OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Langlock
## Overview

The Langlock spell is one that prevents someone from speaking about something specific by binding their tongue to the roof of their mouth.

## Extended Description

Harry finds this spell in the Potions text that belonged to the Half-Blood Prince. He uses it at one point in the story to silence Peeves, who is loudly commentating a fight between Dobby and Kreacher. We also guess that this is the spell left in the entrance to Number 12, Grimmauld Place by Mad-Eye Moody as part of the attempt to prevent Snape's entrance.

## Questions

Study questions are meant to be left for each student to answer; please don't answer them here.
# Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Leprechaun
## Questions

Study questions are meant to be left for each student to answer; please don't answer them here.
# Macroeconomics/Market Economics

Market Economics concerns the study of forces within, and affecting, the varying markets of an economy.
# Macroeconomics/Market Failure

Market failure happens when firms do not produce the quantity of output that would have been produced under the conditions of perfect competition. In other words, the quantity of output produced is either too little or too great. If it is too little then the product is under produced and under consumed. There is allocative inefficiency and society would be better off if more resources were used to produce the product. For example, under the conditions of imperfect competition, firms produce less output than they would produce under the conditions of perfect competition. If the quantity produced is too great, then the good is overproduced and overconsumed. Society would be better off if less output were produced and excess resources transferred to making another product that is in greater demand. An example of this type of market failure is the negative production externality.
Consumers who consume output without having to pay for it are known as free riders.

## Causes of Market Failure

* Public goods - The main characteristic of public goods is non-excludability. This means that if the good or service is produced for one consumer, no other consumer can be prevented from consuming it. The classic examples are the service of a country's defense force, street lighting and lighthouses. For example, if I build a lighthouse so that my ships can be warned of a dangerous reef at night, there is nothing that I can do to prevent other people's ships from also enjoying the benefit of the light from the lighthouse. Can you see the problem that now arise? If ask other people to pay some costs of building the lighthouse, will they pay? Probably not. They will build the lighthouse anyway and that they will be able to consume the light for it. Consumers who behave in this way consume output without having to pay for it. Under produced by the market system. Too few consumers are prepared to pay for goods; they would rather be free riders. Therefore, there is an under-allocation of resources to the production of public goods and the market fail
# Macroeconomics/Money and Inflation

What is inflation?
Inflation can be defined as the increase in the overall level of prices. Whilst the price of individual goods or services may vary due to changes in supply and demand, production costs or technological progress, inflation refers to the increase in the price level as a whole or for a selection of goods and services (commonly referred to in economics as a basket of goods). The result of inflation is that the nominal amount of goods and services that a unit of currency can purchase (its purchasing power) declines over time.
Of course, there is, in theory, nothing which make inflation an inherent feature of our economies. In historical times there have been prolonged periods of deflation (where the overall level of prices falls) as well as hyperinflation and disinflation.
Examples 1) ..... The average price of a specific "basket" of goods and services today is 100. If one year later the average price of a "basket" containing the SAME goods and services will cost you 300, then the currency of your country is worth only 1/3 as much as a year ago as a result of inflation. As a result of inflation all the prices of the SAME goods and services have increased.
..... Inflation is stated as a percentage. Assume, for example, that inflation is steady, every year the same, at 2% per year. Then an item that costs now 100 would cost after 1 year 102, then in future years: 104.04 106.12 108.24 110.41 112.62 114.87 117.17 119.51 121.90 and so on.
2) ..... Labor or labour unions always want more and more money to "make ends meet", and so do most other people. The price of goods and services must cover all costs, including all involved salaries and wages. If the currency is worth less as a result of inflation, then all costs go up, and therefore all prices go up. But because prices go up, everybody wants a raise in wages/salary. Therefore the costs go up again, the prices go up some more, and so on and so on. THAT is the unfortunate result of the inflation "spiral".
# Multiplier! (k)

* The simple multiplier
* The number of times total income increases corresponding to an increase in the investment is known as investment multiplier
* Assumptions:
* Two sector economy
* Induced consumption and savings only
* Constant prices
* Some unemployed resources in the economy

## Formula

* $k={1 \over MPS}\ \ \ OR\ \ \ k={1 \over 1-MPC}$
    The simple investment can also be expressed by:
* ${\Delta Y \over \Delta I}$
* For example if Y (national Y) rises by $5000 as a result of an increase in investment of $1000 then the k coefficient is 5 (5000/1000).

### Note:

* The larger the MPC the larger the multiplier
* The multiplier process also operates in reverse.

## Derivation

Assume the MPC of a hypothetical economy is 0.5. If a person spends $1 on a widget, then the person who sells it receives $1 of income, of which a portion is spent (MPC), this person then uses their $0.5 to purchase another good ad infinitum. Expressing this mathematically:
    $1+MPC+MPC^{2}+\cdots$
    As $MPC\leq 1$ then what results is the limiting sum of a geometric sequence.
    i.e. $S_{\infty }=1+MPC+MPC^{2}+\cdots ={1 \over 1-MPC}$ (letting a=1, r=MPC)
    letting $S_{\infty }=k\Rightarrow k={1 \over 1-MPC}$
    As $MPS+MPC=1$ then,
    $k={1 \over 1-MPC}={1 \over MPS}$

## Table:

    The multiplier shows how one man's spending creates another man's income, through several time periods. In this case an initial new investment of $10 creates new income of $10, which is either spent or saved by those who have earned it. The proportion which is spent creates income for others in the second time period (shown by arrows from one period to the next). This is also spent or saved. The final new income which has flowed from the initial investment can be determined using the formula [$Y=k\times initial\ investment$] (i.e. $5\times 10=50$). Had the MPC been higher (say 0.9) the multiplier would be larger and more income would have been created.

## Graph:

    .This diagram assumes no government and no trade, so AE = C + I.
    Initial equilibrium occurred at the red dot on the upper panel of the diagram, where $300 was earned and spent by households and firms. S = I at $60 (red dot on the lower panel).
    Then firms decided to increase I by $10 (shown on the diagram as I + ΔI). This created extra income in the economy, which gave consumers extra spending power. Because one man's spending is another man's income, there was a series of C, S and Y increases similar to those at the green dot on the upper panel of the diagram, where planned levels of expenditure and income had risen to $350. Once again, S = I at $70. The new equilibrium occurs at a higher level of income. A small change in investment has resulted in a large change in AY.
# Radical Left Economics Perspective

* The capitalist system is cited as the culprit of unequal wealth distribution
* Capitalism is built upon the exploitation of workers

# Criticisms of other perspectives
## Neo-classicals / Neo-conservatives

* Criticized for not modeling their theories after reality
** Forced reality to conform to their theories
*** The capitalist system did not become the norm in England because it was popular among the people, but because they were forced off their own land or off the land they used to work on as a peasant to become a wage worker
** Then claimed how closely "reality" and their theories resemble
** Using their own theories, they claim and predict how smoothly the system is and will be running

## Neo-liberals

* Criticized for trying to fix an unfixable system
* Analogous to "rearranging the deck chairs on the Titanic"

# Analysis of the Existing System
## The State

* The state is an organ of class rule
* It exists to protect the interests of ruling class
# Macroeconomics/Optimal Growth
## Optimal Growth
### Assumptions and Story

The topic of Optimal Growth is often introduced with mention of the economy of a single person dealing with a single commodity. Robinson Crusoe, for instance, might be stuck on an Island with only one commodity, coconuts perhaps, denoted by $c$. In this case, just for fun, we may want Crusoe to live forever, but for now we may let him have a finite lifetime. This assumption changes how we will deal with the problem, with a finite lifetime lending itself to the Calculus of Variations or the Hamiltonian methods of analysis, and an infinite lifetime often requiring recursive methods. Also our one good is consumed, and is used for "once" production each day.

### Model

In this model, we have on good, $c\in C\subseteq \mathbb {R}$.
Our agent has an increasing (or at least non-decreasing) utility function, $u:C\to \mathbb {R_{+}}$.
The production function in the economy is nondecreasing $f:C\to \mathbb {R_{+}}$. For some reason we use $k$ as the argument in this function. We'll see the relationship between c and k when we talk about our constraint in just one minute.
Crusoe wants to maximize his utility over the period he lives, but perhaps he discounts the future by a factor of $\beta$, so we can write our objective function $\sum _{t=0}^{T}\beta ^{t}u(c_{t})$ with $c_{t}$ the amount consumed at time $t$ (for now we are considering a discrete time model).
We want our solution to be feasible, so our sequence $\{c_{0},c_{1},\ldots \}$ must be "possible". For this to happen, we need the sequence to satisfy the constraint that $c$ consumed plus $k$ used tomorrow in production must be less than or equal to the amount produced. We will take as given an initial endowment of coconuts, $k_{0}$. So our problem is:
$\max \sum _{t=0}^{T}\beta ^{t}u(c_{t})$
such that $0\leq c_{t}+k_{t+1}\leq f(k_{t})$

### Solution for finite T

since our functions f and u are nondecreasing, we can rewrite our problem as:
$\max \sum _{t=0}^{T}\beta ^{t}u(f(k_{t})-k_{t+1})$
such that $k_{t+1}\leq f(k_{t})$ for $t=0,1,\ldots ,T-1$
We can solve this using Calculus of Variations (Euler's Equation) or by first order conditions of the Legrangian with respect to $k_{t+1}$, so we get:
$u^{\prime }\left(f(k_{t})-k_{t+1}\right)=\beta u^{\prime }\left(f(k_{t+1})-k_{t+2}\right)f^{\prime }(k_{t+1})$ for $t=0,1,\ldots ,T-1$.
Given $k_{0}$, Weierstrass' Theorem guarantees that this problem has a solution since the objective function is continuous and the constraint set is closed and bounded (hence compact). If T goes to infinity, however, we cannot guarantee a solution this way. A discussion of this will come later.

### Solution for finite T over continuous time

Now instead of a summation, we could use an integral to get a similar problem over continuous time.
$\max \int _{t=0}^{T}\beta ^{t}u(f(k_{t})-k_{t+1})$
such that $k_{t+1}\leq f(k_{t})$ for $t=0,1,\ldots ,T-1$
We can solve this using Calculus of Variations (Euler's Equation), or use Hamiltonians if necessary, which we remember is very similar in form to first order conditions of the Legrangian with respect to $k_{t+1}$. Using Euler's equation, we get:
# Mandelbulb3D/Reference/Image
### Image Display

The rendered image is displayed in the center pane of the Main Window. It interacts with all other panels and toolbars in the Main Window.
Rendered image resolution and viewing size are set with the Top Toolbar settings in the Viewing and Image section.
When Mandelbulb3D first opens, the image displayed is two-dimensional. This is a slice through the three-dimensional space of the fractal. Navigation for this 2D mode is performed with the controls on the Bottom toolbar. For 3D renderings, camera operation is better handled by the intuitive 3D Navigator window.
Controls in the Side Panel interact with the Image pane in many ways when rendering in three dimensions with the Calculate 3D button.
Other windows such as the Animation Maker can modify scene parameters and therefore affect the final rendering in the Image pane.

### See Also

* Main Window
* Top Toolbar
* Side Panel
* Bottom Toolbar
# Mandelbulb3D/Reference/Main Window
### Main Program

The core of Mandelbulb3D is known as the Main Program. It consists of the Main Window and three child windows: Formulas, Lighting, and Postprocess.

#### Main Window

The Main Window is composed of four areas:
* Image display
* Top Toolbar
* Side Panel
* Bottom toolbar

#### Main Program child windows

Three essential child windows make up the rest of the Mandelbulb3D Main Program. Information is automatically shared between these windows and the Main Window.
* Formulas window
* Lighting window
* Postprocess window

### Tools and Plug-ins

Each of these windows performs essential functions, like a program within a program. Scene data must be sent back and forth between the Main window and the Plug-in or Tool window. Sometimes this is automatic, but often the user must click a button to transfer data between windows.

#### Tools

* M3P -> M3I Batch Processing window
* Big Renders window
* Voxelstack Export window
* Monte Carlo Rendering window

#### Plug-ins

* Navigator window
* Animation Maker window
* Bulb Tracer window
* MutaGen window
* Heightmap Generator window
* Scripts window

### See Also

* Image display
* Top Toolbar
* Side Panel
* Formulas, Lighting, and Postprocess windows
* Bottom toolbar
# Mandelbulb3D/Reference/Main Window/Bottom Toolbar

Mandelbulb3D Reference
Main Window > Bottom Toolbar
# Mandelbulb3D/Reference/Main Window/Image Display (Frame Buffer)

Mandelbulb3D Reference
Main Window > Image Display (Frame Buffer)
# Mandelbulb3D/Reference/Monte Carlo
### Monte Carlo Rendering

The Monte Carlo window is a stochastic global illumination renderer that provides superior realism compared to the Mandelbulb3D standard scanline renderer.
The Image in the Main Window is rendered using a scanline algorithm. This is a simple rendering technique that does not calculate the transfer of light among diffuse surfaces. The Monte Carlo renderer accurately calculates bounce light, known as global illumination or GI. It also provides superior reflections and refractions compared to the scanline renderer, which is not a raytracer. Additionally, the Monte Carlo renderer offers additional photographic tools: Exposure and Depth of Field.
Currently, there is no workflow using Mandelbulb3D alone that allows rendering Monte Carlo animation sequences. The Monte Carlo renderer is strictly for still images only.
# Mandelbulb3D/Reference/Lighting
### Lighting

The Lighting window not only controls illumination in the scene, but also materials and textures, scene fog, background images, and gamma correction. It also provides controls to save and load lighting and shading Presets independently of fractal formulas.
The Lighting window is launched from its button in the Side Panel of the Main Window. It can be docked or un-docked from the Main window with a right-click context menu. Right-click the Lighting button and choose and option to stick or unstick the Lighting window to the Main window.

### Lighting window sections

* Light tabs
* Global lights
* Positional lights
* Lightmap lights
* Object tab
** Object color window
* Ambient tab
* Dynamic Fog tab
* Background Pic tab
* Gamma
* Lighting Files & Presets
# Mandelbulb3D/Reference/Main Window/Side Panel

Mandelbulb3D Reference
Main Window > Side Panel
# Mandelbulb3D/Reference/Main Window/Top Toolbar

Mandelbulb3D Reference
Main Window > Top Toolbar
# Open Scholarship Press Collections: Community
## Table of Contents

This annotated bibliography is included in the Open Scholarship Press Collections.
ISBN 9798210902801

### Introduction

* Notes on the PediaPress print version

### Public & Community Engagement

* Public Scholarship & Public Humanities
* Collaboration, Partnership, & Engagement
* Social Knowledge Creation, including Wikipedia & Crowdsourcing
* Research Creation in Theory & Practice

### Open Social Scholarship

* Open Scholarship
* Open Access
* Open Data
* Open Education

### Scholarly Communication

* Contemporary Issues
* Digital Artifacts: Articles, Journals, Monographs, Scholarly Editions, & Other Books
* Critical Approaches to Digital Scholarship
* Knowledge Translation & Mobilization
# Open Scholarship Press Collections: Connection
## Table of Contents

This annotated bibliography is included in the Open Scholarship Press Collections.
ISBN 9798210903815

### Knowledge Commons as Sites of Connection

* Historical and Theoretical Approaches to Knowledge Commons
* (Academic) Social Networking Sites as Knowledge Commons
* Noteworthy Examples of Digital Knowledge Commons

### Forms of Connection and Collaboration in Digital Knowledge Commons

* Open Social Scholarship and Social Knowledge Creation
* Community Engagement
* Commons-based Approaches to Teaching and Research

### Maintaining Connections and Fostering Care in Digital Knowledge Commons

* Commercialization, Commodification, and the Common Good
* Governance and Conduct in Digital Knowledge Commons
* Equity, Diversity, and Inclusion in Digital Spaces
* Ethical and Responsible Data Management
* Relevant Licenses, Policies, and Guidelines
# Mapping on YouTube/Third Recession-Peaceful Era

Date: January 7, 2015- April 17, 2015

## Early 2015

* 7 January 2015: MrOwnerandPwner returns to the wiki and collaborates with Batran to establish an act against wars. Anyone who attempts to create one will be blocked.
* 9 January 2015: Zephyrus and Zukas leave the wiki.
* 10 January 2015: Mind leaves the wiki.
* 16 January 2015: MervueMeringue joins the wikia.
* 16 January 2015: Mind returns to the wikia.
* 17 January 2015: DWI DOG, a trio alt, returns to the wiki.
* 18-20 January 2015: The wiki reaches 1000 pages.
* 19th January 2015: A troll account made by Zukas called ImWatching... gets Batran99 suspicious about trolls. He goes to Community Central Wikia's chatroom and tries to find someone who knows how to help him. A user from a creepypasta Wikia called IM STILL ALIVE offers to help, and it starts the beginning of the Nicole Crisis.
* 19th January 2015: Daniel Mapper leaves mapping and deletes his channel, but makes a new channel within days of deleting it.
* 23rd January 2015: Pezminer12 starts the Month pages.
* 25th January 2015: Starring94 and Pezminer12 have an edit-conflict over having categories like: 'Nations in Europe (TF)' and 'Nations in Asia (TF)'. The two eventually come to a truce.
* 26 January 2015: Many Mappers' accounts are disabled by Wikia Staff in The Grim Reaping.
* 27 January 2015: Ace's account on Althistory Wiki gets blocked for a week for what he has done.
* 31 January 2015: Lolistans returns feeling its government is ok to handle
* 5 February 2015: Pezminer12 creates a Wikia just for Map Games.
* 6-13 February 2015: The Wikia becomes less active than usual.
* 17 February 2015: Monsoonjr99 and Pez add new Month pages, Year pages, and Navigational templates for those pages to the wiki.
* 17 February 2015 : Lolistan sets another mapperdonian record in spam
* 18 February-6 March 2015: This page dies due to the MonthPages.
* March 7 2015: RMC (Red Moon Club) was created by Happydance9, other people were mad at its creation due to a foreshadow of a possible conflicting events.
* March 9, 2015, 0000 UTC: RMC is disbanded.
* March 12, 2015 Jakob Mintah makes his mapping channel
* March 13 2015: Ingo Mapping stops mapping and leaves the wiki.
* March 30-31 2015: #AlternateFuture Mind and batran discovered that Youtube officially recognizes mapping as a trend.(or in this case, Alternate Future)
* April 1 2015: April Fools Crisis starts. Winston Mapper says that it is the worst crisis since Mapperdonian January.
* April 1 2015: Ender and Knight get into an argument, with most people supporting Ender. This leads to Knight declaring war on Ender.
* April 2-12 2015: Timeline becomes Inactive for the 5th time.
* April 11 2015: Pezminer12 invents Barnstars; awards for Users on the Wikia who have done great things in certain fields on the Wikia.
# Mapping on Youtube/2012/December 2012

According to the Wikia, nothing important happened this month.
# Mapping on YouTube/Summer Map Game Era

Date: June 3, 2017 - August 31, 2017

## Middle 2017

* June 3, 2017: Konig des Menschen (Map Game) is started by TheCreator901/Atlasium. Despite the map game having less players, its extreme dedication has led to its unexpected survival throughout the whole month.
* Early-Mid June 2017: The WAM becomes active and stays above 400 for the first 18 days of the month.
* June 24-July 4, 2017: The WAM unexpectedly crashes into the 500s-600s, coincidentally after having a rank-5001 glitch (later resolved). Despite reaching a new record low, the short-lived crash is not considered its own recession era since Konig des Menschen remained active and the crash rebounded quickly.
* June 30, 2017: The wiki reaches its lowest ranking on WAM since recording started, hitting 668.
* Early July 2017: Activity rapidly increases and the WAM quickly surges back to normal levels. The comments on the July 2017 page also become hyperactive and surpass October 2015 as month page with the most comments only 10 days into the month.
* 4th July 2017-present: Lillie alt waves start to appear from July 4th and onwards.
* August 2nd, 2017: Konig des Menschen (Map Game) surpasses 20 turns, an all-time record, only surpassed by Civilisations (Map Game).