OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# IB/Theory of Knowledge/The Problem of Knowledge

We live in a strange and perplexing world. Despite the explosive growth of knowledge in recent decades, we are confronted by a bewildering array of contradictory beliefs. We are told that astronomers have made great progress in understanding the universe in which we live, yet many people still belief in astrology. Scientists claim that the dinosaurs died out 65 million years ago, yet some insist that dinosaurs and human beings lived simultaneously. Apollo 11 landed on the moon in 1969, but it is rumoured in some quarters that the landings were faked by NASA. A work of art is hailed as a masterpiece by some critics and dismissed as junk by others. Millions of people believe in God yet atheists insist that 'God is dead.' Faced with such a confusion of different opinions, how are we to make sense of things and develop a coherent picture of reality?
Given one's school education, one might think of knowledge as a relatively unproblematic commodity consisting of various facts found in textbooks that have been proved to be true. But things are not as simple as that. After all, if one has attended a school one hundred or even five hundred years ago, one would have learnt a different set of 'truths.' This suggests that knowledge is not static, but has a history and changes over time. Yesterday's revolution in thought becomes today's common sense, and today's common sense may go on to become tomorrows' superstition. So what guarantee is there that our current understanding of things is correct? Despite the intellectual progress of the last five hundred years, future generations may look back on our much-vaunted achievements and dismiss our science as crude, our arts as naive, and our ethics as barbaric.
When one considers themselves from the perspective of the vast reaches of time and space, further doubts arise. According to cosmologists, the universe has been in existence for about 15 billion (15,000,000,000) years. If one imagines that huge amount of time compressed into one year running from January to December, then the earliest human beings do not appear on the scene until around 10:30 p.m. on the 31st of December, fire was only domesticated at 11:46 p.m., and the whole recorded history occupies only the last ten seconds of the cosmic year. Since we have been trying to make sense of the world in a systematic way for only a minute fraction of time, there is no guarantee that we have got it right. Furthermore, it turns out that in cosmic terms we are also pretty small. According to astronomers, there are ten times more starts in the night sky than grains of sand in all the world's deserts and beaches. Yet we flatter ourselves that we have discovered t he laws that apply to all times and all places. Since we are familiar with only a minute fraction of the universe, this seems like a huge leap of faith. Perhaps it will turn out that some of the deeper truths in life, the universe, and everything are simply beyond human comprehension.
# IB/Group 5/Mathematics/Higher/Calculus

| Basic differentiation and its applications Basic integration and its applications Further differentiation methods | Further integration methods Further applications of calculus |
# IB/Theory of Knowledge/The Nature of Knowledge

Having looked at the problem of knowledge, we now need to say something about the nature of knowledge. The word 'knowledge' is what might be described as a thick concept in what is not exhausted by a short definition and can only be understood through experience and reflection. All of this is simply a reflection on the meaning of the word 'knowledge.' Having said that, a definition can still give us a useful preliminary hook for thinking about the meaning of a word. So we shall begin by exploring a definition of knowledge as justified true belief. But it is important to keep in mind that this should be the starting point for reflection rather than its finishing point.
# Guide to Game Development/Theory/Lighting/Light normals

To show how light should interact with the geometry, you should use a light normal vector.

## Face normals vs vertex normals
### Face normals (Flat shading/Faceting\Faceted)

This is where you calculate the normal vector of each face and directly apply it onto each of the face's vertices. See a of the left image on the right for an illustration. Face normals are easier to compute and they give a 'retro' look to the geometry.

### Vertex normals (Gouraud shading/Phong shading/Smooth shading)

Vertex normals is where you don't just look at one piece of geometry, but all the ones that connect to it. To do this, you first need to calculate a face normal for each piece of geometry, after that, when there is geometry sharing the same point, you need to take the average, you can do this with the following formula:
${\overrightarrow {V_{1}}}+{\overrightarrow {V_{2}}}\dots +{\overrightarrow {V_{n}}}={\overrightarrow {V}}$, then normalise it: ${\hat {V}}={\frac {\overrightarrow {V}}{|{\overrightarrow {V}}|}}$.
Combined into one mathematical statement looks like:
${\hat {V}}={\frac {{\overrightarrow {V_{1}}}+{\overrightarrow {V_{2}}}\dots +{\overrightarrow {V_{n}}}}{{\bigg |}{\overrightarrow {V_{1}}}+{\overrightarrow {V_{2}}}\dots +{\overrightarrow {V_{n}}}{\bigg |}}}$
Note: Although this is better mathematically, it's not better computationally, for use with computers, use the first method, it requires the storage of an extra temporary variable, but it it's easier for the processor to handle.
Vertex normals are more computationally intensive than face normals, but they produce a nicer more realistic affect. If you wanted to get a similar affect with face normals, then you would need more polygons, which would be more computationally intensive. One thing you should note from the first image (part b) is that if you have harsh corners like 90° or greater, then it might end up looking worse. As a result, for angles greater than ∼80°, they probably should be shaded using face normals.

## External links

Youtube:
* Example from The Guerrilla CG Project: Smooth Shading
# Guide to Game Development/Theory/Mathematics/Trigonometry
## Categories

* Degrees Vs Radians Vs Gradians
          Looking at the difference between degrees, radians and gradians.
* The basic identities applied to right angle triangles
          S$^o$h, C$^a$h, T$^o$a used on a right-angled triangle
* Trigonometry used with non-right angles
          All the trigonometry needed for triangles that don't have right angles.
* Unit circle & unit sphere
          This covers what happens when you map trigonometry onto a circle of radius 1.
* The graphs of the trigonometric functions
          Having a look at how you plot trigonometric functions onto a graph
* Secant, Cosecant and Cotangent
          Taking a look at the 3 new trigonometric identities: Sec, Cosec/csc and cot
* Trigonometric identities
          Taking a look at some trigonometric identities and the double angle formulea
* Hyperbolic trigonometric identities
          Taking a look at sinh, cosh, tanh, sech, csch and coth.
* Taylor series
          Taking a look at the Taylor series.

## External links

Youtube:
* Coding Math's episodes on trigonometry:
** Intro to Trigonometry
** More Trigonometry
# Guide to Game Development/Theory/Geometry
## Categories

* Basics
          All of the basic you need to know about geometry
* Bones
          How virtual bones are used to move a lot of geometry at once
* UV Mapping
          How texturing is applied to geometry
* Bump mapping/Alpha mapping
          How a texture plus another alpha-texture is used to make the geometry look high-poly' when it's not
* Displacement mapping
          Using a grey-scale texture to warp the geometry (can change polygon count)

## External links

Youtube:
* The Guerrilla CG Project
# Guide to Game Development/Theory/Graphical User Interfaces (GUI) and Heads-up-displays (HUD)

In order to render a GUI or a HUD on top of the gameplay, then you need to clear the depth buffer. Every time you want a new layer of geometry, you'll need to clear the depth buffer to make sure that the layers don't interact with each other.
Here's some pseudocode of the drawing of the game, the HUD and the GUI.
# Guide to Game Development/Theory/Mathematics/Logarithms
## About

A logarithm is the answer to the question: "What number do I need to raise this known number to to get this other known number?"
Example of the problem:
$2^{x}=32$
Rewritten as a logarithm:
$\log _{2}(32)=x$
You'd pronounce this as, "log base 2 of 32."
As you can see from the graph, you can't have a negative logarithm. If you think about it, this makes sense because it's a reflection of an exponential graph. When you have a positive number and you raise it to any number, the result will always be positive, and never 0; because of this the domain of a logarithm is as follows: $\log _{a}(x),x>0$.

## Combining logarithms

There are 3 rules that you should know when combining logarithms:
$\log _{k}a+\log _{k}b=\log _{k}ab$
$\log _{k}a-\log _{k}b=\log _{k}{\frac {a}{b}}$
$a\log _{k}(b)=\log _{k}(b^{a})$

### Expanding logarithms

When expanding logarithms, you can just do the inverse of what you did to combine them.
Example 1:
$\log _{4}{\bigg{\frac {x^{2}}{5^{3}y}}{\bigg )}=\log _{4}(x^{2})-\log _{4}(5^{3}y)=\log _{4}(x^{2})-\log _{4}(5^{3})+\log _{4}(y)=2\log _{4}(x)-3\log _{4}(5)+\log _{4}(y)$
Example 2 (knowledge of exponentials needed):
$\log _{9}{\bigg{\frac {1}{\sqrt[{3}]{5}}}{\bigg )}=\log _{9}{\bigg{\frac {1}{5^{\frac {1}{3}}}}{\bigg )}=\log _{9}(5^{-{\frac {1}{3}}})=-{\frac {1}{3}}\log _{9}5$

## Cancelling logarithms with exponentials and vice versa

There are a few more rules you need to know:
$\log _{a}a^{x}=x$
$a^{\log _{a}x}=x$
$\log _{a}b={\frac {\log _{n}a}{\log _{n}b}}$ where $n$ can be any number.
$\log _{a}1=0$
Note: If you're doing a complex algorithm with a computer, try to give your answer in terms of a base 2 logarithm, because whatever base you input, the computer will convert it to base 2. Doing this for the computer so that it doesn't need to convert it each time will make the algorithm run faster.

### Balancing questions with these rules

So when you have a normal equation, you can do rules like "multiply both sides by 2" or "add 3 to both sides". With logarithms and exponentials, you can do something similar.
You can now:
* "Raise both sides as an exponential of a number"
** Example use:
       $log_{3}x=5\rightarrow 3^{log_{3}x}=3^{5}\rightarrow x=3^{5}$
* "Log both sides (with a common base)"
** Example use:
       $4^{x}=7\rightarrow \log _{4}(4^{x})=log_{4}7\rightarrow x=log_{4}7$

## Notation

The mathematical constant $e$ is often used with logarithms as it's known as the natural base for a logarithm.
$e=2.71828182845904523536028747135266249775724709369995\dots$
Certain short-hand notation has been developed for logarithms as follows:
$\log _{e}(x)=\ln(x)$
$\log _{2}(x)=$ lb $(x)$
$\log _{10}(x)=\log(x)$

### Scale of magnitude

For this scale of magnitude, we'll be using 10 as we work in base as humans.
$\log _{10}1=0$
$\log _{10}10=1$
$\log _{10}100=2$
$\log _{10}1000=3$
$\log _{10}10000=4$
Note: remember it's a logarithmic scale, this means that half way between 10 and 100 (55) doesn't produce a half way value ($\log _{10}55\neq 1.5,\log _{10}55\approx 1.74$).
# Guide to Game Development/Theory/Game logic/Creating an entity class

Note: the following code uses Vector3 and Particle
This is an outline for what an entity class could look like written in C++:
Entity.h:
Entity.cpp:

### Example child class

car.cpp:
# Guide to Game Development/Theory/Lighting
## Categories

* What is light in games?
          What light is made up of
* Light normals
          The normal vectors of a surface which the light hits (face normals and vertex normals)
* Alpha mapping
          The addition of an alpha map onto a texture to make the specular light interact with the texture in a different way
# Guide to Game Development/Theory/Game logic/Setting up ticks and frames

A piece of C++ set-up code for a game that separated the ticks from the frames, where ticks are constant and frames go as fast as the system allows it.
       BUG:
             Error with "ns.time_since_epoch" need to replace with a function that gets the system's nanosecond date since the start of the epoch.
Another way that this can be done is:

# References

* Dive into C++11 [2]
# Guide to Game Development/Theory/Mathematics
## Categories

In order of importance to learn:
* Vectors
* Trigonometry
* Straight line equations
* Matrices
* Parabolas
* Circles
* Exponentials
* Logarithms
* Euler angles
* Quaternions
* Calculus
** Differentiation
** Integration
* Hyperbolas
* Polar coordinates
* Imaginary numbers
* Bézier curves
# IB Biology/Plant biology

The xylem transports water in a unidirectional way, while the phloem transports food (sugars) such as glucose in a bidirectional way.
# IB Biology HL (First Exams 2009): A Complete Study Guide
## Preface

This book has been created as a study guide for IB students in the Biology Higher Level course. However, this resource may prove useful for Standard Level Biology students. The Higher Level material is clearly marked.
The book has been divided into syllabus topics and outcomes to aid revision.

## Table of Contents
### Core Material

Topic 1: Statistical Analysis
Topic 2: Cells
Topic 3: Chemical Elements and Water
Topic 4: Genetics
Topic 5: Ecology and Evolution
Topic 6: Human Health and Physiology

### Additional Higher Level Material

Topic 7: Nucleic Acids and Proteins
Topic 8: Cell Respiration and Photosynthesis
Topic 9: Plant Science
Topic 10: Genetics
Topic 11: Human Health and Physiology

### Options SL

Option A: Human Nutrition and Health
Option B: Physiology of Exercise
Option C: Cells and Energy

### Options SL and HL

Option D: Evolution
Option E: Neurobiology and Behaviour
Option F: Microbes and Biotechnology
Option G: Ecology and Conservation

### Options HL

Option H: Further Human Physiology
# Human Anatomy/Osteology/Vertebralcolumn

The vertebral column is divided into 5 sections:
* Cervical Vertebrae
* Thoracic Vertebrae
* Lumbar Vertebrae
* Sacrum
* Coccyx
The thoracic vertebrae are located on the posterior side of the body and are inferior to the 7th cervical vertebra. The vertebrae provide support for the body's weight and attachment points for the ribs. They also provide protection for the spinal cord.
# Human Anatomy/Syndesmology

Syndesmology is the study of ligaments. Ligaments are made of tough connective tissues and connect bone to bone.
If this be examined with a rather low power the bone will be seen to be mapped out into a number of circular districts each consisting of a central hole surrounded by a number of concentric rings. These districts are termed Haversian systems; the central hole is an Haversian canal, and the rings are layers of bony tissue arranged concentrically around the central canal, and termed lamellæ. Moreover, on closer examination it will be found that between these lamellæ, and therefore also arranged concentrically around the central canal, are a number of little dark spots, the lacunæ, and that these lacunæ are connected with each other and with the central Haversian canal by a number of fine dark lines, which radiate like the spokes of a wheel and are called canaliculi. Filling in the irregular intervals which are left between these circular systems are other lamellæ, with their lacunæ and canaliculi running in various directions, but more or less curved (Fig. 73); they are termed interstitial lamellæ. Again, other lamellæ, found on the surface of the bone, are arranged parallel to its circumference; they are termed circumferential, or by some authors primary or fundamental lamellæ, to distinguish them from those laid down around the axes of the Haversian canals, which are then termed secondary or special lamellæ.
# Human Anatomy/The Skeletal System

The skeletal system is composed of bones, cartilage, and ligaments. It supports muscles in order to enable movement, protects internal organs, produces red blood cells, and stores minerals such as calcium and phosphate.
# Human Anatomy/Positions

Human positions refer to the different physical configurations that the human body can take.

## Basic positions

* Standing
* Sitting
* Squatting
* Lying
* Kneeling
* Crouching
* All-Fours

## Stress positions

* Hands Up
# Human Anatomy/The Neuron

The neuron
The Neuron is a fundamental unit in the brain and a specialized cell intended to transmit information to muscle, gland cells and other nerve cells. Depending on the species, the brain could contain anywhere between 1 billion and 100 billion neurons. A neuron consists of dendrites, an axon, a cell body and synaptic terminals. Axons transmit information from the neuron on to other neurons to which it is interconnected. To speed up the transmission of electrical signals along the axon, many axons are covered in a myelin sheath. Dendrites receive information transmitted by the axons of other neurons. Both axons and dendrites partake in specialized contact points called synapses.
There are 3 main kinds of neurons. Motor neurons control the activity of muscles and are in control of all forms of behavior. Sensory neurons are entwined with receptors to detect and also respond to changing attributes of the internal and external environment. For example receptors sensitive to changes in light would subserve the modality of vision, and so on. Interneurons not only arbitrate simple reflexes but are responsible for highly complex functions of the brain.
Action potential
# Human Anatomy/What is anatomy?

In its broadest sense, anatomy is the study of the structure of an object, in this case the human body. Human anatomy deals with the way the parts of humans, from molecules to bones, interact to form a functional unit. The study of anatomy is distinct from the study of physiology, although the two are often paired. While anatomy deals with the structure of an organism, physiology deals with the way the parts function together. For example, an anatomist may study the types of cells in the cardiac conduction system and how those cells are connected, while a physiologist would look at why and how the heart beats. Thus, anatomy and physiology are separate, but complementary, studies of how an organism works.

## History

A complete article on the history of anatomy can be found here.
# Guitar/G Em C D/Song Examples
### (4) G Em C D

At first, practice mainly songs with the chord combination G-Em-C-D. Especially prefer those where each chord is held for two bars. After a very short time, the change will become automatic and you can focus more on singing. The chord sequence G-Em-C-D makes the following lesson with the quick chord change easier. The other suggested songs will be for repetition later.
* Spanish Lady (Irish Folk) YT Spanish Lady
* Whiskey in the Jar YT Whiskey in the Jar
* YT His Latest Flame (Elvis Presley) (!!!) © G Em (X-x) C D ...
* YT Love the Lord © G G Em Em; C C D D (Hymn)
    The order of the chords remains the same, but the duration varies.
* YT Stand By Me (Ben E. King) //: G G Em Em; C D G G ://
* YT Let's Twist again (Chubby Checker) //: G G Em Em; C C D D; G G Em Em; C D(7) G G; C C G G; C C D D(7) ://
* YT Hey Hey Baby (Refrain) G G Em Em; C D G G
    The pop formula G D Em C or Em C G D
* YT Someone Like You (Adele)(Original In A = Capo 2. Fret)
* YT Superman (Boyce Avenue)
* YT Under The Bridge (Red Hot Chili Peppers)
* YT When I Come Around (Green Day)
* YT 80 Millionen(Max Giesinger) C G D Em
* YT Flash Mich (Mark Forster) easy: Em C G D or (Em G) C G D (original)
* YT Geiles Leben (Glasperlenspiel) Em C G D (Capo = 1)
* YT Namika Lieblingsmensch (Namika) Em C G D
    Compound chord progressions with G Em C D and/or G D Em C
* YT Father and Son (Cat Stevens) © //G D Em C; G Em C D// at the end of the son(C D) G C G C
* YT Let it Be (Beatles) © G D Em C; G D C G // Em D C G; D D C G
* YT Country Roads (John Denver) © //: G G Em Em; D D C G ;// G G D D; Em Em C C; G G D D; C C G G
    other with Em
* YT Das Ist Dein Leben (Philipp Dittberner)
* YT Wir sind groß (Mark Forster) © Em G D C
* YT 99 Red Ballons (Nena) D Em G A (Possibly with capo 2nd fret and an add an A between the verses)
* YT Lady in Black (Uriah Heep) © Em---; D D Em Em
* YT Dieser Weg (Xavier Naidoo) © G D Em Em (Original is a semitone lower)
* YT Walking in Memphis (Marc Cohn/Cher) C C D D; G G Em Em (hier die höhere Version von Cher)
* YT Viva La Vida (Coldplay) © (!!!) //: C C D D; G G Em Em :// (instead of Bm in the original just play G) Accompaniment suggestion: 4/4 + campfire beat 1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . | 1 . 2 + . + 4 . A - A - A - A - | A - A V - V A - :Original 1 . 2 . 3 . 4 + | . + . + 3 . 4 . A - A - A - A V | - V - V A - A -
* YT (Photograph (Ed Sheeran))
Template:Notiz.
# Guitar/song examples/Campfire Diploma/The Raggle Taggle Gypsies

< Quick Chord Change

## Song Examples:
### (6) Chord changes C-Am

* 500 Miles (Hedy West) (Folksong)
* Tom Dooley(Folksong)
* The Wild Rover (Irish Folk)
* Acres Of Clams
* The Raggle Taggle Gypsies
* YT Into the Night (Santana feat. Chad Kroeger) //: Am C G D ://
* YT Knockin' on Heaven's Door (Guns N'Roses, Bob Dylan u.a.m.) //: G D Am Am | G D C C ://
* YT It never rains in southern California (Albert Hammond) mostly Am D G G in the chorus once Am D G Em (Original: Capo 2nd fret)
* YT Riptide (Vance Joy) Am G C C (The intermediate section is simply left out until the F major chord)
* YT What's Up (4 Non Blondes) G G Am Am C C G G (Original: Capo 2nd fret)
* YT Stumblin' in (Chris Norman, Suzi Quatro) Am D G Em
# Guitar/song examples/Campfire Diploma/The Wild Rover

< Quick Chord Change
folk song – Text: anonymous (about 1829), Melody : trad., arranged by Mjchael and Paniolo
Although the song was written as a temperance song, it is now often considered to be a drinking song. It is often sung in Irish pubs.

## Ukulele (gcea)

| G | C | Am | D | D7 | D7 |

## Ukulele (adf#h)

| G | C | Am | D | D7 |

## 3th version
# The Wild Rover
## 1st Verse

    I've[G]been a wild rover, for many a[C]year
    And I've[G]spent all me[Am]money on[D7]whiskey and[G]beer
    But[G]now I'm returning with gold in great[C]store
    And I[G]never will[Am]play the wild[D7]rover no[G]more

   ## Chorus

       And it's[D]no, nay, never[D7]
       [G]No, nay, never, no[C]more
       Will I[G]play the wild[Am]rover
       No, nay,[D7]never, no[G]more

## 2nd Verse

    I[G]went to an alehouse I used to fre[C]quent
    And I[G]told the land-[Am]lady me[D7]money was[G]spent
    I[G]asked her for credit, she answered my[C]"nay
    Such a[G]custom as[Am]yours I can[D7]get any[G]day" (Chorus)

## 3rd Verse

    I[G]took from my pocket ten souvereigns[C]bright
    And the[G]landlady's[Am]eyes opened[D7]wide with de[G]light
    She[G]said "I have whiskeys and wines of the[C]best
    And the[G]words that I[Am]told you were[D7]only in[G]jest" (Chorus)

## 4th Verse

    I'll go[G]home to my parents, confess what I've[C]done
    And I'll[G]ask them to[Am]pardon their[D7]prodigal[G]son
    And[G]if they caress me, as oftimes be[C]fore
    Sure I[G]never will[Am]play the wild[D7]rover no[G]more (Chorus)

## Melody

* Score and tablature for ukulele (in F-Dur)

## Weblinks

* Videos bei YouTube
* ↑ Clap on 1 2 3
* ↑ Clap 1

## Song Examples:
### (6) Chord changes C-Am

* 500 Miles (Hedy West) (Folksong)
* Tom Dooley(Folksong)
* The Wild Rover (Irish Folk)
* Acres Of Clams
* The Raggle Taggle Gypsies
* YT Into the Night (Santana feat. Chad Kroeger) //: Am C G D ://
* YT Knockin' on Heaven's Door (Guns N'Roses, Bob Dylan u.a.m.) //: G D Am Am | G D C C ://
* YT It never rains in southern California (Albert Hammond) mostly Am D G G in the chorus once Am D G Em (Original: Capo 2nd fret)
* YT Riptide (Vance Joy) Am G C C (The intermediate section is simply left out until the F major chord)
* YT What's Up (4 Non Blondes) G G Am Am C C G G (Original: Capo 2nd fret)
* YT Stumblin' in (Chris Norman, Suzi Quatro) Am D G Em