OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# The Latin Language/Latin Cases and Gender

If you wish to delve deeply into the subject of Latin cases, see Wikipedia.
Explicitur totum, pro amore Dei, da mihi potum.
The whole thing is done, for the love of God, give me a drink.

## What is a case?

The case of a noun or pronoun tells us its function in a sentence. For example, in English a noun in a sentence could be a subject, as in The quick cat chased the little mouse, or it could be a direct object, as in The quick cat chased the little mouse. However, English is an uninflected language, which means that a noun does not inflect (that is, change form) based on its case. Notable exceptions are the pronouns, where, for example, I takes the form me when it is a direct object.
However, Latin — like many modern languages — is an inflected language, so nouns in Latin change form based on their case. Specifically, each case changes the ending of a noun.

## The Latin cases

There are seven cases in Latin. Here is the list of cases, along with the general idea of what they are used for. As with everything in language, there are exceptions and special rules, but for now this is a quick summary.
* Nominative, which is used for the subject of a sentence: what is the sentence about?
       The quick cat chased the little mouse.
* Genitive, which is used for the possessor of another noun: whose is the noun?
       The tall man's quick cat chased the little mouse.
* Accusative, which is used for the direct object of a sentence: what does the action in the sentence apply to?
       The quick cat chased the little mouse.
* Dative, which is used for the indirect object of a sentence: who benefits from the action in the sentence?
       The quick cat gave the dead mouse to his owner.
* Ablative, which is used for many, many things, including where and when the action takes place, what was used to perform the action, and who was also there:
       In the basement, the quick cat with his friend batted the little mouse at noon with his paw.
* Vocative, which is used when addressing someone:
       Silly cat, take that dead mouse outside!
* Locative, which is used for where the action takes place, but only for some words, such as cities:
       The silly cat chased mice in Rome.
The first five are the most widely used. Since the vocative and locative cases have highly restricted uses, we will introduce them later.

### Exercises
## Grammatical Gender

The grammatical gender of a noun has nothing to do with the physical gender of the thing it represents (its "natural gender"). Rather, gender simply means type, and there can be any number of genders in a language. Just as the number of a noun (singular or plural) forces other words in the sentence to match that number (a cat bites, but cats bite), the grammatical gender of a noun forces other words in the sentence to match that gender.
Latin has a system of three genders: feminine, masculine, and neuter. The Luganda language of Uganda has ten genders, while Swahili has 18!

## Notes

* ↑ Another grateful scribe. Gameson, Richard (2002). The Scribe Speaks? Colophons in early English manuscripts (PDF). University of Cambridge. p. 3. ISBN 0953217272.
# The Legend of Zelda/Controls

| NES | GameCube | Wii Classic Controller | Wii Remote | Nintendo 3DS | Wii U | Action |
| D-Pad | D-Pad | D-Pad | D-Pad | D-Pad | D-Pad | Move Link in the four cardinal directions Highlight a letter for a new save file Select a particular subweapon for B button assignment |
| Start | Start | plus | plus | start | plus | Bring up the sub-screen menu, where Link can look at the map, change subweapon, etc. Select the character or option which has the heart icon next to it Return from the sub-screen to the normal view |
| Select | X / Y | minus | minus | select / Y | minus | Pause the action in the game Cycle through available characters or options |
| A | A | A | 2 | A | A / X | Swing the sword Select the highlighted letter for the name of your character |
| B | B | B | 1 | B / X | B / Y | Use subweapon Skip one space in the name of your character. Pressing on the eighth space brings the cursor back around to the first |
| D-Pad (Up) + A | D-Pad (Up) + A | D-Pad (Up) + A | D-Pad (Up) + 2 | D-Pad (Up) + A | D-Pad (Up) + A / X | Quick access to Save Screen from the sub-screen menu (controller 2) |
| — | — | — | — | (L + R) + Y | — | Switch between controller 1 and 2 |
# Unsolved Problems in Biology/Introduction

This biology textbook originated in Wikipedia with the article Unsolved problems in biology (started 08:56, 27 Jun 2003 . . Ike9898).

## The endless frontier

No matter how much we know about living organisms, there is always more to learn. This book is dedicated to the idea that asking questions is important. We welcome contributions of new questions about biology on the Grist page. Answers to all questions about biology can start with what is already known and then move on to what remains to be discovered, what remains unsolved. The goal of this textbook is to serve as an unorthodox introduction to biology. Each chapter starts with a question, maybe the sort of question a small child would ask, and explores the implications of that question out to the limits of the current state of research and then moves on into speculation about what might be discovered in the future.
What is life? The first chapter is called "What is life?" It starts with some of the history of biology and gives a version of the "textbook answer" that might typically be found in an introductory biology textbook. Related questions are then investigated in an attempt to explore the boundaries of the physical domain we call "life". Why is life on Earth made out of certain atoms such as carbon and oxygen? Are there life forms in the universe that are not based on carbon? Is there a clear boundary between carbon-based life and Artificial life? Does the concept of a non-physical thinking being make any sense or is life always instantiated in matter? The chapter concludes with a discussion of the idea that life is the means by which the universe comes to know itself.

## Some Unsolved Problems in Biology

How did biological organisms start? Are the conditions necessary for the origin of life narrow or broad? How are the sizes of cells, organs, and bodies controlled? Did life start on this planet or was there an extraterrestrial intervention (for example a meteor from another planet) ? Why have so many biological systems independently developed sexual reproduction? What constitutes a species?
# Unsolved Problems in Biology/Consciousness

The topic of consciousness is a huge, huge field. Some of it involves religion, so people with various religious beliefs may have completely different opinions about consciousness, and their books, explanations, and teachings will be different. Most people, for example, believe in God, while some people do not, so they will have different opinions about whether God created consciousness.
This article was written by an author who does not believe in God, and does believe that Charles Darwin's Theory of Evolution is true (some people believe in both at the same time).
The first lifeforms were bacteria, which came into being 4 billion years ago. A long series of evolutions brought humans into being 200,000 years ago. Within those billions of years in between, millions of species evolved. All lifeforms, including humans, evolved from bacteria.
People who study consciousness ask questions like, "Are chimpanzees conscious? How about bacteria?" No one knows for sure because the definition of 'consciousness' is a subjective matter of opinion.
Some people, including scientists, wonder whether computers will ever be advanced enough to have consciousness. Some say 'yes'; some say 'no'.
Therefore, many professors have devoted their lives to trying to figure out what consciousness is first.
Some of these professors are neuroscientists -- they study the science of the brain. As an example, some neuroscientists study the brains of people while they are unconscious -- for example, while they are sleeping. One of the many ways they do this is by using a method called electroencephalography, abbreviated EEG. There are several different kinds of neuroscientists who study consciousness -- cognitive neuroscientists, neurologists, neuroradiologists, computational neuroscientists, theoretical neuroscientists, and others.
Other kinds of professors who study consciousness are philosophers, particularly those who specialize in the philosophy of mind. They ask questions such as, "How does a part of one's body -- the brain -- produce something as complicated as consciousness, something as complicated as human thinking?" Many philosophers of mind specialize in a field called cognitive science, which is geared toward the question of whether advanced computers will someday have consciousness. Cognitive science as a field has only existed since the 1970's, but all the sciences and philosophies related to cognitive science can be traced back to ancient times.
Some philosophers studying consciousness today are David Chalmers, Daniel Dennett, and Ned Block.
# Unsolved Problems in Biology
## Chapters

* Introduction
* What is Life? Are there life forms in the universe that are not based on carbon? Is there a clear boundary between carbon-based life and Artificial life?
* How Did It Start? What are the different hypotheses of origin of life? Did life begin on this planet, was there inanimate intervention (such as a meteor hitting the earth) or intelligent, extraterrestrial design? What are the mechanisms of biorhythms and chronobiology? Why is magnetite in living creatures?
* Sexual Reproduction: Why have so many biological systems developed sexual reproduction?
* Tree of Life: Do all animals link together to a primary source?
* Protein folding: Given a DNA sequence, what shape will the protein fold into? Given a particular desired shape, what DNA sequence will produce it?
* Consciousness. What is it? Can we create artificial life that has human-like consciousness?
* Sleep: Why is it necessary for mammals to sleep? Or dream, come to that?
* Viruses. What are the signs of current or past infection to discover where Ebola hides between human outbreaks?
* Where is memory/information stored in brain? How are other animals different than humans in regard to brain function?
# Unsolved Problems in Biology/Grist
## Welcome!

* Please add your question(s) about biology to the TOP of the list, below.
* Guidelines for this page.
** Try to edit this page as little as possible.
** The purpose of this page is to collect questions about biology that are on people's minds.
** Questions posted here can be copied to other pages where they can be categorized and serve as the basis for new chapters in the book.

## Top of the list of questions

Explain the Paradox of the plankton. How the high diversity of phytoplankton seems to violate the competitive exclusion principle.
What are the current drawbacks and adverse effects to telomerase bio-genesis inhibition technology?
Is natural selection capable of producing the major innovations we see in the living world, or only minor variations within species boundaries?
Why age? Why must all organisms die? Why do cells of different organisms age on different time scales?
Is the biology of chimps enough like that of humans that we should grant them human rights?
Does it make sense to think about moving living organisms from Earth to other planets like Mars or Venus in order to terraform them?
Can you engineer a tree so that it makes electricity.....so that you could have a tree in your yard that would be able to charge a chemical battery?
What is the upper limit (if any) on how long a human can live?
Will it ever be possible to transfer a human mind to a robotic brain and body?
# Unsolved Problems in Biology/Protein folding

Protein structure can be viewed at four levels: I) Primary Structure: The amino acid sequence of a protein. II) Secondary Structure: Motifs which sections of a sequence organize themselves into. These are mainly alpha helices and beta sheets. III) Tertiary Structure: The overall structure of a single polypeptide. IV) Quaternary Structure: The way that two or more polypeptides join to form a single unit. (Not all proteins have a quaternary structure since many polypeptides function solo.)
The main question posed by the protein folding problem is "Can the final folded structure of a protein be predicted from its amino acid sequence?" In other words, given the primary structure, can the higher order structures be predicted. So, far there has been limited success with predicting portions of the secondary structure based on amino acid sequence. For instance, certain amino acid sequences are recognized as likely to fold into various motifs. Success in predicting tertiary structure has been even more limited. Further complicating this problem is that many proteins require the help of other proteins (molecular chaperones) to fold into their proper conformation.
Certain amino acids form attachments to other amino acids. Certain amino acids repel certain other amino acids. How do the right amino acids wind up attached to their corresponding amino acids? If the wrong amino acids wind up attached to other attractive, but inappropriate amino acids a nonfunctional conformation will be achieved. For a protein to function properly it must attain its proper conformation, otherwise it is just a tangled, useless mess!
# Unsolved Problems in Biology/Magnetite

It has been suggested by those outside of mainstream science that magnetite gives organisms a sort of '6th sense', with which they can predict events in the near future (for example, earthquakes and other difficult-to-predict phenomena). Clearly this is not possible if existing scientific theories of time are accepted.
A more plausible idea is that magnetite's weak magnetic field provides some information that can be processed by an organism's central nervous system. The degree to which this information could be gathered, processed, and perceived is not established. More conservative researchers believe the magnetite acts as a tiny compass which might explain, for example, how migratory birds seem to know the difference between north and south, as exhibited by their migratory patterns.
# Unsolved Problems in Biology/Sexual Reproduction

Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of male ad female gamets to form a zygote.
# Unsolved Problems in Biology/What is Life?

“Life has many different meanings, as outlined in any dictionary. It is not possible to find one universal definition covering all meanings. The best one can hope for is to find a common denominator for all these different meanings.“
Biology is centered around the phenomenon of life. As it is mostly concerned with the scientific study of life forms, biology does not lend itself to a definition of what life actually is. There are at least as many definitions of life as there are biology text books (of authors that do not simply reproduce what they have read somewhere else before). There is consensus, however, that there is no single property that delineates living from non-living systems. Life seems to rather express itself in a variety of attributes that are common to all living beings.
These commonalities include:
* The exhibition of some kind of order (via a process of self-organization). For some authors this is the most remarkable aspect of life, as the general tendency within the universe is the reduction of order (i.e., an increase degrees of freedom or, physically speaking, entropy). Hence, they characterize life as negentropy - a phenomenon that temporarily and locally counteracts the universal trend of increasing entropy.
* Movement/Growth/Development. That is, existence of a certain nonstationarity of biological systems over time. This includes the finite nature of an individual's existence.
* Reaction/Adaptation. This evolution is another most central aspect of life. Darwinian evolution is, however, not restricted to living beings (e.g., cultural evolution).
* Energy conversion/Metabolism. While this is certainly an important aspect of life (and not directly delineable from point 1), there are some biological organisms (e.g.. virii, viroids, prions that do not show any metabolism. For some authors this is reason enough to declare that a virus is a non-living entity (whose scientific study nonetheless falls into the domain of biology).
* Reproduction. All known life forms (with the disputable exception of prions maybe) are based on a genetic code, with DNA as its material basis. Virus particles also consist of DNA, but are incapable of sustaining a metabolism (and hence reproduction) of their own.
Life is characterized by diversity - a product of its evolution. Thus, "life" is an abstraction of all living phenomena that share a common origin.
# Traditional Abacus and Bead Arithmetic

This textbook is an introduction to the Traditional Beads Arithmetic (珠算; zhūsuàn in Chinese, shuzan in Japanese), or the use of the eastern fixed-bead abacus (算盤, suanpan in Chinese, soroban in Japanese) as practiced in China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam, etc. for at least four centuries.
Chinese beads arithmetic has been inscribed in 2013 on the UNESCO Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity, however, the information available in English on this subject is scant and scattered, so it is worth the effort of trying to gather it somewhere, for instance, in this book.
This text is aimed at those who already have a basic level in the use of the abacus following the Modern Method currently taught and who wish to delve into the history of their favorite instrument and mathematics in the Far East. After studying this text and practicing its content, the reader should be able to perform calculations according to the Traditional Method using any type of eastern abacus and understand (whenever possible) why they were done that way.

## Table of content

* Introduction
* Addition and subtraction
** Use of the 5th lower bead
** Extending the 123456789 exercise
* Division
** Modern and traditional division; close relatives
** Guide to traditional division (帰除法)
** Learning the division table
** Dealing with overflow
** Traditional division examples
** Special division tables
** Division by powers of two
* Multiplication
* Roots
** Square root
** Cube root
* Appendix: Abbreviated operations
* Bibliography
* Contributors
* Resources for contributors
# Session stealing

An attacker who is able to obtain or guess the session ID can steal the session and abuse the privileges of the user.

## To prevent this type of attack

* Set the “HttpOnly” attribute for session cookies
* Generate random session IDs with secure randomness and sufficient length
* Do not leak session IDs

## Rationale

Setting the “HttpOnly” attribute on cookies prevents them from being read using JavaScript. This makes it harder to perform successful XSS attacks. Random, secure session IDs prevent the attacker from guessing a valid session ID. Ensuring that session IDs do not leak, for example in Referer information, copied links and HTML content from the site etc. makes sure that the attacker cannot obtain the session ID in this way.
# Truncation attacks, trimming attacks

Truncating input can be problematic if the truncation affects comparisons (e.g. checking users against a blacklist before truncation, and then truncating the name to perform the login). SQL queries can be truncated if they exceed a certain length. This can be used to execute a query with significantly different meaning (e.g. cutting of a part of a WHERE clause). Strings can also be automatically trimmed (leading/trailing whitespace removed), leading to the same vulnerabilities (e.g. checking the input "eviluser␣" against the blacklist, then logging in "eviluser"). SQL may do such trimming automatically.

## To prevent this type of attack

* Avoid truncating input. Treat overlong input as an error instead.
* If truncation is necessary, ensure to check the value after truncation and use only the truncated value
* Make sure trimming does not occur or checks are done consistently
* Introduce length checks
** care about different lengths due to encoding
* Make sure SQL treats truncated queries as errors by setting an appropriate SQL MODE

## Rationale

Avoiding truncation makes sure no issues can arise. If truncation is applied, performing all necessary checks after the truncation and using only the truncated value is equivalent to receiving the value in truncated condition. The same rules apply for trimming. Length checks prevent unexpected truncation due to length limits. Encoding needs to be taken into account because the byte-lengths and character-lengths of a UTF-8 string may be different. Setting the SQL MODE so that truncation causes errors ensures that truncation cannot be abused to modify queries. However, the resulting errors can still cause queries to fail unexpectedly, which should be handled in a secure manner.
# Web Development/An alternative to closing: going open-source

Have an idea that you'd like to pass on the torch to? Consider making your site open source! Someone else can carry on your work legally if you choose to open source your website.
# SSL, TLS and HTTPS basics

SSL/TLS provide encryption and authentication for HTTPS.

## For maximum security

* Follow SSLLabs best practices including:
** Ensure SSLv2 is disabled
** Generate private keys for certificates yourself, do not let your CA do it
** Use an appropriate key length (usually 2048 bit in 2013)
** If possible, disable client-initiated renegotiation
** Consider to manually limit/set cipher suites

## Rationale

SSL is easy to do and hard to do right. SSLLabs provide good guidelines that are updated when new attacks are discovered.
The CA has no need-to-know for your private key. Depending on the cipher suite used, the private key can allow adversaries to decrypt passively eavesdropped communications. Thus, even if you trust the CA, it is better to avoid any risk. Generate a key and a CSR and provide only the CSR to the CA.
Increasing key length increases security, but also significantly increases the CPU load for connection establishment. 1024 bit keys will not be accepted by Mozilla Firefox anymore for certificates that expire after the year 2013. 2048 bit keys should be enough for all applications for quite a few years – using larger key sizes seems to be overkill. (All information based on 2013.) Note: The large CPU overhead of connection establishment can be used by (D)DoS attackers. Such DDoS attacks are harder to detect and defend against when client-initiated renegotiation is supported.
SSL/TLS supports a large set of “cipher suites”, each defining a set of cryptographic mechanisms used to secure the connection. Some of them do provide perfect forward secrecy, some do not. (Perfect forward secrecy means that if the private key becomes available to an attacker, he cannot decrypt data that was eavesdropped before he got the key). Usually, the client (browser) and server choose a cipher suite by first exchanging which suites are mutually supported, and the client’s preferred suite is then chosen. Depending on setup, the server may choose the cipher suite, ignoring the client’s preference. Most defaults are reasonably sane, but for either high-speed or high-security applications, you may want to consider restricting the supported/preferred suites to fast or high-security suites. If you want to exclude clients that do not support sufficient security (e.g. ancient “export control” limited clients), make sure to disable those cipher suites. When configuring cipher suites, carefully check the setup to make sure you do not allow “ADH” suites that do not authenticate the server! If you are unsure, keep the default, and always verify the effects of your settings!
* ↑ "About SSL/TLS". Instantssl.com. Retrieved 2016-04-29.