OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Messier Index/M53

Messier 53 (also known as M53, or NGC 5024) is a w:globular cluster in the w:Coma Berenices constellation. It was discovered by w:Johann Elert Bode in w:1775. M53 is one of the more outlying globular clusters, being about 60,000 w:light-years away from the w:Galactic Center, and almost the same distance (about 58,000 light-years) from the w:Solar system.

## External links

* Messier 53, SEDS Messier pages
* Messier 53, Galactic Globular Clusters Database page

## References

* 1 2 3 4 "SIMBAD Astronomical Database". Results for NGC 5024. Retrieved 2006-11-16.
# Messier Index/M54

Messier 54 (also known as M54 or NGC 6715) is a w:globular cluster in the w:constellation Sagittarius. It was discovered by w:Charles Messier in w:1778 and subsequently included in his catalog of w:comet-like objects.
Previously thought to be at a distance from w:Earth of about 50,000 w:light-years, it was discovered in w:1994 that M54 was most likely not part of the w:Milky Way, but actually part of the w:Sagittarius Dwarf Elliptical Galaxy, (SagDEG), making it the first extragalactic globular cluster ever discovered, even if it wasn't recognized as such for nearly two and a quarter centuries.
Modern estimates now place M54 at a distance of some 87,000 light-years, translating into a true radius of 150 light-years across. It is one of the denser of the globulars, being of class III (I being densest and XII being the least dense). It shines with the w:luminosity of roughly 850,000 times that of the w:Sun and has an w:absolute magnitude of -10.0.
M54 is easily found on the sky, being close to the w:star ζ Sagittarii. It is however, not resolvable into individual stars even with larger amateur w:telescopes.
In July of 2009, a team of astronomers reported that they had found evidence of an w:intermediate-mass black hole in the core of M54. This was the first report of such a black hole in any globular cluster.

## External links

* M54 @ SEDS Messier pages

## References

* 1 2 3 4 5 6 "SIMBAD Astronomical Database". Results for NGC 6715. Retrieved 2006-11-16.
* ↑ Gavin Ramsay and Kinwah Wu, Chandra observations of the globular cluster M54
* ↑ distance × sin( diameter_angle / 2 ) = 153 ly. radius
* ↑ Geisler, Doug; Wallerstein, George; Smith, Verne V.; Casetti-Dinescu, Dana I. (September 2007), "Chemical Abundances and Kinematics in Globular Clusters and Local Group Dwarf Galaxies and Their Implications for Formation Theories of the Galactic Halo", The Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, 119 (859): 939-961, doi:10.1086/521990{{citation}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
* ↑ Siegel, Michael H.; Dotter, Aaron; Majewski, Steven R.; Sarajedini, Ata; Chaboyer, Brian; Nidever, David L.; Anderson, Jay; Marín-Franch, Antonio; Rosenberg, Alfred; Bedin, Luigi R.; Aparicio, Antonio; King, Ivan; Piotto, Giampaolo; Reid, I. Neill (September 2007), "The ACS Survey of Galactic Globular Clusters: M54 and Young Populations in the Sagittarius Dwarf Spheroidal Galaxy", The Astrophysical Journal, 667 (1): L57-L60, doi:10.1086/522003{{citation}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
* ↑ Ibata, R.; Bellazzini, M.; Chapman, S. C.; Dalessandro, E.; Ferraro, F.; Irwin, M.; Lanzoni, B.; Lewis, G. F.; Mackey, A. D.; Miocchi, P.; Varghese, A. (July 2009), "Density and Kinematic Cusps in M54 at the Heart of the Sagittarius Dwarf Galaxy: Evidence for A $10^{4}M_{sun}$ Black Hole?", The Astrophysical Journal Letters, 699 (2): L169-L173, doi:10.1088/0004-637X/699/2/L169{{citation}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
# Messier Index/M55

Messier 55 (also known as M55 or NGC 6809) is a w:globular cluster in the w:constellation Sagittarius. It was discovered by w:Nicolas Louis de Lacaille in w:1751 and catalogued by w:Charles Messier in w:1778. M55 is at a distance of about 17,300 w:light-years away from w:Earth. Only about half a dozen w:variable stars have been discovered in M55.

## External links

* Messier 55, SEDS Messier pages
* Messier 55, Galactic Globular Clusters Database page

## References

* 1 2 3 4 "SIMBAD Astronomical Database". Results for NGC 6809. Retrieved 2006-11-16.
* ↑ distance × sin( diameter_angle / 2 ) = 48 ly. radius
# Messier Index/M56

Messier 56 (also known as M56 or NGC 6779) is a w:globular cluster in the w:constellation w:Lyra. It was discovered by w:Charles Messier in w:1779. M56 is at a distance of about 32,900 w:light-years from w:Earth and measures roughly 84 light-years across.
The brightest w:stars in M56 are of 13th magnitude while it contains only about a dozen known w:variable stars like V6 (RV Tauri star; period: 90 days) or V1 (Cepheid: 1.510 days); other variable stars are V2 (irregular) and V3 (semiregular).

## External links

* Messier 56, SEDS Messier pages
* Messier 56, Galactic Globular Clusters Database page

## References

* 1 2 3 "SIMBAD Astronomical Database". Results for NGC 6779. Retrieved 2006-11-16.
* ↑ w:Valentin D. Ivanov et al., Near Infrared Photometry of Galactic Globular Clusters M56 and M15. Extending the Red Giant Branch vs. Metallicity Calibration Towards Metal Poor Systems
* ↑ distance × sin( diameter_angle / 2 ) = 42 ly. radius
# Messier Index/M60

Messier 60 (also known as NGC 4649) is an w:elliptical galaxy approximately 55 million w:light-years away in the w:constellation Virgo.

## History

Messier 60 and the nearby galaxy w:Messier 59 were both discovered by w:Johann Gottfried Koehler in April w:1779 during observations of a w:comet in the same part of the sky. w:Charles Messier listed both in the w:Messier Catalogue about three days after Koehler's discovery.

## NGC 4647

w:NGC 4647 appears approximately 2′.5 away from Messier 60; the optical disks of the two galaxies overlap. Although this overlap suggests that the galaxies are interacting, photographic images of the two galaxies do not reveal any evidence for gravitational interactions between the two galaxies as would be suggested if the two galaxies were physically close to each other. This suggests that the galaxies are at different distances and are only weakly interacting if at all.

## Virgo Cluster membership

M60 is the third-brightest giant elliptical galaxy of the w:Virgo cluster of galaxies, and is the dominant member of a subcluster of four galaxies, which is the closest-known isolated compact group of galaxies.

## Supernovae

A w:supernova (w:SN 2004W) was observed in Messier 60.

## Black Hole

At the center of M60 is a w:black hole of 4.5 billion solar masses, one of the largest ever found.

## External links

* Elliptical Galaxy M60 @ SEDS Messier pages

## References

* ↑ R. W. Sinnott, editor (1988). The Complete New General Catalogue and Index Catalogue of Nebulae and Star Clusters by J. L. E. Dreyer. Sky Publishing Corporation and Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-933-34651-4. {{cite book}}: |author= has generic name (help)
* 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 "NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database". Results for NGC 4649. Retrieved 2006-12-13.
* ↑ J. L. Tonry, A. Dressler, J. P. Blakeslee, E. A. Ajhar, A. B. Fletcher, G. A. Luppino, M. R. Metzger, C. B. Moore (2001). "The SBF Survey of Galaxy Distances. IV. SBF Magnitudes, Colors, and Distances". Astrophysical Journal. 546 (2): 681–693. doi:10.1086/318301.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
* 1 2 K. G. Jones (1991). Messier's Nebulae and Star Clusters (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-37079-5.
* 1 2 A. Sandage, J. Bedke (1994). Carnegie Atlas of Galaxies. Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Institution of Washington. ISBN 0-87279-667-1.
* ↑ http://arxiv.org/abs/0910.4168 The Supermassive Black Hole and Dark Matter Halo of NGC 4649 (M60)
# Messier Index/M52

Messier 52 (also known as M 52 or NGC 7654) is an w:open cluster in the w:Cassiopeia constellation. It was discovered by w:Charles Messier in w:1774. M52 can be seen from w:Earth with w:binoculars.

## External links

* Messier 52, SEDS Messier pages
# Messier Index/M58

Messier 58 (also known as M58 and NGC 4579) is a w:barred spiral galaxy located approximately 68 million w:light-years away in the w:constellation Virgo. It was discovered by w:Charles Messier in w:1779. M58 is one of the brightest galaxies in the w:Virgo Cluster. Two w:supernovae, w:SN 1988A and w:SN 1989M, have been observed in M58.

## External links

* SEDS Messier: M58
* Spitzer Space Telescope page on Messier 58

## References

* ↑ R. W. Sinnott, editor (1988). The Complete New General Catalogue and Index Catalogue of Nebulae and Star Clusters by J. L. E. Dreyer. Sky Publishing Corporation and Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-933-34651-4. {{cite book}}: |author= has generic name (help)
* 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 "NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database". Results for NGC 4579. Retrieved 2006-10-05.
* ↑ G. Gavazzi, A. Boselli, M. Scodeggio, D. Pierini and E. Belsole (1999). "The 3D structure of the Virgo cluster from H-band Fundamental Plane and Tully-Fisher distance determinations". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 304: 595–610. doi:10.1046/j.1365-8711.1999.02350.x.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
* ↑ Burnham, Robert Jr (1978). Burnham's Celestial Handbook: Volume Three, Pavo Through Vulpecula. Dover. pp. 2086–2088. ISBN 0-486-23673-0.
* ↑ "Messier Object 58". Archived from the original on 1996-12-25. Retrieved 2006-11-18.
# Messier Index/M59

Messier 59 (also known as M59 or NGC 4621) is an w:elliptical galaxy in the constellation Virgo.

## History

Messier 59 and the nearby elliptical galaxy w:Messier 60 were both discovered by w:Johann Gottfried Koehler in April w:1779 during observations of a w:comet in the same part of the sky. w:Charles Messier listed both in the w:Messier Catalogue about three days after Koehler's discovery.

## Virgo Cluster membership

M59 is a member of the w:Virgo Cluster.

## External links

* Elliptical Galaxy M59 @ SEDS Messier pages

## References

* ↑ R. W. Sinnott, editor (1988). The Complete New General Catalogue and Index Catalogue of Nebulae and Star Clusters by J. L. E. Dreyer. Sky Publishing Corporation and Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-933-34651-4. {{cite book}}: |author= has generic name (help)
* 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 "NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database". Results for NGC 4621. Retrieved 2006-11-18.
* ↑ J. L. Tonry, A. Dressler, J. P. Blakeslee, E. A. Ajhar, A. B. Fletcher, G. A. Luppino, M. R. Metzger, C. B. Moore (2001). "The SBF Survey of Galaxy Distances. IV. SBF Magnitudes, Colors, and Distances". Astrophysical Journal. 546 (2): 681–693. doi:10.1086/318301.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
* 1 2 K. G. Jones (1991). Messier's Nebulae and Star Clusters (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-37079-5.
# Radiation Oncology/Head & Neck/Neutrons

* Front Page: Radiation Oncology | RTOG Trials | Randomized Trials
Head & Neck Cancers: Neutron Therapy
* Initial results from Hammersmith Hospital appeared promising
* However, results from a randomized RTOG trial with mixed neutrons/photons did not show a benefit in local control or overall survival
* A follow up randomized international study with pure neutrons compared with photons again did not show a benefit, with significantly worse long-term toxicity
* Neutron trials in general head & neck cancers have for now been abandoned. There may be a role for neutrons in salivary gland therapy
# Radiation Oncology/Head & Neck/Palliation

* Front Page: Radiation Oncology | RTOG Trials | Randomized Trials
Head & Neck Palliation
# Practical Electronics/IC/4077

4077 :
| Logic Type | Combinatorial |
| Function Family | Logic |
| Description | Quad 2-Input XNOR Gate |
| Pins | 14 |
| Pinout ||
| Functional Diagram ||
| File:4077 Functional Diagram.svg ||
# Practical Electronics/IC/7420
## Datasheets

NXP 74F30
# Practical Electronics/IC/4081

4081 :
| IC Family | CMOS |
| Function Family | Logic |
| Description | Quad 2-Input AND Gate |
| Pins | 14 |
| Pinout ||
| Functional Diagram ||
| Basic TTL Counterpart | 7408 |
| Truth Table (One Gate) ||
| AB Q 00 0 01 0 10 0 11 1 ||
The 4081 is a member of the 4000 Series CMOS range, and contains four independent CMOS AND gates, each with two inputs. The pinout diagram, given on the right, is the standard two-input logic gate IC layout:
* Pin 7 is the negative supply
* Pin 14 is the positive supply
* Pins 1&2, 5&6, 8&9, 12&13 are gate inputs
* Pins 3, 4, 10, 11 are gate outputs
The truth table for one of the four gates is shown to the right. For more information about the AND gate in general, see this module. The arrangement of the CMOS components is shown below:
This chip is widely available, and usually comes in a DIL-14 or SOIC-14 package.
This chip is different in pinout to the TTL 7408 and 7409, but can fulfill the function of either if the wiring is modified.

## Alternative Construction

If a 4081 is not available, there are several ways to achieve an AND gate. The first is to use a NAND gate and invert the output. This can be done with a NOT gate or another NAND gate. The first method with require two ICs to implement, but a total of four gates can be made. The second will require only one IC, but only two gates can be made. Incidentally, due to the nature of CMOS devices, this gate actually produces the AND function by inverting the output of a NAND gate (see above).
NOR gates can also be used in the configuration below to make an AND gate.

## Similar ICs

As well as the standard 2-Input AND Gate, 3-, 4- and 8-Input AND Gates are also available:
* 4073: Triple 3-Input AND Gate
* 4082: Dual 4-Input AND Gate
* An 8-Input NAND Gate exists (4068), and this is easily made into an 8-Input AND gate by inversion of the output. Some models of this IC have an onboard NOT gate or an inverted output for this purpose.
AND gates with more inputs can be made up from the 4081 or any of the above ICs by cascading them together. This is discussed on this page.

## Datasheets

These are available from manufacturers. A selection of different manufacturers' datasheets is given below:
* Philips Semiconductor
* Fairchild Semiconductor
* ON Semiconductor
* Texas Instruments
# Practical Electronics/Logic/Boolean Identities

There are several laws that can be used to simplify or modify Boolean expressions. This page will explain them, this page will list them for easy reference.

## Axioms

Axioms are propositions that are deemed obvious and therefore are not required to be proved - in fact they cannot be proved because they are defined to be true by the structure of the algebra. They form the foundation of the rest of boolean algebra by defining the two values, 1 and 0 and the three operators, AND, OR, FLO, and NOT.
| | Axiom | Axiom Dual |
| 1 | ${\mbox{If }}X\neq 1,\,X=0$ | ${\mbox{If }}X\neq 0,\,X=1$ |
| 2 | ${\mbox{If }}X=0,\,{\overline {X}}=1$ | ${\mbox{If }}X=1,\,{\overline {X}}=0$ |
| 3 | $0\cdot 0=0$ | $1+1=1\,$ |
| 4 | $1\cdot 1=1$ | $0+0=0\,$ |
| 5 | $1\cdot 0=0\cdot 0=0$ | $1+0=0+1=1\,$ |

## DeMorgan's Law

DeMorgan's Law is a very powerful tool for grouping or ungrouping logical statements. It basically states that either logical function AND or OR may be replaced by the other, given certain changes to the equation. It is usually expressed as two distinct identities. First is the following:
       ${\overline {A+B}}={\overline {A}}\cdot {\overline {B}}$
At first, it may not be clear how this result is found, but if you look at the first Venn Diagram to the left, it is clear. Imagine a variable called X, which is defined by:
       $X={\overline {A+B}}$
This means that X is NOT in group A OR B, so it must be in the blue region. Now, this is the same as saying that X is NOT in A AND also NOT in B. This means that we can also define X as:
       $X={\overline {A}}\cdot {\overline {B}}$
This can also be seen by drawing up a truth table: working in from each end of the table, we can see that the two give identical results:
| A | B | A+B | ¬(A+B) | ¬A•¬B | ¬B | ¬A |
| 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
| 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
| 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 |
| 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
The second expression is basically the same but with exchanged symbols
       ${\overline {A\cdot B}}={\overline {A}}+{\overline {B}}$
If we do the same trick with X again, we see that it must NOT be in both A AND B. Therefore it must be in the light blue, dark blue or red regions, and not in the centre. We can now say that X is either not in A, not in B or not in either. This is the same as saying that X is NOT in A OR NOT in B (using the logical kind of "or"). Therefore,
       $X={\overline {A}}+{\overline {B}}$
Again, this can be shown by a truth table:
| A | B | A•B | ¬(A•B) | ¬A+¬B | ¬B | ¬A |
| 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
| 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 |
| 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 |
| 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
An easy way to remember the laws given above is: "Split the line, change the sign." With these two rules, it can be shown that any logical statement can be changed using the following method:
* Compliment all terms in the expression
* Change all ANDs to ORs and all ORs to ANDs
* Invert the result

## See Also

* Summary of the Above Laws
# Practical Electronics/IC/4073

4073 :
| Logic Type | Combinatorial |
| Function Family | Logic |
| Description | Triple 3-Input AND Gate |
| Pins | 14 |
| Pinout ||
| Functional Diagram ||
# Practical Electronics/IC/4075

4075 :
| Logic Type | Combinatorial |
| Function Family | Logic |
| Description | Triple 3-Input OR Gate |
| Pins | 14 |
| Pinout ||
| Functional Diagram ||
# Radiation Oncology/Breast/Advanced breast

* Front Page: Radiation Oncology | RTOG Trials
* Breast: Main Page |
* Staging |
* Breast Overview |
* Prevention |
* Benign |
* DCIS |
* LCIS |
* Paget's |
* Phyllodes tumor |
* Early stage |
* Advanced stage |
* Post mastectomy |
* Inflammatory |
* Partial breast irradiation |
* Regional lymphatics |
* Hormonal therapy |
* Chemotherapy |
* RT technique |
* Recurrence |
* Toxicity of RT |
* Randomized |
* NSABP trials
* For now, this page is for discussion of locally advanced breast cancer (LABC), defined as surgically unresectable at presentation.
** Historically this includes features such as skin ulceration, tumor fixation to chest wall, satellite nodules, and palpable supraclavicular LNs
** Today, it may also include operable tumors >5cm, which are typically treated with neoadjuvant chemotherapy
* Inflammatory breast cancer is discussed separately at its own page.
# Radiation Oncology/Breast/Early breast

* Front Page: Radiation Oncology | RTOG Trials
* Breast: Main Page |
* Staging |
* Breast Overview |
* Prevention |
* Benign |
* DCIS |
* LCIS |
* Paget's |
* Phyllodes tumor |
* Early stage |
* Advanced stage |
* Post mastectomy |
* Inflammatory |
* Partial breast irradiation |
* Regional lymphatics |
* Hormonal therapy |
* Chemotherapy |
* RT technique |
* Recurrence |
* Toxicity of RT |
* Randomized |
* NSABP trials
* Management of the breast
* Partial breast irradiation
* Management of the axilla and IM nodes
# Radiation Oncology/Breast/DCIS/Van Nuys

* Front Page: Radiation Oncology | RTOG Trials | Randomized Trials
Van Nuys Prognostic Classification:
* Group 1 Non-high nuclear grade without necrosis
* Group 2 Non-high nuclear grade with necrosis
* Group 3 High nuclear grade with or without necrosis
Original Van Nuys Prognostic Index (VNPI) Scoring Index :
| Parameter | 1 Point | 2 Points | 3 Points |
| Van Nuys Classification | Group 1 | Group 2 | Group 3 |
| Clear Margin | > or = 10 mm | 1-9 mm | <1 mm |
| Lesion Size | < or = 15 mm | 16-40 mm | > 41 mm |
Final Score :
| Group 1 | 3 - 4 points | 3.8% Recurrence | 93% 8 year disease free |
| Group 2 | 5 - 7 points | 11.1% Recurrence | 84% 8 year disease free |
| Group 3 | 8 - 9 points | 26.5% Recurrence | 61 % 8 year disease free |
Updated USC / Van Nuys Prognostic Index (VNPI) :
| Parameter | 1 Point | 2 Points | 3 Points |
| Van Nuys Classification | Group 1 | Group 2 | Group 3 |
| Clear Margin | > or = 10 mm | 1-9 mm | <1 mm |
| Lesion Size | < or = 15 mm | 16-40 mm | > 41 mm |
| Age | 61 or older | 40 - 60 | 39 or younger |
Updated USC / Van Nuys - Total Score :
| Score | Local recurrence | 5-yr and 10-yr local RFS |
| 4 - 6 points | 1% | 99% / 97% |
| 7 - 9 points | 20% | 84% / 73% |
| 10 - 12 points | 50% | 51% / 34% |
References:
Alternative
Alternative :
| Parameter | Age | Size | Histology |
| 0 Points | 61+ | <=15 mm | Grade I-II |
| 1 Points | 40-60 | 16-40 mm | Grade I-II + Necrosis |
| 2 Points | <40 | >40 mm | Grade III |
* Low risk: 0
* Intermediate risk: 1-2
* High risk: 3-6
# Neapolitan/pronunciation

* Neapolitan Primer
* edit
* Grammar
* Pronunciation
* Alphabet
* Nouns
* Articles
* Prepositions
* Adjectives
* Pronouns
* Verbs
* Adverbs
* Conjunctions
* Interrogatives
* Doubling
* Syntax
* Usage
* Greetings
* 501 Neapolitan verbs
* Numbers
* Calendar
* Colors
* Weather
* Food
* Parts of the body
* Rooms of the house
* Expressions and figures of speech
* Resources
* Bibliography
* Sites

### Final vowel sounds

Neapolitan words can end either stressed (with an accent mark) or unstressed. As a general rule, words ending with a stressed vowel (called "acute" words) have the last vowel pronounced.
The ends of many unstressed words are pronounced as a schwa (ə); that is, it sounds as if the final vowel is being swallowed. This has led to Neapolitan often being written with many words ending in consonants followed by an apostrophe-
* facenn' for facenno ("doing"), sacc' for saccio ("I know") etc.
Generally, all words ending in "a" have the last vowel pronounced, though less strongly than as would be the case in Italian.
* còzzeca ("mussel"), varca ("boat"), mammà ("mother").

## Pronunciation

* a - /a~ɑ/ in stressed syllables, /ə/ in unstressed syllables
* b - /b/
* c - /k/ before a;o;u, /t͡ʃ~ʃ/ before i or e. Cia, cio, ciu have the /t͡ʃ~ʃ/ sound (no /i/ sound). It can also sound like /g/ when preceded by a voiced consonant ('ncoppa is pronounced, and frequently spelled, 'ngoppa)
* d - /d~r/ intervocalic d is usually pronounced like an r. dd can be pronounced /r/ or /dd/ (ro and do along with arrò and addò are examples of interchangeable spelling)
* e - /e/ in closed, stressed syllables, /ɛ/ in open, stressed syllables, /ə/ or silent in unstressed syllables
* f - /f/
* g - /g/ before a;o;u, /d͡ʒ~ʒ/ before i or e, gia, gio, giu have the /d͡ʒ~ʒ/ sound (no /i/ sound). Before a u that precedes another vowel, the g is silent, as in guaglione, sometimes also spelled uaglione or uagliò
* h - silent. Used to differentiate between 2 words, such as 'ha' vs. 'a'
* i - /i/ or sometimes /ɪ~ə/ in unstressed syllables
* j - /j/
* l - /l/
* m - /m/
* n - /n/
* o - /o/ in closed, stressed syllables, /ɔ/ in open, stressed syllables, /ə/ or silent in unstressed syllables
* p - /p/
* qu - /kw/
* r - /r/ɾ/ is most common, but can also be pronounced /l/ before another consonant, like in barcone or borsetta, causing them to sometimes be spelled balcone or bolsetta. Or at the end of a word such as tir' or vir', pronounced /til/ and /vil/
* s - /s~z/
* t - /t/, /d/ voiced after 'n'
* u - /u/ or sometimes /ʊ~ə/ in unstressed syllables
* v - /v/
* (w) - /w/ only found in foreign words
* (x) - /ks/ only found in foreign words
* (y) - /j/ only found in foreign words
* z - /ts~dz/
* ch - /k/
* gn - /ɲ/ [ɲɲ]
* gli - /ʎ/ or /ʝ/, sometimes [ʝʝ]