OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Chemical Sciences: A Manual for CSIR-UGC National Eligibility Test for Lectureship and JRF/Microturbulence

Microturbulence is a form of turbulence that varies over small distance scales. (Large-scale turbulence is called macroturbulence.)

## Stellar

Microturbulence is one of several mechanisms that can cause broadening of the absorption lines in the stellar spectrum. Stellar microturbulence varies with the effective temperature and the surface gravity.
The microturbulent velocity is deﬁned as the microscale non-thermal component of the gas velocity in the region of spectral line formation. Convection is the mechanism believed to be responsible for the observed turbulent velocity field, both in low mass stars and massive stars. When examined by a spectroscope, the velocity of the convective gas along the line of sight produces Doppler shifts in the absorption bands. It is the distribution of these velocities along the line of sight that produces the microturbulence broadening of the absorption lines in low mass stars that have convective envelopes. In massive stars convection can be present only in small regions below the surface; these sub-surface convection zones can excite turbulence at the stellar surface through the emission of acoustic and gravity waves. The strength of the microturbulence (symbolized by ξ, in units of km s$^{-1}$) can be determined by comparing the broadening of strong lines versus weak lines.

## Magnetic nuclear fusion

Microturbulence plays a critical role in energy transport during magnetic nuclear fusion experiments, such as the Tokamak.

## References

* ↑ De Jager, C. (1954). "High-energy Microturbulence in the Solar Photosphere". Nature. 173: 680–1. doi:10.1038/173680b0. Retrieved 2007-05-21.
* ↑ Montalban, J.; Nendwich, J.; Heiter, U.; Kupka, F.; Paunzen, E.; Smalley, B. (1999). "The Effect of the microturbulence parameter on the Color-Magnitude Diagram". Reports on Progress in Physics. 61: 77–115. doi:10.1088/0034-4885/61/2/001. Retrieved 2007-05-21.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
* ↑ Cantiello, M. et al. (2008). "On the origin of Microturbulence in hot stars" (PDF). {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
* ↑ Cantiello, M. et al. (2009); Langer, N.; Brott, I.; De Koter, A.; Shore, S. N.; Vink, J. S.; Voegler, A.; Lennon, D. J.; Yoon, S.-C. (2009). "Sub-surface convection zones in hot massive stars and their observable consequences". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 499: 279. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/200911643.
* ↑ Briley, Michael (July 13, 2006). "Stellar Properties from Spectral Lines: Introduction". University of Wisconsin. Retrieved 2007-05-21.
* ↑ Nevins, W.M. (August 21, 2006). "The Plasma Microturbulence Project". Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. Retrieved 2007-05-21.
# Chemical Sciences: A Manual for CSIR-UGC National Eligibility Test for Lectureship and JRF/Mass spectrometry imaging

Mass spectrometry imaging (also known as imaging mass spectrometry) is a technique used in mass spectrometry to visualize the spatial distribution of e.g. compounds, biomarker, metabolites, peptides or proteins by their molecular masses. Emerging technologies in the field of MSI are MALDI imaging and secondary ion mass spectrometry imaging (SIMS imaging).

## SIMS Imaging

Secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) is used to analyze solid surfaces and thin films by sputtering the surface with a focused primary ion beam and collecting and analyzing ejected secondary ions. SIMS imaging is performed in a manner similar to electron microscopy; the primary ion beam is rastered across the sample while secondary mass spectra are recorded.

## MALDI imaging

Matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization can be used as a mass spectrometry imaging technique for relatively large molecules. In this version of the technique the sample, typically a thin tissue section, is moved in two dimensions while the mass spectrum is recorded.

## DESI imaging

Other mass spectrometry ionization methods can also be used for MS imaging: for example desorption electrospray ionization.

## References

* ↑ Rohner T, Staab D, Stoeckli M (2005). "MALDI mass spectrometric imaging of biological tissue sections". Mechanisms of Ageing and Development. 126 (1): 177–185. doi:10.1016/j.mad.2004.09.032. PMID 15610777.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
* 1 2 McDonnell LA, Heeren RM (2007). "Imaging mass spectrometry". Mass spectrometry reviews. 26 (4): 606–43. doi:10.1002/mas.20124. PMID 17471576.
* ↑ Chaurand P, Norris JL, Cornett DS, Mobley JA, Caprioli RM (2006). "New developments in profiling and imaging of proteins from tissue sections by MALDI mass spectrometry". J. Proteome Res. 5 (11): 2889–900. doi:10.1021/pr060346u. PMID 17081040.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
* ↑ Ifa DR, Wiseman JM, Song Q, Cooks RG (2007). "Development of capabilities for imaging mass spectrometry under ambient conditions with desorption electrospray ionization (DESI)". International Journal of Mass Spectrometry. 259 (1–3): 8–15. doi:10.1016/j.ijms.2006.08.003.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
# Chemical Sciences: A Manual for CSIR-UGC National Eligibility Test for Lectureship and JRF/Molecular beacon

Molecular beacons are oligonucleotide hybridization probes that can report the presence of specific nucleic acids in homogenous solutions. The terms more often used is molecular beacon probes. Molecular beacons are hairpin shaped molecules with an internally quenched fluorophore whose fluorescence is restored when they bind to a target nucleic acid sequence. This is a novel nonradioactive method for detecting specific sequences of nucleic acids. They are useful in situations where it is either not possible or desirable to isolate the probe-target hybrids from an excess of the hybridization probes.

## Molecular Beacon Probes

A typical molecular beacon probe is 25 nucleotides long. The middle 15 nucleotides are complementary to the target DNA and do not base pair with one another, and the five nucleotides at each end are complementary to each other and not to the target DNA. A typical molecular Beacon Structure can be divided in 4 parts
Loop: This is the 18-30 base pair region of the molecular beacon which is complementary to the target sequence.
Stem: The beacon stem sequence lies on both the ends of the loop. It is typically 5-7 bp long at the sequences at both the ends are complementary to each other.
5' fluorophore: Towards the 3' end of the molecular beacon, is attached a dye that fluoresces in presence of a complementary target.
3' quencher (non fluorescent): The quencher dye is covalently attached to the 3' end of the molecular beacon and when the beacon is in closed loop shape, prevents the fluorophore from emitting light.
If the mRNA detected is complementary to the strand in the loop, then the mRNA goes into the loop causing the separation of the fluorophore and the quencher; therefore resulting in fluorescence.

## Software

Beacon Designer - Software to design or evaluate standard molecular beacons or molecular beacons for NASBA® assays.

## References

* Jon Palma's
* Gene Link
* Molecular Beacon
* Introduction to Molecular Beacons
# Chemical Sciences: A Manual for CSIR-UGC National Eligibility Test for Lectureship and JRF/McLafferty rearrangement

The McLafferty rearrangement is a reaction observed in mass spectrometry. It is sometimes found that a molecule containing a keto-group undergoes β-cleavage, with the gain of the γ-hydrogen atom. This rearrangement may take place by a radical or ionic mechanism.

## The reaction

A description of the reaction was first published by the American chemist Fred McLafferty in 1959.

## References

* ↑ F. W. McLafferty (1959). "Mass Spectrometric Analysis. Molecular Rearrangements". Anal. Chem. 31 (1): 82–87. doi:10.1021/ac60145a015.
* ↑ Gross ML (2004). "Focus in honor of Fred McLafferty, 2003 Distinguished Contribution awardee, for the discovery of the "McLafferty Rearrangement"". J. Am. Soc. Mass Spectrom. 15 (7): 951–5. doi:10.1016/j.jasms.2004.05.009. PMID 15234352.
* ↑ Nibbering NM (2004). "The McLafferty rearrangement: a personal recollection". J. Am. Soc. Mass Spectrom. 15 (7): 956–8. doi:10.1016/j.jasms.2004.04.025. PMID 15234353.

## Further reading

* International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry. "McLafferty rearrangement". Compendium of Chemical Terminology Internet edition.
# Sicilian, Alapin
### 3. e5

White’s move attacks the knight, and continues to push the centre. It forces Black to move their piece twice in the opening development, and removes the threat of Ng4 placement later in the opening.
The main line of 3...Nd5 is rather forced, as 3...Ng8? is quite passive whilst 3...Ne4?? 4.d3! traps the knight.
The other moves of Ng4 or Nh5 lead to immediate capture by the queen.

## Theory table

For explanation of theory tables, see theory table and for notation, see algebraic notation. .
    1.e4 c5 2.c3 Nf6 3.e5
| | 3 | 4 | 5 |
| Sicilian, Alapin | ... Nd5 | d4 | |
| | ... Ng8 | d4 | |
| | ... Ne4?? | f3 | +- |
When contributing to this Wikibook, please follow the Conventions for organization.
* Modern Chess Openings: MCO-14. 1999. Nick de Firmian, Walter Korn. ISBN 0-8129-3084-3.
* Kasparov, Garry, & Keene, Raymond 1989 Batsford chess openings 2. ISBN 0-8050-3409-9.
# Sicilian, Alapin
## 2...d5
## Theory table

For explanation of theory tables, see theory table and for notation, see algebraic notation. .
    1.e4 c5 2.c3 d5
| | 3 |
| Sicilian, Alapin | exd5 Qxd5 |
| | e5 Nc6 |
When contributing to this Wikibook, please follow the Conventions for organization.
* Nunn's Chess Openings. 1999. John Nunn (Editor), Graham Burgess, John Emms, Joe Gallagher. ISBN 1-8574-4221-0.
* Modern Chess Openings: MCO-14. 1999. Nick de Firmian, Walter Korn. ISBN 0-8129-3084-3.
* Kasparov, Garry, & Keene, Raymond 1989 Batsford chess openings 2. ISBN 0-8050-3409-9.
# Sicilian, Alapin
## 2...e6
## Theory table

For explanation of theory tables, see theory table and for notation, see algebraic notation. .
    1.e4 c5 2.c3 e6
| | 3 | 4 | 5 |
| Sicilian, Alapin | d4 d5 | exd5 exd5 | Nf3 Nc6 |
When contributing to this Wikibook, please follow the Conventions for organization.
* Nunn's Chess Openings. 1999. John Nunn (Editor), Graham Burgess, John Emms, Joe Gallagher. ISBN 1-8574-4221-0.
* Modern Chess Openings: MCO-14. 1999. Nick de Firmian, Walter Korn. ISBN 0-8129-3084-3.
* Kasparov, Garry, & Keene, Raymond 1989 Batsford chess openings 2. ISBN 0-8050-3409-9.
# Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...c5/2. c3/2...Nf6/3. e5/3...Nd5/4. d4
## 4.d4

This move gains central space and connects with the e-pawn. White has created a pawn chain in the center and is now threatening c4 followed by d5, when Black would really suffocate by his lack of central space. This pawn controls White's center.
# Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...c5/2. c3/2...Nf6/3. e5/3...Nd5
## 3...Nd5

This is obviously the only good move, as 3...Ne4?? 4.d3! forfeits the knight, whilst 3...Ng8? is way too passive and forfeits two tempi. White usually plays 4.d4 or 4.Nf3. If White played 4.Bc4, or 4.g3, Black is fine after e6 and eventually d6.

## Theory table

| 4 | 5 | 6 |
| d4 cxd4 | Nf3 e6 | |
| Nf3 | | |
* ↑ https://www.chess.com/lessons/view/1145
# Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...c5/2. c3/2...Nf6/3. e5/3...Ne4
## 3...Ne4?

This is a mistake because after 4.d3! white wins the knight.
# Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...c5/2. c3/2...Nf6/3. e5/3...Ng8
## 3...Ng8?

This retreat is just too cowardly and timid. Black has lost two tempi moving the knight to g8 from f6. After d4, White has a huge center and initiative. 3...Nd5 is much better, since the knight is well placed there. It is usually unwise to move a piece back to it's original square in the opening.
# Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...c5/2. c3/2...d5/3. exd5
## 3. exd5

The natural move; eliminating the tension in the center, while bringing Black's queen to a more vulnerable position.
Although White cannot immediately attack the Queen because of the pawn on c3, in some lines the Queen can be pinned to a captured pawn on d4 (eg. 4. d4 cxd4 5. Nf3), or become a target later down the line with moves such as c4. However, the Black Queen on d5 is often one of Black's biggest assets, as it assists in ideas such as Bg4 and is exceedingly hard to kick out before White castles.
3. exd5 is the most common move after 2. d5, followed by 2. d3 and 2. e5.

## Statistics

White win 28%, Draw 46%, Black win 26%. (Statistics taken from Lichess. Based off of 10,853 master games)
# Sicilian, Alapin

This move continues development for Black. It puts pressure on the e pawn, and aims to protect the d5 square. This variation is marginally preferred to the 2...d5 response, and is statistically a better win-rate for Black (as per ChessBase.com).

## White’s Responses

3.e5 immediately pressures the Black knight, and is by far the most popular response. It also continues White’s assault on the centre, and aims to reinforce with d4.
3.d3 and 3.d4 are playable, but more passive. d3 aims to protect the e pawn, while d4 simply continues with White’s original plan of controlling the d4 square - the goal of the Alapin opening.

## Theory table

For explanation of theory tables, see theory table and for notation, see algebraic notation. .
    1.e4 c5 2.c3 Nf6
| | 3 |
| Sicilian, Alapin | e5 Nd5 |
| | d3 Nc6 |
When contributing to this Wikibook, please follow the Conventions for organization.
* Nunn's Chess Openings. 1999. John Nunn (Editor), Graham Burgess, John Emms, Joe Gallagher. ISBN 1-8574-4221-0.
* Modern Chess Openings: MCO-14. 1999. Nick de Firmian, Walter Korn. ISBN 0-8129-3084-3.
* Kasparov, Garry, & Keene, Raymond 1989 Batsford chess openings 2. ISBN 0-8050-3409-9.
# Sicilian - Alapin Variation

White plays c3 with the aim of avoiding the classic Sicilian lines. As both the Closed Sicilian and Open Sicilian have been extensively studied, their use involves a lot of theory to become comfortable with them. This means low- and mid-rated players (up to Club level) would not be familiar with all the variations of the Sicilian lines, and are prone to traps and gambits.
The Alapin is known as an "anti-Sicilian" as it primarily stems Black’s initiative and helps White gain control of the d4 square.
Named after Semyon Alapin, the opening didn’t become popular until the latter 20th century. It was initially thought that the response 2 ...d5 was too strong a position for Black, but modern analysis has shown it to be more favourable for White.

## Black’s response

Since White’s intention with 2.c3 is to then later play d4, Black’s response aims to disrupt this central control.
2 ...d5 used to be the default response, and is still very playable for Black. After 3.exd5 then 3 ...Qxd5, giving Black fast central control and quicker development. Notably, White is unable to bring their knight to c3 as the square is occupied by the c pawn.
2 ...Nf6 has gained popularity. Although not as aggressive for Black, it allows for a more solid structure going into the midgame. The main line follows with 3. e5 Nd5 (3 ...Ne4 is a mistake, as it allows 4. d3, leading to capture of the knight).
2 ...d6 and 2 ...e6 are less common openings, but still playable.

## Theory table

For explanation of theory tables, see theory table and for notation, see algebraic notation. .
    1. e4 c5 2. c3
| 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
| c3 Nf6 | e5 Nd5 | d4 cxd4 | Nf3 Nc6 | = |
| ... d5 | exd5 Qxd5 | d4 Nf6 | Nf3 Bg4 | = |
| ... g6 | d4 cxd4 | cxd4 d5 | e5 Bg7 | = |
| ... e6 | d4 d5 | exd5 exd5 | Nf3 Nc6 | +/= |
When contributing to this Wikibook, please follow the Conventions for organization.

## References

* ↑ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pNILn33kAq8
* ↑ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGP0qWscORM
* Kasparov, Garry, & Keene, Raymond 1989 Batsford chess openings 2. ISBN 0-8050-3409-9.
* Nunn's Chess Openings. 1999. John Nunn (Editor), Graham Burgess, John Emms, Joe Gallagher. ISBN 1-8574-4221-0.
# Donkey Kong Country 2: Diddy's Kong Quest/Levels/Krow's Nest

This is a boss battle against the Krow.
The Krow will pick up an egg and drop it. Run under it as it bounces towards you, then pick it up and throw it back at the Krow. Repeat this once.
Next, the Krow will ram its next, causing the eggs to fall by themselves. One egg will stop, allowing you to grab it and throw it at the Krow as it flies around in circles.
Once the Krow is hit four times, it will fall down.
If you are able to jump on the Krow's nest itself, you will find two banana tokens.
# Donkey Kong Country 2: Diddy's Kong Quest/Levels/Pirate Panic

The first level of the game isn't too difficult, nor complex. It is a simple run from left to right.
Near the start of the level is a door to your left. This room contains a 1-up balloon and a letter saying that Donkey Kong was Kidnapped. The room also serves a secondary purpose for patient players that wish to farm bananas and banana tokens, which are regenerated when you exit the room.
As you continue right, you will encounter various features of the map, which only pose limited difficulty:
* The letter K is in plain sight, where you see two groups of two barrels.
* A banana token can be found above and to the right of the large A spelled in bananas. You need to throw your companion upward to reach it.
* The letter O is in plain sight, when the deck lowers.
* When you see a break in the deck, jump down to reach the find the token minigame. There is a banana token here as well, but the main token is found at the top right and is reached by just jumping along the barrels.
* The letter N is also in plain sight on the main deck, but you'll have grabbed it through the minigame entrance.
* You can find a rhino companion at the top of a stack of barrels. If you bring him to the end of the level, you can get a 1-up balloon.
* When you see a left arrow, use the rhino to break down the door by charging it (hold down the A button. In this minigame, eliminate all enemies from left to right - the fastest way to do it is to charge and jump to clean them out on one sweep.
* There is also a column of bananas to the right. Throw your companion upward to collect the DK Token.
* G is also visible.
# Donkey Kong Country 2: Diddy's Kong Quest/Supporting locations/Funky's Flights II

Funky's Flights II is the same thing as Funky Flights from Donkey Kong Country. The only difference is that you have to pay money most of the time. Funky's Flights II usually costs 2 Banana Bunch Coins, except for the first world, which is always provided free of charge. With Funky's Flights II, you can travel to any world that you have already been to without beating any bosses. This is very useful if you need some extra lives or something for a harder world.
# Donkey Kong Country 2: Diddy's Kong Quest/Supporting locations/Swanky's Bonus Bonanza
## Gangplank Galleon

There are three quizzes, which check your general knowledge of the game. The reward is extra lives.
Swankey's treasure (free, reward 1 life):
* Swankey
* Rat
* Gangplank Galleon (French: Galion de la Galère)
Pirate puzzle (1 token, reward 2 lives)
* Y button to run
* Pirate Panic (French: Panique à bord)
* Kaptain K Rool
Challenge of chimps (2 tokens, reward 3 lives)
* 4 windows in Kaptain's Krool's cabin
* Mainbrace Mayhem (French: Meli-nelo dan les mats)
* A pistol
# Donkey Kong Country 2: Diddy's Kong Quest/Levels/Topsail Trouble

With the snake, you can reach bananas above the start, as well as the letter K to the left. Jump up to the next platforms. then head right to jump up again. At the top of this mast, you can reach a bonus game to kill dragonflies, but you need to jump off the snake and throw your companion to reach this barrel.
The letter O also requires a snake jump.
Past the half-way barrel, you will start to climb ropes. On the second set of ropes, head to the right and climb down for the letter N.
The letter G is available at the end of the level, by timing your jump correctly.
# Donkey Kong Country 2: Diddy's Kong Quest/Supporting locations/Kong Kollege

Wrinkly Kong, Cranky Kong's wife, runs a small school named Kong Kollege, where you can save your game and get helpful information.

## Purposes
### Saving Your Game

Saving your game is one of the most critical actions in the game. Saving usually costs 2 Banana Coins, but sometimes if it's your first time saving, you can save for free!

### Information

You can get a lot of information from Wrinkly Kong at each save point. The information she usually has is about how to perform a certain move, what a certain item does, how to perform moves with an animal, or how to defeat the upcoming boss of the area you are in.
# Donkey Kong Country 2: Diddy's Kong Quest/Levels/Lockjaw's Locker

When entering this stage, you can collect bananas if you follow the left/right wave.
After landing, proceed to the right. In the second pool of water, you will find the letter K. Directly below the K is a secret tunnel that contains two banana tokens. It is slightly longer than taking the direct approach, but still helps. Once the chamber is flooded, you may backtrack for some additional bananas and tokens.
You can find a swordfish, and the letter O if you follow the ground. Once you turn up and head to the left, you will have to leave the swordfish behind, but can get a 1-up balloon if you bring him to the sign. Break the halfway barrel.
The letter N is directly above the half-way barrel. Proceed left, and if you head down, you can find a replacement swordfish.
After the second upward trip, you can find the letter G at the top-left corner.
At the top of the level, exercise caution when heading to the right. When the corridor narrows just before entering a large room, have the swordfish perform a thrust as far as possible. This will bring you to the DK coin.
# Donkey Kong Country 2: Diddy's Kong Quest/Levels/Mainbrace Mayhem

When you head right, you may see a right arrow pointing towards a net. The net contains bananas, but you require using a long jump to reach it (using Dixie Kong). Head across the net, and jump further to the right for a Bonus Barrel.
Jump up and to the right, and climb the first rope. You should see the letter K there. Head left, until you reach a rope ladder, where you see a banana token guarded by a climbing enemy. To hit this enemy, you need to jump off the side of the cargo net, and move to the left after the jump to land on top of him.
The letter O should be visible before you reach the halfway barrel.
Left of the halfway barrel is a series of eight rats, which are easily killed. If you did get injured, there is also a DK barrel to revive your companion.
Climb up the rope, and reach the top, where you see a horizontal rope. When you are at the mast, jump to be launched to a platform containing a 1-up balloon. Return and continue to the right, and look for the letter N on the far right of that level before continuing up.
When you see a cannonball, pick it up, and carry it to the left. Place it in the cannon to enter a minigame to defeat five rope climbers within a time limit for a Krool token.
# Donkey Kong Jungle Beat

This is a wikibook for the 2004 Nintendo GameCube video game, Donkey Kong Jungle Beat, as well as its New Play Control! re-release for the Wii.

## Appendices

* Controls
* Bosses
# King's Indian Attack
### 2...d5
## Theory table

For explanation of theory tables, see theory table and for notation, see algebraic notation. .
1. Nf3 Nf6 2. g3 d5
| | 3 |
| King's Indian Attack | Bg2 c6 |
When contributing to this Wikibook, please follow the Conventions for organization.

## See also

* King's Indian Defence

## References

* Kasparov, Garry, & Keene, Raymond 1989 Batsford chess openings 2. ISBN 0-8050-3409-9.
* Flank Openings (1990), Bruno Carlier, Trends Publications, No ISBN
* This Chess related article is a stub. Please assist Wikibooks by expanding it.