OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Sensory Systems/Authors

This list contains the names of all the authors that have contributed to this text. If you have added, modified or contributed in any way, please add your name to this list.
| Name | Institution |
| Thomas Haslwanter | Upper Austria University of Applied Sciences / ETH Zurich |
| Aleksander George Slater | Imperial College London / ETH Zurich |
| Piotr Jozef Sliwa | Imperial College London / ETH Zurich |
| Qian Cheng | ETH Zurich |
| Salomon Wettstein | ETH Zurich |
| Philipp Simmler | ETH Zurich |
| Renate Gander | ETH Zurich |
| Gerick Lee | University of Zurich & ETH Zurich |
| Gabriela Michel | ETH Zurich |
| Peter O'Connor | ETH Zurich |
| Nikhil Biyani | ETH Zurich |
| Mathias Buerki | ETH Zurich |
| Jianwen Sun | ETH Zurich |
| Maurice Göldi | University of Zurich |
| Sofia Jativa | ETH Zurich |
| Salomon Diether | ETH Zurich |
| Arturo Moncada-Torres | ETH Zurich |
| Datta Singh Goolaub | ETH Zurich |
| Stephanie Marquardt | University of Zurich & ETH Zurich |
| Alpha Renner | University of Zurich & ETH Zurich |
| Karlis Kanders | University of Zurich & ETH Zurich |
| Bettina Guebeli | ETH Zurich |
| Yuhuang Hu | University of Zurich & ETH Zurich |
| Sonali Andani | ETH Zurich |
| Isabelle Tan | ETH Zurich |
| Edouard Gence | ETH Zurich |
| Katla Thorvaldsdottir | ETH Zurich |
| Gema Vera Gonzalez | ETH Zurich |
| Monika Evelyn Girr | ETH Zurich |
| Angelina Gurkina | ETH Zurich |
| Laia Serratosa | University of Zurich & ETH Zurich |
| Birte Toussaint | University of Zurich & ETH Zurich |
| Elle Fleur Macartney | University of Zurich & ETH Zurich |
| Cedar Urwyler | ETH Zürich |
| Morio Hamada | University of Zurich & ETH Zurich |
| Jihyun Lee | University of Zurich & ETH Zurich |
| Aeneas Bernardi | University of Zurich & ETH Zurich |
| Sarah Meier | ETH Zurich |
| Maurizio Scandella | ETH Zurich |
| Tamara Gini | ETH Zurich |
| Thomas Denoréaz | ETH Zurich |
| Tatiana Gerth | ETH Zurich |
| Xinyue Yao | University of Zurich & ETH Zurich |
| Viktoria Obermann | University of Zurich & ETH Zurich |
| Elena Bernasconi | ETH Zurich |
| Vanessa Moody | University of Pennsylvania |
| Inês Pereira | University of Zurich & ETH Zurich |
| Pascal Suter | ETH Zurich |
| Lukas Bösiger | ETH Zurich |
| Cyril Schroeder | ETH Zurich |
| Francisco Correia Marques | ETH Zurich |
| Maximillian Fries | ETH Zurich |
| Hrishikesh Ghodki | ETH Zurich |
| Joel Neuner-Jehle | ETH Zurich |
| Marie-Louise Achart | ETH Zurich |
| Roman Krummenacher | ETH Zurich |
| Michelle Mattille | ETH Zurich |
| Paula Wulkop | ETH Zurich |
| En-Yu Jenp | ETH Zurich |
| Philippe Blatter | ETH Zurich |
| Sijamini Baskaralingam | ETH Zurich |
| Luna Bloin-Wibe | ETH Zurich |
| Samuel Ruipérez-Campillo | ETH Zurich, U.C. Berkeley & Stanford. |
| Carla Hetreau | ETH Zurich |
| Dominic Dall'Osto | University of Zurich & ETH Zurich |
| Irene Ruipérez-Campillo | UCV Medical School |
| Igor Martinelli | ETH Zurich |
| Loredana Piazza | ETH Zürich |
| Alain Hügli | ETH Zürich |
| Tobias von Arx | ETH Zürich |
| Anna Schaub | ETH Zürich |
| Shuo Li | ETH Zürich |
| Javier Miragall | ETH Zürich |
| Quillan Favey | University of Zurich |
# Perl Programming/Reference Cards/File Tests

< Reference cards
# Perl Programming/Reference Cards/Time and Date

A few basic functions are
localtime or gmtime from the Time::Local module in standard perl distributions.
Date::Manip and Date::Calc in CPAN modules
# Perl Programming/Perl 6

Raku will separate parsing and compilation and runtime, making the virtual machine more attractive to developers looking to port other languages to the architecture.
Parrot is the Raku runtime, and can be programmed at a low level in Parrot assembly language. Parrot exists in a limited form as of June, 2003, and a small number of languages (Jako, Cola, Basic, Forth and a subset of Raku) exist simply to be 'compiled' down to Parrot assembly language opcodes.
While Raku is being developed, the best way to stay informed about what's happening is to keep an eye on Weekly Rakudo News. Go there to see glimpses of Raku.
# Perl Programming/Reference cards

* Database
* File tests
* Perl functions
* Regular expressions
* Time and date
# Perl Programming/References and data structures
## Introduction

So you've been plodding along with your perl scripts, fiddling with arrays and hashes and suddenly you realize that you would like to pass a function to another function depending on the data you encounter, or perhaps you would like to get back a hash when you look up an array index. References are the thing for you, allowing you to build and pass around ever more complex data structures.

## Referencing and dereferencing syntax

Output should be I laugh in the face of clowns.
The curly brackets are optional, but generally recommended.

## External links

* http://perldoc.perl.org/perlref.html
* http://perldoc.perl.org/perlreftut.html
# Perl 5.10

Perl 5.10 was a release version of the perl programming language that included a few new special features. Around the same time that Perl 5.10 was being prepared, design was moving forward rapidly in the design of the new Perl 6 language. Perl 6 was going to be very different from Perl 5, but in some ways still very much the same.
Because the two versions were being designed simultaneously and because some of the same people were involved in both design processes, the two share a few features. From the exchange, Perl 5.10 got the smart-match operator, a switch-style given-when control structure, a defined-or operator and state variables, plus a number of internal performance enhancements.

## Smart match operator

The smart match operator is like == and eq and =~ all crammed together, with a few extra features added as well. Smart match determines whether two objects match, regardless of what type of objects you throw at it.

## Given - when

Perl finally has a switch-like statement built into the language. Instead of using the popular switch and case keywords found in C, Perl 5.10 uses given and when.
For instance:
Perl's given/when construct is much more powerful than C's switch/case construct, however. Rather than just allowing integers as the match criteria for each when clause, strings, regular expressions, and even arrays are allowed. For instance:

## Defined-or

Consider the oft-used code fragment:
or, the more idiomatically-Perl version:
Since this is so common, it was determined to make it into its own operator: the defined-or operator:

## State variables

Perl 5.10 introduced the state keyword to declare persistent variables that retain their values between calls to a subroutine. State variables serve much the same purpose as static variables in C.
With previous versions of Perl, to declare a persistent variable, we had to declare it outside the subroutine:
This construct is rather ugly, because the subroutine must be placed within a block itself. Using the new state keyword, we can rewrite the code above as:

## Resources

* Perl 5.10 release announcement: http://dev.perl.org/perl5/news/2007/perl-5.10.0.html
# Perl Programming/Perl Installation and Setup
### Perl Installation and Setup

While Perl is installed on most of the premier open-source server and personal computer operating systems, such as Ubuntu, FreeBSD, Debian and CentOS, and Linux and Mac OS X, respectively, this "native", or system-level, installation of Perl is too critical to the optimal operation these systems' underlying activities for students and aspiring Perl programmers to risk their unintentional interruption.
As with learning any programming language, the practice of designing, creating and executing scripts is imperative to the study of the Perl programming language, so while students of Perl are heartily warned against using their system's native Perl installation for Perl study and practice, students and professional developers can forthright circumvent disrupting their system's Perl operations by installing and configuring lightweight software that provides them with a single or multiple isolated and comprehensive Perl installations, for their use in the study and execution of Perl scripts, for extending Perl modules or for otherwise utilizing the processing and string-parsing power of Perl. These softwares effectively quarantine their operating system from the risk of affecting permanent or unsurmisable changes to their -- or their institution's -- system's native Perl installation.
Many varieties of operating systems and platforms (i.e. remote servers, and personal computers) exist through which students can explore Perl. Follow the guide below that corresponds to your operating system below.
Unix-like Systems (includes Mac OS X, Ubuntu)
* "Perlbrew" Installation
Windows 32- and 64-bit
* "Strawberry Perl" Installation
# Pinyin/Qingming Festival

Search Pinyin Qingming
Search Pinyin festival
Qingming festival
It is drizzling in Qingming festival. Pedestrians on the road have a faceful of grief.
Asking where is the nearest restaurant? A pedestrian points to the village far away.
Qingmirngjier
Qingmirngjier xiah'zhe xihyuu. luhshahng xirngrern maanliaan beishang.
qiingwehn naalii yoou fahndiahn? luhrern zhiixiahng yuaanchuh d cunzhuang.
# Pinyin/Quantity
## Noun

* a quantity is the amount of something.
** shuhliahng shih moouwuh d liahng.
# Pinyin/Province

See also

## Noun

* a province is an administrative division of a country.
** sheengfehn shih guorjia d xirngzhehng quyuh.
# Pinyin/Psychosis

Psychosis means the early abnormalities in mental state that happened to a person. When a person experiences psychosis, their thoughts, emotions and feelings will become detached from reality. Although person of any age can develop psychosis, youths of 15-25 year-of-age have a higher risk of developing psychosis. If diagnosed early and receiving the right treatment, can reduce or avoid psychosis developing into many types of mental illnesses. The situation is like having a fever, fever is the early stage symptom of diseases, if we do not pay attention to it, it could develop into other serious diseases such as pneumonia, so we should not take the condition of psychosis lightly.
Sījuéshītiáo shì yīzhǒng fāshēng yú yīxiē rén zǎoqī de bù zhèngcháng jīngshén zhuàngtài. Dāng yīgè rén jīnglì sījuéshītiáo shí, tāmen de sīwéi, qínggǎn, gǎnjué huì yǔ xiànshí tuōlí. Suīrán rènhé niánlíng de rén dōu yǒu jīhuì huànshàng sījuéshītiáo, dàn yǒu jiàodà jīhuì fāshēng yú 15-25 suì de qīngshàonián. Rúguǒ jízǎo chájué hé dédào shìdàng zhìliáo, kěyǐ jiǎndī huò bìmiǎn sījuéshītiáo fāzhǎn chéng duōzhǒng jīngshénbìng. Qíngkuàng jiù rú fāshāo yīyàng, fāshāo shì jíbìng qiánqī de yīgè zhēngzhuàng, dàn rúguǒ wǒmen bù lǐhuì, jiù yǒu kěnéng fāzhǎn zhì qítā yánzhòng de jíbìng rú fèiyán, yīncǐ wǒmen bù yīnggāi duì sījuéshītiáo zhège zhuàngtài diàoyǐqīngxīn.
# Pinyin/Putonghua

Search Pinyin Putonghua
The common language of Han nationality, using Beijing pronunciation as the standard pronunciation, using the northern speech as the basic dialect, and using the model writing of the modern vernacular prose as the norm of grammar, is called Putonghua.
yii Beeijing-yin weir biaozhuun-yin, yii Beeifang-huah weir jichuu fangyarn, yii diaanfahn de xiahndaih Bairhuahwern zhuhzuoh weir yuufaa guifahn de Hahn mirnzur gohngtorngyuu, jiaohzuoh Puutonghuah.
# Pinyin/Puppy

See also
# Pinyin/Purpose

See also
# Pinyin/Psychology

Psychology is a branch of science that study the psychological phenomenon, mental functions and behaviour of humans and animals. It is a theoretical subject, but is also an applied subject, including the two big field of theoretical psychology and applied psychology.
Xīnlǐxué shì yī mén yánjiū rénlèi jí dòngwù de xīnlǐ xiànxiàng, jīngshén gōngnéng hé xíngwéi de kēxué, jìshì yī mén lǐlùn xuékē, yěshì yī mén yìngyòng xuékē. Bāokuò lǐlùn xīnlǐxué yǔ yìngyòng xīnlǐxué liǎng dà lǐngyù.
# Pinyin/Quality

Quality is the feature of a substance.
xihngzhih shih wuhzhih d tehxihng.
# Structural Biochemistry/Proteins/Purification/Gel Electrophoresis
## Gel Electrophoresis

Gel electrophoresis a method of qualitatively separating proteins by charge or size. It is also usable with DNA or RNA, only it separates the molecules based on length as opposed to molecular weight. These gels are placed loaded into a box that passes an electric current over the samples in solutions and forces them to migrate the negatively charged molecules from one end of the gel to another. While the pore sizes differ between to two main types of gels, agarose and polyacrylamide, the lighter the protein the faster it runs on the gel. The result of an electrophoresis gel is a sorted out list of proteins found in the sample arranged by size.
The main types of gels used in electrophoresis are Agarose (proteins larger than 200 kDa) and polyacrylamide (proteins ranging from 5 to 2000 kDa).
The two types of conditions a gel can be run at is either an SDS denaturing gel, where the native structure is not maintained, the protein is unfolded and denatured, and the protein becomes sorted solely on its molecular weight. The other condition of gel is Native, which maintains the proteins tertiary structure.
Gels not only allow a scientist to track and qualitatively evaluate a desired protein, but it also helps visualize how pure the protein of desire is in solution. Depending on the gel and the specific conditions made, a trace amount of protein can be picked up by a gel.
* SDS-Electrophoresis Gel
Picture above is an example of a typical SDS-gel. The bar on the far left is known as a benchmark ladder (molecular marker) that marks different molecular weights allow comparison to the samples run. The darker the band, the higher the concentration of the protein in that given sample.
# Structural Biochemistry/Proteins/Purification/Dialysis

This technique is not usable because it takes time and not work well, not good for big molecules. Thus, it is not popular technique to use.

## Dialysis

In dialysis a semipermeable membrane is used to separate small molecules and protein based upon their size. A dialysis bag made of a semipermeable membrane (cellulose) and has small pores. The bag is filled with a concentrated solution containing proteins. Molecules that are small enough to pass through the pores of the membrane diffuse out of the bag into the buffer solution, or dialysate. Dialysis is sometimes used to change buffers. The molecules go from an area of high concentration to low concentration. When the level of concentration is equal between the bag and the buffer, there is no more net movement of molecules. The bag is taken out and inserted into another buffer, causing the concentration to be higher in the bag relative to the buffer. This causes more diffusion of molecules. This process is repeated several times to ensure that all or most of the unwanted small molecules are removed (usually done overnight). In general, dialysis is not a means of separating proteins, but is a method used to remove small molecules such as salts. At equilibrium, larger molecules that are unable to pass through the membrane remain inside the dialysis bag while much of the small molecules have diffused out.

## Daily Application

The technique of dialysis is used in everyday life for hospital usages. Dialysis mimics one of the functions of a bodily organ, the kidneys. It is used in procedures to filter out the blood's toxins and waste products during kidney failure. During kidney failure, there is a build up of nitrogen-containing waste products (such as urea or creatine) in the body called azotemia, which can be detected from the blood. Patients result to a dialysis when the waste product accumulates on the blood causes metabolic acidosis leading to illness. Two tests are executed through a blood sample and a full day's worth of urine sample. There are two chemicals in the blood that are measured, the urea nitrogen level and the creatinine level. If these two chemicals are found to be high in the blood, then it is an indication that the kidneys are not cleansing bodily waste products efficiently. Certain solutes such as potassium and calcium are carefully calibrated at a concentration similar to the concentration of healthy blood. Another solute is Sodium Bicarbonate which is used as a pH buffer introduced by elevating the solute concentration within the dialysis to neutralize some of the metabolic acidosis occurring within the blood.
creatinine
urea
# Structural Biochemistry/Proteins/Purification/Fast Protein Liquid Chromatography
## Fast Protein Liquid Chromatography

It is one of the most useful techniques for protein purification, like HPLC. It provide a full range of chromatography nodes, such as ion exchange, chromatofocusing, gel filtration, hydrophobic interaction, and reverse phase, based on particles with average diameter sizes in the same range as those used for HPLC separations. The advantage of FPLC columns allow much higher protein loadings comparing to HPLC ones with the wide range of aqueous and biocompatible buffer systems. Its use appears in the literature in almost 2000 reports in the two decades due to ints introduction, two of the most popular FPLC modes are ion exchange and gel filtration.

## References

Paul Cutler, Methods in Molecular Biology Protein Purification Protocols, Second Edition, 2004, volume-244.
# PostgreSQL/Features
## An outstanding Goal

The very first concept paper - published in 1986 - defines a goal that distinguishes PostgreSQL from many other systems until today: "provide user extendibility for data types, operators, and access methods". This goal is reached. And it is not only available for users, even the internal implementation utilizes those interfaces to create system components.

## Architecture

PostgreSQL implements a client/server model. Each client process connects to one backend process at the server site. Such backend processes are part of the instance, a group of many processes which act closely together and handle the data access. PostgreSQL does not use threading in the backend processes or elsewhere.

## Features
### Security

* Authentication methods: SCRAM-SHA-256, GSSAPI, SSPI, LDAP, RADIUS, Certificate, PAM
* Roles (users and groups) authorize access to data and execution of functions

### Reliability

* Transactions with full ACID support and diverse isolation levels
* Savepoints (Sub-transactions)
* Multi-Version Concurrency Control (MVCC)
* Point-in-Time Recovery
* Partitioning of tables and indexes
* Synchronous, asynchronous, and logical replication
* Bi-Directional replication
* Publish/subscribe mechanism
* Parallel execution of single queries at multiple CPUs

### Application Aspects

* Rich set of predefined data-types, i.a. JSON
* Support for arrays
* Composite type (similar to a record in some programming languages), constructor for rows via row keyword
* Check constraints
* Referential integrity with foreign keys
* Table inheritance
* Views, materialized views, updateable views

### Extendability

* User defined data-types, operators, and index access methods
* User-defined functions, procedures, triggers, and procedural languages
* Create extension interface to create user-defined packages. Some publicly available examples:
** Foreign data wrappers to other - PostgreSQL or non-PostgreSQL - databases or to the file-system
** PostGIS: an extention for Spatial and Geographic Objects
** hstore: a key/value storage

### SQL Support

* High degree of conformance to the SQL standard: 170 out of 177 features
* Outer join, union, intersect, except
* Group by, grouping set, cube, rollup
* Common table expressions (CTE)
* Recursive queries, graph queries
* Window functions, analytic functions
# PostgreSQL/Index Btree

The term B-tree index denotes the implementation of a balanced tree. B-trees are characterized by the criterion that the distance from the root node to every leaf node is the same. Such trees support the very fast evaluation of search criteria like WHERE status=5. In most cases, such trees have a high branching factor and hence a low depth. If, for example, there is a branching factor of 500, the tree can manage about 125 million entries with 3 page-reads.
In addition, the PostgreSQL implementation optimizes the locking behavior of concurrent write operations to the tree with a strategy that was originally proposed by Lehmann and Yao. The idea is to add additional (redundant as of the perspective of the complete tree) pointers to every page.

## SQL syntax

B-tree is the default index type. It is created by the SQL command CREATE INDEX when the keyword USING is omitted.

## Description

The file containing the B-tree consists of different page types.
* The very first page (#0) of the file holds meta-information about the index, e.g., the pointer to the root page, which is not always located on page #1, or the current tree-depth.
* Internal pages contain pairs of keys and pointers. Keys hold the values which shall be indexed, and the pointers point to internal pages of the next level or to leaf pages. Those pairs are denoted index entries.
* Leaf pages contain such pairs as well. But in this case, they point to pages and rows in the data file (heap). Such pointers are called TupleIds or TIDs.
* Internal pages plus leaf pages constitute the B-tree.
Over time, pages need to be split because their capacity gets exhausted. First, the tree grows in breadth. In rare cases, it gets necessary that the high of the tree must be extended. In this case, the root page gets split and a new root page is created.
There are some special rules to optimize the access to B-trees, especially to reduce the probability of locks in a multiuser environment. Therefore the pages contain some additional information that enhances a pure B-tree implementation.
* The first index entry of every page contains a value, which is treated as an upper bound for all keys of this page. It does not contain a pointer to another page. It is called the high key, and in the above graphic, it is shown in red color. The rightmost page of every level doesn't contain a high key. It's plus infinity per definition.
* The second (or first in the case of no high key) index entry points to the left child of the page. It does not contain a real key. Sometimes it's called minus infinity. Leaf pages don't use it.
* The pages of every level are connected to each other via a double linked list. This helps to speed up queries like WHERE status>17 because the need to traverse the tree upwards disappears.

## External links

PostgreSQL Documentation concerning B-tree implementation
# PostgreSQL/Featured Platforms

PostgreSQL is available at diverse CPU architectures: x86, x86_64, IA64, PowerPC, PowerPC 64, S/390, S/390x, Sparc, Sparc 64, ARM, MIPS, MIPSEL, PA-RISC and runs on all major operating systems.
   * Red Hat family Linux (including CentOS/Fedora/Scientific/Oracle variants)
   * Debian GNU/Linux and derivatives
   * Ubuntu Linux and derivatives
   * SuSE and OpenSuSE
* macOS
* Windows (XP+)
* Solaris
* BSD
   * FreeBSD
   * OpenBSD
   * NetBSD
* AIX
* HP/UX

## References

* ↑ Operating Systems
# Structural Biochemistry/Pluripotency
## Definition

In cell biology, pluripotency is defined as "the potential of a cell to develop into more than one type of mature cell, depending on environment". So if a cell is pluripotent, it has the potential to transform itself into a lung cell, heart cell, etc. Pluripotency describes a cellular state of specific cells within the early embryo.

## References

* ↑ http://groups.molbiosci.northwestern.edu/holmgren/Glossary/Definitions/Def-P/Pluripotency.html
* ↑ “Pluripotency and Nuclear Reprogramming” From Annual Review of Biochemistry Vol. 81 737-765, by Marion Dejosez and Thomas P. Zwakav