OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Overview

Biodiversity is the "totality of genes, species, and ecosystems of a region". The scale of biodiversity ranges from the variation of genes within a given species population, to the variation of life forms across an ecosystem, biome, or an entire planet. Biodiversity is considered to be a measure of the health of ecosystems, since it depends on climate and interactions among different species.

# Species Distribution

The distribution of a species describes the spatial arrangement of a biological taxon. The pattern of distribution is determined by a variety of factors, including climate, resources, and dependence on other species. Distribution patterns can change seasonally in response to the availability of resources, and over time in response to environmental changes. The distribution of a species, also called a species range, can be represented using a species range map.
Note that species distribution should not be confused with dispersal, which is the movement of individuals away from their area of origin or from centers of high population density. Dispersion usually takes place at the time of reproduction, or through translocation by people, animals, wind and water. Globalization and the transportation industry are significant factors in species translocation, causing a wider distribution for many species.
Species distribution modeling is the process of using computational methods to predict the geographic distribution of one or more species based on a combination of environmental factors (including climate, land cover, water depth, etc.), resource availability, and the distribution of other species. Species distribution modeling can also incorporate dispersal factors, migration patterns, and environmental changes to predict changes over time. The particular distribution of a species also depends on the scale at which it is viewed. Species distribution models can be used to assess climate change impacts, evaluate conservation policies, measure the effects of deforestation, and prioritize areas for policy intervention.

## Lab: Species Distribution Modeling Using Maximum Entropy

See Machine Learning For Prediction / Lab: Species Distribution Modeling Using Maximum Entropy

# Sources

* ↑ Tor-Björn Larsson (2001). Biodiversity evaluation tools for European forests. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 178. ISBN 978-87-16-16434-6. Retrieved 28 June 2011.
* ↑ Davis. Intro To Env Engg (Sie), 4E. McGraw-Hill Education (India) Pvt Ltd. pp. 4–. ISBN 978-0-07-067117-1. Retrieved 28 June 2011.
# Artificial Intelligence/Search/Heuristic search/Tabu Search

Tabu Search
Tabu was first conceived of by Fred Glover while observing his graduate classmates trying to emulate problem solving on computers in the early 1960s (Glover 1998). During this time he noticed that his colleagues did not use formal logic for problem solving themselves but would instead whittle down the problem space by avoiding previously tried steps if they proved unpromising (Glover 1998). The name Tabu comes from the word taboo which adequately describes the above phenomena. Tabu is a heuristic search algorithm used to solve combinatorial optimization problems, where a set of discrete feasible solutions is the problem space and the goal is to find the best possible solution (Glover 1989). In other words, it is a metaheuristic that aids local search heuristics to reach optimal performance while searching for a solution. One of Tabu’s uniquenesses is attributed to its flexible memory system, as opposed to other search methods that have a fixed or no memory system (Glover 1990). It also utilizes a strategy of constraining and freeing the search (i.e. the tabu component).
How it works: Tabu restrictions are employed to prevent the search from getting stuck in locally optimal solutions (Glover 1990). These constraints are set-up so that Tabu will not make repetitious moves. For instance, if two moves located near each other are considered ‘best’, then the search may bounce between the two indefinitely (Glover 1990). These repetitious moves, therefore, are marked as ‘tabu’ and will not be returned to while in the surrounding search space (Glover 1990). The ultimate goal of tabu restrictions then is to break out of local search space while maintaining the possibility of finding an optimal solution (Glover 1990). To do this, aspiration criteria are employed to counterbalance the effect of tabu restrictions and allow the search to extend into a greater search field (Glover 1990). Solutions that are marked ‘tabu’ can have their ‘tabu’ status removed after search has left the previously troublesome local optimum. This way, those solutions will still be considered as a possibility for finding the global optimal solution (Glover 1990).
Illustration: The following shows the general Tabu process in a flowchart.

## References

Glover, Fred. (1990). Tabu search: A tutorial, Special Issue on the Practice of Mathematical Programming, Interfaces, 20, 74-94.
Glover, Fred. (1998). Tabu search – Wellsprings and challenges. European Journal of Operational Research, 106, 221-225.
Glover, Fred. (1989). Tabu search – Part I. ORSA Journal on Computing, 1, 190-206.
# Bengali–Assamese script/Bengali alphabet
## Overview

The Bengali alphabet consists of 11 vowels and 38 consonants. An additional vowel (অ্যা) and an additional consonant (জ়) are also used in the Bengali language and are listed here. Since the wikibook Bengali has already described the Bengali alphabet in three pages, this wikibook gives only a minute summary of the alphabet.

## Vowels

| Vowel | Diacritic | IPA | English equivalents |
| অ | inherent | /ɔ/ or /o/ | dawn or Scottish sole |
| অ্যা | ্যা | /æ/ | cat |
| আ | া | /a/ | father |
| ই | ি | /i/ | pin |
| ঈ | ী | /i/ | pin |
| উ | ু | /u/ | moon |
| ঊ | ূ | /u/ | moon |
| ঋ | ৃ | /ɹi/ | return |
| এ | ে | /e/ or /æ/ | bed or cap |
| ঐ | ৈ | /oi/ | boy |
| ও | ো | /o/ | Scottish sole |
| ঔ | ৌ | /ou/ | boat |

## Consonants

| Consonant | IPA | English equivalents |
| ক | /k/ | skip |
| খ | /kʰ/ | sinkhole |
| গ | /ɡ/ | garden |
| ঘ | /ɡʱ/ | big hole |
| ঙ | /ŋ/ | sing |
| চ | /tʃ/ | church |
| ছ | /tʃʰ/ | atchoo |
| জ | /dʒ/ | gem |
| জ় | /z/ | zero |
| ঝ | /dʒʱ/ | hedghog |
| ঞ | /n/ | bench |
| ট | /ʈ/ | retroflex stick |
| ঠ | /ʈʰ/ | aspiration of the above |
| ড | /ɖ/ | retroflex desk |
| ড় | /ɽ/ | American larder |
| ঢ | /ɖʱ/ | aspiration of the above |
| ঢ় | /ɽʱ/ | Scottish warhead |
| ণ | /n/ | bend |
| ত | /t̪/ | dental stick |
| থ | /t̪ʰ/ | aspiration of the above |
| দ | /d̪/ | dental 'desk |
| ধ | /d̪ʱ/ | aspiration of the above |
| ন | /n/ | not |
| প | /p/ | spin |
| ফ | /f/ | friend |
| ব | /b/ | ball |
| ভ | /bʱ/ | tab hall |
| ম | /m/ | mother |
| য | /dʒ/ | gem |
| য় | /e̯/ | semivocalic e |
| র | /ɾ/ or /r/ | American butter or ring |
| ল | /l/ | leaf |
| শ | /ʃ/ or /s/ | shoulder or stable |
| ষ | /ʃ/ or /s/ | shoulder or stable |
| স | /ʃ/ or /s/ | shoulder or stable |
| হ | /ɦ/ | behind |
| ৎ | /t̪/ | dental stick |
| ং | /ŋ/ | sing |
| ঃ | /ɦ/ | behind |
# Bengali–Assamese script

Bengali–Assamese (বাংলা–অসমীয়া লিপি) or Eastern Nagari (পূর্বী নাগরী/পূৰ্বী নাগৰী) is a writing system used to write Bengali, Assamese and Meitei (Manipuri). It is also used by smaller languages like Bishnupriya Manipuri, Chakma, Kamta, Santali etc. The purpose of this book is to understand a writing system used by several languages in Eastern South Asia. While it may not be easy to understand the script, this book attempts to represent the script as simply as possible.
Introduction Bengali alphabet Assamese alphabet Ligatures Numbers
Bengali Modern Meitei
# Bengali–Assamese script/Introduction
## About Bengali–Assamese

Bengali–Assamese is an abugida system, that is when a consonant is followed by a vowel, the vowel is written with the consonant. However, if no vowel is written with the consonant, the vowel is assumed to be an O (hot or boat). A hosonto (্) is sometimes used to indicate that the consonant is not followed by a vowel. These are in contrast to the Latin script (used by English), where consonants and vowels are written separately and no sign is used to indicate that the consonant is not followed by a vowel.
Bengali–Assamese is divided into two alphabets:
* Bengali alphabet, used by Bengali, Meitei, Bishnupriya etc.
* Assamese alphabet, used by Assamese, Hajong, Kamta etc.
# Bestiary of Behavioral Economics
## Chapters

* Self-Interest
* Commitment Devices
* Efficiency Wages
* Overconfidence
* Zero Price
* Mental Accounting
* Activity Bias
* Framing Effect
* Money Illusion
* Preference Reversal
* Ellsberg Paradox
* Satisficing
* Endowment Effect
* Dictator Game
* Trust Game
* Ultimatum Game
# A-level Computing 2009/AQA/Computer Components, The Stored Program Concept and the Internet/Fundamentals of Computer Systems/Application software
## General purpose application software

General purpose application software is a type of application that can be used for a variety of tasks. It is not limited to one particular function. For example a word processor could be classed as general purpose software as it would allow a user to write a novel, create a restaurant menu or even make a poster.
Examples of General purpose application software include: Word processors, Spreadsheet and Presentation software. Whatever you do, do not use brand names!

## Special purpose application software

Special purpose application software is a type of software created to execute one specific task. For example a camera application on your phone will only allow you to take and share pictures. Another example would be a chess game, it would only allow you to play chess.
Other examples of special purpose application software are web browsers, calculators, media players, calendar programs etc. Again, make sure that you don't use brand names!

## Bespoke application software

Bespoke application software is tailor made for a specific user and purpose. For example a factory may require software to run a robot to make cars, however, it is the only factory making that car in the world, so the software required would have to be specially built for the task.
Other examples might include software for the military, missile/UAV operations, software for hospitals and medical equipment, software being written inside banks and other financial institutions.
There are several things to consider before purchasing bespoke software, on the plus side:
However, you must also consider
* Exercise: Application Software
* List and describe the three types of application software:
* Answer:
* General purpose software - software that can be used for multiple purposes
* Special purpose software - software built for a specific purpose
* Bespoke application software - software built for a specific user and purpose
* Give an example of each:
* Answer:
* (Don't let the examiner catch you using product names!)
* General purpose software - word processor / presentation software / spreadsheet
* Special purpose software - Web browser / media players / calender programs
* Bespoke application software - car robot control software / military control software
* Why might you choose to use general purpose software instead of bespoke software, why might it not be suitable?
* Answer:
* general purpose software is:
* cheaper than bespoke
* readily available, whilst bespoke may take some time to write
* able to perform multiple tasks
* probably less buggy
* However,
* it might not perform all the tasks needed by the user
# A-level Computing 2009/AQA/Computer Components, The Stored Program Concept and the Internet/Hardware Devices/Input and output devices

You should already have met the internal components of the computer and the peripherals, that sit outside. We are now going to look at two different categories of peripherals. Those that input data into a computer, and those that output data from the computer.
How do we tell what is an input and what is an output device? Think about it from the computer's perspective. If a device is putting data into the computer in the form of text, sound, images, button presses etc. then it is an input device, if the device is outputting things from the computer such as sound, movement, printing, images etc., then it is an output device. It really is that easy to tell the difference, but be warned, some devices can be both input and output!
Let's take a look at two examples:
* Example: Telling the difference between input and output devices
* An LG LCD monitor
* When you are using the monitor it displays things that you are doing, such as moving windows and clicking on website links. At no point do you click on the screen or put anything into the monitor. The only thing it does is output information, therefore it is an output device. Easy!
* An optical mouse
* A mouse is used to move a little cursor around the screen, clicking and dragging as you go. if you let go of the mouse, the cursor will stop. The computer is relying on you to move the mouse, the mouse won't move on its own! Therefore it is an input device.
* Exercise: Input and output devices
* Note whether the following devices are input or output devices (or both!)
* Printer
* Mouse
* Keyboard
* Monitor
* Web cam
* Scanner
* USB thumb drive
* Graphics tablet
* Joypad
* Speakers
* Answer:
* Printer - output
* Mouse - input
* Keyboard - input
* Monitor - output
* Web cam - input
* Scanner - input
* USB thumb drive - input and output (read and write!)
* Graphics tablet - input or output (if there is a screen on it)
* Joypad - input (output as well if it rumbles!)
* Speakers - output
# A-level Computing 2009/AQA/Computer Components, The Stored Program Concept and the Internet/Fundamentals of Computer Systems/Types of program translator
## Assembler

An assembler translates assembly language into machine code. Assembly language consists of mnemonics for machine opcodes so assemblers perform a 1:1 translation from mnemonic to a direct instruction. For example:
LDA #4 converts to 0001001000100100
Conversely, one instruction in a high level language will translate to one or more instructions at machine level.
Advantages of using an Assembler:
Disadvantages of using Assembler:

## Compiler

A Compiler is a computer program that translates code written in a high level language to a lower level language, object/machine code. The most common reason for translating source code is to create an executable program (converting from a high level language into machine language).
Advantages of using a compiler
Disadvantages of using a compiler

## Interpreter

An interpreter program executes other programs directly, running through program code and executing it line-by-line. As it analyses every line, an interpreter is slower than running compiled code but it can take less time to interpret program code than to compile and then run it — this is very useful when prototyping and testing code. Interpreters are written for multiple platforms, this means code written once can be run immediately on different systems without having to recompile for each. Examples of this include flash based web programs that will run on your PC, MAC, games console and Mobile phone.
Advantages of using an Interpreter
Disadvantages of using an Interpreter
* Types of program translator
* Name the three types of program translator and describe what level of language each translates
* Answer:
* Assembler - Low Level (Assembly)
* Compiler - High Level
* Interpreter - High Level
* Why might you want to use a compiler instead of an interpreter?
* Answer:
* A compiler makes faster, more secure code
* Why might you want to use an interpreter instead of a compiler?
* Answer:
* Interpreters allow for code to run on multiple platforms, it allows you to debug and test code without having to re-compile the entire source code
* For a computer game running on a home console, would you use a compiler or an interpreter? Explain why.
* Answer:
* Compiler: as it produces faster code. Also object code that is produced is difficult to read, meaning competitors won't easily be able to steal or users hack the code.
* OR:
* Interpreter (harder to get marks for this): As more and more developers create games for multiple platforms, an interpreted language would allow for code written once to be run on different consoles and even phone platforms
* For a simple learning tool that will be released on the web for school children to use at home, what would be the best choice of translator? Explain why.
* Answer:
* Interpreter : Students will be using different operating systems and hardware at home, so it is necessary to create code that is multi-platform. As it is an educational tool, it probably wouldn't need the speed boost that a compiler would provide.
# A-level Computing 2009/AQA/Computer Components, The Stored Program Concept and the Internet/Hardware Devices

* Input and Output Devices
* Know the main characteristics, purpose and suitability of contemporary devices (see the Teacher Resource Bank), and understand their principles of operation, including methods of error checking (check digit).
* Secondary Storage Devices
* Explain the need for secondary storage within a computer system, know the main characteristics, purpose and suitability, and understand the principles of operation of contemporary devices (see the Teacher Resource Bank). Compare the capacity and speed of access of various media and make a judgement about their suitability for different applications
# A-level Computing 2009/AQA/Computer Components, The Stored Program Concept and the Internet/Fundamentals of Computer Systems

* From the Specification : Hardware and Software
* Understand the relationship between hardware and software and be
* able to define both.
Hardware and software
* From the Specification : Classification of Software
* Be aware of how software is classified.
* Be able to explain what is meant by system software and application software.
* Understand the need for and attributes of different types of software
Classification of Software
* From the Specification : System Software
* Understand the need for, and functions of, system software:
* Operating system software
* Utility programs
* Library programs
* Translator software (compiler, assembler, interpreter)
System software
* From the Specification : Application Software
* Describe the different types of application software and the criteria for selecting appropriate software for particular purposes.
* General purpose application software.
* Special purpose application software.
* Bespoke application software
Application software
* From the Specification : Generations of Programming Language
* Describe machine-code language and assembly language.
* Awareness of the development of programming languages and the
* limitations of both machine-code and assembly-language programming
* First generation - Machine code
* Second generation - Assembly language
* Third generation - Imperative high level language
* Explain the term imperative high level language and its relationship to first and second generation languages
* Fourth generation - Declarative language
* Explain the term declarative programming language and where and why declarative languages are used
Generations of programming language
* From the Specification : Types of Program Translator
* Define each type of language translator and describe situations
* where each would be appropriate.
* Assembler
* Compiler
* Interpreter
Types of program translator
# A-level Computing 2009/AQA/Computer Components, The Stored Program Concept and the Internet/Fundamentals of Computer Systems/Hardware and software

Hardware and Software have a symbiotic relationship, this means that without software hardware is very limited; and without hardware, software wouldn't be able to run at all. They need each other to fulfill their potential.
| Standard hardware components | The relationship between Hardware and Software |
| Hardware of a modern personal computer, can you name all the components? | A layer structure showing the relationship between various layers of software and hardware |
* Exercise: Hardware and Software
* Define Hardware:
* Answer:
* Physical components that make up a computer system.
* Define Software:
* Answer:
* Computer programs and related data that provide the instructions for telling computer hardware what to do and how to do it.
* Give names to all the numbered hardware components above:
* Answer:
* Monitor
* Motherboard
* CPU
* RAM
* Expansion cards / graphics card / sound card / network card
* Power supply
* Optical disc drive
* Hard disk drive
* Keyboard
* Mouse
* Give 2 examples of software:
* Answer:
* Word Processor
* Operating System
* Game
* Spreadsheet
* Virus Scanner
* etc
* NOTE: If you mentioned a brand name such as Windows TM, you get no marks, the exam wants software types meaning you should have written Operating System. After all, for the previous question, you probably didn't answer Nvidia GTX 970 SSC ACX 2.0.
# American Sign Language

Welcome to the American Sign Language wikibook. American Sign Language, or ASL is a visual language expressed through hand gestures and facial expressions. It is a language used by many Deaf, hard-of-hearing, and hearing people in North America. This wikibook aims to teach ASL vocabulary, grammar and exercises to beginners. Feel free to contribute!

## Table of Contents
### Lessons

* Introduction: History of American Sign Language · Deaf Culture · Alphabet and Numbers - Location - Linguistics
* Level 1: Fingerspelling 1 · Vocabulary 1 · Basic Grammar 1 · Simple Sentences 1 - Grammar 1
* Lesson 2: Fingerspelling 2 · Vocabulary 2 · Basic Grammar 2 · Facial Expressions 1 · Dialogue 1
* Lesson 3:

### Appendices

* /Appendix A: Handshapes
* /Idioms
* /Profanity
* /Further Resources

## See also

* Wikijunior:Languages/Sign languages
* Wikibooks:Languages bookshelf
* Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Outreach/Sign Language
# American Sign Language/Alphabet

It is recommended beginner ASL learners practice the use of the alphabet.