OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Hydroculture/History

This is a history of notable hydroculture phenomena. Ancient hydroculture proposed sites, and modern revolutionary works are mentioned. Included in this history are all forms of aquatic and semi-aquatic based horticulture that focus on flora: aquatic gardening, semi-aquatic crop farming, hydroponics, aquaponics, passive hydroponics, and modern aeroponics.

## Hanging Gardens of Babylon

One of the wonders of the ancient world, was irrigated by the Euphrates River. It is uncertain if Sammu-ramat or Nebuchadrezzar II ordered them to be built between 8th and 7th century BC Babylonia. The gardens were built partially on top of ziggurats, and plants were irrigated on channels. No direct evidence of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon exists. However, there is archeological evidence, uncovered by Robert Koldewey, that ancient structures exist to support the technology used for these gardens.
Ancient Greeks Diodorus Siculus and Strabo have noted the Hanging Babylonian Gardens.

## Precolonial America

A Chinampa is a floating garden armada in a lake from the Xochimilco region, once Chinampan, of Mexico. This floating garden, still in use, can have an area of up to 10 meters by 200 meters. The agricultural output of the chinampa allowed the postclassic Aztec civilization to flourish.

## Historical Orient

Historically, fish have been raised within flooded rice fields in Indochina and China.

## Living root bridges

There are 500 year old bridges made by living roots in India, sculpted by the War-Khasis. These trees span rivers, and may be limited in connectivity to hydroculture.

## Hydroculture found in nature

Orchids are well known for their aerial roots.
Ōhi'a Lehua, Metrosideros polymorpha, is a Hawaiian plant with roots that can grow suspended in extinct lava tubes. The roots of this plant are able to penetrate deep into the volcanic rock, to reach these hollow tubes, where they can collect moisture.

## See also

* Botanical garden history
* w:History of agriculture
* w:History of gardening
* w:Horticulture
* Incan agriculture
* w:Water garden

## References

* 1 2 3 4 5 University of Chicago, ed (1993). "Hanging Gardens of Babylon". Britannica. 5 (15 ed.). Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc. pp. 681–682.
* 1 2 University of Chicago, ed (1993). "Chinampa". Britannica. 3 (15 ed.). Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica Inc. pp. 231.
* ↑ McMurtry, M. R., Nelson, P.V., & Sanders, D.C. (1988). Aqua-vegeculture systems. International Ag-Sieve, 1(3), article 7.
* ↑ "Living Bridges in India Have Grown for 500 Years (Pics)". w:TreeHugger, New York. Retrieved December 20, 2012.
* ↑ "Hawaii". Cambell Scott, David Allen, Mike Slee, Paul Spillenger. Atlas 4D. Discovery, USA. August 2010.
# Hydroculture/Hydro/Growbed

This teaches how to construct an external hydroponic growbed.

## Pipe or gutter as a growbed

Using pvc pipe as a growbed can easily become expensive, and it contains less space than a bin for growing plants.
# Hydroculture/Nutrition/Appendments
## Fertilizer methods

Dilute the nutrient solutions in a gallon of water before adding to the system. The water should always be clear after application. Initial nutrient solutions reference points:
* w:hoagland solution
* non-hydroponic fertilizers - use 1/10 of the label dosing, with the amount of water in the container in mind
* hydroponic fertilizers - labeled directions
* sterilized soil - sterilize fertile soil, then run it through a cheese cloth
* pH meter readability and EC by a multimeter
* aquaponic

## Natural fertilizer

Potting soil may be sterilized by heating in a covered container. This same soil can be run through a cloth to fertilize the nutrient solution. Only a little bit is needed, and making the water murky is disadvantageous to the nutrient solution.

## Aquaponic nutrition

Initially, nutrient solutions or fish establishment of the water is necessary for aquaponic gardening. New propagation tissue, like seeds and stem cuttings, can tolerate the lack of nutrients, until the levels build up from fish wastes. Aquatic animals do the work of maintaining proper plant nutrition and maintaining salt levels. Once fish are established, nutrient solutions are no longer necessary for maintaining aquaponic gardens, since fish waste provides all of the nutrients necessary. Adding nutrient solutions after this point can be detrimental to the plants, while this may not readily affect fish. In an aquaponic system, adding less fertilizer is safer than adding too much, especially since aquatic animals immediately make up for the difference.
If the water is changed, the correct nutrient solution has to be compensated. Rooted or established plants may quickly die of nutrient deficiencies.

## Supplements for plants

Aspirin, melatonin and rooting hormones may be beneficial to the plant.

## References

* ↑ "Plants feeling under the weather?: Give them aspirin water!". {{cite web}}: line feed character in |title= at position 35 (help)
# Calculus/Parametric Introduction
## Introduction

Parametric equations are typically defined by two equations that specify both the $x,y$ coordinates of a graph using a parameter. They are graphed using the parameter (usually $t$) to figure out both the $x,y$ coordinates.

### Example 1

${\begin{aligned}x&=t\\y&=t^{2}\end{aligned}}$
Note: This parametric equation is equivalent to the rectangular equation $y=x^{2}$ .

### Example 2

${\begin{aligned}x&=\cos(t)\\y&=\sin(t)\end{aligned}}$
Note: This parametric equation is equivalent to the rectangular equation $x^{2}+y^{2}=1$ and the polar equation $r=1$ .
Parametric equations can be plotted by using a $t$-table to show values of $x,y$ for each value of $t$ . They can also be plotted by eliminating the parameter though this method removes the parameter's importance.

## Forms of Parametric Equations

Parametric equations can be described in three ways:
* Parametric form
* Vector form
* An equality
The first two forms are used far more often, as they allow us to find the value of the component at the given value of the parameter. The final form is used less often; it allows us to verify a solution to the equation, or find the parameter (or some constant multiple thereof).

### Parametric Form

A parametric equation can be shown in parametric form by describing it with a system of equations. For instance:
${\begin{aligned}x&=t\\y&=t^{2}-1\end{aligned}}$

### Vector Form

Vector form can be used to describe a parametric equation in a similar manner to parametric form. In this case, a position vector is given:
${\binom {x}{y}}={\binom {t}{t^{2}-1}}$

### Equalities

A parametric equation can also be described with a set of equalities. This is done by solving for the parameter, and equating the components. For example:
${\begin{aligned}x&=t\\y&=t^{2}-1\end{aligned}}$
From here, we can solve for $t$ :
${\begin{aligned}t&=x\\t&=\pm {\sqrt {1+y}}\end{aligned}}$
And hence equate the two right-hand sides:
$x=\pm {\sqrt {1+y}}$

## Converting Parametric Equations

There are a few common place methods used to change a parametric equation to rectangular form. The first involves solving for $t$ in one of the two equations and then replacing the new expression for $t$ with the variable found in the second equation.

### Example 1

${\begin{aligned}x&=t-3\\y&=t^{3}\end{aligned}}$
$x=t-3$ becomes $x+3=t$
$y=(x+3)^{3}$

### Example 2

${\begin{aligned}x&=3\cos(t)\\y&=4\sin(t)\end{aligned}}$
Isolate the trigonometric functions
${\begin{aligned}\cos(t)&={\frac {x}{3}}\\\sin(t)&={\frac {y}{4}}\end{aligned}}$
Use the identity
${\begin{aligned}&\cos ^{2}(t)+\sin ^{2}(t)=1\\&{\frac {x^{2}}{9}}+{\frac {y^{2}}{16}}=1\end{aligned}}$
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# Calculus/Parametric Differentiation
## Taking Derivatives of Parametric Systems

Just as we are able to differentiate functions of $x$ , we are able to differentiate $x$ and $y$ , which are functions of $t$ . Consider:
${\begin{aligned}x&=\sin(t)\\y&=t\end{aligned}}$
We would find the derivative of $x$ with respect to $t$ , and the derivative of $y$ with respect to $t$ :
${\begin{aligned}x'&=\cos(t)\\y'&=1\end{aligned}}$
In general, we say that if
${\begin{aligned}x&=x(t)\\y&=y(t)\end{aligned}}$
then:
${\begin{aligned}x'&=x'(t)\\y'&=y'(t)\end{aligned}}$
It's that simple.
This process works for any amount of variables.

## Slope of Parametric Equations

In the above process, $x'$ has told us only the rate at which $x$ is changing, not the rate for $y$ , and vice versa. Neither is the slope.
In order to find the slope, we need something of the form ${\frac {dy}{dx}}$ .
We can discover a way to do this by simple algebraic manipulation:
${\frac {y'}{x'}}={\frac {\frac {dy}{dt}}{\frac {dx}{dt}}}={\frac {dy}{dx}}$
So, for the example in section 1, the slope at any time $t$ :
${\frac {1}{\cos(t)}}=\sec(t)$
In order to find a vertical tangent line, set the horizontal change, or $x'$ , equal to 0 and solve.
In order to find a horizontal tangent line, set the vertical change, or $y'$ , equal to 0 and solve.
If there is a time when both $x',y'$ are 0, that point is called a singular point.

## Concavity of Parametric Equations

Solving for the second derivative of a parametric equation can be more complex than it may seem at first glance.
When you have take the derivative of ${\frac {dy}{dx}}$ in terms of $t$ , you are left with ${\frac {\frac {d^{2}y}{dx}}{dt}}$ :
${\frac {d}{dt}}\left[{\frac {dy}{dx}}\right]={\frac {\frac {d^{2}y}{dx}}{dt}}$ .
By multiplying this expression by ${\frac {dt}{dx}}$ , we are able to solve for the second derivative of the parametric equation:
${\frac {\frac {d^{2}y}{dx}}{dt}}\times {\frac {dt}{dx}}={\frac {d^{2}y}{dx^{2}}}$ .
Thus, the concavity of a parametric equation can be described as:
${\frac {d}{dt}}\left[{\frac {dy}{dx}}\right]\times {\frac {dt}{dx}}$
So for the example in sections 1 and 2, the concavity at any time $t$ :
${\frac {d}{dt}}[\csc(t)]\times \cos(t)=-\csc ^{2}(t)\times \cos(t)$
Navigation:
Main Page · Precalculus · Limits · Differentiation · Integration · Parametric and Polar Equations · Sequences and Series · Multivariable Calculus · Extensions · References
# Calculus/Parametric and Polar Equations
### Parametric Equations

5.1 Introduction to Parametric Equations
5.2 Differentiation and Parametric Equations
5.3 Integration and Parametric Equations
5.4 Exercises

### Polar Equations

5.5 Introduction to Polar Equations
5.6 Differentiation and Polar Equations
5.7 Integration and Polar Equations
5.8 Exercises
Navigation:
Main Page · Precalculus · Limits · Differentiation · Integration · Parametric and Polar Equations · Sequences and Series · Multivariable Calculus · Extensions · References
# General Chemistry/Chemistries of Various Elements/Group 18

← Chemistries of Various Elements/Group 17 ·Chemistries of Various Elements/Hydrogen →

## Noble gas elements of G-18:--

The noble gases are in Group 18 (8A). They are helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon. They were once called inert gases because they were thought to be completely inert—unable to form compounds. This is a reasonable belief because the noble gases have a complete octet, making them very stable and unlikely to gain or lose any electrons. However, some compounds have been formed with the larger elements of this group, like xenon tetrafluoride (XeF$_4$). No normal compounds of helium, neon, or argon are stable at any but the coldest of temperatures.
Radon is dangerously radioactive; it causes cancer. It is so unstable that its radioactivity makes any chemical experiments with it nearly impossible.

## Ionization

If an electric current is passed through a gas, its electrons will become excited. The electron will jump to a higher energy level, but they will then de-excite (fall back down) to their stable state, also known as their ground state, and in doing so they will release the energy they initially absorbed in the form of a photon, the fundamental unit of light. In other words, gases can be used to convert electricity into light—the concept of "neon signs". Neon signs are not necessarily filled with neon. They are filled with any mixture of gases to get the desired color. Each gas has a unique color that it emits.
* Colors of different noble gases when used in "neon" signs
* Helium (pink)
* Neon (red-orange)
* Argon (blue)
* Krypton (pale green)
* Xenon (pale blue)
Of course, other gases can be used besides the noble gases.

## Helium

Helium is a unique noble gas. It is the second most abundant element in the universe. Lighter than air, it is used in blimps because it will allow them to float without the risk of an explosion. Neon is the only element less reactive than helium.
Helium will not freeze under normal pressure. There cannot be enough intermolecular force to lock the atoms into a solid. It remains a gas until 4 K, then becomes a liquid. With the right conditions, helium becomes a superfluid. It is a liquid that will creep along the edges of its container with zero viscosity.
Helium atoms (they never combine with other atoms) are too light to remain in the Earth's atmosphere. Almost all of the small amount of helium on Earth is the result of radioactive decay of very heavy elements like thorium and uranium.

## Neon

Neon is best known for its presence in neon lights. The brightly-colored fish known as neon tetras are named for having a reddish color similar to that of a neon light, and not for possessing or using neon.
# General Chemistry/Chemistries of Various Elements/Synthetic Elements

← Chemistries of Various Elements/Inner Transition Metals ·Book Cover →

## Short-lived natural elements and synthetic elements

91 elements of the known 118 elements occur naturally on Earth. The other 27 -- all elements beyond plutonium on the Periodic table, and three others -- technetium (43 electrons), promethium (61), and neptunium (93) -- are too unstable to exist on Earth and are not among the rare elements that are parts of the nuclear decay process of either thorium or uranium. The elements that do not occur naturally are synthetic. Synthetic elements are elements that have been created in a laboratory by artificial means. Synthetic elements are very unstable and have few commercial purposes. They decay into other elements in a fraction of a second. Most are created purely for research and experiment.
Synthetic elements are created in particle accelerators. Two smaller elements are accelerated to incredible speeds and collided into each other. Their nuclei merge into a larger element. The element is studied by lab equipment before it decays.
Seven of the 91 naturally-occurring elements (polonium, astatine, radon, francium, radium, actinium, and protactinium) exist only in the presence of naturally-occurring radioactive elements uranium and thorium. These comprise all elements with atomic numbers 84 through 91 except for thorium (90). All isotopes of these elements are very short-lived, and those of them in use are used only for their radioactive properties (most notably in radium, and then as a desperate therapy for some cancers). Because of their short half-lives and the hazards associated with their radioactivity the chemistries of these elements are often extremely difficult to study.

### Naming

Most synthetic elements have been named by the IUPAC, the international authority for naming chemicals. They are named after famous scientists or places where the elements were formed. For example, einsteinium (Es, 99) and americium (Am, 95). Some elements are too new to have official names. Before it can be named, an element must be discovered and proven to exist by a scientist or team. Then, the element's discoverer(s) will be allowed to choose a name. Until the element has a name, it is given a provisional name. Provisional names are made of a chain of words, each representing a digit in the element's atomic number. For example, ununseptium is element 117, unnilpentium was element 105 (since renamed as dubnium), and unbioctium would be element 128 (not believed to exist).
# IB/Group 3/History/Route 2/The Cold War/Germany as a Source of Tension/Summary
## The two Germanys

* Germany became two separate political spheres by 1949, divided by the Western and Eastern powers.

### Economic differences between West Germany and East Germany

* West Germany had a larger industrial output, larger population, and was larger geographically.
* West Germany received Marshall aid and underwent an 'economic miracle' and had good living standards.
* East Germany's leader was Walter Ulbricht.
** He adopted a forced collectivisation of farms and of socialisation.
** This was disastrous for the economy.

### Political differences between West Germany and East Germany

* West Germany had democracy.
* East Germany had no free elections from 1946 onwards and was Stalinist and authoritarian.
* East Germany not only protested but fled to the Wast. Some where contained.
* As a result, there were no efforts by either side to unite Germany.
* Khrushchev described Berlin as 'a fishbone in East Germany's gullet.'

## Why did the Berlin Crisis develop?
### Khrushchev and the crisis of 1958

* West Berlin had political freedom and an open lifestyle which encouraged East Germans to migrate, leaving the hardship of the East, via Berlin.
* It was mainly young and skilled East Germans that escaped, one-sixth of the German population.
* The West used Berlin as propaganda and as an espionage hotspot, inside Eastern territory.
* 1956 Khrushchev proposed a peace treaty.
* 27 November 1957, Khrushchev demanded Berlin be demilitarised and Western troops withdrawal.
* Clever diplomacy: If the West did not decide in six months he would surrender access routes to Western sectors to the GDR.
# IB/Group 3/History/Route 2/The Cold War
## Table of Contents

What was the Cold War?
Topic Summary • Past Papers • Example Essays • Study Questions
Political, Economic, and Military Division of Europe
Topic Summary • Past Papers • Example Essays • Study Questions
Responsibility for the development of the Cold War
Topic Summary • Past Papers • Example Essays • Study Questions
The Korean War and NSC-68
Topic Summary • Past Papers • Example Essays • Study Questions
New Political Ideas and Leaders
Topic Summary • Past Papers • Example Essays • Study Questions
The USA and Containment in Asia
Topic Summary • Past Papers • Example Essays • Study Questions
Germany as a Source of Tension
Topic Summary • Past Papers • Example Essays • Study Questions
The Cuban Missile Crisis
Topic Summary • Past Papers • Example Essays • Study Questions
Impacts of the Arms Race
Topic Summary • Past Papers • Example Essays • Study Questions
Sino-Soviet Split
Topic Summary • Past Papers • Example Essays • Study Questions
Soviet Union-United States Relations
Topic Summary • Past Papers • Example Essays • Study Questions
Relations between NATO and the Warsaw Pact
Topic Summary • Past Papers • Example Essays • Study Questions
The United Nations
Topic Summary • Past Papers • Example Essays • Study Questions
The Collapse of the Soviet Union
Topic Summary • Past Papers • Example Essays • Study Questions
# IB/Group 3/History/Route 2/The Cold War/Political, Economic, and Military Division of Europe/Summary
## Step One: The Wartime Conferences
### The Tehran Conference (1943)
### The Yalta Conference (1945)

* State of the war: Germany on verge of being defeated, the Second Front had been opened by 1944, Japan under heavy aerial bombardment from the Americans as the Americans held control of air and sea in the pacific.
* Germany: Decided that she would be disarmed, demilitarised, de-Nazified, and divided. Four "temporary" zones of occupation would be created, and Stalin demanded 50% of the $20 billion reparations that Germany had to pay.
* Poland: New frontiers were decided, at the Cruzon Line where had been before in Russo-Polish War (1921). Gained territory from Germany, giving Stalin what he wanted (territorially), thus allowing Poland to hold "free elections" with a more democratic government. However, Britain and Russia supported two different parties: 'London Poles,' and communist-led 'Lublin Committee'.
* Eastern Europe: Stalin said these countries would be able to decide with "free elections," was a major victory for US and Britain.
* Japan: Stalin promised to join the war, but demanded reward territory. These terms were accepted.
* United Nations: Stalin agreed to join the UN, and gave the power to veto to five permanent members. Stalin wanted all 16 Soviet Republics to have separate seats in UN General Assembly, but only 3 were given; Russia, Ukraine, Belarus.
* Conclusion: Agreement over the UN, Soviets agreed to join the war in the Pacific, the Big There signed the "Declaration for Liberated Europe", pledging free elections in Eastern Europe.

### The Potsdam Conference (1945)
## Key developments (1946−47)
### Community parties in Italy and France
## Step Two: Kennan's long telegram (February 1946)

* Written by US diplomat George F. Kennan to the U.S. State Department on the nature of Soviet conduct, and helped hard US attitudes towards containment.
* The USSR's view of the world was a traditional one of insecurity,
* The Soviets wanted to advance Muscovite Stalinist ideology (not simply 'Marxism'),
* The Soviet regime was cruel and repressive and justified this by perceiving nothing but evil in the outside world. That view of a hostile outside environment would sustain the internal Stalinist system, and
* The USSR was fanatically hostile to the West − but they were not 'suicidal ... impervious to the logic of reason Moscow [was] highly sensitive to the logic of force.'
# English Opening
### 4. Bg2
## Theory table

For explanation of theory tables, see theory table and for notation, see algebraic notation. .
1.c4 e6 2.Nf3 d5 3.g3 Nf6 4. Bg2
| 4 |
| Bg2 Be7 | O-O O-O | b3 b6 | = |
When contributing to this Wikibook, please follow the Conventions for organization.

## References

* Nunn's Chess Openings. 1999. John Nunn (Editor), Graham Burgess, John Emms, Joe Gallagher. ISBN 1-8574-4221-0.
* This Chess related article is a stub. Please assist Wikibooks by expanding it.
# English Opening
## Theory table

For explanation of theory tables, see theory table and for notation, see algebraic notation. .
| 1.c4 e6 2. Nc3 d5 |
| | 1 |
| 1 | Nc3 d4 | = |
# English Opening
### 2. Nc3
## Theory table

For explanation of theory tables, see theory table and for notation, see algebraic notation. .
| 1.c4 e6 2. Nc3 |
| | 1 |
| 1 | Nc3 d5 | = |
| 2 | ... Nf6 | |
| 3 | ... b6 | |
| 4 | ... Bb4 | |
| 5 | ... c5 | |
When contributing to this Wikibook, please follow the Conventions for organization.

## References

* Kasparov, Garry, & Keene, Raymond 1989 Batsford chess openings 2. ISBN 0-8050-3409-9.

## External links

* 365Chess
# English Opening
### 2...d5
## Theory table

For explanation of theory tables, see theory table and for notation, see algebraic notation. .
1.c4 e6 2.Nf3 d5
| 3 | 4 |
| g3 Nf6 | Bg2 Be7 | = |
| d4 Nf6 | Nc3 c6 | = |
| b3 Nf6 | Bb2 c5 | = |
When contributing to this Wikibook, please follow the Conventions for organization.

## References

* Nunn's Chess Openings. 1999. John Nunn (Editor), Graham Burgess, John Emms, Joe Gallagher. ISBN 1-8574-4221-0.
* This Chess related article is a stub. Please assist Wikibooks by expanding it.
# English Opening
### 3. ..Nf6
## Theory table

For explanation of theory tables, see theory table and for notation, see algebraic notation. .
1.c4 e6 2.Nf3 d5 3.g3 Nf6
| | 3 | 4 |
| Catalan Opening | d4 Be7 | = |
| | Bg2 Be7 | = |
When contributing to this Wikibook, please follow the Conventions for organization.

## References

* Nunn's Chess Openings. 1999. John Nunn (Editor), Graham Burgess, John Emms, Joe Gallagher. ISBN 1-8574-4221-0.
* This Chess related article is a stub. Please assist Wikibooks by expanding it.