OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Pulsars and neutron stars/Neutron star properties
## Neutron star masses

A catalogue of pulsar and companion masses is available. Below we list the pulsar masses for systems in which the mass is well determined:
| Pulsar | Mass (solar masses) |
| J0337+1715 | 1.4378(13) |
| J0348+0432 | 2.01(4) |
| J0437-4715 | 1.44(7) |
| J0453+1559 | 1.559(5) |
| J0621+1001 | 1.53 +0.10-0.20 |
| J0737-3039A | 1.3381(7) |
| J0737-3039B | 1.2489(7) |
| J0751+1807 | 1.26(14) |
| J1012+5307 | 1.64(22) |
| J1141-6545 | 1.27(1) |
| B1534+12 | 1.3330(4) |
| J1614-2230 | 1.97(4) |
| J1713+0747 | 1.31(11) |
| J1738+0333 | 1.47+0.07-0.06 |
| J1756-2251 | 1.341(7) |
| J1802-2124 | 1.24(11) |
| J1807-2500B | 1.3655(21) |
| B1855+09 | 1.58+10-13 |
| J1903+0327 | 1.667(21) |
| J1906+0746 | 1.291(11) |
| J1909-3744 | 1.47(3) |
| J1910-5958A | 1.3(2) |
| B1913+16 | 1.4398(2) |
| B2127+11C | 1.358(10) |
| J2222-0137 | 1.20(14) |
| B2303+46 | 1.24-1.44 |

## Neutron star radii

It is very difficult to make a direct determination of a neutron star radius. One method is to study X-ray bursters - these are neutron stars that are still accreting material from a companion in a close orbit. It is thought that they can build up layers of material on their surface until it reaches a critical mass at which point it undergoes a thermonuclear explosion causing a burst of emission from the surface. From a knowledge of the distance to the neutron star it is possible to estimate the radius of the neutron star. Results are obtained of around 9.6 to 11km (see e.g., Fujimoto & Gottwald 1989). More recently model spectra of neutron star atmospheres is used to fit the thermal X-ray spectra of neutron stars. Suleimanov et al. (2015) obtain radii of around 12km.

## Types of neutron stars

There is a large zoology of different types of neutron star. They can be differentiated between radio loud and radio quiet sources. Some are rotationally-powered whilst others are accretion-powered. There are now sources that switch between the different types. For instance, Papitto et al. discuss a neutron star (IGR J18245-2452; PSR J1824-2452I located in the globular cluster M28) which accretes matter and angular momentum from its companion star (this system is a low-mass X-ray binary; LMXB). During this stage, bright X-ray emission is observed. However, the rate of mass transfer can decrease and a radio millisecond pulsar switches on - in this state the emission is powered by the neutron star's rotating magnetic field.
Types of neutron star include:
* radio pulsars
** recycled pulsars
*** millisecond pulsars
** magnetar
*** soft gamma ray repeater
*** anomalous X-ray pulsar
* Low-mass X-ray binaries (LMXB)
* Intermediate-mass X-ray binaries (IMXB)
* High-mass X-ray binaries (HMXB)
* Accretion powered pulsar
# Reading the City Through History and Law/Plan For Washington DC

The Bonner Plan of Boston isn't as much of a plan as it is a map of the city.
# Reaktor/Artists

Please add only official releases on CDs, not all people who uploaded some MP3s somewhere
* Cibelle
* Lazyfish also great Reaktor builder
* Artur Nowak
* Ticklish
* Mouse on Mars
* Nine Inch Nails
* Kid 606
* Fluorescent Grey
* Tim Exile
* Richard Devine also worked on several new instruments and snapshots for the Electronic Instruments Vol. 2 library
* Speedy J ditto
* Photek (Rupert Parkes) ditto
* VNV Nation
* Squarepusher
* Merzbow
* Bitmud
# Reaktor/Comparable Products
## Comparable products

* ChucK
* Csound
* Max/MSP
* Plogue Bidule
* Pure Data, Wikipedia
* SuperCollider
* Tassman
* SynthEdit
* SynthMaker
* Analog Box 2
* CPS
* Usine Sensomusic

## Reaktor versus...

* Max/MSP
* Pure Data
* SuperCollider
# Reaktor/Comparable Products/Max/MSP

The competition with Max/MSP is an ongoing debate on Reaktor User Forum. Here are some key threads:
* April 2004
* November 2003
* August 2003
* February 2003
* January 2003
# Reaktor/Comparable Products/Pure Data

Discussion on User Forum:
# Reaktor/Core Technology

Reaktor Core Technology gives low level signal processing possibilities to users, with the capability to design new filters, oscillators, delays, and more. The core cell library offers a selection of new effects, filters, and more to builders; plus there is a selection of standard macros, expert macros, and built-in modules to aid in the design of new core cells.
# Reading the City Through History and Law/Plan For Versailles

The Bonner Plan of Boston isn't as much of a plan as it is a map of the city.
# Reaktor/Comparable Products/SuperCollider

Could somebody make a decent comparison between Reaktor and SuperCollider? Some debates on Reaktor User Forum:
# Linear Algebra/Quantifiers

Compare these two statements about natural numbers: "there is an $x$ such that $x$ is divisible by $x^{2}$" is true, while "for all numbers $x$, that $x$ is divisible by $x^{2}$" is false. We call the "there is" and "for all" prefixes quantifiers.

### For all

The "for all" prefix is the universal quantifier, symbolized $\forall$.
Venn diagrams aren't very helpful with quantifiers, but in a sense the box we draw to border the diagram shows the universal quantifier since it delineates the universe of possible members.
To prove that a statement holds in all cases, we must show that it holds in each case. Thus, to prove "every number divisible by $p$ has its square divisible by $p^{2}$", take a single number of the form $pn$ and square it $(pn)^{2}=p^{2}n^{2}$. This is a "typical element" or "generic element" proof.
This kind of argument requires that we are careful to not assume properties for that element other than those in the hypothesis— for instance, this type of wrong argument is a common mistake: "if $n$ is divisible by a prime, say $2$, so that $n=2k$ then $n^{2}=(2k)^{2}=4k^{2}$ and the square of the number is divisible by the square of the prime". That is an argument about the case $p=2$, but it isn't a proof for general $p$.

### There exists

We will also use the existential quantifier, symbolized $\exists$ and read "there exists".
As noted above, Venn diagrams are not much help with quantifiers, but a picture of "there is a number such that $P$" would show both that there can be more than one and that not all numbers need satisfy $P$.
An existence proposition can be proved by producing something satisfying the property: once, to settle the question of primality of $2^{2^{5}}+1$, Euler produced its divisor $641$. But there are proofs showing that something exists without saying how to find it; Euclid's argument given in the next subsection shows there are infinitely many primes without naming them. In general, while demonstrating existence is better than nothing, giving an example is better, and an exhaustive list of all instances is great. Still, mathematicians take what they can get.
Finally, along with "Are there any?" we often ask "How many?" That is why the issue of uniqueness often arises in conjunction with questions of existence. Many times the two arguments are simpler if separated, so note that just as proving something exists does not show it is unique, neither does proving something is unique show that it exists. (Obviously "the natural number with more factors than any other" would be unique, but in fact no such number exists.)
# Linear Algebra/Quotient Space
## Definition

Let V be a vector space over a field F, and let H be a subspace. Define an equivalence relation where x and y within V are said to be equivalent when x-y is an element of H. Define the sum of two equivalence classes X and Y to be the equivalence containing x+y when x is within X and y is within Y, and the scalar multiple aX where a is an element of F to be the equivalence class containing ax when x is an element of X.
Sums are well-defined because if x$_1$ and x$_2$ are within X and y$_1$ and y$_2$ are within Y, then x$_1$+y$_1$-(x$_2$+y$_2$)=(x$_1$-x$_2$)+(y$_1$-y$_2$) which is an element of H, so their sums are equivalent.
Scalar multiples are also well-defined because if x$_1$ and x$_2$ are within X and a is an element of F, then ax$_1$-ax$_2$=a(x$_1$-x$_2$) which is an element of H, so they are equivalent.
Given equivalence classes X and Y and an element x within X and y within Y and z within Z and an elements a and b within F, X+Y and Y+X both contain x+y and so are the same, (X+Y)+Z and X+(Y+Z) both contain x+y+z and so are the same, H is the identity for addition since any for any h within H, (x+h)-x=h which is within H, so X+H=X, and the equivalence class containing -x is the inverse of X, 1X contains 1x=x and so is the same as X, a(bX) and (ab)X both contain abx and so are the same, and (a+b)X and aX+bX are the same since they both contain ax+bx and a(X+Y) and aX+aY are the same since they both contain ax+ay.
The above paragraph establishes that the equivalence classes with addition and scalar multiplication as define also form a vector space, called the quotient space. This vector space is denoted V/H.

## Theorem

If V has dimension d and H has dimension s, then V/H has dimension d-s.
# Linear Algebra/Projection

This section is optional; only the last two sections of Chapter Five require this material.
We have described the projection $\pi$ from $\mathbb {R} ^{3}$ into its $xy$ plane subspace as a "shadow map". This shows why, but it also shows that some shadows fall upward.
So perhaps a better description is: the projection of ${\vec {v}}$ is the ${\vec {p}}$ in the plane with the property that someone standing on ${\vec {p}}$ and looking straight up or down sees ${\vec {v}}$. In this section we will generalize this to other projections, both orthogonal (i.e., "straight up and down") and nonorthogonal.
# Micronations

This book is intended to provide an informative guide to micronations (countries that are not recognized as a legitimate nation by any but its creators), from the past through the present and into the future.

## Table of Contents
### Introduction

* Introduction

### History

* History of micronationalism
* List of past micronations

### The present

* Characteristics of most micronations
* List of already existing micronations
* List of micronationalists
* Micronational war

### The creation of micronations

* Starting your own micronation
** Designing a flag and a coat of arms
** Independence, the creation of the microstate

### How Micronations Function

* Rationale
* Relations
* Economics

### Other

* Future
* Other
* Authors

## See also

* Conworld
* Making an Island
# Micronations/List of already existing micronations

This is a list of some micronations that already exist.
* Aerican Empire
* Aeterna Lucina
* Akhzivland
* Atlantium
* Austenasia
* Avram
* Aynvaul
* The Confederated Empire of Bir Tawil and Territories
* Dominion of British West Florida
* Nation of Celestial Space
* Missionary Order of the Celtic Cross
* Conch Republic
* Conch Republic
* Cordoba Empire
* Copeman Empire
* Sovereign Principality of Corvinia
* New Deutsche Democratic Republic
* Kingdom of Elleore
* The Kingdom of Enclava
* Republic of Eslo
* Kingdom of Saoirse
* Principality of Hutt River
* Ladonia
* The Free Republic of Liberland
* United Empire of Mikhaelium
* Republic of Molossia
* Sultanate of Mustachistan
* Republic of the Nebraska Plains
* Autonomous Kingdom of Neoptolemia
* The Kingdom of North Sudan
* Nova Roma
* Pitchfork Union
* Principality of the Northern Forests
* Principality of Seborga
* Principality of Sealand
* Somaliland
* SSC-Khatumo
* Republic of Terra Firma
* Kingdom of Thorhavn
* The Triselene Imperium
* Grand Duchy of Westarctica
* Republic of Whangamomona
* Rand-Lux
# Micronations/Characteristics of most micronations

Some characteristics of most micronations are shown below.
* Generally considered a joke.
* Not recognized by any generally recognized nation.
* Usually, though not always, either small to minuscule or enormous in size.
** If they are small, they are usually based on the home or previous property of their creators.
** If enormous, this territory is often extraterrestrial or imaginary (virtual or mental construct).
# Micronations/Economics
## Income

A means to generate income to cover operational costs is critical to the operation of any state. While recognized nations have a variety of tools at their disposal for this purpose, most Micronations lack the ability to tax a substantial number of citizens.
The Principality of the Hutt River had an economy based on tourism, and when COVID-19 decimated that industry, the micronation fell with it.

## References

* ↑ O'Connell, Ronan. "Australia's oldest micronation, Hutt River is no more thanks to Covid-19" (in en). CNN. https://www.cnn.com/travel/article/australia-micronation-hutt-river-principality/index.html.
# Micronations/Future

There are a number of future possibilities for micronations, both conceptual and for existing microstates.

## Short term future

It is likely that micronations which do not attempt to establish themselves on the same level as existing states will continue to operate as normal. As the idea of micronations continues to proliferate, it's likely that recognized nation states will begin to crack down more on microstates which conduct certain activities, such as establishing borders.
# SAASTE Technology/Activities/Technological Products

Technology & Society
Grade 8

## Technological Products

Three technological products are shown. Study them carefully and then answer the questions. The same questions apply to all three products.
Do this activity in groups of four.
1. What is / was the product used for?
2. Why was this product designed? ­Say what the need was?
3. What do we have today to satisfy this same need?
4. State what materials were used to make it.
5. Why do you think these materials were used?
6. Say why you think the choice of materials is good?
7. If you were to redesign this product what material would you use?
8. Say why you would use this material.
9. Does the design meet the intentions it was designed for?
10. If not, how can it be improved to meet the intentions?
11. What safety features do you see in the product design?
12. How did this technological solution improve the quality of the lives of the people that designed and made it?
Author: Nonzaliseko Mzizi Contributions by Osman Sadeck Editor: Osman Sadeck
# SAASTE Technology/Key Concepts

The key concepts are the results of the lead teachers analysis of all the assessment standards. It talks to the key aspects that need to be addressed in each outcome at any grade level.
* Grade 4
* Grade 5
* Grade 6
* Grade 7
* Grade 8
* Grade 9
# SAASTE Technology/Key Concepts/Grade 5

KEY
CONCEPTS, KEY FOCUS and IMPLICATIONS for TEACHING & LEARNING
of Technology through the RNCS :
| Grade 5 |||
| Investigates: background context to situation (list advantage / disadvantage of solution to people) Existing products â identify some design aspects science process skills (if appropriate) | Systems & Control: conversion of energy from a chosen source to mechanical energy (movement) Input - Output | Impacts: scientific developments & technological products (Identify positive & negative effects on people / environment) |
| Designs: Design brief possible solutions (linked to design brief & specifications and/or constraints.) choice of solution with reasons chosen solution developed further | Processing: Using Forming, Shaping & Conditioning techniques to transform materials into products | Biases : technological products & services (Describe consequences of lack of access on certain groups) |
| Makes: Planning Materials list Tools list Neatness, safety, material use | Structures: Types of structures. Relationship between materials & structures. | Indigenous Technology: technological products (Explain the adaptation over time and among cultures) |
| Evaluates: â with assistance identifying Strengths and weaknesses of: Product and of plan of action Use criteria for evaluation suggestions for improvement / modification | | |
| Communicates: 2D (1st ) *enhanced sketches / drawings (colour/ shading/ rendering) systems diagrams (input, process, output) notes, labels, dimensions SA drawing conventions (for above) Appropriate use of Technology to present information | | |
# SAASTE Technology/Key Concepts/Grade 8

KEY
CONCEPTS, KEY FOCUS and IMPLICATIONS for TEACHING & LEARNING
of Technology through the RNCS :
| Grade 8 |||
| Investigates: background context Existing products-compare- (relevant to problem and based on specified design aspects) Practical tests / testing Data handling (collect, extract, summarise, presents and uses the information to justify and support decisions) | Systems & Control: Mechanical advantage -in terms of how movement and force is influenced-(mechanical systems, hydraulic & pneumatic included) Drawing system diagrams Input - Process - Output âANDâ & âORâ logic. (more than one input / control device) Input - Process â Output Drawing circuit diagrams Representations using Truth tables Drawing system diagrams | Impacts: technological products (Express detailed opinion for positive and/or negative effects on quality of peopleâs life & on the environment) |
| Designs: Design brief Lists specifications and constraints based on specified design aspects. possible solutions- alternative- (linked to design brief & specifications and/or constraints.) choice of solution with reasons chosen solution developed further -(graphics and/or modeling) | Processing : Forming, Shaping or Conditioning a material by adapting them for particular purposes (increased strength, withstand forces, etc.) | Biases : Human rights (Opinions backed by factual evidence on effect of technology solutions) |
| Makes : Planning Materials list Tools list Construction techniques Design adaption Safety, material and tool use | Structures: Frame Structures : Structural components. Reinforcing techniques Stability (as in grade 7) all within the context of FRAME structures | Indigenous Technology: Cultures (Comparison of ways of solving similar problems in terms of their belief/value system) |
| Evaluates: identifying Strengths and weaknesses of: Product, System and of plan of action Use (given) criteria for evaluation suggestions for improvement / modification | | |
| Communicates: 2D (1st / 3rd angle) or 3D (isometric, perspective, oblique) enhanced sketches / drawings (colour/ shading/ rendering) circuit diagrams (circuit symbols) systems diagrams (input, process, output) notes, labels, dimensions, list of quantities. SA drawing conventions (for above) Appropriate use of Technology to present information for particular target audience | | |
# SAASTE Technology/Activities/Properties of Materials

Processing
Grade 4

## Properties of Materials
### Practical investigation

Look at the table below and make a tick next to the correct property that tell us more about the material.
To do this you must test the material.
Collect each of the materials and do a test to check if it is strong (does not break or tear easily), and what its mass is (is it heavy or light)
Tell your class how you tested some of the materials.
* Material
* Fabric
* Paper
* Wood
* Cork
* Metal
* Plastic
* Knitting wool
* Leather
* Cardboard
Author: Cheryl Jaftha
Editor: Osman Sadeck
# SAASTE Technology/Activities/Shaping

Processing
Grade 5

## Shaping

In the process of "Shaping" some of the material is removed (taken away). I.e. certain processes are carried out to remove the material. E.g. cutting, filing, sandpapering, grinding, planning, turning, drilling, etc.
You will practice the following PROCESSING SKILLS: Cutting, filing, sandpapering and drilling
You will need:
* ·A piece of plastic (Perspex, ice-cream tub, milk bottle, etc)
* Scissors,
* junior hacksaw,
* snips,
* files,
* hand drill + drill bits,
* sandpaper

### Activity 1

This is an investigation on plastics. 1. Feel and look at the plastics, and share what you notice about each one in your own words.
2. What do you think plastic is made of?
3. Name 4 things that plastic is used for.

### Activity 2

This is a communication and a practical activity. We have given you two rectangular shapes below. Do the following:
A:
1. Draw a "geometrical" shape in the first rectangle
2. In the second rectangle draw a "free form" shape.
B: 1. Choose one of the shapes and transfer it to your piece of plastic. (Write down how you are going to do this)
2. Smoothen the cut out shape. (Write down how you are going to do this)
3. Drill a hole wherever you want to on the plastic shape that you have made.
4. Write down 3 things that this "product" you have made can be used for.
Please remember and practice all safety precautions when working with tools and materials.
Author: Averil Nolly
Editor: Osman Sadeck
# SAASTE Technology/Key Concepts/Grade 4

KEY
CONCEPTS, KEY FOCUS and IMPLICATIONS for TEACHING & LEARNING
of Technology through the RNCS. :
| Grade 4 |||
| Investigates: background context to situation Existing products â identify main design aspects science process skills (if appropriate) | Systems & Control: Produce motion using simple mechanisms Input - Output | Impacts: technological products (express opinions on how these products makes lives easier) |
| Designs: Design brief possible solutions (linked to design brief & specifications and/or constraints.) choice of solution with reasons | Processing: Properties of materials (Physical & Chemical) and the influence these properties have on the effectiveness of products. | Biases : technological products (Express opinions on how certain groups are disadvantaged by these products) |
| Makes : Planning Materials list Tools list Neatness and safety | Structures: Strengthening parts of and/or complete structures. | Indigenous Technology: Local Indigenous cultures (Describe use of scientific principles & technological products for specific purposes) |
| Evaluates : - with assistance Product according to brief Suggests improvements/modifications to product if necessary | | |
| Communicates: 2D (1st ) *enhanced sketches / drawings (colour/ shading/ rendering) systems diagrams (input, process, output) notes, labels, dimensions SA drawing conventions (for above) | | |
# SAASTE Technology/Key Concepts/Grade 6

KEY
Pravin :
| Grade 6 |||
| Investigates: background context to situation (list advantage / disadvantage of solution to people / environment) Existing products â identify & compare design aspects science process skills (if appropriate) | Systems & Control: Types of movement (linear & rotary) Input - Process - Output Changing input and output motion (using the components of mechanical systems, hydraulic and pneumatic included) Components of simple electric circuits. Conversion of electrical energy into other forms (light, heat etc.) Input - Process - Output | Impacts: technological products & processes (Suggest improvements to minimize negative effects on people / environment) |
| Designs: Design brief possible solutions (linked to design brief & specifications and/or constraints.) choice of solution with reasons chosen solution developed further | Processing: Preservation of materials (drying, coating, canning, sealing) underpinned by an understanding of why materials deteriorate. | Biases : technological products & services (Suggest ways to provide accessibility) |
| Makes : Planning Materials list Tools list Neatness, safety, material use | Structures: Load bearing properties of materials Stability structures Reinforcing structures. | Indigenous Technology: own & other societies (Describe similarities & solutions -past, present & future) |
| Evaluates â with assistance: identifying Strengths and weaknesses of: Product , and of plan of action Use criteria for evaluation suggestions for improvement / modification | | |
| Communicates: 2D (1st ) *enhanced sketches / drawings (colour/ shading/ rendering) circuit diagrams (circuit symbols) systems diagrams (input, process, output) notes, labels, dimensions SA drawing conventions (for above) Appropriate use of Technology to present information | | |