# Infrastructure Past, Present, and Future Casebook/Mississippi River Locks and Dams

This page is for a case study on the Mississippi River Locks and Dams created by Kayla Byrd, Eric Johnson, and Gabby Wade. It is part of the GOVT 490-003 (Synthesis Seminar for Policy & Government) / CEIE 499-002 (Special Topics in Civil Engineering) class offered at George Mason University taught by Jonathon Gifford.

## Summary

The Mississippi River Locks and Dams system is an integral part of United States Waterway Transportation that allows a manageable navigational channel. There are twenty-nine locks and dams spanning roughly 2,300 miles from Minnesota to Louisiana, serving various functions like navigation, flood control, and hydroelectric power generation.
A lock, concerning waterway infrastructure, is a structure that allows maritime transportation to easily navigate along a river, despite differing water levels. When a boat or ship is needed to travel a waterway with higher elevation, it enters a passageway that entraps the watercraft. Water is then either added or removed from the passage to allow the vessel to either rise or fall to the needed elevation.
In order to provide a barrier to the active flow of water, contractors build a waterway structure called a dam. As aforementioned, the barricade can assist in blocking the flow of water to create a consistent water level, improving navigation for water vessels. Dams can be used in a multitude of functions, such as water supply, water storage, and can be used as a form of flood control.
Locks and Dams infrastructure plays a significant role in facilitating commerce, protecting downstream communities from floods, and supporting energy production and recreational activities.

## Timeline

* 1869: The US Army Core of Engineers had control of the Mississippi River called the Headwater Dams, a series of 6 dams that controls the flow of the river.
* 1880: Funding from Congress approved to build three new dams.
* 1881-1912: Headwater Dams were constructed
** 1881: Lake Winnibigoshish located in Itasca County, Minnesota. Finished in 1884.
** 1882: Leech Lake located in Cass County, Minnesota. Finished in 1884.
** 1882: Pokegma Falls located in Itasca County, Minnesota. Finished in 1885.
** 1884: Pine River dam located in Crow Wing County, Minnesota. Finished in 1886
** 1892: Sandy Lake Dam located near McGregor, Minnesota. Finished in 1895
** 1912: Gull Lake Dam located in Crow Wing County, Minnesota. Finished in 1912
* 1930: Funding for the 9-foot channel was approved by Congress under the River and Harbors Act

## Key Actors and Institutions

Key Actors and Institutions involved with the development and maintenance of Mississippi River Locks and Dams include:

#### U.S. Army Corps of Engineers:

The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) is a federal agency operating within the Department of Defense (DOD). The USACE was established as a permanent branch in 1802, later becoming an agency that directly oversees environmental preservation and restoration. Their primary role is to supervise the construction and maintenance of the Mississippi River's twenty-five Locks and Dams. This authority was authorized by The River and Harbors Act, enacted in 1899, which places responsibility on the USACE to protect the Mississippi River infrastructure in the midst of renovation or development.

#### Mississippi River Commission (MRC):

The Mississippi River Commission, established in 1879, is a federal agency and division of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. This branch serves in an analyst position, directly analyzing the management and water resources within the Mississippi River Waterways. They serve as advisors to the USACE, Congress, and the Military, reporting on potential modifications that must be made based on their ongoing analysis of the watershed. The MRC is responsible for the advancement of the Mississippi River and Tributaries Project, which was authorized in 1928 after the Great Mississippi Flood of 1927, which was the most devastating flood of its time. In order to combat the risk of unprecedented floods, a public works system was created that would reduce flood risk and provide more efficient navigation.
The MR&T Project has four main infrastructure developments:
- Levees and Dams
-Tributary Basin Improvements
-Channel Refinement
-Floodways.

#### Navigation Industry and Stakeholders:

The Maritime Industry is a key actor in regards to the Mississippi River Locks and Dams as they have significant financial stakes and interests in the waterways. The Mississippi River waterway is a vital source of efficient movements of freight. The American Waterways Operators (AWO), founded and organized in 1944, is a main advocacy association on behalf of United States carriers and exporters. Water transportation plays a significant role in the establishment of United States commerce, providing an estimated $100 billion in financial output.

#### Environmental Agencies and NGOs:

Environmental agencies, such as the Environmental Protection Agency, have a key role in ensuring developments and suspensions of Mississippi River Infrastructure comply with environmental regulations and principles. The EPA has direct access to Congress and reports on the Restoration of the Mississippi River Waterway while contributing to the development of restoration strategies and programs. Non-governmental organizations (NGOs), specifically focused on environmental preservation, also advocate and assess waterway projects to ensure those involved in the task are complying with environmental standards.

## Funding and Financing

The funding for the maintenance and operation of locks and dams on the Mississippi River is primarily paid for by the federal government of the United States. These critical infrastructure components are under the jurisdiction of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, which oversees their upkeep and functionality. The financial resources required for the construction, ongoing maintenance, and daily operations of these locks and dams are derived from the federal budget.
The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers is entrusted with the responsibility of managing and preserving the locks and dams along the Mississippi River to facilitate navigation, flood control, and related purposes. The funding necessary to execute these tasks is allocated through federal appropriations, which encompass expenses such as the repair and replacement of aging infrastructure, dredging activities, and overall maintenance efforts.
In addition to federal appropriations, a portion of the funding may be generated from user fees, including charges imposed on commercial shipping entities that make use of the locks and dams. These fees, while serving as a financial resource to defray some of the associated maintenance and operational expenses, often fall short of covering the entire cost of these endeavors. It is noteworthy that the commercial traffic along the Mississippi River plays a smaller but substantial role in this funding scheme, contributing to the financial aspects of the inland waterway system.
From the information provided by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) a “Percent tariff system” is used to set the rates for the shipping traffic on the river. The U.S. The Inland Waterway System regulates the system by setting the rates for the shipping traffic. This system of regulating tariffs comes from the “Bulk Grain and Grain Products Freight Tariff No. 7”, which was created by the Waterways Freight Bureau (WFB). In an intriguing historical development, this tariff system's relevance underwent a transformation in 1976. At that juncture, an agreement between the United States Department of Justice and the ICC rendered Tariff No. 7 obsolete. The barge industry still uses these tariffs as a reference point for rate units even though the WFB has ceased to exist and the ICC has changed into the Surface Transportation Board, which is now governed by the US Department of Transportation. To determine barge freight rates today, a percentage of the 1976 benchmark tariff per ton serves as the foundational unit, as outlined by the United States Department of Agriculture.$^{[3]}$ This system remains integral to the financial structure of the U.S. Inland Waterway System, bearing relevance to the overall funding framework.
The federal government plays a pivotal role in financing the construction, maintenance, and operation of locks and dams on the Mississippi River, ensuring their continued functionality for navigation, flood control, and related purposes.

## Institutional Arrangements
#### Legal and Regulatory Frameworks:

The maintenance of the Mississippi River locks and dams is governed by a range of federal laws and regulations that ensure its continual prosperity and protection. The Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899, for example, is the oldest environmental law in the United States. It specifically addresses United States' waterways, making it unlawful to eject or dispense debris into navigable channels.
The Water Resources Development Actand the Inland Waterways Revenue Act, both under the authority of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, are used conjointly. The WRDA authorizes the study and construction of projects that can positively benefit the advancement of waterway infrastructure. The IWRA was established to finance and fund the development and improvement of national waterways. These laws outline the legal authority for the construction, operation, and maintenance of the infrastructure and establish the roles and responsibilities of various agencies.

## Narrative of the Case

The First Lock and Dam:
In 1907 the First Lock and Dam added to the river was at Meeker Island (Originally known as Lock and Dam 2). Its main purpose was for it to be used to allow for easier travel from St. Paul up to Minneapolis. You can still visit it today at “Meeker Island Lock and Dam Historic Park” where it is a symbol of the economic rivalry of St. Paul with Minneapolis.
The 9-Foot Channel Project:
Early 20th Century: The need for a deeper and more reliable channel on the Mississippi River was recognized as early as the late 19th century. However, it was in the early 20th century that serious discussions and planning began for a project to deepen the river's channel to a consistent 9-foot depth.
1920s: The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers became actively involved in the planning and execution of the project. Detailed surveys and engineering studies were conducted to determine the feasibility and the potential economic benefits of deepening the channel.
1930s: The 9-Foot Channel Project gained traction during the Great Depression as a way to stimulate economic activity and create jobs. Construction work on the project commenced in various sections of the river.
World War II Era: The project's progress was temporarily interrupted during World War II when resources were diverted to support the war effort.
Post-World War II: After the war, the project resumed, and substantial resources were allocated to its completion. Dredging, construction of locks and dams, and other infrastructure improvements continued.
1950s-1960s: The project reached a significant milestone with the completion of Lock and Dam 26 in Alton, Illinois, in the 1950s. This lock and dam system helped maintain the desired 9-foot channel depth by regulating water flow.
1970s-1980s: The project continued to progress, with further improvements and maintenance efforts along the Mississippi River to keep the channel at the desired depth. Environmental considerations and conservation efforts also gained importance during this period.
1990s-Present: The 9-Foot Channel Project remains an ongoing effort. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and other agencies continue to dredge and maintain the channel, repair and upgrade locks and dams, and address environmental concerns such as habitat preservation and water quality.
21st Century: The project has evolved to incorporate modern navigation technologies and environmental sustainability practices. It plays a crucial role in supporting commerce, transportation, and agriculture in the Mississippi River Basin.
Modern State of Project:
The Mississippi River continues to occupy a pivotal role in trade and commerce within the United States. As a major transportation artery, it facilitates the movement of a wide array of goods, including agricultural products, petroleum, chemicals, and manufactured goods. The river boasts a network of essential ports, with prominent hubs in cities like New Orleans, Baton Rouge, St. Louis, and Memphis, serving as critical nodes for both domestic and international trade. Notably, barge traffic remains a cost-effective and highly efficient method for transporting bulk commodities, and the river's infrastructure, mainly featuring the locks and dams, plays a crucial role in supporting this trade network.
Over the years, substantial improvements and ongoing maintenance efforts have been dedicated to the Mississippi River's infrastructure. The ongoing maintenance has been instrumental in ensuring a consistent navigable depth and regulating water flow, enhancing safety and efficiency for shipping and transportation. Modern navigation technologies have also been seamlessly integrated into the river's operations, further bolstering its role in facilitating commerce. Moreover, heightened environmental considerations have gained prominence, with various initiatives aimed at preserving habitats, improving water quality, and implementing sustainable river management practices.
It is important to recognize that the state of trade and commerce along the Mississippi River is subject to dynamic factors, including economic fluctuations, evolving infrastructure developments, and changing market dynamics. For the most up-to-date information on the river's modern trade activities and infrastructure, referring to recent reports and government sources is advisable to gain a comprehensive and accurate understanding of this crucial waterway's current status.

## Policy Issues

When the construction of the headwater dams was underway, the U.S. government ran into some issues because many reservoirs were located on Indigenous land. The government offered the Ojibwe nation $15,466.90 for their land but it was rejected. The government and the Ojibwe nation spend 5 years negotiating from 1881 to 1886 until they reached an agreement. By 1886, most tribes in the area moved to a reservation in Minnesota with the promise of funded land improvements.
In 1928, Congress passed the Flood Control Act which called for the MRC to create a plan for flooding issues along the Mississippi River. The act included plans to strengthen existing levees and constructing a new spillway in Louisiana. Around that time, there was also debates about whether or not the Mississippi River should be deepened to 6 or 9 feet to allow for more water based trade and increase travel up and down the river which would bring more money to the economy. To determine which one was more doable, Congress asked the Army Corps of Engineers to complete a feasibility study of the 9-foot channel.
Chief Engineer Charles Hall opposed the 9-foot channels stating it would have devastating environmental impacts, and there was no economic benefit. The public and the government officials were not happy about Hall’s reports and believed Hall’s duty was to engineering not to the environment. Since there was not a lot of public support for his report, Hall decided that another survey should be completed to determine the costs of the channel in more detail. However, Hall was removed from his survey team before the final report went out.
Hall was not the only Chief Engineer to oppose the 9-foot channel. The next few Chief Engineers were also against the 9-foot channel however, by the time the second survey came out, it favored the construction of the 9-foot channel. The government continued to appoint Chief Engineers until they found one that was in support of the channel. In 1928, Major General Brown was appointed as Chief Engineer. He was in support of the channel, but did not agree with immediate construction until more survey work was done. This led channel supporters to turn to President Hoover to get support however, he also wanted to delay the construction of the channel until the Nation was in a more economically stable place since the Nation was in the Great Depression.
Despite many setbacks, supporters continued to fight for the funding of this project. The House of Representatives passed the River and Harbors Act in 1930 that did not provide funding for the 9-foot channel. So. supporters turned to their senators to have an amendment added to the act which would provide funding. By June 1930, the amendment was added and the project was officially authorized.
Looking at issues that the Mississippi River locks and dams in the present and future, maintenance and funding the biggest concerns. Dams have a typical lifespan of 50 years, so a lot of the dams built in the 1930's are quickly deteriorating. Since many dams are old they have eroded a lot over the years. However, they are dangerous and have an increased rate at failing. Environmental groups are concerned the US Army Corps is not taking these risks seriously and have financials incentives to do the bare minimum.

## Key Lessons/Takeaways

The Locks and Dams on the Mississippi River are an example of how engineers can be placed in the middle of doing what they feel is best for the public and doing the job that was given to them regardless of the outcome. Although the locks and dams are essential to trade and the economy today, the environmental impacts that chief engineers had in the 1930’s are still relevant today.
With many dams needing increased maintenance, the US Army Corps had the chance to reevaluate some of the same issues that came up when planning the 9-foot channel. Environmentalists would like the US Army Corps to take public engagement, environmental impacts, safety and stability, and future infrastructure impacts into consideration when determining the future of the dams.

## Discussion Questions

* Can the restoration of land to indigenous communities be feasibly achieved by removing dams?
* What are the potential implications of privatizing dams as a means to generate more funding, particularly concerning river way transportation?
* What economic impacts can be anticipated from the removal of specific locks and dams?
* How is climate change influencing fluctuations in water elevation levels?
* What strategies can be implemented to promote the commercial expansion of primary riverways for general use, including considerations such as small and large locks and cost-efficiency?

## References

* ↑ Warhurst, Tyler (2020-06-22). "Locks and dams of the upper Mississippi River". Experience Mississippi River. Retrieved 2023-10-01.
* ↑ "Locks & the River" (PDF). US Army Corps of Engineers. Retrieved October 1, 2023.
* ↑ "U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Headquarters > About > History > Brief History of the Corps > Introduction". www.usace.army.mil. Retrieved 2023-10-01.
* ↑ "Mississippi Valley Division > About > Mississippi River Commission (MRC)". www.mvd.usace.army.mil. Retrieved 2023-10-01.
* ↑ "Mississippi Valley Division > About > Mississippi River Commission (MRC) > Mississippi River & Tributaries Project (MR&T)". www.mvd.usace.army.mil. Retrieved 2023-10-01.
* ↑ "The American Waterways Operators". The American Waterways Operators. Retrieved 2023-10-01.
* ↑ "The Mississippi/Atchafalaya River Basin (MARB)". United States Environmental Protection Agency. Retrieved October 1, 2023.
* ↑ Bloom, David (August 10, 2022). "Mississippi River Basin Restoration and Resilience Strategy" (PDF). United States Environmental Protection Agency.
* ↑ "Mississippi Valley Division > About > Mississippi River Commission (MRC)". www.mvd.usace.army.mil. Retrieved 2023-09-22.
* ↑ "Barge Dashboard". agtransport.usda.gov. Retrieved 2023-09-22.
* ↑ McFarland, Charles K. (1966). "The Federal Government and Water Power, 1901-1913: A Legislative Study in the Nascence of Regulation". Land Economics. 42 (4): 441–452. doi:10.2307/3145402. ISSN 0023-7639.
* ↑ "Water Resources Development Act". www.usace.army.mil. Retrieved 2023-10-01.
* ↑ "The Inland Waterways Trust Fund" (PDF). Taxpayers for CommonSense. Retrieved October 1, 2023.
* ↑ Blvd, Mailing Address: 111 E. Kellogg; Paul, Suite 105 Saint; Us, MN 55101 Phone: 651-293-0200 This is the general phone line at the Mississippi River Visitor Center Contact. "Meeker Island Lock and Dam Historic Park - Mississippi National River & Recreation Area (U.S. National Park Service)". www.nps.gov. Retrieved 2023-09-22.
* ↑ "Gateways to Commerce: The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers' 9-Foot Channel Project on the Upper Mississippi River (Table of Contents)". www.nps.gov. Retrieved 2023-09-22.
* ↑ Cooper, Phillip (2023-04-30). "Mississippi River Reservoir Dam System". MNopedia. Retrieved 2023-09-27.
* ↑ "MRC History". US Army Core of Engineers. Retrieved 2023-09-27.
* ↑ O'Brien, Yeater Rathbun, O'Bannon, William, Mary, Patrick (2008-02-01). "Gateways to Commerce". National Park Service. Retrieved 2023-09-27.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
* 1 2 O'Connor Toberman, Miller, Colleen, Maddie (2023-01-11). "5 key issues regarding the future of the locks and dams". Friends of the Mississippi River. Retrieved 2023-09-27.