OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Horticulture/Magnolia stellata

Star Magnolia :
| Binomial: | Magnolia stellata |
| Family: | Magnoliaceae |
| Type: | large shrub or small tree |
Star Magnolia, Magnolia stellata, is a very slow growing perennial shrub or small tree native to Japan with large showy white or pink flowers in early spring before the appearance of the leaves. It is closely related to Kobushi magnolia (Magnolia kobus), and is treated by many botanists as a variety or even a cultivar of that species.
Magnolia stellata is a species which may be found growing wild in certain parts of the Ise Bay area of central Honshū, Japan’s largest island, at elevations between 50m and 600m. It grows by streamsides and in moist, boggy areas with other woody plants such as Enkianthus cernuus, Corylopsis glabrescens var. gotoana and Berberis sieboldii.

## Description

This tree grows 4.6 to 6 m (15 to 20 ft) in height, and spreads to 4.6m in width at maturity. It displays upright oval growth in youth, and spreads and mounds with age.
The tree blooms at a young age, with the slightly fragrant 7–10 cm (3–4 in) flowers covering the bare plant in late winter or early spring before the leaves appear. There is natural variation within the flower color, which varies from white to rich pink; the hue of pink magnolias changes from year to year, depending on day and night air temperatures prior to and during flowering. The flowers are star shaped, with at least 12 thin, delicate tepals- some cultivars have more than 30. The leaves open bronze-green, turning to deep green as they mature, and yellow before dropping in autumn. They are oblong and about 4 in (10 cm) long by about an 1.5 in (4 cm) wide.
It produces a reddish-green, knobby aggregate fruit which is about 2 in long and matures and opens in early autumn. The fruit often drops before fully developed, but mature fruit opens by slits to reveal orange-red seeds.
Young twigs have smooth, shiny chestnut brown bark, while the main trunks have smooth, silvery gray bark. Like the saucer magnolia, it is deciduous, revealing a twiggy, naked frame in winter. Plants have thick, fleshy roots which are found fairly close to the surface and do not like disturbance.

## Growing Conditions

This species has become naturalized in parts of North America, after it was introduced in the 1860s, and is a common ornamental in Europe and much of North America. This species was first introduced to the UK in 1877 or 1878, most likely by Charles Maries, when he was collecting for Veitch’s Nursery.
Spring frosts can damage the flowers. The shrub prefers deep, acidic soil. It may be propagated by seed, or more easily by rooting cuttings taken after the flower buds have formed.

## References

* ↑ http://www.rhs.org.uk/learning/publications/pubs/garden0306/magnolia.asp
* ↑ http://www.hort.uconn.edu/Plants/m/magste/magste1.html
* ↑ http://www.floridata.com/ref/M/magno_st.cfm
* Hunt, D. (ed). 1998. Magnolias and their allies. International Dendrology Society & Magnolia Society. ISBN 0-9517234-8-0
# Horticulture/Making Raised Beds with Tractors

For large scale raised beds (for small farm and nursery operations), raised beds are most efficiently made using tractors.

## Materials

* Soil-compost mix
* Siding materials (such as stone, logs, etc.)

## Tools

* Tractor with front-loader
* Measuring rods and ropes
* Grading rake

### For log-sided beds

* Chainsaws
* Forklift tines
# Horticulture/Matricaria discoidea

Pineappleweed :
| Binomial: | Matricaria discoidea |
| Family: | Asteraceae |
| Weediness: | weedy |
Matricaria discoidea, commonly known as pineapple weed is an annual plant native to North America and NE Asia but which has become a cosmopolitan weed. According to ITIS the specific name is Matricaria discoidea DC, but many synonyms are in the literature, including M. matricarioides, M. suaveolens, and Chamomilla suaveolens.

## Description

The flower head is cone-shaped, composed of dense-packed yellowish-green corollas, and lacking ray-florets. The leaves are pinnately dissected and sweet-scented when crushed. The plant grows 3 to 12 inches (7.5 - 30 cm) high.

## Growing Conditions

The plant grows well in disturbed areas, especially those with poor, compacted soil. It can be seen blooming on footpaths, roadsides, and similar places in spring and early summer. In the USA, it can be found from central Alaska down to California and all the way to Maine.

## Uses

The flowers exude a chamomile/pineapple aroma when crushed. They are edible and have been used in salads (although they may become bitter by the time the plant blooms) and to make a herbal tea .
Pineapple weed has been used for medicinal purposes, including for relief of gastrointestinal upset, infected sores, fevers, and postpartum anemia.

## References

* ↑ http://herb.umd.umich.edu/herb/search.pl?searchstring=Matricaria+discoidea
* Robbins, W. W., Margaret K. Bellue, and Walter S. Ball. 1970. Weeds of California. Documents and Publications, Sacramento. 547 p.
* Gregory L. Tilford. 1997. Edible and Medicinal Plants of the West. Mountain Press Publishing Company, Missoula. 110 p.
* University of California, Statewide Integrated Pest Management Program
* Den virtuella floran: Matricaria discoidea distribution
# Horticulture/Melissa

Lemon Balms :
| Genus: | Melissa |
| Family: | Lamiaceae |
Melissa a genus of five species of perennial herbs native to Europe and Asia. The name Melissa is derived from a Greek word meaning bee, owing to the abundance of nectar in the flowers which attracts bees.

## Description

The stems are square, like all other plants in the mint family. The leaves are borne in opposite pairs on the stems, and are usually ovate or heart-shaped and emit a lemony scent when bruised. Axillary spikes of white or yellowish flowers appear in the summer.

## Growing conditions

They are very frost hardy plants which prefer full sun or light shade if summers are hot. They are quick growing, and look especially good along paths, herb gardens, or among ferns when grown in pots. Slightly moist, well-drained soil is best. M. officinalis has become naturalised in many parts of the world.

## Species

* Melissa axillaris (Benth.) Bakh.f.
* Melissa bicornis Klokov
* Melissa flava Benth. ex Wall.
* Melissa officinalis L.
* Melissa yunnanensis C.Y.Wu & Y.C.Huang

## Uses

The most commonly grown species of this genus is Melissa officinalis. It is native to southern Europe. It can grow up to 1.5 m high and is grown mainly for its lemon-scented leaves. Small white flowers appear in late summer, which attract bees. It spreads rapidly, and can become an invasive species if left unchecked. The leaves can be used for a calming herbal tea, fruit salads, jellies, iced tea, and a substitute for lemon peel in cooking.

## Propagation

Propagate from seed sown in spring. Variegated forms are propagated by root division or from young spring cuttings.
# Horticulture/Magnolia x soulangeana

Saucer Magnolia :
| Binomial: | Magnolia x soulangeana |
| Family: | Magnoliaceae |
The saucer magnolia is perhaps the most frequently encountered of the deciduous magnolias, planted for the heavy set of large pink flowers in early spring.
# Horticulture/Mazus reptans

Creeping Mazus :
| Binomial: | Mazus reptans |
| Family: | Phrymaceae |
| Type: | creeping perennial |
Mazus reptans is a low-growing, creeping perennial that is grown as a ground cover or between paving stones.
# Horticulture/Mealybugs

Mealybugs :
| Type: | Insect |
| Family: | Pseudococcidae |
| Order: | Hemiptera |
| Metamorphosis: | Incomplete |
| Damaging stages: | All |
| Vulnerable stages: | All |
Mealybug is the common name of insects in Pseudococcidae, a family of unarmored Scale Insects found in moist, warm climates. They feed on plant juices of greenhouse plants, house plants and some outdoor plants.

## Description

Mealybugs are sexually dimorphic, meaning that the sexes have distinct morphological differences. Females are nymphal, exhibit reduced morphology, and are wingless. The females do not change completely and are likely to be neotonic (exhibiting nymphal characteristics). Males are winged and do change completely during their lives. Since mealybugs (as well as all other Hemiptera) are hemimetabolous insects, they do not undergo complete metamorphosis in the true sense of the word. I.e. there are no clear larval, pupal and adult stages, and the wings do not develop internally. However, male mealybugs do exhibit a radical change during their life cycle, changing from wingless, ovoid nymphs to "wasp-like" flying adults.

## Symptoms and Signs

Large infestations may induce leaf drop.

## Ecology

Mealybug females feed on plant sap, normally in roots or other crevices. They attach themselves to the plant and secrete a powdery wax layer (therefore the name mealybug) used for protection while they suck the plant juices. The males on the other hand, are short-lived as they do not feed at all as adults and only live to fertilize the females. Male citrus mealy bugs fly to the females and resemble fluffy gnats.
Some species of mealybug lay their eggs in the same waxy layer used for protection in quantities of 50–100; other species are born directly from the female.
The most serious pests are mealybugs that feed on citrus; other species damage sugarcane, grapes, pineapple (Jahn et al. 2003), coffee trees, cassava, ferns, and orchids. Mealybugs only tend to be serious pests in the presences of ants because the ants protect them from predators and parasites. Mealybugs also infest some species of carnivorous plant such as Sarracenia (pitcher plants), in such cases it is difficult to eradicate them without repeated applications of insecticide such as Diazinon. .

## Control

* Pesticides: Diazinon
* Organic pesticides: Horticultural Oil, Neem Oil, Insecticidal Soap

## References

* Jahn, G. C. and J.W. Beardsley 1998. Presence / absence sampling of mealybugs, ants, and major predators in pineapple. J. Plant Protection in the Tropics 11(1):73-79.
* Jahn, Gary C., J. W. Beardsley and H. González-Hernández 2003. A review of the association of ants with mealybug wilt disease of pineapple. Proceedings of the Hawaiian Entomological Society. 36:9-28.
# HydroGeoSphere/TECPLOT

The following instructions can be used to export data generated by grok to TECPLOT.

## Mesh to tecplot

* tecfile The name of the file to which the 3-D mesh information (blocks or prisms) will be written in TECPLOT-readable format.

## Wells to tecplot

* tec_wells_file Name of the file to which the 1-D well element information will be written in TECPLOT LINE3D geometry format.

## Tiles to tecplot

* tec_tiles_file Name of the file to which the 1-D tile drain element information will be written in TECPLOT LINE3D geometry format.

## K to tecplot

* tecfile The name of the file to which the hydraulic conductivity information (blocks or prisms) will be written in TECPLOT-readable format.
They are written as cell-based (i.e. elemental) variables for each of the principal coordinate directions.

## Porosity to tecplot

* tecfile The name of the file to which the porosity information (blocks or prisms) will be written in TECPLOT-readable format.

## Tortuosity to tecplot

* tecfile The name of the file to which the tortuosity information (blocks or prisms) will be written in TECPLOT-readable format.
# HydroGeoSphere/Tecplot Output

Tecplot-formatted output files can be created for a specific boundary condition using this instruction:

## Tecplot output

This command causes node specific information about the boundary condition to be written at each output time. The results are written to a file called prefixo.bc.bcname.dat
# HydroGeoSphere/Surface Flow Hydrographs

The following instructions affect the I/O for the surface flow solution:

## Set hydrograph nodes

* label_hyd Descriptive name for the hydrograph up to 80 characters.
Chosen nodes are flagged as hydrograph nodes, at which detailed total fluid flux [L$^3$ T$^{−1}$] information is output at each timestep. Output is written to a TECPLOT-formatted file called prefixo.hydrograph.hydrograph.dat. For each timestep in the flow solution, one line will be written to the file. Each line contains the time, surface domain flux, porous media flux and total flux.
# HydroGeoSphere/Surface Loading

It is a nodal property, but because surface loading is applied to all nodes of a vertical column of nodes, only one node of the column needs to be chosen.

## Specified stress variation

* npanel Number of panels in the time-variable specified stress function. For each panel, enter the following:
       (a) ton_val, bc_val Time on [T] and specified stress variation [L T$^{−1}$].
Chosen nodes in the currently active media (see Section 5.8.1) are assigned a time-variable specified stress variation value. The specified stress variation value corresponds to the term:
    ${\frac {{\partial }({\sigma }_{zz}/{\rho }g)}{{\partial }t}}$ (Equation 5.10)
which has units of [L T$^{−1}$] and corresponds to an equivalent freshwater head change per unit time.

## Specified stress variation from file

* fname Name of the file which contains the list of nodes to which specified stress variation will be assigned. It should contain the following data for each node:
* nde, npanel Node number, number of panels
       (a) ton_val, bc_val Time on [T], stress variation [L T$^{−1}$].
Nodes listed in the file and in the currently active media (see Section 5.8.1) are assigned a unique stress variation value. The specified stress variation value is described in the previous command.

## Echo 1d loading conditions

If this command is included in the input file, a listing of the loading conditions will be issued in the prefixo.eco file.
# HydroGeoSphere/Surface Runoff
## Default surface flow transport values

By default, all surface flow zones (and elements) in the domain will be assigned default transport properties which are listed in Table 5.24:
Table 5.24: Default Values for Surface Flow Transport Properties :
| Parameter | Value | Unit |
| Longitudinal dispersivity ${\alpha }_{lo}$ | 1.0 | m |
| Transverse dispersivity ${\alpha }_{to}$ | 1.0 | m |
| Coupling dispersivity | 0.0 | m |
The following instructions can be applied to the surface flow domain, as discussed in Section 5.8.1, to modify the default transport parameters. For each instruction we will indicate its scope (i.e. .grok, .oprops). Recall that if an instruction is used in the prefix.grok file, it will affect the current set of chosen zones, while in a properties (e.g. .oprops) file, it will only affect the named material of which it is a part.

## Longitudinal dispersivity

Scope: .grok .oprops
* val Longitudinal dispersivity [L], ${\alpha }_{lo}$. Analogous to ${\alpha }_{l}$ in Equation 2.97.

## Transverse dispersivity

Scope: .grok .oprops
* val Horizontal component of the transverse dispersivity [L], ${\alpha }_{t}$. Analogous to ${\alpha }_{t}$ in Equation 2.97.

## Coupling dispersivity

Scope: .grok .oprops
* val Dispersivity value [L] to be applied during exchange between the overland flow and subsurface domains.
Default value is 0.0.

## Dry albedo

Scope: .grok .oprops
* Value Dry albedo for soil type, ${\alpha }_{dry}$ in Equation 2.123. Default value is 0.35.

## Saturated albedo

Scope: .grok .oprops
* Value Saturated albedo for soil type, ${\alpha }_{sat}$ in Equation 2.123. Default value is 0.18

## Heat coupling length

Scope: .grok .oprops
* Value The heat coupling length [L], is the depth of the surface/subsurface exchange zone used to compute ${\alpha }_{o}$ in Equation 2.142. Default value is 1.0 × 10$^{−4}$ m.
# HydroGeoSphere/Tetrahedral Element Grids
## Tetrahedra

Subdivides block elements into tetrahedra (4-node) elements. If the grid does not contain block elements the preprocessor will stop and you will be issued a warning.
Block elements must be orthogonal or nearly so in order to avoid introducing numerical error, while tetrahedral elements can handle irregular geometries. The subdivision into tetrahedra is carried out by HydroGeoSphere during problem solution and is transparent to the user. Faces which can be designated as fracture elements are restricted to the original block elements. This is merely a matter of convenience and future versions may allow tetrahedral element faces to be designated as fractures.
# HydroGeoSphere/Tile Drains

Tile drains, as outlined in Section 2.3.2.3, can be set up using the following instructions. Currently, this option requires that the system be variably-saturated.

## Default Tile Drain Properties

The default tile drain values, Table 5.9, can be and are recommended to be modified to fit the model application.
Table 5.9: Default Values for Tile Drain Properties :
| Parameter | Value | Unit |
| Screen Radius | 1 × 10$^{−5}$ | m |
| Coupled Conductivity | 7.438 × 10$^{−5}$ | m s$^{−1}$ |
| Coupled Length | 1 × 10$^{−4}$ | m |
| Coupled Scheme | Shared | - |
| Tile Drain Type | Hagen-Poiseuille | - |
| Manning's Friction Coefficient | 0.0548 | m$^{−1/3}$ s |
| Hazen Williams Coefficient | 130 | m$^{0.37}$ s$^{−1}$ |

## Example Tile Drain Instructions

As an example, the following set of instructions, with prefix.tprops file Figure 5.13, could be inserted into the prefix.grok file to produce a horizontal tile drain:
The tile domain example opens the property file prefix.tprops, shown in Figure 5.13, and creates a 28 m long screen between (15, 1, 2) and (15, 29, 2) with a pump intake located at (15, 15, 2). The tile one properties are read into grok and a steady pumping rate is set at -2 m$^3$ s$^{−1}$.
    Figure 5.13: Sample tile drain domain property file prefix.tprops

## Radius

Scope: .grok .wprops
* TileScreenRadius Tile drain screen radius [L].
The radius of the screen interval of the tile drain.

## Infilled

Scope: .grok .wprops
This command should be included in the input file for an infilled tile drain.

## Hagen Poiseuille

Scope: .grok .wprops
This command should be included in the input for the Hagen Poiseuille flow option.

## Hazen Williams

Scope: .grok .wprops
This command should be included in the input file for the Hazen Williams flow option.

## Manning

Scope: .grok .wprops
This command should be included in the input file for the Manning flow option.

## Friction

Scope: .grok .wprops
* tile_friction Manning’s friction for tile drains.

## Hazen Williams coefficient

Scope: .grok .wprops
* tile_hw_coeffient Hazen-Williams coefficient for tile drains.

## Dual nodes for tiles

Scope: .grok .wprops
This instruction causes the tile drain flow scheme to use dual node approach.

## Coupling conductivity

Scope: .grok .wprops
* TilePropsCplCond Coupling conductivity for tile [L T$^{−1}$].
Coupling conductivity parameter only required for the dual node approach for tile drains.

## Coupling length

Scope: .grok .wprops
* TilePropsCplLngth Coupling length for tile drain [L].
Coupling length parameter only required for the dual node approach for tile drains.
# HydroGeoSphere/Surface Flow Conditions

By default, HydroGeoSphere does not simulate surface flow unless a surface flow zone is created using the methods and instructions outlined in Section 5.8.2.

## Dual nodes for surface flow

Causes HydroGeoSphere to use the dual-node approach to define the discrete surface flow domain. By default, the common node approach is used.
# HydroGeoSphere/Tabular Constitutive Relationships

The instructions described here can be used to modify the default variably-saturated properties for a porous medium, discrete fracture or dual continuum. Before issuing them it is necessary to choose which type of medium they should be applied to, as discussed in Section 5.8.1.
For each instruction we will again indicate its scope (i.e. .grok, .mprops, .dprops, .fprops). Recall that if an instruction is used in the prefix.grok file, it will affect the current set of chosen zones, while in a properties (e.g. .mprops) file, it will only affect the named material of which it is a part.

## Unsaturated tables

Scope: .grok .mprops .fprops .dprops
Causes grok to use tables to describe the constitutive relationships for the medium and to begin reading a group of instructions that define the tables until it encounters an End instruction.
If no further instructions are issued, the default tabular parameter values given in Table 5.12, Table 5.14 and Table 5.17 will be used for porous media, discrete fractures and dual continua respectively.
In the case of porous and dual media, this instruction overrides the pseudo-soil default so that relative permeability factors are applied to both horizontal and vertical flow.
The following instructions can be used to modify the default tables which define the constitutive relationships:

## Pressure-saturation

Scope: .grok .mprops .fprops .dprops
* pressure(1), saturation(1) First entry.
* pressure(2), saturation(2) Second entry.
    ...etc.
    n. pressure(n), saturation(n) nth entry.
    n+1. end The string 'end'
Paired values of pressure ${\psi }$ and saturation $S$ should be entered from lowest pressure (i.e. most negative) to highest pressure, usually zero. The last line of the table must be an end card, and the number of entries in the list are counted automatically to determine the table size.

## Saturation-relative k

Scope: .grok .mprops .fprops .dprops
* saturation(1), relative permeability(1) First entry.
* saturation(2), relative permeability(2) Second entry.
    ...etc.
    n. saturation(n), relative permeability(n) nth entry.
    n+1. end The string 'end'
Paired values of saturation $S$ and relative permeability $k_{rw}$ should be entered from lowest to highest saturation. The last line of the table must be an end card, and the number of entries in the list are counted automatically to determine the table size.
# Na'vi/Bibliography

An early basic description of Naʼvi by Paul Frommer is a short grammatical sketch,
Discussion on points of grammar and basic language lessons are presented on Frommer's blog,
The appendix of the so-called "Survival Guide" is the best published source of vocabulary:
Although most of the purported Naʼvi in the main text is spurious (though it does include two of the four songs that Frommer translated into Naʼvi for Cameron, the Hunting Song and the Weaving Song), the appendix is reasonably accurate, though significantly less reliable and complete than the dictionaries here at Wikibooks. That appendix is a copy of an early draught of Frommer's glossary that he has since modified. Neu "to want", for example, is now new. Some of the words for Naʼvi foods which did not make it into the final cut of the film have been reassigned to new meanings, such as kxener "smoke".
The LearnNaʼvi community keeps a list of vocabulary with attested usage online here. LearnNaʼvi also has a dictionary which may sometimes be more up to date than the one here.
← Glossary
# NZ Level 8: Biological sciences/Overview

As we face the excitement of new scientific discoveries and the challenges these pose, it is necessary that we equip ourselves with a good understanding of scientific ideas. A really good knowledge base will allow us to make decisions free of superstition and misinformation as the 21st century proceeds.
Biology is a fascinating subject dealing with the living world. This is text is based on the latest New Zealand Curriculum to ensure it is sustainable in the changing face of New Zealand education.
The open source nature of this text empowers learners to actively contribute and participate in the learning process. Success in science depends on what happens during the journey, rather than the destination and this open source alternative learning resource will engage senior science learners, nurturing, inspiring and empowering a new generation of passionate global citizens in this rapidly changing world.