OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Urdu/Nasta'liq

Urdu اردو :
| Reading & Writing ||
| Introduction Alphabet | Nasta'liq Transliteration |
| Lessons ||
| Basic Elementary | Intermediate Advanced |
| Exercises ||
| Reference ||
| Vocabulary Grammar | Dialects Linguistic Terms |
| Related Wikibooks ||
| Hindi | Persian |
| Miscellaneous ||
| Appendices | Random lessons |
Nasta'liq or Nasta'leegh (نستعلیق) is a specific style for writing in the Arabic alphabet. It is the preferred style for writing Urdu, but is mostly considered a form of calligraphic art for writing other languages, specially Persian and Ottoman Turkish. The name derives from mixing Naskh and Ta'leeq, two other writing styles, of which Nasta'liq is a descendant.
In Iran, Nasta'liq is usually written with a somewhat thick reed pen (with a tip of about 5mm), and a special kind of carbon ink. In Pakistan, various kinds of pens and inks are used, because of the higher usage of the style.
Producing high quality Nasta'liq in print is a demanding process. For example, Monotype's attempt to implement Nasta'liq for photo composer typesetting resulted in a glyph repertoire of 20,000 different glyphs. See explanation below:
This is due to the vertical displacement of characters when they are joined together. As more characters join together (usually 2-5), each one of the previous ones moves slightly up. The OTF font specification can handle this and beautiful nasta'liq is now possible on regular rendering engines such as the Windows Uniscribe engine that ships with Microsoft Windows 2000 onwards.
As Urdu fontography is evolving, a number of issues with its Unicode representation have been raised. At the moment, the font that complies best with Unicode and OTF is Nafees Nasta'liq, produced by CRULP (Center for Research in Urdu Language Processing)
If you have Nafees Nasta'liq installed, the text and image below should be identical. Note the previous letters being shifted up:
نفیس نستعلیق
# Urdu/Grammar

The complete reference of Urdu Grammar will be difficult to accumulate here. Most of the first Generation Urdu Speakers only use this Grammar. The new or Asaan Urdu will be used here to explain the Grammatical Terms. It is important to go through the Grammar Guide because it comprises the 60% that one needs to speak Urdu. The vocabulary these days are very important to learn, because most of the new Generation of Urdu Speakers use a high percentage of English words in their speech.
# Urdu/Elementary Urdu

Have you ever had a child? If yes, then you'd know how inquisitive their little minds are. If you haven't had any kids, try remembering yourself as a toddler. It isn't hard enough to note that children usually start talking by asking simple questions like ‘what is this?’ and ‘where is that thing?’ We will start learning the Urdu in a very similar way: asking questions.

## Basic interrogation

If Paul is to ask what a certain thing is, he'd say: what is this? It is pretty much how things work in Urdu with a slight change however. To learn Urdu, you would have to think in Urdu. When asking a question, a speaker, of say English, would use a special word called the interrogative word which in Paul's example is what. If broken down, the simple question that Paul asked would appear as follows:
| Interrogative word | Auxiliary verb | Object |
| What | is | this |
In the example above, we clearly see that the question begins with an interrogative word (what, where, when, etc.), followed by an auxiliary or helping verb and then comes the object. In Urdu grammar however things work a bit differently. Try looking at the same example in a different perspective.
| Object | Interrogative word | Auxiliary verb |
| This | what | is |
This might seem incorrect grammatically in English, but this is actually the correct sequence of syntax when asking a question in Urdu. The object comes first with the auxiliary verb at the end and anything else (the interrogative word in this case) between the two. In Urdu, following question would be the equivalent of the question Paul asked.
| | Object | Interrogative word | Auxiliary verb |
| Latinised | Yeh pronounced | kya pronounced | hai pronounced |
| Urdu | یہ | کیا | ہے |
# Urdu/Elemetary Urdu

Have you ever had a child? If yes, then you'd know how inquisitive their little minds are. If you haven't had any kids, try remembering yourself as a toddler. It isn't hard enough to note that children usually start talking by asking simple questions like ‘what is this?’ and ‘where is that thing?’ We will start learning the Urdu in a very similar way: asking questions.

## Basic interrogation

If Paul is to ask what a certain thing is, he'd say: what is this? It is pretty much how things work in Urdu with a slight change however. To learn Urdu, you would have to think in Urdu. When asking a question, a speaker, of say English, would use a special word called the interrogative word which in Paul's example is what. If broken down, the simple question that Paul asked would appear as follows:
| Interrogative word | Auxiliary verb | Object |
| What | is | this |
In the example above, we clearly see that the question begins with an interrogative word (what, where, when, etc.), followed by an auxiliary or helping verb and then comes the object. In Urdu grammar however things work a bit differently. Try looking at the same example in a different perspective.
| Object | Interrogative word | Auxiliary verb |
| This | what | is |
This might seem incorrect grammatically in English, but this is actually the correct sequence of syntax when asking a question in Urdu. The object comes first with the auxiliary verb at the end and anything else (the interrogative word in this case) between the two. In Urdu, following question would be the equivalent of the question Paul asked.
| | Object | Interrogative word | Auxiliary verb |
| Latinised | Yeh pronounced | kya pronounced | hai pronounced |
| Urdu | یہ | کیا | ہے |
# Water Resources Directory/USA/History

Waters - People - Organizations - Education - Research - Best Practices - Laws - Ethics - Economics - Projects - Assistance - Data & Maps - News - Culture - Library

#### History of water resources planning

Overview of the Harvard Water Program
    Is It Time to Resurrect the Harvard Water Program? by Martin A. Reuss PhD, Senior Historian, Office of History, Headquarters, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Alexandria, VA., in: ASCE Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management, September 2003, Vol. 129 Issue 5, p357-360.
* Source: Planning Manual for USACE, by Charles E. Yoe (1996, pp. 31-48)
* History/ of multipurpose planning
List of Federal laws with planning procedures requirements:
       (b/c) indicates inclusion of benefit/cost analysis guidelines.
    1808 - Gallatin Report to US Congress (mp) History
       Multiple objective - political unity, national defense, economic development of West
       Multiple purpose - waterways, canals, roads
    1917 - Flood Control Act
    1926 - 308 reports for multiple purpose river basin planning studies History
    1933 - National Industrial Recovery Act
    1934 - Fish & Wildlife Coordination Act (b/c)
    1936 - Federal Flood Control Act (b/c)
    1944 - Flood Control Act ("municipal and industrial water supply becomes a full project purpose for USACE reservoirs,
       as does recreation")History
    1950 - “Green Book” (b/c)
    1962 - U.S. Senate Document 97 (b/c and mp) ("river basins the preferred planning area; multipurpose planning to be used" History}
    1965 - Water Resources Planning Act (b/c)
       Level B river basin planning studies
       State water plans guidance
    1969 - “Blue Book” (b/c)
    1972 - U.S. National Water Commission's Panel on Water Resources Planning
    1973 - Principles & Standards (b/c, mp) ("NEPA integrated into multipurpose planning")History
    1983 - Principles & Guidelines (b/c)
Reviews of Federal Water Resources Planning Procedures
    1994 - Galloway Report (Interagency Floodplain Management Review Committee report, directed by Dr. Gerald E. Galloway, Jr.)
    1999 - National Research Council
    2002 - National Research Council's review of USACE planning procedures
References
* "An Analysis of Federal Water Resource Planning and Evaluation Procedures" by Gunter Schramm and R.E Burt Jr., June 1970 (Univ of Michigan)
* Burges, S. (1979). “Water Resources Planning in the U.S.A.: 1776-1976.” Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management, 105(1):91-112. American Society of Civil Engineers.
* Water Resources Update, 2000, Universities Council on Water Resources

#### History of simulation models

* "In 1953, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (Corps) developed a simulation model for the study of six reservoirs on the Missouri River."(Palmer, p.4)
# Water Resources Directory/USA/Library

Waters - People - Organizations - Education - Research - Best Practices - Laws - Ethics - Economics - Projects - Assistance - Data & Maps - News - Culture - Library

## Dictionary

* Water Words Dictionary, from State of Nevada, Department of Conservation and Natural Resources.
* Water Quality Terms definitions, from Wilkes University.
* SEMIDE thesaurus, from Euro-Mediterranean Information System on the know-how in the Water Sector.

## Special Collections

* Water Resources Center Archives at UC Berkeley - Internet Resources
* Western Waters Digital Library
# Water Resources Directory/USA/News

Waters - People - Organizations - Education - Research - Best Practices - Laws - Ethics - Economics - Projects - Assistance - Data & Maps - News - Culture - Library

### Newsletters

* EWRI Currents, newsletter of Environmental and Water Resources Institute of the American Society of Civil Engineers
* Public Works Digest U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
# Write Yourself a Scheme in 48 Hours/Topic List
### Presentation

| Introduction | Topic List | First Steps | First Steps |
* First Steps
* Parsing
* Evaluation, Part 1
* Error Checking and Exceptions
* Evaluation, Part 2
* Building a REPL
* Adding Variables and Assignment
* Defining Scheme Functions
* Creating IO Primitives
* Towards a Standard Library
* Conclusion
* Answers
# Writing Adolescent Fiction

Welcome to the textbook on writing adolescent fiction. Adolescent fiction is a personal, identifiable and casual genre. When they have entered their teen years, many boys and girls alike try their hands at writing it. Sometimes they will decide a few years later that they have written utter garbage and throw their stories into the trash (or the Recycle Bin on their computers). Some end up writing best-selling adolescent novels as adults.
Whether you are interested in writing novels that will be read by millions or just writing stories you want to share with a few friends, this textbook is for you.
Much of this advice will be specific to the genre of adolescent fiction, although some parts of it are useful to writers anywhere.

## Content
### Basics

* Setting
* Plot
* Style
* Dialogue

### Character development

see wikibook Character Creation
* Creating your characters
* Describing physical characteristics
* Revealing personality

### Handling themes

* Depression and suicide
* Teen pregnancy
* Drugs
* Dealing with loss
* Teen angst (against social norms, corporations, laws that restrict teens, apathy, stupidity, etc.)
* Eating disorders and body image
* Academic pressure
* Gangs and violence
* Bullying
* Internet and social media
* Sexual orientation
* Poverty and socioeconomic class
* Growing up ethnic
* Risky sex

### Special considerations for the genre

* Generations in history
* Teen myths and stereotypes to avoid
* Abortions
* Culture difference
* LGBTQ

### Miscellaneous

* Representing pop culture in your novel
* Character names

## See Also

* Children's Authors
* Choosing High Quality Children's Literature
* How to Read Young Adult Literature Like a Young Adult Writer
# Write Yourself a Scheme in 48 Hours/LaTeX
## File structure

| ./main.tex ./chapters/ ./chapters/ch1.tex ./chapters/ch2.tex ./chapters/ch3.tex ./chapters/ch4.tex ./chapters/ch5.tex ./chapters/ch6.tex ./chapters/ch7.tex ./chapters/ch8.tex ./chapters/ch9.tex ./chapters/ch10.tex ./appendices/ ./appendices/answers.tex ./appendices/documentinfo.tex ./appendices/gfdl.tex ./misc/ ./misc/conclusion.tex ./misc/overview.tex ./misc/style.sty ./misc/titlepage.tex | ./code/ ./code/conditionalparser.hs ./code/datatypeparser.hs ./code/equalparser.hs ./code/errorcheck.hs ./code/evaluator1.hs ./code/evaluator2.hs ./code/evaluator3.hs ./code/functionparser.hs ./code/hello.hs ./code/ioparser.hs ./code/listparser.hs ./code/operatorparser.hs ./code/recursiveparser.hs ./code/replparser.hs ./code/simpleparser1.hs ./code/simpleparser2.hs ./code/variableparser.hs ./code/stdlib.scm |
# Write Yourself a Scheme in 48 Hours/Overview

Most Haskell tutorials on the web use a style of teaching akin to language reference manuals. They show you the syntax of the language, a few language constructs, then tell you to create a few simple functions at the interactive prompt. The "hard stuff" of how to write a functioning, useful program is left to the end, or omitted entirely.
This tutorial takes a different approach. You'll start off using and parsing the command-line, then progress to writing a fully-functional Scheme interpreter that implements a decent subset of R$^5$RS Scheme. Along the way, you'll learn Haskell's I/O, mutable state, dynamic typing, error handling, and parsing features. By the time you finish, you should become fairly fluent in Haskell and Scheme.
This tutorial targets two main audiences:
* People who already know Lisp or Scheme, and want to learn Haskell
* People who don't know any programming language, but have a strong quantitative background, and are familiar with computers
The second group will likely find this challenging, as this tutorial glosses over several concepts in Scheme and general programming in order to stay focused on Haskell. A good textbook such as Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs or The Little Schemer should be very helpful.
Users of a procedural or object-oriented languages like C, Java, or Python should beware: You'll have to forget most of what you already know about programming. Haskell is completely different from those languages, and requires a different way of thinking about programming. It's best to go into this tutorial with a blank slate; try not to compare Haskell to imperative languages, because many concepts (including classes, functions, and return) have significantly different meanings in Haskell.
Since each lesson builds upon code written in previous ones, it's generally best to go through them in order.
This tutorial assumes that you'll use GHC as your Haskell compiler. The code may work with Hugs or other compilers, but hasn't been officially tested with them, and may require downloading additional libraries.
A prior, non-wiki-edited version of the source code files used in this tutorial is available on the original site.
# Wampanoag/Constructing Words Together

For the Construction of words together, I will give three short Rules.
1. WHEN two Nouns come together, one of them is turned into a kind of an Adverb, or Adnoun, and that is an Elegancy in the Language : of which see frequent Examples. See 1 Pet. 2.2. |Pahke sogkodtungane wuttinnowaonk|, {The pure milkie word}, for {milk of the word}. The like may be observed a thousand times.
2. When two Verbs come together, the latter is the Infinitive Mode: as in the same 1 Pet. 2.5. |K∞weekikonitteamw∞ sephausinat|. {Ye are built, &c. to sacrifice}, &c. And a thousand times more this Rule occurs.
3. When a Noun or a Verb is attended upon with an Adnoun, or Adverb, the affix which belongeth to the Noun or Verb is prefixed to the Adnoun or Adverb; as in the same Chapter, 1 Pet. 2.9. |Ummonchanatamwe wequaiyeumut|, {His Marvellous light}: The affix of {Light} is prefixed to {marvellous}. |K∞waantamwe ket∞hkam|. {Thou speakest wisely}: The affix of {speaking} is prefixed to {wisely}. This is a frequent Elegancy in the Language.
But the manner of the formation of the Nouns and Verbs have such a latitude of use, that there needeth little other Syntax in the Language.
# Wampanoag/Debts and trusting

|NOónat.| `I have not money enough' |Noonamautuckquàwhe.|- `Trust me.' |Kunnoonamaútuckquaush.| `I will owe it you.'
They <160/r.168> <Of {Debts} and {Trusting}>
{Obs.} They are very desirous to come into debt, but then he that trusts them, must sustaine a twofold losse:
First, of his Commoditie.
Secondly, of his custome, as I have found by deare experience: Some are ingenuous, plaine hearted and honest; but the most never pay, unlesse a man follow them to their severall abodes, townes and houses, as I my selfe have been forc'd to doe, which hardship and travells it hath yet pleased God to sweeten with some experiences and some little gaine of Language.
|Nonamautuckquahéginash.|0 `Debts.' |Nosaumautackquáwhe.|- `I am much in debt.' |Pitch nippáutowin.| `I will bring it you.' |Chenock naquómbeg cuppauútiin nitteaúguash.|- `When Will you bring mee my money?' |Kunnaúmpatous, Kukkeéskwhush.| `I will pay you.' |Keéskwhim teaug mésin.| `Pay me my money.' |Tawhìtch peyáuyean| `Why doe you come?' |Nnádgecom.| `I come for debts.' |Machêtu.| `A poore man.'
Num <161/r.169> <Of {Debts} and {Trusting}.>
|Nummácheke.| `I am a poore man.' |Mesh nummaúchnem.|- `I have been sicke.' |Nowemacaúnash nitteaùquash.|- `I was faine to spend my money in my sicknesse.'
{Obs.} This is a common, and as (they think) most satisfying answer, that they have been sick: for in those times they give largely to the Priests, who then sometimes heales them by conjurations; and also they keepe open house for all to come to helpe to pray with them, unto whom also they give money.
|Mat noteaúgo.| `I have no money.' |Kekìneash nippêtunck.|- `Looke here in my bag.' |Nummâche maúganash|- `I have already paid.' |Mat coanaumwaúmis.|- `You have not kept your word.' |Kunnampatôwin keénowwin.| `You must pay it.' |Machàge wuttamaúntam.|- `He minds it not.' |Machàge wuttammauntammôock.|- `They take no care about paying.' |Michéme notammaúntam.|- `I doe alwayes mind it.'
Mat <170> <Of {Debts} and {Trusting}.>
|Mat nickowêmen naúkocks.| `I cannot sleep in the night for it.'
# Trigonometry/Verifying Trigonometric Identities

To verify an identity means to prove that the equation is true by showing that both sides equal one another.
There is no set method that can be applied to verifying identities; there are, however, a few different ways to start based on the identity which is to be verified.
Trigonometric identities are used in both course texts and in real life applications to abbreviate trigonometric expressions. It is important to remember that merely verifying an identity or altering an expression is not an end in itself, but rather that identities are used to simplify expressions according to the task at hand. Trigonometric expressions can always be reduced to sines and cosines, which can be more manageable than other functions.

## To verify an identity

* Always try to reduce the larger side first.
* Sometimes getting all trigonometric functions on one side can help.
* Remember to use and manipulate already existing identities. The Pythagorean identities are usually the most useful in simplifying.
* Remember to factor if needed.
* Whenever there is a squared trigonometric function such as $\sin ^{2}(t)$ , always use the Pythagorean identities, which deal with squared functions.
* Sometimes doing the reverse of the normal steps helps. For example, adding 1 in unique forms (such as ${\frac {\cos(t)}{\cos(t)}}$ can help simplify expressions by matching denominators and simplifying numerators.
Easy example ${\frac {1}{\cot(t)}}={\frac {\sin(t)}{\cos(t)}}$
    ${\frac {1}{\cot(t)}}=\tan(t)$ , so $\tan(t)={\frac {\sin(t)}{\cos(t)}}$
$\tan(t)$ is the same as ${\frac {\sin(t)}{\cos(t)}}$
and therefore the example can be rewritten as ${\frac {\sin(t)}{\cos(t)}}={\frac {\sin(t)}{\cos(t)}}$
Identity verified
Next Page: Solving Trigonometric Equations | Previous Page: Using Fundamental Identities
Home: Trigonometry
# Trigonometry/Worked Example: Oil Tanker Arriving in Port

* Distance travelled
* Port Gdynia
* This worked example will involve using sines and/or cosines to work out the distance travelled by an oil tanker
| previous module: "Worked Example: Area of a Roof" | • Table of Contents | next module: "The most Difficult Triangles to Solve" |
# Trigonometry/Trigonometric identities
## What is an identity?

An identity is an equation that holds true for all values of the variables appearing in it, because it either is a definition or is the logical consequence of a definition. An example of a definitional identity is $\tan(x)={\frac {\sin(x)}{\cos(x)}}.$ An example of an identity that can logically be proven to hold for all values of its variable is the Pythagorean identity expressed in trigonometric form: $sin^{2}(x)+cos^{2}(x)=1.$
Next Page: Graphs of Sine and Cosine Functions Previous Page: Right Angle Trigonometry
Home: Trigonometry
# Trigonometry/Vectors in the Plane

In practice, one of the most useful applications of trigonometry is in calculations related to vectors, which are frequently used in Physics. A vector is a quantity which has both magnitude (such as three or eight) and direction (such as north or 30 degrees south of east). It is represented in diagrams by an arrow, often pointing from the origin to a specific point.
A plane vector ${\vec {A}}$ can be expressed in two ways -- as the sum of a horizontal vector of magnitude $A_{x}$ and a vertical vector of magnitude $A_{y}$, or in terms of its angle $\theta$ and magnitude $\left|{\vec {A}}\right|$ (or simply A). These two methods are called "rectangular" and "polar" respectively.

## Rectangular to Polar conversion

For simplicity, assume ${\vec {A}}$ is in the first quadrant and has x-component $A_{x}$ and y-component $A_{y}$ (which will necessarily be positive). Given these components, we want to find the angle $\theta$ and the magnitude $A$.
If we draw all three of these vectors, they form a right triangle. It is easy to see that $\tan \theta ={\frac {A_{y}}{A_{x}}}$, or $\theta =\arctan {\frac {A_{y}}{A_{x}}}$ (A vector with an angle of zero is defined to be pointing directly to the right.) Furthermore, by the Pythagorean Theorem, $A_{x}\,^{2}+A_{y}\,^{2}=A^{2}$, or $A={\sqrt {A_{x}\,^{2}+A_{y}\,^{2}}}$.

## Polar to Rectangular conversion

This is essentially the same problem as above, but in reverse. Here, $\theta$ and $A$ are known and we want to calculate the values of $A_{x}$ and $A_{y}$.
Using the same triangle as above, we can see that $\cos \theta ={\frac {A_{x}}{A}}$, or $A_{x}=A\cos \theta$. Also, $\sin \theta ={\frac {A_{y}}{A}}$, or $A_{y}=A\sin \theta$.

## Review of conversions

* $\theta =\arctan {\frac {A_{y}}{A_{x}}}$
* $\left|{\vec {A}}\right|=A={\sqrt {A_{x}\,^{2}+A_{y}\,^{2}}}$
* $A_{x}=A\cos \theta$
* $A_{y}=A\sin \theta$
Next Page: Vectors and Dot Products | Previous Page: Solving Triangles
Home: Trigonometry
# Trigonometry/Windows Scientific Calculator

On Windows 10, Click the Start Menu, type calculator and select Calculator.
The default is a standard calculator, which does not include trigonometry functions. Click the menu to the left of Standard, then click Scientific. There will now be options for sin, cos, and tan.
At the left side of the window, below the area where numbers are displayed but in the upper left of where the numbers and functions are entered, there is a button called DEG, RAD, or GRAD. Clicking this will allow you to switch between degrees, radians, and gradians.