OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Structural Biochemistry/Nucleic Acid/Structure

Nucleic Acids are long linear polymers that are called DNA, RNA. these polymers carry genetic information that passed from generations after generations. They are composed of three main parts: a pentose sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. Sugars and Phosphates groups play as structure of the backbone, while bases carries genetic components, which characterized the differences of nucleic acids. There are 2 types of bases: purines and pyrimidines, and these bases determine whether the nucleic acid is DNA or RNA.
Nucleic acids are composed of smaller subunits called nucleotides. A nucleotide is a nucleoside with one or more phosphoryl group by esterlinkage. When it is in the form of RNA the bases are called adenylate, guanylate, cytidylate, and uridylate. In the form of DNA the bases are called deoxyadenylate, deoxyguanylate, deoxycytidylate, and thymidylate. A nucleoside is a monomer, just the bases attached to a sugar without the phosphate groups. In this state the bases in RNA are called adenosine, guanosine, cytidine and uridine. In this state in DNA the bases are called deoxyadenosine, deoxyguanosine, deoxycytidine and thymidine.
# SAT Study Guide/Part 4 - The Writing Section/Improving Sentences

Just like Identifying Sentence Errors questions, the large majority of Improving Sentences questions related to a surprisingly limited number or grammatical issues. The main difference between the two question types is that while the errors in Identifying Sentence Errors questions consist of single words or short phrases, the errors in Improving Sentences questions generally involve the structure of the whole sentence. So improving Sentences questions can be little trickier and more involved.
WHAT ARE IMPROVING SENTENCES QUESTIONS? Remember our "spot-the-mistake" strategy? We've got a similar strategy for Improving Sentences. In addition to finding the mistake in each sentence, you have to pick the answer choice that best corrects it. Like we said, a little harder.
Here is an example:        The Emancipation Edict freed the Russian serfs in 1861; that being four years before the Thirteenth Amendment abolished slavery in the United States.
(A) in 1861; that being four years (B) in 1861 and is four years (C) in 1861 and this amounts to four years (D) in 1861, being four years (E) in 1861, four years
# The Computer Revolution/Hardware/Refresh Rate vs. Sampling Rate
## Refresh Rate

The refresh rate refers to monitors, televisions and other visual display devices. It is also known as: "vertical refresh rate", or "vertical scan rate for CRTs. It refers to the number of times in a second that a display is fully lit up. For a CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) this is the number of times the ray draws from the top corner of the screen to the opposite bottom corner, in one second. It is measured in hertz. It is this phenomenon that causes the bar on a screen that is seen on a television show as the refresh rate is not enough to compensate for the intermediate frames taken by the camera.
This is in contrast to a frame rate, which is the number of frames shown per second. Whereas if a monitor has a 48Hz refresh rate and the show is at a 24 frame rate, then the screen will be lit up twice for each frame that appears on the screen.

## Sampling Rate

The sampling rate for audio is the equivalent to the refresh rate for video. There are instances that the refresh rate is called the sampling rate interchangeably. In audio, this is the number of times a second that the sound input is recorded and saved. The sample rate of an audio recording is a good indicator of the overall sound quality. With the same measurement unit as the refresh rate, it is a noticeably higher number for a sampling rate for audio. Here are some rates and what they are commonly used for:
* 8,000 Hz - telephone, adequate for human speech
* 11,025 HzC
* 22,050 Hz - radio
* 32,000 Hz - miniDV digital video camcorder, Digital Audio Tape (LP mode)
* 44,100 Hz - audio CD, also most commonly used with MPEG-1 audio (VCD, SVCD, MP3)
* 47,250 Hz - world's first commercial PCM sound recorder by Nippon Columbia (Denon)
* 48,000 Hz - digital sound used for miniDV, digital TV, DVD, Digital Audio Tape, films and professional audio
* 50,000 Hz - first commercial digital audio recorders from the late '70s from 3M and Soundstream
* 50,400 Hz - sampling rate used by the Mitsubishi X-80 digital audio recorder
* 96,000 or 192,000 Hz - DVD-Audio, some LPCM DVD tracks, BD-ROM (Blu-ray Disc) audio tracks, and HD DVD (High-Definition DVD) audio tracks
* 2.8224 MHz - Super Audio CD, 1-bit sigma-delta modulation process known as Direct Stream Digital, co-developed by Sony and Philips
# The Computer Revolution/Hardware/Microprocessor
## What is a Microprocessor?

A microprocessor (microscopic processor or processor on a chip) is the miniaturized circuitry of a computer processor -- the CPU, the part that processes, or manipulates, data into information. It is the most important part of personal computers and workstations. It controls logic of almost all digital devices, for example: mobile devices, clocks and computers. Microprocessors are different on the basis of instructions set, bandwidth and clock speed. It is very tiny in size but it can perform various operations within a matter of few seconds. It is like a engine that goes on when the computer starts. Computers cannot perform any operations without a microprocessor. Microprocessors take the data as an input, translate it into a machine language and display the result as an output. We use so many things in our daily life which work with embedded systems and microprocessors are a part of it. Microprocessors technology has taken a once bulky series of switches and miniaturized powerful electronic circuitry to be able to fit in personal computers, cell phones, pda's, and other popular devices. When referring to microprocessors, people are usually talking about the CPU, which is made up of at least one microprocessor that handles the chief "brain" functions.
According to scientific law, the speed of microprocessors will increase rapidly from year to year, and you can see evidence of this as current technology becomes outdated very quickly. Microprocessors are necessary in almost any engineering project. Circuit board design may depend on a specific microprocessor construction that can be supplied through contract manufacturing, and outsourced services.
Some examples of Microprocessor brands are:
* Intel Core series processors.
* AMD Ryzen series processors.
* Qualcomm Snapdragon series embedded microprocessors.
* Apple M series embedded microprocessors.

## Workstation

The Work Station Computer is an expensive, powerful personal computer, usually used for the complex scientific mathematical and engineering calculations and for computer aided design and manufacturing. These computers are commonly used by engineers and other scientific people who would need the extra power in a computer, and just as importantly, the reliability and additional floating point accuracy often offered by workstation components. Workstations typically have incredible graphic capabilities, though these tend to be focused to rendering accurate drawings then for say, real time gaming. The capabilities of a low end workstation overlap those of a high end desktop microcomputer.

## Further Reading

* Microprocessor Design
# The Computer Revolution/Hardware/Price
## Price

The price of computers is a very interesting subject, its just like any technology the newest model out is always the most expensive and once you have purchased this model the next model has already come out with newer and better technology. A model that you could have bought in 2000 for $5000 (laptop) could now easily be worth as little as a couple hundred dollars! This goes for the same thing with desk tops and other computer types. It seems as soon as you have bought your computer and unpacked it another one is on the market "bigger and Better", there is no way to beat the computer market for prices. If you were to buy a brand new computer today for $3500 which is a decent price, then by next week the price would have dropped and a newer and better model is out. The best bet to do when purchasing a computer would be to go to a "Computer Depot" where prices are substantially lower and although your computer might not be the newest out there you won't be paying the newest price.

## Modularity and upgrades

A computer offers a wide variety of areas that are upgradeable, for an individual’s interests. A computer can be upgraded to add an additional monitor. The essentials of a computer such as the storage drive and processors can often be changed out and upgraded to better performing models. Computer upgrades have developed since the 1970's and 1980's and have generated multi billion dollar industries. The age range of computer enthusiasts may be from ten to anywhere in a persons late forties and fifties. Factors which influence the desire for certain grades relates to what area a person desires to centralize their computer around. As an example: a person who desires better graphics and superior visual and audio quality will most likely look into purchasing a DAC and video card, For other individuals seeking a computer capable of holding more information and processing power, The likely choice for an upgrade would be a faster storage drive and new processor. Some corporations which have benefited off of this trend are companies such as Intel, AMD, NVIDIA, Samsung, Western Digital, and other manufacturers.
# The Computer Revolution/Hardware/Ram Chips

There are two types of storage, primary and secondary storage. Primary storage deals with temporary storage and is usually called "memory" or "main memory". Secondary storage deals with permanent storage and is usually called "storage". Most memory is referred to storing media, documents...etc on chips, whereas storage stores it on disks or tapes. Memory (primary storage) is stored on RAM chips or Random Access Memory chips. Whenever you open a file from the secondary storage it is opened on the RAM and allows you to make amendments to it. When you save the file it is then moved back to the secondary storage and saved on the hard drive. Basically you can think of the secondary storage as the refrigerator and the primary storage or RAM as the counter or stove in which you cook. There are different types of RAM some which include DRAM, SDRAM, SRAM and DDR - SDRAM. DRAM is abbreviated for "dynamic ram" and is constantly refreshed by the PC to keep its contents. SDRAM is abbreviated for "synchronous dynamic ram" and is synchronized by the system clock. This allows it to be faster than DRAM and the speed is measured in megahertz. SRAM is abbreviated for "static ram" is faster than DRAM and keeps its contents without having to be refreshed by the PC. DDR - SDRAM is abbreviated for "double-data rate synchronous dynamic ram". It is the most current RAM, it is used commonly in PC and Apple's and is also measured in megahertz.
# The Computer Revolution/Hardware/OCR

OCR (Optical character recognition): refers to the ability of a computer to recognize text characters. The characters are read by a compatible scanning device, such as a flatbed scanner, barcode reader, or dedicated OCR readers, and then OCR software is used to identify each character and convert it to machine readable and editable text.

## Gallery

* The Mark 1 Perceptron
* Matching shapes to the letter "A"
* OCR Software
# The Computer Revolution/Hardware/RamChips

There are two types of storage, primary and secondary storage. Primary storage deals with temporary storage and is usually called "memory" or "main memory". Secondary storage deals with permanent storage and is usually called "storage". Most memory is referred to storing media, documents...etc on chips, whereas storage stores it on disks or tapes. Memory (primary storage) is stored on RAM chips or Random Access Memory chips. Whenever you open a file from the secondary storage it is opened on the RAM and allows you to make amendments to it. When you save the file it is then moved back to the secondary storage and saved on the hard drive. Basically you can think of the secondary storage as the refrigerator and the primary storage or RAM as the counter or stove in which you cook. There are different types of RAM some which include DRAM, SDRAM, SRAM and DDR - SDRAM. DRAM is abbreviated for "dynamic ram" and is constantly refreshed by the PC to keep its contents. SDRAM is abbreviated for "synchronous dynamic ram" and is synchronized by the system clock. This allows it to be faster than DRAM and the speed is measured in megahertz. SRAM is abbreviated for "static ram" is faster than DRAM and keeps its contents without having to be refreshed by the PC. DDR - SDRAM is abbreviated for "double-data rate synchronous dynamic ram". It is the most current RAM, it is used commonly in PC and Apple's and is also measured in megahertz.
# Teaching Elementary School Health Education/Alcohol, Tobacco, and Other Drugs/Drug Misuse/Stimulants

Stimulants are drugs that effect the central nervous system. They speed up the activities that occur. They are sometimes called "uppers". Stimulants cause blood pressure, heart rate, and breathing rate to increase. The "up" feeling is usually followed by a "down" feeling (fatigue, weak, depressed).
Some types of stimulants are cocaine, crack, amphetamines, methamphetamines, methcathinone, ephedrine, MDMA, Methylphenidate, and caffeine.
# Teaching Elementary School Health Education/Alcohol, Tobacco, and Other Drugs/Drug Misuse

There are a few things that students need to know when it comes to drugs, the use, misuse, and abuse of them. The first thing they should understand is what a drug is. A drug is a substance that changes the way the body and the mind function. Students should also know the difference between illegal, prescription, and over the counter(OTC) drugs. The responsible way to use drugs is using legal drugs correctly or as they were meant to be used. Drug misuse is the wrong way to use prescription or OTC drugs. Drug abuse is when someone intentionally uses a drug without a medical reason, using illegal drugs, or using it for a reason other than what it is meant for.
The next thing a teacher can educate students about is how drugs can enter the body. These include by mouth, by injection, by inhalation, by absorption, and by implantation. While discussing the ways drugs enter the body, you can also discuss types of drugs that fit into these categories and how the affect the body and the brain. Here are a list of the different types of drugs that we can educate our students about:
# Teaching Elementary School Health Education

This book is the collaborative effort of students enrolled in a Health Methods course for elementary education pre-service teachers. The project is intended to help the pre-service teachers construct deep knowledge in health content areas along with the understanding of how to select and apply teaching strategies appropriately. It is our goal to create a book that offers content knowledge, instructional strategies and lesson ideas for teaching health in the elementary school.
| Content Areas Mental and Emotional Health Family and Social Health Growth and Development Nutrition and Diet Personal Health and Physical Activity Alcohol, Tobacco, and Other Drugs Communicable and Chronic Diseases Consumer and Community Health Environmental Health Injury Prevention and Safety | Instructional Strategies Lecture and Discussion Role Playing Learning Centers |
# Saylor.org's Ancient Civilizations of the World/The Rise of Islam

From its point of origin in Arabia, Islam developed into a global civilization that eventually encompassed large portions of the Middle East, Asia, Africa, and Europe. Based upon the teachings of the prophet Mohammad, the Islamic religion was based upon several universal principles—a feature that attracted diverse ethnic groups to the faith. Although initially shunned by the nomadic Berber tribes in Arabia, Islam was eventually accepted in the Middle East; it served as the core of several Islamic empires, including the powerful Umayyads and Abbasids. However, despite the purported religious homogeneity of Islam, the Umayyad and Abbasid dynasties were punctuated by religious discord and political conflicts.
In this unit, we will examine the main tenets of Islam and consider why so many diverse people adopted the faith. We will also study the rise and fall of the Umayyad and Abbasid empires and examine the reasons behind the only major schism in Islam—the Sunni-Shi’a split.
# Saylor.org's Ancient Civilizations of the World/The Rise of Western Europe and the Spread of Civilization

Before the medieval period, western Europe was one of the least sophisticated civilizations in the world. In fact, it was only by inserting itself into foreign trade networks that western Europe developed ties with the wider world. In turn, these ties served as the basis for the emergence of new ideas and technologies during the Middle Ages. Other than the development of new commercial connections, there were two other major characteristics that defined the medieval period in western Europe. The first was Christianity and the Catholic Church (as well as the official language of the Church, Latin). The second was feudalism. The expansion of Catholic Christianity and the feudal system had a profound impact on western Europe in the medieval era.
In this unit, we will study the Middle Ages as a period of widespread political, social, and religious upheaval. We will examine how western Europe began to evolve from a region of disparate and migratory ethnic groups to a more cohesive and sedentary people who shared the same religion and language.
# Saylor.org's Ancient Civilizations of the World/The Roman Empire

Rome did not become an empire that controlled the entire peripheral lands of the Mediterranean Sea over night. Indeed, much of Rome's imperial expansion occurred before the official creation of the Empire. Historical debate continues over whether the Roman Republic had actively sought an empire through conquest or if numerous acts of defense from outside aggression and victory over aggressors inevitably pulled Rome into acquiring more land.
Less debatable are the events that lead to civil war which precipitated victory for Octavian who would become Augustus Caesar, the first Roman Emperor.
# SPARQL/Wikimedia Commons Query Service

Wikimedia Commons images use structured data too, see Structured Data on Commons (SDoC) . With Wikimedia Commons Query Service (WCQS) the data can be queried. This is available per 1/2/2022 at https://commons-query.wikimedia.org/ It was previously available in beta phase at https://wcqs-beta.wmflabs.org/.
Find below an example of Depictions of Douglas Adams shown as image grid.
Try it!
Mind: use |project=sdc where sdc =Structured Data on Commons, the default is |project=wd for Wikidata.
See more examples on WCQS itself.
The query below shows all properties of an image:
Try it!
This reveals some hidden statements like: date Modified / width / height / contentSize (bytes). The query below gives an example how to use it.
Try it!
This example with combination of SERVICE - mwapi shows Depicts statements with Dutch labels, of files in one Commons category
Try it!

## References

* WCQSbeta2-release-notes on 1/2/2022
* Commons-l announcement of WCQS on 22/7/2020
# SPM

SPM (Statistical Parametric Mapping) refers to the construction and assessment of spatially extended statistical processes used to test hypotheses about functional imaging data. These ideas have been instantiated in software that is called SPM.
The SPM software package has been designed for the analysis of brain imaging data sequences. The sequences can be a series of images from different cohorts, or time-series from the same subject. The current release is designed for the analysis of fMRI, PET, SPECT, EEG and MEG.
SPM is made freely available to the [neuro]imaging community, to promote collaboration and a common analysis scheme across laboratories. The software represents the implementation of the theoretical concepts of Statistical Parametric Mapping in a complete analysis package, as a suite of MATLAB functions and subroutines with some externally compiled C routines.

## Overview

* SPM website
* Overview of SPM from Wikipedia
* Overview of SPM from Scholarpedia
* Introduction to Statistical Parametric Mapping
* History of Statistical Parametric Mapping in functional neuroimaging

## Installation

Overview of SPM installation:
* Download
System Requirements (hardware and software):
* MATLAB version
* Advice on hardware selection
Detailed installation and compilation on:
* Windows 64bit
* Linux 64bit
* macOS 64bit
Instructions for older platforms: Windows 32bit, Linux 32bit, MacOS (Intel), MacOS (PowerPc), SunOS / Solaris.
Standalone version using the MATLAB Compiler:
* Standalone SPM
Optimising your installation:
* Optimising MATLAB/SPM
Containerisation:
* Docker and Singularity
Miscellaneous:
* GNU Octave
* Julia
* Python
* Continuous Integration

## Experimental Design for fMRI

* Design efficiency
* Block design
* Event related design

## Data Formats

* Importing data from the scanner
* DICOM Import

## Preprocessing

* Slice Timing
* Normalisation

## Modelling

* Haemodynamic Response Function
* Basis functions
* General Linear Model
* Correlation and Regression
* Covariance
* Autocorrelation
* Non-sphericity
* Session concatenation
* Group analysis

## Statistical Inference

* F and T tests
* Contrasts
* Inference
* Power Analysis
* Correlation
* Information to include in papers
* Calculating Percentage signal change
* Comparing a single patient versus a group of controls
* Timeseries extraction

## Voxel Based Morphometry

* VBM (Voxel Based Morphometry)

## Connectivity Analysis

* Structural Equation Modelling
* Psychophysiological Interactions (PPI)
* Dynamic Causal Modelling (DCM)
** The DCM Equation. 1. Motivation
** The DCM Equation. 2. Dynamical Systems
** The DCM Equation. 3. Networks and Matrices
** The DCM Equation. 4. The State Equation
** Two-State DCM for fMRI
** Bayesian Parameter Averaging (BPA)
** Parametric Empirical Bayes (PEB)

## Misc

* How-tos
* Atlases
* Datasets
* BIDS
* Working with 4D data
* Programming intro
* Writing batch scripts
* No Display Mode
* Learning SPM: Courses, books and websites

## Other tools

* SPM Toolboxes and Extensions