OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# FOSS Licensing/Preface

Under the current copyright regime, software users are subject to restrictive regulations. This regime is said to provide individuals with incentives in terms of economic returns and thus encourages them to develop creative works. However, some software developers disagree with this default configuration of copyright law and value other things more than short-term economic incentives.
The Free/Open Source Software (FOSS) Movement was started by grassroots developers who are not content with the current copyright system. They tactically use specifically designed FOSS licenses to allow a community with a different world-view to develop and flourish. Lawyers are sometimes brought in to facilitate the collaboration between developers.
However, software development and software licensing are very different activities, and developers and lawyers often have very different mindsets. While developers tend to use whatever resources are available to them to achieve a particular feature, lawyers may request a copy of the license of every existing module that developers wish to adopt, before they actually approve the integration into the project. And while developers tend to use acronyms to make their communication more succinct, lawyers tend to use arcane terms and complicated sentences to make sure their ideas can be clearly delivered. Therefore, in order to successfully develop FOSS applications, both these professions are required to cooperate with each other.
As the FOSS Movement has been growing rapidly in recent years, more and more different kinds of stakeholders are brought in to participate in different roles. Some of them are end-users, developers, business entities, or government agencies that provide funding for FOSS projects. This primer is designed to provide these stakeholders with some basic knowledge about copyright, software copyright and FOSS licenses. Legal issues may vary in different situations and this primer may not be able to provide answers to all situations. But, hopefully, it will serve as a bridge between lawyers and non-lawyers in this joint venture of FOSS development.
# Digital Signal Processing/Least Squares Design

The mathematical technique known as least squares can be used to design digital filters. This method works by creating the polynomial (transfer function) that is the "best fit" to a set of desired data (magnitude response).
# Digital Signal Processing/Licensing
## License

The text of this book is released under the following license:
# Digital Signal Processing/Resources
## Wikimedia Resources

* Reaktor
* Programming:MATLAB
* Octave Programming
* Control Systems
* Signals and Systems
* Engineering Analysis
* wikipedia:Digital Signal Processing

## Books

* Lathi, B. P, Signal Processing and Linear Systems, Oxford University Press, 1998. ISBN 0195219171
* Mitra, Sanjit K, Digital Signal Processing: A Computer-Based Approach, McGraw Hill, 2006. ISBN 0072865466
* Haykin, Simon, Adaptive Filter Theory', Fourth Edition, Prentice Hall, 2002. ISBN 0130901261
# Digital Signal Processing/Multirate Filters
## Multirate Filters

There are many instances where the rate at which a signal can be processed by a particular component or module is different from the speed at which data enters that module.
Example: DVD and CD Audio
CD audio is encoded at 44.1K samples per second. DVD audio, by comparison, is encoded at 48K samples per second. In order to convert music from one to the other, the sample rate needs to be altered.

## Upsampling

Upsampling creates more samples in the same amount of time, typically by inserting zero-valued samples between the preexisting samples. At first blush, this may seem like an ill-conceived approach. However, if one considers that a discrete signal is already zero between the sample points, the approach begins to make more sense.

## Spectral Effects

Inserting a single zero between each of the samples will cause the spectrum to replicate and fold, creating a mirror image. If the original sample rate was $f_{s}$, the new sample rate will be $2f_{s}$, and the spectrum will fold and replicate at ${\frac {f_{s}}{2}}$. This image can then be filtered out using a low-pass filter.
Inserting more than one zero between sample points will cause the spectrum to replicate and fold accordion-style. If N zeros are inserted, N images will be created. Again, these images can be attenuated by applying a low-pass filter.

## Implementation

Typically, the low-pass filter and the upsampler are implemented as a unit, and the upsampling takes place only conceptually. Since the zero-valued samples will not contribute to the sum of products in an FIR filter, these multiplications are simply skipped. Zero times anything is zero.

## Downsampling

Downsampling, or decimation is the process of discarding certain samples so that there are fewer samples in the same amount of time. Once discarded, those samples can never be replaced and error is introduced into the system. However, a downsampled system can also be processed with a slower filter, which is typically less expensive.

### Spectral Effects

Downsampling causes the spectrum to spread. If the spectrum is periodic, there could be some overlapping of spectral objects, and this causes aliasing. Aliasing of this sort is typically resolved by passing the downsampled signal through a low-pass filter to help remove the overlapped areas.

## Ideal Reconstructor

An ideal reconstructor can be created by having an upsampler followed directly by a downsampler.
Similarly, if a single is separated, each branch can be delayed and downsampled, and then combined together with zero loss. This enables the signal to be processed at a much slower rate then the input data rate, without losing any data.

## Fractional Decimation

Upsampling and downsamping alter the size of the data set by an integer ratio of samples. In order to achieve a fractional sample rate, upsamplers and downsamplers need to be coupled together to change the data rate to a fraction of the input data rate.
# Digital Signal Processing/Quantization
## Further reading

* Wikibooks: Floating Point
* Wikibooks: Embedded Systems/Floating Point Unit
# Field Guide/Mammals/Black Bear

* 1 2 3 Plunkett, Richard (2011), Black Bears, retrieved October 7, 2012
* 1 2 3 4 Dewey, Tanya; Kronk, Christine (2012), Ursus americanus: American black bear, retrieved October 7, 2012
# Field Guide/Mammals/American Beaver

* 1 2 3 4 5 Jenkins, S; Busher, P (1979), "Castor Canadensis" (PDF), Mammalian Species, vol. 120, pp. 1–8, retrieved October 4, 2012
* 1 2 3 Minnesota Department of Natural Resources (2012), Beaver, retrieved October 4, 2012
* 1 2 Linzey, A; NatureServe; Hammerson, G; Cannings, S (2011), Castor Canadensis, retrieved October 9, 2012
# Field Guide/Mammals/American Marten

* 1 2 Reid, F.; Helgen, K. (2008), Martes Americana, retrieved (October 7, 2012) {{citation}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
* 1 2 Berg, Bill (2001), "Minnesota Conservation Volunteer Magazine", American Marten (Martes Americana), no. january–february, retrieved (October 7, 2012) {{citation}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
* 1 2 3 4 5 Ellis, Eric, J. (1999), Martes Americana (on-line), retrieved (October 7, 2012) {{citation}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
# Field Guide/Mammals/American Mink

* 1 2 "Neovison vison", Encyclopedia of Life, retrieved April 14, 2018
* ↑ "American Mink", Conserve Ireland: A guide to Irelands Protected Habitats and Species, 2009, retrieved September 23, 2012
* 1 2 3 4 Kirkland, Gordon Jr.; Schmidt, David F. (1996), "Neovison vison", Mammalian Species, no. 524, pp. 1–5, retrieved September 23, 2012
* 1 2 Reid, F.; Helgen, K. (2008), "Neovision Vision", IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, retrieved April 14, 2018
# Field Guide/Mammals/Bobcat
## References

* ↑ Bobcats, n.d., retrieved (October 12, 2012) {{citation}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
* 1 2 3 4 5 Basic facts about bobcats, 2012, retrieved (October 12, 2012) {{citation}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
* ↑ Ulmer, Fred, Melanism in the Felidae, with Special Reference to the Genus Lynx
* ↑ Bobcat Lynx rufus, retrieved (October 13, 2012) {{citation}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
* 1 2 Animal Fact Sheet: Bobcat, 2008, retrieved (October 12, 2012) {{citation}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
* 1 2 3 Clark, W.R. (2011), Habitat Use and Social Structure, retrieved (October 12, 2012) {{citation}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
# Field Guide/Mammals/American Badger

* 1 2 3 4 5 Long, Charles (1972), "Taxonomic Revision of the North American Badger, Taxidea taxus", Journal of Mammalogy, retrieved October 5, 2012
* 1 2 3 Reid, F; helgen, K (1973), "Taxidea taxus", IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, retrieved October 4, 2012
* ↑ Long, Charles (1973), "Mammalian Species, Taxidea taxus", The American Society of Mammalogits, retrieved October 4, 2012
* 1 2 3 Scobie, Dave (2002), 20of%20American%20Badger%20in%20Alberta_2002.pdf "Wildlife Status Report No. 43" (PDF), Alberta Conservation Association, retrieved October 5, 2012 {{citation}}: Check |url= value (help); horizontal tab character in |url= at position 93 (help)
# Field Guide/Mammals/American Bison

* 1 2 3 Newell, T.L.; Sorin, A.B. (2003), ADW: Bison bison., retrieved (October 13, 2012) {{citation}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
* ↑ Bison bison range map; American Bison., (1999), retrieved (October 13, 2012) {{citation}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |year= (help)
* ↑ Meagher, M., Historic Bison Study- Yellowstone National Park., retrieved (October 13, 2012) {{citation}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
* 1 2 3 McHugh, Tom, Abstract - Social Behavior of the American Buffalo (Bison bison bison), retrieved (October 13, 2012) {{citation}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
* ↑ Caslick, J. (2011), Wildlife-Human Conflicts in Yellowstone. When Animals and People Get TooClose., retrieved (October 13, 2012) {{citation}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
* ↑ Great Plains Restoration Council, retrieved (October 13, 2012) {{citation}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
# Field Guide/Mammals/Arctic Shrew

* 1 2 "Arctic Shrew-Sorex Arcticus", Montana Field Guide, retrieved September 23, 2012
* 1 2 3 Lariviere, Serge (1999), "Sorex Arcticus", Mammalian Species, no. 608, pp. 1–9, retrieved September 23, 2012
* 1 2 3 4 5 6 Seto, Stephanie (2006), "Sorex Arcticus, Arctic Shrew", Animal Diversity Web, retrieved September 23, 2012
* ↑ Clough, Garrett (1963), "Biology of the Shrew", American Midland Naturalist, no. 69, pp. 69–81, retrieved September 23, 2012
# Field Guide/Mammals/Canada Lynx
## References

* 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Minnesota Department of Natural Resources (2012), Mammals of Minnesota: Canada lynx, retrieved September 23, 2012
* 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Canadian Geographic, Canada lynx fact sheet, retrieved September 23, 2012
* ↑ University of Minnesota, Duluth (2009), Canada Lynx of the Great Lakes Region, retrieved September 23, 2012
* 1 2 National Geographic, Lynx, retrieved September 23, 2012
* ↑ Tumlison, R. (1987), "Felis lynx", Mammalian Species, vol. 269, pp. 1–8
# English-Hanzi/Site

A site is a particular place.
一个场所是一个特定的地方。
# English-Hanzi/Skin

Skin is the tissue that is the surface of the body.
皮肤 是 身体 表面 的 组织。
# English-Hanzi/Solar system

A solar system is a system that its planets run around its sun.
太阳系 是 其 行星 围绕 其 太阳 运行 的 系统。
# English-Hanzi/Skill

A skill is a particular ability.
技能 是 一种 特殊 的 能力。
# English-Hanzi/Skin cancer

Skin cancer is a malignant tumor on the skin. Ultraviolet light can cause skin cancer.
皮肤癌 是 皮肤 上 的 恶性 肿瘤。紫外线会导致皮肤癌。
# English-Hanzi/Snow

Snow is the soft frozen water from the sky.
雪 是 来自 天空 柔软 的 结了 冰 的 水。
# English-Hanzi/Sky

The sky is the outdoor space that you can see when you look up.
天空 就是 抬头 看到 的 室外 空间。
# English-Hanzi/Smell

Smell is a sense that is able to recognize odor.
嗅觉是一种能够识别气味的官能。
# English-Hanzi/Sodium

Sodium is a chemical element. it is a silver-white metal. It is usually found in chemical compounds.
钠 是 一种 化学 元素。它 是 一种 银白色 的 金属。它 通常 在 化合物 中 被 发现。
# English-Hanzi/Sole

The sole is the bottom part of the foot.
脚掌是足部的底部。
# English Criminal Law/Bibliography

* Articles
* Tappan, Paul (1947). "Who is the Criminal?". American Sociological Review. American Sociological Association. 12 (1): 96–102.
* Books
* Ashworth, A. and Horder, J. (2016). Principles of Criminal Law (8 ed.). Oxford: OUP.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
* Lacey, N., Wells, C. and Quick, O. (2003). Reconstructing Criminal Law (3 ed.). London: Butterworths.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
* Ormerod, D. and Laird, K. (2015). Smith and Hogan's Criminal Law (14 ed.). Oxford: OUP.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
* Simester, A.P. and Sullivan, G.R. (2003). Criminal Law: Theory and Doctrine (2 ed.). Oxford: Hart Publishing.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
* Smith, J.C. and Hogan, B. (2005). Criminal Law (11 ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
* Williams, G. (1961). Criminal Law: The General Part (2 ed.). London: Stevens.
* Williams, G. (1983). Textbook of Criminal Law (2 ed.). London: Stevens.
# English Criminal Law/Mens rea

* The mens rea of a crime is made up of those elements which relate to the state of mind of the accused. In our example of theft, the mens rea elements are "dishonesty" and "intention to permanently deprive". Mens rea elements are often harder to spot in legislation as the words are adjectives, generally non-standard and emotive. Examples might include "dishonest", "intentionally", "fraudulently", or "knowingly". The three types of accepted mens rea elements are intention, recklessness or negligence.
* Intention
* Criminal intention can be further broken into two groups, direct and oblique. A direct intention is the willful desire to commit an act. It must be understood that the intention sufficient to amount to mens rea is only the intention to perform the required criminal act, not an intention for the result to occur. Assault occasioning actual bodily harm (Section 47 of the Offences Against The Person Act 1861) is a good example here. The requisite mens rea is intention to cause assault. If A intentionally assaults B and harm results, he is guilty of the offence. The fact that he does not intend harm is irrelevant. He intended to do the act, and harm is simply a by-product.
* Oblique intention, also known as indirect intention, refers to a knowledge or belief that a consequence is a virtual certainty, and acting with this in mind, although the result may not be intended. To explain further: A intends to punch B, but they are separated by a pane of glass. His intention to punch B is direct as he desires to perform this act. Breaking the glass in pursuance of his goal amounts to the actus reus of criminal damage, but A does not desire for this to take place. Since punching B will inevitably result in breaking the glass, it is a virtual certainty. therefore, in punching B, A had oblique intention for criminal damage - he appreciates that it will happen, and although does not desire it, continues to act regardless.
* Recklessness
* Intention will be more clear from an example: suppose that a man has many desires, some of which are deemed to be too visionary, some he lacks the energy to implement. But if he decides to achieve his desires, and begins to start to act to that end, the desire becomes the intention with which he acts.
* Transferred malice
* The doctrine of 'transferred malice' operates when there is an unexpected divergence between the defendant's mental state and the occurrence of the actus reus. The mens rea is regarded as transferred when this divergence is immaterial to the definition of the offence. Thus, if D fires a gun intending to kill T but misses and kills V instead, the fact that V's death was unintended does not preclude D's liability for murder. It is sufficient that D intended to kill a person — the identity of that person is irrelevant to the offence definition. Compare this with the situation where D's bullet, instead of hitting T, breaks a window of the nearby house. Here the intention to kill a person cannot be 'transferred' to make D guilty of criminal damage — an offence with a different mens rea requirement.
* Notes
# English Criminal Law

This book is part of a series on UK Law:
Company Law Contract Law Criminal Law Database Law Equity and Trusts Property Law Tort Law
* This book is about English Criminal Law, its history, development and current state. The book is designed to complement the Wikiversity course of the same name, but can be read on its own. Each chapter begins with an outline of the topic because an understanding of the principles of criminal law is necessary to place the topic in context. Where appropriate each chapter will highlight relevant case law and statutes, which may include links to other resources within and outside Wikimedia wikis.
* The main goals of the book are to enable the reader to:
* understand the aims and functions of the criminal justice system;
* understand the major criminal offences;
* understand the concept of criminal liability;
* critically evaluate the criminal law and reform proposals.
* Part 1: Theory
* Introduction  (2017-04-17)
* Actus reus  (2017-04-17)
* Mens rea  (2017-04-17)
* Defences  (2017-04-17)
* Part 2: Offences
* Non-fatal general offences  (2017-04-17)
* Non-fatal sexual offences  (2017-04-17)
* Offences against property  (2017-04-17)
* Murder  (2017-04-17)
* Manslaughter  (2017-04-17)
* Inchoate offences  (2017-04-17)
* Part 3: Appendices
* Bibliography  (2017-04-17)
* Glossary  (2017-04-17)
* Style Guide and Authors  (2017-04-17)
* This book is dual licensed under the GFDL and Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License.
# English Criminal Law/Defences

* Mistake
* Intoxication
* Voluntary Intoxication is generally not a defence to the commission of crime.
* Involuntary Intoxication, on the other hand, is an affirmative defense on which a defendant bears the burden of proof. The defendant's burden of proof typically by a preponderance of the evidence, less than the prosecutions burden to prove him guilty beyond a reasonable doubt.
* Infancy and mental disorder defences
* Duress
* Duress must be to ones property, family or ones self.
* Self-defence and necessity
* Notes
# English Criminal Law/Introduction

* Criminal law is a branch of law that deals with crimes by forbidding behavior that is threatening or harmful to other people. Understanding criminal law, whatever the jurisdiction, requires that you:
* become aware of the complexity and occasionally contradictory nature of criminal justice.
* explore the theory behind criminal law concepts
* examine the methods for avoiding or reducing criminal responsibility
* are able to outline some of the major criminal offences
* The topics covered in this book will help you achieve these objectives by covering the basic principles of criminal law and criminality, criminal liability, the structure of an offence, and examining the most important of the numerous criminal offences.
* Look at the first sentence of this page and note that seems a straightforward definition. It is easy to accept simple definitions but this is a complex and controversial area that can be examined by asking what is a crime? There is no single universal definition but one answer would be the "black letter" approach:
* Crime is an intentional act in violation of the criminal law, committed without defence or excuse and penalised by the state.
* —Tappan, P., Who is the Criminal? (1947)
* Naturally this leads to the questions of what should be a crime and what the criminal justice system should do? There have to be genuine justifications for punishing someone because it is a very serious infringement of their personal liberty.
* Notes
* ↑ Tappan, Paul (1947). "Who is the Criminal?". American Sociological Review. American Sociological Association. 12 (1): 96–102.
# English Criminal Law/Style Guide and Authors

* Style Guide
* Please follow the style guide. Changes to the guide should be proposed on the Talk page for agreement of consensus between contributors.
* This book is about English Criminal Law, which is one of three legal systems of the UK. Generally the material should avoid Scots Law and Northern Irish Law, unless relevant to the development of English law.
* The writing style used in the book is British English. If content is added in other varieties of English, it will be changed to a British English.
* This book is designed to be fully self contained. It is not an encyclopedia article and there are more minimal links to Wikipedia. Where it is necessary to explain a legal term, it should be linked to an entry in the Glossary within the book.
* The book is also designed to be used in conjunction with the Wikiversity course on English Criminal Law.
* The book uses minimal in-line references; please add the full citation in the Bibliography, not within the individual chapters. This also applies to bare URLs and external links - put them in the Bibliography.
* Authors
* This is a list of significant contributors as of April 2017. If you've made a major contribution and wish to be recognised, please add your name below:
* Green Giant
# English Criminal Law/Glossary

| Black letter | This refers to generally accepted legal rules that are no longer the subject of major disputes, as opposed to legal theory or unsettled legal issues. |
# Fortran/Fortran variables
## Introduction

In programming, a variable is a container for data that the program can change. You typically declare variables before you use them to provide information on what kind of data they should store. However, Fortran allows variables to be created implicitly. Absent an implicit statement, undeclared variables and arguments beginning with i/I through n/N (the "in" group) will be integer, and all other undeclared variables and arguments will be real.
Many consider using variables without declaring them bad practice. If you want to be forced to declare variables, code implicit none first.

## General Examples

Examples of usual variables are listed below
The following does exactly the same thing, but in the shorter, more archaic form:
If memory layout counts to you, note that m(1,1) is followed in memory by m(2,1), and not by m(1,2).
A variable can be set by placing it before an equal sign, which is followed by the value to which it is set. Given the declarations above, the following assignments are possible:
A variable can appear on both sides of an assignment. The right hand side is evaluated first, and the variable is then assigned to that value:
Variables can be converted from one type to another, but unlike in C++ or Java where you would typecast the variable, in Fortran you use the intrinsic procedures:
Again, the same thing in the simpler, archaic form:

## Arrays
### Declaration

One can declare arrays using two different notations. The following example illustrates the notations for arrays of integer type and of length 5.
For multidimensional arrays one needs to specify the length of each dimension. The following example highlights the case of a 5x6 integer matrix aka a two-dimensional array of length (5,6). (Again, showing both notations.)

### Initialization

To initialize arrays with actual values one has multiple options: set specific elements, specific ranges, or the whole array.
To set multidimensional arrays one need to make use of reshape, and shape commands.
Fortran uses column-major ordering such that the upper example produces a often confusing matrix. For a row-major ordering one can use the following example which highlights the use of the order argument to specify along which dimension to sort first.