OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Wikimedia/Wikipedia/Getting Started

    This Wikipedia guide will tell you all the basics on how to use Wikipedia.

## Getting started

First things first: you will need to get an account to begin creating pages and to post on Wikipedia. After you have created your account, it would be a good idea to create a user homepage, which people can search out to find out about you. If you do make a user page, be careful not to reveal personal information you would not want to be known about you.

## Editing

A great thing about Wikipedia is the freedom to edit any page you want at any time. Some downsides to Wikipedia and Wikibooks are that other editors can be a little picky when it comes to what you write, and nothing stops other people from editing what you've written. Vandals may even destroy the page; however, the fact that a page history is maintained means that such vandalism can be countermanded.

## Creating a page

One of the more fun sides of any Wikimedia project is creating a user page or a wiki page — with several wikis to choose from, such as Wikibooks, Wikimedia, Wikinews and the well-known Wikipedia. If you are going to create a page, you must first make sure it hasn't already been made. If it hasn't, it is easy to make; just click on the create this page button.

## Creating a book/guide

When it comes to making a book or guide based on another wiki, you must keep a close eye out for copyrights. If you incorporate without permission something which is copyrighted, you can be blocked from Wikipedia for a short time or for good. Now, we don't want that.
# Wikimedia/Wikimedia Incubator

Wikimedia Incubator is where new languages of Wikimedia projects are developed before being deployed for general use.
Wikimedia Incubator, inaugurated on June 2, 2006, stands as a remarkable digital crucible within the expansive landscape of the Wikimedia Foundation's endeavors. This wiki-based platform, orchestrated by the non-profit Wikimedia Foundation, shares its virtual home with celebrated projects like Wikipedia, and yet, it carves out a distinctive niche of its own. The Incubator, as its name suggests, serves as the nurturing ground for aspiring language editions of Wikimedia projects, a hallowed space where linguistic diversity finds expression, and cultures take root in the global digital encyclopedia. It is a testament to the Wikimedia Foundation's commitment to inclusivity and the preservation of linguistic heritage that the Incubator was conceived and continues to thrive.
# Scala/XML

Scala makes processing and producing XML very easy. This enables programmers to very easily talk to web services and other sources of XML data.

## XML Literals

In Scala, XML can be used as a literal. This means you can do something like this:
You can include expressions within XML using curly braces like this:
As you can see curly braces are special characters in Scala XML, therefore if you just want to display a curly brace just repeat it twice: {{

## Exploring XML

When you have some XML, you can explore it using the backslash and double backslash methods:
# Scala Programming

The Scala programming language is built on top of the Java Virtual Machine(often shortened as JVM) as a general-purpose language combining two of the most popular programming paradigms - Object-Oriented Programming(often shortened as OOP) and Functional Programming(often shortened as FP).
The name "Scala" comes from the word "scalable", implying the scalabilty of the language. As you will see, the language itself is evolving along with your program, allowing you to easily create an internal Domain-Specific Language(often shortened as DSL) to simplify your code.

## The Book

This book is targeted at new programmers, introducing the basics of programming. Nevertheless, it can be beneficial to programmers who know another programming language but are new to Scala, too. Of course, being skilled in a FP language or OOP language is an added bonus (which will probably let you skim through some chapters or even skip them).

### Structure and Formatting

The book is structured as a project done using Scala, introducing Scala features, programming terms, and general ideas in software development along the way.
New terms will appear in bold the first time they are introduced. Tips, exercises and warnings will come here and there throughout the book, don't miss them!
# Scala/Objects

In Scala, an object is a named instance with members such as fields and methods. An object and a class that have the same name and which are defined in the same source file are known as companions. Companions has special access control properties, which is covered under Scala/Access modifiers.

## Objects

A simple example of an object:
In the first line, the keyword "object" is used to define a new object, which is followed by the name of the object, which is here "SimpleObject". In the second line, a value named "a" is assigned the object instance named "SimpleObject".
The members of objects are similar to the members of classes. See Scala/Classes#Members for more information. An example of members in an object:
Objects also support the special method "apply", for more information see Scala/Classes#Apply.

## Uses

One use of objects is to contain fields and methods that are independent of any environment. One example is "math", which is the name of an object in the standard library which contains several fields and methods that only depend on arguments (if any) given to them.
Another use of objects is to create instances of classes:
In the above, invalid rectangles can still be constructed by using the constructor of class "Rectangle" directly. Scala/Visibility describes how to constrain access to constructors, which combined with objects makes it easier to ensure and verify that only valid class instances are created of some given class.
A third use of objects is to create the entry point to a Scala program. This is done by defining a "main" method with a specific signature:
The line "def main(args:Array[String])" indicates the required signature in order for the entry point to be valid. See Scala/Setup#Compiling_Scala for more information.
# Scala/Structural Typing

Structural typing as defined by Wikipedia “A structural type system (or property-based type system) is a major class of type system, in which type compatibility and equivalence are determined by the type’s structure, and not by other characteristics such as its name or place of declaration “ Structural types in Scala allows code modularity for some specific situations. For instance, if a behaviour is implemented across several classes and those behaviours need to invoked by the structure of the type.
This approach rules out the need for an abstract class or trait merely for the purpose of calling single overridden method. Structural typing not only adds syntactic sugar but also makes the code much more modular.
Lets consider a behaviour ‘walk’ in classes Cat and Dog. The StrucType class’s whoIsWalking takes a type parameter which states that “Accept any object which has a method walk and that returns a string” type is aliased with a variable ‘c’ and with in the method the aliased variable can invoke ‘walk’.
Below are the classes which has the 'walk' method in common
The below is the class with the main method
# Scala/Tuples

A tuple in Scala is an immutable sequence of values of multiple types. A simple example:
In the first line, we define a value named "idUsername", and assign it the value of a tuple with 2 values, also known as a pair. The tuple is defined by a matching pair of parenthesis, containing each element in sequence separated by commas. '0' is the first element and '"randomusername"' is the second element. In the second line, the first element of the tuple is accessed by calling the "_1" method on the value named "idUsername", and the value '0' is printed. In the third line, the second element of the tuple is accessed by calling the "_2" method on the value named "idUsername", and the value '"randomusername"' is printed.
Tuples support easy binding of elements to values:
In the first line, two identifiers are declared by using the keyword "val" followed by a pair of parenthesis, containing the identifiers separated by commas. This is followed by an equal sign, after which the tuple '(0, "randomusername")' is defined. The first identifier "id" is bound to the first element '0', while the second identifier "username" is bound to the second element '"randomusername"'. In the second line, the value named "id" is printed, giving "Id is: 0", and in the third line, the value named "username" is printed, giving "Username is: randomusername".
One of the uses of tuples is to return multiple values without having to create a class from scratch for that specific return:
In the first 5 lines, a function "getSumAverage" is defined, which takes a list of numbers, calculates the sum and the average of the given numbers, and returns the results as a tuple. In the sixth line, a list of numbers is defined and stored in a value named "numbers", and in the seventh line, the sum and average of those numbers is calculated and stored in the values "sum" and "average". In the final line, the sum and average is printed.
An example of a triple and a quadruple:
It is also worth noting that the numbers of binded elements should be exactly the number of TupleN, which means all of the below will generate an error:
Tuples in Scala, similar to Python, are usually used to store heterogeneous values. This means that It will make no assumptions on its elements types when it is transferred to other aggregative data structures such as List or Array.
# US Corporate Law/Management
## Officer positions

Neither the MBCA nor the DGCL mandates any specific officer positions. Traditionally, there were four officers in every corporation: the president, vice president, secretary, and treasurer. Under most traditional statutes, one person could hold more than one of these positions, with the caveat that the president and secretary must be different people. A few jurisdictions allowed all four positions to be held by one person.
* The president is the person given general supervision and control over the corporation's daily affairs. They are responsible for signing contracts and other documents on behalf of the corporation. The president is often, but not always, chairman of the board as well.
* The vice president takes over for the president if the president is unavailable. There can be more than one vice president: they take priority in an order the corporation designates, or lacking such an order, in the order in which they were appointed.
* The secretary is responsible for corporate documents, such as minutes from the board meetings and annual shareholder meetings, and contact records for each shareholder. They also co-sign certain documents, such as stock certificates, with the president.
* The treasurer is in charge of the corporation's finances.
Most small corporations still use the traditional job descriptions. Most big corporations, on the other hand, use "C level" designations: the president becomes a CEO, or chief executive officer; the treasurer becomes a CFO, or chief financial officer, and so on. Many companies have scores of vice presidents, sometimes in several tiers: senior vice president, executive vice president, and so on.

## Executive compensation

(Back to US Corporate Law)
# US Corporate Law
## Contents

* Introduction - Corporations - History - Sources of law
* Formation - Articles of incorporation - Organizational meeting - First board meeting
* Securities - Equity and debt financing - Bonds and debentures - Stock - Federal laws
* Mergers and Acquisitions
* Directors - Meetings - Duties
* Management - Authority - Compensation
* Shareholders - Governance - Transfer of control - Derivative litigation - Liability
* Personhood - Constitutional rights - Social responsibility
# WikiSkills Handbook/Cover

WikiSkills Handbook
Empowering and fostering social, professional, cultural and civic skills through pedagogical use of Wiki technologies and methodologies
This handbook is meant to be a practical guide to help educators of all type (teachers, trainers) bring their public in using wikis and wiki-like tools for their learning activities, through the use of customized wiki-based learning scenarios, for their socio-professional development.
The handbook has been developed in the context of the WikiSkills European project, which aims to apply the benefits of wikis to promote educational lifelong learning opportunities. It has been further refined during the Wikinomics Project, meant to improve, reuse and disseminate Wikiskills results, with a focus on the area of economy and employment.

## Authors and contributors

This handbook has been produced thanks to the contributions of the following :
Editors of the Handbook:
* Florence Devouard and Theo Bondolfi (Ynternet.org)
Writers of the Handbook:
* Florence Devouard
* Frédérique Frossard
* Mario Barajas
* Miguel Alarcón
* Anna Bauer
* Theo Bondolfi
* Thanasis Priftis
Scenarios and other contributions (surveys, training sessions, technical support, quality control etc.)
* Pascal Echardour and Yves Boisselier (MAC TEAM)
* Frédérique Frossard and Mario Barajas (University of Barcelona)
* José Manuel Abuín and Maria Malmierca (CESGA)
* Anna Bauer and Leonard Wallentin (Wikimedia Sverige)
* Argiris tzikopoulos (Ellinogermaniki Agogi)
* Jennifer Ziegler (die Berater) & Gernot Hausar (University of Vienna)
* Florence Devouard and Theo Bondolfi (Ynternet.org)
* Miguel Alarcón (heig-vd)
Design:
* Frédérique Frossard
* Florence Devouard

## Support

This project has been funded with support of the European Commission. This publication reflects the views only of the authors, and the Commission can not be held responsible for any use that may be made of the information contains therein.

## Licence

This document has been published under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike (CC BY-SA 3.0)
# WikiSkills Handbook/The tools we use

* WikiSkills Handbook
* WikiSkills Cover
* Introduction to WikiSkills and Wikinomics
* Wiki culture and application to learning contexts
* The WikiSkills training approach
* The WikiSkills training curriculum
* The WikiSkills Training scenarios
* Wikinomics Training practices
* Tool Kit
* Frequently Asked Questions
* The tools we use
* Wiki Key Competencies
* Collaboration Key Competencies
* Video resources
* Badges
* Other resources
* Edit this box
The Wikinomics Toolbox presents :
* A methodology for evaluating key-competences;
* A selection of videos related to free culture and wiki methodologies;
* A set of tools and procedures based on an open badges approach;
* A series of examples of good practices of free culture and wiki-based teaching methodologies presented in the Wikiskills pedagogical guide and the training scenarios of both projects
* Example of real cases experimented in training context : Wikinomics Training practices
* A book to download, explore and reuse “Netizens” (in FRENCH), published under a free licence
# WikiSkills Handbook/Other resources

* WikiSkills Handbook
* WikiSkills Cover
* Introduction to WikiSkills and Wikinomics
* Wiki culture and application to learning contexts
* The WikiSkills training approach
* The WikiSkills training curriculum
* The WikiSkills Training scenarios
* Wikinomics Training practices
* Tool Kit
* Frequently Asked Questions
* The tools we use
* Wiki Key Competencies
* Collaboration Key Competencies
* Video resources
* Badges
* Other resources
* Edit this box

## Documents to download

* WikiSkills logo
* Wikinomics logo
* Which collaborative tool can you use ?
* Which wiki engine to choose ?
* Overview of some wiki farms
* WikiSkills : state of the art report
* Wiki Tools and Skills Guidelines
* Using Wikis in education : Guidelines for Teachers and Trainers
* Generic scenario with pedagogical material from the Wikinomics Project
* An overview to the Wikinomics training practices
* Scenario from the WikiSkills project

## External references

* Several leaflets presentations of wikis or the WikiSkills project may be found on SlideShare or on Prezi
* The WikiSkills project has created a Diigo group, an online space which provides different kinds of helpful resources in relation to the use of wikis in educational settings : Access to the Diigo group
* Follow the team on our Wikinomics news for the Wikinomics open training days, the Wikinomics TEDx events and all our activities : News of Wikinomics
# Structural Biochemistry/Protein/Protein Folding to New Enzymes

Protein folding to functional states resulting synthesis in the intracellular environment is a fascinating yet it is not completely understood. Substantial progress has been made in past decade in understand the fundamental nature of the mechanism of protein folding. Varies new experiments and theories were made to further understanding the “protein folding problem”, and the emerging view of folding is that it is random. The sequences of proteins folding have evolved to such complexity to be efficiently in more complex environment like inside a living cell. Proteins folding are not always “correct”. When protein folds incorrectly, this failure could lead to varies diseases.
Amyloidoses, is a group of disease resulted from incorrect protein folding. Amyloidoses include Alzheimer’s disease, which still has no treatment or cure yet; and the transmissible spongiform encephalopathies involves deposition of aggregated proteins in a variety of tissues. These diseases provide evidence that the highly organized amyloid aggregates is a generic property of polypeptides, but not a conditioned formation of proteins grouping. These grouping are uncommon to be found in normal proper functional biological systems. They are evidence to evolution, that a many different mechanisms inhibited the formation. Once the nature of the mechanisms is understood, prevention or treatments to these disease could be developed.
Citation: Biochemical Society Symposia Volume 68, Christopher M.Dobson1, Oxford Centre for Molecular Sciences, New Chemistry Laboratory, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3QT, U.K.
# Novel Peptide leads to breakthrough in Drug Delivery

Drug delivery to specific tissues in the human body is a major hurdle that must be overcome for safer, more effective use of therapeutic compounds. Many negative side effects can be avoided if the majority of the bodily tissues are bypassed by the compound on its way through the blood to the target site. One of the best ways to accomplish this is by encapsulating the molecule in a membrane that is more likely to release its contents within specific tissue types. Powerful medicines such as those used in chemotherapy to kill cancer cells need to be prevented from killing healthy cells. Also, gene therapy must be targeted so that the newly introduced genes enter only sick cells. Traditionally, liposomes and viruses were tasked with transportation, but a recent discovery has allowed for the sequencing and synthesis of amphiphilic branched peptides that can form water filled bilayers. These peptide spheres are similar to liposomes in that they self assemble. Otherwise they very different because peptides confer several key advantages over lipids such as increased stability under a variety of physiological conditions, fine tuned specificity, and more favorable interactions with antigens and therefore the immune system. This technique promises to revolutionize drug delivery for cancer patients and those suffering from a multitude of other diseases, including alzheimers which must be treated with care given that the blood brain barrier is a challenge for transport and the brain tissue surrounding the plaques is irreplaceable so collateral damage must be minimized at all costs. In practice, the compound to be delivered is placed in solution to which the self assembling peptide is added, the vesicles form around the compound, and it is ready to be purified and administered. By altering the surface of the peptide, researchers hope to fine tune delivery to specific tissue types throughout the body in order to treat a variety of disorders.

# References

* Gudlur S, Sukthankar P, Gao J, Avila LA, Hiromasa Y, et al. (2012) Peptide Nanovesicles Formed by the Self-Assembly of Branched Amphiphilic Peptides. PLoS ONE 7(9): e45374. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0045374
# Structural Biochemistry/Properties of Mutant Alleles
## Overview

If the DNA mutation changes the amino acid sequence of the protein, then it can have one of these functional consequences (morph = form).
Gain-of-function are typically a missense or translocation that changes the promoter.
* Hypermorph – increased expression
** Ex. A mutated protein that signals continuously and can’t be shut off.
* Neomorph – the protein is expressed somewhere ‘new’
** Ex. In a new location on the organism - perhaps the neomorph is now expressed in the eyes, where it was normally expressed in the feet. At a different time during development – perhaps the neomorph is now expressed during adulthood, when normally it is expressed only during childhood, such as lactose tolerance.
Loss-of-function
* Hypomorph – reduced, or “leaky” expression; usually the result of a missense mutation, since that is a less drastic change
* Amorph – no expression, or null; usually the result of a more drastic mutation (deletion, nonsense, frameshift)
* Antimorph – against the form/protein, dominant negative; a poisonous protein, the antimorph will actually harm the normal protein when both are present in heterozygotes; usually this is a situation where the protein forms a multi-subunit complex.

## Hypomorph

* Property: common, leaky
* Typical mutation: missense
* Gene product activity: reduced
* Recessive/Semi-dominant/Dominant: usually recessive; semi-dominant if gene is unusual.

## Amorph

* Property: common, null
* Typical mutation: deletion, nonsense, frameshift
* Gene product activity: absent
* Recessive/Semi-dominant/Dominant: usually recessive; semi-dominant if gene is unusual.

## Antimorph

* Property: relatively rare, dominant negative
* Typical mutation: missense, nonsense
* Gene product activity: antagonist
* Recessive/Semi-dominant/Dominant: semi-dominant

## Hypermorph

* Property: relatively rare
* Typical mutation: missense, translocation
* Gene product activity: massively increased
* Recessive/Semi-dominant/Dominant: semi-dominant or dominant

## Neomorph

* Property: relatively rare
* Typical mutation: translocation
* Gene product activity: different, or same but in different location
* Recessive/Semi-dominant/Dominant: semi-dominant or dominant
# Structural Biochemistry/Propofol
## Overview

Propofol is a drug that reduces anxiety and tension, and promotes relaxation and sleep or loss of consciousness. Propofol provides loss of awareness for short diagnostic tests and surgical procedures, sleep at the beginning of surgery, and supplements other types of general anesthetics. Propofol is for injection into a vein. It is given by trained anesthesia professionals in a controlled environment.

## Side effects

Contact our doctor immediately if you present the following symptoms after injecting propofol into your bloodstream:
* hives
* difficulty breathing
* swelling in lips, throat, face or tongue
* numbness
* seizure
* rashes
Propofol is a very short-acting drug, and its effects generally wear off in just a few hours. However, propofol may affect your ability to drive or operate machinery for several hours after use. Do not attempt to drive yourself home if you have received propofol for minor outpatient surgery or diagnostic tests.

## Reference

http://www.drugs.com/propofol.html