OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Punjabi/Gurmukhi/Palatals
## Third row of Gurmukhi - the Palatals

Let us recall that besides vowels and diacritics you have already learnt the first ten letters of Gurmukhi viz. ੳ, ਅ, ੲ, ਸ, ਹ, ਕ, ਖ, ਗ, ਘ and ਙ. We now move on to the third row (ਚ ਵਰਗ). These letters are called palatals for they are articulated with the body of the tongue raised against the hard palate, the middle part of the roof of the mouth. The palatals are
    ਚ ਛ ਜ ਝ ਞ
These are called ਚ - chucha, ਛ - chhuchha, ਜ - jujja, ਝ - jhujja and ਞ -neya. Their pronunciation is ਚ -/ch/, ਛ - /chh/, ਜ - /j/, ਝ - /jh/ and ਞ - /ny/. We now briefly explain each of these

### ਚ Chucha

    The eleventh letter of Gurmukhi is equivalent to /ch/ of English. Now, how do you write catch in Gurmukhi? I write it for you below
       ਕੈ + ਚ = ਕੈਚ = catch
    This example illustrates the use of ਚ as well as ਕ which you learnt in the last chapter. Here are some more examples illustrating the use of ਚ.
       ਚੈੱ + ਕ = ਚੈੱਕ = cheque
       ਸੱ + ਚ = ਸੱਚ = such

### ਛ Chhuchha

    There is no English equivalent of ਛ, the twelfth letter of Gurmukhi. It is the aspirated form of ਚ and is articulated the same way as ਚ with much breath being ejected from the mouth. Examine the following Punjabi example
       ਛਾਂ /chhan/ = shade

### ਜ Jujja

    The thirteenth letter of Gurmukhi is equivalent to English /j/. Writing judge in Gurmukhi will illustrate its use.
       ਜੱ + ਜ = ਜੱਜ = judge
    Here are some more illustrations
       ਜੱ + ਗ = ਜੱਗ = jug
       ਜੈ + ਕ = ਜੈਕ = jack

### ਝ Jhujja

    The fourteenth letter of Gurmukhi is not spoken in English. ਝ sound is produced by combining ਚ sound with a tone in the initial position and a tone with ਜ sound elsewhere. Its use in Punjabi is not infrequent.
       ਝੱ + ਟ = ਝੱਟ /jhatt/ = instantly
       ਝੁ + ਗੀ = ਝੁਗੀ /jhuggii/ = cottage
       ਝੰ + ਡਾ = ਝੰਡਾ /jhandhaa/ = flag

### ਞ Neya

    The twentieth letter of Gurmukhi is also not spoken in English. It is equivalent to the sound made by the letter Ñ in Spanish (like in the word jalapeño). It is not commonly used in modern Punjabi.
       ਜੰ + ਞ = ਜੰਞ = marriage party

### Exercises

1. Use Practice module to write the letters of the third row many times in your note book. You can click one of the letters below to go to relevant page of the practice module.
    ਚ ਛ ਜ ਝ ਞ
2. Read these English words written in Gurmukhi
* ਚਾਕ
* ਐੱਜ
* ਹੈਚ
* ਚੈੱਸ
* ਸਕੈੱਚ
* ਜੌਗ
* Chalk
* Edge
* Hatch
* Chess
* Sketch
* Jog
3. Write the above listed words in Gurmukhi and English side by side.
4. Write these English words in Gurmukhi
* Jaw
* Jockey
* Inch
* Eschew
* Chick
* Each
* Junk
* ਜਾ
* ਜੌ + ਕਿ = ਜੌਕਿ
* ਇੰ + ਚ = ਇੰਚ
* ਇ + ਸ + ਚੂ = ਇਸਚੂ
* ਚਿ + ਕ = ਚਿਕ
* ਈ + ਚ = ਈਚ
* ਜੰ + ਕ = ਜੰਕ

### Summary

In this chapter we have learnt the alphabets of the third row (ਚ ਵਰਗ) of Gurmukhi. The letters are ਚ called chucha, ਛ called chhuchha, ਜ called jujja, ਝ called jhujja and ਞ called neya. In the next lesson we will learn the alphabets of the fourth row.
# Punjabi/Gurmukhi/Practice

Practice writing ੳ by following its animation or click below to practice writing a different letter.
# Punjabi/Gurmukhi/Practice/ਅ

Practice writing ਅ by following its animation or click below to practice writing a different letter.
# Punjabi/Gurmukhi/Practice/ਖ

Practice writing ਖ by following its animation or click below to practice writing a different letter.
# Punjabi/Gurmukhi/Practice/ਗ

Practice writing ਗ by following its animation or click below to practice writing a different letter.
# Punjabi/Gurmukhi/Practice/ਘ

Practice writing ਘ by following its animation or click below to practice writing a different letter.
# Saylor.org's Ancient Civilizations of the World/Islamic Invasions and Expansion in Africa
## Introduction

From its beginning, Islam has been a central feature in Africa. Africa was the first continent into which Islam expanded, and it has become an integral part of many African cultures and histories. In fact, Islam is the largest religion in Africa, followed by Christianity. Africa harbors the highest percentage of Muslims (52.39%). A quarter of the world's Muslims live in Africa.

## History

The presence of Islam in Africa can be traced to the seventh century when the prophet Muhammad advised a number of his early disciples, who were facing persecution by the pre-Islamic inhabitants of the Mecca, to seek refuge across the Red Sea at the court of Axum in Zeila, under the rule of al-Najashi. In the Muslim tradition, this event is known as the first hijrah, or migration. These first Muslim migrants provided Islam with its first major triumph, and the coastline of Somalia became the first safe haven for Muslims and the first place Islam would be practiced outside of the Arabian Peninsula. Seven years after the death of Muhammad (in 639 CE), the Arabs advanced toward Africa and within two generations, Islam had expanded across North Africa and all of the Central Maghreb. In the following centuries, the consolidation of Muslim trading networks, connected by lineage, trade, and Sufi brotherhoods, had reached a crescendo in West Africa, enabling Muslims to wield tremendous political influence and power. During the reign of Umar II, the then governor of Africa, Ismail ibn Abdullah, was said to have won the Berbers to Islam by his just administration. Other early notable missionaries include Abdallah ibn Yasin, who started a movement which caused thousands of Berbers to accept Islam.
Similarly, in the Swahili coast, Islam made its way inland - spreading at the expense of traditional African religions. This expansion of Islam in Africa not only led to the formation of new communities in Africa, but it also reconfigured existing African communities and empires to be based on Islamic models. Indeed, in the middle of the eleventh century, the Kanem Empire, whose influence extended into Sudan, converted to Islam. At the same time but more toward West Africa, the reigning ruler of the Bornu Empire embraced Islam. As these kingdoms adopted Islam, its populace thereafter devotedly followed suit. In praising the Africans' zealousness to Islam, the fourteenth century explorer Ibn Battuta stated that mosques were so crowded on Fridays, that unless one went very early, it was impossible to find a place to sit.

## Attribution

"Islam in Africa" (Wikipedia) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam_in_Africa
# DESCRIPTION:

Compute a nonnegative remainder of A divided by B.
MOD is a function value.

# ARGUMENTS:

* a -- (Type: number money time)
* b -- Must be nonzero. (Type: number money time)

# (SPECIAL ATTRIBUTES)

* catch
# DESCRIPTION:

Finds the smallest value in a series
MINIMUM-OF is a native value.

# ARGUMENTS:

* series -- Series to search (Type: series)

# REFINEMENTS:

* /skip -- Treat the series as records of fixed size
** size -- (Type: integer)
* /case -- Perform case-sensitive comparisons
# Rebol Programming/mint

MINT is a tuple of value: 100.136.116
# DESCRIPTION:

Finds the largest value in a series
MAXIMUM-OF is a native value.

# ARGUMENTS:

* series -- Series to search (Type: series)

# REFINEMENTS:

* /skip -- Treat the series as records of fixed size
** size -- (Type: integer)
* /case -- Perform case-sensitive comparisons
# DESCRIPTION:

Returns the lesser of the two values.
MINIMUM is an action value.

# ARGUMENTS:

* value1 -- (Type: number pair char money date time tuple series)
* value2 -- (Type: number pair char money date time tuple series)
# DESCRIPTION:

Returns the greater of the two values.
MAX is an action value.

# ARGUMENTS:

* value1 -- (Type: number pair char money date time tuple series)
* value2 -- (Type: number pair char money date time tuple series)
# DESCRIPTION:

Returns the lesser of the two values.
MIN is an action value.

# ARGUMENTS:

* value1 -- (Type: number pair char money date time tuple series)
* value2 -- (Type: number pair char money date time tuple series)
# DESCRIPTION:

Wrapper for MOD that handles errors like REMAINDER. Negligible values (compared to A and B) are rounded to zero.
MODULO is a function value.

# ARGUMENTS:

* a -- (Type: number money time)
* b -- Absolute value will be used (Type: number money time)

# (SPECIAL ATTRIBUTES)

* catch
# DESCRIPTION:

Returns the greater of the two values.
MAXIMUM is an action value.

# ARGUMENTS:

* value1 -- (Type: number pair char money date time tuple series)
* value2 -- (Type: number pair char money date time tuple series)
# DESCRIPTION:

Returns the last modified date of a file or URL.
MODIFIED? is a function value.

# ARGUMENTS:

* target -- (Type: file url)

# (SPECIAL ATTRIBUTES)

* catch
# Radiation Oncology/Brachytherapy/General concepts

* Front Page: Radiation Oncology | RTOG Trials | Randomized Trials

## Manchester system

(also called Patterson-Parker)
* Dose and dose rate: 6000 R - 8000 R in 6-8 days (1000 R/d, 40 R/h)
* Dose specification criterion: Effective minimum dose is 10% above the minimum dose in treatment plane or volume
* Dose gradient: Dose in treatment volume or plane varies by no more than 10% from stated dose except for localized hot spots
* Linear activity: 0.66 and 0.33 mgRaEq/cm

## HDR Fractionation

* Amsterdam; 2002 PMID 11849810 -- "The optimal fraction size in high-dose-rate brachytherapy: dependency on tissue repair kinetics and low-dose rate." (Sminia P, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2002 Mar 1;52(3):844-9.)
** Evaluation of optimal fraction size in HDR brachytherapy; assume 20 Gy in either LDR or HDR, repair half-life 1-4 hours and 3x longer than tumor
** Optimal fractionation: 3 x 6.7 Gy or 4 x 5 Gy
For HDR vs LDR BED calculator, see:
* Radiation_Oncology/Cervix/Brachytherapy#Equivalent_doses

## Electronic brachytherapy

* ASTRO; 2010 PMID 20206016 -- "American Society for Therapeutic Radiology and Oncology (ASTRO) Emerging Technology Committee report on electronic brachytherapy." (Park CC, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2010 Mar 15;76(4):963-72.)

## GEC ESTRO Handbook

* Handbook link
# Radiation Oncology/Bone/PNET

* Front Page: Radiation Oncology | RTOG Trials | Randomized Trials
# Radiation Oncology/Bone

* Front Page: Radiation Oncology | RTOG Trials | Randomized Trials

## Bone tumors

* Staging
* Background
Types:
* Osteosarcoma
* Chondrosarcoma
* Ewing sarcoma
* Fibrosarcoma
* Chordoma
* Giant cell tumor of bone
* Osteoblastoma
* Primary Reticulum-Cell Sarcoma of Bone
* Epithelioid hemangioendothelioma
Other:
* Bone metastases
* Primary Bone Lymphoma
# Radiation Oncology/Breast

* Front Page: Radiation Oncology | RTOG Trials | Randomized Trials
Edit the breast table of contents bar
* Official Guidelines
* Staging
* Breast overview
* Breast cancer prevention
* Benign breast diseases
* DCIS
* LCIS
* Paget's Disease
* Phyllodes tumor
* Early stage
** Management of the breast
** Post mastectomy radiation
** Management of the regional lymphatics
** Radiation technique
** Partial breast irradiation
* Advanced stage
* Inflammatory
* Occult breast primary
* Breast cancer in pregnancy
* Breast cancer in men
* Hormonal therapy
* Chemotherapy
* Recurrence
* Metastatic Disease
* Toxicity of RT
* Level I Evidence
See also:
Clinical trial listing:
# Radiation Oncology/Bladder/Technique

* Front Page: Radiation Oncology | RTOG Trials | Randomized Trials
Bladder Cancer RT Technique

## Overview

Treat with an empty bladder
* Small pelvic fields - includes all bladder, all prostate, lymph nodes adjacent to bladder. Simulate with air contrast in bladder; contrast in rectum. 4 fields. Superior: mid-sacrum (S2-3). Inferior: bottom of obturator foramen. Lateral: PTV 1 cm lateral to bony pelvis. Anterior: PTV 1cm anterior to bladder. Posterior: PTV at least 1.5 cm posterior to bladder. Shield femoral heads.
* Whole bladder fields - PTV 0.5 cm margin around bladder + tumor
* Tumor boost - PTV = GTV + 0.5.

## Partial bladder irradiation

* Christie Hospital, UK (1993-99) -- whole bladder 52.5/20 vs partial bladder 57.5/20 or 55/16
** Randomized. 149 patients. T2-T3N0M0, unifocal TCC <= 7cm. Randomized to whole bladder conformal RT (52.5/20, 2.63 Gy/fx) or partial bladder RT (CTV + 1.5 cm) in 4 wks (57.5/20, 2.88 Gy/fx) or 3 wks (55 Gy/16, 3.44 Gy/fx). No chemo
** 2004 PMID 15093917 — "Radiotherapy for muscle-invasive carcinoma of the bladder: results of a randomized trial comparing conventional whole bladder with dose-escalated partial bladder radiotherapy." (Cowan RA, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2004 May 1;59(1):197-207.) Median F/U 5.8 years for living patients
*** Outcome: 5-year local control WBRT 58% vs PBRT4 59% vs PBRT3 34% (NS), overall 50%. 87% of recurrences within irradiated tumor volume. DM 17% vs 25% vs 22% (NS). 5-year OS 58% (NS)
*** Toxicity: Well tolerated. 85% of patients alive at 5 years preserved their bladder
*** Conclusion: Comparable outcome between whole bladder RT and partial bladder RT

## Accelerated irradiation

* Cooperative Urological Oncology Group, UK (1988-1998) -- AHFX 60.8/32 BID vs CF 64/32 QD
** Randomized. 229 patients with T2-T3 N0-N1 bladder cancer. Arm 1) AF split-course 60.8/32 BID (22.8/12 + 19/10 + 19/10) vs. Arm 2) Conventional CF 64/32. Primary endpoint local control
** 2005 PMID 15878099 -- "A randomised trial of accelerated radiotherapy for localised invasive bladder cancer." (Horwich A, Radiother Oncol. 2005 Apr;75(1):34-43. Epub 2004 Nov 25.)
*** Outcome: LR AF 32% vs. CF 29% (NS); 3-year OS 47% vs. 54% (NS); 5-year OS 40% vs. 37% (NS)
*** Toxicity: Acute AF 44% vs. CF 26% (SS); Late toxicity (if FFR 2 years): Grade 2+ AHFX 44% vs. conventional 38% (NS). 2 treatment-related deaths on AHFX arm
*** Conclusion: No benefit for AHFX over conventional fractionation, worse acute GI toxicity
# Radiation Oncology/Bone/Staging

* Front Page: Radiation Oncology | RTOG Trials | Randomized Trials
Bone sarcoma staging

## AJCC 7th Edition

* Although the AJCC staging is not commonly used in practice, it is technically used for osteosarcoma, chondrosarcoma, Ewing's sarcoma, angiosarcoma, fibrosarcoma, MFH, chordoma, adamantinoma, and other sarcomas. *Excludes lymphoma of bone and multiple myeloma
Primary Tumor:
* T1 - 8 cm or less in greatest dimension
* T2 - >8 cm
* T3 - discontinuous tumors in the primary bone site
Regional Lymph Nodes:
* N0 - no
* N1 - yes
Distant Metastases:
* M0 - no
* M1a - lung
* M1b - other distant sites
Stage Grouping:
* IA - T1 N0, Low grade
* IB - T2 N0, Low grade; or T3 N0, Low grade
* IIA - T1 N0, High grade
* IIB - T2 N0, High grade
* III - T3 N0, High grade
* IVA - M1a
* IVB - N1, M1b
Note: Ewing's sarcoma is classified as grade 4.
Change from AJCC 6th Edition:
* T3 N0 Low Grade moved to IB (was Stage III for low or high grade)

## AJCC Older Editions

AJCC 6th Edition (2002)
* No changes in TNM compared to 7th edition
* Difference in stage grouping:
Stage Grouping:
* IA - T1 N0, Low grade
* IB - T2 N0, Low grade
* IIA - T1 N0, High grade
* IIB - T2 N0, High grade
* III - T3 N0
* IVA - M1a
* IVB - N1, M1b

## Musculoskeletal Tumor Society (MSTS) Staging

* IA - low grade, intracompartmental
* IB - low grade, extracompartmental
* IIA - high grade, intracompartmental
* IIB - high grade, extracompartmental
* III - regional or distant metastases
# Radiation Oncology/Bone/Background

* Front Page: Radiation Oncology | RTOG Trials | Randomized Trials

## Epidemiology

Incidence: 8 per 1,000,000. 2440 cases in 2004.
Incidence: osteosarcoma (35%), chondrosarcoma (30%), Ewing's sarcoma (16%)

## Histology

| Histologic Origin | Proportion | Malignant Tumor |
| Hematopoietic | 41% | Myeloma |
| Chondrogenic | 21% | Chondrosarcoma |
| Osteogenic | 19% | Osteosarcoma |
| Unknown/bone marrow | 10% | Ewing's tumor Malignant giant cell tumor Adamantinoma |
| Fibrogenic | 4% | Fibrosarcoma |
| Notochordal | 3% | Chordoma |
| Vascular | 2% | Hemangioendothelioma Hemangiopericytoma |
Note: Adapted from Dahlin DC, Bone tumors: general aspects and data on 6,221 cases, 3rd ed. 1978

## Location

* EG-MODE
** Epiphysis: Giant cell
** Metaphysis: Osteosarcoma
** Diaphysis: Ewing's sarcoma
# Radiation Oncology/Brachytherapy

* Front Page: Radiation Oncology | RTOG Trials | Randomized Trials
Brachytherapy
* General concepts
* Commonly used radionuclides
See also:
* Cervical brachytherapy
* Endometrium
* Soft tissue sarcoma
* Prostate
* NSCLC
* Bile Duct
* Liver (brachytherapy or microspheres)
* Partial breast irradiation (MammoSite Brachytherapy)
# Information Technology and Ethics/Software Development of Biometrics

Ease of use has become the priority for many people launching a surge into the study and use of biometrics within everyday software. Biometrics are the use of patterns for authorization. They can be developed in everything from our phones to our smart fridges, allowing the user to easily unlock their possessions without even needing to lift a finger.

### What are Software Biometrics

Software biometrics allows for us to use different parts of our body as a form of identification. We can use our fingers, eyes, face and even voice patterns to login into our bank accounts, unlock our homes, make purchases, and control everything within our lives. Instead of using a password that is tied to some discrete numbers, software biometrics are far more preferred because they are independently tied to each individual and are harder to duplicate and fake. Software biometrics are also used within the cases of companies and governments since they allow for the user to be identified and kept on record. Police forces uses this software as a means of analyzing and comparing fingerprints and face shapes as a method of attempting to identify a culprit.

### Different Types of Biometrics in Software

* Voice Recognition – Software recognizing voice patterns and matching them to database for use in password, speaking to AI, and speech to text.
* Face Recognition – Software matching an inputted face to a database of faces for authentication.
* Fingerprint Scan – Scanning the print on a finger as means of verification.
* Retina Scan – Scanning the eye up close for identification.

### Ethical Usage of Biometrics in Software

Reaching the software development phase of biometrics means that the company has already decided on going forward with the plan, but an influence of ethical practice lies in the hands of the software engineer. Though development of biometrics in software, like fingerprint scanners may seem beneficial in the event of a crime and identifying a culprit, the ethical issues of privacy and data hording without our consent arise. With the case of email and passwords our digital identity used to be stored in the hands of the software engineer, now our physical identity is being handed over as well. As such, when developing biometric software, there is a need to make sure that the data handled is not being unethically used as means of selling, leasing, profiting, or exploiting a user.

### References

* Sutrop, & Laas-Mikko, K. (2012). Ethical Implications of Second-Generation Biometrics.

### External links

Ethical Implications of Second-Generation Biometrics
* ↑ Sutrop, & Laas-Mikko, K. (2012). Ethical Implications of Second-Generation Biometrics.
# Information Technology and Ethics/Software Quality
## Software Quality and Liability

The quality of software is important to users as well as businesses. Businesses use software as part of a business information system. Business information systems and safety-critical systems. Business information systems are a combination of hardware, software databases, networks, people and procedures. They collect and process information and disperse it into the proper departments. Since this software is essential to the business, if it fails the company may sue the manufacturer of the software.
In safety-critical systems, failure of this system may cause injury and/or death. In order to ensure the quality of such software IT professionals may have to test and reprogram systems many times over in order to work out the problems in the system. Safety-critical systems require more measures to identify and remove errors. To ensure the quality of the software, managers may appoint a project safety engineer. Project safety manager’s tasks may include system analysis, design, coding, fault analysis, testing, implementation, and change control. The software needs to be rechecked often; this means safety-critical systems take longer to complete. The cost of making quality software may lead many project managers to rush the product to completion in favor of revenue. This type of thinking may lead to product liability suits by consumers.
Product liability is not covered under federal law. Instead, it is covered by common law which is decided by state judges and the UCC (Uniform Commercial Code). In regards to software, Article 2 of the UCC states that if any defects cause injury or loss to purchasers, or users of the product, the victims may sue. There are several types of software liability claims:
* Strict Liability is when the defendant is held strictly liable for injuring another person regardless of intent or negligence.
* Negligence is the failure to do what a reasonable person would do, or doing something that a reasonable person would not do.
* Breach of Warranty occurs when manufactures fail to meet the terms of the warranty.
* Intentional Misrepresentation is when a seller or lessor misrepresents the quality of a product and/or conceals defects.
# Models and Theories in Human-Computer Interaction/The Diffusion of Innovation & Transmedia

In today’s day and age of high speed Internet and smart phone technology, society has grown accustomed to the ability to gain information at a moment’s notices.
In the concept of diffusion of technology, Rogers proposes that four main elements influence the spread of a new idea: the innovation itself, communication channels, time, and a social system. To illustrate this idea, lets consider the concept of transmedia learning. Transmedia learning is learning across media or through different connected media. An example is how children may watch a television show and then be able to relate to the same characters in other media such as books, ebooks and movies. Thus, they are associating across media.
According to the article, T is for Transmedia: Learning through Transmedia Play , by Becky Herr-Stephenson, Meryl Alper and Erin Reilly, “Within the context of a media saturated, hyper-connected, and rapidly changing world, the concept of “transmedia” has come into the spotlight among those creating and using media and technology for and with children”(pg. 1.)
In diffusion of technology, this concept of transmedia is supported. First, the innovation of the media is created, through communication and time, the media is spread through social systems. The kid’s television show, Sesame Street, uses this concept by introducing different types of media throughout the program. Sesame Street and it’s characters are then recognizable to children in other media such as books, games, and even apps.
Through this example and many more I choose to go with the concept of The Diffusion of Technology.