# Soil is made up of

* Water and Air 50%
* Minerals 40%
* Biology 5%

# Things to consider above the soil

* Sun
* Water
* Temperature (Right plant for conditions or build micro climates)
* Shelter design (you should be able to see through your shelter belt)
* Soil compaction
* Breakages (human and animal movement, incorrect pruning, wind fall)
* Competition and companion plants
* Diversity
* Pests and predators

# Things to consider below the soil

* Balance the mineral content (Physical, clay, sand, salt and all elements)
* Ensure correct soil biology organisms
* Feed soil biology

# Observing soil
## Colour

* Colourless/white: high silica content
* Light/white: lack of oxygen; leached; high calcium; alkaline ph
* Yellow: lack of oxygen; high clay content; aluminium & iron
* Red: iron oxide
* Red/brown: volcanic basalt origin; iron & magnesium
* Black: rich in organic matter & nutrients; holds moisture

## Vegetation

* Azalea, dandelion: acid soils; usually leached; often compacted.
* Berries, conifers, dock: Poor drainage
* Saltbush, spinifex: alkaline; saline; dry soils
* clovers, vetch, nettles: excess nitrogen; low humus content; low micr-organism content
* blackberries: open disturbed soil, possibly acid
* bracken: recent fire; general decline in soil fertility.
* buttercup: poor drainage, acid.
* thistles: low calcium & iron content; hard soils.
* chicory, chickweed: good fertility

## Parent Material

E.g. soils derived from:
* Sandstone: sandy, high silica.
* Shale: clay; high silica & iron.
* Basalt: high iron & magnesium.

## Smell

* Sour: Lacks oxygen, acidic, sulphur dioxide
* Sweet & earthy: high oxygen, good soil life & OM
* Garlic: arsenic in soil (or maybe theres some onion weed nearby!)

## Taste

* Smooth & slippery: acidic, soil water lathers easily
* Weak soda: alkaline/mineral; won’t lather easily

## Life

* Worms: good moisture, OM, low pesticide residues
* Ants: drier, sandy
* Slugs & snails: damp, decomposing plant & animal material.
* Skinks & lizards: warm sunny, dry spots, good insect populations

## Water

* Run –off: is increased by bare ground, compaction, steep slopes
* Repels water: compacted, eroded, excessive use of dolomite, very little OM, sandy & allowed to dry out & has formed a moisture resistant barrier
* Shrinks & swells: high clay, holds water, cracks.
* Fast draining ( hole filled with water, drains within 10mins: erodes easily, collapses easily, few fungal diseases, good movement of water & soil life. Not good for dams.

## History

* Bare ground: agricultural or industrial contamination.
* Growth in poor soils: previous structures, compaction, old poultry or animal pen site
* No topsoil: quarry or fill site, erosion.
* Bad cracks & rubbish: old tip or landfill site

## Plants and soil minerals

Often plants which grow in deficient soils have the ability to concentrate those missing elements in their structure.
* Potassium present: marshmallow, knapweed, wormwood, opium poppy, fumitory, tansy & borage.
* Deficient: red clover. Celery & leek like potassium. Chicory is pot. rich.
* Calcium: buckwheat grown as a green manure or composted adds. Melon leaves are a source of it & oak bark is especially rich all thistles & willow. Dandelion “mines” it . Peas, beans, brassicas & turnips need it.
* Phosphorous: bracken indicates a lack of & accumulates it. Burn it & spread the ashes. Valerian & comfrey are rich sources. Whitefly indicates a deficiency along with magnesium. Brassicas need it to head well.
* Iron: blackberry is a rich source.
* Magnesium & sulphur: broom, salad burnett, plantain, & sheep sorrel (for magnesium)
* Ragwort: copper
* Thistles: nitrogen, copper & silicon.

# How do we balance the minerals of soil?

* Look for indicator plants which will tell things about Nitrogen Phosphorus and Potasium
* Look at leaves for signs of deficiencies or excesses (Permaculture Designers Manual has a simple key to follow)
* Get a soil test done
* Book - The Soul of Soil
* DCC Website has soil analysis maps
* Talk to people
* Don't rely on simple 'acid' or 'alkaline' measures. The treatment for these can be too simplistic and might not balance the soil.

# Dynamic Accumulators of Nutrients for Composting

| Name | Botanical Name | Na | I | Si | N | Mg | Ca | K | P | Mn | Fe | Cu | Co |
| Alfalfa | Medicago sativa | | | | x | | | | | | x | | |
| Arrowroot | | | | | | | x | | | | | | |
| Bladder wrack | | | x | | | x | | | | | x | | |
| Borage | Borago officinalis | | | x | | | | x | | | | | |
| Bracken, eastern | Pteridium aquifolium | | | | | | | x | x | x | x | x | x |
| Bridal bower | | | | | | | | | x | | | | |
| Buckwheat | Fagopyrum esculentums | | | | | | | x | | | | | |
| Burdock | Arctium minus | | | | | | | | | x | | | |
| Calamus | | | | | x | | | x | x | | | | |
| Carageen | | x | | | x | | x | | | | | | |
| Caraway | Carum carvi | | | | | | | | x | | | | |
| Carrot leaves | Daucus carota | | | | | x | | x | | | | | |
| Cattail | Typha latifolia | | | | x | | | | | | | | |
| Chamomile, corn | Anthemis arvensis | | | | | | x | x | | | | | |
| Chamomile, German | Chamomilla recutita | | | | | | x | x | x | | | | |
| Chickweed | Stellaria media | | | | | | | x | x | x | | | |
| Name | Botanical Name | Na | I | Si | S | N | Mg | Ca | K | P | Fe | Cu |
| Chicory | Cichorium intybus | | | | | | | x | x | | | |
| Chives | Allium sp. | x | | | | | | x | | | | |
| Cleavers | Galium aparine | x | | | | | | x | | | | |
| Clovers | Trifolium sp. | | | | | x | | | | x | | |
| Clover, hop | Medicago lupulina | | | | | x | | | | x | | |
| Clover, rabbit foot | | | | | | x | | | | x | | |
| Clover, red | Trifolium protense | | | | | x | | | | x | | |
| Clover, white | Trifolium repens | | | | | x | | | | x | | |
| Coltsfoot | | | | | x | | x | x | x | | x | x |
| Comfrey | Symphytum officinale | | | x | | x | x | x | x | | x | |
| Dandelion | Taraxacum vulgare | x | | x | | | x | x | x | x | x | x |
| Dock, broad leaved | Rumex obtusifolias | | | | | | | x | x | x | x | |
| Dulse | | x | x | | | | x | x | | | x | |
| Fat hen | Atriplex hastata | | | | | | | | x | | x | |
| Fennel | Foeniculum vulgare | x | | | | x | | | | x | | |
| Flax, seed | Linum usitatissimum | | | | | | | | x | | | |
| Name | Botanical Name | Na | I | Fl | Si | S | N | Mg | Ca | K | P | Mn | Fe | Cu | Co |
| Garlic | Allium sativum | | | x | | x | | | | | | x | | | |
| Groundsel | Senecio vulgaris | | | | | | | | | | | | x | | |
| Horsetails | Equisetum sp. | | | | x | | | x | x | | | | x | | x |
| Kelp | | x | x | | | | x | x | x | | | | x | | |
| Lamb’s quarters | Chenopodsum album | | | | | | x | | x | x | x | x | | | |
| Lemon Balm | Melissa offcinalis | | | | | | | | | | x | | | | |
| Lupine | Lupinus sp. | | | | | | x | | | | x | | | | |
| Marigold, flowers | Tagetes sp. | | | | | | | | | | x | | | | |
| Meadow sweet | Astilbe sp. | x | | | | x | | x | x | | x | | x | | |
| Mistletoe | | | | | | | | x | | | | | | | |
| Mullein, common | Verbascum sp. | | | | | x | | x | | x | | | x | | |
| Mustards | Brassica sp. | | | | | x | | | | | x | | | | |
| Nettles, stinging | Urtica urens | x | | | | x | x | | x | x | | | x | x | |
| Oak, bark | Quercus sp. | | | | | | | | | x | | | | | |
| Oat Straw | | | | | x | | | | | | | | | | |
| Parsley | | | | | | | | x | x | x | | | x | | |
| Peppermint | Mentha piperita | | | | | | | x | | x | | | | | |
| Name | Botanical Name | Na | B | Si | S | N | Mg | Ca | K | P | Mn | Fe | Cu |
| Pigweed, red root | Amaranthus retroflexus . | | | | | | | x | x | x | | x | |
| Plantains | Plantago sp. | | | x | x | | x | x | | | x | x | |
| Primrose | Oenothera biennis | | | | | x | | | | | | | |
| Purslane | Portulaca oleracea | | | | | | x | | x | | x | | |
| Salad burnet | Poterium sanguisorba | x | | | x | | x | x | | | | x | |
| Savory | Satureja sp. | | | | | | | | x | | | | |
| Scarlet Pimpernel | Anagallis arvensis | | | | | | x | | | | | | |
| Shepherd’s purse | Capsella bursa-pastoris | x | | | x | | | x | | | | | |
| Skunk cabbage | Navarretia squanosa | | | | | | x | | | | | | |
| Sorrel, sheep | Rumex acetosella | x | | | | | | x | | x | | | |
| Sow thistle | Sonchus arvensis | | | | | | x | | x | | | | x |
| Spurges | Euphorbia sp. | | x | | | | | | | | | | |
| Strawberry, leaves | Fragaria sp. | | | | | | | | | | | x | |
| Tansy | Tanacetum vulgare | | | | | | | | x | | | | |
| Thistle, Canada | Cirsium arvense | | | | | | | | | | | x | |
| Thistle, creeping | Sonchus arvensis | | | | | | | | x | x | | x | |
| Name | Botanical Name | Na | Fl | Si | S | N | Mg | Ca | K | P | Fe | Cu | Co |
| Thistle, nodding | Carduus nutans | | | | | | | | | | x | | |
| Thistle, Russian | Salsola pestifer | | | | | | | | | | x | | |
| Toadflax | Linaria vulgaris | | | | | | x | x | | | x | | |
| Tobacco, stems/stalk | Nicotiana sp. | | | | | x | | | | | | | |
| Valerian | Valeriana ofjicinalis | | | x | | | | | | | | | |
| Vetches | Vicia sp. | | | | | x | | | x | x | | x | x |
| Watercress | Nasturtium ofpcinale | x | x | | x | | x | x | x | x | x | | |
| Willow, bark | Salix sp. | | | | | | x | | | | | | |
| Yarrow | Achilea millefolium | | | | | x | | | x | x | | x | |

# Some Ways to Improve Your Soils

* Plant mulch making plants ~ comfrey, tree lucerne, grasses for hay, weeds such as dandelion, plantain, nettles, borage, deciduous trees.
* Use small prunings as part of the mulch around your trees. Place them over soil that you need to add organic matter to & put grass clippings, weeds, & manure on top & let nature do the rest. Once its reasonably broken down sow seeds/plant. Good way to establish an orchard/food forest.
* Harvest local resources ~ bracken & chicory are high in potassium, add it to your compost, burn it & use the ashes around plants such as, celery & leeks. The brassicas (cabbage, cauli, brocoli) need phosphorous to head up well, comfrey & bracken supply it. Ragwort concentrates copper. Broom is high in magnesium & sulphur, lupins in nitrogen & calcium. Seaweed has many of the essential trace elements that plants need. Food scraps from cafes & super markets.
* Plant wind breaks to filter air-born pollution
* Plant trees & shrubs to take up ground water pollution e.g alongside a road, runoff from your neighbour who uses chemicals.
* Create wet lands planted with macrophytes ( reeds & rushes) to take up the above pollution.
* Use raised beds for growing in.
* Seaweed, compost & dolomite help to clean soils of pollutants such as heavy metals.
* Allow weeds to grow ~ add OM, take up pollutants.
* Spread rock dust to supply minerals ~ basalt, granite, dolomite.
* Remember that the more conditions you create for soil life to thrive the better your soils will be. Create diversity.

# Notes on soil

* Soil food web
* Feed the soil and land base and you will indirectly feed your plants
* Arden Anderson = Soil sciences writer and speaker
* Why is it that plants that are healthy tend not to be attacked by pests and diseases? Their defense system is intact. A plant that is unhealthy or stressed will be full of simple carbohydrates - which attract pests and diseases. Healthy plants have complex carbohydrates which humans require. Therefore, nature has a way to clean up weak systems.
* Arden Anderson started to observe a relationship between human disease and crop diseases, because of our industrial productions methods that prevent natures way of cleaning out weak species - and so we are interrupting our access to complex carbohydrates.
* How then do we ensure healthy plants?

## Things to do

* Compost and spread or inoculate areas during planting 30g per m2
* Site specific compost made of the materials of the plants being nurtured
* Biodynamics
* Apply seaweed and fish 300g per m2
* 3 comfry plants per fruit tree
* For some pests consider using micro organisms from [Bokashi http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bokashi] to out compete pests