OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Leaf collection

Unless you are already very familiar with the trees in your area, you will need to get a field guide on trees for this activity. Illustrating all the tree species you may encounter is well beyond the scope of a single chapter in an answer book!
It is best to collect the leaves in the spring or early summer before insects and weather have had a chance to damage them, but if you prefer, you can try to collect them in the fall when the colors change.
When you go out collecting, take the field guide with you. It is important to identify the leaves as you collect them, as you can look at more than just the leaves for identification. The bark, environment, buds, and shape of the tree are all important clues to the tree's species. This is especially important if you wish to differentiate trees of the same genus (such as black cherry, pin cherry, choke cherry, etc.). Indeed, proper identification may not be possible from just the leaf.
Collect leaves that are typical for the tree, but remember - smaller leaves are going to be easier to fit onto an 8.5x11 inch sheet of paper.
Press the leaves by placing them on some sort of absorbant paper - newspaper, paper towels, tissues, etc. Then place these under a stack of books or in a leaf press. After two weeks, the leaves should be flattened, dried, and well-preserved. Evergreens such as spruce and fir are difficult to preserve this way as the needles will fall off. The more ambitious may wish to encase the leaves in epoxy, as this preserves the color and eliminates the need for pressing (meaning the leaves also retain their three dimensional features).
Once the leaves have been pressed, you can glue, tape, or laminate them onto notebook paper. Use looseleaf if you wish to rearrange them later. You may also place the pressed leaves between two sheets of wax paper, cover with a towel, and iron.
# Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Lashing/Diagonal
## Diagonal lashing

Diagonal lashing is a type of lashing used to bind spars or poles together, to prevent racking. It is usually applied to cross-bracing where the poles do not initially touch, but may by used on any poles that cross each other at a 45° to 90° angle. Large, semipermanent structures may be built with a combination of square lashing, which is stronger, and diagonal lashing.
Bailing twine has sufficient strength for some lashing applications but rope should be used for joining larger poles and where supporting people sized weights.
Diagonal lashing steps (see image at right);
* Begin with a timber hitch around the juncture of the two poles.
* Make three turns in each direction - tightening steadily as you go.
* Make two frapping turns, tightening the joint as much a possible.
* To end, make two half hitches
* Cinch the half hitches into a clove hitch
A lashing stick can be used to safely tighten the joint. Strength will be improved if the first turn is 90° to the timber hitch and if care is taken to lay the rope turns parallel with no crossings.
# Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Making soap

Re-edited info from Do-It-Yourself/Soap on WikiBooks.

## Making soap

Equipment
* Any sort of animal or vegetable fat.
* Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH), also known as lye.
* Glass beaker and stirring rod.
* Bunsen burner or other means of heating solution.
* Mold for making soap bars (any flexible plastic container).
* Vinegar, just in case.
* SAFETY NOTES
* Gloves, labcoat and appropriate eyewear should be worn when handling the Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH).
* You should do this in a well-ventilated area, preferably in a fume hood or outdoors.
* DO NOT BREATHE THE FUMES.
* Wash with vinegar if you get some on your skin (have some vinegar handy before starting the experiment) - DO NOT wash with water!.
* Mixing lye with water results in a chemical reaction that creates extreme heat - hence, washing lye off your hands (for example) with water will only initiate that reaction on your hand, resulting in chemical burn.
* SAFETY NOTES
What to do
* Place 16 oz. of any fat, such as oil or butter in a beaker.
* In another container add 2.1 oz. (59.5 g) of Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) to 6 oz. (170g) of water (do not add water to Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) - it will splatter) stir to dissolve and let cool to 110 F.
* Melt fat under low heat to 110 °F (49 °C) and add the Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) solution while stirring until the base has completely reacted with the fat (about 20 to 30 minutes)
* Pour the mixture into molds.
* Let this cool and sit for a day or two. Let the soap cakes cure for three weeks before using.
Additional Soapmaking References
* History and Process of Soap Making
* Cold process for Soapmaking
* Melt and Pour process for Soapmaking
* Rebatching technique
# Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Lashing/Simple Object
## Construct a simple object

Possibly the simplest project to build with lashing is a coat hanger. Only two sticks and one lash are required to create this simple but useful object. The two pictured below were made by Pathfinders earning this honor.
# Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Maintaining body warmth

The key to staying warm in the winter is to stay dry. This is done by dressing in layers which are easily vented. While snow shoeing, hiking, or cross country skiing, an individual generates an enormous amount of body heat. Unless the person is careful, the body will overheat, and the person will begin to perspire. When the person stops to rest, the perspiration will begin to chill the body. It is therefore imperative that the active person dress in layers. When the body begins to heat up, the outer jacket should be vented, which is to say, unzipped. If heat continues to build, the outer jacket should be removed. If this does not cool the body enough to end perspiration, another layer should be vented, and perhaps shed. Eventually, the clothing will match the person's level of activity, where enough body heat is generated to keep the person warm, but not sweaty. If it is snowing, sleeting, or raining, be sure the outermost layer is waterproof.
If a person finds that he (or she) has not controlled his (or her) perspiration sufficiently, it is important to change out of the sweat-soaked garments as soon as possible. For once the chills set in, they are difficult to overcome. Do not wear cotton garments for winter camping. Cotton will keep you warm only if it is kept perfectly dry, and keeping it perfectly dry is nearly impossible. Winter campers are quick to admonish that cotton kills. Instead wear woolen or synthetic garments.
When the day's exertion ends, it is time to start adding layers again. When it is finally time to go to bed, the winter camper should climb into a warm sleeping bag and zip up. Sleeping bags are generally given a temperature rating. It would be foolish to set out on a winter camping expedition with a $10.00 sleeping bag that is only good down to 40°F. Make sure the temperature rating matches the expected conditions, and reserve a little margin for bad forecasting. Also, don't forget that weather forecasts often do not cover higher elevations, so if you're hiking in mountainous areas, be aware of the conditions at the altitude you're going to be spending your time. Again, if perspiration begins, the bag should be partially unzipped to allow the air to cool the body before sweat does.
# Beginning Mathematics/Number Theory

← Set Theory | Geometry →
Following on from the introduction of sets and their manipulation, this section introduces formal number theory.

# Numbers

The use of numbers was probably the first application of mathematical theory. As we have seen, many many objects can be defined using mathematical logic, but the study of quantities of these objects is based in number theory. As a human, it is natural to have an implicit understanding of quantities, but defining numbers formally will require definitions from the previous section. Again, let us start with nothing; in particular the number zero (0), representing the quantity of no objects. Formally it can be stated that a set with zero objects is empty. If an object, any at all, is introduced into this set, the set is no longer empty, and the quantity of objects within it is no longer zero. As long as the introduced object is solitary, we can state in English that the set now contains one object. Progressing onwards from this results in the concept of numbers that we know and love.
* Definition: A number is representative of the quantity of arbitrary objects in an arbitrary set.
* Definition: $n(A)$ is an operation performed on a set A that gives the quantity of objects contained within.
These definitions lead to the progression below
$0=n(\{\}),\;1=n(\{a\}),\;2=n(\{a,b\}),...$
giving us the set of symbols {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9} to represent quantities.
When progressing beyond the value of 9 we could try to represent each value with a different symbol to infinity, but this would quickly become tedious, as the symbols would either have to differ by infinitesimally small amounts or grow to very large sizes to represent the changes in value, and in practice they would have to grow anyway due to limitations in resolution and the particular nature of the universe. So we do not do this; here the concept of a positional numeral system needs introduction.
Within a positional numeral system, the actual value of a numeral depends (as the name implies) on its position within the collection of numerals that make up the number. Following on from the progression before, the sequence continues with the number 10. Here the numeral 1 holds the value of $n(A)$ where A is a set holding one more object than the number represented by the symbol 9. The numeral 0 is a placeholder, important in that it increases the value of the numeral to the left by its presence. A numeral holding the position of the 1 in this, the number ten, will have its value similarly scaled. For example, jumping forward in the progression, the number 83. The numeral 3 holds its base value, and the numeral 8 has its base value scaled by the value the 1 represents in the number 10. In this, the commonly used Hindu-Arabic system, the value of a numeral is ten times the value it would hold were it placed one position to the right, down to the base value of the numeral at the rightmost position. The result of this is a powerful system that allows the concept of the value of large and diverse numbers to be communicated in concise written form.
# Beginning Java/Loops
## What are Loops?

Loops are a handy tool that enables programmers to do repetitive tasks with minimal effort.
Consider the following application.
Code:
Output:
The task will be completed just fine, the numbers 1 to 10 will be printed in the output, but there are a few problems with this solution:
* Flexibility, what if we wanted to change the start number or end number? We would have to go through and change them, adding extra lines of code where they're needed.
* Scalability, 10 repeats are trivial, but what if we wanted 100 or even 1000 repeats? The number of lines of code needed would be overwhelming for a large number of iterations.
* More error prone, where there is a large amount of code, one is more likely to make a mistake.
Using loops we can solve all these problems. Once you get you head around them they will be invaluable to solving many problems in programming.
Open up your editing program and create a new file. Now type or copy the following code:
This code may look confusing to you if you have never encountered a loop before, don't worry, the exact details of different loops will be explained later in this chapter, this is an aid to illustrate the advantages of loops in programming.
If we run the program, the same result is produced, but looking at the code, we immediately see the advantages of loops. 10 lines of code have been reduced to just 4. Furthermore, we may change the number 10 to any number we like. Try it yourself, replace the 10 with your own number.
# Beginning Java/Machine Setup

Before you begin to make Java programs, you must first set your system up, this chapter will teach you how to install the necessary program.

## IDE

An IDE (Integrated Development Environment) is a program that provides a streamlined way to make programs. There are a few advantages to using an IDE to make programs. The two that are of most concern to the beginner are:
* Easier to use - There is no need to worry about things like environment variables, just install and you can run right away. And when you start programming, to run the programs simply click a button rather than typing in command prompt.
* Automatic error checking - as you program, if you make an error then the program will underline any errors you make, such as making a typo.
The following sections will take you through the installation of the two most popular IDEs. Both are free to download and use and either are a fine choice to use.

### Eclipse
## See Also

* NetBeans - Wikipedia Article, Official Website
* Eclipse - Wikipedia Article, Official Website
# Beginning Java/Variables

Variables are devices that store data in memory (much like short our short term memory), they are an essential feature that all programming languages share.

## Primitive vs Reference

There are two main types of variables.
* Primitive - this data is stored directly in memory, every primitive data type is a number of varying ranges. There are eight primitive data types in Java: byte, short, int, long, float, double, boolean, and char.
* Reference - also known as objects, a reference does not contain the actual data, rather it contains a "pointer" to where the data is held. The examples are Object, Vector, and String.

## Declaration

To use a variable we must first declare it. In Java we do use the following structure (formally known as syntax):
You will learn about types later in this chapter.
Its name can be anything as long as it is made up of only letters, numbers, "_" and "$". Variables are case-sensitive (so "message" is different from "Message").

## Types

Java is what's known as a "strongly typed" language, which means each variable explicitly a certain type (e.g. number, string etc).

### Integers

These represent whole numbers (1, 2, 3...). The "int" type is the most commonly used integer, and has a range of about ± 2.1 billion.

### Strings

As seen before, strings store textual data.
# Beginning Mathematics/Logic and Deductive Reasoning

← Introduction to Abstraction | Set Theory →
Logic has a long history, and is one of the central tenets of western thought. Going back to the ancient philosophers, logic has been the attempt to devise a system for ascertaining truth via thought. Logic falls under the category of deductive reasoning, meaning it is used to establish truth based upon already established truths, called postulates or axioms.
The oldest and most influential axiom system would be from Euclid's Elements, the classic geometry text, which ranks as one of the most important books of all time. Euclid starts off his first book with 23 definitions and 5 postulates. The postulates basically describe what can be done with an unmarked ruler and a compass. For instance, the first postulate says that a line can be drawn between two points. The second says that lines can be extended, and the third says that circles can be drawn with a center and a given radius.
# Beginning Mathematics/Rate and ratio

← Algebra |
Ratio: a term of math in which you have two numbers and you compare them. For example, if you had six pencils and four erasers, the ratio of pencils to erasers would be- 6:4 or six to four. Also, equivalent ratios are if you have two different ratios with two different second terms, like: 6:4 and 3:7, you could find out which one is greater by doing the following...
* You multiply 6x7, which is 42, then you know your first term is 42.
* multiply 4x7 to get 28, so your full first ratio would be 42:28.
* multiply 3x4 to get an answer of 12. Your first term on your SECOND ratio would be 12.
* multiply 7x4 to get 28. Your full second ratio will be 12:28.
So therefore, the two ratios are equivalent, or the same as, 42:28 and 12:28. That would mean your greater ratio is the first ratio, 42:28, because 42 is larger/greater than 12.
# Beginning Mathematics/Algebra

← Geometry | Rate and ratio →
Arithmetic is the study and use of numbers and their relationships, whilst Algebra uses letters as a preliminary substitute for numbers.
Unknown numbers are often given the letters x, y and z, while the temporary substitutes for known numbers may be a, A, b, B, c, A1, FF, etc. Algebra also comes up with various simplifications.

## An example

How to calculate wages to be paid:
* Employee A worked 50 hours at 10 per hour, total is 50 times 10 = 500
* Employee B worked 45 hours at 10 per hour, total is 45 times 10 = 450, etc. - That is arithmetic.
In algebraic terms, this same table could be express as such: Let h = the number of hours worked, and r = the rate of pay per hour.
* Then t = the total to be paid = h times r
* Note that this covers the calculation for ALL employees, just substitute the correct numbers for each of the letters, as the case may be.
* For Employee A: h = 50, r = 10, and t = h times r, therefore t= 500
* For Employee B: h = 45, r = 10, and t = h times r, therefore t = 450

## Closure

Closure is a term which describes a relationship between an operation and a set. A set is said to be closed under a certain operation if any application of the given operation applied between members of the set yields another member of the set.

### Examples

* The set of integers is closed under addition, multiplication, and subtraction, but not division and exponentiation.
* The set of complex numbers is closed under addition, multiplication, exponentiation, and division.
* The set of odd integers is not closed under addition.

## Modular Arithmetic

Modular arithmetic acts like regular arithmetic, except that it is dealing only with remainders with respect to a certain number. We call the number the modulus and refer to arithmetic modulo the given number.

### Example

* $Z_{4}$ is the set of integers modulo 4. The elements of $Z_{4}$ are $\{0,1,2,3\}$

## Groups

A group is an ordered pair $(G,\cdot )$ where G is a set closed under the operation $\cdot$. The integers modulo any integer form a group.
# Beginning Mathematics/Introduction to Abstraction

← Where To Start? With Nothing! | Logic and Deductive Reasoning →
Mathematics takes concrete things, and turns them into abstractions which help to generalize ideas. Take a simple example with numbers. Is quantity the property of a thing? We can have two cars or two shoes, but there are still two. We can also have one car or two cars, but we are still talking about a "car".
Think about it for a minute. Can you define the idea of number? There is no tangible thing as one. There is "one dollar", but there is not a one. There is a symbol for one, but again no tangible "one".
If you attempted to define numbers you probably came up with definitions that just start out listing 1,2,3,etc. or you can also look and see that one plus one is two. There is something inherent in this property.
This seemingly imperceptible condition of abstraction is the defining quality of mathematics. In geometry we consider enclosed shapes with three sides on them, and call them triangles. You may see a triangle, but you will never see the tangible idea of triangle. You merely see a representation of it.
Yet, you can discover such facts like a rectangle can be divided into two triangles. This is true regardless of the rectangle you choose, and you can reason this without actually seeing every rectangle, which would be impossible.
Mathematics is able to generalize various things into abstract ideas, upon which generalized statements can be made for classes of objects without considering each one individually. Triangles have certain properties. Two of anything has certain properties. These are all related in the abstract.
In understanding abstractions, mathematics begins to classify ways in which abstract objects are alike, and ways they are different. Some things are numbers, and others are shapes.
Mathematics deals with this problem by defining different types of equivalences. For any two things it covers, an equivalence class says they are either the same or different in a certain way. In ordinary arithmetic this might be expressed by something like $3+3=6$ which says that under the equal equivalence class 3+3 is the same as 6.
# Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Nf3/2...c6/3. Nxe5/3...Nf6

This move has a little trap in it. There is a move that lets 3. Nxe5 backfire.
Some moves are:
   * 4. Nxf7!? is a crazy line that sacrifices a knight for 2 pawns, but white may get some compensation from it.
   * 4. Nc3 defends the pawn and develops the other knight.
   * 4. d4 gives back the pawn to gain space in the center.
4. d3?? is out of the question as 4...Qa5+! wins the knight.
# Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Nf3/2...c6/3. Nxe5/3...Nf6/4. d3/4...Qa5/5. Nc3/5...Qxe5

This is black's only move that gains an advantage. The most aggressive response is 6. Be2.
# King's Knight Opening: Gunderam Gambit, Bishop Attack
### 6...Bb4

This is very good for black as it pins the knight and threatens to exchange it to ruin white's pawn structure.
White now has:
   * 7. Bd2 Unpin Variation
   * 7. O-O Main Line
The Main Line (7. O-O) is better as it unpins the knight and moves the king to safety.
# King's Knight Opening: Gunderam Gambit, Bishop Attack, Main Line
### 7. O-O

7...Bxc3 .
# Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Nf3/2...c6/3. Nxe5

White makes the good decision to capture an important center pawn. But White must still be careful as black may catch them off guard and turn the tables.
1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 c6 3.Nxe5
3...Nf6
# Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Nf3/2...c6/3. Nxe5/3...Nf6/4. d3

This move completely loses to 4...Qa5+! as it forks the king and the knight and white is crying in the corner. Unfortunately, this is the second most popular move.
# Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Nf3/2...c6/3. Nxe5/3...Nf6/4. d3/4...Qa5

This move wins as it forks white's pieces. 5. Nc3
5 popular responses after black captures the knight are:
   * 6. f4
   * 6. Be2 Bishop Attack
   * 6. g3
   * 6. d4
   * 6. Be3
# King's Knight Opening: Gunderam Gambit, Bishop Attack
### 6. Be2

This aggressive response aims to develop a piece and castle.
Black now has:
   * 6...Bb4
   * 6...d5
# Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Nf3/2...c6/3. Nxe5/3...Nf6/4. d3/4...Qa5/5. Nc3

This is the best and most popular block. Black's only move is 5...Qxe5.
# King's Knight Opening: Gunderam Gambit, Bishop Attack, Main Line
### 7...Bxc3

. 8. bxc3
# Two Knights Defence
### 7. Qe2
## Theory table

For explanation of theory tables, see theory table and for notation, see algebraic notation. .
    1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.Bc4 Nf6 4.Ng5 d5 5.exd5 Na5 6.Bb5+ Bd7
| | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 |
| 1 | Qe2 Bd6 | Nc3 O-O | Bxd7 Qxd7 | O-O - | +/= |
| 1 | ... Be7 | Nc3 O-O | ~ |

## Statistics

Estimated next move likelihood Be7 67%, Bd6 30%, Bxb5 3%
When contributing to this Wikibook, please follow the Conventions for organization.
# Two Knights Defence
### 6 ... c6

Obvious move and best.

## Theory table

For explanation of theory tables, see theory table and for notation, see algebraic notation. .
    1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.Bc4 Nf6 4.Ng5 d5 5.exd5 Na5 6.Bb5+
| 6 | 7 |
| Bb5+ c6 | dxc6 bxc6 |

## Statistics

Estimated next move likelihood dxc6 100%
When contributing to this Wikibook, please follow the Conventions for organization.
# Two Knights Defence
### 7 dxc6
## Theory table

For explanation of theory tables, see theory table and for notation, see algebraic notation. .
    1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.Bc4 Nf6 4.Ng5 d5 5.exd5 Na5 6.Bb5+
* 7
* dxc6 bxc6

## Statistics

Estimated next move likelihood bxc6 99.9%, Nxc6 0.1%
When contributing to this Wikibook, please follow the Conventions for organization.