OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Concepts of Computer Graphics
## Table of Contents

* Introduction: A Problem Statement
* The Output Space: Pixels and Colors
** Vectors
** Images
** Colors
** Representing the Digital Image
* The Input Space: Vectors and Transformations
** Measuring Space
* Techniques for Photo-Realistic Graphics
** What Your Eyes See
** The Idea of Raytracing
** The Idea of Ray marching
** The Idea of Ray casting
* Techniques for Real-Time Graphics
# Conart/Music

Conworld : conart : conmusic

## Introduction

Most westerners are unaware of the great variety there exists in music. Music is by no means the universal language it often is supposed to be. Even in such basic areas as the very building blocks of tonality there exist significant differences between Thai, Indian, Arab, Balinese and European music.
In order to be better equipped to create a new system, it is good to have some kind of grasp of what human cultures have created.
Therefore, this chapter will mostly analyze a number of musical systems somewhat superficially, and also go into the necessary math. Firstly, we will go into how scales are constructed. Secondly, we will look at some rather peculiar vocal techniques that mankind has come up with. Thirdly, miscellaneous things having to do with the music itself will be dealt with. Fourthly, the social and religious aspects of music will be discussed, and finally I will provide you with some listening advice.
The building blocks of music
* Can there be alternatives to C D E F G A B C..?
* So, what's the difference?
* So why are pentatonic scales so popular?
The instrumentation and
* Is it possible to sing in that way?
* Are there other things to spice it up with?
* So, how do the people relate to music?
* Listening recommendations.
# Conart/Music/Tuning
## Getting rid of some preconceptions

Shocking as it might seem to some people, the twelve tones you find in an octave on the piano don't actually reflect anything but an approximation of a certain selection of tones, that for some reason during the last 300 years became the backbone of western music.
There is nothing inherently natural about the 12 tone system, and it is a mistake to think that music only can be made in it, or using parts of it (like major and minor scales, or pentatonic scales). In fact, a culture won't develop the 'intonation' that we use until it has figured out quite a bit about how frequencies work, and a certain bit of math. The Chinese are as far as I know the only culture out of Europe to have developed the same scale, and they did it way before us, but didn't use it as extensively. I will explain why, eventually.
In the world, there are several different systems with all kinds of foreign tunings: Indian and Arabic which come quite close to having an additional step between our semitones, Thai which comes quite close to having seven equal steps to the octave, Balinese scales, which have somewhat unequal steps with a twist. But more on those, and the whys and hows of them.
If you want to write songs for your conculture, yet maintain a certain depth and uniqueness, copying the western system may not be a good idea. If you must use our scale, then it's possible to use chords in unusual ways or even constructing unusual chords.
If you are interested in a truly strange scale, take a look at this site which describes the Bohlen Pierce 13 note scale, which is very different from any scale attested in any culture.
# Concepts of Computer Graphics/Output Space/Images

The first thing we'd like to understand is what a digital image "is." This work being primarily concerned with the generation of digital images (and computers being digital, we have no other alternatives within the field of computer graphics), understanding what those are will be essential to understanding the intuition of many algorithms that follow. Most of those algorithms approach the complexity of computer graphics by working backwards from the final form of the digital image as a way to reduce the scope of the problem.
When you look around the world, light from the world comes into your eyeballs and is focused on an area on the back of your eye which is covered with millions of little cells. These cells are sensitive to various aspects of light, like color and brightness, and react with the light so that a signal is sent to your brain about which cell saw what sort of light, and your brain creates a complete picture from all these constituent pieces of information.
Unsurprisingly, we attempt to capture images by a similar, though man-made process. A film camera acts very much like an eye, in that light is taken in through the lens, and focused on a surface covered with millions of similarly light-sensitive elements. However, these elements are chemically treated grains of film instead of retinal cells. When the light comes into contact with the chemicals on the film, it causes a reaction that changes the structure of those chemicals, and in so doing records the information about what kind of light came through. The film can later be processed to create a print-out that replicates those colors using the information on the film.
A digital camera works very much the same way, except that instead of placing a chemically-treated strip of film behind the lens, an array of light-sensitive semiconductors is used instead. These elements convert the information about the light they interact with into numbers encoded to represent light. Thus, we can consider a digital image to be a set of data which provides information about the light used to create a particular image.
In fact, since a digital image is really just a collection of numbers, the concept exists outside the realm of photography as well; we could in theory consider any stream of numbers, properly formatted and in digital form, to be a digital image. The key technique of computer science is that of creating such a dataset purposely, element-by-element, without the use of any photographic equipment or actual light of any sort to base the image on.
# Concepts of Computer Graphics/Input Space

In the previous section, we described how we represent digital images in computers. With this understanding, we now know what the final result we are trying to create is. There are many interesting fields of computer graphics that generate digital images, but for the rest of the book, we are going to focus on what we'll call the rendering problem. That is, how do we take a digital representation of geometry, and create a drawing of it in a digital image? Later chapters of the book deal with the cases where we want to create a very photorealistic image or a very quick rendering for interactive applications. For now, we are concerned with understanding how we represent and manipulate the geometry that we will try to render.
# Concepts of Computer Graphics/Input Space/Measuring Space

We immediately face a problem very similar to our problem when we were trying to understand how to represent color as numbers in digital form. Specifically, how do we represent a geometric object in digital form?
Most of us are familiar with the Cartesian coordinate system we are taught in school. The Cartesian coordinate system lets us denote the position of objects in space relative to two axes in space. We then locate a point in space by its position along the two axes, where we consider the place where the axes cross to be the "zero" location. Because these axes are abstract ideas that extend infinitely in every direction, it is as if we have created a universal measuring stick for space (specifically a two dimensional plane in this case). It does not matter where we set the axes, or in which direction they point (as long as the axes are at right angles to each other), we can still measure the distances along each axis, and in so doing locate a given point in space.
Thus, if we are given a collection of points, our choice for how we place the Cartesian coordinate system axes is entirely unimportant, the relationships between the points will be maintained.
# Canadian Criminal Sentencing/Offences/Fraudulently Obtaining Food
## Legislation

   Fraudulently obtaining food, beverage or accommodation 364. (1) Every one who fraudulently obtains food, a beverage or accommodation at any place that is in the business of providing those things is guilty of an offence punishable on summary conviction.
   ... R.S., 1985, c. C-46, s. 364; 1994, c. 44, s. 23.
   – CCC
# Canadian Criminal Sentencing/Offences/Giving a False Sworn Statement
## Legislation

   Idem 134. (1) Subject to subsection (2), every one who, not being specially permitted, authorized or required by law to make a statement under oath or solemn affirmation, makes such a statement, by affidavit, solemn declaration or deposition or orally before a person who is authorized by law to permit it to be made before him, knowing that the statement is false, is guilty of an offence punishable on summary conviction.
   Application (2) Subsection (1) does not apply to a statement referred to in that subsection that is made in the course of a criminal investigation.
   – CCC
# Canadian Criminal Sentencing/Offences/Hostage Taking
## Legislation

   Hostage taking 279.1 (1) Everyone takes a person hostage who — with intent to induce any person, other than the hostage, or any group of persons or any state or international or intergovernmental organization to commit or cause to be committed any act or omission as a condition, whether express or implied, of the release of the hostage —
       (a) confines, imprisons, forcibly seizes or detains that person; and
       (b) in any manner utters, conveys or causes any person to receive a threat that the death of, or bodily harm to, the hostage will be caused or that the confinement, imprisonment or detention of the hostage will be continued.
   Hostage-taking (2) Every person who takes a person hostage is guilty of an indictable offence and liable
       (a) if a restricted firearm or prohibited firearm is used in the commission of the offence or if any firearm is used in the commission of the offence and the offence is committed for the benefit of, at the direction of, or in association with, a criminal organization, to imprisonment for life and to a minimum punishment of imprisonment for a term of
          (i) in the case of a first offence, five years, and
          (ii) in the case of a second or subsequent offence, seven years;
       (a.1) in any other case where a firearm is used in the commission of the offence, to imprisonment for life and to a minimum punishment of imprisonment for a term of four years; and
       (b) in any other case, to imprisonment for life.
   Subsequent offences (2.1) In determining, for the purpose of paragraph (2)(a), whether a convicted person has committed a second or subsequent offence, if the person was earlier convicted of any of the following offences, that offence is to be considered as an earlier offence:
       (a) an offence under this section;
       (b) an offence under subsection 85(1) or (2) or section 244 or 244.2; or
       (c) an offence under section 220, 236, 239, 272 or 273, subsection 279(1) or section 344 or 346 if a firearm was used in the commission of the offence.
   However, an earlier offence shall not be taken into account if 10 years have elapsed between the day on which the person was convicted of the earlier offence and the day on which the person was convicted of the offence for which sentence is being imposed, not taking into account any time in custody.
   Sequence of convictions only (2.2) For the purposes of subsection (2.1), the only question to be considered is the sequence of convictions and no consideration shall be given to the sequence of commission of offences or whether any offence occurred before or after any conviction.
   Non-resistance (3) Subsection 279(3) applies to proceedings under this section as if the offence under this section were an offence under section 279.
   R.S., 1985, c. 27 (1st Supp.), s. 40; 1995, c. 39, s. 148; 2008, c. 6, s. 31; 2009, c. 22, s. 13.
   – CCC
# Canadian Criminal Sentencing/Offences/Fraud Under $5,000
## Legislation

   Fraud 380. (1) Every one who, by deceit, falsehood or other fraudulent means, whether or not it is a false pretence within the meaning of this Act, defrauds the public or any person, whether ascertained or not, of any property, money or valuable security or any service,
       (b) is guilty
          (i) of an indictable offence and is liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding two years, or
          (ii) of an offence punishable on summary conviction,
   where the value of the subject-matter of the offence does not exceed five thousand dollars.
   Sentencing — aggravating circumstances 380.1 (1) Without limiting the generality of section 718.2, where a court imposes a sentence for an offence referred to in sections 380, 382, 382.1 and 400, it shall consider the following as aggravating circumstances:
       (a) the value of the fraud committed exceeded one million dollars;
       (b) the offence adversely affected, or had the potential to adversely affect, the stability of the Canadian economy or financial system or any financial market in Canada or investor confidence in such a financial market;
       (c) the offence involved a large number of victims; and
       (d) in committing the offence, the offender took advantage of the high regard in which the offender was held in the community.
   Non-mitigating factors (2) The court shall not consider as mitigating circumstances the offender’s employment, employment skills or status or reputation in the community if those circumstances were relevant to, contributed to, or were used in the commission of the offence.
   2004, c. 3, s. 3.
   Community impact statement 380.4 (1) For greater certainty, for the purpose of determining the sentence to be imposed on an offender, or whether the offender should be discharged under section 730, in respect of an offence referred to in subsection 380(1), the court may consider a statement made by a person on a community’s behalf describing the harm done to, or losses suffered by, the community arising from the commission of the offence.
   Procedure (2) The statement must
       (a) be prepared in writing and filed with the court;
       (b) identify the community on whose behalf the statement is made; and
       (c) explain how the statement reflects the community’s views.
   Copy of statement (3) The clerk of the court shall provide a copy of the statement, as soon as practicable after a finding of guilt, to the offender or counsel for the offender, and to the prosecutor.
   2011, c. 6, s. 4.
   – CCC

## Application

Focus is usually on general deterrence. It is not frequent that the offender will reoffend.
* ↑ R. v. Paterson,

### Factors

key factors
* vulnerability of victim
* whether accused in position of trust
* planning and sophistication
* nature and extent of lost
* degree of personal benefit
* prior record of dishonesty
* ↑ See R. v. Levesque (1993) 59 QAC 307 CA
# Canadian Criminal Sentencing/Offences/Fraudulent Concealment
## Legislation

   Fraudulent concealment 341. Every one who, for a fraudulent purpose, takes, obtains, removes or conceals anything is guilty of an indictable offence and liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding two years.
   R.S., c. C-34, s. 301.
   – CCC

## See Also

* Canadian Criminal Law/Forms of Charges
# Canadian Criminal Sentencing/Offences/Gambling Offences
## Gaming House

   Keeping gaming or betting house 201. (1) Every one who keeps a common gaming house or common betting house is guilty of an indictable offence and liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding two years.
   Person found in or owner permitting use (2) Every one who
       (a) is found, without lawful excuse, in a common gaming house or common betting house, or
       (b) as owner, landlord, lessor, tenant, occupier or agent, knowingly permits a place to be let or used for the purposes of a common gaming house or common betting house,
   is guilty of an offence punishable on summary conviction. R.S., c. C-34, s. 185.
   – CCC

### Application

Discharges, either conditional or absolute, are a possible disposition for first-time offenders.
* ↑ R v Colosimo, 2011 MBPC 70
# Chemical Sciences: A Manual for CSIR-UGC National Eligibility Test for Lectureship and JRF/Analytical Chemistry- Separation Techniques

Analytical chemistry is the study of the separation, identification, and quantification of the chemical components of natural and artificial materials. Qualitative analysis gives an indication of the identity of the chemical species in the sample and quantitative analysis determines the amount of one or more of these components. The separation of components is often performed prior to analysis. Analytical methods can be separated into classical and instrumental. Classical methods (also known as wet chemistry methods) use separations such as precipitation, extraction, and distillation and qualitative analysis by color, odor, or melting point. Quantitative analysis is achieved by measurement of weight or volume. Instrumental methods use an apparatus to measure physical quantities of the analyte such as light absorption, fluorescence, or conductivity. The separation of materials is accomplished using chromatography or electrophoresis methods. Analytical chemistry is also focused on improvements in experimental design, chemometrics, and the creation of new measurement tools to provide better chemical information. Analytical chemistry has applications in forensics, bioanalysis, clinical analysis, environmental analysis, and materials analysis.

### Instrumental methods of analysis

Atomic absorption and emission spectroscopy including ICP-AES, UV- visible spectrophotometry, NMR, mass, Mossbauer spectroscopy (Fe and Sn), ESR spectroscopy

### Spectroscopic Electro- And Thermoanalytical Methods

Spectroscopic Electroanalytical Methods :(Coulometry, cyclic voltammetry, polarography amperometry, and ion selective electrodes). Spectroscopic Thermoanalytical Methods : AAS
# Chemical Sciences: A Manual for CSIR-UGC National Eligibility Test for Lectureship and JRF/Appearance energy

Appearance energy (also known as appearance potential) is the minimum energy that must be supplied to a gas phase atom or molecule in order to produce an ion. In electron ionization, this is the minimum electron energy that produces an ion. In photoionization it is the minimum photon energy.

## References

* ↑ International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry. "Appearance energy". Compendium of Chemical Terminology Internet edition.
* ↑ Kerwin, Larkin; Marmet, Paul (1960), "Recent Appearance Potential Measurements Using an Electrostatic Electron Selector", Journal of Applied Physics, 31: 2071, doi:10.1063/1.1735504
# Chemical Sciences: A Manual for CSIR-UGC National Eligibility Test for Lectureship and JRF/Aspirating IMS

Aspirating IMS is an ion mobility spectrometry technology used to detect low or trace quantities of chemicals in the surrounding atmosphere. It is applied in industrial and military purposes to detect harmful substances in air.

## Operation

Aspiration IMS operates with open-loop circulation of sampled air. Sample flow is passed via ionization chamber and then enters to measurement area where the ions are deflected into one or more measuring electrodes by perpendicular electric field which can be either static or varying. The output of the sensor is characteristic of the ion mobility distribution and can be used for detection and identification purposes.
* Ions in sensor.

## References

* http://www.environics.fi/
* Riikka-Marjaana Räsänen, Marjaana Nousiainen, Kaleva Peräkorpi, Mika Sillanpää, Lauri Polari, Osmo Anttalainen and Mikko Utriainen. "Analytica Chimica Acta", Volume 623, Issue 1, 8 August 2008, Pages 59-65
# Chemical Sciences: A Manual for CSIR-UGC National Eligibility Test for Lectureship and JRF/Anode ray

Anode rays (or Canal rays) are beams of positive ions that were observed in experiments by the German scientist, Eugen Goldstein, in 1886. Later work on anode rays by Wilhelm Wien and J. J. Thomson led to the development of mass spectrometry.

## Experiments

Goldstein used a gas discharge tube which had a perforated cathode. A "ray" is produced in the holes (canals) in the cathode and travels in a direction opposite to the "cathode rays," which are streams of electrons. Goldstein called these positive rays "Kanalstrahlen" - canal rays because it looks like they are passing through a canal. In 1907 a study of how this "ray" was deflected in a magnetic field, revealed that the particles making up the ray were not all the same mass. The lightest ones, formed when there was some hydrogen gas in the tube, were calculated to be about 1837 times as massive as an electron. They were protons.

## References

* ↑ Grayson, Michael A. (2002). Measuring mass: from positive rays to proteins. Philadelphia: Chemical Heritage Press. p. 4. ISBN 0-941901-31-9.
# Chemical Sciences: A Manual for CSIR-UGC National Eligibility Test for Lectureship and JRF/American Society for Mass Spectrometry

The American Society for Mass Spectrometry is a professional association based in the United States that supports the scientific field of mass spectrometry. As of 2007, the society had approximately 7000 members primarily from the US, but also from around the world. The society holds a large annual meeting, typically in late May or early June as well as other topical conferences and workshops. The society publishes the Journal of the American Society for Mass Spectrometry.

## Publications

* Journal of the American Society for Mass Spectrometry
* Measuring Mass: From Positive Rays to Proteins by Editor, Michael A Grayson ISBN 978-0941901314
* "Classic" books on mass spectrometry

## Conferences
### Annual Conference on Mass Spectrometry and Allied Topics

Conferences have been held yearly since 1953.
* 40th, Washington, DC, May 31 - June 5, 1992
* 45th, Palm Springs, California, June 1 - 5, 1997
* 50th, Orlando, Florida
* 52nd, Nashville, Tennessee, May 23 - 27
* 55th, Indianapolis, Indiana, June 3 - 7, 2007
* 56th, Denver, Colorado, June 1 – 5, 2008
* 57th, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, May 31 - June 4, 2009
* 58th, Salt Lake City, Utah, May 23 - 27, 2010
* 59th, Denver, Colorado, :June 5 - 9, 2011
* 60th, Vancouver, BC, May 19 - 24, 2012

### Fall Workshop

Held at various locations.

### Asilomar Conference

Held at Asilomar State Beach in California.

### Sanibel Conference

Typically held on Sanibel Island, Florida.
# Chemical Sciences: A Manual for CSIR-UGC National Eligibility Test for Lectureship and JRF/Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging

The Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, usually referred to as just the "Martinos Center," is a major hub of neuropsychological research and nuclear magnetic resonance research and development in Boston. The center has two sites, one in the Massachusetts General Hospital East Campus in the Charlestown Navy Yard, and another at MIT. The center is a member or collaborator with NCRR (and BIRN), NIDA, NIBIB, National Cancer Institute, NINDS, NCCAM, ONDCP, and The MIND Institute. The center also has a strategic partnership with Siemens Medical Solutions. It is also a Harvard Catalyst site.
There are 8 MRI scanning bays used primarily for research, including a seven Tesla magnet for human radiography and a combined PET-MRI. In addition, the center serves as a development site for new Siemens equipment, such as the 32 channel and 128 channel MRI coils.

## References

* Martinos Center Research
* Martinos Center Strategic Partnership with Siemens Medical Solutions
* Martinos Center Major Funding Sources and Initiatives
* Siemens AG Research Cooperation with the Martinos Center
* HealthImaging:Automated MRI measures may identify early Alzheimer's at
* New York Times: Lost Chances for Survival, Before and After Stroke
* The Washington Post: Migraine Tied to Thickening in Brain Area
* The Washington Post: Scientists Probe the Idle Mind