OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Nanotechnology/Nanofluidics

* Navigate
* << Prev: Nanomechanics
* >< Main: Nanotechnology
* >> Next: Nanoengineering
Flow on the large scale, in Microsystems and in nanosystems show very different behaviour.
In nanofluidic systems you willl have
* Small sample volume
* High area to volume ratio
* Domination of surface forces
* Short diffusion times
* Enhanced reaction kinetics due to short diffusion times
* Relatively large electric double layer
* Microfluidics
* Brownian motion of nanoparticles
* Diffusion
* Fluid dynamics
Nanoscale flow can be enhanced considerably compared to what is predicted by macroscale Knudsen flow or continuum hydrodynamics models - see Science Vol. 312. no. 5776, pp. 1034 - 1037 DOI-link (Fast Mass Transport Through Sub-2-Nanometer Carbon Nanotubes)

# FERROFLUIDS

Ferrofluids are a form of colloidal suspensions. They are tiny iron particles covered with a liquid coating, also surfactant, that are then added to water or oil, which gives them their liquid properties. Ferrofluids are colloidal suspensions. Those are materials with properties of more than one state of matter. In this case, the two states of matter are the solid metal and liquid it is in. This ability to change phases with the application of a magnetic field allows them to be used as seals, lubricants, and may open up further applications in future nanoelectromechanical systems.

# Resources

* a wikibook on Microfluidics
* Microfluidics: Fluid physics at the nanoliter scale REVIEWS OF MODERN PHYSICS, VOLUME 77, JULY 2005 by Squires and Quake
* The Fluid Mechanics of Microdevices—The Freeman Scholar Lecture Journal of Fluids Engineering 1999, Vol. 121 / 5

# References

See also notes on editing this book about how to add references Nanotechnology/About#How_to_contribute.
# Nanotechnology/Nanomaterials

* Navigate
* << Prev: Background Material
* >< Main: Nanotechnology
* >> Next: Overview of Production Methods
* <<< Prev Part: Physics - on the nanoscale
* >>> Next Part: Nanosystems
This part will give an overview of nanomaterials - the production methods, their properties, brief examples of applications and demonstrations of their capabilities.
Apart from a general overview of production methods, we have divided the materials as
* Semiconducting
* Metallic
* Organic
A division that might be up for revision shortly.
| One way to classify a material is its electronic structure Overview of the electronic structure of the different fundamental classes of materials. Atoms have discrete energy levels for each electronic state. Electronic transitions by eg. optical excitation can change the state of the atom. Molecules can also have discrete energy levels, but the more complex structure also gives a much more complex diagram of electronic states. In addition, the molecules con rotate and vibrate which modulates the oberserved energy levels. Insulators can be seen as a condensed phase of molecules with little electronic connection between neighboring molecules for conducting a current. Only when excitation is made with an energy above the several eV bandgap will conduction be possible. Semiconductors have a more narrow bandgap and even at room temperature a few conduction electrons will be excited into the conductance band. Doped Semiconductors have higher electrical conductance because added dopants provide conduction electrons. Metals can be considered as ionized metal atoms in a sea of free electrons, giving a high conductivity and high reflectivity of light (as long as it is not too high in frequency). | Another is according to their geometry overview of nanoscale structure geometries |

# Overview of nanomaterials

A brief overview table of nanostructures :
| Type | Structure | Production | Properties |
| Buckyballs/ C60 | Buckminsterfullerene C$_{60}$ -60 Carbon atoms arranged as in football | | |
| Single Wall Carbon Nanotubes (SWCNT) | This animation of a rotating Carbon nanotube shows its 3D structure. A single shell of carbon atoms arranged in a cylindrical chicken-wire-like hexagonal structure with diameter from about 2 nm. | | Semiconducting or metallic depending on how the carbon lattice is twisted. |
| Multi Wall Carbon Nanotubes (MWCNT) | Concentric shells of SWCNT, diameter up to hundreds of nm | | |
| Silicon Nanowires and heterostructures | Silicon crystals with diameters from a few nm | Typically VLS growth |
| III-V Nanowires | crystals with diameters from a few nm | typically VLS growth. A wealth of heterostructures can be formed to make tunnel barrier junctions etc. | Semiconducting, often optically active and fluorescing due to direct bandgap (unlike silicon). |
| Gold nanoparticles | | | |
| Silica nanoparticles | | | |
| Platinum nanoparticles | small metallic clusters | | Used as catalysts in many reactions |

## Further reading

* Carbon Nanotube Cookbook

# References

See also notes on editing this book about how to add references Nanotechnology/About#How_to_contribute.
# Nanotechnology/Nanophysics

* Navigate
* << Prev: Additional methods
* >< Main: Nanotechnology
* >> Next: Physics
* <<< Prev Part: Seeing 'Nano'
* >>> Next Part: Nanomaterials
Chemistry and Biochemistry are in many ways nanotechnologies working with nanoscale structures. In physics the classical laws of motion are not always valid on the nanoscale where a quantum mechanical model often is more suitable, and there are often a wealth of forces that are important that we do not consider very much in classical physics - the surface forces.
This part is about how nanosystems move, the forces that control the motion, and the ways we can model it.

# References

See also notes on editing this book about how to add references Nanotechnology/About#How_to_contribute.
# Nanotechnology/Nano and Society/Sample Syllabus/Counter Argument

Whenever we argue, we argue in common. This is perhaps most clear when we engage in counter-argument. In our courts of law, we hear "objection!" as a request to introduce counterargument. Counter-argument engages with objections a composer imagines will bother a reasonable reader. Counter arguments need not only come from the imagination, although the imagination is a fine place to search for them. Dialogue is another tool we can use to discover and work with counter arguments. Note that counter arguments include obections as well as reasons for the objection.
# Quick Review of nanometals

Nanometal (also called metal nanoparticles) is very attractive and that is because of their size and shape dependent properties. The optical properties (linear and nonlinear) depend on that and they on dominated by something called the collective oscillation of conduction electrons. There are so many ways that you can prepare metal nanoparticles but the most used methods are based on wet chemistry. You can find nanometal being used in medical applications to the weaponry the military use. Nanometals also have a thing called Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) this is what cause the change in colors that we see. For example in the 4th century when the Lycurgus cup was created. The cup changes red when the light is shone inside of the cup and green when reflective light is shone on the outside of it. There are so many methods that you can prepare nanometals and the most popular way is by reducing HAuCl$_4$ (chlorauric acid) in a sodium citrate solution that is boiling and then the formation of gold nanoparticles are revealed by a deep red color that looks like wine in about 10 min.

# Types of nanometal synthesis

The most common types of nanometal synthesis deal with 'wet' methods in which metal nanoparticles are produced in a colloid with an organic material of some sort.
Gold nanoparticles can be produced by either:
1) Reduction of HAuCl$_4$ in a solution of sodium citrate, then boiling it, causing gold nanoparticles to form in a wine-red solution.
2) Mixing HAuCl$_4$ in water, which produces a solution that is subsequently transferred into toluene using tetraoctylammonium bromide (TOAB), a phase transfer catalyst. Phase transfer catalysts help reactants dissolve in organic (carbon-containing) material where the reactant otherwise couldn't w/o the PTC. Afterwards, the solution is stirred with sodium borohydride, in the presence of certain alkanes, which bind to the gold in the solution, allowing for the formation of gold nanoparticles.
Synthesis of other metal nanoparticles can possibly be achieved by reducing metal salts in organic solvents such as ethanol, or by variations of the above methods which synthesize gold nanoparticles.

# References

* ↑ webs.uvigo.es/coloides/nano
* ↑ Luis M Liz-Marzán. "Nanometals formation and color", Materials Today, February 2004, page 27.
* ↑ Phase transfer catalyst-Wikipedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase_transfer_catalyst
# Nanotechnology/Nanomechanics

* Navigate
* << Prev: Nanoelectronics
* >< Main: Nanotechnology
* >> Next: Nanofluidics

# Nanomechanics

Some of the mechanical aspects of nanotechnology is
* Extreme Youngs modulus materials
* High frequency resonances in nanoscale oscillators

## NEMS

Nano-electro-mechanical systems

# Mechanics of beams and cantilevers

Cantilevers are essential in many mechanical systems: Nanotubes, nanowires and atomic force microscopes...

# The harmonic oscillator

Fundamental in the description of any oscillating systems is the harmonic oscillator and the quantum mechanical version, the Quantum harmonic oscillator.

# References

See also notes on editing this book about how to add references Nanotechnology/About#How_to_contribute.
# Nanotechnology/Nanoengineering

* Navigate
* << Prev: Nanofluidics
* >< Main: Nanotechnology
* >> Next: Top-down and bottom-up approaches
* <<< Prev Part: Nanosystems
* >>> Next Part: Nano-bio Primer
This chapter takes a look into the engineering aspects of nanotechnology: how to integrate the nanostructures with our known technology, the creation of nanomaterials and simple systems in the laboratory, and the development of functional devices that can be used by society.

# References

See also notes on editing this book about how to add references Nanotechnology/About#How_to_contribute.
# Lucid Dreaming/Reality Checks/Reading

* Lucid Dreaming Introduction | Dream Recall | Induction Techniques | Using | Glossary | Appendices | Further Reading
* Reality checks Breathing | Finger Stretching | Hands | Identity | Jumping | Light switches | Memory | Mirrors | Nose | Powers | Reading | Time | Vision

## Presentation

With the reading reality check, you read some text, look away, and see if you can remember the text. Then, you check if it has changed when you turn back. Do this twice. You can also actively try to change the text (note that changing text in a Wikibook is not necessarily evidence you are dreaming though!).
For example, consider this paragraph. Try to remember its text. Then reload the page. If you realise that the text is now missing, you know that you are dreaming.
This reality check works because the mind has no external input to base the text upon.
Note you will usually have no problems reading text in a dream. It is remembering the text which is hard.

## Examples of this reality check working

* I looked at some text that I found, then looked away. I couldn't remember what it said.
* I looked at some text that I found, then looked away, then looked back. The text had completely changed or is scrambled up.
* I looked at some text that I found, and it just said "lucid lucid lucid...". I was surprised but understood the message.
* I dreamt I was reading a book. I closed my eyes to sneeze, and when I looked back, the text was the same, but it was in a completely different font.
* There was a poster on a distant wall showing a spruce tree somewhere. I looked away and then back at it, where the scene changed to a small spruce tree in the middle of a city.
* I opened a book and found the page empty, it had a weird haze over it. I thought to myself, "hey, that's weird" and the words "hey, that's weird" appeared on the page, I swore when I saw it happen and that popped up on the page as well. After about a paragraph of me questioning my sanity, a little voice said "you're dreaming, you idiot." I slapped myself on the forehead and continued on lucidly.

## Examples of this reality check failing

* I looked at some text that I found, then looked away. I could perfectly remember what it said.
* I looked at some text that I found, then looked away, then looked back. The text stayed exactly the same.
# Luigi's Mansion/Bosses/Bogmire
## Bogmire the cemetery shadow

Bogmire is the second boss of the game. A product of the mansion's fear and despair the purple monstrosity known as Bogmire has the ability to make his shadows come to life. Bogmire in appearance looks like a large purple blob with a gaint mouth and even larger teeth, Bogmire also has two mournful yellow eyes.

## Finding Bogmire

Bogmire is found in the mansion's graveyard. You can't battle him until clearing the graveyard of the skeleton trio. Once there are no other ghosts you simply approach the glowing grave to battle him.

## Catching Bogmire

Bogmire is very hard to catch - his pull is strong and he constantly teleports around the arena.
While you battle him Bogmire will send his shadows after you. However his shadows are also his weakness. To expose Bogmire's heart suck at a shadow until it becomes a large glob in your vacuum then shoot the shadow at Bogmire and suck him up.
The tricky part is that Bogmire's shadows serve as moving obstacles that, will not only lurch towards you but Bogmire (when in your vacuum lock) will try to drag you into them. To make this boss easier you should try to get rid of as many of his shadows as possible (to minimize the number attacking you) and also try cornering Bogmire so he can't run as far, this is difficult since the arena is perfectly round. Master using the C-stick controls to make this fight easier.
# Luigi's Mansion

This is a Wikibook on the classic Nintendo GameCube video game, Luigi's Mansion. This guide should also be generally applicable to the Nintendo 3DS version of the game as well.

## Table of contents
### Gameplay

* Ghosts
** Bosses
*** Area 1: Chauncey
*** Area 2: Bogmire
*** Area 3: Boolossus
*** Area 4: King Boo
** Boos
* Rooms
* Characters
* Items
** Game Boy Horror

### Meta

* History
* About
# Luigi's Mansion/Items/Game Boy Horror

The Game Boy Horror is a tool that Luigi uses to see a map of the mansion that shows him where keys are. This creation is made by Professor E. Gadd. The Game Boy Horror can also track how much money you have and let you see what boss ghosts you have defeated. But the main feature of this device is that you use it to track Boos, a blue indicator means no Boo is in the room, a green indicator means a ghost has been located in the room, and a red indicator means there is a ghost in the closest object to you.
# Lucid Dreaming/Reality Checks/Time

* Lucid Dreaming Introduction | Dream Recall | Induction Techniques | Using | Glossary | Appendices | Further Reading
* Reality checks Breathing | Finger Stretching | Hands | Identity | Jumping | Light switches | Memory | Mirrors | Nose | Powers | Reading | Time | Vision

## Presentation

With the "time" reality check, you see if clocks work.
Other than checking to see if clocks report a logical time, you can try blinking to change the time. Some have more success with a digital than an analog watch, for some it's the other way around.

## Examples of this reality check working

* I looked at the clock. I looked away, then back again. It had jumped forward five minutes. I did it again, just to make sure. It had jumped forward another five minutes. Alright, time to have fun...
* I looked at my digital watch, and read the time. I looked away and back again, and the numbers had changed to symbols. I realized I must be dreaming.
* I woke up from a dream (for real). I looked at my digital alarm clock and noticed that it was 7:10am. Since it was weekend, I didn't feel like getting out of my bed, so I decided to go back to sleep. I fell asleep and I dreamed that I was in my own bedroom. I looked at my alarm clock and noticed the time: 1:30am. I thought: "Wait a minute, just a few minutes ago it was 7:10am, I must be dreaming!"
* I suspected that I was dreaming, so I looked at my watch. It said 6:58. I looked back a second later, and it said 4:48.
* I looked at a digital clock and the time showed something impossible like 9:65, then the segments of the display started flashing randomly.

## Examples of this reality check failing

* I looked at the clock, looked away and back again. I couldn't tell if it had changed. My vision was fuzzy, and the digital reading seemed to keep on jumping. I gave up and continued nonlucidly.
* I was already lucid when this started. My mum (or rather a dream character playing her part) came into my room and told me I wasn't dreaming. I decided I'd better double-check and so used my favourite clock reality check. I looked at the clock and away. I looked back again - and the time hadn't changed. I lost lucidity.
* During a false awakening, I looked at my alarm clock (in fact, an old one I threw away some years ago), and it showed something like 1:20am, though I was sure I already woke up at 4am that night. I was starting to think I was dreaming, but I wanted to check the time again. However, I couldn't figure it out, as the hour and minute hands of the clock were of the same length. I thought it was pretty inconvenient, but didn't get lucid. Then, as I was staring at the clock, the hands started spinning faster, like an hour in a few seconds. Still, I didn't get lucid, as I was really trying to read the time, and was too focused on this goal.
* I read a digital clock which said "DU:CK". I asked my dad and he said this must be advertisement from Chinese restaurant. (in fact, there are no Chinese restaurants near my location, and the clock does not have internet connections, so there can't be any advertisements)
# Lucid Dreaming/Reality Checks/Vision

* Lucid Dreaming Introduction | Dream Recall | Induction Techniques | Using | Glossary | Appendices | Further Reading
* Reality checks Breathing | Finger Stretching | Hands | Identity | Jumping | Light switches | Memory | Mirrors | Nose | Powers | Reading | Time | Vision

## Presentation

With the vision reality check, you check if your vision is at all different from the norm; for example, if you have perfect vision without wearing glasses.
As well as doing this regularly, you could also do it every time you put on your glasses.

## Examples of this reality check working

* I'm in a room, and my vision is blurry because I'm not wearing glasses. I notice a sheet of paper with writing on it sitting on a table on the other side of the room. I try to read it, but it's too blurry. I look at it again and it comes into focus. A second later, I wonder how I can see it without glasses, but then realize I must be dreaming.
* My vision disagrees with my other senses. Under my bare feet I can see a white carpet and feel a smooth wood floor. I decide that what I'm seeing is a dream, what I'm feeling is real, and therefore I must be sleepwalking. (I wasn't...hmm, is this a success or a failure?)
* When I move, the scenery at the edges of my vision doesn't exactly flow by. It freezes and skips like a streaming video on a slow connection. I realize this is happening because the scenery isn't real - I'm dreaming it.

## Examples of this reality check failing

* I "wake up" from a dream, and get out of bed, but then I notice that I can see perfectly even though I don't have my glasses on. I figure my vision must have improved from resting and forget about it.
* I was in front of my computer, with my glasses on, and everything was blurry. At first, I thought my vision had improved, so I removed my glasses, but then, I started thinking that if I could clearly see what was on the computer screen, without my glasses, that would mean I was dreaming. However, as soon as I looked at the screen, a black rectangle appeared just in front of it, and I could not see what was on the screen. I woke up.
# Linux Guide/Installing SugarCRM On Linux

Here is how I installed SugarCRM on a new PC:
* Download the four Fedora Core 4 image files and make install CD’s
* Install Fedora Core 4 using the standard “Workstation” settings (don’t use the Server setup as it will put all the Apache, PHP, and MySQL files in the wrong place. Enable Firewall, Enable SELinux, Install Default Software Packages)
* Finish Installing, Reboot, Login as ‘root’
* After booting, click Desktop -> Security -> Security Level (if using Gnome GUI), check the box next to WWW (HTTP), click OK to close.
* Launch WEB browser
* From http://www.mysql.com/ download the v4.1.12 MySQL Linux x86 RPM Files, you will need the Server, Client Program, Libraries & Headers, and Dynamic Client Libraries.
* From http://www.php.net/ download PHP 4.3.11 (tar.gz)
* From http://www.apache.org/ download Apache 2.0.54 (tar.gz)
* Copy downloaded files to /usr/src directory
* Open a terminal window, Applications -> System Tools -> Terminal
* Type the following in the terminal to install MySQL
You should see something like:
Search for: memory_limit = 8M, change 8M to 16M Save & Close file
* Look for libphp4.so file in /usr/local/apache2/modules/ to make sure it’s there.
* Edit the Apache configuration file in /usr/local/apache2/conf/httpd.conf
Find loadmodule and make sure this line was added, (or add)
Find addtype and add
Find directoryindex and add index.php to the line:
If you get the following error: “ Cannot load /usr/local/apache2/modules/libphp4.so into server: /usr/local/apache2/modules/libphp4.so: cannot restore segment prot after reloc: Permission Denied” Type:
now try and start:
* Test Apache by opening a web browser and typing in http://localhost/ . You should see an apache success screen.
* Test PHP
Create a file in /usr/local/apache2/htdocs/ named test.php and enter the following line in the file:
Save and close. Set permissions on file to 755. Now in a browser type http://localhost/test.php You should see a PHP information screen with your current settings.
Edit or create the /etc/my.cnf file, make it look like the following:
Save and close file.
Find: basedir=/ and change to:
select mysql, click restart
* create sugarsuite folder in /usr/local/apache2/htdocs
* copy the contents of the SugarCRM 3.0.1 folder (or latest) to the sugarsuite folder
* Set permissions on all files to 777 for installation. Type in a terminal:
* To install SugarCRM, open a browser and type http://localhost/sugarsuite/
* Follow install instruction: Create User, Create Datbase. Finish Installation.
* Set SugarCRM directory permissions in terminal window.
# Linux Guide/LDAP authentication in Linux

Tested on Fedora Core 4 only
1. Install following RPMs
2. Configure and Start OpenLDAP
3. Use Migration Script to create ldif files from /etc/passwd and /etc/group
Go to directory /usr/share/openldap/migration
edit migrate_common.ph and change 2 settings
Create 3 ldif files in /root directory with following commands
4. Import ldif files into OpenLDAP
5. Use authconfig to configure Linux for ldap authentication
-Swapnil (Friday, December 09, 2005) Email- swapnil_durgade@yahoo.com