OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Professional and Technical Writing/Documenting Your Sources/Reasons For Documenting Your Sources
## Reasons For Documenting Your Sources

* Acknowledge the sources which have provided you with ideas and information
* Help audience find more information about something you discussed
* Show audience that an idea was expressed by a respected person/ publication to increase credibility of your writing
* Show how your research contributes to the development of the field you are researching
* Prevent legal consequences from illegally using sources without giving credit
# Professional and Technical Writing/Documenting Your Sources/Location Of Citations In The Text
## Location Of Citations In The Text

•Sources are cited in the body of a text with the use of parentheses. The type of citation style will differ depending on what is put inside the parentheses. These parentheses are always put on the inside of the sentence's period or comma.
Example: Using APA style formatting- According to J.C. Smith (2010, pg. 777), "It is important to always write clearly and succinctly."

## Citing One Source for One Sentence, Quotation or Fact

•For one sentence, the citation is put in parentheses immediately after the referred sentence, quotation, or fact.
Example: On November 8, 2009, the world's largest cookie was made (Smith, 2009).

## Citing One Source for Multiple Sentences

•For one or more sentences, the citation should be placed in the first sentence of the group of sentences that are being cited. This sentence should introduce the material that will be discussed in the upcoming sentences. The readers will then understand that the citation refers to all the material related to this leading sentence.
Example: The topic of cookies and their origins has been studied by John Smith (2009). Cookies are thought to have come from... They were originally used for...

## Citing Multiple Sources for One or Multiple Sentences

•For multiple sources, only the information inside the parentheses changes. This is dependent on what type of citation style you are using.
Example: Childhood obesity is on the rise in America, creating a need for more nutrition education classes in grade schools (Smith, 2009; L. Johnson, 1998).
# Professional and Technical Writing/Documenting Your Sources/MLA Style In-Text Citations
## MLA Style In-Text Citations

Unlike the APA style, the MLA style considers both author's name the specific page or pages where the information was found. The author name and page(s) are enclosed in parentheses with no punctuation in between them. The information inside the parentheses should be placed inside the normal sentence punctuation. Page numbers are not needed if a whole work is being cited. A hyphen is used to separate page ranges. In large numbers, only the last two digits are needed unless more are necessary (240-59, but (120-200).
Example: English Springer Spaniels are great hunters (Smith 10–12).
* If the author's name is used in the sentence, give only the page numbers in parentheses.
Example: According to Smith, English Springer Spaniels are great hunters (10-12).
* If no author is listed, use the article title or book title, followed by the page number(s).
Example: (AKC Dog Book 10–12)
* If more than sources by the same author are cited and they have the same publication year, differ the two citations by adding a few words from the title following the author's name and a comma.
# Professional and Technical Writing/Documenting Your Sources/MLA Style Reference Lists
## MLA Style Reference Lists

Like the APA style, MLA has three types of sources which include: Printed, Electronic, and Other Sources.
'Printed Sources'
* Book, One Author
** Give the name of the last name of the author followed by a comma and then the first and middle names, exactly how they appear on the title page.
** Underline the title, and capitalize all major words.
** Follow the city of publication with a colon, the publisher's name, a comma, and the publication date.
** Indent all lines after the first one.
* Book, More than One Author
** The first author's name should be given in reverse order, with the last name first.
** The names of the additional authors should be normal, with first names first and last names last.
* Essay Collection
* Use the abbreviation "ed." for a single editor and "eds." for multiple editors.
* Government Report
** If a author is not listed, begin with the name of the government, followed by a period and the name of the agency hat issued the document. If it is a United States government agency, spell out "United States" followed by a period and then the agency's name.
** If the report includes a identifying number, place it right after the title.
* Corporate Report
** If individual author names are not listed on the title page, list the corporation's name as the author.
PetSmart, Inc. Dog Toy Report. Minneapolis, MN: PetSmart, Inc., 2008.
* Article from an Encyclopedia, Dictionary, or Similar References
** If no author is listed, begin with the article's title.
** If entries in the work are arranged alphabetically, do not give volume or page number.
** When citing familiar reference works, give the edition number and year of publication, but not the publisher or city of publication.
* Brochure
** If the brochure doesn't list an author, begin the entry with the name of the organization that published it, followed by a period and the name of the agency that issued the document.
** If the brochure lists no author and no publisher, begin with the document's title.
* Article in Popular Magazine
** If a newspaper lists an edition, place a comma after the date and add the edition's name, using abbreviations where reasonable.
'Electronic Sources'
* Report Available Only on a Website
* Article That is Not Available in Print
** Give the date the report was posted after the title.
** After the publisher's name and before the URL, give the date you accessed the source.
* CD-ROM
** For a CD-ROM that was accessed through a network, such as a library, add the date that it was last accessed to the end of the citation.
* E-mail
** Place the subject of the e-mail in quotation marks.
'Other Sources'
* Letter
* Interview
# Professional and Technical Writing/Documenting Your Sources/MLA Style Documentation
## MLA Style Documentation

* The MLA style (Modern Language Association) is more generally used because it is more concise and simpler to use.
* It has been used by schools, academic departments, and instructors for over 50 years.
* A basic MLA citation contains two kinds of information: the author's name and the specific page or pages on which the cite information is to be found.
# Professional and Technical Writing/Documenting Your Sources/MLA Style Short Quotations
## MLA Style Short Quotations

* When you are directly quoting the work of another person in your paper you will need to format the quotations differently depending on the length of the quote. Also remember that MLA style should be double spaced.
Here are some guidelines to follow when inserting a short quotation:
* 1) A short quote is fewer than four typed lines in your text.
* 2) Make sure to include the author and the specific page citation and also make sure that the author is on the works cited page.
* 3) Make sure that punctuation marks like periods, commas, and semicolons are after the parenthetical citation.
* 4) Punctuation marks like question marks and exclamation points should appear inside the quotation marks as long as it is a part of the passage.
Here are some examples from Purdue Owl online writing lab
# Professional and Technical Writing/Documenting Your Sources/MLA Style Tables and Figures
## Tables and Figures

Many people use tables and figures in their papers to help explain certain points they are trying to make. The purpose of this illustrations is to help the audience understand visually what the writer is trying to convey. There are many ways to do this in a paper with the use of basic word processing software.
General Guidelines
* Collect sources, gather the necessary source information required for MLA style formatting.
* Determine what illustrations best suit your purpose, figure out how the table or figure will contribute to your paper.
* Use tables and figures of the best quality, avoid poor pictures or images.
* Use figures sparingly, make sure the images are used meaningfully.
* Do not use images to boost page length, professors usually don't count space taken up by illustrations.
Labels, Captions, and Source Information
When using tables and figures they will be embedded in the document somewhere, therefore, these illustrations need to be labeled with a number and a caption. They must also be cited at the end of the paper.
Label The figure or table should have a label and number that will appear always in two places: the documents main text (ex. see table 2) and near the actual figure or table itself.
Captions Captions provide the title of the object and a brief statement explaining what the figure is about.
Source Information Source information documentation will depend upon the degree of the source illustration. You can provide the source information with all of the figures or tables and then won't need to be included on the works cites page.
Tables
The following are some guidelines for using tables
* Make sure to refer to the table and its corresponding numeral in text. (ex. see table 4)
* Insert the table near the text it relates to.
* Align the table so it is set up to the left margin.
* Label the table and provide the corresponding number.
* Provide a caption for the table, most often this is the title of the table and what it relates to.
* Underneath the title should be the source information with a descriptor source, followed by a colon, then provide the MLA bibliographic information for the source.
* If there is additional information or explanatory notes list this below the caption information or the table.
Figures
The following are some guidelines for using figures
* All images that are not tables or musical score examples are labeled as Figure or Fig.
* When you refer to the figure in the text make sure the figure corresponds to the reference.
* MLA style does not specify alignment of figures, therefore, they can be centered anywhere on the page.
* At the bottom of the figure, provide a label name and number. (ex. Fig. 2)
* Be sure to label with a title or caption as well as source information.
# Proteomics/Protein Separations - Chromatography/Ultra Performance Liquid Chromatography
## Ultra High Performance Liquid Chromatography

High performance liquid chromatography has proven itself to very useful in many scientific fields, yet is limited in either speed or resolution. Ultra high performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC) increases throughput and resolution, primarily based on the use of smaller particles for separations.
The advantages are primarily based on the theories that underly liquid chromatography. In general, increasing the efficiency of a separation will also increase its resolution. Since both efficiency and optimum flow rate are inversely proportional to particle size, a decrease in the particle size will increase both efficiency and flow rate.
For example, the particle size can be as small as 1.7um compared to 3.5um or 5um that is typically used in HPLC. The particles must be able to withstand high pressure, extreme pH, and have a high load capacity in order to improve efficiency. Other innovations to the chromatography method include a high pressure solvent delivery system, to take into account the smaller particle size, fast injection cycle sample management, and specialized detectors with fiber optic flow cell design.

## UHPLC vs HPLC

A comparison between Ultra High Performance Liquid Chromatography and High Peformance Liquid Chromatography is shown in the table below:
| Attribute | HPLC | uHPLC |
| Pressure | 6000 Psi | 100,000 Psi |
| Particle Size | 5μm | 1.7μm |
| Flow Rate | Milliliters per minute | Liters per minute |
| Max Resolution | Relatively low | Relatively high |

## Resources

* Waters - Ultra Performance Liquid Chromatography
* Waters - UPLC New Boundaries For The Chromatography Laboratory

## References

* Leandro CC, Hancock P, Fussell RJ, Keely BJ. Comparison of ultra-performance liquid chromatography and high-performance liquid chromatography for the determination of priority pesticides in baby foods by tandem quadrupole mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A. 2006 Jan 20;1103(1):94-101. *
* Michael E. Swartz, Ultra Performance Liquid Chromatography (UPLC): An Introduction www.chromatographyonline.com*
* Nicholas Ellor, Frances Goryki, Chung-Ping Yu Increasing sensitivity and throughput for LC/MS/MS-based bioanalytical assays using UPLC*
* Kate Yu, David Little, Rob Plumb HT Quantitative analysis for a drug mixture by LC/MS/MS:UPLC/MS/MS and HPLC/MS/MS compared*
.* Denotes Free Article
# Proteomics/Proteolytic Processing

Previous chapter: Proteomics and Drug Discovery
* Introduction
* Proteomics/Proteolytic processing/Proprotein
* Proteomics/Proteolytic processing/Specificity of proteolytic processing
* Proteomics/Proteolytic processing/Proteolytic processing in Secretory Pathway
* Proteomics/Proteolytic processing/Examples of proteolytic processing in various organs of our body
* Proteomics/Proteolytic processing/Proteolytic processing of the Human Immunodeficiency Virus type 1
* Proteomics/Proteolytic processing/Proteolytic processing- role in therapeutics
* Proteomics/Proteolytic processing/Autoprocessing
* Proteomics/Proteolytic processing/Lethal effects of proteolytic processing
# Proteomics/Protein Separations - Chromatography/Ultra Performace Liquid Chromatography
## Ultra Performance Liquid Chromatography

High performance liquid chromatography has proven itself to very useful in many scientific fields, yet forces scientists to consistently choose between speed and resolution. Ultra performance liquid chromatography (UPLC) eliminates the need to choose and creates a highly efficient method that is primarily based on small particle separations.
Waters ACQUITY Ultra Performance LC systems have been developed to take into account all the advantages that small particle separations currently have over HPLC. Many of these advantages are primarily based on the theories behind liquid chromatography. In general, increasing the efficiency of a separation will also increase its resolution. Since both efficiency and optimum flow rate are inversely proportional to particle size, a decrease in the particle size will increase efficiency and speed up the flow rate.
In the ACQUITY system, the particle size is decreased to 1.7um compared to 3.5um or 5um. The particles were specifically designed to withstand wide ranges of pressure and pH, have a high load capacity, and improve efficiency. Other innovations to the chromatography method include a high pressure solvent delivery system, to take into account the smaller particle size, fast injection cycle sample management, and specialized detectors with fiber optic flow cell design.

## Resources

* Waters - Ultra Performance Liquid Chromatography
* Waters - UPLC New Boundaries For The Chromatography Laboratory

## References

* Leandro CC, Hancock P, Fussell RJ, Keely BJ. Comparison of ultra-performance liquid chromatography and high-performance liquid chromatography for the determination of priority pesticides in baby foods by tandem quadrupole mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A. 2006 Jan 20;1103(1):94-101. *
* Michael E. Swartz, Ultra Performance Liquid Chromatography (UPLC): An Introduction www.chromatographyonline.com*
* Nicholas Ellor, Frances Goryki, Chung-Ping Yu Increasing sensitivity and throughput for LC/MS/MS-based bioanalytical assays using UPLC*
* Kate Yu, David Little, Rob Plumb HT Quantitative analysis for a drug mixture by LC/MS/MS:UPLC/MS/MS and HPLC/MS/MS compared*
.* Denotes Free Article
# Saylor.org's Comparative Politics/Authoritarian States

Authoritarian systems are the antithesis of democracy. As opposed to the democratic principles of rule by the people, authoritarian systems are led by either an individual or a small group of individuals. There are dozens of authoritarian systems, but all share the general characteristic of exclusiveness, which means keeping the vast majority of people out of policy and decision-making processes. Often a government will display multiple forms of authoritarian rule, a short list of these different forms is as follows:
Kleptocracy: A government led by a leader whose sole objective is to use the state to enrich himself: for example, Saddam Hussein.
Totalitarianism: An authoritarian government where the leader(s) has an all pervasive presence, usually established through secret police agencies, mass repression and surveillance. Another element of totalitarianism is the lack of independent civil society organizations; those that may exist are extensions of the state. Examples of totalitarianism include the USSR (esp. under Stalin), Nazi Germany and North Korea.
Military Junta: A government ran entirely by a group of military officers, this system was common found in South and Central America and can include elements of both totalitarianism and kleptocracy. Myanmar (Burma) is run by a military junta.
Monarchy: The "classical" western authoritarian regime, composed of a single leader whose legitimacy is often religious or tribal. The main difference between this and other authoritarian regimes is the concept of hereditary rule.
Under speculation are anarchic and libertarian systems of government, which are below democracies in terms of government power, with some having no government at all. However, due to lack of real world examples (anarchic Somalia an obvious exception) these are usually discounted.
# Saylor.org's Comparative Politics/Checks and Balances between Branches of Government
## Checks and Balances

In order to prevent any branch of government from becoming too powerful, the Framers of the Constitution in the United States created a system of checks and balances. Each branch of government has checks on the others, while it is itself also checked. The complex system can be outlined as follows:
Checks of the Legislative
Checks on the Executive
* Power to override vetoes
* Power to confirm the President's appointment of a Vice President when a vacancy in the Vice Presidency occurs
* Power to tax and allocate tax revenues for executive activities
* Oversight and investigation of executive activities
* (Senate) Power to approve treaties
* (Senate) Power to approve Presidential nominees
* (House) Impeachment, or accusation of a federal official for bribery, treason, or another high crime
* (Senate) Trial of Impeachment
Checks on the Judicial
* Power to set size and structure of courts
* (Senate) Power to approve Presidential nominees for judgeships
* (House) Impeachment
* (Senate) Trial of Impeachment
Internal Checks
* Approval of both houses required for passage of a law
Checks of the Executive
Checks on the Legislative
* Power to veto
* Power to pocket veto
* Power to call a special session of Congress when Congress is not already meeting
* Vice President presides over Senate meetings as President of the Senate
* Congress cannot reduce the salary of the President while he continues in office
Checks on the Judicial
* Power to nominate judges
* Power to fully or partially pardon convicted criminals
Checks of the Judicial
Checks on the Legislative
* Power to declare bills unconstitutional
* Congress cannot reduce the salary of a judge while he continues in office
* The Chief Justice presides over an Impeachment Trial of a President
Checks on the Executive
* Power to declare executive acts unconstitutional
| Contents | Colonial America - Articles of Confederation - The Constitutional Convention - Ratification - The Three Branches - The Federal System - General Provisions - The Bill of Rights - The Later Amendments - Legislative Branch - Executive Branch - Judicial Branch |
# Saylor.org's Comparative Politics/Christian Democracy

Christian Democracy is a political ideology popular in many European and Latin American nations that attempts to bring Christian principles into the realm of governance and public policy. For Christian Democrats, the teachings of Jesus Christ and the christian church ought to lay at the foundation of a civilized society. Although the movement emerged in the 19th century from conservative Catholic social thought, Protestants are an integral part of many European Christian Democratic parties.
Broadly speaking, there are two main strains of Christian Democracy, that often align with the cultural differences between European christians and Latin American christians. In Europe, Christian Democratic parties tend to be moderately conservative and, in fact, the main conservative party of that nation (Germany, Spain and Belgium). In Latin America, Christian Democratic parties tend to turn to the teachings of liberation theology. Thus these parties tend to be more progressive, particularly in terms of economic reform and redistribution of wealth. In other words, Christian Democratic parties do not always fit in neatly with the left-right spectrum.
General Christian Democratic beliefs include:
* Traditional moral values (on abortion, marriage)
* Opposition to secularization, radicalism and communism
* Belief in gradual social evolution/reform
* Emphasis on human rights and personal initiative, yet as an integral part of a larger community
* Support for some form of welfare state and some market regulations, though not on the scale of social democrats
A prominent example of a Christian Democratic Party is the Christian Democratic Union of Germany (and its associated party the Christian Social Union). The current Chancellor of Germany, Angela Merkel, is a member of the CDU, as were several of Germany's longest serving Chancellors in the post-WWII era: Konrad Adenauer, Ludwig Erhard and Helmut Kohl.