OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# French/Grammar/Tenses/Pluperfect subjunctive

Lessons · Vocabulary · Grammar · Appendices · Texts

## Usage of the Pluperfect Subjunctive

The French pluperfect subjunctive is the least common literary tense - it's the literary equivalent of the past subjunctive.
Like all literary tenses, the pluperfect subjunctive is used only in literature, historical writings, and other very formal writing, so it is important to be able to recognize it but chances are that you will never in your life need to conjugate it.

## Formation of the Pluperfect Subjunctive

* The pluperfect subjunctive is a compound tense- it consists of two verbs, the auxiliary verb and the past participle of the verb one seeks to use in this tense.
* The auxiliary verb is conjugated as if it were being used in the imperfect subjunctive.
* The past participle is added immediately after the auxiliary verb.
* A negative structure such as ne ... pas is always placed around the auxiliary verb, immediately before the past participle.
French :
Lessons · Vocabulary · Grammar · Appendices · Texts
# French/Grammar/Tenses/Present conditional

Lessons · Vocabulary · Grammar · Appendices · Texts

## Usage of the conditional (present)

The conditional tense is used when:
* a hypothetical situation is described. In which case the structure "Si + l'imparfait, le conditionnel" is used.
    e.g. If I saw (or If I were to see) her, I would not recognize her. - Si je la voyais, je ne la reconnaîtrais pas.
* a polite request needs to be made:
    e.g. I would like a small salad, please. - Je voudrais (or J'aimerais) une petite salade, s'il vous plaît.
* an event that had not happened was described:
    e.g. He said Marie would come. - Il a dit que Marie viendrait.

## Formation of the conditional
### Conditional stems

* For (regular and irregular) -er or -ir verbs, the infinitive is the conditional stem.
* For (regular and irregular) -re verbs, the infinitive minus the final e is the conditional stem.
* Exception: verbs that are stem-changing in the present are stem-changing in the conditional also.
* Exception: certain irregular verbs (but not all) have irregular conditional stems.
* Note: in a word, the conditional stem is the same with the future one.
Stem changes
| Verb | Change from | Change to |
| -ler verbs | ler | ller |
| ier verbs | ier | ier |
| -yer verbs | yer | ier |
| verbs with an e in the penultimate syllable | e in penultimate syllable | è |
| verbs with é in the penultimate syllable | é in penultimate syllable | è |
Irregular stems
| Verb | Future stem |
| aller | ir- |
| avoir | aur- |
| devoir | devr- |
| envoyer | enverr- |
| être | ser- |
| faire | fer- |
| pleuvoir | pleuvr- |
| pouvoir | pourr- |
| savoir | saur- |
| venir | viendr- |
| voir | verr- |
| vouloir | voudr- |

### Conditional endings

* To conjugate in the conditional, add the appropriate ending to the future stem.
| Subject | Ending | Example with parler |
| je | -ais | parlerais |
| tu | -ais | parlerais |
| il | -ait | parlerait |
| nous | -ions | parlerions |
| vous | -iez | parleriez |
| ils | -aient | parleraient |
French :
Lessons · Vocabulary · Grammar · Appendices · Texts
# Hindi/Grammar

Also known as Hindi Vyākaraṇa, the Hindi grammar is the set of rules that define the proper usage of the language.
Hindi Grammar is mainly divided into three parts-
* Orthography/Phonology- In this we learn mainly how to pronounce and read/write the language.
* Morphology- In this we learn about words, their types and sources.
* Sentences- In this we learn about sentences, their parts, punctuation, etc.
# Hindi/Glossary of Phrases and Indioms
## Hellos

Let us get familiar with some Hindi phrases and sentences regarding greeting other people and striking a conversation.
| English | Hindi | Transliteration |
| Hello/goodbye (Hindu, north) | नमस्ते | namastē |
| Hello/goodbye (Hindu, south) | नमस्कार | namaskāra |
| Hello/goodbye (Sikh) | सत श्री अकाल | sat śrī akāl |
| Hello (Muslim) | अस्सलाम अलैकुम | assalām alaikum |
| Hello (Muslim reply) | वालैकुम अस्सलाम | vālaikum assalām |
| Goodbye (Muslim) | ख़ुदा हाफ़िज़ | khuda hāfiz |
| Good morning | सुप्रभात | suprabhāta |
| Good evening | शुभ संध्या | śubha saṃdhyā |
| Good night | शुभ रात्रि | śubha rātri |
| Have a nice day | आपका दिन मंगलमय हो | āpakā dina maṃgalamaya ho |
| How are you (Formal) | आप कैसे हैं | āpa kaisē haiṃ |
| How are you (Informal) | हालचाल कैसा है | hālacāla kaisā hai |
| I am fine, thanks | मैं ठीकठाक हूँ, शुक्रिया | maiṃ ṭhīkaṭhāka hū°, śukriyā |
| Nothing special | कुछ खास नहीं | kucha khāsa nahīṃ |
| See you later | फिर मिलेंगे | phira milēṃgē |

## Requests

Now that we have got over with basic hellos let us learn how to make requests and thank people.
| English | Hindi | Transliteration |
| Please (Urdu) | मेहरबानी करके | mehrbānī karke |
| Please | कृपया | kṛipaya |
| Thank you (Sanskrit origin) | धन्यवाद | dhanyavād |
| Thank you (Arabic origin) | शुक्रिया | śukriyā |
| Thank you very much | बहुत बहुत धन्यवाद | bahut bahut dhanyavād |
| You're welcome (don't mention it) | कोई बात नहीं | koī bāt nahī$^n$ |
| Excuse me, sorry, please forgive me | माफ़ कीजिये | māf kījiye |
| I'm really sorry | मुझे अत्यंत खेद है | mujhē atyaṃta khēda hai |
| Excuse me (lit. please listen) | ज़रा सुनिये | zarā suniye |
| What would you like? | आप क्या पसंद करेंगे? | āpa kyā pasaṃda karēṃgē? |
| I would like ... | मैं ... पसंद करुंगा | maiṃ ... pasaṃda karuṃgā |
| Sir, would you listen to me for a minute | जनाब, क्या आप जरा एक मिनट मेरी बात सुनेंगे | janāba, kyā āpa jarā ēka minaṭa mērī bāta sunēṃgē |
| Can you please help me | क्या आप कृपया मेरी मदद कर सकते हैं | kyā āpa kr̥payā mērī madada kara sakatē haiṃ |
# Hindi/Honorifics

Hindi speakers use three different pronouns for "you" ( tu, tum, and aap), and which one people use depend on the level of intimacy or context. "Tu" is the most intimate, only used to refer to another person whom one is most familiar with, like a husband, as well as to children. However, when used in inappropriate situations, "tu" can sound offensive and insulting even. "Tum" is more respectful. "Aap" implies the highest level of respect and Hindi speakers use "aap" when talking to their parents, elders, authorities, or superiors.
Each of these "you"-pronouns has their own be-verbs. "Hai" comes with "tu," "ho" with "tum," and "hain" with "aap." Note that in English, in the context of the second person, all of these be-verbs are translatable to "are" as in "you are." But "hai" in other situations can be translated to "is" and "hain" to "are."
# Hindi/Introduction

हिन्दी

## Usage

While the language has emigrated to all parts of the world, the noteworthy use of the language is in its country of origin - India. A large number of languages and dialects are spoken there, and no single one is spoken by all. The proper term for the form of Hindi used in northern India is Hindustani which is spoken in and around Delhi and borrows equally from other languages such as Urdu and Punjabi. Hindi though, is the most widely understood (~80%) and spoken (~66%) language in the region.
* Click here for more on this topic

## Writing System

Hindi is written in the Devanagari script (देवनागरी) a left-to-right writing system with a very characteristic top line. Several other languages such as Marathi, Nepali and Sanskrit use the Devanagari script.

## History

Hindi originated in 17th century by the mixing of the Polulau languages of the areas around Delhi (capital of India) with Urdu and Persian (brought in by Muslim rulers from the west).
Hindi is derived from Prakrit from which the Indo-Aryan languages are derived. Hindi is heavily influenced by Urdu and even Persian, although it still retains the Devanagari script of Sanskrit.
Spoken Hindi and spoken Urdu are so similar that they are mutually intelligible by native speakers. In their literary forms, however, Hindi borrows more heavily from Sanskrit while Urdu borrows vocabulary from Persian and Arabic.

## Examples

| Devanagari | Romanization | Meaning |
| विकिपीडिया | | Wikipedia |

## Other resources

* eg.A hindi Website
* eg.A hindi news information Website
* eg.A hindi webdirectory
* Wikipedia article about the Hindi language
* Hindi-Urdu phrasebook on Wikivoyage
# Hindi/Parts of speech

There are seven parts of speech
* Noun (संज्ञा)
* Pronoun (सर्वनाम)
* Verb (क्रिया)
* Adverb (विशेष्य)
* Adjective (विश्लेषण)
* Conjunction (संमुचभोधक)
* Interjection (विस्मेयधिभोधक)
# Hindi/Phrasebook/Days of the Week

| English | Transliteration | Hindi |
| Sunday | ravi-vār, itvār | रविवार, इतवार |
| Monday | som-vār | सोमवार |
| Tuesday | maṅgal-vār | मंगलवार |
| Wednesday | budh-vār | बुधवार |
| Thursday | guru-vār | गुरुवार |
| Friday | śukra-vār | शुक्रवार |
| Saturday | śani-vār | शनिवार |
# First steps towards system programming under MS-DOS 7/Foreword

The original of this book, "First steps towards system programming under MS-DOS7", was written and published online (PDF format) by Nickolay G. Hitrovo, http://www.multiboot.ru/Hitrovo.htm, bearing a UDC label of "004.451.9dos", and released "according to Attribution-NonCommercial Public License of Creative Commons organization."
The introductory chapter in the original includes the following disclaimer : "This book is not based on legal OEM description of MS-DOS 7, since it hasn't been published yet. Author of this book is the only one responsible for all its contents. Despite genuine desire to check every data item, the 100% veracity of data can't be guaranteed : author's resources are not infinite. Besides that, evolution wouldn't stop, it permanently engenders something new. Therefore the author can't admit responsibility for consequences of your actions, even those inspired by this book. Any risk-bearing affair requires some caution and competence. However there is a hope that owing to this book your actions will become competent, effective and safe."
The introductory chapter in the original invites the reader to contact the author for remarks and corrections, by e-mail to For-H@yandex.ru. "Each relevant message will be accepted with gratitude."
# Genealogy/Latvia

Latvian State Historical Archives has digitalization project Raduraksti, which mostly publishes vital records and materials from Russian censuses ("soul revisions"). They keep records up to 1909. There is a digitalization effort run by third party site Ciltskoki. You'll need to register on both sites. The later offers search engine as paid service, but you can still view lists of all transcribed records for free. Mind that this is meant to serve as reference and records are not transcribed fully. As most of events where recorded by churches, you'll need to know religion of persons you are looking for, if you are unsure, as rule of thumb much of Latvia historically was Lutheran, except for eastern areas which where predominantly Roman Catholic.
# Genealogy/Pakistan

In Pakistan, many families keep their own family trees. Some of the family trees extend over hundred generations. The royal and noble families have their own websites. Some of the Pakistani websites dedicated to genealogy are:
* The Talpur Family of Sindh History of the Talpur family in Sindh, origins, rule, and post-rule area to present.
* Shaikh Siddiqui Shaikh Siddiqui Family website with twelve generation of family trees and personal webpages.
# Genealogy/Recording your research

* Genealogy Getting started | Online options
* Establish goals | Recording your research | Work backwards | Immigration
Research success is more than knowing where to look. In addition to data about your family, you'll want to have maps, background information about places, material about resources and how to use them. It won't take long for you to gather so much information that you can't keep track of it all. A systematic method for handling data is crucial. A good system has these qualities:
* All materials are stored securely and redundantly
* System is easily to understand, use and maintain
* Provides the ability to transport relevant data to research sites
* Facilitates the future publication / distribution of collected information
Decide how you will store irreplaceable materials (original documents, photos). Always copy or scan originals and store the originals in a secure location (safety deposit box, safe, firesafe box, etc.) Label each newly acquired document with a source description and an ID. You may find it easiest to just number each document sequentially. It becomes almost impossible to know in advance how to organize an ID system that handles all future acquisitions. Refer to this document ID when extracting data from the document into your research system (binders, software, etc.) Most genealogy software allows you to keep a list of sources. Use this ID to file the documents, or enter you own ID as part of each source notation.
Unless you can always bring a notebook computer to every research site, you should use a binder to display the current state of your research for reference. You'll need to know what you already know as you look for new information.
A new option for those that use computers for recording their research, you can use a USB thumb drive/flashdrive/memory stick and load the entire Personal Ancestral File (PAF) program on the drive along with your database and access it at any computer that has USB capabilities. Other computer programs may be able to do the same thing, but I am not sure. PAF is a free computer download from www.familysearch.org that has documentation and multimedia abilities. The PAF program is a windows based program, but can be run on a MAC if a pc-emulator is used.
# Genealogy/Poland

Here are listed a group of external links originally deposited by users in the Wikipedia article on Genealogy.
# Genealogy/UK

Here are listed a group of external links originally deposited by users in the Wikipedia article on Genealogy.
* RootsChat.com Comprehensive free UK & Irish Family History Forum
* United Kingdom Census Finder
* View, Search or upload a family tree
* A guide to the free genealogy sites covering England and Wales
* Genealogy resources maintained by volunteers.
* The extensive suite of online genealogy offerings from the British government
* A project to transcribe the entire GRO indexes and provide them online free of charge
* Gazetteer of 50,000 UK villages with maps and pages for genealogy enquiries (chargeable)
* The entire GRO Indexes of Births, Marriages and Deaths for England and Wales from 1837 to date
* Irish Genealogy
* FreeBMD - St Catherine's Index
* Family Search - International Genealogical Index
* http://www.tracingyourfamilyhistory.com Build your family tree. Genealogy Forums
* well-organised and categorised links to UK genealogy resources
* UK Genealogy Archives
# Genealogy/Mailing lists

Genealogical Mailing lists first began with Roots-L in the 1990's. The list provides a wonderful, relaxed way to connect with possible cousins sharing the same surnames, locality, and other special interest groups pertaining to Genealogy and Family History work. The list is archived and searchable at http://lists.rootsweb.com/ If you prefer, you can subscribe to the email list that you are interested in the digest mode (one email with all of the posted emails for the day) or list mode (where you get an email for each email posted).
This great resource is available to all at no charge to subscribe or to search the archives. Either way works well and is worth your time.
# Genealogy/New Zealand

New Zealand was settled by Polynesian voyagers over a period extending from about AD 800 to 1300. They had no written language, as far as anyone knows, but had and still have a rich oral tradition where everyone learned about his or her ancestry.
After European contact they came to be known as the "Maori" people, with the same word applied to all mainland dialects of their language and to the closely related language of the Cook Islands.
In 1642 a Dutch expedition under Abel Tasman "discovered" the country, mapping some of its west coast. The country's current name is an Anglicised version of a name Dutch cartographers applied to it. Tasman's name is applied to a few features such as a large bay (one of the earliest he visited) and a glacier (which he was never near).
The next visit from Europeans was much more detailed. In 1769, after observing a Transit of Venus from Tahiti, Englishman James Cook brought his expedition south on the strength of secret Government orders to look for southern lands to colonise. Sailing west, he reached the Gisborne area and ended up circumnavigating the whole country and encouraging his scientists to make detailed studies of flora and fauna. He claimed it for Britain. His name is commemorated in the highest mountaintop, the strait between the two main islands, and a number of other places.
Whalers and sealers were the main visitors over the next few decades. In the early 19th century, Europeans brought to the natives a variety of new things such as Christianity, writing, disease, and muskets, and a few traders set up trading posts or became farmers.
In 1840, the same year as some planned settlements (e.g. Wellington) took place, the Treaty of Waitangi was signed between the representatives of Queen Victoria of Great Britain (just 4 days before her wedding) and leaders of the Maori people, who were given the status and protection of British subjects in return for officially allowing the British to settle and to buy land and to govern. Debate about what the Maori signatories thought they were giving away remains a great talking-point, but relations between the races are more amicable in New Zealand than in most colonised countries. Extensive intermarriage continues.
British government systems led to such institutions as censuses and the registration of births, marriages, and deaths, very like the systems that were developing in Britain in the mid-19th century. The early registrations were, as in Britain, a bit short on detail from a genealogy viewpoint, but later that century more details were added to the requirements.
# Genealogy/Software

All listed software reads and writes GEDCOM files

## Software for multiple operating systems, including Windows.

* Geneweb A free, Libre program with a nice interface via your favorite web browser. It can be used off-line or in a Web environment. Allows easy entry of information and easily produces reports.
* Gramps is a free, Libre genealogy program that allows you to easily build and keep track of your family tree. Available for Linux, Mac OS X, FreeBSD, Solaris and Windows.
* Lifelines A free, Libre program which produces, reports and books from your existing GEDCOM file. There are many pre-made report formats, and you can also make your own. Requires some learning, and may not be optimal for data entry, since it would require you to directly edit your GEDCOM file.
* GenealogyJ (GenJ in short) is a free, Libre standalone Java application that can handle all of your genealogic information (GEDCOM compliant). It provides different graphical components for working on your Family Tree.

## Software for Linux and other Unixes

In addition to Geneweb, Gramps, Lifelines and GeneaologyJ, mentioned above, there are:

## Software for Macintosh

In addition to Geneweb, Gramps, Lifelines and GeneaologyJ, mentioned above, there are:

## See also

* Genealogy/Recording your research
# How to Play Fiddle

This book teaches Fiddle. For violin, see How to Play Violin.
This is a required text for Fiddle, an online course in the Music Department of Wikiversity.

## Parts of the Fiddle

Here are the various parts of the fiddle and how they may be fine tuned differently from the fundamental violin as it came off the production line or out of the hands of the fine luthier who constructed the instrument according to the pattern of Stradivirius or others. :
* Bridge -- This suspends the strings above the fingerboard and is set directly between the 2 center points of the F-holes. On fiddle it may be filed flatter to make it easier to play two strings at once and to change strings when playing shuffles.
* Fingerboard -- This is where the fiddler's fingers are placed to change the note being played. Strings may be set lower on fiddle for faster fingering without worrying about the Nth nuance of tone.
* Tuning Pegs -- These are used to tune the strings of the fiddle, and are located underneath the scroll. But fiddle players more frequently add fine tuners on all four strings, see below.
* Fine Tuners -- These are used for tuning the fiddle's strings within a very small range (the tuning pegs change the note a lot more than the fine tuners).
* Chinrest -- This is where the chin of the fiddler is placed and is important in supporting the fiddle. Occasionally fiddlers dispense with the chin rest, and are more likely to dispense with any additional support equipment except perhaps a piece of cloth. Violinists use an additional clip on shoulder rest (not pictured).
* F-Holes -- These are f-shaped holes in the fiddle that are important in the fiddle's production of sound.

## How to accompany

A great demonstration of how to accompany singers in a fiddle band is provided by the clip of Jay Ungar and Molly Mason performing Home Grown Tomatoes with their band Swingology. It's a song written by Guy Clark.
If you need convincing that fiddle is essential to performance of this kind of song, consider this clip form the Central Ohio Folk Festival. The clip might be useful for fiddle practice as a kind of "Plus One" background track, but the real take home point is how this lineup just screams "Fiddler Needed"!

## See also

* Fiddlers Companion Fiddle Tunes A to Z
* How to Play Violin
* Compendium of Fiddle Styles

## Videographic documentation

Truman Price How not to hold a violin but permissible for fiddlers only.
# How to Play Violin

This book teaches violin. For fiddle, see How to Play Fiddle.

### How to Play Violin/Music and Notes
## For more information

* Intriguing historical background on violin
* Music Theory: a site that provides a course on music theory

### Related Wiki Books

* Compendium of Fiddle Styles
* Ethnography of Fiddle
* Contemporary Fiddlers
* Cello Handbook
# How to Play Violin/More advanced tips

* The violin is tuned (from low to high) G3, D4, A4, E5. The A is usually 440 hertz (420-435 hertz for Baroque tuning).
* The viola is played in the same fashion, but tuned a fifth lower (C3, G3, D4, A4).
* As you play, rosin from the bow will collect on the top of the fiddle. Clean this off gently with a soft cloth regularly to ensure it doesn't harm the finish or the tone quality.
* There are several positions for your left hand depending how close to your face on the fingerboard your hand is. The 1st position is when your 1st finger on the A string plays B4, the 2nd position is when it plays C5, 3rd when it plays D5, etc. When a change of position is required a number is printed above or below the score to indicate which finger is used to play that particular note.
* Before playing, the bow should be rubbed with rosin. You can buy some at any musical instrument store. Keep rosin in your left hand and rub the bow against it in the same way you play. Do not overdo this, since it will result in the fiddle sounding harsh.
* Violins do come in several sizes, but the smaller sizes are only meant for students too small to properly play a full sized violin. If your violin is less than full size, you can measure whether or not you are ready for the next larger size by placing the violin on your shoulder just as you would play it and reaching with your fingers around the scroll. If your fingers extend all the way around the scroll and touch the pegbox (the portion just below the scroll into which the pegs fit), you are most likely ready for the next size up.
* Playing with vibrato involves your left wrist and/or elbow. Keep bowing with your right hand as you normally would.