OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Proto-Germanic/Pronouns and numbers

Welcome to the first lesson of Proto-Germanic!

## Pronouns
### Personal pronouns
#### First and second person

Unlike almost all modern Germanic languages, Proto-Germanic personal pronouns still has dual forms (except those were non-existent for the third person).
| Case | Singular | Singular | Dual | Dual | Plural | Plural |
| Case | First | Second | First | Second | First | Second |
| Case | I | you thou | we two | you two | we | you |
| Nominative | *ek | *þū | *wet | *jut | *wīz | *jūz |
| Accusative | *mek | *þek | *unk | *inkw | *uns | *izwiz |
| Genitive | *mīnaz | *þīnaz | *unkeraz | *inkweraz | *unseraz | *izweraz |
| Dative / Instrumental | *miz | *þiz | *unkiz | *inkwiz | *unsiz | *izwiz |
In Gothic, however, ending *-az in the genitive forms are replaced by ones ending in *-ō (yielding *mīnō, *þīnō, *unserō, *izwerō, *unkerō and *inkerō). Unstressed forms of monosyllabic personal pronouns are formed by raising *-e- to *-i-, so *ek yields unstressed *ik, *wet yields *wit, and *mek yields *mik.

#### Third person

The third person pronouns, however, are very diverse throughout the family (Old English he, but Gothic es). The table below, however, are extracted from the corresponding Wikipedia article about the grammar of Proto-Germanic.
| | Singular | Singular | Singular | Plural | Plural | Plural |
| | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter |
| | he | she | it | they | they | they |
| Nominative | *iz | *sī | *it | *īz | *ijôz | *ijō |
| Accusative | *inǭ | *ijǭ | *it | *inz | *ijôz | *ijō |
| Genitive | *es | *ezōz | *es | *ezǫ̂ | *ezǫ̂ | *ezǫ̂ |
| Dative | *immai | *ezōi | *immai | *emaz | *emaz | *emaz |
| Instrumental | *ina (?) | *ezō | *ina (?) | *imiz | *imiz | *imiz |

## Numbers
### List

| 1 | *ainaz | 11 | *ainalif | 30 | *þrīz tigiwiz |
| 2 | *twō | 12 | *twalif | 40 | *fedwōr tigiwiz |
| 3 | *þrīz | 13 | *þritehun | 50 | *fimf tigiwiz |
| 4 | *fedwōr | 14 | *fedurtehun | 60 | *sehs tigiwiz |
| 5 | *fimf | 15 | *fimftehun | 70 | *sebun tigiwiz *sebuntēhundą |
| 6 | *sehs | 16 | *sehstehun | 80 | *ahtōu tigiwiz *ahtōutēhundą |
| 7 | *sebun | 17 | *sebuntehun | 90 | *newun tigiwiz *newuntēhundą |
| 8 | *ahtōu | 18 | *ahtōutehun | 100 | *hundą *hundaradą *tehuntēhundą |
| 9 | *newun | 19 | *newuntehun | 1000 | *þūsundī |
| 10 | *tehun | 20 | *twai tigiwiz | | |

### Derivatives

* Cardinal: Usually formed by the suffix *-dô, however, it instead becomes *-tô after voiceless consonants (*fimf "five" → *fimftô "fifth"). Some numbers have irregular forms:
** *ainaz → *frumô "first"
** *twō → *anþeraz "second"
** *þrīz → *þridjô "third"
** *fedwōr → *fedurþô "fourth"
** *sehs → *sehtô "sixth"
** *ahtōu → *ahtudô "eighth"

## References

* ↑ A Grammar of Proto-Germanic: III. Inflectional morphology
# Proto-Finnic/Nominal cases
## Nominative
### Ending

As with almost all languages with noun inflectional morphology, there is no ending in Proto-Finnic in singular. However, the nominative plural are formed by the suffix *-t to the oblique stem, and with most non-initial closed syllables are affected by consonant gradation (see /Phonology).
* *kala "fish" → *kalat "fishes"
* *joki "river" → *joget "rivers"
* *veci "water" → *vedet "waters"
* *pensas "brush" → *pensahet "brushes"
Due to many phonological changes, the nominative singular form are often obscured from the oblique stem:
* Proto-Uralic final *-e usually merges with *-i and thus coinciding with i-stem nominals in nominative singular.
* The above change also caused assibilation of *-ti to *-ci.
* However, *-e could also lost in words with more than three syllables. This change also further obscured the stem: *-me → *-n, *-kse → *-s.
* The situation for the noun *südän "heart" is somewhat complicated due to later analogies, see /Nouns and adjectives.
* Special case for the diminutive suffix *-inen: the oblique stem is always *-icet instead of expected *-inenet.

### History

The nominative plural comes from Proto-Uralic *-t. However, in the plural suffixes for South Estonian and the rest of Southern Finnic are -q (pronounced with /ʔ/, e.g. kalaq) and -d (usually pronounced as written, except /t/ in Estonian, e.g. kalad).

### Usage

Functions as subject of the sentence.
| *Mees | joos |
| man-nom | run-3sg.pres |
| "The man runs." ||

## Accusative
### Ending

This case always coincides with Proto-Finnic genitive singular in the singular and nominative singular in the plural. It attaches to the oblique stem.
* *kala "fish" → *kalan "fish (obj.)", *kalat "fishes (obj.)"
* *joki → *joget
* *veci "water" → *vedet "waters"
* *pensas "brush" → *pensahet "brushes"

### History

The accusative singular comes from Proto-Uralic *-m. Due to regular phonological changes, this case was morphologically indistinguishable from genitive singular (see more at Genitive section). The accusative plural is borrowed from Proto-Uralic *-t due to the previously-mentioned syncretism with genitive.

### Usage

Functions as subject of the sentence.
| *Mees | joos |
| man-nom | run-3sg.pres |
| "The man runs." ||

## Genitive
### Ending

It is marked by the suffix *-n, however, in the plural, it is either *-den or *-iden.
* *kala "fish" → *kalan "fish (obj.)", *kalat "fishes (obj.)"
* *joki → *joget
* *veci "water" → *vedet "waters"
* *pensas "brush" → *pensahet "brushes"

### History

The accusative singular comes from Proto-Uralic *-m. Due to regular phonological changes, this case was morphologically indistinguishable from genitive singular (see more at Genitive section). The accusative plural is borrowed from Proto-Uralic *-t due to the previously-mentioned syncretism with genitive.
# Proto-Germanic/Nouns and adjectives

Welcome to the second lesson of Proto-Germanic!

## Nouns
### Masculine nouns

Ending in *-az :
| | *dagaz "day" | *dagaz "day" |
| | Singular | Plural |
| Nominative | *dagaz | *dagōz |
| Vocative | *dag | *dagōz |
| Accusative | *dagą | *daganz |
| Genitive | *dagas *dagis | *dagǭ |
| Dative | *dagai | *dagamz |
| Instrumental | *dagō | *dagamz |
Note that nouns containing *-e- always umlauted to *-i- before all endings containing *-i- in first syllable (nominative *berg-az "mountain, hill", but genitive *birg-is). Noun stems ending in *-j- or *-ij- have their own declensions with unique genitive singular ending (there are two variants of genitive singular, however):
| Nominative singular | *harjaz "army" | *hirdijaz "shepherd" |
| Genitive singular | *harjas | *hirdijas |
| Genitive singular | *haris | *hirdīs |
So, all of the expected sequences *-ji- and *-iji- instead becoming *-i- and *-ī- as a result of regular sound changes.

### Feminine nouns

Ending in *-ō :
| | *gebō "day" | *gebō "day" |
| | Singular | Plural |
| Nominative | *gebō | *gebōz |
| Vocative | *gebō | *gebōz |
| Accusative | *gebǭ | *gebōz |
| Genitive | *gebōz | *gebǭ |
| Dative | *gebōi | *gebōmz |
| Instrumental | *gebō | *gebōmz |

### Neuter nouns

Note that nouns in the neuter gender have syncretism in nominative, vocative, and accusative cases.
Ending in *-ą :
| | *wurdą "word" | *wurdą "word" |
| | Singular | Plural |
| Nominative Vocative Accusative | *wurdą | *wurdō |
| Genitive | *wurdas *wurdis | *wurdǭ |
| Dative | *wurdai | *wurdamz |
| Instrumental | *wurdō | *wurdamz |
Ending in *-az :
| | *lambaz "lamb" | *lambaz "lamb" |
| | Singular | Plural |
| Nominative Vocative Accusative | *lambaz | *lambizō |
| Genitive | *lambizz | *lambizǭ |
| Dative | *lambizī | *lambizumz |
| Instrumental | *lambizē | *lambizumz |
Retention of neuter -az declension is a complex issue. Anglian dialect of Old English fully preserved this declension (see lamb), while the rest of West Germanic only in the plural (the singular endings were replaced by more common masculine counterparts, e.g. dative *lambai from earlier *lambizī). Old Norse and Gothic fully merge this to the masculine -az declension.
# Proto-Germanic/Pronunciation

Welcome to the pronunciation lesson of Proto-Germanic!

## Consonants

| | | Bilabial | Dental | Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Velar |
| | | Bilabial | Dental | Alveolar | Palatal | Plain | Labial |
| Nasal | Nasal | m ⟨m⟩ | | n ⟨n⟩ | | | |
| Stop | Unvoiced | p ⟨p⟩ | t ⟨t⟩ | | | k ⟨k⟩ | kʷ ⟨kw⟩ |
| Stop | Voiced | b ⟨b⟩ | d ⟨d⟩ | | | ɡ ⟨g⟩ | ɡʷ ⟨gw⟩ |
| Fricative | Unvoiced | ɸ ⟨f⟩ | θ ⟨þ⟩ | s ⟨s⟩ | | x ⟨h⟩ | xʷ ⟨hw⟩ |
| Fricative | Voiced | | | z ⟨z⟩ | | | |
| Approximants | Approximants | | | | j ⟨j⟩ | | w ⟨w⟩ |
| Lateral | Lateral | | | l ⟨l⟩ | | | |
| Trill | Trill | | | r ⟨r⟩ | | | |
* In some positions, voiced stops /b/, /d/, and /ɡ/ are pronounced as [β], [ð], and [ɣ] instead:
** in intervocalic positions;
** in word-initial positions in the case of /ɡ/ [ɣ]; and
** sometimes after /r/ in the case of /d/ [ð], varying with its stop allophone.
* /n/ before velar stops /k/ and /ɡ/ (both of which can be labialized) is pronounced as /ŋ/.

## Vowels

Oral vowels :
| Type | Front | Front | Front | Back | Back | Back |
| Type | short | long | overlong | short | long | overlong |
| Close | i ⟨i⟩ | iː ⟨ī⟩ | | u ⟨u⟩ | uː ⟨ū⟩ | |
| Mid | e ⟨e⟩ | eː ⟨ē²⟩ | eːː ~ æːː ⟨ê⟩ | | oː ⟨ō⟩ | oːː ⟨ô⟩ |
| Open | | æː ⟨ē¹⟩ | eːː ~ æːː ⟨ê⟩ | ɑ ⟨a⟩ | ɑː ⟨ā⟩ | |
Nasal vowels :
| Type | Front | Front | Back | Back |
| Type | short | long | short | long |
| Close | ĩ ⟨į⟩ | ĩː ⟨į̄⟩ | ũ ⟨ų⟩ | ũː ⟨ų̄⟩ |
| Mid | | | | õː ⟨ǭ⟩ |
| Open | | | ɑ̃ ⟨ą⟩ | ɑ̃ː ⟨ą̄⟩ |
# Proto-Finnic/Later phonological changes

This is a list of post-Proto-Finnic phonological changes, ordered from the most divergent to the most conservative languages.

## Livonian

* /aː/ → /oː/.
* Loss of consonant gradation, with single consonants merge to unvoiced consonants (voiced between sonorants, vowels, and word-finally), while long and semi-long consonants merge to unvoiced consonants. *Vettä → *vetä → vietā "some of the water".
* Palatalization of /s/ and /ts/ after voiced consonants and vowels to /ʃ/ and /tʃ/ before /i/, later phonemized following the loss of /i/.
* Elisions of unstressed short vowels in an interlocking style:
** Apocope of word-final /n/, and this must have happened before the next change: *magon → *mago → ma'g "of the belly". This often caused syncretism between nominative and genitive, but some cases do not: nominative ve'ž "water" vs. genitive vied "of the water".
** Elision of vowels preceding weak grade consonants (/β/, /ð/, /ɣ/, /h/): *kalada → *ka'ldõ → ka'llõ. The elided vowel results on the rising tone of the preceding short vowel.
** Apocope of unstressed vowels other than /ɑ/: *veci → ve'ž "water", but *jalka → jālga "leg" (compare Estonian jalg). The elided vowel also results on the rising tone of the preceding short vowel.
* Clipping of unstressed long vowels (e.g. *aa), umlauted vowels (e.g. *ä), and diphthongs (e.g. *ai) to short vowels (a) unumlauted vowels (a), and monophthongs with first components (a), respectively.
* Lengthening of certain syllables:
** All closed syllables lengthened their vowel, except when following another closed syllable.
** Open syllables following another open syllable lengthen their vowels: *kala → kalā "fish". This was originally an allophonic development, as in Finnish where an open syllable following another open syllables pronounced with a semi-long vowel.

## Estonian

* Elision of vowels in certain circumstances:
** After a heavy syllable: *suuri → suur "big".
* Apocope of word-final /n/, and this must have happened after the previous change, unlike in Livonian: *suuren → suure "of the big one".
# Radiation Oncology/End of life issues

* End-of-life care decision making carries paramount importance due to the advancements in medical sciences
* Since medical science has evolved over the time and now has a potentiality to reshape the circumstances during death and in turn prolong lives, various ethical issues surround end-of-life care
* Sameera Karnik et al. Healthcare (Basel). 2016 Jun; 4(2): 24. Ethical Issues Surrounding End-of-Life Care: A Narrative Review (PMID: 27417612)

## Spiritual Care

* Carla I Ripamonti et al. Spiritual care in cancer patients: a need or an option? Curr Opin Oncol. 2018 Jul;30(4):212-218. (PMID: 29746283)
* Wasinee Wisesrith et al. Spiritual Care Needs of Terminal Ill Cancer Patients. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev. 2021 Dec 1;22(12):3773-3779. (PMID: 34967555)
* Soolmaz Moosavi et al. Consequences of Spiritual Care for Cancer Patients and Oncology Nurses: a Qualitative Study. Asia Pac J Oncol Nurs. 2019 Apr-Jun;6(2):137-144. (PMID: 30931357)
# Radiation Oncology/Endocrine

* Front Page: Radiation Oncology | RTOG Trials | Randomized Trials

## Hormones and related agents
### Estrogens

* Diethylstilbestrol
* Polyestradiol phosphate
* Ethinylestradiol
* Fosfestrol

### Progestogens

* Megestrol
* Medroxyprogesterone
* Gestonorone

### GnRH analogues

* Buserelin
* Leuprorelin
* Goserelin
* Triptorelin

## Hormone antagonists and related agents
### Anti-estrogens

* Tamoxifen
* Toremifene
* Fulvestrant
* Raloxifen (selective estrogen receptor modulator, agonist and antagonist)

### Anti-androgens

* Flutamide
* Nilutamide
* Bicalutamide

### Enzyme inhibitors

* Aminogluthetimide
* Formestane
* Anastrozole
* Letrozole
* Vorozole
* Exemestane

### Other hormone antagonists

* Abarelix
# Radiation Oncology/Education/Blogs and other Resources

http://the-d-o-c-t-o-r.blogspot.com/
http://beamseyeview.blogspot.com/
http://radonc.wikidot.com/
http://www.isocentre.org/index.html
http://rtnotes.wikidot.com/
http://uwlclinicaloncology2010.wikispaces.com/
http://www.medphyswiki.com/wiki/Main_Page
# Radiation Oncology/Endometrium

* Front Page: Radiation Oncology | RTOG Trials | Randomized Trials
* Endometrial Carcinoma: Main Page |
* Staging |
* Overview |
* Early Stage |
* Locally Advanced Stage |
* UPSC |
* Clear Cell |
* Brachytherapy |
* Recurrence |
* Randomized |
* GOG Trials |
* Leiomyosarcoma: Main Page |
Endometrial carcinoma:
* Staging
* Guidelines
* Overview
* Early Stage (I-II)
* Locally Advanced Stage (III-IV)
* Uterine Papillary Serous Carcinoma (UPSC)
* Clear cell carcinoma
* Brachytherapy
* Definitive RT (Inoperable)
* Recurrence
* Uterine Sarcoma
* Randomized Evidence
* RTOG Endometrial Trials
* GOG Endometrial Trials
* All GOG Trials
# Molecular Simulation/Potential of mean force

The potential of mean force is one of the 3 major forces considered in stochastic dynamics models. The potential of mean force provides a free energy profile along a preferred coordinate, be it a geometric or energetic coordinate, such as the distance between two atoms or the torsional angle of a molecule. This free energy profile describes the average force of all possible configurations of a given system (the ensemble average of the force) on particles of interest.. The potential of mean force can be determined in both Monte Carlo Simulations as well as Molecular Dynamics.

## Relation to Radial Distribution Function

For a liquid, the potential of mean force is related to the radial distribution function,
$w(r)=-k_{B}T\ln \left(g(r)\right)$
The potential of mean force can be calculated directly by using histogram analysis of a trajectory from an MD or MC simulation. This analysis calculates the probability of each possible configuration, and determines the free energy change associated with that state. In systems where parts of the coordinate of interest will not be sufficiently sampled from a naive simulation, umbrella sampling, free energy perturbation, or other enhanced sampling techniques can be used.

### Derivation

    $\langle F\rangle =-\langle {{\frac {d}{dr}}U(r^{N})}\rangle _{r_{1},r_{2}}={\frac {-\int dr_{3}\ldots dr_{N}{\frac {dU}{dr_{1}}}e^{-\beta U}}{\int dr_{3}\ldots dr_{N}e^{-\beta U}}}$
    $=+k_{B}T{\frac {{\frac {d}{dr_{1}}}\int dr_{3}\ldots dr_{N}e^{-\beta U}}{\int dr_{3}\ldots dr_{N}e^{-\beta U}}}$
    $=+k_{B}T{\frac {d}{dr_{1}}}\ln \int dr_{3}\ldots dr_{N}e^{-\beta U}$
    $=+k_{B}T{\frac {d}{dr_{1}}}\ln(N(N-1){\frac {\int dr_{3}\ldots dr_{N}e^{-\beta U}}{\int dr^{N}e^{-\beta U}}}$
    $=+k_{B}T{\frac {d}{dr_{1}}}\ln \left(g(r)\right)$
By integrating this function over 2 distance values, the reversible work associated with moving the two particles can be found. This work is equal to the change in Helmholtz energy associated with the change in the two states.
    $W_{1\rightarrow 2}=\int _{r_{1}}^{r_{2}}\langle F_{1}\rangle dr_{1}=\Delta A_{1\rightarrow 2}$

## Sources

1. Chandler, D. Introduction To Modern Statistical Mechanics, Oxford University Press, 1987, QC174.8.C47
2. Tuckerman, M. Statistical Mechanics: Theory and Molecular Simulation, Oxford University Press, 2010

## See Also

    Wikipedia:Potential of mean force
# Molecular Simulation/Protein folding

This is a stub for the protein folding section.
# Obstetrics and Gynecology/Preterm Labour
## Pre-Term Labour
### Definition

* Labour occurring between 20 and 37 weeks gestation.

### Etiology

* 30% idiopathic
* 30% related to pre-labour rupture of membranes
* The rest related to a myriad of other factors

### Management
#### Antibiotics

* Not-recommended for women in pre-term labour with intact membranes

#### Corticosteroids

* Corticosteroids (betamethasone) should be administered to promote fetal pulmonary development. However, multiple doses should be approached with caution.

#### Tocolysis

* Using atosiban, indomethacin, nifedipine
* Contraindications to tocolysis include
** Non-reassuring fetal status
** Dilated cervix >4cm
** Suspected intrauterine infection
** Gestational age >34 weeks or <23 weeks
** Intrauterine fetal death
** Fetal anomaly incompatible with life
** Maternal deterioration necessitating delivery

## Pre-Labour Rupture of the Membranes
### Definition

* Pre-labor rupture of the membranes (PROM) may occur at pre-term or term dates. PROM poses a significant risk for pre-term labour.

### Epidemiology

* PROM occurs in less than 30% of pregnancies.

### Management

* Antibiotics will prolong the latent phase of labour, prevent/treat ascending infection, and reduce the incidence of complications with prematurity.
# Obstetrics and Gynecology/Hemorrhage in the Late Third Trimester and Parturition
#### Epidemiology

* 5% of pregnancies are affected by hemorrhage, and 10% of maternal deaths in the developed world are the result of bleeding.

#### Etiology

* Abruption of the placenta (prematue separation of the placenta from the uterine wall)
** Complicates 1% of pregnancies and is the major cause of antepartum bleeding.
** These are very difficult to identify and diagnose.
** May be caused by trauma, cocaine use, and sudden uterine decompression. Smoking, hypertension, and history of previous placental abruption increase the risk of future abruption.
* Placenta previa
** Placenta covering or in close proximity to the internal cervical canal.
** Placenta previa is responsible for approximately 20% of bleeding in late pregnancy; less than abruption of the placenta.
** 0.5% of pregnancies will be affected at term. Some may start as previa but migrate away from the cervix with pregnancy.
** Risk increases with previous placenta previa, cesarian section, advancing maternal age, multiparity, smoking, and prior abortions.
* Uterine rupture
* Vasa previa
* Lower genital tract bleeding from laceration, iatrogenesis, cervical cancer.
* Gastointestinal or urinary tract bleeding confused with genital bleeding.
* Placental morphology may facilitate bleeding.

#### Pathophysiology

* Placental abruption: hemorrhage into the basal decidua of the placenta, coupled with uterine contractions leads to placental separation. Further hemorrhage exacerbates prostaglandin formation and separation of the placenta.
* Placenta previa: bleeding can create abruption.

#### Clinical Presentation

* Abruption of the placenta
** Bleeding
** Cramps/pain
** Absent contractions
** Non-reassuring fetal heart rate
* Placenta previa
** Will usually present initially with an asymptomatic bleed that resolves spontaneously.
** Diagnosis must be made by transvaginal ultrasound.
** Make sure that it is not vasa previa: test nucleated blood cells with a sodium hydroxide dilution test.

#### Complications

* Abruption of the placenta
** Hypovolemia
** Post-partum pituitary insufficiency (Sheehan's syndrome)
** ARDS
** Cardiac arrest
** Fetal death (11% in developed countries)
** Prematurity/intrauterine growth retardation

#### Management

* Abruption of the placenta
** ABC's, hemodynamic stability
** Prep for operating room
** Blood transfusion and or clotting factor replacement
** Rapid exsanguination indicates cesarian section and hysterectomy; stable bleeding indicates delivery; mild bleeding indicates conservative observation with steroids for fetal lung development.
* Placenta previa
** ABC's and hemodynamic stability
** Cesarian section unless unviable pregnancy
** There is a risk of fetal hemorrhage and perinatal mortality of >10%.
** Stable with ongoing bleeding: admission, tocolysis for contractile cessation, and steroids for fetal development
** Unstable mother or fetus: cesarian section unless nonviable
** No hemorrhage warrants assessment of fetal lung function
# Obstetrics and Gynecology/Pharmacological Considerations in the Pregnant Female
### Pharmacokinetic Adaptations to Pregnancy

The pregnant female undergoes many multi-system physiological adaptations throughout pregnancy. Several of these affect the pharmacokinetic properties of the mother (in some cases requiring elevated drug dosages).
Blood volume increases 40-50% in the pregnant female. This serves to increase the volume of distribution in the mother's body.
Many plasma binding proteins are increased (although the 40-50% increase in plasma volume dilutes the concentration of these proteins, their absolute levels are increased).
Blood flow to the kidneys and liver are increased, therefore metabolism and excretion are increased.
The placenta serves to transfer drugs and metabolites into the fetal circulation, in which they are circulated (potentially for a very long time due to the amniotic fluid cycle) and transferred back to the maternal circulation. Several factors favour placental transfer of drugs such as low molecular mass, lipid solubility, apolarity, and high degree of freely concentrated compound.
# Occupational Health/Contributors

This book was written by Wikibooks contributors, and is dual-licensed under CC-BY-SA 4.0 and the GFDL. Information on individual contributors can be found in the page history, or through a separate document provided by your book's distributor.

## References

The following sources were used to synthesize and create this book:
* Wikisource NIOSH portal - Placeholder until transcription finishes