OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Programming Fundamentals/Fixed and Dynamic Arrays
## Overview

A fixed array is an array for which the size or length is determined when the array is created and/or allocated.
A dynamic array is a random access, a variable-size list data structure that allows elements to be added or removed. It is supplied with standard libraries in many modern programming languages. Dynamic arrays overcome a limit of static arrays, which have a fixed capacity that needs to be specified at allocation.

## Discussion

Static arrays have their size or length determined when the array is created and/or allocated. For this reason, they may also be referred to as fixed-length arrays or fixed arrays. Array values may be specified when the array is defined, or the array size may be defined without specifying array contents. Depending on the programming language, an uninitialized array may contain default values, or it may contain whatever values were left in memory from previous allocation.
| Language | Defined Values | Fixed-Length with Undefined or Default Values |
| C++ | int values = {0, 1, 2}; | int values[3]; |
| C# | int values = {0, 1, 2}; | int values = = new int[3]; |
| Java | int values = {0, 1, 2}; | int values = = new int[3]; |
| JavaScript | var values = [0, 1, 2]; | var values = new Array(3); |
| Python | values = [0, 1, 2] | values = [None] * 3 |
| Swift | var values:[Int] = [0, 1, 2] | var values: [Int] = [Int](repeating: 0, count: 3) |
Dynamic arrays allow elements to be added and removed at runtime. Most current programming languages include built-in or standard library functions for creating and managing dynamic arrays.
| Language | Class | Add | Remove |
| C++ | #include <list> std::list | insert | erase |
| C# | System.Collections.Generic.List | Add | Remove |
| Java | java.util.ArrayList | add | remove |
| JavaScript | Array | push, splice | pop, splice |
| Python | List | append | remove |
| Swift | Array | append | remove |

## Key Terms
### dynamic array

    A data structure consisting of a collection of elements that allows individual elements to be added or removed.

### fixed array

    A data structure consisting of a collection of elements for which the size or length is determined when the data structure is defined or allocated.

## References

* ↑ Wikipedia: Array data type
* ↑ Wikipedia: Dynamic array
# Programming Fundamentals/Constants and Variables
## Overview

A constant is a value that cannot be changed by the program during normal execution, in other words, the value is constant. When associated with an identifier, a constant is said to be “named,” although the terms “constant” and “named constant” are often used interchangeably. This is contrasted with a variable, which is an identifier with a value that can be changed during normal execution, in other words, the value is variable.

## Discussion
### Understanding Constants

A constant is a data item whose value cannot change during the program’s execution. Thus, as its name implies – the value is constant.
A variable is a data item whose value can change during the program’s execution. Thus, as its name implies – the value can vary.
Constants are used in two ways. They are:
* literal constant
* defined constant
A literal constant is a value you type into your program wherever it is needed. Examples include the constants used for initializing a variable and constants used in lines of code:
In addition to literal constants, most textbooks refer to symbolic constants or named constants as a constant represented by a name. Many programming languages use ALL CAPS to define named constants.
| Language | Example |
| C++ | #define PI 3.14159or const double PI = 3.14159; |
| C# | const double PI = 3.14159; |
| Java | const double PI = 3.14159; |
| JavaScript | const PI = 3.14159; |
| Python | PI = 3.14159 |
| Swift | let pi = 3.14159 |
Technically, Python does not support named constants, meaning that it is possible (but never good practice) to change the value of a constant later. There are workarounds for creating constants in Python, but they are beyond the scope of a first-semester textbook.

### Defining Constants and Variables

Named constants must be assigned a value when they are defined. Variables do not have to be assigned initial values. Variables once defined may be assigned a value within the instructions of the program.
| Language | Example |
| C++ | double value = 3; |
| C# | double value = 3; |
| Java | double value = 3; |
| JavaScript | var value = 3;let value = 3; |
| Python | value = 3 |
| Swift | var value:Int = 3 |

## Key Terms
### Constant

    A data item whose value cannot change during the program’s execution.

### Variable

    A data item whose value can change during the program’s execution.

## References

* cnx.org: Programming Fundamentals – A Modular Structured Approach using C++
# Renewable Energy/Thermal Energy
## Thermal Energy

Thermal energy is the internal energy of a body (solid/liquid/gas). It means something like potential energy. The thermal energy is directly proportional to the temperature of the body. It can be assumed that the thermal energy is directly proportional to the temperature of the body. During boiling and melting thermal energy increases without change in temperature.

## Thermal and Potential

To explain Thermal Energy we can take a simple example of the potential energy. Let us assume a ball is kept on first floor. So it has internal energy (because of this internal energy it can fall upto ground level). This internal energy is let us say = 1kcal. Then we take that ball to 5th floor and now it has internal energy = 5kcal. Now this increase in internal energy is due to storage of energy which was spent to take ball from floor 1 to 5. Also to recover this internal energy ball needs to fall upto ground floor.
Now in thermal energy parlance let's say some water is at temperature 15$^o$C it has energy equal to let's say 150Kcal. Now, if we heat it to 30$^o$C the thermal energy becomes 300Kcal. We can now extract this delta thermal energy of 150Kcal by cooling water to 15$^o$C. This essentially means that energy used to heat the water is only extracted.

## Advantages and Disadvantages

It is one of the easiest way to store the energy. However to retain this energy the storage needs to be tightly insulated from the surrounding since it will lose the stored energy because of cooling due to air.
If we are using this energy for heating purpose directly it is best suited. However due to Thermodynamic limitation it becomes impossible to convert total thermal energy into the usable mechanical / electric energy.
# Renewable Energy/Hydro Energy
## The crossflow turbine

The crossflow turbine was developed in 1903 by the Australian engineer A.G.M. Mitchell. From 1912 to 1919, Donat Banki in Hungary conducted a series of experiments on the crossflow turbine and developed a theory for its operation. The turbine was initially put into production by Ganz in Hungary.
The crossflow turbine is currently being used mainly in developing countries because of its simple design and manufacturing.
# Renewable Energy/Wind

Wind power has been harnessed by the human race for thousands of years. Traditionally, wind has been converted directly to mechanical power to, for example, mill grain in a windmill. Modern 'windmills' used for generating electricity are referred to as wind turbines due to their similarity to steam or gas turbines used to generate electricity.
# Renewable Energy/Tidal Energy

Tidal energy is extracted from the change in water levels due to tides in the ocean.
# Renewable Energy/Wave Energy
## Introduction

It is no secret that Ocean covers 71 percent of the Earth's surface. While it is not economically feasible to try and harness all the ocean wave energy due to varying amount of wave energy available to harness in different parts of the ocean and the distance it has to travel to be used on land, it is still a very attractive option to consider.

## Potential

Ocean waves is a renewable energy created by wind currents passing over open water. One of the advantages it has over wind energy is that while wind energy is unpredictable at times, wave energy at given location can be predicted several days in advance so electric providers know how much energy they are going to get from wave energy. The total annual average wave energy off the US coastlines at 60 meter below surface level is estimated at 2100 Terawatt-hours, which is about 20 percent of current energy demand. Even if only a fraction of that energy is recovered, it will still be significant. Because it does not take up any of our already limited land space, so tapping into this relatively untouched and infinite resources could be one of the solutions to our energy crisis with growing population.

## How it Works

Wave energy is harnessed by using the kinetic (moving motion) energy of the wave to move a piston or a turbine which is then translated back to potential energy that can be used as electricity.
In the simple example above, when the wave rises into a chamber, the water forces the air out of the chamber. This moving air spins a turbine which turns into energy to power the generator. As the wave goes down, air flows back into the chamber through the turbine.

## Challenges

Like many other renewable energy technology, the biggest problem wave energy faces is the cost. The fact that the technology is new makes it more expensive than traditional source of energy such as coal or oil and even other renewable energies such as nuclear or solar energy. But as the technology matures and the cost of production drops, it will develop into a competitive renewable source of energy.

## References

U.S. Department of the Interior. Technology White Paper on Wave Energy Potential on the U.S. Outer Continental Shelf. Web. <http://ocsenergy.anl.gov/documents/docs/OCS_EIS_WhitePaper_Wave.pdf>.
Ocean Energy." Energy Story. N.p., n.d. Web. 15 Nov 2011. <http://www.energyquest.ca.gov/story/chapter14.html>.
# Renewable Energy/Introduction
## Definition

The International Energy Agency's Renewable Energy Working Party defines renewable energy as follows.
   "Renewable energy is derived from natural processes that are replenished constantly. In its various forms, it derives directly from the sun, or from heat generated deep within the earth. Included in the definition is electricity and heat generated from solar, wind, ocean, hydropower, biomass, geothermal resources, and biofuels and hydrogen derived from renewable resources."
To further detail this definition it is possible to divide renewable energy sources into three categories:
* Direct solar energy
* Indirect solar energy
* Non-solar renewables
The majority of renewable energy sources derive that energy from solar radiation. Direct solar energy refers to solar thermal energy conversion and solar photovoltaics. Indirect solar energy includes wind power, wave power and biofuels.
Non-solar renewables are those that do not depend on solar radiation. There are two sources of non-solar renewable energy - tidal and geothermal.
It is very important to highlight the difference between a primary energy source and an energy storage medium.

## Importance of renewable energy

As fossil fuel resources have depleted and environmental concern has increased, renewable energy has become a very important engineering sector. It is undoubtable that in the future a large proportion of energy used by the human race will be derived from a diverse range of renewable sources.

## Renewable energy and sustainability

Renewable energy can be regarded as one of the fundamental premises for building a sustainable global society.
A truely sustainable energy source should accordingly not only be renewable, but also apply the principles of sustainability.
That is, to look at the energy production and use in light of endured maintainance of our biosphere, the biodiversity and the social stability of the human culture.

## References

* ↑ Renewable energy... into the mainstream p. 9.
# Renewable Energy/Ocean Thermal

Ocean absorbs lot of heat from the sun. This thermal energy is called ocean thermal energy. To extract this energy the hot ocean water is run through turbine to colder heat sink, where it needs to be cooled. The bottom layers of ocean are colder than the top layers. These bottom layers are used as the heat sink.
# DESCRIPTION:

(undocumented)
TO-DATATYPE is a function value.

# ARGUMENTS

* value -- (Type: any)
# DESCRIPTION:

(undocumented)
TO-DECIMAL is a function value.

# ARGUMENTS

* value -- (Type: any)
# DESCRIPTION:

(undocumented)
TO-ERROR is a function value.

# ARGUMENTS

* value -- (Type: any)
# DESCRIPTION:

(undocumented)
TO-FILE is a function value.

# ARGUMENTS

* value -- (Type: any)
# DESCRIPTION:

Converts to get-path! value.
TO-GET-PATH is a function value.

# ARGUMENTS

* value -- (Type: any)
# DESCRIPTION:

(undocumented)
TO-CHAR is a function value.

# ARGUMENTS

* value -- (Type: any)
# DESCRIPTION:

Converts to closure! value.
TO-CLOSURE is a function value.

# ARGUMENTS

* value -- (Type: block)
# DESCRIPTION:

(undocumented)
TO-DATE is a function value.

# ARGUMENTS

* value -- (Type: any)
# DESCRIPTION:

(undocumented)
TO-EMAIL is a function value.

# ARGUMENTS

* value -- (Type: any)
# DESCRIPTION:

Converts to function! value.
TO-FUNCTION is a function value.

# ARGUMENTS

* value -- (Type: block)
# Radiation Oncology/Vagina

* Front Page: Radiation Oncology | RTOG Trials | Randomized Trials
Vaginal Cancer
* Staging
* Official Guidelines
* Overview
* Treatment
# Radiation Oncology/Waldenstroms

* Front Page: Radiation Oncology | RTOG Trials | Randomized Trials
Waldenstrom's Macroglobulinemia
* B-cell proliferative disorder with bone marrow lymphoplasmacytic infiltration and production of monoclonal IgM; considered to be a low-grade lymphoma
* Symptoms are usually due to blood hyperviscosity, anemia, and hepatosplenomegaly
* Asymptomatic patients are typically observed
* Alkylating agents (chlorambucil), nucleoside analogues, and rituximab (eg CHOP-R) are reasonable first line approaches
* Symptomatic support as necessary
** For RT treatment of splenomegaly, please see the Spleen chapter
** Historically, hemibody and total body irradiation was used, but it has fallen out of favor with development of more modern chemotherapies
# Radiation Oncology/Uterus

* Front Page: Radiation Oncology | RTOG Trials | Randomized Trials
# Radiation Oncology/WBRT

* Front Page: Radiation Oncology | RTOG Trials | Randomized Trials
# Radiation Oncology/Vagina/Guidelines

Vaginal Cancer Guidelines
# Radiation Oncology/Vulva/Guidelines

Vulvar Cancer Guidelines
Contouring:
# Radiation Oncology/Vagina/Staging

* Front Page: Radiation Oncology | RTOG Trials | Randomized Trials
Vaginal Cancer Staging

## AJCC 7th Edition (2009)

Corresponds to FIGO staging: FIGO Staging (2000)
Primary Tumor:
* Tis - in situ
* T1 (FIGO I) - confined to vagina
* T2 (FIGO II) - invades paravaginal tissues but not to pelvic wall
* T3 (FIGO III) - extends to pelvic wall
* T4 (FIGO IVA) - invades mucosa of bladder or rectum or extends beyond the true pelvis
Regional Lymph Nodes:
* N0 - no
* N1 (FIGO III) - pelvic or inguinal lymph node metastasis
Distant Metastases:
* M0 - none
* M1 (FIGO IVB) - yes
Stage Grouping: (corresponds to FIGO Stage)
* I - T1 N0
* II - T2 N0
* III - T3 or N1
* IVA - T4
* IVB - M1

## Older staging editions

AJCC 6th Edition (2002)
    See also: 2002 AJCC Staging (6th edition)
No changes compared to 7th edition
# 1. A Silent Revolution

The digital era has ushered in a new paradigm where the flow of information, people, and money is intricately intertwined with technology. This chapter delves into the concept of the Public Digital Backbone, elucidating its significance in this interconnected world. By the end of this section, readers will have a clear understanding of what constitutes a Public Digital Backbone, its historical development, and its overarching goals in societal infrastructure.
# Reverse Engineering
## Contents

* Basic Security
* Common Solutions
* Cracking Windows XP Passwords
* File Formats
* Legal Aspects
* Mac OS X
* Other Compilers
* Stack Overflows
* Terminology
# Structural Biochemistry/Phenelzine
## Overview

Phenelzine is a nonselevitve and irreversible MAOI. MAOIs stands for monoamine oxidase inhibitors. They are antidepressant drugs that work by preventing the enzyme monoamine oxidase from metabolizing neurotransmitters. These neurotransmitters include serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine. Because these neurotransmitters are not metabolized, they remain in the brain and this helps elevate mood. It is also thought that the drug supports nerve cells within the brain from glutamate sensitivity. This prevents glutamate from stimulating areas of the brain that are responsible for depression and anxiety. There are two types of monoamine oxidase enzymes. There is MAO-A and MAO-B. These enzymes work by removing molecular segments from the neurotransmitters so that these neurotransmitters will become inactive and can be metabolized. Some of the side effects of the drug include tremors, arrhythmia, and seizures. The action of phenelzine binding to the enzyme permanently deactivates the enzyme and is irreversible. Also, the drug doesn't distinguish between MAO-A and MAO-B when it is inhibiting the enzyme.
File:MAOI.gif

## Drug Usage

Phenylzine is a drug used to treat depession. As mentioned above, this drugs belongs to MAOIs ( monoamine oxidase inhibitors). When using this drugs, it will increase the amount of some natural substances that are required by your body to maintain the mental balance.
This drug will not recover people depression condition, it just aids in taking control of the symptom. The average period for taking this drug can be range from 4 weeks or longer. While taking this drug, you cannot stop if your condition is getting better. You have to consult with your doctor so that he/she can decrease your regular doses. You will experience symptoms such as vomitting, nausea, nightmare and weakness if you stop taking it.

## Side Effects

As many other drugs, Phenylzine does have some side effects that should be noticed while taking this pill:
* Weakness
* Dry mouth
* Headache
* Constipation
* Shaking body parts
* Chestpain
* Constant pounding heart
* Nausea
* Night sweating
* Vomitting
* Gaining weight
* Soreness

## References

http://publications.nigms.nih.gov/medbydesign/medbydesign.pdf
http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/maois/MH00072
http://online.factsandcomparisons.com
https://online.epocrates.com
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0000573/
AHFS® Consumer Medication Information. © Copyright, 2011. The American Society of Health-System Pharmacists, Inc.
# Structural Biochemistry/Pharmacodynamics
## Pharmacodynamics

Pharmacodynamics is a subdivision of pharmacology that deals with the physiological effects of chemicals on the biological systems from viruses to bacteria to even multicellular systems within the body. This area also looks into the mechanisms of chemical action and the relationship between drug concentration and effect. An example of drug with receptor interactions can be modeled by
    $D+R\ \rightleftharpoons \ D\!\cdot \!R$
such that D is the chemical or drug, R is the receptor or binding site, and D·R is the chemical bound to the receptor. These reaction dynamics can mathematically be studied using tools like free energy maps.

## Pharmacokinetics

Pharmacokinetics is the other subdivision of pharmacology that focuses on the absorption, distribution, and excretion of drugs while passing through the body with focus on dimension of time. It is difficult for researchers to track where the medicines are traveling, thus they use mathematical methods to measure body fluids to determine where the drug travels and the percentage of remaining drug product left in the body. The amount of drug absorbed can be predicted from measuring the blood levels of liver enzymes. The chemistry aspect of pharmacokinetics studies the chemical interactions between drug and body molecules in biological environment. This can help researchers to determine how much of a drug the body can take in and thus alters the packaging of medicines to the patients. Pharmacodynamics is abbreviated as "PD" while pharmacokinetics is abbreviated as "PK". The pharmacokinetics of any type of medication truly relies on several different factors involving the patients background. These factors include genetic history of the patient, sex, and age. Other factors that influence the delivery of medication also lie within the chemical structure of the drug. Age factors can affect the speed at which a drug is metabolized. For example, Fig. 1 compares the rates of metabolism of diazepam between a younger man and an elderly one. The graph shows that the elderly man metabolizes less of the drug over a longer a period of time than the younger man.
Other types of factors can affect pharmacokinetics. In general the overall health of an individual plays a major role in drug metabolism and absorption. Health issues such as renal failure or kidney problems can greatly reduce the rate at which a drug is absorbed by the body. Regardless, these factors are all compensated by physicians through the use of formulas that describe the specific parameters surrounding the stages of pharmacokinetics. With these equations, physicians and pharmacists can correctly and accurately provide the necessary dosage of medications to help the patient.

## References

Davis, Alison Davis. Medicines By Design. The Office of Communications and Public Liaison. 2006.
* ↑ Davis, Alison Davis. Medicines By Design. The Office of Communications and Public Liaison. 2006.
# Structural Biochemistry/Phase Equilibria
## Introduction

More than one phases coexist at the same temperature and pressure.

## K-Values

K-values is a phase-equilibrium ratio, for vapor-liquid systems,
$K_{i}=y_{i}/x_{i}$
$y_{i}$ is the mole fraction of a species in vapor phase, and $x_{i}$ is the mole fraction of a species in liquid phase.
For ideal solutions,
$K_{i}=P_{i}^{S}/P$
K-values can be used for calculating bubble and dew points.

## Reference

Seader, J. D., and Ernest J. Henley. Separation Process Principles. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2006. Print.
# Structural Biochemistry/Phenylhydrazine

Phenylhydrazine is an MAOI. MAOIs stands for monoamine oxidase inhibitors. They are antidepressant drugs that work by preventing the enzyme monoamine oxidase from metabolizing neurotransmitters. These neurotransmitters include serotonin, norepenephrine, and dopamine. Because these neurotransmitters are not metabolized, they remain in the brain and this helps elevate mood. It is also thought that the drug supports nerve cells within the brain from glutamate sensitivity. This prevents glutamate from stimulating areas of the brain that are responsible for depression and anxiety. There are two types of monoamine oxidase enzymes. There is MAO-A and MAO-B. These enzymes work by removing molecular segments from the neurotransmitters so that these neurotransmitters will become inactive and can be metabolized. Some of the side effects of the drug include tremors, arrhythmia, and seizures. The action of phenylhydrazine binding to the enzyme permanently deactivates the enzyme and is irreversible.

## References

http://publications.nigms.nih.gov/medbydesign/medbydesign.pdf
# Structural Biochemistry/Pharmacokinetics of Drug Dispersion

The pharmacokinetics of drug dispersion are based on the use of pharmacokinetic models which show the dispersion fate of the drug once entering the body through the use of simple mathematical schemes.