OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Chemical Sciences: A Manual for CSIR-UGC National Eligibility Test for Lectureship and JRF/Named Reactions/Reformatsky Reaction

The Reformatsky reaction (sometimes spelled Reformatskii reaction) is an organic reaction which condenses aldehydes (or ketones), 1, with α-halo esters, 2, using a metallic zinc catalyst to form β-hydroxy-esters, 3. It was discovered by Sergey Nikolaevich Reformatsky.
The organozinc reagent, also called a 'Reformatskii enolate', is prepared by treating an alpha-halo ester with zinc dust. Reformatskii enolates are less reactive than lithium enolates or Grignard reagents and hence nucleophilic addition to the ester group does not occur.
Some reviews have been published.

## Structure of the reagent

The crystal structures of the THF complexes of the Reformatsky reagents tert-butyl bromozincacetate and ethyl bromozincacetate have been determined. Both form cyclic eight-membered dimers in the solid state, but differ in stereochemistry: the eight-membered ring in the ethyl derviative adopts a tub-shaped conformation and has cis bromo groups and cis THF ligands, whereas in the tert-butyl derviative, the ring is in a chair form and the bromo groups and THF ligands are trans.
| ethyl bromozincacetate dimer | tert-butyl bromozincacetate dimer |

## Variations

In one variation of the Reformatsky reaction an iodolactone is coupled with an aldehyde with triethylborane in toluene at -78°C.

## References

* ↑ J. Dekker, P. H. M. Budzelaar, J. Boersma, G. J. M. Van der Kerk, A. J. Spek (1984). "The nature of the Reformatsky reagent. Crystal structure of (BrZnCH2COO-t-Bu.THF)2". Organometallics. 9 (3): 1403–1407. doi:10.1021/om00087a015.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
* ↑ S. Miki, K. Nakamoto, J. Kawakami, S. Handa, S. Nuwa (2008). "The First Isolation of Crystalline Ethyl Bromozincacetate, Typical Reformatsky Reagent: Crystal Structure and Convenient Preparation". Synthesis. 2008: 409–412. doi:10.1055/s-2008-1032023.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

## Bibliography

* ^ Reformatskii, S., Neue Synthese zweiatomiger einbasischer Säuren aus den Ketonen, Ber. 1887, 20, 1210. doi:10.1002/cber.188702001268
* ^ Reformatskii, S. J. Russ. Phys. Chem. Soc. 1890, 22, 44.
* ^ Shriner, R. L. Org. React. 1942, 1, 1. (Review)
* ^ Rathke, M. W. Org. React. 1975, 22, 423. (Review)
* ^ Total Synthesis of UCS1025A Tristan H. Lambert and Samuel J. Danishefsky J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2006, 128(2), 426 - 427. (Communication) doi:10.1021/ja0574567 Abstract
# Chemical Sciences: A Manual for CSIR-UGC National Eligibility Test for Lectureship and JRF/Named Reactions/Shapiro Reaction

The Shapiro reaction or tosylhydrazone decomposition is an organic reaction in which a ketone or aldehyde is converted to an alkene through an intermediate hydrazone in the presence of 2 equivalents of strong base. The reaction was discovered by Robert H. Shapiro in 1975. The Shapiro reaction was used in the Nicolaou Taxol total synthesis.

## Reaction mechanism

In a prelude to the actual Shapiro reaction a ketone or an aldehyde is reacted with p-toluenesulfonylhydrazide to a p-toluenesulfonylhydrazone (or tosyl hydrazone) which is an imine or hydrazone. Two equivalents of a strong base such as n-butyllithium then abstract first the hydrazone proton and then the less acidic α carbonyl proton leaving a carbanion. The carbanion proceeds in an elimination reaction creating the carbon to carbon double bond and converting the hydrazone group into a lithium diazonium group. This group expels nitrogen leaving a vinyllithium compound.

## Scope

Although many secondary reactions exist for this functional group, in the Shapiro reaction in particular water is added resulting in hydrolysis to the alkene. Other reactions of vinyllithium compounds include alkylation reactions with for instance alkyl halides. In general the least substituted alkene is the preferred reaction product.
The Bamford-Stevens reaction is also a tosylhydrazone decomposition but in this reaction a much weaker base can only abstract the hydrazone proton and not the α carbonyl proton and the reaction mechanism now involves a carbene or in a protic solvent a carbocation.

## References

* ↑ Robert H. Shapiro ; Lipton, M.F.; Kolonko, K.J.; Buswell, R.L.; Capuano, L.A. Tetrahedron Lett., 1975, 1811. doi:10.1016/S0040-4039(00)75263-4
* ↑ Shapiro, R. H. Org. React., 1976, 23, 405. (Review)
* ↑ Adlington, R.M.; Barret, A.G.M. Acc. Chem. Res., 1983, 16, 55. (Review)
* ↑ Organic Syntheses Coll. Vol. 5, p.1055 (1973); Vol. 40, p.93 (1960) (Article)
* ↑ Shapiro, R. H.; Duncan, J. H. Organic Syntheses Coll. Vol. 6, p.172 (1988); Vol. 51, p.66 (1971). (Article)
* ↑ Organic Syntheses Coll. Vol. 7, p.77 (1990); Vol. 61, p.141 (1983). (Article)
# Chemical Sciences: A Manual for CSIR-UGC National Eligibility Test for Lectureship and JRF/Named Reactions/Perkin Reaction

The Perkin reaction is an organic reaction developed by William Henry Perkin that can be used to make cinnamic acids by the aldol condensation of aromatic aldehydes and acid anhydrides in the presence of an alkali salt of the acid.
Several reviews have been written.

## Reaction mechanism

The above mechanism is not universally accepted, as several versions exist, including decarboxylation without acetic group transfer.

## References

* ↑ Perkin, W. H.; J. Chem. Soc. 1868, 21, 53, 181.
* ↑ Perkin, W. H.; J. Chem. Soc. 1877, 31, 388.
* ↑ Johnson, J. R.; Org. React. 1942, 1, 210. (Review)
* ↑ House, H. O. Modern Synthetic Reactions (W. A. Benjamin, Menlo Park, California, 2nd ed, 1972) pp 660-663.
* ↑ Rosen, T.; Comp. Org. Syn. 1991, 2, 395-408. (Review)
# ETD Guide/Universities

By the end of 2007, the number of universities involved in NDLTD was well over 100. Scores of other universities were considering work with ETDs, and hundreds of universities were aware of the concept. NDLTD hopes that forthwith there will be ETD efforts in every country and then in every state/province, eventually in every leading university, soon serving every language group, and ultimately in every college and university. Since NDLTD aims to help, and there are no costs to join, it is hoped that membership will rise to closely match the number that are interested in ETDs.
It is not clear why any university should not become involved in ETD efforts. Once an ETD program on a campus has evolved to the point that ETD submission is a requirement, the effort saves money for the university as well as the students, while providing many important benefits. And, reaching such a point is not hard, if there is a local team, with effective leadership, that has a clear understanding of ETDs and what is occurring elsewhere in terms of support, cooperation, and collaborative efforts.
This section of the Guide explains why and how universities can establish ETD programs, and helps those involved in an ETD program to address concerns and problems that may be voiced. It appears on the one hand that an ETD program has the healthy effect of helping a university to engage in a rich dialog on a wide variety of issues related to scholarly communication. This is important, since we are in the midst of a revolution in these processes, and both students and players must be aware of the situation if they are to manage effectively (and economically, while working in accord with the core values of scholars). On the other hand, ETD efforts have advanced to the point that proceeding with an ETD program, while not as "sexy" as some of the more vigorously funded digital library efforts, does work well, providing real solutions to real concerns, leading to sustainable and beneficial practices. In short, launching an ETD program is a "no brainer" that can quickly advance almost any university to the happy position of having an effective and economical digital library initiative in place, which also can serve as a model for other efforts.
Next Section: Why ETDs?
# ETD Guide/Universities/E-Commerce: fee based methods

The ADT Program has developed a simple e-commerce option for members to use should they choose. The file format for the ADT is to always include a front.pdf file. This file contains author, title, abstract, contents pages, acknowledgements, etc. It is designed to give an expanded view of the theses' contents before deciding to view the whole thesis. Viewing the whole thesis can then either be unrestricted and free or at cost using the local institution's online payment system. Currently no members of the ADT have used this option.
Next Section: Students
# ETD Guide/Training the Trainers/Specific Guidelines

This section includes a series of tools intended to support the work of production and submission of ETD.
Writing in word processing systems: ETD Formatting
* Humboldt University of Berlin Word-style (for German Word Versions only)
** http://dochost.rz.hu-berlin.de/epdiss/vorlage.html
* Université de Lyon
** http://www.univ-lyon2.fr/sentiers/edition/theses/ressources.html
** http://www.univ-lyon2.fr/sentiers/edition/theses/cours/ModeEmploi.pdf
** http://mirror-fr.cybertheses.org/ressources.html
* Université de Montréal
** http://www.cybertheses.org/cybertheses/ressources.html#style
* University of South Florida
** http://www.lib.usf.edu/virtual/etd/format.html
* Virginia Tech
** http://etd.vt.edu/guidelines/index.html
ETD Submission
* Virginia Tech: http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ETD-db/help/
* ADT: http://www.library.unsw.edu.au/thesis/adt-ADT/info/example.
* University of South Florida: http://www.lib.usf.edu/virtual/etd/submit.
* Humboldt-University Berlin:
** Automated Upload-Tool: http://dochost.rz.hu-berlin.de/cgi/dokupload/dokupload.cgi
** Explanation at http://dochost.rz.hu-berlin.de/epdiss/abgabe.html
* Humboldt University of Berlin: http://dochost.rz.hu-berlin.de/epdiss/latex/latex.html
* Virginia Tech: http://etd.vt.edu/howto/slides/latex/latex.html
Prepare a PDF document
Writing SGML/XML
Metadata
* NDLTD: http://www.ndltd.org/standards/metadata/current.html
* Université de Montréal: http://www.pum.umontreal.ca/theses/metadata/1.0/
* Dissertationen Online : http://www.ub.uniduisburg.de/dissonline/eindex.html
* ADT: http://www.library.unsw.edu.au/thesis/adt-ADT/info/metadata.html
Copyright
* NDLTD : http://www.ndltd.org/cpright/index.htm
* Virginia Tech: http://etd.vt.edu/howto/copyright.html
* In Germany, theses are to obey the German Urheberrecht, which is different from the copyright in anglosaxon countries. See http://elfikom.physik.unioldenburg.de/dissonline/urheber.html
Next Section: Creating an online database of problem solving solutions
# ETD Guide/Universities/Assessment and Measurement Introduction

I shall consider assessment to include the gathering of information concerning the functioning of students, staff, and institutions of higher education. The information may or may not be in numerical form, but the basic motive for gathering it is to improve the functioning of the institution and its people.
I used functioning to refer to the broad social purposes of a college or university: to facilitate student learning and development, to advance the frontiers of knowledge, and to contribute to the community, and the society.
Electronic theses and dissertations are not only products of student research, but also marks of the students’ preparation to become scholars in the information society. In pursuit of this broader social purpose, this section of the Guide focuses on two separate but related topics: assessment and measurement. Both are important components of an institutional ETD program. The role of assessment in an ETD program is to understand whether the goals and objectives of the program are being met, while issues of measurement focus on the production and use of an institution’s ETDs.
Assessment of a program’s goals and objectives yields information that may be of great value to policymakers and administrators. Higher education institutions are increasingly asked by their boards, by state legislators, and by federal government agencies to demonstrate the effectiveness of their programs, which has led to the development of many assessment programs on campuses. Assessment is often used to provide trend data or to assist in resource allocation, with data helping to make a case for the viability of an ETD program or to determine which parts of the program require the most (or least) resources. Ideally, an ETD assessment program will have ties to overall campus assessment activities.
However, whether or not accountability to administration or government is a driving factor in developing assessment for an ETD program, any new effort can benefit from a systematic way of measuring what it is achieving. Such measures as the number of ETDs produced at an institution each year or the number of times a dissertation has been downloaded from the institution’s web site are frequently cited to demonstrate the success of an ETD program.
The goals of this section of the Guide are:
1. to encourage those involved in developing and implementing ETD programs to think at early stages about broad questions of assessment, and
2. to familiarize individuals working on measurement of ETDs with developing national and international initiatives that are developing standard ways of measuring the use of electronic information resources.
Next Section: Types of Assessment
# ETD Guide/Universities/Guidelines for Implementing an Assessment Program for ETDs

The Coalition for Networked Information (CNI) sponsored a project, “Assessing the Academic Networked Environment,” in which institutional teams developed and implemented assessment projects related to a variety of areas, including teaching and learning, electronic reserves, computer skills, and electronic library resources. From the project reports and informal feedback from the participants, CNI developed a set of guidelines for institutions engaging in assessment activities related to networks or networked information. The guidelines focus on the process of doing assessment in higher education. The suggestions can be applied directly to assessment projects for ETDs.
* Bring together an assessment team of individuals from various units on campus that can add useful perspectives and expertise; include, if possible, someone who specializes in assessment.
* Align the overall goals of the assessment initiative with the institution’s goals and priorities.
* Gain support from the administration at as many levels as possible.
* Make a realistic determination of the resources (staff, time, equipment, and money) that are available for the assessment.
* Choose a manageable portion of the assessment project as the first implementation. Do not attempt to do a comprehensive assessment of campus networking on the first try.
* Consider using more than one assessment technique to measure the aspect of networking that you have chosen; particularly consider combining quantitative and qualitative approaches as complementary techniques.
* Identify carefully who are the audiences for the assessment reports.
* Examine what you might do with the information you collect, including improving services, seeking additional funding and determine whether your data will provide what you need for that objective.
* Refine assessment instruments on a periodic basis and incrementally add new components.
* Monitor the work of national groups such as ARL, EDUCAUSE, CNI, and the Flashlight Project to see whether materials they develop and guidelines they produce can provide a framework for your project.
(Joan K. Lippincott, “Assessing the Academic Networked Environment,” Information Technology in Higher Education: Assessing Its Impact and Planning for the Future, ed., Richard N. Katz and Julia A. Rudy. Jossey-Bass, 1999, pp. 21–35.)
Next Section: Student Comments
# ETD Guide/Training the Trainers/Tool kits for trainers

This section of the Guide outlines the approaches to student training used by certain universities. For the most part, links are made to sites where the tools themselves can be consulted and eventually used or adapted for local use.
Next Section: Identifying what is available
# Constructivism & Technology/Case Examples

8: Technology Tools & Processes in Constructivism: Case Examples
Examples of constructivism applied to various instructional methods are illustrated in the articles in Chapter 8.
* 8.1 Electronic Portfolios
* 8.2 Podcasting & Audio-Sharing
* 8.3 Constructivist Uses of Concept Development & Mental mapping
* 8.4: Blogging as Journaling & Personal Knowledge Construction
* 8.5 Social Video- and Photo-sharing
* 8.6 Course Management tools for Constructivist Processes
* 8.7 Mashups
* 8.8 Social Networking Tools
* 8.9 Collaborative Research and Web Authoring tools
# Embedded Control Systems Design/Glossary

* The Wikibook of
* Embedded Control Systems Design
This chapter contains an overview of the terminology and abbreviations that are used in the other chapters of the book.
# Embedded Control Systems Design/Licensing

* The Wikibook of
* Embedded Control Systems Design

## License

The text of this Wikibook is released under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License version 1.2. The particular version of that license that is being used can be found at:
    http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikibooks:GNU_Free_Documentation_License
# Danish/Nouns

In Danish there are two genders of nouns, but they aren't "masculine" and "feminine" like other European languages. They're called common and neuter gender, and they are inflected differently. Every noun is associated with one gender, and the gender should be learned when learning the noun.
About 75% of Danish nouns are common gender, and if the noun is a living thing such as hund (dog), chances are its going to be common gender.
However, there are not any clear rules as to what gender a noun is. To a native speaker, it comes naturally whether to use common or neuter gender, but to someone learning Danish as a second language, it often requires a lot of exercise and listening to native speakers.

### Singular nouns

The Danish word for a is en. en is the common gender indefinite article. The neuter article is et. Thus you say:
* en dreng = a boy
* en pige = a girl
* et hus = a house
* et æble = an apple
In English, when you want to refer to one particular person or item, you use the article the instead of a or an. In Danish you do this by inflecting the nouns:
* drengen = the boy
* pigen = the girl
* huset = the house
* æblet = the apple
Example sentences:
* Jeg ser en dreng. = I see a boy.
* Jeg ser drengen. = I see the boy.
* Jeg læser en bog. = I read a book.
* Jeg læser bogen. = I read the book.
* Jeg spiser et æble. = I eat an apple.
* Jeg spiser æblet. = I eat the apple.

### Plural nouns

Indefinite:
* drenge = boys
* piger = girls
* huse = houses
* æbler = apples
Definite:
* drengene = the boys
* pigerne = the girls
* husene = the houses
* æblerne = the apples
Here is the table for inflections of nouns:
| Gender | Singluar | Singluar | Plural | Plural |
| Gender | Indefinite | Definite | Indefinite | Definite |
| Common gender | en dreng | drengen | drenge | drengene |
| Neuter | et æble | æblet | æbler | æblerne |
# DarkBASIC Programming

Started By - Jonathan Skinner
    Written By - Jonathan Skinner & Others

## Authors and acknowledgements

* Jonathan Skinner aka Dbtutor - Wrote most of this book
* Robert Horning - For some formatting contribution
* TDK_MAN - For the file manager function off his site http://www.computechtenerife.com/
* Samji - Corrected second mathematics example in Day 9, Lesson 4
* All those unnamed formatters
* A reader who fixed a random number problem, great stuff!
* Thank you everyone who posts comments on the discussions section

## Foreword

DarkBASIC Programming is the first ever Wikibook on DarkBASIC, an open source BASIC programming language for creating Windows applications and games.
You'll go from Hello World, to computing a text adventure, to making a simple first-person shooter (when the book is eventually finished).
Don't worry it's easy! The style is easy for beginners to DarkBASIC & programming.
Before I start, I'd like to thank The Game Creator's forum users for compliments, rants & comments on this book.

## Table of contents

Some lessons may be incomplete or not done at all. If you feel you're up to it contribute!!
* Lesson 1 - Introduction to Programming
* Lesson 2 - The Hello World Tradition
* Lesson 3 - Fundamentals of DarkBASIC
* Lesson 4 - Number Crunching
* Lesson 5 - Loops
* Lesson 6 - File Control & Data
* Lesson 7 - 2D Game Programming Pt 1
* Lesson 8 - 2D Game Programming Pt 2
* Final Words By Dbtutor
* Reference A - Good Programming Habits
* Reference B - Game Design Books & Sites
* Original single-page version (for reference during rearrangements)
# Danish/Verbs

The present tense in Danish verbs is expressed by adding an r to the end.
The basic form of a verb is the infinitive. In English these are words preceded by to, such as to go and to be. The Danish translation of to in this case is at. Danish infinitives usually end in e, and you get the present tense by adding -r. There are two major groups of Danish verbs. In one group, you add -de or -ede to the end of the infinitive to create the past tense and -et to the end to create the perfect tense. In the other group, you replace the e at the end of the infinitive with -te to get the past tense, and remove the e from the past tense to get the perfect.
You will experience a lot of examples where these rules don't apply, but they are the most general ones.
| Meaning | Infinitive | Present tense | Past tense | Perfect participle | Imperative |
| to read | at læse | læser | læste | læst | læs |
| to see | at se | ser | så | set | se |
| to eat | at spise | spiser | spiste | spist | spis |
| to hear | at høre | hører | hørte | hørt | hør |
| to fly | at flyve | flyver | fløj | fløjet | flyv |
| to like | at kunne lide | kan lide | kunne lide | | lid |
| to love | at elske | elsker | elskede | elsket | elsk |
| to have | at have | har | havde | haft | hav |
| to take | at tage | tager | tog | taget | tag |
| to be | at være | er | var | været | vær |
Note that several verbs in the table are irregular.
Note: Imperative is the tense where you give a command like "eat!", "read!", "listen!" etc.