OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Chemical Sciences: A Manual for CSIR-UGC National Eligibility Test for Lectureship and JRF/X-ray absorption spectroscopy

X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) is a widely-used technique for determining the local geometric and/or electronic structure of matter. The experiment is usually performed at synchrotron radiation sources, which provide intense and tunable X-ray beams. Samples can be in the gas-phase, solution, or condensed matter (i.e. solids).
XAS data are obtained by tuning the photon energy using a crystalline monochromator to a range where core electrons can be excited (0.1-100 keV photon energy). The "name" of the edge depends upon the core electron which is excited: the principal quantum numbers n=1, 2, and 3, correspond to the K-, L-, and M-edges, respectively. For instance, excitation of a 1s electron occurs at the K-edge, while excitation of a 2p electron occurs at an L-edge (Figure 1).
There are three main regions found on a spectra generated by XAS data (Figure 2). The dominant feature is called the "rising edge", and is sometimes referred to as XANES (X-ray Absorption Near-Edge Structure) or NEXAFS (Near-edge X-ray Absorption Fine Structure). The pre-edge region is at energies lower than the rising edge. The EXAFS (Extended X-ray Absorption Fine Structure) region is at energies above the rising edge, and corresponds to the scattering of the ejected photoelectron off neighboring atoms. The combination of XANES and EXAFS is referred to as XAFS.
Since XAS is a type of absorption spectroscopy, it follows the same quantum mechanical selection rules. The most intense features are due to electric-dipole allowed transitions (i.e. Δ l = ± 1) to unfilled orbitals. For example, the most intense features of a K-edge are due to 1s → np transitions, while the most intense features of the L$_3$-edge are due to 2p → nd transitions.
XAS methodology can be broadly divided into four experimental categories that can give complementary results to each other: Metal K-edge, metal L-edge, ligand K-edge, and EXAFS.

## Applications

XAS is an experimental technique used in different scientific fields including molecular and condensed matter physics, materials science and engineering, chemistry, earth science, and biology. In particular, its unique sensitivity to the local structure, as compared to x-ray diffraction, have been exploited for studying:
* Amorphous solids and liquid systems
* Solid solutions
* Doping and ion implantation materials for electronics
* Local distortions of crystal lattices
* Organometallic compounds
* Metalloproteins
* Metal clusters
* Catalysis
* Vibrational dynamics
* Ions in solutions
* Speciation of elements
* Liquid water and aqueous solutions

## History

An informative account about the history of XAS and EXAFS (originally called Kossel's structures) is given in the paper "A History of the X-ray Absorption Fine Structure} by R. Stumm von Bordwehr", Ann. Phys. Fr. vol. 14, 377-466 (1989) (author's name is C. Brouder).
# Chemical Sciences: A Manual for CSIR-UGC National Eligibility Test for Lectureship and JRF/X-ray filter

An X-ray filter is a device to block or filter out some or all wavelengths in the X-ray spectrum.
X-ray filters are used to block low-energy X-rays during medical x-ray imaging. Low energy X-rays are more likely to be absorbed by the patient's soft tissues. This causes non-stochastic radioactive effects, and does not contribute to image quality.
X-ray filters are used in X-ray crystallography, where crystalline lattice spacing can be determined using Bragg diffraction. The filters allow only a single X-ray wavelength to penetrate through to a target crystal, allowing the resulting scattering to determine the diffraction distance.

## Various elemental effects

Results using a molybdenum x-ray generator:
Zirconium - Absorbs bremsstrahlung and K-Beta.
Iron - Absorbs the entire spectra. Molybdenum - Absorbs bremsstrahlung - leaving K-Beta and K-Alpha.
Aluminium - 'Pinches' bremsstrahlung* and removes third generation peaks. Silver - Same as aluminium, but to greater extent.
Indium - Same as iron, but to lesser extent. Copper - Same as aluminium, leaving only first generation peaks.
* Bremsstrahlung pinching is due to the atomic mass. The denser the atom, the higher the X-Ray Absorption. Only the higher energy x-rays pass through the filter, appearing as if the bremsstrahlung continuum had been pinched.
* In this case, molybdenum (Mo) appears to leave K-Alpha and K-Beta alone while absorbing the bremsstrahlung. This is due to Mo absorbing all of the spectra's energy, but in doing so it produces the same characteristic peaks as generated by the target.
# Chemical Sciences: A Manual for CSIR-UGC National Eligibility Test for Lectureship and JRF/Vibrational transition

A vibrational transition is an abrupt change in vibrational energy in quantum physics. Like all other properties of a quantum particle, vibrational energy is quantized, meaning it can only equal certain discrete values, which correspond to different energy states. When a particle loses a unit of vibrational energy, known as a phonon, it is said to have transitioned to a lower vibrational energy state. Likewise, when a particle gains vibrational energy, a positive vibrational transition is said to have occurred.
Vibrational transitions are important in physics due to the unique spectral lines that result. Because there is a net gain or loss of energy during a transition, electromagnetic radiation of a particular frequency is sometimes absorbed or emitted. This forms spectral lines at that frequency which can be detected by way of a spectrometer, such as in FT-IR or Raman spectroscopy.
Vibrational transitions are strongly related to photon-phonon coupling, a phenomenon that allows some lasers to be tunable, like the Ti-sapphire laser.
# Chemical Sciences: A Manual for CSIR-UGC National Eligibility Test for Lectureship and JRF/Vibronic coupling

In theoretical chemistry, the vibronic coupling terms, (which are neglected within the Born–Oppenheimer approximation), are proportional to the interaction between electronic and nuclear motions of molecules. The term "vibronic" originates from the concatenation of the terms "vibrational" and "electronic". The word coupling denotes the idea that in a molecule, vibrational and electronic interactions are interrelated and influence each other.
Vibronic coupling is large in the case of two adiabatic potential energy surfaces coming close to each other (that is, when the energy gap between them is of the order of magnitude of one oscillation quantum). This usually happens in the neighbourhood of an avoided crossing of potential energy surfaces corresponding to distinct electronic states of the same spatial and spin symmetry. However, vibronic coupling also exists at real crossings. In this case the adiabatic or Born–Oppenheimer approximation fails and non-adiabatic terms (the so-called vibronic coupling terms) have to be taken into account. The vibronic coupling terms are usually difficult to evaluate. This is because they are proportional to the first and second derivatives of the electronic wave function with respect to the molecular coordinates. A simpler way to solve this problem is to switch from the adiabatic to the diabatic representation of the potential energy surfaces. The vibronic terms are responsible for example for surface hopping or the Berry phase. The Berry phase has been discovered by Longuet-Higgins in this context. The vibronic coupling becomes infinite in the neighbourhood of a conical intersection. This singularity in the potential energy landscape is the origin of the Berry phase.
Perhaps the earliest examples of the importance of vibronic coupling were found during the 1930s. In 1934 Renner wrote about the vibronic coupling in an electronically excited Π-state in CO$_2$. Calculations of the lower excited levels of benzene by Sklar in 1937 (with the valence bond method) and later in 1938 by Goeppert-Mayer and Sklar (with the molecular orbital method) demonstrated a correspondence between the theoretical predictions and experimental results of the benzene spectrum. The benzene spectrum was the first qualitative computation of the efficiencies of various vibrations at inducing intensity absorption.

## References

* ↑ Fischer, Gad. "Vibronic Coupling - The Interaction between the Electronic and Nuclear Motions", Academic Press, New York, 1984. ISBN 0-12-257240-8
# Cognitive Psychology and Cognitive Neuroscience/Copyright

Hello,
I got some questions concerning copyright issues. Basically, we are only allowed to use free content or free-alike content (e.g. copyright protected stuff but with a written permission). If you are in doubt, here is a list of save license models:
* GNU Free Documentation Licence (you must mention the creator)
* Creative Commons (you must mention the creator):
** Commercial Share-alike
** Commercial No Derivative Works
* Public domain
* Not copyright protected (e.g. textes older than 70 years)
If you search for special content, certain images or so, take a peek here:
* Creative Commons Suchmaschine
* WikiCommons
* w:Wikipedia
If you are in doubt, please mail User:Aschoeke or User:Iroewer.
    A few notes: The use of Creative Commons Commercial No Derivative (short cc-by-nd) Works is strongly discouraged at best. When you upload the image you will have a nice little combo-box to select from licences that are fine. Also see Wikibooks:Image use policy, if in doubt you can also ask questions there on the discussion-page (if Aschoeke and Iroewer are unavailable).
    All images on (wiki-)Commons can be used (no licence problems) (just use the [[image:]]-Tag, just the way you do it if images uploaded on wikibooks). The Categories Category:Neuroscience and Category:Psychology (and there subcategories) could be of particular interest to you.
    Also remember that this only applies to images. The texts must follow the GNU Free Documentation Licence (see: Wikibooks:Copyrights), which theoretically means it must be published under it or a compatible Licence (e. g. (BSD licenses or GFDL) and mentioning the original authors or Public domain, but not any of the Creative Commons), which most likely means you'll just have to write it yourself (if you don't get it from one of the wiki-projects). --Bluebirch 15:03, 13 May 2006 (UTC)
# Cognitive Psychology and Cognitive Neuroscience
## Contents

* Cognitive Psychology and the Brain
* Problem Solving from an Evolutionary Perspective
* Evolutionary Perspective on Social Cognitions
* Behavioural and Neuroscience Methods
* Motivation and Emotion
* Memory
* Memory and Language
* Imagery
* Comprehension
* Neuroscience of Text Comprehension
* Situation Models and Inferencing
* Knowledge Representation and Hemispheric Specialisation
* Reasoning and Decision Making
* Present and Future of Research
* Index

## Stuff for students

* Hints for good writing
* Some useful syntax
* Links for possible sources
* Copyright

## Organization

* Cross References
* OverallStructure
# Cognitive Psychology and Cognitive Neuroscience/Cross References

The group Cross References responsibility is to make sure, that the chapter are related to each other and that the mentioning of source is not redundant. It will also help to connect groups which have similar topics and may work together on certain issues.
The group works together with OverallStructure, to ensure that the book in its final state is consistent, but the CRG will concentrate more on sources and team work.
Our tools will be mostly non visible in the book, as our work will happen on discussion pages, email and other not wiki related methods of communication. However, we see our work as most important, as we have to ensure the scientific mentioning of the sources and have an overview over every page written in this project.
# Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/Blueprint Links List

| previous module: "Sources of free 3D models" | • Table of Contents • Glossary | next module: "Materials, Textures, Photos" |
This page contains links to 2D images and drawings that can be useful for constructing models.
* http://www.shipschematics.net - Starship Schematics Database
* http://www.suurland.com/blueprints_archive.php
* http://www.luft46.com/profiles/profiles.html - 3 views
* http://www.aviastar.org/index2.html - 3 views
* http://www.rcgroups.com/forums/showthread.php?t=557457 - 3 views on a lot lot lot of airplanes
* http://www.google.com/intl/en/sketchup/3dwh/pdfs/modeling_a_city.pdf - Google’s guide on how to model a city
* http://www.boatdesign.net/boat-plans-archive/index.htm boats
* http://www.mgussin.freeuk.com/00Plans.htm old cars
* http://www.airwar.ru/other/draw_1w.html War Planes
* http://web.archive.org/web/20081108194053/http://jpracing.racerplanet.com/ Cars, Trucks, Buses
* http://www.swaqvalley.com/blueprints.php?section=samples sports cars
* http://www.newhomesource.com — site run by builders, but low-res plans are viewable online
* http://drawingdatabase.com/ Vehicles: cars, military, aircraft

## Registration Required

* http://www.the-blueprints.com/ — requires registration for full-quality downloads
* http://smcars.net/

## Payment Required

* http://www.monsterhouseplans.com/ - source of over 23,000 floor plans
* http://www.eplans.com/ - floor plans, but if you navigate around a bit to find em.
* http://www.emporis.com/application/ - heights and details of buildings; photos available for purchase
* http://skyscraperpage.com/ - building heights, diagrams, but downloads and screenshots are prohibited
* https://3dmodels.org/blueprints/ - cars, trucks, motorcycles, buses

## Shouldn’t Really Be Here?

* http://www.archiplanet.org/wiki/Main_Page - building encyclopedia, can’t find any actual plans
| previous module: "Sources of free 3D models" | • Table of Contents • Glossary | next module: "Materials, Textures, Photos" |
# Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/Cheat the 3D

| previous module: "Modeling tips" | • Table of Contents • Glossary | next module: "Performance vs. Quality" |

## Ways to Improve Performance

In 3D Graphic Design, there are many issues to consider. First, consider how the project moves, how the project performs. Next, consider how you create objects in your project, especially when working with meshes and lighting.

### Mesh

Modifying an object's properties
When you add a modifying property to an object, the computer has to calculate that property every time it moves in the animation. These modifying properties include soft bodies, particles, or mirror textures. They can significantly slow down the computer.
To make things move faster, pre-calculate and "bake" the modifier into the object. To bake a modifier, such as a soft body movement, save the modifier as a permanent animation. That way no matter how the object changes, it moves the same way. As a result, your computer does not calculate how the object moves. The move is already set.
There is a drawback. If the object moves and hits another section with different slopes, it will continue to move as if it was in the original baking site. You will have to calculate and bake the section again to get new results.
Making 2D backgrounds
Scenes will have a foreground, background, sky, and more.
Your computer will take more time to render a scene that is big, open, and filled with modeled objects. This wastes time and memory, especially when modeling an object far in the distance. I'm guessing however, you do not want to make a quick, plain model. So what do you do?
That is easy. You make a 2D background.
* Put the distant image or background on a plane.
* Verify that everything on the plane around the image is black.
If it is not black, set the Alpha to 0 if the image was saved in a format that supports Alpha. This will retain the detail but reduce the number of faces the computer must count in the scene.
* Set the image to Billboard to prevent the image from skewing by perspective.

### Materials

Using UV maps
For those who do not know the term, a UV map is an image applied to a 2D plane. The 2D plane is then applied to the mesh.
Here is how to create a UV map:
* Spread out the image onto a 2D plane.
* Apply the 2D plane over the face of the mesh using the 3D view.
| previous module: "Modeling tips" | • Table of Contents • Glossary | next module: "Performance vs. Quality" |
# Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/Box Modeling

Easy to undertake and flexible, box modeling is a favorite of beginners and veterans alike. It is fun to work with and general results are visible in a short time. It is a powerful work flow that any modelers should know.

## Before We Start

Before doing any modeling, it is vital to plan first. Gather references and make a general plan on how to tackle the modeling phase. Being ready will save you a lot of complications later.

## The Work Flow

With box modeling, start with a primitive that is appropriate for your subject. Most start with a box and generally a good primitive to start. Then, from the primitive, using a variety of tools, mold the essential form of your model. Also called the roughing phase. Don't delve on details here, those are to be tackled later. Finally, on this form, we go to the nearly recursive process of adding details. Layer by layer, details are added until the required amount of detail is achieved.

#### Start with a Primitive

* The Primitive
Select the proper primitive for your work. Most modelers start with a cube. The cube is the most flexible primitive available and is suitable to almost all form of subjects. But, in many cases, selecting other form of primitives would cut out most of the modeling required. A gun is a cinch to model using a cylinder. With a little adjustment, a torus forms a good doughnut. In an instant a ball can be made out of a sphere. So produce your primitive to work with.

#### Rough It Out

* The Form
Take the primitive and start modifying it to capture the essential form of your subject. Tools like extrude, loop cut, scale and grab are very handy for this. Avoid worrying about details at this stage. Those are to be done later.

#### Adding Details, Details and more Details

* Details, details and more details
Now, we approach the most difficult and unquestionably the most fun part. Using a variety of modeling tools, modify the form again to incorporate details. Add details layer by layer, from general to specific. Planning, studying and experience would help you go through. Continue until you achieve the desired level of detail.
Adding details requires subdivision or addition of polygons. The knife and the loop cut tool is handy for subdividing meshes. Extrusion is great for adding details like horns and fingers. Face and edge loop must be herded to other directions at times and warrants a study by itself. Blender provides you with required tools to achieve all of this.
At this stage, beginners and experienced modelers alike will find their meshes getting more and more difficult to work with as the mesh gets a more and more dense at each level of details added. Planning, an eye to the edge flows and experience alleviate this. So plan and keep practicing.
# Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/Building a House/Advanced Building of the House

This tutorial has the same steps as the previous method for building a house, with a few exceptions. The main difference is that it is carried out almost completely in edit mode, and produces a house that is a single object, making it easier to manipulate. It will use the following methods:
•Adding meshes in edit mode •Extrusion •Axis-Constrained Scaling •Adding a light source •Vertex merging •Assigning a material to a specific part of an object •Raytracing Transparency •Rendering an object that doesn't block light •Raytracing Reflection
# Canadian Refugee Procedure/163 - Composition of Panels
## IRPA Section 163

The relevant provision of the Immigration and Refugee Protection Act reads:

## Commentary
### The RPD only uses three-member panels for training purposes

The IRB publishes a policy instrument on their website entitled Designation of three-member panels - Refugee Protection Division. It notes that the Chairperson's authority to designate three-member panels for matters before the RPD has been delegated to the Deputy Chairperson (DC) and to the Assistant Deputy Chairpersons (ADCs) of the RPD and so the Chairperson need not form the above-noted opinion personally. However, under this delegation cases may only be designated to be heard by three-member panels for training purposes. That policy states that "assignment of three-member panels will be solely for training purposes" which appears to indicate that three-member panels will not be used in other circumstances, such as where a case is seen to be complex. For more details, see the commentary to RPD Rule 68(2): Canadian Refugee Procedure/RPD Rules 67-68 - Decisions#RPD Rule 68(2) - When a decision of a three member panel takes effect.

### The RAD has issued a policy with respect to three-member panels

The IRB has issued a policy with respect to RAD three-member panels, which discusses criteria for designation, requests for a three-member panel, and notice of a three-member panel. This provision has been used in the past; on May 17, 2017, the RAD issued a decision by a three-member panel, which provided guidance to RAD members as to when the RPD is in a better position to make findings with respect to the credibility of oral testimony (subsequently overturned on judicial review). See also the following provision of the IRPA with respect to the precedential value of such three-member RAD panels: Canadian Refugee Procedure/IRPA Section 171 - Proceedings#IRPA Section 171(c).

## References

* ↑ Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, Designation of three-member panels - Refugee Protection Division, <https://irb-cisr.gc.ca/en/legal-policy/policies/Pages/PolRpdSpr3MemCom.aspx> (Accessed April 13, 2020).
* ↑ IRB Policy and Procedures Directorate. Designation of Three-Member Panels. April 12, 2013. <https://irb-cisr.gc.ca/en/legal-policy/policies/Pages/PolRpdSpr3MemCom.aspx>.
* ↑ X (Re), 2017 CanLII 33034 (CA IRB), <http://canlii.ca/t/h41zf>.
* ↑ Rozas Del Solar v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration), 2018 FC 1145.
# Canadian Refugee Procedure/169.1 - Composition
## IRPA Section 169.1

The relevant provision of the Immigration and Refugee Protection Act reads:
# Canadian Refugee Procedure/167 - Right to counsel and representation by a designated representative.
## IRPA Section 167

The legislative provision reads:

## Commentary

While subsection 167(1) of the IRPA sets out the right to be represented by counsel, the right to counsel is constrained by section 91 of the IRPA which provides, in effect, that only those lawyers, notaries, or immigration consultants who are “in good standing” with their regulatory body may represent or advise a person for consideration in connection with an application or proceeding under the IRPA: Canadian Refugee Procedure/91-91.1 - Representation or Advice.
For a discussion of the right to counsel and issues that arise related thereto, see the commentary under the RPD Rule on Counsel of Record: Canadian Refugee Procedure/RPD Rules 14-16 - Counsel of Record. For a discussion of issues related to designated representatives, see the commentary under the relevant rule: Canadian Refugee Procedure/RPD Rule 20 - Designated Representatives.
# Canadian Refugee Procedure/169 - Decisions and Reasons
## IRPA Section 169

The legislative provision reads:

### For commentary, see RPD Rule 67 and RAD Rule 50

See: Canadian Refugee Procedure/RPD Rules 67-68 - Decisions and Canadian Refugee Procedure/RAD Rules Part 3 - Rules Applicable to All Appeals#RAD Rules 50-51: Decisions.
# Canadian Refugee Procedure/170.2 - No reopening of claim or application
## IRPA Section 170.2

The legislative provision reads:

## Commentary

For a discussion of this legislative provision, see the commentary to RPD Rules 62 and 63: Canadian Refugee Procedure/RPD Rules 62-63 - Reopening a Claim or Application.