OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Digital Circuits/Transistor Basics
## What is a Transistor?

A transistor is an electronic control device, where an electrical signal input can control another electrical signal. The very name derives from the fact that this control action was seen as an input current flowing into one resistor (base-emitter) causing a larger current in an other resistor (collector-emitter). The early named for this device was the transfer-resistor and hence transistor.
There are many different variations of transistors that are appropriate for a wide variety of applications. The transistors that are used in modern digital electronics are generally pairs of MOSFETs, but bipolar transistors are occasionally used.

## Transistor Functions

In digital circuits, transistors are always used as a switch.
Like a common lightswitch, the ideal digital transistor is, at any one instant, either "off" with zero current flowing through it, or "on" with nearly zero voltage across it. There are occasional transitions between the two states, but in this book we ignore the details of what happens during the transition.

## Transistor Circuits

Transistors may be put together in configurations that allow more flexibility than simply diodes. With two diodes and a resistor, you can construct an AND gate and an OR gate. If we add transistors into the mix, we can construct the three basics, the AND, OR, and NOT gates. The NOT gate allows us to expand further into NAND and NOR gates. Mainly create little bit portion of resistor function.

## Propagation Delay

In all transistors today, there is a certain amount of latency between the time that a control signal is applied and the time that the output is affected. This delay is called propagation delay. These delays can be broken up into two parts.
* t$_{PLH}$ This is the delay time resulting from a LOW to HIGH transition • t$_{PHL}$ This is the delay time resulting from a HIGH to LOW transition
Keep in mind: These two values may not be the same and are usually defined on the device's datasheet.
Propagation delay can be influenced by capacitance in the circuit. Propagation delay is also a rough indicator of effective speed of the device. For example, a gate with a 5 nanosecond propagation delay will respond much faster than a gate with a 120 nanosecond propagation delay.
Propagation delay is measured at the 50% mark and measures the time elapsed between the input and output signal changes.

## Further reading

For details of what transistors are really made of, see Semiconductors.
In digital circuits, we are mainly focusing on transistors that are in cutoff or saturation. For details of behavior of transistors when they are forced into an "in-between" state between fully off and fully on, see Analogue Electronics.
This section of the Digital Circuits wikibook is a stub. You can help by expanding this section. If you add something, list yourself as a Contributor.
# Energy Efficiency Reference/Residential

* Introduction
* Sectors
* Agriculture • Commercial • Industrial • Residential
* Subsystems
* Boilers & Steam • Fume Hoods • Compressed Air • HVAC • Refrigeration • Lighting • Motors • Pumps & Fans • Solar
* Incentives
* Additional Resources
* Glossary
* Contributors
* view .
This sector is meant to deal mainly with small scale applications on the residential level.

## How-tos

How to Reduce Energy Usage WikiBook

## Resources

* "Caring for the Planet" - CNN

### Local

* Northwest Energy Efficiency Alliance - provides a list of various energy efficiency opportunities
* Community Energy Project - "Empowering People - One Home at a Time", Portland, OR

## Courses/Education

Climate Masters
* 11-week course on how to live more sustainably geared towards residential sector
* Corvallis, OR
* Eugene, OR
# Energy Efficiency Reference/Solar

* Introduction
* Sectors
* Agriculture • Commercial • Industrial • Residential
* Subsystems
* Boilers & Steam • Fume Hoods • Compressed Air • HVAC • Refrigeration • Lighting • Motors • Pumps & Fans • Solar
* Incentives
* Additional Resources
* Glossary
* Contributors
* view .

## Division

* Solar Thermal (i.e. Solar Water Heating)
* Solar Electric (i.e. Photovoltaic (PV) arrays)

## Certification

* http://www.solar-rating.org/
# Energy Efficiency Reference/Refrigeration/Technology Primer

Before going to an installation to collect data, review the equipment you are going to observe. Confirm that the equipment uses vapor compression refrigeration. If not, the information contained here does not apply.
At the conclusion of this section you should be familiar with:

## Common Terms

Be familiar with common terms that will be used in the discussions that follow.

## Equipment

A diagram of the essential equipment in a simple refrigeration cycle is shown. Each piece of equipment is then described in detail.

## Systems

Be able to identify a single or multiply stage vapor-compression refrigeration system.
# Energy Efficiency Reference/Refrigeration/Technology Primer/Systems

Energy is absorbed as a liquid evaporates. This property is used in a vapor-compression refrigeration system to cool a given area, for example. High-pressure liquid enters an area to be cooled As the pressure is reduced, liquid refrigerant evaporates as it absorbs energy from its surroundings. Outside the cooled area, the refrigerant gas is compressed and rejects heat to its surroundings , condensing back to a liquid. Vapor-compression refrigeration is the most common type of refrigeration system in small to medium sized industry.
This guide addresses vapor-compression technology; types of refrigeration systems, including absorption, will not be cover. A vapor compression refrigeration system will be configured in one of the following ways.
Single Stage (simple cycle) The refrigerant passes in a single loop between the cooling application and the outside. Such systems cannot efficiently drop refrigerant temperatures lower than -15 degrees F. Equipment contained in the simple system is also common to more complicated systems. The following is a diagram of a simple refrigeration cycle.
Multi-Stage Multi-stage systems use multiple compressors in combination to achieve lower suction pressure and temperatures than possible with single-stage systems. To achieve lower suction pressure, multi-stage systems have two or more compressors.
# Energy Efficiency Reference/Refrigeration/Technology Primer/Common Terms

* Condenser Effect: Heat exchanger in which the refrigerant gives off energy to the surroundings and condenses from a gas to a liquid.
* Cooling Effect<: Change in enthalpy in the evaporator as the refrigerant absorbs energy and evaporates.
* Discharge Pressure, Condensing Pressure, High-side Pressure: Pressure at the compressor discharge at which the refrigerant condenses. Condensing pressure fluctuates with outside temperature on air-cooled or evaporator units.
* Enthalpy: Enthalpy is sometimes called total energy because it includes internal energy (u), the work done in a particular process (pv). and change of phase.
* Evaporator: Heat exchanger in which the refrigerant absorbs energy from the surrounding as it evaporates from a liquid to a gas.
* Compressor Work: Change in enthalpy as the refrigerant is compressed.
* Rejected Heat: Change in enthalpy as the refrigerant condenses.
* Latent Heat of Vaporization: Change in enthalpy as the refrigerant evaporates from a saturated liquid to a saturated vapor at a specified pressure.
* Minimum Approach Temperature Difference: Approach temperature difference across a heat exchange with the heat transfer coefficient maximized. This can be measured for clean condenses or evaporators with all heat exchanges fans running at full power.
* Minimum Discharge Pressure: Air-cooled and evaporative condensers maintain the minimum discharge pressure by cycling fans or controlling speed. Plant personnel control the minimum pressure set point.
* Refrigerant: The refrigerant is the "working fluid" which evaporates to absorb the latent heat of vaporization from its surroundings. Thereby cooling the surroundings. To permit the refrigerator to operate continuously, the refrigerant vapor is compressed and reconverted to liquid effectively moving energy from where the refrigerant vaporizes to where is condenses.
* Suction Pressure, Low-side Pressure: Pressure at the inlet to the compressor is also the pressure at which the refrigerant evaporates.
* Tons: A measure of the cooling capacity usually applied to larger cooling systems and heat pumps. One ton of cooling represents the ability to absorb energy at a rate originally determined by melting 1 short ton (2000 ponds) of ice in 24 hours. Now, 1 ton = 12,000 Btu per hour, 3,520 watts.
# Energy Efficiency Reference/Solar/Solar Electric
## Example Assessment Recommendation

* Pholtovoltaic Array - installation of PV array in Oregon
# Change Issues in Curriculum and Instruction/Final Assignment Links

Change Issues -- Master List (brought to you by Francis Stonier) :)
Tiffany Hall
Patricia Horne
Francis Stonier
Camilla Walck
Lauren Florin
Stephanie Sugioka
Rose Hotchkiss
Peter Baker
# Diablo Canyon Nuclear Power Plant: The WikiBook/Hosgri

The Hosgri Fault (also Hosgri Fault Zone, San Gregorio-Hosgri Fault Zone) is an offshore fault zone located near the Central Coast of California in San Luis Obispo County. The main fault stretches for about 140-kilometer (87 mi), and the coastal communities closest to it are Cambria, San Simeon and Morro Bay, Baywood Park-Los Osos, and Avila Beach. The fault system (including branches) is some 420 km long, and is a right-lateral strand of the San Andreas fault system

## Fault Information

The Hosgri Fault is a component of the San Andreas Fault system. Its movement is primarily reverse thrust, as well as exhibiting right lateral slip, and is thought to be capable of generating earthquakes of up to magnitude 7.5. The November 4, 1927 Lompoc earthquake (magnitude 7.1) is thought to have occurred on this fault.
Seismologists monitor activity on the Hosgri fault constantly because of its physical proximity to the nuclear Diablo Canyon Power Plant. In fact, the fault lies only 2½ miles offshore from the nuclear power plant. More recently in 2008, yet another even closer fault was discovered, the Shoreline Fault 1 mile from the NPP.
Coordinates: 35°07′N 119°39′W﻿ / ﻿35.117°N 119.65°W﻿ / 35.117; -119.65

## References

* 1 2 "Hosgri Fault Zone" Southern California Earthquake Data Center. Southern California Earthquake Data Center, n.d. Web. 12 Oct. 2009.
* ↑ http://gsa.confex.com/gsa/2010CD/finalprogram/abstract_173206.htm Geological Society of America:STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF THE SAN SIMEON FAULT ZONE, CALIFORNIA: IMPLICATIONS FOR TRANSFORM TECTONICS
* ↑ Graham, S. A., and W. R. Dickinson. "Evidence for 115 Kilometers of Right Slip on the San Gregorio-Hosgri Fault Trend." Science 199.4325 (1978): 179-181. Print.
* ↑ SCEDC|Lompoc Earthquake (1927) Southern California Earthquake Data Center
* ↑ Smith, R. Jeffrey. "A Seismological Shoot-Out at Diablo Canyon." Science 214.4520 (1981): 528-529. Print.
The Hosgri module or this section of Fukushima Aftermath: Diablo Nuclear Redux? is an incomplete stub. You can help! Add your contributions.
# Diablo Canyon Nuclear Power Plant: The WikiBook/Introduction

The nuclear incident at the Fukushima Diaichi nuclear station has sparked a renewed interest in evaluation of the risks posed by nuclear power plants worldwide, among them Diablo. (Some parties insist on referring to the plant as Diablo Canyon (Nuclear) Power Plant; consistent with our neutral point of view policy, we try to steer clear of that debate as much as possible, referring to the facility as "Diablo", the "plant" and so forth). As you can read in the Diablo Canyon Power Plant chapter, it was built in close proximity to numerous earthquake fault zones, and is a source of on-going, often heated, public policy debate.
According to Wikipedia, Diablo Canyon was originally designed to withstand a 6.75 magnitude earthquake, including the nearby San Andreas fault|San Andreas and Hosgri faults, but was later upgraded to withstand a 7.5 magnitude quake. Recent public disclosure of the existence of the Shoreline fault proximal to DC(N)PP has created renewed public interest in the current ongoing re-licensing application of DCPP, including calls for a suspension of the licensing process until the seismic studies are complete. Although the plant has redundant seismic monitoring and a safety system designed to shut it down promptly in the event of significant ground motion, there remains considerable public concern about safety.
* ↑ "Energy: A Nuclear Horror". Time. February 9, 1976. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,917988,00.html. Retrieved July 14, 2010.
* ↑ David Sneed (August 9, 2011). "Diablo Canyon workshop to focus on earthquakes". The San Luis Obispo Tribune. http://www.sanluisobispo.com/2010/08/08/1244213/diablo-canyon-workshop-september.html.
* ↑ John Upton (April 22, 2011). "PG&E Quietly Seeking Permission to Extend Diablo Canyon's License". The Bay Citizen. http://www.baycitizen.org/pge/story/pge-seeking-permission-extend-diablo/.
* ↑ San Luis Board of Supervisors, Official Minutes; Santa Barbara Board of Supervisors, Official Minutes including but not limited to pending June 2, 2011 public hearing.
# Diablo Canyon Nuclear Power Plant: The WikiBook/Incident

((dewikify}}

## English
### Etymology

Recorded since 1412, from Template:Etyl Template:Term, the present active participle of Template:Term, itself from Template:Term + Template:Term, the combining form of Template:Term.

### Pronunciation

* /ˈɪnʈ.sɪ.dənt/, Template:SAMPA
* Audio (US) (help·info)

### Noun

Template:En-noun
* An event or occurrence.
* A relatively minor event that is incidental to, or related to others
* An event that may cause or causes an interruption or a crisis
* In safety, an incident of workplace illness or injury

#### Derived terms

* incidental
* aviation incident
* coincident
* incident room

#### Related terms

* accident
* incidence
Template:Trans-top

## Latin
### Etymology 1

Form of the verb Template:Term.
The Incident module or this section of Fukushima Aftermath: Diablo Nuclear Redux? is an incomplete stub. You can help! Add your contributions.
# Evalution of Online Sources/What are the similar better sources for same information

Caption :
| Information | Best reliable sources |
| Information about government policies, schemes, decisions | Content cell |
Many a times we tend to read or believe what comes to us as it is, but we need to look for best suited sources. The table below covers few of such sources.
# Evalution of Online Sources

In the backdrop of misinformation campaigns, explosion of information all over internet. We need to know how to evaluate and what information to consider fact. I have tried to put a guide to decide which sources should be trusted as good source of information and which shouldn't be considered at all.

## Table of Contents

* Introduction
* Types of Online Sources
* Which sources are reliable
* How to find roots of sources
* What are the similar better sources for same information
* Which are definitely not reliable sources
* List of Reliable Online Sources on various themes
# Evalution of Online Sources/Types of Online Sources
## Videos

* Most of the general public is bombarded with several kinds of videos, reels, animations etc. regarding various social issues, health issues, religious issues or anything which may interest a common public.
* You may get these videos on your mobile via Whatsapp, Instagram, Facebook, Twitter or anything similar to these apps/online platforms.
# Evaluating Development Cooperation/Standard Evaluation Methods

* Data Collection Methods
* Data Analysis Method
* Reporting Methods
* Methods For Generating Acceptance For The Evaluation Reports
# Evalution of Online Sources/Introduction

Information on how to decide a video, audio, text, book or any similar source is reliable or not. A step by step guide and list of the reliable sources on various themes.
I/User:QueerEcofeminist do use internet to find sources for Wikipedia editing and my research work in my capacity as a researcher for various institutions and my own projects too. So I have learned a few methods, ways to find out reliable sources online. I would try and share most of it here in this book.
Many a times I was asked to see a video, text or listen to a audio which was shared to them via Whatsapp, Facebook or similar mediums and I was asked to comment on it. When I examined that source I realized it's not just fake but its spreading misinformation. There I decided I should create a easy to read book on how to evaluate a online source for laymen/non-academic/non-researcher persons.
# Clojure Programming/Examples/API Examples/Hash-map tools
## merge

Combine two maps into a more massive map
# Clojure Programming/Examples/API Examples/Function Tools
## fn

See the reader page, (Macro characters -> Dispatch -> Anonymous function literal) for an explanation of the '%' and other characters used to refer to function arguments.

## "lambda"

Use fn, or even better there is a custom syntax to create an anonymous function:
Represents an optional argument to an unnamed function:
Arguments in the body are determined by the presence of argument literals taking the form %, %n or %&. % is a synonym for %1, %n designates the nth arg (1-based), and %& designates a rest arg.

## complement

Usage: (complement f)
Takes a fn f and returns a fn that takes the same arguments as f, has the same effects, if any, and returns the opposite truth value.
# Clojure Programming/Examples/API Examples/Multimethod

This page list examples of how to create Multi-Methods with the Clojure API.

## defmulti

This is an example of using multi-methods without using a hierarchy:

## defmethod

Another example where the defmulti takes arguments and evaluates them before calling the defmethod
# Clojure Programming/Examples/API Examples/Data Structures
## Numbers
### Computation

Returns the sum of nums. (+) returns 0.
(+ [x] [x y] [x y & more])
If no ys are supplied, returns the negation of x, else subtracts the ys from x and returns the result.
(- [x] [x y] [x y & more])
Returns the product of nums. (*) returns 1.
(* [x] [x y] [x y & more])
If no denominators are supplied, returns 1/numerator, else returns numerator divided by all of the denominators.
(/ [x] [x y] [x y & more])

#### inc

Returns a number one greater than num.
(inc [x])

#### dec

Returns a number one less than num.
(dec [x])

#### min

Returns the least of the nums.
(min [x] [x y] [x y & more])

#### max

Returns the greatest of the nums.
(max [x] [x y] [x y & more])

#### quot

Quotient of dividing numerator by denominator.
(quot [num div])

#### rem

Remainder of dividing numerator by denominator.
(rem [num div])

#### rationalize

Returns the rational value of num.
(rationalize [num])

### Comparison

Returns non-nil if nums all have the same value, otherwise false.
(== [x] [x y] [x y & more])
Returns non-nil if nums are in monotonically increasing order, otherwise false.
(< [x] [x y] [x y & more])
Returns non-nil if nums are in monotonically decreasing order, otherwise false.
(> [x] [x y] [x y & more])
Returns non-nil if nums are in monotonically non-decreasing order, otherwise false.
(<= [x] [x y] [x y & more])
Returns non-nil if nums are in monotonically non-increasing order, otherwise false.
(>= [x] [x y] [x y & more])

### Predicates
#### zero?

Returns true if num is zero, else false.
(zero? [x])

#### pos?

Returns true if num is greater than zero, else false.
(pos? [x])

#### neg?

Returns true if num is less than zero, else false.
(neg? [x])
# Clojure Programming/Examples/API Examples/Documentation
#### find-doc

Prints documentation for any var whose documentation or name contains a match for applied argument (regex, string, pattern).
# Clojure Programming/Examples/API Examples/Recursion Tools
## loop

See recur
# Clojure Programming/Examples/API Examples/Macros

This is the "threading" operator.
this:
is equivalent to:
NOTE: you do not need to insert ',,', since clojure treats them like whitespace, but marking the forms second position this way enhances readability.
However -> works on everything
or expanded
So one can also use macros and normal functions in ->, i.e. non-methods.
Here is an example that should make every devoted Programmer fall in love with lisp, if he compares it with equivalent Java code. Reading the name of the first entry in a zip file:

#### condp

The test expression (1 and 5 in the above example) is inserted as first parameter to the predicate function, the comparison expression (here a) as second. condp throws an java.lang.IllegalArgumentException if no clauses are matched in the above example. condp also allows to add a single default expression after the clauses whose value will be returned if no clauses matches.
# Discrete Mathematics/Semigroup

In this section we Define a simple mathematical system, consisting of a set together with a binary operation that has many Important application.

### Semi group

Let (A,*) be algebraic structure, where * is any binary operation on A. Then, the system (A,*) is semi-group if it satisfies the following properties: 1. The operation * is a closed operation on set A. 2. The operation * is an associative operation.
# Discrete Mathematics/Selected problems

The problems in the texts you have seen are for you to ensure that you understand the concepts and ideas explored. They are not intended to be very difficult, but understandably they are not very challenging.
Questions here are intended for you to further use the ideas you have learnt to answer some more difficult questions. Some questions are relatively straightforward, some of these questions depend on different sections of this discrete mathematics text, some of these questions are meant to be examination-style questions.
Do not be discouraged by the increase in difficulty - hints are sometimes available, and you will be able to increase your problem solving skills!

## Set theory questions

These questions depend on your knowledge of Set theory.
* We have the sets A={0, 1, 3, 4, 5, 7}, B = {2, 4, 5, 8, 9}, C = {1, 4, 9, 11, 21}. Write the elements of the set $(A\cap C)\cup B$ Check your solution:
* Using the set identities, simplify $(A\cap B)'\cup A$
* (Hint provided) Prove the set $\{x|x/2\in \mathbb {N} \}$ is not a subset of $\{y|y/4\in \mathbb {N} \}$
* (Hint provided) Prove the set $\{3n+5|n\in \mathbb {N} \}$ is not a subset of $\{6k+6|k\in \mathbb {N} \}$