OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Pricing of Derivatives
## Futures

There are two basic concepts in finance: time-value of money and uncertainty about expectations. The two concepts are the core of financial valuations, including futures contracts.
cost-of-carry model is the most widely accepted and used for pricing futures contract
Cost-of-carry Model
Cost-of-carry model is an arbitrage-free pricing model. Its central theme is that futures contract is so priced as to preclude arbitrage profit. In other words, investors will be indifferent to spot and futures market to execute their buying and selling of underlying asset because the prices they obtain are effectively the same. Expectations do influence the price, but they influence the spot price and, through it, the futures price. They do not directly influence the futures price. According to the cost-of-carry model, the futures price is given by Futures price(Fp) = Spot Price(Sp) + Carry Cost(Cc) - Carry Return(Cr) (1)
Carry cost (CC) is the interest cost of holding the underlying asset (purchased in spot market) until the maturity of futures contract. Carry return (CR) is the income (e.g., dividend) derived from underlying asset during holding period. Thus, the futures price (F) should be equal to spot price (S) plus carry cost minus carry return. If it is otherwise, there will be arbitrage opportunities as follows
When F > (S + CC - CR): Sell the (overpriced) futures contract, buy the underlying asset in spot market and carry it until the maturity of futures contract. This is called "cash-and-carry" arbitrage. When F < (S + CC - CR): Buy the (under priced) futures contract, short-sell the underlying asset in spot market and invest the proceeds of short-sale until the maturity of futures contract. This is called "reverse cash-and-carry" arbitrage
Written by Surendra Agrawal

## Options
### Pricing in Discrete Time
#### One-Period Model
##### Pricing via Duplication

Since for all options, put-call-parity must hold, if three of the terms are known, the last one can also be found using the formula:
Put-Call-Parity: C + PV(X) = P + S
where
C = Price of Call Option
PV(X) = Present Value of Strike Price
P = Price of Put Option
S = Current value of the underlying asset
The put-call parity is only relevant for European options.
# Financial Math FM/About the FM Exam
## Calculators

This is a comprehensive list of the calculators allowed during the exam. Do not assume that any non-graphing scientific calculator is allowed.
* BA-35
* TI-30Xa
* BA II Plus
* TI-30X II (IIS solar or IIB battery)
* BA II Plus Professional
* TI-30XS MultiView (or XB battery)

## More Details

For more details, see | SOA Exam FM home page.
# Financial Math FM/Derivatives
## Derivative

A derivative is a contract whose payoff depends on the behavior of some benchmark, which is known as the underlying asset. The underlying is typically a tradable asset, for example, a stock or commodity, but can be a non-tradable such as the weather (in the case of weather derivatives). Derivatives can be used to manage financial risk.
Derivatives are used as a means of hedging. Derivatives are used to reduce the likelihood of bankruptcy.
Derivatives are used to reduce transaction costs. Derivatives are used as a form of insurance.

### Over-the-counter market

Over-the-counter (OTC) derivatives are contracts that are traded (and privately negotiated) directly between two parties, without going through an exchange or other intermediary. Products such as swaps, forward rate agreements, and exotic options are almost always traded in this way.

### Bid-ask spread

The bid-ask spread (also known as bid/offer or buy/sell spread) for securities is the difference between the prices quoted for an immediate sale (ask) and an immediate purchase (bid). The size of the bid-offer spread in a security is one measure of the liquidity of the market and of the size of the transaction cost.

## Short selling

Short selling (also known as shorting or going short) is the practice of borrowing an asset and selling it immediately with the intention of buying identical assets back at a later date to return to the lender.

### Example

Shares in XYZ currently trade at $10 per share.
* Sarah the short seller borrows 10 shares of XYZ at a 5% annual interest rate.
* Sarah immediately sells the shares for $100.
* After one year the stock price drops to $9 per share.
* Sarah buys 10 shares of XYZ for $90 and returns them to the lender along with the $5 of interest.
* Sarah sees a net profit of $5.

### Short position

Represents either a right or an obligation to sell an underlying asset. Examples of short positions: Short Forward, Written Call, Purchased Put

### Long position

Represents either a right or an obligation to buy an underlying asset. Examples of short positions: Long Forward, Purchased Call, Written Put

## Stock index

Measure of the aggregate performance of predetermined group of stocks.

## Spot price

The price paid for the immediate delivery of an asset

## Credit risk

Credit risk: the risk that money owing will not be paid by an obligor. Since credit risk is the natural business of banks, but an unwanted risk for commercial traders, an early market developed between banks and traders that involved selling obligations at a discounted rate.
# Financial Derivatives/Notions of Stochastic Calculus
## Stochastic Process

A stochastic process $X$ is an indexed collection of random variables:
$X_{t}(\omega )$
Where $\omega \in \Omega$ our sample space, and $t\in T$ is the index of the process which may be either discrete or continuous. Typically, in finance, $T$ is an interval $[a,b]$ and we deal with a continuous process. In this text we interpret $T$ as the time.
If we fix a $t\in T$ the stochastic process becomes the random variable:
$X_{t}=X_{t}(\omega )$
On the other hand, if we fix the outcome of our random experiment to $\omega \in \Omega$ we obtain a deterministic function of time: a realization or sample path of the process.

## Brownian Motion

A stochastic process $W_{t}(\omega )$ with $t\in [0,\infty ]$ is called a Wiener Process (or Brownian Motion) if:
- $W_{0}=0$
- It has independent, stationary increments. Let $s\leq t$, then: $X_{t_{2}}-X_{t_{1}},\ldots ,X_{t_{n}}-X_{t_{n-1}}$ are independent. And $X_{t}-X_{s}=X_{t+h}-X_{s+h}\sim {\mathcal {N}}(0,t-s)$
- $W_{t}$ is almost surely continuous

## References

Wikipedia on Stochastic Process Wikipedia on Wiener Process
# First Aid/What Is First Aid?
## What is First Aid?

First aid is the provision of immediate care to a victim with an injury or illness, usually effected by a lay person, and performed within a limited skill range. First aid is normally performed until the injury or illness is satisfactorily dealt with (such as in the case of small cuts, minor bruises, and blisters) or until the next level of care, such as a paramedic or doctor, arrives. First aid may help the person to survive till the doctor comes and saves his/her life.

## Guiding principles

The key guiding principles and purpose of first aid are often given in the mnemonic "3 Ps". These three points govern all the actions undertaken by a first aider.
* Prevent further injury
* Preserve life
* Promote recovery

## Limitations

The nature of first aid means that most people will only have a limited knowledge, and in emergency situations, first aiders are advised to FIRST seek professional help. This is done by calling, or assigning an able bystander to call, an emergency number, which is 9-1-1 in many places. There is no worldwide common emergency number. The European Union has established 1-1-2 as the universal emergency number for all its member states. The GSM mobile phone standard designates 1-1-2 as an emergency number, so it will work on GSM systems to contact help, even in North America. In the United Kingdom and Republic of Ireland, the numbers 999, 112 and 911 all work in parallel. In emergency situations, it is important that the responder seek help immediately, seeking professional help by other means, if telephone contact is unavailable. The risks of inadvertently doing further injury to a victim, and/or the responder sustaining injury themselves while applying aid, can often outweigh the benefits of applying immediate treatment.
# First Aid/Suspected Spinal Injury

The spinal cord is a thick nerve that runs down the neck and back; it is protected by bones called vertebrae. If the spinal cord is injured, this can lead to paralysis. Since the vertebrae protect the spinal cord, it is generally difficult to cause such an injury. Note that only an x-ray can conclusively determine if a spinal injury exists. If a spinal injury is suspected, the victim must be treated as though one does exist.

## Recognition

* Mental confusion (such as paranoia or euphoria)
* Dizziness
* Head, neck or back pain
* Paralysis
* Any fall where the head or neck has fallen more than two metres (just over head height on an average male)
* Cerebrospinal fluid in the nose or ears
* Resistance to moving the head
* Pupils which are not equal and reactive to light
* Head or back injury
* Priapism (painful erection for males)

## Treatment

The victim should not be moved unless absolutely necessary. Without moving the victim, check if the victim is breathing. If they are not, CPR must be initiated; the victim must be rolled while attempting to minimize movement of the spine. If the victim is breathing, immobilize their spine in the position found. The easiest way to immobilize the spine in the position found is sandbagging. Despite the name, it does not necessarily require bags of sand. Simply pack towels, clothing, bags of sand etc. around the victim's head such that it is immobilized. Be sure to leave their face accessible, since you will need to monitor their breathing.
If you must roll the victim over to begin CPR, take great care to keep their spine immobilized. You may want to recruit bystanders to help you. Hands-on training is the only way to learn the various techniques which are appropriate for use in this situation.

### Aquatic Spinal Injury Management

Many spinal injuries are the result of a dive into shallow water. Lifeguards and lifesavers receive specialized training to manage spinal injuries in the water. Such hands-on training is the only way to learn the various techniques which are appropriate for use in such situations. If you see a victim in the water and did not witness what happened to the victim or are unsure if the victim has a spinal injury, immediately get the attention of a lifeguard or other trained responder.
# First steps towards system programming under MS-DOS 7

First steps towards system programming under MS-DOS7.
This book is for those who intend to seize the most intimate secrets of modern computer technology. In order to be understood easily, narration starts with some elementary explanations and examples, but its main part presents professional level data with all relevant latest updates. These data will be beneficial for both students and teachers on computer technology as well as for computer maintenance staff, system programmers and developers of x86-platform microprocessor equipment.
Contents
   * Wikibooks foreword
   * /Introduction
* /The PC keyboard
* /The command line
* /Internal commands
* /Configuration commands
* /Selected drivers
* /Selected utilities
* /Debugger's assembler commands
* /Selected interrupt handlers
* /Examples of executable files composition
   * Appendices
# First Aid/Templates
## Notes for use

For all of these templates, you'll have to use html markup to insert lists. Wikimarkup won't render properly. I'm trying to get it fixed.
More info on html lists: m:Help:List

## Template:FA Regional Note

This is going to be used for bringing attention to region or country-specific info. For example, when we talk about calling EMS, it might be noted that it's 911 in N. America, but ___ elsewhere, and may not be available at all in some areas.

### Template:FA Regional Note Left

This is the same as the one above, but aligned left instead.

## Template:FA Best Practice

This template will be used to highlight the best way of doing something when there are multiple methods available. For example, using a "log cabin" is probably better than a "doughnut bandage."

### Template:FA Best Practice Left

This is the same template as above, but aligned left instead.

## Template:FA X

This template will be used as a warning that doing something is dangerous to the victim or is contrary to established standards. For example, reducing a fracture.

### Template:FA X Left

This is the same as the previous template, but aligned left instead.

## Template:FA Caution

This template will be used to indicate danger to the rescuer. For example, failing to don gloves.

### Template:FA Caution Left

This is the same as the previous template, but aligned left instead.

## Template:FA Advanced Topics

This template will include boilerplate text letting the reader know that this module/section/chapter deals with techniques requiring advanced training. To call the template, use {{FA Advanced Topics}}
# First Aid/Triage

Triage is a system used by of rationing limited medical resources when the number of injured needing care exceeds the resources available to perform care so as to treat those patients in most need of treatment who are able to benefit first. The term comes from the French word for sort.

## Simple Triage And Evacuation (START)

START is a simple triage system that first aiders can learn to use with little training. Simple triage identifies which persons need advanced medical care.
In START, persons should be treated and evacuated as follows:
* DECEASED are left where they fell, covered if necessary; note that in START a person is not triaged "DECEASED" unless they are not breathing and pulseless and an effort to reposition their airway has been unsuccessful.
* IMMEDIATE or Priority 1 (red) evacuation by MEDEVAC if available or ambulance as they need advanced medical care at once or within 1 hour. These people are in critical condition and would die without immediate assistance.
* DELAYED or Priority 2 (yellow) can have their medical evacuation delayed until all IMMEDIATE persons have been transported. These people are in stable condition but require medical assistance.
* MINOR or Priority 3 (green) are not evacuated until all IMMEDIATE and DELAYED persons have been evacuated. These will not need advanced medical care for at least several hours. Continue to re-triage in case their condition worsens. These people are able to walk, and may only require bandages and antiseptic.
# General Astronomy/Telescopes/Other Observations
## Solar Telescope

Solar telescopes are used for studying the sun. They are quite large. The biggest is the McMath-Pierce Solar Telescope, with a diameter of 1.6 meters. It is housed in a structure that is 100 feet tall.

## Cutting Edge

Some new telescopes use multiple or segmented mirrors (usually hexagonal).
* New Technology Telescope (NTT)
* Multiple Mirror Telescope (MMT)
* Keck Telescope (segmented, hexagonal mirrors)

## References
### Footnotes

* ^ The Kitt Peak Virtual Tour: McMath-Pierce Solar Telescope.
# General Astronomy/Temperature

The temperature of a star refers to its surface and that is what determines its color. The lowest temperature stars are red while the hottest stars are blue.
Astronomers are able to measure the temperatures of the surfaces of stars by comparing their spectra to the spectrum of a black body. A black body is one that entirely absorbs all radiation that strikes it. Astronomers determine the black body spectrum which most closely matches the spectrum of the star in question. Because the temperature of the matching black body is known, astronomers can then calculate the star's surface temperature.
Astronomers classify stars into different types depending on their temperatures. These types are O, B, A, F, G, K, and M, where type O stars are the hottest and type M stars are the coolest. Each of these types is divided further into sub-divisions from 0 to 9 in order to distinguish between slight differences in each star's spectral patterns, which depend on the star's temperature.
Our Sun is a Type G star, which are yellow stars with surface temperatures of about 6000 °C, or 11,000 °F. Type A stars, which are hotter, are white in color and maintain temperatures of around 10,000 °C or 18,000 °F. The hottest of the types, B and O, are blue stars while the coolest of type M is red in color and have surface temperatures of about 3,000 °C or 5,400 °F.
Note that we have referred to the surface temperatures of stars thus far. Each star, however, ranges in interior temperature with cores reaching temperatures in the millions of degrees. Although the Sun's surface is only 5800 °C, for example, its core achieves a temperature of 15 million Celsius. With the mass of a star and its chemical composition is known, astronomers can calculate the temperatures within its core.
Main sequence stars have a core temperature of 10 million Kelvins. Red giants have a core temperature of 100 million Kelvins.
Stars come in a wide range of sizes. The sun is a star that measures about 870,000 miles across. However, astronomers classify the sun as a dwarf star. A dwarf star is a small star. A giant star is a big star. The largest stars are supergiants. Some supergiants can be 1,000 larger than the sun. Astronomers also classify stars according to color. The color of a star shows its surface temperature. Blue stars are the hottest, followed by white, yellow, orange, and red. The sun is a yellow star.
# General Astronomy/The Apollo Missions

The first mission to land humans on the moon was the United States Apollo 11. The astronauts on board were Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin, who explored the lunar surface on July 20, 1969. Armstrong debarked from the Lunar Module "Eagle" spacecraft first. After setting foot on the surface of the moon, he uttered the famous words: "That's one small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind."
# General Astronomy/The Atmosphere

The Earth has been placed out of order with the other planets because, by studying the Earth, we can become familiar with general principles that can thus be applied to other planets.

## Earth's Atmosphere

The Earth has been shrouded in a thin layer of gases for most of its history. However, the nature and composition of these gases has changed significantly over time. At its initial formation, the Earth's first atmosphere was composed primarily of the light elements hydrogen and helium. However, at the temperatures in the inner solar system, these atoms had sufficient energies to exceed Earth's escape velocity. Earth's gravity was, therefore, not sufficient to hold these gases, which quickly escaped into space.
Earth's second atmosphere was generated by gases that had been trapped within the rocks making up the body of the planet, but escaped due to volcanic activity, a process known as "outgassing". The components of this atmosphere were primarily carbon dioxide, water, and lesser amounts of nitrogen. As the Earth cooled, however, much of the water vapor precipitated out of the air, and areas of liquid water formed on its surface. Much of the carbon dioxide dissolved into the liquid water. Much of this carbon dioxide was later bound up in various aquatic life forms, and then deposited with the remains of those lifeforms in ocean sediment, eventually forming large limestone deposits.
As life evolved on the planet's surface, some of the remaining carbon dioxide was converted by these organisms into oxygen, through photosynthesis and similar processes. This had the effect of further lowering carbon dioxide levels, leaving nitrogen as the primary constituent of the atmosphere, and adding in substantial amounts of oxygen. Thus Earth's third atmosphere was formed as we know it today: primarily nitrogen, oxygen, water vapor and various trace molecules in lesser amounts.
# General Astronomy/Telescopes/Telescopes of Other Wavelengths
## Radio Telescopes

The first "radio astronomer" was Karl Jansky, who studied mysterious radio interference he picked up with his antenna. The signal repeated every 23 hours and 56 minutes. He finally determined that it was caused by our Milky Way Galaxy. The signal is strongest at the center of the galaxy, in the constellation Sagittarius.
The Very Large Array (VLA) is a radio telescope system in New Mexico.

## Infrared Telescopes

The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) is a large, space telescope optimized for viewing in the infrared part of the spectrum, scheduled for launch in 2018. From the NASA website: "JWST will find the first galaxies that formed in the early Universe, connecting the Big Bang to our own Milky Way Galaxy. JWST will peer through dusty clouds to see stars forming planetary systems, connecting the Milky Way to our own Solar System. JWST's instruments will be designed to work primarily in the infrared range of the electromagnetic spectrum, with some capability in the visible range.
JWST will have a large mirror, 6.5 meters (21.3 feet) in diameter and a sunshield the size of a tennis court. Both the mirror and sunshade won't fit onto the rocket fully open, so both will fold up and open only once JWST is in outer space. JWST will reside in an orbit about 1.5 million km (1 million miles) from the Earth." http://www.jwst.nasa.gov/

## Ultraviolet Telescopes

Ultraviolet astronomy studies light with wavelengths just shorter than visible light. This wavelength region turns out to be particularly useful for studying atomic emissions from hydrogen and helium, the two most common gases in space (and in the Sun, and stars, and gas giant planets).
Ultraviolet light does not reach the Earth's surface, so ultraviolet astronomy is done from satellites in space. Ultraviolet detectors function well on telescopes with conventional optics such as Hubble Space Telescope. Ultraviolet images from Hubble have dramatically revealed planetary auroras on Jupiter and Saturn from magnetospheric electrons striking atomic and molecular hydrogen in auroral zones at high latitudes on the planets.

## X-ray Telescopes

X-rays are higher energy and shorter wavelength than UV. Astronomy in X-rays has specific challenges that do not affect other wavelengths. Earth's atmosphere is opaque to X-rays, which means that astronomy in this energy range can only be performed by space telescopes, high altitude balloons, or sounding rockets.

## References
### Footnotes

* ^ Ghigo, F. "Karl Jansky and the Discovery of Cosmic Radio Waves."
# General Astronomy/Telescopes of Other Wavelengths
## Radio Telescopes

The first "radio astronomer" was Karl Jansky, who studied mysterious radio interference he picked up with his antenna. The signal repeated every 23 hours and 56 minutes. He finally determined that it was caused by our Milky Way Galaxy. The signal is strongest at the center of the galaxy, in the constellation Sagittarius.
The Very Large Array (VLA) is a radio telescope system in New Mexico.
The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) is a large, infrared-optimized space telescope, scheduled for launch in 2013. JWST will find the first galaxies that formed in the early Universe, connecting the Big Bang to our own Milky Way Galaxy. JWST will peer through dusty clouds to see stars forming planetary systems, connecting the Milky Way to our own Solar System. JWST's instruments will be designed to work primarily in the infrared range of the electromagnetic spectrum, with some capability in the visible range.
JWST will have a large mirror, 6.5 meters (21.3 feet) in diameter and a sunshield the size of a tennis court. Both the mirror and sunshade won't fit onto the rocket fully open, so both will fold up and open only once JWST is in outer space. JWST will reside in an orbit about 1.5 million km (1 million miles) from the Earth. http://www.jwst.nasa.gov/

## References
### Footnotes

* ^ Ghigo, F. "Karl Jansky and the Discovery of Cosmic Radio Waves."