OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# A-level Chemistry/OCR (Salters)/Alkanes

ALKANES As already mentioned, alkanes are saturated open chain hydrocarbons containing carbon - carbon single bonds. Methane (CH4) is the first member of this family. Methane is a gas found in coal mines and marshy places. If you replace one hydrogen atom of methane by carbon and join the required number of hydrogens to satisfy the tetravalence of the other carbon atom, what do you get? You get C2H6. This hydrocarbon with molecular formula C2H6 is known as ethane. Thus you can consider C2H6 as derived from CH4 by replacing one hydrogen atom by -CH3 group. Go on constructing alkanes by doing this theoretical exercise i.e., replacing hydrogen atom by –CH3 group. The next molecules will be C3H8, C4H10 ... These hydrocarbons are inert under normal conditions as they do not react with acids, bases and other reagents. Hence, they were earlier known as paraffins (Latin : parum, little; affines, affinity). The general formula for alkanes is CnH2n+2, where n stands for number of carbon atoms and 2n+2 for number of hydrogen atoms in the molecule.In alkanes, tetrahedra are joined together in which C-C and C-H bond lengths are 154 pm and 112 pm respectively (Unit 12). You have already read that C–C and C–H σ bonds are formed by head-on overlapping of sp3 hybrid orbitals of carbon and 1s orbitals of hydrogen atoms.
# How to Convert Videos for the iPod

The iPod Video is a great device to use to view media files. However, the iPod Video does not accept mpeg, mpg, and avi file formats along with many others. It only accepts mp4 files. This guide will show you the steps to take to add videos to your iPod.

## Tools Needed

You need a variety of software to convert and transfer videos to your iPod:
* Download the latest version of iTunes from the iTunes site
* Download iPod Video Converter (it's free) from the video converter site
* A video file that isn't in the right format for the iPod. These could be files downloaded from the Internet or ripped from a DVD

## Conversion procedure

These are the steps you need to take to convert the video:
* It is strongly recommended that you make a folder on your computer to store the videos in. You'll need one for input and one for output. Name the input folder My videos (input). This is where you will store unconverted videos. Name the other folder My videos (output). Make a folder in iTunes as well. I named mine Videos but you may choose whatever you like.
* Start Videora and click on set-up. Change the output folder to My videos (output) (or the name you used in step 1 if different)
* In Videora, click on the convert button on the left side of the screen. Then click on transcode new video. Navigate to My videos (input) (or the name you used in step 1 if different) and click on the file you want to convert. Change the title if want.
* Finally click on start. Depending on the file size conversion time can take between about five minutes and two hours.

## Transferring the video to iTunes

You're almost finished now. These are the steps to transfer your convert video to iTunes:
* Go to My videos (output) and find the file you converted
* Open iTunes and make sure you've made a folder to drag the file to
* Drag the converted video from the output folder to the video folder in iTunes
* Click on the video to see if it plays

## Transfer the video to your iPod

* Plug in your iPod to your computer and begin the transfer. Normally the video should automatically be transferred to the iPod. Click on iPod in the source menu. Go to videos and make sure that iPod updates from your video folder!
* Click on the eject button on the iPod in the source menu. Unplug your iPod from the computer.
* Scroll to videos on your iPod. Click on video playlists. Click on your video folder. You should see the converted file.
* Click on it and it should play. Congratulations!
# Learning anatomy

Learning anatomy is not completed. The learning anatomy crew is where you get to see all the authors. This is the fastest way to learn anatomy, even faster than kenhub plus you don't need to pay a single penny for any part of the book! Interested in the brain? Then check out the human brain book.
Versions of learning anatomy
There is a Table version of learning anatomy.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

## Table of contents
### Gastrointestinal anatomy

* Esophagus
* Stomach
* Small bowel
* Large bowel
* Rectum and anus

### Hepato-Pancreato-Biliary anatomy

* Liver
* Biliary tract
* Pancreas exocrine
* Pancreas endocrine
* Spleen

### Cardiovascular anatomy

* Heart
* Artery
* Arteriole
* Capillary
* Vein
* Venule
Kidney
* Kidney
* Nephron
* Ureter

### Urination

* Bladder
* Urethra

### Musculoskeletal anatomy

* Muscle
* Bone

### Ear, Nose and Throat

* Ear
* Nose
* Mouth
* Throat

### Skin

* Epidermis
* Dermis
* Hypodermis

### Lung

* Lung
* Pulmonary alveolus
* Pleura
* Muscles of respiration
* Trachea, Bronchi, and Bronchioles

### Other

* Gut wall
* Immune
* Disorder and how to prevent it
If you finished the book go to the Test area to check your knowledge.

## External links

* Kenhub
* Inner Body
# Paper Mario/Twink

Twink is a Star Kid (a star shaped child) which deliver messages to the Star Spirits. He is also a major character in Paper Mario.
Twink first appears at the end of the prologue where he attempts to help Princess Peach, unfortunately he is not strong enough to help her escape. Twink is still helpful, acting as a messenger between Mario and the princess, delivering information on the location of Star Spirits and other useful information. Eventually when Bowser planned on imprisoning the princess on his newly built battlefield Twink attempts to stop him, unfortunately Bowser simply swats Twink out a nearby window.
Twink reappears near the end of the game, here the player takes direct control of Twink to battle Kammy Koopa. At first capable of only minimal damage, Twink gradually grows stronger with help from Princess Peach, whose wishes empower him. Defeating Kammy, Twink manages to distract Bowser long enough for the Star Spirits to give Mario the "Peach Beam", an attack that can counter Bowser's battlefield and the Star Rods power.
When Bowser is defeated Twink, for his bravery, is given the honor of becoming a full-fledged star.
Twink makes a small appearance in the victory parade at the end of the game, briefly seen on Mario and Peach's float.
# Algebra/Chapter 0/Exercises

This section provides a general feel for the Practice Problem sections found at the end of each chapter.

## Conceptual Questions

These problems are questions that ask about and/or apply the concepts from the chapter.

## Exercises

(★) These problems test your basic understanding of the material that was taught in the designated sections. One should go to this section when they are done with a section, and complete all of the exercises with this symbol. If you cannot do this, it is advised to read the section again. (★★) These problems require a more in-depth understanding of the material to solve, applying them as needed. (★★★) These problems are generally more difficult than the others in this book, and really test your mastery of the chapter's concepts. (*) Problems with an asterisk next to their number require you to do a proof.
# A-level Critical Thinking
## Table of Contents

* Credibility of evidence
* Sources and types of evidence
* Making a reasoned judgement
* Unit II
* Types of reasoning
* Deductive and Inductive reasoning
* Flaws in Arguments
# Chrono Cross
## Contents

* Characters and Techs
* Combos
* Attacks
# Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Nc3/2...Nf6/3. Bc4/3...Nxe4/4. Qh5
## Vienna Game, Falkbeer Defence

Black is threatened with Qxf7#. They have nine legal moves that prevent this - surely one of them must allow them to avoid ruin?
    4...Qe7 and 4...Qf6 allow Nxe4 winning a piece, as without the queen to defend d5 the fork trick has had its prongs bent.
    4...Qg5 allows 5. Bxf7+ Kd8 6. Nxe4 Qxg2 7. Qxe5 winning a knight and a pawn.
    4...Qh4 allows 5. Bxf7+ Kd8 6. Qxh4+ winning a pawn and a queen.
    4...g6 allows Qxe5+ picking up the knight or the rook.
    4...Ke7 allows Qxe5# picking up the game.
    4...d5 gives the pawn back for nothing as after 5. Bxd5 the threat is renewed.
    4...Ng5 is met by 5. d4 forcing the knight to e6. Even if knight and king both survive the subsequent complications, White can regain the pawn and enjoy a whopping lead in development.
So by a process of elimination, it has to be
    4...Nd6
Which has the enormous attraction of attacking the undefended c4 bishop.

## Theory table

For explanation of theory tables, see theory table and for notation, see algebraic notation. .
1. e4 e5 2. Nc3 Nf6 3. Bc4 Nxe4 4. Qh5
| 4 |
| ... Nd6 | = |
When contributing to this Wikibook, please follow the Conventions for organization.
# Louisiana French/Time

Telling time is important in any language. This chapter will focus on the days of the week, the months in a year, and expressions involving time.

## Basic Vocabulary

Vocabulary :
| French | English |
| Aujourd'hui | today |
| Hier | Yesterday |
| Demain | Tomorrow |
| Le matin | Morning |
| Le midi | Noon |
| La nuit | Night |
| Le soir | Evening |
| L'après-midi | Afternoon |
| La semaine | Week |
| Le mois | Month |
| L'année (feminine) | Year |
| Asteur | Now (right now) |
| Un élan | A while |
| T'à l'heure | A while ago |

## Days in the Week

Les Jours de la Semaine :
| French | English |
| dimanche | Sunday |
| lundi | Monday |
| mardi | Tuesday |
| mercredi | Wednesday |
| jeudi | Thursday |
| vendredi | Friday |
| samedi | Saturday |
Note that the days of the week are not capitalized in French. Also, all days are masculine (le, un). Sometimes expressions involving the days are translated similarly as in English.
Expressions Involving the Days of the Week (Like English) :
| French | English |
| tout la journée mardi | all day Tuesday |
| tous les dimanche | all Sunday / every Sunday |
However, some are not as easily translated.
Expressions Involving the Days of the Week (Unlike English) :
| French | English |
| lundi passé | last Monday |
| mardi en huit | next Tuesday |
| vendredi en quinze | two weeks from Friday |
| De bonne heure samedi matin | early Saturday morning |
When saying an event occurs or has occurred on a certain, be sure to put le in front of it.
Event Occurring on a Day :
| French | English |
| Le lundi, j'aime aller à la pêche. | On Mondays, I like to go fishing. |
| Le dimanche, on va à l'église. | On Sundays, we go to church. |
| Le mardi, j'ai vendu mon char. | On Tuesday, I sold my car. |

## Months in a year

Les mois de l'année :
| French | English |
| janvier | January |
| février | February |
| mars | March |
| avril | April |
| mai | May |
| juin | June |
| juillet | July |
| août | August |
| septembre | September |
| octobre | October |
| novembre | November |
| décembre | December |
Also, note that the months of the year are masculine.

## Seasons

Les saisons de l'année :
| French | English |
| Le printemps | Spring |
| L'été | Summer |
| L'automne | Autumn/Fall |
| L'hiver | Winter |
Again, note that the seasons are masculine. When we talk about events occurring during a month, it is a little different than days of the week.
Event Occurring on a Day :
| French | English |
| En été, l'équipe pratique beaucoup. | During Summer, the team practices a lot. |
| Au printemps, ma mère passe du temps dans le jardin. | In the spring, my mother spends her time in the garden. |
| En hiver, on aime voyager. | In winter, we like to travel. |
| En automne, les enfants commence l'école. | In Fall, the children start school. |
See that spring (printemps) is different from the rest of the seasons. It will use au instead of en.
* Louisiana French
* 01 .
* 02 .
* 03 .
* 04 .
* 05 .
* 06 .
* 07
# Introduction to Physical Science/Chapter 1 Introduction

Science is not about facts and figures. It's a knowledge that can be tested and proven. Science is a study of knowledge to study natural laws.
We are surrounded with science in all aspects of life. In plants, photosynthesis is occurring, metabolism is also happening in their cell, respiration is also occurring and many more. We humans are also living and walking example of science. We are also made up of cells and cells are made up of atoms. Sun, Sun is a big celestial body made up of hydrogen and other gases and in sun's core nuclear fusion is occurring which convert hydrogen into helium and due to this earth receives light and due to this light plant carry out photosynthesis and we use the product to photosynthesis to carry out our daily requirements.
We are living the life of biology made up of chemistry and working by the principles of physics.
Science can be fundamentally divided into three different subjects which are physics, chemistry and biology and other scientific field are derivatives of these three fundamental subjects
# Practical Electronics/Switches
## Switch

Switches is a mechanical tool used in electronics to open or close a circuit. Many of switches requires mechanical forces to operates them. There are 3 types of switches that is
    (i) Push Switch
    (ii) Toggle Switch
    (iii) Slide Switch
* Push switch
* Toggle Switch
* Slide Switch

## Switch Operation

A switch that is switched 'on' / 'closed' allows current to passed thru meanwhile a switch that is switched 'off' / 'opened' stops current from passing thru it.
    Opened Switch, I ≠ 0 . Circuit is closed
    Closed Switch, I = 0 . Circuit is opened

## Types of Switch

There are 4 main types of switches that are shown in table below: As you noticed, there are 2 re-occurring terms namely: Pole and Throw.
A Pole simply means how many circuits the switch controls. Single Pole controls one circuit with one switch, Double Pole controls two separate circuits with one switch.
A Throw simply refers to how many ON positions the switch has. Single Throw have one ON position, Double Throw have two ON position
| Switches | Operation |
| Single Pole Single Throw | Functions like typical ON/OFF switch |
| Single Pole Double Throw | Switch can only switch ON any circuits at the single moment only |
| Double Pole Single Throw | Switch can control 2 separate circuit on the single moment |
| Double Pole Double Throw | Switch can control 4 separate circuits on the single moment (with double operational modes) |
# C++ Language/Indirection/SmartPointers/SmartCompilerTemporary

C++ creates a compiler-temporary for the new CRComplex(11,22) portion of std::unique_ptr<CRComplex> piVar(new CRComplex(11,22));. To guard against memory leaks from exceptions occurring before that compiler-temporary is given to the smart pointer, use std::make_unique<CRComplex>(11,22) in place of new CRComplex(11,22) (a std::make_unique<> compiler-temporary is already a smart pointer as soon as it exists).
Additional information about smart compiler-temporaries (includes interactive examples)
# Radiation Oncology/Bladder/Superficial

* Front Page: Radiation Oncology | RTOG Trials | Randomized Trials
Superficial Bladder Cancer (Ta, Tis, T1)

## Treatment Overview

* 80% of bladder cancers are superficial
* 50-70% of these patients will have a recurrence after their initial treatment, though this depends on grade:
** Low grade (Ta, T1G1-2): 50% recurrence rate, and 5% rate of T2+ progression
** High grade (T1G3): 70% recurrence rate, and 30% rate of T2+ progression
** <5% will develop metastatic disease without first developing T2+ progression
* High risk of progression:
** Multifocal Tis or Tis associated with Ta or T1
** Multiple tumors
** Grade 3
** Positive urine cytology
** Dysplasia in multiple random biopsies
** Rapid recurrence following TURBT
* Majority of tumors occurring at separate sites or recurrences are from the same clone
* Goal of treatment is to 1) prevent recurrence and 2) prevent progression to muscle-invasive disease
* Patients who progress to T2+ disease have equally poor outcomes as those who present with T2+ disease
** Thus, for superficial cancers at high risk of progression, ~30% will progress and half of these (~15%) will die of their disease
* Adjuvant intravesical therapy may be helpful in the short term (2 years), though recurrence rate in the long term (5 years) comparable to no treatment
Treatment algorithm (from NCCN guidelines, v1.2005) Perform TURBT:
* Tis: BCG
* cTa, G1-2: may observe or consider single dose intravesical chemotherapy (not BCG)
* cTa, G3 or cT1, G1-2: observe or intravesical BCG or mitomycin
* cT1, G3: BCG or consider cystectomy. Re-resect if not completely resected.
Follow-up after treatment:
* Cystoscopy + urine cytology every 3 months x 2 yrs, then q6m x 2 yrs, then annually
Treatment of recurrence: intravesical BCG (Bacillus Calmette-Guerin) or intravesical chemo

## Role of Radiation

* At present, there is no benefit for adjuvant RT after TURBT
* MRC T1 Bladder (1991-2003) -- observation/intravesical therapy vs EBRT after TURBT
** Randomized, 2 strata. 210 patients with pT1G3 TCC after TURBT. Goal: prevention of progression to T2 and subsequent disease fatality
*** Unifocal disease and no Tis: Arm 1) observation vs. Arm 2) RT 60/30 to bladder only
*** Multifocal disease and/or Tis: Arm 1) intravesical therapy (MMC or BCG) vs. Arm 2) RT 60/30 to bladder only
** 2007 PMID 17631326 -- "A randomized trial of radical radiotherapy for the management of pT1G3 NXM0 transitional cell carcinoma of the bladder." (Harland SJ, J Urol. 2007 Sep;178(3 Pt 1):807-13; discussion 813. Epub 2007 Jul 16.)
*** Outcome: Progressive disease 32%. 5-year PFS control 52% vs RT 41% (NS). Cancer-related death 16%. No difference in OS, or cystectomy rate (~15%)
*** Conclusion: No evidence that adjuvant RT is better than more conservative treatment; prognosis poor regardless
# Snakes of Europe/Species/Platyceps najadum

Platyceps najadum, known commonly as Dahl's whip snake, is a species of snake in the genus Platyceps of the Colubridae family. It was first described by Eichwald in 1831.

## Geographic range

Platyceps najadum is found in the Balkans, Aegean, Cyprus, the Mid-East and as far as Turkmenistan and the Caucasus mountains.

## Description

Stated as occurring in dry and xeric environments in a wide range of habitat, in desert and rocky land, in forests, woodland scrub and agricultural land from sea level to 2000m altitude. Commonly found in fields, and seen crushed on roads. It has a slim body rarely over a metre in length http://wildlife-archipelago.gr/wordpress/reptiles/dahls-whip-snake/. This snake is threatened by direct persecution, forest fires and intensive agriculture, where range interacts with human interests. Non-venomous.

## Biology

Egg laying, females lay between 3 and 16 eggs in a clutch

## List of subspecies

Five or six subspecies are identified.
* Platyceps najadum albitemporalis (Darevsky & Orlov, 1994)
* Platyceps najadum atayevi (Tuniyev & Shammakov, 1993), Kopet-Dag, Iran/Turkmenistan.
* Platyceps najadum dahlii (Fitzinger, 1826), Balkans, Cyprus, Aegean Turkey,
* Platyceps najadum kalymnensis (Schneider, 1979), endemic to Kalymnos island, the Aegean
* Platyceps najadum najadum (Eichwald, 1831), Caucuses and Asia Minor
* Platyceps najadum schmidtleri (Schätti & Mccarthy, 2001, Zagros mountains, Iran

## Indigenous names

(gr) Σαϊτα, Saita

## References

* ↑ http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/157277/0
* ↑ https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platyceps_najadum
* ↑ http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/157277/0
* ↑ http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/157277/0
* ↑ http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/157277/0
* ↑ http://reptile-database.reptarium.cz/species?genus=Platyceps&species=najadum&search_param=%28%28search%3D%27Platyceps+najadum%27%29%29
# Semiconductors/Diodes from an Engineering Perspective

A P-N junction is useful in electrical engineering as a Diode. Diodes have various purposes, including: - Preventing current from flowing in one direction but not the other - Regulating voltage (when used in reverse bias) - Voltage-dependent capacitors (when used in reverse bias)

## Diode construction and properties

As noted in the previous chapter, diodes are constructed at the physical interface of a P-doped semiconductor and an N-doped semiconductor. When these two regions meet, holes and electrons diffuse across the junction due to the differing concentration at the junction:
* Holes and electrons drift across the junction between the P and N doped semiconductors.
This diffusion does not continue indefinitely. Instead, as the electrons diffuse to the P-side and the holes diffuse in the N-side, a charge imbalance arises, creating a voltage which eventually prevents any further diffusion from occurring. The voltage is an inherent property of the diode and depends on the amount that the P-side is doped relative to the N-side. From this arises what is known as the Built-in potential, $V_{bi}$.

### Biasing diodes

- When a diode is subject to an external electric field, it is said to be biased. - If the field is in the opposite direction to the built-in voltage, it will counteract the diffusion, making the depletion region thinner. This is known as forward biasing.
- However, if the field is in the same direction as the built-in voltage, it will encourage the diffusion, making the depletion region thicker. This is known as reverse biasing.

## Circuit models of diodes

When analysing diodes, a number of models can be used, including:

### Ideal diode model

In the ideal diode model, there are two states: on and off. In the on-state, the diode acts as a short circuit, allowing any amount of current to flow through and forcing the potential between its ends to be 0. In the off-state, the diode acts as an open circuit, so that no current can flow through the diode.

### Voltage drop model

In the voltage drop model, there are similarly two states: on and off. The off state is the same as above; the circuit prevents any current from flowing. In the on-state however, the diode acts as a voltage source that maintains a constant voltage between its two terminals equal to its built-in voltage.

### Empirical model

In the empirical model, we treat the diode as a circuit component governed by $I = I_s (e^{\frac{V_f}{V_T}}-1)$, giving us an exponential curve. This model typically requires numerical iteration to evaluate.

### VRC model

In the VRC model, we model the diode as a voltage source, capacitor and resistor. This is typically used when the diode is being used in reverse-bias.

## Voltage regulator

Todo

## Voltage dependent capacitors

Todo