# X86 Assembly/Control Flow

Almost all programming languages have the ability to change the order in which statements are evaluated, and assembly is no exception. The instruction pointer (EIP) register contains the address of the next instruction to be executed. To change the flow of control, the programmer must be able to modify the value of EIP. This is where control flow functions come in.

## Comparison Instructions

Performs a bit-wise logical and on accumulator and reference the result of which we will refer to as commonBits and sets the ZF(zero), SF(sign) and PF (parity) flags based on commonBits. CommonBits is then discarded.
Operands
reference
* Register
* Immediate
accumulator
* Register (where AL/AX/EAX can be encoded specially if reference is an immediate value)
* Memory
Modified flags
* SF ≔ MostSignificantBit(commonBits)
* ZF ≔ (commonBits = 0), so a set ZF means, accumulator and reference do not have any set bits in common
* PF ≔ BitWiseXorNor(commonBits[Max-1:0]), so PF is set if and only if commonBits[Max-1:0] has an even number of 1 bits
* CF ≔ 0
* OF ≔ 0
* AF is undefined
Application
* passing the same register twice: test rax, rax
** SF becomes the sign of rax, which is a simple test for non-negativity
** ZF is set if rax is zero
** PF is set if rax has an even number of set bits
Performs a comparison operation between minuend and subtrahend. The comparison is performed by a (signed) subtraction of subtrahend from minuend, the results of which can be called difference. Difference is then discarded. If subtrahend is an immediate value it will be sign extended to the length of minuend. The EFLAGS register is set in the same manner as a sub instruction.
Note that the GAS/AT&T syntax can be rather confusing, as for example cmp $0, %rax followed by jl branch will branch if %rax < 0 (and not the opposite as might be expected from the order of the operands).
Operands
minuend
* AL/AX/EAX (only if subtrahend is immediate)
* Register
* Memory
subtrahend
* Register
* Immediate
* Memory
Modified flags
* SF ≔ MostSignificantBit(difference), so an unset SF means the difference is non-negative (minuend ≥ subtrahend [NB: signed comparison])
* ZF ≔ (difference = 0)
* PF ≔ BitWiseXorNor(difference[Max-1:0])
* CF, OF and AF

## Jump Instructions

The jump instructions allow the programmer to (indirectly) set the value of the EIP register. The location passed as the argument is usually a label. The first instruction executed after the jump is the instruction immediately following the label. All of the jump instructions, with the exception of jmp, are conditional jumps, meaning that program flow is diverted only if a condition is true. These instructions are often used after a comparison instruction (see above), but since many other instructions set flags, this order is not required.
See chapter “X86 architecture”, § “EFLAGS register” for more information about the flags and their meaning.

### Unconditional Jumps

jmp loc
Loads EIP with the specified address (i.e. the next instruction executed will be the one specified by jmp).

### Jump if Equal

je loc
ZF = 1
Loads EIP with the specified address, if operands of previous cmp instruction are equal. je is identical to jz. For example:

### Jump if Not Equal

jne loc
ZF = 0
Loads EIP with the specified address, if operands of previous cmp instruction are not equal. jne is identical to jnz

### Jump if Greater

jg loc
SF = OF and ZF = 0
Loads EIP with the specified address, if the minuend of the previous cmp instruction is greater than the second (performs signed comparison).

### Jump if Greater or Equal

jge loc
SF = OF or ZF = 1
Loads EIP with the specified address, if the minuend of the of previous cmp instruction is greater than or equal to the subtrahend (performs signed comparison).

### Jump if Above (unsigned comparison)

ja loc
CF = 0 and ZF = 0
Loads EIP with the specified address, if the minuend of the previous cmp instruction is greater than the subtrahend. ja is the same as jg, except that it performs an unsigned comparison.
That means, the following piece of code always jumps (unless rbx is -1, too), because negative one is represented as all bits set in the two's complement.
Interpreting all bits set (without treating any bit as the sign) has the value 2ⁿ-1 (where n is the length of the register). That is the largest unsigned value a register can hold.

### Jump if Above or Equal (unsigned comparison)

jae loc
CF = 0 or ZF = 1
Loads EIP with the specified address, if the minuend of previous cmp instruction is greater than or equal to the subtrahend. jae is the same as jge, except that it performs an unsigned comparison.

### Jump if Lesser

jl loc
The criterion required for a jl is that SF ≠ OF. It loads EIP with the specified address, if the criterion is met. So either SF or OF can be set, but not both in order to satisfy this criterion. If we take the sub (which is basically what a cmp does) instruction as an example, we have:
    minuend - subtrahend
With respect to sub and cmp there are several cases that fulfill this criterion:
* minuend < subtrahend and the operation does not have overflow
* minuend > subtrahend and the operation has an overflow
In the first case SF will be set but not OF and in second case OF will be set but not SF since the overflow will reset the most significant bit to zero and thus preventing SF being set. The SF ≠ OF criterion avoids the cases where:
* minuend > subtrahend and the operation does not have overflow
* minuend < subtrahend and the operation has an overflow
* minuend = subtrahend
In the first case neither SF nor OF are set, in the second case OF will be set and SF will be set since the overflow will reset the most significant bit to one and in the last case neither SF nor OF will be set.

### Jump if Less or Equal

jle loc
SF ≠ OF or ZF = 1.
Loads EIP with the specified address, if the minuend of previous cmp instruction is lesser than or equal to the subtrahend. See the jl section for a more detailed description of the criteria.

### Jump if Below (unsigned comparison)

jb loc
CF = 1
Loads EIP with the specified address, if first operand of previous CMP instruction is lesser than the second. jb is the same as jl, except that it performs an unsigned comparison.

### Jump if Below or Equal (unsigned comparison)

jbe loc
CF = 1 or ZF = 1
Loads EIP with the specified address, if minuend of previous cmp instruction is lesser than or equal to the subtrahend. jbe is the same as jle, except that it performs an unsigned comparison.

### Jump if Zero

jz loc
ZF = 1
Loads EIP with the specified address, if the zero bit is set from a previous arithmetic expression. jz is identical to je.

### Jump if Not Zero

jnz loc
ZF = 0
Loads EIP with the specified address, if the zero bit is not set from a previous arithmetic expression. jnz is identical to jne.

### Jump if Signed

js loc
SF = 1
Loads EIP with the specified address, if the sign bit is set from a previous arithmetic expression.

### Jump if Not Signed

jns loc
SF = 0
Loads EIP with the specified address, if the sign bit is not set from a previous arithmetic expression.

### Jump if Carry

jc loc
CF = 1
Loads EIP with the specified address, if the carry bit is set from a previous arithmetic expression.

### Jump if Not Carry

jnc loc
CF = 0
Loads EIP with the specified address, if the carry bit is not set from a previous arithmetic expression.

### Jump if Overflow

jo loc
OF = 1
Loads EIP with the specified address, if the overflow bit is set on a previous arithmetic expression.

### Jump if Not Overflow

jno loc
OF = 0
Loads EIP with the specified address, if the overflow bit is not set on a previous arithmetic expression.

### Jump if counter register is zero

jcxz loc
CX = 0
jecxz loc
ECX = 0
jrcxz loc
RCX = 0
Loads EIP with the specified address if the counter register is zero.

#### Application

* The existence of this instruction makes the counter register particularly suitable for holding (high-level language) pointers: In most programming languages the “null pointer”, an invalid pointer, is implemented by the numeric value 0. Usually, you do not want to dereference such a null pointer as the result will be bogus or even cause a GPF. By jumping away, with jecx, to some code handling this error, you can avoid running into such a situation before you attempt to dereference the pointer value. You do not need an extra test ecx, ecx.
* If you are using the loop instruction to implement a loop, but it is possible the requested number of iteration is zero, you may want to insert a jecx before the loop’s body. Otherwise, loop will decrement zero, thus ending up doing 2$^{32}$ iterations.

## Function Calls

call proc
Pushes the address of the instruction that follows the call call, i.e. usually the next line in your source code, onto the top of the stack, and then jumps to the specified location. This is used mostly for subroutines.
ret [val]
Pops the next value on the stack into EIP, and then pops the specified number of bytes off the stack. If val is not supplied, the instruction will not pop any values off the stack after returning.

## Loop Instructions

loop arg
The loop instruction decrements ECX and jumps to the address specified by arg unless decrementing ECX caused its value to become zero. For example:
loop does not set any flags.
loopcc arg
These loop instructions decrement ECX and jump to the address specified by arg if their condition is satisfied (that is, a specific flag is set), unless decrementing ECX caused its value to become zero.
* loope loop if equal
* loopne loop if not equal
* loopnz loop if not zero
* loopz loop if zero
That way, only testing for a non-zero ECX can be combined with testing ZF. Other flags can not be tested for, say there is no loopnc “loop while ECX ≠ 0 and CF unset”.

## Enter and Leave

enter arg
enter creates a stack frame with the specified amount of space allocated on the stack.
leave
leave destroys the current stack frame, and restores the previous frame. Using Intel syntax this is equivalent to:
This will set EBP and ESP to their respective value before the function prologue began therefore reversing any modification to the stack that took place during the prologue.

## Other Control Instructions

hlt
Halts the processor. Execution will be resumed after processing next hardware interrupt, unless IF is cleared.
nop
No operation. This instruction doesn't do anything, but wastes (an) instruction cycle(s) in the processor.
This instruction is often represented as an xchg operation with the operands EAX and EAX (an operation without side-effects), because there is no designated opcode for doing nothing. This just as a passing remark, so that you do not get confused with disassembled code.
lock
Asserts #LOCK prefix on next instruction.
wait
Waits for the FPU to finish its last calculation.