OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Structural Biochemistry/Albert Claude

Albert Claude (August 23, 1899 - May 22, 1983), who was a Belgium biochemist who specialized in the structure and function of cells was born in Longlier, Belgium and is most well known for winning the Nobel Peace Prize in Physiology and Medicine 1974 with Christian de Duve and George Emil Palade "for their discoveries concerning the structural and functional organization of the cell." Albert Claude made giant strides for cell biology in his studies of the cell structure.
Claude was born and buried in Belgium but was also a U.S. citizen. He served in World War I with British Intelligence and later received the Inter-Allied Medal for his contributions and was admitted into the University of Liege through a program for war veterans.
After receiving his medical degree in 1928, he joined the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research in New York in 1929 and became an American citizen. In 1930 Claude discovered the process of cell fractionation. This was groundbreaking at the time because prior to Claude's research, it was thought that the inside of cells were composed of a chaotic mass of substances with no order or particular function. However, with his discovery, Claude was able to show that cell interiors are in fact very well-organized. To discover cell fractionation, Claude used mechanisms from everyday machinery. He combined the mechanism from meat grinders and a sieve to construct a simple, high-speed centrifuge which led the way for ultracentrifugation, a technique for breaking and spinning infected cells to isolate their agents according to mass. He discovered that particular fractions of the cells correlated to particular cell functions. Claude discovered the endoplasmic reticulum, which is a membranous network within a cell. The rough endoplasmic reticulum, which has ribosomes attached to the surface, synthesizes proteins. The smooth endoplasmic reticulum synthesizes lipids and steroids, metabolizes carbohydrates and steroids (but not lipids), and regulates calcium concentration, drug metabolism, and attachment of receptors on cell membrane proteins. Claude is also coined as one of the first scientists to have used an electronic microscope for his cellular structure studies.
In 1948, he returned to Belgium where he was the dictator of the Jules Bordet Research Institute. He then went on to retire in 1972.

## References

http://www.answers.com/topic/claude-albert http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Albert+Claude
# Structural Biochemistry/Alexandar Fleming

Alexander Fleming, a Scottish doctor, is credited for being the first to discover the powerful antibiotic penicillin. As a doctor during World War I, he saw many people die because of infections.
The way in which he discovered penicillin is a rather humorous tale, but its impact has helped save millions of lives.
After the war was over, Dr. Fleming went into a London hospital to find antibacterial agents of Staphylococcus aureus, which is a pathogenic bacterium. Upon experiments and testing with no luck, Fleming was fed up and decided to take a vacation. He was gone for a month, and when he got back, the plates were contaminated with the mold Penicillium notatum. The bacteria in the plates were inhibited.
This was the first discovery of an agent which inhibited bacteria, and in 1929, he named it Penicillin.
Another scientist, by the name of Howard Florey, helped Flemming produce penicillin; however, the raw materials in creating penicillin were scarce and the process was lengthy so they only had small amounts at the time.
In 1941, a policeman by the name of Albert Alexandar was the first human to be tested with penicillin. The drug had a great effect and was curing the man, but due to the limited supply of penicillin, they did not have enough to fully cure the man, thus he died.
By 1943, penicillin was being produced in mass and this was saving millions of lives.
In 1945, Fleming and Florey shared the Nobel Prize for this discovery.
Where there comes discovery, there also comes error. By 1947, the first penicillin-resistant pathogen came about.
Regardless, Fleming's contributions to the world of biochemistry have been immense and have truly revolutionized the world of medicine.
# Telecommunications Theory/Flow - Presence - Transportation Theory
## Introduction
### Flow

Flow is a theoretical concept proposed by psychologist Mihály Csíkszentmihályi. It postulates that when difficulty of task is matched to the skill of the person doing it, a state of "flow" is reached. (citation needed)

### Transportation
## Origin and History
## References
### Flow

* Chin-Lung Hsu and Hsi-Peng Lu, Why do people play on-line games? An extended TAM with social influences and flow experience, Information & ManagementVolume 41, Issue 7, , September 2004, Pages 853-868.
(http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6VD0-4B0SWDC-1/2/94783dc82f5f015ee6105f60b05cc680)
* Csíkszentmihályi, Mihály (1975). Beyond Boredom and Anxiety. Jossey-Bass: San Francisco, CA. 36. ISBN-10: 0875892612, ISBN-13: 978-0875892610
* Csíkszentmihályi, Mihály (1990). Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience. New York: Harper and Row. ISBN 0-06-092043-2
* Csíkszentmihályi, Mihály (1996). Creativity: Flow and the Psychology of Discovery and Invention. New York: Harper Perennial. ISBN 0-06-092820-4
* Csíkszentmihályi, Mihály (1998). Finding Flow: The Psychology of Engagement With Everyday Life. Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-02411-4 (a popular exposition emphasizing technique)
* Csíkszentmihályi, Mihály (2003). Good Business: Leadership, Flow, and the Making of Meaning. New York: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-200409-X
* Jackson, Susan A. & Csíkszentmihályi, Mihály (1999). Flow in Sports: The Keys to Optimal Experiences and Performances. Champaign, Illinois: Human Kinetics Publishers. ISBN 0-88011-876-8
* Sherry, J. L. (2004). Flow and media enjoyment. Communication Theory, 14(4), 328-347.

### Presence

* Kwan Min Lee (2004) Presence, Explicated Communication Theory 14 (1) , 27–50 doi:10.1111/j.1468-2885.2004.tb00302.x

### Transportation

* Green, M., Brock, T., and Kaufman, G. 2004. Understanding media enjoyment: The role of transportation into narrative worlds. Communication Theory 14, 4 (2004), 311-327.
# Telecommunications Theory/Printable version

The current, editable version of this book is available in Wikibooks, the open-content textbooks collection, at
https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Telecommunications_Theory

# Flow - Presence - Transportation Theory
## Introduction
### Flow

Flow is a theoretical concept proposed by psychologist Mihály Csíkszentmihályi. It postulates that when difficulty of task is matched to the skill of the person doing it, a state of "flow" is reached. (citation needed)

### Transportation
## Origin and History
## References
### Flow

* Chin-Lung Hsu and Hsi-Peng Lu, Why do people play on-line games? An extended TAM with social influences and flow experience, Information & ManagementVolume 41, Issue 7, , September 2004, Pages 853-868.
(http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6VD0-4B0SWDC-1/2/94783dc82f5f015ee6105f60b05cc680)
* Csíkszentmihályi, Mihály (1975). Beyond Boredom and Anxiety. Jossey-Bass: San Francisco, CA. 36. ISBN-10: 0875892612, ISBN-13: 978-0875892610
* Csíkszentmihályi, Mihály (1990). Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience. New York: Harper and Row. ISBN 0-06-092043-2
* Csíkszentmihályi, Mihály (1996). Creativity: Flow and the Psychology of Discovery and Invention. New York: Harper Perennial. ISBN 0-06-092820-4
* Csíkszentmihályi, Mihály (1998). Finding Flow: The Psychology of Engagement With Everyday Life. Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-02411-4 (a popular exposition emphasizing technique)
* Csíkszentmihályi, Mihály (2003). Good Business: Leadership, Flow, and the Making of Meaning. New York: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-200409-X
* Jackson, Susan A. & Csíkszentmihályi, Mihály (1999). Flow in Sports: The Keys to Optimal Experiences and Performances. Champaign, Illinois: Human Kinetics Publishers. ISBN 0-88011-876-8
* Sherry, J. L. (2004). Flow and media enjoyment. Communication Theory, 14(4), 328-347.

### Presence

* Kwan Min Lee (2004) Presence, Explicated Communication Theory 14 (1) , 27–50 doi:10.1111/j.1468-2885.2004.tb00302.x

### Transportation

* Green, M., Brock, T., and Kaufman, G. 2004. Understanding media enjoyment: The role of transportation into narrative worlds. Communication Theory 14, 4 (2004), 311-327.
# Structural Biochemistry/Enzyme/steady state

The steady state assumption was proposed by George Briggs and John Haldane in 1924. In this assumption, the concentrations of the intermediates of a reaction remain the same even when the concentrations of starting materials and products are changing. Steady state occurs when the rate of formation and breakdown of the intermediate are equal. The steady state assumption relies on the fact that both the formation of the intermediate from reactants and the formation of products from the intermediate have rates much higher than their corresponding reverse reactions. In other words, steady state assumes that k1>>k-1 and k2>>k-2.
Example of steady state of enzyme can be found from Michaelis-menten enzyme kinetics. This enzyme kinetic has a model for rate equation which has a closed-form solution for the concentration of reactants and products in an enzymatic reaction. In particular, the steady-state approximation assumes a negligible rate of change in the concentration of the enzyme-substrate complex during the course of the reaction. The initial phase of the reaction was examined by using the stopped flow method, which makes it possible to mix enzyme and substrate and monitor the results within a millisecond. This method revealed an initial rapid burst of colored product, followed by its slower formation as the reaction reached the steady state.
# Structural Biochemistry/Enzyme/sequential reactions
## Definition

Sequential reactions are one of the classes involved in multiple substrate reactions. In these types of reactions, all the substrates involved are bound to the enzyme before catalysis of the reaction takes place to release the products. Sequential reactions can be either ordered or random. In a bisubstrate reaction, a ternary complex of the enzyme and both substrates forms.
Ordered Sequential Reactions
In ordered sequential reactions, all the substrates are first bound to the enzyme in a defined order or sequence. The products, too, are released after catalysis in a defined order or sequence.
An example is the lactate dehydrogenase enzyme, which is a protein that catalyzes glucose metabolism. In this ordered mechanism, the coenzyme, NADH, always binds first, with pyruvate binding afterward. During the reaction, the pyruvate is reduced to lactate while NADH is oxidized to NAD$^+$ by the enzyme. Lactate is then released first, followed by the release of NAD$^+$.
This is a characteristic of a ternary complex, which consists of three molecules that are bound together. Before catalysis, the substrates and coenzyme are bound to the enzyme. After catalysis, the complex consists of the enzyme and products, NAD$^+$ and lactate.
Random Sequential Reactions
In random sequential reactions, the substrates and products are bound and then released in no preferred order, or "random" order. An example is the creatine kinase enzyme, which catalyzes the substrates, creatine and ATP, to form the products, phosphocreatine and ADP. In this case, either substrates may bind first and either products may be released first.
A ternary complex is still observed for random sequential reactions. Before catalysis, the complex includes the enzyme, ATP and creatine. After catalysis, the complex consists of the enzyme, ADP, and phosphocreatine.
# Security IT/Police
## Two holy rules

* At home you do not keep anything illegal or even something that legal status is not clear.
* The whole computer you have encrypted cryptsetup or something comparable, you know the password to memory, has a minimum of 30 characters and consist of letters, numbers and special characters. You can use the hidden volume.
# Sedimentation

The Theory of Sedimentation is an interdisciplinary field of research that investigates the build up of sediments. It implies knowledge of chemical engineering, mathematics, fluid mechanics, and physics. This book tries both to give an introduction on the level of graduate students and to be a reference book for researchers and practitioners. The content reaches from the explanation of basic concepts up to the documentation of ongoing research.

## Contents

* Introduction
* Modeling
** Theory of mixtures
** Sedimentation of ideal suspension
** Sedimentation with compression
* Experimental design
* Mathematical theory
** Riemann problem for a scalar conservation law
** Initial value problem for a scalar conservation law
** Riemann problem for a system of conservation laws
** Initial value problem for a system of conservation laws
** Mathematical theory for sedimentation with compression
** Mathematical theory for clarifier-thickener
* Numerical simulation
* Parameter Identification

## References

Bustos, M.C., Concha, F., Bürger, R and Tory, E.M., Sedimentation and Thickening: Phenomenological Foundation and Mathematical Theory, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, ISBN 0-7923-5960-7. September 1999.
# Structural Biochemistry/T4 Polynucleotide Kinase
## Description

The T4 Polynucleotide Kinase (T4 PNK) catalyzes the transfer of the phosphate from ATP to the 5'-OH group of single- and double-stranded DNAs and RNAs as well as oligonucleotides. The reaction can be reversed. The enzyme is also a 3'-phosphatase and a homotetramer. It consists of four identical subunits of 28.9 kDa. The T4 polynucleotide kinase can be used in a buffer for restriction enzymes in techniques such as PCR. It can be found in E. coli with a duplicated gene of the bacteriophage T4. It can also be used for labeling 5’-terminus of nucleic acids which can be used as probes for hybridization, transcript mapping; markers for gel electrophoresis. They can also be used as primers for DNA sequencing and PCR technique as well as an enzyme that removes the 3’-phosphate groups.

## Storage

T4 Polynucleotide Kinase should be stored in -20°C

## Applications

The T4 polynucleotide kinase is used for labeling the 5'-termini of nucleic acids, and the labeled products can be used in the following ways: - markers for gel-electrophoresis - primers for DNA sequencing - primers for PCR - probes for hybridization - substrates for DNA and RNA ligases - probes for transcrip mapping 5'-phosphorylation of oligonucleotide linkers and DNA or RNA is required before ligation can be performed. using the $^{32}$P-postlabeling assay, DNA modification can be detected.

## Miscellaneous

The 5'-termini of nucleic acids can be labeled either through the forward or the exchange reaction. When the forward reaction is carried out, the phosphate from [$^{32}$P or $^{33}$P]-ATP is transferred to the 5'-hydroxyl end of DNA or RNA. If the nucleic acid already contains a 5'phosphate, though, that portion is removed either through the use of calf intestine alkaline phosphatase or bacterial alkaline phosphatase. When the exchange reaction is carried out, the nucleic acid 5'-phosphate is transferred to ADP and the radiolabeled phosphate from [$^{32}$P or $^{33}$P]-ATP is then transferred to the nucleic acid that does not contain a 5'-hydroxyl group. The ideal buffer to use for the exchange reaction is Imidazole-HCl buffer, which has a pH of 6.4. PEG is used to improve the rate and efficiency of the kinase reaction and should be added to the exchange reaction. When phosphate and ammonium ions are present, the T4 polynucleotide kinase is inhibited. Prior to phosphorylation reaction, DNA should not be precipitate if ammonium ions are present.
# Structural Biochemistry/TA proteins (GET) pathway in young men
## Overview

A number of eukaryotic membrane proteins have a single C-terminal transmembrane domain which casts them to a variety organelles in secretory and endocytic pathways. These tail-anchored (TA) proteins are recently found to be post-translationally inserted into the endoplasmic reticulum by molecular mechanisms. The TA proteins (GET) pathway is found to be conserved from yeast to young man. This GET pathway seems to be complicated and further studies are in need in order to understand more about it. Up to now, the GET pathway is thought to have relation to membrane protein biogeneses.

## Reference

* ↑ Denic, Vladimir (2012). "A portrait of the GET pathway as a surprisingly complicated young man". Trends in Biochemical Sciences. 37 (10): 411–7. doi:10.1016/j.tibs.2012.07.004. PMC 3459580. PMID 22951232.
# Structural Biochemistry/Taxis
## Definition

A taxis is an innate behavioural response to a directional stimulus (a stimulus from a particular direction) for which the organism either moves toward (positive taxis) or away from (negative taxis) the stimulus, called orientation movement . For example, organisms in the genus of flagellate protozoa Euglena moves towards a light source. Here the directional stimulus is light, and the orientation movement is toward it. This is positive taxis to light, more specifically positive phototaxis .
There are four different forms of taxis:
* chemotaxis
* mechanotaxis
* haptotaxis
* durotaxis

## Reference

http://www.chemistrydaily.com/chemistry/Taxis
# Structural Biochemistry/TOR

TOR is the target of rapamycin which is a macrolide used as an immunosuppressant for organ transplant. Its main function is to regulate cellular growth. It was originally found in yeast but the mammalian verision is mTORC. Dysregulation of TOR has been seen is several diseases such as cancer and diabetes. A lack of TOR mimics AA deprivation and starves cell of nutrients. TOR displays kinase activity towards proteins but not lipids. Two TOR complexes were found in yeast, TORC1 and TORC2.

## mTORC1

The TORC1 form promotes cellular cellular growth and cell size by stimulating protein synthesis. TORC1 is activated by Amino acid signaling but also needs growth factors as stimuli. The mammalian form of TORC1, mTORC1, contains Raptor, mLST8 and PRAS40. TORC1 is able to react with the Deptor protein but seems to inhibit the activity of TORC1. Similar to Deptor, PRAS40 has the same effect of TORC1. Some of mTORC1 substrates include s6 kinase 4E-BP1 protein, Stat3 and potentially TSC, Ilk1 and Atg13. The phosphorylation of some of these substrates is not known.

## mTORC2

mTORC2 contains Rictor, mDin1, mLST8, protor and is nutrient-insensitive. It can also react with Deptor but when it does it inhibits TORC1 activity. The substrates of mTORC2 have been implicated in cytoskeleton regulation and cell survival. Some substrates include Rictor and S6k but the best one is PKB/AKt which is key in the PI3K pathway. mTORC2 is needed to phosphorylate the turn motifs in PKB/Akt, SGK1 and protein kinase C. While phosphorylating PKB, mTorc2 also facilitates phosphorylation of Thr308. Phosphorylation of Thr308 is needed for PDK1 kinase activation. mTORC 2 is a target for drugs directed towards cancers that are defective in PTEN, a tumor suppressor. A downstream target of TORC2 is SGK1. Longterm rapamycin treatment should be used with caution because it may reduce mTORC2 functioning.

## References

Information is from Joungmok Kim and Kun-Liang Guan
# Structural Biochemistry/T4 RNA Ligase

T4 RNA Ligase catalyzes the ligation of a 5' phosphoryl-terminated nucleic acid donor to a 3' hydroxyl-terminated nucleic acid acceptor through the formation of a 3'→5' phosphodiester bond, with hydrolysis of ATP to AMP and PPi. Substrates include single-stranded RNA and DNA as well as dinucleoside pyrophosphates. This ligase can be formed from Purified E. coli strain ER2497 which contains the plasmid pRF-E35. This enzyme is used for the labeling the 3’-terminus of RNA with a 5’-[32P]. It functions as the inter- and intramolecular joining of the RNA and DNA molecules. It can also be used to synthesize single stranded oligodeoxyribo-nucleotides as well as incorporating additional amino acids into proteins.
# TAX1BP1

TAX1BP1 (Tax1-binding protein 1) plays a role in the negative regulation of NF- kB (transcription factors nuclear factor-kB) and IRF3 (interferon regulatory factor 3) signaling by regulating ubiquitin-editing enzyme A20 in the anti-flammatory and antiviral signaling pathways. This is to regulate the inflammatory and antimicrobial responses that are triggered in the body. TAX1BP1 also serves as a transcriptional coactivator for nuclear receptors and viral transactivators. TAX1BP1 protein is known to be highly conserved across species.

## Structure

TAX1BP1 is known to form coiled-coil structures as well as two helix-loop-helix regions responsible for homodimerization. The N terminal of TAX1BP1 contains a SKIP carboxyl homology domain (SKICH), although the typical function of SKICH that defines it as a membrane targeting domain has not yet been seen in TAX1BP1’s. At the C terminus there are two zinc finger domains which contain highly conserved ‘PPXY’ motifs that are known to bind to a ‘WW’ domain of proteins. These zinc finger domains are ubiquitin-binding domains that have also been known to allow TAX1BP1 to bind to the motor protein myosin VI which is involved in cellular processes such as endocytosis, secretion, membrane ruffling, and cell motility. TAX1BP1 also contains a 14-3-3 binding motif of unknown function.

# References

Verstrepen, Lynn, Kelly Verhelst, Isabelle Carpentier, and Rudi Beyaert. "Cell Press." Cell Press. n. page. Print.
# Van Dwelling/Choosing a Vehicle

Vandwellers live in many different kinds of vehicles, ranking from Steve Robert's tricked out Winnebiko, to a Sedan, to a proper van, to a 30 feet (9.1 m) RV. The kind of vehicle most appropriate for you will depend on several factors.

## Size of Group

It goes without saying that more people will require more space. Solo dwellers can get away with living out of a small car, while families will typically want a sizable RV. Particularly large groups may fare best with a fleet consisting of multiple vehicles.

## Accommodations needed

If external accommodations are readily available in the region you plan on traveling, you may not need extra space in your vehicle for a shower, toilet, etc. Of course, if you're planning on going into the wilderness or even many rural areas it's better to have it and not need it, then need it and not have it.

## Privacy

Privacy is a human need. If you're planning on dwelling in an urban area, consider how easy it is to conceal the inside of your vehicle for rest.

## Efficiency

If you plan on traveling long distances, the fuel efficiency of your vehicle becomes a big factor. A sedan may sip gas, while an RV will guzzle it. For those who prefer electric vehicles, electric cars are far more common then electric RVs.

## Reliability

When your vehicle is also your house, having a broken vehicle becomes a more serious issue. Reliability should be key among your criteria. Another factor to consider for those who are mechanically minded is how easy it is for you to repair your own vehicle. Some vehicles are easier to work on or find parts for then others.