OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Requirements

In order to use this tutorial, you must have a web browser and a text editor. (Most operating systems come shipped with both.)
If you use Microsoft Windows, you will find an editor called Notepad in your Accessories.
Note: a text editor is not the same as a word processor. Do not use a word processor for this course.
Once you get more comfortable authoring webpages, you may want to acquire a more powerful text editor. For now, however, editors like Notepad, Simpletext (Apple Macintosh) or Nano (GNU/Linux) suffice.
Also, some minimal computing knowledge is assumed. If you do not know how to operate a computer, this course is not for you, yet.

## Testing: Your first Webpage

In order to test whether you fulfil the requirements, you will now create your first web page in the following simple steps.
* Open your text editor program.
* Type in the following simple HTML document. Note: all valid webpages must start with a DOCTYPE. This selects the version of HTML used by the web page.
* Save your text as a file called first.html to your hard disk (or other storage medium). For the remainder of this course, it would be handy if you had a separate folder where you could save your webpages.
* Open your web browser program.
* Open the .html file you just saved in your web browser. Most browsers have a menu called something like 'File/Open File' for this.
* Your browser should now display your first webpage.
This doesn't look very impressive, does it? Well, it will get much more impressive soon, and the good news is that it will not get much more difficult.
To reach true impressiveness though, you need to be able to reach your audience. To reach your audience, a webserver program needs to know about your webpages, so that it can serve your pages to all who ask for them.

## Webservers

You could run your own webserver, but setting up such a program is beyond the scope of this tutorial.
If you follow this course in a class, the teacher will have set up a webserver for you.
If you follow this course by yourself, please check the website hosting options your Internet Service Provider (ISP) has available. (The ISP is the company that connects you to the internet. If you are connected through your work or college, consult with your systems administrator about hosting possibilities.) A form of web hosting may even be a free service your ISP offers you as part of your access package.

## Recapitulation

In short, you need:
* A text editor (program)
* A web browser (program)
* A webserver (program+internet connection, or computer+program+internet connection)
The first two items you need right away, the last you need when you want to publish your webpages on the World Wide Web.
Up: Table of Contents - Next: Introduction
# Bengali/Family relations

In Bengali Muslim culture:
These are the "titles" for family members. With the exception of Father, Mother, and Grandparents (who are called by the title only), all of these titles are added after the name of the person.
* Father: Baba, Abba, Abbu
* Mother: Maa, Amma, Ammu
* Son/Daughter: Address by name
* Brother (also male cousins): Bhai, Or Bhaiya
* Brother's Wife: Bhabhi
* Younger Brother: Bhai or by name
* Sister (also female cousins) : Apu, or Apa, Affa, Api
* Older Sister: Didi, Apu, or Apa
* Younger Sister: boin or by name
* Sister's Husband: Dulabhai
* Father's Younger Brother: Kaku, Kaka, Choto Chachu, Or Sasu Or Chacha
* Father's Younger Brother's Wife: sasima, Kaki, or Choto Chachi
* Father's Oldest Brother:Boro Chachu or Chacha
* Father's Oldest Brother's Wife: Boro Chachi, zedi
* Father's Sister: Fuppi or hufu, fufu
* Father's Sister's Husband: Fupa, fufa or mama(uncle)
* Mother's Brother: Mama
* Mother's Brother's Wife: Mami, mamani
* Mother's Sister: Khalamoni or Mashi, auntiemoni, mamani ,boro auntie
* Mother's Sister's Husband: Khalu or Mesho, mama(uncle)
* Maternal Grandfather: Nana or Dadu
* Maternal Grandmother: Nanu or Dadi
* Husband’s or Wife's Father: can be called by the father titles
* Husband’s or Wife's Mother: can be called by the mother titles
* Wife's Younger Sister: by name
* Wife's Younger Brother: by name
* Wife's Elder Sister: sister titles
* Wife's Elder Brother: brother titles
* Husband’s Elder Brother: brother titles
* Husband’s Elder Brother’s Wife: Bhabi
* Husband’s Younger Brother: can call by name
* Husband’s Younger Brother’s wife: calls by name
* Husband’s Younger Sister:can call by name
* Husband's Older Sister: any of sister titles with elder prefixes
* Husband’s Sister’s Husband: Dulabhai, can call by name if younger
* Brother’s Son: by name
* Brother’s Daughter: By name
* Sister’s Son: by name
* Sister’s Daughter: by name
* Cousins are considered to be "brother" or "sister".
* If someone has 6 brothers or sisters then their relation names will be the following respectively: boro, mejo, choto.
* If your Mum or Dad is the oldest of the siblings they will call the younger siblings by their name and their wives or husbands will. Unless the siblings’ husband is older than your parents Bhai or Bhaiya.
Suto/huro- prefix for people younger Meso- prefix for middle but elder Boro- prefix for eldest Bora- prefix for elderly
Template:Fatima and Aysha :)
# Bengali/Liking and disliking
## Liking

In English, liking is expressed by using verbs such as "like", "love" and "enjoy". In Bengali, it is mainly expressed using the verbs "pôchondo kôra" (=like), "bhalobasha" (=love) and "upobhog kôra" (=enjoy).
In English, the verbs "like", "love" and "enjoy" take the finite form (that is, they bear signs of their grammatical relation with the subject) and they are followed by a to-infinitive clause or an -ing clause. For example, "he likes sailing" or "she loves to cook", or "I enjoy having a cup of tea in the morning".
In Bengali, the verbs "pôchondo kôra", "bhalobasha" and "upobhog kôra" take the finite form (that is, they bear signs of their grammatical relation with the subject) and they are preceded by a clause that finishes in a non-finite verb (verb root + suffix "-te").
How to form a non-finite verb? Take the dictionary form of the verb, such as "pora" (=read), then strip off the final "-a" to get the verb root "por", and finally add a "-te" in the end to get the non-finite form "porte". Pora - a + te = porte. This is equivalent to the to-infinitive ("to read") or the -ing form ("reading") of the verb in English.
Observe the following examples.
| English | Bengali | Transliteration |
| Samia likes reading books. or Samia likes to read books. | সামিয়া বই পড়তে পছন্দ করে | Samia boi porte pôchondo kôre. |
| Indrani loves cooking. or Indrani loves to cook. | ইন্দ্রানী রাঁধতে ভালবাসে। | Indrani randhte bhalobashe. |
| I enjoy the morning breeze very much. | আমি ভোরের হাওয়াটা খুব উপভোগ করি। | Ami bhorer hawata khub upobhog kori. |

## Disliking

In English, disliking is expressed by using verbs such as "dislike", "hate" and "loathe".

## Preference

In English, preference is expressed by using patterns such as "prefer A to B" or "prefer A rather than B".
# Bengali/Exercise 1.2

তুমি কোথায় যাচ্ছ ? Where are you going? রেনাটা লিমিটেড একটি ভালো কোম্পানি। Renata Limited is a good company.
# Bengali/Food

* water - পানি /pani/, জল /dʑɔl/
* food - খাবার /kʰabaɹ/
* salt - নুন /nun/, লবণ /lɔbon/
* sugar - চিনি /tɕini/
* milk - দুধ /d̪ud̪ʱ/
* egg - ডিম /dim/
* banana - কলা /kɔla/
* bread - রুটি /ɹuti/
* European bread – পাঁউরুটি /pãu̯ɹuti/
* cooked rice - ভাত /bʱat̪/
* potato - আলু /alu/
* mashed potato - আলু ভর্তা /alu bʱɔɹt̪a/
* lentil soup - ডাল /dal/
* meat - মাংস /maŋʃo/
* chicken - মুরগি /muɹɡi/
* fish - মাছ /matɕʰ/
* vegetable - সবজি /ʃobdʑi/
* fried vegetables - সবজি ভাজি /ʃobdʑi bʱadʑi/
* green pepper - কাঁচা মরিচ /kãtɕa moɹitɕ/
* tea - চা /tɕa/
* coffee - কফি /kɔfi/

## Characteristics of food

* sour - টক /tɔk/
* hot - গরম /ɡɔɹom/
* sweet - মিষ্টি /miʃti/
* salty - নোনতা /nont̪a/
* bitter - তিতা /t̪it̪a/
* harsh or stingy taste - কষা /kɔʃa/
* dry - শুকনো /ʃukno/
* moist - ভিজে /bʱidʑe/
* crunchy - কুড়মুড়ে /kuɽmuɽe/
* sticky - আঠালো /atʰalo/
* thick, condensed - ঘন /ɡʱɔno/
* watery, diluted - পাতলা /pat̪la/
* ripe - পাকা /paka/
* green (not ripe) - কাঁচা /kãtɕa/
# Bengali/Dressing

Following are the different dressing and ornament items:
| ইংরেজি - English | বাংলা - Bengali |
| Clothes | কাপড় |
| Frock | ফ্রক |
| Blouse | ব্লাউজ |
| Saree | শাড়ি |
| Robe | ঘাগরা |
| Ribbon | ফিতে |
| Handkerchief | রুমাল |
| Shawl | শাল |
| Towel | তোয়াল |
| Dhoti | ধুতি |
| Shirt | শার্ট |
| Pocket | পকেট |
| Button | বোতাম |
| Vest | গেঞ্জি |
| Cap | টপি |
| Turban | পাগড়ি |
| Stain | দাগ |
| Spectacles | চশমা |
| Socks | মোজা |
| Belt | বেল্ট |
| Coat | কোট |
| Pyjama | পাজামা |
| Pant | প্যান্ট |
| Shoes | জুতো |
| Watch | ঘড়ি |
| Medal | মেডেল |
| Slippers | চটি |
| Stick | ছড়ি |
| Pendent | দুল |
| Eardrop | ঝুমকে |
| Bead | পুঁতি |
| Amulet | মাদুলি |
| Bangle | চুড়ি |
| Garland | মালা |
| Necklace | নেকলেস |
| Ring | আংটি |
| Diamond | হীরে |
# Bengali/Grammar

Some basic sentence patterns in Bengali are given below. Subject + "be" verb + noun/adjective
There are different ways of expressing the verb "to be." The "to be" verb that deals with personality and character traits is mostly omitted in the present tense (e.g., the forms আছি, হই, হও, হয়, etc.).
In the other tenses, the verb "hooya," which means "to become" can be used.
Another way of expressing the "to be" verb is to use the verb stem "ach-", which literally means "to be present."
Present Tense
The simple present conveys ideas such as "I sleep", "We eat", "You work".
In Bengali, the simple present tense is conjugated by adding the verb root, plus an ending. The ending depends on the person of speech (i.e., I/you/we/them etc..).
For example, the verb 'to eat' in Bengali is 'khete', which has the root 'kha'.
In general, the verb endings are as follows:
Examples:
Present Participle
The present participle represents actions which are currently being done in the present. In English, you would say "I am eating", "He is sleeping", "We are working".
In Bengali, you conjugate the present participle by taking the verb root, and adding an ending which depends on the person of speech of the subject (i.e, I / we/ us / they).
For example, the verb 'to eat' in Bengali is 'khete', which has the root 'kha'.
In general, the verb endings are as follows:
Examples:
# Botany/Leaves (forms)

<< Contents Page | << Chapter 3 | Leaves (forms)
Chapter 3. Plant Cells and Tissues Leaves (forms)

## Leaf Shapes, Margins, Apices, and Bases
### Simple, Angiosperm Leaves

This page presents the terminology used to describe the shapes and forms of leaves. The following examples are all simple leaves. All are from flowering plants (angiosperms). Descriptive terms are given for the lamina shape (that is, its overall shape in outline), the lamina margin, the form or shape of both the apex (tip) and the base (lamina junction with petiole) of the leaf, and (in some cases) other qualities evident in the example picture presented.
| 1. Chamaesyce celastroides (EUPHORBIACEAE) 1. 'Akoko SHAPE: oblong to elliptic MARGIN: entire TIP: retuse BASE: rounded | 3. Ageratina riparia (ASTERACEAE) 2. Mist flower SHAPE: rhombic MARGIN: serrate TIP: attenuate BASE: cuneate |
| 2. indet. (?LAMIACEAE) 3. indet. SHAPE: ovate MARGIN: crenate TIP: acute BASE: ~ rounded OTHER: color bright green | 4. Ficus religiosa (MORACEAE) 4. Bo tree SHAPE: cordate MARGIN: entire, slightly undulate TIP: caudate BASE: cordate |
| Macadamia sp. (PROTEACEAE) 5. Macadamia nut SHAPE: linear MARGIN: undulate and spinose TIP: (not visible) acute | Richardia brasiliensis (RUBIACEAE) SHAPE: MARGIN: lobes ciliate TIP: acute |
| (CYPERACEAE) SHAPE: linear MARGIN: entire TIP: acute | Coronopus didymus (BRASSICACEAE) SHAPE: oblong in outline, deeply pinnatifid MARGIN: lobes dentate TIP: (not visible) acute |
| Ammania auriculata (LYTHRACEAE) SHAPE: linear MARGIN: entire TIP: acute | Myriophyllum aquaticum (HALORAGACEAE) SHAPE: pinnatifid, segments capillary MARGIN: N/A TIP: N/A BASE: N/A OTHER: leaves whorled |
| Brachiaria mutica (POACEAE) SHAPE: linear MARGIN: entire TIP: acute OTHER: Base sheathing |

### Compound, Angiosperm Leaves

These examples are all compound leaves. In these leaves, it is not always very instructive to describe the "leaf outline" and better to describe the number (or range) of leaflets. If the number is odd, there will be an unpaired leaflet at the tip. The shape terminology can be applied to the individual leaflets.
| Canavalia sericea (FABACEAE) Silky jackbean SHAPE: orbicular to elliptic MARGIN: entire TIP: obtuse BASE: obtuse | Toona ciliata (MELIACEAE) Australian redcedar SHAPE: lanceolate to elliptic MARGIN: entire TIP: cuspidate BASE: oblique |

## Links

Botanical Terms
# A-level Computing 2009/AQA/Computer Systems, Programming and Network Concepts

This is the Computer Systems, Programming and Network Concepts module of the A-level Computing Book. This module consists of four chapters listed below with their short summaries. Please follow the links to learn out more about each section.

## Contents

* Introduction to Computer Systems (Sep 24, 2006) An introduction to the hardware components of a computer system and the different types of software. Overview of the interaction between software and hardware, binary notation in computers and execution of the processor.
* Introduction to Programming (Sep 25, 2006)
* Introduction to Information and Data Representation (Sep 26, 2006)
* Introduction to Communication and Networking
# A-level Computing 2009/AQA/Practical Systems Development

CPT3 as is the course reference is a practical based project, normally based upon a database of some description but a pure-coding or part-coding, part-database project are also acceptable. This is examined in the summer of the first year of study.
# A-level Mathematics/CIE

This book is about A-level Mathematics. It aims to follow the CIE Syllabus for A-level Mathmatics but is not endorsed by Cambridge International.
If any part of this book is unclear or even wrong then please post a comment on the discussion page or simply fix it yourself! In particular, please say if the book assumes any knowledge or skills which not all A-Level Mathematics students have.

## Course Structure

This book is split into 6 parts:
* Pure Mathematics 1
* Pure Mathematics 2
* Pure Mathematics 3
* Mechanics
* Probability & Statistics 1
* Probability & Statistics 2
Each part is split into chapters, where each chapter covers the topics for that part.

## Contributing

If you find an error or want to add your own knowledge to this book, make sure to follow this book's Local Manual of Style.
If you are confused by any part of this book, mention it in the discussion page for that part.
# A-level Mathematics/CIE/Local Manual of Style
## Language

Stick to British English as much as possible.

## Naming Conventions

Use title case for all of the chapter names (i.e. the page names) and section names (i.e. level 2 headings).
That is, all words in a title for a chapter or section must be capitalised except for prepositions, articles, and conjunctions.

## Navigation

Use the {{chapnav|previous page|next page}} template to navigate between chapters. Do not use this template for navigating between parts.

## Images

Only use images that are on Wikimedia Commons. Fair use is a grey area of the law that it is better not to touch.

## Mathematical Notation

Follow the mathematical notation that Cambridge supports. It can be helpful to the reader if you mention alternate notation in passing, as the reader will then be able to understand other literature if said literature uses alternate notation.

## References and Notes

If a page has references and notes, use the following structure:

## Out-of-scope Material

Out-of-scope material can be put into a sidenote using the {{sidenote|text|title=Title}} template
It will look like this.
You can write multiple lines.
You should put out-of-scope material here.
# A-level Mathematics/CIE/Pure Mathematics 1/Circular Measure
## Radians
### Defining the radian

A radian is a unit for measuring angles. It is defined as the angle subtended by an arc that is as long as the radius. As a consequence of this, there are $2\pi$ radians in a full circle, because the length of the circumference is $2\pi$ times the length of the radius.

### Converting between radians and degrees

Degrees are another common unit for measuring angles. There are $360^{o}$ in a circle, thus $360^{o}=2\pi {\text{rad}}$.
To convert from degrees to radians, multiply the number of degrees by ${\frac {\pi }{180}}$.
e.g. $30^{o}$ is equal to $30\times {\frac {\pi }{180}}={\frac {\pi }{6}}$
To convert from radians to degrees, multiply the amount of radians by ${\frac {180}{\pi }}$.
e.g. ${\frac {\pi }{3}}$ radians is equal to ${\frac {\pi }{3}}\times {\frac {180}{\pi }}={\frac {180}{3}}=60^{o}$

## Geometric Calculations
### Arc length

Arc length is, unsurprisingly, the length of a circular arc. This length depends on the size of the radius and the angle that the arc subtends.
We can think of an arc as a fraction of the circumference $2\pi r$. This means that the arc length is the angle divided by a full circle times the length of the circumference: $s={\frac {\theta }{2\pi }}(2\pi r)$ which can be simplified to $s=r\theta$.
e.g. The arc length for an arc with radius $2$ and angle $2{\text{rad}}$ is $2(2)=4$.

### Sector areas

The area of a sector can be derived in a similar way: it is a fraction of the area of a circle. The area of a circle is $\pi r^{2}$, so the area of a sector is ${\frac {\theta }{2\pi }}\pi r^{2}={\frac {r^{2}\theta }{2}}$.
← Coordinate Geometry · Trigonometry →
# A-level Mathematics/C3/Combining Transformations of Graphs
## Translation of curves

Many curves are translations of the basic curve of the same degree. For example $y=(x+1)^{2}+1$ is a translation of $y=x^{2}$ by 1 unit up on the $y$ axis, ${\begin{pmatrix}0\\1\end{pmatrix}}$, and one unit to the left on the $x$ axis, ${\begin{pmatrix}-1\\0\end{pmatrix}}$, so the full translation is ${\begin{pmatrix}-1\\1\end{pmatrix}}$. It is useful to remember the translations of curves, so that you can easily sketch graphs from the basic shape.

### Vertical translation

The constant term moves the entire graph vertically by that much. For example, $y=x^{2}+3$ will move the graph upwards by 3 units, and $y=x^{2}-3$ will move the graph down by 3 units.

### Horizontal translation

When a number is subtracted from $x$ before it is squared, the entire graph will move in the opposite direction by the same amount. For example, $y=(x-3)^{2}$ will move the graph to the right by 3 units, and $y=(x+3)^{2}$ will move the graph to the left by 3 units. It may be confusing that the graph moves in opposite directions, but with the translations, $x$ has to be smaller or larger to give the same result that it used to, so positive numbers move it in the negative direction, and vice versa. You can imagine that the numbers on the $x$ axis are changed by the amount of the translation, so in $y=(x-3)^{2}$, the origin $(0,0)$ is now $(3,0)$.

### General translations

In general, $y=(x-t)^{2}+s$ is a translation of $y=x^{2}$ by ${\begin{pmatrix}t\\s\end{pmatrix}}$.
# A-level Mathematics/CCEA

CCEA is the awarding organization based in Northern Ireland, offering A-level Mathematics as one of its many subjects. A-Level Mathematics is split into 3 sections:
* Pure Mathematics
* Mechanics
* Stats
# A-level Mathematics/CIE/Pure Mathematics 1

* Quadratics
* Functions
* Coordinate Geometry
* Circular Measure
* Trigonometry
* Series
* Differentiation
* Integration
# Chemical Sciences: A Manual for CSIR-UGC National Eligibility Test for Lectureship and JRF/Adiabatic ionization

Adiabatic ionization is a form of ionization in which an electron is removed from or added to an atom or molecule in its lowest energy state to form an ion in its lowest energy state.

## References

* ↑ International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry. "adiabatic ionization". Compendium of Chemical Terminology Internet edition.
# Chemical Sciences: A Manual for CSIR-UGC National Eligibility Test for Lectureship and JRF/Alpha cleavage

Alpha cleavage, (α-cleavage) in organic chemistry, refers to the act of breaking the carbon-carbon bond, adjacent to the carbon bearing a specified functional group.

## Mass spectrometry

Generally this topic is discussed when covering mass spectrometry and occurs generally by the same mechanisms.
For example of a mechanism of alpha cleavage, an electron is knocked off an atom (usually by electron collision) to form a radical cation. Electron removal generally happens in the following order: 1) lone pair electrons, 2) pi bond electrons, 3) sigma bond electrons
One of the lone pair electrons moves down to form a pi bond with an electron from an adjacent (alpha) bond.The other electron from the bond moves to an adjacent atom (not one adjacent to the lone pair atom) creating a radical. This creates a double bond adjacent to the lone pair atom (oxygen is a good example) and breaks/cleaves the bond from which the two electrons were removed.
Example C-C-(O::)-H > C-C-(O:.+)-H > C' + (C=O:+)-H where : is a lone pair + is a positive charge and ' is a radical/free electron
In molecules containing carbonyl groups, often competes with McLafferty rearrangement.

## Photochemistry

In photochemistry, it is the homolytic cleavage of a bond adjacent to a specified group.

## References

* ↑ Hathaway, Bruce A. (2005). Organic chemistry the easy way. Woodbury, N.Y: Barron's Educational Series. p. 315. ISBN 0-7641-2794-2.
* ↑ "α-cleavage (alpha-cleavage)". IUPAC Compendium of Chemical Terminology (Gold Book). IUPAC. Retrieved 2008-07-08.
* ↑ Todd, J. F. J. (1991). "Recommendations for nomenclature and symbolism for mass spectroscopy (including an appendix of terms used in vacuum technology). (Recommendations 1991)". Pure and Applied Chemistry. 63: 1541. doi:10.1351/pac199163101541.
* 1 2 International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry. "α-cleavage (alpha-cleavage)". Compendium of Chemical Terminology Internet edition.
* ↑ Verhoeven, J. W. (1996). "Glossary of terms used in photochemistry (IUPAC Recommendations 1996)". Pure and Applied Chemistry. 68: 2223. doi:10.1351/pac199668122223.
# Chemical Sciences: A Manual for CSIR-UGC National Eligibility Test for Lectureship and JRF/Advanced Microscopy Group

Advanced Microscopy Group or AMG is a manufacturer of microscopes based in Mill Creek, Washington. Their products include the EVOS Microscope, a digital inverted microscope for use in fluorescence and transmitted light applications. It utilizes a Light-emitting diode illumination system. The integrated microprocessor and imaging system, and a high resolution digital camera let users process and analyze live and captured images. The 15-inch Liquid crystal display replaces the traditional eye pieces. Software features include time-lapse, cell counting and transfection analysis.
A key feature of the EVOS fluorescence microscope is its LED-based light cube system. Each light cube integrates the illumination source, the light engine and the fluorescence filters into a single unit, removing need for alignment or calibration. The optical path is shortened and the light cube delivers bright illumination intensities. Each LED lasts for more than 50,000 hours. LEDs can be adjusted and controlled, and the chance of photobleaching or phototoxicity is reduced.
The embedded microprocessor gives users control of image acquisition and management. Mouse-controlled user interface allows adjusting illumination levels, balancing fluorescence and transmitted light channels, and capturing image data and saving it to a portable USB flash drive.
This portable unit can be placed in a cell culture hood for sensitive cell isolation procedures and is equipped with a DVI output that can be connected to an external display or monitor.

## References

* ↑ Advanced Microscopy Group
* ↑ Evos Inverted Microscope June 12, 2007 Photonics.com