OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# IB Chemistry
## Standard Level Chapters

The last cohort of students to have sat the exams for this 2009 Syllabus did so in November 2015. The new Syllabus published in May 2014 is now the only syllabus in effect. There are now only four Options A - D. the content of these has been radically changed from the previous syllabus.
(The syllabus has changed for the May 2009 exam)
* Topic 1 - Stoichiometry
* Topic 2 - Atomic Theory
* Topic 3 - Periodicity
* Topic 4 - Bonding
* Topic 5 - States of Matter
* Topic 6 - Energetics
* Topic 7 - Kinetics
* Topic 8 - Equilibrium
* Topic 9 - Acids and Bases
* Topic 10 - Oxidation and Reduction
* Topic 11 - Organic Chemistry

## Higher Level Chapters

* Topic 12 - Atomic Theory
* Topic 13 - Periodicity
* Topic 14 - Bonding
* Topic 15 - Energetics
* Topic 16 - Kinetics
* Topic 17 - Equilibrium
* Topic 18 - Acids and Bases
* Topic 19 - Oxidation and Reduction
* Topic 20 - Organic Chemistry

## Option Topics

For the 2009 exams, the options are as follows. Exams require the student to answer the sections of two of the options. These Options topics do not reflect the current state of the Chemistry Syllabus (2020).
* Option A - Modern Analytical Chemistry
* Option B - Human Biochemistry
* Option C - Chemistry in Industry and Technology
* Option D - Medicines and Drugs
* Option E - Environmental Chemistry
* Option F - Food Chemistry
* Option G - Further Organic Chemistry

## Extended Essay

If you want to do your Extended Essay using chemistry as a subject, here's a list of potential topics: Extended Essay

## Other Resources

* Definitions
* Option Definitions
* General Chemistry

## Links

* http://ibchem.com/htm/syllabus2016.htm (notes updated for the 2016 syllabus)
* Great chemistry notes and exam definitions (old)
* IB Chemistry notes and samples from Intense Cogitation
* Detailed IB Chemistry website (recommended)
* Online textbook with questions and tips
* Practice Tests with Answers
* Search Engine for IB Chemistry (beta)
* http://www.ibpapers.info/index.php?dir=/Chemistry
# IB Biology Practical Investigations/Plant Science
## TEACHING IDEAS

Practical investigations or activities included in this section are intended as a teaching resource rather than an assessment tool. Although all practical hourse recorded may be counted on the form 4/PSOW, these activities are probably not suitable for assessment of the IA criteria.
Plant Structure and Growth
Transport in Angiospermophtes
Reproduction in Angiospermophytes

## ASSESSMENT IDEAS

These ideas are included as a starting point for teachers planning investigations in this topic. Investigations included here are not endorsed by the IBO and may not match the criteria precisely. Please exercise caution and judgement when selecting IA topics for submission.
CRITERIA FOR FIRST EXAMS MAY 2009
Design
Data Collection and Processing
Conclusion and Evaluation

## RECOMMENDED TEXTS: PLANT SCIENCE

* Practical Biology for Advanced Level : Roberts, King & Reiss. Nelson ISBN 0-17-544005-0
* Further Investigations in Biology (Vol 3): Plants. Billiet, P. et al. IBID Press, 2001. ISBN 1 876659 53 X
# IB Biology Practical Investigations/The Chemistry of Life/Chemsketch - modeling biological molecules

For this activity you need to download and install Chemsketch 10.0 and the tutorial activity.
Get Chemsketch here:
Get the tutorial activity here: (Or find it on the OCC Biology section)
Students will take about 45 minutes to make and animate a glycine molecule, and should then feel confident enough to make other structures.
Enjoy!
Steve.
# IB Biology Practical Investigations/Statistics
## TEACHING IDEAS

Practical investigations or activities included in this section are intended as a teaching resource rather than an assessment tool. Although all practical hours recorded may be counted on the form 4/PSOW, these activities are probably not suitable for assessment of the IA criteria.
BASIC STATISTICS
Types of Data
* Discrete and Continuous Data
* Mean, Median and Mode
* Standard Deviation
Graphs and Charts
* Axes and labelling
* Choosing the right graph
* Interpreting Graphs
* Distribution
* Error Bars
* Correlation and Causality
Statistical Tests
* The T-test
** Mythbusting: 'Girls can't catch'
** Generating Data: 'Rotator Cuff Stamina'
* Correlations
EXTRA STATS FOR ECOLOGISTS
It's not all just chucking quadrats about and wearing wellies...
* Simpson's Diversity Index
* Correlation
BAD SCIENCE AND THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE
Statistics in Science are abused on a daily basis to knowingly or otherwise misrepresent scientific data. How can students use their new-found statistical skills to see past the smoke and mirrors?
* Bad Science
* Common Errors in Statistics

## RECOMMENDED TEXTS: STATISTICS

* How to Lie With Statistics. Huff, D. W.W. Norton and Co, 1954. ISBN 0 3933 1072 8

## RECOMMENDED WEBSITES

* WikiBook Statistics
* BadScience - a collection of articles from Ben Goldacre at the Guardian newspaper.
# IB Biology Practical Investigations/The Chemistry of Life/Virtual Elodea Lab 1
## VIRTUAL ELODEA LAB

Suitable for a single-session, exam-condition assessment.
Other similar programmes are available on the internet.
ASSESSED CRITERIA:
* Old guide: Pl(a), DC, DPP
* New guide:DCP
MATERIALS REQUIRED:
* 'Science Investigations 1' from Focus Educational Software (2002)
* Stack of lined paper and graph paper.
* Computers/ laptops for students.

## INSTRUCTIONS TO STUDENTS

1. Run a demonstration trial with median settings for each variable.
2. Complete the aim and hypothesis.
3. Collect the software from the teacher
4. Complete the data collection, processing and presentation sections.
5. Write a brief conclusion outlining the significance of the results.
6. Reference sources appropriately.

## OTHER NOTES

To achieve marks for 'MS', you might try the practical for real, though getting worthy data from Elodea can be time-consuming and random. The data used for the DPP section could be generated by the software.
# Modern Photography/History

Louis Daguerre worked with Joseph Niepce, developing the heliograph.
After Niepce's death, Daguerre invented the daguerreotype. It used mercury gas. The pictures it produced had to be viewed at an angle. The wet-plate process was developed from calotype. It created crisp images on glass plates with collodion. It was used to make the first photos of Egypt. Wet-plate was very difficult to travel with, however. The materials would freeze in cold climates, and boil in hot ones.
William Henry Jackson used wet-plate to photograph Yosemite and other national parks. Edward S. Curtis used it to document Native American culture.
Alfred Stieglitz, after studying engineering, studied photography in Berlin. One of his favorite subjects was New York cityscapes.
He was part of the "photo-secession", with Edward Steichen. He published Camera Work magazine. His salon, 291 Galleries, showed work by Rodan, Cézanne, and Picasso. He popularized the work of Georgia O'Keefe through his gallery.
Steichen joined the US Air Corps to protect France during World War II. Stieglitz went bankrupt and considered quitting photography. However, his correspondence with O'Keefe kept him going. Stieglitz and O'Keefe married later. After coming back from the war, Steichen was made curator for the Museum of Modern Art's "Family of Man" exhibit, which toured the world and was the basis for an art book.

### Photo Journalism

The press is known as the "fourth estate." In the US, print isn't restricted, but TV and radio are.
Emmett Till was a black boy who was lynched for whistling at a white woman. Photos of the body were published in the black press.
The Students Non-violent Coordinating Committee is an anti-segregation group. They were victims of police brutality. This was not covered by the media, until the Birmingham riot. Photos of the riot caused difficulties for the US in foreign affairs.
Famous photos taken during this era include the burning monk Quang Duc, a Vietnamese policeman executing a suspect, napalm victims fleeing a village, and a girl crying over a student shot at Kent State.

### Modernist Photography

Styles of modernist photography championed a sharp, crisp focus in the images and generally leaned toward realism in the images.
# Modern Photography/Format

The format of an image is said to be the size of the recording medium or its digital output.

## Format as aspect ratio

Essentially all cameras have a rectangular (or square) frame, the shape of which is expressed in terms of the 'aspect ratio', or width divided by height.
    ${\textrm {AspectRatio}}={\textrm {Width}}\div {\textrm {Height}}$
Typically aspect ratios vary from 1:1 for square-format cameras to 16:9 for some mobile phones, and as much as 4:1 for panoramic cameras. For most cameras, this is a set quantity, although many modern cameras allow the photographer to set the aspect ratio by cropping the image in camera.

## Common aspect ratios

For example, the most common still image photography format in the world is 35mm, which was the dominant film size at the close of the analog film era. It is still produced today, but more importantly its aspect ratio has been inherited by digital camera image sensor formats. The 35mm format is actually, somewhat confusingly, 36mm in width by 24mm in height. The aspect ratio of this format (dividing by twelve to obtain the simplest whole-number ratio) is therefore said to be 3:2. Many common formats (APS family of formats, for example) are equal to or closely approximate this aspect ratio.
A notable exception to the 3:2 still image format aspect ratio is the Four Thirds System, with an aspect ratio of 4:3 as seen in some compact digital cameras.

## From analog to digital

In the analog era, it was common to express formats in terms of the physical size of the recording medium, for example 4×3 inches. These days it is more common to express the format in terms of the accepted short form for the standardized sensor size. For example '35mm' or 'APS-C'.
In terms of composition, these format names are arguably more usefully expressed in terms of aspect ratio, ie. 'the shape of the frame', such as 3:2 or 4:3.
In terms of the resolution available for post-processing digital images, the format alone cannot tell us, we must look at the sensor. Sensor sizes are expressed in terms of pixels, eg. 8688×5792 pixels. It is not possible to determine the pixel count from the sensor format, and vice versa, though there is some relation: larger sensor sizes tend to have larger pixel counts. Because large modern pixel numbers can be hard to remember, the industry has standardized on megapixels, or the number of total pixels divided by 1,000,000 (one million). For example, the Canon 5DS has a resolution of 8688×5792 pixels, which is equal to 50,320,896 pixels in total, or roughly 50.3 megapixels.
# Modern Photography/Flash tables
## Studio delta EV Contrast ratios

Contrast ratio :
| ΔEV | Contrast |
| 1.0 | 1:2 |
| 1.6 | 1:3 |
| 2.0 | 1:4 |
| 2.3 | 1:5 |
| 2.6 | 1:6 |
| 2.8 | 1:7 |
| 3.0 | 1:8 |
| 3.2 | 1:9 |
| 3.3 | 1:10 |

## Studio flash ratios

Studio flash ratios :
| Ratio | f/5 | f/5.6 | f/6.3 | f/7.1 | f/8 | f/9 | f/10 | f/11 | f/13 | f/14 | f/16 | f/18 | f/20 | f/22 |
| f/6.3 | 1:1.5 | 1:1.5 | - | 1:1.5 | 1:1.5 | 1:2.0 | 1:2.5 | 1:3.0 | 1:4.5 | 1:5.0 | 1:6.5 | 1:8.0 | 1:10.0 | 1:12.0 |
| f/7.1 | 1:20 | 1:1.5 | 1:1.5 | - | 1:1.5 | 1:1.5 | 1:2.0 | 1:2.5 | 1:3.5 | 1:4.0 | 1:5.0 | 1:6.5 | 1:8.0 | 1:9.5 |
| f/8 | 1:2.5 | 1:2.0 | 1:1.5 | 1:1.5 | - | 1:1.5 | 1:1.5 | 1:2.0 | 1:2.5 | 1:3.0 | 1:4.0 | 1:5.0 | 1:6.5 | 1:7.5 |
| f/9 | 1:3.0 | 1:2.5 | 1:2.0 | 1:1.5 | 1:1.5 | - | 1:1.0 | 1:1.5 | 1:2.0 | 1:2.5 | 1:3.0 | 1:4.0 | 1:5.0 | 1:6.0 |
| f/10 | 1:4.0 | 1:3.0 | 1:2.5 | 1:2.0 | 1:1.5 | 1:1.0 | - | 1:1.0 | 1:1.5 | 1:2.0 | 1:2.5 | 1:3.0 | 1:4.0 | 1:5.0 |
| f/11 | 1:5.0 | 1:4.0 | 1:3.0 | 1:2.5 | 1:2.0 | 1:1.5 | 1:1.0 | - | 1:1.5 | 1:1.5 | 1:2.0 | 1:2.5 | 1:3.5 | 1:4.0 |
| f/13 | 1:7.0 | 1:5.5 | 1:4.5 | 1:3.5 | 1:2.5 | 1:2.0 | 1:1.5 | 1:1.5 | - | 1:1.0 | 1:1.5 | 1:2.0 | 1:2.5 | 1:3.0 |
| f/14 | 1:8.0 | 1:6.5 | 1:5.0 | 1:4.0 | 1:3.0 | 1:2.5 | 1:2.0 | 1:1.5 | 1:1.0 | - | 1:1.5 | 1:1.5 | 1:2.0 | 1:2.5 |
| f/16 | 1:10.0 | 1:8.0 | 1:6.5 | 1:5.0 | 1:4.0 | 1:3.0 | 1:2.5 | 1:2.0 | 1:1.15 | 1:1.5 | - | 1:1.5 | 1:1.5 | 1:2.0 |
| f/18 | 1:13.0 | 1:10.5 | 1:8.0 | 1:6.5 | 1:5.0 | 1:4.0 | 1:3.0 | 1:2.5 | 1:2.0 | 1:1.5 | 1:1.5 | - | 1:1.0 | 1:1.5 |
# Modern Photography/Interpretation

Interpretation is the process of making sense of an image in various ways.
The interpretation of photographs can be as enigmatic as any other field of visual arts, and is based not only on the photograph itself but the condition of the image, the origin of the image, its social, geographical and temporal context, its mode of presentation and accompanying information.
Images themselves can range from the pure abstract or highly generic through to globally unique and recognizable subjects, like the Eiffel Tower, to mundane manufactured items, starry skies and people. Obviously, different techniques must be used to assist in the interpretation of this broad range of photographs.
When interpreting an image we might frequently seek to:
* Date the image: This may be achieved by a combination of subject (fashions, famous buildings, people or events), technology (print or negative size and quality, properties of the material, etc.).
* Value the image: ...
* Further our understanding of the image itself: ...
* Further our understanding the artist, society or time from which the image came: ...

## Types of interpretation
### Technical

Technical interpretation is the analysis of an image to determine fixed qualities such as age, equipment, technology, materials and processes used. Very often technical interpretation will be

### Image-based

An image-based or non-contextual interpretation is one that is primarily based upon the content of the image itself.

### Aesthetic
## Further reading

* The Morals of Vision: Susan Sontag’s ‘On Photography’ Revisited (Part 1), Darren Campion, 13 June 2017.
* The Morals of Vision: Susan Sontag’s ‘On Photography’ Revisited (Part 2), Darren Campion, 20 June 2017.
# Nature/Life

What is life? The exact definition even Biologists have trouble explaining! But living things have a life, a length of time to live. Living things need the following:
1) Living things need to take in energy.
2) Living things get rid of waste.
3) Living things grow and develop.
4) Living things respond to their environment.
5) Living things reproduce and pass their traits onto their offspring.
6) Over time, living things evolve (change slowly) in response to their environment.
Life is every system that resists entropy on account of the surrounding environment.
# Navajo/Dialogue

| Yá'át'ééh | Hello |
| Daashą' yinílyé? | What's your name. |
| ________ yinishyé. | My name is _____ |
| Díkwíísh ninááhai? | How old are you? |
| Naadiin táá' shinááhai k'ad. | I'm 23 years old. |
| Díkwíí shą' ninááhai? | How old are you? |
| Dízdiin dóó bi'ąą táá' shinááhai. | I am forty-three years old. |
| Háágóó lá nihił 'adeeswod? | Where are you (two) going? |
| Naakaii Naʼnízhoozhígóó deet'áázh. | We (two) are going to Gallup. |
| Bilagáana bizaadísh dinits'a'? | Do you speak English? |
| Dooda, Bilagáana bizaad doo diists'a' da | No, I don't speak English. |
| Díkwíí lá na'áłchíní? | How many children do you have? |
| Táá' sha'áłchíní. | I have three children. |
# Nature/Preface

As a child, I owned a little booklet by C. F. v. Weizsäcker, called The History of Nature, which is still available. It left a great impression on me, because this book described the basic natural sciences of the world in clear, concise words. Despite some factual errors, it is still readable and inspired this Wikibook.
Unfortunately, I have not found a critical examination of religion by C.F. Weizsäcker. It would have been interesting to read his opinion on a delimitation of what is acceptable to the Christian faith and other religions and what is to be rejected from a scientific point of view.
Meanwhile, I have also discovered the following book by CFvW, which I'm going read. Perhaps it will bring me some new insights about his relationship to religion:
Some of the material used in creating this Wikibook has come from my homepage, and is in the public domain.
# Nature/Law
## Citations

* The supreme task of the physicist is to arrive at those universal elementary laws from which the cosmos can be built up by pure deduction. There is no logical path to these laws; only intuition, resting on sympathetic understanding of experience, can reach them. Albert Einstein

## What is a law of nature ? Introduction

During history of the human culture and science rules about nature were found and stored. Among those rules there were very simple laws, as for example the sentence:
Many of these rules were clear to everyone without big thinking: Nearly each human being knew that hungry lions are dangerous. Many of these rules had to be reformulated again and again, since they proved as partly wrong. Some rules were also completely rejected, since they were completely wrong . A famous example of it was the idea: The earth is the center of the universe and the sun moves around the earth. This idea had to be overcome during a long painful process.
A big improvement in the development of scientific rules was the moment when the scientists started to ask questions and answered them by experiments. The speculations became less and less, the experiments and observations became more and more. Some parts of nature however where out of reach for experiments , since the objects were too far away or too heavy.
A further improvement was the idea to formulate laws of nature mathematically. In particular physical laws were easily translated to mathematical statements. Chemistry and biology got along quite a time without mathematics.
Each science thus won a refined set of rules in the course of the time. Again and again contradictions emerged, which had to be fitted in.
It turned out that some events in the development of nature could just be described as a historical fact, but not as a physical law. Randomness was recognized as factor of influence for such historical events. So it is more or less random, when and where the earth was hit by meteorites and which influence such a meteorite impact on the development of the biological evolution took.
Since the term law of nature suggests safe knowledge, it should be used only critically.

## See also

* w:Physical law
# Medical Physiology/Basic Biochemistry/Metabolic Integration
## Summary of Energy Pathways

The following flow sheet is a summary of the energy producing pathways.
Most ATP is produced in the mitochondria via the Citric Acid Cycle, which can utilise both Pyruvate from Glycolosis and Acetyl CoA from fatty acid metabolism. Note that amino acids must be deaminated before entering into the energy production chain.
In a fasting state liver glycogen is the main source of glucose, as only the liver (and the kidney) has the enzymes to convert glucose-6-phosphate to glucose. If the supply of liver glycogen becomes exausted as can occur with prolonged exercise or starvation (the liver has about 6 hours supply of Glycogen) then fatty acids become the main source of energy for cells, however glucose levels must be maintained for brain function, and amino acid catabolism will be come the main source of glucose.
Cells, particularly muscle cells can store their own supply of glycogen, and they can utilise this, but because of a lack of glucose-6-phosphatase they cannot produce glucose for the main pool.

## Summary of Protein Catabolism

Protein is an important source of glucose in the fasting state. Excess protein is also converted to Fat - via. the glucose pool - for storage. Individual acids are cleaved off the peptide chain, and then the amino acid is deaminated producing a fatty acid which enters either the glycolysis path way or the CAC.

## Metabolism Summary

The following diagram is fairly self explanatory, and summarizes how the body nutrition metabolism all fits together.
# Medical Physiology/Cardiovascular Physiology
## Cardiovascular Physiology

Overview
# Medical Physiology/Blood
## Blood

Blood is a connective tissue Blood consists of two parts, plasma and blood cells. Plasma makes up 55% of total blood, while cells and cell like bodies make up 45% of total blood. Plasma is the medium in which various substances are dissolved. These include plasma proteins, various electrolytes, and enzymes. Blood cells are move in plasma. Almost 90% of plasma is water. Plasma proteins make up 7-9% of plasma. The other 1% consists of electrolytes, of which the most important is NaCl(about 0.9%). Cells present in blood are red blood cells(RBCs) and white blood cells(WBCs), while platelets are the cell like bodies.
Blood performs various functions. Some of these are:
1) Transport of nutrients and waste products of cells. Nutrients are transported from gastrointestinal tract to cells while waste products are transported from cells to kidneys.
2) Transport of gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide to and from cells.
3) Maintenance of homeostasis
4) Maintenance of body temperature
5) Protection from invading microbes by WBCs
6) Blood coagulation.
# Network Plus Certification/Tools/Hardware Tools

| « | Network Tools Objective 5.3: Hardware Tools |
| Objective 5.2: Software Tools | Network Tools Objective 5.3: Hardware Tools |
Objective 5.3: Given a scenario, utilize the appropriate hardware tools

## Cable testers

these are used to check the quality of the cable, how many wires that fully connected, a light will indicate how many wires are working

## OTDR (Optical Time-domain Reflectometer)

This is used to check the connectivity of a fibre optic cable and the quality of the connection, by sending timed signals.

## Punch down tool

It is used to connect the network cables to a RJ-45 network connector. It punches down the cable to ensure a connection and then cuts off the excess wires.
# Neurocognition of Language

Neurocognition of Language is intended to develop into a fundamental textbook on language and the brain. It will be started by the students of a seminar course with the same title, at the Departmenf of Psychology at Goethe University Frankfurt / Germany. The texts from the course have been uploaded and we are excited to see how this wikibook will develop in the future!
These chapters are intended as a starting point for the continuous development of the book by future participants in the same class, other students and interested colleagues in the field.

## Contents

* Preface
* Evolution of Language
* Biological Bases of Language
* Speech Comprehension and Speech Production
* Word Recognition
* Sentence Processing
* Reading and Writing
* Language Development
* The Neurocognition of Bilingualism
* Sign Language
* Acquired Disorders of Speech and Language
* Further Resources
We would like to suggest that all contributors to this WikiBook to follow our minimal Guidelines for Authors. These aim at providing the reader with a consistent structure and layout across all chapters.
# Neurocognition of Language/Guidelines for Authors

The concept and initial chapters of Neurocognition of Language were developed as a class project at the Department of Psychology of Goethe University Frankfurt / Germany (summer term 2014). The students involved in this project determined a number of basic style guidelines for this wikibook:
Formatting instructions can be found here: Using_Wikibooks/Wiki-Markup .
More information on editing Wikibooks can be found here: Using_Wikibooks/How_To_Edit_A_Wikibook .
Please consider the Wikibook Polcies and Guidelines: Using_Wikibooks/Policy_and_Guidelines .
# Network Plus Certification/Tools/Software Tools

| « | Network Tools Objective 5.2: Software Tools | » |
| Objective 5.1: Command Line Tools | Network Tools Objective 5.2: Software Tools | Objective 5.3: Hardware Tools |
Objective 5.2: Explain the purpose of network scanners