OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Human Anatomy/Osteology/Thorax

The thorax (commonly referred to as the chest) is superior to the abdomen and pelvis and anterior to the back.

## The Bones of the Thorax

The thorax is made up of 12 ribs (on each side) and the sternum (the breast bone).

### Ribs

The ribs are numbered I-XII starting at the top. They all attach to the thoracic vertebrae of the same number. The ribs slant down as they progress from the posterior to the anterior of the body with their respective cartilages slanting up to meet up with the sternum. Costa is the word used to refer to a rib and its cartilage together.
The first seven ribs are called true ribs because they connect directly to the sternum. Ribs VIII through X are false ribs; they only indirectly attach to the sternum through the 7th rib's cartilage. The last two ribs are not associated with the sternum at all and are called floating ribs. The cartilage that attaches the ribs to the sternum is called costal cartilage and is composed of hyaline cartilage.
Ribs articulate with an intervertebral disk and body of the cervical vertebrae. The section of the rib which articulates is called the head. After the head of the rib comes the neck, tubercle, angle, and body (sometimes referred to as the shaft) of the rib. The under side of the rib has a costal groove which provides space and protection for intercostal nerves and blood vessels.
The space between ribs is knows as the intercostal space. This space (along with the costal cartilage) gives the rib cage enough flexibility to allow for breathing. The space also provides room for the intracostal muscles which aide in breathing.

### Sternum

The sternum is a flat, spear-shaped bone in the midline of thorax. It is found on the anterior of the body. The sternum is composed of the manubrium (superior), body, and xiphoid process (inferior).
The manubrium is roughly half the length of the body of the sternum. The superior aspect of the manubrium has a slight curvature called the suprasternal notch. The clavicles (of the upper appendicular skeleton) attach laterally to the manubrium. This joint is called the sternoclavicular joint. It is also the only point where the pectoral girdle attaches to the axial skeleton. The inferior aspect of the manubrium has the manubriosternal joint, a movable joint that joins the manubrium to the body of the sternum.
The xiphoid process attaches to the sternum via the xiphisternal joint. It is the smallest part of the sternum and can vary in shape and size depending on the individual. Because it is so small, it is fragile and can easily be broke during chest compressions if they are not done correctly. In most people, the xiphoid process remains cartilaginous until the middle ages. It serves as a point of insertion for abdominal muscles and ligaments.
# Human Anatomy/Osteology/Upper Extremities
## The Fixed Upper Limb

The fixed upper limb is the region that joins the free upper limb to the trunk. It is made up of the pectoral, axillary and shoulder regions. Its primary role is to act as a link between the free upper limb and the axial skeleton.

### The Bones of the Fixed Upper Limb

The main bones of the fixed upper limb are the clavicle and the scapula. The sternum, ribs, vertebrae and humerus, though all considered part of other regions, need to be considered when studying this region as many of the muscles and ligaments of the fixed upper limb arise from or insert into one of these bones.

#### The Clavicle

The clavicle (sometimes referred to as the collarbone) is one of the two bones considered part of the fixed upper limb. It is the anterior bone of the fixed upper limb, with its medial third sitting just anterior to the first rib of the thorax. It marks the superior border of the anterior segment of the fixed upper limb.
The clavicle has both a medial and lateral articulation. Medially (also referred to as its sternal end), the clavicle's sternal articular facet articulates with the sternum at the sternoclavicular joint. Laterally (also referred to as the acromial end), the clavicle's acromial articular facet articulates with the acromion of the scapula at the acromioclavicular joint. Both facets are covered by fibrocartilage. The body (shaft) of the clavicle is palpable for most of its length as it runs between the sternum and the acromion.
In cross-section, the clavicle is more-or-less rounded throughout its body. The bone is expanded at its sternal end and flattened towards its acromial end. The medial two thirds are convexed anteriorly and the lateral one third is concave anteriorly.
# Human Anatomy/Osteology/Introduction

The framework of the body is built upon a series of bones, supplemented in certain regions by cartilage; the bony part of the framework constitutes the skeleton.
The skeletal system serves several functions, among them are:
In the skeleton of the adult there are generally 206 distinct bones:
Axial Skeleton:
    Vertebral column 26
    Skull 22
    Hyoid bone 1
    Ribs and sternum 25
    Auditory ossicles 6
    Total 80
Appendicular Skeleton:
    Upper extremities 64
    Lower extremities 62
    Total 126
Total 206

## Types of Bones

Bones are divisible into four classes: Long, Short, Flat, and Irregular. Long Bones are found in the limbs and function as levers, they are longer than they are wide. Short Bones transfer forces of movement and are cube shaped as in the carpus and tarsus. Flat Bones are used for either extensive protection or the provision of broad surfaces for muscular attachment. The bones expand into broad, flat plates, as in the skull and the scapula. Irregular Bones have peculiar forms, cannot be grouped under the preceding heads, and are used for muscle attachment and articulation. Some irregular bones include the vertebræ, sacrum and coccyx.

### LONG BONE

Long bones consists of a body or shaft and two extremities. The body, or diaphysis is cylindrical, with a central cavity termed the medullary cavity. The wall consists of dense, compact tissue of considerable thickness in the middle part of the body, but becoming thinner toward the extremities. Within the medullary cavity is adipose tissue or "yellow bone marrow".
The extremities are refered to as the epiphysis. Within the epiphysis is the "spongy bone" also known as "red bone marrow". It is within this marrow that red blood cells are produced at an average rate of 2.5 million per second. Running horizontally across the spongy bone of this region is the Epiphyseal line which is a region of cell growth responsible for lateral bone growth during youth, when growth is complete this line calcifies and becomes known as the epiphyseal plate.
Nutrient foramen run through the compact bone and allow the passage of nutrients in and out of the bone. There is a thin outer layer of connective tissue called the PERIOSTEUM which is highly vascular and allows for muscle and tendon attachment, it is bound to the bone itself by PERFORATING FIBERS which are composed of collagen. This layer does not cover the articulating regions of the bone. The bones belonging to this class include: the clavicle, humerus, radius, ulna, femur, tibia, fibula, metacarpals, metatarsals, and phalanges. it is strongest largest of all body bones.

### SHORT BONE

Short bones are generally equal in length, width, and thickness. They are found in the wrists and ankles. Aside from points of insertion and vascular areas, short bones are almost completely covered by articular surfaces.

### FLAT BONE

These bones are composed of two thin layers of compact tissue enclosing between them a variable quantity of spongy bone. They generally offer protection, as is the case with the bones of the cranium and with the ribs and sternum.
# Human Anatomy/Neural Interactions

The place that nerves meet in signal transduction is called a synapse. Synaptic connections are the basis for...
# Human Anatomy/Osteology/Axialskeleton

The Axial Skeleton is a division of the human skeleton and is named because it makes up the longitudinal axis of the body. It consists of the skull, hyoid bone, vertebral column, sternum and ribs. It is widely accepted to be made up of 80 bones, although this number varies from individual to individual.
# Human Anatomy/Neurology

Neurology is the study of neurons and their functions within the nervous system. Neurons are specially designed cells that transmit and receive messages enabling the body to perform tasks. Neurons consist of dendrites, cell body (or soma), and an axon. Dendrite comes from the latin word for tree as they branch out to make connections with other neurons. Dendrites create a graded potential when neurotransmitter substance opens chemically gated channels to receive incoming messages. If the signal is strong enough it will reach the neuron's threshold (in most cells it is about 70mv) and create an action potential by opening voltage gated channels and the neuron is said to 'fire'. A neuron will either fire or it will not - this is the all-or-none law. If a neuron reaches threshold it will fire the same electrical energy every time.
Normally a neuron has an overall negative charge. However when an action potential is created, sodium ions rush into the cell giving it a temporary positive charge. The electrical sign travels down the axon where it reaches the synapse. The synapse consists of the axon terminal of one neuron, the receptors on the dendrite or cell body of another neuron and the space between them (called the synaptic cleft). When the electrical signal reaches the axon terminal the energy is converted from electrical to chemical. A chemical neurotransmitter is released into the synapse where it will stimulate receptors on a postsynaptic neuron. Neurotransmitter fits into receptors like a lock and key - only specific neurotransmitter will stimulate a particular receptor. Examples of common neurotransmitter include dopamine, serotonin or acetylcholine.
# Human Anatomy/Osteology

       Structure
    The Axial Skeleton
   * Skull
   * Vertebral Column
   * Thorax
    The Appendicular Skeleton
   * Upper Extremities
   * Lower Extremities
# Human Anatomy/Osteology/Structure
### Bone Markings

Bone markings identify bumps, holes, and ridges on bones that serve a functional role, such as points of attachment for muscles, openings for blood vessels and nerves, and structures which are responsible for forming joints. Bone markings also serves as identifying features of a bone because each bone has a unique set of bone markings.

#### Openings

Fissures are narrow, slit-like cracks or openings which form passageways for blood vessels and nerves.
# Information Systems in the Consumer Industry
## A customer approach

This work is addressed to everyone who asks himself what will be, in the near future, the information needs for the consumer industry. This paper is thus addressed to people working in information technology, marketing, organization or general management. Their interest will be over the whole book and, particularly, in the chapters regarding the general objective and solutions architecture for the industry and retail environment.
This works derives from various personal experiences out of which I chose the two real cases which are presented in the initial chapters: in both cases the real problem was to shift the company information focus from the support of internal processes to the analysis and evaluation of the market scenario in which the companies were acting.
One of the problems I had to cope while doing this job is to be sure to use a methodology which would help me taking into consideration every part of the problem, not forgetting any aspect.
The method is one of the aims of the book.
From a presentation point of view, I decided to start from the real cases and then get to the abstraction, not vice versa; it seems to me easier to understand. This is the reason why the case studies are quoted initially; they should help the reader to face the more “formal” discussions with an operational attitude, not as just “principia”.
Generally I think that, after the pure automation phase (accounting, MRP etc.), information technology will need to help industries to approach the complete cycle of customer needs. This will mean taking into consideration processes with a very little syntactic content but very common: informational unstructured scenarios. I think that these processes are the one that will give us some better prediction information models and also improve our operational and control tools.
I am sure that his work has plenty of ingenuities, methodological and language mistakes but, as I found no literature on these topics, I decided to use it as a request for help so that we can make a better service to our general “customer”.
# Mirad Grammar/Phonotactics

    Phonotactics refers to the patterns in which the phonemes of a language may combine to form sequences. The possible syllabic patterns of Mirad are given below in a chart.
    For the purposes of this chart:
      * Y stands for the semi-vowel glides y or w.
      * L stands for the liquids r and l.
      * C stands for consonants other than glides or liquids.
      * A stands for simple vowels.
      * N stands for the nasal consonants m or n.
      * + means 1 to 3 of the foregoing letter
      * Parentheses indicate that a letter is optional.
      * Bracketing indicates a choice of letters or patterns.
    Syllables in native Mirad are shaped according to the following pattern constraints:
Phonotactics :
| ALLOWABLE SYLLABIC PATTERNS | EXAMPLES |
| (C)[LG]A+(Y)(L)(C) | o, ay, xwa, gyo, gra, toyb, glays, alp mayr, hyos, va, xwa, gyo, gla, gre, vya, lo, wa, yu, gaw |
| ...A(Y)N(C)[sx] | mamp, yomx, yank, yons, eynx |
   * Two non-glide/liquid/non-nasal consonants cannot appear together in the same syllable, except in foreign-imported words.
   * Two glides or liquids cannot come together in one syllable except in foreign-imported words.
← Stress · Mirad Grammar · Parts of Speech →
# Mirad Grammar/TOC mini

Introduction Why Mirad? Alphabet Pronunciation Spelling Nouns Articles Adjectives Adverbs Determiners Numbers Pronouns Verbs Prepositions Conjunctions Interjections Hybrid Words Greetings Vocabulary Formation Word Families Syntax Sample Texts
# Mirad Grammar/Stress

       Although stress in Mirad is not marked and is not phonemic, i.e. not semantically distinctive, in all words of more than one syllable, the stress occurs on the last, non-final vowel, including glided vowels. The following chart gives some examples:
Stress :
| Mirad Word | With Stress and Syllabification Marked |
| tejna....vital | tej-na |
| igay....quickly | i-gay$^1$ |
| alayn....eleventh | a-layn |
| Mirad....Mirad | Mi-rad |
| booka....tired | bo-o-ka$^2$ |
| bookan....fatigue | bo-o-kan |
| akea....winning | a-ke-a |
| oyse....lacks | oy-se |
| byoskyin....pendulum | byos-kyin |
| pyaon....wave | pya-on |
| tooyba....female | to-oy-ba |
    $^1$ Here ay is a single post-y-glided vowel, and final, so it is not stressed.
    $^2$ Two vowels in a row are pronounced in two syllables.
    Here is a small passage where the stress of vowels in shown by boldfacing:
       Hya tobi taje yiva ay gea be utfiz ay doyivi. Yit bulwe texyaf ay tyaf ay yeyfe hyuitaxler tidyenay.
       All men are born equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act toward one another as brothers.
← Syllabification · Mirad Grammar · Phonotactics →
# The internet
## HTTP and networking

Most networking tasks are possible with newLISP's networking functions:
* base64-dec decode a string from BASE64 format
* base64-enc encode a string to BASE64 format
* delete-url delete a URL
* get-url read a file or page from the web
* net-accept accept a new incoming connection
* net-close close a socket connection
* net-connect connect to a remote host
* net-error return the last error
* net-eval evaluate expressions on multiple remote newLISP servers
* net-interface define the default network interface
* net-listen listen for connections to a local socket
* net-local local IP and port number for a connection
* net-lookup the name for an IP number
* net-peek number of characters ready to read
* net-peer remote IP and port for a net-connect
* net-ping send a ping packet (ICMP echo request) to one or more addresses
* net-receive read data on a socket connection
* net-receive-from read a UDP datagram on an open connection
* net-receive-udp read a UDP datagram on and closes connection
* net-select check a socket or list of sockets for status
* net-send send data on a socket connection
* net-send-to send a UDP datagram on an open connection
* net-send-udp send a UDP datagram and closes connection
* net-service translate a service name to a port number
* net-sessions return a list of currently open connections
* post-url post info to a URL address
* put-url upload a page to a URL address.
* xml-error return last XML parse error
* xml-parse parse an XML document
* xml-type-tags show or modify XML type tags
With these networking functions you can build all kinds of network-capable applications. With functions like net-eval you can start newLISP as a daemon on a remote computer and then use on a local computer to send newLISP code across the network for evaluation.

## Accessing web pages

Here's a very simple example using get-url. Given the URL of a web page, obtain the source and then use replace and its list-building ability to generate a list of all the JPEG images on that page:

## A simple HTML Form

The simplest search form is probably something like this.

## A simple IRC client

The following code implements a simple IRC (Internet Relay Chat) client, and it shows how the basic network functions can be used. The script logs in to the server using the given username, and joins the # newlisp channel. Then the script divides into two threads: the first thread displays any channel activity in a continuous loop, while the second thread waits for input at the console. The only communication between the two threads is through the shared connected flag.
# LMIs in Control/Matrix and LMI Properties and Tools/Passivity and Positive Realness

This section deals with passivity of a system.

## The System

Given a state-space representation of a linear system
    ${\begin{aligned}\ {\dot {x}}=Ax+Bu\\\ y=Cx+Du\\\end{aligned}}$
$x\in \mathbb {R} ^{n},y\in \mathbb {R} ^{m},u\in \mathbb {R} ^{r}$ are the state, output and input vectors respectively.

## The Data

$A,B,C,D$ are system matrices.

## Definition

The linear system with the same number of input and output variables is called passive if
    ${\begin{aligned}\int \limits _{0}^{T}u^{T}y(t)dt\geq 0\\\end{aligned}}$         (1)
hold for any arbitrary $T\geq 0$, arbitrary input $u(t)$, and the corresponding solution $y(t)$ of the system with $x(0)=0$. In addition, the transfer function matrix
    ${\begin{aligned}G(s)&=C(sI-A)^{-1}B+D\\\end{aligned}}$         (2)
of system is called is positive real if it is square and satisfies
    ${\begin{aligned}\ G^{H}(s)+G(s)\geq 0\forall s\in \mathbb {C} ,Re(s)>0\\\end{aligned}}$         (3)

## LMI Condition

Let the linear system be controllable. Then, the system is passive if an only if there exists $P>0$ such that
    ${\begin{aligned}\ {\begin{bmatrix}A^{T}P+PA&PB-C^{T}\\B^{T}P-C&-D^{T}-D\end{bmatrix}}\leq 0\\\end{aligned}}$         (4)

## Implementation

This implementation requires Yalmip and Mosek.
* https://github.com/ShenoyVaradaraya/LMI--master/blob/main/Passivity.m

## Conclusion

Thus, it is seen that passivity and positive-realness describe the same property of a linear system, one gives the time-domain feature and the other provides frequency-domain feature of this property.

## External Links

* LMI Methods in Optimal and Robust Control - A course on LMIs in Control by Matthew Peet.
* LMIs in Systems and Control Theory - A downloadable book on LMIs by Stephen Boyd.
* LMIs in Control Systems: Analysis, Design and Applications - by Guang-Ren Duan and Hai-Hua Yu, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, 2013
# LMIs in Control/Matrix and LMI Properties and Tools/Quadratic Schur Stability

LMI for Quadratic Schur Stability
The following LMI can be used to discern whether or not a system of a particular form is Quadratically Schur Stable or not.

## The System

We consider the following system:
${\begin{aligned}{\dot {x}}(t)&=A(\delta (t))x(t)\end{aligned}}$
This is the continuous time case. The system coefficient matrix takes the form:
${\begin{aligned}A(\delta (t))=A_{0}+\Delta A(\delta (t))\end{aligned}}$
where $A_{0}$ is the known nominal system matrix while $\Delta A(\delta (t))$ is the system matrix perturbation.

## The Data

The data required is both the matrices $A_{0}$ and $\Delta A(\delta (t))$ as seen in the form above, or the combined $A(\delta (t))$.

## The Optimization Problem

The goal of the optimization is to find the minimum P such that the following LMI is satisfied.

## The LMI: LMI for Quadratic Schur Stability

The LMI problem is to find a symmetric matrix P satisfying:
${\begin{aligned}{\begin{bmatrix}-P&A(\delta (t))P\\PA^{T}(\delta (t))&-P\end{bmatrix}}<0\\\end{aligned}}$, $\delta (t)\in \Delta$

## Conclusion:

If the one of the above LMIs is found to be feasible, then the system is Quadratically Schur Stable, and has possibly already gone through the process of LMI usage for Quadratic Schur Stabilization.

## Implementation

A link to Matlab codes for this problem in the Github repository:
https://github.com/maxwellpeterson99/MAE509Code

## Related LMIs

- Schur Stabilization

## External Links

- LMI in Control Systems Analysis, Design and Applications

## Return to Main Page

-Matrix and LMI Properties and Tools
# LMIs in Control/Matrix and LMI Properties and Tools/Singular Value Bounds of a Matrix through LMIs

The singular values of a real-valued matrix can be bounded through the use of LMI techniques.

## Required Data

The real-valued matrix of interest, $A\in \mathbb {R} ^{n\times m}$, is needed.

## Maximum Singular Value

Consider matrix $A\in \mathbb {R} ^{n\times m}$ and $\gamma \in \mathbb {R}$ such that $\gamma >0$.
The maximum singular value of $A$ is strictly less than $\gamma$ (that is, ${\bar {\sigma }}(A)<\gamma$ ) if and only if $AA^{T}<\gamma ^{2}I$.
Using the Schur complement, we see that $AA^{T}<\gamma ^{2}I$ is equivalent to
${\begin{aligned}{\begin{bmatrix}\ \gamma I&A\\\ A^{T}&\gamma I\\\end{bmatrix}}\ >0,\end{aligned}}$
Which is also equivalent to: ${\bar {\sigma }}(A)<\gamma$ if and only if $A^{T}A<\gamma ^{2}I$ or
${\begin{aligned}{\begin{bmatrix}\ \gamma I&A^{T}\\\ A&\gamma I\\\end{bmatrix}}\ >0.\end{aligned}}$

## Minimum Singular Value

Consider matrix $A\in \mathbb {R} ^{n\times m}$ and $\nu \in \mathbb {R}$ such that $\nu \geq 0$.
If $n\leq m$, then the minimum singular vale of $A$ is strictly greater than $\nu$ (that is, The maximum singular value of $A$ is strictly less than $\gamma$ (that is, ${\underline {\sigma }}(A)>\nu$ ) if and only if $AA^{T}<\nu ^{2}I$. If $m\leq n$, then ${\underline {\sigma }}(A)>\nu$ if and only if $A^{T}A>\nu ^{2}I$.

## Conclusion:

LMI techniques can be used to establish bounds on the the singular values of any real-valued matrix.

## Related LMIs

Singular Value Bounds for complex-valued matrices
https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/LMIs_in_Control/pages/Maximum_Singular_Value_of_a_Complex_Matrix
https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/LMIs_in_Control/pages/Minimum_Singular_Value_of_a_Complex_Matrix