OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Modern Meitei/Introduction

Meitei (ꯃꯩꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ) or Manipuri (ꯃꯅꯤꯄꯨꯔꯤ) is one of the ancient Sino-Tibetan languages of the world. It is the predominantly spoken language and the medium of communication of all the ethnic groups of Kangleipak (officially known as "Manipur"). It is the most widely spoken Indian language belonging to the Sino-Tibetan family (a greater linguistic branch of "Tibeto-Burman family"). Meitei speaking population is also found scattered in Assam, Tripura, Bangladesh and Myanmar. It has around 3 million speakers among which 2 million are L1 and 1 million is L2.
# Modern Meitei/Professions

This is a list of professions:
* the worker - ꯊꯧꯃꯤ, ꯊꯕꯛ ꯁꯨꯕ ꯃꯤ, ꯁꯤꯟꯃꯤ
* the doctor - ꯃꯥꯢꯕ
* the priest - ꯃꯥꯢꯕ
* the high priest - ꯃꯥꯢꯆꯧ
* the soldier - ꯂꯥꯟꯃꯤ
* the tailor - ꯐꯤ ꯇꯨꯕ ꯃꯤ
* the sailor - ꯍꯤꯍꯣꯟꯕ ꯃꯤ
* the thief - ꯍꯨꯔꯥꯟꯕ
* the farmer - ꯂꯧꯃꯤ
* the guide - ꯂꯝꯖꯤꯡ ꯂꯝꯇꯥꯛꯄ ꯃꯤ
* the driver - ꯒꯥꯔꯤ ꯊꯧꯕ ꯃꯤ
* the teacher - ꯑꯣꯖꯥ
* the student - ꯃꯍꯩꯔꯣꯢ
* the employee - ꯊꯧꯃꯤ
* the clerk - ꯄꯥꯎꯈꯣꯜꯂꯣꯢ
* the policeman - ꯊꯥꯅꯥ
* the police officer - ꯊꯥꯅꯥ ꯃꯀꯣꯛ
* the friend - ꯃꯔꯨꯞ
* the neighbour - ꯌꯨꯝꯊꯪꯅꯕ, ꯌꯨꯝꯂꯣꯟꯅꯕ
* the baby/the infant - ꯑꯉꯥꯡ
* the old man - ꯍꯅꯨꯕ
* rich - ꯏꯅꯥꯛꯈꯨꯟꯕ, ꯁꯦꯜ ꯄꯥꯢꯕ
* poor - ꯂꯥꯢꯔꯕ, ꯑꯅꯪꯕ
* the King - ꯅꯤꯡꯊꯧ, ꯅꯤꯡꯊꯦꯝ
* the Queen - ꯂꯩꯃ, ꯁꯤꯖ
# Modern Meitei/Places around a house

* the home/the house - ꯌꯨꯝ/ꯁꯪꯒꯥꯢ
* the living room - ꯃꯤ ꯂꯥꯛꯐꯝ ꯀꯥ
* the kitchen - ꯆꯥꯛꯈꯨꯝ/ꯆꯥꯛꯁꯪ
* the room - ꯀꯥ
* the bathroom - ꯏꯔꯨꯖꯐꯝ ꯀꯥ
* the toilet - ꯑꯃꯥꯡꯁꯪ/ꯈꯣꯡ ꯍꯥꯝꯐꯝ
* the garden - ꯂꯩꯀꯣꯜ/ꯂꯩꯀꯣꯟ
* the courtyard/the yard - ꯁꯨꯃꯥꯡ
* the bedroom - ꯐꯃꯨꯡ ꯀꯥ/ꯇꯨꯝꯐꯝ ꯀꯥ/ꯐꯃꯨꯡ ꯂꯩ ꯀꯥ
* the door - ꯊꯣꯡ
* the gate - ꯊꯣꯡꯒꯥꯜ/ꯊꯣꯡꯒꯥꯟ
* the window - ꯊꯣꯡꯅꯥꯎ
* the veranda - ꯃꯥꯡꯒꯣꯟ
# Modern Meitei/Pronouns

The Meitei pronouns in subjective forms:
* I - ꯑꯩ, ꯑꯩꯍꯥꯛ
* We - ꯑꯩꯈꯣꯢ
* You (singular) - ꯅꯪ, ꯅꯍꯥꯛ, ꯑꯗꯣꯝ, ꯁꯣꯝ
* You (plural) - ꯅꯈꯣꯢ
* He/She - ꯃꯍꯥꯛ, ꯃꯥ
* It/This - ꯃꯁꯤ, ꯃꯗꯨ
* They - ꯃꯈꯣꯢ
* These - ꯃꯁꯤ ꯃꯌꯥꯝ
The Meitei pronouns in objective forms:
* Me - ꯑꯩꯕꯨ, ꯑꯩꯍꯥꯛꯄꯨ
* Us - ꯑꯩꯈꯣꯢꯕꯨ
* You (singular) - ꯅꯪꯕꯨ, ꯅꯍꯥꯛꯄꯨ, ꯑꯗꯣꯝꯕꯨ, ꯁꯣꯝꯕꯨ
* You (plural) - ꯅꯈꯣꯢꯕꯨ
* Him/Her - ꯃꯍꯥꯛꯄꯨ, ꯃꯥꯕꯨ
* It/This - ꯃꯁꯤꯕꯨ, ꯃꯗꯨꯕꯨ
* Them - ꯃꯈꯣꯢꯕꯨ
* These - ꯃꯁꯤ ꯃꯌꯥꯝꯕꯨ
Meitei pronouns in possesive forms of the subjective forms:
* My - ꯑꯩꯒꯤ, ꯑꯩꯍꯥꯛꯀꯤ
* Our - ꯑꯩꯈꯣꯢꯒꯤ
* Your (singular) - ꯅꯪꯒꯤ, ꯅꯍꯥꯛꯀꯤ
* Your (plural) - ꯅꯈꯣꯢꯒꯤ
* His/Her - ꯃꯍꯥꯛꯀꯤ, ꯃꯥꯒꯤ
* Its - ꯃꯁꯤꯒꯤ
* Their - ꯃꯈꯣꯢꯒꯤ
Meitei pronouns in possessive forms of the objective forms:
* Mine - ꯑꯩꯒꯤꯅꯤ, ꯑꯩꯍꯥꯛꯀꯤꯅꯤ
* Ours - ꯑꯩꯈꯣꯢꯒꯤꯅꯤ
* Yours (singular) - ꯅꯪꯒꯤꯅꯤ, ꯅꯍꯥꯛꯀꯤꯅꯤ
* Yours (plural) - ꯅꯈꯣꯢꯒꯤꯅꯤ
* His/Hers - ꯃꯍꯥꯛꯀꯤꯅꯤ, ꯃꯥꯒꯤꯅꯤ
* Its - ꯃꯁꯤꯒꯤꯅꯤ
* Theirs - ꯃꯈꯣꯢꯒꯤꯅꯤ
# Modern Meitei/Question Words

* What (m/f/n) (sing.) - ꯀꯔꯤꯅꯣ? (Ka-ree-no)
* What (m/f/n) (plu.) - ꯀꯔꯤ ꯀꯔꯤꯅꯣ? (Ka-ree Ka-ree-no)
* When - ꯀꯔꯝꯕ ꯃꯇꯝꯗꯅꯣ? (Ka-ram-ba Ma-tam-da-no) or ꯀꯔꯝꯀꯥꯟꯗꯅꯣ? (Ka-ram-kaan-da-no)
* Where - ꯀꯗꯥꯢꯗꯅꯣ? (Ka-dai-da-no) or ꯀꯗꯥꯢꯋꯥꯢꯗꯅꯣ? (Ka-dai-wai-da-no) or ꯀꯔꯝꯕ ꯃꯐꯝꯗꯅꯣ? (Ka-ram-ba Ma-pham-da-no)
* Why - ꯀꯔꯤꯒꯤꯅꯣ? (Ka-ree-gee-no)
* How - ꯀꯔꯝꯅꯅꯣ? (Ka-ram-na-no) or ꯃꯇꯧ ꯀꯔꯝꯅꯅꯣ? (Ma-tou Ka-ram-na-no)
* Who (m/f/n) (sing.) - ꯀꯅꯥꯅꯣ? (Ka-naa-no)
* Who (m/f/n) (plu.) - ꯀꯅꯥ ꯀꯅꯥꯅꯣ? (Ka-naa Ka-naa-no)
* How much - ꯀꯌꯥꯝ ꯌꯥꯝꯕꯅꯣ? (Ka-yaam Yaam-ba-no)
* How many - ꯀꯌꯥꯅꯣ? (Ka-yaa-no)
# Modern Meitei/Introducing dialogues

* What is your name? (General) - "ꯑꯗꯣꯝꯒꯤ ꯃꯤꯡ ꯀꯔꯤꯅꯣ?" (A-dom-gee Ming Ka-ree-no) or "ꯑꯗꯣꯝꯒꯤ ꯃꯤꯡ ꯀꯔꯤ ꯀꯧꯏ?" (A-dom-gee Ming Ka-ree Kou-ee)
* What's your name? (Informal) - "ꯅꯪꯒꯤ ꯃꯤꯡ ꯀꯔꯤꯅꯣ?" (Nang-gee Ming Ka-ree-no) or "ꯅꯪꯒꯤ ꯃꯤꯡ ꯀꯔꯤ ꯀꯧꯏ?" (Nang-gee Ming Ka-ree Kou-ee)
* What's your name? (Formal) - "ꯅꯍꯥꯛꯀꯤ ꯃꯤꯡ ꯀꯔꯤꯅꯣ?" (Na-haak-kee Ming Ka-ree-no) or "ꯅꯍꯥꯛꯀꯤ ꯃꯤꯡ ꯀꯔꯤ ꯀꯧꯏ?" (Na-haak-kee Ming Ka-ree Kou-ee)
* My name is Tom. - "ꯑꯩꯒꯤ ꯃꯤꯡ Tom ꯅꯤ ꯫" (Ei-gee Ming Tom Nee) or "ꯑꯩꯒꯤ ꯃꯤꯡ Tom ꯀꯧꯏ ꯫" (Ei-gee Ming Tom Kou-ee)
* My name is Tom. - "ꯑꯩꯍꯥꯛꯀꯤ ꯃꯤꯡ Tom ꯅꯤ ꯫" (Ei-haak-kee Ming Tom Nee) or "ꯑꯩꯍꯥꯛꯀꯤ ꯃꯤꯡ Tom ꯀꯧꯏ ꯫" (Ei-haak-kee Ming Tom Kou-ee)
# Modern Meitei/Numbers

* 1 (꯱) : ꯑꯃ (A-ma)
* 2 (꯲) : ꯑꯅꯤ (A-nee)
* 3 (꯳) : ꯑꯍꯨꯝ (A-hoom)
* 4 (꯴) : ꯃꯔꯤ (Ma-ree)
* 5 (꯵) : ꯃꯉꯥ (Ma-ngaa)
* 6 (꯶) : ꯇꯔꯨꯛ (Ta-rook)
* 7 (꯷) : ꯇꯔꯦꯠ (Ta-ret)
* 8 (꯸) : ꯅꯤꯄꯥꯜ (Nee-paal) or ꯅꯤꯄꯥꯟ (Nee-paan)
* 9 (꯹) : ꯃꯥꯄꯜ (Maa-pal) or ꯃꯥꯄꯟ (Maa-pan)
* 10 (꯱꯰) : ꯇꯔꯥ (Ta-raa)
* 11 (꯱꯱) : ꯇꯔꯥ ꯃꯥꯊꯣꯢ (Ta-raa Maa-thoi)
* 12 (꯱꯲) : ꯇꯔꯥ ꯅꯤꯊꯣꯢ (Ta-raa Nee-thoi)
* 13 (꯱꯳) : ꯇꯔꯥ ꯍꯨꯝꯗꯣꯢ (Ta-raa Hoom-doi)
* 14 (꯱꯴) : ꯇꯔꯥ ꯃꯔꯤ (Ta-raa Ma-ree)
* 15 (꯱꯵) : ꯇꯔꯥ ꯃꯉꯥ (Ta-raa Ma-ngaa)
* 16 (꯱꯶) : ꯇꯔꯥ ꯇꯔꯨꯛ (Ta-raa Ta-rook)
* 17 (꯱꯷) : ꯇꯔꯥ ꯇꯔꯦꯠ (Ta-raa Ta-ret)
* 18 (꯱꯸) : ꯇꯔꯥ ꯅꯤꯄꯥꯜ (Ta-raa Nee-paal) or ꯇꯔꯥ ꯅꯤꯄꯥꯟ (Ta-raa Nee-paan)
* 19 (꯱꯹) : ꯇꯔꯥ ꯃꯥꯄꯜ (Ta-raa Maa-pal) or ꯇꯔꯥ ꯃꯥꯄꯟ (Ta-raa Maa-pan)
* 20 (꯲꯰) : ꯀꯨꯜ (Kool) or ꯀꯨꯟ (Koon)
* 21 (꯲꯱) : ꯀꯨꯟ ꯃꯥꯊꯣꯢ (Koon Maa-thoi)
* 22 (꯲꯲) : ꯀꯨꯟ ꯅꯤꯊꯣꯢ (Koon Nee-thoi)
* 23 (꯲꯳) : ꯀꯨꯟ ꯍꯨꯝꯗꯣꯢ (Koon Hoom-doi)
* 30 (꯳꯰) : ꯀꯨꯟꯊ꯭ꯔꯥ (Koon-thraa)
* 40 (꯴꯰) : ꯅꯤꯝꯐꯨ (Neem-phoo)
* 50 (꯵꯰) : ꯌꯥꯡꯈꯩ (Yaang-khei)
* 60 (꯶꯰) : ꯍꯨꯝꯐꯨ (Hoom-phoo)
* 70 (꯷꯰) : ꯍꯨꯝꯗ꯭ꯔꯥ (Hoom-draa)
* 80 (꯸꯰) : ꯃꯔꯤꯐꯨ (Ma-ree-phoo)
* 90 (꯹꯰) : ꯃꯧꯗ꯭ꯔꯥ (Mou-draa) Or ꯃꯔꯤꯐꯨꯗ꯭ꯔꯥ (Ma-ree-phoo-draa)
* 100 (꯱꯰꯰) : ꯆꯥ ꯑꯃ (Chaa A-ma)
* 200 (꯲꯰꯰) : ꯆꯥ ꯑꯅꯤ (Chaa A-nee)
* 300 (꯳꯰꯰) : ꯆꯥ ꯑꯍꯨꯝ (Chaa A-hoom)
* 1000 (꯱꯰꯰꯰) : ꯂꯤꯁꯤꯡ ꯑꯃ (Lee-sheeng A-ma)
* 2000 (꯲꯰꯰꯰) : ꯂꯤꯁꯤꯡ ꯑꯅꯤ (Lee-sheeng A-nee)
# Living in a Connected World
## Preamble

This is the opening page to the Living in a Connected World Wikibook.
As the title suggests, this is a book which seeks to record contributions to the understanding of a specific set of topics, loosely grouped under the subject area of "Digital Culture", of particular salience to 2017.
It is put together through the combined talents and efforts of a cohort of students taking the FMSU9A4 module during the Spring of 2017 at the University of Stirling in Scotland, UK. It is an assessed educational project. We would like to thank the Wikibooks community for assistance given in the course of this project, and also encourage leniency in dealing with our work - we are all beginners in the world of wiki here, but are keen to learn!
The aim of this educational project is, firstly, for students to record the content of their learning and their contributions to this book will reflect their studies on one of the featured themes. However, secondly and most importantly, the hope is that students will learn the values associated with working at different levels as individual researchers, as research teams, and as research communities in the Wikimedia platforms. That is to say: producing knowledge; collaboration and sharing; and peer-reviewing the work of others for the good of the community Wikimedia, but in particular on Wikibooks. Students will thus gain hands-on experience of a wiki environment, within the auspices of one of Wikimedia's large projects (i.e. Wikibooks) and make something that adds to currents in the academic field of digital media and culture.
Note that while this is a class project, anyone may contribute as Wikibooks does not permit "ownership" of material.

## Table of Contents
### Chapters

* The Online Real-Life Divide
* Privacy in a Digital Age
* Persistent Connectivity and the Fear of Missing Out
* Technology as an Extension of Self
* The Hive Mind and Collective Intelligence
* Digital Labour on Social Media Platforms
* Filter Bubbles and the Flow of Information
* News, Evidence and Memory in Online Communications

### Appendices

* Glossary

## List of Contributors

This Wikibook is being put together as an on-going a collaborative class project by the following Wikimedian contributors. Together, they form a cohort of students studying Digital Media and Culture as part of their degree programme in the Division of Communications, Media and Culture, University of Stirling, Scotland, UK. Doubtless, there are other contributors within the Wikibooks and Wikipedia community who have contributed advice, support, suggestions and content in collaboration with these students. Your help and advice is most appreciated. Thank you!
       Contributors, please feel free to sign your username on the contributors page here

## Glossary

A list of definitions of key terms to be found in this Wikibook, student contribs from all project groups welcome. See here.
# Old English/Conjunctions

A conjunction (abbreviated here cnj.) is a type of word that connects two words, sentences, phrases or clauses together, and shows something about their relationship to each other.
There are three groups of conjunctions: coordinating conjunctions, correlative conjunctions, and subordinating conjunctions. Coordinating conjunctions join two or more items of equal importance together, like the Modern English words "and", "or", "but", and others. Correlative conjunctions are like coordinating conjunctions in that they also join two or more equal items, but they work in groups, like the Modern English words "either... or...", "neither... nor...", "both... and...", and more. Subordinating conjunctions are conjunctions that join items of unequal importance, for example Modern English "because", "although", "unless", and more.

## Coordinating conjunctions

Here are some important Old English coordinating conjunctions:
* and - and
* ac - but
* ne - nor
* oþþe - or
Examples of these conjunctions in usage:
* Hē ƿæs grēat and hēo ƿæs strang - He was big and she was strong
* Iohannes cƿōm hraðe, ac hē ne cūðe þone yfelan hund findan - John came quickly, but he couldn't find the bad dog
* Ƿit noldon þæt dōn, ne ƿoldon hīe - We two didn't want to do that, nor did they want to
* Þonne þæt mōd ymbe hƿæt tƿēonode, oðþe hit hƿæs ƿilnode tō ƿitanne... - When the mind doubted that, or it wanted to know something...

## Conjunctions that introduce dependent clauses

And here are some that introduce dependent clauses:
* for þȳ þe/for þȳ/for þǣm þe/for þǣm - because
* sƿā þæt - so that
* þæt, þe, þætte - that (in indirect speech, like "He said that she said"; also to show desired or intended effect, as in "I desired that you would come")
* þonne - than (used with comparative)
* þēah (þe) - although
Examples of these conjunctions in usage:
* Hē ƿolde cƿelan for þȳ þe hē ƿæs sƿīðe earm - He wanted to die because he was so miserable
* Ic dyde þæt sƿā þæt þū ne ƿēpe - I did it so that you wouldn't cry
* Þās hādas sægdon þætte þis land is heora - These people say that this land is theirs
* Iohannes is māra þonne Æðelƿeard - John is greater than Athelward
* Se cniht nolde feohtan þēah þe hē ƿel strang ƿæs - The youth didn't want to fight even though he was quite strong

## Correlative conjunctions

Here are some that acted as correlative conjunctions:
* ġif(... þonne....) - if(... then...)
* ne... ne... - neither... nor...
* oþþe... oþþe... - either... or...
Examples of these correlative conjunctions:
* Ġif þū cume, þonne ic þec ofslēa - If you come, I'll kill you
* Ne þæt ƿīf ne hire cild ƿǣron gladu - Neither the woman nor her child were glad
* Oþþe hē oþþe se hund bite þisne pleġan - Either he or the dog bit this toy

## Note

Note that even the most scholarly Old English writers had no qualms about writing "and" at the beginning of a sentence (Ƿulfstān did so very often in "Sermo Lupi ad Anglos") - so that is totally fine. (It also means that, in spite of some insisting that it is bad practice or bad grammar in Modern English, the practice is over a thousand years old).
# Old English/Adverbs

Introduction: Introduction - Grammar - Orthography - I-mutation Grammar: Nouns - Pronouns - Articles - Adjectives - Numbers - Verbs - Participles - Adverbs - Conjunctions - Prepositions - Interjections - Appositives - Word Formation -
Adverbs are a large category of words that includes:
* words that modify adjectives - "He is really tall"
* words that modify verbs - "I run quickly"
* words that modify other adverbs - "The dog whined very loudly"
Although we call all of these kinds of words adverbs, not all adverbs can be used in all of these ways. For example, in Modern English "very" is an adverb that can be used to modify only other adverbs and adjectives, not verbs. For example, one does not say, "I very will kick you" (because "very" cannot modify the verb "will" or "kick"); but one can say "I am very angry" (where "very" modifies the adjective "angry"). Likewise in Old English, not all adverbs can be used in all of the above ways.

## Adverb formation in Old English

Most adverbs form themselves from adjectives with one of two suffixes:
* -līċe (whence we get the Modern English "-ly" ending) (for example, ƿundor-līċe - "wondrously")
* -e (for example, ƿrāþ-e - "fiercely")
There are also some other suffixes sometimes used less commonly:
* -unga (for example, eall-unga - "entirely, completely")
Note that the dative, accusative, and genitive cases of most nouns or adjectives of time and length can be used as adverbs, e.g.:
* hƿīlum - "sometimes"
* þrēo ȝeardas - "(for) three yards" (as in: "He ran for three yards and then stopped" - Hē earn aƿeȝ þrēo geardas and stōd)
* tū ȝēar - "(for) two years" (as in: "The baby lived for only two years" - Þæt ċild lifode efne tū ȝēar)
These "adverbs" formed by declining a noun or an adjective do not have the comparative or superlative degrees.
In addition, many words are in and of themselves adverbs, without the need for any derivation from other kinds of words, for example:
* nū - now
* þā - then
* þær - there
* hider - hither
* þider - thither
* hēr - here
* heonan - hence
* sōna - soon/directly
* oft - often
* eft - back/again
* sƿā - so
* þus - thus, in this way

## Comparative and superlative degrees

Adverbs form their comparative (e.g. "better" or "more") and superlative (e.g. "best" or "most") degrees using suffixes similar to those used for adjectives (for which see here), but adverbs are never declined according to case, number, gender, or in any way.
Adverbs usually take the -or ending for comparative and the -ost ending for the superlative. Here is an example:
* oft ("often") - oftor ("more often") - oftost ("most often")
There are some adverbs which are affected by i-mutation in the comparative and superlative degrees; these usually take no comparative ending, and "-est" instead of "-ost" for superlative:
* lange ("long, for a long time") - leng ("longer") - lenġest ("longest")
There are also some adverbs which are irregular in the comparative and superlative degrees:
* (well) ƿel - bet - betst
# Old English/Appendices/Adjectives

Introduction: Introduction - Grammar - Orthography - I-mutation Grammar: Nouns - Pronouns - Articles - Adjectives - Numbers - Verbs - Participles - Adverbs - Conjunctions - Prepositions - Interjections - Appositives - Word Formation -
This page will contain references for adjectives, irregular adjectives, and lists of adjective synonyms, antonyms, and themed lists.

## Antonyms

* cwicu (live)-dēad (dead)
* eald (old)-geong (young)
* eald (old)-nīwe (new)

### Examples

Tō dēmenne ǣghwæðer ge þǣm cwicum ge þǣm dēadum - to judge both the quick and the dead

## Lists of Adjectives

* Living: cwicu, libbende
* Age: eald, ealdorlic, ǣrra
# Old English/Appendices/Common phrases

Introduction: Introduction - Grammar - Orthography - I-mutation Grammar: Nouns - Pronouns - Articles - Adjectives - Numbers - Verbs - Participles - Adverbs - Conjunctions - Prepositions - Interjections - Appositives - Word Formation -
| Translation | Phrase | IPA | Comments |
| English | Englisc | ['ɛŋglɪʃ] |
| hello | wes hāl wesaþ hāl | /wɛs hɑːl/ ['wɛzɑθ hɑːl]; | to one person to more than one |
| good-bye | God þē mid sīe | [gɔd ðeː mɪd 'siy] | Literal: God be with you |
| please | iċ bidde | [ɪʧ 'bɪdːɛ] | or understood; see usage note. |
| thank you | iċ þancie þē | [ɪʧ 'θɑŋkɪɛ ðeː] |
| that one | geon | [jɔn] |
| how much? | hū fela? | [huː 'fɛlɑ] |
| yes | gēse | ['jeːzɛ] |
| no | nō | [noː] |
| Where is the bathroom? | Hwǣr is þæt gangsetl? | [hwæːr ɪs θæt 'gɑŋgzɛtl] |
| where do you come from? | Hwanon cymst þu? (?) | ['hwɑnɔn kʏmst θuː] |
| do you speak English? | Spricst þu Englisce? | [sprɪkst θuː 'ɛŋglɪʃɛ] |
| I don’t understand | Iċ ne understande | [ɪʧ nɛ ʊndɛr'stɑndɛ] |
politeness in a request in various ways.
# Old English/Appositives

Introduction: Introduction - Grammar - Orthography - I-mutation Grammar: Nouns - Pronouns - Articles - Adjectives - Numbers - Verbs - Participles - Adverbs - Conjunctions - Prepositions - Interjections - Appositives - Word Formation -
Appositives are a grammatical construction where two elements, often noun phrases, are placed beside each other, with one modifying the other (like an adjective). For example in Modern English: "This is Johnny my son", where "Johnny" and "my son" are appositives that modify each other. The main use of appositives in Old English was for people's titles or nicknames, as in ""Carl cyning" - "King Charles"; but they were also used for other things.
In Old English, in the case of titles and nicknames, the title or nickname came after the other half of the appositive (usually a personal noun) when it had no article, demonstrative, or possessive pronoun modifying it, like this: "Alfrēd cyning" - "King Alfred". When one half of the appositive was modified with a possessive pronoun, an article, or a demonstrative, then that half could come either before or after the other half, for example: ...Thomas his diācon..." - "...Thomas his deacon..." (where the half modified by the possessive pronoun "his" comes after the other half) and "...se cyning Æðelrēd..." - "...the king Æthelred..." (where the half modified by the article "se" comes before the other half). You could also divide the two halves of the appositive with other words between them, like this: "Hēr Aldhelm beƿestan Seleƿuda bisċeop forþfērde" - "On this date Aldhelm bishop to the west of Selwood died."
Both halves of the appositive always agreed with each other in case in Old English, unlike in Modern English were only the latter half of an appositive gets declined in the genitive, for example: "King John's..." (in Modern English rather than "King's John's..." (which would be more like how it is done in OE).
In the genitive (possessive), it was the normal practice to separate the two halves of the appositive with whatever was being possessed, for example: "...Osƿies sunu ðæs cyninges" - "a son of King Oswy". However, they could be kept together, for example: "...be Ælfrēdes cyninges geƿitnesse and lēafe." - "with the knowledge and permission of King Alfred." and "...Ecfriþes faðu ðæs cyninges..." - "...the paternal aunt of King Ecgfrith...".
# Old English/Articles

Introduction: Introduction - Grammar - Orthography - I-mutation Grammar: Nouns - Pronouns - Articles - Adjectives - Numbers - Verbs - Participles - Adverbs - Conjunctions - Prepositions - Interjections - Appositives - Word Formation -
Articles are actually just a special kind of adjective. They are adjectives which show the definiteness of the noun being referred to. In Modern English, we have several articles:
* The definite article (in Modern English "the") shows that a substantive is a particular noun that the listener should recognize
* The indefinite (in Modern English "a","an", or "some" for plural) shows that a substantive is not a specific noun that the listener should recognize
* The negative article (in Modern English "no") shows that there is none of the substantive
In Old English, their definite article was also used as a demonstrative adjective and as a demonstrative pronoun, equivalent to Modern English "that" or "that one". You can see it on the pronouns page here.

### Definite articles and demonstratives

Old English had two main determiners: se, which could function as both 'the' or 'that', and þes for 'this'.
the/that/those :
| Case | Masculine | Neuter | Feminine | Plural |
| Nominative | sē | þæt | sēo | þā |
| Accusative | þone | þæt | þā | þā |
| Genitive | þæs | þæs | þǣre | þāra, þǣra |
| Dative | þǣm | þǣm | þǣre | þǣm, þām |
| Instrumental | þȳ, þon | þȳ, þon | *þāra | *þǣm |
Modern English 'that' descends from the neuter nominative/accusative form, and 'the' from the masculine nominative form, with 's' replaced analogously by the 'th' of the other forms.
this/these/yon :
| Case | Masculine | Neuter | Feminine | Plural |
| Nominative | þes | þis | þēos | þās |
| Accusative | þisne | þis | þās | þās |
| Genitive | þisses | þisses | þisse, þisre | þisra |
| Dative | þissum | þissum | þisse, þisre | þissum |
| Instrumental | þȳs | þȳs | *þīes | *þīos |
Also, in Old English they generally had no indefinite article (although occasionally their word for "one" - ān could be translated into Modern English as "a" or "an"). So in speaking Old English, a noun with no article at all would often be the equivalent to a noun with an indefinite article in Modern English, for example hūs - "a house", and dēor - "an animal".
There were several words that could be used to translate the negative article "no" in Old English:
* nān - "none" (used in West Saxon)
* nǣniġ - "none" (used in Anglian dialects)
They both followed the normal strong adjectival declension (for which see here) and agreed with the nouns they modified.
Articles were declined in agreement with whatever noun they modified, just like adjectives. For example, to say "the people", you would have to use the plural form of both "person" (mann) and "the" (sē): þā menn. To say "this woman's house", you would need to use genitive of "woman" (ƿīf) and the neuter singular definitive article: þæs ƿīfes hūs.
* ↑ "That". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
* ↑ "The". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
# Old English/Directions

Here are some ways to say directions:
* Gā... - Go...
** ...tō þǣre sƿīðran healfe - ...right
** ...tō þǣre ƿystran healfe - ...left
** ...rihte forþ - ...straight ahead
* Ƿend... - Turn...
** ...in þā strǣte - ... down that street
** ...tō þǣre sƿīðran healfe - ...right
** ...tō þǣre ƿystran healfe - ...left
** ...on bæċ - ...around/back

## Adjectives of position

* ufeƿeard - upper part of
* neoðanƿeard - lower part of
Example: is se heals gréne neoðeƿeard and ufeƿeard the lower and upper parts of the neck are green

## Adjectives of time

The same adjectives could be used to describe time periods as well:
* ufeƿeard - latter part of
* foreƿeard - early part of
* Example: on foreƿeardne sumor and eft on ufeƿeardne hærfest in the early part of the summer and again in the latter part of autumn