# Handbook of the Swatow Vernacular modernized/Grammar
## Lesson 10
### Grammar

Substantives and Adjectives are not declined: the same word expresses both the singular and the plural. Pronouns hove a plural form.
Singular. Plural.
我 Uá, I. 阮。咱 Ún or nán, we.
爾 Lṳ́, thou or you. 恁 Nín, ye or you.
伊 I, he, she, it. 因。伊人 I or i--nâng, they, them.
The distinctions of moods, tenses, numbers and persons are shown by the addition of certain auxiliary verbs or particles, as follows:—
indicative mood.

#### present tense.

| Pêng'im | TL | English |
| ua2lai5 | úa-lâi | I come. |
| le2 ke3 | lúr khùr | You go. |
| i1 ain3 | i àinn | He wants. |
| ung2 main3 | úng màinn | We don't want. |
| ning2 si6(7) ua2 gai5(7) pêng5(7)iu2 | níng sĭ úa-kâi phêng-íu | You are my friends. |
| ing1/i1nang5 si6(7) ghua7nang5 | ing / i-nâng sĭ gūa-nâng | They are outsiders. |

#### past tense.

The common signs of the Past Tense are 有 ũ and 甞 chêng, and are employed chiefly in asking questions and in giving answers, but seldom when a subject is simply being spoken of, viz.—
| Pêng'im | TL | English |
| i1 bung1 ua2 | i pung úa | He gave me. |
| i1 za1rig8 lai5 | i tsa-zîk lâi | He came yesterday. |
| i1 za1rig8 u6(7) lai5 a1bho5 | i tsa-zîk ŭ lâi a-bô? | Did he come yesterday or not? |
| i1 za1rig8 m7zêng5(7) lai5 *or* i1 za1rig8 bho5(7)lai5 | i tsa-zîk m̆-tsêng lâi / i tsa-zîk bô-lâi | He did not come yesterday. |
| ua2 za1rig8 zêng5(7)lai5 *or* ua2 za1rig8 u6(7)lai5 | úa tsa-zîk tsêng-lâi / úa tsa-zîk ŭ-lâi | I did come yesterday. |

#### perfect tense.

The chief signs of the Perfect Tense are 了 lióu, 正 chiàⁿ, 識 pat, 有 ũ, 未 būe, and 亞未 a-būe.
Lióu[1] 了 (finish) can only be used to subjects being spoken of, and cannot be used in asking questions, viz.—
| Pêng'im | TL | English |
| i1 lai5-lo7 | i lâi-lō | He has come. |
| ung2 zai1-lo7 | úng tsai-lō | We have known. |
| ing1 gao3-lo7 | ing kàu-lō | They have arrived. |
Chiàⁿ 正 (just) and 識 pat (ever) can be used both to questions and answers, viz.—
| Pêng'im | TL | English |
| i1 zian3(2)-lai5 | i tsìann-lâi | He has just come. |
| le2 zi2(6)zung5 zian3(2)-lai5 | lúr tsí-tsûng tsìann-lâi | Have you just now come? |
| le2 za2 bag4(8)lai5-ziê3 mê7 | lúr tsá pak lâi tsìe mē? | Have you ever been here before? |
| ua2 za2 m7bag4(8) lai5(7)-ziê2 | úa tsá m̆-pak lâi tsíe | I have never been here before. |
Ũ (have) 有 in the Perfect Tense, generally followed by the interrogative sign 亞未 a-būe, is used for questions only, and 未 būe (not yet) is used for answers, viz.—
| Pêng'im | TL | English |
| i1 u6(7) lai5 a1bhuê7? | i ŭ lâi a-būe | Has he come? |
| i1 bhuê7 lai5 | i būe lâi | He has not come. |
| ing1 u6(7) ke3 a1bhuê7 | ing ŭ khùr a-būe? | Have they gone? |
| ing1 bhuê7 ke3 | ing būe khùr | They have not gone. |

#### future tense.

The chief signs of the Future Tense are àiⁿ, 正要 chiàⁿ-àiⁿ, (want) 會 õi (can) and 袂 bõi (cannot.) viz.—
| Pêng'im | TL | English |
| i1 man3(2)ki2 ain3(2)lai5 | i mànn-khí àinn-lâi | He will come to-morrow. |
| kia6(7)diam7 ain3(2) loh8(4)hou6 | khĭa-tīam àinn lôh-hŏu | It will rain bye-and-bye. |
| i1 diang1si5 zian3(2) ain3(2)lai5? | i tiang-sî tsìann àinn-lâi | When will he come?[3] |
| i1 kia7diam7 zian3(2) ain3(2)lai5 | i khīa-tīam tsìann àinn-lâi | He will come bye-and-bye. |
| ua2 ê6(7)gai5(7)ghuêh8 ain3(2)dng2 | úa ĕ-kâi-gûeh àinn-dńg | I shall go home next month. |
| i1 oi6(7) si2 a1bhoi6? | i ŏi sí a-bŏi? | Will he die? |
| i1 bhoi7 si2 | i bŏi sí | He will not die. |
| i1 ziang1lai5 oi6(7) zo3(2)dua7 | i tsiang-lâi ŏi tsò-tūa | He will be great in the future. |

#### potential mood.

The signs of the Potential Mood are 會 õi, 袂 bõi, 會得 õi-tit, 袂得 bõi-tit, 好 hó, 着 tiéh, and 不可 m̄-móⁿ.
Õi (can) 會 implies ability, and 袂 bõi (cannot) implies its opposite, inability.
| Pêng'im | TL | Characters | English |
| i1 oi6(7) siu5 | i ŏi sîu | | He can swim. |
| i1 bhoi6(7) zao2 | i bŏi tsáu | | He cannot run. |
Õi-tit (can) 會得 implies possibility, and 袂得 bõi-tit (cannot) implies impossibility.
| Pêng'im | TL | English |
| le2 gê1mên5 oi6(7)dig4(8) lai5 a1bhoi6 | lúr ke-mênn ŏi-tik lâi a-bŏi? | Can you come to-night or not? |
| ua2 m7oin5, ua2 gê1mên5 bhoi6(7)dig4(8) ke3 | úa m̆-ôinn, úa ke-mênn bŏi-tik khùr | I am busy, I cannot go to-night. |
| le2 tang5(7)gua3(2) dan3(2) le2 bhoi6(7)dig4(8) lai5, le2 zi2(6)zung5 zo3(2)ni5(7) oi6(7)dig4(8) lai5? | lúr thâng-kùa tànn lúr bŏi-tik lâi, lúr tsí-tsûng tsò-nî ŏi-tik lâi? | You said just now you could not come, how is it you can come now? |
| ua2 zi2(6)zung5(7) oin5, gu3(2)ce2(6) ziu6(7) oi6(7)dig4(8) lai5 | úa tsí-tsûng ôinn, kù-tshúr tsĭu ŏi-tik lâi | I have leisure just now, and therefore I can come. |
| le2 nan7si6(7) bho5(7) gah4 i1 dan3, i1 bhoi6(7)dig4(8) zai1 | lúr nā-sĭ bô kah i tànn, i bŏi-tik tsai | If you did not tell him, he could not know it. |
Hó 好 is very nearly the same as the English auxiliary verb may, and implies liberty.
| Pêng'im | TL | English |
| ua2 ho2(6)ke3 mê7? | úa hó-khùr--mē? | May I go? |
| le2 ho2(6)ke3 | lúr hó khùr | You may go. |
| ua2 ho2(6)dan3 mê7? | úa hó-tànn mē? | May I speak? |
Tiéh 着 (must, ought, or should) implies obligation.
| Pêng'im | English |
| le2 diêh8(4)lai5 | You must, (ought to, or should) come. |
| ham3(2) i1 diêh8(4) diam7diam7 | Tell him he ought to be silent. |
| ua2 diêh8(4)hiam5(7) le2 | I must blame you. |
| le2 diêh8(4)ring7 le2 gai5(7) m7diêh8 | You should admit your fault. |
M̄-móⁿ (don't) 不可 implies the opposite of 着 tiéh, viz. must not, ought not, and should not.
| Pêng'im | TL | English |
| le2 m7mon2(6) ke3 | lúr m̆-mó khùr | You must not go. |
| ning2 m7mon2(6) bung1 i1 ke3 | níng m̆-mó pung i khùr | You ought not to let him go. |
| ning2 m7mon2(6) a3 | ning m̆-mó à | You should not argue. |
The Passive verb is formed by the use of the words 分 pun, 乞 khoih (to give) and 分人 pun--nâng (give people.)
| Pêng'im | TL | English |
| le2 koih4(8) di1diang5 pah4? | lúr khoih ti-tîang phah? | By whom were you beaten? |
| ua2 bung1 i1 pah4 | úa pung i phah | I was beaten by him. |
| i1 bung1nang5(7) tai5 | i pung-nâng thâi | He was killed. |
| bung1 di5(7)diang5 tai5 | pung ti-tîang thâi? | Was killed by whom? |
| si6(7) bung1 i1 tai5 a1 m7si6? | sĭ pung i thâi a m̆-sĭ? | Was he kileld by him or not? |
| i1 bung1 lui5(7)gong1 ka3(2)si2 | i pung lûi-kong khà-sí | He was struck to death by lightning. |
| i1 bhoi6(7) bung1nang5 piêng3 | i bŏi pung-nâng phìeng | He cannot be deceived by people. |
| i1 gai5(7) mian5(7)sian1 koih4(8)nang5(7) o1lo2 | i-kâi mîann-siann khoih-nâng o-ló | His name is praised by the people. |
The Progressive Form is formed by the use of the word 在 tõ (in the act of) and 要 iàⁿ (want.)
| Pêng'im | TL | English |
| noun1gian2 do6(7) sng2 | nou-kíann tŏ sńg | The boys are playing. |
| ua2 do6(7) sia2(6)ri7 | úa tŏ sía-zī | I am writing. |
| a1noun5 do6(7) kao3 | a-nôu tŏ khàu | The child is crying. |
| i1 dan3(2) i1 ain3(2)lai5 | i tànn i àinn-lâi | He says he is coming. |
| i1 ain3(2) dng2(6)ke3 | i àinn tńg-khùr | He is going home. |

#### the comparative degree.

The words employed in the comparative degree are 愈 zú, 敬 kèng, (more) 𢰳 ióu, (a little) 過 kùe, (over) 贏 iâⁿ (to be superior, to defeat,) and 輸, (to be inferior, to be defeated.)
| Pêng'im | TL | English |
| ru2(6)zoi7 ru2(6)ho2 | zú-tsōi zú-hó | The more the better. |
| zi2(6)gai5 iou2(6)dua7 | tsí-kâi ióu-tūa | This is a little larger. |
| i1 u6(7) ru2(6)zoi7 ua2 | i ŭ zú-tsōi úa | He has more than I. |
| zi2(6)gai5 gêng3(2)dng5(7) guê3(2) he2(6)gai5 | tsí-kâi kèng-tn̂g kùe húr-kâi | This is longer than that. |
| le2-gai5 ho2, ua2-gai5 ru2(6)gêng3(2) ho2 | lúr-kâi hó, úa-kâi zú-kèng hó | Yours is good, (but) mine better. |
| i1 oi6(7)zao2(6) mên2-guê3(2) i1 zao2 | i ŏi-tsáu ménn-kùe i tsáu | He can run faster than I. |
| le2 gian5 mên2-guê3(2) i1 zao2. | lúr kîann ménn-kùe i tsáu | You walk faster than he runs. |
| diê5(7)ziu1hu2(6) oi6(7) ian5(7)guê3(2) suan1tao5 a1bhoi6? | tîe-tsiu-hú ŏi iânn-kùe suann-thâu a-bŏi? | Is Ch'ao-chow-fu better than Swatow? |
| le2 sia2(6) gai5(7) ri7 ian5(7) ua2 gai5 | lúr sía kâi zī iânn úa-kâi | Your writing is better than mine. |
| i1 zo3(2)se3 ian5(7) le2 | i tsò-sùr iânn lúr | He does things better than you. |
| le2 bho5(7)êng7, su1 i1 | lúr bô-ēng, su i | You are no use, and are surpassed by him. |
| le2 oi6(7) zao2(6)ian5 i1 mê7? | lúr ŏi tsáu-iânn i mē? | Can you over take him in running? |
| bhoi6, ua2 su1 i1 | bŏi, úa su i | No, I am behind him in running. |

#### the superlative degree.

The words employed in the superlative degree are 上 siãng and 上頂 siãng-téng (supreme); the latter generally refers to the qualities of goods, viz.—
| Pêng'im | TL | English |
| u6(7) siang7-dua7-gai5 mê7? | ŭ sīang-dūa kâi mē? | Have you the largest one? |
| zi2-gai5(7) ziu6(7)si6(7) siang7dua7 | tsí-kâi tsĭu-sĭ sīang-tūa | This is the largest one. |
| ua2 ain3(2) siang7dêng2(6)ho2-gai5 | úa àinn sīang-téng-hó kâi | I want the best (quality.) |