OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# History of Embrun/Under a new name

< Back to Saint Augustine-de-Catherine from 1848-1856

## Under a new name
### A brief of summary of 19th Century Embrun: Coming Soon

Continue to Life in Embrun in 1856 ›
# General Astronomy/The Solar Cycle

The solar cycle is the repeating rise and fall of "solar activity" (which see). This consists of a roughly 11-year cycle in which the numbers of sunspots rises to a maximum and then falls back to some minimum level. Actually the exact time period has varied, from about 7 to about 13 or 14 years, and the maximum number of sunspots varies as well. Some cycles are more "active" than others.
Shortly after each maximum, the magnetic polarity of the sunspots reverses and it maintains that polarity until the next maximum, roughly 11 years later. Thus the solar cycle is not just 11 years, but 22 years since after 22 years the magnetic polarity returns to approximately its original configuration.
The cycle is sometimes unpredictable. During the Maunder Minimum, solar activity was drastically reduced for about fifty years. In 2008, the then current sunspot minimum was noted as the "quietest" in 50 years. As of late 2009, solar activity began a slow increase.
While the sunspot cycle is certainly related to other activity on and in the Sun, many attempts have been made to relate it to various cycles on the Earth ranging from the quality of wines to fashion trends and the stock market. No such relation has been proven, and in fact no strong relation between the sunspot cycle and earthly weather patterns has yet been conclusively shown.
The period of Maunder Minimum, from about the middle of the 17th through the early part of the 18th centuries, was attended by abnormally cool and damp weather worldwide. Attempts have been made to correlate this climatic aberration to the absence of sunspots, but if the relation is real, no causal mechanism has been identified.
In addition, one tentative relation to temperature variation in an upper layer of Earth's atmosphere appears likely, but no other direct and predictable relation has yet been shown.
# General Astronomy/The Theory of the Naked Singularity

Black holes are objects of mystery, and recent studies have revealed that they may be even stranger than once thought. The core of the black hole is termed the "naked singularity". It is a gravitational singularity that is predicted to be, infinite in density. Such an object's mere existence completely defies the laws of physics as we know them, but it is logical to assume that the center of the black hole should be infinitely compacted. However, such an object would be forever cloaked by the event horizon of its host black hole, so observation is most probably impossible.
Some have gone so far as to say that this cloaking is a deliberate result of a kind of "cosmic censorship" that prevents the naked singularity, as radically as it defies the laws of physics, from being released from beyond the event horizon. What exactly would result from the exposure of the enigmatic core remains highly speculative (as does, the entire subject matter).
Potential for human use of the naked singularity is also something that has been discussed; the observation and study of a body with infinite density would undoubtedly prove highly revealing to astronomers, and may shed light on black holes and other aspects of physics and astronomy.
# General Astronomy/Thermal Radiation

Thermal radiation is electromagnetic radiation of a particular frequency range. All objects emit energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation. As the atoms are shaken by random thermal motion, the moving charge of the electrons causes them to emit a changing electromagnetic field. In general, the cooler the body, the slower the motion of its atoms and molecules, and the longer the wavelength of emitted radiation. Thus a human body emits mostly in the infrared part of the spectrum, making night vision cameras so valuable to the military and police. But the tungsten filament of an incandescent light bulb is at a much higher temperature (roughly 3000 K or about 5000 degrees F), causing it to emit mostly visible light.
Thus the spectrum and intensity of the emitted radiation can be used to determine the object's temperature from a distance. If a material is heated above 700 Kelvin, it begins to glow visibly - starting out as a dark red color and moving towards the blue end of the spectrum with increasing temperature. However, most objects radiate a wide range of temperatures, and the effective color perceived by the human eye may not be fully indicative of the true temperature. For example, the Sun appears white to most observers, but the wavelength at which it radiates most of its energy is about 5800 K or roughly 10,000 degrees Fahrenheit, which spectroscopically is equivalent to a green color. However, when the human eye detects the various wavelengths we receive from the Sun, in particular ratios of radiation emitted by the Sun, our eye-brain connection perceives it as white.
# General Astronomy/Tools
## Telescopes

* Introduction to telescopes
* The spectrum
* Gravity Telescope
* Radio Telescope
* Optical Telescope
* Infrared Telescope
* X-Ray Telescope
* Gamma Ray Telescope

## other tools

Spectrometer
Computer
Database
# General Astronomy/The Terrestrial Planets/Mercury
### The Geology of Mercury

Mercury exhibits some of the most unusual, and unique, geology in the solar system. One of the most prominent features on Mercury is that of the enormous amounts of impact craters. There are a plethora of these smaller craters within larger craters. These features from the Highlands of Mercury. There are smaller areas of Lowlands, which are areas that appear to have been flooded by lava at some point in Mercury's history - however, these are few and far between, and much smaller than that of the Lunar Maria. The prominent examples of Lowlands on Mercury are that of the Borealis Planitia, or "Northern Plain", and the Caloris Planitia, or "Hot Plain". The Caloris Basin is the most prominent impact zone, covering approximately 800 miles (1,300 KM) of Mercury's surface. This collision was likely from some sort of solar debris that was approximately 90 miles across. The collision was so massive that it sent shockwaves across the entirety of Mercury's surface, resulting in "weird terrain" at the antipodal to the impact. This "weird terrain" is defined by depressions, hills and valleys that result from the wrinkling of the crust. The Caloris Impact likely occurred 3.85 billion years ago. Some of the strangest terrain to be found on Mercury is that of the Rupes (or Scarps). These surface features are unique to Mercury, and can cut across entire craters. Where this occurs, the craters typically have shorter diameters perpendicular to the rupes rather than parallel to them. The favored theory for how these formed is that as Mercury's mantle cooled, the planet shrank, resulting in thrust faults to jut parts of the planet up (some up to 2.5 miles). Some rupes extend for hundreds of miles. The fact that the rupes cut through craters and have not been flooded by molten material suggest that they are likely some of the youngest features on Mercury. 70% of Mercury's mass is attributed to its enormous iron core, 25% can be attributed to its mantle, and the other 5% can be attributed to the crust. The core itself is as large as the moon, resulting in an unusually heavy planet. This was likely caused by an impact with another protoplanet, resulting in the ejection of much of the planet's initial mantle. Only half of Mercury has been mapped to date.

### The Rarefied Atmosphere

Mercury has a tenuous shell of gases that it either extracts from the Sun or receives from micrometeorite impacts. Other elements may leak from the surface from rocks or ice locked deep in craters. Gases found in the atmosphere include: Oxygen (42%), Sodium (29%), Hydrogen (22%), Helium (6%), and Potassium & other gases (1%). The atmosphere is often blasted apart by solar wind and solar storms.
# Fundamentals of Transportation/Destination Choice/Homework
## Homework

1. Identify five independent variables that you believe affect trip generation. Pose hypotheses about how each variable affects number of trips generated.
2. Identify three different types of trip distribution models. Which one includes the most information? Which one is most common?
3. You are given the following situation: The towns of Saint Cloud and Minneapolis, separated by 110 km as the crow flies, are to be connected by a railroad, a freeway, and a rural highway. Answer the following questions related to this problem
Trip Generation and Distribution
Your planners have estimated the following models for the AM Peak Hour
$T_{O,i}=500+0.5*HH_{i}$
$T_{D,j}=250+0.5*OFFEMP_{j}+0.355*OTHEMP_{j}+0.094*RETEMP_{j}$
Where: $T_{O,i}=$Person Trips Originating in Zone i
$T_{D,j}=$Person Trips Destined for Zone j
$HH_{i}=$ Number of Households in Zone i
$OFFEMP_{j}=$Office Employees in Zone j
$OTHEMP_{j}=$Other Employees in Zone j
$RETEMP_{j}=$Retail Employees in Zone j
Your are also given the following data
| | Saint Cloud | Minneapolis |
| $HH_{i}$ | 47,604 | 476,040 |
| $OFFEMP_{j}$ | 33,675 | 336,750 |
| $OTHEMP_{j}$ | 14,500 | 145,000 |
| $RETEMP_{j}$ | 22,000 | 220,000 |
The travel time between zones (in minutes) is given by the following matrix:
| | To Minneapolis | To Saint Cloud |
| From Minneapolis | 5 | 70 |
| From Saint Cloud | 70 | 5 |
(a) (10) What are the number of AM peak hour person trips originating in and destined for Saint Cloud and Minneapolis.
(b) (10) Assuming the origins are more accurate, normalize the number of destination trips for Saint Cloud and Minneapolis.
(c) (10) Assume a gravity model where the impedance $f(C_{ij})=C_{ij}^{-2}$. Estimate the proportion of trips that go from Saint Cloud to Minneapolis. Solve your matrix within 5 percent of a balanced solution.
# Fundamentals of Transportation/Conclusions

Transportation is multi-modal, multi-disciplinary field that requires the efforts of people from a spectrum of backgrounds. Planners, engineers and policy makers are the primary groups, but architects, economists, and operations researchers serve in roles that benefit the industry. In order for an idea to become a road, it must go through several planning and design stages. This section serves as a conclusion for this wikibook as well as a summary of the building process for a roadway.

## Connecting Places

* Planning
* Assessing Needs: Testing Alternatives (Hypotheses)
* Predicting Demand
* Trip Generation
* Trip Distribution
* Mode Choice
* Route Assignment

## Determining Road Capacity (Width)

* Level of service
* Design to satisfy standard
* Understand implications of traffic (queues, shockwaves, congestion)

## Determining Road Alignment (Length)

* Properties of drivers, vehicles, roadway
* Maximum grade associated with speed, vehicle type
* Stopping sight distance
* Vertical alignment (sags & crests)
* Horizontal alignment

## Determining Road Strength (Depth)

* Given load on the road, how long can the road hold up.
* Design pavement depth to satisfy predicted traffic.

## Putting it together

Planning determines origin/destination demand by vehicle type … feeds into Level of Service
* LOS feeds into in-depth traffic analysis and determines number of lanes
* Truck demand determines maximum grade
* Stopping sight distance determines horizontal and vertical curvatures.
* Truck demand determines pavement thickness

## Implications

Fraction of demand (trucks) is determining design characteristics (grade, depth)
Fraction of demand (peak hour traffic) is determining width.
1. Financing should consider this
2. Design should consider this. Maybe cars and trucks should have separate routes. (car-only highways would be cheaper, separation would be safer).
3. We don’t ask one building to serve all needs, why should one road?

## Thought Question

How does an idea become a road? Explain how an idea becomes a road. Illustrate your explanation with a consistent set of examples for all of the major steps of analysis that are required (i.e. the output of one example should be the input to the next example).
# Fundamentals of Transportation/Design/Additional Problems
## Additional Questions

* For the autobahn in Germany are the roads designed with a high design speed or do they let people operate above the design speed? Yes
* Are AASHTO guidelines law? Not as such, though it is considered state of practice, each state DOT adopts them independently, so when new guidelines are developed, state may still be using older documents. However, not adhering to engineering practice without good reason may be grounds for a lawsuit against the state (the state willing).
* Is state DOT liable for accidents occurring due to roads not being wide enough? Potentially.
* Are vertical curves or horizontal curves used more often in highway design? (I don’t know, I suspect vertical, since streets are often in a grid).
* If the largest vehicle uses the road once a year, do we consider it a design vehicle. Probably not, it would generally be easier to note it as a wide vehicle or a long vehicle, or a tall vehicle…
* Has road heating ever been considered for ice repellent in cold regions? Yes, but costly, risk of breakdown in heating system … would require breaking road to repair. Done in some places (driveways, sidewalks, ramps, bridges). Typically Europe or Japan, don’t know of US road applications. Some commercial firms, e.g. Mechaheat do this.
* Does the change in slope of a vertical curve have a large effect on the coefficient of friction? (As the slope changes there has to be a change on the vertical force on the car)
* How does the coefficient of friction come into play while designing the downslope of vertical curves?
* What is right-of-way
* Give six functions/advantages of medians.
* What is the difference between roadside barriers and median barriers Why are they used?
* What is the difference between design speed and running speed?
* What are lane widths for arterials and two-lane roadways?
* Draw the cross-section elements in a highway design?
* Common cross slopes for roadbeds are usually measured at ___ degrees.
* What are the types of side slopes? What is their function?
* What are the two distinct functions of streets and highways: movement and access. What are the functional classes of roads (name 3).
* What book is considered to be the bible of highway design?
* What are curb cut controls on highway or freeway?
* When is a guard rail implemented?
* Give 9 factors influencing highway design?
* Why is sloping the road important? What does it prevent?
* How are road sloped along the side of a mountain? What will have to drain down the mountain, but is it safe this way? Are roads sometimes sloped into the mountain with water draining underneath via pipes and drainage channels? Yes
* What is an equal tangent curve?
* What are two types of vertical curves? Draw a crest vertical curve.
* How are PVI, PVC, PVT described by stationing?
* What is recommended lane width. Explain the advantages/disadvantages of narrow lanes
* What is design hourly volume based on?
* Why are foreslopes and backslopes necessary.
* Does climate affect design speed? Yes, design speed in cold weather, snow and ice, probably lower than in summer.
# Fundamentals of Transportation/Destination Choice/Additional Problems
## Additional Questions

* What are the different kinds of models for trip distribution? How do they differ?
* What factors do conventional Trip Distribution models neglect?
* In a day, how many minutes are spent traveling for the average person, traveling to work? Why might this be stable, not stable?
* Do travelers have a travel time tolerance or a travel time budget?
* What affects travel impedance?
* If impedance increases, will willingness to travel increase or decrease? Is a person more likely to travel to a closer place or a farther place?
* Why does willingness to travel have a negative exponential form?
* Briefly describe the gravity model? How might the gravity model be extended to depend on more than just size (opportunities) and distance (impedance)?
* Why is balancing a matrix an iterative procedure?
* What importance does impedance play in balancing iterations
* Give two functions of impedance (f(Cij)) used in gravity models.
* How do you calculate impedance between zones?
* What is congested travel time?
* Conventional trip distribution models are estimated for which mode?
* How is trip distribution applied?
* What can a trip distribution curve tell you about maximum and average trip times and willingness to take trips?
* What factors are multiplied to give a resulting trip distribution curve
# Genesis Programming
## Table of Contents

* 68K Memory map
* 68000 programming considerations
* Z80 programming considerations
# Genesis Programming/68K Memory map/
## Standard

| Start address | End address | Description |
| $000000 | $3FFFFF | Cartridge ROM/RAM |
| $400000 | $7FFFFF | Reserved (used by the Sega CD and 32x) |
| $800000 | $9FFFFF | Reserved (used by the 32x?) |
| $A00000 | $A0FFFF | Z80 addressing space |
| $A10000 | $A10001 | Version register (read-only word-long) |
| $A10002 | $A10003 | Controller 1 data |
| $A10004 | $A10005 | Controller 2 data |
| $A10006 | $A10007 | Expansion port data |
| $A10008 | $A10009 | Controller 1 control |
| $A1000A | $A1000B | Controller 2 control |
| $A1000C | $A1000D | Expansion port control |
| $A1000E | $A1000F | Controller 1 serial transmit |
| $A10010 | $A10011 | Controller 1 serial receive |
| $A10012 | $A10013 | Controller 1 serial control |
| $A10014 | $A10015 | Controller 2 serial transmit |
| $A10016 | $A10017 | Controller 2 serial receive |
| $A10018 | $A10019 | Controller 2 serial control |
| $A1001A | $A1001B | Expansion port serial transmit |
| $A1001C | $A1001D | Expansion port serial receive |
| $A1001E | $A1001F | Expansion port serial control |
| $A10020 | $A10FFF | Reserved |
| $A11000 | $A11000 | Memory mode register |
| $A11002 | $A110FF | Reserved |
| $A11100 | $A11101 | Z80 bus request |
| $A11102 | $A111FF | Reserved |
| $A11200 | $A11201 | Z80 reset |
| $A11202 | $A13FFF | Reserved |
| $A14000 | $A14003 | TMSS register |
| $A14004 | $BFFFFF | Reserved |
| $C00000 | $C00001 | VDP data |
| $C00002 | $C00003 | VDP data (mirror) |
| $C00004 | $C00005 | VDP control |
| $C00006 | $C00007 | VDP control (mirror) |
| $C00008 | $C00009 | VDP HV counter |
| $C0000A | $C00010 | Reserved |
| $C00011 | $C00011 | PSG output |
| $C00012 | $FEFFFF | Reserved |
| $FF0000 | $FFFFFF | 68000 RAM |

## MegaCD Changes

The following shows changes to the 68K Memory Map with a MegaCD/SegaCD attached:
| Start address | End address | Description |
| $000000 | $01FFFF | MegaCD BIOS ROM |
| $020000 | $03FFFF | MegaCD "Program RAM" Bank Access |
| $200000 | $23FFFF | MegaCD "WORD RAM" |
| $A12000 | $A120XX | MegaCD "Gate Array" |
| $FFFD00 | $FFFDFF | MegaCD Interrupt/Exception vectors |
MegaCD BIOS ROM is always only visible to the main 68K, and decompresses a separate BIOS for the MegaCD "SubCPU" into "Program RAM". "WORD RAM" access is restricted to one 68K at a time, which is determined by a setting in the "Gate Array". "Program RAM" is $80000 bytes in size, but is only accessible by the Genesis 68K in banks of size $20000, and only when the MegaCD 68K is in "BUSREQ" (stopped). The MegaCD 68K may be stopped/reset, and the available "Program RAM" bank may be set by use of the "Gate Array".
# Genesis Programming/Z80 programming considerations
## Memory map

| Start | End | Description |
| 0000h | 1FFFh | Z80 RAM |
| 2000h | 3FFFh | Reserved |
| 4000h | 4000h | YM2612 A0 |
| 4001h | 4001h | YM2612 D0 |
| 4002h | 4002h | YM2612 A1 |
| 4003h | 4003h | YM2612 D1 |
| 4004h | 5FFFh | Reserved |
| 6000h | 6000h | Bank register |
| 6001h | 7F10h | Reserved |
| 7F11h | 7F11h | PSG |
| 7F12h | 7FFFh | Reserved |
| 8000h | FFFFh | 68000 memory bank |

## Read more

There is a separate Wikibook on Z80 Assembly.
# Genes, Technology and Policy/Preface
## Preface to the First Edition

One the many challenges facing the countries in the Asia-Pacific today is pre-paring their societies and governments for globalization and the information and communication revolution. Policy-makers, business executives, NGO activists, academics, and ordinary citizens are increasingly concerned with the need to make their societies competitive in the emergent information economy.
The e-ASEAN Task Force and the UNDP Asia Pacific Development Information Programme (UNDP-APDIP) share the belief that with enabling information and communication technologies (ICTs), countries can face the challenge of the information age. With ICTs they can leap forth to higher levels of social, economic and political development. We hope that in making this leap, policy and decision-makers, planners, researchers, development practitioners, opinion-makers, and others will find this series of e-primers on the information economy, society, and polity useful.
The e-primers aim to provide readers with a clear understanding of the various terminologies, definitions, trends, and issues associated with the information age. The primers are written in simple, easy-to-understand language. They provide examples, case studies, lessons learned, and best practices that will help planners and decision makers in addressing pertinent issues and crafting policies and strategies appropriate for the information economy.
The present series of e-primers includes the following titles:
* The Information Age
* Nets, Webs and the Information Infrastructure
* e-Commerce and e-Business
* Legal and Regulatory Issues for the Information Economy
* e-Government;
* ICT and Education
* Genes, Technology and Policy: An Introduction to Biotechnology
These e-primers are also available online at http://www.eprimers.org. and http://www.apdip.net.
The primers are brought to you by UNDP- APDIP, which seeks to create an ICT enabling environment through advocacy and policy reform in the Asia-Pacific region, and the e-ASEAN Task Force, an ICT for development initiative of the 10-member Association of Southeast Asian Nations. We welcome your views on new topics and issues on which the e-primers may be useful.
Finally, we thank all who have been involved with this series of e-primers-writers, researchers, peer reviewers and the production team.
| Roberto R. Romulo Chairman (2000-2002) e-ASEAN Task Force Manila, Philippines | Shahid Akhtar Program Coordinator UNDP-APDIP Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia http://www.apdip.net |
# Summary of Important Quantities, Equations and Concepts

Table 6.1: Summary of the symbols and units of the quantities used in Momentum :
| Units ||||||
| Quantity | Symbol | Unit | SI base units | SI base units | Direction |
| Momentum | ${\overrightarrow {p}}$ | - | kg·m·s$^{−1}$ | kg·m·s$^{−1}$ | yes |
| Mass | m | kg | kg | kg | -- |
| Velocity | ${\overrightarrow {u}}$, ${\overrightarrow {v}}$ | - | m·s$^{−1}$ | m·s$^{−1}$ | yes |
| Change in momentum | $\Delta {\overrightarrow {p}}$ | - | kg·m·s$^{−1}$ | kg·m·s$^{−1}$ | yes |
| Force | ${\overrightarrow {F}}$ | N | kg·m·s$^{−2}$ | kg·m·s$^{−2}$ | yes |
| Impulse | J | N·s | kg·m·s$^{−1}$ | kg·m·s$^{−1}$ | yes |
Momentum: The momentum of an object is defined as its mass multiplied by its velocity.
Momentum of a System: The total momentum of a system is the sum of the momenta of each of the objects in the system.
Principle of Conservation of Linear Momentum:: `The total linear momentum of an isolated system is constant' or `In an isolated system the total momentum before a collision (or explosion) is equal to the total momentum after the collision (or explosion)'.
Law of Momentum:: The applied resultant force acting on an object is equal to the rate of change of the object's momentum and this force is in the direction of the change in momentum.