OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Analytical Chemiluminescence/Flow injection analysis (FIA)
## D2. Flow injection analysis (FIA)

Figure D2.1 – A flow injection manifold for measuring chemiluminescence (PMT = photomultiplier tube; REC = recorder).
Batch techniques for measuring the intensity of chemiluminescence are sometimes used, some of which incorporate automation to improve sample throughput, but flow methods are applied much more often. A suitable flow injection manifold is shown in figure D2.1. Flow injection manifolds are constructed from polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) tubing to contain the sample while it is chemically or physically modified prior to detection. Liquid is usually transported from reservoirs by means of a peristaltic pump with suitable tubing. An accurately measured volume of sample is reproducibly introduced into a carrier stream by means of a rotary injection valve. The detector is connected to some means of data-storage. The signal depends on the rate of the reaction producing it and on flow-rate, tubing dimensions, reagent addition order and flow-cell volume, which should be large enough to ensure that a high proportion of the total emission enters the detector; optimisation will favour conditions that lead to emission occurring during the passage of the sample through the flow-cell. The flow-cell should be so positioned as to make this possible, e.g., directly in front of the window of a photomultiplier and in a box that excludes ambient light. FIA has important advantages over batch methods. It makes use of simple and relatively inexpensive apparatus, which is readily miniaturised and has great potential for adaptation and modification. Easy operation and high sampling rates are possible.

#### References

* ↑ Matthäus B, Wiezorek C and Eichner K, Fast chemiluminescence method for detection of oxidised lipids, Fat Sci. Technol., 1994, 96, 95.
* ↑ Townshend A, Solution chemiluminescence - some recent analytical developments, Analyst, 1990, 115, 495.
# Analytical Chemiluminescence/Lucigenin and coelenterazine
## B4. Lucigenin and coelenterazine

Lucigenin and related 9,9/-diacridinium salts give an intense blue-green emission when oxidized by alkaline hydrogen peroxide. The major chemiluminescence emitter is postulated to be N-methyl acridone (blue light), produced via a peroxide, with other excited molecules involved. The reaction is catalysed by pyridine, piperidine, ammonia or osmium tetroxide. A proposed mechanism explains the chemiluminescence of oxidized acridinium salts by the formation of excited peroxide intermediates.
Lucigenin is used in a wide variety of assays, especially those involving enzymatic production of hydrogen peroxide, and as a label in immunoassays. It reacts with various reductants, including those present in normal human blood, such as glutathione, uric acid, glucuronic acid, creatinine, ascorbic acid and creatine. The chemiluminescence intensity for a mixture of these analytes is equal to the sum of the intensities, measured separately for each analyte present. Metal ions – iron(III), manganese(II) and copper(II) – also contribute to the chemiluminescence and so must be regarded as interferents. Lucigenin is also affected by a very wide range of other metal ions, both enhancers and inhibitors. The most effective enhancers are osmium (VIII), cobalt(II), ruthenium(III), iron(II) and iron(III) and the most effective inhibitors are europium(III), thorium(IV), ytterbium(III), terbium(III) and manganese(II). Among the enhancers, effective enhancement seems to be associated with low detection limit but this association is much less pronounced among the inhibitors.
Lucigenin chemiluminescence has been important for the determination of superoxide. The mechanism for the lucigenin-superoxide reaction is believed to be:
(B4.1) Reduction to cation radical: Luc$^{2+}$ + e$^-$ → Luc$^{•+}$
(B4.2) Coupling to yield dioxetane: Luc$^{•+}$ + O$_2$$^{•–}$ → LucO$_2$
(B4.3) Decomposition of dioxetane to N-methylacridone: LucO$_2$ → NMA* + NMA
(B4.4) Chemiluminescence: NMA* → NMA + light
The credibility of lucigenin detection of superoxide has been questioned because of the evidence (disputed) for a process called redox cycling in which lucigenin reacts with oxygen to form more superoxide, leading to the amount of superoxide being overestimated. As a result, coelenterazine (a luminophore from the coelenterate Aequorea), became a more favoured probe for superoxide; although this also offered improved selectivity for superoxide, it was not entirely specific. Attention has therefore shifted to assays using Cypridina luciferin analogues (see chapter B3) to detect superoxide.

##### References

* ↑ McCapra F, Q. Rev., 20 (1966), 485
* ↑ Veazey R L and Nieman T A, Anal. Chem., 51 (1979), 2092
* ↑ Montano L A and Ingle J D jr., Anal. Chem., 51 (1979), 919
* ↑ Lu C, Song G and Lin J-M, Trends Anal. Chem.,25(10) (2006). 985-995
# Analytical Chemiluminescence/Organic peroxides and lipid peroxidation
## B6. Organic peroxides and lipid peroxidation

Metal ions such as iron decompose organic peroxides and hydroperoxides into free radicals; the rate of formation varies very much with different metal complexes and peroxides. The chemiluminescence intensity is directly proportional to the concentration of hydroperoxide. Cyclic organic peroxides include dioxetanes which have been disussed in connection with the peroxy-oxalate reaction. The mechanisms involved in the decomposition of 1,2-dioxetanes and analogous peroxides are: (i) unimolecular decomposition into excited state carbonyl compounds; (ii) intramolecular or intermolecular CIEEL (Chemically Initiated Electron Exchange Luminescence).
Lipid peroxidation is a process of great interest, especially in biochemical research, as it is associated with damage to biological cell membranes and has a putative role in pathological phenomena such as aging, cancer and other degenerative conditions. The process is a radical chain reaction that produces an ultraweak chemiluminescence signal. It has been proposed that in cells, the major excited species responsible for light emission are triplet carbonyls and singlet oxygen, which arise through the decomposition of hydroperoxides. Initiators such as hydroxyl radicals ($^•$OH) remove hydrogen from unsaturated fatty acids (LH) to produce lipid radicals (L$^•$):
LH + $^•$OH → L$^•$ + H$_2$O
which react with atmospheric oxygen to form lipid peroxyl radicals (LO$_2$$^•$):
L$^•$ + O$_2$ → LO$_2$$^•$
that recombine to generate the excited products (P):
LO$_2$$^•$ + LO$_2$$^•$ → P* → P + Фhν
(h = Planck’s constant and ν = frequency of emitted light).
The emission intensity is determined by the quantum yield (Ф), which is low for lipid peroxidation, depending on the rate of processes competing with light emission for the deactivation of the lowest excited singlet state. Because the associated chemiluminescence is weak, it is useful to enhance the emission intensity using fluorescent dyes, as discussed in chapter 16.

##### References

* ↑ Noguchi N and Niki E, Free Radical Research, 1995, 23(4), 329
# Queen's Pawn Game
### 3.e3
## Theory table

For explanation of theory tables, see theory table and for notation, see algebraic notation. .
1. d4 d5 2.Nf3 e6 3.e3
| | 3 |
| Queen's Gambit Declined | ... Nf6 | c4 | to 1...Nf6 2.Nf3 e6 3.e3 d5 |
| | ... c5 | | to 2...c5 3.e3 e6 |
When contributing to this Wikibook, please follow the Conventions for organization.
* Nunn's Chess Openings. 1999. John Nunn (Editor), Graham Burgess, John Emms, Joe Gallagher. ISBN 1-8574-4221-0.
* Modern Chess Openings: MCO-14. 1999. Nick de Firmian, Walter Korn. ISBN 0-8129-3084-3.
# Chess Opening Theory/1. d4/1...d5/2. Nf3/2...c5/3. g3/3...Nc6

As planned, White is going to play 4. Bg2, which transposes to the Reversed Grünfeld.
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# Chess Opening Theory/1. d4/1...d5/2. Nf3/2...c6
## Theory table

For explanation of theory tables, see theory table and for notation, see algebraic notation. .
1. d4 d5 2. Nf3 c6
| | 3 |
| Slav Defense | c4 Nf6 | to 2. c4 c6 3. Nf3 |
| | e3 Nf6 | |
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## References

* Kasparov, Garry, & Keene, Raymond 1989 Batsford chess openings 2. ISBN 0-8050-3409-9.
# Amazon Attack
## 2. Qd3

A rarely played move. A similar idea is the sunshine (1. d4 d5 2. Nc3 Nf6 3. Qd3) Played by William Pollock against Max Weiss in 1889. White lost.
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# Chess Opening Theory/1. d4/1...d5/2. c4
## The Queen's Gambit

The Queen's Gambit is one of the oldest openings in chess and starts with the moves 1. d4 d5 2. c4. In it, White sacrifices a pawn in order to gain control of the centre. If Black accepts the gambit with 2... dxc4, White can immediately try to reclaim the gambitted pawn with 3. e4 or 3. e3, or White can play 3. Nf3. This opening is very popular among modern players and is one of the best openings for 1. d4.

### Black's responses

Accepting the gambit with 2... dxc4 is by no means a risky decision, but most Black players choose to decline it with 2... e6 (Queen's Gambit Declined) or 2... c6 (Slav Defence). More exotic alternatives include the 2... Nc6 (Chigorin Defence), the 2... c5 (Austrian Defence) or the 2... e5 (Albin Countergambit).
Less popular is 2... Nf6?!, the Marshall Defence, allowing 3. cxd5 Nxd5 4. e4, 2... Bf5!?, which weakens b7, or 2...b5?!, a dubious wing gambit.

## Theory table

For explanation of theory tables, see theory table and for notation, see algebraic notation. .
1. d4 d5 2. c4
| | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | Eval. |
| Queen's Gambit Declined | ... e6 | Nc3 Nf6 | Bg5 Be7 | e3 O-O | +/= |
| Semi-Slav Defence | ... ... | ... c6 | Nf3 Nf6 | e3 Nbd7 | ∞ |
| Queen's Gambit Accepted | ... dxc4 | Nf3 Nf6 | e3 Bg4 | Bxc4 e6 | = |
| Slav Defence | ... c6 | Nf3 Nf6 | Nc3 dxc4 | a4 Bf5 | = |
| Chigorin Defence | ... Nc6 | Nc3 Nf6 | Nf3 Bg4 | cxd5 Nxd5 | +/= |
| Albin Countergambit | ... e5 | dxe5 d4 | Nf3 Nc6 | g3 Bg4 | +/= |
| Symmetrical Defence | ... c5 | cxd5 Nf6 | e4 Nxe4 | dxc5 Nxc5 | +/= |
| Marshall Defence | ... Nf6 | cxd5 Nxd5 | Nf3 Bf5 | Qb3 | +/= |
| Baltic Defence | ... Bf5 | cxd5 Bxb1 | Qa4+ c6 | Rxb1 Qxd5 | +/= |
| Zilbermints Gambit | ... b5 | cxb5 ... | | | +/= |
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## References

* Nunn's Chess Openings. 1999. John Nunn (Editor), Graham Burgess, John Emms, Joe Gallagher. ISBN 1-8574-4221-0.
* Kasparov, Garry, & Keene, Raymond 1989 Batsford chess openings 2. ISBN 0-8050-3409-9.
# Chess Opening Theory/1. d4/1...d5/2. Nf3

A flexible developing move. While this move usually leads to a Queen's Gambit, it is also used to go into a Colle System—a solid line that prepares e2-e4 earlier and can be more aggressive than the usual lines.
Black can develop a number of ways though 2...Nf6 is most common.

## Theory table

For explanation of theory tables, see theory table and for notation, see algebraic notation. .
1. d4 d5 2. Nf3
| | 2 |
| Queen's Pawn Game | Nf3 Nf6 | = to 1...Nf6 2. Nf3 d5 |
| Queen's Pawn Game | ... e6 | c4 Nf6 |
| Queen's Gambit Declined Slav | ... c6 | c4 | = |
| Krause variation | ... c5 | c4 | = |
| | ... f5 | |
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## References

* Kasparov, Garry, & Keene, Raymond 1989 Batsford chess openings 2. ISBN 0-8050-3409-9.
# Queen's Pawn Opening: Krause Variation
## 2...c5
## Theory table

For explanation of theory tables, see theory table and for notation, see algebraic notation. .
    1.d4 d5 2.Nf3 c5
| | 3 |
| Queen's Gambit Declined, Tarrasch | c4 e6 |
| Queen's Pawn Game | e3 Nf6 |
| Krause Variation | g3 cxd4 |
When contributing to this Wikibook, please follow the Conventions for organization.
* Nunn's Chess Openings. 1999. John Nunn (Editor), Graham Burgess, John Emms, Joe Gallagher. ISBN 1-8574-4221-0.
* Modern Chess Openings: MCO-14. 1999. Nick de Firmian, Walter Korn. ISBN 0-8129-3084-3.
* Kasparov, Garry, & Keene, Raymond 1989 Batsford chess openings 2. ISBN 0-8050-3409-9.
# Chess Opening Theory/1. d4/1...d5/2. Nf3/2...c5/3. g3

White plans to fianchetto the light-squared bishop. Black usually responds with 3...cxd4 or 3...Nc6.
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# Chess Opening Theory/1. d4/1...d5/2. Nf3/2...e6
## Theory table

For explanation of theory tables, see theory table and for notation, see algebraic notation. .
1. d4 d5 2. Nf3 e6
| | 3 |
| Queen's Gambit Declined | c4 Nf6 | to 2. c4 e6 3. Nf3 |
| | e3 Nf6 | |
When contributing to this Wikibook, please follow the Conventions for organization.

## References

* Kasparov, Garry, & Keene, Raymond 1989 Batsford chess openings 2. ISBN 0-8050-3409-9.
# Asymptote/Command/solids/cylinder

This example will draw a cylinder along the x-axis.
# Asymptote/Command/metapost/cutafter

beginfig(1)
endfig;
# Asymptote/Command/Math/Intersect

real intersect(triple P, triple Q, triple n, triple Z);
Return the intersection time of the extension of the line segment PQ with the plane perpendicular to n and passing through Z
# Asymptote/Command/plain/Relative
## position Relative(real position);

The position Relative(real) specifies a location relative to the total arclength of the path. These convenient abbreviations are predefined:
# Asymptote/File IO

This section contains a discussion of the various file manipulation capabilities of Asymptote. It covers image files outputs, source code includes and data file input and output.

## Image Files

Image files are created by calling the shipout function. However, this need not be explicitly included.

## Source Files

Many useful modules, as discussed in the Asymptote main page, can be imported using the file import routine; for example:
import graph.asy;
would give access to the numerous graphing functions contained in the file graph.asy.
According to the software documentation (http://asymptote.sourceforge.net), Asymptote will search for module files in the following directories (in order):
* The current directory;
* The directory .asy in the user’s home directory (%USERPROFILE%\.asy under MSDOS);
* A list of one or more directories specified by the configuration variable dir (separated by : under UNIX and ; under MSDOS);
* The Asymptote system directory (by default, /usr/local/share/asymptote under UNIX and C:\Program Files\Asymptote under MSDOS).
The working directory can be changed using the command
string cd(string directory_string);
The return value is the new directory. If directory_string is an empty string, the system returns to the working directory at startup. Note: the option -global or -unsafe must be enabled to change the working directory.

## Data Files

Data files can be input and output
# Atlas Shrugged/Characters

Main Characters
Dagny Taggart
Henry Rearden
John Galt
# Asymptote/Command/graph/vectorfield

Draw a vectorfield along a path:
void vectorfield(picture pic=<default>, path g, int n, path vector(real), real arrowsize=<default>, real arrowlength=<default>, pen p=<default>);
Example:
# Atlas Shrugged

This annotated text both summarizes and analyzes Ayn Rand's epic novel, Atlas Shrugged. In addition, the Appendix singles out the significance of certain Characters, Companies, Concepts, Places, Technologies, and other things in the novel.

## Analyses and summaries

Atlas Shrugged is divided into three parts, with ten chapters in each part. Chapters are divided into any number of sections.
| Part 1 - Non-Contradiction The Theme The Chain The Top and the Bottom The Immovable Movers The Climax of the D'Anconias The Non-Commercial The Exploiters and the Exploited The John Galt Line The Sacred and the Profane Wyatt's Torch | Part 2 - Either-Or The Man who Belonged on Earth The Aristocracy of Pull White Blackmail The Sanction of the Victim Account Overdrawn Miracle Metal The Moratorium on Brains By Our Love The Face without Pain or Fear or Guilt The Sign of the Dollar | Part 3 - A Is A Atlantis The Utopia of Greed Anti-Greed Anti-Life Their Brothers' Keepers The Concerto of Deliverance "This is John Galt Speaking" The Egoist The Generator In the Name of the Best within Us |
All quotes are taken from Ayn Rand. Atlas Shrugged (New York: Penguin 1992.).
The author of this book is Ayn Rand. Other works by Ayn Rand include The Fountainhead, Anthem and We the Living.

## Components

* Characters
* Companies
* Concepts
* Places
* Technology
* Things

## External links

* Chapter-by-chapter Analyses
* Notes on Galt's Speech
# Ruy Lopez, Riga Variation, Main Line

Note that 12...Qxd8 is literally black's only legal move.
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# Ruy Lopez, Riga Variation, Main Line

Black takes the rook with the pawn, correctly. Now white's next move is forced: 12. Qd8+. This is the only move white has that will divert the black queen from the attack. Note that 12...Qxd8 is literally black's only legal move. White follows up thereafter with 13. Nxd8.
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# Ruy Lopez, Riga Variation, Main Line

Black plays 14...Be6, attempting to limit white's light squared bishop.
From this point, theory diverges sharply and many plausible continuations exist. The most commonly suggested of these are 15. c3, 15. Be3, and 15. Bf4.
The endgame is about equal, with some commentators giving a slight edge to white. Black has a rook and two pawns for white's bishop, knight and bishop pair. Black will usually try to trade off light squared bishops and a rook while white will try to preserve his material and the bishop pair. White's king will try to move forward and blockade black's kingside pawns and black will try to have his rooks infiltrate and undermine white's position.
Black often plays f5 at some point, and white often will reply with Bb3, f3 and g4, attempting to cut black's pawn chain. Black's king will usually head to the queenside (Kc8, Kb7) to support his pawns there.
Note that 15. Nc3 is to be avoided, as black can follow up with 15...c5! This boxes in white's light squared bishop, and black will play b5 and c4 to trap it. Down this line, white must surrender a minor piece for at most three pawns, which is thought to be advantageous for black.
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# Ruy Lopez, Riga Variation, Main Line

White takes the knight on e4, sacrificing the exchange to remove black's pressure on the f2 square. Now black has two options to retake: with 11...Qxe4 or 11...dxe4.
It turns out that 11...Qxe4, while possibly appealing because it attacks the a4 bishop, is an error. Moving the queen away lessens the pressure on the f2 square and leaves the h2 bishop hanging. White can counter the attack on his bishop with either 12. Nd4 (blocking the attack), or 12. Nc3 (defending the bishop).
Therefore, 11...dxe4 is the main line.
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# Ruy Lopez, Riga Variation, Main Line

After all the active play, the dust is about to settle. Each side has a minor piece still in jeopardy. Black's best move here is to simply take the white knight, with 13...Kxd8. White will follow up by taking black's h2 bishop.
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# Ruy Lopez, Riga Variation, Main Line

Black takes the hanging knight. White should reciprocate by moving 14. Kxh2. All other moves are inferior, as anything but Kxh2 or g3 will allow the bishop to get away. Moving g3 traps the bishop, but allows it to take another pawn before it dies.
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# Ruy Lopez, Riga Variation, Main Line

White has taken the hanging bishop, and material balance has been restored. After the dust settles, white has a knight and bishop (and the bishop pair) for a rook and two pawns.
Now, black must see to the protection of the weak f pawn and counter white's active light squared bishop. The move here is 14...Be6. This contains white's bishop, giving it nowhere to go without being taken. If white plays poorly, black may be able to trap the bishop as well. Other moves allow white's bishop to occupy the a2-g8 diagonal first.
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# Ruy Lopez:Riga Variation

White immediately (mistakenly) pulls the trigger on f3, allowing Black to escape with a draw starting with 9...Qh4! threatening to smash White's kingside pawn cover and invade with both bishops. 10. g3 does not defend as Black uncorks 10...Bxg3! with at least perpetual check, exploiting the weakening of g3 caused by the f3 advance.
White must instead eliminate the attacker of f2 with fxe4. After the obvious 10...Qxh2+, the king cannot escape to f2 because ...Bg3+ wins the exchange - Black can then castle and enjoy a safer king and two pawns plus a rook for the two pieces. So 11. Kf1 Qh1+, and the king cannot run to e2 because of 12...Qxg2+ (13. Kd3 Qg3+ 14. Re3 dxe4+ and again it is Black with all the chances after the smoke has cleared). White's last chance to escape is via 12. Kf2, but on 12...Qh4+ the king must retire to the back rank, as there is nothing savoury about either 13. Ke2 Bg4+ 14. Nf3 dxe4 or 13. Ke3 Qg3+ 14. Nf3 dxe4. Perpetual check!
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# Ruy Lopez:Riga Variation

Black now threatens the weak f2 square with both knight and queen, threatening checkmate.
If white does not deal with the threat sufficiently, or plays an ineffectual move, black may be able to win with the following lines:
* 11...Be5+ 12.Kg1 Qh2+ 13.Kf1 Qh1+ 14.Ke2 Bg4+ 15.Ke3 Qh6+ 16.Kd3 Nxf2#
* 11...Be5+ 12.Kg1 Qh2+ 13.Kf1 Qh1+ 14.Ke2 Bg4+ 15.Kd3 Nxf2+ 16.Ke3 Nxd1+
* 11...Be5+ 12.Kg1 Qh2+ 13.Kf1 Qh1+ 14.Ke2 Bg4+ 15.Kd3 Nxf2+ 16.Kd2 Qh6+ 17.Re3 Nxd1
Moves that would inhibit this are 11.Rxe4, removing black's control over the f2 square, 11.Bg5, threatening black's queen, and any move of the c6 knight, delivering discovered check.
It turns out, however, that only 11.Rxe4 can keep white ahead. 11.Bg5 Qxg5 12.Qxd5 Qxd5 13.Nb4+ leaves black up substantially, though it will win back the queen. Knight moves allow 11...Kf8, unpinning black's knight and more or less forcing a following 12.Rxe4.
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# Ruy Lopez, Riga Variation, Main Line

White's next move 13. Nxd8+ is likewise forced, completing the queen trade. There is a discovered check coming from the bishop, but nevertheless, white's knight will be hanging and black should take it next turn.
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# Berg Countergambit

The Berg Countergambit is a uncommon opening that can be played in the Smith-Morra Gambit (1. e4 c5 2. d4 d5) or the Blackmar-Diemer Gambit (1. d4 d5 2. e4 c5)
the idea is to open the D file and quickly change the queens and then have a very changing game with interesting positions
White has to make the decision to capture the c5-pawn or the d5-pawn.
The main line is 3. dxc5 Nf6:
if white captures the d-pawn the queens are exchanged with 4 Qxd5 5. Qxd5 Nxd5
If White advances the pawn to e5, the knight is advanced to e4 and the position is equal and dynamic
The Scandinavian Variation is 3. exd5 Qxd5
In this variation Black will be able to open the D file unless White plays Ne2 where Black has to return the queen to d8 and White gets a slight advantage in development.

## Theory table

For explanation of theory tables, see theory table and for notation, see algebraic notation. .
    1. e4 c5 2. d4 d5
    1. d4 d5 2. e4 c5
| | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
| Berg Countergambit | dxc5 Nf6 | exd5 Qxd5 | Qxd5 Nxd5 | Nf3 d6 |
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## References

* Kasparov, Garry, & Keene, Raymond 1989 Batsford chess openings 2. ISBN 0-8050-3409-9.