OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Equine Nutrition/Proteins
## Proteins

The following information was taken from https://class.coursera.org/equinenutrition-001/wiki/view?page=Week2 Equine Nutrition by Jo-Anne Murray
Protein • Required for various functions
* Consists of chains of amino acids
* Essential and non‐essential amino acids
* Non‐essential Protein: synthesized by the animal
* Essential Protein(need to be supplied in the diet)
* Protein breakdown begins in the stomach
* Further broken down in Small Intestine
* Protein associated with the plant cell wall – fermented in Large Intestine
* Protein digested in Small Intestine – used by the horse
* No amino acid absorption in Large Intestine
* Microbes in Large Intestine degrade protein
# Chemical Sciences: A Manual for CSIR-UGC National Eligibility Test for Lectureship and JRF/Supercritical angle fluorescence microscopy

Supercritical Angle Fluorescence Microscopy (SAF) is a technique to detect and characterize fluorescent species (proteins, biomolecules, pharmaceuticals, etc.) and their behaviour very close or even adsorbed or linked at surfaces. The method is able to observe molecules in a distance of less than 100 to 0 nanometer from the surface even in presence of high concentrations of fluorescent species around. Using an aspheric lens for excitation of a sample with laser light, fluorescence emitted by the specimen is collected above the critical angle of total internal reflection selectively and directed by a parabolic optics onto a detector. The method was invented in 1998 in the laboratories of Stefan Seeger at University of Regensburg/Germany and later at University of Zurich/Switzerland.

## SAF Microscopy Principle

The principle how SAF Microscopy works is as follows: A fluorescent specimen does not emit fluorescence isotropically when it comes close to a surface, but approximately 70% of the fluorescence emitted is directed into the solid phase. Here, the main part enters the solid body above the critical angle. When the emitter is located just 200 nm above the surface, fluorescent light entering the solid body above the critical angle is decreased dramatically. Hence, SAF Microscopy is ideally suited to discriminate between molecules and particles at or close to surfaces and all other specimen present in the bulk.

## Typical SAF-setup

The typical SAF setup consists of a laser line (typically 450-633 nm), which is reflected into the aspheric lens by a dichroic mirror. The lens focuses the laser beam in the sample, causing the particles to fluoresce. The fluorescent light then passes through a parabolic lens before reaching a detector, typically a photomultiplier tube or avalanche photodiode detector.

## Selected publications

* ↑ J. Enderlein, T. Ruckstuhl, S. Seeger: Highly Efficient Optical Detection of Surface-Generated Fluorescence. Appl. Opt. 38 (4) 724-32 (1999)
* ↑ T. Ruckstuhl, M. Rankl, S. Seeger: Highly sensitive biosensing using a Supercritical Angle Fluorescence (SAF) instrument, Biosensors&Bioelectronics 18 (9) 1193-1199 (2003)
* ↑ T. Ruckstuhl, S. Seeger: Attoliter detection volumes by confocal total-internal-reflection fluorescence microscopy, Optic Letters 29, 569-571 (2004)
# Chemical Sciences: A Manual for CSIR-UGC National Eligibility Test for Lectureship and JRF/Syllabus/Principles of stereochemistry

* Stereochemistry
* Element of symmetry
* chiral and aehiral molecules
* R, S nomenclature
* diastereomerism in acyclic compounds
* Methods of asymmetric synthesis
* Stereospecific and stereo-selective reactions
* Interconversion of Fischer, Newman and Sawhorse projections.
* E, Z isomerism
* conformational analysis of mono and disubstituted cyclohexanes
* Effect of confirmation on reactivity in acyclic compounds and cyclohexanes
# Chemical Sciences: A Manual for CSIR-UGC National Eligibility Test for Lectureship and JRF/Tandem mass tags

Tandem mass tags (TMT) are chemical labels used for mass spectrometry (MS) based quantitation and identification of biological macromolecules such as proteins, peptides and nucleic acids. TMT belongs to a family of reagents referred to as isobaric mass tags. They provide an alternative to gel- or antibody-based quantitation but may also be used in combination with these and other methods.

## Versions

There are currently three varieties of TMT available:
* TMTzero - a non-isotopically substituted core structure
* TMTduplex - an isobaric pair of mass tags with a single isotopic substitution
* TMTsixplex - an isobaric set of six mass tags with five isotopic substitutions
The tags contain four regions, namely a mass reporter region (M), a cleavable linker region (F), a mass normalization region (N) and a protein reactive group (R). The chemical structures of all the tags are identical but each contains isotopes substituted at various positions, such that the mass reporter and mass normalization regions have different molecular masses in each tag. The combined M-F-N-R regions of the tags have the same total molecular weights and structure so that during chromatographic or electrophoretic separation and in single MS mode, molecules labelled with different tags are indistinguishable. Upon fragmentation in MS/MS mode, sequence information is obtained from fragmentation of the peptide back bone and quantitation data are simultaneously obtained from fragmentation of the tags, giving rise to mass reporter ions.
Proteome Sciences Plc have the patents for TMT technology. These patents have broad coverage of all tandem mass tag technology.

## Bioinformatics Integration

The structures of TMT tags are publicly available through the unimod database at unimod.org and hence, mass spectrometry software such as Mascot are able to account for the tag masses. Additionally, as of version 2.2, Mascot has the capability to quantitate using TMT and other isobaric mass tags without the use of additional software.

## References

* ↑ Thompson A, Schäfer J, Kuhn K; et al. (2003). "Tandem mass tags: a novel quantification strategy for comparative analysis of complex protein mixtures by MS/MS". Anal. Chem. 75 (8): 1895–904. doi:10.1021/ac0262560. PMID 12713048. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
# Chemical Sciences: A Manual for CSIR-UGC National Eligibility Test for Lectureship and JRF/Stokes shift

Stokes shift is the difference (in wavelength or frequency units) between positions of the band maxima of the absorption and emission spectra (fluorescence and Raman being two examples) of the same electronic transition. It is named after Irish physicist George G. Stokes.
When a system (be it a molecule or atom) absorbs a photon, it gains energy and enters an excited state. One way for the system to relax is to emit a photon, thus losing its energy (another method would be the loss of heat energy). When the emitted photon has less energy than the absorbed photon, this energy difference is the Stokes shift. If the emitted photon has more energy, the energy difference is called an anti-Stokes shift; this extra energy comes from dissipation of thermal phonons in a crystal lattice, cooling the crystal in the process. Yttrium oxysulfide doped with gadolinium oxysulfide is a common industrial anti-Stokes pigment, absorbing in the near-infrared and emitting in the visible portion of the spectrum.

## Stokes fluorescence

Stokes fluorescence is the re-emission of longer wavelength photons (lower frequency or energy) by a molecule that has absorbed photons of shorter wavelengths (higher frequency or energy). Both absorption and radiation (emission) of energy are unique characteristics of a particular molecular structure. If a material has a direct bandgap in the range of visible light, the light shining on it is absorbed, causing electrons to become excited to a higher energy state. The electrons remain in the excited state for about 10$^{-8}$ seconds. This number varies over several orders of magnitude, depending on the sample and is known as the fluorescence lifetime of the sample. The electron returns to the ground state and energy is emitted.

## Further reading

* Lakowicz, J.R. 1983. Principles of Fluorescence Spectroscopy, Plenum Press, New York. ISBN 0-387-31278-1.
* Guilbault, G.G. 1990. Practical Fluorescence, Second Edition, Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York. ISBN 0-8247-8350-6.
# Chemical Sciences: A Manual for CSIR-UGC National Eligibility Test for Lectureship and JRF/Syllabus/Structure and bonding
### Structure and Bonding

* Atomic orbitals
* electronic configuration of atoms (L-S coupling)
* periodic properties of elements :ionic radii, ionisation potential, electron affinity, electronegativity
* concept of hybridization
* Molecular orbitals and electronic configuration of homonuclear and heteronuclear diatomic molecules
* Shapes of polyatomic molecules
* VSEPR Theory.
# Chemical Sciences: A Manual for CSIR-UGC National Eligibility Test for Lectureship and JRF/Syllabus for Similar Examinations

* Syllabus for GATE (Chemistry)
* Syllabus for SLET of Uttar Pradesh Maharstra
* Entrance exam conducted by TIFR BARC IISC IISER
* [Forest Research Institute] [Entrance Exam] (Same NET Syllabus]
# Entomology/Introduction
## Table of Contents

* Introduction
* What are insects?
* Common insects
** Lepidoptera
* Other insects
* What are arachnids?
* Common arachnids
* Other arachnids

## Introduction

Entomology is the study of insects. Entomology Departments sometimes include scientists that study arachnids, but those are not insects. Insects are six-legged, which arachnids have 8 or more legs.
Insects and arachnids both belong to the Phylum Arthropoda, which also includes crustaceans (including shrimps and crabs), along with some other small groups. The Arthropoda are jointed leg animals with an exoskeleton. Entomology is concerned with the life history, biology, behavior, and ecology of insects. It is one of the few biological disciplines that includes study of both the organism in the environment and how to control them (e.g. agriculture).
# Entomology/Other arachnids
## Table of Contents

* Introduction
* What are insects?
* Common insects
** Lepidoptera
* Other insects
* What are arachnids?
* Common arachnids
* Other arachnids

## Introduction

* less common spiders
* less common scorpions
* whip-scorpions
* sun-spiders
* seed ticks
# Entomology / Common insects / Seven Spotted Ladybug

The Seven Spotted Ladybug, or the Spotted Ladybird Beetle, is a type of beetle found in the Americas, and is a hunter of Apple aphids.
# Entomology/Lepidoptera
## Table of Contents

* Introduction
* What are insects?
* Common insects
** Lepidoptera
* Other insects
* What are arachnids?
* Common arachnids
* Other arachnids
Lepidoptera includes butterflies, moths, and skippers.

## Development

Butterflies undergo complete metamorphosis, that includes four stages: egg, larva (caterpillar), pupa (chrysalis), and adult (imago).

#### Egg

Eggs are extremely varied among lepidopterans. Many species can be identified by their eggs. Eggs are generally laid on the host plants of lepidopterans, so that once hatched the larva will have a food supply.

#### Caterpillar

Like other larvae, the only purpose of this stage is growth. During this stage the caterpillar spends most of its time eating. In this stage, the caterpillar's anatomy is quite simple. Its eyes are very simple, only capable of determining light from dark. The caterpillar has 3 pairs of true legs located on its thorax, and 5 pairs of false legs called prolegs on its abdomen. Also, the digestive tract is particularly pronounced in this stage, making up most of the internal organs of the caterpillar. The appearance of caterpillars is also quite varied. Some are described as "worms," with only bare, plain-coloured bodies. Some are bare, but have more brightly coloured bodies. Others have hair or spines that have poisons that aid in self-defense.

#### Chrysalis

After a number of growth periods, called instars, a caterpillar will find a spot, often a plant (other species may burrow into the ground), and forms a pupa. The lepidopteran may form something called a cremaster so that it remains attached to the plant it has chosen. The cremaster is made of silk. Species called silkmoths will spin a cocoon made of silk. The pupa of a lepidoptera is called a chrysalis. During this stage a process called histolysis occurs, in which the organs of the caterpillar "dissolve" and reform in a process called histogenesis. Many species overwinter in this form.
# Entomology/Other insects
## Table of Contents

* Introduction
* What are insects?
* Common insects
** Lepidoptera
* Other insects
* What are arachnids?
* Common arachnids
* Other arachnids

## Introduction

There are many kinds of insects that are not commonly seen in different parts of the world. Use the free Rove Pest Prediction Tool to see a basic display of which insects can be found throughout the U.S. during different months of the year.

## Other Insects

This is an alphabetical list of currently recognized orders of insects.
* Order: Blattodea - Cockroaches and termites
* Order: Coleoptera - Beetles
* Order: Dermaptera - Earwigs
* Order: Diptera - Flies
* Order: Embioptera - Web-spinners
* Order: Ephemeroptera - Mayflies
* Order: Hemiptera - True Bugs
* Order: Hymenoptera - Bees, Wasps and Ants
* Order: Lepidoptera - Butterflies and Moths
* Order: Mantodea - Praying Mantids
* Order: Mecoptera - Scorpionflies
* Order: Megaloptera - Alderflies, Dobsonflies & Fishflies
* Order: Microcoryphia - Archaeognatha
* Order: Neuroptera - Lacewings, Antlions & Mantidflies
* Order: Odonata - Dragonflies and Damselflies
* Order: Orthoptera - Grasshoppers and Crickets
* Order: Phasmatodea - Stick insects and Leaf insects
* Order: Phthiraptera - Biting and Sucking lice
* Order: Plecoptera - Stoneflies
* Order: Psocoptera - Booklice and Barklice
* Order: Raphidioptera - Snakeflies
* Order: Siphonaptera - Fleas
* Order: Strepsiptera - Strepsipterans
* Order: Thysanoptera - Thrips
* Order: Thysanura - Three-pronged bristletails
* Order: Trichoptera - Caddisflies
* Order: Zoraptera - Zorapterans
# Entomology/TOC
## Table of Contents

* Introduction
* What are insects?
* Common insects
** Lepidoptera
* Other insects
* What are arachnids?
* Common arachnids
* Other arachnids
# Entomology/What are arachnids?
## Table of Contents

* Introduction
* What are insects?
* Common insects
** Lepidoptera
* Other insects
* What are arachnids?
* Common arachnids
* Other arachnids

## Introduction

Arachnids are commonly mistaken for insects. The group includes spiders, scorpions, ticks and sun-spiders (which are not real spiders).
# Entomology/What are insects?
## Table of Contents

* Introduction
* What are insects?
* Common insects
** Lepidoptera
* Other insects
* What are arachnids?
* Common arachnids
* Other arachnids

## Insects

Insects are animals with three body segments (the word insect means "segmented"): the head, the abdomen, and the thorax. Insects have, typically, three pairs of legs located on the abdomen; however, there are exceptions, such as brush-footed butterflies.
Insects belong to the taxonomic class Insecta, which is just one class of Phylum Arthropoda. The arthropods also includes Crustacea (crabs, lobsters, etc.), Arachnida (spiders, mites, etc.), and Myriapoda (Centipedes and Millipedes). The class Insecta is closely related to the class Entognatha (Collembola, Diplura, and Protura), which is usually included in the study of entomology. Both Insecta and Entognatha are within the subphylum Hexapoda.
Insects have a wide range of life cycles, but there are some basic similarities. They almost all begin as eggs, which vary widely in shape and size. Then insects undergo a period of growth. Some then undergo a metamorphosis ("huge change"), into an adult form.
Insects such as silverfish (order Zygentoma) do not undergo metamorphosis at all — they grow directly from hatching to their full size, and molt several times as a mature adult.
Some Insects, such as true bugs (order Hemiptera) and grasshoppers (order Orthoptera), undergo an incomplete metamorphosis. When they hatch from eggs they are called nymphs. These nymphs will eventually grow into their final adult form. They do not molt after that.
Insects such as butterflies, moths, and flies undergo a complete metamorphosis. When they hatch from eggs, they are called larvae. Once they have grown through several periods called instars, they become pupae (in butterflies it's called a chrysalis). Eventually, an adult, or imago phase, will emerge from the pupa.
Insects are very successful organisms. They exist in every type of terrestrial habitat, including some flies native to Antarctica. Insects also vary widely in shape, size, colour, etc. There are currently well over 900 thousand named species of insect, and estimates place the total number of species between 2 and 30 million.
# Entrepreneurial Learning

| style= " font: 13px 'Lucida Sans', 'trebuchet MS', Arial, Helvetica; background: #fff; border: 2px solid #ddd; color: #333; padding: 20px; width: 180px; float: left; _display: inline; position: relative; margin: 0 5px; -moz-box-shadow: 0 2px 2px -1px rgba(0,0,0,.3); -webkit-box-shadow: 0 2px 2px -1px rgba(0,0,0,.3); box-shadow: 0 2px 2px -1px rgba(0,0,0,.3); " | Motive Chapter 1 1. Politics 2. Education 3. Parents Read | style= " font: 13px 'Lucida Sans', 'trebuchet MS', Arial, Helvetica; background: #fff; border: 2px solid #ddd; color: #333; padding: 20px; width: 180px; float: left; _display: inline; position: relative; margin: 0 5px; -moz-box-shadow: 0 2px 2px -1px rgba(0,0,0,.3); -webkit-box-shadow: 0 2px 2px -1px rgba(0,0,0,.3); box-shadow: 0 2px 2px -1px rgba(0,0,0,.3); " | Audience Chapter 2 1. Student 2. Teacher 3. School Read | style= " font: 13px 'Lucida Sans', 'trebuchet MS', Arial, Helvetica; background: #fff; border: 2px solid #ddd; color: #333; padding: 20px; width: 180px; float: left; _display: inline; position: relative; margin: 0 5px; -moz-box-shadow: 0 2px 2px -1px rgba(0,0,0,.3); -webkit-box-shadow: 0 2px 2px -1px rgba(0,0,0,.3); box-shadow: 0 2px 2px -1px rgba(0,0,0,.3); " | Method Chapter 3 1. Ownership 2. Entrepreneurship 3. Freedom Read | style= " font: 13px 'Lucida Sans', 'trebuchet MS', Arial, Helvetica; background: #fff; border: 2px solid #ddd; color: #333; padding: 20px; width: 180px; float: left; _display: inline; position: relative; margin: 0 5px; -moz-box-shadow: 0 2px 2px -1px rgba(0,0,0,.3); -webkit-box-shadow: 0 2px 2px -1px rgba(0,0,0,.3); box-shadow: 0 2px 2px -1px rgba(0,0,0,.3); " | Implementation Chapter 4 1. Variations 2. Phasing 3. Certification Read |
# Erlang Programming/Creating Web Applications with yaws/First Yaws Webapp

Files using the file ending suffix ".yaws" will be processed by Yaws dynamic compiler where embedded Erlang code can be written amongst the HTML, as such:
When a .yaws file is processed by Yaws, the dynamic compiler in Yaws will single out any <erl> tags, compile the erlang code contained within an <erl> tag and cache the compiled resulting binary. Yaws will then during the execution of the Erlang code call the function out/1 in each binary with the Arg data structure supplied as the parameter and output the results. In this case, because out/1 returns to Yaws the tuple {html, String}, Yaws will assume the String is html and forward the String to the client.
# Erlang Programming/Creating Web Applications with yaws

Yaws is one of the popular web servers programmed in Erlang. The goals of Yaws is to be a feature rich web server with a multitude of options for the user to configure and deploy their web applications with.
| Basic Yaws Getting set up First Yaws Webapp The out/1 function The Arg structure The API | Elementary Yaws Writing an appmod Writing a yapp Extending Yaws |

## Additional Resources

* Yaws official website
* Erlang official website
* Erlang documentation
# Erlang Programming/Creating Web Applications with yaws/Appmod

Yaws have different ways of creating web applications. We have already been familiarized with one way as presented previously in the simple Hello world example, by embedding Erlang code in a .yaws file amongst the html. Another way is to create an appmod. Like embedded Erlang code in .yaws files the appmod is called through the an out/1 function with the arg data structure as parameter.
All appmod applications has to be precompiled and placed in one of the directories specified in the global configurations by an "ebin_dir = /directory" configuration parameter. Then in the virtual host configuration, an appmod has to be specified by two parameters such, "appmods = <myappmod, module>". Whenever the URI contains myappmod the module:out/1 will be called with the arg data structure as parameter.
# Erlang Programming/Creating Web Applications with yaws/Arg structure

The arg data structure is the main mechanism which the server uses to forward essential information to the web application. The #arg record is defined in yaws_api.hrl and is defined as:
Some of the parameters in the Arg structure contain additional information as shown below.
# Databases in Erlang
## Dictionary

Data can be stored in many ways in Erlang. Each process has a local dictionary that uses put and get.

## ETS

Data can be stored with the ETS (Erlang table storage system) via the ETS library. It creates data at the process level. See Using_Ets.

## Mnesia

Mnesia is a distributed database that lives in the local file system.
# Erlang Programming/Bitsyntax
## Bit Strings

Erlang lets us use Bit Strings. They have the form
The default bit length is 8.
Integers used in bit strings can be padded on the left with zeroes.
Some bit strings have string-like representations.
Remember that using the default bit length will cause truncation of too-large integers!
We cannot specify individual bits with integers. We must use values with a bit length of one.
We can select parts of a bit string with pattern matching.
We can match X to a value.
We can not match Y to a bit length.
We can use a bound variable as a bit length.
# Erlang Programming/Creating Web Applications with yaws/Out function

The out/1 function is called by Yaws as an entering point in any module that the author of a web application has written.
The applied argument supplied to out/1 is the arg data structure, this record contains the data of the request made to Yaws that resulted in the out/1 function call.
Yaws parses the returning value of the out/1 function and takes the appropriate action depending on the returning value, hence there is only a certain number of valid return values that can be sent from out/1
# Erlang Programming/Creating Web Applications with yaws/Yapp

Yaws can also execute full fledged compiled Erlang applications where each application has its own document root and can have their own appmods.
# Erlang Programming/Creating Web Applications with yaws/Yaws API
## Cookies

Cookies are stored as part of the header data in the Arg data struture, the (Request#arg.headers)#headers.cookie list contains the cookies(TODO: describe the format). The cookies can either be accessed directly or using a set of help function included with the Yaws API.
# Complete Guide to Essential Oils/A to Z of essential oils/Basil
## Basil (Ocimum basilicum)

Basil oil comes from the leaves and flowers of Ocimum basilicum plants.

## Properties
### Emotional

Soothes anxiety and depression.

### Respiratory

Relieves sinus congestion and bronchitis.

### Skin

Helps acne and soothes insect bites.

## Caution

* Don't use basil oil during pregnancy.
* It may irritate sensitive skin.