OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Embedded Systems/Memory Units
## ROM

One type of memory that is as cheap as it is useless is Read-Only Memory (ROM). I say that it is useless because you can program it once, and then you can never change the data that is on it. This makes it useless because you can't upgrade the information on the ROM chip (be it program code or data), you can't fix it if there is an error, etc.... Because of this, they are usually called "Programmable Read-Only Memory" (PROM), because you can program it once, but then you can't change it at all.

### EPROM

In contrast to PROM is EPROM ("Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory"). EPROM chips will have a little window, made of either glass or quartz that can be used to erase the memory on the chip. To erase an EPROM, the window needs to be uncovered (they usually have some sort of guard or cover), and the EPROM needs to be exposed to UV radiation to erase the memory, and allow it to be reprogrammed.

### EEPROM

A step up from EPROM is EEPROM ("Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory"). EEPROM can be erased by exposing it to an electrical charge. This means that EEPROM can be erased in circuit (as opposed to EPROM, which needs to be removed from the circuit, and exposed to UV). An appropriate electrical charge will erase the entire chip, so you can't erase just certain data items at a time.
Many modern microcontroller have an EEPROM section on-board, which can be used to permanently store system parameters or calibration values. These are often referred to as non-volatile memory (NVM). They can be accessed - read and write - as single bytes or blocks of bytes. Like Flash memory EEPROM allows only a limited number of write cycles, usually several ten-thousand.
Write access to on-board NVM tends to be considerably slower than RAM. Embedded software must take this into account and "queue" write requests to be executed in background.

## RAM

Random Access Memory (RAM) is a temporary, volatile memory that requires a persistant electric current to maintain information. As such, a RAM chip will not store data when you turn the power OFF. RAM is more expensive than ROM, and it is often at a premium: Embedded systems can have many Kbytes of ROM (sometimes Megabytes or more), but often they have less than 100 bytes of RAM available for use in program flow.

## FLASH Memory

Flash memory is a combination of the best parts of RAM and ROM. Like ROM, Flash memory can hold data when the power is turned off. Like RAM, Flash can be reprogrammed electrically, in whole or in part, at any time during program execution.
Flash memory modules are only good for a limited number of Read/Write cycles, which means that they can burn out if you use them too much, too often. As such, Flash memory is better used to store persistant data, and RAM should be used to store volatile data items.
# Embedded Systems/Low-Voltage Circuits

Low voltage circuits, in this field of consideration can essentially be considered circuits that never exceed the pin voltage (or exceed it by small amounts). If the voltage goes higher, or if we keep our current under control, we risk damage to our embedded systems.

## Example: sensor

As a simple example we would like to measure the temperature.
The simplest and one of the cheapest ways to measure the temperature is to use a thermistor connected to GND, a resistor connected to VCC, and connect the other ends of each to the analog input pin of a microcontroller.
Because the thermistor and resistor are connected to the same power supply as the microcontroller, we can guarantee that the signal voltage is no higher than the VCC of the microcontroller, and no lower than GND. Because the analog input pin of a microcontroller inherently has high input resistance, we can guarantee that very little current flows. So in this case, we don't need any other components to protect the microcontroller from damage.

## Example: Lighting LEDs

As a more complex example we would like to light a LED (light-emitting diode) from an output pin on an embedded computer. Consider that our output pin can source 20mA at +5V. Our LED is green, which implies a forward voltage drop of about 2 V. However, we also need to consider that our LED requires at least 10mA to light, and our LED can not exceed +20 mA. If the current through the LED gets too high, the LED could pop (it's an actual pop, cover your eyes).
Using ohm's law on the pin, we can find the minimum resistance for the circuit:
$+5V-2V=(20mA)r_{min}\to r=150\Omega$
Now, if we use Ohm's law on the diode, we can figure out the maximum resistance (the resistance that makes the LED not light up).
$+5V-2V=(10mA)r_{max}\to r=300\Omega$
So we know that our resistance, r, needs to be between 150 and 300 Ohms. Any less than that, and we can permanently destroy the LED or the microcontroller (or probably both). Any more than that, and no damage is done, but the LED will be too dim to see.

## Further reading

* Analog and Digital Conversion
* Wikipedia: ballast resistor
# Embedded Systems/Microprocessor Introduction

Effectively programming an embedded system, and implementing it reliably requires the engineer to know many of the details of the system architecture. Section 1 of the Embedded Systems book will cover some of the basics of microprocessor architecture. This information might not apply to all embedded computers, and much of it may apply to computers in general. This book can only cover some basic concepts, because the actual embedded computers available on the market are changing every day, and it is the engineer's responsibility to find out what capabilities and limitations their particular systems have.
As manufacturers continue to pack more and more transistors onto a single chip, more and more of the stuff that was once "peripheral logic" has been integrated on the same chip as the CPU. A microcontroller includes most or all the electronics needed in an embedded system in a single integrated circuit ("chip").
* CPU
* I/O ports
* RAM - contains temporary data
* ROM - contains program and constant data—the firmware. Starting in 1993, many microcontrollers use Flash memory instead of true ROM to hold the firmware, but many engineers still refer to the Flash memory that holds the firmware as "ROM" to differentiate it from "RAM".
* Timers—we discuss these later at Timers.
* Serial interface—often a USART—we discuss these later at IO
* EEPROM - contains "permanent" data
* Analog-to-digital converter
* Specialized functions
This list is roughly in order of integration. The earliest microcontrollers contained only the CPU and I/O ports; modern microprocessors typically contain the CPU, some I/O ports, and cache RAM; the cost of a microcontroller dropped dramatically once the CPU, I/O, RAM, and ROM could all be squeezed onto the same chip, because such a microcontroller no longer needs "address pins"; etc. The most highly integrated microcontrollers include all these parts on one chip.

## Further reading

Learn Electronics/Microprocessors
* ↑ "Microcontrollers made easy" ST AN887
# Embedded Systems/Parity

In many instances, especially in transmission, it is important to include some amount of error-checking information, so that incorrect information can be determined and discarded. One of the most simple methods of error-checking is called parity. Parity can be broken up into Even Parity, and Odd Parity schemes. A parity check consists of a single bit that is set, depending on a certain condition.

## Even Parity

In an even parity scheme, the parity bit is set if an odd number of bits in the data are set to 1 (to make the total number of 1 bits even). For instance, 01001100 would generate an even parity bit, while 11001100 would not generate one.

## Odd Parity

The opposite of Even parity, odd parity generates a parity bit if there are an even number of high-bits in the data (to create an odd number of 1's).

## Limitations of Parity

Simple 1-bit parity is only able to detect a single bit error, or an error in an odd number of bits. If an even number of bits (2, 4, 6, 8) are transmitted in error, the parity check will not catch the mistake
However, chances of getting 2 errors in 1 transmission is much much smaller than getting only 1 error in 1 transmission. so parity checks serve as a cheap and easy way to check for errors.

## More advanced error detection

ECC codes are often used for the same reasons as parity bits. These codes use more bits, however they allow multi bit error detection, and also correction of single bit errors.
CRC checks are usually used at the end of data blocks. These are carefully designed to give a very high probability of detecting corruption of the data block, no matter how many bit errors are in the block.

## Further reading

* Wikipedia:error detection and correction
# Foundations of Spanish/Phrases
## Vocabulary List

* adiós: goodbye
* días: days
* disculpe: excuse me
* español: Spanish
* favor: please (see below)
* gracias: thank you
* gusto: enjoyment
* hablo: (I) speak
* hablas: (you) speak
* hola: hello
* ingles: English
* nada: nothing
* no: no, or not
* noches: nights
* perdón: pardon
* sí: yes
* siento: (I) feel

### Extra Vocabulary

* poco: little
Now that you know hablo and español, you might want to say hablo español. But, you still have a good deal left to learn, so in the interest of accuracy, try saying hablo español un poco for now.

## Vocabulary-Grammar Connections
### Favor

The word favor is difficult to translate, because it is mainly used in phrases like por favor and favor de which express the idea of politely requesting something, like "please" in English, but if you replace it word for word with "please" the phrasing does not come out sounding right. For example, if a mother tells her child Favor de beber tú leche and we translate this word for word into "Please of drink your milk," it sounds weird. Try to learn the phrases that contain favor, rather than translating word for word.

## Suggested Writing Practice

* Write a script for a scene in which two people meet and introduce themselves, using words you have learned in Spanish so far.
* Write an expanded version of a script for the same scene, using English words as placeholders for words you haven't learned yet. Research the right way to say what you want to say.
# Foundations of Spanish/Next Steps

Congratulations! You've finished this book, and you've probably also completed your Duolingo skills tree. The chances are high, though, that you're not fluent in Spanish yet. At this point, many people would like to know how to keep up or continue improving their skills. Here are some options.
* Take a further class. Many universities will let you use a CLEP score to place out of 1–2 years' worth of Spanish, so you could go into Intermediate immediately.
* Turn your Duolingo tree gold by fully strengthening all words.
* Do the "reverse tree" on Duolingo (English for Spanish speakers, or any other offered language in which you are proficient for Spanish speakers).
* Go back through the reading and writing practice activities and do any you skipped.
# Foundations of Spanish/Plurals
## Vocabulary List

* cartas: letters
* diarios: newspapers
* fresas: strawberries
* llaves: keys
* libros: books
* manzanas: apples
* palabras: words
* pescados: fish (plural)

## Vocabulary-Grammar Connections

How a plural noun is formed, in Spanish, depends on how the singular noun ends.
* If the singular noun ends in a vowel, like manzana, the plural is formed with an s, like manzanas.
* If the singular noun ends in a consonant, like mujer, the plural is formed with an es, like mujeres.
# Foundations of Spanish/Animals
## Vocabulary List

* animal
* animales
* araña
* caballo
* caballos
* cangrejo
* cerdo
* conejo
* elefante
* elefantes
* gata
* gatas
* gato
* gatos
* león
* mono
* oso
* pájaro
* pájaros
* pato
* perro
* perros
* pingüino
* ratón
* toro
* tortuga
* tortugas

### Extra Words

* toros: bulls

## Vocabulary-Grammar Connections

Remember that animals are naturally masculine or feminine, so there will often be related words for the two halves of the species, such as gatos and gatas. However, since there are no female bulls, there are only toros, not toras.

## Suggested Reading Practice

Examine this paragraph from Wikichicos, about tigers and lions (from the page linked below) :
Los tigres y los leones están entre los depredadores más poderosos del mundo. Todos los seres vivos conocemos al león, al que muy frecuentemente se le llama el rey de la selva. Hay quienes dicen que se le llama así por la melena del macho. El león prácticamente habita en todo tipo de hábitats excepto en el desierto.
Make a list of the words you figure out from context or as cognates, and another list of the words you look up.
If you are interested in the subject, read more.

## Suggested Writing Practice

Imagine a trip to the zoo, or think back to a real trip to the zoo, and write about the animals there.
# Foundations of Spanish/Basics Part 1
## Vocabulary List

* (el) agua: water [note: "agua" is a feminine noun, but the first syllable is a stressed "a", so "the cold water" is "el agua fría"]
* bebe: (he/she/it) drinks
* bebes: (you) drink
* bebo: (I) drink
* come: (he/she/it) eats
* comes: (you) eat
* como: (I) eat
* el: the (for masculine nouns)
* él: he
* ella: she
* eres: (you) are
* es: (he/she/it) is
* hombre: man
* la: the (for feminine nouns)
* (la) leche: milk
* (la) manzana: apple
* (la) mujer: woman
* (la) niña: girl
* (el) niño: boy or child
* (el) pan: bread
* soy: (I) am
* tú: you
* un: one (for masculine nouns)
* una: one (for feminine nouns)
* usted: you (respectful form)
* yo: I

## Vocabulary-Grammar Connections
### Masculine and Feminine Nouns

In Spanish, all nouns are either masculine or feminine. When a noun refers to a person, such as hombre or mujer, or to an animal, males are grammatically masculine and females are grammatically feminine, as you would expect. However, all nouns must be either masculine or feminine, even if they refer to genderless objects, such as pared ("wall"). One good way to deal with this is by memorizing the noun together with its form of the, such as la manzana. You will also notice that many noun endings are associated with one gender or the other, such as the way most nouns ending in -o are masculne, such as 'carro, and most ended in -a, such as manzana, are feminine.

### Verbs

You are probably familiar with subject-verb agreement in English:
* I am
* You are
* He is, or she is, or it is
The words am, are, and is mean practically the same thing but about different people (called the first, second, and third person, respectively).
The same thing happens in Spanish:
* Yo como
* Tú comes
* Él come, or ella come, or usted come
In Spanish, most verbs are assigned to their person based on how the verb ends. This is called conjugating the verb. However, some verbs are irregular, which means the forms are more different from each other, like in the English example above:
* Yo soy
* Tú eres
* Él es, or ella es, or usted es

### Usted

Spanish has two words for "you" -- tú, which is used in close relationships like friends and siblings, and usted, which is more formal and respectful. Verbs that go with usted are conjugated in the third person. This is like the "if your honor agrees..." type of usage in English that you may hear lawyers use in court; in that phrase, the lawyer is talking to the judge, but the third person verb (he/she agrees) is used.

## Suggested Writing Practice

* Write as many sentences as you can think of using only the vocabulary words. Make sure the sentences make sense, so do not write things like ella es una manzana (she is an apple).
* Write some more sentences using a mix of the vocabulary words and clearly marked English placeholders, such as ella bebe manzana juice. Make a list of the placeholders you use, and research how to say them correctly in Spanish.
# Foundations of Spanish/Food
## Vocabulary List

* almuerzo
* arroz
* azúcar
* carne
* cebolla
* cena
* cerveza
* cocino
* comemos
* comen
* comida
* desayuno
* emparedado
* emparedados
* fresa
* fruta
* huevo
* jugo
* limón
* menú
* naranja
* papa
* pasta
* pescado
* pollo
* queso
* sal
* salsa
* sopa
* té
* tomate
* vegetales
* vegetarianos

## Suggested Writing Practice

Write a list of words you believe exist and their meanings, based on the vocabulary words and patterns you have learned so far. For example, you might infer that pollos means chickens. Look these words up to check. Write a weekly menu and shopping list. (Someone in every household should do this anyway, to make it easier on whoever cooks dinner, so maybe you can actually use this assignment.) Write the recipe for something on the menu, or another recipe. (Use the book from Suggested Reading Practice for examples of recipes.)

## Suggested Reading Practice

Download the free recipe book available at http://publications.usa.gov/USAPubs.php?PubID=203 and explore traditional Latin American foods. (You will need to look up a lot of extra words for this—or, you can follow the link to also download the English version, and compare the two to help you figure out the words you don't recognize.)
# First Aid/Manual of Style
## Terminology
### How do we refer to "the injured person"

    We decided to use victim for the book proper, and either victim or patient in the Advanced Topics chapter. Casualty is not used.

### CPR or BLS?

    CPR is used more prominently because that is how the public knows the technique. BLS is acceptable, but should be avoided outside the Advanced Topics chapter.

### C stands for Compressions

    Due to changes introduced in the 2005 standards, C no longer stands for Circulation, but rather for Compressions. This is because there is no circulation check for lay rescuers, and this change in terminology reinforces the new procedures.

## Scope & audience

The intended audience for this book is people (primarily young people in high school or college/university) who are taking a Standard First Aid with CPR-C course - that is, this book covers only lay rescuer procedures and will not deal with healthcare provider procedures. This is based on an international consensus for training. Where major regional variations (particularly in resuscitation) exist, they should be noted.
Standard First Aid with CPR-C includes:
* Goals of first aid
* Legal implications of first aid (consent, liability and abuse)
* Self-protection
* Anatomy and physiology of ABC priorities
* Assessment (primary & secondary)
* One-rescuer and two-rescuer CPR (adult & child & infant) (complete & summary)
* Obstructed airway: conscious victim (adult & child & infant)
* Obstructed airway: unconscious victim (adult & child & infant)
* Management of bystanders
* Respiratory emergencies: asthma/hyperventilation
* Circulatory emergencies: shock, heart attack/angina, external bleeding, stroke/TIA
* Care of unconscious victim
* Suspected spinal injury
* Environmental emergencies: heat & cold illness
* Bone or joint injury
* Abdominal or chest injury
* Burns
* Facial injury
* Seizure
* Diabetes
* Poisoning
* Critical incident stress management

## Spelling & conventions

* Canadian English is dominant, and for consistency's sake, should be used whenever possible.
* Language should avoid being overly technical, and should attempt to present analogies or simplified explanations or mnemonics whenever possible. While there is massive amounts of scientific evidence or practical experience behind the reasoning for any given technique, it's usually not necessary to present any of that background information. When explanation is needed, practical reasons are preferred, as they'll be easily remembered, and will help the reader in the practical component of their course.
* There are a series of templates which should be used to highlight key points, etc.
* Images should be used to illustrate concepts wherever practical.
# First Aid/Mental Health Emergency

A mental health emergency (or 'crisis'), is a form of medical emergency in which the mental state or mental capacity of a patient is adversely compromised or impaired compared to that considered normal.

## Causes

The causes and triggers of a 'Crisis' can be complex, and highly subjective to the individual patient.
Whilst a 'crisis' can be triggered by physical injury, for example shock or brain injury, 'Crisis' can present itself independently.
Certain forms of Mental Health crisis can also be triggered as a reaction to certain forms of drug reaction or poisoning.

## Treatment

In treating a crisis, the assistance of trained mental health professionals is always advised.

## See also

* PTSD
* Clinical Depression
* Dementia
# First Aid/Musculoskeletal Injuries
## Sprain or Fracture?

Sprains, strains, dislocations, and fractures can all present with the same symptoms. It is very difficult to determine what the injury may be. It is not necessary to know which injury the victim has as the treatment will be the same for all of them. Sprains only occur when a ligament is stretched past its normal limits. Strains occur when a muscle or tendon is stretched past its normal limits. Dislocations are when a bone comes out of its normal joint. Fractures are actual breaks in the bone.
When assessing an injury, the history will inform the practitioner almost as good as anything. The anatomy, the way it feels, hearing a "pop," loss of function, and what the pain feels like are good indicators to having a musculoskeletal injury. If the patient has any of the following symptoms, you should treat for a possible muscle or skeletal injury.
* Deformity at the injury site
* Crepitus - A grinding or cracking sound when the affected area is moved (usually accompanied by extreme pain). (Do not test for this! It should be reported by the patient.)
* Bruising and swelling
* No pulse below injury site
* Inability to use the affected body part normally
If the injury appears to be severe, EMS should be activated as soon as possible. These injuries include open fractures, shoulder/hip dislocations, and any injury that compromises nerve or circulatory function.

## Treatment

The acute treatment for muscle, bone or joint injury can follow the simple acronym "RICE".
    Rest - Rest is very important for soft tissue injuries, both in the short term and for longer term care.
    Immobilize - Sprains, strains and dislocations can be slinged; fractures should be splinted and slinged.
    Cold - Ice should be applied periodically, for around 10-20 minutes at a time. After the 10-20 minutes, you need at least a 20 minute off period before you ice again. Any person sensitive to cold should have a layer of clothing between the skin and the ice.
    Elevation - Where appropriate, the injury should be elevated above the heart, as this may help reduce the localized swelling which occurs. Do not elevate if this causes more pain to the victim.
If the injury is bad enough, the victim should be referred to a physician.