OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Public International Law/Methodology

Author: Jane Doe
   Required knowledge: Link
   Learning objectives: Understanding XY.
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## Further Readings

* Source I
* Source II

## Conclusion

* Summary I
* Summary II

## Table of Contents

Back to home page
Part I - History, Theory, and Methods
* § 1 History of International Law
** § 1.1 Founding Myths
** § 1.2 Nineteenth Century
** § 1.3 Decolonization
* § 2 Nature and Purpose of International Law
** § 2.1 International Law and Violence
** § 2.2 Consent
** § 2.3 Enforcement
* § 3 Methodology
** § 3.1 Case Analysis
** § 3.2 Interdisciplinarity
* § 4 Approaches to International Law
** § 4.1 Positivism
** § 4.2 TWAIL
** § 4.3 Feminism & Queer Theory
** § 4.4 Marxism
* § 5 Interaction
** § 5.1 Interaction within International Law
** § 5.2 International Law and Domestic Law
Part II - General International Law
* § 6 Sources of International Law
** § 6.1 Treaty Law
** § 6.2 Customary Law
** § 6.3 General Principles
** § 6.4 Other Sources
* § 7 Subjects and Actors in International Law
** § 7.1 States
** § 7.2 Indigenous Peoples
** § 7.3 International Organizations
** § 7.4 Individuals
** § 7.5 Women in International Law
** § 7.6 Non-governmental Organization
** § 7.7 Corporations
** § 7.8 Animals
** § 7.9 Cities
* § 8 Jurisdiction
* § 9 State Responsibility
* § 10 Diplomatic Relations
* § 11 Immunities
* § 12 Peaceful Settlement of Disputes
** § 12.1 Evidence
* § 13 Use of Force
Part III - Specialized Fields
* § 14 Law of Armed Conflict
* § 15 Law of the Sea
* § 16 International Environmental Law
* § 17 International Climate Change Law
* § 18 International Migration Law
* § 19 International Law in Cyberspace
* § 20 Space Law
* § 21 Human Rights Law
** § 21.1 Recurring Themes in Human Rights Doctrine
** § 21.2 Institutional Human Rights Protection
*** § 21.2.1 United Nations Human Rights System
*** § 21.2.2 African Human Rights System
*** § 21.2.3 European Human Rights System
*** § 21.2.4 Inter-American Human Rights System
*** § 21.2.5 Arab and Islamic Human Rights System
*** § 21.2.6 Asian Human Rights System
** § 21.3 Critique of Human Rights
* § 22 International Criminal Law
** § 22.1 International Crimes
** § 22.2 International Criminal Courts and Tribunals
** § 22.3 Domestic Prosecution of International Crimes
* § 23 International Economic Law
** § 23.1 Investment Law
** § 23.2 Trade Law
** § 23.3 Monetary Law

## Footnotes

* ↑ The first footnote. Please adhere to OSCOLA when formating citations. Whenever possible, provide a link with the citation, ideally to an open-access source.
# NCEA Level 1 Science/Contents/Energy

Template:NCEA Level 1 Science

# Energy

About the Achievement Standard
Template:NCEA Level 1 Science/Physics/Achievement Objectives

## Introduction

Energy is the amount of work that can be performed by a force. Energy comes in many forms - heat, kinetic (movement), and electrical.

## Contents

* Types of Energy
* Power
* Work
* Conservation and transfer of energy
* Equilibrium
Template:NCEA Level 1 Science<noinclude>
# NCEA Level 1 Science/Contents/Energy/Voltage

Voltage is calculated by multiplying amps and resistance. V= I.R
# NCEA Level 1 Science/Chemistry and society
## Introduction

Chemistry has many uses in society.

## Technological applications of chemistry

| Metala | Physical Properties | Reactivity | Uses |
| Sodium | Soft, shiny | Extreme | Too reactive |
| Calcium | Hard, grey | Extreme | Too reactive |
| Magnesium | Light, malleable | Highly | Alloys, flares |
| Aluminium | Shiny, malleable | Mildly | Window frames |
| Zinc | Shiny, malleable | Mildly | Galvanise nails |
| Iron | Dense, conducts heat | Mildly | Bridges |
| Lead | Grey, dense | Unreactive | Batteries, flashings |
| Copper | Thermal and electrical conductor | Unreactive | Wires |
# NCEA Level 1 Science/Cover

Level 6 Science for the New Zealand Curriculum
Overview
# NCEA Level 1 Science/Evolution
## Introduction

Genetics is the study of how living organisms inherit features from their ancestors – for example, children often look like their parents. Genetics tries to identify which features are inherited, and work out the details of how these features are passed from generation to generation.

## Replication and reproduction

There are two ways a cell can divide:
* mitosis
* meiosis

### Mitosis

Mitosis occurs when genetically identical cells are created , for either growth or repair. In mitosis, two genetically identical 'daughter' cells are produced from a single parent cell.

#### Stages of Mitosis

* Chromosomes in a cell become smaller and thicker, allowing it to be seen under a microscope.
* The cell nucleus disappears
* Chromosomes replicate
* The chromosome in each pair move to opposite ends of the cell.
* There are now two identical groups of chromosomes on either side of the cell. Nuclear membranes form around each one of these groups.
* The cell starts to split into two.
* The outermost layer of the cell grows in between the splitting daughter cells. In animal cells the outermost layer is the cell membrane, whereas in plants, it is the cell wall.
* If daughter cells are not genetically identical then a mutation has occurred.

### Meiosis

Meiosis occurs in the sex organs and produces sex cells, which have half the number of chromosomes than that of a regular body cell. During Meiosis 4 daughter cells are produced from a single parent. During cell division, genetic information mixes, creating daughter cells which are all nonidentical to each other. The original number of cells is restored during fertilisation.

## Importance of variation
#### Terminology

* gamete: Cell involved with reproduction
* zygote: Fertilised female reproductive cell
* dominant: A gene causing the parental characteristics it controls to occur in offspring
* recessive: A gene that produces an effect in an organisms only when its matching allele is identical
* homozygous: Having two identical genes
* heterozygous: Having two or more different alleles of one of its genes
* pure breeding: Homozygous for either the dominant or recessive allele
* Punnett square: Diagram showing possible combinations of alleles during fertilisation
* pedigree chart: Chart showing all the know visible characteristics for an organism and its ancestors
# NCEA Level 1 Science/Contents/DC Electricity

Template:NCEA Level 1 Science

# DC Electricity

About the Achievement Standard
Template:NCEA Level 1 Science/Physics/Achievement Objectives

## Introduction

Direct current electricity is the one way flow of electric charges. It can be produced by sources like batteries. The current may flow through a conductor such as a wire, semiconductors such as insulators, or even through a vacuum. The electric charge flow in a constant direction, distinguishing it from alternating current (AC).

## Contents

* Voltage
* Current
* Resistance
* Power in DC circuits
* Circuit diagrams
* Voltage and current behaviour in circuits
Template:NCEA Level 1 Science<noinclude>
# Online OsiriX Documentation/OsiriX Developer Overview

OsiriX is developed in collaboration by a core group of developers headed by Antoine Rosset. To allow collaborative development the current source code is stored on a remote server at the sourceforge site. Getting the code and merging changes is handled by the SVN version management system.
In order to build your own copy of OsiriX you must have Apple's developer tools (Xcode) v 3.1. For best results use the latest version of Xcode. Currently (July 2008) Xcode v 3.1 is only available as part of the iPhone SDK. It can be downloaded from http://developer.apple.com/iphone/program/. It is available for free though you will have to set up an account.
The next two sections describe how to get the source code and compile it once you have it.
# Online OsiriX Documentation/OsiriX File Menu

OsiriX
# Online OsiriX Documentation/OsiriX Routing Preferences

Online OsiriX Documentation Table of Contents > OsiriX Menu > OsiriX Routing Preferences
The goal of routing is to forward images received by OsiriX to other Dicom locations.
To set up routing:
* create an iCal calendar with the name you entered in the preferences.
* Next, add a route to a Calendar:
* Create a new Event in the specified calendar.
** The event location should be in the format:
For Example:
Permissible Transfer Syntaxes are:
* Explicit Little Endian
* JPEG 2000 Lossless
** JPEG 2000 Lossy 10:1
** JPEG 2000 Lossy 20:1
** JPEG 2000 Lossy 50:1
* JPEG Lossless
** JPEG High Quality (9)
** JPEG High Quality (8)
** JPEG High Quality (7)
# Online OsiriX Documentation/OsiriX Edit Menu

Online OsiriX Documentation Table of Contents > OsiriX Edit Menu
# Online OsiriX Documentation/OsiriX Format Menu

Online OsiriX Documentation Table of Contents > OsiriX Format Menu

## Customize Toolbar

This selection brings up the following window, which lets you rearrange the way your toolbar looks by dragging and dropping tool icons onto the toolbar.

## Font

This selection brings up the following window, which lets you choose different font characteristics.
# Online OsiriX Documentation/OsiriX Anonymous and Developer SVN access

In order to check out (fetch an initial copy) of the OsiriX source code, you need to have Subversion installed.

## Anonymous Access

Anonymous access is simple if you don't plan to submit any changes to the project. Open up Terminal. cd to a root directory to check out your code. Mine is /Users/spalte. Then type:
svn co https://osirix.svn.sourceforge.net/svnroot/osirix osirix
This will then chunder for a while and you will end up with a directory called osirix containing the source ie for my setup /Users/spalte/osirix. Now you are ready to build the project.
When the download is complete open the project in x-code, then select the unzip binaries target and build this and then build the development target.
# Online OsiriX Documentation/OsiriX General Preferences

Online OsiriX Documentation Table of Contents > OsiriX Menu > OsiriX General Preferences

### Automatically check for updates at startup time

Clicking this box causes OsiriX to check for a new version of itself automatically each time the program is run.

### Transition effect when changing series

When this box is clicked, OsiriX will add a zippy little transition effect when moving from one series to the next. Current choices are:
* Twirl
* Zoom
* Fade
* Random (any of the above, when you least expect them)

### Play a "pop" sound for each XA frame

Retro sound effect reminiscent of the good (?) old Tagarno-like cine film projectors.

### Hide "Patient Name" in the Database Window

This option is useful for maintaining patient confidentiality when doing presentations.
# Online OsiriX Documentation/OsiriX Help Menu

Online OsiriX Documentation Table of Contents > OsiriX Help Menu

## OsiriX Email

This selection will fire up your default e-mail program and compose an empty message to the OsiriX development team, as shown in the image below:

## OsiriX Webpage

This selection will open your default web browser and take you to the OsiriX home page at:

## OsiriX Discussion Group

This selection will open your default web browser and take you to the OsiriX Discussion Group online at:

## OsiriX Help

This selection will open Preview and display a copy of the OsiriX Quick Manual.

## OsiriX Online Documentation

This selection will open your default browser and bring you here, to the OsiriX Online Documentation site at:
# Online OsiriX Documentation/Opening non-DICOM images and movies

OsiriX supports non-DICOM images and movies. That means you can handle any images or image sequences in OsiriX as if they were DICOM images. In other words, you can then rotate them, zoom in or out, and manipulate the window, level and color look-up table (CLUT).
Once you have imported these images into OsiriX, you can then export them to a file on your disk or to a PACS system in DICOM format. OsiriX will also let you export them in RAW, JPEG, TIFF or Quicktime format or even directly to your e-mail program.
OsiriX
# Online OsiriX Documentation/OsiriX Menu
## About OsiriX

This selection brings up a splash screen showing which version of Osirix you are currently using. It also includes a button linking back to the main OsiriX website.
Online OsiriX Documentation Table of Contents > OsiriX Menu

## Preferences

This selection currently has 8 separate subpanels:

### OsiriX Protocols Preferences
## Check for Updates

This selection will compare your current version of OsiriX against the latest version at OsiriX World Headquarters. If you have the most current version, you will see:
Otherwise, you will get a message telling you of a new version, with swell new features.

## Hide OsiriX (command-H)

This selection causes OsiriX to hide. It will continue to run, but will be hidden from sight on your screen.

## Hide Others

This selection causes other open applications to hide. They continue to run, but are hidden from sight on your screen.

## Quit OsiriX (command-Q)

This selection causes OsiriX to shut down.
OsiriX
# Principles of Economics/ISLM
## The Concept

The ISLM model is NOT a supply demand model. Instead, it is a model based on two models that are supply and demand models: The investment-savings model and the money demand(liquidity preference)-money supply model. The ISLM model seeks to present a method for determining multiple equilibria in goods market and money market. This method is frowned upon by certain economists.
The basic concept is that in an economy with N models that seek to obtain equilibria, once N - 1 of those models have attained equilibria, all of them are at equilibrium - which is effectively where the economy goes toward in reality. There are basically three markets in capitalist economies: goods, money, and investment. Finding the equilibrium for the last two put together will yield the equilibrium for all three.

## The Model

There are two curves, each representing either the IS or the LM set of equilibrium points (NOT set of quantity supplied/demanded). All points along the IS line represent combinations of supply and demand in the investment savings model that reach equilibria; all points along the LM line represent combinations of supply and demand in the money demand model that reach equilibria; the intersection of these two points on the ISLM model represent the point at which both models are at equilibrium. These curves are generally shown more simplistically as straight lines (IS sloping down, LM sloping up). The economy's output Y is the x axis; the interest rate r is the y axis.
If one ever goes below the IS curve, there is a particularly low interest rate considering the amount of money in circulation in the economy (reflected by Y), and firms do more investing (I) than there are savings to do this with (savings S). This forces the point upward, and we return to the IS curve. There is another solution: that low interest rate can be reached if the economy expands, resulting in more savings (which would drive down the interest rate).
If one ever goes below the LM curve, there is a particularly low interest rate considering the amount of money in circulation in the economy (reflected by Y), and the demand for money is greater than there is money available (similar concept to that with the IS curve). This forces the point upward, and we return to the LM curve. The money supply is determined by the Central Bank, and therefore does not depend on Y; however, the demand for money depends on the size of the economy Y. There is another solution: that low interest rate can be reached if the economy shrinks and thereby demands less money.

## Changes

An increase in savings in the economy shifts the IS curve downward. A decrease shifts it upward. Shifts in IS curves often result from fiscal policy.
An increase in the money supply shifts the LM curve downward. A decrease shifts it upward. Shifts in LM curves often result from monetary policy.
# Principles of Economics/Economies of Scale
## Adding capital

Growing firms add capital - often in the form of factories or machines - to increase their output. However, additional capital do not act the same as the original set of capital. At first, added capital may greatly increase productivity. However, additional units of capital become less cost-effective because of diminishing marginal returns, increasing costs, and loss of efficiency. Hence the latter short run supply curves begin to shift upward. In the graph, additional units of capital introduce new supply curves shifted rightward from the previous ones.

## Economies of scale

From these various short run supply curves we can construct a long run supply curve that shows the minimum costs (assuming flexible and optimal use of labor) as capital changes. The long run supply curve connects the minimums of the short run curves and is considerably more stretched. At the beginning, where the long run supply (cost) is decreasing, the firm (or industry) is experiencing increasing returns to scale because a unit of resources yields more returns. In the center point, the minimum of the long run, the firm (or industry) is experiencing constant returns to scale. After that point, the firm (or industry) is experiencing decreasing returns to scale for similar reasons. Different industries have a different apportionment of these three segments, with some (such as agriculture) having consistently large spans of constant returns to scale.

## Long run supply

Firms generally rush to be the first to reach the long run minimum, because this would give them a comparative advantage over other firms (lower average production costs). Firms rarely choose to go beyond this point because then their costs would begin to increase once again.
# Principles of Economics/Indifference
## Indifference and Preference

People are indifferent to what combination of goods they obtain if the goods give the same combined utility. However, as peoples' preferences differ, their individual indifference curves will differ as well, being weighted more in favor of certain goods. It is this preference that determines who will obtain the scarce goods available in the economy: whoever has the most preference will demand a good the most, even at higher prices, and will be more able to obtain it, whereas those who have only minimal preference will not obtain the good.

## Indifference curves

Assuming that both of these goods give marginally positive utility no matter how many of them there are, the indifference curves will appear as above. In actuality, there are an infinite number of such curves. Along each curve, one is indifferent to which combination gets one to that curve. Traversing across curves involves a change of utility obtained, much like traversing a contour map involves a change of altitude. For any one entity (individual, firm, society), indifference curves may not cross.

## Budget with indifference curves

With any budget curve, we can find a point at which the highest indifference curve is reached, meaning that the greatest possible utility is obtained. This position is located by the intersection of the two lines.

## PPF with indifference curves

Similarly, we can find the optimal point for a PPF. Here, a shift in PPF involves the optimal point changing to a position along a lower-utility indifference curve.
# Principles of Economics/Keynesian cross

The Keynesian cross model depicts national expenditure. Actual expenditure, Y*, is equal to planned expenditure, Y^E at the equilibrium, which is also where the economy will operate. There is a recursive operation, as a form of Y is on both sides of both equations. The Y* curve always starts at the origin and goes at a 45-degree diagonal; the Y^E curve always intercepts the Y axis and has a slope less than 1.
The Keynesian Cross shows the basic multiplier effect. Because the two lines are slanted, and are often at very acute angles with one another, a small shift upward or downward in the Y^E curve will yield a much more significant change in equilibrium along the x axis.
The equilibrium is at:
    ${\frac {a-T+I+G+X-M}{1-b}}$
# Principles of Economics/Elasticity

Elasticity refers to the degree, to which one value changes when another does. For example, how quantity supplied and demanded change with respect to price; how investment and savings change with respect to interest rate. The higher (lower) the elasticity, the higher (lower) the degree of change.
Let's use these notations for the following formulas.
* $P$ is price
* $Q_{s}$ is quantity supplied
* $Q_{d}$ is quantity demanded
* $\Delta$ is 'change in'
Price elasticity of demand
    $=-{\frac {\%\Delta Q_{d}}{\%\Delta P}}$
Price elasticity of supply
    $={\frac {\%\Delta Q_{s}}{\%\Delta P}}$
The higher the absolute value of the elasticity, the higher the degree of change. We use absolute value of elasticity here because the price elasticity of demand is always negative by law of demand. Therefore, the degree of change is higher when the price elasticity of demand is more negative, but it means that it is low in numerical value. Thus, we take the absolute value, so that 'the higher the value of elasticity, the higher the degree of change' holds.
For example, if the price elasticity of demand is more negative, say it equals -5, then if price increases by 10%, the quantity demanded will decrease by 50%. On the other hand, if the elasticity is less negative, say it equals 0.1, then if price increases by 10%, the quantity demanded will only decrease by 1%.

## Cross elasticities

The elasticities mentioned above refer to one object (e.g. the price elasticity of demand refer to the price and quantity demanded of one object). Cross elasticities refer to the effects of something's price, interest, etc. on something else. This comes into play with substitute and complementary goods and services for the consumer. For example, one type of cross elasticity refers to the degree to which the quantity demanded of good A changes when price of good B changes.
# Principles of Economics/Interest Rates

The rate of interest is a return on savings set by the national bank, meaning that if an individual saves a sum of money in a bank, they will receive a rate of interest similar to that set by the central bank. Because of this, a change in the rate of interest will result several macroeconomic effects. A rise in interest rates will:
* reduce consumption and investment, and consequently AD. This is due to the fact that individuals and firms will be more inclined to save wages and profits than invest or spend them, as the return on saving per year is greater
* raise the cost of borrowing from banks, as the rate of interest on repayments is greater. This could further reduce spending and investment
* encourage foreign investment in domestic institutions and firms to increase, as a high rate of return on savings is attractive. High demand for the currency will raise its value (like any other product). This would lead to an increase in the price of exports and a fall in the price of imports, resulting in an increase in imports and fall in exports as they are less competitive globally. This would lead to a fall in AD ( X - M )
The major purpose of a rise in interest rates is to 'cool down' an economy that is overheating ie. to reduce inflationary pressure due to high aggregate demand and no complementary increase in long run aggregate supply.
The exact opposite applies to a fall in interest rates. A cut in interest rates is often used to aid economic recovery and boost consumer demand, make exports more competitive, and encourage capital investment by firms.