OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Economic Sophisms/42

<pagequality level="4" user="Zoeannl" />style="background: #ececec; text-align: left; padding-left: 0.5em; font-weight: bold;" class="table-rh"should have a duty of elevenpence imposed upon them. By means of this duty, they say, the conditions af production will be equalized; and the Chamber, giving effect, as it always does, to such reasoning, inserts in the tariflf a duty of elevenpence upon every foreign orange.
Now, I maintain that the conditions of production are in nowise changed. The law has made no change on the heat of the sun of Lisbon, or on the frequency and intensity of the frosts of Paris. The ripening of oranges will continue to go on naturally on the banks of the Tagus, and artificially on the banks of the Seine—that is to say, much more human labour will be required in the one country than in the other. The conditions of sale are what have been equalized. The Portuguese must now sell us their oranges at a shilling, elevenpence of which goes to pay the tax. That tax will be paid, it is evident, by the French consumer. And look at the whimsical result. Upon each Portuguese orange consumed, the country will lose nothing, for the extra elevenpence charged to the consumer will be paid into the treasury. This will cause displacement, but not loss. But upon each French orange consumed there will be a loss of elevenpence, or nearly so, for the purchaser will certainly lose that sum, and the seller as certainly will not gain it, seeing that by the hypothesis he will only have received the cost price. I leave it to the protectionists to draw the inference.
IV. If I have dwelt upon this distinction between the conditions of production and the conditions of sale, a distinction which the protectionists will no doubt pronounce paradoxical, it is because it leads me to inflict on them another, and a much stranger, paradox, which is this: Would you equalize effectually the conditions of production, leave exchange free.
Now, really, it will be said, this is too much; you must be making game of us. Well, then, were it only for curiosity, I entreat the gentlemen protectionists to follow me on to the conclusion of my argument. It will not be long. I revert to my former illustration.
Let us suppose for a moment that the average daily wage which a Frenchman earns is equal to a shilling, and it follows
# Economic Sophisms/43

<pagequality level="4" user="Zoeannl" />style="background: #ececec; text-align: left; padding-left: 0.5em; font-weight: bold;" class="table-rh"incontestably that to produce directly an orange in France, a day's work, or its equivalent, is required; while to produce the value of a Portuguese orange, only a twelfth part of that day's labour would be necessary; which means exactly this, that the sun does at Lisbon what human labour does at Paris. Now, is it not very evident that if I can produce an orange, or, what comes to the same thing, the means of purchasing one, with a twelfth part of a day's labour, I am placed, with respect to this production, under exactly the same conditions as the Portuguese producer himself, excepting the carriage, which must be at my expense. It is certain, then, that liberty equalizes the conditions of production direct or indirect, as far as they can be equalized, since it leaves no other difference, but the inevitable one arising from the expense of transport.
I add, that liberty equalizes also the conditions of enjoyment, of satisfaction, of consumption, with which the protectionists never concern themselves, and which are yet the essential consideration, consumption being the end and object of all our industrial efforts. In virtue of free trade, we enjoy the sun of Portugal like the Portuguese themselves. The inhabitants of Havre and the citizens of London are put in possession, and on the same conditions, of all the mineral resources which nature has bestowed on Newcastle.
V. Gentlemen protectionists, you find me in a paradoxical humour; and I am disposed to go further still. I say, and I sincerely think, that if two countries are placed under unequal conditions of production, it is that one of the two which is least favoured by nature which has most to gain by free trade. To prove this, I must depart a little from the usual form of such a work as this. I shall do so nevertheless, first of all, because the entire question lies there, and also because it will afford me an opportunity of explaining an economic law of the highest importance, and which, if rightly understood, appears to me to be fitted to bring back to the science all those sects who, in our day, seek in the land of chimeras that social harmony which they fail to discover in nature. I refer to the law of consumption, which it is perhaps to be regretted that the majority of economists have neglected.
# Economic Sophisms/40

<pagequality level="4" user="Zoeannl" />style="background: #ececec; text-align: left; padding-left: 0.5em; font-weight: bold;" class="table-rh"capital, are in little request in B, and will soon fall in price there.
Nor is this all. While A is always selling, and B is always buying, money passes from B to A. It becomes abundant in A, and scarce in B.
But abundance of money means that we must have plenty of it to buy everything else. Then in A, to the real dearness which arises from a very active demand, there is added a nominal dearness, which is due to a redundancy of the precious metals.
Scarcity of money means that little is required for each purchase. Then in B a nominal cheapness comes to be combined with real cheapness.
In these circumstances, industry will have all sorts of motives—motives, if I may say so, carried to the highest degree of intensity—to desert A and establish itself in B.
Or, to come nearer what would actually take place under such circumstances, we may affirm that sudden displacements being so repugnant to the nature of industry, such a transfer would not have been so long delayed, but that from the beginning, under the free régime, it would have gradually and progressively shared and distributed itself between A and B, according to the laws of supply and demand—that is to say, according to the laws of justice and utility.
And when I assert that if it were possible for industry to concentrate itself upon one point, that very circumstance would set in motion an irresistible decentralizing force, I indulge in no idle hypothesis.
Let us listen to what was said by a manufacturer in addressing the Manchester Chamber of Commerce (I omit the figures by which he supported his demonstration):—
"Formerly we exported stuffs; then that exportation gave place to that of yarns, which are the raw material of stuffs; then to that of machines, which are the instruments for producing yarn; afterwards to the exportation of the capital with which we construct our machines; finally, to that of our workmen and our industrial skill, which are the source of our capital. All these elements of labour, one after the other, are set to work wherever they find the most advantageous opening, wherever the expense of living is cheaper and the necessaries
# Economic Sophisms/46

<pagequality level="4" user="Zoeannl" />style="background: #ececec; text-align: left; padding-left: 0.5em; font-weight: bold;" class="table-rh"such, brought back to the point from which it started. And yet the invention is not the less an acquisition; the saving of time, of labour, of effort to produce a given result, that is, to produce a determinate number of copies, is not the less realized. But how does it show itself? In the cheapness of books. And to whose profit? To the profit of the consumer, of society, of the human race. The printers, who have thenceforth no exceptional merit, no longer receive exceptional remuneration. As men, as consumers, they undoubtedly participate in the advantages which the invention has conferred upon the community. But that is all. As printers, as producers, they have returned to the ordinary condition of the other producers of the country. Society pays them for their labour, and not for the utility of the invention. The latter has become the common and gratuitous heritage of mankind at large.
I confess that the wisdom and the beauty of these laws call forth my admiration and respect. I see in them Saint-Simonianism: To each according to his capacity; to each capacity according to its works. I see in them communism; that is, the tendency of products to become the common heritage of men; but a Saint-Simonianism, a communism, regulated by infinite prescience, and not abandoned to the frailties, the passions, and the arbitrary will of men.
What I have said of the art of printing, may be affirmed of all the instruments of labour, from the nail and the hammer to the locomotive and the electric telegraph. Society becomes possessed of all through its more abundant consumption, and it enjoys all gratuitously, for the effect of inventions and discoveries is to reduce the price of commodities; and all that part of the price which has been annihilated, and which represents the share invention has in production, evidently renders the product gratuitous to that extent. All that remains to be paid for is the human labour, the immediate labour, and it is paid for without reference to the result of the invention, at least when that invention has passed through the cycle I have just described—the cycle which it is designed to pass through. I send for a tradesman to my house; he comes and brings his saw with him; I pay him two shillings for his day's work, and he saws me twenty-five boards. Had the saw not been invented, he
# Ulvestad Variation

7 ... Qxc6. Taking the bishop and the attack on g2 remains.

# Theory Table

For explanation of theory tables, see theory table and for notation, see algebraic notation. .
    1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.Bc4 Nf6 4.Ng5 d5 5.exd5 b5 6.Bxb5 Qxd5 7 Bxc6
| 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 |
| Bxc6 Qxc6 | O-O Bb7 | Qf3 e4 | Qb3 Bc5 | |
| ... ... | Qf3 e4 | Qb3 Bc5 | Qxf7 Kd8 | O-O Rf8 | Qxg7 - |
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# Ulvestad Variation

7...Qxg2

## Theory table

For explanation of theory tables, see theory table and for notation, see algebraic notation. .
    1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.Bc4 Nf6 4.Ng5 d5 5.exd5 b5 6.Bxb5 Qxd5 7. Nc2 Qxg2
| 8 | 9 | 10 |
| Qf3 Qxf3 | Nxf3 Bd7 | O-O Bd6 | = |

## Estimated next move likelihood

Qf3 90%, Rf1 10%
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# Two Knights Defence 4. d3

If 4...Bc5, then this opening transposes to the Giuoco Pianissimo.

## Theory table

For explanation of theory tables, see theory table and for notation, see algebraic notation. .
1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.Bc4 Nf6 4.d3
| 4 | 5 | 6 |
| ... Bc5 | c3 d6 | O-O O-O | = |
| ... Be7 | O-O O-O | Re1 d6 | = |
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## References

* Kasparov, Garry, & Keene, Raymond 1989 Batsford chess openings 2. ISBN 0-8050-3409-9.
# Two Knights Defence - Classical Variation
### 4...exd4

Black plays exd4. Black is a pawn up but has a number of weaknesses the square e5, the Knight on f6 that can be pinned and also the weak f7 square. This all adds up to giving White a number of options. They are.
   * 5. O-O the classical variation.
   * 5. e5 the modern variation.
   * 5. Ng5 a misguided direct attack on f7.
   * 5. Nxd4 rather normal move.
   * 5. Bg5 pinning the Knight, but the pin can soon be undone, leaving no advantage for White.
   * 5. Qe2 this supports e5, although e5 can be played immediately anyway.
   * 5. c3 fails to 5...Nxe4 where Black has the nice d5 available and time to block any pins on the e-file against the King.

## Theory table

For explanation of theory tables, see theory table and for notation, see algebraic notation.
1. e4 e5 2. Nf3 Nc6 3. Bc4 Nf6 4.d4 exd4
| | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 |
| 1 | O-O Nxe4 | Re1 d5 | Bxd5 Qxd5 | Nc3 Qh5 | Nxe4 Be6 | Bg5 Bd6 | = |
| 2 | ... Bc5 | e5 d5 | exf6 dxc4 | Re1+ Be6 | Ng5 Qd5 | Nc3 Qf5 | = |
| 3 | e5 d5 | Bb5 Ne4 | Nxd4 Bd7 | Bxc6 bxc6 | O-O Bc5 | Be3 Qe7 | = |
| 4 | Ng5 d5 | exd5 Qe7+ | Kf1 Ne5 | Qxd4 Nxc4 | Qxc4 h6 | Nf3 Qc5 | = |
| 5 | Nxd4 Nxe4 | Bxf7+ Kxf7 | Qxh5+ g6 | Qd5 Kg7 | Nxc6 bxc6 | Qxe4 Qe8 | = |
| 6 | Bg5 Be7 | O-O O-O | = |
| 7 | Qe2 Bc5 | e5 O-O | O-O d5 | =/+ |
| 8 | c3 Nxe4 | =/+ |
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## References

* Nunn's Chess Openings. 1999. John Nunn (Editor), Graham Burgess, John Emms, Joe Gallagher. ISBN 1-8574-4221-0.
* Kasparov, Garry, & Keene, Raymond 1989 Batsford chess openings 2. ISBN 0-8050-3409-9.
# Ulvestad Variation

6 ... Qxd5. Attacking the Bishop on b5 and the pawn on g2.

## Theory table

For explanation of theory tables, see theory table and for notation, see algebraic notation. .
    1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.Bc4 Nf6 4.Ng5 d5 5.exd5 b5 6.Bxb5 Qxd5
| | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 |
| Ulvestad Variation | Bxb5 Qxd5 | Bxc6 Qxc6 | O-O Bb7 | Qf3 h6 | |
| | ... ... | Nc3 Qxg2 | Qf3 Qxf3 | Nxf3 Bd7 | O-O Bd6 | = |

## Estimated next move likelihood

Nc3 58%, Bxc6 17%, Be2 12%, Bf1 8%, Qe2 5%
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# Ulvestad Variation

7. Nc3

## Theory table

For explanation of theory tables, see theory table and for notation, see algebraic notation. .
    1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.Bc4 Nf6 4.Ng5 d5 5.exd5 b5 6.Bxb5 Qxd5
| 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 |
| Nc3 Qxg2 | Qf3 Qxf3 | Nxf3 Bd7 | O-O Bd6 | = |

## Estimated next move likelihood

Qxg2 100%
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# Italian Game, Two Knights Defence
## 4. O-O

White sacrifices a pawn for a lead in development and king safety. This is not the soundest line in the Italian Game, but completely playable.
1. e4 e5 2. Nf3 Nc6 3. Bc4 Nf6 4. O-O

## References

* The Two Knights Defence (1983) Yakov Estrin. ISBN 0-7134-3991-2.
* Kasparov, Garry, & Keene, Raymond 1989 Batsford chess openings 2. ISBN 0-8050-3409-9.
* Nunn's Chess Openings. 1999. John Nunn (Editor), Graham Burgess, John Emms, Joe Gallagher. ISBN 1-8574-4221-0.
# Ulvestad Variation

7 Bxc6. Exchanging the attacked Bishop.

# Theory Table

For explanation of theory tables, see theory table and for notation, see algebraic notation. .
    1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.Bc4 Nf6 4.Ng5 d5 5.exd5 b5 6.Bxb5 Qxd5 7 Bxc6
| | 7 |
| 1 | Bxc6 Qxc6 |
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# Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Nf3/2...Nc6/3. Bc4/3...Nf6/4. d4
## Two Knights Defence - Classical Variation
### 4. d4

    This aggressive move frees White's queenside bishop and adds pressure on the center. However, the e4-pawn is left undefended and that gives Black some options to establish a stable center.
   * 4...exd4 is Black's only credible answer.
   * 4...Nxe4 can be meet with 5. dxe5 when White threatens Bxf7+ or Qd5 attacking both the e4-knight and f7.
   * 4...Nxd4 with Nxe5 undermining the knight on d4.
   * 4...Bd6? blockades Black's d-pawn and allows White to take on e5.

## Theory table

For explanation of theory tables, see theory table and for notation, see algebraic notation. .
    1. e4 e5 2. Nf3 Nc6 3. Bc4 Nf6 4.d4
| | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 |
| 1 | d4 exd4 | O-O Nxe4 | Re1 d5 | Bxd5 Qxd5 | Nc3 Qh5 | Nxe4 Be6 | Bg5 Bd6 | = |
| 2 | ... ... | ... Bc5 | e5 d5 | exf6 dxc4 | Re1+ Be6 | Ng5 Qd5 | Nc3 Qf5 | = |
| 3 | ... ... | e5 d5 | Bb5 Ne4 | Nxd4 Bd7 | Bxc6 bxc6 | O-O Bc5 | Be3 Qe7 | = |
| 4 | ... Nxd4 | Nxe5 Ne6 | O-O | +/= |
| 5 | ... Nxe4 | dxe5 d6 | Bxf7 Kxf7 | Qd5+ Be6 | Qxe4 | +/= |
| 6 | ... Bd6 | O-O exd4 | e5 | +/= |
When contributing to this Wikibook, please follow the Conventions for organization.

## References

* Kasparov, Garry, & Keene, Raymond 1989 Batsford chess openings 2. ISBN 0-8050-3409-9.
# Ulvestad Variation

6 Bxb5. White takes the pawn.

## Theory table

For explanation of theory tables, see theory table and for notation, see algebraic notation. .
    1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.Bc4 Nf6 4.Ng5 d5 5.exd5 b5 6.Bxb5
| | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 |
| 1 | Bxb5 Qxd5 | Nc3 Qxg2 | Qf3 Qxf3 | Nxf3 Bd7 | O-O Bd6 | = |

## Estimated next move likelihood

Qxd5 100%
When contributing to this Wikibook, please follow the Conventions for organization.
# Education in Uzbekistan/Preface

Education cannot be stereotypically attributed to an area of departmental or sectoral policy, but should be approached as a nationwide, strategically important issue. The initial significance of education for socio-economic development is defined at the governmental level: the system of lifelong education in Uzbekistan has all the conditions for the renovation of both traditional and innovative forms of education, developing life-long learning activities and becoming an integral part of everyday human life. Let us consider the stages of lifelong learning, established in Uzbekistan.
In the era of globalization, education becomes an essential component of economic development and the accumulation of national wealth. The high spiritual level of the population can organically create a legal culture, the ability of people to live and work in a democratic state, being aware of their rights and freedoms, and being able to use them in the interests of individuals, state and society. The state is interested in the development of the intellectual and spiritual potential of the country: about 35% of Uzbekistan’s population is aged 16 and more than 62% is under the age of 30. The government expenditures on education are considered to be the most important investment in the growth of national wealth: Uzbekistan annually spends 10-12% of GDP and 35% of the costs of the state budget on the development and reforming of the education system. The prestige of the pedagogical professions is increasing, and thus teachers’ salaries also increase, with the growth in wages of teachers and professors over the past 10 years being 1.5 times the average rate of wage increases in other sectors of the economy. At the heart of educational reform is the establishment of a sense of prestige of knowledge, education and high intelligence in society. Only people who are aware of the need for harmony in national and universal values and have the latest knowledge and intellectual capabilities as well as advanced technologies can achieve the strategic goals of development.
# Education in Uzbekistan/History of Secondary Education

The next 5 years are spent at general secondary school from ages 10 to 15. Following that, there is a choice of between 2 and 3 years of upper education at either general or technical vocational schools. The former provides a certificate of completed secondary education and the opportunity to enter university, the latter a diploma of specialized secondary education, through a network of secondary vocational institutions.
There are approximately 9,700 schools including about 1,850 secondary schools, 1,919 high schools, 75 evening schools, 107 centers of adult education, and 85 special schools for disabled children. In the year's 1999 to 2000, the number of pupils in these schools reached over 5.7 million. Compulsory-type education provided by the State (Republic of Uzbekistan) is free. This form of education allows the country to reach the 98 percent literacy rate. The Uzbekistan government builds schools; purchases equipment, material, and textbooks; educates teachers; conducts research; creates curricula and methodologies of teaching; and establishes examination procedures. The school system includes both urban and rural schools, all of which fall under the supervision of the Ministry of Public Education. Secondary education is divided into two stages. The first stage includes nine years of compulsory schooling with the same programs all over Uzbekistan. The second stage covers education and vocational training after nine years. It includes general secondary education and specialized secondary education. Young people receive general secondary education while staying in school for the tenth and eleventh grades. Upon successful completion, they get a Certificate of Complete Secondary Education.
# Education in Uzbekistan/History of Higher Education in Uzbekistan

The Uzbek higher education system consists of institutions, scientific and pedagogical establishments performing research work, and state body formations. According to the National Programme for Personnel Training, higher education builds on academic achievements of specialised secondary education (academic lyceum) and/or vocational education (vocational college) and includes two levels: Bachelor degree and Master degree.
The Ministry of Higher and Secondary Specialised Education’s (MHSSE) responsibility is to organize the academic year, including the length of the semesters, examination periods and academic holidays.
The academic year starts on September 2nd and lasts until the end of June. It is divided into two semesters with holidays ranging from 10 to 12 weeks:
* 1st semester - from early September to late January;
* 2nd semester - from the beginning of February to the end of June, although the duration of the semester can vary depending on the status of the HEIs or on the study program.
First level - Bachelor program
This basic higher education provides fundamental knowledge in one of the branches of higher education for a minimum period of study of four years. Upon completion of the Bachelor program, graduates are awarded Bachelor degree and a state diploma, which entitles them to start professional activity or to continue studies at Master level.
Second level - Master program
This level of higher education provides knowledge in specific areas and lasts for at least two years after the Bachelor degree. Master program graduates are awarded a state diploma, which entitles them to work in the relevant professional areas or to continue education in postgraduate education establishments.

## References

* ↑ https://supporthere.org/page/higher-education-uzbekistan#:~:text=The%20higher%20education%20system%20in%20Uzbekistan&text=According%20to%20the%20National%20Programme,Bachelor%20degree%20and%20Master%20degree.