OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# AQA A-Level Physics/Spectral Classes
## Key Definitions

Balmer Series: A set of lines in the Hydrogen Spectrum

## Spectral Classes

Stars can be classified into spectral classes based on their temperature and the absorption spectra that they produce. The following table summarises the properties of each class and was taken directly from the AQA specification.
| Spectral Class | Colour | Temperature /K | Prominent Absorption Lines |
| O | blue | 25,000 - 50,000 | He$^+$, He, H |
| B | blue | 11,000 - 25,000 | He, H |
| A | blue-white | 7500 - 11000 | H, ionized metals |
| F | white | 6000 - 7500 | Ionized metals |
| G | yellow-white | 5000 - 6000 | Ionized and neutral metals |
| K | orange | 3500 - 5000 | Neutral metals |
| M | red | < 3500 | Neutral atoms, TiO (titanium dioxide) |

## Hydrogen Balmer Lines

Different elements in stars absorb different wavelengths of light. For example, if white light was shone through a cloud of pure hydrogen, all light would make it through except a few particular wavelengths. This is because the hydrogen has absorbed it, subsequently exciting the electrons around the hydrogen atoms.
The same effect occurs in stars. Each element in the star absorbs certain wavelengths of light, resulting in an absorption spectrum to a viewer one earth.It would look something similar to Figure 1, just with black bands over the absorbed wavelengths.
Hydrogen Balmer lines are a series of lines in the Hydrogen spectrum. By analysing these lines, we can narrow down our estimate of the temperature of the star. These lines only occur at a certain temperature, when the electrons of the hydrogen are in the $n=2$ state.

### When star temperature is too hot:

Going back to our hydrogen cloud example, if the cloud was too hot, the hydrogen atoms would collide with each other with enough force to free their electrons. When an atom loses electrons, it becomes ionized, so the result of this is an ionized cloud of hydrogen. Due to the lack of electrons, no white light can be absorbed, so the hydrogen balmer lines are not visible; no light is being absorbed.
In this instance, the electrons are of course not in the $n=2$ level, as they're not even part of the atom at all.

### When star temperature is too cold:

If the cloud were too cold, the light incident on the hydrogen atoms would not have enough energy to excite the electrons, meaning it would not be absorbed. For a cloud of pure hydrogen, this would give exactly the same effect as if the cloud were ionized.

### Is the star too hot or too cold?

Given that the star being too hot or too cold have exactly the same effect to an oberver on earth looking at balmier lines, how can we tell what the temperature of the star is.
Fortunately, a star contains many elements, which all have different absorption patterns. We can analyse multiple elements to more accurately determine the temperature of the star.
We know that the strongest balmer lines occur in a star of approximately 9000K. As the temperature of the star gets closer to 9000K, the hydrogen balmer lines get stronger. As a result, we can use the intensity of the balmer lines to estimate a stars temperature.
# AQA A-Level Physics/The photon

A photon is an elementary particle; it is the force carrier for the electromagnetic force. A photon has no rest mass, this allows for interaction at long distances. A photon is what we called a packet, it is a burst of electromagnetic waves.
The photon theory was first established in 1905 by a man you've probably heard of, Albert Einstein. Einstein used his ideas to explain photoelectricity. This is the emission of electrons from a metal surface when light is directed at the surface. Einstein imagined photons as flying needles and he assumed that the energy, E of a photon depends on it's frequency. The equation for photon energy is as follows E=hf This is where h is a constant of which we refer to as Planck's constant. It has a value of 6.63x10^-34 Joule seconds
# Abnormal Sexual Psychology/Paraphilia and Fetishism

Abnormal Sexual Psychology
* Preface   |   Contributors   |   Manual of Style   |   Warning to Readers   |   Further Reading
# Abnormal Sexual Psychology/Preface

Abnormal Sexual Psychology
* Preface   |   Contributors   |   Manual of Style   |   Warning to Readers   |   Further Reading

## Paraphilia and Society

I started writing this book when I was in college, in 1986, with five other psychology students and Dr. Earl Harper, who was a researcher involved in studying paraphilias. This was when DSM-III was in use, and the revision had just come out.
Dr. Harper was concerned about the lack of research into the actual structure of paraphilia, especially it's effects on mental health and the larger psychocultural issues surrounding how paraphiliacs were treated. Of the six students helping him, four of us had at least one paraphilia. I was the only one who had multiple paraphilias, plus other problems.
Originally, this was a supplemental text he was designing for a PSYC 6 - Abnormal Psychology class. However, he worked more on trying to find various theories that would fit problems with what he saw as bilaterial shifts in how the brain interpreted arousal. The entirety of his theories, which were interesting but undocumented and relied too much on a subset of DSM-III that is no longer supported, do not appear in this book.
What does appear is the extremely solid and detailed groundwork we developed to have a fundamental understanding of exactly what paraphilia is, and what effects it has on mental health. This book is a primer to this specific aspect of abnormal psychology. It is usually glossed over in lower level college classes due to the nature of it being distasteful to some people. Research is hindered due to the fact that some people will never admit publicly to some of the more extreme paraphilias. Some of them are criminal, or even inimical to human ideas about what is decent.
This text is intended to give a reader with no serious background in abnormal psychology a good understanding of what paraphilias are, how the DSM-IV treats them, and what relationships they have with our present day culture and psychological and mental health. It draws no conclusions, and should be used only as a textbook and not as a guide. For those with no background in psychology, the tone and terminology used are kept as non-clinical as possible without compromising accuracy.

## Dedication

In medias res : Earl Harper, 91st Infantry, Professor of Exploratory Psychology, Cornell
Vos doctus mihi subsisto.
# Abnormal Sexual Psychology/Frotteurism

Frotteurism is a type of paraphilia, which refers to sexual disorders that involve persistent and intense sexual arousal or fantasies involving unusual or socially unacceptable sexual behaviors or fantasies.
In the case of frotteurism, the person who has this disorder achieves sexual arousal and gratification by rubbing his/her genitals against another person, usually a stranger, in a public place or a crowded area, such as a train or bus. This behavior is usually non-consensual, meaning that the other person may not be aware of or consent to the behavior.
Frotteurism is considered a form of sexual misconduct and is illegal in many jurisdictions. It can cause distress and discomfort to the person who experiences it and to the person who is the target of the behavior.
Treatment for frotteurism usually involves psychotherapy and medication to manage the person's sexual desires and behaviors. It may also involve addressing any underlying psychological issues, such as depression or anxiety, that may contribute to the behavior.
# Abnormal Sexual Psychology/Paraphilia and Health

Abnormal Sexual Psychology
* Preface   |   Contributors   |   Manual of Style   |   Warning to Readers   |   Further Reading
# Abnormal Sexual Psychology/Masochism

Masochism refers to the tendency to derive pleasure from one's own pain or humiliation. This can manifest in a variety of ways, including sexual activities that involve pain or submission, or non-sexual behaviors such as self-injury or humiliation. Masochism is often considered a part of BDSM (bondage, discipline, dominance/submission, and sadomasochism), although not all individuals who engage in BDSM activities identify as masochists. It's important to note that masochistic activities should always be consensual, safe, and carried out with informed consent from all parties involved.
# Abnormal Sexual Psychology/Sadism

Abnormal Sexual Psychology
* Preface   |   Contributors   |   Manual of Style   |   Warning to Readers   |   Further Reading
* DSM-IV Direct Quotation
* The material below is directly taken from the DSM-IV or the DSM-IV-TR and summarized for clarity. The material excludes the specific diagnostic texts, case summaries, and extended text of the entry, and is as short as possible. The DSM-IV is widely quoted and cited in this manner, and this usage falls under fair use.
* Individuals with this Paraphilia use sexual fantasies, urges, or behaviors involving infliction of pain, suffering or humiliation to enhance or achieve sexual excitement.
* Diagnostic criteria for 302.84 Sexual Sadism
* A. Over a period of at least 6 months, recurrent, intense sexually arousing fantasies, sexual urges, or behaviors involving acts (real, not simulated) in which the psychological or physical suffering (including humiliation) of the victim is sexually exciting to the person.
* B. The person has acted on these urges with a nonconsenting person, or the sexual urges or fantasies cause marked distress or interpersonal difficulty.
* Etiology
* There are no primary theories for the cause of this disorder.
* Treatment
* Treatment may require both the application of psychotherapeutic techniques and drug therapy
* Prognosis
* Prognosis is poor, and most results are sub-optimal.
* Affects of Sadism
* This type of sexual desire can lead to serious crimes. According to (Fedoroff 638-639), 39% of general population males have fantasies of "tying up" women, and 30% "raping a women". This percentage being very close can eventually make it difficult to distinguish violent sexual crimes from consented sexual situations.
* The material cited above comes from the DSM-IV-TR, ©1995-2006, American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc. The full text of the DSM-IV includes associated features, diagnostic tools based on culture, age, and gender features, prevalence, course, and familial pattern of mental disorders. It also covers diagnosis, treatment, and quality of care. The above cited material is a summary of a DSM-IV or DSM-IV-TR entry and should not be used for diagnostic purposes. The full text can be purchased here.

## References

* ↑ Fedoroff, Paul. "Sadism,Sadomasochism,Sex, and Violence." Canadian Journal of Psychiatrics 53.10 (2008): 638-639. Web. 1 May 2011. <http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=2b16281c-fee5-4f70-9dfa-25c8bbaea988%40sessionmgr10&vid=4&hid=13>.
# Abnormal Sexual Psychology/Society

Abnormal Sexual Psychology
* Preface   |   Contributors   |   Manual of Style   |   Warning to Readers   |   Further Reading

## Paraphilia in the Media

-ControversyBox: Pedopriests
* Mainstream Paraphilia
* Special Case: Fur fetish
* Psychological statements in the media

## Paraphilia in "common knowledge"

* Perceptions of "safe" paraphilias
* Perceptions of pedophilia
* Discrimination

## Dangerous Misconceptions

* Homosexuality as paraphilia
* Paraphila as fetishism

## Immorality and Paraphilias

-ControversyBox: Christianity
* Religious views
# Active Learning In Virtual Environment/Brainwriting

Activity: #in-class/short-term, #group-work

### Outline

Brainwriting sounds very familiar to brainstorming, however this method carries more benefits and provides equal opportunities to all participants. Similar to brainstorming, students propose their ideas and thoughts on a particular subject. But, instead of sharing one’s ideas out loud, students are expected to write their thoughts down. Next, it guarantees all opinions being heard. This technique would benefit introverted or shy students who do not feel comfortable speaking in group meetings. In addition, it gives a person some time to think of their answers and formulate them better.

### 6-3-5 Brainwriting

6-3-5 brainwriting format is an active and popular way of conducting this technique. During such sessions, brainwriting exercises are divided into several rounds. It is conducted in a way that 6 people write down 3 ideas during 5 minutes. Once the first round is finished, each participant exchanges their papers with somebody else. He then reads what is put down on this paper and adds 3 more ideas. Those ideas can either be new ones or based on other concepts that have already been shared. After finishing all 3 rounds all pieces of papers are collected, ideas are discussed and debated which leads to an agreement regarding the next step. Even though this exercise is originally meant for 6 people, this activity can be held in larger or smaller groups as well. The other factors such as amount of ideas and time can be adjusted to your needs. Nevertheless, it is stated that most people find setting 3 ideas for each round to bring the best results.

### Activity arrangement

* Appoint one person to be a moderator. (A moderator ensures that everyone participates in the session. He is responsible for handing out the brainwriting templates, asking participants to fill them in and general focus on the activity)
* Decide on the length and number of rounds
* Begin round 1
* Exchange worksheets
* Repeat the process for several rounds
* Discuss all the ideas

### Pointers

* everyone’s opinion is heard
* every participant has an opportunity to contribute
* introverted participants feel more comfortable without pressure to speak up
* more time to think through your ideas

### How to use this method in online class?

Brainwriting activity can be conveniently held in a virtual environment. Firstly, a teacher or a moderator should email every participant a copy of a template: example. Make sure that each template is marked differently so no confusion will occur (e.g. “Brainwriting Worksheet 1”). After each round participants should email the answers to the moderator, marked for example as “Brainwriting Worksheet 1 After Round 2”. However, conducting activity in this particular way may be more complicated. Therefore, as an alternative, students may use shared documents and exchange them after each round in a breakout room.

### Footnotes

* ↑ Mindtool, ‘Brainwriting’, n.d., received from https://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newCT_86.htm
* ↑ Ibid, note 1
* ↑ Ibid
# Active Learning In Virtual Environment
## Table of Contents

* Introduction

### Methods

    Polling
    Minute Paper
    Pro and Con Grid
    Peer Review
    Think-Pair-Share
    The Muddiest Point
    Collaborative Note Taking
    Case Study
    Flipped Classroom
    What's Missing
    Debate
    Mind Maps/Concept Maps
    The Jigsaw Technique
    Brainwriting
    Reflective Journals
    Thinking-Aloud Pair Problem Solving
    Team Learning
    Reciprocal Questioning
    Snowball Technique
    Kinesthetic Learning
    Role Playing
# ActionScript Programming/PartI/Getting Started

Before starting reading the book, you need to know how to use the “Actions” window.
Actions toolbox is used for helping you to write script. The script is written in Script pane. There are 2 modes of programming in Flash MX. The first one is Normal Mode, which is for beginners and the code is written with the help of Actions Toolbox and Expression text field, and the second one is the Expert mode, which consists only of Actions Toolbox and Script Pane. If you use Normal Mode, then the Expression text field helps you to write the expression in it. And the Actions Combo Box is used to navigate from one object to another.
Continue >>
# Active Learning In Virtual Environment/Collaborative note taking

Activity: #in-class/short-term, #group-work

### Outline

Students are encouraged to work collaboratively during the lesson or lecture. The activity can be arranged in small groups of up to 5 people. Each student is given a category on which he has to fill in the notes during the class. The simplest way to arrange this assignment would be through Google Docs. Throughout the class students fill in their list of notes which they can later compare with the whole class. Additionally, it brings an opportunity for a student to add some piece of information he overlooked. What is more, the notes added from students contain their own perspective which may differ from their peers. Summing up, collaborative note taking carries the beneficial purpose of exchanging knowledge, comparing and learning at the same time.

### Activity arrangement

* create a Google Docs and add a table to give visual organization
* each column needs to be assigned for a different category
* you can divide students into groups or held this activity with the entire class
* assign one student to a certain category
* if the activity is held in entire class, students will take turns as official note-takers

### Pointers

* collaborative work
* opinion exchange
* ability to be held in a group of any size
* students feel less overwhelmed as they need to focus on only one category

### How to use this method in online class?

As was already mentioned numerous times, the activity can be held through Google Docs which a teacher shares with students. A simple table can be created there in order to organise categories.

### Footnotes

* ↑ Kasey Bell, ‘Collaborative Notes with Google Docs’, Shake Up Learning, 2020, received from https://shakeuplearning.com/blog/collaborative-note-taking-with-google-docs/ (05.04.2021)
# AP Chemistry/Kinetics

TERMINOLOGY
Rate of reaction - change of concentration of reactants/products per unit time
Activation energy - energy required to break the bonds of the reactants at the start of the reaction Rate equation - experimentally determined equation showing the relationship between the rate constant and concentrations of reactants raised to their respective powers
Order of reaction(with respect to a reactant) - is the power to which the reactant concentration is raised in a rate equation
Overall order of reaction - sum of powers to which concentrations of reactants are raised in a rate equation
Rate constant - proportionality constant whose magnitude shows how fast the reaction proceeds
Reaction mechanism - series of steps undergone by a reaction
Rate determining step - slowest step in the reaction mechanism of a reaction
Catalysis - process of speeding up the rate of a reaction using a catalyst. It involves the lowering of activation energy
Homogeneous catalysis - catalysis using a catalyst which is in the same phase with reactants e.g the reaction of S$_2$O$_8$$^{2-}$ with I$^-$ catalysed by Fe$^{2+}$ or Fe$^{3+}$ in an aqueous state as shown below:
Using Fe$^{3+}$ : 1. 2Fe$^{3+}$ + 2I$^-$ → I$_2$ + 2Fe$^{2+}$
WORKED EXAMPLE
1 The mechanism of a reaction is as shown below:
H$_2$O$_2$ + I$^-$ → H$_2$O + IO$^-$ (slow)
H$^+$ + IO$^-$ → HIO (fast)
HIO + H$^+$ + I$^-$ → H$_2$O + I$_2$ (fast)
a Deduce the equation of the reaction
b Write down the rate equation
ANSWER
1(a) step1: cancel out what appears on both sides of the reaction mechanism
b rate equation: k[H$_2$O$_2$].[I$^-$]. *{taken from the slowest step/rate determining step}
# AP Chemistry/Periodicity
## The Periodic Table

The periodic table is essentially a summary of a lot of information that is useful as a reference, and will be essential to the AP chemistry test. Here is what it looks like:
Each row is called a period, while each column is called a group. Elements in the same group tend to have similar properties. Make note of the names and locations of each of the groups of elements (alkaline, alkaline earth, etc.) they will be referred to. Each box represents one element. Let's look at one box on the periodic table:
* The small number on the top indicates the atomic number of the element. It also indicates the number of protons in the nucleus of one atom of the element.
* The big two letters in the center indicate the abbreviation of the element. This element is He, or Helium
* The small number at the bottom of the big letters indicate the atomic mass of the element. The atomic mass of an element is the average of the atomic weights of the isotopes of an element, weighted by the abundance of the element (if He-4 occurs 97% of the time and He-5 occurs 3% of the time, then you would do .97 ⋅ 4 + .03 ⋅ 5 and that would be the atomic mass).

## Spectrometry
### Mass Spectrometry

The creation of a spectrum based on mass by finding the mass to charge ratio. Used to determine weight of isotopes.

### Photoelectron Spectrometry

The creation of a spectrum based on the kinetic electrons of an electron when energy is put into an atom and that electron is released.

## Trends in the Periodic Table

* Metals tend to be more reactive as one goes down and to the left of the periodic table (called metallic character).
* Nonmetals tend to be more reactive as one goes up and to the right of the periodic table (called nonmetallic character).
* Atomic radius increases as one goes from the top to the bottom, and also increases when moving right to left, because effective nuclear charge decreases.
* First ionization energy decreases as one goes from the top to the bottom, and also decreases when moving right to left (opposite of atomic radius). Ionization energy jumps especially high when taking an electron from an element with a full shell.
* Electron affinity (how much an electron wants to accept an electron) Atoms closer to F want electrons (negative affinity value), while elements closer to Fr do not accept electrons (positive affinity value).
* Electronegatvity (the attraction of electrons to individual atoms) has the same trend as electron affinity. It is used to determine how electrons are distributed among atoms in molecules.
* In groups I - VIII, each element in the column has the same number of valence electrons, giving them similar properties.
* Atoms that form cations (+ ions) tend to be smaller because there are less repulsion forces. Anions (- ions) tend to be larger because there are more repulsion forces.
The Basics · Periodicity · Solids and Liquids · Gasses · Reactions · Stoichometry · Thermodynamics · Solutions · Acids and Bases · Equilibrium · Electrochemistry · Nuclear Chemistry · Organic Chemistry
Constants and Equations · About the AP Exam