OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# C Programming/stddef.h

stddef.h is a header file in the standard library of the C programming language that defines the macros NULL and offsetof as well as the types ptrdiff_t, wchar_t, and size_t.

## Inclusion

In C, one includes the header file "stddef.h", in this way:
In C++, one includes the header file "cstddef", in this way:

## Namespace

The header file "stddef.h" places its definitions in the global scope; the header file "cstddef" places size_t and ptrdiff_t in namespace std.

## NULL

A macro that expands to a null pointer constant. It may be defined as ((void*)0), 0 or 0L depending on the compiler and the language.

## offsetof(type, member)

A functional macro that is used to determine the byte offset of the indicated member field in the specified structure type.

## Type size_t

The type size_t represents the appropriate type for representing the size of objects of memory areas, and for use in dereferencing the elements of an array. It has an implementation-dependent size; usually but not necessarily, it has a 32-bit representation on 32-bit systems and a 64-bit representation on 64-bit systems. It is unsigned.
This type has in some implementations a signed variant with name ssize_t, that is defined in the UNIX header file "unistd.h". For GNU C the type ssize_t is defined in "stddef.h" and thus resides in the same file as size_t.

## Type wchar_t

An implementation-specific "wide character" type, which is predefined in the C++ programming language but requires the header "stddef.h" or "wchar.h" in the C programming language.

## Type ptrdiff_t

The type ptrdiff_t is a type that can hold the result of subtracting two pointers which point to two items of the same object. The underlying type of ptrdiff_t varies from implementation to implementation.
A Object is maybe bigger than PTRDIFF_MAX. A subtracting of two pointers which have a bigger difference than PTRDIFF_MAX / PTRDIFF_MIN result in a undefined behavior.

## References

* ↑ http://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/7908799/xsh/stddef.h.html

## External links

* stddef.h on The Open Group
* stddef.h on CPlusPlus.com
* cstddef on MSDN
# C Programming/math.h/sqrt

sqrt is a C library function. It is mainly associated with programming language. It is considerd under [math.h] header file.
function:
Description: sqrt computes square root. And returns The square root of x. In C++, this function is overloaded in <complex> and <valarray> (see complex sqrt and valarray sqrt). If the argument is negative, a domain error occurs, setting the global variable errno to the value EDOM.
Return Value: Square root of x.
Portability: In C, only the double version of this function exists with this name.
Example:
Output: sqrt(1024.000000) = 32.000000
See also: pow Raise to power (function).
log Compute natural logarithm (function).
exp compute exponent of number (function) .
All the above are Related functions of sqrt.
# C Programming/stdbool.h

The header stdbool.h in the C Standard Library for the C programming language contains four macros for a Boolean data type. This header was introduced in C99.
The macros as defined in the ISO C standard are :
* bool which expands to _Bool
* true which expands to 1
* false which expands to 0
* __bool_true_false_are_defined which expands to 1
which can be used in an example
which will output

## External links

* stdbool.h: boolean type and values – Base Definitions Reference, The Single UNIX® Specification, Issue 7 from The Open Group
# C Programming/stddef.h/offsetof

C's offsetof macro is an ANSI C library feature found in stddef.h. It evaluates to the offset (in bytes) of a given member within a struct or union type, an expression of type size_t. The offsetof macro takes two parameters, the first being a structure name, and the second being the name of a member within the structure. It can not be described as a C prototype.

## Implementation

The "traditional" implementation of the macro relied on the compiler being not especially picky about pointers; it obtained the offset of a member by specifying a hypothetical structure that begins at address zero:
This works by casting a null pointer into a pointer to structure st, obtaining the address of member m within this structure, casting that address into a character pointer, then using pointer arithmetic to subtract the base address of the structure, all of which results in the number of character positions (i.e., bytes) between the beginning of the structure and the beginning of the member.
While this works correctly in many compilers, it has undefined behavior according to the C standard, since it involves both a dereference of a null pointer, and a cast that violates the aliasing rules. It also tends to produce confusing compiler diagnostics if one of the arguments is misspelled. Modern compilers often define the macro using a special form instead, e.g.

## Usage

It is useful when implementing generic data structures in C. For example, the Linux kernel uses offsetof to implement container_of, which allows something like a Mixin type to find the structure that contains it:
This macro is used to retrieve an enclosing structure from a pointer to a nested element, such as this iteration of a linked list of my_struct objects:

## References

* ↑ "offsetof reference". MSDN. Retrieved 2010-09-19.
* ↑ "GCC offsetof reference". Free Software Foundation. Retrieved 2010-09-19.
* ↑ Greg Kroah-Hartman (2003-06). "container_of". Linux Journal. Retrieved 2010-09-19. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
# C Programming/stdalign.h

To query and specify the alignment of an object, include the header <stdalign.h>.

## Macro

In <stdalign.h>, four macros are defined.

### alignas

    Expanded to _Alignas.

### alignof

    Expanded to _Alignof.

### _alignas_is_defined

    expands to integer constant 1.

### _alignas_is_defined

Expanded to integer constant 1. _alignas_is_defined and _alignof_is_defined are suitable for use with #if preprocessing directives.

### alignas

alignas specifies the alignment in bytes for declaring variables.

#### Example

    #include <stdio.h> #include <stdalign.h> int main(void) { alignas(65536) int i; alignas(256) int j; int k; printf("Address of i is %p\n", &i); printf("Address of j is %p\n", &j); printf("Address of k is %p\n", &k); return 0; }

#### Result

    Address of i is 0x7ffffffe0000 Address of j is 0x7ffffffeff00 Address of k is 0x7ffffffeffec

### alignof

alignof returns the alignment required by the specified type in size_t.

#### Example

    #include <stdio.h> #include <stdalign.h> int main(void) { printf("Alignment requirement for char is %zu.\n", alignof(char)); printf("Alignment requirement for int is %zu.\n", alignof(int)); printf("Alignment requirement for float is %zu.\n", alignof(float)); printf("Alignment requirement for double is %zu.\n", alignof(double)); return 0; }

#### Result

    Alignment requirement for char is 1. Alignment requirement for int is 4. Alignment requirement for float is 4. Alignment requirement for double is 8.

## History

The alignas type specifier (keyword_Alignas), alignof operator (keyword_Alignof), header<stdalign.h>, added in ISO/IEC 9899:2011.

## Footnotes

* 1 2 C11: WG14/N1570 Committee Draft - April 12, 2011 ISO/IEC 9899:201x (PDF). ISO/IEC. p.268, §7.15 Alignment <stdalign.h>.
* 1 2 jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/docs/n1570.pdf C11: WG14/N1570 Committee Draft - April 12, 2011 ISO/IEC 9899:201x (PDF). ISO/IEC. p.48, §6.2.8 Alignment of objects'. {{cite book}}: Check |url= value (help)
* 1 2 22/wg14/www/docs/n1570.pdf C11: WG14/N1570 Committee Draft - April 12, 2011 ISO/IEC 9899:201x (PDF). ISO/IEC. p.127, §6.7.5 Alignment specifier. {{cite book}}: Check |url= value (help)

## References

* ISO/IEC 9899:2018(en) Information technology - Programming languages - C(2018-07-05)
# Celestia/Development/Win32 platform/Win SDK

This page is obsolete. See the page "Win32 Platform"
# Celestia/Introductory Text

Celestia provides photo-realistic, real-time, three-dimensional viewing of the Solar System, the galaxy and the universe. It is an easy to use, freely-distributed, multi-platform, open source, software package which has become a valuable tool for astronomy education. Used in homes, schools, museums and planetariums around the world, it also is used as a visualization tool by space mission designers. Versions are available for computers running Windows, Macintosh (Mac OS X) and Linux operating systems.
Although it is optimized for 3D astronomical visualization, Celestia can be used to display and explore other 3D environments, too.
And, for some reason, many people seem to find exploring with Celestia to be a lot of fun.

## Using Celestia

How to use Celestia is described in detail in Frank Gregorio's Celestia 1.6.0 User's Guide.
Go to Getting Started
# BlitzMax/Modules/Audio/WAV loader

The WAV loader module provides the ability to load WAV format audio samples.
# BlitzMax/Modules/Audio/FreeAudio audio

The FreeAudio audio module provides FreeAudio drivers for use with the audio module.
# BlitzMax/Modules/BaH

The 'BaH' modscope is a group of freeware BlitzMax modules developed by Bruce Henderson.

## Modules
#### Audio

   * BASS
   * FMOD
   * GME
   * irrKlang
   * PortMidi (Deprecated)
   * TagLib

#### Audio: Drivers

   * FMODAudio
   * irrKlangAudio

#### Database

   * Database
   * DBmSQL
   * DBMySQL
   * DBODBC
   * DBOracle
   * DBPostgreSQL
   * DBSQLite
   * DBXbase

#### Graphics

   * Cairo
   * Graphviz
   * LibSVG

#### GUI

   * GTKMaxGUI (Linux)
   * GTKWebGTKHTML (Linux)
   * GTKWebMozilla (Linux)

#### Imaging

   * EXRLoader
   * GDAL
   * FreeImage
   * RGBLoader

#### Internet

   * ClearSilver
   * Flickcurl
   * FTPParser
   * Libcurl
   * LibcurlSSL

#### Math

   * MAPM
   * MathToolkit
   * muParser

#### Miscellaneous

   * MaxUnit
   * RealtimeBattle (Linux)

#### Networking

   * Raknet

#### Physics

   * Box2D
   * Chipmunk

#### System

   * AppStub (MacOS)
   * Boost
   * Crypto
   * DateTime
   * Libnotify (Linux)
   * Growl (MacOS)
   * Random
   * Volumes

#### Text

   * Base64
   * Expat
   * Format
   * LibXML
   * LibXSLT
   * Locale
   * RegEx
   * RTL
   * Tesseract

## External links

* Brucey's Modules
* Brucey's Programming Forum
# BlitzMax/Modules/Audio/OGG loader

The OGG loader module provides the ability to load OGG format audio samples.
# BlitzMax/Modules/Audio/OpenAL audio

The OpenAL audio module provide OpenAL drivers for use with the audio module.

# Functions
## EnableOpenALAudio

Function EnableOpenALAudio
Description: Enable OpenAL Audio
Returns: True if successful
Information: After successfully executing this command, OpenAL audio drivers will be added to the array of drivers returned by AudioDrivers.
# Chemical Sciences: A Manual for CSIR-UGC National Eligibility Test for Lectureship and JRF/X-ray magnetic circular dichroism

X-ray magnetic circular dichroism (XMCD) is a difference spectrum of two x-ray absorption spectra (XAS) taken in a magnetic field, one taken with left circularly polarized light, and one with right circularly polarized light. By closely analyzing the difference in the XMCD spectrum, information can be obtained on the magnetic properties of the atom, such as its spin and orbital magnetic moment.
In the case of transition metals such as iron, cobalt, and nickel, the absorption spectra for XMCD are usually measured at the L-edge. This corresponds to the process in the iron case: with iron, a 2p electron is excited to a 3d state by an x-ray of about 700 eV. Because the 3d electron states are the origin of the magnetic properties of the elements, the spectra contain information on the magnetic properties.
# Chemical Sciences: A Manual for CSIR-UGC National Eligibility Test for Lectureship and JRF/X-ray reflectivity

X-ray reflectivity sometimes known as X-ray specular reflectivity, X-ray reflectometry, or XRR, is a surface-sensitive analytical technique used in chemistry, physics, and materials science to characterize surfaces, thin films and multilayers. It is related to the complementary techniques of neutron reflectometry and ellipsometry.
The basic idea behind the technique is to reflect a beam of x-rays from a flat surface and to then measure the intensity of x-rays reflected in the specular direction (reflected angle equal to incident angle). If the interface is not perfectly sharp and smooth then the reflected intensity will deviate from that predicted by the law of Fresnel reflectivity. The deviations can then be analyzed to obtain the density profile of the interface normal to the surface.
The technique appears to have first been applied to x-rays by Professor Lyman G. Parratt of Cornell University in an article published in the physical review in 1954. Parratt's initial work explored the surface of copper-coated glass, but since that time the technique has been extended to a wide range of both solid and liquid interfaces.
The basic mathematical relationship which describes specular reflectivity is fairly straightforward. When an interface is not perfectly sharp, but has an average electron density profile given by $\rho _{e}(z)$, then the x-ray reflectivity can be approximated by:
$R(Q)/R_{F}(Q)=\left|{\frac {1}{\rho _{\infty }}}{\int \limits _{-\infty }^{\infty }{e^{iQz}\rho _{e}\left(z\right)dz}}\right|^{2}$
Here $R(Q)$ is the reflectivity, $Q=4\pi \sin(\theta )/\lambda$, $\lambda$ is the x-ray wavelength, $\rho _{\infty }$ is the density deep within the material and $\theta$ is the angle of incidence. Typically one can then use this formula to compare parametrized models of the average density profile in the z-direction with the measured x-ray reflectivity and then vary the parameters until the theoretical profile matches the measurement.
For films with multiple layers, X-ray reflectivity may show oscillations with wavelength, analogous to the Fabry-Pérot effect. These oscillations can be used to infer layer thicknesses and other properties, for example using the Abeles matrix formalism.

## References

* ↑ Holy, V. et al. Phys. Rev. B. 47, 15896 (1993).
* ↑ Jens Als-Nielsen, Elements of Modern X-Ray Physics, Wiley, New York, (2001).
* ↑ J.Daillant, A.Gibaud, X-Ray and Neutron Reflectivity: Principles and Applications. Springer, (1999).
* ↑ M.Tolan, X-Ray Scattering from Soft-Matter Thin Films, Springer, (1999)
* ↑ L. G. Parratt, Phys. Rev. 95, 359 (1954).
# Chemical Sciences: A Manual for CSIR-UGC National Eligibility Test for Lectureship and JRF/X-ray standing waves
## The X-ray standing wave technique

The X-ray standing wave (XSW) technique can be used to study the structure of surfaces and interfaces with high spatial resolution and chemical selectivity. Pioneered by B.W. Batterman in the 1960s the availability of synchrotron light has stimulated the application of this interferometric technique to a wide range of problems in surface science.

## Basic Principles

An X-ray interference field created by Bragg reflection provides the length scale against which atomic distances can be measured. The spatial modulation of this field described by the dynamical theory of X-ray diffraction undergoes a pronounced change when the sample is scanned through the Bragg condition. Due to a relative phase variation between the incoming and the reflected beam the nodal planes of the XSW field shift by half a lattice constant.
Depending on the position of the atoms within this wave field the element specific absorption of X-rays varies in a characteristic way. Therefore, measurement of the photo yield – via X-ray fluorescence or photoelectron spectroscopy – can reveal the position of the atoms relative to the lattice planes.
For a quantitative analysis the normalized photo yield $Y_{p}$ is described by
$Y_{p}(\Omega )=1+R+2C{\sqrt {R}}f_{H}\cos(\nu -2\pi P_{H})$,
where $R$ is the reflectivity and $\nu$ is the relative phase of the interfering beams. The characteristic shape of $Y_{p}$ can be used to derive precise structural information about the surface atoms because the two parameters $f_{H}$ (coherent fraction) and $P_{H}$ (coherent position) are directly related to the Fourier representation of the atomic distribution function.
Since the emitting atoms are located in the near field, this technique does not suffer from the ubiquitous phase problem of X-ray crystallography. Therefore, and with a sufficiently large number of Fourier components being measured, XSW data can be used to establish the distribution of the different atoms in the unit cell (XSW imaging).

## Selected Applications

which require ultra-high vacuum conditions
* Physisorption and chemisorption studies
* Diffusion of dopants in crystals
* Superlattices and Quasi-crystal characterization
which do not require ultra-high vacuum conditions
* Langmuir-Blodgett films
* Self-assembled monolayers
* Buried interfaces

## References

* ↑ P. Hoenicke et al., Depth profile characterization of ultra shallow junction implants, Anal. Bioanal. Chem., 396 (8), 2825-2832 (2010)
J. Als-Nielsen & D. McMorrow, Elements of Modern X-ray Physics, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd (2000) B. W. Batterman & H. Cole, Dynamical Diffraction of X Rays by Perfect Crystals, Rev. Mod. Phys. Vol. 36 681 (1964)
# Chemical Sciences: A Manual for CSIR-UGC National Eligibility Test for Lectureship and JRF/Zero field NMR

Zero field NMR is the NMR spectrum analysis of certain substances in an environment carefully screened from magnetic fields. It is useful for studying nuclei with spins greater than 1/2, and for studying molecular dynamics.
It is "commonly but inaccurately known as nuclear quadrupole resonance" (NQR).
# Cognitive Psychology and Cognitive Neuroscience/Some useful syntax
## Referencing

From the Wikipedia about footnotes.
On the Edit page, this is placed at the first insertion point of citation:
       <ref name="Perry">Perry's Handbook, Sixth Edition, McGraw-Hill Co., 1984.</ref>
This is placed at the second insertion point of citation:
       <ref name="Perry"/>
This is placed at the third insertion point of citation:
       <ref name="Perry"/> ... and so forth for further insertion points
On the Edit page, this is placed in the References or the Footnotes section, so the area, were the footnotes should appear:
       <references/>
# Cognitive Science: An Introduction

Cognitive Science: An Introduction
This book is intended to be an introductory undergraduate text for the field of cognitive science, the interdiscipline that endeavors to understand cognition at a computational level from a variety of methodological viewpoints.
THIS BOOK IS A WORK IN PROGRESS AND IS STILL INCOMPLETE
About This Book
    Approach
    Study Questions
    Style Guide
What Cognitive Science Is
    What is Science?
    A Brief History
    Cognitive Science Defined
    Other Cognitive Levels of Explanation
Approaches to Cognitive Science
    Computational theory of mind
    Situated Cognition
    Embodied cognition
Methods
    Artificial Intelligence Methods
    Psychology Methods
    Statistics
    Philosophy Methods
    Linguistics Methods
    Neuroscience Methods
    Anthropology Methods
    Serious Games and Crowdsourcing Methods
The Architecture of the Mind
    What is an Architecture?
    Modularity vs. General Purpose Functioning
    Emotion
    Non-Emotion Feelings
    Metaphor and Analogy
    Cognitive Architectures Implemented As Software
    Brain Architecture and Processing
The Evolution of Intelligence
    What is evolution?
    Kinds of Intelligences
    Methodology: How Can We Understand the Evolution of Intelligence?
    A Brief History of Human Evolution
    Explanations For How Humans Got So Smart
    Evolutionary Psychology
Perception
    Perception's Role in Cognition
    Vision
    Audition
    Haptics
    Olfaction
    Gustation
    Vestibular Systems
    Proprioception
    Interoception
    Senses In Non-human Animals and Robots
    What the Senses Have in Common
    Synesthesia
Specific Mental Processes
    What Consciousness Is
    Psychology of Time
    Psychology of Pain
    Philosophical Issues of Pain
    Dreaming
    Control of the Body
    Gut brain
Memory, Representation, and Learning
    Memory Introduction
    Human Memory
    Computer and Software Memory
    Memory In Distributed Cognitive Systems
    Kinds of Learning
    Learning At Different Levels of Analysis
Reasoning and Inference
    The General Function of Reasoning
    Categorization
    Creativity, Planning, and Imagination
    Biases and Reasoning Heuristics
    Moral Thinking
Language and Communication
    Kinds of Language
    Non-Human Communication
    Human Language
    Logic
    The Language of Thought and Intra-brain Communication
Development Over the Lifespan
    Brain Development
    The Nature-Nurture Debate
    Psychology of Play
    Acting to Learn
    Cognitive Training in Adults
Cognitive Science and The Real World
    How Cognitive Science Can Help You Get Through School
    Myths about Cognition
    Cognitive Science in the Media
    Practical Applications of Cognitive Science
# Cognitive Science: An Introduction/Acting to Learn

When children play with toys, they are trying to practice dealing with the world, and learning how it works.
In one test of this idea, psychologist Aimee Stahl ran an experiment in which infants were shown objects behaving in various ways. One object was shown to defy gravity (it was staged, of course.) When given an opportunity to play with the toy afterward, the infants were more likely to drop it on the ground. Some infants saw toys that appeared to pass walls, and later, when they played with the toy, they would bang it on the table. What we think is happening here is that the infants already had some knowledge that solid objects obey the law of gravity and are unable to pass through walls. So when the kids observed otherwise, they tested this knowledge, and the fact that they used different tests for different objects supports this view.
# Communication Systems/Analog Modulation Introduction
## Analog Modulation Overview

Let's take a look at a generalized sinewave:
    $x\left(t\right)=A\sin \left({\omega t+\theta }\right)$
It consists of three components namely; amplitude, frequency and phase. Each of which can be decomposed to provide finer detail:
    $x(t)=As(t)\sin(2\pi [f_{c}+kf_{m}(t)]t+\alpha \phi (t))$

## Types of Analog Modulation

We can see 3 parameters that can be changed in this sine wave to send information:
* $As(t)$. This term is called the "Amplitude", and changing it is called "Amplitude Modulation" (AM)
* $kf_{m}(t)$ This term is called the "Frequency Shift", and changing it is called "Frequency Modulation"
* $\alpha \phi (t)$. this term is called the "Phase angle", and changing it is called "Phase Modulation".
* The terms frequency and phase modulation are often combined into a more general group called "Angle Modulation".

## The Breakdown

Each term consists of a coefficient (called a "scaling factor"), and a function of time that corresponds to the information that we want to send. The scaling factor out front, A, is also used as the transmission power coefficient. When a radio station wants their signal to be stronger (regardless of whether it is AM, FM, or PM), they "crank-up" the power of A, and send more power out onto the airwaves.

## How we Will Cover the Material

We are going to go into separate chapters for each different type of modulation. This book will attempt to discuss some of the mathematical models and techniques used with different modulation techniques. It will also discuss some practical information about how to construct a transmitter/receiver, and how to use each modulation technique effectively.