OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Hebrew/Tips for Contributing

Hebrew

## General

* Avoid using transliteration.
* Don't bother trying to type Hebrew in the wiki edit box. You'll just end up with a big mess. Instead, type the Hebrew into a word processor with right-to-left support, such as MS word or OpenOffice, and then copy it.
* Avoid putting Hebrew and English on the same line. If you want to (like I did for vocabulary), write the English part first, then copy the Hebrew inside. It's a good idea not to let the far right or left character be a Hebrew character.
* To type Hebrew diacritic marks, turn caps lock on and press Shift + ~,0-9,-,+
* Diacritic marks are not easily seen unless you bump up the font size and/or change the Hebrew font.

## Hebrew Templates

Use the Hebrew Templates to keep the diacritic marks in the right place, to make the text larger and easier to read and to make it easier to switch between left to right and right to left text.
Examples: Enter {{Hebrew| אֳ }} to create אֳ or
Enter {{Hebrew-Large| אֳ }} to create אֳ

## Instructions for Typing in Hebrew with Diacritic Marks Using Windows

* Make sure the Hebrew language is installed. Use the Windows installation disc to do so.
* Once Hebrew is installed, go to Start -> Control Panel -> Regional and Language Options.
* Go to the Languages tab, and in the Text services and input languages box, click the Details button.
* In the new window, under the Settings tab, find the button in the Installed services area that says Add.
* Under Input Language, find Hebrew. The box below it will also change to Hebrew. Click OK.
* In the Preferences area, click Language Bar and make sure the first and third checkboxes are selected.
* Congratulations, you are now able to type in Hebrew!
* To type vowels, make sure Caps Lock is on, move the cursor past the letter you want to apply the vowel to, then hold down Shift and type using the numbers row above the letters section of the keyboard (i.e. type %,&, etc. with 'Caps Lock' on).
| Key | Vowel | Example |
| ~ | ְ | אְ |
| 1 | ֱ | אֱ |
| 2 | ֲ | אֲ |
| 3 | ֳ | אֳ |
| 4 | ִ | אִ |
| 5 | ֵ | אֵ |
| 6 | ֶ | אֶ |
| 7 | ַ | אַ |
| 8 | ָ | אָ |
| 9 | ׂ | שׂ |
| 0 | ׁ | שׁ |
| _ | ֹ | וֹ |
| + | ּ | כּ |
| | | ֻ | אֻ |

## Discussion Pages

Please see the discussion pages for dialogs about how to organize the pages, improvements, etc.
# Introduction to Crochet/Bead crochet

Bead crochet is usually done by stringing beads onto crochet thread or yarn before crocheting.

## Equipment

* Yarn or crochet thread.
* Beads of appropriate size.
* Crochet hook, for crocheting.
* A beading needle or clear nail polish, for stringing beads.
# Introduction to Crochet/Sea scarf

This scarf was designed with the California coastline in mind. Think of an outdoor restaurant table by the beach at sunset, or a stroll through the sand during a cool offshore breeze, or maybe just imagine getting strangled by a fashionable piece of seaweed. Suitable for sweater weather in spring and fall.

## Materials

* 1 6mm hook (U.S. size J)
* 2 skeins Bernat Bamboo Natural Blends, Dill color 161092
* 1 skein Caron Pizazz ribbon yarn, Meadow color 0005, article PZ1000

## Construction

Only two stitches are needed to make this scarf: chain stitch and double crochet. Actually the pattern is quite simple; it's a basic offset filet. The fancy effect is created by weaving ribbon yarn through the gaps after the crochet work is done.
The yarn is 88% bamboo, which looks like raw silk and behaves something like rayon.

## Instructions

* First row: chain stitch 154, plus 2 for the turning chain.
* Second row: double stitch 2, chain stitch 2. Repeat 38 times. At end of row, double stitch 2.
* Third row: chain stitch 4. Make two double stitches wrapping around the previous chain, then chain stitch 2. Repeat. At end of row, chain stitch twice followed by 1 double crochet into the previous row turning chain.
* Repeat rows 2 and 3 for as long as there's enough yarn to complete a row.
Should make 10 rows total, with 9 sets of gaps between them. If the yarn runs short then it can be a 9 row scarf (not much different). Gauge is not important as long as it remains even.
Measure ribbon yarn into strips two feet longer than the crochet. Cut enough pieces to fill each row. Weave ribbons through gaps, taking care to minimize twist. Secure at endswith a simple knot. Stagger the ribbon weave to create a diagonal effect.
# Introduction to Crochet/Hair scrunchy

Scrunchies hold long hair into pony tails and braids. These are among the simplest and quickest projects for a beginning crocheter. They're cost effective too. A department store quality scrunchy often costs two to three times the price of a skein of yarn, and there will be enough yarn left over to make more scrunchies for envious family and friends.

## Materials

* 6.5mm crochet hook (U.S. size K)
* Heavy chenille yarn
* 10" dressmaker's elastic

## Construction

A scrunchy is basically a long rectangle of fabric with a piece of elastic running through it and the ends joined into a loop.
When selecting a yarn to make a scrunchy, the three most important factors are pliancy and pile. The fiber should be flexible enough to gather with elastic and full enough to conceal the elastic. Chenille is a particularly good choice for people who have straight silky hair, because this yarn has extra grab. Wool blends often make very good scrunchies. Nylon, silk, and rayon are not good choices for scrunchies.

## Instructions

* Row 1: chain stitch 45. Add a turning chain of 2 stitches.
* Row 2: half double crochet into previous row. Turn.
* Row 3: same as row 2.
Leave the crochet ends loose while working the elastic. Secure elastic to one end of row 2 and leave 2" of elastic unused. Run free end of elastic through the stitches of the fabric, gathering material into folds as needed to keep the elastic free. Tie off the two ends together with an overhand knot, pull tight, and trim. Then use the loose ends of yarn from the crochet to stitch the end seams together and conceal the elastic knot. Trim excess.
* Partway through row 2
* Ready to tie together elastic ends.
* Finishing: using loose yarn to join the ends.
# Introduction to Crochet/Baby blanket

Every baby needs something handmade. So for a beginning crocheter, why not create a blanket? A blanket doesn't actually have to fit anything and is easy to make.

## Materials

* 4mm hook (U.S. size G)
# Introduction to Crochet/Bead crochet assortment
## Materials

* yarn
* desired beads
* crocheting needles
# Introduction to Crochet/Crochet hook organizer

This handy little organizer was the first thing I ever designed. Originally I worked it as practice in the half double crochet stitch (yes, my skills were that basic at the time). It happened to be the right size for my crochet hooks so I stuck them through it and tied it with a piece of scrap yarn. Later when my skills had improved I added the border and bow ends.
So I really don't understand why craft stores sell crochet hook organizers. We're crocheters; we can make stuff! And yes, it saves money.

## Materials

* Cotton yarn
* 4mm hook (U.S. size G)

## Construction

If the border is too difficult at first, do what I did and just use a spare piece of yarn to hold the roll together. This should keep crochet hooks of nearly any size organized, although extreme oversized hooks and Tunisian crochet hooks won't fit.

## Instructions

Body
* Row 1: chain stitch 40. Make 2 stitch turning chain.
* Row 2: half double. Make 2 stitch turning chain.
* Rows 3-20: Repeat row 2.
Border
* In a contrasting color, start from the center of one of the short sides and half double around the edge. To turn corners, work 5 half double stitches into the corner. Stop 1 stitch short of completing the border
* To make the bow ties, chain stitch 30. Make a 1 stitch turning chain. Single crochet. Anchor with 1 half double stitch to complete the border. Make a second tie the same as the first one, then cut and work in loose ends.
# Introduction to Crochet/Beaded bracelet

Here's a beginner project to impress fellow crocheters. Crochet lace and bead crochet have a reputation for being difficult, but really this project is as simple as they get. And a dainty little bracelet can be finished in no time at all. If you know how to put beads on string and can wrap yarn around a hook, you can make this.

## Materials

* Crochet hook, 2.5mm (U.S. size B)
* Mercerized cotton crochet thread, size 10, ecru.
* Glass beads, size E
* Bracelet finding, sterling silver (or base metal)
* Clear nail polish

## Construction

This bracelet is designed to fit snugly; some variation will be necessary depending on the size of the wearer's wrist and the gauge of the crocheter. The pattern works in multiples of three, so measure the recipient's wrist and add or subtract stitches in multiples of three to achieve a proper fit.
To add beads during crochet, insert the hook into a stitch and slide one bead down into the stitch before wrapping the thread over the hook. Continue to make a single crochet normally.
When customizing a variable sized item, bear a couple of things in mind, The first row of chain stitches on any pattern will contract when the second row gets worked in. So the working length is unknown until the second row is complete. Also, it is always possible to work extra chain stitches into the first row and cut away excess. That way, if the initial estimate is an undercount, a few extra second row stitches can be worked into the starting chain to achieve the desired length. When the second row is complete and unused chain stitches remain, leave half a dozen chain stitches and trim off the rest, then unravel those unused chain stitches and work in as a loose end when the piece is complete.

## Instructions

Before crocheting, string beads onto thread. Bead crocheters often make the stringing process easier by applying clear nail polish to the tip of the thread and waiting for it to dry. 32 beads were used in the sample bracelet. When in doubt, err on the generous side and string extra beads. Approximately 2 beads will be needed for each centimeter of length.
Size notes: the sample bracelet is 6" (16cm) long, not including the length of the clasp. It uses a base of 45 stitches and 32 beads. That equals approximately 2 beads and 3 stitches per centimeter of length. Allow approximately 1cm for the clasp.
* Row 1: chain stitch 60. Turn. While turning, make a loop and run one clasp end through it. Work the loop down snug with the end of the chain.
* Row 2: For the first stitch, work the hook through the loop that holds the clasp. Make a single crochet, securing the clasp into the stitch. Continue single crochet for 44 more stitches. Test size on recipient's wrist and add or subtract chain stitches as needed to achieve the desired fit. Turn.
* Row 3: Chain stitch 4, skip two, single crochet into the third stitch while adding a bead. Repeat to the end of the row.
* Special: flat stitch across the end of the row to the other side of the piece. At the midpoint, secure the other end of the clasp with a single crochet stitch.
* Row 4: As row 3.
* during construction
* finished bracelet
# Introduction to Crochet/Eyeglasses case
## Materials

* Cotton yarn
* 4mm hook (U.S. size G)
# Hindi/Time

| English | Hindi | Transliteration | Notes |
| Now | अब | ab | |
| Right Now | अभी | abhī | |
| Later | बाद में | bād mēṃ | |
| Then | फिर | phir | |
| Before | पहले | pêhlē | |
| After | बाद | bād | |
| Morning | सुबह/सवेरा | subah/savērā | savērā represents 04:00-05:59, subaha represents 06:00-11:59 |
| Early Morning | सुबह-सुबह | subah-subah | |
| Day | दिन | din | also represents 04:00-19:59, but cannot follow time words. |
| Afternoon | दोपहर | dopêhêr | |
| Evening | शाम/संध्या | śām/saṃdhyā | saṃdhyā is mostly used in literary contexts, śām represents 16:00-20:00. |
| Night | रात | rāt | represents 20:00-04:00 |
Since there is no equivalent of AM or PM in Hindi we have to mention the time of the day along with the specific clock time. For example if we have to say 3 AM, the Hindi equivalent will be रात के/में तीन बजे which literally means 3 o'clock of/in night.

#### Clock time

| English | Hindi | Transliteration |
| 1 AM | रात के एक बजे | rāt kē ēk bajē |
| 7 AM | सुबह के सात बजे | subah kē sāt bajē |
| 2 PM | दोपहर के दो बजे | dopêhêr kē do bajē |
| 6 PM | शाम के छै बजे | śām kē chē bajē |
| 7 PM | शाम के सात बजे | śām kē sāt bajē |
| 8 PM | रात के आठ बजे | rāt kē āṭh bajē |
| 9 PM | रात के नौ बजे | rāt kē nau bajē |
| midnight | आधी रात | ādhī rāt |
| Half past | साढे | sār̥hē |
| Half past 6 (6:30) | साढे ६ (६:३०) | sār̥hē 6 |
| Quarter until | पौने | paunē |
| Quarter until 4 (3:45) | पौने ४ (३:४५) | paunē 4 |
| Quarter past | सवा | savā |
| Quarter past 9 (9:15) | सवा ९ (९:१५) | savā 9 |
| 20 minutes past 8 (8:20) | ८ बजकर २० मिनट (८:२०) | 8 bajkar 20 minêṭ |
| 12 minutes past 3 (3:12) | ३ बजकर १२ मिनट (३:१२) | 3 bajkar 12 minêṭ |
| 7 minutes to 10 (9:53) | १० बजने को ७ मिनट (९:५३) | 10 bajnē ko 7 minêṭ |
There are two exceptions to the Half past. Half past one (1:30) is डेढ़ (ḍēr̥h) and half past 2 (2:30) is ढाई (ḍhāī). A fun way to remember their order would be 'Unless you dare (Let's say this represents डेढ़) you die (and this represents ढाई). Voila!
# Hindi/Plurals

In Hindi plurals are different, but not difficult. For example:
| Singular | Plural | Singular in Hindi | Plural in Hindi |
| Country | Countries | देश (deśa) | देशों (deśoṅ) |
| Tree | Trees | वृक्ष (vrikśa) | वृक्षों (vrikśoṅ) |
| Book | Books | पुस्तक (pustaka) | पुस्तकें (pustakeṅ) |
As per the above examples, it can become oṅ or eṅ as per the word.
# Hindi Lessons

Welcome to the Hindi lessons Wikibook.
This book is an introduction to Hindi and the script used to write it. It was written as an entry at hindi.unilang.org, and the author was kind enough to grant permission to copy and freely modify the text under the GFDL. Presently it is in a very colloquial style and needs editing to conform to Wikibooks conventions and take a bit more scholastic tone (per Vasil's comments), but it is a good start.
First and foremost, let me say some words about how well I know Hindi and about the way I'll teach it... I've learned the little Hindi I know from a guy, who calls himself Siddharth. Thanks to him, I'm writing these lessons - with his permission of course ;-) So, here's the best time to give my gratitude to my guru: धन्यवाद गुरु जी (Dhanyavaad guru-ji)!
Now, back to Hindi. I'll write the lessons in Devanagari (that is the script the Indians use to write Hindi). Don't worry if you don't know how to read Devanagari. I've written with every word in Hindi a transliteration in English letters. Apart from that I've written one short lesson about how to read the Hindi script: Lesson 0. (since I'm a programmer, I always start to count from 0, lol:)
The first lesson is about the language Hindi in general, i.e. about what's Hindi, where is it spoken etc. (of course for those who don't know :-) The number of lessons isn't great for now, as I'm learning more I'll teach more! Besides I think that Hindi grammar isn't that difficult to learn, and actually there isn't much to learn! So, after learning some basic grammatical structures and patterns you'll be able to say much in Hindi! Wish you luck! Enjoy!

## Lessons

* Lesson 0: The Hindi Script: Devanagari.
* Lesson 1: Introduction to Hindi. Linguistic Information.
* Lesson 2: Some basic phrases.
* Lesson 3: Pronouns
* Lesson 4: Genders in Hindi... Hindi Verbs - Part 1
* Lesson 5: Hindi Verbs - Part 2.
* Lesson 6: Adjectives. Colors.
* Lesson 7: Cases. The Direct and Oblique case.
* Lesson 8: Modal Verbs.
* Lesson 9: Numbers and question words.
* Glossary
# Hindi/Pronunciation

One of the biggest challenges for a native English speaker when learning Hindi is the pronunciation.

## Hindi Consonant Sounds

Velar - from the soft palate, where the mouth becomes the throat
Ka-क, Kha-ख, ga-ग, gha-घ, nga-ङ
Palatal - from the hard palate
cha-च, chha-छ, ja-ज, jha-झ, ña-ञ
Retroflex - from the point where the palate joins the teeth
ta-ट, tha-ठ, da-ड, dha-ढ, Na-ण, Ra-ड़ (retroflex “flap”), Rha-ढ़ (aspirated retroflex “flap”)
Dental - from the teeth
ta-त, tha-थ, da-द, dha-ध, na-न
Labial - from the lips
pa-प, pha-फ, ba-ब, bha-भ, ma-म
Liquids, semivowels
ya-य, ra र, la ल, va व, sha श, shha ष, sa स, ha-ह
Borrowed letters: za-ज़, fa-फ़, zha-श़
# Iranian History/The Empire of Khwarezm

Khwarezm, or Chorasmia, had been a province of Iran since the time of the Achaemenids. In 1077, the province came under the domination of a Turkic commander named Anushtigin Gharchai who became the first Khwarezm Shah. Under his successors, the Khwarezm Shahs conquered much of Iran and Central Asia. The rule of Khwarezm Shahs lasted until 1231, when the last Khwarezm Shah was killed and the kingdom annexed by the Mongols.
# Iranian History/The Great Game

The 'Great Game' is the term used to refer to the antagonism that pervailed between Russia and the United Kingdom who competed with each other for control of the Central Asian tract comprising Afghanistan,Iran and Turkestan and the cold war like atmosphere which prevailed between the two powers specifically between the Russo-Persian Treaty of 1813 to the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907. Victorian England and Tsarist Russia vied with each other for control of this tract and adopted tactics of occasional coercion as well as threat to consolidate their supremacy and solidify their authority over the so-called buffer states of Afghanistan and Iran.

## Fateh Ali Shah Qajar 1797-1834

When Agha Mohammad Khan was assassinated at Shusha in the year 1797, the throne was left vacant and a civil war followed. According to accounts, just before his death, Agha Mohammed Khan had nominated his nephew Baba Khan as his successor.
# Historical Geology/Tidal rhythmites and dating

In this article I shall explain what tidal rhythmites are, how they are formed, and their implications for dating.
As this article re-uses ideas introduced in the previous article on sclerochronology, the reader will need to have read that article first.

## Rhythms and rhythmites

Rhythmites are sedimentary rocks which display a repetitive vertical succession of types of sediment. We have already discussed varves, which are a kind of rhythmite. In this article we shall be interested in rhythmites produced by the action of the tide.
Tidal cycles include:
* A semidiurnal cycle. In most locations the moon produces two high tides and two low tides a day.
* A diurnal cycle. Some locations, such as the Gulf of Mexico, get only one high tide and one low tide per day.
* A mixed cycle. This can be seen in many locations on the west coast of America. In a mixed cycle, there are two high tides and two low tides per day, but one high tide is higher than the other, and one low tide is lower than the other.
* A fortnightly cycle. The highest high tides and lowest low tides (spring tides) occur at new moons and full moons, when the moon is either in line with or opposite the sun.
* Tidal cycles such as the apsidal cycle (presently lasting 8.85 years) and the nodal cycle (18.6 years) can also be distinguished; for the purposes of this article we may overlook them.
In additional to these tidal cycles, the rhythm of the seasons can also have their effect on sedimentary deposition. Varves are a special case of this, though typically varves are so thin that cycles of shorter duration are not discernible. Some sediments, however, will display a full range of cycles from semidiurnal to annual.

## Rhythmites and dating

Any or all of the cycles mentioned above can be recorded in nearshore sediments. So it is possible to look at nearshore sedimentary rocks and, depending on which rhythms are recorded in the rock, to find out how many days there were in a month, or days in a year, or months in a year, or all of these facts, at the time when the rhythmite was deposited.
This allows us to subject these rhythmites to the same analysis as is used in sclerochronology. The fact that there is close agreement between the number of days in a year as calculated on the basis of rhythmites and by the use of sclerochronology is a reason to have confidence in both methods, since it is hard to see how both could be wrong and yet coincidentally in agreement.
The same caveats apply to the use of this type of rhythmite for dating as apply to sclerochronology, and for just the same reasons. Also as with sclerochronology, the agreement of data from rhythmites with dates produced by radiometric dating is a reason to have confidence in radiometric methods.
← Sclerochronology · Fossils and absolute dating →
# Historical Geology/TEX86

In this article we shall look at the TEX$_{86}$ temperature proxy, how it works, and how we know that it works.

## GDGTs

The TEX$_{86}$ method is based on glycerol dibiphytanyl glycerol tetraethers (GDGTs). These come in various forms with more or fewer cyclopentane structures (the reader need neither know nor care what these actually are). The GDGTs of interest to us can be denoted as GDGT 1, GDGT 2, GDGT 3 and GDGT 4' (pronounced "four-prime"), where the numbers 1, 2, 3 and 4 correspond to the number of cyclopentanes.
(For the benefit of those readers who wish to research the TEX$_{86}$ method in the technical literature, I should point out that different papers use different numbering schemes; the one used here seems most suitable, because of the correspondence between the GDGT number and the number of cyclopentanes.)

## Crenarchaeota and temperature

In nature these GDGTs are produced by the group of single-celled organisms known as the Crenarchaeota. As with the alkenones discussed in the previous article, the GDGTs resist processes that destroy most organic compounds, and so can be found in marine sediment; and just as with the alkenones, the proportions of the different GDGTs produced by the Crenarchaeota varies with temperature, according to the formula:
    T = 56.2 × TEX$_{86}$ - 10.78
where T is the temperature in °C and TEX$_{86}$ (an abbreviation of "TetraEther indeX of tetraethers consisting of 86 carbon atoms") is defined as the ratio of the sum of the quantities of GDGTs 2, 3 and 4' to the sum of the quantities of GDGTs 1, 2, 3 and 4'.
It should be noted that this relationship ceases to hold below about 5°C; below this temperature the variation in TEX$_{86}$ becomes negligible and so measurements of TEX$_{86}$ can't distinguish between temperatures below that point.

## How do we know?

We can measure TEX$_{86}$ in living organisms and recent sediments, and measure the temperature of the water in which they are found; this is how the formula given above was derived.
However, unlike the U$^{k'}$$_{37}$ method, the relationship is harder to demonstrate experimentally. Experiments do show that TEX$_{86}$ increases with temperature in the lab; however for some unknown reason lab-grown cultures of Crenarchaeota produce less GDGT 4' than is found in Crenarchaeota in the wild, and so the exact relationship between temperature and TEX$_{86}$ can't yet be replicated in the laboratory.
← Uk'37 · Ice cores →
# LPI Linux Certification/Fundamentals of internet protocols
## Detailed Objectives

(LPIC-1 Version 5.0)
Weight: 4
Description: Candidates should demonstrate a proper understanding of TCP/IP network fundamentals.
Key Knowledge Areas:
* Demonstrate an understanding of network masks and CIDR notation.
* Knowledge of the differences between private and public "dotted quad" IP addresses.
* Knowledge about common TCP and UDP ports and services (20, 21, 22, 23, 25, 53, 80, 110, 123, 139, 143, 161, 162, 389, 443, 465, 514, 636, 993, 995).
* Knowledge about the differences and major features of UDP, TCP and ICMP.
* Knowledge of the major differences between IPv4 and IPv6.
* Knowledge of the basic features of IPv6.
The following is a partial list of the used files, terms and utilities:
* /etc/services
* IPv4, IPv6
* Subnetting
* TCP, UDP, ICMP