# Lentis/Eyjafjallajökull 2010

Eyjafjallajökull is an Icelandic ice cap that covers the caldera of an active stratovolcano located near the villages of Skógar and Mýrdalsjökull. In the spring of 2010, most of Europe faced great consequences arising from several significant eruptions and their subsequent ash cloud formations. These impacts were diverse and broad in scope, affecting not only the physical environment damaged by the eruptions, but also local economies and government policies as they reacted to protect communities and their interests.

## Eruption Timeline

The buildup to the eruptions started late in 2009 in the form of increased seismic activity near the volcano. This activity continued to increase in intensity until a small eruption began on 20 March 2010. Rated as a 1 on the volcanic explosivity index, the eruption was essentially a stable stream of lava flow until a second phase of eruptions began on 14 April 2010. This phase saw a much greater increase in volcanic activity that was responsible for the formation of an ash cloud that covered virtually all of Europe for about a week. Twenty European nations closed their airspaces from 15 to 20 April 2010, leading to catastrophic financial losses in the airline and travel industries and millions of tourists being left stranded.
Lava flow and ash production gradually stopped by 21 May 2010, but a new crater with elevated seismic activity appeared near the original eruption site on 6 June 2010, and so the region was continually monitored until October 2010, when the eruption was finally declared to be over.

## Environmental Impacts

In terms of volcanic activity, geologists rate the peak of the 2010 eruptions of Eyjafjallajökull as a 4, or cataclysmic eruption, on the volcanic explosivity index. In terms of destructive ability, the eruptions were actually relatively insignificant, with the total ejecta bulk reaching less than a tenth of the total bulk expelled by the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens. The impacts of the ash produced by the Eyjafjallajökull eruptions were much greater, as pieces of the 250 million cubic meters of total expelled ash were found over 200 kilometers away from the volcano itself. The eruptions combined would also release around 150,000 tons of CO2, but the continental halting of air travel during the eruption period would result in a net savings of up to 2.8 million tons of CO2 from reduced fuel emissions. The melting of nearby ice caps during the eruption also led to significant flooding in the regions right beside the volcano, with rivers being raised by ten feet and highways being temporarily impassable. Around 800 people were evacuated from these areas.

## Preliminary Measures

Following detection of consistently elevated seismic activity in the volcanic region, the regional Chief of Police and Icelandic Civil Protection Office organized emergency meetings shortly prior to the occurrence of the March eruption to inform local communities of a potential eruption in the area. As a result of this preventive measure and quick evacuations following subsequent eruptions, no human casualties were reported across the entire eruption period. A quick response to ban air travel in Europe following the April eruptions also contributed to passenger safety during this period, but at the expense of the airline industry losing over one billion euros over passenger compensation costs.

## Participant Reactions
### Farmers

When the initial eruption occurred, many farmers were hesitant to evacuate and abandon their farms. Previous evacuation plans built from the Katla eruptions were focused on human evacuation only and did not include the agricultural departments were not included in the planning or response. Although the Icelandic farming minister released a task force to evaluate the effect of the eruption on livestock and crops, there was no immediate decision made. Instead, the Farmers Association of Iceland, a farming union, had to make frequent posts to their website to provide advice tailored for farmers.

#### Livestock

The region around the eruption site contained 15% of Iceland's livestock and around 6% of its sheep. As farmers weren't adequately prepared for the eruption, many decided to release their livestock during the evacuation as that was recommended during evacuation exercises. However, following the heavy ash fall from the eruption, the Farmers Association released a memo recommending farmers to shelter their livestock to prevent them from inhaling the ash. This contradicted the advice from the Icelandic government and led to confusion among the farmers.
After the initial emergency response, the Farmers Association of Iceland noted that the ash-fall greatly hurt the sheep, pig, poultry, and milk industries. Despite promises from the government to provide full financial support for the recultivation of farmland, farmers only received a small portion of the cost.

#### Wheat

The ash fall also impacted wheat crops. Farmers were told to cut their pastures higher than usual to avoid capturing ash in the hay bales, losing 30% of their regular harvest. To avoid shortages of food and fodder in the winter, farmers banded together to establish a 'hay bank' to store excess wheat from farms around the country. However, this loss was also offset after farmers discovered that the ash had a fertilizer effect, leading to a 50% increase in wheat yield and restoring damaged fields.
Farmers were upset about the lack of a proper response plan and pushed the government to incorporate agriculture into future evacuation plans. Officials realized that the plans created from the Katla eruption focused on saving lives would be insufficient for all future eruptions and adopted the advice from the Farmers Association in emergency response plans. The data collected from the aftermath of the eruption was also used to provide farmers with comprehensive information for future eruptions.

### Government
#### Icelandic Government

For updates on the situation, the Icelandic Meteorological Office (IMO) and the Institute of Earth Sciences (IES) published 3-hourly and daily reports detailing plume activity. Launched on the second day of the summit eruption, additional pages containing relevant background and overview information were added to the website, alongside real-time monitoring data from IMO. IES also considered it essential to make this primary scientific data open to the public as soon as possible due to the international extent of Eyjafjallajökull’s impacts. FUTUREVOLC, a conjoined project by the IMO and IES, serves Iceland's goal of providing seismic data to the public. Their website displays real-time data on volcanic activity in Iceland and alerts citizens of any local dangers through SMS texts.
Recognizing the impact the eruption would have on the local tourism industry, the Icelandic government compensated businesses through the Icelandic CAT-fund. The government invested 4.3 million euros in a tourism campaign called Inspired by Iceland, which resulted in a 17% increase in the number of tourists from the previous year.

#### British Government

Like many other European nations, the United Kingdom closed its airspace on April 15th. However, they also launched Operation Cunningham to assist stranded passengers by using navy vessels. Despite this program, the British response could have been more cohesive as the eruption was not included in its risk assessment report despite being already identified as a level 2 emergency.

### Residents

Residents were generally satisfied with the Icelandic government's evacuation response. In a survey after the evacuation, residents liked the real-time updates provided by IMO and IES. However, they mentioned that communication during the evacuation could have been improved.

#### Health Concerns

During the eruption, residents were disappointed in the amount of information available regarding health concerns from ash exposure. Survey respondents reported that the published impacts of the eruption were "misleading" as they downplayed the effect the ash had as many still had respiratory problems long after the initial eruption. In addition, the stress caused by living with ash fall lead to a greater risk of psychological issues like post-traumatic stress disorder that were not addressed. The Icelandic Department of Health has since committed to providing more information about the dangers of ash.

#### Media

Local residents were angry that the media was able to access the evacuation zone after everyone was evacuated. Many were frustrated that scientists and media were able to freely travel while they were not. Interviewees were also upset that the media dramatized the eruption by only publishing images of residents in shock or distress and exaggerating the amount of ash. The international media also drew criticism for focusing on the impacts on air travel over the local residents. Another issue was that the media and local government kept comparing the eruption with Katla, stating that Eyjafjallajökull eruptions were “a show and nothing in comparison to what Katla can do”, even though the residents were suffering.
After the evacuation, community interest in emergency management meetings rose and residents began contributing to the creation of emergency response plans. The Icelandic government also aimed to provide better communication regarding ash and established two media centers to better serve the local residents.

### Air Travelers

With the airspace in Europe closed, people sought alternatives forms of transportation. Increased demand for trains and ferries by the stranded passengers resulted in increased services to accommodate. The introduction of social media lead to a trending hashtag campaign (#ashtag) with those looking for rides and support. Business conferences were also replaced with video conferencing – it became so popular that some companies doubled the use of online meetings. The switch to online conferencing during the eruption is similar to the situation during the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic and the emergence of Zoom.

### Airlines

In 1982, a plane lost engine control in an ash cloud, leading to the creation of a zero-tolerance policy for ash by the airline industry. Airplane engine manufacturers followed the zero tolerance policy until pressure from the monetary losses from the Eyjafjallajökull eruption warranted both the CAA and the manufacturers to create new tolerances for ash. The tolerances were increased and Time Limited Zones, areas where ash is detected but doesn't exceed airplane engine manufacturer's tolerance levels, were created, enabling commercial airlines to fly in low ash density airspace.

## Similar Events

From March 24-30 of 2021, the volcano Pacaya erupted spewing ash 2.9-4.5 km into the sky and traveling 15-20 km. This resulted in the International Guatemala Airport closing due to ash covering the runway and the fear of the large quantities of ash damaging the engines.
Starting September 19th 2021, the volcano Cumbre Vieja erupted throwing ash 2.4-4.6 km into the sky and drifting 55 km S. The ash and lava had forced the airport on La Palma to cancel flights, however the Spanish government has vowed to spend over $348 million USD to reconstruct the island for tourism.

## Conclusion

Following the events of the 2010 Eyjafjallajökull eruptions, the Icelandic government, local residents, and international committees are working together to better face future eruptions. Practices such as access to real-time data, health information regarding ash, and changes to air space regulation have been adopted by Iceland and the international community. By learning from the ash-fall and lightning storms of Eyjafjallajökull, communities are now better prepared to face future volcanic eruptions.

## References

* ↑ Institute of Earth Sciences (2010, August 9). Eruption in Eyjafjallajökull. University of Iceland. http://wayback.vefsafn.is/wayback/20100809185331/www.evropusamvinna.is/page/ies_Eyjafjallajokull_eruption
* ↑ Bye, B. (2011, May 27). Volcanic eruptions: Science and Risk Management. Science 2.0. https://www.science20.com/planetbye/volcanic_eruptions_science_and_risk_management-79456
* ↑ Guðmundsson et al. (2010, June 7). Eruption in Eyjafjallajökull Status Report: 11:00 GMT, 7 June 2010. Icelandic Meteorological Office and Institute of Earth Sciences, University of Iceland. http://wayback.vefsafn.is/wayback/20100814231514/http://www2.hi.is/Apps/WebObjects/HI.woa/swdocument/1016022/Eyjafjallajokull_status_2010-06-07_IES_IMO.pdf
* ↑ Hendry, E. (2010, April 22). What We Know From the Icelandic Volcano. Smithsonian. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/91838474.html/
* ↑ Adam, D. (2010, April 19). Iceland volcano causes fall in carbon emissions as eruption grounds aircraft. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2010/apr/19/eyjafjallajokull-volcano-climate-carbon-emissions
* ↑ Than, K. (2021, May 3). Iceland volcano erupts under glacier, triggers floods. Science. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/100414-iceland-volcano-erupts-evacuate-flooding.
* 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Bird, D. K., & Gísladóttir, G. (2012). Residents’ attitudes and behaviour before and after the 2010 Eyjafjallajökull eruptions—a case study from southern Iceland. Bulletin of Volcanology, 74(6), 1263–1279.
* ↑ BBC News (2010, April 21). Flight disruptions cost airlines $1.7bn, says IATA. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/8634147.stm
* 1 2 3 Farmers Weekly (2010, April 23). Volcano causes ‘major problems’ for Icelandic farmers. https://www.fwi.co.uk/business/volcano-causes-major-problems-for-icelandic-farmers
* ↑ Iceland Review (2010, September 17). Volcanic Ash Improves Crops. https://www.icelandreview.com/news/volcanic-ash-improves-crops/
* 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Bird, D. K., Jóhannesdóttir, G., Reynisson, V., Karlsdóttir, S., Gudmundsson, M. T., & Gísladóttir, G. (2017). Crisis Coordination and Communication During the 2010 Eyjafjallajökull Eruption. Advances in Volcanology, 271–288.
* ↑ Witham, C., Barsotti, S., Dumont, S. et al. (2020). Practising an explosive eruption in Iceland: outcomes from a European exercise. J Appl. Volcanol. 9, 1 5-8
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* ↑ Connor, S. (2011, March 3). Government failed to act on volcanic ash threat, say mps. The Independent. https://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/government-failed-to-act-on-volcanic-ash-threat-say-mps-2230669.html
* ↑ East Coast Railway provides extra train services as travellers switch from the skies. www.eastcoast.co.uk.com. (2010, April 18). https://web.archive.org/web/20100418205735/http://www.eastcoast.co.uk/about-us/Press-Release/2008/EAST-COAST-RAILWAY-PROVIDES-EXTRA-TRAIN-SERVICES-AS-TRAVELLERS-SWITCH-FROM-THE-SKIES/
* ↑ Ingram, M. (2020, June 8). Volcano-stranded travelers turn to social media. Gigaom. https://gigaom.com/2010/04/17/volcano-stranded-travellers-turn-to-social-media/
* ↑ Hellstrom, H[hankvonhelvete]. (2010, April 20). Looking for ride Gothenburg to Paris ASAP. Please RT #getmehome #roadshare #ashtag #stranded #skjutsgruppen[Tweet]. Twitter.https://twitter.com/hankvonhelvete/status/12502170710
* ↑ Gross, D. (2010, April 23). How the volcano eruption exposed the vulnerability of the global supply chain. Slate Magazine. https://slate.com/business/2010/04/how-the-volcano-eruption-exposed-the-vulnerability-of-the-global-supply-chain.html
* ↑ Bond, S. (2020, August 31). Zoom turns record profit thanks to coronavirus shutdowns. NPR. https://www.npr.org/sections/coronavirus-live-updates/2020/08/31/908089517/zoom-turns-record-profit-thanks-to-coronavirus-shutdowns
* ↑ Marks, P. (2010, April 20). Can we fly safely through volcanic ash? New Scientist. https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn18797-can-we-fly-safely-through-volcanic-ash/?ignored=irrelevant
* ↑ Marks, P. (2010, April 21). Engine strip-downs establish Safe Volcanic Ash Levels. New Scientist. https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn18802-engine-strip-downs-establish-safe-volcanic-ash-levels/
* ↑ Roberts, P. (2010, May 17). Letter. DAP/PR/IcelandicEruptionHighAshConcentration. https://web.archive.org/web/20100522102951/http://www.caa.co.uk/docs/7/Letter%20to%20NSAs%20re%20Volcanic%20Ash-%20Creation%20of%20TLZ.pdf
* ↑ Arnold, A. (2010, May 18). Most Flights Operating Amid New Fly-Zone. skynews. https://archive.ph/20120713045639/http://news.sky.com/skynews/Home/UK-News/Volcano-Ash-New-Time-Limited-Zone-Introduced-To-Reduce-Flight-Restrictions-Due-To-Ash-Cloud/Article/201005315633952?f=rss
* ↑ Global Volcanism Program, 2021. Report on Pacaya (Guatemala). In: Sennert, S K (ed.), Weekly Volcanic Activity Report, 24 March-30 March 2021. Smithsonian Institution and US Geological Survey.
* ↑ Suarez, K. (2021, March 24). Volcanic ash shuts down international airport in Guatemala. CNN. https://www.cnn.com/2021/03/23/americas/guatemala-airport-volcano-closure-latam-intl/index.html
* ↑ Global Volcanism Program, 2021. Report on La Palma (Spain). In: Sennert, S K (ed.), Weekly Volcanic Activity Report, 15 September-21 September 2021. Smithsonian Institution and US Geological Survey.
* ↑ Martinez, G. (2021, September 26). La Palma's airport reopens but no flights as volcano still erupting. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/la-palmas-airport-reopens-although-flights-cancelled-islands-volcano-eruption-2021-09-26/
* ↑ Phys.org. (2021, October 17). Volcanic Ash halts flights on Spanish Island. Phys.org. https://phys.org/news/2021-10-volcanic-ash-halts-flights-spanish.html