OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Horticulture/Sawflies

Sawflies :
| Type: | Insects |
| Order: | Hymenoptera |
| Metamorphosis: | Complete |
| Damaging stages: | Larval |

## Control

Sawflies make up the suborder Symphyta, a group of largely herbivorous insects in the order Hymenoptera. This group is an artificial assemblage of superfamilies that are essentially the most primitive taxa within the Hymenoptera (some going back 200 million years).
Sawflies are distinguishable from most other Hymenoptera by the broad connection between the abdomen and the thorax (see image), and the caterpillar-like larvae (below). The common name comes from the appearance of the ovipositor, which looks much like the blade of a saw. This ovipositor, which is modified into a "stinger" in some members of the Apocrita, is not used as a weapon. Females use the ovipositor to cut into plants where they lay their eggs. A few species have long thin ovipositors used to drill holes deep into wood. Large populations can cause economic damage in cultivated areas and forests.
The larvae look like caterpillars (the larvae of moths and butterflies), with two notable exceptions; (1) they have five or more prolegs on the abdomen (caterpillars have five or fewer), and (2) they have two ocelli (eyes), instead of the caterpillar's six. Typical sawfly larvae are herbivorous, the group feeding on a wide range of plants. Individual species, however, are often quite specific in their choice of plants used for food. The larvae of various species exhibit leaf-mining, leaf-rolling, or gall formation. The larvae that do not feed externally on plants are grub-like, without prolegs.
Adult sawflies, except for those in the family Cephidae, have structures that latch onto the underside of the forewings to help hold the wings in place when the insect is at rest. These "cenchri", which are absent in the suborder Apocrita, are located behind the scutellum on the thorax. Adults of some species are carnivorous, eating other insects, but many also feed on nectar.

## External links

* Sawfly - Tenthredininae subfamily - diagnostic photographs and information
* Sawfly - Dolerus unicolor photos and information
* Sawfly - Dolerus nitens photographs
* Sawfly Arge humeralis photographs

## References

* The American Museum of Natural History 2004-01-15
* Kendall Bioresearch Services (Image)
# Horticulture/Scilla

Squills :
| Genus: | Scilla |
| Family: | Colchicaceae |
| Type: | Perennial bulbs |
| Forcing: | Can be forced |
| Pollination: | Insect |
Scilla (squill) is a genus of bulbous perennial herbs in the hyacinth family Colchicaceae. The 90-odd species are found in woodlands, subalpine meadows, and seashores across the Old World. Their flowers are usually blue, but white, pink, and purple types are known; most flower in early spring, but a few are autumn-flowering.
Several African species previously classified in Scilla have been removed to the genus Ledebouria. The best known of these is the common houseplant still sometimes known as Scilla violacea but now properly Ledebouria socialis.
Scilla peruviana is of interest for its name; it is a native of southwest Europe, not of Peru. The name results from when Carolus Linnaeus described the species in 1753; he was given specimens imported from Spain aboard a ship named Peru, and was misled into thinking the specimens had come from that country. The rules of botanical naming do not allow a scientific name to be changed merely because it is potentially confusing.

## Description

Bulbous perennials with strap-like, fark green leaves. Flowers held on small scapes above the foliage.

## Species

Species include:
* Scilla bifolia
* Scilla peruviana (Portuguese Squill, Corymbose Squill, or Cuban Lily)
* Scilla scilloides
* Scilla siberica (Siberian Squill)
* Scilla verna (Spring Squill)

## Uses

Some species are suitable for planting in lawns, otherwise they are generally grown in ground covers.
Squill liquid extract, a preparation of powdered squill and ethanol, is used as an ingredient in cough medicines and cardiac surgery.

## Propagation

By offset or seed.

## Pests and diseases

Rusts
* Uromyces muscari

## References

* Christopher Brickell and Judith D. Zuk (1997). The American Horticultural Society A-Z Encyclopedia of Garden Plants. DK Publishing. pp. 945–946. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
* Pirone, Pascal P. (1978). Diseases & Pests of Ornamental Plants (Fifth Edition ed.). John Wiley & Sons, New York. p. 483. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
* University of Washington
# Horticulture/Salix matsudana

Chinese Willow :
| Binomial: | Salix matsudana |
| Type: | Tree or shrub |
| Light requirements: | Full sun to light shade |
| Water requirements: | Tolerates very wet soils |
| Soil requirements: | Adaptable |
| Propagation: | Cuttings, staking |
| Pruning tolerance: | High |
| Disease issues: | Some severe |
| Pollination: | Insect |
The Chinese Willow (Salix matsudana), also known as the Hankow Willow or Globe Willow, is a tree or shrub native to northwestern China. The species is named in honour of Sadahisa Matsudo, a Japanese botanist.
Many botanists treat Salix matsudana as a synonym of the Peking Willow (Salix babylonica), which despite its botanical name is also native to northern China. The only reported difference between the two is that S. matsudana has two nectaries in each female flower, whereas S. babylonica has only one; however this character is not reliable in many willows (e.g. Crack Willow can have either one or two).

## Description

It is a medium-sized to large deciduous tree, growing up to 20-25 m tall. It is upright and grows rapidly, but has a short lifespan. It has narrow, light green leaves, around 4-10 cm long and 1-2 cm broad. The flowers are catkins produced early in the spring; it is dioecious, with the male and female catkins on separate trees.

## Varieties

* 'Austree' - Very fast growing, generally used for screens
* 'Tortuosa' (Corkscrew Willow) - Twisted, spiralling stems and branches, sometimes grown for florists' materiel.
* 'Golden Curls' - A hybrid with Salix alba selected for disease resistance.
* 'Scarlet Curls' - A hybrid with Salix alba selected for disease resistance.
* 'Navajo' - A hybrid with Salix alba selected for disease resistance.

## Uses

Chinese Willow has been introduced into many areas as an ornamental tree, including Australia, Europe and North America. It is also planted for erosion control on streambanks, and as a source for pulp and lumber.
The corkscrew willows are grown as a florists' crop.

## Maintenance

Fast growth and weak wood mean that the plant should be pruned regularly to avoid breakups in wind storms. The plant can be coppiced or pollarded.

## Propagation

Propagagtion is primarily through cuttings or Stake Planting.

## Harvest

For floral uses, the branches are generally cut in the winter, as the leaves are not considered ornamental. The branches will leaf out in the vase if not properly dried out before use.

## Pests and Diseases

This species is very susceptible to canker and wind damage. See Salix for an extensive list of pests and diseases.

## References

http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?32736
# Horticulture/Saponaria officinalis

Soapwort :
| Binomial: | Saponaria officinalis |
| Family: | Caryophyllaceae |
Soapwort (Saponaria officinalis) is a common perennial plant from the carnation family (Caryophyllaceae). Other common names are Bouncing Bet and Sweet William.
The Latin name is derived from the toxic substance saponin, contained in the roots. It starts producing a lather when in contact with water. The epithet officinalis indicates its medicinal functions. However, it acquired its common name through utility in cleaning. Soapwort's native range extends throughout Europe to western Siberia. It grows in cool places at low or moderate elevations under hedgerows and along the shoulders of roadways.
In the northern hemisphere soapwort blooms from May to September, and in the southern hemisphere October to March.

## Description

The plants possesses leafy, unbranched stems (often tinged with red) grow in patches, attaining a height of 70 cm. The broad, lanceolate, sessile leaves are opposite and between 4 and 12 cm long. It's sweetly scented flowers are radially symmetrical and pink, or sometimes white. Each of the five flat petals have two small scales in the throat of the corolla. They are about 2.5 cm wide. They are arranged in dense, terminal clusters on the main stem and its branches. The long tubular calyx has five pointed red teeth.

## Uses

Soapwort has various medicinal functions as an expectorant and laxative, but care should be taken when used as saponins may be toxic. An overdose can cause nausea, diarrhoea and vomiting.
Despite its toxic potential, soapwort finds culinary use as an emulsifier in the commercial preparation of tahini halva and in brewing to create beer with a good "head". In India, the rhizome is used as a galactagogue.

## References

* ↑ Seasoning Savvy: How to Cook With Herbs, Spices, and Other Flavorings By Alice Arndt, p.215
* ↑ Purple Sage page on Soapwort
# Horticulture/Scale Insects

Scales :
| Type: | Insects |
| Family: | Several families |
| Order: | Hemiptera |
| Metamorphosis: | Incomplete |
| Damaging stages: | All stages |
| Vulnerable stages: | "Crawlers" (early-instar nymphs) |
The scale insects are small insects of the order Hemiptera, generally classified as the superfamily Coccoidea. There are over 7,000 species of scale insects, all of which are parasites of plants, feeding on sap drawn directly from the plant's vascular system.

## Description

Scale insects vary dramatically in their appearance from very small organisms (1-2 mm) that occur under wax covers (some look like oyster shells), to shiny pearl-like objects (about 5 mm), to creatures covered with mealy wax. Adult female scales are immobile and permanently attached to the plant they have parasitized. They secrete a waxy coating for defense; this coating causes them to resemble reptilian scales, hence the name.

## Ecology

Scale insects feed on a wide variety of plants, and many scale species are considered pests. Some types are economically valuable, such as the cochineal and lac scales. Scale insects' waxy covering makes them quite resistant to pesticides, which are only effective against the juvenile crawler stage. However, scale can be controlled with horticultural oil, which suffocates them, or through biological controls. Soapy water is also reported to be effective against infestations on houseplants. Female scale insects, unusually for Hemiptera, retain their larval form at sexual maturity (neoteny). Adult males have wings but never feed and die within a day or two. The specifics of their reproductive systems vary considerably within the group, including hermaphroditism and seven forms of parthenogenesis.

## Host plants

Scales feed on a very wide variety of plants, though most of the particular species have fairly narrow host ranges. If the particular scale can be identified, part of the control strategy is to inspect the area for other host plants, since the scale insects do not travel very far.

## Control

* Physical removal: Some scales can be blasted off with water (all are susceptible to this in the crawler stage). Early infestations of the larger scales can be controlled by simply removing the individual scales by hand.
* Pesticides: Imidicloprid is often used through injection to control scales.
* Organic pesticides: Horticultural oil, insecticidal soaps, and neem oil are effective if applied directly to the insect bodies.
* Timing: Scales are easiest to control in the crawler stage.

## External links

* ScaleNet homepage
* Cottony Cushion Scale: the pest that launched a pest control revolution with photos
* Diaspididae of the World
# Introduction to Classical Music

Below is an introduction to western classical music covering basic music theory, major instruments, composers, music forms, famous pieces of music, and summaries of the different periods of classical music.
Click below on any of the links to learn about some of the greatest composers to ever exist, their most famous works, the instruments used to create the music, and more.
* Music theory
* Music history
* Famous composers
* Instruments
* Forms
* Major works
# Introduction to Classical Music/Composers

These are a few of the most famous classical composers.

## Johann Sebastian Bach

Johann Sebastian Bach (born March 21, 1685, died July 28, 1750) was an important German composer and organist whose famous works for choir, orchestra and solo instruments drew together almost all of the parts of the baroque style. Although he did not introduce any new musical forms, he enriched the German style with a robust and dazzling technique of musical lines that complimented one another. He also adapted rhythms and textures from abroad, particularly of Italy and France.
Bach's forceful techniques and vast output have earned him fame as one of the greatest composers in the Western world. His works are honored for their depth and technical achievements along with artistic beauty. His works include the Brandenburg concertos, the keyboard suites and partitas, the Mass in B Minor, the St. Matthew Passion, The Musical Offering, The Art of Fugue and a large number of cantatas, of which about 220 survive.
Bach sample: Goldberg Variations Aria (this piece on Musopen)

## Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (born January 27, 1756, died December 5, 1791) is among the most significant and enduringly popular composers of European classical music. His enormous output includes works that are widely acknowledged as pinnacles of symphonic, chamber, piano, operatic, and choral music. Many of his works are part of the standard concert repertory and are widely recognized as masterpieces of the classical style.
Mozart sample: The Marriage of Figaro - Overture (this piece on Musopen)

## Ludwig van Beethoven

Ludwig van Beethoven (born December 17, 1770, died March 26, 1827) was a German composer and pianist. He is considered one of classical music's supreme composers, and was an important figure between the Classical and Romantic eras in music. His reputation and genius has inspired musicians and audiences for years.
He was born in Bonn and moved to Vienna, Austria in his early twenties, where he settled. He studied with Joseph Haydn and quickly gained a reputation as a virtuoso pianist. In his late twenties he began to lose his hearing, but still continued to produce masterpieces.
Beethoven sample: Sonata No. 1 in F Minor, Op. 2 No. 1 - I. Allegro (this piece on Musopen)

## Johannes Brahms

Johannes Brahms (born May 7, 1833, died April 3, 1897) was a German composer of Romantic music, who mostly lived in Vienna. He was born in Hamburg. Brahms showed talent on the piano when he was young, and helped out his family by playing and teaching for money.
Brahms sample: Concerto in A Minor 'Double Concerto' - I. Allegro (this piece on Musopen)
# Introduction to Classical Music/Theory

Music theory deals with how music works. Music theory often describes the basic elements of music. In this basic overview, we will learn the names of different notes, a few scales, different note values and dynamics.

## Note Names and Notation

Musical notation means "the way music is written down". Notes are put on the lines and in the spaces between the lines.
Reading music involves being able to tell what the note is called and where to find it on the instrument, To identify music notes on a scale, first we identify which "clef" we are in. In this case, the G-clef assigns the note G to the second line.

## Note Value

A note value indicates the amount of time a note is played. To determine the value of a note, we look at the color or shape of the note head, the presence or absence of a stem, and the presence or absence of flags. A rest, seen to the right of the notes below, indicates a silence of the same duration.
whole note
half note
quarter note
eighth note
Taking our music sample from above, we now can see that there are 4 quarter notes for each measure of music. We can also see in the bottom of the first measure are 8 eight notes.

## Dynamics

In music, dynamics refers to the softness or loudness of a sound.
The two basic dynamic symbols in music are:
    p or piano, meaning "soft" and
    f or forte, meaning "loud" or "strong".
More subtle degrees of loudness or softness are indicated by adding an "m":
    mp, or mezzo-piano, meaning "medium-quiet" and
    mf, or mezzo-forte, meaning "medium-loud" or "moderately-loud".
Beyond f and p, there are also
    ff, or fortissimo, meaning "very loud" and
    pp, or pianissimo, meaning "very quiet".
Back to Table of Contents
# Introduction to Communication Theory

The fundamental activity of every human being is to engage in communication with another. This book serves as an introduction to various communication theories proposed and developed over the last century.

## Contents

* Introduction
** Introduction
** Evaluating Theory from Wikipedia - Communication_theory
** Creating Meaning (Semiotics)
** Argumentation
* Interpersonal
** Small Group Relationships
** Nonverbal
** Culture
*** Face Saving
*** Negotiation
*** Ethnography
*** Gender Studies
* Macropersonal
** Communication Media
** Media Content
** Propaganda

## Related books

* Communication Theory
# Introduction to Philosophy/Logic/Some Properties of the Logical Connectives

Introduction to Philosophy > Logic > Some Properties of the Logical Connectives
∧ and ∨ are commutative:
* p ∧ q gives the same result as q ∧ p;
* p ∨ q gives the same result as q ∨ p.
∧ and ∨ are associative:
* (p ∧ q) ∧ r gives the same result as p ∧ (q ∧ r);
* (p ∨ q) ∨ r gives the same result as p ∨ (q ∨ r).
∧ is distributive over ∨:
* p ∧ (q ∨ r) gives the same result as (p ∧ q) ∨ (p ∧ r);
* (p ∨ q) ∧ r gives the same result as (p ∧ r) ∨ (q ∧ r).
∨ is distributive over ∧:
* p ∨ (q ∧ r) gives the same result as (p ∨ q) ∧ (p ∨ r);
* (p ∧ q) ∨ r gives the same result as (p ∨ r) ∧ (q ∨ r).
I say 'gives the same result as' since we have yet to talk about equality.
Those of you who know a little bit about abstract algebra will recognise that ({T, F}, ∨, ∧) is a ring - indeed it is a commutative ring with identity, and with only two elements, it is as simple a ring as you can get without being totally trivial or degenerate. To prove this, we need to observe, in addition to the commutative, associative and distributive properties above, that:
* F acts as a zero: F ∨ p is the same as p for any p ∈ {T, F};
* T acts as a one: T ∧ p is the same as p;
* F is the ∨-inverse of all the elements of our ring: p ∨ F is the same as p.
If you are not familiar with abstract algebra, just observe that ∨ and ∧ with T and F behave a bit like addition and multiplication with numbers. Note that ∨ ('or') is the connective that corresponds to addition in this analogy, even though we often say 'and' when we mean 'plus' as in '3 and 4 equals 7'.
That our connectives ∧ and ∨ behave as a ring could be considered be an interesting result about the nature of reason - it shows that our propositional calculus has a structure similar to structures to be found elsewhere in mathematics.
# Introduction to Philosophy/Mini TOC

Introduction · Chapter 1: Logic · Chapter 2: Epistemology · Chapter 3: Metaphysics · Chapter 4: Ethics · Single page print version
# Introduction to Philosophy/Logic/Tautologies and Contradictions

Introduction to Philosophy > Logic > Tautologies and Contradictions

## Tautologies

A truth table column which consists entirely of T's indicates a situation where the proposition is true no matter whether the individual propositions of which it is composed are true or false. The most simple example would be (p ∨ ¬p).
p ¬p (p ∨ ¬p) T F T
F T T
A proposition which is true independently of the truth or falsity of the atomic propositions from which it is composed is known as a tautology.

## Contradictions

Similarly, a proposition which is false independently of the truth or falsity of the atomic propositions from which it is composed is known as a contradiction. The simplest example of this would be (p ∧ ¬p).
p ¬p (p ∧ ¬p) T F F
F T F
# Introduction to Philosophy/Marx and Marxists

< Introduction to Philosophy
There may be no philosopher that has had more of an impact on society and politics than Karl Marx. His theory, in essence, embraces radical and revolutionary change.
Marx argues that the working class, or proletariat, are oppressed and alienated in the process of production (what Marx calls "alienated labor"). Unlike the skilled artisans of the past who could craft a product from start to finish, industrialization has led to the division of labor into many smaller repetitve processes. For example, a worker might only pull a lever, or attach a rivet, instead of crafting an entire product. In this way, workers became alientated from their final product. Likewise, in the competition of workers to be more 'profitable' to their employers, they initiate a 'race to the bottom' of the wage pile, willing to work for less and less. In this way, workers create strife amongst themselves and must sell themselves to their employers. This alienates themselves from each other (undermining class solidarity) and from their humanity — with a similar effect as prostitution.
According to Marx, the means of production must be appropriated by the workers and freed from the dehumanizing commodity form to meet the needs of society (production for the benefit of humankind, not for profit of the property-owning and ruling class, the bourgeois). Marx envisioned and projected a society free from social stratification, in which individual contribution and distribution of goods could be summarized: "From each according to ability, to each according to need." (Critique of the Gotha Program, 1875.)
The most influential book written by him was the Communist Manifesto.
Other works include:
* Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844
* The German Ideology
* The Poverty of Philosophy
* Capital