OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Comparative Politics/Definitions

In order to speak scientifically about politics, it is useful to know the terminology that political scientists use.
State: in political science, "state" means what most people think of when they say "independent country": i.e., France, Italy, Russia, etc. The definition of "state" includes a people permanently living in a territory (not nomads, e.g.), over which a government exercises sovereignty. Thus, the constitutive elements of a state are a people, a territory, a government and sovereignty (some authors don't distinguish between government and sovereignty, so perhaps it would be best to speak of "a government exercising sovereign authority"). Some federations refer to their constituent parts as "states", in order to emphasize their relative importance and independence (e.g., the United States of America, the Federated States of Micronesia). Political scientists tend to use the term "state" to emphasize the governmental aspect of the country: government officials are called "state officials"; a government minister may have the title of "secretary of state", etc.
Sovereignty: full powers over a given territory. Kings and queens were once called "sovereigns" because they had full power over their subjects and lands. Political scientists do not talk of persons having sovereignty, but states. There are two kinds of sovereignty; internal sovereignty generally recognized as being a monopoly on the use of force and external sovereignty which is generally recognized as being control over ones own internationally recognized borders (illegal immigration can be seen as having a negative impact upon a states external sovereignty).
Nation a group of people sharing a common trait that creates a primary political bond. This trait is most often linguistic, but can be religious, racial, cultural, territorial, or a combination.
Nation-State: A state that is generally conceived of as the "homeland" of a given nation. For instance, France is a nation-state of French people.
Government: A system of institutions and organizations that make up the inner functions and processes of a state.
Power: The ability to convince people to do what they otherwise would not have done. This can be done through a variety of means but typically is accomplished through the following: the use of force (coercion), diplomatic means (bargaining, influence et al.) and Ideological control (setting the agenda so that opposing points of view cannot be heard).
Authority: The recognized ability to wield power.
Sovereign authority: The recognized ability to use power to exercise state sovereignty.
Legitimacy: The recognition that someone should have authority. This may or may not imply that the possessor of legitimacy also possesses authority. For instance, if a country is invaded, that country's former government might be exiled and have no real power, but still be recognized by other states as the "legitimate authority" of the country that they were exiled from.
System: A way of organizing as well as interpreting.
# Comparative Politics

In physical sciences, experiments can be conducted by isolating factors to see what causes lead to what effects. For instance, if you put baking soda in a test tube full of vinegar, and it starts to bubble, you can be pretty sure that the baking soda caused the bubbling.
In politics, one cannot conduct an experiment in a test tube. The only way that one can make scientific study of politics is by examining it in daily life and comparing it with other situations. Through observation and comparison, one can hopefully learn enough about politics to make reliable predictions. That is the goal of comparative politics: observe two or more political situations, analyse their similarities and differences, and try to isolate causes and effects in order to make reliable predictions.
This wikiversity course will first start out by comparing basic theoretical concepts in politics. Then, it will compare political situations of different states with different political systems.

## Table of Contents

* Definitions
* Federal, unitary, and confederate states
* Democratic Systems versus Authoritarian Systems
* Presidential Systems, Parliamentary Systems, and Mixed Systems
* Proportional Representation, Single-Member Plurality, and Mixed Representation
# Japanese/Reader/第三夜/Part 9
## Story

* 「雨はさっきから降っている。路はだんだん暗くなる。ほとんど夢中である。ただ背中に小さい小僧がくっついていて、その小僧が自分の過去、現在、未来をことごとく照して、寸分の事実も洩らさない鏡のように光っている。しかもそれが自分の子である。そうして盲目である。自分はたまらなくなった。
* 「ここだ、ここだ。ちょうどその杉の根の処だ」

## Vocab

| Kanji | Kana | English |
| 雨 | あめ | rain |
| 降る | ふる | to fall |
| | だんだん | bit-by-bit, gradually |
| 暗い | くらい | dark, gloomy |
| | ほとんど | almost |
| 夢中 | むちゅう | daze-like, trance-like, dream-like |
| | ただ | but |
| 小さい | ちいさい | small, tiny |
| 小僧 | こぞう | boy |
| | くっつく | to keep close to |
| 過去 | かこ | past |
| 現在 | げんざい | now, present day |
| 未来 | みらい | the future |
| | ことごとく | alltogether, entire |
| 照らす | てらす | to shine on, illuminate |
# Japanese/Verb conjugation table

All forms of a verb are derived from the root form of a verb. All verbs end in an 'u' sound (see Japanese Pronunciation). If it is 'ru' it is easy to conjugate; otherwise, there is a set of rules described somewhat in the below table.
| Past + | Past - | Present + | Present - | Imperative | -te form | Volitional | Plain |
| Past + | Past - | Present + | Present - | Imperative | -te form | Volitional | Polite |
| -tari form | Subjunctive | Conditional | Provisional | Passive | Causative | Potential |
| 五段動 詞 (consonant stem verbs) |||||||
| 〜う | | | | | | | |
| った | わなかった | う | わない | え | って | おう |
| いました | いませんでした | います | いません | え | って | いましょう |
| ったり | い | ったら | えば | われる | わせる | える |
| 〜く | | | | | | | |
| いた | かなかった | く | かない | け | いて | こう |
| きました | きませんでした | きます | きません | け | いて | きましょう |
| いたり | き | いたら | けば | かれる | かせる | ける |
| 〜ぐ | | | | | | | |
| いだ | がなかった | ぐ | がない | げ | いで | ごう |
| ぎました | ぎませんでした | ぎます | ぎません | げ | いで | ぎましょう |
| いだり | ぎ | いだら | げば | がれる | がせる | げる |
| 〜す | | | | | | | |
| した | さなかった | す | さない | せ | して | そう |
| しました | しませんでした | します | しません | せ | して | しましょう |
| したり | し | したら | せば | される | させる | せる |
| 〜つ | | | | | | | |
| った | たなかった | つ | たない | て | って | とう |
| ちました | ちませんでした | ちます | ちません | て | って | ちましょう |
| ったり | ち | ったら | てば | たれる | たせる | てる |
| 〜ぬ | | | | | | | |
| んだ | ななかった | ぬ | なない | ね | んで | のう |
| にました | にませんでした | にます | にません | ね | んで | にましょう |
| んだり | に | んだら | ねば | なれる | なせる | ねる |
| 〜ぶ |
| んだ | ばなかった | ぶ | ばない | べ | んで | ぼう |
| びました | びませんでした | びます | びません | べ | んで | びましょう |
| んだり | び | んだら | べば | ばれる | ばせる | べる |
| 〜む | | | | | | | |
| んだ | まなかった | む | まない | め | んで | もう |
| みました | みませんでした | みます | みません | め | んで | みましょう |
| んだり | み | んだら | めば | まれる | ませる | める |
| 〜る | | | | | | | |
| った | らなかった | る | らない | れ | って | ろう |
| りました | りませんでした | ります | りません | れ | って | りましょう |
| ったり | り | ったら | れば | られる | らせる | れる |
| 一段動 詞 (vowel stem verbs) |||||||
| 〜る | | | | | | | |
| た | なかった | る | ない | ろ | て | よう |
| ました | ませんでした | ます | ません | ませ | まして | ましょう |
| たり | — | たら | れば | られる | させる | られる |
| Irregular Verbs |||||||
| する (e. to do) | | | | | | | |
| した | しなかった | する | しない | しろ + せよ | して | しよう |
| しました | しませんでした | します | しません | しませ | しまして | しましょう |
| したり | し | したら | すれば | される | させる | できる |
| 来(く)る (e. to come) | | | | | | | |
| 来(き)た | 来(こ)なかった | 来(く)る | 来(こ)ない | 来(こ)い | 来(き)て | 来(こ)よう |
| 来(き)ました | 来(き)ませんでした | 来(き)ます | 来(き)ません | 来(き)ませ | 来(き)まして | 来(き)ましょう |
| 来(き)たり | 来(き) | 来(き)たら | 来(く)れば | 来(こ)られる | 来(こ)される | 来(こ)(ら)れる |
| だ (the copula) | | | | | | | |
| だった | ではなかった じゃなかった | だ | ではない じゃない | - | で | だろう |
| でした | ではありませんでした じゃありませんでした | です | ではありません じゃありません | - | でして | でしょう |
| だったり でしたり | - | だったら でしたら | なら | - | | |
Other forms of the copula can be obtained by replacing it with である.
# Japanese/Vocabulary
## Elementary vocabulary

* Colors
* Clothes and accessories
* Animals
* Numbers
* Time and dates
* Directions
* Food and drink
** Sushi
* Body parts
* Family and people
* Weather and seasons
* Verbs
* Adjectives

## Proper

* Countries and languages
* Regions and prefectures of Japan

## Specialized

* Academic Subjects
** Astronomy
** Biology
** Chemistry
** Glaciology
** Mathematics
** Linguistics
** Law
* Aviation
* Business
* Banking
* Computing
* Health
* Government and politics
* Punctuation
* Vocations
* Units

### Cultural

* Music
* Videogame

## By origin

* Gairaigo
* Onomatopoeia
# Japanese/Vocabulary/Adjectives
## い-type adjective

| Japanese | English | Reading |
| 明るい | bright | あかるい |
| 甘い | sweet | あまい |
| 新しい | new | あたらしい |
| 暑い | hot | あつい |
| 小さい | small | ちいさい |
| 近い | near, close by | ちかい |
| 古い | old | ふるい |
| 早い | fast, early | はやい |
| 低い | low | ひくい |
| 良い | good, virtuous | いい, よい |
| 忙しい | busy, irritated | いそがしい |
| 痛い | painful | いたい |
| 可愛い | cute | かわいい |
| 円い, 丸い | round | まるい |
| 醜い | ugly | みにくい |
| 難しい | difficult | むずかしい |
| 長い | long | ながい |
| 美味しい | delicious, tasty | おいしい |
| 可笑しい | funny | おかしい |
| 重い | heavy | おもい |
| 面白い | interesting | おもしろい |
| 大きい | big, great | おおきい |
| 遅い | slow, late | おそい |
| 寒い | cold (weather) | さむい |
| 多大 | heavy, much | ただい |
| 正しい | right (correct) | ただしい |
| 高い | tall, high, expensive | たかい |
| 楽しい | enjoyable | たのしい |
| 遠い | far | とおい |
| 冷たい | cold (touch) | つめたい |
| 強い | strong | つよい |
| 美しい | beautiful | うつくしい |
| 若い | young | わかい |
| 悪い | evil, bad | わるい |
| 易しい | easy | やさしい |
| 安い | cheap | やすい |
| 弱い | weak | よわい |

## な-type adjective

| Japanese | English | Reading |
| 馬鹿 | silly, foolish, stupid | ばか |
| 大丈夫 | all right | だいじょうぶ |
| 下手 | not good at, unskillful | へた |
| 便利 | convenient | べんり |
| 元気 | healthy | げんき |
| 暇 | free (time) | ひま |
| 意地悪 | mean, mischievous | いじわる |
| 色々 | various | いろりろ |
| 上手 | skillful | じょうず |
| 綺麗 | beautiful, clean | きれい |
| 迷惑 | annoying | めいわく |
| 賑やか | lively | にぎやか |
| 親切 | kind | しんせつ |
| 静か | quiet | しずか |
| 好き | like | すき |
| 嫌い | dislike | きらい |
| 素敵 | fine, nice | すてき |
| 大変 | tough, hard | たいへん |
| 退屈 | boring | たいくつ |
| 大切 | important | たいせつ |
| 有名 | famous | ゆうめい |
| 惨酷 | cruel | ざんこく |
# Japanese/Reader/第三夜/Part 7
## Story

* 「負ぶって貰って済まないが、どうも人に馬鹿にされていけない。親にまで馬鹿にされるからいけない」
* 何だか厭になった。早く森へ行って捨ててしまおうと思って急いだ。
* 「もう少し行くと解る。――丁度こんな晩だったな」と脊中で独言のように云っている。
* 「何が」と際どい声を出して聞いた。

## Vocab

| Kanji | Kana | English | Notes |
| 負ぶって | おぶって | carry on one's back | | 貰って | もらって | receive the favor of |
| 済まない | すまない | inexcusable | |
| | どうも | especially | |
| 人 | ひと | person | |
| 馬鹿 | ばか | fool | |
| 親 | おや | parent | |
| 何だか | なんだか | somehow | |
| 厭になった | いやになる | get fed up with | |
| 早く | はやく | hurry | |
| 森 | もり | forest | |
| 行って | いって | go | |
| 捨てて | すてて | get rid of | |
| 思って | おもって | taught | |
| 急いだ | いそいだ | hurried | |
| もう少し | もうすこし | a little further | |
| 行く | いく | go | |
| 解る | わかる | understand | |
| 丁度 | ちょうど | exactly | |
| | こんな | That kind of | |
| 晩 | ばん | evening | |
| 脊中 | せなか | back | normally writen as 背中 |
| 独言 | ひとりどこ | talking to yourself | |
| 云って | いって | said | |
| 何 | なに | what | |
| 際どい | きわどい | desperate | |
| 声 | こえ | voice | |
| 出して | だす | | |
| 聞いた | きいた | asked | |
# Japanese/Study methods

As with the study of any subject, you need to have self-discipline. Set a certain amount of time that will be devoted to the study of Japanese, and try to make a regular schedule. Don't rush yourself and set yourself achievable goals. The ideal method to study a language is to be exposed to the native environment with access to native speakers and have your own personal tutor. These are, however, not necessary and self-study can be rewarding in itself.

## Setting Goals

Setting goals is vital.

## Kana

If you are serious about learning to read and write Japanese, you must first master kana (hiragana & katakana). These are the two syllabaries, and are phonetic just like the English alphabet. Unlike English, however, Japanese pronunciation is almost perfectly regular, meaning that for the most part, one symbol stands for one sound, and there are very few pronunciation rules to learn. As a result, hiragana and katakana can easily be mastered, though fluency in reading will take longer.
The kana are few enough that one can learn them by rote. To reach fluency, one eventually has to drop mnemonic devices anyway. For that transition period, or even for the few that prove difficult to memorise, mnemonics can come in handy.
Once you have mastered the kana, you will be able to pronounce all the kana characters you come across, even if you don't know the meaning. Not to worry, though, once you build up your vocabulary, you'll be amazed how much more you can comprehend.

## Kanji

You should begin to learn kanji immediately, as it is very time-consuming. The sooner you start, the sooner you will become proficient.
There are a number of ways to learn the kanji.
* In Japanese skills, they are taught by rote.
* One can learn the radicals.
* There are etymology-based mnemonics, and
* pictorial-based mnemonics.
* Calligraphy (書道 shodō) can be a mnemonic and pleasurable way to practice kanji.
To learn via radicals (the pieces that make them up), you only need to learn the relatively few components (approximately 200), and pretty soon you will be able to guess the meaning and pronunciation of a new character with some accuracy just by looking at it.
Writing kanji is an entirely different business; think of kanji as something elegant, an art. Calligraphy is commonly studied and a highly revered art in Japan. Skillfully written characters and proverbs are often hung on walls or displayed in museums, and sell for as much as paintings do in the West.
A good strategy to learning all of these characters is to realize that it isn't anything like English, Spanish, or other European languages. When memorizing the sounds of a character, try to forget your native language, and think phonetically, rather than in your native alphabet.
Note: As mentioned earlier, it is important not to rush yourself. The more you try to learn in one go, the easier it is for you to forget.

## See also

* How to Learn a Language
* Lang Infinity; Write in Japanese, or any language, and get your entries critiqued by natives.
# Japanese/Reader/第三夜/Part 8
## Story

* 「何がって、知ってるじゃないか」と子供は嘲けるように答えた。すると何だか知ってるような気がし出した。けれども判然とは分らない。ただこんな晩であったように思える。そうしてもう少し行けば分るように思える。分っては大変だから、分らないうちに早く捨ててしまって、安心しなくってはならないように思える。自分はますます足を早めた。

## Vocab

| Kanji | Kana | English |
| 何 | なに | what |
| 知って | しって | know |
| 子供 | こども | child |
| 嘲ける | あざける | mock |
| 答えた | こたえた | answered |
| 気がし出した | きがしだした | started to feel |
| 判然 | はっきり | clearly |
| 分らない | わからない | not understand |
| | ただ | but |
| | こんな | that kind of |
| 晩 | ばん | evening |
| 思える | おもえる | (it) seems (that) |
| もう少し | もうすこし | a bit further |
| 大変 | たいへん | terrible |
| 早く | はやく | as soon as possible |
| 捨てて | すてて | get rid of |
| 安心 | あんしん | feel at ease |
| 自分 | じぶん | myself |
| 足 | あし | legs (walking movement) |
| 早めた | はやめた | speed up |
# Japanese/Vocabulary/Academic subjects

* Astronomy
* Education
* Glaciology
| Japanese | English | Reading | Notes |
| 人類学 | Anthropology | じんるいがく | |
| 生物学 | Biology | せいぶつがく | |
| 科学 | Sciences | かがく | |
| 化学 | Chemistry | かがく | "科学" and "化学" have the same pronunciation, Threfore in order to distinction these two words, Japanese person sometimes pronounces chemistry as "Ba-Ke-Ga-Ku". |
| 経済学 | Economics | けいざいがく | |
| 英語 | English | えいご | |
| 美術 | Fine Arts | びじゅつ | |
| 地理 | Geography | ちり | |
| 雪氷学 | Glaciology | せっぴょうがく | |
| 史学 / 歴史 | History | しがく / れきし | |
| 家庭科 | Home Economics | かていか | |
| 国語 | Japanese | こくご | Analogous to the study of most languages by native speakers, this is not the learning of the language but a mixture of its study with literature and creative composition. |
| 日本語 | Japanese | にほんご | |
| 文学 | Literature | ぶんがく | |
| 数学 | Mathematics | すうがく | |
| 理科 | Natural Sciences | りか | |
| 哲学 | Philosophy | てつがく | |
| 体育 | Physical Education | たいいく | |
| 物理 | Physics | ぶつり | |
| 心理学 | Psychology | しんりがく | |
| 政治 | Politics | せいじ | |
| 宗教 | Religion | しゅうきょう | |
| 社会学 | Sociology | しゃかいがく | |
# English-Hanzi/Patient

A patient is a person who is ill.
病人是生病的人。
# English-Hanzi/Parent

A parent is the father or mother of an animal.
一个 父母 是 动物 的 父亲 或 母亲。
# English-Hanzi/Penang

Penang is a state of Malaysia. It is in the northwest of West Malaysia. Its population is 1.75 million.
Penang是Malaysia的一个州。它在West Malaysia的西北部。它的人口是175万。
# English-Hanzi/Period

A period is a length of time.
一个 期间 是 一段 时间。
# English-Hanzi/Paris

Paris is the capital of France. Its population is 12 million.
巴黎 是 法国 的 首都。它的 人口 是 1200万。
# English-Hanzi/Part

A part is an aspect of something.
一部分 就是 某事物 的 一个 方面。
# English-Hanzi/Performing arts

Performing arts are a form of art in which artists use their voices, bodies or inanimate objects to convey artistic expression.
表演艺术是一种艺术形式，艺术家利用他们的声音，身体或无生命的物体来传达艺术表达。
# English-Hanzi/Particle

Particle is a very small piece of substance.
粒子 是 一个 非常 小 的 物质。
# English-Hanzi/Passenger

Passenger is a person who is traveling on a vehicle but who is not working on the vehicle.
乘客 是 乘坐 交通工具 但 不是 在 该 交通工具 上 工作 的 人。
# English-Hanzi/Pastry

Special:search/pastry prefix:English-Hanzi/
Special:search/cake prefix:English-Hanzi/
Pastry is the general name of all kinds of cakes.
糕点 是 各种 饼类 的 总称。
# Latin/Lesson 3-Subjunctive Imperfect

The conjugation of the subjunctive imperfect active follows a simple rule. The verb in its infinitive form, that is, the second principle part, (amāre, to love, for example) simply has the active personal endings (-m/ō, -s, -t, -mus, -tis, -nt) added:
ego amārem
tu amārēs
is amāret
nos amārēmus
vos amārētis
ei amārent
the passive voice is formed by the addition of passive personal endings (-r, -ris (-re), -tur, -mur, -minī, -ntur) onto the infinitive stem
ego amārer
tu amārēris (-re)
is amārētur
nos amārēmur
vos amārēmini
ei amārentur

## Application

The imperfect subjunctive is only used for complex syntactic constructions; cum clauses and indirect questions and the like. Rarely, if ever, does it stand alone.

### Because/Cum

One application is in its use with 'cum' in the sense of 'because' as a clause. e.g.

#### Diutius cum sustinere nostrorum impetus non possent, Helvetii se in montem receperunt.

    When(Because) the Helvetis could not sustain/resist our attacks for long, they retreated to the mountains.
# Latin/Lesson 3-Future
## Future I, Active

Future active is a tense which, unsurprisingly, refers to something which has not yet happened. The endings are fairly basic, and follow fairly regular rules - however, the future endings used in 1st and 2nd conjugation differ from the endings of 3rd, 3rd-io (not a typo!), and 4th.
For example - "amo, amare" (1st conjugation) would be
| | singular | plural |
| 1st | Ama bo$^*$ I will love | Ama bimus We will love |
| 2nd | Ama bis You will love | Ama bitis Y'all will love |
| 3rd | Ama bit He/She/It will love | Ama bunt$^*$ They will love |
$^*$1st person singular and 3rd person plural use bo and bunt, not bi. Note the B and the BIs - the distinguishing feature of future tense in Latin.
With "venio, venire" (4th conjugation--io), however, the endings are different. In future, this is what they look like:
| | singular | plural |
| 1st | Veni am I will come | Veni emus We will come |
| 2nd | Veni es You will come | Veni etis Y'all will come |
| 3rd | Veni et He/She/It will come | Veni ent They will come |
[deleted paragraphs go here. deleted to maintain rigorous accuracy, which we will go back to striving for.)
To clarify: venire, venio.. we know it is 4th conjugation verb and if we look at its first person singular conjugation, we see that it is an io verb, because the conjugation of the first person singular is "venio". (an io category exists within 3rd and fourth conjugations and is a more general concept which we will briefly introduce here by using venire, venio as an example).
Let's first identify what we know.
We know it is 4th conjugation -io because it ends in ire, which tells us that it is 4th conjugation, and io because its nominative singular ends in io (venio). Because it is io, we leave the i in. So, when we are asked (as all textbooks should phrase these new questions):
1. What are the steps to form the future 2nd person conjugation?
We say:
1. It is better to know more than you need: check the infinitive nominative singular, we now know that it is 4th conjugation io. 2. We now know that we can form the stem: the stem is veni and can then add a personal ending--leaving in the i. We leave in the i because it is io. Because it looks weird, we never leave the i in the future perfect.
What is the form for venire, in the future tense, in the 2nd person?
The answer is venies.
Conjugation in the Future tense :
| | 1st | 2nd | 3rd | mixed | 4th | Irregular | Irregular | Irregular |
| Infinitive: | amare | sedere | legere | capere | venire | ire | velle | esse |
| Singular |||||||||
| 1st person: | amabo | sedebo | legam | capiam | veniam | ibo | volam | ero |
| 2nd person: | amabis | sedebis | leges | capies | venies | ibis | voles | eris |
| 3rd person: | amabit | sedebit | leget | capiet | veniet | ibit | volet | erit |
| Plural |||||||||
| 1st person: | amabimus | sedebimus | legemus | capiemus | veniemus | ibimus | volemus | erimus |
| 2nd person: | amabitis | sedebitis | legetis | capietis | venietis | ibitis | voletis | eritis |
| 3rd person: | amabunt | sedebunt | legent | capient | venient | ibunt | volent | erunt |
# Latin/Lesson 3-Translation

For your pleasure, I present to you a selection of poems from Catullus.
Tips for translation: soon.
# Latin/Lesson 4-Exercises

Write out the subjunctive of laudo in the present tense, both active and passive.
Write out the subjunctive of laudo in the imperfect tense, both active and passive.
Write out the subjunctive of laudo in the perfect tense, both active and passive.
Write out the subjunctive of laudo in the future tense, both active and passive.