OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# AP Biology/Taxonomy

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Taxonomy is the naming system by which all organisms are classified. As there are millions of species on earth, this naming system allows scientists to give each species a unique name. Binomial nomenclature, or naming using two names, was developed by Carolus Linnaeus in 1735. This consists of the genus followed by the species (Homo sapiens is human, for example).

## Classification

Complete classification of an organism involves seven names, proceeding in this order:
* Kingdom
* Phylum
* Class
* Order
* Family
* Genus
* Species

### Kingdoms

There are five kingdoms: Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia. All organisms are classified into one of these five kingdoms, except for viruses.

#### Monera

Monera consists of organisms composed of prokaryotic cells. This kingdom contains only two phyla:
* Schizopyta" - bacteria(Archaebacteria and Eubacteria)
* Cyanophyta - blue-green algae

#### Protista

Protista consists of the eukaryotic cellular organisms that cannot be classified into any of the other eukaryotic kingdoms. There are animal-like protists (Protazoa), plant-like protists (Algae), and fungi-like protists.

#### Fungi

Fungi consists of multicellular eukaryotes that absorb their energy and reproduce asexually through spores. There are two phyla in the Fungi kingdom: Myxomycophyta (slime molds) and Eumycophyta (true fungi: molds, yeast, mushrooms, etc.).

#### Plantae

Plantae consists of multicellular plants. Major phyla of this kingdom are:
* Chlorophyta - green algae
* Bryophyta - mosses, liverworts, hornworts
* Pterophyta - ferns
* Coniferophyta - conifers
* Anthophyta - flowering plants

#### Animalia

Animalia consists of multicellular animals. Major phyla of this kingdom are:
* Porifera - sponges
* Chordata - vertebrates
* Cnidaria
* Platyhelminthes
* Nematoda
* Annelida
* Mollusca
* Arthropoda
* Echinodermata
# AP Biology/LABORATORY 3. Mitosis and Meiosis

Mitosis and meiosis are both forms of reproduction. Mitosis is asexual reproduction and requires only one parent cell; meiosis is sexual and so requires two parent cells. Mitosis produces two identical cells (clones), while meiosis produces four genetically variable cells. Meiosis occurs only in the gonads, while mitosis occurs all over the body in somatic cells. Mitosis produces 2 diploid (2n) cells- that is, they have the normal number of chromosomes- and meiosis produces 4 haploid (n) cells. Haploid cells have only half the normal number of chromosomes. Meiosis 1, meiosis 2, and mitosis all have the four phases: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase, in that order. Meiosis one is followed by interkinesis, the resting stage. Interkinesis is the same as interphase, which takes place in mitosis, except no replication occurs. Crossing over and independent assortment of chromosomes takes place in meiosis, but does not happen in mitosis. The functions of mitosis are growth, repair, regeneration, and asexual reproduction. The functions of meiosis include genetic variation and sexual reproduction.
# AP Biology/LABORATORY 9. Transpiration

Transpiration is when plants lose water vapour into the atmosphere through the aerial parts of a leaf known as the stomata.
# AP Biology/Photosynthesis

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Photosynthesis is the process by which plants convert sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water into energy (sugar). The chemical reaction is:
$light+12H_{2}O+6CO_{2}\rightarrow C_{6}H_{1}2O_{6}+6H_{2}O+6O_{2}\,\!$
It is because of this process that plants are defined as autotrophs; they make their own food, as opposed to heterotrophs which consume each other and the autotrophs for food. The photosynthetic process itself has two main parts: the light-dependent reactions in which the energy of sunlight is used to load energy into the energy transfer molecule common to all life forms: Adenosine Triphosphate or ATP and to load the high energy electron carrier abbreviated NADPH with high energy electrons. The energy needed to power these steps is collected by chlorophyll molecules found arranged into photosystems in the chloroplasts.
# AP Biology/Resources

Contents | Preface | Diagrams | Resources | Contributors | Edit Navigation Bar

## External links

* The College Board
* PHSchool

## Wikibooks

* Biology

## Vocabulary

* Vocabulary
# AP Biology/LABORATORY 2. Enzyme Catalysis

Enzymes are responsible for speeding up the rate of a reaction, but not changing whether or not a reaction is favorable.
Enzymes act to reduce the activation energy of a reaction by
* increasing the local concentration of the reactant
* putting the reactants in the proper conformation
* straining the reactants to favor the transition state
Enzymes have an active site where the reactants bind and may have additional sites affecting their activity.
Enzymes' level of activity is affected by the presence of substrate and can eventually reach a maximum if all active sites are saturated.
Enzymes aren’t living, so they can’t “die”, but under certain conditions (e.g., extreme temperatures, pH changes, exposure to certain chemicals) they can become denatured. When enzymes denature, their active sites (where substrates bind) change shape, rendering them less effective or completely inactive. Often, once denatured, enzymes cannot catalyze reactions as they normally would, because their structure is essential to their function.
# AP Biology/LABORATORY 4. Plant Pigments and Photosynthesis

In photosynthesis, plant cells convert light energy into chemical energy that is stored in sugars and other organic compounds. Critical to the process is chlorophyll, the primary photosynthetic pigment in chloroplasts.
This laboratory has two separate activities: I. Plant Pigment Chromatography, and II. Measuring the Rate of Photosynthesis. Select the one you want to study, beginning with Key Concepts for that section.
# A-level English/Wise Children/Feminism
## Quotes

* "A father is a hypothesis but a mother is a fact"
* "I wonder why they call it father Thames"
* "I'm not ready to be a father"
* "No man ever is"
* "We boast the only castrato grandfather clock in London" - notice the emasculation of the grandfather clock, 'castrato'=castrated, shows lack of need for a paternal/dominating male figure in the Chance household.
* "Grandma had never known, not until she picked us up on that very first day, what men were for"

## Representation of women

In 'Wise Children', as in much of Carter's work - notably 'Nights at the Circus' - Carter punctuates the myth of male superiority and female goodness. The women in the book are none of them saints and the most saintlike of them, Lady Atlanta, is revealed to have had an affair with Peregrine, her brother-in-law, resulting in him possibly being the father of the 'darling buds of May', Saskia and Imogen. The men in the book are also seen to be flawed and their grasp onto power, or, in Melchior's case, legitimate and high theatre, fails, as seen in the disastrous 'A Midsummer Night's Dream' and the innocuous comment made to him on the Tube: 'I say, didn't you used to be Mechior Hazard?'. The Chance twins 'irreverantly high-kick their way through Shakespeare' (The Guardian, 21 December 2005)and the legend of the femme-fatale is disintegrated with the exuberant, larger than life character Daisy Duck.
An excellent example of Carter almost giving a feminist edge to an existing situation comes in the final chapter during Tiffany's confrontation with Tristram. The scene is immediately reminiscant of not only the reconciliation of Claudio and Hero in Much Ado About Nothing but also the final scene in A Winter's Tale. However, instead of the male (who has been in the wrong) being accepted by the female character, Tiffany rejects the humbled Tristram. This is arguably more realistic.
# A-level English/Wise Children/Angela Carter and Influences on Wise Children

See
* http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angela_Carter
* http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/acarter.htm
* http://www.angelacartersite.co.uk/
* http://www.themodernword.com/scriptorium/carter.html
* http://www.themodernword.com/scriptorium/carter.html

## Angela Carter's Influences

Carter found out she was dying of cancer during the writing of Wise Children which gives reason to the idea of living life to the full in the novel.
# A-level English/The Miller's Prologue and Tale/Past Paper Questions

In what ways was the miller compared to animals?

## 1

Explore the ways Chaucer presents fourteenth century attitudes towards women in The Miller's Prologue and Tale

## 2

Remind yourself of lines 199 - 243 (from "Thanne fil it thus, that to the parissh chirche" to " For curteisie, he seide, he wolde noon"), in which The Miller introducesthe character of Absolon.
What is the importance of this section in the whole of The Miller's Prologue and Tale?

## 3

In the Miller's Prologue Chaucer informs us that the Miller told his churles tale "in his manere". Explore the ways that the Miller's character is reflected in The Miller's Tale.

## 4

What do you find interesting about the way that Chaucer satirises the code of Courtly Love in The Miller's Prologue and Tale?

## 5

Remind yourself of lines 113 - 162 (from "This carpenter hadde wedded newe a wyf," to "Or yet for any good yeman to wedde." in which the Miller first describes Alison.
What is the importance of this section in the context of the whole of The Miller's Prologue and Tale?
# A-level English/Wise Children

The A-level Wise Children Study Guide
You are viewing the Wise Children Study Guide Wikibook. It is an attempt to provide a study guide for those reading Wise Children as their 'Modern Novel' for the AQA examination board (AS English Literature, Specification A - paper LTA1). I would be grateful for any additions to this Wikibook as it only takes a few dedicated contributors to make a really useful resource that students can use to study this text.
Narrative Techniques
Plot Summary
Past Paper Questions - There are currently 15 past paper questions listed
Model Answers - Model Answers and exam tips
Allusions to Shakespeare - There are 26 known references to different Shakespearean plays in Wise Children.
References to People and Books in Wise Children
Post-Modernism
Feminism - Feminism in Wise Children.
Angela Carter and Influences on Wise Children
Magical Realism and Bakhtin's Theory
Key Quotes - Useful quotations as the text cannot be taken into the examination.
Character Profiles
Understanding the complex family tree
Themes

## Assessment Objectives

The ‘modern novel’ forms 30% of the A.S. grade and therefore 15% of the A-level grade. It is a closed book examination, which lasts one hour where you will be able to answer one question of the two that are available to you. Often one will be on a character or a theme and the other will involve analysing an extract.
You will be examined on different assessment objectives. Although the paper is marked out of twenty below are the weighting of each assessment objective as if the paper was out of thirty so that the numbers round to whole numbers. This should communicate that more emphasis is placed on some objectives than others.
AO1 Terminology (7 marks)
AO2 Knowledge (10 marks)
AO3 Structure/meaning (8 marks)
AO4 Your Opinion (5 marks)

## See also

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wise_Children - The Wikipedia on 'Wise Children' may also prove useful to you.

## Authors of this wikibook

People who have contributed to this wikibook can add their names/Wikipedia usernames below:
* SBY
* [Rebecca!]
# A-level English/Wise Children/Bakhtin's Theory

Bakhtin was a Russian Scholar whose work was centered on the idea of Carnivalesque. Carnivalesque, relating to the carnival is a theme in literature with aspects of chaos and disarray, of social hierarchies being reversed, of celebration and of the worshipping of bodily functions. However, the main aspect of the carnivalesque was the idea of the 'cycle of life'. Bahktin created an image of an old hag, near death but about to give birth. Even though she is near to the end of her life, she is bringing new life into the world. In Wise Children, this idea of the old hag is played upon by Carter, exploring the idea that Dora and Nora are the old hags, who are given new life in the form of two new twin babies by Perry.
# A Compendium of Useful Information for the Practical Man/Water Supply
## Filter, Drinking Water, Gravel and Charcoal

Take an oak cask or barrel that is sound, sweet and clean; bore an inch hole near the bottom of one side, in which insert the end of a piece of three-quarter inch lead pipe (from inside), ten or twelve inches long, the other end projecting inward and bent upward toward the middle of the cask. In the lower end place a common beer faucet or stop cock, from which to draw water as desired.
Have ready say one bushel of good hard wood charcoal, and the same quantity of clean, fine gravel—not limestone—from the fineness of coarse sand, up to the size of peas, and if not clean, wash it till no dirt will appear in the water.
Break the charcoal to the size of walnuts and smaller, then mix it evenly with the gravel. Cover the bottom of the cask three or four inches thick with this mixture, pounding it down firmly. Next take a clean tin vessel, the shape of a garden flower-pot, of large size (say two gallons), and place it bottom upward in the center of the barrel, on top of the layer of gravel and coal, and over the end of the lead pipe. Then take a piece of small sized one-quarter or threeeighth inch lead or wood pipe, and place one end firmly into a hole in the bottom of the vessel, and bring the other end through a hole bored near the top of the barrel, for the purpose of admitting air into the space under the pail. Now fill in the space around and above the tin vessel with the mixture of coal and gravel, pounding it firmly down as you proceed, till the cask is about threefourths full; then place some thin flat stones (not limestones) on top, and the filter is complete.
The water being poured in on top, passes through the gravel and charcoal, by which it is purified, and enters the chamber from which it is drawn by the faucet, as required, the small pipe admitting air into the chamber to supply the place of the water while it is being drawn out.
This filter is only designed for rain or soft water, and will serve for constant use a year or more without renewal; but if used for hard water, the charcoal soon loses its virtue. When first put up, the water drawn from the filter will have an alkaline taste, but that disappears after the filter has been in operation a day or two.
Blakelee's industrial cyclopedia: a simple practical guide ... A ready ... By George E. Blakelee
# A Comprehensive Guide to World History/Prologue
## The Prologue to History

There was no time. There was no space. There was simply nothing. The universe was but a state of immense heat and energy, and incredible density. Such a scale of energy and heat that was so compact was the precursor to all history, and by means still not exactly known, the dense state of heat and energy suddenly and rapidly expanded, travailing at a speed barely comprehensible. The Big Bang. Just a mere second after the universe came into existence it was at a temperature of 5.5 billion Celsius (10 billion Fahrenheit). This cosmic plasma soup contained a vast array of fundamental particles such as neutrons, electrons, and protons, which as the universe gradually cooled died off. 13.798 ± 0.037 billion BCE. The start of history. Over the next billions of years the universe continued to cool off and expand, even to this day, it is still expanding from the force of the Big Bang. Eventually, hydrogen, helium, and lithium, created from particles formed by the Big Bang, started to come together to form heavier elements, which would in turn form stars.
Why does this matter? Why is Astronomy history being discussed in a world history wikibook? Because humanity itself is made from the big bang. Carbon-based lifeforms are made up of elements first conceived in the Big Bang. The particles of the early universe are what form our bodies. We are made of star stuff. Further more, the advancement of humanity is also possible only through the formation of the universe. The natural metal and ore deposits on Earth shaped history, as everything from weapons and armor to plows and eating utensils would not be possible if the right elements had not formed in the Big Bang. While obviously in the broad sense the Big Bang created history by creating time itself, the Big Bang contributed all of the necessary conditions and elements for human civilization to arise. People in the past were often fascinated by space and the stars, and rightfully so. Everything we know today came from the stars. Even you, the reader, has portions of the universe from the Big Bang flowing through your veins, beating in your chest. In order to understand and appreciate the proceeding guide through history, it is important to know that all of it was due to a cosmic coincidence that remnants of still can be seen today. Perhaps the amazement with the cosmos is symbiotic, as we continue to study the force that brought us into creation, that force also ever studies us, watching us grow and evolve as our society and civilizations advance. And in that cosmic sense, that is the essence of history.
# A Compendium of Useful Information for the Practical Man/Water, Purification and Filtration
## Purification

Generally to purify water you boil it and most bacteria will then be gone. At high altitudes, where water boils at a significantly lower temperature, boiling may not reliably kill enough bacteria to make the water safe. Boiling will not remove toxic chemicals or contamination so the water may still be unfit to drink.

## Filtration

There are a few methods
* Filter paper
* Reed beds grow around pollution ergo they take pollutants in from the water
* Reverse osmosis
# A Comprehensive Guide to World History

The history of humanity is an interesting story. From our starts on fertile river banks to the massive globally linked skyscraper sea we live in today, humanity has woven a tail written by war, politics, religions, technology, and curiosity. As we constantly create history in our ever advancing society, one should look back on the history already created to understand the world today. Much of the concepts in society like politics, business, and military have been shaped by events that happened in history. This comprehensive guide will take you through thousands of years of human history from all over the world. This is not an encyclopedia of historical events and persons, but rather a tour guide through history that aims to show how humanity has advanced. The tour starts now.

## Table of Contents

* Prologue
* Prehistory
** Stone Age
*** Paleolithic
*** Mesolithic
*** Neolithic
** Rise of Civilization
* Ancient History
** Cradles of civilization
*** Mesopotamia
*** India
*** China
*** Andes
*** Mesoamerica
*** Greece
** Axial Age
** Regional empires
** Declines, falls, and resurgence
* Post-Classical History
** Europe
** Middle East
** Africa
*** Sub-Saharan Africa
** South Asia
** Southeast Asia
** East Asia
** Oceania
** Americas
* Modern History
** Early Modern period
*** Renaissance
*** European Expansion
*** Regional developments
** Late Modern Period
*** Scientific and Industrial Revolutions
*** Age of Imperialism
*** World War I
*** Interwar Period
*** World War II
* Contemporary History
** Cold War
*** Space Race
*** Proxy Wars
**** Korea
**** Vietnam
**** Afghanistan
** Digital Revolution
** 21st Century
*** Near East Feuds
**** War on Terror
**** Arab Spring
*** COVID-19 Pandemic
*** Climate change

## General References

* Wikipedia

## Authors

EarlGrey2005 (talk)
# Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Camping/CampShower

Most outdoor outfitters carry camp showers, but the trick is setting up a showering area that will provide clean feet and privacy.
Clean feet can be had by building a platform similar to the table shown above, except that it need not be lashed to any trees - it can simply lie on the ground. If you do not build a platform, you will create a mud hole when you shower, and then everything will be clean except your feet. Somehow the mud on the feet have a way of migrating elsewhere too, rendering the whole showering experience an exercise in futility. Don't scrimp on the rope when attaching the spars to the poles - the platform must be secure and stable, and the spars must not roll around. Lash them down securely.
For privacy, you can bring a tarp, and string up an enclosure using trees for support. Make the enclosure large enough to hold a chair so the freshly cleaned Pathfinder can remain freshly clean as he/she dries off, gets dressed, and puts on his/her shoes.
# Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Camping/CampSink

A camp sink need not be any more than a few large containers placed on a table. For the containers, you can use a large salad bowl or a plastic storage tub. The table to place them on can be constructed by finding two trees at least 20 cm in diameter and about 2 meters apart. Then using square lashing, attach two long poles to either side of the trees, at waist-height. Use continuous lashings to lash several shorter poles across the support poles to make the table surface. The short poles should all be as close to the same diameter as possible, or if that's impossible, arranged from smallest to largest.
# Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Camping/Boiling

Camping foods that are prepared by boiling include:
* Pasta (spaghetti, macaroni, etc.)
* Oatmeal
* Boiled eggs
* Cooked vegetables (carrots, green beans, corn, etc.)
# Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Camping/Clean utensils

Make sure you clean your cooking utensils thoroughly as soon as your meal is over. Raccoons will sneak into a camp full of people distracted by tending their campfire and carry away your utensils so they may lick your ladles clean. The only problem is that they almost never return them. Ants an other insects may not abscound with your gear, but you do not want them crawling all over your spatulas either.
# Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Camping/Clothing

Warm Weather Clothing
Keep in mind that the weather can change suddenly though. Just because it is warm when you begin your outing does not mean it will be warm the whole time. If there is a chance that the weather will turn cold, take along some cold weather gear as well. Check an almanac to see how cold it can get during the time you are planning to be out.
Here is a list of clothing appropriate for a warm-weather outing.
* Thick socks
* Jeans
* Light Shirt (short sleeve)
* Light Shirt (long sleeve)
* Hat with a wide brim
* Boots
Cold Weather Clothing Remember to dress in layers. This will allow you to control your temperature better. In cold weather, you do not want to sweat, because that will soak your clothing and chill you. If you find yourself working up a sweat, remove a layer of clothing, or open a zipper. Rely on wool rather than on cotton, because wool stays warm even when wet. There is a popular saying among experienced outdoorsmen that "Cotton kills." This is because when cotton gets wet, it steals the body's heat which can lead to hypothermia and death. Your outer layer should be wind-proof, as this greatly increases the warmth of your clothing. Here is a list:
* Thermal Underwear
* Light shirts (polyester or some other synthetic)
* Heavy Shirts
* Wool Sweater
* Wind Breaker
* Fleece Pants (synthetic)
* Nylon Pants (as the outside layer) or snow pants
* Overcoat
* Wool Socks
* Boots
* Warm Hat
Sleepwear For comfortable sleeping and for modesty on overnight trips, bring pajamas or a sweat suit. In many places where it is warm during the day it gets cold at night, so be prepared.
# Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Camping/Colors

| Color | AY Class | Honor |
| Blue | Friend | Camping Skills I |
| Red | Companion | Camping Skills II |
| Green | Explorer | Camping Skills III |
| Silver | Ranger | Camping Skills IV |