OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Canadian Criminal Evidence/Burden of Proof
## General Principles

The burden of proof indicates who has the responsibility or onus to prove something.
Generally, there are two types of burdens. First, there is the "burden of persuasion", often called a "legal burden", "primary burden", or "major burden", which is the requirement to prove the case or disprove the defence. Failure to discharge this burden results in the party losing the case. This type of evidence typically is said to impose a "onus of proof". Second, there is the "evidential burden", often called the "secondary burden", "burden of going forward", or "minor burden", which is the requirement of putting an issue before the court using the available evidence.

## Presumption of Innocence

It is well established in law that all persons are entitled to the legal presumption of innocence for all charges they are not convicted for.
Therefore the Crown has the burden of proving all the elements of the offence. The onus of proving guilt never switches from the Crown to the accused.The “accused bears no burden to explain why his accuser made the allegations against him”
* ↑ Woolmington v. Director of Public Prosecutions, [1935] AC 462 R. v. Appleby, [1972] SCR 303 R. v. Proudlock, [1979] 1 SCR 525 at para. 6
* ↑ R. v. Lauer, 2011 PECA 5 at para. 73
* ↑ see R. v. Briand (2010), 258 C.C.C. (3d) 416 (N.L.C.A.)
* ↑ see R. v. J.C.H., 2011 NLCA 8 at para 18
# Canadian Criminal Evidence/Character/Alternative Suspect Evidence
## General Principles

The defence may attempt to raise a doubt by suggesting that the offence was committed by a third-party. The defence can only be raised where there is sufficient evidence to connect a third-party to the offence. This will turn on the question of sufficient relevancy and probative value. The alternative suspect must have sufficient provable connection to the offence and cannot simply be speculative. The evidence cannot simply be evidence of propensity or suggestive of a hypothetical motive.However, a specific propensity to commit a particular offence can be sufficient.
The accused must show that there is an air of reality to the defence of another suspect. There must be a basis upon which a properly instructed jury could acquit.
The greatest danger to the defence by raising this sort of evidence is that it permits the crown to present reply evidence that it would not otherwise be allowed to adduce. Where evidence of an alternative suspect is raised, there is a risk that the trier of fact would be left with the wrong impression about the insufficiency of the investigation.
As such, the crown will be permitted to lead evidence on the investigative process that includes hearsay and bad character evidence of the accused.
* ↑ R. v. McMillan (1975), 23 C.C.C. (2d) 160 (C.A.), affd [1977] 2 S.C.R. 824 per Martin J.A. at p. 757
* ↑ e.g. R v Grandinetti, [2005] 1 SCR 27 R v Labbe (2001) 159 CCC (3d) 529 (BCCA)
* ↑ e.g. R v Arcangioli, [1994] 1 SCR 129 R v Shchavinsky (2001) 148 CCC (3d) 400 (ONCA) R v Aprile 2007 QCCA 1041
* ↑ R v Vanezis, (2006) 213 CCC (3d) 499 (ONCA)
* ↑ R. v. Fontaine , [2004] 1 S.C.R. 702, 2004 SCC 27, at para. 70
# Canadian Criminal Evidence/Admissions of Fact
## General Principles

Factual admissions are made under section 655.
   Admissions at trial 655. Where an accused is on trial for an indictable offence, he or his counsel may admit any fact alleged against him for the purpose of dispensing with proof thereof.
Though the language refers to indictable offences, it is accepted that this applies to summary convictions as well under s. 795.
When a factual admission is made pursuant to s. 655 it is for the Crown to state the facts. It is not open to the accused to frame the Crown's allegations so as to conform to his own purpose and then insist on the Crown admitting.
Formal admissions cannot be made until there has been an allegation put against them.
A factual admission can be made by counsel in court. Counsel can state for example that: “I admit that the accused did X. I admit that when he did that act, he knew Y. I admit that at that time, the accused thought or intended Z.”
This form of admission is “proper and sufficient” for findings of fact by the court under s. 655 and remove the need to adduce evidence on those issues.
If the accused makes an admission of fact, the Crown should not be allowed to refuse to accept it and then lead evidence on the issue. Once admitted, it is no long an admission at trial.
Similarly, if the Crown and Defence put forward evidence by submission that constitutes an agreed statement of facts, then it should be accepted by the trial judge as “conclusive of the admitted facts".
An agreed statement of fact should be "clear, unambiguous, precise and unequivocal before acceptance by the court".
* ↑ R. v. Castellani, [1970] SCR 910 at p.315; Dearborn 1991
* ↑ R v Castellani, [1970] SCR 910
* ↑ R. v. Miljevic, 2010 ABCA 115 at 18 See also McWilliams’ Canadian Criminal Evidence pp. 22-2 to 22-5, 22-9 to 22-11 (4th ed. 2009); 9 Wigmore, Evidence in Trials at Common Law 822-24 (Chadbourne ed. 1981) R. v. Haimour, 2010 ABQB 7 (CanLII), 2010 ABQB 7 at para. 27 R. v. Picariello [1923] 2 D.L.R. 706, 716 (S.C.C.) R. v. Castellani 1969 CanLII 57 (SCC), [1970] S.C.R. 310 at 315-17 R. v. Park 1981 CanLII 56 (SCC), [1981] 2 S.C.R. 64 at 73 R. v. Matheson1981 CanLII 202 (SCC), [1981] 2 S.C.R. 214 at 217 R. v. Fertal (1993) 145 A.R. 225 at paras. 7-9 (C.A.) R. v. Proctor1992 CanLII 2763 (MB CA), (1992) 5 Man. R. (2d) 217, 69 C.C.C. (3d) 436, 447 (C.A.) R. v. MacDonald, supra (paras. 32-33) R. v. Fong1994 ABCA 267 (CanLII), (1994) 157 A.R. 73 (C.A.) at paras. 6-8 R. v. Desjardins (1998) 110 B.C.A.C. 33 at para. 18
* ↑ R v Proctor, 1992 CanLII 2763 (MB CA), (1992) 69 C.C.C. (3d) 436 at p. 447 (“I do not think that Crown is entitled to refuse acceptance where its purpose in doing so to keep an issue alive artificially ...but if the accused is willing to make them, the Crown should not be allowed to gain entry for prejudicial evidence by refusing to accept the admissions.”)
* ↑ R. v. Baksh 2005 CanLII 24918, (2005), 199 C.C.C. (3d) 201 (Ont. S.C.J.)
* ↑ R. v. Asp, 2011 BCCA 433 (CanLII) at para. 40

## See Also

* Canadian Criminal Evidence/Admissions and Confessions
# Celestia/Time Control

There are several keys that can be used to control the rate and direction of the passage of time.

## Table of keys

| Key | Effect |
| J | Reverse time |
| K | Decrease rate by 10x |
| Shift+K | Decrease rate by 2x (new in version 1.5.0) |
| L | Increase rate by 10x |
| Shift+L | Increase rate by 2x (new in version 1.5.0) |
| Space | Stop time |
| ! | Set time to the computer's current time |
| ? | Display travel time for light between observer and selected object |
| - | Subtract the above light travel time from Celestia's current time |
| \ | Set time to real time |
# Celestia/Snapshots and Movies
## Introduction

Under some operating systems, Celestia can create a snapshot, recording its current on-screen display to a file. It also may be able to create a video recording of a sequence of frames while it is running. Other operating systems may require an external screengrab or video recording program.

## Linux

Currently video recording from within celestia does not work. A file is created, however it is empty.
Image screenshots work as expected.

## MacOS X

Screenshots and movie recording have not yet been implemented in the osX version of Celestia. For the moment you can use system commands to take some screenshots.
Some people have reported that CaptureMe does a reasonable job of recording movies.

## Windows

When running the Windows version of Celestia, both snapshots and movies can be created:
* Select the menu option "File/Capture Image..." or type the <F10> key to record a snapshot of the current view.
* Select the menu option "File/Capture Movie..." or type <Shift-F10> to start recording a movie of what Celestia is showing.
* Type <F11> to actually start (or pause) the recording.
* Type <F12> to finish recording.
# Celestia/Star Database Format

See also this page on GitHub.
The stars.dat file contains information about stars in a binary format. The byte order is little-endian. The format is as follows:
A 14-byte file header:
Followed by records of length 20 bytes of the form:
The x, y and z coordinates are calculated as follows
$\left(\!{\begin{array}{c}x\\y\\z\end{array}}\!\right)=\left({\begin{array}{ccc}1&0&0\\0&\cos \epsilon &\sin \epsilon \\0&-\sin \epsilon &\cos \epsilon \end{array}}\right)\left(\!{\begin{array}{c}d\cos \theta \sin \phi \\d\cos \phi \\-d\sin \theta \sin \phi \end{array}}\!\right)$
where d is the distance in light years, θ = RA + 180°, φ = Dec − 90° and ε = 23.4392911°.

## Spectral class

The spectral class is written as four hexadecimal digits 0xKTSL.
The K digit represents the kind of object, these are:
The T digit represents the spectral type. It has different meanings depending on whether the object is a normal star or a white dwarf. This digit is ignored when the object is a neutron star or black hole.
The S digit represents the spectral subtype. This digit is ignored for neutron stars and black holes.
The L digit represents the luminosity class. This digit is only relevant for normal stars.
Thus a star of spectral type G2V uses the number 0x0426.

## Old format

Prior to version 1.4.0, Celestia used a slightly different stars.dat format.
A 4-byte file header of the form:
Followed by records of length 25:
Note that for current versions of Celestia, the HD catalog numbers are stored in the hdxindex.dat file.
# Celestia/Time Scales
## UTC vs TDB

Versions of Celestia before v1.5.0 use UTC to calculate times and positions. Unfortunately, UTC includes "leap seconds" in order to stay aligned with the Earth's varying rotation. Leap seconds happen essentially randomly, when they are needed. Although Celestia does incorporate a table of leap second times, its use of UTC causes problems when used with ephemerides which are defined using TDB. Starting with v1.5.0, although it still displays UTC on the screen, Celestia uses the TDB time scale internally for everything else. As a result, Celestia places objects much more accurately than before.

## Time Scales

It may be helpful for Celestia users to understand the various time scales that are used in the field of astronomy. The most familiar is local time, which is probably what you see if you look at a nearby clock. The local time zone determines the difference between local time and Coordinated Universal Time, or UTC. UTC is the current time at the zero degree meridian; it replaces Greenwich Mean Time as the standard world clock.
Astronomical ephemerides are typically defined in terms of Barycentric Dynamical Time, or TDB. TDB is the time measured by a clock at the solar system barycenter. It differs from Terrestrial Time (TT)--the time measured by a clock on the Earth--because of relativistic effects, but the difference between the two scales is always less than 0.002 seconds. The two scales can usually be considered equivalent in Celestia.
TT is ahead of International Atomic Time (TAI) by constant value of 32.184 seconds. Finally, UTC differs from TAI by some integer number of leap seconds. Leap seconds are inserted occasionally because the Earth's rotation is irregular, and it's desirable to keep our everyday time scale from drifting with respect to the terrestrial day-night cycle--except at the poles, the sun should be in the sky at noon. The most recent leap second occurred at 23:59:60 on December 31, 2016 and made UTC 37 seconds behind TAI. (See Wikipedia on TAI)
To briefly summarize the relationship between time scales:
UTC is used in the Celestia's Set Time dialog and it's also the time displayed in the upper right of the screen. Unless you're creating scripts or add-ons for Celestia, UTC is all that you will see. But everywhere else, the time scale is TDB: xyz trajectory files, attitude files, beginning, ending, and epoch times in .ssc files.
# Celestia/Scripting Positions
## Fly Your Spacecraft, Buddy?

One of the not-so-obvious implications of the Scripted methods available in the SSC files of Celestia v1.5.0 (and later) is that objects can now be repositioned at arbitrary coordinates and orientations while Celestia is running.
In other words, you can fly an interplanetary spacecraft anywhere in a solar system.

## Placement

The return values of the ScriptedOrbit function are x,y,z in the object's coordinate system.
Any x, y, z.
Similarly, ScriptedRotation can return the components of any quaternion.
You can minimize the complexity of the algorithm to be used in the ScriptedOrbit or ScriptedRotation if you specify appropriate Orbit and Body ReferenceFrames for the object in its SSC file.
Unfortunately, ScriptedOrbit and ScriptedRotation aren't available in STC files yet. As a result, you're limited to defining movable objects within 1 LY of a Star or Barycenter, since Celestia only draws SSC objects when the viewpoint is within 1LY of the parent Star.

## Communicating with the User

You still need a way for the user to communicate with ScriptedOrbit to tell it to generate a new x,y,z.
The ScriptedOrbit and ScriptedRotation modules can't interact directly with the keyboard, mouse or joystick, or with a CELX script, but they can detect the name of the currently selected object by calling celestia:getselection
A solution is to define objects with unique names which can be selected by the user or by a script. One possibility is to define DSC OpenCluster objects for this.

## Temporal Anomalies

In the positioning algorithms you use, you should take into account that the user can set the current time to be an arbitrary value. "Should" is the operative word. It really is no big deal if your algorithms don't work correctly if time runs backward: just be sure to document that limitation.
# Be smart - learn mathematics!

You want to be successful in business, you want to be smart and you want to be successful in relationships? It's all simple - just do mathematics! It's just easy - believe me! And it costs nothing at all and is great fun. Ready to go?

## Basic logic

* Implications and equivalences
# Bead bracelets, necklaces, and more!

This book is for kids who will be working with adults to make bead bracelets, as well as parents to learn how to introduce their child to fun and easy crafts.
Do you want to make beautiful bead bracelets and necklaces? If you said yes, then this is for you!

## Table Of Contents

1. Introduction
2. Getting Started
2.5: Getting started with making bracelets
3. Best Practices (Ways to make your beading crafts look good!)
# Getting Started

Firstly, decide on what pattern you’re going to make. You can make any pattern, like a rainbow, or a two color pattern, or even use just one color in a whole project.
Then begin running each bead one by one into the string.
Be sure to measure someone’s wrist or your wrist by wrapping the string around it to get a good feeling of how your bracelet should fit, and be sure to leave a little extra that you can then tie around and cut later. (See the bottom on a tip on how to measure it yourself.)
Here’s a tip: If you are measuring by yourself, make a knot snugly around your wrist that you can easily unknot later.
Then, once you’re done making the rest, get someone to measure it and be sure it fits around your wrist. If you are measuring by yourself, see the tip above.
Once you’re done, and you are confident in your design, make a secure and tight knot around your wrist (you may need to a make extra knot below the first one you made) and cut off the extra string.
And you’re done! you’ve successfully made your first bracelet!
# Battery Power

Using Batteries is a how-to book about the selection, care and use of batteries.
This book will be built initially from transwikied wikipedia articles on the subject.
Topics:
* Types of Batteries
* Lithium Ion Batteries
* Lead Acid Batteries
* Alkaline Batteries
* Nickel-Cadmium Batteries
* Rechargeable Batteries
* Alternatives to Batteries
# Battery Power/Types of Batteries

There are various types of batteries. Some of them are :
# Battery Power/Alkaline Batteries

Alkaline batteries are a type of primary batteries. The alkaline battery gets its name because it has an alkaline electrolyte of potassium hydroxide, instead of the acidic ammonium chloride or zinc chloride electrolyte of the zinc-carbon batteries.

## History

The alkaline dry battery was invented by Lewis Urry in 1957.

## Advantages and Disadvantages
### Advantages

* Alkaline batteries have longer shelf life than other batteries of the chloride type electrolyte batteries.
* They have a much higher energy density compared with other batteries. This allows the battery to produce the same energy while lasting longer than other batteries.
* The rechargeable alkaline battery can be used hundreds of time if recharging is done after the battery has been used to only 25 percent of its capacity.
* Costs of an alkaline battery are much lower than the other more sophisticated ones containing nickel and cadmium.
* Alkaline batteries can be disposed off as normal waste and do not require any special disposal techniques.
* Alkaline batteries function well even at very low temperatures.
* Alkaline batteries can be stored at room temperature for two years and retain 90 percent of their original capacities.

### Disadvantages

* Alkaline batteries are bulkier than other lithium batteries which give much higher energy.
* Alkaline batteries have a high internal resistance. This reduces the output.
* A defective battery charger can cause the alkaline batteries to explode.
* Alkaline batteries kept in devices that are not used for a long time, can leak and thus completely ruin the device itself because of the corrosive nature of the leaked material.

## Safety concerns

* Potassium hydroxide is contained within the cells of alkaline batteries. The potassium hydroxide can leak out of the battery cell if they are damaged or mishandled, causing severe chemical burns if the substance comes into contact with your skin or eyes.
# Be smart - learn mathematics!/Implications and equivalences

Now I hope you aren't tong-tied after "implication"; what it is, is an "IF, THEN" relationship. A simple example:
This is already an implication. In this case, "it rains" implies "the sky it gray". Have you got that? Let's do another one:
Now you may think that's boring, but what we can do with it is to construct new knowledge - just out of the blue! This is what scientists do, and it is just exciting.
Note that in order to be able to write quicker, we write $\Rightarrow$ instead of "if" and "then":
   $\Rightarrow$
In the end, we will have to write a whole lot of stuff, so using the symbol $\Rightarrow$ is totally useful.

## Constructing new knowledge

Let's say we have two implications, say
   $\Rightarrow$
and
   $\Rightarrow$
Then we can deduce:
   $\Rightarrow$
Why? Because whenever it rains, the sky is gray, and therefore it is darker than usual.
It's true, isn't it?
# Best Practices

* It’s your creation, so make it look like however you like it.
* You’ll need to get help from an adult for things like cutting with scissors or using a sharp object.
* Don’t forget to clean up after yourself when you’re done.
* Make sure to take pride in your work, show it off to other people, or give it away.

# Help

if the bead seems to get stuck in the string, then the hole may not be made properly. use a sharp object bracket. (Be sure to get an adult to help you with this and for you to be careful) then poke the hole.
If the string doesn’t seem to go into the bead, then try nipping it off at the end.
Ask an adult if you need any further assistance.
Happy Beading!
# Chemical Sciences: A Manual for CSIR-UGC National Eligibility Test for Lectureship and JRF/Collisional excitation

Collisional excitation is a process in which the translational energy of a collision partner is converted into the internal energy of a reactant species.

## Astronomy

In astronomy, collisional excitation gives rise to spectral lines in the spectra of astronomical objects such as planetary nebulae and H II regions.
In these objects, most atoms are ionised by photons from hot stars embedded within the nebular gas, stripping away electrons. The emitted electrons, (called photoelectrons), may collide with atoms or ions within the gas, and excite them. When these excited atoms or ions revert to their ground state, they will emit a photon. The spectral lines formed by these photons are called collisionally excited lines (often abbreviated to CELs).
CELs are only seen in gases at very low densities (typically less than a few thousand particles per cm³). At higher densities, the reverse process of collisional de-excitation suppresses the lines. Even the hardest vacuum produced on earth is still too dense for CELs to be observed. For this reason, when CELs were first observed by William Huggins in the spectrum of the Cat's Eye Nebula, he did not know what they were, and attributed them to a hypothetical new element called Nebulium. However, the lines he observed were later found to be emitted by extremely rarefied oxygen.
CELs are very important in the study of gaseous nebulae, because they can be used to determine the density and temperature of the gas.

## Mass spectrometry

Collisional excitation in mass spectrometry is the process where an ion collides with an atom or molecule and leads to an increase in the internal energy of the ion. Molecular ions are accelerated to high kinetic energy and then collide with neutral gas molecules (e.g. helium, nitrogen or argon). In the collision some of the kinetic energy is converted into internal energy which results in fragmentation in a process known as collision-induced dissociation.

## References

* ↑ International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry. "collisional excitation". Compendium of Chemical Terminology Internet edition.
# Chemical Sciences: A Manual for CSIR-UGC National Eligibility Test for Lectureship and JRF/Common Reagents in Organic Synthesis

Reagents in Organic Synthesis: Use of the following reagents in organic synthesis and functional group transformations
* Complex Metal Hydrides
* Gilman’s Reagent
* Lithium Dimethylcuprate
* Lithium Disopropylamide (LDA)
* N,N'-Dicyclohexylcarbodimide (DCC)
* 1,3-Dithiane (Reactivity Umpolung),
* Trimethylsilyl Iodide
* Tri-N-Butyltin Hybride
* Woodward and Prevost Hydroxylation
* Osmium Tetroxide
* DDQ
* Selenium Dioxide
* Phase Transfer Catalysts
* Crown Ethers
* Merrifield Resin
* Peterson’s Synthesis
* Wilkinson's Catalyst
* Baker Yeast
# Chemical Sciences: A Manual for CSIR-UGC National Eligibility Test for Lectureship and JRF/Daly detector

A Daly detector is a gas phase ion detector that consists of a metal "doorknob", a scintillator (phosphor screen) and a photomultiplier. It was named after its inventor Norman Richard Daly. Daly detectors are typically used in mass spectrometers.

## How it works

Ions that hit the doorknob release secondary electrons. A high voltage (ca. -20,000 V) between the doorknob and the scintillator accelerates the electrons onto the phosphor screen where they are converted to photons. These photons are detected by the photomultiplier.
The advantage of the Daly detector is that the photomultiplier can be separated by a window, which lets the photons through from the high vacuum of the mass spectrometer, which an otherwise possible contamination prevented and which extends detector life span. The Daly detector also allows for a higher acceleration after the field free region of a time-of-flight mass spectrometer flight tube, which can improve the sensitivity for high mass ions.

## References

* ↑ N. R. Daly, Scintillation Type Mass Spectrometer ion Detector. Rev. Sci. Instr. 3, 31, 264-267 (1960).