OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# LPI Linux Certification/System Recovery
## Detailed Objective (202.2)

(LPIC-2 Version 4.5)
Weight: 4
Description: Candidates should be able to properly manipulate a Linux system during both the boot process and during recovery mode. This objective includes using both the init utility and init-related kernel options. Candidates should be able to determine the cause of errors in loading and usage of bootloaders. GRUB version 2 and GRUB Legacy are the bootloaders of interest. Both BIOS and UEFI systems are covered.
Key Knowledge Areas:
* BIOS and UEFI
* NVMe booting
* GRUB version 2 and Legacy
* grub shell
* boot loader start and hand off to kernel
* kernel loading
* hardware initialisation and setup
* daemon/service initialisation and setup
* Know the different boot loader install locations on a hard disk or removable device.
* Overwrite standard boot loader options and using boot loader shells.
* Use systemd rescue and emergency modes.
Terms and Utilities:
* mount
* fsck
* inittab, telinit and init with SysV init
* The contents of /boot/, /boot/grub/ and /boot/efi/
* EFI System Partition (ESP)
* GRUB
* grub-install
* efibootmgr
* UEFI shell
* initrd, initramfs
* Master boot record
* systemctl
# LPI Linux Certification/TCP wrappers
## Detailed Objective

Weight: 1
Description:
Candidates should be able to configure tcpwrappers to allow connections to specified servers only from certain hosts or subnets.
* Key knowledge area(s):
** tcpwrappers configuration files, tools and utilities
** (x)inetd configuration files, tools and utilities
* The following is a partial list of the used files, terms and utilities:
** /etc/xinetd.conf
** /etc/xinetd.d/*
** /etc/inetd.conf
** tcpd
** /etc/hosts.allow
** /etc/hosts.deny

## TCP_wrappers
### Overview

Description: The candidate should be able to configure tcpwrappers to allow connections to specified servers from only certain hosts or subnets.
Key files, terms, and utilities include:

### TCP_wrappers

The TCP wrapper is a system to control access to network services For each service protected by TCP wrappers, the tcpd program is used and consults 2 files where access rights are defined, in search order :
Rules are constructed to match all services or specific services. If no match occurs in the two files, access is granted.
It is common to set specific rules in /etc/hosts.allow, and provide a blanket denial in /etc/hosts.deny (i.e deny everything except when specifically allowed) Rules format are :
i.e : deny all incoming requests except FTP from the local domain
# LPI Linux Certification/Troubleshooting Bootloaders
## Detailed Objective

Weight: 1
Description:
Candidates should be able to determine specific stage failures and corrective techniques.
* Key knowledge area(s):
** LILO
** GRUB
** Know the different bootloader install locations on a hard disk or removable device
** Overwriting standard bootloader options or using bootloader shells
* The following is a partial list of the used files, terms and utilities:
** The contents of /boot/ and /boot/grub/
** /etc/lilo.conf
** grub
** grub-install
** lilo

## further reading

* Operating System Design/Initialization/Bootloader describes the bootloader in detail (of any OS).
# LPI Linux Certification/Setup Non IDE Devices
## Detailed Objective

Weight: 1
Description:
Candidates should be able to configure non-IDE devices such as SCSI, SATA, USB drives using the special BIOS as well as the necessary Linux tools.
* Key knowledge area(s):
** Differentiate between the various types of non-IDE devices.
** Manipulate BIOS to detect used and available SCSI IDs.
** Set the correct hardware ID for different devices, especially the boot device.
** Configure BIOS settings to control the boot sequence when both non-IDE and IDE devices are present .
* The following is a partial list of the used files, terms and utilities:
** SCSI ID
** /proc/scsi/
** scsi_info

## SCSI

The SCSI BIOS can be accessed at boot time with some special key sequences (Ctrl+A for most Adaptec host bus adapters, Ctrl+G, Ctrl+M, or other keys for other vendors) and allow you to set up some parameters. Bootable SCSI and more.
In order to get SCSI information, use scsi_info or hdparm.
Examples:
obs: Tested with hdparm v6.1 (debian sarge kernel 2.6.8-3 arch 386)

## Exercises

* Exercises results
# LPI Linux Certification/Troubleshooting Environment Configurations
## Detailed Objective

Weight: 1
Description:
Candidates should be able to identify common local system and user environment configuration issues and common repair techniques.
* Key knowledge area(s):
** Core system variables
** init configuration files
** init start process
** cron configuration files
** Login process
** User-password storage files
** Determine user group associations
** SHELL configuration files of bash and csh
** Analysing which processes or daemons are running
* The following is a partial list of the used files, terms and utilities:
** /etc/inittab
** /etc/rc.local
** /etc/rc.boot
** /var/spool/cron/crontabs/
** The default shell configuration file(s) in /etc/
** /etc/login.defs
** /etc/syslog.conf
** /etc/passwd
** /etc/shadow
** /etc/group
** /sbin/init
** /usr/sbin/cron
** /usr/bin/crontab
# History of video games/Platforms/InWin 309 Gaming Edition
## Introduction

The InWin 309 Gaming Edition is somewhat unusual among gaming platforms with exclusive titles, as it is primarily a computer case that happens to have a built in gaming system.

## History

The case was announced as available on August 19th, 2021.

## Technology
### Display

The front display is made of an 8 by 18 grid of RGB LEDs.

### Controller

The controller relies on Infrared communication with the case and is powered by dual AAA batteries. Two infrared LEDs are mounted on the each side of the top of the controller, and are intended for use within 1.8 meters (5.9 ft) of the receiver on the case with direct line of sight.
The controller has start, select, D-PAD, and A,B,C,D face buttons. The face buttons typically paired to perform the same task in games as pair AD and pair BC. Arranged in a square and starting from the top right clockwise, the order of the face buttons is C,A,B,D.

### Other Hardware

An internal microphone was used for reactive lighting effects.
It is unclear if the case has it's own integrated computer for running game software, or if it relies on the host computer to execute game software.

### Case

The case is primarily made of steel, specifically SECC (Steel, Electrogalvanized, Cold-Rolled, Commercial quality). Other materials used for the casing included ABS plastic and Tempered Glass.

## Games
### Blox

A falling block game, similar to Tetris.

### 309 Racing

Racing game.

### Magi Jump

Platformer staring a male chicken mascot named "Chick MAGI" who must reach a castle at the end of each level while avoiding or defeating an antagonistic unnamed "crazy red chicken".

## References

* 1 2 Hagedoorn, Hilbert. "The 309 Gaming Edition Case - mid tower where you can play games on the front panel" (in en-us). Guru3D.com. https://www.guru3d.com/news-story/the-309-gaming-edition-case-from-in-win-is-now-available.html.
* 1 2 3 4 5 Safford, Matt (20 August 2021). "In Win's 309 Gaming Edition: Play Tetris on Your Case" (in en). Tom's Hardware. https://www.tomshardware.com/features/in-win-309-gaming-edition-hands-on.
* 1 2 3 4 5 "InWin User Manual". www.in-win.com. Retrieved 5 October 2021.
* ↑ "PROVANTAGE: IN Windows Development 309GE Inwin 309 Gaming Edition". www.provantage.com. https://www.provantage.com/win-development-309ge~7INWN1PJ.htm.
# History of video games/Platforms/InnoTV
## History

The VTech InnoTV was announced on October 13, 2015. Shortly after this announcement there was an announcement of a data breach regarding the online content store.

## Technology

The controller is ambidextrous.
The system had online connectivity via Wi-Fi.

## References

* ↑ "VTech Introduces InnoTV, Perfect Educational Gaming System for Preschoolers Offers Educator-Supported Learning Games for Under US$70". October 13, 2015. https://www.vtech.com/en/press_release/2015/vtech-introduces-innotv-perfect-first-educational-gaming-system-for-preschoolers-packed-with-educator-supported-learning-games-for-under-us70/.
* ↑ Newcomb, Alyssa (December 1, 2015). "Toy Maker VTech Suffers Security Breach: What You Need to Know" (in en). ABC News. https://abcnews.go.com/Technology/toy-maker-vtech-suffers-security-breach/story?id=35512412.
* ↑ Muoio, Sarah (13 August 2019). "VTech InnoTV". POPSUGAR Family. https://www.popsugar.com/family/photo-gallery/46020116/image/46020126/VTech-InnoTV.
* ↑ "VTech InnoTV educational gaming console". Cool Mom Tech. 5 November 2015. https://coolmomtech.com/2015/11/vtech-innotv-educational-gaming-system/.
# History of video games/Platforms/Hyperkin Retron Ult
## History

The system was shown off in 2019, just prior to E3.

## Technology

The system output graphics at a resolution of 720p via HDMI.
A USB type C port is used to provide power to the system.

## References

* 1 2 Farner, Shawn (6 June 2019). "Hyperkin Shows Off New Clone Console For N64 Games". SVG.com. https://www.svg.com/154697/hyperkin-shows-off-new-clone-console-for-n64-games/.
* ↑ Makuch, Eddie (June 5, 2019). "N64 Clone Console Coming, See First Video Here". GameSpot. https://www.gamespot.com/articles/n64-clone-console-coming-see-first-video-here/1100-6467419/.
* ↑ Doolan, Liam (14 June 2019). "Hyperkin Isn't Quite Sure What Route To Take With Its N64 Clone Console Yet". Nintendo Life. https://www.nintendolife.com/news/2019/06/hyperkin_isnt_quite_sure_what_route_to_take_with_its_n64_clone_console_yet.
* ↑ Santabarbara, Seb (10 December 2019). "Hyperkin Ultra Retron Is The N64 Remake Of Your Dreams". Retro Dodo. https://retrododo.com/hyperkin-ultra-retron/.
# History of video games/Platforms/IM-26
## History

The IM-26 was released in the Soviet Union in 1988. The system is noted for it's similarity to the Digi Casse.
The console would slightly outlive the Soviet Union, which dissolved on the 24th of December in 1991. Development for the IM-26 stopped after 1992.

## Technology

The console display was included in game cartridges.
The IM-26 is powered by two LR43 batteries.

## Gallery

* The IM-26 with cartridge inserted.
* The IM-26 with cartridge detached.

## External Resources

* Video Game Kraken - IM-26 page.
* Game Medium - IM-26 page.

## References

* 1 2 3 4 "IM-26 by Electronika – The Video Game Kraken". Retrieved 16 November 2020.
* ↑ "Electronika IM-26". Retrieved 20 December 2020.
* 1 2 3 "Pocket Legion - Elektronika IM-26 - YouTube". www.youtube.com. Retrieved 16 November 2020.
* ↑ "The Fall of the Soviet Union | CES at UNC". https://europe.unc.edu/iron-curtain/history/the-fall-of-the-soviet-union/.
# History of video games/Platforms/Intellivision III
## History

The Intellivision III was a cancelled successor of the Intellivision.

## Notes

This system should not be confused with the Intellivision System III, which is a different console.

## References

* ↑ "Intellivision III". history.blueskyrangers.com. Retrieved 30 October 2021.
* ↑ "OLD-COMPUTERS.COM : The Museum". www.old-computers.com. Retrieved 11 January 2022.
# History of video games/Platforms/Intellivision Play Power
## Technology

The system was a dedicated plug in play console.

## References

* ↑ "Intellivision TV Play Power Plug and Play Review" (in en). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qoh9YAcH-Vc.
# History of video games/Platforms/Indi One
## History

The INDI EV electric car company was founded by Chinese businessman Shi Hai, who had previously worked in the Chinese mobile games industry.
The Indi One was announced on October 14th, 2021 as an electric car with a gaming computer built in. This computer was considered the primary distinguishing feature of the vehicle in a market saturated by EV startups.

## Technology
### VIC

The company named the computer VIC, which is short for "Vehicle Integrated Computer". Though the company touted the VIC as a supercomputer, these claims were dismissed by the media.
The VIC uses an unspecified Intel Core i7 CPU, and an NVIDIA RTX 2080 GPU. Windows is used as an Operating System.
The car was said to support VR.

### Battery

The car has a battery with a capacity of 95 kilowatt hours.

## References

* 1 2 3 O'Kane, Sean (14 October 2021). "IndiEV reveals electric car with a built-in gaming PC but not much else" (in en). The Verge. https://www.theverge.com/2021/10/14/22726631/indiev-indi-one-electric-car-founder-shi-hai-lawsuits.
* ↑ Ruffo, Gustavo Henrique (14 October 2021). "INDI One Tries to Present Its Company as a Credible EV Manufacturer" (in en). autoevolution. https://www.autoevolution.com/news/indi-one-tries-to-present-its-company-as-a-credible-ev-manufacturer-171781.html.
* 1 2 3 4 Vaughn, Mark (18 October 2021). "Can INDI EV Make an Electric Car?". Autoweek. https://www.autoweek.com/news/green-cars/a37985438/indi-ev-electric-car/.
* ↑ Rutherford, S. (April 20, 2022). "Indi One first look: Part EV, part gaming PC" (in English). Engadget. https://www.engadget.com/indi-one-first-look-part-ev-part-gaming-pc-153017381.html.
* ↑ "The INDI One | Specs – INDI". Retrieved 15 October 2021.
# Linux Basics/Installation, bootloader
## Installing

There are a variety of ways to install Linux on a computer. Traditional installation methods for a desktop Linux environment can be either graphical or terminal based.
Installation media refers to the delivery method of the operating system. Common installation media includes USB storage devices or DVDs. Installation can also be done virtually, such as in the case of a network installation.
Linux distros can be installed directly on a computer as the sole operating system or installed alongside another operating system such as Windows or another installation of Linux.
Linux can even be run under a different operating system through the use of a virtual machine. By using software such as GNOME Boxes, Virtualbox, or VMware, a virtual machine can be created to install and run Linux on, while simultaneously running the original operating system, such as Windows, MacOS, or even another Linux distro. One can think of a virtual machine as a way to simply run Linux as one would run any other program, such as Firefox or LibreOffice.
Installers for Linux distributions come in a variety of forms. Below are two screenshots of installers, showing both a friendly graphical installer, and a powerful command line installer.
* Manjaro Linux installer in Hungarian language
* CLI installer of Anarchy(Arch) Linux

## The Bootloader

Bootloaders are programs that help the computer start up and prepare an operating system. Sometimes known as system loaders, one can compare bootloaders to the starter of a car or an usher at a theater showing you to your seat.
One of the most common bootloaders used on desktop Linux is GRUB. With GRUB you can give boot parameters to determine which operating system should boot up. GRUB also has additional features, including a memory test and hardware test, which checks if the computer hardware has any errors.
Bootloader can be installed on HDD in case of MBR, e.g. /dev/sda (first HDD), in case of GPT you can give which partition would be the "BIOS boot" one (e.g. /dev/sda3 - first hard disk's third partition), so the bootloader will be installed to the location which we picked.
# Linux Basics/Package management
## What is Package Management?

With package management, a special program called a Package manager is used to install, update, and remove applications. While it's still possible to install programs outside the package manager, the package manager can reduce the day to day work of the user, making it ideal for most software installations on a Linux based system.
One way to think about package management is to compare using an app store instead of downloading a program executable (Like a .exe) from a website. App stores can list installed applications, and update them from a centralized location, while individual programs typically only concern updates with themselves, if they even have an updater function. Unlike an app store, most package managers on Linux distros are completely free, and often predate their proprietary app store counterparts.

## Using a package manager

There are a number of package managers for Linux, but apt is among the most common, due to its use in Debian and most of its derivatives.
sudo apt update - updating package list under Ubuntu
* repositories can be added to package list
* we use apt mostly instead of dpkg under Debian-based Linux.
Program / package installation: apt install / dpkg -i <program>
dpkg won't indicate the dependency, so you have to install those that's not on the system. The dpkg, rpm, apt, apt-get etc. commands have man guides (man = manual)
# Linux Basics/Sources
## Sources

* Lesson notes (2018-2019, Linux Basics subject)
* https://m-info.hu/sites/default/files/oktatas/LINUX_OS_alapok_dia_(2017).pdf (as skeleton of the wikibook(and the pdf that was created before), lots of things have been taken) - dead link, here is the archive
* https://wiki.hup.hu (In the 2nd chapter at the distro descriptions), GNU GPL license
* Hungarian Wikipedia: File Allocation Table - It appears in Chapter 5
* Hungarian Wikipedia: Rendszermag (System kernel) - It appears in Chapter 5
* Hungarian Wikipedia: X_Window_System - It appears in the 7th chapter at "X Window System"
* https://web.archive.org/web/20200603082534/http://linuxkezdoknek.hu/downloads.php?cat_id=1&download_id=2 - It appears in 9th chapter (Linux parancsok -> tar program) - Domain is not online anymore, so the download link, Wayback Archive did not saved it, but here is the location of it.
* https://www.tldp.org/LDP/lame/LAME/linux-admin-made-easy/shadow-file-formats.html - It appears at the "shadow" part of Chapter 10 - License: GNU FDL 1.3, author: Steve Frampton
* https://szit.hu - some topics that the 2nd source contained - License: GNU FDL 1.3, author: András Sallai
* https://szit.hu/doku.php?id=oktatas:linux:felhasznalokezeles - content of Chapter 10 - License: GNU FDL 1.3, author: András Sallai
* https://szit.hu/doku.php?id=oktatas:linux:sudo - Chapter 11 - sudo - License: GNU FDL 1.3, author: András Sallai
* https://szit.hu/doku.php?id=oktatas:linux:jogok - Content of Chapter 13 - License: GNU FDL 1.3, author: András Sallai
* http://szabadszoftver.kormany.hu/wp-content/uploads/sysadmin_I.pdf - Process management part of Chapter 12
# Linux Basics/Terminals, command prompt, alias, history
## What's a terminal?

* Terminal = command prompt → shell = command-line interpreter
* Text-mode, DOS-like
* There are several terminals
** Gnome-terminal, Xfce4-terminal, xterm, etc.
* There are many shells (e.g. bash, fish, ksh, zsh etc.)
** you can also customize the shells, for example this video on YouTube shows it: [GNOME 3.28] PowerLevel9k -  The Most Cool Linux Shell EVER!
* commands can be executed
* command list: https://ss64.com/bash/ (and also the Linux Basics/Basic commands chapter)
* alias: we can shorten a complex command with an alias or we can create our own one.
* Location of definition (in case of bash shell): ~/.bashrc
* Global aliases: /etc/bashrc

## History

* It can be recalled by pressing up and down arrows on keyboard
* you can switch tabs on terminal by pressing ctrl+page up or ctrl+page down
* ~/.bash_history shows the commands before login

## Environment variables

Environment variables: it stores information of the operating system or programs. Environment variables get set automatically after startup. For example, PATH environment variable tells the shell where to search the executable files.
* Printing them to terminal: printenv, set
* but particular environment variables can be displayed too: printenv PATH
* to set up an environment variable: set VAR1=”something” where VAR1 is an arbitrary variable
* to delete an environment variable: unset var1
* displaying a particular one(same as printenv basically): echo $VAR1
* to have the setting in the system permanently: export VAR1=”valami”
* we can create an own command under /home/bin folder, but it works only if we added the folder to PATH environment variable:
* export PATH=$PATH:~/bin, and to make it permanent in .bashrc:echo "export PATH=$PATH:~/bin" >> ~/.bashrc
Thottee explained it on his website in more detail that what we do exactly (his website is in hungarian so you may need to translate it with a translator program: http://linuxkezdoknek.hu/articles.php?article_id=33 (the article's second half)

## Help

* help for using a command: help
* command for the manual (detailed help): man, info
* usage:
** man <switches> <command>
** info <switches> <command>
# Linux Basics/Introduction

The primary author, Attila Kun(ottwiz), thought that there should be an easy to use Linux tutorial for those who learn it in a formal or informal educational setting, but have no idea what to do with Linux. Attila Kun(ottwiz) studied Linux Basics as a subject in the school year 2018/2019 in high school, so his previous versions has a date like "2019.03.16."
This wikibook is translated from the Hungarian version of Linux alapok and covers the basics of Linux systems. Of course there will be things that work differently in other distributions such as files, but it mostly reflects what is seen in common distributions of Linux.
The number of sources indicates that we should not start from one source, but we should dive deep in to see things clearly. We should seek after on the Internet that how the article reflects reality (we can test it under live/virtual system, and if we can, we should search that if it's right).
Any contributions to this book are more than welcome!

## Acknowledgments

I'd like to give big thanks to thottee from the Hungarian PenguinPit Discord community who helped a lot creating the original document(it was originally created in LibreOffice but I didn't want to suffer with making of it if I need to edit it sometimes), Balázs Úr who supervised this document and corrected the errors, and Balázs Meskó who corrected the grammar mistakes.

## References

* ↑ https://skamilinux.hu/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/Linux_alapok_1.1.5.pdf
# Mali Federation

* The Mali Federation was a union between Senegal and the Sudanese Republic (formerly French Sudan). It was founded on 4 April 1959 as a French Colony and gained independence from France on 20 June 1960. After only two months of independence the Federation collapsed with the two members becoming the independent Republics of Mali and Senegal.
* The first meter was used in 1959. For issues before that date, see FRENCH WEST AFRICA and SUDANESE REPUBLIC. For issues after August 1960 see MALI and SENEGAL.
* All stamps are inscribed “FEDERATION DU MALI".
1. Havas “M” (MV), 1959.
    Wide frank with double line outer frame.
                                                                         A. M# with “M” prefix [$15]
                                                                         B. M# with “MG” prefix [$5]
    TM: SL
    V/F: ★000F
2. Satas “D” (MV), 1960. [$15]
    Small frank with single line outer frame.
    M# with “SD” prefix.
    TM: SL
    V/F: ★000F
3. Satas “R” (MV), 1960. [$15]
    M# with “SR” prefix.
    TM: SC
    V/F: ★000F
4. Camp (MV), 1960. [$25]
    Similar to Type 3 but narrower spacing between the town mark and frank.
    This is a Post Office stamp, printed only on tape never directly to cover.
    M# with "PR" prefix.
    TM: SC
    V/F: 000
# Mali

* The Republic of Mali and the Republic of Senegal became independent countries in September 1960 after the dissolution of their failed confederation as The Mali Federation. For issues prior to 1960 see MALI FEDERATION.
* All stamps are inscribed REPUBLIQUE DU MALI.
1. Satas “R” (MV). [$5]
    M# with “SR” prefix.
    TM: SC
    V/F: ★000
2. Satas “J” (MV), 1962. [$10]
    Date figures tall.
    M# with “SJ” prefix.
    TM: SC
    V/F: 0000
                                                       a. Blank below “POSTES”, without meter number
3. Pitney Bowes-GB “6300” (MV).
    Date figures short.
    M# with “P.B.” prefix.
    TM: SC
    V/F: ≋000