OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# AQA A-Level Physics/Evidence for the nucleus
## Exam note

You don't need to learn much about this, but it is important to know the significance of Rutherford's scattering experiment as per the specification , since part 3.8.1.1 refers to the Qualitative study of Rutherford scattering and Appreciation of how knowledge and understanding of the structure of the nucleus has changed over time.

## Thompson's model of the atom

In 1897, J.J Thompson discovered the electron, which meant that the indivisible model of the atom was no longer valid, since electrons could be separated from the atom itself. As such, he proposed the "plum pudding" model, in which the main body of the atom is a sphere of positive charge in which the electrons are embedded like plums in a pudding.

## Rutherford's scattering experiment

Thompson's model was falsified following an experiment carried out by Ernest Rutherford and two of his students in 1909. Rutherford fired a beam of (positively charged) alpha particles at a thin layer of gold foil. The particle deflection angle was recorded with the help of a circular screen which surrounded the gold foil. Rutherford expected them to be deflected very slightly due to the electrons in the atom.
However, the majority of the alpha particles went straight through the atom with no deflection, while a small number were deflected by a large angle. This led Rutherford to come to a number of conclusions.
* The atom is mostly empty space, since the vast majority of the alpha particles passed straight through.
* There has to exist a positively charged nucleus at the centre, since the positive alpha particles were mostly deflected by a large angle. This also means that compared to the empty space that surrounds it, the nucleus must be very small.
* Due to the conservation of momentum, the nucleus must have a large mass to deflect the alpha particles with high velocity.

## References

* ↑ "AS and A-Level Physics Specification" (PDF). AQA. June 2015. Retrieved 3 June 2022.
# AQA A-Level Physics/Gravitational Fields

Newton’s Law- Gravity is a universal attractive force acting between all matter. Doubling the mass of an object doubles the force between the two objects whereas doubling the distance between to two objects makes the force ¼ of the force before, F is inversely proportional to the distance squared.
F is the force in Newtons between the two objects
G is the universal gravitational constant and m1 and m2 are two masses in kg, whose centres are r distance apart, measured in metres.
Gravitational Field Strength: The gravitational field strength, g, is the force per unit mass (measured in Newtons per kilogram). The magnitude of g in a parallel field is found by using this equation.
The magnitude of g in a radial field however is given by this equation.
Gravitational Potential: The gravitational potential at a point in a field is the potential energy per unit mass ( so for 1 kg). It is the work done by bringing a unit mass from infinity to that point within the field. The gravitational potential at an infinite distance is zero. Gravitational potential is scalar.
The work done W (measured in Joules) in moving mass m from a point in a field with gravitational potential V1 to gravitational potential V2 is given by the equation:
Orbits of planets and satellites: The relationship between the orbital speed and the radius of a planet can be applied to the orbit of a satellite around the Earth by replacing the mass of the Sun with that of the Earth. This enables the speed of the satellite to be calculated at any orbital radius. Some communications satellites occupy geo-synchronous orbits. A satellite in geo-synchronous orbit:
-Orbits above the equator
-Remains in the same position relative to the Earth’s surface
-Has an orbit time (or period) of 24 hours
# AQA A-Level Physics/Circular Motion

Circular Motion- When an object moves in a circle at a constant speed, its velocity (which is a vector) is constantly changing. This is not because the magnitude of the velocity is changing, but because the direction is. This constantly changing velocity means that the object is accelerating (due to centripetal acceleration). For this acceleration to happen, there must be a resultant force, and the resultant force is called the centripetal force.
Angular Speed: The angular speed of an object is the angle it moves through measured in radians divided by the time taken to move through that angle. This means that the unit for angular speed is the radians per second.
V is the linear velocity measured in metres per second
r is the radius of the circle in metres
f is the frequency of rotation in hertz
Centripetal Acceleration: Centripetal acceleration is measured in metres per second squared. It is always directed towards the centre of the circle.
Centripetal Force: When an object moves in a circle, the centripetal force always acts towards the centre of the circle. The centripetal force, measured in Newtons can be different forces in different settings it can be gravity, friction, tension, lift, electrostatic attraction or a mix of several.
# AQA A-Level Physics/Charge and Current

Current, measured using an ammeter, is the rate of flow of charge in a given part of a circuit. It is split between branches in parallel circuits in accordance with the resistance in the branches and Ohm's law (which states that Voltage across a component is equal to the resistance of the component multiplied by the current traveling through it (In symbols, V=IR).

#### Units

* Current: Has the unit of the Ampere (A), usually referred to by the diminutive form of "Amp(s)". Note that despite the fact that current is usually given as being the rate of flow of charge, the Ampere is one of the seven SI Base Units, the other 6 being the metre(length), the second (time), the kilogram (mass), the Kelvin (temperature), the mole (amount of substance) and the candela (luminous intensity).
* Charge: The Coloumb(C), named after Charles-Augustine de Coulomb. In base units, the Ampere-second (As). It is also the charge carried by 6.2415093414 ×10$^{18}$ electrons.
# AQA A-Level Physics/Electric Fields

Electric Fields
Coulomb’s Law-This law is about the force between two point charges in a vacuum.
Electric Field Strength-The electric field strength E is the force per unit charge, it’s unit is the newton per Coulomb.
The magnitude of E in a radial field is given by the equation below.
The magnitude of E in a uniform field is given by the equation where V is the potential difference between the two plates and d is the distance between the two plates.
Electrical Potential:
Absolute Electrical potential is the amount of potential energy needed to move a unit positive charge from infinity to a specific point within the field. The electric potential at infinity is assumed to be zero.
E against r:
# AQA A-Level Physics/Longitudinal and transverse waves

Longitudinal and transverse waves are the two main classifications/types of waves.

## Transverse Waves

Transverse waves are characterised by the fact that the direction of energy transfer is perpendicular to the direction of wave oscillation and particle displacement.
Examples of Transverse waves include the whole EM Spectrum, secondary earthquake waves, and waves formed along a string.
It is also important to note that all EM waves travel at the same speed in a vacuum, that being 3.00*10^8ms^-1
Most transverse waves cannot travel through liquids. While oceanic waves themselves are transverse, these waves instead propagate through the surface tension of the ocean.
Light and EM waves are also 'self propogating', meaning they sustain themselves using their own magnetic field, and can therefore travel through liquids.
This self-propogation concept is not assessed in any of the Physics A-Level, however it may help with your understanding of transverse waves.

### Polarisation of Transverse Waves

Transverse waves can also be polarised. Polarisation is the act of restricting the vibration of a transverse wave to one vertical plane / direction. This can, in many cases where a pulse of light will consist of many different individual waves oscillating in different directions, reduce the amount of perceived light that would pass through the polarising filter.
Therefore, polarising filters are used in various everyday applications, such as;
* Sunglasses, to reduce the impact of sun on the vision of the user.
* Camera Lenses, to reduce glare and its impact on a picture taken.
* Antennas, Waves must be aligned with Antenna receivers to ensure a good reception signal.
This feature of polarisation is exclusive to Transverse Waves. Therefore, in scientific applications, polarising filters can be used to easily and effectively determine the type of wave when this is not a known quantity.

## Longitudinal waves

Longitudinal waves are characterised by the fact that the direction of energy transfer is parallel to the direction of wave oscillation and particle displacement.
Examples of Longitudinal waves include sound waves, primary earthquake waves, and ultrasound waves.
Longitudinal waves cannot be polarised.
# AQA A-Level Physics/Density

Density at A-Level is no different to density at GCSE. You should recall that density is defined as measure of a material's mass per unit volume. Using this definition we can work out that density, $\rho ={\frac {m}{V}}$, where $m$ is mass, in kg, and $V$ is volume in m$^3$. Once again, using the formula, it can be found that density has the units kgˑm$^{−3}$, since it is a fraction of kg over m$^3$.
A more dense material will be heavier than a less dense material of the same volume, since a smaller numerator in the fraction reduces the value of $\rho$

## Experiment to measure density

You are required to be able to state a method in order to measure the density of a given object.
* The first step is to measure the objects mass. This should be done using a set of scientific balances of sufficient precision (e.g. ±0.001 grams). Record this value.
* Measure the volume. The way you should go about this is dependent on the object:
** If the object is regular, for example, cuboid, find the cross-sectional area and multiply by the depth of the object.
** If the object is irregular, fill a beaker or measuring cylinder enough to cover the object once it is submerged and measure this initial volume. Place the object into the container and measure the new volume. The volume of the object itself is $\Delta V$, found by subtracting the initial volume from the final volume.
* Use the density using your values and the formula above.

## Practice Questions

Give all answers to an appropriate number of significant figures.
* State the density of air at room temperature and pressure.
* Given that the density of strontium is 2630kgm$^{-3}$, what is the mass of strontium in a sphere of radius 0.560m?

### Answers

* 1.3 kgm$^{-3}$
* 1930 kg
# AP Physics C/Motion in One Dimension
## Scalars vs. Vectors
### Scalars

    measurements that have no direction to them
    Examples: Distance, speed

### Vectors

    measurements that have a direction to them
    Examples: displacement, velocity

## Displacement vs. Distance

Displacement - the most direct route from one point to another. (The net distance traveled)
Distance- the length traveled
Example Problem:
If a car travels 3m directly east then 5m directly west, what is the displacement and what is the distance traveled?
Displacement: if a car goes 3m east, and then it goes 5m opposite of east, the car will travel enough to cancel out the 3m east traveled, and go an extra 2m after that. This is best represented in an equation:
If east is positive:
=3m (east) + 5m (opp. east)
=3m (east) + (-5)m east
= -2m east
= 2m west
Displacement is often represented by the variable s, or x.

## Velocity vs. Speed

Speed- change in distance over change in time
Velocity- the change in displacement divided by the change in time. It is also defined as the derivative of the displacement equation. Velocity is a vector.
# Fundamentals of Electric Charge

* Intrinsic to fundamental particles
* 2 types: positive (+), negative (-)
Positive - Lack of electrons Negative - More electrons No charge = Neutral
Same charges repel: + and + or - and - Opposite charges attract: + and -
* Coulomb: Measurement of the amount of electric charge (similar to moles in chemistry)
| Atomic Particle | Mass | Charge |
| Neutron | 1.675 * 10$^{−27}$ kg | 0 C |
| Proton | 1.673 * 10$^{−27}$ kg | 1.602 * 10$^{−19}$ C |
| Electron | 9.11 * 10$^{−31}$ kg | -1.602 * 10$^{−19}$ C |

# Atomic Notation

$_{Z}^{A}E$
* A = Atomic mass = # protons + # neutrons
* Z = Atomic Number = # protons
* E = element symbol (like U for Uranium)
# AP Computer Science/Java

It is helpful to learn more about a programming language before you begin coding programs with it. This page will help you learn more about Java.

## Programming Languages

Java is a programming language, a language of code the computer uses to understand what the programmer wants it to do. There are many different programming languages, many of which are related to each other and have similar features. Java is related to the C and C++ programming languages. These languages have a similar structure and syntax, or word order and style.

## Object-Oriented Programming

Java is an object-oriented programming language, which means that nearly everything used in Java code is represented by an object. These objects can include types of numbers such as integers, individual characters, strings of letters, or other types of objects. Many types of objects will be created and designed by the programmer. While Java does provide basic control structures, the strength in the language lies in the manipulation and interaction of these objects within programs.
# AP Computer Science/Testing Java
## Software Tools

To write and test Java, you will need to the appropriate tools. The two main tools you will need are the Java Software Development Kit (Java SDK or JDK) and an Integrated Development Environment (IDE). The JDK includes all the tools your computer will need to build and run Java programs. While a simple text editor could be good enough for writing Java code, the text editor cannot compile the code, or put the code together so that it can execute, or run on a computer. An IDE uses the SDK to compile Java code and turn it into an executable program. A popular and widely-used IDE with many features is Eclipse.

## First Java Program

When you first learn any computer programming language, one of the first things you may learn to do is write a Hello World program, a program that simply prints the phrase "Hello, world!" on your computer screen. Create a new file titled "HelloWorld.java" using an IDE and type the following code in the file:
Now save this file and compile it using your IDE, then execute the program. This program should print the following message on your screen:
Congratulations! You've just written your first Java program. Later sections of this book will explain what these words mean, how to write longer and more complex programs, and how to understand code that is already written.
# AP Computer Science/Object-Oriented Programming

The basic task of object-oriented programming is to connect the data with the methods that can operate on that data. Before the introduction of Object-Oriented Programming, many other types of paradigms were used such as procedural programming. While object-oriented programming can be used to describe a procedural process, it is more powerful than the traditional procedural programming paradigm.
The AP Computer Science exam makes use of the Java programming language, which is a class-based object-oriented language. In this module we will introduce the main topics of object-oriented design.

## Objects

The basic object is a collection of data and the methods that can be used with them. We will abstract away the actual implementation of the classes and instead will present only diagrams.
The diagram presented here represents a bank account. The bank account does not need to be described in all detail, we only need to know the amount of money that is currently in the account and how to identify the account. The operations that can be used on the bank account are create, deposit, withdraw, and close. We do not allow the client to withdraw a dollar and cents; they can only withdraw an integral value.
The object presented here would be translated into Java as the following:
# AP Computer Science/Packages and Classes

This will provide a basic overview of the usage of packages and classes in the Java programming language.

## Packages and Classes

A class groups together the related code belonging to a single program. A class is generally made of a group of methods, or groups of code that tell the computer what to do when they are called, or used. Classes can be related to each other and be used with each other, but some classes can stand alone. Java provides many classes that are created in advance, but the typical Java program relies on user-defined classes. These classes have objects, which interact with each other and those from Java class libraries.
Related Java classes are grouped together into packages. Many packages are provided with the Java compiler, which turns the code into executable programs. You can put your classes together into your own package, but this will not be tested on the exam.
The package java.lang contains the most commonly used classes in Java programming, and is automatically provided to all programs. If you need to use any other classes, you must import them into you program by placing an import statement in your program. For example, to import a class called ClassName from a package called packagename, use the following import statement:
Java has a hierarchy of packages and subpackages which are smaller groups of classes grouped together in a package. Sometimes you will need to import a class from within a subpackage. To import a class called ClassName from subpackage called subpackagename from a package called packagename, use the following import statement:
If you want to import every class or most classes in a single package, there is no need to make a long list of import statements! Instead, you can simply import every class in a package using a simple import statement by using the asterisk or * in the statement. For example, to import every class in the package packagename, use the following import statement:
This does not, however, import any subpackage included in the package, or any class included in the subpackages! To import all of the classes in a subpackage called subpackagename from a package called packagename, use the following import statement:
The import statement allows you to use the objects and methods defined within the packages and/or classes that are imported. While you will neither be required to know about packages nor write import statements on the exam, it is important to know about them and how to use them when you practice writing code because unlike the AP exam, your computer will not import any required packages for you!
# AP Physics C

Welcome to AP physics C! This book will cover topics in AP physics mechanics for now, and hoepfully wll expand to E/M in the future.

## Table Of Contents
### Mechanics

* Motion in One Dimension
* Vectors and Motion in Two Dimensions
* Newton's Laws
* Work and Energy

### Electricity and Magnetism

* Electric Charge
# AI Art Generation Handbook/Archive/SD 1.5 Fashion Pattern Bra

Double click image below for zoom in details.
# AI Art Generation Handbook/ControlNet/Scribble

I believe some of you are old enough , may remember this how to draw an owl meme
Well , do you know that it is super easy to recreate this inside Stable Diffusion.
Assuming you got latest Xinsir Union ControlNet models, you can do it inside both Auto1111 and SD.Next.

## SD.Next

We try to recreate above meme using the Scribble ControlNet.
This model is designed to work with simple sketches or scribbles. It's perfect for turning basic shapes (like two circles ala snowman) into more detailed drawings of an owl as shown in the picture below. The result should be a detailed pencil sketch of an owl, where the two circles you drew have been interpreted as the owl's body and head, with the rest of the details (feathers, eyes, branch, etc.) filled in by the AI Model.
The ControlNet is already integrated within SD.Next, therefore just go straight to the "Control" tab
Using this prompt, we can try to recreate the images
Highly detailed pencil sketch of an owl, highly detailed feathers, sitting on a branch

### Control Input

We upload this scribbles into the Input Image ( Look for : Drop Image Here ) on the left side

### Control Sampler

Double steps from 20 to 40 for more flushed out details

### Control Elements Parameters

Pre-Processor: Line Art Realistic
ControlNet : Xinsir Scribble XL

### Recommended Parameters Values

Strength:1.6
( Determines how strongly ControlNet influences the generation process. )
Values above 1.0 can exaggerate ControlNet's influence, potentially leading to over-emphasis of the control image.
Start: 0.35
( Determines at which point in the denoising process ControlNet starts to influence the generation. )
A value of 0.0 means ControlNet starts influencing from the very beginning.
End: 0.8
( Determines at which point in the denoising process ControlNet stops influencing the generation. )

### End Results

If done correctly, the AI model will try to adjust the diffusion to match as close as possible to the input images, provided that input images is closely resembled the Input image silhouette , also the input images of circles and rectangle will be not much visible
# AI Art Generation Handbook/Communities

There are many communities that are active in AI art generations, here are some of them.

### Facebook

Stable Diffusion - The original Stable Diffusion group (Based on creation date) in Facebook that share the artwork done in Stable Diffusion
Stable Diffusion Universe- The splinter group of Stable Diffusion Group
AI Art: Prompt Craft (MidJourney, Stable Diffusion, Dall E, NightCafe) - A page for sharing AI generated images and the prompts used to create them.
Dalle2 Artwork • No Censorship - A FB group that share DALL-E works that are not censored (NSFW)
AI Revolution - MidJourney AI, DALL-E 2, Stable Diffusion - A place to share workflow for image generation and processing

### Youtube

Here are the Youtube of some AI art which at some point share their technical workflow on AI art
https://www.youtube.com/c/1littlecoder - 1littlecoder
https://www.youtube.com/c/Aitrepreneur - Aitrepreneur
https://www.youtube.com/@NerdyRodent - NerdyRodent
https://www.youtube.com/@OlivioSarikas - Olivio Sarikas
https://www.youtube.com/@marat_ai - marat_ai
https://www.youtube.com/c/MattVideoProductions202 - MattVidPro AI
https://www.youtube.com/@MonzonMedia - Monzon Media
https://www.youtube.com/@sebastiankamph - Sebastian Kamph
https://www.youtube.com/@tingtingin - TingTingin
https://www.youtube.com/@EndangeredAI/videos - EndangeredAI

### Reddit

r/AIart
r/StableDiffusion
r/DefendingAIart
r/AIGeneratedArt
r/bigsleep
r/dalle
r/dalle2
r/DNDAI - Reddit's community where showcase of AI Art generation to showcase the Dungeon and Dragon (DnD) character, background, game assets using AI
r/DeepDream
r/MediaSynthesis
r/sdforall An alternate sub-reddit when Stable Diffusion

### Miscellaneous

Dataset Search Engine
LAION Aesthetic - A subset 12M (0.21% of aesthetical pleasing images)
ROM 1504 - A full search engine for all of the trained images in Stable Diffusion
HaveIBeenTrained - Reverse image search from 5B images to see if the images has been used in training and the site creator claimed it can be opted out
* List of Artists Supported by DALL.E 2
* Generate Unique Dall-E Prompts with Ease
* Dall-E 2 Prompt Book