OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# A-level Chemistry/OCR/Atoms, Bonds and Groups/Atoms and Reactions/Moles and Equations
## The Mole

The mole is a unit describing the amount of a substance that you have.
One mole of a substance contains 6.02 x 10$^{23}$ particles. 6.02 x 10$^{23}$ is known as Avogadro’s constant.
The molar mass is the mass of one mole: one mole of atoms or molecules has a mass in grams equal to the relative formula mass of that substance. In other words, it is the mass per mole of a substance.
For example: Carbon has an Ar of 12 → 1 mole of carbon weighs 12g → The molar mass of carbon is 12 g/mol.

## Empirical and Molecular Formulae

The empirical formula of a compound is the simplest whole number ratio of an atoms of each element present in a compound. The molecular formula of a compound gives the actual number of atoms of each element in the compound.
You can calculate the empirical formula by following these steps:
* Find the mass of each element.
* Divide the mass by the relative atomic mass (Ar) of the atom/molecule.
* Divide all your answers by the smallest answer.
* If required, multiply to make whole numbers.
* Use the ratio of atoms to write the empirical formula.
To find the molecular formula from the empirical formula, you need to know the relative formula mass of the compound.

## Calculations

Once the relative formula mass is found, you can divide the molecular formula stated in the question by the relative formula mass, then the answer is multiplied against the empirical formula answer which then gives the new ratio of the atoms in the molecular formula.
# A-level Chemistry/OCR

This is a book about A-level Chemistry, designed to follow the new 2008 OCR syllabus, but is not endorsed by OCR. It will hopefully be useful as a revision guide or for alternative explanations to the ones in your textbook or from your tutor.

## AS Units

* Atoms, Bonds and Groups
** Module 1: Atoms and Reactions
*** Atoms
*** Moles and Equations
*** Acids
*** Redox
** Module 2: Electrons, Bonding and Structure
*** Atomic Structure
** Module 3: The Periodic Table
*** Periodicity
*** Group 2
*** Group 7
* Chains, Energy and Resources
** Module 1: Basic Concepts and Hydrocarbons
*** Basic Concepts
*** Alkanes
*** Alkenes
** Module 2: Alcohols, Halogenoalkanes and Analysis
*** Alcohols
*** Halogenoalkanes
*** Modern Analytical Techniques
** Module 3: Energy
*** Enthalpy Changes
*** Rates and Equilibrium
** Module 4: Resources
*** Chemistry of the Air
*** Green Chemistry

## A2 modules

* Rings, Polymers and Analysis
** Module 1: Rings, Acids and Amines
*** Arenes
*** Carbonyl Compounds
*** Carboxylic Acids and Esters
*** Amines
** Module 2: Polymers and Synthesis
*** Amino Acids and Chirality
*** Polyesters and Polyamides
*** Synthesis
** Module 3: Analysis
*** Chromatography
*** Spectroscopy
* Equilibria, Energetics and Elements
** Module 1: Rates, Equilibrium and pH
*** How Fast?
*** How Far?
*** Acids, Bases and Buffers
** Module 2: Energy
*** Lattice Enthalpy
*** Enthalpy and Entropy
*** Electrode Potentials and Fuel Cells
** Module 3: Transition Elements
*** Transition Elements
# A-level Chemistry/OCR/Arenes

Benzene is the most common Arene. It has a hexagonal shape. The electrons in a benzene molecule are in 'pi' bonds. Each of the carbon atoms contribute one 'pi' electron into a 'pi' bond. The electrons become 'delocalised' as they are spread out over all 6 'pi' bonds within the benzene molecule.
To break the 'pi' bonds in benzene compounds requires a lot of energy and therefore they do not always react easily, when compared to Phenol. The majority of their reactions are substitution reactions and there are 4 groups known as the 4 ations that are important to this module.
The first of the 4 ations are nitroarenes. The nitrogroups are substituted for hydrogen atoms on the benzene ring. They are used for drugs and dyes and also explosives such as TNT.
Benzene can be nitrated. In order to be nitrated it must be combined with a nitrating mixture of concentrated Sulfuric acid and Nitric acid. The sulphuric acid acts like a catalyst. Therefore, it is regenerated at the end of the reaction. Benzene is 152kJ/mol more stable than expected. Therefore, it can not polarise a molecule. Sulphuric acid generates the nitronium ion -(NO2+) which can then go further on in the reaction and the nitration reaction can occur.
# A-level Chemistry/OCR/Atoms, Bonds and Groups/The Periodic Table/Periodicity

The periodic table is a tabular arrangement of the chemical elements, organized on the basis of their atomic numbers, electron configurations, and recurring chemical properties. Elements are presented in order of increasing atomic number.
# A-level Chemistry/OCR/Chains, Energy and Resources/Alcohols, Halogenoalkanes and Analysis/Alcohols

There are six reactions of alcohols that you must be aware of for this module. For each you must be able to remember the reactants, products and conditions. For some of them you must be able to draw the mechanisms from memory.
Remembering all of these reactions can be made easier with the SHOCED (or SHOCKED with K missing) Mnemonic:
Sodium Substitution Halogen alkane formation Oxidation Combustion Esterification Dehydration

# Sodium Substitution

Reactants: An alcohol (e.g. propanol C$_3$H$_7$OH), Sodium Metal (Na) Products: A “sodium salt” (e.g. sodium methoxide) [alkoxide] Conditions: n/a
C$_3$H$_7$OH + Na → C$_3$H$_7$O$^-$Na$^+$ + 0.5 H$_2$ nd the alphenic acid change in phenol by this reaction

# Halogen Alkane Production (Electrophilic substitution)

Reactants: An alcohol (e.g. ethanol), a hydrogen halide (e.g. HBr) Products: a Halogen alkane (e.g. bromoethane), water Conditions: no special C$_2$H$_5$OH + HBr → C$_2$H$_5$Br + H$_2$O

# Oxidation

Conditions: Acidified Potassium Dichromate (VI) or Sodium Dichromate is used as an oxidising agent. Reaction occurs in reflux.
The products that form from oxidation depend on the structure of the alcohol.
The oxidation of the primary alcohol, ethanol with K$_2$Cr$_2$O$_7$$^{2-}$ / H$^+$ is as follows: CH$_3$CH$_2$OH + [O] → CH$_3$CHO (the aldehyde; ethanal)
Remember: Oxidation is defined as the gain of Oxygen AND/OR the loss of hydrogen.
Primary alcohols: oxidise to aldehydes and then to carboxylic acids Secondary alcohols: Oxidise to ketones Tertiary alcohols: Cannot be oxidised

# Combustion

(Complete) Combustion of any alcohol produces carbon-dioxide and water. Burning completely in an excess of oxygen C$_2$H$_5$OH + 3O$_2$ → 2CO$_2$ + 3H$_2$O
However, incomplete combustion can occur when oxygen is not in excess (lack of oxygen) which can cause carbon monoxide (CO) or even carbon residue (C) to form as the products.

# Esterification

Remember the basic principle:
ACID + ALCOHOL → ESTER + WATER (as quoted from Dr. Carmel Stanley of Barnsley College)
An alcohol (e.g. ethanol) + a carboxylic acid (e.g. ethanoic acid) → an ester (e.g. ethyl ethanoate) and water
Conditions: H$_2$SO$_4$ (sulphuric acid) Catalyst

# Dehydration

Reactants: An alcohol Products: Alkene + water Conditions: hot and concentrated sulphuric acid
An alcohol can be formed by the hydration of the alkene; ethene, shown below: CH$_2$=CH$_2$$_{(g)}$ + H$_2$O$_{(g)}$ → CH$_3$CH$_2$OH$_{(g)}$ Conditions: 300 degrees Celsius 60 atm of pressure H$_3$PO$_4$ (phosphoric acid) catalyst.
# Alkenes

The alkenes are unsaturated chains of carbon & hydrogen with one or more double or triple carbon carbon bonds. The simplest alkene is ethene $(C_{2}H_{4})$ the general formula for simple alkenes is $C_{n}H_{2n}$. Notably, simple alkenes all end in the "ene" suffix, as opposed to the alkanes' "ane" suffix. Another thing to note about alkenes is in their naming. The alkene functional group is the double bond, and thus when naming the compound the double bond defines whether it is, for example, pent-1-ene or pent-2-ene.
$CH_{2}=CHCH_{2}CH_{2}CH_{3}$ is pent-1-ene.
$CH_{3}CH=CHCH_{2}CH_{3}$ is pent-2-ene.
Straight chain alkenes have marginally lower boiling points than their alkane counterparts & like the alkanes (and pretty much all homologous series), all simple alkenes have the same general formula, have similar chemical properties & show a trend in physical properties.

## Bonding in Alkenes

The alkenes have a carbon-carbon double bond, this means that they have one σ (sigma) bond, and also one pi bond. The bonding in alkanes only consists of σ (sigma) bonds which means they're able to be twisted around. However the pi bond along with the sigma bond in alkenes prevent free rotation. This gives rise to cis-trans isomerism, in which the larger groups on the alkene molecule are either on one side together (cis, Z) or on opposite sides to each other (trans, E).
The pi bond occurs due to the side by side overlap of adjacent p orbitals. It is weak, and can be broken easily.
Pictures coming soon!
# Alien Hominid/Printable version

The current, editable version of this book is available in Wikibooks, the open-content textbooks collection, at
https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Alien_Hominid

# About
## What is alien hominid?

Alien Hominid is a flash game made in 2002 and published on the website Newgrounds. In Alien Hominid you play an alien that crash-landed on earth and you have to mission to beat the FBI and run away, you have 8 lives and infinite bullets, two bosses are robots, one is a tall robot with a laser and one is a giant FBI robot!

## Controls

You play with the arrow keys and press up arrow to lookup left and right to walk, and down to crawl. shoot with A and jump with S.

# General tips
## Learning the controls

At the start of the game, there is a kid that walks past you. The game doesn't start until you shoot him or he walks off-screen, so use that time to adjust to your controls.

## What's the best way to defeat normal FBI?

The best strategy for the FBI is to jump on a building, wait for them to fire, then jump down and beat them, if they shoot from a distance try crawling to dodge but them jump after the bullet passes you because they can quickly lay down and shoot you fast, keep dodging bullets by jumping and laying down and shooting them.
Remember that you only have ten lives. It's best not to get hit.

# Boss 1

To defeat the first boss battle you can stay on the balcony and jump when he runs at you, when he runs to your side of the screen and back he pulls a laser and shoot the balcony, so when he makes it back to the right side of the screen then get down, then he will stop for a second and shoot the bottom of the screen to jump to the balcony when is done shooting the balcony! Then he is going to run around again, shoot him when he is shooting the laser up top.

# Level 2

Level II starts after boss I, you will instantly be greeted by FBI guards after the boss so gets ready!
In particular, watch out for the bomb guy, there is one who has a shield and infinite grenades, jump over him and then beat him using normal strategies.

# Final Boss

To beat the FBI giant, you have to dodge his shots and jump on his gun and shoot his head, he will punch you when doing this but it doesn't do damage, it just pushes you off keep doing this until he is defeated.
# Alien Hominid/About
## What is alien hominid?

Alien Hominid is a flash game made in 2002 and published on the website Newgrounds. In Alien Hominid you play an alien that crash-landed on earth and you have to mission to beat the FBI and run away, you have 8 lives and infinite bullets, two bosses are robots, one is a tall robot with a laser and one is a giant FBI robot!

## Controls

You play with the arrow keys and press up arrow to lookup left and right to walk, and down to crawl. shoot with A and jump with S.
# Alien Hominid/Boss 1

To defeat the first boss battle you can stay on the balcony and jump when he runs at you, when he runs to your side of the screen and back he pulls a laser and shoot the balcony, so when he makes it back to the right side of the screen then get down, then he will stop for a second and shoot the bottom of the screen to jump to the balcony when is done shooting the balcony! Then he is going to run around again, shoot him when he is shooting the laser up top.
# Alien Hominid/Level 2

Level II starts after boss I, you will instantly be greeted by FBI guards after the boss so gets ready!
In particular, watch out for the bomb guy, there is one who has a shield and infinite grenades, jump over him and then beat him using normal strategies.
# Alien Hominid/Final Boss

To beat the FBI giant, you have to dodge his shots and jump on his gun and shoot his head, he will punch you when doing this but it doesn't do damage, it just pushes you off keep doing this until he is defeated.
# All About Converting From Several Video Formats To DVD/G-Spot

This section is a brief explanation of the usage of the software G-Spot to find out the codecs needed to play an AVI format video.
First of all, install the software.
Then run it. Drag and drop the video you want to check to the program and wait a few seconds. The displayed screen will show all the information on the codecs used to make this video. Right below an arrow it will say "5 compatible codecs installed". That means the video will should play properly. If that's not the case, you should download the codecs marked. In this case, XviD.
# Alien Hominid/General tips
## Learning the controls

At the start of the game, there is a kid that walks past you. The game doesn't start until you shoot him or he walks off-screen, so use that time to adjust to your controls.

## What's the best way to defeat normal FBI?

The best strategy for the FBI is to jump on a building, wait for them to fire, then jump down and beat them, if they shoot from a distance try crawling to dodge but them jump after the bullet passes you because they can quickly lay down and shoot you fast, keep dodging bullets by jumping and laying down and shooting them.
Remember that you only have ten lives. It's best not to get hit.
# How to use this WikiBook
## Intent of this WikiBook

* Store all relevant info for how to build, use, maintain and generally anything useful for the ATRIAS 2.1 robot
* Ease of adding the above info by any and all collaborators of the ATRIAS 2.1 robot system
* The page will evolve as people add content and learn how to better use and maintain their ATRIAS 2.1 robot platforms
   * When you learn something useful about the robot (for example a good spring constant that would be useful for a particular walking gait in a certain environment) you add it to the correct page. Thus the information is not lost when you graduate or move on to other tasks.

## Licensing your uploaded pictures

It is very important that you apply the correct licensing to your pictures hosted on wikimedia commons, they will delete your pictures if you mess this up. I've (jesse grimes) used the following and seems appropriate. Copy and past this into your licensing attribute.

## link filled pages - marked as SPAM

It is a current issue that the pages that house useful links to products, manufactures and suppliers for the robot get tagged as spam by the WikiBooks overlords. We'll find a solution to this. It might just be that we have to prove ourselves as worthy contributors and that these link filled pages are not spam.
# Your First ASP.NET Page

No programming book is complete without a Hello World example as the first project/example.
In ASP.NET creating a quick Hello World example is painless and easy. At the same time we are going to explore the structure of a basic ASP.NET page.
Let's look at the basic structure of an ASP.NET page. Doing so will give us a chance to introduce several important aspects relevant to coding ASP.NET pages.
VB.NET
C#
As you can see, an ASP.NET page has a lot in common with a regular HTML-based page. Now in order to make our Hello World example we just need to add one line of code to the above examples.
VB.Net
C#
Copy the original code into a new file with the extension aspx. Then make the above modification. When the file is run, assuming it is being hosted on an ASP.NET compatible web server, you will see the words Hello World on your web browser when you access the page.
# ATRIAS 2.1 Handbook/General Information/Suppliers and Manufacturers/Anodizing Shops
## Anodize Shops

This section outlines the shops we're considering for anodizing our parts.
| Name | Location | Phone | Email | Comments |
| Apex Anodizing | Portland, Oregon | (503)235-9551 | matt.roberts@apexanodizing.com | Does not do Beaver Orange Color, it comes out more gold. Has terrible quality control. Burned and scraped a part for us. |
| CG Industries | Albany, Oregon | (541)928-0735 | teri@cganodize.com | Mentioned by Steve Adams, Cannot do Orange. Basic black anodize found on current robot boom was done by them. Prices were a little above average. Not recommended for parts that need to be done with high quality hard anodizing. |
| Duralectra | Natick, Massachusetts | (800)274-3388 | sales@duralectra-chn.com | Holds very good tolerances |
| Quality Metal Finishing | Eugene, Oregon | | Office:(541)343-4534 Mike Cell:(541)520-3675 | Mike Lowden M_Lowden@msn.com | Anodizing company that Torley Precision, RAM-Z Fab, and King Machine uses. Mike Lauden is our contact. They are currently attempting to make us a good beaver orange color match for anodizing 6061 aluminum. Mike services this area twice a week, delivering and picking up jobs. |
# Suppliers and Manufacturers

This page lists suppliers that are used or considered for use on the robots built in this lab. These are places that we've used in the past for various aspects of the robots creation and maintenance. Note that some of these places (namely the machine and anodize shops) are local to Oregon State University in Corvallis, Oregon and may not be useful for you folks at UofM and CMU. The intent is that you can search here first for where we got an item (say a certain sensor).
Add to these lists as you find useful hardware or manufactures that may be useful in in upgrading our hardware. Also list places that we should not work with. This can save us some serious time and effort later on. Remember that the lab will be here a long time working with these, and future, robots. And as undergrads and grad students we will come and go. WE WANT OUR INFORMATION LEARNED WHILE WORKING IN THESE LABS TO BE PRESERVED FOR THE BENEFIT OF THE RESEARCH!!!
* Machine Shops Places where we have machined parts made for our robots
* Anodizing Shops Places where we have our machined parts colored
* Water Jetting Shops Places where we can get water jetting jobs done
* Cables and Rope Cable and rope for cable drives and such
* Composites Shops Places where we can get composite work done
* Electric Motors
* Harmonic Drives Compact, geared transmissions
* Bearings Large diameter, thin section bearings among others
* Sensors High resolution absolute and incremental encoders
* Slip Rings Continuous rotation electrical contacts
* Raised Floor Tiles used in the experimental room at OSU.
* PCB Manufacturing Where we get our custom PCB's made
* General Suppliers
* Other Useful Companies Things that just flat out come in handy

## Disclaimer

In no way to we endorse or promote the use of these companies and vendors over others. This is a simple list of options we have explored and our experience with them. This page is to be used among the Oregon State University Dynamic Robotics Lab and it's collaborative labs at the University of Michigan and Carnegie Mellon Universities Robotics Institute (as of May 2013). Others are welcome to see what our experience has taught us but keep in mind we are not promoting or advertising this information.
# ATRIAS 2.1 Handbook/General Information/Cost of Transport Definition

NOTE: At some point the info below should be distilled down to useful info and presented in a wikipedia/textbook/encyclopedia format. This email chain was provided to me [Jesse Grimes] by Jonathan Hurst concerning cost of transport
Jonathan,
I misspoke on the phone. If you are at 0.5 A and 50 V, then you are using 25 Watts. Let's say you are moving at 1 m/s and the ATRIAS Monopod weighs in at 20 Kg.
THEN....and you will like this.............
Mechanical Efficiency = 25*1/(g m distance) = 25 / (10*20*1) = 25/200 = 1/8 = 0.125
The number for a human walking is 0.05......and ATRIAS is hopping. Your robot may be a game changer!
Here are the numbers given by my simulation, with torso stabilization:
Step 50 completed at time t = 18.7972, Stride duration = 0.37769, Speed = 1.588, Stride length = 0.59976, cmt=1.028, cet=0.12047
ATRIAS is much closer to the net power, which allows negative power to be shunted to the battery, than to the efficiency estimate that looks at positive work and gives no credit for negative work.
Jessy
Jonathan,
I was confused about the difference between CMT and CET. The paper by Ruina, cited by Koushil below (see link) clarifies this. In my simulations, I had been focusing on CMT because that is all we can estimate for MABEL. For ATRIAS, it is easier to do the CET, from what I understand.
Jessy
Dear Prof. Grizzle,
Sorry, missed your mail. Prof. Geyer is specifically talking about CET, the specific cost of energetic transport. We have never measured this value for MABEL. We calculate only CMT, the specific cost of mechanical transport.
This paper [pdf] (refer pg. 2, column 2) mentions human CET = 0.2, and human CMT = 0.05.
MABEL min CMT = 0.1, and we are a factor of two away from that of humans in this regard.
Thank you,
koushil
NOTE: Said .PDF file was not attached to my email. -Jesse Grimes
Jessy,
Here is some COT data on humans and horses for different gaits.
For the human data, assuming a body weight of 70 kg gives a walking minimum of COT = 2, or if divided by gravity, CET = 0.2. For running that will be about twice as much.
For the horse data, the weight is about 140 kg, and 1ml_O2=20J, yielding the same values for minimum walking COT and CET as those for humans. However, horses reach the same minima in other gaits at higher speeds as well.
Hartmut
| File:COT horses.jpgCost of transport of horses at various speeds and gaits | File:COT human.jpgCost of transport of humans compared to other various locomoting things |
# Bearings

| Name | Notes |
| SilverThin Precision Bearings | High end bearings, long lead time on some bearings and high prices |
| Thin Section Bearings of America or 'Impact Bearings' | Distributor of Impact Bearings in Southern California. Cheaper prices then silver thin and usually no lead time. (if they have lead time then it takes just as long as Silverthin.) |
| Amazon.com | Search for "slim section bearings" on Amazon.com. |
# ATRIAS 2.1 Handbook

ATRIAS 2.1 is the third physical realization of the ATRIAS concept of an actuated spring mass walking, running and jumping bipedal robot. ATRIAS 2.1 is designed for un-tethered, 3D walking and running over unpredictable, rough terrain while maintaining a reasonably high energy economy. Future work with this robot will be to develop and demonstrate these goals and further scientific knowledge in the field of legged locomotion.

## Contents
### General Information

* How to use this WikiBook
* Location of Parts
* Operating Instructions
* Suppliers and Manufacturers
* Cost of Transport Definition

### Technical Specifications

* Solid Model Specifications
* Motors
* Encoders
* IMU
* Springs Considerations
* Toe Cell

### Servicing Information

* Service Data
* Cleaning
* Loctite Procedure
* Torque Specifications
* Special Tools
* Wiring Harness Routing

### Disassembly

* Four-Bar Assembly
* Drive Assembly
* Torso Assembly
* Boom Assembly

### Assembly

* Four-Bar Assembly
* Drive Assembly
* Torso Assembly
* Boom Assembly

### Electrical

* Wiring Diagram
* Medulla Board
* Menial Board
* DC-DC Converter Board
* AMC Amplifier Breakout Board
* Strain Gauge Digitizer Board

### Trouble Shooting

* Motors
* Encoders
* Amplifiers
* Electrical