OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Word formation/Compounding

Compounding is the process which probably characterises English the most. Compounds are formed by combining two, or more, already existing words into a new one. The graphical form of its constituents remains unaltered (which is not always the case for their phonological form — changes often occur on the level of suprafixes, that is regarding tone or stress): chairlift, ashtray, fast-food, dry-clean, sex symbol, sewage disposal works. English compounds very in their orthography and can be constructed out of more than two constituents. They can be either spelled together, separately or be hyphenised — the rules regarding a preferred form are not clearly internalised, although there are some tendencies in frequency of particular forms.

## Structure

What is common for compounds, however, is their structure. Each consists of a head and a modifier. The head of a compound is the part that is more important than the other in a way it determines the word-class of the whole word and takes inflectional endings. It also follows the general rule of importance of meaning — that is, the more meaningful or important a constituent is, the more likely it will be placed at the end of a given structure. Hence, we can conclude that in English compounds are generally rightheaded — in the example of fast-food, the whole word denotes 'a kind of food' rather than any attempt to describe a way of 'being fast'. Also, since the morpheme food is a noun, the whole word belongs to the very same word-class. What remains is the lefthand of a compound, namely the modifier. Modifiers are characterised by being applied stress onto, which helps us distinguish them from other constructs — a 'blackboard is 'a board that teachers write on', while a black 'board is any board that happens to be black — which is not necessarily true for the former.

## Productivity

The vast majority of English compounds are nouns. However, the productivity of this process allows to create items that vary greatly in word classes they belong to — there exists a considerable number of combinations of grammatical categories one can choose from when merging them into compounds, and this is the basis for establishing the primary classification of compounds. There is a category of compounds, though, that contain constituents of a slightly different character. What is meant here is that they not only can be attached to bases like bound morphemes (affix-like behaviour), but can also be combined with themselves. These abound in the medical and scientific terminology and often stem from Greek or Latin, and some examples include astro-, electro-, hydro-, -ology, -photo, bio-. What is more, they often function on their own in the linguistic word, which effectively narrows the meaning of a newly-coined word that is created by combing these segments. Such constituents are labelled 'combining forms' and form a structure called neo-classical compounds.

## References

* ↑ Szymanek, Bogdan (1998). Introduction to Morphological Analysis. p. 41.
* ↑ Bauer, Laurie (1983). English Word-Formation. p. 202.
# Scala/Access modifiers

Scala provides several access modifiers. Access modifiers can be used to change in which contexts the members of classes, objects, traits and packages can be accessed. Limiting access to members can help separate interface from implementation, ensure and verify invariants and preserve the integrity of members.

## Access modifiers

An access modifier changes when a member can be referenced. Attempts at referencing an in-accessible member causes a compile-time error.

### Public

The default access modifier for members is the "public" access modifier. Members with "public" access can be accessed from anywhere. There is no keyword for "public" access.

### Private

The "private" access modifier prevents access anywhere outside the scope of the member's definition:
A class named "StopWatch" is defined in the first part. The first member definition of the class is "private var seconds = 0". The keyword "private" is used before the "var" declaration to indicate that the following variable, here "seconds", has private access. This means that it can only be accessed inside the scope of its containing class, "StopWatch". The methods "addSeconds" and "currentSeconds" respectively modifies and retrieves "seconds". Note that "addSeconds" prevents negative values from being added to "seconds". The lines following the class definition instantiates an instance of the class "StopWatch", and calls the different methods. It is not possible to subtract from "seconds" using the "addSeconds" method, and attempts at manipulating "seconds" by directly referring to it outside of "StopWatch" fails at compile-time. Thus, the invariant that requires that "seconds" is 0 or positive is always obeyed, assuming no overflows.
# Scala/Function literals

It often occurs that a function is defined only to be used once. Since it is only defined once, it is somewhat superfluous to give it a name. To avoid repeatedly naming and using functions once, there exists a facility to just avoid naming them at all. These are called anonymous functions or function literals. A simple example of a function turned into an anonymous version:
The two functions above are effectively the same, except that the second one does not have a name. But the above example is not very exciting. So let's see it in action by applying using it in a higher-order function:
Quite a bit shorter, since we previously had to write "isEqualToFour" twice, and use a "def". But it can be shorter. Since the function literal is used inside a function, the Scala compiler can infer the argument types:
Much better. But the "a" is basically a throw-away name. When using a function literal inside a higher-order function, instead of defining the arguments, you can just write an expression that uses "_" for the arguments:
This version is about as concise as it gets. The rules for using "_" is that the first-time use of "_" refers to the first argument, the second-time use of "_" refers to the second argument, and so on. So the following example won't work, since the function literal is expected to take just one argument, but the use of "_" twice means that the function literal has two arguments:
# Scala/Currying

From wikipedia: In w:mathematics and w:computer science, currying [schönfinkeling] is the technique of transforming a function that takes multiple arguments (or a w:tuple of arguments) in such a way that it can be called as a chain of functions, each with a single argument (w:partial application). It was originated by w:Moses Schönfinkel and later worked out by w:Haskell Curry.
Functional languages allow the partial application of functions with currying, for example we can currify operators:
And the result of timesthree(4) will be 12.
This allows defining new functions easily by passing only some of the arguments that the curried function needs. These functions are normal functions that can be used in any other higher order function (e.g. map).
Here are some examples of curried function definitions and invocations:
Note that the function nocurrysum is not curried but we can create a curried function by specifying an empty parameters (_) indicating their type.

## References

* ↑ Reynolds, John C. (1998). "Definitional Interpreters for Higher-Order Programming Languages". Higher-Order and Symbolic Computation. 11 (4): 374. doi:10.1023/A:1010027404223. In the last line we have used a trick called Currying (after the logician H. Curry) to solve the problem of introducing a binary operation into a language where all functions must accept a single argument. (The referee comments that although "Currying" is tastier, "Schönfinkeling" might be more accurate.) {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
* ↑ Kenneth Slonneger and Barry L. Kurtz. Formal Syntax and Semantics of Programming Languages. p. 144.
* ↑ Strachey, Christopher (2000). "Fundamental Concepts in Programming Languages". Higher-Order and Symbolic Computation. 13: 11–49. doi:10.1023/A:1010000313106. There is a device originated by Schönfinkel, for reducing operators with several operands to the successive application of single operand operators. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help) (Reprinted lecture notes from 1967.)
* ↑ Henk Barendregt, Erik Barendsen, "Introduction to Lambda Calculus", March 2000, page 8.
* ↑ Curry, Haskell (1958). Combinatory logic. Vol. I (2 ed.). Amsterdam, Netherlands: North-Holland Publishing Company. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
# Scala/Expressions, Not Statements
## Simple Conditional Branching

Frequently, we need to make a simple decision regarding which value a variable should instantiate to. Take for example a somewhat artificial case:
At first sight it does not seem so bad. But we can do better if the branching itself evaluates a value.
In fact, Java/C# provides you with the (...) ? (...) : (...) syntax just because it's very handy at times.
Often this construct saves the Scala programmer from inventing a silly name for a short-lived variable. Perhaps it's equally important that it does not assign a silly value to it to start with.
Of course, if the value is needed more than once you probably should introduce a value. Even then,
This does not prevent you from using if ... else ... as statements. Statements, after all, are expressions.

## Scaling It Up

Understandably if ... else if ... else ... chains are just as common, and they work just as fine in Scala. We might, for a finer result, try,
But more than often we need to branch on values rather than conditions. Basically that's why we have switch in Java/C#. Scala uses match for this,
Several things look different. For one, these cases do not use break to indicate the end of a branch. You don't have a fall through. Not that you need to fall through. They make programs harder to read and reason about. You can, however, group equivalent cases so that the principal use of falling through switch statements can be handled. Although Scala does not have the default keyword, the underscore reads "anything else", so to speak.
If you, for some reason, try this in Java 1.6 or lower, you'll probably notice another difference. switch only handles primitive types (and String since Java 1.7) so a straightforward translation will have to use if chains with a couple of equals calls. Scala uses equals to match cases for objects to make the code cleaner to read.
We will have to say more on match here and there in this book. For now, you probably will appreciate the ability to mix conditionals and cases to handle very special cases, like,
Although to make sense, this case should sit above the default case.

## Trying And Failing

Even a try ... catch ... block is an expression in Scala and this can result in remarkably readable code:
As an aside, note that catch looks very much like match (and the underscore here means we don't care which specific exception was thrown).
# Scala/Functions
## Function basics

Function definitions in Scala are quite flexible and still somewhat concise. Let's look at a simple function definition:
In the above, the "def" keyword is used to start the definition of the function. After the "def" keyword, the name of the function follows, in this case "simpleFunction". "=" is used to indicate that the function has a return value. After the "=" comes an expression of some sort, indicating the body of the function, which in this case is a 3. We then call the function by simply writing its name, and print the result. Note that since the function has no parameters, we don't use "" to call it.
Since scopes are expressions, and the last statement in the scope is the result value of the scope, we can write a more advanced function as follows:
The final statement "a*a" is an expression, and thus becomes the result value of the scope, and since the scope is the expression of the function, it becomes the return value of the function. If the final statement in the scope had been a non-expression statement, the return type would have been "Unit", indicating no return value, as seen here:
Since the function has no return value, but only has side-effects, it is considered good style to indicate this in the function definition. Instead of using "=" to indicate the body of the function, it is possible to just use a scope:
Independent of what value the last expression have, a function that forgoes the "=" will always have the return type "Unit".
The above functions are all a bit boring, since they don't take any arguments. Functions are given argument lists by appending a "" after the name, like so:
Each argument in the function is separated by a ",", and calling the functions requires using the "" and putting the arguments in the right order. Note that the type annotations for the arguments are mandatory.
As you may have noted in the above, the return type was never explicitly declared. The reason is that the Scala compiler can often infer the right return type. If for some reason you want to declare it explicitly, it can be done by putting it between the last parameter list and the start of the body (denoted by either "=" or "{"), like so:
A common case where the result type needs to be explicitly declared (as of Scala 2.9.1) is for recursive functions, namely functions that call themselves. The basic example is the factorial function:

## Function names

TODO: Syntax regarding names of functions.

## Prefix functions

TODO: Syntax regarding prefix and infix functions.

## Function precedence

TODO: Syntax regarding function precedence as well as ":".

## Function types

TODO: Types of functions, for instance "Int => Double" or "(String => String) => String".
# Sustainable Business/Keeping track of it all

ABOUT THIS BOOK | THE BUSINESS PLAN | BOOKLETS | PRINT THIS BOOK

## The money

A statement on the need for accurate and up-to-date administration.
To use or not to use accounting software? Accounting software is now not expensive and not too difficult to use. Is it appropriate for your business?
Cost savings? Complete data to an accountant

### Income
#### Bank Reconciliations

did the money received actually get banked? has everything in the bank been reflected in our accounting?
Download bank statements and check daily that the deposits you think should be made actually get made. (did the debtor pay - was the deposit into you account the amount you filled out on the deposit slip)

#### Monitoring sales

What are the trends
* from week to week
* from month to month
* from year to year
* what products sell well?
* what products do not sell well?

#### Debtors

How long does it take to convert sales into money in our bank account?

### Tax
## The Communuity

Keep a log book for things you do for the community. Sponsoring community events, hosting events, taking an initiative.
Make a plan for things you would like to do for the community.
how do we record the free talk to the community.

### You and your staff

Their friends and families are important to your business and your business is important to them.

### Stakeholders

Businesses in the area that compliment yours, or that direct customers to you or have customers directed to them from you.

### Suppliers

Well managed supplier relationships are particularly helpful when there is a sudden change to a businesses sales patterns. Suppliers that have been paid on time and involved in your business and its progress are aften only to happy to extend credit terms to help with a short term cash shortfall.

### Neighbours

Businesses or residents that operate or live in close proximity to you.

### The region

The people in the region in which you operate are affected in various direct and indirect ways by your business

### The state or nation
## The Environment
### The eco system

how do we record the impact of a car trip or a plane journey? or how do we record the benefit of the bike trip.? sold plastic to the recycler and dot tipped it into landfill.
do you need a bag.
# Tetum/Introduction
## Introduction

Tetum is one of the two official languages of East Timor (Timor-Leste), the other one being Portuguese. It is worth noting that a significant number of people also speak Indonesian, English, Cantonese, or one the other 15 indigenous languages.
For several centuries, East Timor was a Portuguese colony, because of that fact Tetum gained many similarities to that language. Eventually, East Timor was annexed by Indonesia. After a protracted fight for independence, the people was allowed to chose via a referendum. Independence was finally gained and East Timor became the first democracy of the new millennium.
in Portuguese O Tétum é uma das duas línguas oficiais de Timor-Leste, a outra é o Português. Vale a pena notar que existe um número significante de pessoas que também falam Indonésio, Inglês, Cantonês ou um dos outros 15 idiomas locais.
Durante vários séculos, Timor Leste foi uma colónia portuguesa, por esse motivo, o Tétum adquiriu varias similaridades com essa língua. Por último, o Timor Leste foi anexado pela Indonésia. Após uma prolongada luta pela independência, foi permitido ao povo fazer a sua escolha por via de um referendo. A independência foi finalmente ganha e Timor Leste tornou-se na primeira democracia do novo milenário.
# Tetum/Numbers
## Cardinal Numbers

* ida one
* rua two
* tolu three
* haat four
* lima five
* neen six
* hitu seven
* ualu eight
* sia nine
* sanulu ten
* sanulu-resin-ida eleven
* sanulu-resin-rua twelve
* sanulu-resin-tolu thirteen
* sanulu-resin-haat fourteen
* sanulu-resin-lima fifteen
* sanulu-resin-neen sixteen
* sanulu-resin-hitu seventeen
* sanulu-resin-ualu eighteen
* sanulu-resin-sia nineteen
* ruanulu twenty
* tolunulu thirty
* haatnulu forty
* limanulu fifty
* neennulu sixty
* hitunulu seventy
* ualunulu eighty
* sianulu ninety
* atus ida one hundred
* atus rua two hundred
* atus tolu three hundred
* atus haat four hundred
* atus lima five hundred
* atus neen six hundred
* atus hitu seven hundred
* atus ualu eight hundred
* atus sia nine hundred
* rihun ida one thousand
* rihun rua two thousand
* rihun tolu three thousand
# The Lyrics of Henry VIII/Whoso that wyll hym selff applye, Rysby

[ff. 27$^v$-28$^r$]
Whoso that wyll hym selff applye. To passe the tyme of youth Ioly Auaunce hym to the companye. Of lusty bloddys and cheualry
Rysbye

## Textual Commentary

“Whoso that wyll hym selff applye” is a lyric of invitation to a tournament, perhaps a tournament song in itself. The “lusty” (l. 4) spirit of the song, and its explicit mention of “youth” (l. 2), echo many of Henry’s own lyrics of the first few years of his reign.
    2 youth See Henry’s songs on youth, “Pastyme with good companye” (H 5), “The tyme of youthe is to be spent” (H 19), “Though sum saith that yough rulyth me” (H 51), and “Lusti yough shuld vs ensue” (H 16).
    4 lusty bloddys Those with lusty (young, energetic) blood, gallants. cheualry Chivalry.
This piece is through-set for four voices.
“Whoso that wyll hym selff applye” is indexed in Robbins Index & Suppl. 4143.8 and Ringler MS TM1978. It is reprinted in Flügel Anglia 233, Stevens M&P 392, and Stevens MCH8 21.

## Textual Notes
### Texts Collated

H$^{1,2,3,4}$ (ff. 27$^v$–28$^r$).
    4 Of ~ cheualry] Of ~ cheualry off lusty bloddys and cheualry. H$^{1,2,3}$
# The Lyrics of Henry VIII/Wherto shuld I expresse, Henry VIII

[ff. 51$^v$-52$^r$]
The Kynge .H.viij.
| Early Modern English | Modern English |
| Wherto shuld I expresse | Whereto should I express |
| my inward heuynes | My inward heaviness? |
| no myrth can make me fayn | No mirth can make me fain, |
| tyl that we mete Agayne | 'Till that we meet again. |
| Do way dere hart not so | Do way, dear heart, not so, |
| let no thought yow dysmaye | Let no thought you dismay. |
| Thow ye now parte me fro: | Though you now part me from, |
| we shall mete when we may. | We shall meet when we may. |
| when I remembyr me: | When I remember me |
| of yor most gentyll mynde. | Of your most gentle mind, |
| It may in no wyse agre: | It may in no wise agree |
| that I shuld be vnkynde. | That I should be unkind. |
| The daise delectale: | The daisy delectable, |
| the violett wan and blo. | The violet waning and blue, |
| Ye ar not varable: | You are not variable -- |
| I loue you and no mo. | I love you and no more. |
| I make you fast and sure: | I make you fast and sure; |
| it ys to me gret payne. | It is to me great pain |
| Thus longe to endure: | Thus long to endure |
| tyll that we mete agayne. | 'Till that we meet again. |

## Textual Commentary

“Wherto shuld I expresse” is a song of departure, with two speakers. The first stanza laments the lover’s leaving. In what follows, his lady answers by soothing him and assuring him of her devotion and the pain she will share with him until they reunite.
    3 fayn Glad, rejoiced, well-pleased (OED a A.1).
    13 delectale Delectable.
    14 wan and blo Pale (pale [OED a 4.e]) and blue (blackish blue, livid, leaden-coloured [OED a]); perhaps associated with the pale complexion of the steretypical lover, suffering in the throes of love’s pain; cf., also, the words of Magnificence in Skelton’s drama of the same name, who comments with the realisation of his fall that “For worldy shame I wax both wan and blo” (l. 2055).
    15 not varyable See Henry’s “Grene growith the holy” (H 27.5–8) for a similar application of natural attributes to the qualities of the lover.
“Whereto shuld I expresse” is in three voices, with the text of the first two couplets underlaid and the remaining text appearing at the end of the music.
Indexed in Robbins Index & Suppl. 4070.5, Boffey, Ringler MS TM1931, Crum W1781. Reprinted in Chambers Lyrics 55, Chambers Verse 35, Chappell Music 45–6, Flügel Anglia 241, Flügel Neuengl 135, Stevens M&P 404, Stevens MCH8 50–1, and Trefusis 20.
# The Lyrics of Henry VIII/Wher be ye (Unattributed)

[ff. 110$^v$-112$^r$]
Wher be ye my loue my loue and where be ye gone I am so sad to make me glad yt is but you my loue alone alone yt is but you my loue alone alone
Yower company makes me so mery from care and from all mone. but when ye mysse no Ioy it is but you my loue alone alone alone it ys but you my loue alon alon
when ye be hens with yor absence my myrth and Ioy is gone me to comfort is no resort. but you my loue alone alone alone it ys but you my loue alon alon
The tyme passyng to daunce or syng to swage sum what my mone Is nothing no comforting but yow my loue alone alone
Thus with my care with yor welfare crist kepe you from yor fone And god aboue kepe yor loue for you haue myne alone for you haue myne alone.

## Textual Commentary

In this lyric, the speaker bemoans the absence of a lover. The speaker notes that there is no comfort in the lover’s absence—even in pastimes akin to those proposed by Henry in “Pastyme with good companye” (H 5)—save for that of the lover’s company.
    11 ye mysse You are missed, absent.
    22–3 The tyme passyng / to daunce or syng Cf. Henry’s “Pastyme with good companye” (H 5.5–6).
    24 swage Assuage.
    31 fone Foes.
“Wher be ye” is through-set for three voices, in all but the last two stanzas, which are underlaid following the completion of the second and third stanzas of the first voice (f. 111$^v$). The second and third stanzas are presented under the same music, with the last two lines of each presented singly, to be shared by the stanzas’ first five lines.
This piece is indexed in Robbins Index & Suppl. 4058.3, Boffey, and Ringler MS TM2037. It is reprinted in Flügel Anglia 251–52, Flügel Neuengl 137, Stevens M&P 420–21, and Stevens MCH8 80–81.

## Textual Notes
### Texts Collated

Texts Collated: H$^{1,2,3}$ (ff. 110$^v$–112$^r$, ll. 1–21 H$^{1,2,3}$).
    6 alone alone] a lone alone alone. H$^3$
    9 so mery] mery H$^3$
    13 alone alone] alone alone alone H$^{1,2}$, alone alone alone alone. H$^3$
    18 substitute but when ye mysse H$^3$
    19 substitute no Ioy it is H$^3$
    20–21 provided from 13–14
    28 repeated from 27
    35 repeated from 34