OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Proto-Turkic/Basics

Welcome to the second lesson of Proto-Turkic!

## Basics
### Clauses
#### Verb clauses

Verb clauses are formed by adding a tense to the end of the verb. Let's consider the aorist suffix *-ur, *-ür and its opposite *-maŕ, *meŕ.
* I love horses. - Bẹ atïŕïg sebür.
* My mother doesn't love him. - Anam anï sebmeŕ.
However, in some Turkic languages like Turkish, Tatar, or even Old Turkic, this suffix was combined with another suffix *-aŕ or *-eŕ to form unpredictable choice of aorist form.

#### Noun clauses

There are no noun clauses in Proto-Turkic. The verb to stand or to be (auxiliary) takes the suffix *-ur, *-ür in the present tense, and noun phrases are provided in this way. If the sentence is positive, it may not take any verb or suffix.
* Hen is a bird - Takïgu kuĺ (turur/erür).
* Butter is not a fruit - Yāg yẹ̄miĺč turmaŕ/ermeŕ.

### Family members

* mother - *ana
* father - *ata
* girl, daughter - *kï̄ŕ
* boy - *ēr
* son - *ogul
* elder sister - *eke
* elder brother - *ečey
* younger sister - *siŋil
* younger brother - *ini (unclear, perhaps Proto-Common-Turkic)
* bride - *kẹlin
* son-in-law - *küdegü
* a man's wife's younger sister - *bāldïŕ
The reason why *ini is not clear is that it is not found in the Oghur group. Sometimes some words are reconstructed for (Pre-)Proto-Turkic even though they are not found in Lir Turkic. These configurations include Proto-Common-Turkic, non-Lir legacy configurations are not (Pre-)Proto-Turkic.

## References

* ↑ https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Turkic/-%C3%BCr
* ↑ https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Turkic/-me%C5%95
* ↑ https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Turkic/ata
* ↑ https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Turkic/k%C3%AF%CC%84%C5%95
* ↑ https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Turkic/%C4%93r
* ↑ https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Turkic/ogul
* ↑ https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Turkic/k%E1%BA%B9lin
# Proto-Turkic/Classification of Turkic languages

We will edit this page soon with academic studies...

## Tree

| | | | | | | | | | | Early Pre-Turkic | Early Pre-Turkic | Early Pre-Turkic | Early Pre-Turkic | Early Pre-Turkic | Early Pre-Turkic | | | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | | | | Early Pre-Turkic | Early Pre-Turkic | Early Pre-Turkic | Early Pre-Turkic | Early Pre-Turkic | Early Pre-Turkic | | | | | | | | | | | Pre-Turkic | Pre-Turkic | Pre-Turkic | Pre-Turkic | Pre-Turkic | Pre-Turkic | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | | | | Proto-Bulgaro-Turkic | Proto-Bulgaro-Turkic | Proto-Bulgaro-Turkic | Proto-Bulgaro-Turkic | Proto-Bulgaro-Turkic | Proto-Bulgaro-Turkic | | | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | Proto-Bulgaric | Proto-Bulgaric | Proto-Bulgaric | Proto-Bulgaric | Proto-Bulgaric | Proto-Bulgaric | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Proto-Turkic | Proto-Turkic | Proto-Turkic | Proto-Turkic | Proto-Turkic | Proto-Turkic | | | | | | | | | | |
| S-Dialect | S-Dialect | S-Dialect | S-Dialect | S-Dialect | S-Dialect | Bulgaric | Bulgaric | Bulgaric | Bulgaric | Bulgaric | Bulgaric | | | | | | | | | West Turkic | West Turkic | West Turkic | West Turkic | West Turkic | West Turkic | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | East Turkic | East Turkic | East Turkic | East Turkic | East Turkic | East Turkic | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | Chuvash | Chuvash | Chuvash | Chuvash | Chuvash | Chuvash | | | Oghuz | Oghuz | Oghuz | Oghuz | Oghuz | Oghuz | Karluk | Karluk | Karluk | Karluk | Karluk | Karluk | Kipchak | Kipchak | Kipchak | Kipchak | Kipchak | Kipchak | | | Old Turkic | Old Turkic | Old Turkic | Old Turkic | Old Turkic | Old Turkic | Yakut-Dolgan | Yakut-Dolgan | Yakut-Dolgan | Yakut-Dolgan | Yakut-Dolgan | Yakut-Dolgan | Arghu | Arghu | Arghu | Arghu | Arghu | Arghu |
# Proto-Turkic/Contributors

This Proto-Turkic page on Wikibooks first created by User:BurakD53 in 21 July 2021. This is a list of contributors to this page (please don't add if you don't have important contributions):
* BurakD53 (discuss · email · contribs · logs · count) — The author of this page, has uploaded several images to be used in one of the lessons
* DanielWhernchend (discuss · email · contribs · logs · count) — Contributor of mostly minor edits, but nevertheless created few subpages
* Mbrickn (discuss · email · contribs · logs · count) — Added Tonyukuk inscription as its illustration
* Yorınçga573 (discuss · email · contribs · logs · count)
# Object Oriented Programming/Encapsulation

Encapsulation
In-the oriented approach, classes,and therefore also objects of that class,are similar to black boxes with a clearly defined interface. This interface is the only mechanism that other objects can use to communicate with the object
We say that inside a class, behind the interface, the data and implementation of the operations are encapsulated or enclosed in a capsule.
This makes the internal workings of a class invisible to all other classes. This is a good technique, since there is no need for other classes to know the internal structure of this class,in other words, how it represents its data and how it performs its operations. We call this encapsulation information hiding.

## See also

* Wikipedia:Encapsulation_(computer_programming)
* Programming Fundamentals/Encapsulation
# Fundamentals

There are some books on OOP that will tell you that the cornerstones of object oriented programming are encapsulation, inheritance, and polymorphism, or something along those lines. This is fairly typical of the classic OOP view.

## OOP Fundamentals

* Classes *
* Constructors
* Classes
* Constructors
* Methods
* Properties
** Getters and Setters
* Static vs Dynamic Methods
* Private vs Public
# Object Oriented Programming/Advanced Concepts

Advanced Concepts

## See also

* Wikipedia:Programming_paradigm
* TI-Basic Z80 Programming/Advanced Programming
# What is a constructor?

In Object Oriented Programming, a constructor is a function that is executed when a new class object is created. This subroutine ensures that the class is properly instantiated. The constructor first checks to make sure that there are enough resources(memory) available to create the new object and then allocates the memory. Afterwards, the constructor can execute the custom code that can be optionally provided by the programmer. This is useful if each class has passed in data when created, making each class unique. You can use the constructor to assign the passed in parameters to specific properties within the class, while possibly calling other class methods for data manipulation within the constructor if needed. It's important to note that constructors are only called once per object, so once a class has been instantiated, the constructor will not be used again for that particular instance of the class.

# Example
## Main.py

From the example above, you can see that we have an __init__ function. In Python, this is the programmer controlled aspect of the class constructor. This example shows that the constructor takes the passed in value, and squares it. This is all done when the class is instantiated with no methods being directly called by Main.py. Constructors are very handy in situations when there are passed-in values, when the class is instantiated, as well as when those passed in values have to be manipulated before use.

## See also

* Wikipedia:Constructors
* Open Books project:Python3-Classes and Objects
# Generic Programming

"The key idea of generic programming or programming with templates is to define families of functions or classes. By providing the concrete type you get automatically a function or a class for this type. Generic programming provides similar abstraction like object-oriented programming."

## Proxies

"A proxy, in its most general form, is a class functioning as an interface to something else. The proxy could interface to anything: a network connection, a large object in memory, a file, or some other resource that is expensive or impossible to duplicate. In short, a proxy is a wrapper or agent object that is being called by the client to access the real serving object behind the scenes."

## Abstracting Classes

In this article along with the demo project, I will discuss Interfaces versus Abstract classes. The concept of Abstract classes and Interfaces is a bit confusing for beginners of Object Oriented programming. Therefore, I am trying to discuss the theoretical aspects of both the concepts and compare their usage. And finally, I will demonstrate how to use them with C#.

## References

* ↑ , Object Oriented Generic and Functional programming
* ↑ Proxy_pattern
# Object Oriented Programming/Getters and Setters

Getters and Setters (also known as accessor and mutator methods respectively) are two types of methods used to control the access and modification of class attributes (also called properties or member variables).

## Getter

A getter method is used to retrieve the value of a private or protected class attribute. It provides read-only access to the attribute, allowing other parts of the program to retrieve its value without directly accessing the attribute. By using a getter, you can control how the attribute is accessed and apply any necessary logic or validation before returning the value.
In most programming languages, the naming convention for a getter method is to prefix it with "get," followed by the attribute name. For example, if you have a private attribute age, the corresponding getter method would typically be named getAge.

## Setter

A setter method is used to modify the value of a private or protected class attribute. It provides a way to update the attribute while enforcing any necessary constraints or validation rules before making the change. By using a setter, you can control how the attribute is modified and prevent any inappropriate changes.
In most programming languages, the naming convention for a setter method is to prefix it with the word "set," followed by the attribute name. For example, if you have a private attribute age, the corresponding setter method would typically be named setAge.

## See also

* Wikipedia:Mutator method
* Python Programming/Classes
# Interfaces

An Interface allows a class to expose a different set of properties and methods depending on context. For example, say that you were writing a Visual Basic 2005 application that manages clients. A client could be an individual person, or an organization. Part of the program generates address labels for clients.
You might define a person like this:
You might also define an Organization like this:
As you can see, the main differences between a Person and an Organization are:
* a Person has both a first name and a last name, while an organization has only a single name
* an Organization has a separate mailing address, while a Person only has one address
So that you can have the one routine to print address labels, you create an interface called "IAddressLabel" (by convention, the name of an interfaces should start with a capital I).
You now change the Person class to implement this interface. The main thing to notice is that the Person's first and last names are combined on the label.
You now change the Organization class to implement the IAddressLabel interface. Notice that the address for the label is the mailing address, not the building address.
Now you can group the disparate objects together as a collection of address labels!

## Interfaces vs. Inheritance

Interfaces and Inheritance can both be used to solve the problem of treating dissimilar objects collectively. For example, if you have a Cat class and a Dog class, but have some routine that needs to process them together, you could either:
* Create an Animal base class, which contains procedures common to both Cats and Dogs, and have Cat and Dog inherit from Animal, or
* Create an IAnimal interface, and have both Cat and Dog implement the interface.
Which approach to use depends on several factors. In general:
* If you are extending an existing class, then use inheritance. For example, if you already have an Animal class, and then discover a need to distinguish between Cats and Dogs
* If you are simply wanting to treat different objects as the same, then use Interfaces. For example, you already have Cat and Dog classes, and then discover a need to manipulate them in a similar fashion
# Spanish Grammar/Definite and Indefinite Articles

Definite articles are words that translate to " the". Indefinite articles correlate to the English "a" or "an".
Spanish articles change form to agree with the noun they're modifying in number and gender. Therefore, there is more than one word for "the" and more than one word for "a/an":
| | Masculine | Masculine | Feminine | Feminine |
| | singular | plural | singular | plural |
| Definite | el | los | la | las |
| Indefinite | un | unos | una | unas |
The three elements at play here are definite vs. indefinite, masculine vs. feminine, and singular vs. plural.
The difference between definite and indefinite articles is the same as in English: you are either talking about something individual and specific (definite, "the - el/la"), or generally referring to something in a slightly abstract way (indefinite, "a/an - un/una/unos/unas").
Whether you use the masculine or feminine article depends on the gender of the following noun: abeja (bee) is a feminine noun, so 'the bee' is 'la abeja'. Bolígrafo (pen) is a masculine noun, so 'the pen' is 'el bolígrafo'.
Plurality is simple: if you're talking about more than one (or zero, same as in English), you use the plural form:
dos abejas - two bees
cero bolígrafos - zero pens
# Spanish Grammar/Demonstrative Pronouns

When the noun is understood in the context, it can be omitted – but adjectives can't stand alone. In these cases, demonstrative pronouns are used. As shown below, demonstrative pronouns are almost exactly the same as demonstrative adjectives – but there's an accent on the stressed syllable. These accents are actually optional.
Demonstrative Pronouns :
| singular | singular | singular | plural | plural | plural | singular | singular |
| English | Masculine | Feminine | English | Masculine | Feminine | English | Neuter |
| this | éste | ésta | these | éstos | éstas | this | esto |
| that | ése | ésa | those | ésos | ésas | that | eso |
| that (over there) | aquél | aquélla | those (over there) | aquéllos | aquéllas | that (over there) | aquello |
Sometimes a demonstrative pronoun refers to something abstract, not referring to any specific noun. Thus it doesn't have a gender, so neither can the demonstrative pronoun: the neuter form is used. Notice that the neuter form does not have accent marks.
# Spanish Grammar/Indicative

The indicative mood is a verb form used to make factual statements, ask questions, or state opinions regarded as fact by the speaker. Indicative is the mood we use most of the time, and all verb tenses can be inflected within the indicative mood.
# Spanish Grammar/Inequality adjectives

Comparisons of inequality: más/menos + adjective/adverb/noun + que
(1) Juan es más alto que Juanita. – Juan is taller than Juanita.
(2) Juanita camina más lentamente que Juan. – Juanita walks more slowly than Juan.
(3) Juan vende más galletas que Juanita. – Juan sells more cookies that Juanita.
# Spanish Grammar/Common Masculine Noun Endings

As a general rule, most masculine nouns end in -o. But there are many other noun endings. There are some general rules you can memorize to help you recognize masculne nouns even if they don't end in -o.
Many masculine nouns end in -aje. These nouns are almost never feminine.
Many nouns ending in -ma, -pa, or -ta are also masculine.
LONERS nouns: nouns ending in -l, -o, -n, -e, -r, or -s are usually masculine.
Most of the time, a noun that ends in an accented vowel is masculine as well.
There are always exceptions, but remember these generalizations.
# Spanish Grammar/Equality adjectives

Comparisons of inequality: más/menos + adjective/adverb/noun + que
(1) Juan es más alto que Juanita. – Juan is taller than Juanita.
(2) Juanita camina más lentamente que Juan. – Juanita walks more slowly than Juan.
(3) Juan vende más galletas que Juanita. – Juan sells more cookies that Juanita.
# Spanish Grammar/Haber

Haber is used to mean "there is" and "there are" in Spanish.
Present: Hay
Past: Hubo
Imperfect: Habia
# Spanish Grammar/About

This book was written by Wikibook contributors, including Caitlin Schultz and Laura Calabrese (Laurp).
# Spanish Grammar/Direct Object Pronouns

direct object pronouns :
| me | nos |
| te | os |
| lo, la | los, las |
Remember: the direct object of a sentence is the noun or noun phrase that is the recipient of the action of a transitive verb. Like "a book" in sentence (1) and "the food" in sentence (2):
(1) I read the book. (Yo leí el libro.)
(2) She brings the food. (Ella trae la comida.)
Direct objects are nouns and so can be replaced by pronouns. The example sentences with pronouns in place of the direct objects are:
(1) I read it. (Yo lo leí.)
(2) She brings it. (Ella la trae.)
# Spanish Grammar/Indirect Object Pronouns

indirect object pronouns :
| me | nos |
| te | os |
| le | les |
The indirect object of a sentence is a noun or noun phrase that is secondarily affected by the action of a transitive verb, like "me" in sentence (1):
(1) She brings me the food.*
*In English, sentence (2) can also be phrased as:
(1a) She brings the food to me.
*In Spanish, this is expressed through either "Ella me trae la comida." or "Ella me trae la comida a mí."
The direct object and the indirect object are always nouns, noun phrases, or pronouns. Nouns and noun phrases can be replaced by pronouns:
(1) She brings it.
(2) She brings me the food.
(3) She brings me it.
(4) She brings it to me.
In Spanish, these sentences would look like this:
(1) Ella la trae.
(2) Ella me trae la comida.
(3) Ella la me trae.
(4) Ella me la trae.
When both direct and indirect object pronouns are being used in a sentence, the indirect object pronoun comes first:
(4) Ella me la trae.
Let's look at another example.
(1) Yo leí el libro.
(2) Yo le leí el libro (a la niña).
When
(3) Yo se lo leí.
# Saylor.org's Ancient Civilizations of the World/Eastern Europe: Byzantium and Orthodox Europe

Two civilizations emerged in early medieval Europe: the Byzantine Empire in eastern Europe and the diverse cultures of western Europe. The Byzantine Empire was founded when the capital of the Roman Empire was transferred to Constantinople in 324 C.E.; it existed until the fifteenth century. While Byzantium transmitted the classical culture of Greek and Rome, it also developed a unique historical and cultural character that synthesized Greek, Roman, European, and Islamic elements.
In this unit, we will examine the expansion of the Byzantine Empire and the fragile unity it created in the Mediterranean world. We will also consider the influences that Byzantium had among Slavic and Scandinavian peoples, such as the impact of Orthodox Christianity.
# Saylor.org's Ancient Civilizations of the World/Early Civilizations in South and East Asia

Like the ancient Middle East, civilizations in South and East Asia first developed near great river systems. The Harappan civilization of the Indus River valley developed in the middle of the third millennium B.C.E.—approximately at the same time as the river civilizations of the Middle East. But Harappa was unable to survive natural catastrophes and nomadic incursions and disintegrated as a civilization between 1500 and 1200 B.C.E. In East Asia, however, the Shang civilization served as the foundation of a new and unified civilization—the Zhou dynasty—that endured for millennia.
In this unit, we will examine the emergence and decline of these important early civilizations in Asia.
# Parkour/Exercises

Quick navigation for Parkour Wikibook: 01. Introduction 02. Exercises 03. Basic Movements
04. Advanced Movements 05. Freerunning
Parkour exercises often focus on compound, functional (e.g. pertaining to real-life situations) movements. The movements are intended to build strength and agility rather than bulk. Following is a brief outline of some common exercises.

## Before You Begin

In order to help prevent injury, a proper warm-up is essential for a traceur. A warm-up might take 10–20 minutes but it should leave you feeling energized and alert. A successful warm-up may include:
* Joint rotations for mobility functioned joints as, shoulders, scapullas, hip, Ankles, and wrists, to prevent any kind of injury.
* Stability exercices for stability functioned joints as, knees, dorsal spineand elbows.
* Aerobic activity until the muscles feel warm, such as jumping jacks or spot running.
* Dynamic stretching, such as the Burpee (below).

## Exercises

* The Burpee
The Burpee is rumored to have developed in maximum security prisons. In such facilities, inmates are not allowed exercise equipment, so the burpee was developed by the prisoners to keep themselves in good physical condition.
* The Muscle-Up
A Muscle-Up is an excellent general conditioning exercise, which engages most of the arm, shoulder, back, and core musculature.
* The Handstand Push-Up
This exercise works the core and arms.
* The Pull-Up and Chin-Up
The pull-up is an exercise for the upper body, arms and back. It requires a sturdy bar, above your shoulders but low enough for you to reach it and it must be able to support your body weight. When this exercise is done with an underhand grip (palms facing you) it is a chin-up, chin-ups put more emphasis on your biceps where pull-ups put more emphasis on your lats
* The Push-Up
The push-up (or press-up) is a basic upper body exercise that targets many muscles in your arms and chest.
* The Squat
The squat is a total leg workout exercise. It doesn't require any equipments but can be done with weights to add resistance and there are many variations to keep yourself interested.
* The Lunge
The lunge trains the legs, hips, and - if done properly - the core.
# Parkour/Exercises/The Muscle-Up

Quick navigation for Parkour Wikibook: 01. Introduction 02. Exercises 03. Basic Movements
04. Advanced Movements 05. Freerunning
A Muscle-Up is an excellent general conditioning exercise, which engages most of the arm, shoulder, back, and core musculature.

## Instructions

* Find a horizontal bar or rail about a foot over your head.
* Grasp the rail, palms oriented away from you, and perform a pull-up
* At the highest extent of your pull-up, shift one of your arms up so that your palm is on top of the bar, facing downwards and your elbow is facing generally upwards.
* Shift your other arm into the same position, and straighten your arms.

## Notes

* Step 3 is often the hardest to learn. One tip is to put your wrists further over the rail than normal before you start the movement. In a normal pull-up, the backs of your hands are facing you, but in this case you want them to face upwards at a 45 degree angle (approx.).
* Perform steps 2 and 3 as quickly as you can to gain and preserve momentum.
* Beginners should focus on grip strength, pull-ups, and dips before moving to muscle-ups.
# Parkour/Exercises/The Squat

Quick navigation for Parkour Wikibook: 01. Introduction 02. Exercises 03. Basic Movements
04. Advanced Movements 05. Freerunning
The squat is a workout exercise focusing on the posterior chain, but can exercise the whole body. It doesn't require any equipment, but can be done with weights to add resistance and there are many variations.

## Steps

* Stand straight up, with your feet apart. The angle your feet are forming together can vary from 45 to 90 degrees. Always keep your weight on your heels.
* Lower your rear end downwards while maintaining your lower back is curved, with your butt and shoulders pointing backwards.
* Go down as far as you can, your thighs must go beyond parallel, but make sure you maintain a lumbar curve. Don't let your butt "wink" inwards.
* Lift yourself up, keeping your back curved.

## Tips

* At the beginning, use something to lift your heels higher, in order to make your squat deeper. This, however, can increase the pressure on the patella and the patellar tendon.
* Use a mirror, a video-camera, or a friend to check your form.
* You can lift your arms in front of you or over you to help your form.