OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Beta Decay

Among the three types of radioactivity, the $\alpha$ and $\gamma$ rays were easily explained. The emission of $\alpha$ particle is kind of lop-sided fission reaction, when an initial nucleus spontaneously decays in two fragments one of which is the nucleus $_{2}^{4}$He (i.e. $\alpha$ particle). The $\gamma$ rays are electromagnetic quanta (photons) emitted by a nuclear system when it transits from one quantum state to another (similar to an atom emitting visible light when an electron drops to a lower energy level).
The $\beta$ rays posed the puzzle. On the one hand, they are just electrons and you may think that it looks simple. But on the other hand, they are not the electrons from the atomic shell. It was found that they come from inside the nucleus! After the $\beta$-decay, the charge of the nucleus increases in one unit,
$_{Z}^{A}\left({\mbox{parent nucleus}}\right)\,\longrightarrow \,_{Z+1}^{A}\left({\mbox{daughter nucleus}}\right)+e\ ,$
which is in accordance with the charge conservation law.
There was another puzzle associated with the $\beta$ decay: The emitted electrons did not have a fixed energy. Measuring their kinetic energies, you could find very fast and very slow electrons as well as the electrons with intermediate speeds. How could identical parent nuclei, after losing different amount of energy, become identical daughter nuclei? Perhaps energy is not conserved in the quantum world? The possibility was so astounding that even Niels Bohr put forward the idea of statistical nature of the energy conservation law.
To explain the first puzzle, it was first suggested that neutron is a bound state of proton and electron. At that time, some physicists believed that if something is emitted from an object, it must be present in that object before the emission. They could not imagine that a particle could be created from vacuum.
The naive $(pe)$ model of the neutron contradicted the facts. Indeed, it was known already that the $pe$ bound state is the hydrogen atom. A neutron is much smaller than the hydrogen atom. Therefore, it would be unusually tight binding, and perhaps with something else involved that keeps the size small. By the way, this something else could also save the energy conservation law. In 1930, Wolfgang Pauli suggested that in addition to the electron, the $\beta$ decay involves another particle, $\nu$, that is emitted along with the electron and carries away part of the energy. For example,
* ${\begin{matrix}_{90}^{234}{\rm {Th}}\,\longrightarrow \,_{91}^{234}{\rm {Pa}}+e^{-}+{\bar {\nu }}\ .\end{matrix}}$
* (15.6)
This additional particle was called neutrino (in Italian the word neutrino means small neutron). The neutrino is electrically neutral, has extremely small mass (maybe even zero, which is still a question in 2004) and very weakly interacts with matter. This is why it was not detected experimentally till 1956. The bar over $\nu$ in Eq. (15.6) means that in this reaction actually the anti-neutrino is emitted (see the discussion on anti-particles further down in Sec. Elementary particles: Particle Physics).
# E-government
## Table of Contents

* Preface
* Introduction
* Definition
* The Goals of E-Government
* E-Government and Human Development
* The Challenges of E-Government
* The Importance of a National Strategic Framework for E-Government
* Making E-Government Happen
* Handbook of E-Government Scales
* Further Reading
* Notes
* Acknowledgements
* About the Author

## Information

This book is donated by UNDP Asia-Pacific Development Information Programme (UNDP-APDIP) to the community. The original publication by:
Author: Patricia J. Pascual © UNDP-APDIP, 2003, 40 pages
is located at http://www.apdip.net/publications/iespprimers/eprimer-egov.pdf
This wikibook is available under the terms of GNU Free Documentation License and Creative Commons Attribution License 2.5

## Notes

Numbers that are just placed in the middle of the sentence are citations, and should be linked to the Notes page. Do not delete these citation numbers! Use the {{egovcite}} template to link them instead.
# E-government/Handbook of E-Government Scales

The Handbook of E-Government Scales (name and content borrowed from Handbook of Management Scales) is a collection of previously used multi-item scales to measure constructs in empirical e-government research literature.
The Handbook of E-Government Scales helps to find previously used scales, but will not release the researcher from carefully testing the scales in terms of reliability and validity before using them.
You are invited to contribute by adding new multi-item metrics to this Scales Handbook. Scales from high-ranked journals are preferred that are developed in a systematic scale development process and that are tested to measure a construct in terms of specification (reflective vs. formative), dimensionality, reliability, and validity (including content, convergent, discriminant, and nomological validity). For each scale at least its objective items, source, and, if available, reliability (e.g. Cronbach's alpha, item reliability, composite reliability, average variance extracted) should be listed.
# E-government/About the Author
## About the Author

Patricia J. Pascual is Director for Research and Policy Advocacy of Digital Philippines, a think tank providing research and technical assistance to industry associations, advocacy groups, and government to facilitate business/investment and assist government in developing and promoting the Philippine ICT industry. She is co-author of e-Government in the Philippines: Benchmarking Against Global Best Practices and SMEs and e-Commerce in Three Philippine Cities, both published in April 2002.
# E-government/Acknowledgements
## Acknowledgements

The author acknowledges her debt of gratitude to the following:
* Mr. Tom Parks, ICT Program Officer of The Asia Foundation; Dr. Clay Wescott, Senior Public Administration Specialist of the Asian Development Bank; and Mr. Khoong Chan Meng, Managing Principal (Management Consulting for e-Government) of Atos Origin (Singapore) Pte. Ltd., for reviewing this primer and providing invaluable and critical insight.
* Boying Lallana, for getting me started.
* Rudy, Joey, Edwin, Zorah, and Pat, for their diligence and patience. Managing this project with you as my teammates has made my life easier.
* Bi Tinio, for helping me escape when I needed it most.
* Katch, for her invaluable assistance in helping me run the day-to-day activities of Digital Philippines.
* Joe & Ary Pascual, for teaching me excellence.
# E-government/Introduction
## Introduction

Information and communications technologies (ICTs) are playing an increasingly vital role in the daily lives of people, revolutionizing work and leisure and changing the rules of doing business. In the realm of government, ICT applications are promising to enhance the delivery of public goods and services to citizens not only by improving the process and management of government, but also by redefining the traditional concepts of citizenship and democracy.
The effects of ICTs on societies are both far-reaching and uneven. On the one hand, ICT is fueling the transition from industrial-based economies to knowledge-based societies. On the other hand, ICT still has little or no impact in the lives of people in many countries. This wide disparity in the impact of ICT around the world today underscores the uneven progress of economic development. It also highlights the critical role of government in the information age.
The goal of this primer is to clarify the major issues surrounding e-government, as well as to provide readers with best practices in e-governance in the developing world. Leaders committed to e-government are demonstrating that by combining technology with new ways of operating, government can be made much more effective, transparent and responsive.
# Final Fantasy/Weapons/Hand Axe

| Weapon Type | Axe |
| Bought At | Pravoka |
| Price | 550 G |
| Damage Bonus | 16 |
| Hit % Bonus | 5 |
The Hand Axe is the smallest and lightest of the axes. It is a relatively simple weapon, converted from the tool known as a hatchet and can often be used for similar purposes when not in combat. The Hand Axe is a medium-sized axe blade attached to a short wooden rod, wielded with one hand.
The Hand Axe may be used by:
* Fighter / Knight
* Ninja
Final Fantasy Origins: Battle Axe
# Final Fantasy/Weapons/Iron Staff

| Weapon Type | Staff |
| Bought at | Elfland |
| Price | 200 G |
| Damage Bonus | 14 |
| Hit % Bonus | 0 |
An Iron Staff is a large bludgeoning weapon similar to the Wooden Staff but made of solid iron rather than wood. Iron Staves are quite heavy, and only strong characters are able to wield them properly. This disqualifies many of the usual users of staves, and leads to the Iron Staff being one of the most uncommon weapons in the world.
The Iron Staff may be used by:
* Fighter / Knight
* Ninja
* Black Belt / Master
Final Fantasy Origins: Crosier
# Final Fantasy/Weapon Shops

Weapon stores are the business portion of a blacksmith's operation. The weapons that the smith creates are sold to adventurers for their use in destroying monsters and villains. Each smith has different abilities, and so the availability of weapons in each weapon store will depend on its location.
The weapon stores and their wares are:
* Coneria
** Wooden Staff (Staff)
** Small Dagger (Knife)
** Wooden Nunchaku (Nunchaku)
** Rapier
** Iron Hammer (Hammer)
* Pravoka
** Iron Hammer (Hammer)
** Short Sword (Broadsword)
** Hand Axe (Battle Axe)
** Scimitar
* Elfland
** Iron Nunchaku
** Large Dagger (Dagger)
** Iron Staff (Crosier)
** Silver Sword (Mythril Sword)
** Sabre (Saber)
# Final Fantasy/Weapons/Large Dagger

| Weapon Type | Dagger |
| Bought At | Elfland |
| Price | 175 G |
| Damage Bonus | 7 |
| Hit % Bonus | 10 |
The Large Dagger is a long, deadly knife used primarily as a stabbing weapon. While shorter than all types of swords, the Large Dagger is still a formidable weapon. It is also extremely simple to use, and any warrior that does not have religious objections to the use of such weapons is able to wield a Large Dagger.
The Large Dagger may be used by:
* Fighter / Knight
* Thief / Ninja
* Red Mage / Red Wizard
* Black Mage / Black Wizard
Final Fantasy Origins: Dagger
# Final Fantasy/Weapons/Iron Nunchaku

| Weapon Type | Nunchaku |
| Bought at | Elfland |
| Price | 200 G |
| Damage Bonus | 16 |
| Hit % Bonus | 0 |
The Iron Nunchaku is a weapon consisting of two iron rods attached to each other by a short chain. The wielder holds one of the rods and attacks by swinging the other rod at his foes. Like the Wooden Nunchaku, the other type of Nunchaku, the Iron Nunchaku is a difficult weapon to learn to use properly, and so its use is limited to a small number of martial artists.
The Iron Nunchaku is the most powerful weapon (short of Masamune) available to Black Belts and Masters, but they are typically more adept at unarmed combat by the time you can obtain it.
The Iron Nunchaku may be used by:
* Ninja
* Black Belt / Master
# Final Fantasy/Weapons/Sabre

| Weapon Type | Sword |
| Bought At | Elfland |
| Price | 450 G |
| Damage Bonus | 13 |
| Hit % Bonus | 5 |
Sabres are vicious curved weapons related to the Scimitar. The Sabre is longer with a less pronounced curve. As a result, the Sabre is slightly less accurate but more powerful. Sabres are usually wielded by those who desire a balance between accuracy and damage.
The Sabre may be used by:
* Fighter / Knight
* Thief / Ninja
* Red Mage / Red Wizard
Final Fantasy Origins: Saber
# Final Fantasy/Vitality

The statistic Vitality is a measure of how much damage a hero can take before being slain. It is necessary to have a high Vitality score for any warrior who intends on engaging foes in hand-to-hand combat. Fighters, Knights, Black Belts, and Masters tend to be extremely tough, and the White Mage and White Wizard are also fairly resistant to enemy assaults. The Black Mage and Black Wizard have low Vitality scores and are thus more likely to be killed quickly in a melee.
# Final Fantasy/Weapons/Iron Hammer

| Weapon Type | Hammer |
| Bought At | Coneria Pravoka |
| Price | 10 G |
| Damage Bonus | 9 |
| Hit % Bonus | 0 |
Iron Hammers are large bludgeoning weapons used in combat by those who are restricted by their religion from using edged arms and by their lack of skill from using nunchaku. They do not required a great deal of talent to use, and the unwieldiness of the hammer means that tactics are limited to simply swinging away and hoping that the hammer hits a foe.
The Iron Hammer is the best starting weapon for the White Mage.
The Iron Hammer may be used by:
* Fighter
* White Mage
Final Fantasy Origins: Hammer
# Final Fantasy/Weapons/Rapier

| Weapon type | Sword |
| Bought at | Coneria |
| Price | 10 G |
| Damage Bonus | 9 |
| Hit % Bonus | 5 |
The Rapier is the most basic sword. The Rapier is a fairly simple and cheap weapon, accessible to many warriors. It is two-edged although the primary use of the Rapier is for thrusting attacks. The use of the Rapier is widespread among the local Conerian guardsmen, as it is the most advanced weapon that the smiths have knowledge of.
The Rapier is an excellent starting weapon for the Fighter, Red Mage, and Thief.
The Rapier may be used by:
* Fighter / Knight
* Thief / Ninja
* Red Mage / Red Wizard
# GLBasic Programming/BASIC/GOTO

This is the use of GOTO:

## Eplanation

It repeats the part "beginning", so the numbers change fast.
# GLBasic Programming/BASIC/Your First Program

To make you're first program, make a new file and type this:

## Explanation:

* CLEARSCREEN makes the screen clear the screen
* PRINT displays everything between quotations and places it at x100, y100
* SHOWSCREEN shows everything typed above on the screen
* KEYWAIT makes the program wait until a key is pressed (You also can use MOUSEWAIT)
* END stops the program there
# GLPK

| 4.65 | GLPK current stable release |
Welcome to the Wikibook about GLPK, the GNU Linear Programming Kit for solving large-scale linear programming (LP), mixed integer programming (MIP), and other related problems. GLPK is free software and licensed under the GNU General Public License 3.
This Wikibook also covers a number of related initiatives (for instance, cross-platform model editors) which have clustered around the mainline GLPK project.
This book was started in June 2010 and is currently under construction. Your participation in the writing and editing of the GLPK wikibook is highly appreciated. If you have any idea as to how this book can be improved, please place your suggestion in the Task List.
You can search this book. You can search the GLPK mailing list archives. You can chat about GLPK at ircs://chat.freenode.net:6697/glpk.

## Table of Contents

* Introduction
* Reviews and benchmarks
* Obtaining GLPK
* Compiling GLPK
** Windows
** Mac OS X
** Linux OS
** Solaris OS
** Cross Compilation
* Precompiled options
** Windows executables
** Mac OS X packages
** Linux packages
** Android app
* GMPL (MathProg)
** Using GLPSOL
** Using GMPL (MathProg)
** Steps of GMPL File Processing
** Modeling logical constraints
** Modeling Lower and Upper Bounds
** Conditional Constraints
** Scripting plus MathProg
** Output to GMPL data file
** ODBC (database) connectivity
** Table Statement
** Graphical Output
*** Scalable Vector Graphics
*** Gnuplot
** GMPL Workarounds
* GMPL (MathProg) examples
** Knapsack Problem
** Electricity markets
** Energy modeling
** Portfolio Optimization
** Unix Batch Execution
* GLPK IDEs
** Cross-platform IDEs
** Windows IDEs
** Mac OS X IDEs
** Linux IDEs
* Terminal output
* Solution information
* Scaling
* Add-ons and extensions
* Language bindings
** Ada
** C/C++
** C#
** F#
** Fortran
** GAMS
** Go
** Haskell
** Java
** JavaScript
** Julia
** Matlab
** Node.js
** Octave
** OCaml
** OptimJ
** Python
** R
** Ruby
** Rust
** Visual Basic for Applications (VBA)
** Visual Basic .NET
* Using the GLPK callable library
** Compiling with the GLPK library
** Error handling
** Callback functions
** API usage for common tasks
** Third-party API wrappers
** IAJAAR.H project
** Application projects utilizing GLPK
* Mixing GLPK with other solver packages
* Modeling tips
* Known issues
* Troubleshooting
* Interoperability
* GLPK file extensions
* Background theory
* Academic sites and public blogs
* Literature
* FAQ (circa 2003)
* License
* Help-GLPK and Bug-GLPK searchable archive
* Sandbox (for content under development)
# GLPK/API usage

This page provides examples of API usage for commonly encountered tasks.

## Prescribed starts

A solution can be read from file using the following API routines:
* glp_read_sol - read basic solution
* glp_read_ipt - read interior point solution
* glp_read_mip - read MIP solution
The solution read with glp_read_sol can serve as initial basis for solving a LP using the simplex algorithm (this is what glpsol command line parameter --ini does).
For mixed integer problems an integer feasible (but possibly suboptimal) starting solution can be specified using the GLPK API (a feature not available through GLPSOL).
The callback hook from the integer solver is used for this purpose. First write a custom callback routine and register this with the MIP solver using the MIP control parameter structure glp_iocp and field cb_func.
Then call glp_ios_reason from your callback routine and if GLP_IHEUR is returned, set and solve your desired starting solution as follows:
* preset the integer variables in tree->mip
* default initialize the parameter struct parm by calling: glp_init_smcp(&parm)
* reset the parameter struct field thus: parm.meth = GLP_DUALP
* solve the LP: int ret = glp_simplex(tree->mip, &parm)
* pass all variables by calling function glp_ios_heur_sol
This early-2013 [Help-glpk] thread here and here contains relevant information and the following code snippet (while noting that the use of void* is not good style):
where solution is a const double array which contains the primal values of all the variables in locations x[1],...,x[n] where n is the number of columns in the original problem object.

## Karush-Kuhn-Tucker optimality conditions (obsolete)

Please note the call lpx_check_ktt was upgraded to glp_check_ktt with version 4.49. The struct LPXKKT is no longer used.
GLPK provides the lpx_check_ktt routine to check the KKT optimality conditions for a basic solution. The function signature is:
The parameter scaled can be set to 0 to check the original unscaled problem or non-zero to check the internally scaled problem. A typical call might be:
This call fills the struct kkt, which can then be interrogated.
# GLPK/Ada

Ada is a programming language defined in ISO/IEC 8652:2012.
Ada can call C libraries directly. The following program glpkversion.adb invokes glp_version to output the version of the GLPK library.
Compile, bind and link it with
A more elaborate example of using GLPK with Ada may be found in the Futoshiki application in KuKu3.
# GLBasic Programming/BASIC/IF...THEN...ELSEIF...ELSE

This part is about the commands IF THEN ELSEIF ELSE.
I hope you got it now.
# GLBasic Programming/BASIC/PRINT, CLEARSCREEN, and END

Here you can see more of the PRINT CLEARSCREEN and END functions:
It makes:
Because there is a END function, the stuff after the END is not used.
# GLBasic Programming/BASIC/Variables and Data Types

Print " fun "
# GLPK/Academic sites and public blogs

This page lists links to academic sites and public blogs.

## Academic sites

* Jeffrey Kantor’s Introduction to Operations Research module
* Tommi Sottinen’s course notes on operations research and GLPK GPLSOL
* Tommi Sottinen’s course notes on operations research and the glpk Octave call

## Public blogs

* Sebastian Pokutta’s blog on GLPK.
* IEOR Tools Tutorial on Using GLPK in Windows GLPK_Tutorial
* IEOR Tools Interview with GUSEK developer Luis Bettoni GUSEK_Interview

## LaTeX syntax highlighting

MathProg can be set with syntax highlighting under LaTeX. Download the AMPL syntax file at puszcza.gnu.org.ua/support/?287 and try the following TeX:
Portuguese accents (used in the comments) did not work under utf8, so the encoding was changed to latin1.

## References

* ↑ Sottinen, Tommi (2009). Operations research with GNU Linear Programming Kit. ORMS1020 course notes. Department of Mathematics and Statistics, University of Vaasa, Finland. http://lipas.uwasa.fi/~tsottine/lecture_notes/or.pdf.
* ↑ Sottinen, Tommi (2010). Operations research with GNU Octave. ORMS1020 course notes. Department of Mathematics and Statistics, University of Vaasa, Finland. http://lipas.uwasa.fi/~tsottine/or_with_octave/or_with_octave.pdf.
# GLBasic Programming/BASIC/Image Import

To import a picture, place it in the program folder and just copy and paste it in the window:
It gives:
# GLSL Programming/Unity/Two-Sided Surfaces

This tutorial covers two-sided per-vertex lighting.
It's part of a series of tutorials about basic lighting in Unity. In this tutorial, we extend Section “Specular Highlights” to render two-sided surfaces. If you haven't read Section “Specular Highlights”, this would be a very good time to read it.

### Two-Sided Lighting

As shown by the figure of the algebraic surface, it's sometimes useful to apply different colors to the two sides of a surface. In Section “Cutaways”, we have seen how a fragment shader can use the built-in variable gl_FrontFacing to determine whether a fragment is part of a front-facing or a back-facing triangle. Can a vertex shader also determine whether it is part of a front-facing or a back-facing triangle? The answer is a clear: no! One reason is that the same vertex can be part of a front-facing and a back-facing triangle at the same time; thus, whatever decision is made in the vertex shader, it is potentially wrong for some triangles. If you want a simple rule to remember: “Fragments are either front-facing or back-facing. Vertices are bi.”
Thus, two-sided per-vertex lighting has to let the fragment shader determine, whether the front or the back material color should be applied. For example, with this fragment shader:
On the other hand, this means that the vertex shader has to compute the surface lighting twice: for a front face and for a back face. Fortunately, this is usually still less work than computing the surface lighting for each fragment.

### Shader Code

The shader code for two-sided per-vertex lighting is a straightforward extension of the code in Section “Specular Highlights”. It requires two sets of material parameters (front and back) and deactivates culling. The vertex shader computes two colors, one for front faces and one for back faces using the negated normal vector and the second set of material parameters. Then the fragment shader decides which one to apply.
Again, this code consists of two passes, where the second pass is the same as the first apart from the additive blending and the missing ambient color.

### Summary

Congratulations, you made it to the end of this short tutorial with a long shader. We have seen:
* Why a vertex shader cannot distinguish between front-facing and back-facing vertices (because the same vertex might be part of a front-facing and a back-facing triangles).
* How to compute lighting for front faces and for back faces in the vertex shader.
* How to let the fragment shader decide which color to apply.

### Further Reading

If you still want to know more
* about the shader version for single-sided surfaces, you should read Section “Specular Highlights”.
* about front-facing and back-facing triangles in GLSL, you should read Section “Cutaways”.
< GLSL Programming/Unity