OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Basic Grammar 1
## The Basic Grammar Structure

Like all languages, American Sign Language (ASL) has a well-defined sentence structure. Similar to English sentences, basic verb clauses in ASL are in Subject-Verb-Object order. ASL has more flexible word order, though, because it also uses topics and usually drops pronouns that have been established as topics. A full sentence in ASL has the following order:
    [time-context] [topic] [subject] [negative-tag-start] verb [object] [subject-pronoun-tag] [negative-tag-end]

### Time context

    In ASL, the time context (e.g. morning, yesterday) is optional. If expressed, it occurs at the beginning of the sentence and functions like an adverb for the verb of the main clause that follows.

### Topic

    The topic is also optional. When expressed, it is usually indicated by raised eyebrows. The topic is then typically not expressed again in the following sentences, except for emphasis, or to change the topic, or where confusion may otherwise occur.

### Subject

    If the established topic is the subject of the sentence, the subject is typically dropped (not expressed), except for emphasis or where confusion may occur.

### Verb

    Verbs in ASL may express actions (e.g. "to talk") or states (e.g. "to be happy"). Aside from the optional time context, ASL grammar does not have tense. That is, it does not change the form of a sign to indicate past, present, and future actions or states. Verb signs in ASL do inflect, though. For example, they may be signed emphatically by using larger gestures than their standard forms, or repeated to show repeated actions, or interrupted before the end to indicate the "unrealized inceptive" mood (also indicated by holding one's breath).

### Object

    If the established topic is the object of the sentence, the object is typically dropped, except for emphasis or where confusion may occur.

### Subject pronoun tag

    Subject pronoun tags are optional. If expressed, it refers to the subject of the verb and may suggest emphasis. In a positive sentence, the subject pronoun tag is usually indicated with a head nod.

### Negative

    Negatives usually are indicated by shaking the head "no" from the beginning of the verb through the end of the sentence, and are optionally also expressed with an explicit negative sign after the verb and its optional object.

### Examples

SCHOOL ME GO [topic] [subject] [verb]
EVERYDAY SCHOOL ME GO-GO-GO [time-adverb] [topic] [subject] [verb] I attend school everyday
Time phrases are put in front.
# Automobile Repair/Mercedes-Benz/E420
## Contents

* Routine maintenance
* Engine
* Cooling system
* Fuel and exhaust systems
* Ignition system
* Clutch
* Transmission
* Braking system
* Electrical system
* Suspension and steering
# Automobile Repair/Honda/Odyssey/Oil Change

* Drive the vehicle on to a set of ramps
* Engage the parking brake. Place blocks behind the rear wheels.
* Place jack stands in a suitable location under the ramped vehicle. This minimizes another risk with ramps, that they can collapse. Possible locations for jack stands are the jack seam.
* Place drain pan under the vehicle and remove the drain plug with a socket.
* Place the drainung pan so that it collects the oil draining from the pan as well as covering the area under the filter.
* Remove the filter. The location varies depending on the year.
* Check that the filter gasket has been removed before installing a new filter. Lubricate the new filter before installation
* Install the drain pan
* Remove the filler plug. Add the recommended amount of oil. This is 4.3 litres of 5W-20. Secure the filler plug. Check the oil level with the dipstick. It should be close to right.
* Start the vehicle, remove it from the ramps, and place it on a level surface.
* Check the oil level and add as required.
# Automobile Repair/Mercury
## Passenger Vehicle Models

* Bobcat
* Capri
* Colony Park
* Comet
* Commuter
* Cougar
* Custom
* Cyclone
* Eight
* LN7
* Lynx
* Grand Marquis
* M-Series
* Marauder
* Mariner
* Marquis
* Medalist
* Meteor
* Milan
* Monarch
* Montclair
* Montego
* Monterey
* Mountaineer
* Mystique
* Park Lane
* S-55
* Sable
* Topaz
* Tracer
* Turnpike Cruiser
* Villager
* Voyager
* Zephyr
# Automobile Repair/Jeep/Jeep Wrangler

History The YJ Wrangler gave way to the TJ for the 1997 model year (note that there was no 1996 model year; the 1997 TJ was released in Spring 1996). Some updated features include: Coil-spring suspension (based on that of the Jeep Grand Cherokee) providing better ride and handling, and a return to the CJ's iconic round headlamps. The engine is the same 4.0L AMC Straight-6 used in the Cherokee and Grand Cherokee. A 2.5L AMC 150 Inline-4 motor was available on entry-level models until 2003 when the 2.4L DOHC Neon 4-cylinder engine replaced it. This model of the Jeep was the first Wrangler to have airbags. The TJ's coil-springs were questioned upon its introduction.
Other changes included; 1999: Additions of a (larger, standard) 19 gallon fuel tank, and rotary climate controls (replacing sliding levers). 2000: Child seat tethers added to the rear seat, and the 6-cylinder engine earned modifications aimed at smoother operation. The Sport's standard AM/FM radio added a cassette player, and the Sahara exchanged a cassette player for a CD player. The optional tilt steering wheel in SE and Sport was now the same leather-covered unit that was standard in Sahara. 2001: Got standard intermittent windshield wipers, a revised center console, an optional subwoofer, and a plastic instead of metal Add-a-Trunk storage compartment. 2002: The new X model joined the lineup for 2004. Sport, Rubicon, and X also get a standard CD player this year. 2003: The AMC 2.5 engine is replaced with a dual-overhead-cam 2.4 liter shared with Jeep's Liberty SUV. This new engine makes 147 hp. The 6-cylinder is unchanged, but optional on both engines is a new 4-speed automatic transmission. Also redesigned front seats, LATCH-type rear child-seat anchors, and an available rearview mirror with temperature and compass display. 2004: Tilt steering wheel became standard on the Wrangler. 2005: The availability of a 6-speed manual transmission.
# Automobile Repair/Mercedes-Benz
## Models

* 1990 300 sel e420
* 1982 380SL V8 R107
# Automobile Repair/Mini

New Mini (2001– ) repair manual.

## First Generation

* Cooper R50 (2001–2006)
* Cooper S R53 (2001–2006)
* Cabriolet R52 (2005–2008)

## Second Generation

* Cooper S R56 (2007–)
* Clubman R55 (2008–)
* Cabriolet R57 (2009–)
* Coupé R58 (2012–)
# Automobile Repair/Mercedes-Benz/E420/Transmission
## Removal and replacement

1. First disconnect negative terminal of battery. The battery is located underneath the rear seat. To reach the battery you will have to press the tabs on each side of the rear seat upwards. this will release the rear seat and give access to the battery. The terminal requires a 13mm wrench.
2. Drain transmission fluid. There is a 5mm drain plug on the bottom of the transmission. This can be difficult to remove and might strip out. Fluid can also be drained by removing the torx screws that hold the transmission pan to the transmission. Loosen all torx screws and then completely remove the torx screws on one side of the transmission. The pan can then be pried away on one side allowing the transmission fluid to drain.
3. Drain oil from torque converter.
4. disconnect heat shields and 13-pin electric pin connector
5. unbolt starter
6. Remove plate that covers bolts that connect torque converter to driver plate. Unscrew torque converter from driver plate.
7. Unscrew oil cooler lines.
8. Unscrew ground strap.
9. Remove exhaust system.
10. Remove transmission support.
11. Disconnect control cable.
12. Remove shift linkage.
13. Unscrew propeller shaft. (front)
14. Unscrew propeller shaft. (rear) Tie front of propeller shaft out of the way.
15. Unscrew transmission from crankcase.
16. Lower and remove transmission.
17. Reinstall in reverse order.
# Biochemistry/Respiratory Pigments

In humans, these pigments include hemoglobin and myoglobin, the latter is present in red muscle fibers. Hemoglobin is a coordination compound of iron. It had attachment sites for gases, namely oxygen and carbon dioxide. Its reactivity depends upon partial pressure of these gases. The presence of heme makes it appear red colored. Myoglobin is present in muscles to make available extra oxygen.
# Brewing/Milling

The milling of the malted barley is a very important step. Milling is done to better allow the mashing liquor to access the centre of the barley. This allows the enzymes secreted by the aleurone layer to act upon the starchy endosperm (see Figure).It is important that the grain husk remain intact, as the husks are used to form a filter bed during lautering, the process where the sweet wort (pronounced wert) is run off from the mashed grains.
At the end of milling, the brewer should be left with a range of fragments of barley, and largely intact husks, but no whole grains. There should be little flour, as this leads to haze in the final beer and is poorly retained by the husk bed in the lautering process. It is also important that most of the endosperm is broken up, as this aids enzymatic action due to exposure of a greater surface area of endosperm, and leads to better conversion of the starch to sugars.
Large diameter (8") smooth rollers running at different speeds are preferred. Smaller grain mills can be made with slotted or knurled rollers but the mill gap must be set wider to avoid crushing the husks. Typical hobby grain mills have rollers with a diameter of 1.5 inches. These rollers are knurled so the small rollers will pull the grain through. Because of the smaller area of contact between the rollers and the grain the gap between the rollers must be closer than larger rollers. Also the knurling on the rollers will shread the husks more than larger rollers.
It is also quite possible to mill barley in a kitchen mortar and pestle - although this is exceptionally tedious. A typical kitchen mortar and pestle can handle about 150g of grain at a time, and a typical 5% alcohol beer might take 6kg of malt to make 19 litres. However, the mortar and pestle approach allows a home brewer to experiment with grain mashing, without the expense of a mill.
# Brewing/Cooling

Cooling of the hot wort is a critical step for several reasons.
* Yeast are killed by high temperature.
* Wort produces dimethyl sulfide (DMS) at high temperatures, and between the point where the temperature is just not high enough to boil it off and that where its rate of formation is negligible (i.e. room temperature) this flavour accumulates.
* Some spoilage bacteria can grow in the wart as it cools (e.g. if the wort is contaminated after boiling, by air or by condensate), and the longer that these have to grow before the yeast is pitched, the greater effect that they will have on the beer.
* Oxygen reacts with hot wort to produce undesirable flavours. (Note however, that once the wort is cooled, it is much less reactive, and in fact it is essential for oxygen to be added to wort, as yeast cannot synthesise certain lipids required for their cell membranes without it).
In a home context, beer is usually cooled in one of two ways:
* By immersing the metal boiling vessel, for example in a laundry basin full of water
* By inserting a cooler or cooling coil into the wort.
* Using a counter current heat exchange (usually a copper pipe immersed in a wider diameter plastic pipe with the wort and the beer flowing in opposite directions).
The laundry basin method has the advantage of being cheap, and requiring no additional equipment. The cooling coil is however far quicker. A simple heating coil can be made from copper pipe, (such as the type used in domestic houses). The pipe can be bent with a pipe bender, obtained from an ordinary hardware store, and once it is coiled, two polyethylene tubes can be attached to it. The whole apparatus is then submerged into the wort boiler, and one polyethylene tube is connected to a cold water source, and the other outlet pipe is drained away. The pipe should be "painted" with a thin layer of epoxy to prevent copper leaching off it - alternatively, if you can get it, stainless steel pipe may be used.
# Brewing/Fermentation
## Yeast Management
### Yeast pitching

Yeast is added to the cooled wort as (or after it is added to the fermenter). It is important to get enough healthy yeast in to the brew to achieve a healthy fermentation.
When using a yeast slurry the pitching is adjusted for the amount of beer in the yeast. The pitching rate is also adjusted for the number of dead yeast cells in the slurry

### Yeast cropping

When yeast is recovered from a fermenter with the intention of re-using the yeast for a subsequent fermentation it is referred to as cropping of the yeast. The timing of the cropping is important to recover yeast with maximum nutritional reserves.

### Yeast storage

It is inevitable that yeast will need to be stored between cropping and pitching. By keeping the yeast cold the yeast metabolism is slowed down so that nutritional reserves are available so that the yeast doesn't starve during storage.

## Primary Fermentation

Primary fermentation takes place in a bucket or carboy, sometimes left open but often stoppered with the carbon dioxide gas produced venting through a fermentation lock. During this time, temperatures should be kept at optimum temperature for the fermentation process. For ale this temperature is usually 65-75°F / 18-24°C, and for lager it is usually much colder, around 50°F / 10°C. Starting within 12 hours and continuing over the next few days a vigorous fermentation takes place. During this stage the simple sugar maltose in the wort is consumed by the yeast. A layer of sediment, the trub, appears at the bottom of the fermenter, composed of heavy fats, proteins and inactive yeast. A sure sign that primary fermentation has finished is that the head of foam (krausen), built by bubbling of CO2, falls.

## Secondary fermentation

Often, the beer is then siphoned into another container, usually a carboy, for aging or secondary fermentation. The siphoning is done to separate the batch from the afore-mentioned layer of sediment so that it is not used as food, as this can give the beer a off-flavor. During secondary fermentation the heavier, more complex sugars and impurities are digested. Secondary fermentation can take from 2 to 4 weeks, sometimes longer, depending on the type of beer. Some homebrewers will keep the batch in the primary fermenter (called single stage fermentation) for secondary fermentation and simply put up with any off flavors. This eliminates the need for a second container, reduces labor, and reduces the likelihood of contaminating the batch with bacteria, or oxidizing it, during transfer to the second container. This is a good beginner strategy, especially for those not skilled with siphoning liquids.
# Brewing/Focus areas
## Pages needed

* A page to explain the differences between commercial brewing, microbrewing and home brewing
* A page that will outline the intention of the wikibook - to prevent editing wars between homebrewers and commercial brewers and between imperial and metric system users
* A section on malting
* More information about how yeast work
* A section on how enzymes work in malting and the mash
* A vastly expanded ingredients section, with more info on water chemistry (such as pH and the influences of each brewing salt)
* Much more chemistry. Everywhere.

## Pages needing attention / rework

* Brewing/Glossary - there are still many terms that need to be added

## Contributors

* User:andbrew.downes
# Brewing/Cleaning and Sanitization

Not enough can be said about sanitation with beer making. Good beer comes about when you use the yeast that you want to without other yeast or bacterium coming in and having a party in your wort at your expense (and bad tasting beer).
* Assume that everything has to be sanitized before it touches the wort
** This is a good rule to live by and helps keep your wort from getting unwanted infections.
** Whenever you are brewing keep a pail of sanitizing solution available for anything you may want to sanitize
* Have a drying rack available
* Drop your equipment in to the bucket of sanitizer
** all of it; hoses, spoons, air locks, etc.
* Leave it there for the prescribed time period (read the instructions on the side of the package)
* Remove from the pail, rinse (as necessary) and allow to dry
There is a difference between what is referred to as clean and sanitized. Clean means the chunks, and debris and discoloration are removed from the equipment. Sanitized means that all of the bacteria that may be growing on the equipment is killed. When in doubt, sanitize.
| Name | Sanitizer | Cleaner | Solution | Special |
| C-Brite | X | X | 1 package (0.8 oz) per 2 gallons | No rinse |
| Bleach | X | | 1 tablespoon per gallon water (200 ppm) | 10 minute contact time – Rinse – Corrosive to stainless steel, copper, and aluminum. |
| Iodophor | X | | 1 teaspoon per gallon water (25 ppm) | 60 second contact time – Rinse recommended |
| | | | 1/2 tsp/gal | 5 minute contact time, no rinse required – Non corrosive, but will stain most plastics. |
| Ethyl alcohol (Vodka or Grain Alcohol) | X | | | Use undiluted without rinse – Expensive |
| Star San | X | | 2 tablespoons per 5 gallons | No rinse - 2 minute contact time – Foams into crevices |
| TSP (Trisodium Phosphate) | | X | 1 teaspoon per gallon | Rinse required – Wear protective gloves. – Good for cleaning glass |
| Baking Soda | | X | 1 teaspoon per gallon | Rinse – Mild and slow acting cleaner. |
| B-Brite | | X | 1 tablespoon per gallon | Rinse – Good for metal items (has corrosion inhibitor), limited sanitizing ability |
| Straight-A | | X | 1 tablespoon per gallon | Rinse – Biodegradeable, has corrosive inhibitor |
| PBW (Powdered Brewers Wash) | | X | 2 oz per 5 gallons | Rinse – Biodegradeable, good for soaking |
| One-Step | X | X | 1 tablespoon per gallon | No rinse – Biodegradeable, non-staining |
| CMC | | X | 1 oz per gallon | Rinse – Biodegradeable, can be used on stainless |
References: Cleaner or Santizer? By: Mike Dixon, taken from http://hbd.org/carboy/newslet/ferm1001.htm
# A-level Physics (Advancing Physics)/Phasors/Worked Solutions

1. A sine wave with wavelength 0.1m travels through a given point on the surface of the sea. A phasor arrow representing the effect of this wave on this point rotates 1000°. How many wavelengths have gone past in the time taken for the phasor to rotate this much?
0.1m is irrelevant information.
${\frac {1000}{360}}=2.78\lambda$
2. A sine wave has a maximum amplitude of 500 nm. What is its amplitude when the phasor has rotated 60° from its start position?
$a\sin {\theta }=500\times 10^{-9}\times \sin {60}\approx 433{\mbox{nm}}\,$
3. Two waves have a phase difference of 45°. When the first wave is at its minimum amplitude of -0.3m, what is the total amplitude of the superposed waveforms?
The first wave has an amplitude of -0.300m. The second is at an angle of 270 - 45 = 225°.
$a\sin {\theta }=0.3\times \sin {225}\approx -0.212{\mbox{m}}\,$
$-0.300+-0.212=-0.512{\mbox{m}}\,$
# A-level Physics (Advancing Physics)/Polymers

A simple polymer consists of a long chain of monomers (components of molecules) joined by covalent bonds. A polymer usually consists of many of these bonds, tangled up. This is known as a bulk polymer.

## Types

A bulk polymer may contain two types of regions. In crystalline regions, the chains run parallel to each other, whereas in amorphous regions, they do not. Intermolecular bonds are stronger in crystalline regions. A polycrystalline polymer consists of multiple regions, in which the chains point in a different direction in each region.

## Properties
### Transparency

Polymers which are crystalline are usually opaque or translucent. As a polymer becomes less polycrystalline, it becomes more transparent, whilst an amorphous polymer is usually transparent.

### Elasticity

In some polymers, such as polyethene, the chains are folded up. When they are stretched, the chains unravel, stretching without breaking. When the stress ceases, they will return to their original shape. If, however, the bonds between the molecules are broken, the material reaches its elastic limit and will not return to its original shape.

### Stiffness

Polymer chains may be linked together, causing the polymer to become stiffer. An example is rubber, which, when heated with sulfur, undergoes a process known as vulcanization. The chains in the rubber become joined by sulfur atoms, making the rubber suitable for use in car tyres. A stiffer polymer, however, will usually be more brittle.

### Plasticity

When a polymer is stretched, the chains become parallel, and amorphous areas may become crystalline. This causes an apparent change in colour, and a process known as 'necking'. This is when the chains recede out of an area of the substance, making it thinner, with fatter areas on either side.

### Conductivity

Polymers consist of covalent bonds, so the electrons are not free to move according to potential difference. This means that polymers are poor conductors.

### Boiling Point

Polymers do not have boiling points. This is because, before they reach a theoretical boiling point, polymers decompose. Some polymers do not have melting points for the same reason.

## Questions

1. Different crystalline structures have different refractive indexes. Why does this mean that a polycrystalline polymer is translucent?
2. What sort of polymer is a pane of perspex?
3. What sort of polymer does the pane of perspex become when shattered (but still in one piece)?
4. What sort of polymer is a rubber on the end of a pencil?
5. What happens to the translucency of an amorphous polymer when it is put under stress?
Worked Solutions

## References

* ↑ C. A. Heaton, The Chemical industry, page 113.
# A-level Physics (Advancing Physics)/Polymers/Worked Solutions

1. Different crystalline structures have different refractive indexes. Why does this mean that a polycrystalline polymer is translucent?
The refractive index of each area is different, so the angle of refraction is different for each area. As a result, the image is blurred.
2. What sort of polymer is a pane of perspex?
Crystalline
3. What sort of polymer does the pane of perspex become when shattered (but still in one piece)?
Polycrystalline
4. What sort of polymer is a rubber on the end of a pencil?
Amorphous
5. What happens to the translucency of an amorphous polymer when it is put under stress?
The polymer becomes more translucent, as it becomes more polycrystalline as the chains are stretched and straightened.