OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Portuguese/Contents/L1/Lesson Six - The Train

Return to Portuguese – Return to Contents – Go to Lesson Seven
* Dialogue 6
* Ricardo: O senhor pode me dizer a que horas parte o próximo comboio para o Porto?
* Alberto: Às três horas. O senhor tem bilhete?
* Ricardo: Não. Posso comprar um bilhete?
* Alberto: Sim. Quer um bilhete de segunda classe?
* Ricardo: Sim. Quanto custa?
* Alberto: Três euros.
* Ricardo: De que plataforma parte o comboio?
* Alberto: Da plataforma três.
Here Ricardo is buying a ticket on a train station (o comboio in Portugal, "the train", is translated as o trem in Brazil). He also asks some other questions about the train he wants to catch. In this lesson we're going to learn how to make questions in Portuguese. We've already seen one way of asking about things, when we looked at verbs like "gostar".
* Você gosta de Lisboa? - Do you like Lisbon?
* O senhor gosta de viajar? - Do you like travelling?
These are almost exactly the same as stating something.
* Você gosta do gato. - You like the cat.
* A senhora gosta da amiga - You like the friend.
In fact, the only difference between these sentences is that there is a question mark at the end. In Portuguese, you can ask a yes/no question by just stating something, and putting a question mark at the end of it. In the spoken language, you should pronounce with a raising intonation to the end of the sentence, just like in English. This is an extremely easy way to form a question.
STATEMENT & QUESTION MARK = YES/NO QUESTION
And how do we answer such questions? Well, of course, with a "Yes" or a "No". When Alberto asks Ricardo:
O senhor tem bilhete?
Ricardo could answer with...
| Yes | No |
| Sim | Não |
We've also encountered another way to ask questions. Back in lesson three we learnt how to ask someone what they were going to do on a certain day. Do you remember?
O que vai fazer na terça-feira? - What are you going to do on Tuesday?
O que eles vão fazer no domingo? - What are they going to do on Sunday?
The two words 'O que' mean "what?" You can also ask "o que é que...", which literally means "what is it that...".
* O que é que ela quer comer? - What does she want to eat?
* De que é que tu gostas? - What do you like?
* (note that "gostar" must always be accompanied by "de" and you can never end a sentence with "de")
# Portuguese/Contents/L1/Lesson Nine - Getting The Groceries

Return to Portuguese – Return to Contents – Go to Lesson Ten
Demonstrative Pronouns
A demonstrative pronoun is used to point out something : this/these for something close to the speaker and that/those for something further away.
In Portuguese there are three sets of demonstrative pronouns:
| Demonstrative Pronoun | M sg | F sg | M pl | F pl | Neuter |
| this/these near the speaker, near me | este | esta | estes | estas | isto "this thing" |
| that/those near the listener, near you | esse | essa | esses | essas | isso "that thing" |
| that/those (over there) beyond the speaker and the listener, away from both of us | aquele | aquela | aqueles | aquelas | aquilo "that thing (over there)" |
Remember that the trailing "s" denotes plural. Demonstratives ending in "a" or "as" refer to feminine nouns.
Isso and essa means that, este means this. Isso is only used for a neuter meaning "this thing". Masculine nouns use este meaning.
* Essa bola "That ball" (feminine singular).
* Este carro "This car" (masculine singular).
* Isso or Isso ai "That one" or "That thing over there".
Read the sentences below:
* Poderia-me / Podias-me dar isso? "Could you / Can you give me that?"
* O que é aquilo? "What is that?"
# Portuguese/Contents/L1/Lesson Ten - My House

Let's take a look at the conjugations for the verb TER.
TER - To Have
| I have | Eu | tenho |
| You (familiar) have | Tu | tens |
| He has | Ele | tem |
| She has | Ela | tem |
| You (formal) have | Você | tem |
| We have | Nós | temos |
| You (plural informal) have | Vós | tendes |
| You (plural formal) have | Vocês | têm |
| They have | Eles Elas | têm têm |
# Portuguese/Contents/L2
## Level Two - Learn To Speak Portuguese

Bem vindo to the second part of our Portuguese language course. If you are still just a beginner, go back to Level One. If you are after grammar references, go back to the Contents page.
* Lesson Eleven - Whose Is This? Lição Onze - De Quem é Isso? How to say something is yours.
* Lesson Twelve - The Weekend Lição Doze - O Fim de Semana How to say what you are doing at the moment - in Brazilian and European Portuguese
* Lesson Thirteen - At The Doctor Lição Treze - No Médico Different parts of the body.
* Lesson Fourteen - Eating Out Lição Catorze - Comer no Restaurante Food, plus conjugating verbs ending in "ar"
* Lesson Fifteen - Eating Out Part II Lição Quinze - Comer no Restaurante, Segunda Lição Continuing last topic, with verbs in "ir" and "er".
# Portuguese/Contents/L1/Lesson Five - Going Shopping

Return to Portuguese – Return to Contents – Go to Lesson Six
* Dialogue 5
* Ricardo: Bom dia. Quero comprar uma camisa.
* Carla: Sim, certamente. As roupas estão ali.
* Ricardo: Obrigado. Quero uma camisa branca.
* Carla: O senhor quer também uma camisa preta?
* Ricardo: Não. Mas quero um chapéu
* Carla: Certamente. Obrigada.
Here, Ricardo is in a clothes shop. He asks the attendant, Carla, if he can have a white shirt - uma camisa branca. He also asks for something else - um chapéu. This means "a hat". We've come across the words for "a". These are called, properly, "indefinite articles" (as opposed to the words for "the", which are called "definite articles"). This is because the word "a" or "an" is indefinite - it doesn't specify which shirt or hat. Let's have a look at this table.
| A/AN | A/AN | SOME | SOME |
| Masculine singular | Feminine singular | Masculine plural | Feminine plural |
| um | uma | uns | umas |
Some examples? Sure.
* o gato e um gato - the cat and a cat
* os pêssegos e uns pêssegos - the peaches and some peaches
* a casa e uma casa - the house and a house
* as árvores e umas árvores - the trees and some trees
Quickly, what does that e mean by itself? Simple - e means "and". Let's have some practice.
* Convert the following from "the" to "a" or "some
* 1. Os sapatos = ______ sapatos (some/the shoe)
* 2. As gravatas = ______ _________ (the/some ties)
* 3. A saia = ______ _________ (a/the skirt)
* 4. O chapéu = ______ _________ (the/a hat)
* Answers
* 1. uns
* 2. umas
* 3. uma
* 4. um
Another major word we need to get to know is Quero. This word means "I want". Of course, there are other conjugations...
Você quer alguma coisa? - Do you want something? Sim, quero uma camisa branca. - Yes, I want a white shirt.
O senhor quer também uma camisa preta?
Também means quite simply "also". So we have "Do you want also a black shirt?". But what on earth is this phrase, o senhor? Well, we've already learnt that você is more polite than tu. However, there is another level of politeness used in Portuguese. This form of "you" is used with people you don't know well, or people you have to show respect to, like bosses or teachers. Basically, this form allows you to refer to people indirectly. So rather than address someone directly by name or with a pronoun such as "você", you address them as if you were addressing a third person, "o senhor" ("the gentleman") or "a senhora" ("the lady"). This added distance makes the speech more polite. Take note, however, that this form of "you" changes according to the gender of the person you're talking to, plus how many people you are talking to as well!
Have a look at the table below...
| o senhor talking to only one male (equivalent to "Mr") | a senhora talking to only one married female (equivalent to "Mrs") | a menina talking to only one unmarried female (equivalent to "Miss") | os senhores talking to more than one male or a mixed group | as senhoras talking to more than one married female | as meninas talking to more than one unmarried female |
# Public International Law/History of International Law/Eurocentrism

Author: Jane Doe
   Required knowledge: Link
   Learning objectives: Understanding XY.
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## Further Readings

* Source I
* Source II

## Conclusion

* Summary I
* Summary II

## Table of Contents

Back to home page
Part I - History, Theory, and Methods
* § 1 History of International Law
** § 1.1 Founding Myths
** § 1.2 Nineteenth Century
** § 1.3 Decolonization
* § 2 Nature and Purpose of International Law
** § 2.1 International Law and Violence
** § 2.2 Consent
** § 2.3 Enforcement
* § 3 Methodology
** § 3.1 Case Analysis
** § 3.2 Interdisciplinarity
* § 4 Approaches to International Law
** § 4.1 Positivism
** § 4.2 TWAIL
** § 4.3 Feminism & Queer Theory
** § 4.4 Marxism
* § 5 Interaction
** § 5.1 Interaction within International Law
** § 5.2 International Law and Domestic Law
Part II - General International Law
* § 6 Sources of International Law
** § 6.1 Treaty Law
** § 6.2 Customary Law
** § 6.3 General Principles
** § 6.4 Other Sources
* § 7 Subjects and Actors in International Law
** § 7.1 States
** § 7.2 Indigenous Peoples
** § 7.3 International Organizations
** § 7.4 Individuals
** § 7.5 Women in International Law
** § 7.6 Non-governmental Organization
** § 7.7 Corporations
** § 7.8 Animals
** § 7.9 Cities
* § 8 Jurisdiction
* § 9 State Responsibility
* § 10 Diplomatic Relations
* § 11 Immunities
* § 12 Peaceful Settlement of Disputes
** § 12.1 Evidence
* § 13 Use of Force
Part III - Specialized Fields
* § 14 Law of Armed Conflict
* § 15 Law of the Sea
* § 16 International Environmental Law
* § 17 International Climate Change Law
* § 18 International Migration Law
* § 19 International Law in Cyberspace
* § 20 Space Law
* § 21 Human Rights Law
** § 21.1 Recurring Themes in Human Rights Doctrine
** § 21.2 Institutional Human Rights Protection
*** § 21.2.1 United Nations Human Rights System
*** § 21.2.2 African Human Rights System
*** § 21.2.3 European Human Rights System
*** § 21.2.4 Inter-American Human Rights System
*** § 21.2.5 Arab and Islamic Human Rights System
*** § 21.2.6 Asian Human Rights System
** § 21.3 Critique of Human Rights
* § 22 International Criminal Law
** § 22.1 International Crimes
** § 22.2 International Criminal Courts and Tribunals
** § 22.3 Domestic Prosecution of International Crimes
* § 23 International Economic Law
** § 23.1 Investment Law
** § 23.2 Trade Law
** § 23.3 Monetary Law

## Footnotes

* ↑ The first footnote. Please adhere to OSCOLA when formating citations. Whenever possible, provide a link with the citation, ideally to an open-access source.
# Radiation Oncology/Radiobiology/Basic Radiobiology

* Front Page: Radiation Oncology | RTOG Trials | Randomized Trials
4 R's of Radiobiology
* Repair
* Reassortment
* Repopulation
* Reoxygention

# Basic Radiobiology

Here I would like to explain the basic concepts in radiobiology in a way, I never forget and in a way that you certainly understand. I am positive that if you understand, then you will never forget as well:
OK! Deep Breath! :D
1. Remember the concept of Logarithm!
When base is 10:
$Log1000=3$
So
$10x10x10=1000$
What does that do with radiobiology and radiation oncology?!
2. Think about fractional cell kill!
What the hell is that then?! Let's say each Gy of dose kill 90%(0.9) of cells —> 10% will be left —> 0.10 will be left
then after the second next Gy —> 0.9x0.10 will be left
or 0.9x(1-0.9)
and then after the third dose of Gy —> 0.9x0.9x(1-0.9) … etc would be the amount of cells that will be killed.
That's were the log comes in! After certain number of dose==>
0.9$^{certainnumber}$ x (1-0.9) should be calculated.
or
0.9$^{certainnumber}$ - 0.9 $^{certainnumber+1}$ should be calculated

# ɑ/β ratio
## Alpha

* Intrinsic radiosensitivity of the cells
* Defined as how many logs (to the exponential base “e”) are killed (sterilized) per gray, in a “non- repairable” way.

## Beta

* It reflects cell repair mechanisms.Repairable portion of the radiation damage, requiring 6 h or more for complete repair.
* It can be regarded as the result of two charged-particle tracks passing through a sensitive target in the cell nucleus in less than 6 h, so this term has to be multiplied by d squared.

## Alpha/Beta

* Think about small alpha/beta ==> So beta should be big ==> that means repair mechanisms is large ==> that means time to carry out repair should be long ==> that means cell cycle is long ==> that means tissue is slowly proliferating and evetually it's a late reacting tissue.
* The shoulder will be broad too.
Famous rule of Bergonie and Tribondeau:
* They did experiments on testis Rat.
* Radiosensitivity of cells or tissues is correlated with the frequency of mitoses which they undergo ==> poorly-differentiated and fast-proliferating tissues are more radiosensitive than well-differentiated and slow-proliferating tissues
Also look at Radiobiology and Lung
# Radiation Oncology/Radiobiology/Cancer Stem Cell
### Cancer Stem Cell

* First identified by John Dick in acute myeloid leukemia in the late 1990s
* Cancer stem cells (CSCs) are cancer cells (found within tumors or hematological cancers) that possess characteristics associated with normal stem cells, specifically the ability to give rise to all cell types found in a particular cancer sample
* CSCs may generate tumors through the stem cell processes of self-renewal and differentiation into multiple cell types

### Warburg hypothesis

* Warburg theory of cancer postulates that the driver of tumorigenesis is an insufficient cellular respiration caused by insult to mitochondria
* The term Warburg effect in oncology describes the observation that cancer cells, and many cells grown in vitro, exhibit glucose fermentation even when enough oxygen is present to properly respire
* Observation that cancer cells exhibit glycolysis with lactate production and mitochondrial respiration even in the presence of oxygen
* IDH mutation
** Sue Han et al. IDH mutation in glioma: molecular mechanisms and potential therapeutic targets. Br J Cancer. 2020 May;122(11):1580-1589. (PMID: 32291392)
** Jiangjiang Li et al. Wild-type IDH2 promotes the Warburg effect and tumor growth through HIF1α in lung cancer. Theranostics. 2018; 8(15): 4050–4061. (PMID: 30128035)

### Telomere Shortening

* Cagatay Gunes et al. Telomeres in cancer. Differentiation. 2018 Jan-Feb;99:41-50. (PMID: 29291448)
* Hueng-Chuen Fan et al. Telomeres and Cancer. Life (Basel). 2021 Dec 16;11(12):1405. (PMID: 34947936)

### Microsatellite Instability

* Hiroyuki Yamamoto et al. Microsatellite instability: an update. Arch Toxicol. 2015 Jun;89(6):899-921. (PMID: 25701956)
* Kai Li et al. Microsatellite instability: a review of what the oncologist should know. Cancer Cell Int. 2020 Jan 13;20:16. (PMID: 31956294)

### Multidrug resistance (MDR, PMID: 19949920)

* MDR refers to a phenomenon that the cancer cells develop resistance to a variety of structurally unrelated anticancer drugs, which is the leading cause of treatment failure in cancer
* Resistance exists against every effective anticancer drug and can develop by numerous mechanisms including decreased drug uptake, increased drug efflux, activation of detoxifying systems, activation of DNA repair mechanisms, evasion of drug-induced apoptosis, etc.
# Radiation Oncology/Radiobiology

* Front Page: Radiation Oncology | RTOG Trials | Randomized Trials
Radiobiology
* Basic Radiobiology
* American Board of Radiology Curriculum
* DNA Damage
* DNA Damage Response
* DNA Repair
* Cell Death
* Cell Cycle
* Growth Factors
* Hypoxia
* Cancer Syndromes
* Cancer Genetics
* Cancer Biology
* Radiosensitivity
* Radioresistance
* Radiation Oncology/Radiobiology/Radiosensitizer
* Radiation Oncology/Radiobiology/Radioprotector
* Linear-Quadratic Model
* Normal Tissue Tolerance
* Whole Body Irradiation (TBI)
* Radiation Syndrome
* Radiation Hormesis
* Radiation Protection
* Protein Overview
* Radiobiology Equations
* Bioassays
* Radioimmunoassays
* Radiopathology
* Radiation Induced Secondary Malignancies
* Reirradiation
* Hyperthermia
* Hyperbaric Oxygen
* Agricultural Applications
Other Resources
* Radiobiology Lecture SeriesThe lecture series is provided courtesy of William Mcbride PhD, DSc
* ASTRO Radiobiology Study Guides
* Radiation Biology for Physical Scientists
Note: Majority of the text in these pages has been adopted from
* Radiobiology for the Radiologist, 6th Edition (Hall, 2005)
* Basic Clinical Radiobiology, 3rd Edition (Steele, 2002)
* Basic Clinical Radiobiology, 4th Edition (Joiner, 2009)
* Radiation and Cancer Biology, Review by Richard C. Miller, 2009
# Radiation Oncology/Radiobiology/ABR Curriculum

* Front Page: Radiation Oncology | RTOG Trials | Randomized Trials
American Board of Radiology Curriculum
ABR Study Guide
Table of contents 2008
# Radiation Oncology/Radiation Physics
## External Resources

* Basic Physics of Digital Radiography
* Basic Physics of Nuclear Medicine
# Signals and Systems/Filter Transforms
## Normalized Lowpass Filter

When designing a filter, it is common practice to first design a normalized low-pass filter, and then use a spectral transform to transform that low-pass filter into a different type of filter (high-pass, band-pass, band-stop).
The reason for this is because the necessary values for designing lowpass filters are extensively described and tabulated. From this, filter design can be reduced to the task of looking up the appropriate values in a table, and then transforming the filter to meet the specific needs.

## Lowpass to Lowpass Transformation

Converting a normalized lowpass filter to another lowpass filter allows to set the cutoff frequency of the resulting filter. This is also called frequency scaling.

### Transformation

Having a normalized transfer function, with cutoff frequency of 1 Hz, one can modify it in order to move the cutoff frequency to a specified value $f_{c}$.
This is done with the help of the following replacement:
    $s\to f_{c}\cdot s$

### Transfer Function

As an example, the biquadratic transfer function
    $H(s)={\frac {Y(s)}{X(s)}}={\frac {b_{2}s^{2}+b_{1}s+b_{0}}{a_{2}s^{2}+a_{1}s+a_{0}}}$
will be transformed into:
    $H(s)={\frac {Y(s)}{X(s)}}={\frac {b_{2}f_{c}^{2}s^{2}+b_{1}f_{c}s+b_{0}}{a_{2}f_{c}^{2}s^{2}+a_{1}f_{c}s+a_{0}}}$
In the transfer function, all coefficients are multiplied by the corresponding power of $f_{c}$.

### Analog Element Values

If the filter is given by a circuit and its R, L and C element values found in a table, the transfer function is scaled by changing the element values.
The resistance values will stay as they are (a further impedance scaling can be done).
The capacitance values are changed according to:
    ${\frac {1}{sC}}\to {\frac {1}{sf_{c}{\frac {C}{f_{c}}}}}$
The inductance values are changed according to:
    $sL\to sf_{c}{\frac {L}{f_{c}}}$
In the circuit, all capacitances and inductances values are divided by $f_{c}$.

## Lowpass to Highpass

Converting a lowpass filter to a highpass filter is one of the easiest transformations available. To transform to a highpass, we will replace all S in our equation with the following:
$S={\frac {\Omega _{p}{\hat {\Omega _{p}}}}{\hat {S}}}$

## Lowpass to Bandpass

To Convert from a low-pass filter to a bandpass filter requires that we replace S with the following:
$S=U*I/K$

## Lowpass to Bandstop

To convert a lowpass filter to a bandstop filter, we replace every reference to S with:
$S=$
# Signals and Systems/Frequency Domain Analysis
## Frequency Analysis

Noise, like any other signal, can be analyzed using the Fourier Transform and frequency-domain techniques. Some of the basic techniques used on noise (some of which are particular to random signals) are discussed in this section.
Gaussian white noise, one of the most common types of noise used in analysis, has a "flat spectrum". That is, the amplitude of the noise is the same at all frequencies.

## Power Spectral Density (PSD) of Gaussian White Noise

White noise has a level magnitude spectrum, and if we square it, it will also have a level Power Spectral Density (PSD) function. The value of this power magnitude is known by the variable N$_0$. We will use this quantity later.

## Wiener Khintchine Einstein Theorem

Using the duality property of the Fourier Transform, the Wiener-Khintchine-Einstein Theorem gives us an easy way to find the PSD for a given signal.
if we have a signal f(t), with autocorrelation R$_{ff}$, then we can find the PSD, S$_{xx}$ by the following function:
    $S_{xx}={\mathcal {F}}(R_{ff})$
Where the previous method for obtaining the PSD was to take the Fourier transform of the signal f(t), and then squaring it.

## Bandwidth

The bandwidth of a random function.

### Narrow band Systems
## Windowing

Many random signals are infinite signals, in that they don't have a beginning or an end. To this effect, the only way to really analyze the random signal is take a small chunk of the random signal, called a sample.
Let us say that we have a long random signal, and we only want to analyze a sample. So we take the part that we want, and destroy the part that we don't want. Effectively, what we have done is to multiply the signal with a rectangular pulse. Therefore, the frequency spectrum of our sampled signal will contain frequency components of the noise and the rectangular pulse. It turns out that multiplying a signal by a rectangular pulse is rarely the best way to sample a random signal. It also turns out that there are a number of other windows that can be used instead, to get a good sample of noise, while at the same time introducing very few extraneous frequency components.
Remember duality? multiplication in the time domain (multiplying by your windowing function) becomes convolution in the frequency domain. Effectively, we've taken a very simple problem (getting a sample of information), and created a very difficult problem, the deconvolution of the resultant frequency spectrum. There are a number of different windows that we can use.
# Signals and Systems/MATLAB
## What is MATLAB?

MATLAB - MATrix LABoratory is an industry standard tool in engineering applications. Electrical Engineers, working on topics related to this book will often use MATLAB to help with modeling. For more information on programming MATLAB, see MATLAB Programming.

## Obtaining MATLAB

MATLAB itself is a relatively expensive piece of software. It is available for a fee from the Mathworks website.

## MATLAB Clones

There are, however, free alternatives to MATLAB. These alternatives are frequently called "MATLAB Clones", although some of them do not mirror the syntax of MATLAB. The most famous example is Octave. Here are some resources if you are interested in obtaining Octave:
* SPM/MATLAB
* Octave Programming Tutorial
* MATLAB Programming/Differences between Octave and MATLAB
* "Scilab / Scicoslab"

## MATLAB Template

This book will make use of the {{MATLAB CMD}} template, that will create a note to the reader that MATLAB has a command to handle a particular task. In the individual chapters, this book will not discuss MATLAB outright, nor will it explain those commands. However, there will be some chapters at the end of the book that will demonstrate how to perform some of these calculations, and how to use some of these analysis tools in MATLAB.
# Super Mario World/Donut Plains

Donut Plains is the second world in Super Mario World, containing 10 levels, 3 of which are secrets. The world can be accessed through Yoshi's Island, Vamilla Dome, and Star Road.
Donut Plains contains the following levels:
* Donut Plains 1
* Donut Secret 1
* Donut Secret House
* Donut Plains 2
* Green Switch Palace
* Donut Ghost House
* Top Secret Area
* Donut Plains 3
* Donut Plains 4
* Morton's Castle