OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Vietnamese/Lesson 6
## Expressions : giving the age

* How old are you?
Bạn mấy tuổi? (伴某歲？)
* number + tuổi
tôi 14 tuổi - I am 14 years old

## Dialog

* A - chào
* B - chào
* A - Bạn đến từ đâu?
* B - Tôi đến từ Việt Nam
* A - Bạn có anh chị em không?
* B - Tôi có một anh trai và một em gái
* A - Họ mấy tuổi?
* B - Anh trai lớn của tôi 21 tuổi và em gái của tôi 10 tuổi.
Em gái tôi thích trò chơi điện tử.

## Vocabulary

* cha mẹ (吒母) - parents
* cha (ba) - dad (ba is more commonly used in the south)
* mẹ (媄) - mom
* anh lớn - older brother
* chị lớn - older sister
* trai (𪩭) - boy
* gái - girl
* em trai / em gái - younger brother / sister
* trò chơi điện tử - video games

## Grammar : possessive pronouns

* của tôi (𧵑碎) / của minh (𧵑𠵴) - my
* của bạn (𧵑伴) - your
* của nó (𧵑伮) - his / her / its
* của chúng tôi (𧵑眾碎) / của chúng ta (𧵑眾些) - our
* của các bạn (𧵑各伴) - your
* của họ (𧵑戶) - their

## External links

the vietlang video lesson
# Vietnamese/Personal pronouns

Vietnamese is a bit different than Romance languages, in that Vietnamese doesn't just use different pronouns for casual or formal situations, but Vietnamese actually uses different pronouns depending on the relation between the speaker and his/her audience. This relation takes gender, age, and status into account. Basically, Vietnamese refer to everyone as a family member. Also, it is common to use a third person personal pronoun in the first person.

## Singular pronouns
### bạn (friend)

    informal, but not casual; a general-purpose version; use with caution

### anh (brother)

    to a male who is the same age as the speaker

### bà (grandmother, old lady)

    formal; to a female who is older than the speaker

### chị (sister)

    informal; to a female who is the same age as or older than the speaker

### con (child)

    from an adult to a child

### em(younger sister or brother)

    to a female who is the same age as the speaker, or to a person (of either gender) who is younger than the speaker (such as a child)

### mày (you)

    informal, even rude or insulting; to a person younger than the speaker, or to a person held in low esteem; use with caution

### ông (grandfather, old man)

    formal; to a male who is older than the speaker

### cô (father's sister)

    formal; to an older woman as old as one's father, a young (usually unmarried) woman
In addition, there are different pronouns for each kind of relative. For a listing of those pronouns, see Family.
(More to come.)
# Vietnamese/Ng

The sound that ng and ngh make in Vietnamese is by far the hardest sound for Westerners to make. Ng and ngh simply make the last sound in "king" or "running" (as long as you don't make the hard /g/ sound at the end). The problem arises when ng or ngh come at the beginning of a word, as the common family name Nguyễn clearly demonstrates. Here, the speaker has to isolate the /ŋ/ sound, which even many Western dictionaries don't recognize in their pronunciation guides. (Those that do tend to represent it as /ng/.) This lesson will help you to at least pronounce the /ŋ/ sound well enough for a native listener.

### Oral exercise 1: Sing-along

For this exercise, follow the directions below. It may be a good idea to repeat each step until you've mastered it:
* Say the English word "sing-along" the way you normally would.
* Take the /s/ sound away from the beginning.
* Replace "along" with the "eah" in "yeah."
* If you can, take the /i/ (long e) sound away from the beginning as well, without making the hard /g/ sound.
    If you can't do that, try to turn the /i/ sound into a quick schwa (/ə/) sound.
Hopefully, you've just pronounced the word nghe! It should sound something like this.

### Tips

* Touch the back of your tongue to the roof of your mouth.
* Be careful not to make the hard /g/ sound afterwards.
# Vietnamese/Numbers

* không or dê-rô
* một
* hai
* ba
* bốn
* năm
* sáu
* bảy
* tám
* chín
* mười
* mười một (10+1)
* mười hai
* mười ba
* mười bốn
* mười lăm
* mười sáu
* mười bảy
* mười tám
* mười chín
* hai mươi (10 pronounced "mươi" from number 20 to 99) hai chục …
* hai mươi mốt
* hai mươi hai
* hai mươi lăm …
* ba mươi ba chục
* bốn mươi bốn chục
* năm mươi năm chục
* sáu mươi sáu chục
* bảy mươi bảy chục
* tám mươi tám chục
* chín mươi chín chục
* một trăm
* một trăm lẻ một (Southern Vietnamese) một trăm linh một (Northern/Standard Vietnamese) …
* một ngàn một nghìn
* hai ngàn hai nghìn …
* mười ngàn mười nghìn một vạn (rare)
* hai mươi ngàn hai mươi nghìn hai chục ngàn hai chục nghìn hai vạn …
* một trăm ngàn một trăm nghìn
* hai trăm ngàn hai trăm nghìn …
Powers of ten:

## 10

    mười, chục

## 100

    trăm

## 1,000

    ngàn, nghìn

## 10,000

    vạn

## 1,000,000

    triệu

## 100,000,000

    ức

## 1,000,000,000

    tỷ

## 1,000,000,000,000

    ngàn tỷ, nghìn tỷ

## 1,000,000,000,000,000

    triệu tỷ

## 1,000,000,000,000,000,000

    tỷ tỷ
# Vietnamese/Tense

Unlike Western languages, Vietnamese doesn't change the ending of the verb (that is, verbs don't conjugate) to express when the statement occurs (the statement's tense). Instead, Vietnamese relies on context to express tense. So, where textbooks for other languages will need to spend chapters and chapters, or pages and pages, to teach you how to change tense, we'll teach you in one page! See what we mean by simple?

## Tense words

One way to do this is to add certain words either before the verb itself, or at the end of the sentence, or both:

### Present tense

As in most languages, you don't have to do anything special for the present tense – no words expressing tense need to be added. Example:
Tôi học I study

### Present progressive tense

Place đang in front of the verb. Example:
Tôi đang học I am studying

### Past tense

Either place đã in front of the verb, or place rồi at the end of the sentence. You can use both, and it often sounds better when you do use both, but it's not necessary, because both words mean "already." Example:
Anh đã học He already studied
can also be written as:
Anh học rồi He studied already
Whereas many other languages have two past tenses – the preterite and imperfect past – Vietnamese has only one.

### Future tense

Place sẽ (will, shall, is about to, plans to) in front of the verb. Example:
Anh sẽ học He will study

## Time words

There is another, more natural way of expressing tense. Just use words that express time in the sentence:

### Present tense

Again, you don't have to do anything special here. But sometimes it's helpful to add hôm nay (today) at the beginning or end of the sentence, just to clear things up.

### Present progressive tense

Place words like bây giờ (now) or phrases like ngay bây giờ (right now) at the beginning or end of the sentence.

### Past tense

Place words like hôm qua (yesterday) at the beginning or end of the sentence, or words like mới (recently) right before the verb. You can do both, actually.

### Future tense

Place words like ngày mai (tomorrow) at the beginning or end of the sentence.

## Context

Although other methods of expressing tense also rely on context in the sentence, another way to express tense has to do with common sense. For example, in the sentence, . . .
(More to come.)
# Vietnamese/Mythology
## Creation Myth

Lạc Long Quân, according to the creation myth of the Vietnamese people, was the father of the Vietnamese people. Lạc Long Quân was the son and sole successor of the Khương Lộc Tục, the King of Kinh Dương, who ruled over Xích Quỷ.
Lạc Long Quân's wife, Âu Cơ, gave birth to a sac containing 100 eggs from which 100 children were born. One day Lạc Long Quân told Âu Cơ: "I am descended from dragons, you from fairies. We are as incompatible as water is with fire. So we cannot continue in harmony." This said, the husband and wife parted. The man went seawards with 50 of their children, while his wife went to the mountains with the other half of the clan. The eldest son, who followed his mother, later installed himself as Vietnam's first monarch, Hùng Quốc Vương.
# Vietnamese/Recreation
## Sports

* Football : Bóng đá
* Soccer : môn túc cầu
* Basketball : Bóng rổ
* Baseball : Bóng chày
* Tennis : Quần vợt
* Badminton : Cầu lông
* Swimming : Bơi
* Table-tennis : Bóng bàn
* Weightlifting : Cử tạ
* Hockey : Khúc côn cầu
* Ski : Trượt tuyết
* Gymnastic : Thể dục dụng cụ
* Atheletics : Điền kinh
* Run : Chạy
* Jump : nhảy
# Vietnamese/Tones

Vietnamese is a tonal language, i.e. the meaning of each word depends on the "tone" in which it is pronounced. Many other languages also use tones, like the Chinese languages, Thai and Lao.
There are six distinct tones; the first one ("level tone") is not marked, and the other five are indicated by diacritics applied to the main vowel of the syllable:
| Tone | Marking | Marked vowels | Marked vowels | Marked vowels | Marked vowels | Marked vowels | Marked vowels | Marked vowels | Marked vowels | Marked vowels | Marked vowels | Marked vowels | Marked vowels |
| Ngang (Level) | Unmarked | A/a | Ă/ă | Â/â | E/e | Ê/ê | I/i | O/o | Ô/ô | Ơ/ơ | U/u | Ư/ư | Y/y |
| Huyền (Falling) | Grave | À/à | Ằ/ằ | Ầ/ầ | È/è | Ề/ề | Ì/ì | Ò/ò | Ồ/ồ | Ờ/ờ | Ù/ù | Ừ/ừ | Ỳ/ỳ |
| Hỏi (Dipping-rising) | Hook | Ả/ả | Ẳ/ẳ | Ẩ/ẩ | Ẻ/ẻ | Ể/ể | Ỉ/ỉ | Ỏ/ỏ | Ổ/ổ | Ở/ở | Ủ/ủ | Ử/ử | Ỷ/ỷ |
| Ngã (Rising glottalized) | Tilde | Ã/ã | Ẵ/ẵ | Ẫ/ẫ | Ẽ/ẽ | Ễ/ễ | Ĩ/ĩ | Õ/õ | Ỗ/ỗ | Ỡ/ỡ | Ũ/ũ | Ữ/ữ | Ỹ/ỹ |
| Sắc (Rising) | Acute | Á/á | Ắ/ắ | Ấ/ấ | É/é | Ế/ế | Í/í | Ó/ó | Ố/ố | Ớ/ớ | Ú/ú | Ứ/ứ | Ý/ý |
| Nặng (Falling glottalized) | Dot below | Ạ/ạ | Ặ/ặ | Ậ/ậ | Ẹ/ẹ | Ệ/ệ | Ị/ị | Ọ/ọ | Ộ/ộ | Ợ/ợ | Ụ/ụ | Ự/ự | Ỵ/ỵ |
The lowercase letter "i" should retain its dot even when accented. (However, this detail is often lost in computers and on the Internet, due to the obscurity of Vietnamese specialty fonts and limitations of encoding systems.)
# Structural Biochemistry/Tumor suppressor genes

Tumors, which are neoplasms, are solid or liquid filled lesions that may or may not be formed and grown in size due to neoplastic cells. The tumor cells are part of a tissue that continually grows abnormally. It can be malignant or benign, but these cells may look like "swellings" and grow to bigger proportions. Although tumor cells that are malignant maybe confused with cancer cells, they do not invade neighboring tissues. These cells can grow and become pestering problems that affect mobility, breathing, and circulatory of bodily functions. They cells are triggered in growing by the mutations in DNA, and may have a higher chance of growing with age. (ISCID 2011)
Tumor suppressor proteins protect cells from being cancerous. Tumor suppressors play a crucial rule in not allowing the cell to divide and multiply if there is damage to the cell’s DNA; this will occur until the DNA of the cell is repaired. In the event DNA cannot be repaired, tumor suppressors play a role in the process called “apoptosis”, which is the process of programmed cell death. If tumor suppressors do not function properly in a cell with damaged DNA, the cell continue dividing and replicating damaged DNA, which eventually leads to cancer .

### Examples of tumor suppressor proteins:

* p53 is a protein that is responsible for preventing cell division of cells that have damaged DNA
* p63 is part of the p53 family and has a similar structure to bother p53 and p73. However, the function of p63 seems to be more similar to p73 than p53.
* p73 is a protein that is part of the p53 family and is structurally and functionally similar to p53
* PTEN stands for phosphatase and tensin homologprotein and is involved in the pathway that signals for a cell to stop dividing and triggers apoptosis
* Retinoblastoma is a protein that is responsible for repressing the transcription of genes regulated by E2F, which include cyclins that regulate the cell cycle.
* APC Adenomatous polyposis coli (APC) or also known as deleted in polyposis 2.3 (DP2.5) is a protein found in humans that are coded by the APC gene.

## References

* ↑ Joerger, Andreas C., and Alan R. Fersht. "Structural Biology of the Tumor Suppressor p53." Annual Review of Biochemistry. 77. (2008): 557-582. Web. 17 Nov. 2011. <http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/full/10.1146/annurev.biochem.77.060806.091238?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori:rid:crossref.org&rfr_dat=cr_pub=pubmed>.
ISCID, ISCID (2011). "Tumor Cells". ISCID. Retrieved 2011-11-30.
Joerger & Fersht, Adreas C & Alan R. (2008). "Structural Biology of the Tumor Suppressor p53". The Annual Review of Biochemistry. Retrieved 2011-11-30.
# Structural Biochemistry/Type II restriction endonucleases

Restriction endonucleases uses to cleave DNA at specific sequences to forn DNA fragments. It cuts double stranded DNA at a specific base sequences. In prokaryote, enzyme is used to cleave foreign DNA molecules.
# Structural Biochemistry/Triacylglycerols

Introduction Triacylglycerols, also known as triglycerides, are the simplest lipids formed by fatty acids. It is made up of three fatty acids ester linked to a single glycerol. Most triacylglycerols contain two or three different fatty acids. Triacylglycerols are nonpolar, hydrophobic, and insoluble in water. This is due to the ester linked bond between the polar hydroxyls of glycerol and the polar carboxylates of the fatty acids. Common triacylglycerols are vegetable oils, dairy products, and animal fat.
Functions Triacylglycerols are stored as fat droplets in large amounts in vertebrate fat cells, and in plants as oils in the seeds. Triacylglycerol is a better stored energy source than polysaccharides because oxidation of triacylglycerols produces more than twice as much energy than the oxidation of carbohydrates. In addition, due to triacylglycerol's characteristic of being hydrophobic, it does not require hydration, thus it saves the organism the energy required to carry the extra water.
Also, triacylglycerol located under the skin can function as insulation, in addition to being an energy source.
# Structural Biochemistry/Transmucosal
## Introduction

Transmucosal refers to the route of administration in which the drug is diffused through the mucous membrane. This can refer to inhalation, nasal, sublingual, vaginal, rectal, or ocular routes.

## Insufflation

Insufflation refers to the action of inhaling a substance. It is often used as a route for respiratory drugs that can treat sinus and lung conditions. This route of administration is typically used for psychoactive drugs due to the faster diffusion rates into the bloodstream and its capabilities of enabling the drug to bypass the blood-brain barrier. For this method, bioavailability is higher than the bioavailability for the oral route. Cocaine is a common drug that utilizes the route of insufflation.

## Sublingual Administration

Sublingual administration refers to the process of diffusing drugs into the blood by utilizing tissues beneath the tongue. Drugs that are designed for this route include barbiturates, enzymes, steroids, and cardiovascular drugs. Like the other transmucosal routes, the sublingual administration diffuses through the mucous membrane that is under the tongue. This process is more direct than the oral tract, and more difficult to do, thus lowering the risk of degradation due to salivary enzymes before entering the bloodstream.

## References

* William H. Frey. "Bypassing the Blood-Brain Barrier to Deliver Therapeutic Agents to the Brain and Spinal Cord." Drug Delivery Technology.
* mendelson JE, Coyle JR, Lopez JC, Baggott MJ, Flower K, Everhart ET, Munro TA, Galloway GP, Cohen BM. "Lack of Effect of Sublingual Salvinorin A, A Naturally Occurring Kappa Opioid, in Humans: A Placebo-Controlled Trial". Sublingual Studies, www.maps.org. Psychopharmacology (Berl). Retrieved 26 January 2012.
# William Shakespeare's Works/Tragedies/Julius Caesar

Julius Caesar is a tragedy by William Shakespeare, written in 1599. The plot revolves around the titular character, perhaps the most important and mighty emperor of the Roman Empire.

## Acts

* Act 1
* Act 2
* Act 3
* Act 4
* Act 5

## Dramatis Personæ

* Julius Caesar
* Octavius Caesar
* Marcus Antonius
* M. Aemil. Lepidus
* Cicero
* Publius
* Popilius Lena
* Marcus Brutus
* Cassius
* Casca
* Trebonius
* Ligarius
* Decius Brutus
* Metellus Cimber
* Cinna
* Flavius
* Marullus
* Artemidorus
* Cinna
* Lucilus
* Titinius
* Messala
* Cato
* Volumnius
* Varro
* Clitus
* Claudius
* Strato
* Lucius
* Dardanius
* Pindarus
* the Ghost of Caesar
* Calpurnia
* Lucia
* Portia
* a Soothsayer
* a Poet
* Senators
* Citizens
* Soldiers
* Commoners
* Messengers
* Servants
# William Shakespeare's Works/Tragedies/Timon of Athens

Timon of Athens is a tragedy by w:William Shakespeare. The date it was originally written is unknown at this time. There are some scholars who believe that it was either the very first or the very last play that the author wrote.

## Acts

* Act 1
* Act 2
* Act 3
* Act 4
* Act 5

## Dramatis Personæ

* Timon
* Lucius
* Lucullus
* Sempronius
* Ventidius
* Apemantus
* Alcibades
* Flavius
* Flaminus
* Lucilius
* Servilius
* Caphis
* Philotus
* Titus
* Hortensius
* Phyrnia
* Timandra
* Three Strangers
* an Old Athenian
* a Page
* a Fool
* a Poet
* a Painter
* a Jeweller
* a Merchant
* Lords
* Senators
* Officers
* Soldiers
* Servants
* Thieves
* Attendants
(Masque)
* Cupid
* Amazons
# William Shakespeare's Works/Tragedies/Titus Andronicus/Act 1

The play begins, set shortly after the death of the Roman emperor, with his two sons, Saturninus and Bassianus, squabbling over who will succeed him.
# William Shakespeare's Works/Tragedies/King Lear

The best entry point to understanding the meaning of this tragedy is to look up every instance of the word "nothing" in the text. It will appear more than 15 times. Then note the events that occur at the same time or immediately after the utterance of the word "nothing". In all but one or two cases, what happens is not "nothing" but a big "something".
So we know that this play is about "big somethings" and "little nothings" and the fact that most of the people in the play mistake little nothings for big somethings and vice-versa. For example, the wearing of regal clothing, the attendance to the king of a knightly retinue, the swearing out loud of filial love. And from that we can see that this play is trying to show that reality is internal, rather than external.
And then we can follow the king as he loses all of his external trappings, even to the point of losing his sanity on the moor, purging himself of his pride and dependence on those "little nothings" that he put such value on previously.
At the end he finally understands that everything he thought was important was actually unimportant and what he thought was unimportant was actually important. But it is too late. Shakespeare was convinced that the job of the king was to keep his country unified and healthy (cf. Hamlet). But King Lear gave his country to his children who started a war to gain control. That is the worst of his sins and he must die for it.

## Acts

* Act 1
* Act 2
* Act 3
* Act 4
* Act 5

## Dramatis Personæ

* Lear, King of Britain
* King of France
* Duke of Burgundy
* Duke of Cornwall
* Duke of Albany
* Earl of Kent
* Earl of Gloster
* Edgar, Son to Gloster
* Edmund, Bastard Son to Gloster
* Cordelia, Daughter to Lear
* Goneril, Daughter to Lear
* Regan, Daughter to Lear
* Curan, a courtier
* Old man
# William Shakespeare's Works/Tragedies/Macbeth
## Scene Summaries
#### Act One : Scene 1

In a short 16 lines, Shakespeare quickly and effectively sets the scene for this play. From the first the play is restless and unnatural.
The witches, emblems of darkness and deceit, are the only characters present. They discuss a battle which they know will be finished shortly, they also know they will meet Macbeth "upon the heath", i.e. they have insight into the future. Their unnatural powers are further underlined in the last line of the scene "Hover through the fog and filthy air"
The restlessness and unease of the play as a whole is evoked in the thunder and lightning and the mentions of "hurly burly" and "battle".

#### Act One: Scene 2

This scene opens with the King Duncan awaiting news of the battle we have just heard the witches discussing. A "bloody man" has just arrived to report. What is significant is that Duncan himself is not fighting the battle. This indicates that he is perhaps too old or too weak to fight himself.
Malcolm, Duncan's son, and next in line to the throne, comments that the bloody man has saved him from being captured - "fought gainst my captivity". This suggests that Malcolm is a poor fighter, not capable of looking after himself on the battlefield. The question of why this is, is left open, perhaps he is simply young and inexperienced.
Next the Seargeant answers Duncan's enquiries and describes the battle. "Macdonwald" is the internal rebel being fought, there is evidently unrest in the kingdom. "Macdonwald" is not a weak enemy he is strong and tough - "merciless Macdonwald--Worthy to be a rebel". Indeed it looked like Macdonwald would win the day until by dint of some very hard fighting by Macbeth, Duncan's side won. To further emphasize the problems troubling Duncan's kingdom Shakespeare introduces an external foe who landed just as Macdonwald had been beaten. Instead of being disheartened by this Duncan's two leading soldiers redoubled their efforts and beat the second enemy.
Next two noblemen Ross and Lennox arrive bringing further news of the battle. It turns out that the external enemy (Norway) was being assisted by another internal traitor - The Thane of Cawdor. However not only has Macbeth succeeded in defeating them, he has made them pay a large fine to Duncan.
Duncan is very grateful to Macbeth for his courage, valour and success. Macbeth (along with Banquo) has succeeded in saving Duncan's Kingdom for him, against stiff odds. In addition he has enriched Duncan with the fine. Duncan concludes by granting Macbeth the title of the traitor. Macbeth becomes The Thane of Cawdor
Most significant in this scene is the emphasis on Macbeth's loyalty. Traitors are portrayed as evil but powerful, and Macbeth's bravery and courage in facing them are emphasized. This emphasis becomes ironic later in the play when Macbeth becomes the rebel
# William Shakespeare's Works/Tragedies/Titus Andronicus

The Tragedy of Titus Andronicus is a tragedy by William Shakespeare, written around 1590, though records have shown that an early version had been drafted as early as 1577. The play tells the history and downfall of the titular character, a general who at first is welcomed to his home city with open arms as a military hero. However, as time passes, he slowly slips into madness, taking his family and a good portion of the cast with him.

## Acts

* Act 1
* Act 2
* Act 3
* Act 4
* Act 5

## Dramatis Personæ

* Saturninus
* Bassianus
* Titus Andronicus
* Marcus Andronicus
* Lucius
* Quintus
* Martius
* Mutius
* Young Lucius
* Publius
* Aemilius
* Alarbus
* Demetrius
* Chiron
* Aaron
* Tamora
* Lavinia
* a Captain
* a Tribune
* a Messenger
* a Clown
* a Nurse
* a black Child
* Goths
* Romans
* Kinsmen to Titus
* Senators
* Tribunes
* Officers
* Soldiers
* Attendants
# William Shakespeare's Works/Tragedies/Othello/Iago

The name Iago is a Spanish name, in English the name is James. When England was under attack by Spain the King was King Iago so to the British the name had a bad connotation.
# William Wordsworth We are Seven

The following wikibook is intended for students of English Literature as well as for anybody who is interested in William Wordsworth's artistic creativity. The book provides the reader with Wordsworth's biographical information, the poem's summary and interpretation. The central point of this project is stylistic analysis, and the most importantly presentation of some stylistic devices.

## Table of Contents

Timeline of William Wordsworth' Life
The poem
Translation into Polish
Summary and interpretation
Stylistic analysis
References