OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Korean/Determiners

Korean Determiners
Determiners are particles attached to nouns in order to determine their function in a sentence, often denoting subjects and objects (direct and indirect). Determiners in Korean are slightly dependent on the final sound of the noun.
~는/~은 are the particles used to determine the subject of a sentence, or the one doing the action. "~는" is used whenever the final sound of a noun is a consonant, while its converse, "~은" is used whenever the final sound of a noun is a vowel.
E.g.(저는 집에 갑니다.)
Literally: I (subj.) house to-go.
~를/~을 are the particles used to determine the direct object of a sentence. "~를" is used when the final sound of a noun is a vowel, while "~을" is used when the final sound of a noun is a consonant. E.g( 저는 나의 숙제를 하겠어요.)
Literally: I (subj.) my homework will-do.
~에게/~한테 are often used to determine the indirect object of a sentence. Despite both being grammatically correct, ~한테 is used far more often, as ~에게 is sometimes deemed "too formal" in many situations.
E.g (저한테 그 책을 주세요.) Literally: I (in.obj.) that-book give.
# Korean/Expert Hanja
## Introduction

This section introduces hanja terms (words originated from Chinese).

## 단장

(끓을 단, 창자 장) 슬퍼서 창자가 끊어지는 듯함. (나의 어린 시절은 단장의 아픔으로 얼룩져 있었다.)

## 심회

(마음 심, 품을 회) 마음속으로 품고 있는 생각. (자식을 전쟁터로 보내야 했던 그의 심회는 어땠을까?)

## 생경

어린 시절을 시골에서 보낸 터라 서울 생활이 생경했다.

## 사숙

참고할 만한 책도 거의 없었고 사숙할 작가 역시 전무했다.

## 신산

작품 속의 유년은 행복했지만 실제 자신의 삶은 신산했다.

## 야료

나를 떨어뜨리기 위해 누가 야료을/를 부린 것이 틀림없다.

## 편벽

편벽되지 않고 균형 잡힌 시선으로 세상을 바라보아라.

## 난맥

고질적인 문제점이던 지휘 체계의 난맥이/가 개선되었다.

## 맹아

그 무렵부터 자본주의의 맹아이/가 서서히 싹트기 시작했다.

## 실기

상황을 제대로 파악하지 못해 실기하는 어리석음을 범했다.

## 경도

(기울 경, 넘어질 도) 한동안 사이가 격조했다.

## 계제

이것저것 따질 계제가 아니다.

## 고양

직원들의 사기가 고양되다.

## 관조

차분히 관조하는 자세.

## 갈파

喝破 1. 큰소리로 꾸짖어 누름. 2. 남의 언론을 설파함. 3. 사설(邪說)을 무너뜨리고 진리를 밝힘.

## 산출

算出 계산을 해 냄. ¶ 원가를 〜하다/ 미터를 보고 주행 거리를 〜한다/ 이윤이 〜되다.

## 국한

局限 어떤 부분에만 한정함. 문제의 범위를 〜시키다/ 본교 출신자로 〜하다/ 대기 오염은 그 지방에 〜된 문제가 아니다.

## 자조

自照 자기 자신을 관찰・반성함.

## 본령

本領 1. 본래의 영지(領地). 2. 가장 본질적이고 근본적인 면. ¶ 문학의 〜. 3. 근본이 되는 강령이나 특질.
# Korean/Getting started on Hanja

For beginning Korean language students, learning hanja is not necessary. However, because many Korean words come from Chinese roots, knowing hanja can be quite helpful in mastering enough vocabulary to become fluent in Korean.

## What are Hanja and why do we use them?

Hanja are Chinese characters that have been borrowed into the Korean language. Like many languages, many Korean words are composed of roots, many of which are from the Chinese language. In the quest of mastering a foreign language, learning the roots of the words is one approach to learning vocabulary.

## Just how many Hanja do I need to know?

There's no exact number that you need to know. Since many people learn Korean without learning the characters, it is possible to know the language without learning any characters. Around 2000 characters is a good number for learning how to read and recognize words. The 1800 standardized Hanja set will cover the majority of the roots for the Sino-Korean words.
Below is one example of how Hanja can be used to remember words. *船 -- 선. Boat *漁 -- 어. Fish *夫 -- 부. Husband/father
In Korean a fisherman is 어부, and fishing boat is 어선. The corresponding characters are 漁夫 and 漁船.
Before we list the standard 1800 character set, you need to learn the 214 radicals that make up the characters. See List_of_Kangxi_radicals for the list of radicals. You need to write them on flashcards and commit them to memory. If you know the radicals, it will be easier to remember the characters and to look up unknown words in a dictionary when necessary.

## List of Hanja
### ga

*가
歌 -- song
家 -- house, can also be pronounced as 고
價 -- price
加 -- add
可 -- right, can also be pronounced as 극
街 -- street
假 -- pretend, can also be pronounced as 하 or 격
暇 -- leisure
佳 -- beautiful
架 -- shelf

### gak

*각
各 -- each
角 -- horn
刻 -- carve
覺 -- awake, can also be pronounced as 교
腳 -- leg
閣 -- pavilion
卻 -- reject

### gan

*간
間 -- gap
干 -- shield, can also be pronounced as 건
看 -- see
簡 -- letter
幹 -- trunk, can also be pronounced as 관
懇 -- sincerity
刊 -- publish
肝 -- liver
姦 -- adultery

### gal

*갈
渴 -- thirsty, can also be pronounced as 걸 or 할

### gam

*감
感 -- feel
減 -- decrease
監 -- look
甘 -- sweet
敢 -- daringly
鑑 -- mirror

### gap

*갑
甲 -- armor, can also be pronounced as 압

### gang

*강
江 -- river
強 -- strong
康 -- peaceful
講 -- exercise, also pronounced as 구
降 -- surrender, also pronounced as 항
綱 -- head rope
剛 -- firm
鋼 -- steel

### gae

*개
開 -- open
改 -- change
個 -- piece
介 -- between
槪 -- generally
蓋 -- cover, also pronounced as 합
慨 -- lament
皆 -- all

### gaek

*객
客 -- guest

### gaeng

*갱
更 -- again, also pronounced as 경

### geo

*거
# Korean/Lesson I10

* Other languages...
* Learn Korean (Introduction)
* — Reading and writing •
* Conversation
* 1급: Beginner —
* 1. Greetings •
* 2. Forming sentences •
* 3. Connective forms and negation •
* 4. Colors •
* 5. Recreation / In a taxi •
* 6. Family •
* 7. Around the house •
* 8. Using the telephone •
* 9. School •
* 10. Shopping •
* 11. Onomatopoeia
* 2단계: High beginner •
* 3단계: Low intermediate •
* 4단계: High intermediate •
* 5단계: Low advanced •
* 6단계: Advanced
* Grammar
<<Lesson 9 | Lesson 10 | Lesson 11>>
# Korean/Dates and times

* Other languages...
* Learn Korean (Introduction)
* — Reading and writing •
* Conversation — 1단계: Beginner •
* 2단계: High beginner •
* 3단계: Low intermediate •
* 4단계: High intermediate •
* 5단계: Low advanced •
* 6단계: Advanced
* Grammar:
* Sentence word order •
* Verbs •
* Nouns •
* Particles •
* Personal pronouns •
* Demonstrative pronouns •
* Adjectives •
* Determiners •
* Conjunctions •
* Comparatives & superlatives •
* Forming questions •
* Forming commands •
* Forming dates & times
In Korean, time is expressed like "Now is...". So one would say "지금은 여섯시 입니다" to express "It is six o'clock." The "지금은" means "now is," the "여섯시" means "six o'clock," and the "입니다" means roughly "it is/be."

### Dialogue

    지금 몇 시에요? (jigeum myeot sieyo?)
    What is the time now?
    지금 7시에요. (jigeum 7sieyo.)
    It's 7 o'clock right now.
    지금 2시 30분입니다. (jigeum 2si 30bunimnida.)
    It's 2:30 right now.
    지금 4시 반입니다. (jigeum 4si banimnida.)
    It's 4:30 right now.

#### Vocabulary

* 지금 (只今), 현재 (現在): now, at present
* 몇: how many
* 시 (時): hour
* 분 (分): minute
* 반 (半): half [an hour]
# Korean/Demonstrative pronouns

* Other languages...
* Learn Korean (Introduction)
* — Reading and writing •
* Conversation — 1단계: Beginner •
* 2단계: High beginner •
* 3단계: Low intermediate •
* 4단계: High intermediate •
* 5단계: Low advanced •
* 6단계: Advanced
* Grammar:
* Sentence word order •
* Verbs •
* Nouns •
* Particles •
* Personal pronouns •
* Demonstrative pronouns •
* Adjectives •
* Determiners •
* Conjunctions •
* Comparatives & superlatives •
* Forming questions •
* Forming commands •
* Forming dates & times

## Demonstrative object pronouns

Korean has three demonstrative pronouns for objects:
* 이것 (this, i-geot) is used when the object is nearby the speaker.
* 그것 (that, geu-geot) is used when the object is near the listener. It is also used when the speaker already mentioned the object.
* 저것 (that [over there], jeo-geot) is used when the object is far from the speaker and the listener.
Examples:
* 이것은 이상하다: This is strange.
* 그것은 이상하다: That is strange.
* 저것은 이상하다: That [over there] is strange.
When 은 (the topic marker) follows those pronouns, they are often contracted as follows:
* 이건: contraction of 이것은
* 그건: contraction of 그것은
* 저건: contraction of 저것은
Examples:
* 이건 이상하다: This is strange.
* 그건 이상하다: That is strange.
* 저건 이상하다: That [over there] is strange.
When 이 (the subject marker) follows those pronouns, they are often contracted as follows:
* 이게: contraction of 이것이
* 그게: contraction of 그것이
* 저게: contraction of 저것이
Examples:
* 이게 이상하다: This is strange.
* 그게 이상하다: That is strange.
* 저게 이상하다: That [over there] is strange.

## Demonstrative personal pronouns

Korean has three demonstrative pronouns for people.
* 이분 is used when the person is nearby the speaker.
* 그분 is used when the person is near the listener.
* 저분 is used when the person is far from the speaker and the listener.
Examples:
* 이분 이 누구입니까?: Who is this person?
* 그분 이 누구입니까?: Who is that person?
* 저분 이 누구입니까?: Who is that person [over there]?

## Demonstrative determiners

Also 이, 저, and 그 can be used in front of nouns:
* 이 식사가 맛있어요.
    This dish is delicious.
* 그 연필을 이용해요?
    Are you using that pencil?
* 저 식당에 갑시다.
    Lets go to that restaurant.
* Other languages...
* Learn Korean (Introduction)
* — Reading and writing •
* Conversation — 1단계: Beginner •
* 2단계: High beginner •
* 3단계: Low intermediate •
* 4단계: High intermediate •
* 5단계: Low advanced •
* 6단계: Advanced
* Grammar:
* Sentence word order •
* Verbs •
* Nouns •
* Particles •
* Personal pronouns •
* Demonstrative pronouns •
* Adjectives •
* Determiners •
* Conjunctions •
* Comparatives & superlatives •
* Forming questions •
* Forming commands •
* Forming dates & times
# How Units Can Help You

We conclude each section of this book with a discussion of the units most relevant to that particular section. It is important to try to understand what the units mean. That is why thinking about the examples and explanations of the units is essential.
If we are careful with our units then the numbers we get in our calculations can be checked in a 'sanity test'.

## What is a 'sanity test'?

This isn't a special or secret test. All we do is stop, take a deep breath, and look at our answer. Sure we always look at our answers—or do we? This time we mean stop and really look—does our answer make sense?
Imagine you were calculating the number of people in a classroom. If the answer you got was 1 000 000 people you would know it was wrong—that's just an insane number of people to have in a classroom. That's all a sanity check is—is your answer insane or not? But what units were we using? We were using people as our unit. This helped us to make sense of the answer. If we had used some other unit (or no unit) the number would have lacked meaning and a sanity test would have been much harder (or even impossible).
It is useful to have an idea of some numbers before we start. For example, let's consider masses. An average person has mass 70 kg, while the heaviest person in medical history had a mass of 635 kg. If you ever have to calculate a person's mass and you get 7000 kg, this should fail your sanity check—your answer is insane and you must have made a mistake somewhere. In the same way an answer of 0.00001 kg should fail your sanity test.
The only problem with a sanity check is that you must know what typical values for things are. In the example of people in a classroom you need to know that there are usually 20-50 people in a classroom. Only then do you know that your answer of 1 000 000 must be wrong. Here is a table of typical values of various things (big and small, fast and slow, light and heavy—you get the idea):
Table 1.4: Everyday examples to help with sanity checks :
| Category | Quantity | Minimum | Maximum |
| People | Mass Height | | |
(NOTE TO SELF: Add to this table as we go along with examples from each section)
Note that you do not have to memorize this table. However, read it so that you can refer to it when you do a calculation.
# The Importance of Units

Without units much of our work as scientists would be meaningless. We need to express our thoughts clearly and units give meaning to the numbers we calculate. Depending on which units we use, the numbers are different (e.g. 3.8 m and 3800 mm actually represent the same length). Units are an essential part of the language we use. Units must be specified when expressing physical quantities. In the case of the curtain example at the beginning of the chapter, the result of a misunderstanding would simply have been an incorrect amount of material cut. However, sometimes such misunderstandings have catastrophic results. Here is an extract from a story on CNN's website:
   NASA: Human error caused loss of Mars orbiter November 10, 1999
   WASHINGTON (AP) -- Failure to convert English measures to metric values caused the loss of the Mars Climate Orbiter, a spacecraft that smashed into the planet instead of reaching a safe orbit, a NASA investigation concluded Wednesday. The Mars Climate Orbiter, a key craft in the space agency's exploration of the red planet, vanished after a rocket firing September 23 that was supposed to put the spacecraft on orbit around Mars. An investigation board concluded that NASA engineers failed to convert English measures of rocket thrusts to newton, a metric system measuring rocket force. One English pound of force equals 4.45 newtons. A small difference between the two values caused the spacecraft to approach Mars at too low an altitude and the craft is thought to have smashed into the planet's atmosphere and was destroyed. The spacecraft was to be a key part of the exploration of the planet. From its station about the red planet, the Mars Climate Orbiter was to relay signals from the Mars Polar Lander, which is scheduled to touch down on Mars next month. ``The root cause of the loss of the spacecraft was a failed translation of English units into metric units and a segment of ground-based, navigation-related mission software," said Arthus Stephenson, chairman of the investigation board. Reported by CNN at http://www.cnn.com/TECH/space/9911/10/orbiter.02/
This story illustrates the importance of being aware that different systems of units exist. Furthermore, we must be able to convert between systems of units!
# 'TO DO' LIST

* Write section on scientific notation, significant figures and rounding.
* Add to sanity test table of sensible values for things.
* Graph Celsius/Kelvin ladder.
* Address PGCE comments above.
# PGCE Comments

* Explain what is meant by `physical quantity'. -- clark: In the Introduction section, I replaced 'physical quantity' with 'measurement of a physical phenomenon'. Don't know if that's much clearer, really.
* Chapter is too full of tables and words need figures to make it more interesting.
* Make researching history of SI units a small project.
* Multiply by one technique: not positive! Suggest using exponents instead (i.e. use the table of prefixes). This also works better for changing complicated units (km·h$^{−1}$ to m·s$^{−1}$ etc....). Opinion that this technique is limited in its application.
* Edit NASA story.
* The Temperature section should be cut-down. SW: I have edited the original section but perhaps a more aggressive edit is justified with the details deferred until the section on gases.
# Conclusion

We have discussed the importance of units. We have learnt that there are many different units (units of time, units of length, units of mass) to describe the same thing, also there are different systems to define units, although we should stick to SI units in our calculations. We also know how to convert between different units. This is a skill we must acquire.
# How to Change Units-- the "Multiply by 1" Technique

Also known as fractional dimensional analysis, the technique involves multiplying a labeled quantity by a conversion ratio, or knowledge of conversion factors. First, a relationship between the two units that you wish to convert between must be found. Here's a simple example: converting millimetres (mm) to metres (m)-- the SI unit of length. We know that there are 1000 mm in 1 m which we can write as
${\begin{matrix}1000{\mbox{ mm}}=1{\mbox{ m}}\end{matrix}}$
Now multiplying both sides by
${\frac {1}{1000{\mbox{ mm}}}}$
we get
${\begin{matrix}{\frac {1}{1000mm}}1000mm={\frac {1}{1000mm}}1m,\end{matrix}}$
which simply gives us
${\begin{matrix}1={\frac {1m}{1000mm}}.\end{matrix}}$
This is the conversion ratio from millimetres to metres. You can derive any conversion ratio in this way from a known relationship between two units. Let's use the conversion ratio we have just derived in an example:
Question: Express 3800 mm in metres.
Answer:
${\begin{matrix}3800mm&=&3800mm\times 1\\&=&3800mm\times {\frac {1m}{1000mm}}\\&=&3.8m\\\end{matrix}}$
Note that we wrote every unit in each step of the calculation. By writing them in and cancelling them properly, we can check that we have the right units when we are finished. We started with mm and multiplied by ${\frac {m}{mm}}$
This cancelled the mm leaving us with just m, which is the SI unit we wanted! If we wished to do the reverse and convert metres to millimetres, then we would need a conversion ratio with millimetres on the top and metres on the bottom.
It is helpful to understand that units cancel when one is in the numerator and the other is in the denominator. If the unit you are trying to cancel is on the top, then the conversion factor that you multiply it with must be on the bottom.
This same technique can be used to not just to convert units, but can also be used as a way to solve for an unknown quantity. For example: If I was driving at 65 miles per hour, then I could find how far I would go in 5 hours by using ${\frac {65{\mbox{ miles}}}{1{\mbox{ hour}}}}$ as a conversion factor.
This would look like ${\frac {5{\mbox{ hours}}}{1}}{\frac {65{\mbox{ miles}}}{1{\mbox{ hour}}}}$
This would yield a result of 325 miles because the hours would cancel leaving miles as the only unit.

## Practice Problem

Problem: Convert 3 millennia into seconds.
Most people don't know how many seconds are in a millennium, but they do know enough to solve this problem. Since we know 1000 years = 1 millennium, 1 year = about 365.2425 days, 1 day = 24 hours, and 1 hour = 3600 seconds we can solve this problem by multiplying by one many times.
${\frac {3{\mbox{ millennia}}}{1}}{\frac {1000{\mbox{ years}}}{1{\mbox{ millennium}}}}{\frac {365.2425{\mbox{ days}}}{1{\mbox{ year}}}}{\frac {24{\mbox{ hours}}}{1{\mbox{ day}}}}{\frac {3600{\mbox{ seconds}}}{1{\mbox{ hour}}}}$
# Italian/Layout
## Wikibook Layout

There are 3 main parts to the organization of this Wikibook. These are the lessons, chapters and levels.
Levels are the largest and broadest category. These cover large amounts of information and contain several chapters. There are 3 levels: Beginner, Intermediate and Advanced.
Chapters come after and are smaller than levels, but larger than lessons. Each chapter contains three or four lessons.
Lessons are the final and smallest section, but the most important. Lessons contain the information the student will use to speak, read, write and live the Italian language.

## Lesson Layout

Each lesson should include:
* A short summary of what the student will learn
* One or two conversation pieces
* Vocabulary
* Exercises and challenges
* A final Lesson Review
# Italian/Lessons

Welcome to the course dedicated to teaching you the official language of Italy and True Cuisine! If you haven't already done so, please, spend a few minutes to first read the book's introduction and reading guide. Once that's done, you're ready to begin your very first Italian lesson! Good luck!

# Welcome! Let's learn Italian! — Benvenuto! Impariamo l'italiano!

    Lesson 1: Buon Giorno – the basics
    Lesson 2: Alcune Frasi – some useful phrases, questions, sentences, and some verbs
    Lesson 3: I Verbi – verbs
    Lesson 4: I Numeri – numbers
    Lesson 5: Al Ristorante – At the Restaurant
    Lesson 6: La Famiglia – The Family
    Lesson 7: Girare per la Città – Navigating Around the City
    Lesson 8: Prenotare un Hotel – Booking a Hotel
    Lesson 9: Fare Acquisti – Shopping
# FontLab

This book is about using FontLab and FontLab Studio, the Font creation tools from FontLab for both Mac and Windows.

## Goals

* The initial goal was to cover just Python scripting, but this draws on font design and production techniques, so they need a place too.
* Therefore this book aims to document complete and efficient howto info on all aspects of FontLab usage in production of modern fonts.
* FontLab supports a large range of features and font formats, so the potential scope of this book is correspondingly large.
Within the Python scripting chapter, the aim is to support two learning paths:
* To give non-programming font designers a complete and efficient tutorial to get useful scripting work done.
* To give programmers who are not font designers an efficient tour of the APIs so they can write scripts for a font designer.
"Efficient" covers several points:
* That all the materials needed are in one place, so the reader doesn't have to trawl for fragmented info (i.e. its done once here for everybody)
* That the material is presented in the appropriate sequence to achieve a given purpose.(need to collate a list of tutorial examples)
* Compatibility between versions of FontLab, Python and OS's are given, so a working combination can be assembled in every case.
* Application configuration (options, modes) necessary for each task are included, either for manual setup or as part of the scripting. FontLab has a large number of options and modes, some of which can affect apparently unrelated tasks or functions, so this is an important area.

## Chapters

* Installation where to get which bits and how to put them together
* Version history what version released when on which OS
* Configuration setup files, modes, options, etc.
* Font specification planning requirements for a font
* Font creation setting up and creating fonts from scratch
* Multiple Masters setting up and creating MM Fonts
* Font editing importing and modifying existing fonts
* Font generation generating the font as a usable file
* Scripting Python Scripting

## Further reading

* Python programming language
* FontLab Python API
* FontLab Forum
* Cascading Style Sheets/Fonts and Text
* Typography/Fonts
* LaTeX/Fonts
* Basic Book Design/Font
* Guide to X11/Fonts
* Using GNOME/Font
* Programming for Palm OS/Small fonts has close to the smallest possible font
* PostScript FAQ describes an even more widely-used font-oriented programming language
# Learning Clojure/History
## History

Lisp is one of the oldest of all programming languages, invented by John McCarthy in 1958. The original language spawned many variant dialects, the most predominant of which today are Common Lisp and Scheme. Clojure (pronounced "closure") is a new dialect of Lisp created by Rich Hickey. Like Scheme, Clojure is a functional dialect, meaning that it supports and encourages programming in a "functional style".
However, Clojure differs from older lisps in several important ways. Clojure code has much more syntactic sugar. For example, instead of typing (set 1 2 3), you can write #{1 2 3}. Clojure has borrowed from Python and Haskell its heavy reliance on dumb data structures: sets, maps, list, and vectors. Most of which have their own syntactic sugar. Clojure makes heavy use of vector data structures (similar to Java arrays and represented in Clojure with `'), preferring them to lists where possible for both aesthetic and performance reasons. Clojure also features complete interoperability with Java libraries.
To give you a taste of the language, here's a small example program in Clojure for correcting spelling (this is a translation into Clojure of Peter Norvig's Python spelling corrector):
By the end of this document, you should be able to understand this code (with some help from the API reference).