OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Introduction to Programming Languages/Introduction to Cost Models

Programming language constructs might have particular asymptotic complexities, which programmers should know, to produce efficient algorithms. In other words, even though an algorithm has some specific, well-known, computational cost, its implementation can have higher complexity, due to an implicit cost model that is part of that languages runtime environment. Furthermore, some programming languages miss features, what might complicate the implementation of efficient algorithms. For instance, it will be hard to implement Bucket Sort without random access data structures. These minutia concern an aspect of programming languages' implementation that we call cost models.
In this chapter we will look into four cost models. The first concerns the use of lists in programming languages that follow the Lisp model. The second cost model concerns the invocation of functions in languages that support recursion. After that, we look into Prolog's unification model, trying to reason about the factors that cause unification to be more or less efficient. Finally, we discuss languages that support arrays, which are random access data structures.
← Unification · List Cost Model →
# Introduction to Programming Languages/List Cost Model
#### A Cost Model for Functional Lists

List is possibly the most well-known data structure in functional programming languages. A functional list provides users with two well known operations: head and tail. The former returns the first element of the list. The latter returns a reference to the tail of the list, that is, the sublist that contains every element of the original sequence, but the first. With only these two operations, we cannot have random access, i.e., the ability to read any element in list paying the same fee in time. To illustrate this point, let's consider the implementation of the predicate below, which lets us concatenate lists:
This predicate is formed by two clauses. The first is clearly O(1), because it is always true. The second, on the other hand, involves recursion. The predicate will be invoked recursively once, for each element on the first list. Each recursive call performs an O(1) amount of computation. Thus, this predicate is linear on the number of elements of the first list. Notice that we are talking about the number of elements, not the size of the elements. In other words, regardless of what the first list contains, the predicate should run always on the same time. As another example, let's this time analyze a naive implementation of a predicate to reverse lists:
One could be tempted to believe that this predicate is linear on the size of the list that we want to invert: the first clause runs in O(1), and the second calls reverse once, recursively. However, the cost of each invocation of reverse is not O(1). Each of these calls, but the last, uses our append, which we already know to be O(N), N being the number of elements of the first list. Therefore, our current implementation of reverse is quadratic on the number of elements of the list. Given that is it so easy to invert an array in C, Python or Java in linear time, we could wonder if it is possible to achieve the same complexity on the cost model of functional lists. Indeed, that is possible, and we shall demonstrate it soon. For now, we shall push this question onto our stack.
← Introduction to Cost Models · Tail Call Cost Model →
# Introduction to Programming Languages/Memory Management
## Introduction

The memory in a computer is organized in a hierarchical way. The lowest level memory unit is a register, followed by the cache memory, then the RAM, hard driver, and so on. This organization of the computer's memory is specially useful because most programs need more memory than they are supposed to use.
Program variables are the link between abstractions represented by a program and the computer physical memory units. For instance, in C, you can use the keyword `register` to give the compiler a hint that a variable will be frequently used.
There are also other ways to specify where a variable should be stored. In dynamic typed languages (such as PHP, Javascript, or Python), the programmer cannot tell where a variable should be stored; the interpreter makes that decision. In statically typed languages (such as C and C++), on the other hand, the programmer can tell, based on the type of a variable, where the compiler should store each variable.
The compiler (or the Operating System, for that matter) can put variables in one of three places within the program's memory: static memory, stack, or heap. The following sections will cover with more details these three types of memory.
# Inuktitut/Lesson 1

The syllabary used to write Inuktitut (Titirausiq Nutaaq). The extra characters with the dots represent long vowels; in the Latin transcription, the vowel would be doubled.
Pronunciations For Speakers of English: i: Found in me, bean, and seal. u: Found in you, new, and fool. a: Found in father and balmy. h: Found in hand, harm, and hold. p: Found in park and pencil. t: Found in tight, time, and meet. k: Found in car, kill, and cluster. g: Found in garbage, go, and ghost. m: Found in most, mall, and ham. n: Found in north. s: Found in south, seek, and first. l: Similar to l in lost. j: Found in year and you. v: Found in vanity. r: Sound not found in English, but similar to the French 'gargled r' sound. q: Sound not found in English. Like making an English k but pronounced farther back in the throat. ng: Found in thing, sing, and ring. nng: Exactly like the sound ng above, but pronounce for a longer period of time. t: Found in English touch and take.
# Invertebrate Zoology/A final note about the Guide

Invertebrate Zoology
Both this Guide and all articles in Wikipedia are free content that can be added to or edited by anyone. It is an opportunity for the user of these documents to contribute information, or even state given information more clearly, simply by editing a page. As a student with a textbook and a lecturer (teacher), you may find yourself in possession of useful facts, another point of view on existing facts, or a report you prepared of exceptional quality. Any of these can be added to an appropriate page in this Guide or the Wikipedia. However, this caution is strongly advised: Do not place into the Guide any text or pictures taken verbatim (or close to verbatim) from a text book, web site, or other copyrighted source without permission of the copyright holder. In general, this means, anything you submit should be your own work.
To learn how to edit or contribute material to this textbook, first read the introduction at: How to Edit.

### Note to future contributors

Although initially developed as a "Guide", by which is meant a sort of outline with links to Wikipedia articles, it is not necessary to scrupulously maintain the format. If, as a contributor, you would prefer to flesh out any module with minimal reference to Wikipedia, that should be acceptable, so long as your contribution exceeds what is available on the topic at Wikipedia. In this instance, "exceeding" is a reference to quality and not quantity. In such cases, it might remain helpful to the student to place the reading "assignment" as a "See also:" link on the chapter page.
Use of any Wikipedia article as a substitute for text should include consideration of the quality of information and writing at the assigned article. It is simply one approach to work on that article to insure quality before assigning it. Another approach would be to ignore the article at Wikipedia and develop the necessary text in the module itself. This does have a disadvantage in that, through hyperlinks, the student may well later arrive at the "rejected" Wikipedia article anyway. If the information found there conflicts or confuses, the student may have difficulty establishing which bits of information are correct and which are not.
# Invertebrate Zoology/Annelids

The annelids also known as the ringed worms or segmented worms, are a large phylum, with over 22,000 extant species including rag worms, earthworms, and leeches. The species exist in and have adapted to various ecologies – some in marine environments as distinct as tidal zones and hydrothermal vents, others in fresh water, and yet others in moist terrestrial environments.
# Invertebrate Zoology
## Table of Contents
### Preface

    Introduction to the Guide
    How to use the Guide
    A special note ~ How to contribute
    Contributors

### Chapters

* Introduction
* Protozoans
* Metazoans
* Sponges
* Cnidaria
* Ctenophores
* Flatworms
* Nemerteans
* Pseudocoelomates
* Annelids
* Mollusks
* Arthropods
* Chelicerates
* Crustaceans
* Insects
* Echinoderms
# Invertebrate Zoology/Arthropods

* Chapter 12 ~ The Arthropods
* Contents ~ Introduction ~ Protozoans ~ Metazoans ~ Sponges ~ Cnidaria Ctenophores ~ Flatworms ~ Nemerteans ~ Pseudocoelomates ~ Annelids ~ Mollusks Arthropods ~ Chelicerates ~ Crustaceans ~ Insects ~ Echinoderms
* The three largest groups within the Phylum Arthropoda are the insects (moth larva), crustaceans (barnacle), and arachnids (spider).

### Introduction to the Arthropods

Arthropods (Phylum Arthropoda) constitute the largest phylum of animals, and include the insects, arachnids (e.g., mites, ticks, spiders), crustaceans (crabs, lobsters, shrimp), and other similar creatures. Between 75 and 80% of all organisms on planet Earth are arthropods—over a million modern species are known, and the fossil record reaches back to the early Cambrian. However, species in the world's tropical forests remain largely undiscovered; Thomas (1990) estimated that perhaps 6 to 9 million species are yet to be discovered in this environment alone. Arthropods are common in all environments, and include symbiotic and parasitic forms. They range in size from microscopic plankton (~0.25 mm) up to forms several metres long.its class insecta bear almost 1.4-1.5 million species.
Because this group is so large, we will devote the next several chapters to the various subgroups: the subphyla and classes of arthropods.
* Read Arthropods (Links need not be persued at this time)

### The Trilobites

Because of the hard exoskeleton, arthropods tend to make excellent fossils. A particularly large group of arthropods known as trilobites are known only from the fossil record: flourishing in Cambrian seas and into the lower Palaeozoic. The last of the triliobites disappeared at the end of the Permian.
* Read Trilobitomorpha
** Read Trilobita and follow link to Cambrian geologic period.

### References

* Thomas, C. D. 1990. Fewer species. Nature, 347: 237.
# Korean/RWP/Summary

* Learn Korean (Introduction)
* Read, write, pronounce Korean:
* Course —
* Lesson 1 •
* Lesson 2 •
* Lesson 3 •
* Lesson 4 •
* Lesson 5 •
* Lesson 6 •
* Summary
* Orthography •
* Essential Pronunciation Rules •
* Advanced Pronunciation Rules
* Grammar •
* Conversation
This lesson summary is incomplete. Per the lesson plan, it should have a "table showing all letters, summary of all rules, extra words for practice".

## Consonants

Consonant jamo :
| Basic 예사소리 | Letter (jamo) | ㄱ | ㄴ | ㄷ | ㄹ | ㅁ | ㅂ | ㅅ | ㅇ | ㅈ | ㅎ |
| Basic 예사소리 | Romanization Pronunciation | g or k or | n | d or t or | r or l or | m | b or p or | s | - or ng silent or | j or ch or | h |
| Aspirated 거센소리 | Letter (jamo) | ㅋ | | ㅌ | | | ㅍ | | | ㅊ | |
| Aspirated 거센소리 | Romanization Pronunciation | k [kʰ] | | t [tʰ] | | | p [pʰ] | | | ch [ʨʰ] | |
| Tense 된소리 | Letter (jamo) | ㄲ | | ㄸ | | | ㅃ | ㅆ | | ㅉ | |
| Tense 된소리 | Romanization Pronunciation | gg or kk [k͈] | | dd or tt [t͈] | | | bb or pp [p͈] | ss [s͈] | | jj [ʨ͈] | |

## Vowels

Vowel jamo :
| Letter (jamo) | ㅏ | ㅑ | ㅓ | ㅕ | ㅗ | ㅛ | ㅜ | ㅠ | ㅡ | ㅣ |
| Romanization Pronunciation | a | ya [ja] | eo | yeo [jʌ] | o | yo [jo] | u [u] | yu [ju] | eu | i |
| Letter (jamo) | ㅐ | ㅒ | ㅔ | ㅖ | ㅚ | | ㅟ | | ㅢ |
| Romanization Pronunciation | ae | yae [jɛ] | e | ye [je] | oe [wø] | | wi [wi] | | ui [ɰi] |
| Letter (jamo) | ㅘ | | ㅝ |
| Romanization Pronunciation | wa [wa] | | wo [wʌ] |
| Letter (jamo) | ㅙ | | ㅞ |
| Romanization Pronunciation | wae [wɛ] | | we [we] |

## Practice

* Learn Korean (Introduction)
* Read, write, pronounce Korean:
* Course —
* Lesson 1 •
* Lesson 2 •
* Lesson 3 •
* Lesson 4 •
* Lesson 5 •
* Lesson 6 •
* Summary
* Orthography •
* Essential Pronunciation Rules •
* Advanced Pronunciation Rules
* Grammar •
* Conversation
# Korean/stroke order and sound

* [[Image:{{{image}}}]]
* {{{jamo}}} stroke order
* [[:Media:{{{sound}}}|Sound sample of {{{jamo}}}]] (help·[[:Image:{{{sound}}}|info]])
# Korean/Writing lessons plan

    See also: How To Build An Excellent Wikibook Teaching Any Language
This is a plan for propadeutic (preparatory) lessons teaching the student the Korean script and its pronunciation (including letter combinations). The goal is to introduce letters one by one so as not to overwhelm the student. In order to raise his confidence and provide feelings of success, words used for illustration and exercises shall mostly be understandable without any knowledge of Korean: Korean words that come from English, Korean words that other languages adopted, common transliterations of English personal names and names of countries or places whose name is not very different in Korean.
The student is assumed to have no previous knowledge of Korean. Each lesson will teach a few letters and then give some words from this list in order to practise reading. Upon successfully recognising all the letters of a word, he should be able to recognise the word itself. For example, "가나" is recognizable because it's so similar to the English words "Ghana". "독일" is not recognizable because the English word is "Germany" and doesn't resemble the Korean transliteration.
A list of recognizable Korean words has already been created below. Feel free to add more recognizable words to the list in order to help find a suitable order of letters and to provide material for more exercises.

## Complete lessons

* Lesson 1
* Lesson 2
* Lesson 3
* Lesson 4
* Lesson 5

## Incomplete lessons
### Lesson 6

doubled letters, remaining diphthongs
* Botswana 보츠와나
* Paraguay 파라과이
* Ottawa 오타와
* Nicaragua 니카라과
* Guam 괌
* Uruguay 우루과이
* Sears Tower 시어스 타워
* Quebec 퀘벡
* Ecuador 에콰도르
* Malawi 말라위
* Norway 노르웨이
* Rwanda 르완다
* Sweden 스웨덴
* Switzerland 스위스
* Tunisia 튀니지
* Zimbabwe 짐바브웨
* Brussels 브뤼셀
* Gwangju 광주 (alternatively: Kwangju)
* Washington 워싱턴
* sandwich 샌드위치
* shower 샤워
* sweater 스웨트
* taekwondo 태권도
* walkman 워크맨
* Won 원 (Korean currency)
* Broadway 브로드웨이
* SsangYong 쌍용
* New Brunswick 뉴브런즈윅
* Prince Edward Island 프린스에드워드아일랜드
* Delaware 델라웨어
* Hawaii 하와이
* Iowa 아이오와
* Washington 워싱턴
* West Virginia 웨스트버지니아
* Wisconsin 위스콘신
* Wyoming 와이오밍

### Summary

table showing all letters, summary of all rules, extra words for practise
# Mathematics Worksheet/Algebra/Pascal's Triangle

Study the Pascal's Triangle below.
This table showing the $(x+y)^{n}$, exponential results and coefficients.
| $(x+y)^{n}$ | Exponential results | Coefficients |
| $(x+y)$ | $x+y$ | 1 1 |
| $(x+y)^{2}$ | $x^{2}+2xy+y^{2}$ | 1 2 1 |
| $(x+y)^{3}$ | $x^{3}+3x^{2}y+3xy^{2}+y^{3}$ | 1 3 3 1 |
| $(x+y)^{4}$ | $x^{4}+4x^{3}y+6x^{2}y^{2}+4xy^{3}+y^{4}$ | 1 4 6 4 1 |
| $(x+y)^{5}$ | $x^{5}+5x^{4}y+10x^{3}y^{2}+10x^{2}y^{3}+5xy^{4}+y^{5}$ | 1 5 10 10 5 1 |
Now do the questions carefully using Pascal's triangle; Use ^ to write exponentiation.
# Mathematics Worksheet/Area and Perimeter of 2D Shapes/Answers
## This answer is worth 0–2 points.

3. No, because to find the area you need a base and a height, two diagonals, or a base and an angle; we have only a base here.
# Mathematics Worksheet/Circle

This page contains a worksheet about circle.
* Area and perimeter of circle (Jul 02, 2009)
* Tangents of Circle (Jul 02, 2009)
* Sector area of circle (Jul 02, 2009)
# Mathematics Worksheet/Line and angles

How many degrees of rotation are needed to make:
a quarter turn? a full turn? a half turn?
What is another name for: A half Turn? A quarter Turn?
# Mathematics Worksheet/Algebra/Fractional algebra

Do questions carefully! (11 questions)
Rules:
* In addition and subtraction, reduce fractions to the Lowest Common Denominator.
* In multiplication and division, reduce fractions first.
* Use ^ to write exponentiation.
# Mathematics Worksheet/Circle/Area and perimeter of circle

Use $\pi =\!3,14$ if the radius are not multiple of 7 and use $\pi ={\frac {22}{7}}$ if the radius are multiple of 7.
* Find the area of the circle with the given radius:
** 2 cm
** 5 cm
** 7 cm
** 10,5 cm
** 14 cm
** 16 cm
** 11,3 cm
** 9,8 cm
** 12,53 cm
** 18 cm
** 20 cm
** 10,263 cm
** 5,6 cm
** 21 cm
** 24,5 cm
** 17,75 cm
** 32,3261 cm
** 23,5 cm
** 25,63 cm
** 12 cm
** 28 cm
** 56 cm
** 42 cm
** 63 cm
** 80 cm
* Find the perimeter of the circle with the given diameter:
** 14 cm
** 21 cm
** 12 cm
** 28 cm
** 23 cm
** 9,6 cm
** 13,42 cm
** 12,3 cm
** 19 cm
** 35 cm
** 32 cm
** 13,652 cm
** 9,462 cm
** 11,4531 cm
** 42 cm
** 45 cm
** 54 cm
** 52,5 cm
** 36,4 cm
** 25,643 cm
** 65 cm
** 76 cm
** 84 cm
** 95 cm
** 100 cm
# Mathematics Worksheet/Equations of Straight Line

* Determine the gradient of a segment in line that connecting points:
** $\!X=(\!4,\!2)$ and $\!Y=(\!-3,\!-4)$
** $\!A=(\!-5,\!-2)$ and $\!B=(\!3,\!4)$
** $\alpha =(\!5,\!-3)$ and $\beta =(\!-2,\!8)$
** $\lambda =(\!-6,\!3)$ and $\Delta =(\!4,\!1)$
** $\!P=(\!-4,\!7)$ and $\!Q=(\!6,\!-3)$
** $\!E=(\!7,\!5)$ and $\!F=(\!4,\!6)$
** $\kappa =(\!-5,\!-2)$ and $\Omega =(\!-4,\!-9)$
** $\!M=(\!-3,\!4)$ and $\!N=(\!5,\!-6)$
** $\!R=(\!-5,\!1)$ and $\!S=(\!-4,\!-10)$
** $\!C=(\!3,\!-5)$ and $\!D=(\!5,\!-3)$
* Find the gradient line from:
** $\!x+\!y=\!14$
** $\!3x-\!5y=\!11$
** $\!5x+\!4y=\!41$
** $\!x-\!y=\!15$
** $\!3(\!2x+\!5y)=\!3$
** $\!5x-\!y=\!18$
** $\!6x+\!3y=\!62$
** $\!10x-\!5y=\!75$
** $\!7x+\!3y=\!-8$
** $\!3x-\!5y=\!-30$
** $\!5x+\!9y=\!-2$
** $\!4x+\!y=\!0$
** $\!6x-\!3y=\!0$
** $\!4(\!3x+\!y)=\!8$
** $\!2x-\!0,5y=\!-7$
** $\!1,5x+\!2,5y=\!21$
** $\!2,4x+\!1,5y=\!14,7$
** $\!3,2x-\!2,3y=\!5$
** $\!4,5x+\!2,7y=\!18,9$
** $\!6,7x-\!1,9y=\!19,2$
* Draw in the Cartesian diagram if known the four points are:
** $\!A=\!(\!4,\!-2),\!B=\!(\!3,\!3),\!C=\!(\!-6,\!3),\!D=\!(\!5,\!4)$
** $\!A=\!(\!-7,\!-1),\!B=\!(\!4,\!-2),\!C=\!(\!-1,\!-9),\!D=\!(\!-4,\!3)$
** $\!A=\!(\!-5,\!5),\!B=\!(\!6,\!-6),\!C=\!(\!-3,\!3),\!D=\!(\!2,\!-2)$
** $\!A=\!(\!1,\!-10),\!B=\!(\!-3,\!-6),\!C=\!(\!4,\!7),\!D=\!(\!-6,\!1)$
** $\!A=\!(\!-2,\!-2),\!B=\!(\!-5,\!7),\!C=\!(\!1,\!3),\!D=\!(\!-9,\!5)$
* From the questions number 3, calculate the gradient of line AB and line CD.
* From the questions number 3, are the both lines parallel? If not, give the reason.
# Mathematics Worksheet/Converting

This lesson will help practice measurement convertion, such as basic measurement (volume, area, length and weight) and SI measurement convertion.
* Basic Measurement Converts (Sep 24, 2009)
* SI Measurement Converts (Sep 24, 2009)
# Surface Plasmon Resonance

Surface plamon resonance (SPR) is a technique that can be used to study the binding and unbinding of molecules such as proteins. In order to analyze an interaction, one binding partner (the ligand) is immobilized onto the surface of a sensor chip. The analyte, which is dissolved in a sample buffer, is then injected into the flow cell under continuous flow. The binding of analyte to the ligand changes the refractive index of the sensor. This change is measured (as Resonance Units, RU) and plotted as a function of time. The change from running buffer to sample buffer can create a response as well, therefore a second flow cell without immobilized ligand is used as a reference.

## Physical basis

When light passes from a medium with a high refractive index into a medium with a low refractive index (e.g. glass to water), some light is reflected from the interface. When the angle of the incident light surpasses a critical value, this reflection is total (total internal reflection). The electric and magnetic fields can, however, not be discontinuous at a boundary. Instead, they propagate into the material as an evanescent wave.
If the surface of the glass is coated with a thin metal film, some energy is lost due to the excitation of mobile electrons at the metal surface by the evanescent wave. The oscillation of free electron density with respect to the fixed positive ions in a metal can be described as plasmons. When the frequency of incident photons matches the frequency of the surface plasmons, resonance occurs, hence the term surface plasmon resonance. The loss of energy is greatest at a specific angle (the surface plasmon resonance angle), consequently the intensity of the reflected light reaches a minimum (or “dip”) at this angle.

## Immobilization of the ligand

The sensor consists of a planar metal surface (typically gold or sliver), which is commonly covered with a carboxymethylated dextran matrix. This matrix increases the capacity for ligand immobilization. Ligands can either be immobilized directly or indirectly. Direct immobilization typically makes use of amine, thiol or aldehyde groups, which are covalently coupled to free carboxymethyl groups on the sensor chip. In the case of indirect immobilization, the ligand is captured by a covalently coupled molecule, such as an antibody. In any case, it should be tested whether the immobilized ligand is still active.

## Potential problems

A high ligand density creates two potential problems: Firstly, mass transport may become the rate-limiting step, meaning that the analyte binding is faster than the delivery of analyte to the surface. In this case, the measured association rate constant is slower than the actual k$_{on}$.
Secondly, after dissociation, the analyte may rebind to unoccupied ligand before being washed away. Consequently, the measured dissociation rate constant is slower than the true k$_{off}$.
References
* Van Der Merwe, P.A., 2001. Surface plasmon resonance. Protein-Ligand Interactions: Hydrodynamics and Calorimetry