OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Practical Electronics/Logic/Cascading

If a logic gate with a different number of inputs to the one available is required, one can be built up from the gates that are available. This is done by cascading the gates. Gates which are the "basic" gates (i.e. AND, OR, XOR) can be directly cascaded. The "negated gates" (NAND, NOR, XNOR) can't, and these are made up of the counterpart basic gate with an inverted output.

## AND Gates and General Notes

An AND gate will only give a high output if ALL inputs are also high. In the diagram depicting a three-input gate below, if either or both of inputs 1 or 2 goes low, the first AND gate will give a low, disabling the second AND gate. If input 3 goes low, the second gate is disable, regardless of the state of inputs 1 and 2.
To make gates with higher numbers of inputs, just add gates on to the "end" of the cascade, as shown for a 5-input example below.
If the circuit is going to be used at high frequencies, the fact that if input 1 changes the propagation time will be five times that of one gate, it might be better to use the following layout, where the propagation time will be only 3 times that of one gate. For normal applications this should not be a problem, as the propagation times for a CMOS gate at 5V is typically about 50 nanoseconds (one twentieth of a millionth of a second).
Both this layout and the standard cascade use exactly the same number of gates: for an n-input gate, n-1 2-input gates are needed. This is also true for OR and XOR gates, which also can be laid out as above for shorter propagation times. For the next sections the slightly simpler basic cascade will be used for clarity.
If a lot of inputs are going to be needed, consider using a 3-, 4- or 8-input AND gate to start with, as the laout of the circuit will be much easier, and less ICs will be needed (one 4081 Quad 2-Input AND Gate IC can make a 5-input AND gate, whereas one 4068 8-Input AND Gate IC provides three more inputs in the same size IC package, with less wiring to be done). The same goes for other gates.

## NAND

NAND gates cannot be successfully cascaded to make a larger NAND gate, as having one of inputs 1 or 2 and input 3 high will give a low (two high inputs at the second gate), when really it should be a high.
It is possible to make an n-input NAND gate from 2-Input gates, but an extra inverter (or NAND gate with joined inputs as below - this means only NAND gates are required) is required after every NAND gate that "coallates" two inputs or signals, but not after the final gate:
NAND gates can also be made by using cascaded AND gates with an inverter at the end:
The disadvantage of this is that it requires two different type of gate (AND and NOT, which require two different ICs), but has the distinct advantage that significantly fewer gates are needed (in the inverted version n-2 inverters are required). This becomes a factor in larger cascades.
# Practical Electronics/Logic/Transmission Gates

Transmission gates represent a very useful application of logic gates. A transmission gate allows a signal to pass only when a certain condition is met, and the same gate can also invert the signal if necessary.

## AND Transmission Gate

This is the basic transmission gate. The "condition signal" is one input, and the "signal input" is the other. When the condition input is high, any high at the signal input will result in a high at the output, and a low at the signal input will result in a low. Therefore, the signal at the signal input is "transmitted" through the gate when the condition signal goes high.

## Summary

The table below summarises the type of transmission gates you need to use to produce the right behaviour:
| | Non-Inverting | Inverting |
| Normally High | OR | NAND |
| Normally Low | AND | NOR |
# Practical Electronics/Low Pass Filter
## Low Pass Filter
### LR Network

    ${\frac {V_{o}}{V_{i}}}={\frac {Z_{R}}{Z_{R}+Z_{L}}}={\frac {R}{R+j\omega L}}={\frac {1}{1+j\omega T}}$
    $T={\frac {L}{R}}$
    $\omega _{o}={\frac {1}{T}}={\frac {R}{L}}$
    $\omega =0V_{o}=V_{i}$
    $\omega _{o}={\sqrt {\frac {1}{LC}}}V_{o}={\frac {V_{i}}{2}}$
    $\omega =00V_{o}=0$
    Plot three points above we have a graph $Vo-\omega$ . From graph, we see voltage does not change with frequency on Low Frequency therefore LR network can be used as Low Pass Filter

### RC Network

    ${\frac {V_{o}}{V_{i}}}={\frac {Z_{C}}{Z_{R}+Z_{C}}}={\frac {\frac {1}{j\omega C}}{R+{\frac {1}{j\omega C}}}}={\frac {1}{1+j\omega T}}$
    $T=RC$
    $\omega _{o}={\frac {1}{T}}={\frac {1}{RC}}$
    $\omega =0V_{o}=V_{i}$
    $\omega _{o}={\sqrt {\frac {1}{LC}}}V_{o}={\frac {V_{i}}{2}}$
    $\omega =00V_{o}=0$
    Plot three points above we have a graph $Vo-\omega$ . From graph, we see voltage does not change with frequency on Low Frequency therefore LR network can be used as Low Pass Filter

## Summary

In general
* Low Pass Filter can be constructed from the two networks LR or RC .
* Low Pass Filter has stable voltage does not change with frequency on Low Frequency
* Low pass filter can be expressed in a mathematical form of
       ${\frac {V_{o}}{V_{i}}}={\frac {1}{1+j\omega T}}$
       T = RC for RC network
       $T={\frac {L}{R}}$ for RL network
# Practical Electronics/Manual of Style

The aim of this section is to lay down basic rules for the systematic and organised construction of this book.

## Diagrams
### Image Formats

All diagrams in this Wikibook should be in SVG format. PNGs are acceptable only if it is not practical to make an SVG image. If you do not have the software to make SVG diagrams, then get it. Inkscape is a small, effective program for making SVG diagrams and is easy to install and use. Not having the software is not an excuse to submit diagrams in inappropriate image formats.
Please see the page on SVG Conventions for information about how to make SVG render correctly on Wikibook servers. See the page on pinouts for information on creating pinout diagrams.
JPG images are almost never acceptable for diagrams, as they tend to make thin lines look untidy, and cannot be easily changed.

### Colours

Image backgrounds should be white or preferably transparent (for PNG and SVG formats).
Most detail in diagrams should be black (such as lines and component outlines). Many images in this book use the "Tango" colour scheme, which is included with Inkscape. If you use this scheme, your images will match the other images on this book much better.

### Image Sizes and Scaling

Images should be made in "px" as this is the standard used to set the sizes on Wikibooks. Always use a round number for the width, and aim for a multiple of 50 is possible. This makes it easier to specify the sizes of the picture.
For example, an image that is 143x212 px is not good, whereas an image that is 150x200 is good.
When drawing a diagram, draw it at the size you will put it at on the page. So, for a circuit diagram that you will make 500px wide, make the original file 500px wide. If an image is going to be used as a thumbnail, aim for a size of 200-300 px, as this is the normal size of a thumbnail.
Normally images are sized by width - you specify the width, and the image height is automatically calculated. Therefore, it is not so important that images are at round height, as this will not usually be specified by people using the image.

## Photographs

Photographs should be in JPG format, with the quality set as high as is practical. Please do not submit low-res images or image that are blurred, suffering from compression artifacts, etc.
If you only have a blurred image of a common component or item, leave a message on the Commons graphic lab. If you really want, upload your blurred image and ask someone to try to take a similar picture.

## Uploading

Photographs and diagrams should be uploaded to Commons, unless they are fair use, then they must be put on Wikibooks.
They should always be put into a category. Put the images in categories as deep as you can get them.
# Practical Electronics/Manual of Style/Pinouts

Ic

## General Layout

The chip should be vertical - that is, the pins run down the left and right sides. Pin 1 should be at the top left, along with the identifier dot.
The chip should be centred in the image, both horizontally and vertically.
The font used for the labels should be one that is supported by the MediaWiki rendering engine, and preferably DejaVu Sans, as that is used for most pinout diagrams, and will help maintain consistency.

## Pin Labels

The can be inside or outside the IC. Generally with logic ICs, the gates are drawn on the inside along with the IC designation (eg 4008), and the labels are on the outside. With other ICs, the labels are on the outside and only the IC number is in the middle
The labels down the left hand side should all be left-aligned with each other, and those down the right hand side should be right-aligned.

## Uploading

Pinout diagrams should be uploaded to Commons in the category "IC Pinout Diagrams" (case sensitive).
Please use the following file name format for pinouts:
Replace the [IC Number] with the relevant number. In this manner, the pinout of a 4081 AND gate has the name "4081_Pinout.svg".
If uploading a template, use the following name:
Replace "XX" with the number of pins in the relevant package.

## Templates

Use the following templates wherever possible. Please do not change them, unless you are absolutely certain it is an improvement, and you are willing to change every other pinout diagram in this wikibook.
Also consider modifying a similar pinout diagram as this is easier and will help to ensure consistency. Be careful not to overwrite the original when doing this as, although it can be reverted, it is a nuisance.
To use these, go to the image page, download the file and open in the SVG editor of your choice. Insert your pin labels, convert them to paths, save and upload.
* 8 Pins
* 14 Pins
* 16 Pins
* 18 Pins

## Colour

If you wish, you can colour-code the pins according to function:
* Input: Green
* Output: Blue
* Power: Red
* Bidirectional: Orange
* Other: None
# Prealgebra for Two-Year Colleges

This is a pre-algebra text for adult students at a two-year college. This text is meant to facilitate teaching via the Socratic method. The book also endeavors to connect topics through themes that are useful to adults, as opposed to covering fractions, decimals, and percentages in three separate chapters, as if they were unconnected concepts.

## Introduction

* To the instructor
* To the student
* Manual of Style

## Text

* Workbook (annotated instructor's edition)
* Workbook (student's edition)
* Appendix (procedures)

## Authors

* User:dr.enh
# Prealgebra for Two-Year Colleges/Appendix (procedures)/Absolute value
## Absolute value

The absolute value of a number is found by applying a simple rule: If you see a negative sign in front of the number, change it to a plus sign. If you see a plus sign, leave it alone. So, for example, the absolute value of -17 is +17. The absolute value of +36 is +36.
Another way to understand the absolute value of a number is to think about the number line:
The absolute value of a number is the distance from zero to that number on the number line.
The absolute value of x is usually written as |x|. On calculators and computers it is sometimes written as abs (x).
Questions:
1. Calculate the absolute value of the following numbers:
    a. -5
    b. 9
    c. -3.8
    d. -139,462
    e. 5/8
2. What is the absolute value of zero? Explain.
3. Calculate the following:
    a. |27|
    b. |-1.9|
    c. |3 - 7|
    d. |3 - 0.5|
    e. abs (-6)
4. Draw a graph of abs(x) from -5 to +5. Can abs(x) ever be less than zero? How can you see that from your graph?
Answers:
1. a. 5 b. 9 c. 3.8 d. 139,462 e. 5/8
2. Zero, because zero is exactly zero away from zero on the number line.
3. a. 27 b. 1.9 c. |3-7| = |-4| = 4 d. |3-0.5| = |2.5| = 2.5 e. 6
4. Image of the absolute value of x
# Pragmalinguistic Peculiarities of English Slogan in Fashion Domain/Preface

This project focuses on the analysis of the pragmalinguistic features of advertising slogans in fashion domain in a communicative aspect. The research is aimed at revealing the peculiarities of the realization of the pragmatic function in the advertising slogans from the point of view of the actual division of the sentence as well as at generalizing the pragmatic messages given by the slogans under analysis. The project objective is to define and to characterize pragmalinguistic peculiarities of the slogans in fashion domain through the analysis of semantic, stylistic, structural and functional unity of English slogans. The project is meant for advanced users of English language for whom pragmalinguistics is of a special interest. The research will help acquire knowledge about advertising discourse, pragmalinguistic peculiarities of slogan in fashion domain and will make it possible to use the information for scientific purposes as well as in everyday life.
The book consists of six chapters. The first five parts present the theoretical basis for pragmatic approach in discourse studies, the problem of the advertising text and the slogan as its component; investigate the notion of the actual division of the sentence and its main objects. The sixth chapter contains the analysis of the pragmalinguistic characteristics of the advertising slogans in the fashion domain in contrastive and communicative aspects and the main pragmatic messages given by these slogans.
* The second chapter deals with the advertising text, its main linguistic features and the problem of its definition. The classification cited in this part shows different approaches to the explanation of the advertising text and its main characteristics.
* Finally, genres, the structure, and linguistic and stylistic features of the advertising text are described in the third, fourth and fifth chapters of the book reciprocally.
Key words: discourse, pragmalinguistic features, slogan, semantics, actual division of the sentence, background knowledge, imperative.
# Pragmalinguistic Peculiarities of English Slogan in Fashion Domain/Sources

* Searle, J.R., 1986. What a Speech Act Is? / J.L. Searle //New in Foreign Linguistics. Moscow, “Progress”, Iss. 17: The Theory of Speech Acts, pp: 151-170.
* "Advertorials must be clearly identified". Out-Law.com. Jan 9, 2007. Archived from the original on 7 February 2009. Retrieved 2009-01-09.
* Longman Dictionary of English Language and Culture, 1992. Longman Group UK Limited, pp: 1528.
* Crystal, D., 1995. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. Cambridge University Press, pp: 490.
* Austin, J.L., 1986. Word as an Act. / J.L. Austin // New in Foreign Linguistics. – Moscow, “Progress” Iss. 17: The Theory of Speech Acts, pp: 22-129.
* Halliday, M. A. K., & Matthiessen, C. M. I. M. (2004). An introduction to functional grammar (3rd ed). London: Arnold.
* Bowring, Maggie and Carter Ronald (1997) Working with Texts, London and New York: Routledge
* Boveé, Courtland L. and Arens Williams F. (1992) Contemporary Advertising, Homewood: Irwin
* Cook, Guy (1992) The Discourse of Advertising, London: Routledge Goddard,Angela (1998) The Language of Advertising, London New York: Routledge
* Goffman,Erving (1976) Gender Advertisements, New York: Harper Colophon Books
* Fitzgerald, Francis Scott (1986) The Great Gatsby, New York:Collier Books Jefkins, Frank (2000) Advertising, London: Pearson Education Limited
* Ogilvy, David (1964) Confessions of an Advertising Man, New York: Dell Books
* St John, Maggie Jo (1994) Advertising and the Promotion Industry, Hertforshire: Prentice Hall International (UK) Ltd 28
* Sutherland, Max and Sylvester Alice K. (2000) Advertising and the Mind of the Consumer, London: Kogan Page
* Speak Up Magazine, XII-2 (131), February 1996
* Sturken, Marita and Cartwright Lisa (2001) Practices of Looking: An Introduction to Visual Culture, Oxford: Oxford University Press
* Williamson, Judith (1998) Decoding Advertisements: Ideology and Meaning in Advertising, London: Marion Boyars Publishers Ltd
* Bolinger, D. (1980), Language: The Loaded Weapon, London, Longman.
* Caples, J. (1994): Tested Advertising Methods, Englewood , Prentice-Hall.
* Cook, G. (1992): Discourse of Advertising, London, Routledge.
* Gieszinger, S. (2001): The History of Advertising Language, Frankfurt / Main, Lang. Goddard, A. (1998): The Language of Advertising, London, Routledge.
* Hughes, G. (1987), Words in time, London, Blackwell.
* Leech, Geoffrey (1966), English in Advertising, London, Longman. Shortis, T. (2001) The Language of ICT, London, Routledge. Concise Oxford English Dictionary 2004
# Prealgebra for Two-Year Colleges/Appendix (procedures)

This appendix contains brief explanations of how to perform arithmetic procedures. We assume that the student has already seen these explanations before and just wants a reminder.
* To the student
* Manual of Style

## Appendix (procedures)
### Operations on whole numbers

* Adding whole numbers with carrying
* Subtracting whole numbers with borrowing
* Multiplication table
* Multiplying whole numbers with carrying
* Dividing whole numbers by long division

### Operations on integers

* Adding integers
* Subtracting integers
* Multiplying integers
* Dividing integers

### Converting between different forms of a number

* Reading Decimal Numbers
* Rounding
* Finding equivalent fractions
* Reducing fractions
* Converting improper fractions to mixed numbers
* Converting mixed numbers to improper fractions
* Converting fractions to decimals
* Converting decimals to fractions
* Converting fractions to percents
* Converting percents to fractions
* Converting decimals to percents
* Converting percents to decimals
* Graphing fractions, decimals, and percents on a number line
* Drawing fractions, decimals, and percents as an area

### Operations on fractions

* Adding fractions
* Subtracting fractions
* Multiplying fractions
* Dividing fractions

### Operations on mixed numbers

* Adding mixed numbers
* Subtracting mixed numbers
* Multiplying mixed numbers
* Dividing mixed numbers

### Operations on decimals

* Adding decimals
* Subtracting decimals
* Multiplying decimals
* Dividing decimals

### Vocabulary

* Lowest common multiple or lowest common denominator
* Greatest common factor
* Numerator
* Denominator
* Absolute value
* Exponents
* Roots
# Prealgebra for Two-Year Colleges/Appendix (procedures)/Adding fractions

Find a common denominator and then add the numerators. Reduce the result, if you can.
# Prealgebra for Two-Year Colleges/Appendix (procedures)/Adding whole numbers with carrying
## Addition

Addition operations are denoted by the + sign and the - (-)= +. The addition operator (plus sign) will take any two numbers, called addends, as operands to work on. The result is called the sum of the two numbers.
The operation of addition is commutative. This means that the addition of two numbers will give the same sum regardless of the order in which the numbers are added.
Example:
* $7+5=12$ and $5+7=12$
* $3+2+4=9$ and $4+3+2=9$

### Vertical Addition

To add vertically, stack the numbers on top.
Now add the numbers in the first or right column. If you get a number with tens in it, put what's in the tens place on the tens place in the problem. You should have:
Add the tens column now.
Repeat in a similar fashion for each additional column (hundreds, thousands, etc.)until you finish the problem.

### Exercises

In Exercises 1–25, find the sum.
* 1. $5+3$
* 2. $8+7$
* 3. $9+2$
* 4. $6+3$
* 5. $1+4$
* 6. $2+17$
* 7. $12+11$
* 8. $53+8$
* 9. $41+9$
* 10. $84+12$
* 11. $16+17$
* 12. $7,576+5,345$
* 13. $2,345+3,245$
* 14. $8,952+9,423$
* 15. $2,783+2,389$
* 16. $189,583+1,574,822$
* 17. $1.5+2.7$
* 18. $5.4+3.9$
* 19. $8.3+9.2$
* 20. $2.23+4.89$
* 21. $534.4+34.675$
* 22. $348.904+23,498.2$
* 23. $1.673+48,210.38$
* 24. $10.4823+94.29478$
* 25. $128.52+2,070.24$

### Answers

* 1. $8$
* 2. $15$
* 3. $11$
* 4. $9$
* 5. $5$
* 6. $19$
* 7. $23$
* 8. $61$
* 9. $50$
* 10. $96$
* 11. $33$
* 12. $12,921$
* 13. $5,590$
* 14. $18,375$
* 15. $5,172$
* 16. $1,764,405$
* 17. $4.2$
* 18. $9.3$
* 19. $17.5$
* 20. $7.12$
* 21. $569.075$
* 22. $23,847.104$
* 23. $48,212.053$
* 24. $104.77708$
* 25. $2,198.76$

## Subtraction

Subtraction, as you probably also have seen, uses the minus (-) sign. The generic subtraction operator will take any two numbers as operands. The result is called the difference of the two numbers.
Subtraction is not a commutative operation. Changing the order of the operands will likely give a different (not the same) result.
Example:
* $7-5=2$ and $5-7=-2$
* $3-2-4=-3$ and $4-3-2=-1$

### Exercises

In Exercises 26–50, find the difference.
* 26. $5-3$
* 27. $8-7$
* 28. $9-2$
* 29. $6-3$
* 30. $1-4$
* 31. $2-17$
* 32. $12-11$
* 33. $53-8$
* 34. $41-9$
* 35. $84-12$
* 36. $16-17$
* 37. $7,576-5,345$
* 38. $2,345-3,245$
* 39. $8,952-9,423$
* 40. $2,783-2,389$
* 41. $1,574,822-189,583$
* 42. $2.7-1.5$
* 43. $5.4-3.9$
* 44. $8.3-9.2$
* 45. $2.23-4.89$
* 46. $10.38-1.673$
* 47. $534.4-34.675$
* 48. $348.904-23,498.2$
* 49. $10.4823-94.29478$
* 50. $2,070.24-128.52$

### Answers

* 26. $2$
* 27. $1$
* 28. $7$
* 29. $3$
* 30. $-3$
* 31. $-15$
* 32. $1$
* 33. $45$
* 34. $32$
* 35. $72$
* 36. $-1$
* 37. $2,231$
* 38. $-900$
* 39. $-471$
* 40. $394$
* 41. $1,385,239$
* 42. $1.2$
* 43. $1.5$
* 44. $-0.9$
* 45. $-2.66$
* 46. $8.707$
* 47. $499.725$
* 48. $-23,149.296$
* 49. $-83.81248$
* 50. $1,941.72$
# Puzzles/Statistical puzzles/3 Bags of Marbles

Puzzles | Statistical puzzles | 3 Bags of Marbles
You have three bags, each containing two marbles. Bag #1 contains two white marbles, bag #2 contains two black marbles, and bag #3 contains one white marble and one black marble.
You pick a random bag and take out one marble. Given that this is a white marble, what is the probability that the remaining marble from the same bag is also white?
solution
# Puzzles/Statistical puzzles/Buffon's needle

Puzzles | Statistical puzzles | Buffon's needle
This is a classic puzzle attributed to Buffon. Here it is:
Assume you stand on a floor with a pattern of parallel lines on it which are spaced at unit distance. Now you throw a needle of length D with D < 1. What is the probability that the needle intersects one of the lines?
This puzzle assumes ideal lines and needle of extend zero.
The solution is given in Wikipedia.
# Puzzles/Statistical puzzles/Summing n

Puzzles | Statistical puzzles | Summing n
Given a target sum $n$, you can choose $k$ summands each of which is a number, $n_{i}\in \{0,1,...\},i=1,...,k$, such that $\sum _{i=1}^{k}{n_{i}}=n$. How many ways are there of doing this?
Here the notion of a sum is same as that of a permutation, so two sums are same $iff$ they contain the same summands in the same order. E.g. $2+3+1$ and $1+3+2$ are not the same.
While you are at it, whats the answer, if $n_{i}\in \{1,2,...\}$?
solution
# Puzzles/Statistical puzzles/The Pentagon/Solution

Puzzles | Statistical puzzles | The Pentagon Solution
There is a 0.5 (50%) probability of seeing exactly two sides of the Pentagon.
The blue area in the diagram represents the Pentagon. The red areas are ones from which only one of the walls is visible, namely the wall forming one of the triangle's sides. The yellow areas are ones from where exactly two walls are visible, and the green areas are where three walls are visible.
Each of the green and yellow areas form a 36° sector of the plane, because the angles at the outside vertices of the red triangles equal 36°. Since there are five yellow sectors, they form a 180° sector of the plane, which is exactly 1/2. When the distance from the Pentagon becomes large, the initial difference between the yellow and green sectors becomes negligible, and so the probability of being in a yellow sector (and seeing exactly two walls) is 50%.
Another solution: If you see two sides of building, your friend at opposite side sees three of them. For each spot where you can see two sides, there is one spot where you can see three sides, and for each spot where you can see three sides, there is one spot where you can see two sides. This gives us exactly 50%.