* mez crystal
* mek dust
* myek powder
* mav flame
* mov smoke
* maf cloud
* maj daytime
* moj night
* man light
* maz shine
* mon shade
* moz dark
* n- commerce
* naz value
* nas money
* nax price
* nyaz wealth
* nyan stack
* nox expense
* nyox waste
* nex saving
* nyex storing
* nix earning
* nyix order
* nux pay
* nyux supply
* nun merchandise
* nyun product
* nuz jewel
* nem location
* nyem place
* nyeb box
* nab row
* nap order
* nad line
* nod point
* ned plane
* nyed grid
* nyad chain
* nid volume
* nag measure
* nog degree
* nig space
* j- time
* jag age
* jud date
* jod instance
* jop sequence
* jep process
* jwap moment
* jwep instant
* s- thing
* sag number
* saz sculpture
* san form
* saun kind
* son matter (abstract)
* sin image
* siz painting
* sun thing (concrete)
* syan class
* syen style
* syin subject
* syun object
* sar instrument
* sir machine
* sor engine
* sur motor
* t- human / knowledge
* taz statue
* tap physique
* tep mind
* top spirit
* tuz art
* toz skin color
* tez culture
* tyez magic
* tin doctrine
* tun science
* tyan class
* tyen skill
* tyun idea
* tos sensation
* tes meaning
* tot god

### The Meaning of Group 2 Base Words

       The meaning of Group 2 base word stems comes from the combination of the values of the classifier consonant and the ordinal (stem) vowel. The stem does not include adjectival (-a), adverbial (-ay), and verbal inflections (-er, -ser, -xer, etc.), which are shown in a smaller typeface after the stem.
       The ordinal (stem vowel) holds oppositional values like positive, intermediary, and negative.
       Examples:
Stems of Group 2 Base Words :
| CLASSIFIER CONSONANT | POSITIVE | INTERMEDIATE | NEGATIVE | POSITIVE | NEGATIVE |
| j (time) | ja before | je during | jo after | ji since | ju until |
| j (time) | aj past | ej present | oj future | ij/$^{er}$ beginning/begin | uj/$^{er}$ end/end |
| j (time) | taj/$^{er}$ birth/to be born | tej/$^{er}$ life/to live | toj/$^{er}$ death/to die | tij/$^{er}$ awake state/to be awake | tuj/$^{er}$ sleep/to sleep |
| j (time) | jwa early | jwe on time | jwo late | yij/$^a$ opening/open | yuj/$^a$ closing/closed |
| g (measurement) | ga more | ge equal | go less | gi$^n$ point | gu$^n$ angle |
| g (measurement) | ag$^a$ big | eg$^a$ normal | og$^a$ small | ig$^a$ fast | ug$^a$ slow |
| g (measurement) | yag$^a$ long | yeg$^a$ normal | yog$^a$ short | yig$^a$ hard | yug$^a$ soft |
| g (measurement) | gya$^a$ thick | gye$^a$ enough | gyo- thin | gyi$^a$ solid | gyu$^a$ fragile |
| k (randomness) | ka$^{xer}$ find | ke$^{xer}$ seek | ko$^{xer}$ hide | ki$^a$ oblique | ku$^a$ lateral |
| k (randomness) | ak$^{er}$ win | ek$^{er}$ play | ok$^{er}$ lose | ik$^a$ full | uk$^a$ empty |
| k (randomness) | yak$^{er}$ expect | yek$^{er}$ try | yok$^{er}$ suprise | yik$^a$ difficult | yuk$^a$ easy |
| k (randomness) | kya$^a$ mobile | kye$^a$ haphazard | kyo$^a$ fixed | kyi$^a$ heavy | kyu$^a$ light |
| m (nature) | am$^a$ hot | -- | om$^a$ cold | im$^a$ wet | um$^a$ dry |
| f$^{er}$ (want, qualities) | | | | fi$^a$ good | fu$^a$ bad |
| f$^{er}$ (want, qualities) | fya$^a$ holy | fye$^a$ mythical | fyo$^a$ profane | fyi$^a$ useful | fyu$^a$ harmful |
| f$^{er}$ (want, qualities) | yaf$^{er}$ be able | yef$^{er}$ must | yof$^{er}$ cannot | yif$^{er}$ dare | yuf$^{er}$ fear |
| f$^{er}$ (want, qualities) | af$^{er}$ may | ef$^{er}$ need | of$^{er}$ be prohibited | if$^{er}$ love | uf$^{er}$ hate |
| v (truth, qualities ) | va yes | ve maybe | vo no | vi$^a$ beautiful | vu$^a$ ugly |
| v (truth, qualities ) | vay really | vey may | voy not | | |
| v (truth, qualities ) | av for | ev$^a$ neutral | ov against | iv$^a$ happy | uv$^a$ sad |
| v (truth, qualities ) | vya$^a$ true | vye$^a$ relative | vyo$^a$ false | vyi$^a$ clean | vyu$^a$ dirty |
| v (truth, qualities ) | yav$^a$ innocent | yev$^a$ fair | yov$^a$ guilty | yiv$^a$ free | yuv$^a$ captive |
| v (truth, qualities ) | van that | ven if | von lest | | |
| z (spatial) | za in front of | ze in the middle of | zo in back of | zi$^a$ right | zu$^a$ left |
| z (spatial) | zay ahead | zey across | zoy back, re- | | |
| z (spatial) | zya$^a$ wide | zye through | zyo$^a$ narrow | zyi$^a$ flat | zyu$^a$ round |
| z (spatial) | az$^a$ strong | ez$^a$ moderate | oz$^a$ weak | iz$^a$ straight | uz$^a$ curved |
| z (spatial) | yaz$^a$ convex | yez along | yoz$^a$ concave | yiz beyond | yuz around |
| b-$^{er}$ (put) | ba$^y$/($^{xer}$) with, (agitate) | be$^y$/($^{(xer)}$) by, (hold) | bo$^y$($^{xer}$) without/(calm) | bi$^{(er/xer)}$ from, (take/pull) | bu$^{(er/xer)}$ to, (give/push) |
| b-$^{er}$ (put) | ab$^{(er)}$ on,(put on) | eb$^{(er)}$ between,(block) | ob($^{er}$) off,(take off) | ib$^{(er)}$ away,(receive) | ub$^{(er)}$ toward,(send) |
| b-$^{er}$ (put) | bya$^{ser/xer}$ stand/erect | bye$^{xer}$ tap | byo$^{ser/xer}$ hang/hang | byi$^{(ser)}$ since,(originate) | byu$^{(ser/xer)}$ up to,(contact/touch) |
| b-$^{er}$ (put) | yab$^{(er)}$ up,(raise) | yeb$^{(er)}$ in,(enter) oyeb$^{(er)}$ out,(exit) | yob$^{(er)}$ down,(lower) | yib$^{(er)}$ far,(remove) | yub$^{(er)}$ near,(bring) |
| p$^{er}$ (go) | pa$^{ser/xer}$ move/move | pe$^{ser/xer}$ wait/trap | po$^{ser/xer}$ stop/stop | pi$^{er/ser/xer}$ leave/withdraw/catch | pu$^{er/ser/xer}$ arrive/jump/throw |
| p$^{er}$ (go) | pya$^{er/ser/xer}$ hover/jump up/launch | pye$^{ser/xer}$ encounter/strike | pyo$^{ser/xer}$ fall/drop | pyi$^{ser/xer}$ emanate/derive | pyu$^{ser/xer}$ reach/impact |
| p$^{er}$ (go) | yap$^{er}$ rise | yep$^{er}$ enter | yop$^{er}$ descend | yip$^{er}$ go far | yup$^{er}$ approach |
| p$^{er}$ (go) | ap$^{er}$ get on | ep$^{er}$ intervene | op$^{er}$ get off | ip$^{er}$ go away | up$^{er}$ come |
| s$^{er}$ (be) | sa$^{n/s/xer}$ evolve/make | se$^{xer}$ build | so$^{n/xer}$ matter/destroy | si$^{n/yn}$ image/sign | su$^{n/er/xer}$ thing/provide/realize |
| s$^{er}$ (be) | as$^{er}$ become | es$^{er}$ exist | os$^{er}$ cease to be | | |
| x$^{er}$ (do ) | xa$^{ler}$ execute | xe$^{ler}$ practice | xo$^{ler}$ fail | xi$^{ler}$ undertake | xu$^{ler}$ provoke |
| x$^{er}$ (do ) | ax$^{ler}$ act | ex$^{er}$ function | ox$^{ler}$ abstain | ix$^{er}$ effect | ux$^{er}$ cause |
| x$^{er}$ (do ) | yax$^{er}$ be busy | yex$^{er}$ work | yox$^{er}$ be idle | yix$^{er}$ use | yux$^{er}$ help |
| t$^{er/rer/yer}$ (know/recognize/know how) | ta$^{xer}$ remember | te$^{xer}$ think | to$^{xer}$ forget | ti$^{er/xer}$ learn/study tri$^{er}$ get to know tyi$^{er}$ learn how | tu$^{er/xer/uxer}$ inform/teach/raise tru$^{er}$ familiarize tyu$^{er}$ train |
| d$^{er/rer}$ (say/write) | da$^{ler}$ talk | de$^{ler}$ state dye$^{er}$ read | do$^{ler}$ be silent dro$^{er}$ erase | di$^{er/ler/rer}$ ask/beg/require | du$^{er/ler/rer}$ suggest/insist/demand dyu$^{er}$ call |
| h- (determiners) | ha$^{(a)}$ the | he$^a$ some | ho$^a$ which | hi$^a$ this | hu$^a$ that |
| h- (determiners) | hya$^{(a)}$ all | hye$^a$ any | hyo$^a$ no | hyi$^a$ same | hyu$^a$ other |
| (conjunctions) | ay and | ey or | oy but | | |
| (conjunctions) | ya$^n$ together | | yo$^n$ apart | | |
| (numbers) | a one | e two | o zero | i three | u four |
| (numbers) | ya six | ye seven | yo five | yi eight | yu nine |
| (privatives) | | | lo- (dis-/un-) lyo- (dis-) oy- (-less) | | |
       * Mixed root. taj/tej/toj instead of yaj/yej/yoj, because the human letter root t is more intuitive.
       Note: The opposition (y)a-(y)e-(y)o is a three-way opposition with an intermediary sense, but (y)i-(y)u is two-way, without any intermediary sense.

## Derived Word Formation Rules

    Derived words are formed in accordance with certain simple rules of word-building:
    These consist of the following rules:
      * Compounding
      * Affixation
      * Ordinal Vowel Scaling
      * Overlapping
      * Adding Ordinal Vowels
      * Swapping Generic Consonants
      * Marking Words for Gender
      * Deriving Words with Geo-specific Vowels
      * Deriving Words with Directional and Positional Vowels
      * Deriving Words with a Mnemonic Pattern
      * Deriving Nuanced Words Phonetically

### Rule #1: Compounding

    Compound words are obtained through the combination of two or more whole words or stub words. In the combining process, the determining word is placed quite simply in front of the word it determines. Compounds consist mainly of noun + noun, but there can be other part-of-speech combinations.
    Examples:
Compounding :
| COMPONENT 1 | COMPONENT 2 | COMPOUND |
| mor....cosmos | tun....science, -ology | mortun....cosmology |
| mag....fire | yazmel....mountain | magyazmel....volcano |
| dob....state | mem....land | dobmem....territory |
| tul....dish | dras....something written | tuldras....menu |
| sin....picture | dras....something written | sindras....description |
| tam....house | kyoxer....to fix (in place) | tamkyoxer....to settle |
| tax....memory | drer....to write | taxdrer....to record |
| kyo-....fixed | tep-....head | kyotepa....stubborn |
    Sometimes, the first element can be a stub of a whole word, i.e. the word with the final consonant dropped. The word for rain, for example, is ma(m) (sky) + mil (water), where the final consonant of the first word is dropped, thus, mamil.
    When compounding an adjective with a noun, if the adjective begins with a vowel, often it will be suffixed to the noun, otherwise prefixed, (but this is not a strict rule), eg:
   * uzra....twisted + tep....mind ---> tepuzra....crazy
   * kyoa....fixed + tep....mind ----> kyotepa....stubborn, obsessed
   * aza....strong + tep....mind ----> tepaza....intelligent
   * fua....bad + tip....mood ----> futipa....cross, ill-tempered
   * aga....big + tip....mood ----> tipaga....magnanimous, generous

### Rule #2: Affixation

    Most adverbs and prepositions can be used as prefixes:

#### Prefixes

Adverbs and Prepositions as Prefixes :
| PREFIX | BASE | COMPOUND |
| ja....before | per....to go | japer....to precede |
| jo....after | per....to go | joper....to follow |
| va....yes | der....to say | vader....to affirm |
| jo....after | dras....something written | jodras....postscript |
| za....ahead | jub....day | zajub....tomorrow |
| yon....apart | mel....land | yonmel....island |
    Prepositional prefixes ending in b with verbs per and ber (and their derivations) lose the b before verbal elements based on per (go) and ber (put), as shown in the following chart:
Assimilation of b and p :
| PREFIX | BASE VERB | NEW VERB |
| yab....up | ber....put | yaber....raise (NOT: yabber) |
| yab....up | per....go | yaper....rise (NOT: yabper) |
| ab....on | ber....put | aber....put on, apply |
| ab....on | per....go | aper....get on, mount |
| yob....down | ber....put | yober....take down |
| yob....down | per....go | yoper....descend |
| ob....off | ber....put | ober....take off, remove |
| ob....on | per....go | oper....get off, dismount |
| yeb....in | bux....a push | yebux....impulse |
| yeb....in | pyoser....fall | yepyoser....collapse |
    The loss of the b in the above words in one of the only cases of fusion in Mirad's grammar. Mirad is by and large an agglutinative language where building-blocks are juxtaposed with no change of form. Another case of fusion is when so-called stubs are combined. For example, doyijem (public square), which is composed of do(m)....city + yij(a)....open + (n)em....place. The morphemes (= building-block words) of Mirad always have one and only one meaning, unlike in English where the prefix a- can have many different meaninings.
    The adjective ending a is often dropped$^1$, as is the er or prefixes taken from verbs. Longish noun prefixes are sometimes clipped, so that tyoyab becomes tyoya-.
Prefixes Built on Words and Word Stubs :
| PREFIX | BASE VERB | COMPOUND VERB |
| oza....weak | der....say | ozder....whisper |
| yaga....long | der....say | yagder....ramble |
| aja....past | der....say | ajder....evoke |
| yoga....short | der....say | yogder....summarize |
| tyoyab....foot | per....go | tyoyaper....walk |
| dreer....write | sar....tool | dresar....pencil |
| tuyob....hand | dren....writing | tuyodren....manuscript |
| mam....sky | mil....water | mamil....rain |
    $^1$: Sometimes, the adjective ending a is retained when an adjective is compounded with xer or ser. This device may be used to distinguished two differently nuanced verbs. For example, aga + xer can produce agaxer....to magnify or agxer....to grow. Usually, the compound where the adjective suffix has been eclipsed has the more idiomatic meaning.

#### Most Common Mirad Prefixes

Common Prefixes :
| PREFIX | EXAMPLES |
| a(n)-....uni-, number one, up | anzyuspar....unicycle antotin....monotheism adeb....emperor |
| aa-....arch-, first-, prime | aadub....prime minister aatat....archangel aavyan....principle |
| aag-....arch-, proto-, main | aagmep....highway aagdovyab....constitution aagovekut....archrival |
| aaj-....paleo-, proto- | aajtobtun....paleoanthropology aajsiyn....fossil |
| ab-....ad-, top, on, epi- | abtob....superman abtim....attic abzen....epicenter |
| ayb-....over-, super-, hyper-, sur- | aybmep....overpass aybdresin....superscript abdyun....hypernym |
| agal-....mega(lo)- | agalvyotos....megalomania agaltoj....megadeath |
| alo(n)-....deca-, ten- | alojaga....ten years old alojab....decade alonsuna....decimal |
| aloy(n)-....deci-, tenth- | aloynux....tithe aloyngoler....decimate |
| am-....thermo- | amzemula....thermonuclear amvyabxar....thermostat |
| amlo(n)-....mega- | amloagvunak....megavolt amlotoj....megadeath |
| amloyn-....micro- | amloynjweb....microsecond |
| anyen-....idio- | anyenboka....idiopathic anyendyan....idiom anyentepa....idiotic |
| ao(b/p)-....north-south, up-down, vertical, vertically, y-axis | aonab....column, x-y-axis aopuys yuzpar....hop-on-hop-off bus aonada....vertical |
| aoye(b/p)-....in-and-out | aoyebar....piston aoyebelen....import-exports aoyepaper....fly in and out |
| aro(n)-....kilo- | aronminak....kilometer arobanak....kilobit |
| aroyn-....milli- | aroynvunak....millivolt aoynwunak....milliwatt |
| (a)so(n)....cent- | asojagat....centenarian asolinak....hectoliter sojab....century |
| asoy(n)-....cent-, centi- | asoygenak....centigram asoylinak....centiliter |
| av-....pro- | avyaotina....pro-communist |
| ayn-....full-, holo-, whole- | aynnuut....wholesaler aynsin....hologram aynteptija....fully-conscious |
| e(b/p)-....inter- | ebmos....mezzanine ebyanmulxer....intermingle eper....intercede |
| ejna-....neo- | ejnadun....neologism ejnaobdabin....neocolonialism |
| e(n)-....ambi-, bi-, di-, duo-, two- | entyoba....bipedal enzyuspar....bicycle envolza....dichromatic |
| eon-....duo-, double-, twin- | eonin....dualism eondal....double-speak eonsum....twin bed |
| ev-....a-, neutral | evdofina....amoral evdabtuna....apolitical |
| ey(b/p)-....intra-, among | eybmasa....intramural eybmimkuma....intracoastal |
| ey(n)-....demi-, half-, hemi-, mixed-, pen-, quasi-, semi- | eynzyus....semi-circle eynzyup....half-turn eyntilsyeb....demitassee eynyonmel....peninsula |
| fi-....bene-, eu-, good-, nice-, well- | fixut....benefactor fidrawa....well-written fitos...euphoria |
| fu-....dys-, ill-, mal-, mis-, poorly- | futos....dysphoria futuwa....ill-informed fuxeyn....malfeasance |
| fya-....hiero-, holy-, sancti- | fyasdresiyn....hieroglyphic fyader....sanctify fyatwed....holy father |
| fye-....mythical, fantasy | fyetop....phantom fyetobet....elfin fyetexer...fantacize fyedin....fantasy |
| fyo-....evil, profane | fyotez....occult fyotat....devil fyotyez....witchcraft |
| gaw-....re-, again | gawteaper....revisit gawaker....regain |
| garale-....tera- | garaleagbanak....terabyte |
| garalyi-....exa- | garalyibanak....exabit |
| garalyo-....peta- | galayoagbanak....petabyte |
| garela-....zetta- | garelaagbanak....zettabyte |
| garelu-....yotta- | gareluagbanak....yottabyte |
| ge-....equal to, equi-, even- | geyafwa....equipollent genaza....equivalent |
| gel-....homo-, like-, simul- | gelzena....homocentric gelvolza....homochromatic |
| geyl-....simul- | geyldyan....simile geylxer....assimilate |
| gla-....many-, multi-, poly- | glatyenika....multi-skilled glatwada....polyandrous glavolza....many-hued |
| glo-....mini-, little-, few- | gloduna....succint, of few words glonixea....low-earning |
| gorale-....pico- | goraleagfenak....picofarad |
| goralyi-....atto- | goralyigenak....attogram |
| goralyo-....femto- | goralyoon....quadrillionth |
| goralyu-....nano- | goralyusonak....nanosecond |
| gorela-....zepto- | gorelagenak....zeptogram |
| gorelu-....yocto- | gorelugenak....yoctogram |
| gra-....extra-, hyper-, over-, ultra- | gratosea....hypersensitive grazoyaxler....overreact granoxea....extravagant |
| gro-....hypo-, under- | groyixlawa....underemployed groaman....hypothermia |
| gwa-....hyper-, maxi-, -most, pleisto-, uber-, ultra-, pure, macro- | gwayelza....pure pink gwayafa....supreme gwauja....ultimate gwazoa....hindmost |
| gwo-....least-, mini-, micro- | gwosag....minimum gwoyuzpur....minibus gwoexlus....microprocessor |
| hi-....hither, these, this | his....this hisi....these him....here |
| hya(s)-....pan(to)-, omni-, all-, every- | hyas....everything hyati....all of them hyastea....omniscient hyataadifa....pansexual |
| hu-....that | hus....that huj....then huyen...that way |
| huim-....here-and-there, here-and-yon | huimkexer....search high and low huimpaper....fly here and there hyuimpoper....travel here-and-there |
| huu-....so, such | huugla....so, so very hus....such huyen....in such a way, so, thus |
| hyaewa-....ambi- | hyaewati....both of them hyaewaziza....ambidextrous hyaewatoobifa....ambi-sexual |
| hye-....-ever, any, whatever, whichever | hyem....anywhere, wherever hyempea....erratic hjej....ever, anytime |
| hyi-....homo-, like-, same | hyitoobifa....homosexual hyis....same thing hyij....at the same time |
| hyo(s)-....nothing, a- | hyostosea....apathetic |
| hyu(t/s)-....alter-, hetero-, other-, xeno-, else | hyutoobifa....heterosexual hyua....another, alternate hyutufa....xenophobic hyus....something else |
| hyui(t/s)-....cross-, mutual, one thing and another, reciprocal | hyuitvikaxen....mutual admiration hyuixer....reciprocate hyuisa....mutual, reciprocal hyuitif....mutual love |
| i-....toward the speaker | iber....receive ixer....result |
| ik-....fully, thoroughly | iktoxer....forget completely iktos....satisfaction ikyebixer....engulf, swallow up completely |
| i(n)-....three-, tri-, tripl-, tern- | inzyuspar....tricycle inaga....three-dimensional injiba....trimensual insuna....ternary intotan....trinity |
| iyn-....terci-, third | iyna....terciary iynxer....cut into thirds |
| iz-....ortho-, recti-, right-, straight- | iznada....rectilinear izguna....orthogonal iztin....orthdoxy izdea....forthright |
| ja-....ante-, fore-, pre- | jaupya....foregone jauper....precede jadropeka....antebellum |
| je-....per-, continuously, ever- | jetejer....persevere jeteaxer....watch jexrer....perpetuate |
| jo-....after-, meta-, post- | joexlen....postprocessing jomir....metasphere jotej....afterlife |
| jwa-....early-, eo-, preter-, proto- | jwaber....prepare jwader....warn, premonish jwadodin....early history, protohistory jwamola....preternatural jwajoeb....eocene |
| jwo-....ceno-, late-, latter-, tard- | jwonux....late payment jwoa....tardy jwoteja....cenozoic |
| ko-....cover-, hidden, secret-, stealth- | koa....covert koexut....spy koyeper....sneak in |
| kovyo-....pseudo- | kovyotun....pseudoscience |
| ku-....para- | kuifut....paramour kuteliut....parasite kuteptun....parapsychology |
| kya-....alternate, dia-, re-, trans-, vari-, cross- | kyaember....relocate kyajoba....diachronic kyatajnad....crossbreed kyatooba....transgendered kyavolza....variegated, motley |
| kyao-....falteringly, unsteadily | kyaoper....stagger kyaotexer....vacillate |
| kye-....chance-, hap-, random- | kyea....haphazard kyebyus....chance encounter kyeteater....happen to see kyesauna....of a random type |
| kyo-....fixed-, still-, stereo-, stat- | kyosaun....stereotype kyopa....stable, static, stationary kyoson....status |
| lo-....dis-, semantic reversing prefix, un- | lozeb....disequilibrium loyuvlaxer....disengage loyuzyuber....uncoil lomulvyusber....decontaminate |
| logel-....hetero-, different- | logelsauna....heterogenous logelaxer....differentiate |
| maz-....bright- | mazteaba....bright-eyed |
| mial-....hygro-, atmo-, vapori- | mialama....hygrothermal mialnagar....atomometer, vaporimeter |
| mil-....aqua-, hydro-, water- | milyexun....aquaculture milmaka....hydroelectric miltilsyeb....water glass |
| mul-....hylo-, substance | mulsana....hylomorphic |
| o(l)-....a-, dis-, non-, un-, in- | ovyilxwa....unwashed omalza....non-white ototina....atheist otepzexea....inattentive |
| o(b/p)-....de-, hypo-, off-, sub-, vice- | oper....get off obneg....sublevel obxeb....sous-chef, sub-officer obtyodeb....vice-president |
| gwo-....micro-, mini- | ogalmor....microcosm ogalteaxer....microscope gowaxer....minimize |
| ov-....contra-, counter-, dis-, non-, the opposite of, un- | ovalxer....countervail ovper....contravene ovkyin....counterweight ovdat....enemy olovmasbwa....undefended |
| oy-....-less, a(n)-, without | oytofa...naked oyxer....deprive oytosen....apathy oyteupiba....toothless |
| oyb-....hypo-, infra-, sub-, under- | oybnadrer....underline oybtomsan....infrastructure oybseuxa....subsonic oybtayoba....hypodermic |
| oyeb-....ex-, extra-, out- | oyebnad....outline oyebyujber....exclude oyebdoabuer....extradite |
| oyeyb-....extra- | oyeybdovyaba....extralegal oyeybtadiena....extramarital |
| oyv-....contra-, opposite, reverse | oyvkuma...opposite oyvder....contradict oyvduer....contraindicate oyvaxer....reverse |
| tayi(b)-....neuro-, nerve | tayibteptun....neuropsychology tayibyok....neuralgia |
| teeb-....auri-, oto-, ear- | teebbekut....aurist teeteiteyobtut....otorhinolaryngologist teebyel....earwax |
| tee(s/x/t)-....audio-, son-, phono- | teesnagen....audiography teestaxdras....phonogram teestun....audiology teexdras....audiogram teetyofwa....inaudible |
| tei(b)-....nasal, nose, rhino-, aroma-, olfact-, osmo- | teibbok....rhinitis teibyeg....nostril teiz....perfume teizuka....aroma-free teityaf....olfactory sense |
| tiibil-....blood-, hema-, hemato-, hemo-, sanguin- | tiibililp....hemorrhage tiibiliut....bloodsucker tiibloker....exsanguinate tiibiltun....hematology |
| tuj-....hypno-, somni-, sopor- | tujbek....hyptotherapy tujbyea....somniferous, soporific |
| u-....away from the speaker | uber....send uxer....cause |
| ui-....horizontal, left-right, x-axis | uinab....row, x-axis uinada....horizontal |
| uib-....back-and-forth, toward-and-away, transmit-receive | uibar....transceiver |
| uig-....fast-and-slow | uigpar....scooter |
| uij-....begin-and-end, start-and-stop | uijdaler....stutter |
| uip-....come-and-go | uipen....traffic, coming and going |
| uiz-....straight-then-crooked | uizbaser....swagger uizdrer....scribble uizpaser....swerve |
| u(n)-....four-, quadri-, tetra-, quater- | ungona....quadripartite unnednid....tetrahedron unsuna....quaternary |
| uyn-....fourth-, quarti- | uynxer....quarter uynjab....quarter (of a year) |
| ut-....auto-, self-, sui-, ego- | utifon....egoism utgober....autodecrement utfuyix....self-abuse uttujben....suicide |
| va-....yes | vayovder....convict vabier....accept vatexer....believe |
| vao-....yes-no | vaoder....decide vaodaler....waffle vaonaza....boolean |
| vi-....bell-, eu-, fine-, pulchri- | vituzyan....fine arts, beaux arts vidun....euphemism vidrenyan....literature, belles lettres visuana....classic |
| vo-....non-, neg- | voyafxer....veto voxer....negate voyovder....acquit, declare not guilty |
| vya-....justi-, recti-, true-, reg- | vyadin....true story vyader....avow vyamol....essence |
| vyak-....ortho-, correct- | vyakdred....orthography vyakxer....correct |
| vyo-....mis-, para-, wrong- | vyoyufa....paranoid vyoyux....perfidy vyoyixer....misuse |
| ya-....more than one, multi- | yaota....communal |
| yab-....hyper-, supra-, sur-, up-, upper- | yabdom....uptown yabdoneg....upper class yabduzneg....high pitch yabexer....support yabzyobix....hypertension |
| yabnan-....height-, hypso-, alti- | yabnanagar....hypsometer, altimeter |
| yag-....long- | yagyiban....long distance yagyeker....strive yagblokea....long-suffering |
| yan-....co(n)-, fellow-, -mate | yanzena....concentric yanyeker....compete yandit....fellow-citizen |
| yao(b/p)-....up-and-down | yaopuyser....skip yaopsim....seesaw yaoblir....elevator yaobaser....bounce |
| ya(on)-....six-, hexa-, sex- | yaonat....sextet yaongun....hexagon yaona....six-fold, sextuple yagol....sextile |
| yaov-....guilty-or-innocent | yaovder....adjudicate yaovdutyan....jury yaovkader....plead yaovyek....trial |
| yaoz-....serrated, bumpy, jagged | yaozaxer....serrate yaozgoblar....saw yaozper....bump along |
| yayb-....supra- | yaybdooba....supranational |
| yayn-....sex-, sixth | yayna...sixth |
| ye(on)-....hept-, hepta-, septi-, seven- | yejub....week yeongun....heptagon yeonat....septuplet |
| ye(b/p)-....en-, endo-, in-, intra-, intro- | yebuzaser.....inflect yebzoytiibufa....intravenous yebyujer....enclode yebtayoba....endodermal yeper....enter yeber....introduce |
| yeov-....fair or not | yeovdut....umpire |
| yeyb-....intra- | yeybmepyan....intranet yeybdoeba....intrastate |
| ye-'....hepto-, seven-, septi- | yejub....week |
| yeyn-....seventh | yeynxer....split into sevenths |
| yi(on)-....oct-, eight- | yiona...eight-fold octuple |
| yib-....far-, tele-, remote | yibsin....televison yibteata....far-sighted yibtrawa....famous |
| yibaj-....archai-, archeo-, ancient | yibajtun....archaeology,yibajtun....archeology |
| yiyn-....eighth | yiynxer....divide into eighths |
| yiz-....beyond, extra-, meta-, out-, para-, past, super-, supra-, trans-, ultra- | yiztyun...metaphor yizeza....paranormal yizmeirat....extraterrestrial yizseux....utrasound |
| yoon-....five-, penta-, quint- | yoongun....pentagon yoongol...quintile yoon....group of five quintet |
| yo(b/p)-....down-, hypo-, sub- | yobdom...downtown yoper....go down yobgoler....subdivide |
| yon-....apart, dis-, se- | yonzyaber....disperse yonxer....separate yonsauna....distinct |
| yoyn-....fifth-, quinti- | yoynnaga....quintic yoyn....a fifth |
| yu(n)-....nine-, nona- | yunapa....ninth (in order) yungunid....nonagon yunkunid....nonahedron |
| yub-....near-, proxi- | yuboj....near future yubna....next yubteas....closeup (view) yubge....almost yubfia....intimate yubgeser....approximate |
| yui(b/p)-....near-and-far | yuibjo....sooner or later yuibteabar....bifocals yuipoper....travel near and far |
| yuij-....open-and-shut | yuijar....valve yuijer....blink, wink manyuijer....blink makyuijar....switch |
| yuyb-....quasi-, pen-, almost | yuybyonmel....peninsula yuybega....quasi-normal |
| yuon-....ninth-, novi- | yuonat....nonuplet |
| yuz-....circ-, circum-, peri-, roto-, round- | yuzper....circulate yuznad....perimeter yuzof....wrap-around yuznadrer....circumscribe |
| za-....ante-, fore-, front-, pre-, pro- | zatim....antechamber zamimuf....foremast zagab....prefix zajuber....procrastinate |
| zao-....back-and-forth, front-and-back | zaopaser....wobble zaokuper....slalom zaopyoser....pendulate |
| zay-....forth-, pro-, forward, ahead, north | zaypuyser....skip ahead zaypuxer....propel zayper....go forward, procede zayupea....forthcoming zamer....north |
| ze-....mid-, central, medio- | zetej....midlife zepoxer....interrupt, stop midway zetem....central hall |
| zey-....cross-, meta-, over-, trans-, across | zeyper....transit, get across zeynod....crosspoint zeytyun....metaphor |
| zi-....right, east | zim....right side zimera....eastern |
| zo-....back-, hind-, retro-, south | zotib....back zotiub....hindquarters zonapa....retrograde zomer....south |
| zoy-....back-, retro-, re- | zoyper....recede, go back zoybeler....carry back zoyzyublen....backspin |
| zu-....left-, west- | zutinut....leftist zukum....left side zumera....western |
| zui-....left-and-right, zig-zag, east-west | zuibyoser....dangle, hang left-and-right zuiper....zigzag zuituyaba....ambidextrous zuimera....east-west |
| zya-....-wide, wide-, broad-, all about | zyauber....broadcast zyateaba....wide-eyed zyasauna....general zyapoper....cruise, wander zyamira....global, worldwide |
| zye-....per-, thorough-, thru-, trans- | zyetejer....live through, experience zyeteaxer....peruse zyeteatyafwa....transparent zyemep....thoroughfare zyeper....permeate, transit |
| zyo-....narrow, steno- | zyotepa....narrow-minded zyoteat....tunnel vision zyoyija....stenopeic |
| zyu-....cyclo-, rot-, round-, gyro | zyutim....rotunda zyusem....roundtable zyuper....cycle, gyrate, rotate |

#### Suffixes

    Mirad has semantic stub suffixes, derivational suffixes, and normal semantic suffixes.
    Semantic Stub Suffixes
          Semantic stub suffixes are generally formed from the last letters of a base word minus the initial consonant. They serve to put a word into some category, such as liquid, place, person, or material.
Semantic Stub Suffixes :
| SUFFIX STUB | SUFFIX FULL FORM | SUFFIXED EXAMPLE < BASE WORD |
| -il....liquid, drink | mil....water | teabil....tear < teab....eye teubil....saliva < teub....mouth tayebil....sweat < tayeb....skin mamil....rain < mam....sky |
| -al....gas | mal....air | tiebal....breath < tieb....lung |
| -(e)l....food | tel....food | supel....pork < supet....swine taol < taob....flesh fel < feb....fruit |
| -ul....stuff | mul....substance | vixul....cosmetic < vix-....to beautify bekul....medecine < bek....treatment |
| -yel....oil, gel, wax, pulp | yel....oil | olfyel....olive oil < olfeb....olive appelatyel....wax < appelat....bee magyel....grease < mag....fire bekyel....salve < bek....treatment megyel....cement < meg....stone yanyel....paste < yan....together |
| -am....house | tam....house | apatam....chicken coop < apat....chicken apellatam....beehive < apellat....bee melyexam....farmhouse < melyex....agriculture datibam....hostel < datib....guest-reception |
| -(e)m....place | nem....place | vobyexem....plantation, farm < vob....plant + yex....work vabem....field < vab....grass abem....top, surface < ab....above, upper zem....middle < ze(a)....middle tim....room |
| -im....room | tim....room | tulim < tul....cuisine tujim....bedroom < tuj....sleep |
| -um....cell, booth | tum....compartment | pexum....cage < pexer....catch ilzyapixum....shower stall < ilzyapix....shower |
| -yem....space | nyem....enclosure | yomyem....icebox < yom....ice |
| -yeb....container | nyeb....container | zyeb....bottle < zye(f)....glass vosyeb....vase < vos....flower |
| -of....material | nof....cloth | tof....clothes < t-....human misof....curtain < mis....window faof....wood < fa(b)-....tree tayof....leather < tayo(b)....skin |
| -ov....linen | nov....linen | teyov....collar < teyob....neck |
| -ar....instrument | sar....tool | par....cart < p-....motion zyupar....rotor < zyup....turn gobrar....knife < gobrar....cut jwobar....watch < jwob....hour |
| -ir....machine | sir....machine | drir....typewriter < dr-....write gwobir....clock |
| -ur....large machine | sur....engine | purr....car jwoburr....grandfather clock < jwob....hour |
| -(u)n....thing | sun....thing | dun....word < d-....utter, say gofrun....piece, scrap < gofrer....rip, shread, tear zyiun....plaque, plate < zyia....flat vyun....spot < vyua....dirty |
| -on....abstract thing | son....issue | yovon....tort, wrong < yov....guilt |
| yen....manner, kind | byen....manner | texyen....opinion < tex....thought hiyen....this way, thus < hi-....this esyen....status < es-....exist |
| -in....-ism | tin....doctrine | totin....theism, religion < tot-....god Kristin....Christianity < Krist....Christ vyisatin....puritanism < vysiat....puritan, clean person oytofin....nudism < oytofa....nude |
| -ufyeg....cylinder | mufyeg....pipe | manufyeg....candle < man....light tiibufyeg....artery < tiib....heart milufyeg....toilet < mil....water movufyeg....cheminee < mov....smoke |
| -ab....government | dab....government | ditab....democracy < dit....citizen |
| -eb....leader | deb....leader | xeb....boss < x-....do tameb....master of the house < tam....house |
| -ub....branch | tub....arm | patub....wing < pat....bird |
| -ad....language | -a + d(alzeyn)....language | Fransad....French (language) |
| -uz....jewelry | nuz....jewel | teyobuz....necklace < teyob....neck teebuz....earring < teeb....ear |
| -u(er)....give | buer....give | tiebaluer....exhale < tieb....lung + al....air |
| -i(er)....take | bier....take | tiebalier....inhale < tieb....lung + al....air |
| -ui(er)....exchange | buier....exchange | tiebaluier....breathe < tieb....lung + al....air |

#### Derviational Suffixes

          Mirad has only a few derivational suffixes, i.e. suffixes that change the part of speech.
Derivational Suffixes :
| DERIVATIONAL SUFFIX | FUNCTION | BASE WORD --> SUFFIXED DERIVATION |
| -er | NOUN --> VERBAL INFINITIVE | sag....count --> sager....to count |
| -n | PRESENT TENSE VERB --> VERBAL NOUN (GERUND) ADJECTIVE --> ABSTRACT NOUN | yexe....(he/she/...) works --> yexen....working via....beautiful --> vian....beauty yuba....near --> yuban....proximity, nearness |
| -a | NOUN --> ADJECTIVE ACTIVE VERB --> VERBAL ADJECTIVE (PRESENT PARTICIPLE) PAST PASSIVE VERB --> PERFECT PASSIVE PARTICIPLE (ADJECTIVE) | mor....universe --> mora....universal ake....wins --> akea....winning teatwa....was seen -->teatwaa (or, shortened to: teatwa....seen) |
| -ya | INTRANSITIVE VERB STEM --> PAST ACTIVE PARTICIPLE | ip-....go away --> ipya....gone away |
| -yea | VERB STEM --> HABITUAL PRESENT PARTICIPLE (ADJECTIVE) | zaypas-....progress --> zaypasyea....progressive |
| -y | ADJECTIVE --> ADVERB | iga....quick --> igay....quickly tea-....knowing -->teay....knowingly |
| -ut | VERB STEM --> ANIMATE AGENT NOUN one who Xes, -er | ak-....win --> akut ....winner |
| -us | VERB STEM --> INANIMATE AGENT NOUN thing that Xes, -er | gol-....divide --> golus ....divisor |
          *Derivational affixes change the part of speech of a base word, whereas inflexional affixes change the status of a word within a grammatical paradigm. Verb tense/mood/voice affixes and the plural marker -i fall under the latter category.

#### Normal Semantic Suffixes

   * Augmentative Suffixes
Augmentative Suffixes :
| AUGMENTATIVE SUFFIX | BASE WORD | SUFFIXED DERIVATION |
| -ag (augmentative) | tam....house | tamag....mansion |
| -ayg (affectionate augmentative) | sem....chair | semayg....big old chair |
| -yag (pejorative augmentative) | apet....horse | apetyag....nag |
   * Diminutive Suffixes
Diminutive Suffixes :
| DIMINUTIVE SUFFIX | BASE WORD | SUFFIXED DERIVATION |
| -og (diminutive) | tam....house | tamog....hut |
| -oyg (affectionate diminutive) | tam....house | tamoyg....cottage |
| -yog (pejorative diminutive) | tam....house | tamyog....shack |
| -et (a smaller person) | twob....man | twobet....boy |
| -es (thing of lesser importance) | nas....money | nases....change, coin |
| -ud (child of, offspring) | tob....man | tobud....infant |
   * Semantic Adjectival Suffixes
Semantic Adjectival Suffixes :
| ADJECTIVAL SUFFIX | MEANING | BASE WORD | SUFFIXED DERIVATION |
| -a | mor....universe | related to, -al, -ic | mora....universal |
| -aya | miek....dust | full of, -ous, -y | miekaya....dusty |
| -oya | vyun....spot | empty of, -less, -free | vyunoya....spotless |
| -ika | miek....dust | full of, -ous, -y | miekika....dusty |
| -uka | miek....dust | empty of, -less, -free | miekuka....dust-free |
| -yea | vyod....lie | given to doing X, -ive | vyodyea....mendacious, given to lying |
| -yena | tat....angel | like, -ly, -ic | tatyena....angelic |
   * Other Semantic Suffixes
Other Semantic Suffixes :
| SUFFIX | BASE WORD | DERIVATION |
| -tun....science, ...ology | tej....life | tejtun....biology |
| -tut....-ologist, expert, -ist | dar....language | dartut....linquist |
| -tuin....theory | tob....mar | martuin....astrology |
| -yan....collection, aggregate | fab....tree | fabyan....forest |
| -tyen....trade, -ics | sir....machine | sirtyen....mechanics |
| -if....pet name | twed....father | twedif....papa |
| ifa....-philic, -loving | dyes....book | dyesifa....bibliophilic |
| ifwa....liked by | tyod....people | tyodifwa....popular |
| ufa....-phobic, -hating | toyb....woman | toybufa....misogynous |
| ufwa....hated by | tyod....people | tyodufwa....unpopular |
| yafa....able to | tyoyap-....walk | tyoyapyafa....ambulatory |
| yafwa....possible to | teat-....see | teatyafwa....visible |
| yofa....unable to | teat-....see | teatyofa....blind |
| yofwa....impossible to | dye-....read | dyeyofwa....illegible |
| yika....hard of...ing | teet-....hear | teetyika....hard of hearing |
| yikwa....hard to | teet-....hear | teetyikwa....hard to hear |
| yuka....easy at...ing | vatex-....believe | vatexyuka....gullible |
| yukwa....easily...ed | test-....understand | testyukwa....easily understood |
| yufa....fearful of, -phobic | tot....god | totyufa....god-fearing |
| yufwa....feared | hyat....everybody | hyatyufwa....feared by all |
| yiva....free to | kebi-....choose | kebiyiva....free to choose |
| efa....needful of | tel....food | telefa....hungry |
| efwa....necessary to | tej....life | tejefa....vital |
| yefa....duty-bound to, -worthy of | dud....answer | dudyefa....responsible |
| yefwa....due, -worthy of | fid-....laud | fidyefwa....praiseworthy |
| afa....authorized to | dokebi-....vote | dokebiafa....franchised |
| ofwa....prohibited to | movi-....smoke | moviofwagonem....no-smoking zone |
| yiva....free to | kebi-....choose | kebiyiva....free to choose |
| yivwa....free to be ...ed | kebi-....choose | kebiyivwa....optional |
| yuva....bound | tam....house | tamyuva....house-bound |
| ova....resistant, anti- | aagdovyab....constitution | aagdovyabova....anti-constitutional |
| ava....in favor of, pro- | tyodab....democracy | tyodabava....pro-democracy |
| eva....neutral | toos....gender | tooseva....gender-neutral |

### Rule #3: Ordinal Vowel Scaling

    Creating a hierarchy of scalar terms applies only to base words of the Group 1. The hierarchy of scalar terms is built by increasing the numeric value of the ordinal vowel of the base word as the importance or relevance of the word decreases from the topmost, zeroth object. This process is called first-level ordinal scaling.

#### First-level Ordinal Scaling

First-level Ordinal Scaling :
| ORDINAL VOWEL | t...b | m...r | j...b | m...s | t...m | d...b | f...b | s...m | d...t | t...d |
| o = 0 | tob man | mor universe | job time | mos floor | tom building | dob state | fob plant | som furniture | dot society | tod family |
| a = 1 | tab body | mar sun | jab year | mas wall | tam house | dab government | fab tree | sam armoire | dat friend | tad spouse |
| e = 2 | teb head | mer planet | jeb season | mes door | tem hall | deb leader | feb fruit | sem table | det associate | ted parent |
| i = 3 | tib trunk | mir earth | jib month | mis window | tim room | dib office | fib tree trunk | sim chair | dit citizen | tid sibling |
| u = 4 | tub arm | mur moon | jub day | mus stairs | tum cell | dub minister | fub branch | sum bed | dut gentleperson | tud child |
| yo = 5 | tyob leg | | jyob* hour | | | | fyob root | | | tyod people |
          * The palatal glide y in these words, which follows a palatal j is hard to pronounce, so the y is replaced with a w, giving jwob, jwab, and jweb.

#### Second-level Ordinal Scaling

       A second-level hierarchy of scalar words can be creating by adding a vowel immediately after the ordinal vowel of the word stem.
          Examples:
Second-level Ordinal Scaling :
| mi...p | me...p | tu...b | tyo...b | ma...f | me...g | do...b |
| mip river | mep way | tub arm | tyob leg | maf cloud | meg stone | dob state |
| miap stream | meap road | tuab shoulder | tyoab hip | maaf stratus | meag marble | doab...fatherland |
| miep brook | meep path | tueb upper arm | tyoeb thigh | maef cumulus | meeg slate | doeb province, state |
| miip rivulet | meip trail | tuib elbow | tyoib knee | maif stratocumulus | meig granite | doib county, shire |
| miup torrent | meup track | tuub forearm | tyoub shin | mauf cumulonimbus | meug clay, dough | doub district |
| miyop trickle | | tuyob wrist | tyoyob ankle | mayof nimbostatus | meyog china | |
| | | tuyab hand | tyoyab foot | mayaf altostratus | meyag chalk | |
| | | tuyeb fist | tyoyeb heel | mayef altocumulus | meyeg limestone | |
| | | tuyib palm | tyoyib sole | mayif cirrus | meyig alabaster | |
| | | tuyub finger | tyoyub toe | mayuf cirrostratus | meyug gypsum | |
| | | tulob fingernail | tyolob toenail | malof cirrocumulus | |

#### Third-level Ordinal Scaling

          A third-level hierarchy can be created by prefixing a third ordinal number vowel to the word.
          Example:
Third-level Ordinal Scaling :
* tuyub....finger
* atuyub....thumb
* etuyub....index
* ituyub....middle finger
* utuyub....ring finger
* yotuyub....pinky
          So, to sum up, we have:
Summary of Scaling :
| t...b | tob = human being |
| FIRST-LEVEL | tub....arm |
| SECOND-LEVEL | tuyub....finger |
| THIRD-LEVEL | atuyub....thumb |

#### Scaling with Prefixed Numbering

          We can also obtain a very convenient classification for new words through prefixed numbering even though there is no first-level or second-level numbering. In this case, the first subordinal level usually begins with a.
          Example:
Prefix Numbering :
| NUMBER | dob....state | pet....animal | deb....leader | mez....gem | mer....planet | maf....cloud | sagtun....mathematics |
| 1 | adob....empire | apet....horse | adeb....emperor | amez....diamond | Amer....Mercury | amaf....nimbus | asagtun....arithmetic |
| 2 | edob....kingdom | epet....bull | edeb....king | emez....topaz | Emer....Venus | emaf....stratus | esagtun....geometry |
| 3 | idob....principality | ipet....ass | ideb....prince | imez....ruby | Imer....Earth | imaf....nimbostatus | isagtun....algebra |
| 4 | udob....duchy | upet....ram | udeb....duke | umez....emerald | Umer....Mars | umaf....cumulus | usagtun....trigonometry |
| 5 | yodob....marquisate | yopet....goat | yodeb....marquis | yomez....saphire | Yomer....Jupiter | yomaf....cumulostatus | yosagtun....calculus |
| 6 | yadob....county | yapet....pig | yadeb....count | yamez....lapis lazuli | Yamer....Saturn | yamaf....stratocumulus | |
| 7 | yedob....dominion | yepet....dog | yedeb....lord | yemez....amthyst | Yemer....Uranus | yemaf....altocumulus | |
| 8 | yidob....viscounty | yipet....cat | yideb....viscount | yimez....amber | Yimer....Pluto | yimaf....altostratus | |
| 9 | yudob....barony | yupet....rabbit | yudeb....baron | yumez....topaz | | yumaf....cirrocumulus | |
| 10 | alodob....tribe | | alodeb....tribal chief | alomez....opal | | alomaf....cirrus | |

### Rule #4: Overlapping

    When combining two words, if the generic (final) consonant of the first word is the same as the classifier (first) consonant of the second word, the generic consonant of the determining word is dropped. This results in overlapping or a portmanteau.
    Examples:
Overlapping in Compounds :
| FIRST WORD | SECOND WORD | PORTMANTEAU |
| dom....city | mep....road | domep....boulevard |
| pat....bird | teub....mouth | pateub....beak |
| pat....bird | tub....arm | patub....wing |
| teypib....tooth | byok....pain | teypibyok....toothache |
    In some cases, this type of overlapping can cause ambiguity, and is therefore avoided.

### Rule #5: Adding Ordinal Vowels

    When forming a compound word with the words of a same family of terms, if the ordinal vowel is an o, replace it with the ordinal vowel of the determinant word.
    Examples:
      * edob....kingdom -> deb....chief -> edeb....monarch (edweb....king, edeyb....queen)
      * udob....principality -> deb....chief -> udeb....prince (udweb....prince, udeyb....princess)
    By contrast, if the two words are already ordered, the vowel of the determinant (first word) is inserted between the ordinal vowel of the determined (second) word and the generic (final) consonant:
    Examples:
    mil....water + mal....air -> mial....vapor, steam

### Rule #6: Swapping Generic Consonants

    When the generic (final) consonant of a base word is replaced by that of another base word, the entire family of the latter undergoes the transformation by the new generic consonant.
    Example:
Swapping Generic Consonants :
| BASE WORD 1 | BASE WORD 2 | DERIVED WORD |
| tob....human | nov....linen | tov....lingerie |
| tab....body | nof....cloth | taf....suit |
| teb....head | nof....cloth | tef....hat |
| tib....trunk | nof....cloth | tif....vest |
| tyoyab....foot | nof....cloth | tyoyaf....shoe |
| tyoyab....foot | nov....linen | tyoyav....sock |
| tuyab....hand | nof....cloth | tuyaf....glove |
| doob$^*$....nation | nof....cloth | doof....flag |
| taob$^*$....flesh | tol....food | taol....meat |
    * This is a derived, not base, word, but the principle holds.

### Rule #7: Marking Words for Gender

    Words in Mirad are neutral with respect to gender, but specifically masculine or feminine gender can be marked in nouns and pronouns with the use of the masculine infix w and the feminine infix y. If the noun or pronoun is animate, then gender can marked. If the noun or pronoun is inanimate, then it can be marked for predominate use by or reference to a male or female.
      * To make a neutral animate noun or pronoun specifically male, precede the ordinal (stem) vowel with w.
      * To make a neutral animate noun or pronoun specifically female, follow the ordinal (stem) vowel with y.
    Examples:
Marking Animate Nouns for Gender :
| GENDER NEUTRAL | MALE | FEMALE |
| tob....human being | twob....man | toyb....woman |
| tobet....young person | twobet....boy | toybet....girl |
| ted....parent | twed....father | teyd....mother |
| it....he/she/it | wit....he | iyt....she |
| apat....cock | apwat....rooster | apayt....hen |
| toob....gender | twoob....male | tooyb....female |
      * Inanimate objects, such as items of clothing or body pats, can be "feminized" in a similar way. In such a case, the feminized form refers to an object that is for woman, rather than men, eg.:
Making Inanimate Objects Female-related :
| MALE-ORIENTED OR NEUTRAL | FEMALE-ORIENTED |
| taf....suit | tayf....dress |
| tyoyav....sock | tyoyayv....stockings |
| tiav....shirt | tiayv....blouse |
      * Some body parts can be marked for maleness or femaleness:
Body Parts Genderized :
| NEUTRAL | MALE-ORIENTED | FEMALE-ORIENTED |
| tilab....breast | twilab....male breast | tilayb....female breast |
| | twiyib....testicals | tiyiyb....ovary |
| tiyub....sexual organ | twiyub....penis | tiyuyb....vagina |
      * In nouns that end in -ut, the agentive suffix meaning -er, one who..., the nouns can be feminized by changing -ut to -uyt, eg. dezut....actor -> dezuyt....actress. Because the stem of such words is often a verb, prefixing -ut with w to make it specifically male is normally not done, because the w can sometimes be confused with the passive voice marker. For this reason, a word like dezut can mean actor of neutral or male gender.
      * Animate nouns having the ending -et (smaller version of some person), are genderized by adding w or y to the semantic base of the word, eg. tobet....child, youth -> toybet....girl or twobet....boy.

### Rule #8: Deriving Words with Geo-specific Vowels

    A series of related words can be derived from a Group 1 base word by replacing the ordinal vowel with one of the following vowels, which have certain specific geographic meanings.
    Geo-specific Vowels:
      * o = outer space, abstract object, initial stuff
      * a = sky, air, gas
      * e = land, soil, solid
      * i = sea, water, liquid
      * u = underground, mineral, concrete object, other
       Examples:
Deriving Words with Geo-specific Vowels :
| | m...p | m...m | d...p | p...t | m...l | m...r |
| Space | mop....orbit | mom....space | dop....military | pot....animal | mol....nature | mor....universe |
| Sky | map....wind | mam....sky | dap....air force | pat....bird | mal....air | mar....star |
| Land | mep....road | mem....land | dep....army | pet....land animal | mel....soil | mer....planet |
| Water | mip....river | mim....sea | dip....marine force | pit....fish | mil....water | mir....world |
| Underground (or other) | mup....tunnel | mum....underground | | | mul....mineral | mur....moon |
    This vowel codification also allows generating other categories of words by infixing, just before the generic (final) consonant, a vowel having the value that is attributed to it in Rule #9. This creates "hybrid" nouns. See the chapter on Hybrids for more on this subject.
       Examples:
Hybrid nouns :
| FIRST-LEVEL DERIVATION | + GEOSPECIFIC VOWEL | SECOND-LEVEL DERIVATION |
| pet....land animal | i....water, sea | peit....aquatic mammal |
| pelt....insect | a....air, sky | pelat....flying insect |
| mel....soil | i....water, sea | meil....mud |
| mil....air | a....air, gas | mial....vapor |

### Rule #9: Deriving Words with Vectorial Vowels

    The rule for deriving words with vectorial ( = directional and positional) vowels starts with the following schema:
Vectorial Vowel Values :
| A ||||||||
| U | | a ↓ | ↓ a | ↑ ya | ya ↑ | | I |
| U | u → | | e | ye | | → i | I |
| U | → u | | e | ye | | i → | I |
| U | → yu | | E | E | | yi → | I |
| U | yu → | | | | | → yi | I |
| U | | ↑ o | o ↑ | yo ↓ | ↓ yo | | I |
| O ||||||||
       Explanation of the above chart:
         * If the vowel is capitalized, it indicates a positional value. It is used in its lowercase spelling as a prefix in Group I words.
         * The non-capitalized vowels (including y-glides) indicate directional values.
         * If the vowel is underlined, it means that it is placed before the classifier consonant (prefixed) in verbs and involves contact.
         * Otherwise, a normal vowel means that it is placed after the classifier consonant (infixed) in Group 2 words and involves free movement.
Explanation of the Vectorial Vowels Chart :
| A | position | | on, above, north | amer....north |
| a | movement | (free) | on | baer....lean |
| a | movement | (contact) | onto | aber....put on |
| ya | movement | (free) | up, ascend | byaer....lift |
| ya | movement | (contact) | up, get up, set up | yaber....raise |
| O | position | | under, lower, south | omer....south |
| o | movement | (free) | off | boer....hang |
| o | movement | (contact) | on the bottom of, underneath | oper....get off |
| yo | movement | (free) | down | pyoser....fall |
| yo | movement | (contact) | fall | yoper....rise |
| U | position | | left, west | umer....west |
| u | movement | (free) | move toward the center, come | uber....send |
| u | movement | (contact) | reach the center, arrive | pyuer....reach |
| yu | movement | (free) | near, approach | yuber....approach |
| yu | movement | (contact) | near, reach | byuser....touch |
| I | position | | right, east | imer....east |
| i | movement | (free) | from the center out, go away | pier....go away |
| i | movement | (contact) | from the center out, leave | iper....leave |
| yi | movement | (free) | away, go far | yiper....go far |
| yi | movement | (contact) | from afar, originate | pyiser....originate |
| E | position | | center, equator | emer....equator |
| e | rest | | between | eb....between |
| e | rest | | at, stay, hold | bexer....hold |
| ye | movement | | in, into, enter | yeper....enter |
| ye | | (contact) | up against, strike | pyexer....strike |

#### Special value of certain vowels

    The prefixes a- or an- meaning one, sole, singular:
      * aot....person, individual
      * anota....alone, solitary
      * anay....only
      * aun....unit
    The prefixes ya- or yan- meaning collection, plural:
      * yat....we, us
      * yanot....constituent
      * yanota....communal
      * yanotyan....community
      * yan....together
    Also, the prefix yan- meaning together contrasts with yon-....apart.
      * yon....apart
      * yanota....communal vs. yonota....private
      * yanxer....to combine vs. yonxer....to separate

### Rule #10: Deriving Words with Mnemonic Patterns

    Sometimes part of a derived word can serve as a mnemonic pattern for forming other words having some relationship or parallelism in meaning.
    For example, the mnemonic eu pattern from the word for mouth, teud can be used to form many other words having an oral, acoustic, vocal, or sound-related meaning:
Mnemonic Pattern Derivation :
| PATTERN WORD teub....mouth | CLASSIFIER | GENERIC |
| teud....shout | t = human | d = communication |
| teuz....voice | t = human | z = art |
| deuz....song | d = communication | z = art |
| seuz....tone | s = thing | z = art |
| seux....sound | s = thing | x = action |
| xeus....noise | x = action | s = thing |
| teuf....muzzle | t = human | f = apparel |
| teuv....mask | t = human | v = linen |
| teus....taste | t = human | s = thing |
More Mnemonic Pattern Derivations :
| PATTERN WORD teab....eye | (t)ea- = see | GENERIC |
| teaper....visit | " " " | p = go |
| teader....witness | " " " | d = say |
| teaxer....look | " " " | x = do |
| teaser....seem | " " " | s = be |
| teater....see | " " " | t = know |
| keaxer....scan | ke- = seek | x = do |
| vyaleaxer....check | vyal- = certain | x = do |
| yoneater....distinguish | yon- = apart | t = know |
| beaxer....guard | be- = hold | x = do |
| teatier....perceive | | -i- = subject-directed |
| teatuer....show | | -u- = object-directed |
| PATTERN WORD teeb....ear | (t)ee- = hear | GENERIC |
| teeper....attend | " " " | p = go |
| teeder....testify | " " " | d = say |
| teexer....listen | " " " | x = do |
| teeser....sound (like) | " " " | s = be |
| teeter....hear | " " " | t = know |
| keexer....scan (acoustically) | ke- = seek | x = do |
| koteexer....snoop on | ko- = hide | x = do |
| vyaleexer....sound out | vyal- = certain | x = do |
| teetier....get wind of | | -i- = subject-directed |
| teetuer....make heard | | -u- = object-directed |
| zyateetuer....rumor | zya- = all around | -u- = objected-directed |
    A syllable of a long compound can be suppressed as long as it does not cause ambiguity or confusion.
    Examples:
Shortening Long Compounds :
| WORD 1 | WORD 2 | LONG COMPOUND | SHORTENED COMPOUND |
| ekpet....horse | teuder....make a noise | *ekpeteuder | ekpeder....neigh |
| serpyet....snake | teuder....make a noise | *serpyeteuder | sepyeder....hiss |
| vifeb....grape | il....liquid | *vifebil....grape juice | vifil....wine |
| povob....grain | il....liquid | *povobil | povil....beer |
    Sometimes, the last syllable of a compound or last letters of a word will give birth to a new stubs whose derivations, through the application of this rule, will not be long.
    Examples:
From Full Words to Stubs :
| COMPOUND | NEW STUB | DERIVATION |
| tilabil....breast milk | bil....milk | bilyug....butter |
| fauf....log | -uf....(stub suffix for types of) cylinder | muf....rod, stick |
| zyeg....hole | -yeg....(stub suffix for types of) hole, hollow thing | mufyeg....pipe |
    The clipped word bil now gives rise to other compounds:
      * bilyig....cheese
      * bilyigem....cheese factory
      * bilyug....butter
      * bilyugyena....butter-like
    The word mufyeg (Lit: hollow stick) means pipe, reed, cylinder

### Rule #11: Deriving Nuanced Words Phonetically

    Words which follow Rule #12 are those that are connected by a similarity of meaning or quality. These words differ by nuances and it is phonetic nuances that govern their formation.
    These nuances are obtained by:
   * Addition of a subordinal vowel of the same type as the ordinal vowel.
       These vowels are:
          a for a and ya
          e for e and ye
          i for i and yi
          o for o and yo
          u for u and yu
       Examples:
Creating Nuances with a Doubled Vowel :
| WORD | NUANCED DERIVATION |
| nad....line | naad....rail |
| dob....state | doob....nation |
| vyab....rule | vyaab....system |
| boka....sick | booka....tired |
   * Post-y-gliding the ordinal vowel or subordinal vowel, to produce a nuance of less intensity:
Deintensification with Post-y-gliding :
| WORD | MITIGATED DERIVATION |
| ifer....love | iyfer....like |
| iva....happy | iyva....glad |
| zyutom....tower | zyutoym....turret |
| ama....hot | ayma....warm |
| oma....cold | oyma....cool |
   * Pre-y-gliding the ordinal vowel or subordinal vowel, to produce a nuance of greater intensity:
Intensification with Pre-y-Gliding :
| WORD | ENHANCED DERIVATION |
| pot....wild animal | pyot....predator animal |
| pat....bird | pyat....bird of prey |
| tod....family | tyod....people |
| oma....cold | yoma....frozen |
| nuxer....pay | nyuxer....deliver |
| nexer....save | nyexer....store |
   * Following the ordinal vowel or the consonant with the intensifying liquid l or the further intensifying liquid r:
Intensification with L and R :
| WORD | L-INTENSIFIED | R-INTENSIFIED |
| ifer....love | ifler....be fond of | ifrer....adore |
| iva....happy | ivla....content | ivra....delighted |
| vaa....affirmative | vlaa....sure | vraa....indubitable |
| aga....big | agla....huge | agra....immense |
| ga....more | gala....multiple | gara....exponential |
| baer....lean on | baler....press | barer....crush |
| yexer....work | yexler....labor | yexrer....toil, slave |
| yixer....use | yixler....hire | yixrer....exploit |
   * Adding consonants other than l or r as the generic consonant:
    Some words have so many nuanced varieties that other letters like t, f, s, k, and z are used, eg.:
Creating Nuances with Other Consonants :
| WORD | NUANCED DERIVATION |
| fia....good | fika....perfect fira....excellent |
| fua....bad | futa....wicked fura....rotten |
| gea....equal | geta....identical gela....alike |
| vyaa....true | vyaka....correct vyama....real |
| vyoa....false | vyoka....incorrect vyoma....fake |
| yiga....hard | yigza....sour yigla....brusk yigra....brutal |
| yuga....soft | yugfa....smooth yugla....tender yugra....mild |
   * Transforming the generic consonant from voiced to unvoiced or vice versa:
Voicing or Devoicing Consonants for Nuance :
| WORD | NUANCED DERIVATION |
| nab....row | nap....order |
| vyava....just | vyafa....precise |
| jwab....minute | jwap....moment |
| jweb....second | jwep....instant |
| tab....body | tap....physique |
| tob....person | top....soul, animus |
| nov....linen | nof....cloth |
| naz....value | nas....money |
| nag....dimension | nak...unit of measurement |

## Technical Nomenclature

    The sections below describe how techical vocabulary is developed in Mirad. In most cases, there are common, ordinary words, but these are supplemented with less common, technical terms that are usually somehow based on an international nomenclature standard. Typically, the common words share a stem, which is prefixed with ordinal syllables that group words of the basis of some like features.

### Zoological Nomenclature

    The names of animals are formed in a systematic way.

#### Base Names

    First of all, the base stem of all animal names (except human) begin with p (mobile) and end with t (sentient), the idea being that animals are moving, sentient creatures.
    The vowels in the stem are geo-specific and indicate whether the animal inhabits the air (a), water (i), land (e), or a hybrid of these; whether it is wild (o), tame, or predatory (y); and a few other features, as shown in the chart below:
Animal Base Names in Geo-specific Terms :
| TYPE | AIR = a | WATER = i | LAND = e | ANYWHERE = o |
| Ordinary | pat....bird | pit....fish | pet....domestic land animal | pot....wild animal |
| Predatory | pyat....raptor | pyit....predatory fish | pyet....reptile | pyot....predatory animal |
| Hybrid | piat....waterfowl pelat....flying insect opat....flightless bird | piit....crustacean pilt....marine invertebrate peit....mammalian fish pyeit....mollusk | payet....flying reptile piyet....batracian peyet....worm pelt....insect | piot....aquatic mammal |

#### Derived Names

    The names of different species of animals are derived by prefixing syllables to the base names that are obtained from the Latin names in the Linnaean taxonomy. In that taxonomy, all of the dog or dog-like animal species are ranked under the family name Canidae (canids). The family prefix is derived by taking the first syllable and spelling it in Mirad as it is pronounced in Latin. Ca in Latin is pronounced ka. See the table below in which Latin spellings are given in Mirad. In this family, one dog species is domestic, Canis familiaris, while all the others are wild or predatory. So, to derive the word for the common domesticated dog, we would affix the family taxonomic prefix ka to the base name for domestic land animal pet, yielding kapet (dog). All other members of the dog family end in pot (feral animal) or pyot (predatory animal). The taxonomic prefix must contain at least one consonant and one vowel. If not, the prefix derived from the Latin taxon is extended until that rule is met. The taxonomic syllables are prefixed to the base animal type name in reverse order of the Linnaean; for example, prairie dog (which is not a dog, but a rodent) is rendered by ci$^3$xi$^2$ro$^1$pot from Ro$^1$dentia Sci$^2$uridae Cy$^3$nomys, where pot is the basic animal type wild animal. All rodents have the taxonomic syllable ro from the Latin "order" taxon Rodentia, while all squirrel names will have the syllable xi from a pronunciation spelling of the Latin "family" taxon Sciuridae (xiuriday). The following shows the system as it is applied to the dog family:
       Canidae (dog family) >
          kapet...the common domestic dog (only one species, Canis familiaris)
          kapot...wild dog
          kapyot...predatory dog
    Species under kapyot are derived by taking the first syllables of the respective Latin binomial (and sometimes trinomial) species names:
       Canis lupus > lukapyot...gray wolf (or just wolf)
       Canis latrans > lakapyot...coyote, prairie wolf
          Canis latrans lestes > leslakapyot...mountain coyote
       Canis aurus > awkapyot > jackal, golden jackal
          Canis aurus curensis > kurawkapyot....Indochinese jackal
       Canis vulpus > vulkapyot...fox, red fox
    If the taxonomic syllable ends in a vowel and precedes another syllable beginning with a vowel, the first taxonomic syllable is extended until it ends in a consonant. In the case of the Indochinese jackal, the base is awkapyot and the taxonomic syllable to be prefixed from curensis would normally be ku, but it has to be extended to kur because the base begins in a vowel.
    The conversion of Latin/Greek spellings to Mirad is governed by the following chart:
Latin/Greek - Mirad correspondences :
| Latin/Greek Spelling | Latin Sound | Mirad Spelling | Example |
| au | aw | aw | aurus....aw- |
| eu | ew | ew | europa....ew- |
| ai ae | ay | ay | aegyptus....ay- |
| ei ey | ey | ey | Rheidae....ey |
| oe | oy | oy | Foeniculum....oy |
| ua | wa | wa | suavis....swa |
| ca/co/cu | ka/ko/ku | ka/ko/ku | canis....ka |
| ce/ci/cy' | che/chi/chi | ce/ci/ci | cypris....ci |
| y | i | i | cypris....i |
| g' | g | g | Geococcyx/Gastropoda....g |
| ch | k | k | Chiroptera....ki |
| ph | f | f | Sphyrapicus....f |
| rh | r | r | Rheidae....ey |
| x | ks | ks | Loxodonta....ks |
| qu | kw | kw | Quercus....kw |
| j | y | j | julianus....ju |
| sci | ski | ski | Sciuridae....xi |
| th | t | ti | Thunnus....t |
| cci | ksi | ksi | Vaccinus....ksi |
    Note that double consonants are counted as being two consonants in different syllables. So, for example, the taxonomic syllable for Cinnamomum would be cin.
    The Latin letter j is represented in Mirad with j even though it is pronounced like a y. This is for better recognizability.

#### Genderized and Other Forms

    Form the female of an animal by inserting a y before the t of the base adult name:
      * kapet....dog ====> kapeyt....bitch
      * vulkapyot....fox ====> vulkapyoyt....vixen
    Form the specific male of an animal by inserting a w right after the p of the base adult name, unless the base name begins with py in which case the w is inserted just before the t of the base name:
      * ekpet....horse ====> ekpwet....stallion
      * ovbopet....sheep ====> ovbopwet....ram
      * vulkapyot....fox ====> vulkpyowt....dog fox
    Form the gelded version of an animal by inserting an o after the ordinal vowel of the base male adult name:
      * bopet....bovine ====> bopweot....ox
      * gafapat....cock ====> gafapweot....capon
    The offspring of an animal is formed by suffixing -ud, the stub for tud....child:
      * ekpet....horse ====> ekpetud....colt
      * kapet....dog ====> kapetud....pup
      * ovbopet....sheep ====> ovbopetud....lamb
    The pet name of an animal is derived by suffixing -if:
      * kapet....dog ====> kapetif....puppy
      * fepet....cat ====> fepetif....kitty
    The diminutive of an animal is formed by suffixing -og:
      * supet....pig ====> supetog....piggy
      * ekpet....horse ====> ekpetog....pony
    Sometimes, the above derivations can be combined. The animal ekpet....horse can serve as an example:
Derivations of Horse :
| VARIATION | MIRAD NAME | ENGLISH NAME |
| Adult | ekpet | horse |
| Male | ekpwet | stallion |
| Female | ekpeyt | mare |
| Offspring | ekpetud | colt |
| Female Offspring | ekpetuyd | filly |
| Small adult | ekpetog | pony |
| Gelded | ekpweot | gelding |

#### Animal Sounds

    The sound that an animal makes can be derived by substituting the t of the base name with d, the letter associated with communication. The verb form ends in -der:
      * ekpet....horse ====> ekpeder....to neigh
      * kapet....dog ====> kapeder....to bark
      * pat....bird ====> pader....to tweet, chirp
      * serpyet....snake ====> serpyeder....to hiss
    A collection of animals can be derived by suffixing -yan or -nyan:
      * lepanfepyot....lion ====> lepanfepyotyan....a pride of lions
      * ovbopet....sheep ====> ovbopetyan....a herd of sheep
      * pit....fish ====> pityan....a school of fish
    Motions that animals make can be derived by replacing the final t of the base name with -per....to go:
      * serpyet....snake ====> serpeper....to slither
      * lapet....rabbit ====> lapeper....to hop
      * ekpet....horse ====> ekpeper....to gallop
    The food name associated with an animal can be derived by ending the animal or animal part name in l (a stub for tel, meaning food):
      * supet....pig ====> supel....pork
      * supetyob....hog leg ====> supetyol....ham
      * bopet....steer ====> bopel....beef
      * ovbopet....sheep ====> ovbopel....mutton
      * bopetud....calf ====> bopetul....veal
      * appelat....bee ====> appelatil....honey
    The habitats of animals are formed by suffixing -am....house, -um....cage, etc. to the base name:
      * supet....pig ====> supetam....pigsty
      * gafapayt....chicken ====> gafapaytam....chicken coop
      * lepanfepyot....lion ====> lepanfepyotam....lion's den
      * kapet....dog ====> kapetam....doghouse
      * forpelt....ant ====> forpeltam....anthill
      * appelat....bee ====> appelatam....bee hive
      * pat....bird ====> patum....birdcage, patsum....nest, patyanam...aviary
      * pot....wild animal ====> potam....lair

#### Dog Breeds

    Dog breeds are created by prefixing elements to kapet....dog that are based on the official World Canine Organization dog breed site. This site organizes dog breeds by groups, sections, subsections, and country ownership.
    The base of the dog breed name is kapet....dog. The group number is converted to the lowercase alphabetic consonants (b, c, d, etc.). The top or zeroth group is assigned the the ordinal vowel o, so bokepet is a group category for sheepdogs and cattledogs. The sections underneath this group change the o....zero to a....one, e....two, etc. The subsections below are enumerated with an initial ordinal vowel starting with a....one, e....two, etc. A particular breed is written as the country adjective representing the breed country of origin, followed a space, and the lowest section name preceded by the number of the country entry alphabetized. If there is only one entry of that country, no ordinal number is prefixed.
    As an example:
    To get the name for basset hound:
      * Start with the word for dog: kapet.
    This animal is in Group 6 for scent hounds and related breeds, so the 6th consonant in the Mirad alphabet is h. This is prefixed to kapet, with an ordinal vowel representing the section the breed is in, starting with a for one. The basset hound is in Section 1 for "scent hounds", so the prefix becomes ha-.
      * hakapet is a "scent hound" (not to be confused with ha kapet....the dog.).
A basset hound is classified in subsection 1.3 as a "small-sized scent hound", so the ordinal vowel i.... three is prefixed:
      * ihakapet is a "small-sized scent hound"
    A basset hound is the 1st small-sized scent hound entry under the country Great Britain, so the Mirad word a.... one is prefixed (with a w buffer vowel when prefixed to a vowel) and the adjectival word for Great Britain, Gebaroma is placed in front, separated by a space:
      * Gebaroma awahikapet is a basset hound, a dog breed name owned by Great Britain.
    Here is a partial representation of the hiararchy as obtained by the World Canine Organization (FCI) site. Other Mirad dog breed names can be created by consulting the site.
Group 1 = bokapet....sheepdogs/cattledogs
      * Section 1 = bakapet....sheepdogs
            * Belgian only entry = Belima bakapet....Belgian shepherd dog
            * German only entry = Deuma bakapet....German shepherd
      * Section 2 = bekapet....cattledogs except Swiss cattledogs
            * Great Britain 2nd entry = Gebaroma ebekapet....Welsh corgi (Cardigan)
Group 2 = cokapet....pinscher/schnauzer/Molossoid/Swiss Mountain-/Cattle Dogs
      * Section 1 = cakapet....pinscher/schnauzer type
      * Section 2 = cekapet....Molossian type
      * Section 3 = cikapet....Swiss mountain/cattledogs
Group 3 = dokapet....terriers
      * Section 1 = dakapet....large and medium-sized terriers
            * Great Britain 9th entry = Gebaroma yudakapet....Welsh terrier
      * Section 2 = dakapet....small-sized terriers
      * Section 3 = dekapet....bull type terriers
            * Great Britain 3rd entry = Gebaroma idekapet....Staffordshire bull terrier
      * Section 4 = dakapet....toy terriers
Group 4 = fokapet....dachshunds
            * Germany only entry = fakapet....dachshund
Group 5 = gokapet....spitz and primitive types
      * Section 1 = gakapet....nordic sledge dogs
             USA 1st entry = agakapet....Siberian husky
      * Section 2 = gekapet....nordic hunting dogs
      * Section 3 = gikapet....nordic watchdogs/herders
      * Section 4 = gukapet....European spits
      * Section 5 = gyokapet....Asian spitz and related breeds
      * Section 6 = gyakapet....primitive types
      * Section 7 = gyekapet....hunting dogs
Group 6 = hokapet....scent hounds and related breeds
      * Section 1 = hakapet....scent hounds
         * Subsection 1.1 = ahakapet....large-sized hounds
            * USA 1st entry = Usoma awahakapet....American foxhound
         * Subsection 1.2 = ehakapet....medium-sized hounds
            * Great Britain only entry = Gebaroma ehakapet....harrier
         * Subsection 1.3 = ihakapet....small-sized hounds
            * Great Britain 1st entry = Gebaroma awihakapet....basset hound
            * Great Britain 2nd entry = Gebaroma ewihakapet....beagle
Group 7 = jokapet....pointing dogs
      * Section 1 = jakapet....continental pointing dogs
      * Section 2 = jekapet....British and Irish pointers and setters
Group 8 = kakapet....retrievers/flushing dogs/water dogs
      * Section 1 = kakapet....retrievers
      * Section 2 = kekapet....flushing dogs
      * Section 3 = kikapet....water dogs
Group 9 = lokapet....companion and toy dogs
      * Section 1 = lakapet....bichons
      * Section 2 = lekapet....poodles
            * France only entry = Ferama lekapet....poodle
      * Section 3 = likapet....small Belgian dogs
      * Section 4 = lukapet....hairless dogs
      * Section 5 = lyokapet....Tibetan breeds
            * Tibet 2nd entry = Ferama elekapet....shih tzu
      * Section 6 = lyakapet....Chihuahueno
            * Mexico only entry = Ferama lyakapet....chihuahua
      * Section 7 = lyekapet....English toy spaniels
      * Section 8 = lyikapet....Japan Chin and Pekingese
      * Section 9 = lyukapet....continental toy spaniel and others
      * Section 10 = lalokapet....Kromforhländer
      * Section 10 = lalekapet....small Molossian type dogs
Group 10 = mokapet....sight hounds
      * Section 1 = makapet....long-haired sighthounds
            * Great Britain 1st entry = Gebaroma amakapet....greyhound
            * Great Britain 2nd entry = Gebaroma emakapet....whippet
      * Section 2 = mekapet....rough-haired sighthounds
      * Section 3 = mikapet....short-haired sighthounds

#### Cat Breeds

    The names for cat breeds are generated from the CFA organization's alphabetical list of cat breeds (See . You take the first letters of the CFA name up to the first non-initial consonant, and convert them to lowercase. If the next breed on the list has the same letters, add a Mirad number (1=a, 2=e, 3=i, ...) to distinguish them. Now, end the word with the Mirad word for cat fepet.
    This chart shows the process for the first few cat breeds in the CFA list:
Creating Cat Breed Names :
| CFA NAME | FIRST LETTERS LOWERCASED | NUMBER IF ANY + fepet | MIRAD NAME |
| American Shorthair | am | a + fepet | amafepet |
| American Wirehair | am | e + fepet | amefepet |
| Balinese | bal | bal + fepet | balfepet |
| Bengal | ben | ben + fepet | benfepet |

### Color Nomenclature

    The word for color in Mirad is volz, which is mnemonically related to the word for flower (vos). The diminutive of color is voylz, meaning tint, shade, hue.
    The names of common color adjectives in Mirad are based on a scale relating to the natural spectrum, with the first part of the word being the a number representing the spectrum order and the last half being the color stub -lza. The last historically-defined divisions of the spectrum are called indigo and violet, but even scientists themselves admit that the human eye does not distinguish these shades very well, and so Mirad divides the last two as purple and pink for convenience.
       Basic Color Words 1 - red2 - orange3 - yellow4 - green5 - blue6 - purple7 - pink alzaelzailzaulzayolzayalzayelza
    There are four other basic colors:
       Other Basic Color Words  malza....white(Associated with man (light)  melza....brown(Associated with mel (soil)  molza....black(Associated with mon (dark)  maolza....gray(A blend of malza and molza)
    Plus:
      * olza....of no color, blank, clear
    All other colors are formed by prefixing a word or mnemonic word stub (usually flowers or fruits) to the basic color with hyphenation. For example:
      * mecirufeb-ulza....lime green from mecirufeb....lime fruit + ulza....green
      * mim-yalza....aquamarine from mim....sea + yalza....blue
      * licirufeb-ilza....lemon yellow from licirufeb....lemon + ilza....yellow
      * salpyit-alza....salmon red
      * magmef-alza....firebrick red
      * mim-yalza....sea blue, aquamarine
    Shaded variants of color terms can be achieved in the following manner:
      * A "light" shade by changing lza to ylza: uylza....light green
      * A "-ish" shade by changing lza to lzyena: ulzyena....greenish
      * A "bright" shade by changing lza to lzayna: ulzayna....bright green
      * A "dark" shade by changing lza to lzoyna: ulzoyna....dark green
    Some in-between colors can be created by mixing the ordinal vowel:
      * maolza....gray from malza....white and molza....black
      * yaulza....blue-green, cyan from yalza....blue and ulza....green
      * maelza....beige from malza....white and melza....brown
    Colors can be made into nouns by dropping the adjectival suffix -a:
      * Ulz se via volz.....Green is a beautiful color.
      * At gafe yalzayn.....I prefer dark blue.
    Colors can also be used to form verbs:
      * Iyta teobi alzasa.....Her cheeks turned red (= blushed).
      * His se fia teubip malzaxus.....This is a good teeth whitener.
      * Eta teupibi ilzaseye.....Your teeth are yellowing.

#### Rarely Used Colors

    The more exotic or rare colors can be expressed by the RAL number / 10 in the Wikipedia Chart of RAL Colors expressed in Mirad + -lz. For example, the color golden yellow has the RAL number 1004. Divided by 10 yields the number 104 (ase, in Mirad), thus, the color is named aselz. The adjectival form of this color is aselza. One advantage of this system is that the colors are grouped by nine classic colors represented by the thousands unit, then subdivided by up to 999 shades of those classic colors, although in practice, the number of shades belonging to each classic color is under 40. For that reason, the thousands unit is reduced to a hundreds unit in the formation of Mirad color names.

##### Skin colors

    When a color refers specifically to skin tone, the prefix tayo(b)- is used. The final -b of tayob is dropped before a consonant or glide. The word for skin-color itself is tayovolz. Thus:
      * (tayo-)molzat....black(-skinned) person
      * (tayo-)malzat....white(-skinned) person
      * (tayo-)melzat....brown(-skinned) person
      * (tayob)omalzat....non-white(-skinned) person
      * (tayob)omolzat....non-black(-skinned) person
      * (tayob)omelzat....non-brown(-skinned) person
      * (tayob)eymolzat....half-black(skinned) person
      * (tayob)eymalzat....half-white(-skinned) person
      * (tayo-)maolzat....mulatto, mixed-skinned person
      * (tayob)olzat....albino
      * hyetayovolza....of any skin-tone
      * hyatayovolzati....people of all colors
      * Iyt se duhotayovolza?....What skin color is she?

#### Hair Colors

    Hair colors are produced by suffixing the color to the word for hair, tayeb. The final -b of tayeb is dropped before a consonant or y. The word for hair color is tayevolz.
      * tayebalza....red-headed, auburn
      ** tayebalzayt....an auburn female
      * tayemolza....brunette
      * tayemelza....brown-haired
      * tayebiylza....blond
      * tayemaolza....gray, gray-haired
         * It gwa tayemaolzaso.....He will go gray early.
      * Duhotayevolza iyt se?....What color hair is she?

#### Eye Colors

    Eye colors are expressed by the prefix tea(b) followed by the color. The word for eye color is teavolz. In the following examples, teab (eye) becomes tea before any consonants or glides:
      * teayolza....blue-eyed
      * teabulza....green-eyed
      * teamelza....brown-eyed
         * teamelzat....brown-eyed person
      * teamolz....a black eye
      * teamalz....the white of the eye
      * Duhoteavolza et se?....What color eyes do you have?

### Chemical Nomenclature

    The names of chemical elements are formed by converting the abbreviation for the element into Mirad lowercase alphabetic equivalents, then adding lk, a suffix stub for chemicals. For example, the abbreviation for hydrogen is H. So we replace that with the word for lowercase h in Mirad: he. By adding the stub suffix lk, we get helk.
    Use the the names of the small letters of the alphabet as shown below. The letter name ca is pronounced cha as in English cha-cha.
Lowercase Alphabet with Letter Names :
| Lowercase | a | b | c | d | e | f | g | h | i | j | k | l | m | n | o | p | q | r | s | t | u | v | w | x | y | z |
| Mirad Name | a | ba | ca | da | e | fe | ge | he | i | ji | ki | li | mi | ni | o | po | ko | ro | so | to | u | vu | wu | xu | yu | zu |

#### Coding Chemical Elements

    The following chart shows some examples of how words for chemical elements are formed:
Coding Chemical Elements :
| ENGLISH ELEMENT NAME | ABBREVIATION | MIRAD NAME |
| silver | Ar | arolk |
| iron | Fe | feelk |
| hydrogen | H | helk |
| nitrogen | N | nilk |
| mercury | Hg | hegelk |
| darmstadtium | Ds | dasolk |
    In chemical compounds, the lk is used only on the last element of the compound.
    Chemical compounds such as H$_2$O (hydrogen dioxide) are coded in the following manner.
      * The H for hydrogen is rendered as he (without the -lk).
      * The number 2 refers to two hydrogen atoms, so the Mirad prefix for two, bi-, en- is prefixed to the h, giving enhe.
      * The word for oxygen, ol is added, and, since it is the last element in the compound, the lk is suffixed.
      * The English word ends in -ide, which is rendered in Mirad as -iyd, giving enheolkiyd
    Such chemical suffix equivalents are given below:
    Given the chemical element sulfur, which has the abbreviation S, the Mirad equivalent for this solid is solk. Possible variants of this chemical, plus others, are:

#### Chemical Compound Suffixes

Chemical Suffix Equivalents :
| ENGLISH SUFFIX | MIRAD EQUIVALENT | ENGLISH EXAMPLE | MIRAD EQUIVALENT |
| -ide | -iyd | sulfide | solkiyd |
| -ite | -iyt | sulfite | solkiyt |
| -ate | -ayt | sulfate | solkayt |
| -ine | -iyn | iodine | ilkiyn |
| -ane | -ayn | methane | ahelkayn |
| -ene | -eyn | benzene | ehelkeyn |
| -one | -oyn | ketone | ketoyn |
| -ine | --iyn | alanine | alaniyn |
| -ic | -a | ferric | feelka |
| -ous | aya | ferrous | feelkaya |
    Note that the numeral prefixes in chemical formulae end in -n. : The numeral prefixes 5 and 6 end in -on instead of -n so as to distinguish them from the words yan....together and yon....apart.
    The chart below shows some of the numeric prefixes:
Numeric Prefixes :
| NUMBER | PREFIX | EXAMPLE |
| a....mono- | an | anolkiyd....monoxide (O) |
| e....bi-/di- | en | encalkayt....bicarbonate (C$_2$) |
| i....tri- | in | inolkiyd-....trioxide (O$_3$) |
| u....tetr(a)- | un | unolkiyd-....tetroxide (O$_4$) |
| yo....pent(a)- | yoon | yoonolkiyd-....pentoxide (O$_5$) |
| ya....hex(a)- | yaon | yaonolkiyd....hexoxide (O$_6$) |
| ye....hept(a)- | yen | yenolkiyd....heptoxide (O$_7$) |
| yi....oct(o)- | yin | yinolkiyd-....octoxide (O$_8$) |
| yu....non(a)- | yun | yunolkiyd-....nonoxide (O$_9$) |
| alo....dec(a)- | alon | alonolkayt-....decoxidate (O$_{10}$) |
    Examples:
      * carbon dioxide (C$_2$O)....calk enolkiyd
      * sodium bicarbonate (Na2C)....nialk encalkayt
      * calcium dihydrogen phosphate....caalk enhelk polkayt
      * glucose (C$_6$H$_{12}$O$_6$)....yaoncaalanheyaonolk (or: levelos)
      * methanol (C$_3$HOH)....cainheohelk
    Note: the -lk is added only at the end of a compound and before the endings -iyd, -iyt, and -ayt, etc.

#### Names of Atomic Parts

    The word for atom in Mirad is gwomulk, which literally is least particle.
    The main particles in an atom are:
      * vamulk....proton
      * vemulk....neutron
      * vomulk....electron
    Every atom contains mulki (subatomic particles).
    The principle elementary atomic particles (quarks, leptons, bosons) are named from the alphabetic spellings of the letter abbreviations in the Standard Abbreviations chart to the right, some of which are Greek letters, both upper and lower case. (See wikipedia:Subatomic_particle ).
      * hamulk....hadron
         * mi-hamulk....meson
            * pimi-hamulk....pion
            * kami-hamulk....kaon
         * ba-hamulk....baryon
            * lambda-ba-hamulk....lambda baryon
      * vomulk....proton
      * vemulk....neutron
      * zemulk....nucleon
      * alfamulk'....alpha particle
      * fermimulk....fermion
      * goryumulk....nanoparticle
      * kyiazon mulk....graviton
      * bamulk....boson particle
         * agha-bamulk....higgs particle
         * agwu-bamulk....W boson
         * agzu-bamulk....Z boson
         * gamma-bamulk....photon
         * ge-bamulk....gluon
      * qomulk....quark
         * ba-qomulk....bottom quark
         * ca-qomulk....charm quark
         * da-qomulk....down quark
         * ov-qomulk....antiparticle, antiquark
         * penta-qomulk....penta quark
         * tetra-qomulk....tetra quark
         * to-qomulk....top quark
         * u-qomulk....up quark
         * so-qomulk....strange quark
      * limulk....lepton
         * gamma-limulk....photon (also: manmulk)
         * mu-limulk....muon
         * pi-limulk....pion
         * tau-limulk....tau
         * vu-e-limulk....electron neutrino
         * vu-mu-limulk....muon neutrino
         * vu-tau-limulk....tau neutrino
         * e-limulk....electron (also: vamulk)
         * vamulk....electron
    The nucleus of an atom is called zemulk. Therefore, zemulka means nuclear.

### Musical Nomenclature
#### Musical Instruments

    The musical instruments are encoded as follows, where all instruments contain the word for musical instrument (duzar < duz (music) + -ar (instrument). The system is based on a five-way classification system that relates to the way the instrument is played.
Musical Instruments :
| MIRAD | ENGLISH |
| BOWED-STRING ||
| aduzar | violin |
| eduzar | violin alto |
| iduzar | cello |
| uduzar | bass |
| yoduzar | viola |
| yaduzar | fiddle |
| yeduzar | viol |
| WOODWIND ||
| faduzar | flute |
| feduzar | oboe |
| fiduzar | clarinet |
| fuduzar | bassoon |
| fyoduzar | French harp, harmonica |
| fyaduzar | recorder |
| fyeduzar | bagpipe |
| fyiduzar | didgeridoo |
| fyuduzar | piccolo |
| faloduzar | fife, hornpipe |
| faladuzar | ocarina, ocarine |
| BRASS ||
| voduzar | horn |
| vaduzar | trumpet |
| veduzar | trombone |
| vuduzar -- avuduzar -- evuduzar --ivuduzar | saxophone -- tenor saxophone -- alto saxophone -- bass saxophone |
| vyoduzar | tuba |
| vyaduzar | bugle |
| vyeduzar | French horn |
| vyiduzar | cornet |
| vyuduzar | euphonium |
| valoduzar | flugelhorn |
| valaduzar | sousaphone |
| valeduzar | clarion |
| validuzar | mellophone |
| PERCUSSION ||
| kaduzar -- akaduzar -- ekaduzar -- ikaduzar -- ukaduzar -- yokaduzar -- yakaduzar -- yekaduzar | drum -- snare drum -- bass drum -- tenor drum -- steel drum -- bongo drum -- timbrel -- kettledrum |
| keduzar | glockenspiel |
| kiduzar | vibraphone |
| kuduzar | marimba |
| kyoduzar | tubular bell |
| gaduzar | triangle |
| geduzar | gong |
| giduzar | castanet |
| guduzar | rattle |
| gyoduzar | xylophone |
| gyaduzar | maraca |
| gyeduzar | cajón |
| gyiduzar | cymbal |
| gyuduzar | tambourine |
| galoduzar | steelpan |
| galaduzar | wind chime |
| galeduzar | chime bar |
| galiduzar | celeste |
| galuduzar | clapper |
| galyoduzar | Jew's harp |
| galyaduzar | bazooka |
| KEYBOARD ||
| raduzar -- utekea raduzar -- agala raduzar -- sem raduzar | piano -- player piano -- grand piano -- keyboard |
| reduzar | clavichord |
| riduzar | harpsichord |
| ruduzar -- mufyeg ruduzar -- maka ruduzar | organ -- pipe organ -- electric organ |
| ryoduzar | accordion |
| ryaduzar | dulcimer |
| ryeduzar | calliope |
| ryiduzar | melodica |
| ryuduzar | concertina |
| GUITAR ||
| baduzar -- seuxa baduzar -- maka baduzar -- yoba baduzar | guitar -- accoustic guitar -- electric guitar -- bass guitar |
| beduzar | banjo |
| biduzar | lute |
| buduzar | harp |
| byoduzar | mandolin |
| byaduzar | ukelele |
| byeduzar | zither |
| byiduzar | lyre |
| byuduzar | cithara, kithara |
| baloduzar | sitar |

#### Voice Ranges

Voice Ranges (Deuz nabyani) :
| MIRAD | ENGLISH | MEANING |
| WOMEN |||
| yabdeuzuyt | soprano | "high-voice-female" |
| yaybdeuzuyt | mezzo-soprano | "high-ish-voice-female" |
| yobdeuzuyt | alto, contralto | "low-voice-female" |
| MEN |||
| yabdeuzwut | tenor | "high-voice-male" |
| yoybdeuzwut | baritone | "high-ish-voice-male" |
| yobdeuzwut | bass | "low-voice-male" |
| vyoyabdeuzwut | falsetto | "false-high-voice-male" |
| BOYS |||
| twobet yabdeuzwut | treble | "boy high-voice-male" |
    Suffix these nouns with -a to make them adjectives, eg.:
      * His se yabdeuzwuta duznod.....This is a tenor note.

#### Solmization Syllables

    The syllables used in Mirad to spell out musical notes is like the system used in the English-speaking world:
Solmization Syllables :
| do | re | mi | fa | sol | la | ti | do |

#### Musical Score Elements

    The semitone or accidental symbols are:
Accidentals :
| ENGLISH NAME | SYMBOL | MIRAD NAME | ENGLISH EXAMPLE | MIRAD EXAMPLE | MIRAD PRONUNCIATION |
| flat | 𝄬 | yobwa (=lowered) | B flat | B yobwa | ba YOBwa |
| sharp | 𝄰 | yabwa (=raised) | C sharp | C yabwa | ca YABwa |
| natural | 𝄮 | egxwa (=normalized) | F natural | F egxwa | fe EGxwa |
    Some staff notation:
Staff Notation :
| ENGLISH NAME | SYMBOL | MIRAD NAME |
| staff | 𝄙 | nuidyan |
| treble clef, G clef | 𝄞 | G yijar |
| C clef | 𝄡 | C yijar |
| base clef, F clef | 𝄢 | F yijar |
| note | | nod |
| half note | 𝅗𝅥 | eyna nod |
| quarter note | 𝅘𝅥 | uyna nod |
| whole note | 𝅝 | ayna nod |
| quarter rest | 𝄽 | uyna poys |
| eighth note | 𝅘𝅥𝅮 | yiyna nod |
| bar, measure | 𝄀 | nodzyan |
| ligature | | yanxus |

#### Characteristic Features of Music

Characteristic Features of Music :
| MIRAD | ENGLISH |
| deup | beat |
| seupan | cadence |
| jes | duration |
| zoyteuz | echo |
| yanseuz | harmony |
| duzneg | pitch |
| ijduzneg | key |
| druz | lyric |
| agala duzmus | major scale |
| duznag | measure |
| duznad | melody |
| duzjob | tempo |
| nak | meter |
| ogala duzmus | minor scale |
| duz | music |
| yinig | octave |
| byexes | pulse |
| zoyseuzen | resonance |
| deupyan | rhythm |
| duzmus | scale |
| duzdreyn | score |
| seux | sound |
| duzigan | tempo |
| seuzvolz | timbre |
| seuz | tone |
| yanseuz | chord, harmonic |
| aybseuz | overtone |
| deuzunog | tune |
| deuz | voice |
| seuxnid | volume |

#### Dynamics

    Notations having to do with musical dynamic accents are usually in Italian and are recognized the world over. For this reason, they are left as is in Mirad.
    These include:
    a tempo, accelerando, accelerando, crescendo, decrescendo, diminuendo, fermata, forte, fortissimo, glissando, legato, lento, marcato, mezzo forte, mezzo piano, pianissimo, piano, poco a poco, portamento, rallentando, ritardanto, rubato, sforzando, staccatissimo, staccato, subito piano, tenuto, tremolo, and others.

#### Types of Arrangements

Musical Arrangements :
| ENGLISH | MIRAD |
| a capella song | a kapella deuzun, deuzun boy duzari |
| anthem | fizdeuzun, tezdeuzun |
| antiphon | duiddeuzun |
| aria | arya, awat deuzun |
| arrangement | napbeyn |
| art song | tuz deuz |
| ballad | daz deuz, ifonkex deuzun |
| battle hymn | dropek deuzun |
| bird song | pat deuzun |
| broadway song | Broadway deuzun |
| campfire song | tamoftem deuzun |
| cantata | kantata |
| canticle | efyadeuzun |
| carol | ivdeuzun |
| chant | yagdeuzun |
| choral arrangement | deuzutyan napxeyn |
| Christmas carol | Kristtaj ivdeuzun |
| classical song | visauna deuzun |
| composition | duzdrun |
| concerto | koncerto |
| country song | odom deuzun, meimtyoda deuzun |
| dance song | daz deuzun |
| dirge | uvdeuzun |
| ditty | deuzog |
| doggerel verse | dizdeuzun |
| drinking song | tilien deuzun |
| duet | ewat (deuzun) |
| folksong | tyoyd deuzun |
| glee | Gebama deuzun |
| gospel song | fyadin deuzun |
| hip hop song | hip hop deuzun |
| hit song | agakus deuzun |
| hymn | fyadeuzun |
| instrumental | duzarun |
| jingle | nundeuzunog |
| karaoke song | karaoke deuzun |
| love song | ifon deuzun |
| lullaby | tudet deuzun |
| lute song | riduzar deuzun |
| madrigal | duzuka deuzun |
| marching song | doptyopen deuzun |
| medley | ebmulxwa deuzyan |
| metal song | mug deuzun |
| musical number | duzun |
| old standard | ajdeuzun |
| opera | dyuz, dyuzun |
| oratorio | oratoryo |
| paean | akrun deuzun |
| partsong | gon deuzun |
| patter song | deuzig |
| pop song | tyoda deuzun |
| psalm | afyadeuzun |
| rock song | rok deuzun |
| round | zoydea deuzun |
| sea shanty | mim deuz |
| show tune | duez deuzun |
| signature song | ujak deuzun |
| slow jam | bluz deuzun |
| soliloquy | awat, awat deuzun |
| solo | awat (duzun), awat (deuzun) |
| song | deuzun |
| spiritual, negro spiritual | topa deuzun |
| sporting song | tapifek deuzun |
| symphony | viduzunyag |
| theme song | texzena deuz |
| torch song | ifonok uvdeuzun |
| vaudeville song | Vaudeville deuzun |
| Wienerlied | Viena deuzun |

#### Musicians

Musicians :
| ENGLISH | MIRAD |
| musician | duzut, duzuyt, duzwut |
| instrumentalist | duzarut |
| violinist | aduzarut |
| conductor | duzdeb, duzutyaneb |
| soloist | anduzut |
| singer, vocalist | deuzut |
| danseur | dyazwut |
| ballerina | dyazuyt |
| dancer | dazut, dazuyt, dazwut |
| opera singer | dyuzut, dyuzuyt, dyuzwut |
| operatist, librettist | dyuzdrut |
| composer | duzdrut |
| lyricist, songwriter | deuzdrut |
| dance conductor | dazeb |
| (symphony) orchestra | duzarutyan |
| philharmonic orchestra | duzarutyanag |
| chorus, chorale | deuzutyan |
| dance troupe | dazutyan |

#### Song Parts

Song Parts :
| MIRAD | ENGLISH |
| ujgon | coda |
| ijgon | intro |
| ebek | interlude |
| ijek | finale |
| galijun | reprise |
| galdwas | refrain |
| agalduznad | theme |
| nadyan | verse |
| zeymep | bridge |
| galdwas | chorus |
| ujnadyan | outro |

#### Music Genres

    Some genres and styles of music:
Genres of Music :
| MIRAD | ENGLISH |
| a kapella, boy duzari | a capella |
| yugtaxea duz | ambiant |
| Usoma tyoyduz | American folk |
| Usoma egona duz | American standard |
| yizejna | avant garde |
| Baroka | Baroque |
| yolza vab | bluegrass |
| bluz | blues |
| Bolliwud | Bollywood |
| bossa nova | bossa nova |
| kalipso | calypso |
| Kelta yagdeuz | Celtic chant |
| Canima tyoyduz | Chinese folk |
| Canima ajutbyena dyuz | Chinese traditional opera |
| jejoba deupyan ay bluz | contemporary R&B |
| maima bluz | country blues |
| maima duz | country music |
| maima pop | country pop |
| maima rap | country rap |
| maima rok | country rock |
| dazam pop | dancehall pop |
| disko | disco |
| du-wop | doo-wop |
| maka dauz | electronic dance music (EDM) |
| yugtaxea duz | elevator music |
| Euma disko | Euro-disco |
| jwayeka | experimental |
| flamenko | flamenco |
| funk | funk |
| Gregoria yagdeuz | Gregorian chant |
| hip-hop | hip-hop |
| honki-tonk | honky-tonk |
| hyusuna rok | Indie rock |
| jaz | jazz |
| makjaz | jazztronica |
| juju | juju |
| fyaxela duz | liturgical music |
| majika | majika |
| mamo | mambo |
| merengwe | merengue |
| mesitzo | mesitzo |
| mug | metal |
| Mixuma duz | Mexican |
| seuz bi Naxvil | Nashville sound |
| Ejna Orleans bluz | New Orleans blues |
| dyuz | opera |
| rancera | ranchera |
| rap | rap |
| rege | reggae |
| deupyan ay blus, ro-ay-ba | rhythm & blues |
| rok-ay-rol | rock & roll |
| salsa | salsa |
| samba | samba |
| ska | ska |
| galoduzaruta duz | steel band music |
| swing | swing |
| Tehano | Tejano |
| eyntuj duz | trance music |
| Umera visauna | Western classical |
| Umeryena | Western |
| zideko | zydeco |

### Geographic Placenames

    As in English, Geograpic placenames are capitalized, including the languages and inhabitants.

#### Countries of the World

Below is a complete list of the current officially assigned ISO 3166-1 alpha-3 codes, with country names being English short country names officially used by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA). The Mirad equivalents are formed by replacing the letters of the ISO code with the lowercase Mirad alphabetic spells, except if the letter is followed by a vowel, in which case the ISO letter is kept as is, but lower-cased. The letter m is suffixed as a stub for "place" and then the word-initial letter is capitalized, eg.:
    Example 1:
    Burundi is translated as follows:
      * The ISO 3166-1 alpha-3 code is BDI.
      * BDI is lowercased to bdi
      * b is convered to the Mirad alphabetic spell ba.
      * Since d is followed by a vowel, it is left as is: d.
      * The vowel i is left as is: i
      * m is appended for place: badim
      * The initial letter of the country name is capitalized: Badim
      * BDI (Burundi) = Badim.
    Example 2:
    Uzbekistan is translated as follows:
      * The ISO 3166-1 alpha-3 code is UZB.
      * UZB is lowercased to uzb
      * u is left as is: u.
      * z is converted to the Mirad alphabetic spell: zu
      * b is converted to the Mirad alphabetic spell: ba
      * m is appended for place: uzubam
      * The initial letter of the country name is capitalized: Uzubam
      * UZB (Uzbekistan) = Uzubam.
Country Names (click on arrows to sort a column) :
| ISO | English | Mirad |
| ABW | Aruba | Abawum |
| AFG | Afghanistan | Afegem |
| AGO | Angola | Agom |
| AIA | Anguilla | Aiam |
| ALA | Åland Islands | Alam |
| ALB | Albania | Alibam |
| AND | Andorra | Anidam |
| ANT | Netherlands Antilles | Anitom |
| ARE | United Arab Emirates | Arem |
| ARG | Argentina | Arogem |
| ARM | Armenia | Aromim |
| ASM | American Samoa | Asomim |
| ATA | Antarctica | Atam |
| ATF | French Southern Territories | Atofem |
| ATG | Antigua and Barbuda | Atogem |
| AUS | Australia | Ausom |
| AUT | Austria | Autom |
| AZE | Azerbaijan | Azem |
| BDI | Burundi | Badim |
| BEL | Belgium | Belim |
| BEN | Benin | Benim |
| BFA | Burkina Faso | Bafam |
| BGD | Bangladesh | Bagedam |
| BGR | Bulgaria | Bagerom |
| BHR | Bahrain | Baherom |
| BHS | The Bahamas|Bahamas | Bahesom |
| BIH | Bosnia and Herzegovina | Bihem |
| BLM | Saint Barthélemy | Balimim |
| BLR | Belarus | Balirom |
| BLZ | Belize | Balizum |
| BMU | Bermuda | Bamum |
| BOL | Bolivia | Bolim |
| BRA | Brazil | Baram |
| BRB | Barbados | Barobam |
| BRN | Brunei Darussalam | Baronim |
| BTN | Bhutan | Batonim |
| BVT | Bouvet Island | Bavutom |
| BWA | Botswana | Bawam |
| CAF | Central African Republic | Cafem |
| CAN | Canada | Canim |
| CCK | Cocos Islands | Cacakim |
| CHE | Switzerland | Cahem |
| CHL | Chile | Cahelim |
| CHN | China | Cahenim |
| CIV | Côte d'Ivoire | Civum |
| CMR | Cameroon | Camirom |
| COD | Democratic Republic of the Congo | Codam |
| COG | Republic of the Congo | Cogem |
| COK | Cook Islands | Cokim |
| COL | Colombia | Colim |
| COM | Comoros | Comim |
| CPV | Cape Verde | Capovum |
| CRI | Costa Rica | Carim |
| CUB | Cuba | Cubam |
| CXR | Christmas Island | Caxurom |
| CYM | Cayman Islands | Cayumim |
| CYP | Cyprus | Cayupom |
| CZE | Czechia | Cazem |
| DEU | Germany | Deum |
| DJI | Djibouti | Dajim |
| DMA | Dominica | Damam |
| DNK | Denmark | Danikim |
| DOM | Dominican Republic | Domim |
| DZA | Algeria | Dazam |
| ECU | Ecuador | Ecum |
| EGY | Egypt | Egeyum |
| ERI | Eritrea | Erim |
| ESH | Western Sahara | Esohem |
| ESP | Spain | Esopom |
| EST | Estonia | Esotom |
| ETH | Ethiopia | Etohem |
| FIN | Finland | Finim |
| FJI | Fiji | Fejim |
| FLK | Falkland Islands (Malvinas) | Felikim |
| FRA | France | Feram |
| FRO | Faroe Islands | Ferom |
| FSM | Federated States of Micronesia | Fesomim |
| GAB | Gabon | Gabam |
| GBR | United Kingdom | Gebarom |
| GEO | Georgia | Geom |
| GGY | Guernsey | Gegeyum |
| GHA | Ghana | Geham |
| GIB | Gibraltar | Gibam |
| GLP | Guadeloupe | Gelipom |
| GMB | Gambia | Gemibam |
| GNB | Guinea-Bissau | Genibam |
| GNQ | Equatorial Guinea | Geniqom |
| GRC | Greece | Gerocam |
| GRD | Grenada | Gerodam |
| GRL | Greenland | Gedolim |
| GTM | Guatemala | Getomim |
| GUF | French Guiana | Gufem |
| GUM | Guam | Gumim |
| GUY | Guyana | Guyum |
| HKG | Hong Kong | Hekigem |
| HMD | Heard Island and McDonald Islands | Hemidam |
| HND | Honduras | Henidam |
| HRV | Croatia | Herovum |
| HTI | Haiti | Hetim |
| HUN | Hungary | Hunim |
| IDN | Indonesia | Idanim |
| IMN | Isle of Man | Iminim |
| IND | India | Inidam |
| IOT | British Indian Ocean Territory | Iotom |
| IRL | Republic of Ireland | Irolim |
| IRN | Iran | Ironim |
| IRQ | Iraq | Iroqom |
| ISL | Iceland | Isolim |
| ISR | Israel | Isorom |
| ITA | Italy | Itam |
| JAM | Jamaica | Jamim |
| JEY | Jersey | Jeyum |
| JOR | Jordan | Jorom |
| JPN | Japan | Jiponim |
| KAZ | Kazakhstan | Kazum |
| KEN | Kenya | Kenim |
| KGZ | Kyrgyzstan | Kigezum |
| KHM | Cambodia | Kihemim |
| KIR | Kiribati | Kirom |
| KNA | Saint Kitts and Nevis | Kinam |
| KOR | Korea, Republic of | Korom |
| KWT | Kuwait | Kiwutom |
| LAO | Laos | Laom |
| LBN | Lebanon | Libanim |
| LBR | Liberia | Libarom |
| LBY | Libya | Libayum |
| LCA | Saint Lucia | Licam |
| LIE | Liechtenstein | Liem |
| LKA | Sri Lanka | Likam |
| LSO | Lesotho | Lisom |
| LTU | Lithuania | Litum |
| LUX | Luxembourg | Luxum |
| LVA | Latvia | Livam |
| MAC | Macao | Macam |
| MAF | Saint Martin | Mafem |
| MAR | Morocco | Marom |
| MCO | Monaco | Micom |
| MDA | Moldova | Midam |
| MDG | Madagascar | Midagem |
| MDV | Maldives | Midavum |
| MEX | Mexico | Mexum |
| MHL | Marshall Islands | Mihelim |
| MKD | Republic of Macedonia | Mikidam |
| MLI | Mali | Milim |
| MLT | Malta | Militom |
| MMR | Myanmar | Mimirom |
| MNE | Montenegro | Minem |
| MNG | Mongolia | Minigem |
| MNP | Northern Mariana Islands | Minipom |
| MOZ | Mozambique | Mozum |
| MRT | Mauritania | Mirotom |
| MSR | Montserrat | Misorom |
| MTQ | Martinique | Mitoqom |
| MUS | Mauritius | Musom |
| MWI | Malawi | Miwim |
| MYS | Malaysia | Miyusom |
| MYT | Mayotte | Miyutom |
| NAM | Namibia | Namim |
| NCL | New Caledonia | Nicalim |
| NER | Niger | Nerom |
| NFK | Norfolk Island | Nifekim |
| NGA | Nigeria | Nigam |
| NIC | Nicaragua | Nicam |
| NOR | Norway | Norom |
| NIU | Niue | Nium |
| NLD | Netherlands | Nilidam |
| NPL | Nepal | Nipolim |
| NRU | Nauru | Nirum |
| NZL | New Zealand | Nizulim |
| OMN | Oman | Ominim |
| PAK | Pakistan | Pakim |
| PAN | Panama | Panim |
| PCN | Pitcairn Islands | Pocanim |
| PER | Peru | Perom |
| PHL | Philippines | Pohelim |
| PLW | Palau | Poliwum |
| PNG | Papua New Guinea | Ponigem |
| POL | Poland | Polim |
| PRI | Puerto Rico | Porim |
| PRK | North Korea | Porikim |
| PRT | Portugal | Porotom |
| PRY | Paraguay | Poroyum |
| PSE | Palestinian territories | Posem |
| PYF | French Polynesia | Poyufem |
| QAT | Qatar | Qatom |
| REU | Réunion | Reum |
| ROU | Romania | Roum |
| RUS | Russia | Rusom |
| RWA | Rwanda | Rowam |
| SAU | Saudi Arabia | Saum |
| SDN | Sudan | Sodanim |
| SEN | Senegal | Senim |
| SGP | Singapore | Sogepom |
| SGS | South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands | Sogesom |
| SHN | Saint Helena | Sohenim |
| SJM | Svalbard and Jan Mayen | Sojimim |
| SLB | Solomon Islands | Solibam |
| SLE | Sierra Leone | Solem |
| SLV | El Salvador | Solivum |
| SMR | San Marino | Somirom |
| SOM | Somalia | Somim |
| SPM | Saint Pierre and Miquelon | Sopomim |
| SRB | Serbia | Sorobam |
| STP | São Tomé and Príncipe | Sotopom |
| SUR | Suriname | Surom |
| SVK | Slovakia | Sovukim |
| SVN | Slovenia | Sovunim |
| SWE | Sweden | Sowem |
| SWZ | Swaziland | Sowuzum |
| SYC | Seychelles | Soyucam |
| SYR | Syria | Soyurom |
| TCA | Turks and Caicos Islands | Tocam |
| TCD | Chad | Tocadam |
| TGO | Togo | Togom |
| THA | Thailand | Toham |
| TJK | Tajikistan | Tojikim |
| TKL | Tokelau | Tokilim |
| TKM | Turkmenistan | Tokimim |
| TLS | East Timor | Tolisom |
| TON | Tonga | Tonim |
| TTO | Trinidad and Tobago | Totom |
| TUN | Tunisia | Tunim |
| TUR | Turkey | Turim |
| TUV | Tuvalu | Tuvum |
| TWN | Taiwan | Towunim |
| TZA | Tanzania | Tozam |
| UGA | Uganda | Ugam |
| UKR | Ukraine | Ukirom |
| UMI | United States Minor Outlying Islands | Umim |
| URY | Uruguay | Uroyum |
| USA | United States | Usam |
| UZB | Uzbekistan | Uzubam |
| VAT | Vatican City | Vatom |
| VCT | Saint Vincent and the Grenadines | Vucatom |
| VEN | Venezuela | Venim |
| VGB | British Virgin Islands | Vugebam |
| VIR | United States Virgin Islands | Virom |
| VNM | Vietnam | Vunimim |
| VUT | Vanuatu | Vutom |
| WLF | Wallis and Futuna | Wulifem |
| WSM | Samoa | Wusomim |
| YEM | Yemen | Yemim |
| ZAF | South Africa | Zafem |
| ZMB | Zambia | Zumibam |
| ZWE | Zimbabwe | Zuwem |
    The adjective for these Mirad country names can be formed by suffixing the adjective marker a, eg:
      * Feram....France ==> Ferama....French
      * Usom....United States ==> Usoma....American
      * Deum....Germany ==> Deuma....German
    The inhabitant of a country is formed by changing the final m of the placename to t (meaning person), eg:
      * Feram....French ==> Ferat....a French person, a Frenchman
    The names of country inhabitants can be pluralized and genderized, as other animate nouns, eg:
      * Ferat....a French person ==> ha Ferati....the French
      * Etohet....an Ethiopian ==> Etohwat....an Ethiopian male
      * Finit....a Finn ==> Finiyt....a Finnish woman
    Do not confuse the adjectival name of a country with the language: Ferama refers to the country of France, not the language French. French the language is Ferad.

#### Continents

    The word for continent in Mirad is yanmel (= "together-soil"). The names of the continents in Mirad are formed from the word yanmel with vectorial prefixes.
Continent Names :
| MIRAD | ENGLISH |
| Ayanmal | North America |
| Oyanmel | South America |
| Iyanmel | Asia |
| Uyanmel | Europe |
| Eyanmel | Africa |
| Yoyanmel | Oceania |
    The adjective counterparts of these placenames are derived by suffixing -a:
   * Iyanmela....Asian
   * Uyanmela....European
    By appending -t(i) to the adjectival names, we get the inhabitants:
   * Eyanmelat....an African
   * Ayanmelati....North Americans
    Note:
   * The Americas is expressed in Mirad with the hybrid word Aoyanmel (a combination of North and South America).
   * Central America is expressed in Mirad by Ebaoyanmel (Inter-America)
   * The word Usom means United States or USA. The word America by itself is not used in Mirad; only North America or South America. United States of America is expressed by Usom bi Ayanmel (United States of North America), abbreviated as UA.
   * The word Usomati is used for Americans when referring to inhabitants of the U.S.
   * The word Eyanmel-Usomat, or more briefly, Eusomat is used for African American.
   * Latin America is expressed as Liada Oyanmel.
   * A Latino is Liadut.
   * A latinx in the U.S. is called Usoma Liadut.
   * In some geographic systems, Ausom....Australia is considered a continent.
    The word for island is yonmel (= separate land).

#### Oceans

    The Mirad word for ocean is mimag. The ocean names are formed by prefixing a vectorial ordinal to the word mimag:
Ocean Names :
| MIRAD | ENGLISH |
| Amimag | Arctic Ocean |
| Omimag | Southern Ocean |
| Imimag | Pacific Ocean |
| Umimag | Atlantic Ocean |
| Emimag | Indian Ocean |

#### Compass Directions and Poles

    The compass directions (merizoni) and poles (mernodi) are as follows:
      * zamer....north / zamera....northern / zamernod....north pole
      * zomer....south / zomera....southern / zomernod....south pole
      * zimer....east / zimera....eastern
      * zumer....west / zumera....western
    The words Yibzamer....Arctic and Yibzomer...Antarctic(a) both use the prefix yib....far.
    Prefixing the directions with iz-....due- yields:
      * iz zamer....due north
      * iz zomer....due south, etc.
    Directional words can be hybridized, eg:
      * zaomera....north-south
      * zuimera....east-west
      * zaumera....north-west
      * zaimera....north-east

#### Earth Grid Lines

    The earth grid lines (mernadi) are as follows:
      * zamernad....Arctic Circle
      * zomernad....Antarctic Circle
      * zaomernad....longitude
      * zuimernad....latitude
      * zemernad....equator
         * abzemernad....Tropic of Capricorn
         * obzemernad....tropic, Tropic of Cancer
            * yizobzemernad....subtropic
      * eymernad....meridian
      * mamnad....horizon
      * aonada....vertical
      * uinada....horizontal
      * zyenada....perpendicular

#### Languages of the World

    Mirad names of languages are based on either:
      * the name of the country most associated with the language (English < England, French < France), or:
      * the ISO 639-2 alpha-3 three-letter code. (See [of Congress ISO639-2 Codes].
    If formed from the country name, the language name is acquired by replacing the final m or the country name with d. For example, Enigem (England), becomes Eniged (English). See Countries of the World.
    If formed from the ISO 639-2 code, because their is no particular country associated with the language, the letters of the code are replaced with the Mirad lowercase alphabetic spells. The initial letter is capitalized and d is suffixed to the word. A Mirad alphabetic spell in the shape of consonant+vowel loses its vowel before a spell consisting of just a vowel. For example, ba + e becomes be.
    Mirad Language Names ISO LANGUAGE NAMECOUNTRY or ISO CODEMIRAD LANGUAGE NAME AbkhazianabkAbakid AfaraarAarod AfrikaansZafem....South AfricaZafed AkanakaAkad (< a + ki + a +d, where ki + a = ka) AlbanianAlibam....AlbaniaAlibad AmharicamhAmihed ArabicaraArad AragoneseargAroged ArmenianAromimHeyud AssameseasmAsomid AvaricavaAvad AvestanaveAved AymaraaymAyumid AzerbaijaniAzem....AzerbaijanAzed BambarabamBamid BashkirbakBakirod BasquebaqBaqod BelarusianBalirom....BelarusiaBalirod BengaliBagedim....BangladeshBagedid BislamabisBisod BosnianBihem....BosniaBihed BretonbreBared BulgarianBagerom....BulgariaBagerod BurmeseMimirom....MiyanmarMimirod
...and so on...
    The language names can be adjectivized by suffixing -a, eg:
      * Eniged....(the) English (language) ==> Enigeda....(in the) English (language)
      * Hia Enigeda dreun se testiyofwa.....This English language document is incomprehensible.
    The language names can be verbalized with the addition of -der....to say, -daler....to speak, and -xer....to translate into, eg:
      * Ferad....French ==> Ferader....to say in French
      * Esopod....Spanish ==> Esopodaler....to speak Spanish
      * Arad....Arabic ==> Aradxer....to Arabicize/translate into Arabic
      * Ferad bayse gla Enigedxwasi.....French has many Anglicizations.
    The speaker of a language is created by adding -ut or -alut, eg:
      * Eniged....English ==> Enigedut (or) Enigedalut....English speaker
      * Duven et Enigedale?....Do you speak English?
      * Aradu hia dun.....Say this word in Arabic.
      * At se Itadut/Itadalut.....I am a speaker of Italian.
    Specialized forms, dialects, levels, and regional variants of languages are expressed as follows:
    Language Variants VARIATION CATEGORYEXAMPLE Ajna....Old/AncientAjna Eniged....Old English, Anglo-Saxon Ejoba....ModernEjoba Perod....Modern Persian, Farsi Visauna....ClassicalVisauna Gerocad....Classical Greek Vyirina....PuristicVyirina Gerocad....Katharevousa (Puristic Greek) Tyoda....Vulgar/Popular/DemoticTyoda Latod....Vulgar Latin Tyoda Gerocad....Demotic Greek Fyaxela....LiturgicalFyaxela Hebad....Liturgical Hebrew Fyadyesa....BiblicalFyadyesa Hebad....Biblical Hebrew Egona....StandardEjoba Egona Arad....Modern Standard Arabic Egema....EgyptianEgema Arad....Egyptian Arabic Usoma....AmericanUsoma Eniged....American English
    There are some languages with no ISO code that have to be formed in another way, in particular, Mirad itself.
      * Mirad....Mirad (Mir....world)
      * Meurad....Martian (Meur...Mars)
      * Celtic, which is the name of a family of languages, is represented by the ISO code "cel" and is therefore called Celid in Mirad.
      * Indo-European, with the code "ine", translates to Inied in Mirad.

#### Cities and Their Residents

    Here are some key cities, their adjectival forms, and inhabitants. The adjective can end in -a or -yena.
    Cities and Their Residents CITYADJECTIVEINHABITANT Paris....ParisParisyena....ParisianParisat....Parisian Ejna York....New YorkEjna Yorka....of New YorkEjna Yorkat....New Yorker Rom....RomeRoma....RomanRomat....Roman Beijing....BeijingBeijinga....of BeijingBeijingat....resident of Beijing Berlin....BerlinBerlina....from BerlinBerlinat....Berliner
    Examples:
   * Berlina diti dyunwe Berlinati.....Berlin citizens are called Berliners.
   * Bostonati bayse Bostonyena deus.....Bostonians have a Bostonian accent.

### Playing Cards Notation

    The playing card suits and prime denominations are:
    Some useful terms:
      * eker drafi....to play cards
      * zyabuer ha drafi....to deal the card
      * ebnapxer ha drafi....to shuffle the cards
      * goler ha nyan....to cut the deck
      * ujber....to fold
      * durer....to bid
      * lokoxer draf....to turn over a card
      * lokoxer ota tuyab....to show one's hand
      * abnabxer....to trump
      * ekdrafnyan....deck of cards
      * nab....suit
      * joper nab...to follow suit
      * kyesdraft....wild card
      * abnaba draf....trump card
      * ha yannas....the pot
      * ha nax....the ante
      * yaber ha nax....to up/raise the ante

### Chess Piece Nomenclature

| | a | b | c | d | e | f | g | h | |
| 8 | | | | | | | | | 8 |
| 7 | | | | | | | | | 7 |
| 6 | | | | | | | | | 6 |
| 5 | | | | | | | | | 5 |
| 4 | | | | | | | | | 4 |
| 3 | | | | | | | | | 3 |
| 2 | | | | | | | | | 2 |
| 1 | | | | | | | | | 1 |
| | a | b | c | d | e | f | g | h | |
    The game of chess is called xahifek in Mirad.
    The chess pieces (xahifek gouni) are as follows:
    Chess Piece Names MIRADENGLISHIMAGE edwebking edeybqueen efyaxebbishop apetaputknight tamazrook melyexutpawn
    Some chess terms:
      * to checkmate....xahtojber
      * Check!....Xah!
      * Checkmate!....xahtoj!
      * chess board....xahifek seym, xahifek drof
      * to move a piece....paxer goun
      * to capture a piece....pixler goun
      * chess clock....xahifek jwobar
      * chess set....xahifek gounyan
      * chess tournament....xahifekanyan
      * chess player....xehifekut
      * my turn....ata nayb
      * score....aoksag
      * world champion....miraklut

### Botanical Nomenclature

    The plant world is a mighty big place and the names of all those flowers, fruits, vegetables, plants, etc. are very difficult to put into a rational naming scheme any better that the existing one using Latin appelations classified into phyla, classes, orders, families, genera, and species. This botanical world in Mirad, much like the system for coding the zoological world, is coded by a system of syllables that relate to the Linnaean taxonomy.

#### Base Names

    So, in Mirad, botanical organism names have at their base the following words:
      * fab....trees
         * feb....fruits and nuts
      * fayb....vines and shrubs
         * feyb....berries
      * vob....crops
      * vol....vegetables
      * veel....legumes and beans
      * vos....flowers

#### Specific Names

    To create more specific names, syllables derived from the Greco-Latin Linnaean Taxonomy, spelled to conform to Mirad pronuncation, are prefixed left-to-right onto one of the above base categories, with the left-most syllable representing the most specific taxon. So, for example, pine tree is rendered as pifab. The pi prefix is the first syllable of the family of pine trees Pinaceae. The fab ending applies to all trees. To specify other trees in this family, other syllables are prepended, eg. cedar tree is cepifab from Pianaceae Cedrus. A cedar of Lebanon is licepifab from the more specific Pinaceae Cedrus libani.
    By constructing botanical terms this way, all pine trees can be listed by searching for all names ending in pifab.
Basic Botanical Terms :
| fob....plant | vob....crop | vol....vegetable |
| fab....tree fayeb....leaf faob....wood fayob....bark | vab....grass vayob....peel | |
| feb....fruit/nut | veb....ear/tuft veeb....seed veeyb....grain | veel....legume |
| fib....trunk | vib....stem | |
| fub....branch | vub....blade vulob....thorn | |
| fyob....root | vyob....tuber | |

##### Product Names

    Products derived from plants are formed with the following words:
      * -fel....juice
      * -feel....-ade
      * -feyl....juice
      * -fil....alcoholic drink
      * -fyel....oil/jam/syrup
      * -fyeyl....jelly
      * -fol....grounds/powder
      * -fayel....leaf juice
    Individual derivations of these base words are formed exactly as the names of animals in the section Zoological Nomenclature. For example, an apple is from the Rosaceae family of trees, the genus being Malus. So the word for apple becomes marofeb. Apple tree is marofab and apple juice is marofel. Thus, apple cider is marofil.

##### Crops

    Crops are grassy plants that humans cultivate for clothing, food, medicine, or other social needs. Individual crop names are formed by prefixing the base vob with taxonomic syllables.
    The base words of this group are:
      * -vob....crop
      * -vab....grass
      * -vayeb....leaf
      * -veb....ear, cob, head, spike, tuft
      * -veeb....seed, germ
      * -veel....bean, legume
      * -veeyb....grain, kernel, pip
      * -vib....stem
      * -vub....blade, sprig, twig
      * -vyob....tuber
      * -vel....edible product
      * -vil....drinkable product, beer
      * -vyel....syrup
      * -vol....vegetable
    From the above base words are derived these products, among others:
      * sakol....sugar < sakvob....sugarcane
      * povel....bread < povob....cereal
      * zepovyel....corn syrup, corn oil < zepovob....corn
      * zepovil....whiskey, bourbon
      * sepovil....rye whiskey < zepovob....rye
      * povil....beer
      * epovil....ale
      * avpovob mekil....oatmeal < avpovob....oat
      * orpovob zyiglal....rice cake < orpovob....rice
      * mekuvol....melon

##### Vegetables and Legumes

    Vegetables are crops grown by human for food. Individual vegetable names are formed by prefixing the base vol (vegetable) or veel (legume, bean) with classifier syllables derived from the international Linnean Taxonomy. Vegetables can consist of bulbs, flowers, fruits, fungi, leaves, roots, seeds, legumes, beans, or stalks.
Vegetables :
| EDIBLE CROP | TAXONOMY |
| LEGUMES: EDIBLE SEEDS ||
| faveel....bean | Fabaceae Phaseolus vulgaris |
| lensfaveel....lentil | Fabaceae Lens culinaris |
| glifaveel....soybeen | Fabaceae Glycine max |
| vigfaveel....black-eyed pea | Fabaceae Faseolus vigna unguiculata |
| VEGETABLES: BERRIES/FRUITS ||
| lisovol....tomato | Solanaceae Solanum lycopersicum |
| mesovol....eggplant | Solanaceae Solanum melongena |
| perlawvol....avocado | Lauraceae Persea americana |
| sakuvol....cucumber | Cucurbitaceae Cucumis sativus |
| cinasvol....artichoke | Asteraceae Cynara cardunculus |
| akapsovol....chili pepper | Solanaceae Capsicum annuum |
| abmalvol....okra | Malvaceae Abelmoschus esculentus |
| BULBS ||
| amalvol....leek | Allium ampeloprasum |
| cepalvol....onion | Allium cepa |
| alkalvol....shallot | Alium ascalonicum |
| satalvol....garlic | Allium sativum |
| zinvol....ginger | Zingiberaceae Zingiber officinale |
| skoynalvol....chive | Allium Schoenoprasum |
| foynapvol....fennel | Apiaceae Phoenix dactylifera |
| MELONS/GOURDS ||
| kuvol....squash, gourd | Cucurbitaceae Cucurbita |
| makuvol....pumpkin | Cucurbitaceae Cucurbita maxima |
| mekuvol....melon, honeydew, cantaloupe | Cucurbitaceae Cucumis melon |
| cikuvol....watermelon | Cucurbitaceae Citrullus lanatus |
| pekuvol....zucchini | Cucurbitaceae Cucurbita pepo |
| TUBERS/ROOT VEGETABLES ||
| tusovol....potato | Solanaceae Solanum tuberosum |
| betamvol....beet, beetroot | Amaranthaceae Beta vulgaris |
| rafbravol....radish | Brassicaceae Raphanus raphanistrum sativus |
| kadawapvol....carrot | Apiaceae Daucus carota |
| nabravol....turnip | Brassica napus |
| cinasvol....artichoke | Asteraceae Cynara cardunculus |
| pasavol....parsnip | Apiaceae Pastinaca sativa |
| kolaravol....taro | Araceae Colocasia esculenta |
| divol....yam | Dioscoreaceae Dioscorea |
| LEAFY/FLOWERING VEGETABLES ||
| bravol....cabbage | Brassicaceae |
| botrolbravol'....cauliflower | Brassica oleracea botrytis |
| gemolbravol....Brussels sprouts | Brassica oleracea gemmifera |
| valkavol....corn salad, lamb's lettuce | Caprifocilaceae Valerianella locusta |
| lakasvol....lettuce | Asteraceae Lactuta sative |
| spinamvol....spinach | Amaranthaceae Spinancia oleracea |
| rupolivol....sorrel | Polygonaceae Rumex acetosa |
| tarasvol....mustard greens | Asteraceae Taraxacum officinale |
| itolbravol....broccoli | Brassica Oleracea italica |
| abmalvol....okra | Malvaceae Abelmoschus esculentus |
| petapvol....parsley | Apiaceae Petroselinum crispum |
| basoclamvol....basil | Lamiaceae Ocimum basilicum |
| orlamvol....thyme | Lamiaceae Origanum vulgare |
| encivol....chicory, endive | Cichorium endivia |
| nasbravol....watercress | Brassicaceae Nasturtium officinale |
| korapvol....coriander | Apiaceae Coridandrum sativum |
| STALKS ||
| aspavol....asparagus | Asparagaceae Asparagus officinalis |
| gravapvol....celery | Apiaceae Apium graveolens |
| rewmpolivol....rhubarb | Polygonaceae Rheum hybridum |
| kurzinvol....turmeric | Zingiberaceae Curcuma longa |
| kokarvol....heart of palm, swamp cabbage | Arecaceae Cocos |
| cimpovol....lemongrass | Poaceae Cymbopogon |

#### Common Flower Names
##### Flower Parts

    Flower names are built on the base name vos, meaning flower. First, here is a list of flower parts:
Flower Parts :
* Flower Parts
* vos....flower
* vosayob....sepal
* vosayeb....petal
* vosib....receptacle
* veeybpexus....stigma
* vosij....bud, flower bud
* tooygon....pistil
* veeybyan....pollen
* twoogon....stamen
* twoogonyif....filament
* veeybyem....anther
* vosyob....peduncle

##### Flower Names

    Common flower names are generated by prefixing classifying syllables to the base vos that reflect the Linnaean taxonomic specification. Here are some examples:
    sompavos....opium poppy (Papaver somniferum)
    magvos....magnolia (Magnoliaceae Magnolia)
    orvos....orchid (Orchidaceae Orchis)
    krokirvos....crocus (Iridaceae Crocus)
    For a fuller list, see the section Flower Words.

### Computer Terminology

    This section will be ever-changing as new technology emerges.
Computerese :
| MIRAD | ENGLISH |
| agna saibyan syaagir | mainframe computer |
| absem syaagir | desktop computer |
| agbanak | byte |
| ajnexer | to archive |
| amloagbanak | megabyte |
| anay dyewa tax | read-only memory, ROM |
| aota syaagir | personal computer |
| aottuunyan | profile |
| aoyebmeyp | port |
| apaxler | to swipe |
| aroagbanak | kilobyte |
| baler buxnuf | to press/hit a key |
| banak | bit |
| agdresin kyoxea buxnuf | caps lock key |
| buxnuf | key |
| buxnufsemes | keyboard |
| buxnufseym | keypad |
| izeaxus | cursor |
| byuxseym | touchpad |
| datier | to friend |
| dodrer ebdras | to post a message |
| dota zeyn | social medium |
| ebdrer | to text |
| dreun | document |
| dreuzyufer | to scroll, pan |
| droer naab | to delete a file |
| drou buxnuf | delete key |
| drur | printer |
| drurer naab | to print out a file |
| drurer | to print out |
| druru buxnuf | print screen key |
| drurun | a printout |
| dunexlar | word processor |
| dyezier | to take a movie |
| ebdayler | to chat |
| ebdaylim | chatroom |
| emojin | emoji |
| ex buxnuf | function key |
| exen vyaab | operating system |
| extuundras | program, application |
| extuundrasog | app |
| extuundrasyan | software |
| extuundrer | to program |
| fuk | bug |
| fukaya | buggy |
| fukoyxer | to debug |
| garalyoagbanak | petabyte |
| gelxer naab | to copy a file |
| googler | to google |
| gyia kyos yebiar | solid state drive, SSD |
| gyia zyiun yebiar | cd drive |
| haydren dyun | login name |
| haydrer bay tuyubbal | to log in with one's fingerprint |
| haydrer | to log in |
| hoydrer | to log out |
| huisteaxar | browser |
| kyeteaxer | to browse |
| hyux buxnuf | alt key |
| iber naab | to receive a file |
| ila mez sinuar, IMS | liquid crystal display, LDC |
| izbex buxnuf | control key |
| izbexdrof | motherboard |
| kliker ab | click on |
| kodun | password |
| gawdyunxer naab | to rename a file |
| kyax buxnuf | shift key |
| kyea yempuen tax | random access memory, RAM |
| kyisier naab | to download a file |
| kyisuer naab | to upload a file |
| kyiunxar | charger |
| kyiunxer | to charge |
| lodatier | to unfriend |
| makebdren | email |
| makedrer | to email |
| man-oyebubea enmep sinuar, MOES | LED |
| mansin dyes | photo album |
| mis | window |
| naab | file |
| naedzyun | trackball |
| nagonxar | modem |
| neaf mansiniar | web camera |
| nexer naab | to save a file |
| num yibdalir | cellphone |
| belyafwa syaagir | laptop computer |
| oglagos | microchip |
| gwoteexar | microphone |
| omijber | to boot up |
| gawomijber | to reboot |
| paxer naab | to move a file |
| paxyafwa yibdalir | mobile phone |
| poxu zyumuf buxnuf | scroll lock key |
| sagbexu buxnuf | numlock key |
| sagseym | number pad |
| sam | console |
| saunapxer naab | to sort a file |
| semes syaagir | tablet computer |
| sindren semes | graphics tablet |
| sindrenyan exlen aun | graphics processing unit, GPU |
| sines | icon |
| sinuar | screen, display, monitor |
| syaager | to compute |
| syaagir | computer |
| syaagirdal | computerese |
| syaagirtun | computer science |
| syaagnyed | spreadsheet |
| taam mays | home screen |
| tampu buxnuf | home key |
| sirmul | hardware, physical matter |
| taxdrer | to record |
| taxmuf | memory stick |
| teataxdrer | to video |
| teataxdrun | video |
| tuunnabyan | database |
| tuyab izdar | mouse |
| uber naab | to send a file |
| uinig buxnuf | tab key |
| utmansin | selfie |
| yaybdreniv sindren dalzeyn (YSD) | HTML |
| yeber | to enter, insert |
| yebu buxnuf | enter key, return key, insert key |
| yiga zyiun yebiar | hard disk drive, HDD |
| yijber naab | to open a file |
| yujber naab | to close a file |
| makmepdrof | circuitboard |
| zea exlen aun | central processing unit, CPU |
| zoynigxu buxnuf | backspace key |
| zyiun yebiar | disk drive |

### Medical and Pharmaceutical Terminology

    This is a vast field where the limited morpheme aggregate of Mirad cannot serve to translate all the technical vocabulary. It will, therefore, translate only very common words and leave the rest in Greco-Latin as do many natural languages.

#### Medical Diseases

    Some common medical conditions can be readily be translated in Mirad using its existing set of morphemes, eg.
      * balyoganbok....asthma (lit: shortness of breath illness)
      * tiebbok....pneumonia (lit: lung illness)
      * teibbok....rhinitis (lit: nose illness)
      * tayibblok....neuropathy (lit: nerve suffering)
      * tebbyoyk....headache (lit: head ache)
      * teibzyegikanbok....osteoporosis (lit: bone porosity illness)

#### Pharmaceuticals

    Medicines can be referred to by their trade names, some of which have been genericized.
      * aspirin....aspirin
      * Ibupropen....Ibupropen
    Others can be translated by words indicating the purpose:
      * bukpoyxol, bukkyuxlol....analgesic, painkiller (Lit: pain reliever)
      * tikebilokxol....emetic (Lit: vomit-inducing-substance)
    Less common drugs, and any drugs for that matter, can be referred to by the official International Nonproprietary Name (INN) (see Nonproprietary Names). For example, phenobarbital. In case a Greco-Roman name is used, the following pronunciation guide applies to Mirad:
    INN names pronunciation GRECO-ROMAN SPELLINGMIRAD PRONUNCIATION chk phf xks yi qukw rhr tht aeay oeoy c before i, e, or yc c otherwisek final esilent double consonantsingle consonant
    Examples:
      * acetaminophen....a-ce-ta-mi-no-FEN
      * amphetamine....am-fe-ta-MIN
      * trimethroprim....tri-me-tro-PRIM
      * sulfamethoxazole....sul-fa-me-to-ksa-ZOL
      * oxacillin....o-ksa-si-LIN

### Mineral Nomenclature

    The general word for mineral is muk.
    The general word for ore is muz.
    The general word for crystal is mez.
    The general words for rock is meg.

#### Common Crystals

    The common crystals end in -mez and are listed here:
    Names of Common Crystals MIRADENGLISH mezcrystal amezdiamond emeztopaz imezruby umezemerald yomezsapphire yamezlapis lazuli yemezamethyst yimezamber yumeztopaz alomezopal alameztourmaline alemezgarnet alimezzirconia alumezjasper alyomezjade alyamezmarganite alyemezquartz

#### Other Minerals

    All other minerals end in -muk with a prefix related to the official 3-letter International Mineorological Association (IMA) symbol name (see The Wikipedia List of Mineral Symbols). The IMA name is substituted with lower-case Mirad alphabetic spellings. For example:
    Some Mineral Names ENGLISHIMA SYMBOLMIRAD SPELLINGSMIRAD NAME argyrodyteAgya-ge-yuageyumuk brochantyteBctba-ca-tobacatomuk chromiteChrca-he-rocaheromuk
    There are some minerals having an IMA with a hyphenated suffix of one or two letters. In that case, the extra letters are added to the name (without the hyphen), eg.:
      * Lemmleinite-K (Lem-k) is liemikomuk in Mirad.

#### Rock Classification

    The naming of individual rock types is based on the [BGS Rock Classification Scheme ].
    All rocks end in one of the following suffixes, depending on the main type:
      * ameg....sedimentary rock
      * emeg....igneous rock
      * imag....metamorphic rock
    The names for obscure rocks are taken from the BGS Rock Classification Scheme. The final e is dropped from names that end in yte or ite. For example, trachydacite in the scheme becomes trachydacit in Mirad. This word is then followed by one of the rock types above (emeg igneous rock). So trachydacite becomes trachydacitemeg in Mirad. For obvious reason, all the thousands of rock names cannot be listed here or included in the Mirad dictionary.
    The word meg rock has some common derivatives:
      * megag....boulder
      * megog....stone
      * meges....pebble
      * megyog....gravel
      * megyel....cement, asphalt, bitumen
         * megyelyig....concrete
      * megil....lava
      * meggos....crag
      * megyig....flintstone, basalt
      * meag....marble
      * meeg....slate
      * meig....granite
      * meug....clay, dough
      * meyog....china
      * meyag....chalk
         * meyaz....pastel
         * meyayg....calcite
      * meyeg....limestone, sediment
      * meyig....alabaster
      * meyug....gypsum
      * mealog....sandstone, stoneware
      * mameg....coal
         * eymameg....coke
         * maameg....anthracite
         * maemeg....peat
         * maimeg....lignite
    Related are:
      * mek....dust
         * mekes....grit
         * mekil....grout
         * meyk....grit
      * myek....powder
      * miek....sand
      * mieg....pebble
      * mel....dirt
      * muk....mineral
      * meil....mud
      * mez....crystal
         * meyz....spar
         * meyzag....feldspar
      * muz....ore
      * memol....alkali
      * mimol....salt
      * mef....brick

### Measurements

    Mirad uses the International System of Units (SI)) for rendering measurement units. These symbols are pronounced as if you were spelling each letter out (see Mirad_Grammar/Alphabet. Bear in mind that majuscules (uppercase letters are prefaced with the word ag- (big). Similarly, Greek letters are spelled with the Greek names (alpha, gamma, etc.) preceded with the word ag- if majuscule (aggamma for γ) The Mirad equivalent of the SI symbol for ohm (Ω) is agomega. All metric units end in the word nak.

#### SI Base Units

       SI base units ENGLISH UNIT NAME SYMBOLIC ABBREVIATION QUANTITY UNIT MIRAD PRONUNCIATION second s time sonak meter m length minak kilogram kg mass kigenak ampere A electric current aganak kelvin K thermodynamic temperature agkinak Mole mol amount of substance miolinak candela cd luminous intensity cadanak

#### SI Derived Units

    Here are SI derived units with special names and symbols:
       SI derived units with special names and symbols ENGLISH NAME SYMBOLIC WRITTEN ABBREVIATION QUANTITY UNIT MIRAD PRONUNCIATION radian rad plane angle roadanak steradian sr solid angle soronak hertz Hz frequency aghezunak newton N force, weight agninak pascal Pa pressure, stress agpoanak joule J energy agjinak watt W power agwunak coulomb C electric charge agcanak volt V electrical potential difference agvunak farad F capacitance agfenak ohm Ω electrical resistance agomeganak Siemens S electrical conductance agsonak Weber Wb magnetic flux agwubanak tesla T magnetic flux density agtonak henry H inductance aghenak degree Celsius °C temperature nogagcanak lumen lm luminous flux liminak lux lx illuminance lixunak becquerel Bq radioactivity agbakonak gray Gy absorbed dose (of ionizing radiation) aggeyunak sievert Sv equivalent dose (of ionizing radiation) agsovunak katal kat catalytic activity kiatonak byte B 8 bits of information agbanak bit b one bit of information banak
    Also, here are some non-SI units that are very convenient and acceptable:

#### Convenient Non-SI Units

       Convenient non-SI units ENGLISH NAME SYMBOLIC WRITTEN ABBREVIATION QUANTITY UNIT MIRAD PRONUNCIATION litre L volume aglinak hectare ha area heabak ton t area tonak decibel dB loudness daagbanak

#### Metrical Formulae

    The following chart shows how in Mirad to pronounce coherent derived unit formulae in terms of base units. Note that the backslash means per or divided by and is pronounced gol. The symbol x means times and is pronounced gal. The superscript number is a power and is pronounced gar plus the number (with -wa, if a unit number). The negative superscript number is pronounced gor plus the number (again, with -wa if a unit number). See Arithmetical Expressions for further information on these terms.
       Examples of coherent derived units in terms of base units NAME SYMBOLIC FORMULA DERIVED QUANTITY TYPICAL SYMBOL MIRAD PRONUNCIATION square meter m$^2$ area A mi-gar-ewa cubic meter m$^3$ volume V mi-gar-iwa meter per second m/s speed, velocity v mi-gol-so meter per second squared m/s$^2$ acceleration a mi-gol-so-gar-ewa reciprocal meter m$^{−1}$ wavenumber σ, ṽ mi-gor-awa vergence (optics) V, 1/f kilogram per cubic meter kg/m$^3$ density ρ kige-gol-mi-gar-iwa kilogram per square meter kg/m$^2$ surface density ρ$_A$ kige-gol-mi-gar-ewa cubic meter per kilogram m$^3$/kg specific volume v mi-gar-iwa-gol-kige ampere per square meter A/m$^2$ current density j aga-gol-mi-gar-ewa ampere per meter A/m magnetic field strength H aga-gol-mi mole per cubic meter mol/m$^3$ concentration c mioli-gol-mi-gar-iwa kilogram per cubic meter kg/m$^3$ mass concentration ρ, γ kige-gol-mi-gar-iwa candela per square meter cd/m$^2$ luminance L$_v$ cada-gol-mi-gar-ewa

#### Metric Micro and Macro Prefixes

    The SI has a whole list of prefixes that act as multipliers (macro) or dividers (micro) of the above and other measurement units. For example, a kilometer is a meter times a 1,000 (macro unit), whereas a millimeter is a meter divided by a 1,000 (micro unit). The SI symbol for b (byte) is pronounced ba in Mirad. A terabyte ( Tb) is therefore pronounced ag-to-ba, which This amounts 10$^{12}$ bytes. Here is a table showing the Mirad macro and micro prefixes:
    Scalar Metrics MACROMICRO BASE 10US/UK NAMEMIRAD PREFIX SI PREFIX MIRAD PRON.SI SYMBOLBASE 10(US/UK NAME)MIRAD PREFIX SI PREFIXSI SYMBOL MIRAD PRON. 1onean- ... mono-, uni-1/1wholeayn- holo-, uni- 2twoen- bi-1/2halfeyn- demi-, di- 3threein- tri-1/3thirdiyn- terci- 4fourun- tetra-1/4fourthuyn- quadri- 5fiveyoon- penta-1/5fifthyoyn quinti- 6sixyaon- hexa-1/6sixthyayn sexti- 7sevenyen- hepta-1/7seventhyeyn septi- 8eightyin octo-1/8eighthyiyn octi- 9nineyun nona-1/9ninthyuyn novi- 10tenalo- deca-da da-a-1/10tenthaloy- deci-d da- 10$^2$hundredaso- hexa-h hi-10$^{-2}$hundredthasoy- centi-c ca- 10$^3$thousandamso- kilo-k ki-10$^{-3}$thousandth)amsoy- milli-m mi- 10$^6$millionamlo- mega-M agmi-10$^{-6}$millionthamloy- micro-r ro- 10$^9$billion /milliardamro- giga-G agge-10$^{-9}$billionth/ milliardthamroy- nano-n ni- 10$^{12}$trillion /billiongarale- tera-T agto-10$^{-12}$trillionth / billionth)gorale- pico-p po- 10$^{15}$quadrillion)/ billiardgaralyo- peta-P agpo-10$^{-15}$quadrillionth) / billiardthgoralyo- femto-f fe- 10$^{18}$quintillion / trilliongaralyu- exa-E age-10$^{-18}$quintillionth)/ trillionthgoralyu atto-a a- 10$^{21}$sextillion)/ trilliardgarela- zetta-Z agzu-10$^{-21}$sextillionth / trilliardthgorela zepto-z zu- 10$^{24}$septillion)/ quadrilliongarelu- yotta- Y agyu10$^{-27}$septillionth / quadrillionthgorelu yocto-y yu-
    *Note: The gar (to a plus power) and gor (to a minus power) forms are alternatives for the numeric prefixes beyond 100. For example, billion (10$^9$) could be expressed as garyu-(ten) to the 9th power, while billionth could be expressed by goryu ((ten) to the minus 9th power). The prefix garya- is composed of the positive exponential operator gar (to the power of), followed by the number 6. The prefix gorale- is composed of the negative exponential operator gor (to the root of), followed by the number 12.

#### Abbreviated Symbols

    The macro and micro values can also be represented with abbreviated symbols, which can be pronounced in Mirad as spelled out alphabetics. Upper case equivalents are preceded with ag-. Here is a table showing grams:
    Kg Metrics With Abbreviated Symbols MACROMICRO SYMBOL (EXPANSION)MIRAD PRONUNCIATIONSYMBOL (EXPANSION)MIRAD PRONUNCIATION dag (decagram)daage(decigram)dage hg (hexagram)hegecg (centigram)cage kg (kilogram)kogemg (milligram)mige Mg (megagram)agmigerg or μg (microgram)roge or muge Gg (gigagram)aggegeng (nanogram)nige Tg (teragram)agtogepg (picagram)poge Pg ( petagram)agpogefg (femtogram)fege Eg (exagram)agegeag (attogram)age Zg (zettagram)agzegezg (zeptogram)zege Yg (yottagram)agyugeyg (yoctogram)yuge
    The squared and cubed representations of the above are followed by gar ewa (squared) and gar iwa (cubed), respectively:
      * 10 kg2....(pronounced as:) alo koge gar ewa
      * 12 mm3....(pronounced as:) ale mimi gar iwa

### Trigonometric Nomenclature

    This table shows trigonometry functions and their equivalents in Mirad. The function symbols are translated into Mirad by a succession of the pronounced Mirad values of the function abbreviation followed by -naz (value).
    Trigonometry Functions Function (Symbol)Mirad Technical NameMirad Ordinary Name sine (sin)soini-nazuznaz cosine (cos)caoso-nazyanuznaz arccosine (arccos, cos$^{-1}$) anticosine inverse cosinearocacaoso-nazovuznaz hyperbolic sine (sinh)soinihe-nazenuza uznaz hyperbolic cosine (cosh)caosohe-nazenuza yanuznaz secant (sec)soeca-nazgolus naz cosecant (csc)casoca-nazyangolus naz arccosecant (arccsc)arocacasoca-nazenuza yangolus naz

### Poetry Nomenclature

    Mirad uses the nonsense syllables di and da to form various poetic meter words that usually are formed with Greek words in English. The syllable di represents an unstressed syllable in verse, while the syllable da denotes a stressed syllable. These are hyphenated and followed with a space and the word deup as a noun, which means meter or rhythm. The adjectival form of the word ends in deupa. Here are the most common poetic meters:
      * di-da deupa.... iambic
         * di-da yoonkyiba deup.... iambic pentameter
      * di-di-da deupa.... anapestic
      * di-da-da deupa.... bacchius
      * da-da deupa.... spondaic
      * da-da-da deupa.... molossus
      * da-da-di deupa.... antibacchius
      * da-di deupa.... tochaic
         * da-di deup.... trochee, choree
      * da-di-da deupa.... cretic, amphimacer
      * da-di-di deupa.... dactylic
      * da-di-di yaonkyiba deup.... dactylic hexameter
      * da-di-di-da deupa.... amphibrachic
    Other words representing elements of poetry are:
      * drez....poetry, verse
         * dreza....poetic
         * drezyen....poesy
         * drezyan....anthology (of poetry)
         * drezut....poet
            * drezuyt....poetess
            * popdrezut....minstrel
            * Vikinga drezut....skald
            * dreuzut....bard
         * odrez....prose
         * vyasma drez....concrete verse
         * tyoda drez....folk poetry
         * inkyiba drez....trimeter
         * unkyiba drez....tetrameter
         * yoonkyiba drez....pentameter
         * yaonkyiba drez....hexameter
         * yenkyiba drez....heptameter
         * yinkyiba drez....octameter
         * ogelseuxwa drez....blank verse
         * yiva drez....free verse
         * drezun....poem
            * deuzwa drezun....sung poem, lay
            * dindrezun....ballad
            * dizdrezun....limerick
            * fiddrezun....ode
            * fizdrezun....epic poem
            * haikudrezun....haiku
            * viysindrezun....idyll
            * ifondrezun....love poem, romantic poem
            * indrezun....terzain
            * jodrezun....epode
            * yindrezun....sistina
            * klerihyudrezun....clerihew
            * meimdrezun....pastoral
            * melyexdrezun....georgic
            * petnyanuta drezun....pastoral, eclogue
            * popduzuta drezun....troubadour poem
            * rondodrezun....rondeau, rondel, roundel
            * seuz drezun....sound poem
            * tadyandrezun....prothalamion, epithalamion
            * tankadrezun....tanka
            * taxdrezun....epitaph
            * tuddrezun....nursery rhyme
            * ulondrezun....sonnet
            * ujdreznadeon....envoi
            * undrezun....quatrain
            * unnad drezun....tetrastich
            * uvdrezun....elegy
            * alyundrezun....villanelle
            * virelaydrezun....virelai, virelay
            * yizivtos drezun....rhapsody
            * yoondrezun....quintain
      * dreznad....line, -stich, verse
         * eyndreznad...hemistich
         * endreznad....couplet
      * dreznadyan....stanza
      * gelseux....rhyme
         * gelseuxyen....rhyme scheme
         * dunija gelseuxen....alliteration
      * seuxzoyxen....assonance
      * geyldyan....simile
      * yiztyun....metaphor
      * yanseuzan....consonance
      * deup....rhythm, beat, metrical foot, meter
      * kyib....stress
      * seuz....tone

## Forming Adjectives

    You can form an adjective by adding the suffix a to a substantive, adverb, or preposition. By substantive is meant a noun, pronoun, or gerund. Any of these can be adjectivized.
    Examples:
    Deriving Adjectives NOUNADJECTIVE taam....hometaama....domestic doob....nationdooba....national tej....lifeteja....vital tyoyapyaf....ability to walktyoyapyafa....ambulatory martun....astronomymartuna....astronomical PRONOUNADJECTIVE at....I, meata....my eut....yourselfeuta....your own hiyen....this kindhiyena....this kind of duhot?....who?duhota?....whose? GERUNDADJECTIVE ifeken....recreationifekena....recreational VERB FORMADJECTIVE (= PARTICIPLE) teje....(he) livestejea....living tojo....will dietojoa....moribund, about to die tojbu....would killtojbua....lethal twa....was knowntwaa....known (usu. shortened to twa)

### Adjectival Suffixes

    Various types of adjectives can be created with adjectival suffixes beyond just a.
    Examples:
    Deriving Other Adjectives SUFFIXMEANINGNOUNADJECTIVE -avapro-, for Usom U.S.Usomava pro-U.S. yuvrin slaveryyuvrinava pro-slavery -ovaanti-, against dobvyabyan constitutiondovyabyanova anti-constitutional dota socialdotova anti-social -ayafull of, having, -ous, -ful, -ly volz colorvolzaya colorful futax resentmentfutaxaya resentful tiibil bloodtiibilaya bloody yiflan courageyiflanaya courageous -oyabereft of, -less, un- volz colorvolzoya colorless, pale tajyaf talenttajyafoya untalented -ikafull of, -ous, -ful, -y map windmapika windy -ukabereft of, without, -less nas moneynasuka broke, penniless -yena-like, -ous, -ly, -y, -ish, -ic, -al tudet childtudetyena childish, infantile tot godtotyena divine, godly pit fishpityena fish-like, fishy -wa or -awa-ed, past passive participle (added to verb stem)VERB STEMPAST PASSIVE PARTICIPLE t- knowtwa known dal- speakdalwa spoken, oral nixbu- sellnixbuwa sold dr- writedrawa written -ea-ing (added to verb stem)VERB STEMPRESENT ACTIVE PARTICIPLE ot- not knowotea ignorant tej- livetejea living, alive tuj- dietujea dying -yea-ive, prone to Xing, given to X (added to verb stem)VERB STEMPRESENT ACTIVE PARTICIPLE tujb- killtujbyea murderous tex- thinktexyea pensive, thoughtful tox- forgettoxyea forgetful axl- actaxlyea active -uwa-able, apt to be Xed (added to verb stem)VERB STEMPOTENTIAL PASSIVE PARTICIPLE ex- operateexuwa operable tos feeltosuwa palpable tex- thinktexuwa conceivable tel- eatteluwa edible -yafa-able, capable of Xing (added to verb stem)VERB STEMPOTENTIAL SUBJECT-ORIENTED teat- seeteatyafa sightful, able to see dyed- readdyedyafa literate -yafwa-able, possible to be Xed (added to verb stem)VERB STEMPOTENTIAL OBJECT-ORIENTED teat- seeteatyafwa visible tax- remembertaxyafwa memorable teet- hearteetyafwa audible tel- eattelyafwa edible -yofaincapable of Xing (added to verb stem)VERB STEMNEGATIVE POTENTIAL SUBJECT-ORIENTED teat- seeteatyofa blind tyoyap- walktyoyapyofa lame teet- hearteetyofa deaf dal- speakdalyofa dumb, incapable of speaking -yofwaun-X-able (added to verb stem)VERB STEMNEGATIVE POTENTIAL OBJECT-ORIENTED teat- seeteatyofwa invisible teet- hearteetyofa inaudible tox- forgettoxyofa unforgetable dal- speakdalyofa unspeakable -ifafond of, -phileNOUN STEMADJECTIVE pot animalpotifa pet-friendly hyitoob- same-genderhyitoobifa homophile tobot childtobotifa pedophile fitel foodfitelifa gourmand doob nationdoobifa patriotic -ufaadverse to, hating, miso-, -phobicNOUN STEMADJECTIVE tob humantobufa misanthropic hyut- other personhyutufa xenophobic toyb- womantoybufa misogynist -ef(w)aneedful of, (necessary to be X-ed)NOUN OR VERB STEMADJECTIVE til drinktilefa thirsty tel foodtelefa hungry nas moneynasefa poor, needy yelb- to oilyelbefwa squeaky, in need of oil -yef(w)aworthy of, due to be (deserving of being X-ed)NOUN OR VERB STEMADJECTIVE fid praisefidyefa praiseworthy dud answerdudyefa responsible tax- remembertaxyefwa memorable -yuk(w)aeasy to, (easily X-ed)VERB STEMADJECTIVE vatex- believevatexyuka gullible vatex- believevatexyukwa incredible, hard to believe -yik(w)ahard to, (hard of X-ing)VERB STEMADJECTIVE teat- seeteatyikwa opaque teet- hearteetyika hard of hearing

### Adjectival Prefixes
#### Negating the Meaning of Adjectives

          The semantics of an adjective can be reversed with the prefix o-.
          Examples:
            * vlea....probable → ovlea....improbable
            * fika....perfect → ofika....imperfect
            * twa....known → otwa....unknown
            * bosa....quiet → obosa....upset, unquiet
          Note: Occasionally, the prefix lo- is used to avoid ambiguity, as in the following case:
            * fwa....wanted
            * → ofwa....prohibited < ofer....to prohibit
            * → yofwa....impossible < yofer....to be unable
            * → lofwa....unwanted < fer....to want (disambiguated)
          The prefixes lyo- and ov are more intense for reversing the meaning of an adjective:
            * data....friendly
            * odata....unfriendly
            * ovdata....hostile
            * lyodata....inimical
            * dota....social
            * odota....unsocial
            * ovdota....antisocial
            * lyodota....savage

#### Table of Adjective Prefixes

          As in English, where the sense of adjectives can be altered by a number of prefixes of Germanic, Latin, and Greek origin, the sense of adjectives in Mirad can also be altered with prefixes. Here are the principal ones:
          Altering the Sense of Adjectives with Prefixes Click on double arrow to alphabetize the column MIRAD PREFIXENGLISH PREFIXALTERED ADJECTIVE EXAMPLES o-un-, a(n)-, in-, non-obaka....unhealthy oyezyebeya....incontinent, oyelpea....non-invasive ototina....atheist ov-anti-, counter-ovzuina....anti-leftist oviztida....counter-intuitive av-pro-avhyitoosifa....pro-gay kovyo-pseudo-kovyotepina....pseudo-intellectual hya(s)-all-, pan-, omni-hyastea....all-knowing, omniscient voy-, gal-re-voyupya....returned galabwa....reapplied vyo-mis-vyoseudxwa....mispronounced eyn-semi-, half-eynlevelaya....semi-sweet eyntija....half-awake yiz-ultra-, super-yizdoobina....ultra-nationalist yizmola....supernatural gro-under-, hypo-grojaga....under-aged gra-over-, hyper-, uber-graagxwa....overgrown gratoseya....hypersensitive gla-multi-, many-, poly-glakuma....multilateral glatadaya....polygamous fu-mal-, ill-futeyenxwa....ill-conceived fusanxwa....malformed fi-well-fitofabwa....well-dressed yuyb-quasi-, almostyuybdaba....quasi-governmental ja-pre-, (a)fore-, pro-jateyenxwa....pre-conceived jaigdawa....aformentioned jo-post-jodropeka....post-war oyeb-extra-, exo-, oyebtada....extra-marital yeb-endo-yebtayoba....endo-dermal agl(a)-macro-aglamora....macrocosmic ogl(a)-micro-oglamora....microcosmic ut-auto-, self-, sui-utpana....automatic uttojbua....suicidal hyaewa-ambi-hyaewatesea....ambivalent en-bi-entoobifa....bisexual yuz-circum-yuzteaxea....circumspect gel-homo-gelsauna....homogeneous ogel-hetero-ogelsauna....heterogeneous oyb-infra-, sub-oybivoza....infrared ge-iso-, equi-gevoza....isochromatic agr(a)-mega-agratipa....megamaniacal ku-para-kuega....paranormal yuyb-quasi-, almost, pen-yuybdobyena....quasi-official yib-tele-, far-yibpyuxea....far-reaching zey-trans-, cross-zeymimaga....transoceanic aaj-paleo-aajtoba....paleoloanthropic eej-neo-eejvisauna....neoclassical yibaj-arch(a)eo-, ancientyibajtuna....archaeological yeb-endo-, inner, intro-yebzena....endocentric yebuzbwa....introverted oyeb-exo-, outer, ex-, extr(a/o)-oyebzena....exocentric oyebuzbwa....extroverted yab(an)-high-, upyabnoga....upscale yabnayxa....high-priced yaban-acro-yabanyufa....acrophobic yob-low-, down-yobnoga....low-grade, down-scale

### English and Mirad Adjectival Suffix Comparison

    Here is a chart showing a comparison between English adjectival suffixes and their Mirad counterparts:
    English and Mirad Adjectival Suffixes Compared ENGLISH SUFFIXMEANINGMIRAD SUFFIXALTERED ADJECTIVE EXAMPLES -fulfull of-aya -ikavozaya....colorful tuzika....skillful -ousfull of-aya -ikanazika....precious milaya....aqueous -filledfull of-aya -ikamovika / movaya....smoke-filled -yfull of-aya -ikamovika / movaya....smoky -ousof like-atotina....religious vyosa....erroneous -lylike-yenatotyena....godly toybyena....womanly -likelike-yenapatyena....bird-like -ishlike-yenatobotyena....childish -ylike-yenafyabyena....fruity -iclike-yenatuzyena....artistic silyena....acidic -icof related to-atuna....scientific beka....therapeutic -icalof related to-azyunida....spherical iztexa....logical -ologicalpertaining to the study of-tunatejtuna....biological -ist(ic)pertaining to the doctrine of-inadoparina....militarist(ic) nasyanina....capitalist(ic) -ophobic (and miso- prefix)hating fearful of-ufayudatufa....xenophonic tobyanufa....misanthropic -ophilic (and philo- prefix)loving-ifatobotifa....pedophilic tobifa....philanthropic -allike-yenapyotyena....bestial -alof pertaining to-ateja....vital amana....thermal -lesswithout empty of-oya -ukatejuka....lifeless tobotoya....childless -freewithout empty of-oya -ukayomuka....ice-free vyosoya....error-free -safe -prooffree not subject to-vakamilvaka....waterproof

## Forming Adverbs

    Adjectives can be converted into adverbs by post-y-gliding the adjectival suffix a, in other words, by adding a y to the adjective. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.
    Examples:
    Deriving Adverbs ADJECTIVEADVERB fia....goodfiay....well vyaa....truevyaay....truly gyua....easygyuay....easily iga....quickigay....quickly auta....personalautay....personally
    For brevity's sake, the stem of monosyllabic de-adjectival adverbs can be used at the end of a clause or sentence. For example:
      * It tyoyape ig.....He walks fast.
      * Yit xa has fi.....They did it well.

### Special Adverbs

    Mirad has special adverbs that are not derived from adjectives and may or may not end in -ay.
    Here are the principal such adverbs:
    Special Adverbs MIRADENGLISH vayindeed, really, certainly, do (cf. va....yes) veypossibly, may, might (cf. ve....maybe) voynot (cf. vo....no) gamore (modifying an adjective, adverb, or verb) gayalso, moreover, further, still geas, equally (modifying an adjective, adverb, or verb) geyeven goless (modifying an adjective, adverb, or verb) goyno longer, no more glavery glayquite, rather, so gleso glonot very, not so gratoo greenough, sufficiently, over- gronot...enough, inadequately, under- gwamost, super- gweaverage gwoleast, sub- zayahead, forward zeyacross zoyback zyethrough zyathroughout
    The first three adverbs in the above chart are used to affirm or emphasize, cast doubt on, or negate verb predicates as in the examples that follow:
      * AFFIRMATIVE: Va, at vay se taduwa.....Yes, I am indeed married.
      * DUBITIVE: Iyta dud se vey vyosa.....Her response is possibly wrong.
      * NEGATIVE: At voy se eta yuxrut.....I am not your slave.
    The adverbs above beginning with g are quantitative adverbs and modify an adjective, verb, or another adverb:
      * Et se gla via.....You are very beautiful [=ADJECTIVE].
      * Et peya gra ig.....You were going too fast [=ADVERB].
      * It gra dale.....He talks [=VERB] too much.
    Other special adverbs, which do not end in -ay, include the following, which can all be used in multi-word prepositions:
    Adverbs Used in Prepositional Phrases SPECIAL ADVERBEXAMPLES yab....upHa pat papa yab bu ha mam.....The bird flew up to the sky. yob....downTeaxu yob bu ha mel.....Look down to the ground. yub....nearBesu yub bi ha mas.....Stay near the wall. yib....farHa tobi igpia yib bi ha yovbyokam.....The people ran far from the prison. yeb....in, inward, insideKyedu hat hu ogja tyoyapa yeb buha tam!....Guess who just walked into the house! oyeb....out, outsideIt tyoyapa oyeb zye bi ha zames.....He walked out through the front door. yuz....aroundYit daza yuz bi yat.....They danced around us. yiz....beyondEt yefe teaxer yiz bi hia tistam av yux.....You must look beyond this school for help. iz....directly, straightPu iz bu hat.....Go right up to him. zi....rightUzpu zi ub yat!....Turn right toward us! zu....leftHat uzpa zu ib at.....He turned left away from me. zay....forwardPu zay bu ha uj.....Go on to the end. zoy....backUpu zoy bi hua nem.....Come back from that place. zye....throughYat buxo ha muyv zye bi ha dref.....We will push the pin through the paper. yan....togetherVan yat tyopu yan.....Let's walk together. yon....apartHa meri kyapeye yon.....The planets are drifting apart.

### Pro-adverbs

    There are also adverbial expressions that are formed with deictic prefixes and categorical stubs to produce what are known as pro-adverbs. These include interrogative pro-adverbs like duhom? (where?), duhoyen? (how?), duhoj? (when?), duhogla (to what extent?), and their answers, such as hum (there), heyen (somehow), and hyoj (never), hugla (so, to that extent). These words are discussed under the chapter on Deictic Determiners.

## Forming Verbs

    Verbs can be formed from various parts of speech:
      * Noun stems
      * Adjective stems
      * Verb stems

### Forming Verbs from Nouns

    Verbs can often be formed from nouns simply by adding the verb infinitive suffix er:
    Denominal Verb Derivation NOUNVERB syag....countsyager....to count af....permissionafer....may, be allowed teud....cry, shoutteuder....to cry, shout, exclaim taj....birthtajer....to be born tej....lifetejer....to live toj....deathtojer....to die ej....presentejer....to continue ij....beginningijer....to begin uj....endijer....to end yuj....sleeptujer....to sleep

### Verb Formants

    More often, an auxiliary verb or verb stub is used to create various verbs from nouns. The most common such verb formants are in this chart:
   * -ser....to be/become usually intransitive and stative (unite = become one)
   * -xer....to do/make usually transitive and dynamic (unite = make one)
   * -per....to go usually intransitive and a dynamic verb of motion (mount = get onto)
   * -ber....to put usually transitive and a verb of gesture (apply = put onto)
   * -ier a stub from the verb to take, usually an action verb benefiting the agent (eat = take food)
   * -uer a stub from the verb to give, usually an action verb benefiting the patient (feed = give food)
   * -der....to say, a verb of communication (affirm = say yes)
   * -ter....to know, verbs of the perception and knowledge (teater = see)
       Some of the above formants can be intensified with the liquids l or r, eg.sler, -xler, -xrer, -bler, -prer.
    Verb Derivation with Verb Formants NOUNAUXILIARY VERB OR VERB STUB FORMANTVERB yav....innocenceder....to sayyavder....to acquit yov....shame, guiltaber....to apply, put onyovaber....to shame, accuse yov....shame, guiltober....to remove, take offyovober....to excuse, exculpate tof....clothesaber....to apply, put ontofaber....to dress, don tof....clothesober....to remove, take offtofober....to undress, strip det....associateser....to be, becomedetser....to associate dat....friendxer....to do, makedatxer....to befriend san....formser....to be, becomesanser....to form (intransitive) san....formxer....to do, makesanxer....to form (transitive) tel....food(b)ier....to taketelier....to eat, consume tel....food(b)uer....to giveteluer....to feed, nourish if....pleasure(b)ier....to takeifier....to enjoy if....pleasure(b)uer....to giveifuer....to please taj....birthber....to puttajber....to give birth tej....lifeper....to gotejper....to come alive tej....lifeber....to puttejber....to bring to life toj....deathper....to gotojper....to drop dead toj....deathber....to puttojber....to kill tij....wakefulnessper....to gotijper....to wake up tij....wakefulnessber....to puttijber....to awaken tuj....sleepper....to gotujper....to fall asleep tuj....sleepber....to puttujber....to put to sleep tax....memory(b)ier....to taketaxier....to recall tax....memory(b)uer....to givetaxuer....to remind yev....justiceder....to say, tellyevder....to judge vyan....truthder....to say, tellvyander....to tell the truth vyon....falsehoodder....to say, tellvyonder....to tell a lie il....liquidaker....to gainilaker....to take on liquid il....liquidoker....to loseiloker....to leak, lose liquid il....liquid(b)ier....to takeilier....to soak up il....liquid(b)uer....to giveiluer....to pour, water il....liquidikser....to get fullilikser....to be soaked (intransitive) il....liquidikxer....to fill upilikxer....to flood, soak (transitive) il....liquidukser....to become emptyilukser....to drain (intransitive) il....liquidukxer....to emptyilukxer....to flush (transitive) il....liquidser....to be, becomeilser....to liquify, melt (intransitive) il....liquidxer....to do, makeilxer....to liquify, melt (transitive) il....liquidaber....to apply, put onilaber....to wash (transitive) il....liquidaper....to get onilaper....to float (intransitive) il....liquidper....to goilper....to flow (intransitive) il....liquidzyaber....to spreadilzyaber....to spray, shower (transitive) il....liquidzyober....to squeezeilzyober....to squirt (transitive) il....liquidpyexer....to strikeilpyexer....to splash (with liquid) il....liquidyujer....to closeilyujer....to plug
    Note that verbs ending in -ser and -ier are intransitive (they take no object), while those ending in -xer and -uer are transitive. Also, -ier verbs are inchoative, while -uer verbs are benefactive or causative (making someone do something).

### Forming Verbs from Adjectives With -xer and -ser

    The verbs that are formed from adjectives fall mainly into two groups, the transitive group with -xer....to do, make, cause, and the intransitive group with -ser....to be, become.
    The following chart shows how these verbs are formed:
    Forming Verbs with Xer and Ser ADJECTIVETRANSITIVE VERBINTRANSITIVE VERB aza....strongazaxer....fortify, strengthen, make strongazaser....get strong oza....weekozaxer....weakenozaser....grow weaker kyia....heavykyiaxer....weigh downkyiaser....grow heavy kyua....lightkyuaxer....lighten, make lighterkyuaser....get lighter yana....togetheryanaxer....bring togetheryanaser....get together
    The final adjective ending a is often dropped to form a verb with a slightly different meaning, usually somewhat more idiomatic. In some cases, dropping the a makes it clear that the verb is created from a noun rather than an adjective, as in the last example of the following chart:
    Comparing Full and Stub Adjectives in Verb Formation ADJECTIVETRANSITIVE VERBINTRANSITIVE VERB aga....bigagaxer....magnifyagaser....get big agxer....growagxer....grow up, mature iga....fastigaxer....accelerateigaser....speed up igxer....rushigser....hurry up baka....healthybakaxer....make healthybakaser....get healthy bakxer....healbakser....heal sana....formalsanaxer....formalizesanaser....become formal sanxer....form, shapesanser....form, take shape

### Forming Verbs of Gesture and Motion with -ber and -per

    Verbs of gesture are formed with the transitive auxiliary verb ber....to put, while parallel verbs of motion are formed with the intransitive auxiliary verb per....to go. These verbs are usually paired and are often built from a prepositional base. If the prepositional base ends in b, the b is dropped. Here are some examples:
    Verb Derivation with Ber and Per PREPOSITON BASETRANSITIVE GESTURE VERBINTRANSITIVE MOTION VERB ab....onaber....apply, put onaper....mount, get on eb....betweeneber....blockeper....intervene ob....offober....remove, take offoper....dismount, get off ib....awayiber....receiveiper....leave ub....towarduber....senduper....come yab....upyaber....raiseyaper....rise yeb....in oyeb....outyeber....insert oyeber....take outyeper....enter oyeper....exit yob....downyober....loweryoper....descend yib....faryiber....take awayyiper....move away yub....nearyuber....bringyuper....approach za....frontzaber....put up frontzaper....take the lead zay....forwardzayber....advancezayper....advance, go forward ze....middlezeber....balancezeper....balance zey....acrosszeyber....take across, transferzeyper....cross, go over, transit zo....behindzober....hinderzoper....trail, lag zoy....backzoyber....set back, returnzoyper....retreat, go back, return iz....straightizber....guideizper....aim for uz....crookeduzber....divertuzper....turn, diverge zu....leftzuber....set to the leftzuper.... go left yiz....beyondyizber....take beyondyizper....pass by yuz....aroundyuzber....take aroundyuzper....go around
    More elaborate verbs of gesture and motion can be formed by adding positional/directional ordinal vowels along with combinations of ser and xer, plus the intensifiers y, l and r. In this more complex scheme, the stem-initial p is a more semantically intense version of b. Also the verb endings -sler and -srer and more intense versions of the intransitive ending -ser, while -xler and -xrer and more intense version of the transitve ending -xer. Verbs ending in -ler and -rer are transitive voice by nature, -rer being more semantically intense. Prepositions can be prefixed to change the direction of the gestures or motions.
    Creating More Elaborate Verbs GESTURE VERBMOTION VERB INTRANSITIVETRANSITIVEINTRANSITIVETRANSITIVE --ber....put beer....have beler....carry bexer....hold bexler....keep per....go-- baer....lean onbaler....press yanbaler....compress yobaler....depress, suppress yuzbaler....hug zoybaler....repress barer....crushpaer....hover baser....gesticulatebaxer....make a gesture abaxer....caress, patpaser....movepaxer....move byaser....stand upbyaxer....set up, erectpyaser....jump uppyaxer....shoot, launch basler....budgebaxler....rouse abaxler....strokepaaser....get excitedpaaxer....excite apaxler....sweep basrer....shakebaxrer....shake abaxrer....rubapaxrer....scrub beser....staybexer....hold zoybexer....restrain yobexer....detain, hold downpeser....waitpexer....trap pexler....capture pexrer....abduct byeser....behavebyexer....hitpyeser....run into, bump intopyexer....strike, knock yonpyexer....break yopyexer....knock down epyexer....fight apyexer....attack ovpyexer....offend kunpyexer....sideswipe tuyapyexer....slap besler....adherebexler....retainpyexler....pound, beat apyexler....assault yonpexler....shatter, burst yanpyesrer....implode yonpyesler....explodepyexler....blast, bomb boser....calm down boyser....restboxer....quieten, quellposer....stop poyser....pausepoxer....stop byoser....hangbyoxer....hangpyoser....fall yonpyoser....decaypyoxer....drop, throw down yopyoxer....topple biser....originatebixer....pull yanbixer....contract yonbixer....distract yubixer....attract yibixer....distract oyebixer....extract yebixer....push inpixer....catch bisler....springbixler....yank bixrer....ravagepixler....snatch pixrer....rape buser....be destinedbuxer....push, drive zyobuxer....squeeze yebuxer....expel abuxer....imposeapuser....assaultpuxer....throw, thrust byuser....bump intobyuxer....touch yanbyuxer....contactpyuser....run intopyuxer....crash busler....swoopbuxler....shovepusler....lunge, pouncepuxler....thrust zyapuxler....splatter
    Yet more complex verbs can be generated by adding directional and positional prefixes to the above verbs. Let's just take the one verb baxer (and its intransitive partner baser) as our base verb and generate many others through prefixation of prepositional and other words as shown in the following chart:
    Baxer Verbs PREFIXVERB baxer....gesture, make a bodily motion ab....onabaxer....caress, pat, pet, stroke, rub iz....straightizbaxer....point teb....headtebaxer....nod va....yesvatebaxer....nod yes vo....novotebaxer....nod no ve....maybevetebaxer....shrug tuyab....handtuyabaxer....wave tub....armtubaxer....flail, swing teubab....tongueteubabaxer....lick teab....eyeteubaxer....wink patub....wingpatubaxer....flap tiyub....tailtiyubaxer....wag baser....gesticulate ig-....fastigbaser....jerk zay....forwardigzaybaser....lurch zoy....backzoybaser....recoil yob....downyobaser....bow, bend down ku-....sidekubaser....slide ig-....fastigkubaser....slip iz....straight + uz....curveduizbaser....sway, swagger, swish zi....right + zu....leftzuibaser....wiggle, wobble, totter

### Forming Frequentative Verbs

    A frequentative verb, that is, one that involves an action done quickly multiple times in succession, can be formed by infixing the syllable eg- between the verb stem and verb ending. Here are some examples:
    The -eg- Frequentative Infix REGULAR VERBFREQUENTATIVE VERB paser....movepaseger....shake, shudder pyaser....jumppyaseger....bounce paper....flypapeger....flutter, flit braser....shakebraseger....shudder, quiver, vibrate teupixer....biteteupixeger....nibble ilzyaber....sprayilzyabeger....sprinkle pyexer....beatpyexeger....batter, whip

### Forming Hybrid Words

    Expressions with alternating components like back-and-forth, up-and-down, etc. are formed in a peculiar, hybrid way. The following table shows this formation and how such words can be used, especially as prefixes on verbs:
    Hybrid Words ALTERNATING COMPONENTSHYBRID EXPRESSIONEXAMPLES yab....up + yob....downyao(b)-....up-and-downyaoper....fluctuate, yaopuser....bounce a-....up, north, skyward + o-....down, southao-....verticalaonada....vertical, aonab....column za(y)....forth, north + zo(y)....back, southzao(b)-....front-back/north-to-southzaobaser....rock, zaomera....north/south bu....to + bi....frombui-....to-and-frombuipar....shuttle, buipop....round-trip ab....on + ob....offao(b)-....on-and-offaoper....get on and off yuj-....closed + yij-....openyuij-....open-and-shutyuijbar....switch, igyuijer....blink uj-....stop + ij-....startuij-....stop-and-startuijparpan....stop-and-go traffic (a)yeb....in + oyeb....outaoye(b)-....in-and-outigaoyeper....run in-and-out yub....near + yib....faryui(b)-....near-and-faryuipoper....travel near-and-far ub....toward + ib....awayui(b)-....toward-and-awayuipen....coming and going hum....there + him....herehuim....here-and-therehuimkexer....search high-and-low (here-and-there) hus....that + his....thishuis....this-and-thathuisyexer....do odd jobs, work at this-or-that hyut....other person + hyit....same personhyuit....one anotherhyuitifer....love one another, hyuita....mutual, reciprocal
    Here are some more examples:
    More Hybrids HYBRID WORDENGLISH GLOSSALTERNATING COMPONENTS aogsen fluctuation (in size) ag- (big) + og- (little) + s- (become) + -en (-ing) aonadavertical a- (up/north) + o- (down/south) + nad (line) + -a (adj.) aopuys hop-on-hop-off a(p)- (on) + o(p)- (off) + puys- (hop) buien trading, swapping bu- (give) + bi- (trake) + -en (-ing) buip traffic bu- (to) + bi- (from) + p- (go) buixarspringbux- (push) + bix (pull) + -ar (instrument) buixek tug-o-war bux- (push) + bix- (pull) + ek (play) buixnyem drawer bux- (push) + bix- (pull) + nyem (box) byaosen teetering, stumbling byas- (stand) + byos- (fall) + -en (-ing) diep marine force dip (sea force) + dep (land force) duid q&a, interview dud (answer) + did (question) eigpyexerbatter, whipeg- (again) + ig- (fast) + pyexer (to hit) gao more-or-less ga (more) + go (less) glaojo sooner or later gla (very) + glo (slightly) + jo (after) huimkexersearch here and therehu- (that) + hi- (this) + -m (place) + kex (search) + -er (inf.) huis this-and-that hu- (that) + hi- (this) + -s (thing) hyuit one another hyu- (other) + hyi- (same) + -t (person) kyaopen fluctuation kya- (mobile) + kyo (static) + -pen (going) maluier breathe mal- (air) + u- (let out) + i- (take in) -er (inf.) maojyex double-shift work maj (day) + moj (night) + yex (work) maonig flicker man (light) + mon (dark) + ig- (fast) maolza black&white/gray malza (white) + molza (black) meil mud mel (soil) + mil (water) memuiben import-exports mem (country) + ub- (send) + ib- (receive) + -en (-ing) mial vapor mil (water) + mal (air) mieg reef mi- (sea) + me- (land) + -g (stone) miek sand mi- (sea) + me- (land) + -k (rocky substance) miem swamp mim (sea) + mem (land) mimpuin dock mim (sea) + pu- (arrive) + pi- (depart) + -m (place) mimpyaos surf mim (sea) + pyas- (surge) + pyos- (sink) mimuip tide mim (sea) + up- (come) + ip- (go) peit amphibian pet (land animal) + pit (sea creature) puim kiss-and-ride zonepu- (arrive) + pi- (depart) + -m (place) puixek baseball pux- (pitch) + pix- (catch) + ek (play) pyaoswavepyas- (surge) + pyos- (crest) teabyuij blink teab (eye) + yuj- (close) + yij- (open) tuijea nodding off tuj- (sleep) + tij (wake) -ea (-ing) uijdal stutter uj- (finish) + ij- (start) + dal (speech) uipeni comings & goings up- (come) + ip (go) + -en (-ing) + -i (pl.) uiza serpentine, snaky uza (crooked) + iza (straight) vao? yes or no? va (yes) + vo (no) vaod decision va (yes) + vo (no) + d- (say) yaobar elevator yab- (raise) + yob- (lower) + -ar (instrument) yaobyuijarpistonyab- (raise) + yob- (lower) + yuj- (close) + yij- (open ) + -ar (instrument) yaoplasoscillationyap- (up) + yop- (down) + plas (shake) yaopsimseesawyap- (ascend) + yop- (descend) + sim (seat) yaopusbounceya(b)- (up) + yo(b)- (down) + pus (jump) yaovdutjuroryav- (innocent) + yov- (guilty) + d- (say) + -ut (agent) yaozauneven, bumpy, serratedyaza (convex) + yoza (concave) yaozgoblarsawyaz (protrusion ) + yoz (indentation) + gobl- (cut) + -ar (instrument) yaozilwaveyaz (swell) + yoz (trough) + -il (liquid) yuibteabarbifocalsyub (near) + yib (far) + teab (eye) + -ar (instrument) yuijar valve, switchyuj- (close) + yij- (open) + -ar (instrument) zaobelurferryza- (forth) + zo (back) + bel- (carry) + -ur (vehicle) zaobyexarswatter, batza (forth) + zo (back) + byex- (strike) + -ar (instrument) zaodaldialogza- (forth) + zo (back) + dal (speech) zaogoblarsawza (forth) + zo (back) + gobl (cut) + -ar (instrument) zaokyaxalternationza (forth) + zo (back) + kyax (change) zaopasenswingingza- (forth) + zo- (back) + pasen (moving) zaopsimswing or rockerzap- (go forth) + zap (go back) + sim (seat) zuibasenwigglingzu- (left) + zi- (right) + bas- (move bodily) + -en (-ing) zuibayxwagzu- (left) + zi- (right) + bayx- (slight body move) zuibyoxeadanglingzu (left) + zi (right) + byox- (hang down) + -ea (-ing) zuiyafaambidextrouszu- (left) + zi- (right) + yafa (capable) zyaobasthrobzya- (wide) + zyo- (narrow) + bas (bodily movement)
Mirad Grammar/Word Families

# Word Order

    Overall, Mirad is an SVO language, that is, the normal word order is Subject + Verb Predicate + Object, much like English and all of the Romance languages.
    The subject and object consist of nouns or pronouns with or without modifiers. The verb predicate consists of a conjugated verb form with or without adverbial modifiers, which may precede or follow based on considerations below.

# The Subject

    A subject is the entity that is responsible for the action or state in the verb predicate. That entity consists of modified or unmodified zero or more nouns or pronouns. The subject can be a noun phrase, which can include modifiers like deictic adjectives, quantifiers, or descriptive adjectives preceding a noun or nouns heading up a prepositional phrase.
    Some rules:
      * Modifiers of a noun or noun phrase precede that noun or noun phrase:
      * Deictic adjectives and possessive pronouns come in first place among the modifiers:
             Hia via toyb....this beautiful woman
             Ha aa dresiun....the first letter
             Yata ifwa twed hu toja zojub....our beloved father who died last year
      * Quantifiers come after any deictic adjectives or possessive pronouns, but before the noun they modify:
             Hua ewa pati....those two birds
             Hya ha gla jubi....all the many days
             Iyta gla yafoni....her many abilities
      * Prepositions precede their complement:
             Za ata tam....in front of my house
      * Prepositional phrase modifiers follow the noun they modify:
             ha domep zo yata tam....the street behind our house
             saxam yub bi et....a factory near you
      * Relative clause modifiers follow the noun or noun phrase they modify:
             Hos at voy teste....the thing (that) I don't understand
             Ha glo doymi ho zoybese....the few towns that remain
      * A subject noun can consist of a clause, infinitive, or gerund:
             Van it upo se vala.....That he will come is certain.
             Ser yiva se ser iva.....To be free is to be happy.
             Hia uvteuden yefe poser.....This weeping must stop.
      * The subject can consist of a pronoun or linked pronouns:
             Et ay at....You and I
             Anay et....Only you
             Glati....many people
      * Adverbs often precede what they modify, but this rule is somewhat loose.
             gey et....even you
             deuzen fiay....singing well
             voy aken....not winning

# Prepositional Phrases

    In Mirad, prepositional phrases consist of a simple or complex (= multi-word) preposition followed by a complement. Some examples:
      * be moj....at night (simple)
      * ja utyal....before supper (simple)
      * yeb bu ha tam....into the house (complex)

## Use of Simple Prepositions

    Mirad has the following simple prepositions, which, except for ogel, are monosyllabic, and stand directly before their substantive complement:
    Simple Prepositions ab....oneb....betweenob....offib....away fromub....toward ayb....aboveeyb....amongoyb....under be....atbi....of, frombu....to bay....withbey....by, viaboy....withoutbyi....from the start ofbyu...up to za....in front ofze....in the middle ofzo....behindzi....at the right ofzu....at the left of zya....throughoutzye....through ja....beforeje....duringjo....afterji....sinceju....until gab....plusgob....minus gal....timesgel....like ogel....unlikegol....divided by gar....to the power ofgor....to the root (negative power) of ay....andey....oroy....but av....for ayv....aboutov....against oyv....opposite vyel....about, than, as
       Examples:
         * boy uvteuden....without moaning
         * av hyea tesdud....for whatever reason
         * ewa gal ewa....two times two
         * poper zya Europam.....to travel all over Europe.
         * iwa gar se yuwa....three squared is nine
         * yekea dyes vyel(or: ayv) Mirad....looking for a book about Mirad
       The preposition be (at) is used as an all-purpose locator:
         * be ha mimkum....at the beach
         * be ha domep....in the street
         * be ha meb....on the mountain
         * be Fransam....in France
       The preposition be is used in many idioms, where ha (the) is omitted:
         * be dropek bay....at war with
         * be obem bi....at the bottom of ( = at bottom of)
         * be nem bi....in place of, instead of, in lieur of
         * be tam bi....chez, at the house of
         * be zam bi....in front of
         * be sinibar....on television
         * be dud bu....in response to
         * be tam....at home
       The preposition bi can be used for from, indicating origin, or of, denoting possession or origin.
          Examples:
         * Ata twed zoypa bi yex gwa.....My father returned from work early.
         * Ha yabtom bi London se humep.....The tower of London is that way.
         * His se ha dyes bi hua twob.....This is that man's book ( = the book of that man).
       The proposition to (to) can often be omitted after a verb where the to-ness is embedded in the verb. This omission is possible only when the verb is followed immediately by the object of destination:
          Examples:
         * Buu at hua drar....Give me that pencil (or: Buu hua drar bu at.)
         * Pu tam!....Go home! (but: Pu izay bu tam!)
         * At peye zedom.....I am going downtown. (or: At peye bu zedom.)
       The preposition vyel is used for two purposes:
         * about, concerning, relative to as in Hia dyes vyel moltun se yika.....This book about physics is difficult.
         * than, as after comparative adjectives as in ga aga vyel huas....bigger than that one.
       Do not confuse bay and bey, both of which can sometimes be translated by with in English.
         * bay denotes accompaniment as in Duven et po bay at?....Will you be going with me?
         * bey denotes means as in It pyexa at bey muf.....He hit me with ( = by means of) a stick.

## Use of Complex Prepositions

    The above simple prepositions can be used with adverbs to form more complex prepositions. The following chart shows adverbs which ban be joined with simple prepositions to create complex prepositions:
       Complex Prepositions ADVERB+ bi+ be+ buOTHER yab upyab bi ha sem up from the tableyab be ha abmas up on the roofyab bu ha abtem up to the atticyab ayb ha mays up over the fence yob downyob bi ha abmas down from the roofyob be ha mimkum down at the beachyob bu he obtim down to the cellaryob oyb ha sem down under the table yeb inyeb bi ha mamil in from the rainyeb be ha tam inside the houseyeb bu ata tim into my roomyeb av vafil in for wine oyeb outoyeb bi ha miltim out of/from the bathroomoyeb be ha abzamas...out on the balconyoyeb bu ha mesabab out to the porchoyeb av etyal out for lunch yub nearyub bi yata tam near(by) our houseyub be eta kun near at your sideyub bu ha ujnod near to the endpoint..yub bay tod near with family yib faryib bi him far from hereyib be mom far out in spaceyib bu ha byum far to the goalyib yob bu ha obem far down to the bottom yuz aroundyuz bi ha mir around the worldyuz be ha zom around in the backyuz bu ha zam around to the frontyuz boy tof around without clothes yiz beyondyiz bi Meir beyond earthyiz bu hyua kum beyond to the other side yez alongyez bi ha mas flush with the wallyez kum bi at alongside me yan togetheryan bay yat together with us yon apartyon bi hus apart from that zay forward, aheadzay bi at be ha pesnad ahead of me in linezay bu eta byun ahead to your goal zoy back, backwardzoy bi yex back from workzoy be tam back at homezoy bu tistam back to schoolzoy av gas back for more zey acrosszey bi ha aybmep across the bridgezey be ha ogela kum across on the other sidezey bu ha ogela kum across to the other sidezey ov yat opposite us iz directly, straightiz bi yex straight from workiz be ha zenod right at the midpointiz bu sum right to bediz yub bi him right near here

## Using Prepositions as Clausal Conjunctions

    Some simple and complex prepositions can introduce a dependent clause, but must be followed by the positive particle van. This rule does not apply to ay (and), ey (or) and oy (but), because they are already properly conjunctions. This chart shows some examples:
       Prepositions as Clausal Conjunctions PREPOSITIONCLAUSAL CONJUNCTIONEXAMPLE ja beforeja vanIt tojo ja van et puo. He will die before you arrive. je duringje van whileJe van et tuxeya, at tujeya. While you were studying, I was sleeping. jo afterjo vanYit xo ifonpop ja van yit tadso. They will go on a honeymoon after they get married. av forav van so that av von lest...not, so that...notEgxu av van et su jwabwa. Rehearse so that you will be prepared. Yexu jestay av von et ujoku. Study hard so you won't fail. ov against(gey) ov van (even) though, despite the fact thatIt igpa gey ov van it ta van it so gwaa. He (or she) ran even though he knew (that) he would be late.
    Note that av van and av von are followed by a clause where the predicate verb is in the hypothetical mood (-u), reminiscent of the subjunctive in the Romance languages.

# The Predicate

    The predicate consists of a verb, its modifiers, and its objects.

## Rules

      * The adverbs vay (indeed), vey (possibly, may), and voy (not) usually precede the verb:
             Yata tam voy osexwa.....Our house was not destroyed.
             Vey mamilo.....It may rain.
             Et se vay fia deuzut.....You are really a fine singer.
      * Other adverbs and come either before or after the verb, depending on emphasis.
             Dalu yug!....Speak softly!
             Et dale gra ig.....You speak too fast.
             It glaxag ake.....He often wins.
             Glaxag it ake.....Often he wins.
             It ake glaxag.....He wins often.
      * Yes-no questions are formed by preceding the verb predicate with Duven...?, which means Say whether..., Is it true that..., without any word order change in the verb predicate:
             Duven it gaj tejeye?....Is (it true that) he still living?
             Duven et te ha dud?....Do you know the answer?
      * Questions words requiring fill-in-the-blank words like When?, Where?, Who?, etc. start out with the question word, followed by the verb predicate in unchanged word order:
             Duhoj et taja?....When were you born?
             Duhoyen et se?....How are you?
             Duhos se eta dyun?....What is your name?
             Duhom et tambee?....Where do you live?
             Duhot kobia ata dyes?....Who stole my book?
      * Question words that are adverbs, as well as pronominal question words that are the subject of a stative predicate, can appear at the end of a sentence:
             Et taja duhoj?....When were you born?
             Et se duhoyen?....How are you?
             Eta dyun se duhos?....What is your name?
             Et tambee duhom?....Where do you live?
      * Verbs can be serial:
             It deuze, daze, ay duzare.....He sings, dances, and plays an instrument.
             Eku ey pilu!....Play or get lost!
             Iyt eka oy oka.....She played but lost.
      * Verb predicates can have an implied, unexpressed subject:
             Mamilo.....(It) is going to rain.
             Upu!....(You) come!
             Se ama him.....(It) is hot here.
             Voy se yeva jayevder hes.....(It) is not fair to prejudge someone.
             Von (et) jwosu.....Don't (you) be late.

## Predicate Types

    Predicate types, i.e. illocutions, refer to how the verb, predicate, clause, or sentence is expressed, There are three predicate types in Mirad:
      * Declarative
      * Interrogative
      * Imperative / Hortative
    These predicate types, in turn, can be:
      * Negative, or
      * Affirmative, or
      * Combinations of these.
    A simple, non-negative statement is affirmative declarative, such as Ha meir yuzpe ha maar.....The earth goes around the sun.
    The following sections discuss non-declarative and non-affirmative predicate types.

## Making Predicates Interrogative

    To make a declarative predicate or sentence into a question, simply begin it with the Yes/No Question Introducer Duven....Say whether.../Is it true that...? or any other interrogative pronoun or adverb such as Duhos?....What?, Duhot?....Who(m)?, or Duhom?....where?. Note that the Du in Duven means Say.../ Tell me..., so Duven...? really is a command meaning Say whether.... The word ven without the du is a conditional complementizer and just means if or whether. The part of the sentence after Duven is a simple declarative statement in the normal word order. The same is true for the words following other interrogative words, such as Duhos?....What? and Duhom?....Where?. In other words, there is no inversion of word order in questions as there often is in English, Spanish, and many other languages.
    Making Predicates Interrogative DECLARATIVEINTERROGATIVE Et se tadxwa. You are married.Duven et se tadxwa? Are you married? (= Say whether you are married.) Ha mari se manika. The stars are bright.Duven ha mari se manika? Are the stars bright? (= Say whether the stars are bright.) Hut aka. That guy won.Duhot aka? Who won? Iyt aka glas. She won a lot.Duhoglas iyt aka? How much did she win? It paye. He has gone.Duhom it paye? Where has he gone?
    Note that the question words introduce the sentence and do not alter the word order as seen in the declarative. Also, a declarative sentence can be made interrogative simply by adding a question mark at the end in writing or raising the voice inflection at the end in speaking, eg:
      * Et tambese ha yubem? You live in the neighborhood?
    The yes-no tag vao can be placed at the end of a declaration to make it a question, eg.:
      * Et tambese ha yubem, vao? You live in the neighborhood, right?
    Yes/no questions such as the above and those introduced with Duven usually are answered with va yes, ve maybe, or vo no or their equivalents.
    "Yes-or-no Questions" YES-NO QUESTIONANSWER Duven eta dyun se John? Is your name John?Vo, se Bill. No, it's Bill. Duven eta apet aka? Did your horse win?Va. Atas vay aka. Yes. Mine won indeed. Duven et texe van ha maalyen gafiso hijub? Do you think the weather will improve today?Ve. Maybe. Fe per bay at? Wanna go with me?Vey zajub. Maybe tomorrow. Et tadso, vao? You're going to get married, right?Vey va, vey vo. Maybe yes, maybe no.

## Affirming/ Doubting / Negating Declarations

    The following set of interjections and adverbs can be used to affirm, cast doubt on, or negate declarations:
    Affirming, Doubting, Negative Declarations  INTERJECTIONADVERBPROPOSITION AFFIRMATIVEva yesvay indeed, reallyVa. At vay yantexe Yes, I indeed/do/really agree. DUBITATIVEve maybe, perhapsvey possibly, may...Ve. At vey po. Maybe. I may/possibly will go. NEGATIVEvo novoy notVo. At voy su iva. No. I would not be happy.

## Mixing Them Up

    The above interrogative words and the words of affirmation / doubt / negation can be used in various combinations, for example:
      * Duven et voy se tadxwa?....Aren't you married?
      * Duhasav iyt se voy tadxwa?....Why isn't she married?
      * Vey voy mamilo.....It may not rain.
      * At vay voy tadso iyt.....I will certainly not marry her.
      * Et peyo, vao?....You will go, right?
      * Vo. Hus vey vay se vyoa.....No. That may indeed be wrong.
      * Et te ha dud, vao?....You know the answer, don't you? (=right?)
    Note that the particles of affirmation/doubt/negation usually precede the verb, but can just as easily follow it.
      * At voy te. ....I don't know.
      * At te voy. ....I don't know. [Lit: I know not.]
    Note that vao? is a particle meaning yes or no?, right?, n'est-ce pas?

## Imperative and Hortative Expressions

    An imperative expression is a command. In Mirad, a verb in the tenseless hypothetical mood ending in -u without a subject is assumed to an imperative referring implicitly to you. For example:
      * Ipu !....Go away!
      * Tiju !....Wake up!
      * Su fiat !....Be a good person!
    Hortative expressions, i.e. urging or wishing expressions like Let's go. or May he win., use the hypothetical form of the verb with the clause introduced by the positive complementizer van....that, may, let. In Arabic and some other languages, this is called the jussive mood.
      * Van yat fadilu.....Let's pray. (Lit: That we would pray.)
      * Van weti aku hia ifek.....May you guys win this game.
      * Van ha edeb yagteju.....Long live the king. (Lit. That the king would long-live.)
      * At ojfe van wit piu.....I wish he'd leave. (Lit.I wish that he would leave.)
    The negative version of imperative and hortative expressions is introduced with the negative complementizer von....don't, lest, let's not. If there is no subject pronoun, you is understood.
      * Von (et) dalu at huyen.....Don't (you) speak to me that way.
      * Von yit oku.....May they not lose.
      * Yit fiyake von yet oku.....We hope (that) you will not will.
      * Von yat toxu it.....Let's not forget him.

## Complementizers

    Van, ven, von, and ho are complementizers.
    Complementizers TYPECOMPLEMENTIZERSMEANINGMIRAD EXAMPLEENGLISH EQUIVALENT Interrogative duven...?Is it true that...? Tell (me) whether... (yes/no question introducer)Duven eta dyun se John?Is (it true that) your name is John? Conditional venif, whetherVen et te, du has. At utdide ven it upo.If you know, say so. I wonder whether he'll come. Anti-Conditional ovenunlessOven et yexe, et voy ako.Unless you work, you will not win. Positive/Hortative vanthat, so that, let, mayAt ta van it upo. Van yat dilo. Van et su iva. At xa has van et fitexu at.I knew (that) he would come. Let's pray. Let you be happy. I did it so you'd think well of me. Negative/Prohibitive vonDon't, let...not, lestVon teaxu at. Von yat su uva. At pio von et futipsu.Don't look at me. Let's not be sad. I will leave lest you get angry. Relative howho, whom, that, whichHa toybi ho ifaye et... Ha toyb ho et ife. Koxon ho at yofe lonyafxer.The women who have loved you. The woman (whom) you love. A problem (that/which) I cannot solve.

## Subjunctive Clauses

    The hypothetical mood is also used in subjunctive clauses. A subjunctive clause is one in which an action or state is desired, requested, required, or wanted in some other way by the actor in the main clause. Positive subjunctive clauses are introduced with the positive complementizer van....that, let's, so that. Here are some examples:
      * Ha edweb dira van at tyoibu za it.....The king demanded that I kneel before him.
      * Se igefwa van et upu gwa ig.....It is urgent that you come as soon as possible.
      * Durwa van hyat dolu.....It was ordered that everyone be silent.
    A negative subjunctive clause is introduced with the negative complementizer von....don't, lest.
      * Biksu von et pyosu.....Be careful lest you fall / that you not fall.
    The conditional complementizer ven....if, whether can introduce a clause in the subjunctive, indicating an unreal condition, as in the following examples:
      * At sexu tam ven at su nasika.....I would build a house if I were (= would be) rich.
      * Duhas et xu ven et beu ga nas?....What would you do if you had (= would have) more money?
    Many of the above sentences could be rephrased with an infinitive in order to avoid the subjunctive:
      * Ha edweb dira at tyoiber za it.....The king demanded me to kneel before him.
      * Se igefwa av et uper gwa ig.....It is urgent for you to come as soon as possible.
      * Hyat durwa doler.....Everyone was ordered to be silent.
      * Biksu voy pyoser.....Be careful not to fall.

## If-Then Conditional Clauses

    A conditional clause is introduced with the conditional complementizer ven....if, whether. The if-clause can be a real tense or a hypothetical. If the if-clause is hypothetical, the then-clause is also hypothetical. Here are the possible variations:
       If-then Conditional Clauses IF-CLAUSETHEN-CLAUSE PRESENT INDICATIVEPRESENT INDICATIVE Ven ot yexe jestay, If one works hard,ot akxe. one succeeds. PAST INDICATIVEPAST INDICATIVE Ven et ta, If you knew,et dola. you kept quiet. FUTURE INDICATIVEFUTURE INDICATIVE Ven et pio, If you leave,at so uva. I will be sad. PRESENT HYPOTHETICALPRESENT HYPOTHETICAL Ven at su nyaza, If I were rich, Ven et teetu, If you would listen,at nuxbiu aga tam. I would buy a new house. et testu. you would understand. PAST HYPOTHETICALPAST HYPOTHETICAL Ven at tayu, If I had known,at dudayu hyuyen. I would have responded differently.
    Note that in English, when the then-clause is future tense, the if-clause is present; This is not the case in Mirad, where both clauses are in the future. In Mirad, the formula is "If you WILL leave, I WILL be sad." In English, the formula "I didn't know whether he WOULD x" is translated in Mirad as "I didn't know whether he WILL x." Relative tenses do not exist in Mirad.

## If/Whether Subordinate Clauses

    Here are some examples of sentences where the main clause contains some verb of knowing, questioning, wondering, guessing followed by a subordinate clause introduced by the conditional complementizer ven....whether / if. Note that the tenses in Mirad are somewhat different in that there is no relative shifting of time as in English.
       If-whether Subordinate Clauses MAIN CLAUSEIF / WHETHER SUBORDINATE CLAUSE PRESENT INDICATIVEPRESENT INDICATIVE At utdide I wonderven it te ha vyan. if / whether he knows the truth. PRESENT INDICATIVEPAST INDICATIVE At voy te I don't knowven yit aka ey oka. if / whether they won or lost. PRESENT INDICATIVEFUTURE INDICATIVE At voy te I don't knowven et ujako. if / whether you will succeed. PRESENT INDICATIVEPRESENT HYPOTHETICAL At utdide I wonderven et yantexu. if / whether you would agree. PAST INDICATIVEPRESENT INDICATIVE At voy ta I didn't knowven wit se taduwa. if / whether he was [Mirad: is] married. PAST INDICATIVEPAST INDICATIVE At dida I askedven iyt teata hia dezun. if / whether she had seen [Mirad: saw] this play. PAST INDICATIVEFUTURE INDICATIVE At voy ta I didn't knowven it upo if / whether he would [Mirad: will] come. PAST INDICATIVEPRESENT HYPOTHETICAL At dida I askedven it fu per bay at. if / whether he might like to go with me. PAST INDICATIVEPAST HYPOTHETICAL At dida I askedven it fayu per bay at. if / whether he might have liked to go with me.
    The negative conditional complementizer oven....unless is used in main-subordinate clause structures in the same way as the above.
       Negative Conditional Complementizer MAIN CLAUSEIF / WHETHER SUBORDINATE CLAUSE PRESENT INDICATIVEPRESENT INDICATIVE Ot voy ujake One does not succeedoven ot yexe jestay. unless one works hard. FUTURE INDICATIVEPRESENT INDICATIVE Et voy teato at You won't see meoven et upo. unless you come (= will come).

## Relative Clauses

    Relative clauses are of two types:
      * Bound relative clauses qualify an explicit element (usually a noun or phrase) appearing in the main clause, and refer back to that element by means of the relative complementizer ho (example: "The boy who laughed was expelled."), and:
      * Free relative clauses, which do not have an explicit antecedent external to themselves. Instead, the relative clause itself takes the place of an argument in the matrix clause. For example, in the English sentence I like what I see, the clause what I see is a free relative clause, because it has no antecedent, but itself serves as the object of the verb like in the main clause. (An alternative analysis is that the free relative clause has zero as its antecedent.) In Mirad, relative deictic pronouns or adverbs having the prefix ho, as shown in the chart below, are used to introduce the free relative clause.

### Bound Relative Clauses

    The invariable relative complementizer ho is used to introduce a bound relative clause and refer back to an element in the main clause. Here are some examples:
      * Ha tob, ho tadsa ewa jabi jay, bayse awa tud.....The man, who got married two years ago, has one child.
      * Ha toyb ho ako ibo aga nazun.....The woman who wins will receive a big prize.
      * Hia pati ho at pixa magelwo himaj.....These birds (that/which) I caught will be cooked this evening.
      * Biu hyea jotul ho et fu.....Take any dessert (that) you'd like.
      * Ha apet ho at bua it ha afeb apeda bay if.....The horse I gave the apple to neighed with pleasure. (= ...that I gave him the apple...)
      * Iyt trua at bu ha yexeb ho iyt yexaya oyb it ji gla jabi.....She introduced me to the boss under whom she had worked for many years. (Lit: ...that she had worked under him...)
    In cases where the antecedent in the matrix clause needs to be very clear, ho can be replaced with a relative pronoun specifying the gender or number of the antecedent, for example:
      * Ata tedi ay yita tuyd, hoyt at yuxa be ha aj,.......My parents and their daughter, whom (f.s. referring to the daughter) I helped in the past, ...
      * Ata tedi ay yita tuyd, hoti at yuxa be ha aj,.......My parents and their daughter, whom (pl.) referring to both the parents and their daughter) I helped in the past, ...
      * Ata tedi ay yita tuyd, ho at yuxa iyt be ha aj,... (Here the relative complementizer ho is used but is followed up later with a resumptive feminine personal pronoun. For consistence in the language, this latter method is best.)
    Note that in cases where the relative clause ends in a preposition governing the man clause antecedent, a resumptive pronoun is added agreeing in gender, number, and animacy with the main clause antecedent. This type of construction occurs in the last two example sentences above. So, the English relative clause for whom I sang would be expressed in Mirad as that I sang for her/him/it/them depending on the gender, number, and animacy of the antecedent in the main clause.
      * Ha toybi ho at deuza av yiyt fida ata yafi.....The ladies for whom I sang (= that I sang for them) praised my abilities.
    Bound relative clauses beginning with whose are expressed in Mirad as hota (which person's) or hoyita (which persons'), depending on the number of the explicit antecedent in the main clause.
      * Ha ekuyt hota tyoyab yonpyexwa yofa eker hijeb.....The female player whose foot was broken was unable to play this season.
      * Ata yubati, hoyita tam se jay ga aga vyel yatas, agaxa yita puram gajod.....Our neighbors, whose (= which persons') house is already bigger than ours, enlarged their garage again.
    If no preposition governing the antecedent is involved, but the relative clause takes the place of an objective case element, supplying a pronoun referring back to the antecedent noun (resumptive pronoun) is optional:
      * Ha dyesi ho at dyea hasi zamaj sa hyasi fia.....The books (which) I read (them) last evening were all good.

### Free Relative Clauses

    Free relative clauses are introduced by a relative deictic pronoun or adverb as shown in the charts below. Note that if the deictic pronoun is one other than a relative pronoun or adverb, then it is followed by the relative complementizer ho. For example, Hos at te.......What I know does not need the relative complementizer ho, because it is already embedded in the relative pronoun hos. The use of ho with other deictic words in a relative clause is optional.
    Free Relative Clauses RELATIVE PRONOUNSMIRAD....ENGLISHEXAMPLE Thing(s) hos....what/that which/the thing that hosi....what/those which/the things that hyes (ho)....whatever/anything that hyesi (ho)....whatever/anything that/any things that hyas (ho)....everything that/all that hyasi (ho)....all (things) that hyos (ho)....nothing (that) hyosi (ho)....none of the things (that) hoas....which one hoasi....which onesHos at da se vyaa.....What I said is true. Hosi it xa futipxa at.....What/the things he did angered me. At xo hyes (ho) et do.....I will do whatever/anything you say. Et voy teeta hyesi (ho) at deuza.....You didn't hear any of the things I sang. Hyas (ho) at fe se poos.....All I want is peace. At akxa hyas (ho) at fa.....I achieved all (that) I wanted. At akxa hyasi (ho) at fa.....I achieved all the things (that) I wanted. At testa hyos (ho) et da.....I understood nothing you said. Hyosi (ho) et iyfe ifue at.....None of the things you like appeal to me. At te voy hoas at gwafe.....I don't know which one I like best. At te hoasi at gwofe.....I know which ones I like least. Person(s) hot....who//the person (who) hoti....the ones who hyet (ho)....whoever/anybody who/that hyeti ho....whoever/any people that/who hyat (ho)....everyone that/everybody who hyati (ho)....all those who hyot (ho)....nobody (that/who) hyoti (ho)....no ones (that/who) hota....whose hoata....which one hoati....which onesHot et teata pia.....The one you saw left. Hoti at tye yantexe.....Those (people) I know agree. At teapo hyet (ho) at fe.....I will visit whomever I wish. Et voy teata hyeti (ho) at teata.....You didn't see any of the ones I saw. Hyot (ho) at ijtyea sa fiyena.....Everyone I met was nice. At fida hyoti (ho) at yeyfa.....I praised all the people I was supposed to. At testa hyot (ho) at teeta.....I understood nobody I heard. Hoti et ijtyaxa sa fuyena.....The ones you introduced were ill-mannered. At te voy hota ifpot his se.....I don't know whose pet this is. At te voy hoat at gwafe.....I don't know which one (person) I like best. At te hoati at gwofe.....I know which ones (people) I like least. RELATIVE ADVERBSMIRAD....ENGLISHEXAMPLE Place hom....where hyem (ho)....wherever hyam (ho)....everywhere bi hom....from where, whence bu hom....to where, whitherYat tambese hom ha maalyen se yugra.....We live where the weather is mild. At fu per hyem (ho) et po.....I'd like to go wherever you go. Hyam (ho) et pe, su bikaya.....Everywhere you go, be careful. Ha dom hom at byise se gla oga.....The town where I come from is very small. Ha memi hom at popeyo se gle jiba.....The countries where I am going to be traveling are quite distant. Time hoj....when hyej (ho)....whenever hyaj (ho)....everywhereDu at hoj et puo.....Tell me when you arrive. Hyej (ho) iyt se iva, iyt deuze.....Whenever/anytime she is happy, she sings. Hyaj (ho) at yabteaxe, et yobteaxe.....Every time I look up, you look down. Manner/Kind hoyen....how, in what way, as hyeyen (ho)....however, in any way, in whatever manner hyiyen (ho)....just as, the same way asAt utdide hoyen it xa hus.....I wonder how he did it. Hyeyen (ho) xwa se kos.....However it happened is a mystery. Xu has hyiyen (geyen) (ho) at xe has.....Do it the same way as I do it. Degree hogla....how, to what extent hyigla ( ~ ge) ho....as, to the same degree asEt hyoj to hogla iva at se.....You'll never know how happy I am. At yofe poper hogla (= ge) yib ho et yafe.....I cannot travel as far as you can. Quantity hogla....how much, how many hyegla (ho)....however much, however many hyigla (= ge) (ho)....as much/many asDuven et te hogla nas it ayse?....Do you know how much money he has? Yet dida yat hyegla tami (ho) yat sexa.....You guys asked us however many houses we built. Et nixo hogla ~ ge nas at xe.....You will earn as much money as I do. Reason hosav....why, for what reason hyesav (ho)....why ever, for whatever reasonDuven et te hosav it xa hus.....Do you know why he did that? Yat voy teste hyesav (ho) et xu hus.....We don't understand why ever you'd do that.
    The ho complementizer in free relative clauses can be omitted in conversation if there is no loss of meaning. For example, At fe per hyem et pe.....I want to go wherever you go. or Xu geyen at de.....Do as (= the same way (that)) I say.
    If the relative clause is restrictive (i.e. it cannot be omitted without violating the meaning of the sentence), then no commas are used, but if it is non-restrictive (i.e. it provides new information that can be omitted), then it is surrounded by commas, just as in English.
      * RESTRICTIVE: Ha mar ho yata mer yuzpe dyunwe ha maar.....The star that our planet goes around is called the sun.
      * NON-RESTRICTIVE: Ha amar, ho yata mer yuzpe, se vay haway hea mar.....The sun, which our planet goes around, is really only a (= some) star.

## Indirect and Direct Discourse

    As in English, Mirad has both indirect discourse and direct discourse. Indirect discourse is when you know or say that something happened, whereas direct discourse is when you directly quote what someone has said.

### Indirect Discourse

    Sentences that have a main clause of communication or knowledge, followed by a subordinate clause with an indirect indication of what was said or known, use the positive complementizer van (that, the fact that) to introduce the subordinate clause. The tense in the subordinate clause is a true tense, not a relative tense. Unlike in English, where the that can often be omitted, the Mirad van complementizer can never be omitted.
      * At ta van et upo.....I knew that you would (= will) come.
      * Ata ted da van it yexe hya ita tej gel mufyegut.....My father said that he had worked (= he worked) all his life as a plumber.
      * Se vyaa van at gra tele.....It is true that I eat too much.
      * At jada van et puo jwa.....I predicted that you would (= you will) arrive early.
    The conditional complementizer ven....if, whether and the negative complementizer von....lest, don't, that...not are discussed in later sections.

### Direct Discourse

    Direct discourse works as in English, except that a colon (:) is used instead of a comma. Double quotes are used to surround the directly quoted part of the sentence.
      * Iyt da: "At voy fe per."....She said, "I don't want to go."
      * At dida it: "Duhot so eta aadezut?".....I asked him, "Who will be your lead actor?"

# The Object

    The object in a sentence can be noun or noun phrase, a pronoun, an infinitive, a gerund, a prepositional phrase, or a clause. Sometimes, an object consists of both a direct object and an indirect object.
    Rules:
      * Transitive verbs can take a direct object:
             Ha yepet teupixa at.....The dog bit me.
             Yovobu hoti fyuxe et.....Forgive those who hurt you.
             Biu hia yibdren.....Take this telegram.
      * Some transitive verbs can take both a direct and indirect object. Many common transitive verbs imply a directional proposition, and so that preposition need not be expressed in the indirect object, but in such cases the indirect object comes before the direct object:
             Buu at hua nyem.....Give (to) me that box.
             Du it doler.....Tell (to) him to be quiet.
             Xu at ha avun bi pier.....Do (to) me the favor of leaving.
      * Stative intransitive verbs like ser (to be) can be followed by a complement consisting of a noun, pronoun, adjective, infinitive, gerund, or clause.
             His se fis.....This is a good thing.
             His se gla fia.....This is very good.
             Ha akut sa et.....The winner was you.
             Se fia aker.....It is good to win.
             Se uva van iyt pia.....It is sad that she left.
             Wit tease fia yexut.....He looks like a good worker.
      * Dynamic intransitive verbs do not take an object:
             At yexa hum je ewa jabi.....I worked there for two years.
             Yat teje yukomay.....We live comfortably.
             Hia voli agse ug.....These plants grow slowly.
      * Verbs of communication can take an entire clause as a direct object in addition to an indirect object, the recipient of the communication:
             At ta van et upo.....I knew (that) you would come.
             Duven et te hoa tam se itas?....Do you know which house is his?
             At da it hom et tambese.....I told him where you live.
             Tuu at hoj et puo.....Inform me when you arrive.
             It voy da ven et upo.....He did not say whether he would be coming.
             At jwatua von it jwosu.....I warned him not to be late (= lest he be late).
      * Verbs of motion and communication, which have an inherent directional component implied, do not need a preposition before their object. In cases where there is both an indirect and direct object, the indirect object comes before the direct object, otherwise a preposition is necessary:
             At peye ha nam.....I'm going to the store. ( = I'm going the store.)
             Pu tam!....Go home!
             Et yefu der iyt hus.....You should tell her that.
             Ha twob zoyda at: "Va."....The man replied to me, "Yes." ( = replied me)
             At byise Ferom.....I come from France. ( = I originate France)
             Nusbiu at dyes. (or) Nusbiu dyes av at.....Buy me a book (or) Buy a book for me.

# How to Say "No Matter What"

    The expression toxu....forget is often used in idioms where English uses no matter. An alternative is the use of the indeterminent deictic determiners (those that begin with hye-) meaning whatever, wherever, etc. Here are some examples:
      * Toxu hos et de, at voy vatexe is.....Whatever you say, I don't believe it.
      * Hyes et de, at voy vatexe is....." "
      * Et kaxo yikani toxu hom et po.....You will encounter difficulties no matter where you go.
      * Et kaxo yikani hyem et po....." " " "
      * Toxu hogla et dio, iyt voy do va.....No matter how much you ask, she won't say yes.
      * Hyegla et dio, iyt voy do va....." " " "
      * Et ifio toxu hoa dom et teapo.....You will enjoy no matter what city you visit.
      * Et ifio hyea dom et teapo....." " " "

# A Summary of Negators

    As in most natural languages, Mirad has a variety of ways to negate elements of a sentence. This section is meant to clarify when and how these negators are applied:

## Negating a Predicate

    The adverb voy is used to negate a declarative or interrogative predicate. The voy adverb and precede or follow the verb:
      * At te.....I know. → At voy te.....I don't know.
      * Duven et te?....Do you know? → Duven et voy te?....Don't you know?
    The negative subordinate conjunction von is used to negate an imperative, subjunctive, or jussive predicate. The positive conjunction van gets replaced by von:
      * Upu him!....Come here! → Von upu him!....Don't come here!
      * Van et ujaku!....May you succeed. → Von et ujaku!....May you not succeed!
    The conditional subordinate conjunction ven (if) can be negated to form oven meaning unless:
      * Ven wit tojo, it voy ako ha doteuzen.....If he dies, he will not win the election. → Oven wit tojo, it ako ha doteuzen.....Unless he dies, he will win the election.
      * At po ven et voy ofxo at.....I will go if you don't forbid me. → At voy po oven et afxo at.....I won't go unless you permit me.
    The various negative deictic adverbs can be used to negate a predicate:
      * Et te.....You know. → Et te hyoj.....You never know.
      * At se iva.....I am content. → At se hyoyen iva.....I am in no way content.
      * Et se vyaka.....You are right. → Et se hyogla vyaka.....You are not at all right.

## Negating an Adjective

    The prefix o- is used to negate the semantics of an adjective (including verbal adjectives). The o- changes to ol- if the adjective already begins with the letter o.
      * eva....neutral → oeva....non-neutral
      * vyaa....true → ovyaa....untrue
      * twa....known → otwa....unknown
      * ovufekyea....offensive → olovufekyea....unoffensive
    Sometimes the prefix lo- is need to negate an adjective is negating it with o- causes ambiguity:
      * fwa....wanted → lofwa....unwanted (because prefixing o- would yield ofwa which already means forbidden.)
    The prefix lyo- is a stronger negator for adjectives:
      * dota....social → lyodota....barbarian
      * fibyena....polite → lyofibyena....callous, rude
    Positive adjectives ending in -ika or -aya can be changed to -uka or -oya to make them negative:
      * yufika....fearful → yufuka....fearless
      * mekaya....dusty → mekoya....dust-free
    Positive adjectives ending in -yaf(w)a (able/possible) can be switched to -yof(w)a (unable/impossible):
      * yonsaunxyafwa....distinguishable → yonsaunxyofwa....indistinguishable
      * teatyafa....able to see → teatyofa....blind

## Negating the Semantics of a Verb

    The prefixes o- and lo- are used to negate or reverse the semantics of a verb. The latter prefix is usually expressed in English with de- or dis- or un-.
      * bexer....to have/hold → obexer....to lack
      * bexer....to have/hold → lobexer....to leave/abandon/give up
      * teater....to see → oteater....fail to see/overlook
      * teater....to see → loteater....to disregard
      * teazexer....to focus → oteazexer....to fail to focus
      * teazexer....to focus → loteazexer....to blur
      * boxer....to quieten → loboxer....to disquieten
    Note the difference between:
      * odabtunxwa....unpoliticized
      * lodabtunxwa....depoliticized
    Note also the following opposites:
      * ayser....to have → oyser....to lack
      * kaxer....to find → koxer....to lose
      * paxer....to move → poxer....to stop
      * aker....to win → oker....to lose
      * fixer....to do well → fuxer....to do poorly
    In the above cases, the ordinal vowel does the job in contrasting the meaning of the verbs (a vs. o and i vs. u). This is a factor of the way vocabulary is constructed in Mirad.

## Expressing pro-, anti-, and a- (neutral)

    Words expressing a favorable slant take the prefix av-; those with an opposing stance take ov-, while those with a neutral or absent stance take ev-:
      * avdopreka....pro-war
      * ovdopreka....anti-war
      * odopa....un-military
      * evdopa....neutral militarily
      * evdofina....amoral
      * odofina....immoral
      * odata....unfriendly
      * ovdata....hostile
    The av, ov, and ev morphemes can be suffixed as well:
      * agdovyab....constitution → agdovyabova....anti-constitutional
      * doyux....welfare → doyuxava....pro-welfare
      * fyatez....religion → fyatezeva....areligious

## The Use of -okya to Express a Loss

    Some adjectives expressing the loss of something can end in -okya (having lost):
      * tad....spouse → tadokya....widowed
      * ifon....love → ifonokya....lovelorn
      * ted....parent → tedokya....orphaned
      * tep....mind → tepokya....crazy
      * nas....money → nasokya....bankrupt/broke
      * mep....way → mepokya....lost
      * izbex....control → izbexokya....out of control
      * tayeb....hair → tayeboyka....bald

## The Use of the prefix oy- to Express Privation

    Some nouns can be negated by prefixing oy- (a stub for boy meaning without) and then converting the noun to an adjective with the suffix -a:
      * tof....clothes → oytofa....naked
      * teus....taste → oyteusa....insipid
      * pos....stop → oyposa....nonstop
      * tob....time → oyjoba....eternal
      * dab....government → oydaba....anarchic
      * mil....water → oymila....anhydrous

# Article One of the Declaration of Human Rights

    Article One of the Declaration of Human Rights is often used to show how various invented international auxiliary languages compare with one another in written form. Here is the Mirad version of Article One, followed by the English version:
    Declaration of Human Rights Article One ENGLISHMIRAD All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.Hya tobi taje yiva ay gea be utfiz ay doyivi. Yit bulwe texyaf ay tyaf ay yeyfe hyuitaxler tidyenay.
    Anaysis:
       1hyaall < hya- [distributive deictic determiner] +  2tobihuman beings < tob....human being [singular noun] + -i [plural suffix] 3tajeare born < taj-....be born [stem]) + -e [present simple tense marker] 4yivafree < yiv- [stem] + -a [adjectival suffix] 5ayand [positive conjunction] 6geaequal < ge- [stem] + -a [adjectival suffix] 7beat, in [preposition] 8utfizdignity < ut....self [pronoun] + fiz....merit [noun] 9doyivirights < do(t)-....society + yiv....freedom, right [noun] + -i [plural suffix] 10yitthey/them < yit [3d person plural animate pronoun] 11bulweare endowed < bul-....endow [verb stem] + -w [passive] + -e [present] 12texyafreason < tex-....think + yaf....ability, faculty 13tyafconscience < t-....know + yaf....ability, faculty 14yeyfeshould < yeyf-....(have a) duty [verb stem] + -e [indicative simple present tense] 15hyuitaxlertreat one another < hyuit (comb. of hyut....other person + hyit....same person) + axl-....act [verb stem] + -er [verbal infinitive marker] 16tidyenayin a brotherly way < tid....sibling [noun] + -yen....manner + -ay....-ly [adverbial suffix]

# Lord's Prayer

    Word-for-word analysis:
       The Lord's Prayer ENGLISHMIRAD Our Father, who art in Heaven,Hey yata Twed, ho se be Totmir, Hallowed by thy name.van eta dyun fyadwu. Thy kingdom come.Van eta edob upu. Thy will be done on Earth as it is in Heaven.Van eta fon xwu be Imer hoyen xwe be Totmir. Give us this day our daily bread,Buu yat hijub yata hyajuba povel, and forgive us our trespassesay yovobu yat bi yata fuxeyni as we forgive those who trespass against us.hoyen yat yovobe hoti fuxe yat. And lead us not into temptation,Ay von izbu yat ub yekuen, But deliver us from evil.oy yivxu yat bi fyox. Amen.Xwu huus.
       1Hey O! [vocative particle] 2yataour < yat [1st pl animate pronoun] we + -a [adjective suffix] 3TwedFather < ted....parent + infix -w- [masculine] 4howho [invariable relative complementizer meaning who(m), that, which] 5seam,is,are < s-[present stem of verb ser....to be] + -e [simple present tense suffix] 6bein [preposition of general location at] 7TotmirHeaven < tot....god + mir....world 8vanlet/may/that [positive complementizer introducing a fact or wish; see 32] 9etayour, thy < et [2d sing animate pronoun] you + -a [adjective suffix] 10dyunname [noun < verb stem dyu-....to call] 11fyadwu be blessed < fya- holy + d- [stem of verb say / call] + -w- [passive] + -u [hypothetical/imperative/subjunctive mood] 12edobkingdom < e- [2nd level of scalar noun base dob....state] 13upucome < u(b)$_{34}$- toward + p [stem of verb to go] + -u [hypothetical/imperative/subjunctive mood] 14fwaswill < f- [stem of verb to want] + -w- [passive voice] + -a [adjective] + -s [inanimate nominalizer thing] = wanted thing 15xwube done < x- [stem of verb to do] + -w- [passive voice] + -u [hyp./imper./subj.] 16Imerearth < -i- [3d level of scalar noun mer....planet] = third planet from the sun 17hoyenas < ho [relative determiner prefix] + -yen [suffix = manner] hoyen = (which manner that) 18xwe(it) is done < x- [stem of verb to do] + -w- [passive voice] + -e [present simple tense] 19BuuGive < bu- [stem of verb to give] + -u [hyp./imper./subj.] 20yat(to) us < yat we, us 21hijubtoday, this day < hi- [proximate determiner this] + jub....day 22yataour < yat [1st pl pron we/us] + -a [adjective suffix] 23hyajubadaily < hya- [distributive determiner every] + jub....day + -a [adjective suffix] 24povelbread [ < povob....cereal with ob (plant) -> el (food)] 25ayand [positive conjunction] ( ey [intermediate] = or, oy [negative] = but) 26yovobuforgive < yov....guilt, shame + ob [preposition off and stem of verb to remove] + -u [hyp./imper./subj.] 27bifrom [preposition meaning of, from; opp: bu....to] 28fuxeynibad deeds [noun] < fu-....bad + x-....do + -eyn [gerundive] + -i [plural suffix] 29yovobe forgive < yov....guilt, shame + ob [proposition off and stem of verb to remove] + -e [present] 30hotithose who < ho- [relative deictic determiner] + -t....person + -i [plural suffix] 31fuxeoffend < fu....bad + -x-....do + -e [present] 32vonlest, so not, don't [negative complementizer; van [positive] that/so that/let; ven [intermediate] if, whether] 33izbulead, guide < iz....direct, straight + b- [stem of verb put] + -u [hyp./imper./subj.] 34ubtoward [preposition; opp. ib....away] 35yekuentemptation < yek- [stem of verb try] + -u- [causative formant] + -en [present gerund -ing] = causing (someone) to try (something) 36oybut [negative conjunction; see 25] 37yivxudeliver, free, liberate < yiv-....free + -x-....do, make + -u [hyp./imper./subj.] 38fyoxevil < fyo-....profane, evil + x....doing 39xwube < s- [stem of verb to be] + -u [hyp./imper./subj.] 40huussuch < huu- [deictic determiner such] + -s....thing

# Tower of Babel

    ENGLISHMIRAD The Tower of BabelHa Yabtom bi Babel Then, all earthly humans had a single language and a common vocabulary.Huj, hya imertobi bexa ana dalzeyn ay yansauna dunyan. While people were migrating from the east, they discovered a plain in the region of Shenear and they settled there.Je van tobi emuipeya byi ha zimerem, yit yokkaxa zyimem be ha meam "Xenear" ay yit tamkyoxa hum. The people said to one another, "Come on, let's mold some bricks and fire them." Thus, they had bricks for building stones and tar for mortar.Ha tobi hyuitda: "Upu, van yat sanxu hegla mefi ay magxu isi." Huyen, yit bexa mefi av sexmegi ay megyel av sexyanul. Then, the people said, "Come on, let's build our own city with a tower reaching the sky. In that way, we will be famous and that will prevent us from being scattered all over the earth."Johus, ha tobi da: "Upu, van yat sexu yauta dom bay yabtom pyusea ha mam. Huyen, yat so yibtrawa ay hus jaebo yata yonzyaben bu hyami bi ha imer." The Eternal one came down from the sky to see the city with the tower the people of earth had constructed.Ha Hyajeseat yopa bi ha mam av teater ho dom bay ho yabtom ha imerati sexaya. Then, the Eternal One said, "Behold, they make up one people, all of whom have a common language. This is only their first accomplishment. After this, anything they plan will be realizable."Johus, ha Hyajeseat da, "Teaxu: Yit sanse ana tyod, ho hyati bexe yansauna dalyen. His se anay yita aa xal. Johis, hyes yit ojtexo so vyamxyafwa. Come, let us go down there to confuse their language so they won't understand one another anymore."Upu, van yat yopu hum av yanmulxer yita dalzeyn von yit hyuittestu gaj." Then the Eternal one scattered the men far from there to all parts of the earth, and they halted construction of the city and tower.Johus ha Hyajeseat yonzyaba ha tobi yib bi hum ub hyami bi ha imer, ay yit poxa ha sexen bi ha dom ay yabtom. That is why this place was named Babel, i.e. "Confusion". It is where the Eternal One mixed up the languages of all humans and scattered them all over the earth.Hus se hosav him dyunxwa Babel, be hyua duni: "Yanmulx". Se hom ha Hyajeseat vyonapxa ha dalzeyni bi hya imerati ay yonzyaba yit bu hyami bi ha imer.
    Word-for-word analysis:
         * ha....the [definite determiner]
         * yabtom....tower < yab-....high + tom....building
         * bi....of, from [preposition; opp: bu....to]
         * Babel [proper name]
         * huj....then < hu- [distal determiner that] + j [stub for job....time]
         * hya....all [distributive determiner]
         * imertobi....people of earth < imer....earth [ = planet 3] + tob....human + -i [plural marker]
         * bexa....had < bex- [verb stem of to have/hold] + -a [past tense]
         * ana....a single < a(n)-....one + -a [adjective marker]
         * dalzeyn....language < dal....speech + zeyn medium
         * ay....and [positive conjunction; opp: oy....but]
         * yansauna....common < yan-....together + saun....type + -a [adjective marker]
         * dunyan....vocabulary < dun'....word + -yan....collection
         * je van....while < je....during + van [positive complementizer] that
         * tobi....men, people < tob [noun] person/man/human + -i [plural marker]
         * emuipeya....were migrating < em....place + ui-....hither-thither + p-...go + -ey- [progressive aspect] + -a [past tense]
         * byi....since, starting with [preposition; opp: byu....up to]
         * zimerem....east < zi- = right/east + mer....planet + -em....location
         * yit....they, them < yit [3d plur animate pronoun]
         * yokkaxa....discovered < yok....surprise + kax- [stem of verb find] + -a [past simple tense marker]
         * zyimem....a plain < zyi-....flat + mem....land
         * tamkyoxa....settled < tam = home + kyox-....fix + -a [past tense marker]
         * hum....there < hu- [distal determiner that] + -m' [suffix of place]
         * hyuitda....said to one another < hyuit < hyui-....one-another + -t [person suffix] + d- [stem of verb say,tell] + -a [past tense maker]
         * van....that < [positive complementizer that, let, so that]
         * yat....we, us [1st plur anim pron]
         * sanxu....form, mold < san....form + -x-....do/make/-ify + -u [hypothetical/imperative/subjunctive]
         * hegla....some < he- [indefinite determiner prefix some] + -gla [determiner suffix quantity/amount/degree]
         * mefi....bricks < mef [noun] brick + -i [plural marker]
         * magxu....fire, burn < mag- = fire + -x-....do/make/-ify + -u [hypothetical/imperative/subjunctive]
         * isi....they, them < isi [inanimate 3p plur pronoun]
         * huyen....thus, so < hu- [distal determiner prefix that] + -yen [determiner suffix manner]
         * av....for [preposition; opp: ov....against]
         * sexmegi....building stones < sex- [stem of verb to build] + meg....stone + -i [plural marker]
         * megyel....tar, pitch, asphalt < meg....stone + -yel [suffix viscous liquid]
         * sexyanul....mortar < sex- [stem of verb to build] + yan = together + -ul....substance
         * johus....then, next < jo....after + hu-....that + -s....thing
         * da....said, told < d [stem of verb say/tell] + -a [past simple tense marker]
         * upu....come! < u(b) [preposition] toward + p- [stem of verb go] + -u [imperative]
         * sexu....build < sex [stem of verb build] + -u [subjunctive] > van yat sexu = let us build
         * yauta....our own < yat = we/us + ut = self + -a [adjective marker]
         * dom....city
         * bay....with (preposition; opp: boy....without]
         * yabtom....tower < yab- = high + tom....building
         * pyusea....reaching < pyus- reach + -e- [progressive] + -a [adjective marker]
         * mam....sky
         * so....will be < s- = [stem of verb to be] + -o [future simple tense]
         * yibtrawa....famous < yib....far + tra- [perfect stem of verb know/recognize] + -w- [passive voice] + -a [adjective marker]
         * jaebo....will prevent < ja- before + eb- between, block + -o [future tense marker]
         * yata....our < yat = we/us + -a [adjective marker]
         * yonzyaben....dispersal < yon....apart + zya- wide + b- = [stem of verb to put] + -e- [progressive] + -n (nominalizer) = -en [gerund] -ing
         * bu....to [preposition; opp: bi....from]
         * hyami....all places, all parts < [distributive determiner prefix hya- all] + [suffix -m....place + -i [plural marker]
         * bi....of, from [preposition; opp: bu....to]
         * Hyajeseat....Everlasting One < hya- = ever/all + jes-....to last + -ea [active present participle ending] + [suffix -t....person]
         * yopa....descended < yo(b)- = down + p- [stem of verb to go] + -a [past tense marker]
         * av....for [preposition; opp: ov....against]
         * teater....to see < tea(b)- = eye + t-....know + -er [infinitive ending]
         * ha....the [def. deictic determiner = def. art.]
         * dom....city
         * ho....that, which, who [relative complementizer]
         * sexaya....had built < sex- [stem of verb to build] + -ay- [perfect active aspect/voice marker] + -a [past tense marker]
         * teaxu....look! < tea(b)-....eye + x- do/make/-ify + -u [imperative]
         * yit....they
         * sanse....form/constitute < san....form + s- [stem of verb be/become/-ize + -e [present tense marker'
         * tyod....a people
         * hyati....all of them < hya- [distributive determiner prefix all] + [suffix -t....person) + -i [plural marker]
         * bexe....has, have < bays- [stem of verb to have] + -e [present tense marker]
         * his....this < [proximal determiner prefix hi-....this] + [suffix -t....thing]
         * anay....only < a(n)-....one + --ay [adverb ending -ly]
         * yita....their < yit [3d plur pronoun] they + -a [adjective marker]
         * aa....first < a-....one + -a [adjective marker]
         * xal....accomplishment deriv. of x- [stem of verb to do]
         * johis....then, next < jo....after + his [proximal inanimate determiner] this
         * hyes....whatever < [indiscriminate determiner prefix hye- = any/whichever
         * ojtexo....will plan, envisage < oj-....future + tex-- [stem of verb to think] + -o [future tense marker]
         * so....will be < s- [stem of verb to be/become] + -o [future tense marker]
         * vyamxyafwa....realizable < vyam- = real + x- [verb formant do/make/-ize] + -yaf-....able + -w- [pass voice] + -a [adjectival suffix] > possible to be made real
         * yopu....descend < yo(b)-....down + p- [verb formant to go] + -u [subjunctive marker] > van yat yopu hum....let us go down there
         * yanmulxer....mix up, confuse < yan-....together + mul....stuff + [verb formant x- do/make/-ify] + -er [infinitive suffix]
         * von....lest, don't, so that not [negative complementizer;
         * yit....they
         * hyuittestu....hyuit....one another + tes....meaning + t- [stem of verb know] + -u [subjunctive mood suffix]so they will not understand one another
         * gaj....further, anymore < ga-....more + -j....time (short for job....time)
         * Johus....then
         * ha Hyajeseat....the Everlasting One
         * yonzyaba....scattered < yon....apart + zya....wide + [verb formant b-....put] + -a [past tense marker]
         * ha tobi....the men
         * yib....far [adverb]
         * bi hum....from there
         * ub [preposition] toward; opp: ib away]
         * hyami....all parts < hya-....all + -m....place + -i [plural marker]
         * bi ha meir....of the earth
         * ay....and
         * yit....they
         * poxa....stopped < po-....still + [verb formant x-....do/make/-ify] + -a [past tense marker]
         * sexen....building < sex- [stem of verb to build] + -e- [present tense marker] + -n [abstract noun]
         * bi ha dom ay yabtom.....of the city and tower.
         * se....is, are < s-- [stem of verb to be] + -e [present tense marker]
         * hosav....the reason why < [relative determiner prefix ho-....which] + [stub sav....reason]
         * him....here, this place < [proximal determiner prefix hi- this] + [place suffix -m]
         * dyunxwa....was/were named < dyun....name + [verb formant x- do/make/=ify] + -w- [passive infix] + -a [past tense marker]
         * be hyua duni....in other words, i.e. < be [preposition] in, at hyua [adjective] other duni [plural noun] duni....words
         * hom....the place where < + [relative prefix ho- + place suffix -m]
         * vyonapxa....messed up, confused < vyo-....wrong/false + nap....order + [verb formant x- do/make] + -a [past tense marker]

# Interlinguistics

    The following text is from the Wikipedia article on Interlinguistics:
Interlinguistics :
| MIRAD | ENGLISH |
| Ebdalzeyntun, gel tun bi exdrawa dalzeyni, esaye ji ga vyel awa sojab gel ansauna sub bi dalzeyntun av ha tix bi kyasauna teasgoni bi dalzeyna ebtuien. | Interlinguistics, as the science of planned languages, has existed for more than a century as a specific branch of linguistics for the study of various aspects of linguistic communication. |
| Ebdalzeyntun se tixnad sanaxwa bey Otto Jesperson be 1931 (aro yusila) gel ha tun bi ebdalzeyni, be hyua duni: byux dalzeyni sankyaxwa av ebdooba ebtuien. | Interlinguistics is a discipline formalized by Otto Jespersen in 1931 as the science of interlanguages, i.e. contact languages tailored for international communication. |
| Be ga yubaja jobi, ha syun bi tix bi ebdalzeyntun doytxwa bay dalzeyn exdren, ha iblen bi texnapi uxler jatexway ha sexyen ay ex bi tejea dalzeyn. Be hia yuzkason, ebdalzeyni ase oybanyan bi exdrawa dalzeyni, be hyua duni: oegla kyeoni bi dalzeyn exdren. | In more recent times, the object of study of interlinguistics was put into relation with language planning, the collection of strategies to deliberately influence the structure and function of a living language. In this framework, interlanguages become a subset of planned languages, i.e. extreme cases of language planning. |
| Ebdalzeyntun ijnay teasia gel sub bi tixi kyoyuxwa bu ha syemben bi vyabi av gabyuxea dalzeyni, oy zye hisa sojabyaga ajdin his testwaye bey ogela asaxuti ga ay ga zyaay gel ebtixnada sub bi tun ho yebayse kyasauna teasgoni bi ebtuien, dalzeyn exdren, ay egonxen, gladalzeynin ay mirzyaxen, dalzeyna vyabyen, ebtestuen, dotdalzeyntun, ebteza ebtuien, ha ajdin bi dalzeyn saxen ay drenyan drawa be exdrawa dalzeyni (ebdooba gabyuxea dalzeyni = gabdali gab sexwa dalzeyni = sexdali, vyomdina tuza dalzeyni = tuzdali, yiva dalzeyni, dalyanmulxi, yankdalzeyni, ay sexwa dalzeyni be ha ebneaf ay hyua syini gabwa.) | Interlinguistics first appeared as a branch of studies devoted to the establishment of norms for auxiliary languages, but over its century-long history it has been understood by different authors more and more broadly as an interdisciplinary branch of science which includes various aspects of communication, language planning and standardization, multilingualism and globalisation, language policy, translation, sociolinguistics, intercultural communication, the history of language creation and literature written in planned languages (international auxiliary languages : auxlangs as well as constructed languages : conlangs, fictional artistic languages : artlangs, lingua francas, pidgins, creoles and constructed languages in the internet and other topics were added.) |

# The North Wind and the Sun

    The following is the English text of a fable called "The North Wind and the Sun", followed by a translation in Mirad:
The North Wind and the Sun :
| ENGLISH | MIRAD |
| The North Wind and the Sun disputed as to which was the most powerful, and agreed that he should be declared the victor who could first strip a wayfaring man of his clothes. | Ha Zamera Map ay ha Amar yontexda vyel hoat se ha gwa yafat, ay yantexda van hot yafo anapay tafober popea twob yefu delwer ha akut. |
| The North Wind first tried his power and blew with all his might, but the keener his blasts, the closer the Traveler wrapped his cloak around him, until at last, resigning all hope of victory, the Wind called upon the Sun to see what he could do. | Ha Amera Map anapay yeka ita yaf ay maipxwa bay hya ita azan, oy ha ga aza ita mapyuxi, ha ga azbixway ha Poput nidyuzba ita koxof, ju van, ujay, lobuea hya fiyak bi aklan, ha Map dia ha Amar teater hos it yafu xer. |
| The Sun suddenly shone out with all his warmth. | Ha Amar igbyenay mansa bay hya ita ayman. |
| The Traveler no sooner felt his genial rays than he took off one garment after another, and at last, fairly overcome with heat, undressed and bathed in a stream that lay in his path. | Gwa jwa van ha poput tayosa ita fitipa naudi it oba awa taf jo ga awas, ay ujay, gle aklawa bey aman, tofopa ay milyepa be miap ho yeztaseya be ita mep. |
| The moral: Persuasion is better than force. | Ha dofindin: Texuen se ga fia vyel yafluen. |

# Proverbs

    The following are some famous proverbs translated into Mirad:
Proverbs :
| PROVERB | LANGUAGE | MIRAD |
| Absence makes the heart grow fonder. | English | Ibesen iflonikxe ha tiib ga azay. |
| Actions speak louder than words. | English | Axleyni dale ga azay vyel duni. |
| A picture is worth a thousand words. | English | Sin naze amlo duni. |
| Don't count your chickens before they hatch. | English | Von sagdu eta gafapayti ja van yit patijbwo. |
| Don't judge a book by its cover. | English | Von yevdu dyes bey isa abaun. |
| The early bird gets the worm. | English | Ha jwaa pat pixe ha peyet. |
| You can lead a horse to water, but you can't make him drink it. | English | Et yafe izber ekpet bu mil, oy et yofe tiluxer it has. |
| Fruit of a tree falls near its roots. | Turkish | Feb bi fab pyose yub bi isa fyobi. |
| A fool dreams of wealth; a wise man, of happiness. | Turkish | Vyotuwat tujeaze nyaz; vyatuwat, ivan. |
| Mieux vaut prévenir que guérir. | French | Se ga fia jaeber vyel byeker. |
| Qui court deux lièvres à la fois, n'en prend aucun. | French | Hat hu zojoigpe ewa yupoti hyij ibe hyowat. |
| Übung macht den Meister. | German | Xetyen saxe ha tyeneb. |
| Anfangen ist leicht, Beharren ist Kunst. | German | Ijen se yuka, jetxen se tuz. |
| Η γλώσσα κόκαλα δεν έχει, αλλά κόκαλα τσακίζει. | Greek | Ha teubab ayse hogla taibi oy is myekxe taibi. |
| Veni, vidi, vici. | Latin | At upa, at teata, at akra. |
| Carpe diem. | Latin | Biru ha jub. |
| Non ducor, duco. | Latin | At voy izbwe, at izbe. |
| Far d'una mosca un elefante. | Italian | Saxer elpot bi dipelat. |
| 事实胜于雄辩。 (Shìshí shèng yú xióngbiàn) | Chinese | Xeyni akle viduni. |
| Thùng rỗng kêu to. (Empty barrels make loud noises.) | Vietnamese | Uka faosyebi saxe xeusagi. |

# Genesis

Genesis, the Biblical Story of Creation :
| ENGLISH | MIRAD |
| The Beginning | Ha Ij |
| In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth. | Be ha ij Tot saxa ha mami ay ha imer. |
| Now the earth was formless and empty, darkness was over the surface of the deep, and the Spirit of God was hovering over the waters. | Huj ha imer sa sanoya ay uka. Mon sa ayb ha abem bi ha yobyagan, ay ha Top bi Tot paeya ayb ha mili. |
| And God said, “Let there be light,” and there was light. | Ay Tot da: "Van esu man" ay man esa. |
| God saw that the light was good, and he separated the light from the darkness. | Tot teata van ha man se fia, ay it yonxa ha man bi ha mon. |
| God called the light “day,” and the darkness he called “night.” And there was evening, and there was morning—the first day. | Tot dyua ha man "maj" ay ha mon it dyua "moj." Ay esa moj, ay esa maj, ha aa jub. |
| And God said, “Let there be a vault between the waters to separate water from water.” | Ay Tot da: "Van esu aybuz eb ha mili av yonxer mil bi mil." |
| So God made the vault and separated the water under the vault from the water above it. And it was so. | Johus Tot saxa ha aybuz ay yonxa ha mil oyb ha aybuz bi ha mil ayb has. Ay sa huyen. |
| God called the vault “sky.” And there was evening, and there was morning—the second day. | Ay Tot dyua ha aybuz "mam." Ay esa moj ay esa maj -- ha ea jub. |
| And God said, “Let the water under the sky be gathered to one place, and let dry ground appear.” And it was so. | Ay Tot da: "Van ha mil oyb ha mam yanxwu bu awa nem, ay van uma mel teasiu." Ay sa huyen. |
| God called the dry ground “land,” and the gathered waters he called “seas.” And God saw that it was good. | Tot dyua ha uma mel "mem," ay ha yonxwa mili it dyua "mimi." Ay Tot teata van is se fia. |
| Then God said, “Let the land produce vegetation: seed-bearing plants and trees on the land that bear fruit with seed in it, according to their various kinds.” And it was so. | Johus, Tot da: "Van ha mem nuxu fobyan: veebbea fobi ay fabi be ha mem ho tajbe febi bay yeba veebi joupea isa kyasauna sauni." |

# The Colors of the Rainbow

    Ha Volzi bi ha Mamiluz
The Colors of the Rainbow :
| MIRAD | ENGLISH |
| Hoj ha amarman pyexe mamilzyuyni be ha mal, isi alxe gel zyefnid ay sanxe mamiluz. | When the sunlight strikes raindrops in the air, they act as a prism and form a rainbow. |
| Ha mamiluz se golen bi malza man bu gla via volzi. | The rainbow is a division of white light into many beautiful colors. |
| Hisi bie ha san bi yaga zyua uzun, bay isa mep yab ayb, ay isa ewa uji teaseay yiz ha mamnad. | These take the shape of a long round arch, with its path high above, and its two ends apparently beyond the horizon. |
| Ese, dwa bey tezdin, magilea elsyeb bi aulk be awa uj. | There is, according to legend, a boiling pot of gold at one end.' |
| Yot teaxe, oy hyot hyej kaxe is. | People look, but no one ever finds it. |
| Hoj het kexe hes yiz bi ita pyuxyaf, ita dati de van it kexeye av "ha elsyeb bi aulk be ha uj bi ha mamiluz." | When a man looks for something beyond his reach, his friends say he is looking for "the pot of gold at the end of the rainbow." |
| Zya ha sojabi, yot testuaye ha mamiluz be kyasauna byeni. | Throughout the centuries, people have explained the rainbow in various ways. |
| Heti vabiaye is gel fyateaz oy tapa testuun. | Some have accepted it as a miracle without physical explanation. |
| Av ha Hebrati, is sa siun van eso hyogla mora yimi gaj. | To the Hebrews, it was a token that there would be no more universal floods. |
| Ha Gerocamati ajyenay tepsinieya van is sa siun bi ha toti av jader dropek ey kyia mamil. | The Greeks used to imagine that it was a sign from the gods to foretell war or heavy rain. |
| Ha Zamergonati yevtexa ha mamiluz gel zeymep ho ha toti aybzeypa bi imer bu yita taam be ha mam. | The Norsemen considered the rainbow as a bridge over which the gods passed from earth to their home in the sky. |
| Hyuti yekaye testuer ha teakyes tapay. | Others have tried to explain the phenomenon physically. |
| Aristotelis texa van ha mamiluz uxwe bey zoykixen bi ha amarnaudi bey ha mamil. | Aristotle thought that the rainbow was caused by reflection of the sun’s rays by the rain. |
| Ji huj moltuti kaxaye van is voy se zoykixen, oy zoyyonxen bey ha mamilzyuyni ho uxe ha mamiluzi. | Since then physicists have found that it is not reflection, but refraction by the raindrops which causes the rainbows. |
| Gla yikla teyeni vyel ha mamiluz sanxwaye. | Many complicated ideas about the rainbow have been formed. |
| Ha ogelan be ha mamiluz yuvse gla bu ha agan bi ha zyuyni, ay ha zyaan bi ha volzbwa neyef agase je van ha nag bi ha zyuyni agase. | The difference in the rainbow depends considerably upon the size of the drops, and the width of the colored band increases as the size of the drops increases. |
| Ha xuna anoga mamiluz teaxiwa dwe ser ha ix bi ayben bi glea uzuni. | The actual primary rainbow observed is said to be the effect of super-imposition of a number of bows. |
| Ven ha alz bi ha enapa uzun pyose ayb ha ulz bi ha anapas, ha ix se xuer uzun bay oegay zyaa ilza neyef, hosav alza vay ulza man hoj yanmulxwa sanxe ilz. | If the red of the second bow falls upon the green of the first, the result is to produce a bow with an abnormally wide yellow band, since red and green light when mixed form yellow. |
| His se glakaxwa saun bi uzun, hias teaxuea aagay alz ay ilz, bay gro ey hyoglo ulz ey yolz. | This is a very common type of bow, one showing mainly red and yellow, with little or no green or blue. |

# De Accidentibus Rerum

    This passage is the first part of an educational Latin-English lesson book by John Amos Comenius from 1633 found in [Linguarum Reserata]. It is translated as "on the accidence of things", but should properly be translated in modern English as "on the inflection of substantives", because it has to do with nouns and adjectives and their various forms and agreements.
| Caput 1 Dé accidentibus rérum | On the accidence of things | Ayv ha sankyaxen bi sunduni |
| Deus est æternus Mundus temporárius Angelus immortális. Homó mortális | God is eternal, The world temporary. An angel is immortal, Man is mortal. | Tot se hyajoba. Ha mir se joba. Tat se otojua. Tob se tojua. |
| Corpus vísibile Spiritus invísibilis. Anima itidem | The body is visible, The spirit is invisible, The soul also. | Ha tab se teatyafwa. Ha top se teatyofwa. Ha toop geyen. |
| Cælum est suprémum Aër medius Terra ínfima Núbés est remóta Nebula propinqua | Heaven is the highest, The air in the middle, The earth the lowest. A cloud is far away, A mist near. | Ha mam se yabra. Ha mal se eba. Ha meir se obra. Maf se yiba. Mif se yuba. |
| Locus est magnum aut parvus. Tempus longum aut breve Alea láta vel angusta Domus ampla vel arcta Montés sunt altí Vallés profundæ Collés elevatí Casa est humilis Turris excelsa Abiés prócéra | A place is great or small, Time is long or short. A courtyard is wide or narrow, A house large or narrow. Mountains are high. Valleys deep Hills are raised A cottage is humble A tower lofty A fir tree tall | Nem se aga ey oga. Job se yaga ey yoga. Zetam se zyaa ey zyoa. Tam se nigaga ey nigoga. Yazmeli se yaba. Yozmeli se yoba. Yazmeli se yub bi ha mam. Tamog se yub bi ha mem. Yabtom se yabaga. Abpifab se yabaga. |
| Fluvius brevis aut profundus Filum est tenue (subtíle), Fúnis crassus. Arundó est cava Lignum solidum Forámen est vacuum (ináne) Camínus plénus fúmí | A river is shallow or deep A thread is slender (thin), A rope thick. A reed is hollow, Wood solid. An opening is empty A chimney full of smoke | Mip se yoboga ey yobaga. Nif se gyoa. Nyif se gyaa. muvyeg se zyega. Faob se gyia. Yij se uka. Movuf se ika bi mov. |
| Línea est recta vel curva Superficiés aspera vel lævis Pondus grave aut leve. Numerus pár vel impár. | A line is straight or curved A surface rough or smooth. A weight is heavy or light A number is even or odd | Nad se iza ey uza. Ned se yigfa ey yugfa. Kyis se kyia ey kyua. Sag se euna ey oleuna. |
| Globus est rotundus Columna teres Mensa quadráta X habet fórmam crucis Pávó est fórmósus Simia défórmis | A sphere is round A column is cylindrical A table is squared X has the form of a cross A peacock is beautiful An ape misshapen. | Zyunid se zyua Myuf se mufyega. Sem se unkuna. Xu bayse san bi xus. Pafapat se via. Homsimpyot se vua. |
| Colórés | Colours | Volzi |
| Créta est alba Tabula nigra Cinnabaris rubra Sulphur luteum Grámen viride Firmámentum cæruleum Vitrum est pellúcidum Asser opacus Aqua turbida vel clára | Chalk is white A board is black Vermilion is red Sulphur yellow Grass green The firmament blue Glass is transparent A plank opaque Water troubled or clear | Meyag se malza. Drof se molza. Hegelk se alza. Solk se ilza. Vab se ulza. Mam se yolza. Zyev se vyida. Faof se vyuda. Mil se vyifa ey vyufa. |
| Sapórés | Flavours | Teusi |
| Mel est dulce: sícut et saccharum Fel amárum Acétum acidum Sál salsum Piper ácre Immátúrum pómum acerbum vel austérum | Honey is sweet as is sugar Bile bitter Vinegar is tart Salt is salty Pepper sharp An unripe fruit is sharp or harsh | appelatil se yugza ay geyen level. Tikibil se yigaza. Yigvafil se yigza. Mimol se mimolaya. Sifol giza. Ojwefa feb se giza ey yigra. |
| Odórés | Smells | Teisi |
| Odor est suávis foetor téter | A smell is sweet A stink unsavoury | Fiteis se fiteisa. Futeis se futeisa. |
| Aliæ quálitátés | Other qualities | Hyua fini. |
| Lutum est húmidum Pulvis siccus Ossa dúra Caró mollis Glaciés lúbrica Prúna calida et candens Carbó frígidus et áter Nós incédimus vestítí Indí núdí | Mud is moist Dust dry Bones hard Flesh soft Ice slippery A hot coal is hot and glowing A dead coal cold and black We go about clothed Indians nude | Meil se ima. Mek se uma. Taibi se yiga. Taob se yuga. Yom se kipyea. Ama moog se ama ey mazea. Tuja moog se oma ay moza. Yat oyepe tofwa. Initi oyepe otofwa. |
| Únicornis est ferum animal Vacca mánsuétum (cicur). Leó sævum Ovis míte | A unicorn is a fierce beast A cow gentle (tame) A lion is cruel A sheep quiet | Anteyufyet se yigra pyot. Bopeyt se yugra pet. Lefanpyot se frua. Ovbopet se obosa. |

## Gettysburgh Address

    Gettysburgh Address EnglishMirad The Gettysburgh AddressHa Dodal bi Gettysburgh Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent, a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal.Uwa eloni ay yewa jabi jay yata twedi zayaysupa be hia yanmel ejna doob tyunxwa be yivan ay dobuwa bu ha duun van hya tobi saxwa gea. Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation, or any nation so conceived and so dedicated, can long endure.Hij yat se eybxwa be aga dita dropek yekuea ven hua doob, ey hyea doob huuyen tyunxwa ay huuyen dobuwa, yafe yagjeser. We are met on a great battle-field of that war.Yat se nyanupya be agala dopekem bi hua dropek. We have come to dedicate a portion of that field, as a final resting place for those who here gave their lives that that nation might live.Yat upaye dobuer gon bi hua dopekem gel ujponem av hoti bua yita teji him av van hua doob teju. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this.Se hyagla vyanaba ay vyala van yat xu his. But, in a larger sense, we can not dedicate—we can not consecrate—we can not hallow—this ground.Oy be ga zyaa tes, yat yofe doduer--yat yofe fyabuer---yat yofe fyaaxer---hia mel. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it, far above our poor power to add or detract.Hoa yifa tobi, tejea ay tojya, yekra him, fyabuaye is yib ayb yata ukza yafon gaber ey gober. The world will little note, nor long remember what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here.Ha mir glo tepio ay igtaxo hos yat de him, oy is yafe toxer hyoj hos yit xa him. It is for us the living, rather, to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced.Se av yat ha tejeati gajwa dobuwer him bu ha oujbwa yex ho hoti ebyexa him zaybaye byuhij huugla fizay zaybaye. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us—that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion—that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain—that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom—and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.Se gajwa av yat ser him dobuwa bu ha agala yexun besea za yat--van bi hia fizuwa tojati yat biu gaxwa fyabuen ub hua avson hos av bua ha ujna ika nid bi fyabuen av is--van yat him vafe azay van hia tojati von tojayu boy fyin--van hia doob, oyb Tot, baysu ejna taj bi yivan--ay van dab bi ha tyod, bey ha tyod, av ha tyod, von loteasu bi ha imer.

# Lesson 1: What is this?

    In this lesson, you will learn how to ask what an object is and to reply correctly. You will also learn how to say the plural of nouns and to describe them with adjectives.

## Dialog

Dialog 1 :
| MIRAD | ENGLISH |
| 1. Duhos$_1$se his? | What is this? |
| 2. His se drar. | This is a pencil. |
| 3. Hus se duhos? | What is that? |
| 4. Hus se dresem. | That's a desk. |
| 5. Hua dresem se aga. | That desk is big. |
| 6. Hia drar se oga. | This pencil is small. |
| 7. Duhos se aga? | What is big? |
| 8. Hua dresem se aga. | That desk is big. |
| 9. Duhos se oga? | What is small? |
| 10. Hia drar se oga. | This pencil is small. |
| 11. Duhoa drari se oga? | Which pencils are small? |
| 12. Hia drari se oga. | These pencils are small. |
| 13. Ha dresemi se aga. Ha drari se oga. | The desks are big. The pencils are small. |
| 14. Hua drari se oga. Husi se oga. | Those pencils are small. Those are small. |
Note 1: duhos is pronounced with the stress on the second syllable: du-HOS. See the chapter on Stress.

## Determiners

    In the above dialog, you see words that begin with the letter h or duh. These are a special type of word called determiners, or more specifically deictic determiners. These are words which point out the context of something, for example, where something is located relative to the speaker. Such determiners can be pronouns or adjectives modifying a noun that follows. The h is pronounced just as in American English. The chart below show the deictic (pointing) determiners used in the dialog:
Dialog 1 Determiners :
| CATEGORY | PRONOUN | ADJECTIVE |
| Interrogative | duhos...?....what (thing)...? | duhoa...?....Which (thing)...? |
| Definite | has....it, the thing | ha....the |
| Proximate | his....this, this thing | hia....this, these |
| Distal | hus....that. that thing | hua....that, those |
    Deictic ("pointing") determiners always contain the consonant h and are followed by a vowel that indicates whether it is proximate (near the speaker), distal (away from the speaker), and other categories that will be learned later. The final letter, if s signals that the determiner is a pronoun referring to a thing. If the final consonant ends in a t, it means that the determiner refers to a person, such as this person. If the final consonant is a, it means that the determiner is an adjective that modifies the following noun. In fact, all adjectives in Mirad end in -a.
    This may seem a little confusing to the learner at first, because in English, this as a pronoun (this [ = thing]) is not distinguished from this as an adjective (this [desk]). The two are distinguished in Mirad: (his (this [pronoun]) vs. hia drar (this [adjective] pencil).
    Mirad students who speak Latin-based languages like French and Spanish need to know that adjectives in Mirad do not agree in gender and number with the noun they modify. So, hia (this) and hua (that) do not change form no matter what the object or person they modify. The same applies to descriptive adjectives like aga (big) and oga (small). They remain constant.
    Another matter that Latin-based language speakers need to realize is that adjectives in Mirad come BEFORE the noun they modify. Furthermore, deictic determiners acting as adjectives precede any descriptive adjectives. So, these$^1$ small$^2$ desks would be expressed in Mirad as hia$^1$ oga$^2$ dresemi.
    Interrogative determiners (question words) begin with duho, which literally means say which. An interrogative is really a kind of imperative like Tell me your name, Tell me which place (where?), or Tell me which person (who?). Du is an imperative of the verb der....say, tell, and means tell (me), say! This is followed by the relative determiner ho....which. Duhom? (where?) is literally Tell (me) which place. Duhoj? (when?) is literally Tell (me) which time. Another way to think of it is Fill in the blank for place, person, time, etc.

## Pluralizing Nouns and Pronoun Determiners

    Common nouns, which always end in a consonant, are made plural by suffixing the vowel i. Dresem = a desk, dresemi = desks; drar = a pencil, drari = pencils.
    The Mirad pronoun determiners has, his, and hus are also pluralized by suffixing the vowel i. For example, Hisi se oga.....These are small.
    Determiners and adjectives modifying a noun do not change form, i.e. they do not agree in number as in English and Latin-based languages, eg. hua drar....that pencil vs. hua drari....those pencils. This includes the definite adjectival determiner ha....the, which never changes form.
Dialog 1 Pluralizing Nouns :
| SINGULAR | PLURAL |
| duhoa drar?....which pencil? | duhoa drari?....which pencils? |
| hia dresem....this desk | hia dresemi....these desks |
| hua drar....that pencil | hua drari....those pencils |
| hua aga dresem....that big desk | hua aga dresemi....those big desks |
| hua oga drar....that little pencil | hua oga drari....those little pencils |
| ha drar....the pencil | ha drari....the pencils |
| Duhos?....What (thing)? | Duhosi?....What (things)? |
| His.....This (thing). | Hisi.....These (things) |
| Hus.....That (thing). | Husi.....Those (things) |
| Has....It. | Hasi.....They (= the things) |

## Modifying Nouns with Articles

    In Mirad, there is no equivalent of the English indefinite article a or an. This article is left unexpressed. So aga drar means a big pencil. oga drari means little pencils.
    The equivalent of the definite article the, however, is rendered by the adjectival deictic determiner ha. So, the desk and the desks are expressed by Mirad ha dresem and ha dresemi. Again, ha does not change form when modify a singular or plural noun. The definite article ha (which is really the definite adjectival deictic determiner, is used exactly as the English article the (which is quite different from the use of the definite article in many other languages).

## Adjective Opposites

    Note that aga and oga are opposite in meaning. The stem vowels a and o spell the difference. If the stem vowel of a descriptive adjective is a, then its opposite will be o and the adjective with a will be the positive, greater, or better of the two values. In fact, there is an "in-between" values represented by the vowel e, as in the chart below:
Dialog 1 Three-Way Descriptive Adjectives :
| POSITIVE | INTERMEDIATE | NEGATIVE |
| aga....big | ega....normal | oga....small |
| aza....strong | eza....moderate | oza....weak |

## Verb to be in the Present

    The verb form used in the above dialog is se, which is the simple present tense form of the verb infinitive ser meaning to be. The form se is used with singular or plural subjects and therefore means am, is or are. Mirad does not normally make a distinction between the being of essence and the being of circumstance as does Spanish with ser and estar. (And, by the way, the similarity in form between the ser of Mirad and the ser of Spanish is purely coincidental. Vocabulary in Mirad is a priori, that is, created from scratch and not based on any existing human language.)

## Word Composition

    The nouns drar....pencil and dresem share a root in common, dr- < drer....to write.
    The ending -ar of drar is a stub suffix from sar....implement, tool. The ending -sem means table, so dresem literally means writing table. Many words in Mirad are built up from root morphemes in this fashion.
    Even determiners you have learned so far are formed this way. Duhos...?....What...? is composed of du....tell (me) + ho....which + -s, a stub suffix from sun....thing. The determiner hus....that is composed of hu-....that + -s....thing.

## Lesson 1 Vocabulary

    Nouns
      * drar....pencil
      * dresem....desk
    Pronouns
      * duhos? / his / hus / has....what? / this (thing) / that (thing) / it (the thing)
    Adjectives
      * duhoa? / hia / hua / ha....which? / this / that / the
      * aga / ega / oga....big / normal / little
      * aza / eza / oza....strong / moderate / weak
    Verbs
      * ser....to be
         * se....is / am / are (simple present tense)

## Quiz
# Lesson 2: Who are you?

    In this lesson you will learn how to ask and respond about people.

## Dialog

Dialog: Asking About People :
| MIRAD | ENGLISH |
| Hay, duhot et se? | Hello, who are you? (Lit. ...you are who?) |
| At se eta tuxut. | I'm your teacher. |
| Ay et se ata tixut. | And you're my student. |
| Va. Et se ata fia tixut. | Yes. You are my good student. |
| Duhot se hut be ha dresem? | Who is that (person) at the desk? |
| Hut se gay tixut. | That (person) is also a student. |
| Duhos se ita dyun? | What is his/her name. |
| Ita dyun se John. Duhos se eta dyun, hey dut? | His name is John. What's your name, (oh) sir? |
| Ata dyun se Anderson. Ay eta dyun? | My name is Mr. Anderson. And your name? |
| Se Mary. | It's Mary. |
| Hus se via dyun. | That's a beautiful name. |
Note: duhot? is pronounced with the stress on the second syllable: du-HOT. It literally means Say which person, i.e. who?.

## Animate Determiners and Personal Pronouns

    In the last lesson, you learned the question word duhos? meaning what? and referring to a thing. In this lesson, we introduced the interrogative animate pronominal deictic determiner duhot?, which means who? or whom, referring to a person. Duhot is short for du hoa tob, say which person. Here is a chart of possible answers, i.e. pronominal deictic determiners and personal pronouns and pronominal adjectives:
Singular Animate Pronouns and Determiners :
| TYPE | PRONOUN | POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE |
| interrogative determiner | duhot...?....who(m)? | duhota...?....whose...? |
| proximal determiner | hit....this person | hita....this person's |
| distal determiner | hut....that person | huta....that person's |
| 1st person singular pronoun | at....I (or) me | ata....my |
| 2nd person singular pronoun | et....you | eta....your |
| 3rd person singular pronoun | it....he (or) she, him (or) her | ita....his (or) her |
    Notice that duhot differs from duhos in the final consonant. Pronouns ending in -t refer to persons, while those ending in s refer to things. They can be pluralized by suffixing i: Duhoti?....Who?, Which persons? and Duhosi?....What (things)?.

## Possessive Adjectives

    A possessive adjective is formed from the pronoun by the addition of the adjectival ending -a. So, at (I/me) becomes ata (my).
       Duhota?....Whose?
       hata....the person's, his/her
       hita....this person's, his/her
       huta....that peron's, his/her
       ata....my
       eta....your
       ita....his/her

### Gender in Mirad

    Mirad is a gender-neutral language. If gender is to be expressed, it is done so with the use of the markers w and y. To make it....his/her specifically refer to a male, insert w before the root vowel. Thus, wit means he/him and wita means his.
    Similarly, to make a pronoun or possessive adjective refer to a female, insert y after the root vowel. Thus, iyt means she/her and iyta means her.
    Determiners can be genderized, too. Huyt means that female, she/her while hwita means this male's/his. The letter combination in Mirad hw is pronounced exactly as wh in English what.

### Table of Pronouns in Mirad Showing Gender-marking

    Here is a table of pronouns with gender marked. Note that the plural personal pronouns begin in a y and cannot be masculinized. The corresponding masculine plural deictic pronouns can be used instead. The plurals of deictic pronouns end in the usual noun plural marker -i.
Personal and Deictic Pronouns with Gender Expressed :
| | SINGULAR NEUTRAL PRONOUN | SINGULAR FEMININE PRONOUN | SINGULAR MASCULINE PRONOUN | PLURAL NEUTRAL PRONOUN | PLURAL FEMININE PRONOUN | PLURAL MASCULINE PRONOUN |
| 1st Person | at I/me | ayt I/me (female) | wat I/me (male) | yat we/us (f. or m.) | yayt we/us (females) | [same as yat] |
| 2nd Person | et you | eyt you (female) | wet you (male) | yet you all | yeyt you all (female) | [same as yet] |
| 3rd Person | it he/she/him/her | iyt she/her | wit he/him | yit they/them | yiyt they/them (f.) | [same as yit] |
| 3rd Person Definite Deictic | hat he/she/him/her/the person | hayt she/her/the female | hwat he/him/the guy | hati they/them | hayti they/them/the females | hwati they/them, the males |
| 3rd Person Proximal Deictic | hit he/she/him/her/this person | hiyt she/her/this female | hwit he/him/this guy | hiti they/them | hiyti they/them/these females | hwiti they/them/these males |
| 3rd Person Distal Deictic | hut he/she/him/her/that person | huyt she/her/that female | hwut he/him/that guy | huti they/them | huyti they/them/those females | hwuti they/them/those males |
| 3rd Person Interrogative Deictic | duhot? who(m)? | duhoyt? who(m)?/which female? | duhwot? who(m)?/which male? | duhoti? who(m)?/which persons? | duhoyti? who(m)?/which females | duhwoti? who(m)?/which males? |

## Descriptive Adjectives

    Descriptive adjectives end in the vowel -a. There are usually two sets of semantically opposing adjectives: Those with a three-way opposition like aga (big) - ega (normal) - oga (small) and those with a two-way opposition like via (beautiful) - vua (ugly). The vowels a and i are positive, while the vowels o and u are negative. The vowel e is in-between.
    The descriptive adjective via (beautiful), because of the i-vowel stem, is a positive attribute. Changing i to u yields vua (ugly).
    Here are some examples in sentences:
      * Hus se vua dyun.....That is an ugly name.
      * Eta dyun se vua.....Your name is ugly.
    Likewise, fia (good) can be easily transformed to fua (bad).
      * Ata tuxut se fia.....My teacher is good.
      * Hit se fua tixut.....This is a bad student.
      * Hia tuxut se fia ay fua.....This teacher is good and bad.
    Knowing the above, try filling in the blanks below:
      * Iga means slow, so uga means ________.
      * Vaa means affirmative and vea means possible, so voa means _________.
      * Fua means bad, so fia means ___________.
      * Afwa means allowed, so ofwa means ___________.

## Three-way Scaling of Words

    As learned in the last lesson, adjectives and other words with an a vowel stem can be part of a three-way scale, as shown in this chart:
Three-way Scaling :
| POSITIVE | INTERMEDIATE | NEGATIVE |
| va....yes | ve....maybe | vo....no |
| aga....big | ega....normal | oga....small |
| ay....and, also | ey....or, else | oy....but |
| hay...hello | hey...hey, oh | hoy...goodbye. |
    So, since you know that va means yes from this lesson's dialog, you now no how to say maybe and no.
      * Eta dyun se John, va?....Your name is John, yes?
      * Vo. Ata dyun se Bill.....No. My name is Bill.
      * Hua tuxut sefia, va?....That teacher is good, right?
      * Ve. It se fia ay fua.....Maybe. He (or she) is good and bad.
      * Hia dresem se oga oy fia.....This desk is small but good.
      * Hit se via ay hut se vua.....This person is nice-looking and that one is ugly.
      * Via ey vua, hia tuxut se fia.....Beautiful or ugly, this teacher is good.
    When addressing a senior male, use hey Dut (oh, Mr.). Hey is a vocative interjection. Similar, use hay for hello and hoy for goodbye. Notice that these greetings have the a - e - i three-way scaling. Dut means sir, mister (the female version being Duyt (Ms., Ma'am, Madam, Mrs., etc.).
      * Hey Dut Johnson, .......Hey Mr. Johnson.
      * Hey Duyt Johnson, hay!....Mrs. Johnson, hi!
      * Va. Hoy!....Yes. Goodbye!

## The Definite Article ha

    The definite article ha (the) is really just another adjectival deictic determiner. It is used exactly as in English. Unlike in the Romance languages and other languages, ha is invariable in its adjective form and there is no agreement in gender or number with the noun it modifies. In fact, this is true of all adjectives in Mirad.
      * Ha dresem se aga.....The desk is big.
      * Ha dresemi se aga.....The desks are big.
      * Ha aga dresemi se via.....The big desks are beautiful.
    This adjectival deictic determiner can be made into an animate and inanimate pronoun by suffixing -t or -s, as shown in the following chart:
Definite article ha as a deictic determiner :
| TYPE | ADJECTIVE | ANIMATE PRONOUN | INANIMATE PRONOUN |
| Definite | ha....the | hat....the person, he, she | has....the thing, it |
| Proximate | hia....this | hit....this person, he, she | his...this thing, this |
| Distal | hua....that | hut....that person, he, she | hus....that thing, that |
    Examples:
      * Hat be hua dresem se Joe.....The one at that desk is Joe.
      * Hat se ata tuxut.....He is my teacher.
    In fact, -s and -t can be suffixed to most any noun to mean an X thing or an X person, eg.:
      * Ha tuxut se ha agat be ha dresem.....The teacher is the big fellow at the desk.
      * Agas ey ogas?....A big one or a small one?
    The thing -s and person -t suffixes are really abbreviated stubs of the words sun (thing) and tob (person).

## The Preposition be

    You will notice the phrase in the dialog be ha dresem, which means at the desk. The preposition be comes before its object and indicates general location or position. It can have various translations, though, as shown here:
      * be ha dresem....at the desk
      * be ha mimkum....at the shore
      * be abem bi ha tam....on top of the house
      * It se be sinibar....he is on television
      * be nem bi his....in place of (= instead of) this

## Lesson 2 Vocabulary

    Nouns
      * tixut / tuxut....student/teacher
      * dut / duyt....sir, mister, Mr./Mrs., Miss, Ms., Madam, Ma'am
      * dyun....name
    Pronouns
      * at / et / it / yat / yet / yit....I (or) me/you/he (or) him, she (or) her / we (or) us / you / they (or) them
      * duhot? / hat / hit / hut / duhoti? / hati / hiti /huti ....who(m)?, the person / this person / that person / who (pl) / the persons / these persons / those persons
    Adjectives
      * fia / fua....good/bad
      * via / vua....beautiful/ugly
      * duhota? / hata / hita / huta....whose? / the person's / this person's / that person's
      * ata / eta / ita / yata / yeta / yita....my / your / his (or) her / our / your / their
    Interjections
      * va / ve / vo....yes / maybe / no
      * hay / hey / hoy....hello /hey /goodbye
    Conjunctions
      * ay / ey / oy....and /or /but
      * gay / gey / goy....also / even / except
    Prepositions
      * be....at (a general preposition indicating location)

## Quiz
# Lesson 3: Where do you live?

    In this lesson, you will learn how to conjugate verbs in the basic tenses.
Dialog 3: Verbs in the Simple Active Indicative Tenses :
| SPEAKER | MIRAD | ENGLISH |
| Maria | Hay, Joe! Duhoyen se hyas? | Hi, Joe! How is everything? |
| Joe | Hyas se fia, Maria. | Everything is fine, Maria. |
| Maria | Duhom et tambese hij? | Where do you live now? |
| Joe | At tambese zedom hij. Ja his, at tambesa ha yuzdom. | I live downtown now. Before this, I lived in the suburbs. |
| Maria | Huj, et sa gla yib bi him. Hij, et tambese gla yub. | Then, you were very far from here. Now, you live very close by. |
| Joe | Va. Duhos et xe av yex hij? | Yes. What do you do for work now? |
| Maria | At yexe be tolnam yub bi him. At so hum ju ha uj bi ha jeb. | At work at a grocery store near here. I will be there until the end of the season. |
| Joe | Su baka. Yexu jestay. At hoydo et hij. | Be well. Work hard. I will say goodbye to you now. |
| Maria | Hoy. Upu ha tolnam hej. | Bye. Come to the grocery store some time. |

## Grammar Notes
### Conjugating Simple Active Verbs

    You've seen some uses of the verb ser (to be) in the previous lessons. In this dialog, you see that same verb used in other tenses, aspects, and moods beside the simple present active indicative (is/am/are). In this lesson, you are going to learn that by changing the er ending of the infinitive to one of the vowels a, e, o, and u, you can conjugate any verb in three simple, active tenses plus one other tenseless form that can act as a conditional or imperative. The following chart shows these tenses (first the simple aspect tenses) and how ending are suffixed to the verb stem:
Conjugation in the Simple Active Tenses :
| ASPECT | VOICE | MOOD | TENSE | ser....to be s- | xer ....to do x- | uper...to come up- |
| Simple | Active | Indicative | Present | at se....I am | at xe....I do | at upe....I come |
| Simple | Active | Indicative | Past | at sa....I was | at xa....I did | at upa....I came |
| Simple | Active | Indicative | Future | at so....I will be | at xo....I will do | at upo....I will come |
| Simple | Active | Hypothetical | (Conditional)$^1$ (Imperative)$^1$ | at su....I would be su!....Be! | at xu....I would do Xu!...Do! | at upu....I would come Upu!....Come! |
    Note 1: These are TENSELESS forms.
    These are called simple aspect tenses and refer to habitual states and actions. In the dialog, the verb form xeye is in the progressive aspect (I am in doing something, as oppposed to I do something as a habitual action), which will be discussed in a later lesson.
    Verb forms do not change for person and number:
      * At xe....I do
      * Et xe....you do
      * It xe....he does
    The plural pronouns begin with a y:
      * Yat xe....We do
      * Yet xe....You (pl.) do
      * Yit xe....They (pl.) does
    Notice that the verb form does not change from person to person or from singular to plural.
    Take note also, that the above pronouns are genderless. So it xe can mean he does or she does. The singular pronouns can be marked for specific gender, but we'll get to that in a later lesson. Also, be aware that these personal pronouns do not change form whether they are the subject or object of a verb.

#### The Conditional and Imperative

    If the verb form ends in -u, it is in the tenseless hypothetical mood. It can act as a conditional verb form or an imperative verb form. It acts as a conditional if the subject is present and it is functioning in a main clause:
      * Hus su fia.....That would be good.
    If the -u verb form has no subject, it can usually be interpreted as a command (= imperative):
      * Su baka!....Be well!
      * Xu has hij!....Do it now!

#### Omitting Prepositions after Certain Verbs

    Certain verbs contain inherent positionality or directionality and therefore can be followed by an direct object without a preposition. This is done in English a lot with expressions like go home or come this way or live downtown (instead of go to home or come toward this way or live in downtown). Here are some common examples of this omission:
      * Upu ha nam hej.....Come (to) the store sometime.
      * At tambese zedom.....I live (in) the downtown.
      * Du at eta dyun.....Tell (to) me your name.

### Quiz on Simple Active Verbs
## Deictic Adverbs

    In the dialog, you see words like hoyen? (how), hij (now), and him (here). These are called deictic adverbs, because they point to the context of manner, time and place. This chart shows a few of these forms, which are correlated:
Correlative Deictic Adverbs :
| TYPE | PLACE | TIME | MANNER |
| Interrogative | duhom?....where? | duhoj?....when? | duhoyen?....how? |
| Indefinite | hem....somewhere | hej....sometime | heyen....somehow |
| Proximal | him....here | hij....now | hiyen....this way |
| Distal | hum....there | huj....then | huyen....that way |
    There are quite a few more types that can be correlated this way, but you will learn them in future lessons.
    Examples of usage:
      * Duhom yit se?....Where are they?
      * Yit tambesa him.....They lived here.
      * Yat tambeso hem.....We will live somewhere.
      * Ha tuxut upo hum.....The teacher will come there.
      * Upu hij!....Come now!
      * Duhoj et upo?....When will you come?
      * Duhoyen et xeye?....How are you doing?
      * At tambesa hum.....I lived there.
    A complete list of deictic adverbs can be found in the chapter on Determiners.

### Forming Adverbs

    Adverbs can be formed from descriptive adjectives by adding -y to the end of the adjective:
      * jesta....diligent --> jestay....diligently (or hard as in to work hard)
      * baka....healthy --> bakay....healthily
      * fia....good --> fiay....well
      * fua....bad --> fuay....poorly
      * via....beautiful --> viay....beautifully
    There are words in Mirad that are inherent adverbs and do not required a change of form, such as:
      * yub....near
      * yib....far
      * gla....very
      * duhom?....where (and all of the other deictic adverbs)
    The adverbs yub and yib can be used in the following prepositional phrases, using bi (of, from):
      * yub bi ha dom....near the city
      * yib bi ha tolnam....far from the grocery store
    These two adverbs can also be converted to adjectives with the suffixation of -a:
      * ha yuba tam....the nearby house
      * hua yiba nam....that faraway store
    These two adjectival derivatives and be further adverbialized to produce two words with special meanings:
      * It se yubay him.....He (or she) is almost (=nearly) here.
      * Hus voy se yibay fia.....That is not remotely good.

## Lesson 3 Vocabulary

    Nouns:
      * zedom....downtown (ze = middle + dom = city)
      * yizdom....suburb (yiz = beyond + dom = city)
      * yex....work
      * tam....house
      * jeb....season
      * tolnam....grocery store (tol = foodstuffs + nam = store)
      * uj....end (vs. ij = beginning)
    Adjectives:
      * baka....healthy, well (vs. boka....ill)
      * jesta....diligent
    Verbs:
      * xer....to do
      * tambeser....to live, reside (tam = house + beser = to stay)
      * yexer....to work
      * uper....to come
      * hoyder....to say goodbye (hoy = bye + der = to say)
    Adverbs:
      * jestay....diligently, earnestly
      * yub....near, nearby (yubay....almost)
      * yib....far, far away (yibay....remotely)
      * gla....very (vs. glo....not very)
      * duhom?....where?
      * duhoj?....when?
      * duhoyen?....how?
      * hem....somewhere
      * hej....sometime
      * heyen....somehow
    Pronouns:
      * hyas....everything (vs. hyos....nothing; see Determiners).
    Prepositions and conjunctions:
      * bi....of, from (vs. bu....to)
      * ja....before (je....during, jo....after)
         * ja his....before this (jo his....after this)
      * ju....until (vs. ji....since)
      * av....for (vs. ov....against)
         * av hus (or: husav) ....for that (reason), so

# Lesson 4: Where Are You Going?

    In this lesson, you will learn how to conjugate verbs in the progressive tenses and to ask yes-or-no questions. You'll also learn about comparison of adjectives and some new pronouns.

## Dialog

    Dialog 4: Where are you going? MIRADENGLISH 1. Duhom et peye?Where are you going? 2. At peye tam.I'm going home. 3. Duven et peyo bey pur?Will you be going by car? (Lit. Say whether you will be going...) 4. Vo. At tyoyapo. Ata tam voy se yib bi him.No. I'll walk. My house is not far from here. 5. At pepeya humep. Apu ha pur bay at.I was going that way. Get in the car with me. 6. Hway! Hus su ga iga. Thanks! That would be faster. 7. Hwey. Duven et ifie enzyukparen?Don't mention it. Do you enjoy bicycling? 8. Gla. At enzyukpareya hijwamaj.Very much so. I was cycling this morning. 9. Hiy eta tam. Duven hus se eta enzyukpar be ha zadeym?Here's your house. Is that your bicycle in the front yard? 10. Vo. Atas se be ha zodeym. Huas bewe ata dat.No. Mine is in the backyard. That one belongs to my friend. 11. Hua enzyuk se go via vyel etasThat bike is less good-looking than yours. 12. Ve. Hway av ha pepuen, datif.Maybe. Thanks for the lift, buddy.

## Grammar Notes
### Progressive Aspect Verbs

    In the above dialog, you will notice that there are some verbs in a tense other than one of the simple tenses you learned in the last lesson, namely the progressive tenses. The tenses in the progressive aspect refer to states and actions that go over a period of time. When we way "I am walking home", that refers to an ongoing action, not a habit. This is pretty easy for English speakers, because English tenses have the same opposition of simple vs. progressive aspect.
    The progressive tenses are formed with the infix ey between the verb stem and suffix. Here is a chart showing the new set of tenses (active voice only):
       Progressive Aspect Tenses ASPECTVOICEMOODTENSEEXAMPLE ProgressiveActiveIndicativePresent at peye....I am going ProgressiveActiveIndicativePast at peya....I was going ProgressiveActiveIndicativeFuture at peyo....I will be going ProgressiveActiveHypotheticalAtemporal at peyu....I would be going
    Examples:
      * At peye tam.....I am going home.
      * Et seye fua.....You are being bad.
      * Duven et tambeseyo Ferom ojo huj?....Will you be living in France by then?
      * At tyoyapeyu, oy se gra yiba.....I would be walking, but it's too far.
    Note the difference between the simple and the progressive aspect in the following two sentences:
      * Ha tixut tyoyape tistam hyajub.....The student walks to school every day. (SIMPLE ASPECT)
      * Ha tixut tyoyapeye tistam hijub.....The student is walking to school today. (Progressive ASPECT )

### Comparison of Adjectives and Adverbs

    First of all, there is a set of 'quantitative determiners' built on the basic word ga meaning more. They are shown in the chart below. Some of them are used in the comparison of adjectives and adverbs.
       Dialog 1 Quantitative Determiners TYPEPOSITIVEINTERMEDIATENEGATIVE Comparative ga....morege....equally, asgo....less Absolute gla....verygle....rather, quiteglo....not very Execessive gra....toogre....enoughgro....insufficiently Superlative gwa....mostgwe....just the right degreegwo....least
    These words can be used, among other things, to modify adjectives and adverbs for degree. In the comparative construction, the word than or as in English is translated by the preposition vyel in Mirad:
      * ga via vyel x....more beautiful than x
      * ga igay vyel x....more quickly than x
      * ge fia vyel x....as good as x
      * ge fiay vyel x....as well as x
      * go fia vyel....less good than x
      * go fiay vyel....not a well as x
      * gra iga....too fast
      * gre fia....good enough
      * ha gwa fia tuxut bi ha tistam....the best teacher in the school ( = of the school)
      * It dala gwe.....He spoke just enough.

### Creating Yes-No Questions

    A yes-no question is usually introduced by the particle duven, which literally means say whether.... This does not involve inverting the subject and predicate.
      * Duven et se yata tuxut?....Are you our teacher?
      * Duven et tyoyape tistam?....Do you walk to school?
      * Duven yit yexeya bay et?....Were they working with you?
    Sometimes, Duven...? can be omitted and a question is implied by a rising intonation of voice or a question mark in writing.
      * Et upeye bay at?....(Are) you coming with me?
    The answer to any of the questions could be va yes, ve maybe, or vo no.
    Note: voy means not and is used to negate a predicate:
      * Yata voy se eta dati.....We are not your friends.
      * Voy at.....Not I.
    Similarly, vay means indeed, certainly and modifies the predicate verb:
      * Yet se vay ata dati.....You are really my friends.
    Vey is in-between, and means may, possibly as a predicate modifier:
      * At vey upo.....I may come.
      * Hia tuxut se vey ga fia vyel hua tuxut.....This teacher is possibly better than that teacher.

### Pronominalizing Adjectives

    Possessive adjectives like my, his, etc. and deictic adjectives like this, that, etc. can be pronominalized as shown in the following chart:
       Dialog 1 Pronominalized Possessive and Deictic Adjectives ADJECTIVESINGULAR PRONOUNPLURAL PRONOUN ata....myatas....mineatasi....mine eta....youretas....yoursetasi....yours ita....his/heritas....his/hersitasi....his/hers yata....ouryatas....oursyatasi....ours yeta....youryetas....yoursyetasi....yours yita....theiryitas....theirsyitasi....theirs duha....whichduhas....which oneduhasi....which ones hia....thishias....this onehiasi....these (ones) hua....myhuas....that onehuasi....those (ones)
    Examples:
      * Hias se etas. (pronounced etás). Huas se atas.....This one is yours. That one is mine.
      * Huasi se etasi. Huasi se atasi.....Those are yours. Those are mine.
      * Duven hua tam se etas?....Is that house yours?
      * Yatasi se ga aga vyel yetasi.....Ours are bigger than yours.
    All the pronouns in the above chart refer to possessed or specified things. Change the s to t to make them refer to possessed or specified people:
      * Hiati sa fia vyel huati.....These (people) were better than those (ones).
      * Yatati.....Our own (people) ( = Sinn Fein, in Irish)

## Vocabulary

    Nouns:
      * par....vehicle, usually small and unmotorized, like a cart or wagon
         * enzyukpar....bicycle ( < en-....double + zyuk....wheel + par....small vehicle)
         * enzyukpar....bike
         * inzyukpar....tricycle (in-....triple)
         * unzyukpar....wagon (un-....quadruple)
      * pir....electric vehicle
         * enzyukpir....scooter
      * pur....car, motor vehicle
         * enzyukpur....motorcycle
      * tistam....school ( < tis....learning + tam....house )
      * datif....buddy ( dat....friend + -if....affection)
      * zadeym....front yard ( < za....front + deym....garden )
      * zodeym....back yard ( < zo....back )
      * jwamaj....morning ( < jwa....early + maj....day vs. moj....night)
    Verbs:
      * per....go (to)
         * aper....get on, board, mount ( < a(b)....on + per....go)
            * aper pur....get in a car
         * tyoyaper....walk (to) ( < tyoya(b)....foot + per )
         * enzyukper....bike (to) ( < enzyuk + per)
         * peper....ride (on land)
            * pepuer....give a ride/lift to (verbs ending in -uer or causative)
            * pepuen....a lift, a ride (gerunds end in -en)
         * ifier....like, enjoy, be pleased ( < if....pleasure + (b)ier....take, get)
         * ayser....have ( < (b)ay....with + ser....be)
         * ayswer....belong (to) (passive voice of ayser)
    Determiners/Adverbs:
      * humep....that way/direction ( mep....road, way )
      * hyajub....every day (hya-....every + jub....day
      * hijub....today (hi-....this + jub....day
      * hijwamaj....this morning (hi-....this + jwa....early + maj....daylight)
    Prepositions:
      * bay....with, in the company of
      * bey....by, by means of
      * boy....without
    Pronouns
      * atas....mine, etas....yours, etc.
      * duhoas?....which one?, hias....this one, etc.

## Quiz
# Lesson 5: How old are you?

    In this lesson, you will learn how to count and deal with numbers. You will also learn to conjugate verbs in the perfect aspect.

## Dialog

    Dialog 4 between Bob and Mary: How old are you? SPEAKERMIRADENGLISH M Et se duhojaga?How old are you? B At se ulo (jabi) jaga.I'm forty years old. M Hwiy! Et se elo jabi gajaga vyel at.Wow! You are twenty years older than I. B At te, oy et gay agso ig.I know, but you too will grow quickly. M Hus se vyaa. Et tambesaye hia dom ji duhogla jabi?That is true. For how many years have you been living (= you have lived) in this city? B At voy te vyavay, oy at saye him ji gla jabi.I don't know exactly, but I've been here for many years. M Et ayse hogla tudi?How many children do you have? B At ayse iwa twudi ay awa tuyd. Yit se eb iwa ay yowa jabi jaga.I have three sons and one daughter. They are between three and five years old. M Av hus, et sayo tadxwa gwoy ji yawa jabi, vao?So, you will have been married for at least six years, right? B Vay, yewa. Yata aa tud taja ewa jabi jo ha tadienActually, seven. Our first child was born two years after the marriage. M. Hyay. At oztasaye. Sa fia daler bay et. Hoy.Great. I have gotten tired. It was good talking with you. Bye.

## Grammar Notes
### Perfect Aspect Verbs

    In the past lessons, you learned the simple and progressive aspect tenses of the verb. Here you will learn the perfect aspect, which act just as the perfect tenses in English (I have studied, I had studied, I will have studied, and I would have studied). The sign of the perfect aspect is the infix ay (as opposed to ey, the infix for the progressive aspect tenses).
    Here is a chart showing the new set of tenses (active voice only):
       Perfect Aspect Tenses ASPECT / VOICE / MOOD / TENSEINFINITIVE = ser...to be STEM+INFIX = s+ay- Perfect Active Indicative Present at saye....I have been Perfect Active Indicative Past at saya....I had been Perfect Active Indicative Future at sayo....I will have been Perfect Active Hypothetical (Conditional) at sayu....I would have been
    Examples:
      * At tambesaye him ji glaj.....I have lived here for a long time.
      * Et saye fua.....You have been bad.
      * At voy tayu hus.....I would not have known that.
      * At jay tajayu haj hu et pyua ela jabi jaga.....I had been born already when you reached twenty-one years of age.
      * Be ata tajjub, at tejayo ilyo jabi.....On my birthday, I will have lived thirty-five years.

### Counting and Telling One's Age

    A full explanation of numbers and counting can be found in the chapter on Numbers. The units, when counting, end in -wa. The teens end in -lo, -la, -le, -li, etc. The hundreds in so, -sa, -se, etc.
    The question for asking someone's age is usually Duhojaga et se?....How old are you?
    The answer is usually phrased as At se x-number (jabi) (jaga).....I am x-number (years) (old) where either word in the parentheses can be omitted. The Mirad word jabi means years and jaga means old or of age. So, to say I am forty-two years old, you would say At se ule jabi jaga or just At se ule., or At se ule jaga.
    The word jaga can just be the adjective old, the opposite being joga....young. Jag as a noun means age. An old person is jagat, while a youth is jogat.
    The "dimension" jag (age) can be prefixed with all the h- deictic prefixes and all the quantitative prefixes like ga, go, or gla. For example:
      * duhojaga?....how old?
      * hijaga....this old
      * hujaga....that old
      * hejaga....somewhat old
      * gajaga (vyel)....older (than)
      * gejaga (vyel)....as old (as)
      * gojaga (vyel)....less old (than)
      * gwajaga....eldest
      * grajaga....too old
      * grojaga....minor
      * glajaga....very old
    All of the above terms and others can be pronominalized animately or inanimately:
      * Grojagati voy upo.....Minors (=too young persons) will not come.
      * Hujagasi se vua.....Things that old are ugly.
    The word joga, when referring to things can be translated as new:
      * At ayse jogas av et.....I have something new for you.
    When joga applies to people, it means young:
      * Hijuba jogati te glos.....The youth of today know little.

### Adding Gender to Nouns

    Nouns do not have inherent gender in Mirad. For example, tad simply means spouse (husband or wife).
    To make a gender-neutral noun masculine or male, insert a w just before the stem vowel.
      * tad....spouse becomes twad....husband
    Similarly, to make a gender-neutral noun feminine or female, insert a y just after the stem vowel or vowel cluster:
      * tad....spouse becomes tayd....wife (tayd is pronounced exactly like Am. Eng. tide)
    Other examples:
      * tud....child
         * twud....son
         * tuyd....daughter
      * tob....person, human being
         * twob....man
         * toyb....woman
    Singular personal pronouns can be genderized similarly:
      * it....he or she, him or her
         * wit....he or him
         * iyt....she or her
      * at....I or me (gender unspoken)
         * wat....I or me, being a male
         * ayt....I or me, being a female
      * et....you
         * wet....you, being a male
         * eyt....you, being a female
    The plural personal pronouns yat, yet, and yit stay gender-neutral.
    Deictic pronouns can be genderized unless the deictic prefix begins in hy-:
      * hut....that person, he or she, him or her
      * hwut*....that guy, he or him
      * huyti....those gals, they (being females)
    * The hw is pronounced as Am. Eng. wh in where.

### Quantitative Deictic Determiners

    Determiners specifying quantity and answering the question duhogla (how much) are show in the following chart:
       Quantitative Deictic Determiners CATEGORYADVERBIAL / ADJECTIVAL DETERMINERINANIMATE SINGULAR PRONOUNINANIMATE PLURAL PRONOUNANIMATE PLURAL PRONOUN Interrogative duhogla? how?/how much?/how many?duhoglas? how much?duhoglasi? how manyduhoglati? how many (people)? Relative hogla how...as/as much...as/as many...ashoglas as much ashoglasi as many ashaglati as many (people) as Definite hagla how/as much/as manyhaglas as muchhaglasi as manyhaglati as many (people) Indefinite hegla somewhat/some/someheglas someheglasi someheglati some (people) Proximal higla this/this much/this manyhiglas this muchhiglasi this manyhiglati this many (people) Distal hugla that/that much/that manyhuglas that muchhuglasi that many huyglasi so manyhuglati that many (people) Intensive huugla so very, so much, so manyhuuglas so muchhuuglasi so manyhuuglati so many (people) Distributive hyagla totally/all/allhyaglas all of ithyaglasi all of themhyaglati all of them Indeterminate hyegla however/any/anyhyeglas any of ithyeglasi any of themhyeglati any number of them Negative hyogla nonehyoglas none of ithyoglasi none of themhyoglati none of them Identical hyigla as/as much/as many, equallyhyiglas the same amounthyiglasi the same numberhyiglati as many (people) Non-Identical hyugla not as much/not as much/not as manyhyuglas a different amounthyuglasi a different number of thingshyuglati a different number of people
    Examples:
      * At se huugla iva van et upa.....I am so happy that you came.
      * Hyagla ata tixuti se fia. Hyoglati se fua.....All of my students are good. None of them are bad.
      * Yat ayse higla drari.....We have this many pencils.
      * At ta hyigla dudi vyel et.....I knew as many answers as you.
      * Duhoglati te eta tajjub?....How many people know your birthday?

## Vocabulary

    Nouns:
      * jag....age
      * taj....birth (tej....life, toj....death)
         * tajjub....birthday
      * tadien....marriage ( < tad....spouse, twad....husband, tayd....wife)
      * tud....child (twud....son, tuyd....daughter)
    Adjectives:
      * iva....happy (vs. uva....sad
      * jaga....old (vs. joga....young
    Verbs:
      * ter....know (a fact)
      * tajer....to be born (tejer....live, tojer....die)
      * ayser....to have (vs. oyser....to lack)
    Determiners/Adverbs:
      * duhogla?....how (many/much) ( du....say + ho-....which + gla....much, many, very )
      * duhojaga?....how old (du....say + ho-....which + jag....age
      * jay....already
      * gay....also (gey....even)
      * glaj....a long time (vs. gloj....a short while)
      * gaj....more, further, still (vs. goj....no longer)
      * gway....mostly (vs. gwoy....at least)
    Prepositions:
      * ji....since ( ju....until)
      * ja....before ( je....during, jo....after)
    Pronouns:
      * jogat....youth
      * jogas....something new
      * jagat....old person
    Interjections:
      * hwiy.......wow! (hwuy.......woe!, yikes! )