OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Biomedical Engineering Theory And Practice/Biomedical Instrumentation

The concept of Biomedical Instruments has greatly evolved from simple instruments such as Thermometers and Stethoscopes into more sophisticated Magnetoencephalograms and Magnetocardiograms. This is a natural response for the demand of medical professionals for accurate and reliable medical instruments. The number of medical instruments has grown to more than 10,000, and the complexity of these instruments has grown at the same pace.

## Table of contents

* Electrocardiography (ECG)
* Electroencephalography (EEG)
* Non-invasive Blood Pressure
* Pulse Oximetry
* Patient Monitors
* Basic Diagnostic Ultrasound

## References

* ↑ The Biomedical Engineering Handbook, Second Edition; Joseph D. Bronzino [Ed.], CRC Press, 2000
# Biomedical Engineering Theory And Practice/Biomaterials/Introduction to biomaterials

The United States National Institute of Health Consensus Development Conference defined a biomaterial as ‘‘Any substance (other than a drug) or combination of substances, synthetic or natural in origin, which can be used for any period of time, as a whole or as a part of a system which treats, augments, or replaces any tissue, organ, or function of the body’’ (Boretos and Eden, 1984). Biomaterials area has grown over for 50 years. Biomaterils as a field uses ideas from medicine, biology, chemistry, materials science and engineering. In addition, biomaterials researchers should consider ethics,law and the health care delivery system.
Biomaterials can be divided into metals, ceramics, polymers, glasses, carbons, and composite materials. Such materials are used as molded or machined parts, coatings, fibers, films, foams,fabrics, liquid and powder.

### What kind of properties is important in Biomaterials?

* Toxicology
* Biocompatibility
* Healing
* Mechanical requirements
* Industrial involvement
* ethics
* regulations

### Biomaterials societies

* American Society for Artificial Internal Organs (ASAIO)
* Society For Biomaterials USA
* The European Society for Biomaterials
* The Canadian Society For Biomaterials
* The Japanese Society of Biomaterials
* The Korean Society of Biomaterials
* The Controlled Release Society
# Biomedical Engineering Theory And Practice/Biosensors & Biochips

2.1 The role of instrumentation in biomedical engineering.
2.2 a very swift review of basic electronics: Charge, Current, Voltage, Power, Energy, Resistance Kirchhoff ’s Law's, Resistors in Series and Parallel Voltage and Current Divider Rules Linear Network Analysis: Nodal Mesh etc Thevenin’s and Norton’s Theorems Inductors, Capacitors & Combinations
2.3 Bioinstrumentation specific stuff: Amplifiers for Biopotential Time Variant Signals & Phasors Passive & Active Filters instrumentation Design Waveform Generators for testing Signal analysis and software
# Biomedical Engineering Theory And Practice/Biomechanics V
## Further Reading

* Bronzino, Joseph D. (April 2006). The Biomedical Engineering Handbook, Third Edition. [CRC Press]. ISBN 978-0-8493-2124-5.
* Villafane, Carlos, CBET. (June 2009). Biomed: From the Student's Perspective, First Edition. [Techniciansfriend.com]. ISBN 978-1-61539-663-4.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
* Information related to biomedical engineering.
# Biomedical Engineering Theory And Practice/Biotechnology

See also 'Wikipedia,Biotechnology'
# Ceramicware Defects Handbook

This handbook is produced specifically to list down the defects that are commonly found in ceramicware and ways to reduce the defects.
The ceramicist and the industrial ceramic producers may found this book to be upmost helpful in troubleshooting the problems that they may have faced during daily production and preventive steps to reduce the same defects from occurring again in the production. However, take note that some of the "defects" mentioned here such as crawling may be deliberately introduced in certain types of ceramic ware to enhance the aesthetic of the ceramic wares.
On the endnotes, by producing this book, it is hoped that the ceramicist as well the industrial ceramic producers may have an understanding of the basic theory of the ceramics and their defects and the ways to solve them.
All of defects that are listed here are grouped accordingly to the processes where it mostly occurs:

## Table of Contents
### Bisqueware/Biscuitware

    Crack
    Dunting
    Pinhole
    Specking

### Glazed ware/Glost ware

    Crazing

### Decoration

    Crawling
    Colour flow
    Colour variation

## References

All of infos presented here is taken and heavily modified from these 2 sources:
* Ceramic manufacturing practices and technologies ISBN 9781138504080
* Ceramics: From Processing to Production ISBN 9781861251473
* Extrusion in ceramics ISBN 9783540271000
* https://potbankdictionary.blogspot.com
* https://digitalfire.com/4sight/glossary/index.html
# Ceramicware Defects Handbook/Colour flow
## Colour Flow
### Defects description

Some colour pigments especially cobalt blue and nickel can be affected by covering glazes during firing which will produce blurred outline The problems are more noticeable if the decorations are at slanted and not flat-down surfaces

### Causes & solutions

* Glaze is too thick. Thicker glaze may "flow" down and drag colour pigment with it. Thinning the glaze as realistically possible by applying lesser glaze.
* Lower the glaze firing temperature for the glaze to melt lesser molten glaze (To minimiises potential of molten glazes "dragging" colour pignments)
* Adding 5%-10% alumina in the glaze to increase molten glaze viscocity
* Shorten the soaking period as realsitically as possible (Also not too short until the glaze layer is not properly melted)
# Cellular Automata/References
## Books
### Cellular automata

* Wolfram, Stephen, A New Kind of Science. Wolfram Media, Inc., May 14, 2002. ISBN 1579550088
* Andrew Wuensche and Mike Lesser, The Global Dynamics of Cellular Automata An Atlas of Basin of Attraction Fields of One-Dimensional Cellular Automata
* Berlekamp, Conway, Guy. Winning Ways for your Mathematical Plays. Academic Press. 1982

### Mathematics

* Henryk Minc, Nonnegative Matrices, 1988
* James Norris, Markov Chains

### Automata and language theory

* John E. Hopcroft, Rajeev Motwani, Jeffrey D. Ullman - Introduction to Automata Theory, Languages, and Computation (2nd Edition)
* Lewis and Papadimitriou. Elements of the Theory of Computation. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, 1998.

## Articles

* Lyman Hurd, What are Cellular Automata (CA)? , CA FAQ
* Erica Jen, Enumeration of Preimages in Cellular Automata, Complex Systems 3 (1989) 421-456
* Harold V. McIntosh, Linear Cellular Automata Via de Bruijn Diagrams
* Hidenosuke Nishio, Information Dynamics of Cellular Automata II: Completness, Degeneracy and Entropy
* Klaus Sutner. On the computational complexity of finite cellular automata. J. Comput. System Sci., 50(1):87-97, 1995.
* Klaus Sutner. Linear cellular automata and Fischer automata. Parallel Comput., 23(11):1613-1634, 1997
* Stephan Wolfram Compatation theory of cellular automata. Communications in Mathematical Physics 96:15-57, 1984.
* Stephen Wolfram (Ed.), Theory and Applications of Cellular Automata, World Scientific Press, Singapore, 1986 ISBN 9971-50-124-4 pbk).

## Software

* DDLab Tools for researching Cellular Automata, Random Boolean Networks, multi-value Discrete Dynamical Networks, and beyond; by Andy Wuensche.
* Grail+ A symbolic computation environment for finite-state machines, regular expressions, and finite languages.
* CAPOW (Cellular Automata & Electric Power) a Windows application that can simulate and analyze various one-dimensional and two-dimensional cellular automata.
# Cellular Automata/Rule

* special reversible rules
* totalistic rules
* XML and other exotic rules

## Rule definitions
### Second order rules

transforming a second order rule of neighborhood size $k$ into a first order rule of neighborhood size $2k-1$

## Clustering rules

or different symmetries
* input complement
* output complement
* reflection symmetry
* rotation smetry (2D) ?can be produced by reflection no it can not
* equivalence class

### Equivalence classes
## References

* Mirek Wojtowicz, Cellular Automata rules lexicon
* Global Dynamics
* http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetries
* http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equivalence_class
* http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclidean_plane_isometry
* about xlcau21 (22) http://groups.google.com/group/comp.theory.cell-automata/browse_frm/thread/b4596943ee04f3d6/9fffa47e715ffb7e?q=symmetry&rnum=6&hl=en#9fffa47e715ffb7e

### mix

* http://groups.google.com/group/comp.theory.cell-automata/browse_thread/thread/eedd3e963691fda2/41f376c8b51455b2?q=clusters&rnum=5&hl=en#41f376c8b51455b2
* http://groups.google.com/group/comp.theory.cell-automata/browse_frm/thread/2375d42de9f86ee1?tvc=1&q=clusters&hl=en
* http://groups.google.com/group/comp.theory.cell-automata/browse_frm/thread/86b9db28b67edf1/c5aac90b816f8f32?q=symmetry&rnum=21&hl=en#c5aac90b816f8f32
* http://groups.google.com/group/comp.theory.cell-automata/browse_frm/thread/3a24112941446717/1e809a7956a95529?q=symmetry&rnum=9&hl=en#1e809a7956a95529
# Cellular Automata/Sandbox
## Some Definitions
### Quiescent state

    A cell is in a quiescent state $a$, if all cells in its neighborhood are the same quiescent state.
    $f(aaa\dots a)=a$

### Nilpotent rule (of order n)

    Any configuration evolves in at most $n$ steps into a configuration with all cells in any quiescent state $a$.
    $\forall C^{t}\;\Delta t\geq n\;:\;C^{t+\Delta t}=\dots aaa\dots$

### Idempotent configuration (of order n)

    A configuration that in at most $n$ steps evolves into a steady configuration (C^{t+1}=C^t).
    $\Delta t\geq n\;:\;C^{t+\Delta t}=C^{t+\Delta t+1}$

### Idempotent rule

    A rule for which all configurations are idempotent.
    $\forall C^{t}\;\Delta t\geq n\;:\;C^{t+\Delta t}=C^{t+\Delta t+1}$

### Superluminal configuration

    A configuration for which the phase speed is greater than the speed of light. The phase speed is the shift of the configuration per time.

### Eather pattern

    A background for gliders, sometimes the most common background.
# Ceramicware Defects Handbook/Colour variation
## Colour variation
### Defects Description

The tonal of the underglaze decorations shown has shown significant differences where the colour reproductions are differs from batch to batch

### Causes & Solutions

* Glazes
    Solutions: Original colour batch are fired alongside with new colour batch to see if there are differences between these two batches. Repeat the test in glazed ware, if there are differences noted, the problem are highly possible resides with glazes used. For examples, low solubility glazes may give brighter colour response but take note that low solubility glazes differ from each other. Potclays 2204 glaze may give superior colour response compared to Potclays 2205 glaze.
* Underglazes coating are too thinly applied
    Solutions: If too thinly applied the colour may changed for example from brown to gray
* Differences in firing temperatures
    Solutions: Pigment colours that contain selenium, cadmium, copper will burn away at elevated temperatures.
* Sulphur trioxide chemicals may affect colours (browning of chroma green)
# Cellular Automata/Table of Figures

Figures are sorted according their similarity into source files in OpenOffice.org 2.0 format.
# Ceramicware Defects Handbook/Crawling
## Crawling
### Defects description

Crawling is described as the bare area(s) in which the molten glaze does not cover during the glaze firing. The severity of the defects may vary from case to case from the isolated area (pin hole) to more serious cases such as 'beading' which it is akin to forming beads of water on waxed surfaces. Generally, it is caused by surface tension forces (particular in molten glaze) overcoming the adhesion forces.

### Causes and solutions

The common cause of the crawling such as:
* Underglazes decorations may cause crawling due excess of the medium (in underglaze decoration) or insufficient fluxes.
    Excessive mediums cause the greasy surfaces causing glazes unable to stick to the underglaze decoration. Hardening (about 600 C) should burn away the medium and will cause colour to sinter and bonded firmly to the ceramic ware.
    Insufficent flux can be remedied by adding flux (borax frit) in 5%-50% or SCMC binders in 1%-3% to colour pigment may help for the glazes to attach to underglaze decorations.
* Area may be contaminated with grease, specks of dust or similar materials which will cause lack of adhesion glaze which causing the glaze to roll back during glaze firing
* Thick glazes may aggravate the problems since minute cracks may be formed during firing which is then healed leading to the formation of large cracks in molten glaze producing crawling. It is usually seen in inside holloware and around handle joints. Thin the glaze by using water or adding a bit of binder (to increase adhesion)
    Consider using spray glazing instead of manual dipping as this has several advantages
       # The glaze is partially dried when travelling from nozzle guns to the ceramic surfaces (Reduced water contents will be helping in forming less crawling)
       # The sprayed glaze is deposited in a more 'fluffy' arrangement which offers less resistance for water vapour to escape during glaze firing
* Overgrinding glazes may produce dusty glazes with poor adhesion. Also due to the chemical compositions, it will become more viscous increases crawling risks
* Zircon opacified glazes, zinc oxides, high alumina and leadless glazes are considered as highly viscous glaze. Highly viscous glaze may be corrected using extra additives such as flux (borax flit) or firing at higher temperatures.
* Glaze recipes formed partly of colemanite by Asian sources which generate voluminous gases which cause patches of glazes ejected from wares. Adding flux calcium borate frit to the glaze or slower rate firing (increase soaking time) may reduce the crawling to ensure the gasses had ample times to escape.
# Ceramicware Defects Handbook/Crazing
## Crazing

Descriptions: It is a network of fine cracks spreading throughout the glost ceramic wares. If the pottery body is porous, crazing permits the moisture to enter into pottery articles (such as earthenware) making the ware unhygienic for dining purposes. Some of the craze lines is so fine that it is usually undetected with normal visual inspections.
Solutions:
* The crazing line is usually found more on thicker glaze areas. Therefore, one of the most obvious solutions is to reduce glaze thickness.
* Underfiring in glost firing (Temperature must be over 1100C) as the glaze obtain body thermal expansion that will be sufficient to avoid crazing as with most cases of glaze. If craze appears, refiring the crazed ware should clear the problem provided the glaze can withstand high firing temperatures
* Insufficient heatwork as the firing time is reduced making the glost firing not giving enough heatwork to the ceramic ware. The usual standard firing cycles is around ramping of 100C-120C/hour should suffice to reduce crazing in ceramic ware
* A Combination of low expansion body/high expansion glaze may cause crazing at normal glazes. For body, consider adding cristobalite to induce body expansion. For the glaze, to reduce expansion, consider adding zircon (5% amount) into the glaze to reduce thermal expansion and increase hardness. Also consider replacing soda, potash and/or alumina with zirconia, magnesia, ,zinc oxide or boric oxide.
* Heat shock also causing crazing. Therefore to reduce crazing, it is ideal to open up the kiln only when the kiln is around 150C and below.
# Dichotomous Key/Actinopterygii

Dichotomous Key: Selachimorpha :
* Kingdom: Animalia
* Phylum: Animalia
* Subphylum: Chordata
* Class: Selachimorpha
Information related to Selachimorpha :
* Wikipedia
* Wikispecies
* Wikicommons
* Parent key: Chordata
* Subphyla
* Vertebrata
* Key: Selachimorpha
* Vertebrata
* Clerck, 1757

## 1

* Spiracles
** Present - Chondrostei
** Either only remnants present or spiracles absent - #2

## 2

* Spiracles
** Remnants present - Holostei
** Absent - Teleostei
# Dichotomous Key/Annelida

Dichotomous Key: Annelida :
* Kingdom: Animalia
* Phylum: Annelida
Information related to Annelida :
* Wikipedia
* Wikispecies
* Wikicommons
* Parent key: Animalia
* Phyla
* Annelida
* Key: Annelida
* Annelida
* {{{6}}}

## 1

* Parapodia
** Present - Polychaeta
** Not present - #2: Clitellata
* Animalia keys
* Subkingdom
* Agnotozoa
* Phyla
* Acoelomorpha | Cnidaria | Ctenophora | Myxozoa | Orthonectida | Placozoa | Porifera | Rhombozoa
* Superphylum:Deuterostomia
* Chaetognatha | Chordata | Echinodermata | Hemichordata
* Superphylum:Ecdysozoa
* Arthropoda | Kinorhyncha | Loricifera | Nematoda | Nematomorpha | Onychophora | Priapulida | Tardigrada
* Superphylum:Lophotrochozoa
* Annelida | Brachiopoda | Ectoprocta | Entoprocta | Mollusca | Nemertea | Phoronida | Sipuncula
* Superphylum:Platyzoa
* Acanthocephala | Cycliophora | Gastrotricha | Gnathostomulida | Micrognathozoa | Platyhelminthes | Rotifera

## 2: Clitellata

* Ventral sucker formed from last six segments
** Yes - Hirudinea
** No - Oligochaeta
# Dichotomous Key/Arachnida

Dichotomous Key: Arachnida :
* Kingdom: Animalia
* Phylum: Arthropoda
* Subphylum: Chelicerata
* Class: Arachnida
Information related to Arachnida :
* Wikipedia
* Wikispecies
* Wikicommons
Glossary for this page (all links are to Wikipedia articles) :
* Chelicera: One of the anterior pair of appendages; the mouth parts, often specialized as fangs
* Filiform: Hairlike or threadlike
* Opisthosoma: The posterior section of the body; the abdomen
* Pedipalp: The second pair of appendages of the prosoma
* Petiolate: Attached by a stalk or stem
* Prosoma: The anterior section of the body; the cephalothorax
* Spinneret: The structure where silk is spun
* Suture: An external, linear groove in the body wall
* Tarsus: The fifth segment of the leg, just after the tibia
* Tubercle: A small, round outcrop
Arachnids are the largest and most well known class of the Chelicerata with around 65,000 described species. Members of Arachnida can be found on every continent. There are 11 subgroups that most authorities recognize, but the level of classification and some names are not always agrees upon.

## Key to the Orders of Arachnida

* 1: Opisthosoma clearly segmented, spinnerets absent
* 2: Opisthosoma not segmented or if segmented, spinnerets present on ventral posterior side

## 1

* 3: Opisthosoma has a tail-like elongation, either thick with a sting or thin and whiplike; Usually tropical.
* 6: Opisthosoma lacking tail-like elongatio, or only with a very short appendage.

## 3

* Scorpiones: Opisthosoma ending in a sting; First pair of legs not greatly elongated.
* 4: Opisthosoma not ending in a sting; First pair of legs longer than other pairs.

## 4

* Palpigradi: Pedipalps similar in size to legs; Less than 5 millimeters in length.
* 5: Pedipalps usually much stouter than legs; Usually larger than 5 millimeters in length.

## 5

* Uropygi: Eyes present; Tail long and with many segments; Body blackish and at least 50 millimeters in length.
* Schizomida: Eyes absent; Tail short with one to four segments; Body brownish to yellowish and less than 8 millimeters in length.

## 6

* Pseudoscorpiones: Pedipalps pincerlike; Body more or less oval and flattened; Usually less than 5 millimeters in length.
* 7: Pedipalps leglike or different, but not pincerlike.

## 7

* Solifugae: Chelicerae very large and extending forward; Body yellow to brownish and 20 to 30 millimeters in length.
* 8: With different combination of characters.

## 8

* 9: First pair of legs and tarsi very long; Opisthosoma constricted at the base; Mostly tropical.
* 10: First pair of legs similar to others; Opisthosoma not obviously constricted at the base.

## 9

* Schizomida: Prosoma longer than wide; Opisthosoma with a minute terminal appendage; 5 to 8 millimeters in length.
* Amblypygi: Prosoma wider than long; Opisthosoma without a minute terminal appendage; Body length variable.

## 10

* Ricinulei: Broad flap at anterior end of prosoma concealing chelicerae; Legs not unusually long; Somewhat mite-like or tick-like.
* Opiliones: Broad flap covering chelicerae absent; Legs often very long and slender.
# Dichotomous Key/Acari
## 1

* Trichobothria
** Present - Acariformes
** Not present - 2

## 2: Anactinotrichida

* Free coxae
** Present - Parasitiformes
** Not present - Opilioacariformes
# Dichotomous Key/Amphibia

Dichotomous Key: Amphibia :
* Kingdom: Animalia
* Phylum: Animalia
* Subphylum: Chordata
* Class: Amphibia
Information related to Amphibia :
* Wikipedia
* Wikispecies
* Wikicommons
* Parent key: Chordata
* Subphyla
* Vertebrata
* Key: Amphibia
* Vertebrata
* Clerck, 1757

## 1

* Number of vertebrae
** Nine or fewer - 2
** More than nine - 3
* Chordata keys
* Subphyla
* Myxini | Urochordata
* Classes
* Actinistia | Actinopterygii | Amphibia | Aves | Chondrichthyes | Dipnoi | Mammalia | Petromyzontida | Reptilia
Bold text

## 2: Salientia

* Tailwagging muscles
** Present - 6
** Not present - 7

## 3

* Tail
** Present in all life stages - 5
** Not present in all life stages - 4

## 5: Caudata

* Narrow grooves between each nostril and the upper lip
** Present - Plethodontidae
** Not present - 14

## 6

* Inscriptional ribs
** Present - Leiopelmatidae
** Not present - Ascaphus truei

## 7

* Endochondral ossifications in the hyoid plate (distinct from parahyoid bones)
** Present - Bombinatoridae
** Not present - 8

## 8

* Narrow epipubic cartilage plate
** Present - Discoglossidae
** Not present - 9

## 9

* Astragalus and calcaneum
** Fused - Pelodytidae
** Not fused - 10

## 10

* Metatarsal spade
** Present - 13
** Not present - 11

## 11

* Tongue shape
** Paddle-shaped - Megophryidae
** Other or not existent - 12

## 12

* Tongue
** Present - Neobatrachia
** Not present - Pipidae

## 13

* Elongate atlantal neural arch
** Present - Rhinophrynus dorsalis
** Not present - Pelobatidae

## 14

* Fertilization
** Internal - 15
** External - #16

## 15: Salamandroidea

* Premaxillae
** Fused - 18
** Separated - 19
Dicamptodontidae, Salamandridae, Ambystomatidae, Proteidae, Rhyacotritonidae, Amphiumidae

## 16

* Metamorphosis
** Present (fully or partially) - 17
** Not present - Sirenidae

## 17: Cryptobranchoidea

* Metamorphosis
** Partial - Cryptobranchidae
** Full - Hynobiidae

## 18

* Operculum
** Present - 20
** Not present - 21

## 19

* Operculum
** Present - Salamandridae
** Not present - Amphiumidae

## 20

* Lacrimal bone
** Present - Dicamptodontidae
** Not present - Ambystomatidae

## 21

* Bilaterally paired septomaxillary bones
** Present - Rhyacotritonidae
** Not present - Proteidae