OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Dichotomous Key/Animalia
## Key to Animalia

* 1: Single-celled organism.
* 2: Multi-cellular organism.

## 1

incomplete
Single cell protists
Glossary for this page (all links are to Wikipedia articles) :
* Digestive cavity:
* Radial symmetry: Circular symmetry where cutting planes produces roughly identical pieces
* Bilateral symmetry: Symmetry where only one plane, called the sagittal plane, will divide an organism into roughly mirror image halves
* Trochophore: A type of free-swimming ciliated planktonic marine larva
* Lophophore: A feeding organ consisting of a ring of ciliated tentacles surrounding the mouth.
* Segmentation: The division of body plans into a series of repetitive segments.
* Mantle:
* Symbiosis:
* Ecydsis:
* Joint:
* Notochord:

## 2

* 3: Specialized cells absent, though different types of cells may be present. Digestive cavity absent. Muscles, nerves, and organs absent. Parazoa.
* 4: Specialized cells present. Digestive cavity present. Muscles, nerves, and organs present in some form. True tissues organized into germ layers. Enterozoa.

## 3: Parazoa

* Placozoa: Simple tissues present.
* Porifera: Simple tissues absent.

## 4: Eumetazoa

* 5: Hollow body cavity present. Radially symmetric body. Aquatic. Colonial or solitary. Respiration and excretion accomplished by diffusion.
* 6: Body cavity not hollow. Radially or bilateral body symmetry. Aquatic, terrestrial or both. Mostly solitary.

## 5

* Cnidaria: Cnidocytes present; Medusa and polyp form; Incomplete digestive system.
* Ctenophora: Sticky prey-capturing colloblast cells present; Medusa form only; Complete digestive system.

## 6

* Chordate: Possesses a notochord, a hollow dorsal nerve cord, pharyngeal slits, or an endostyle, for at least some period of its life cycle.
* 7: Notochord, a hollow dorsal nerve cord, pharyngeal slits, and an endostyle absent during entire life cycle.

## 7

* Echinoderm: Adults have radial symmetry. Inhabitants of salt water.
* 8: Adults have bilateral symmetry. Inhabitants of fresh water, salt water, or dry land.

## 8

* Ecdysozoa: Exoskeleton shed during life cycle.
* 9: Exoskeleton absent, or not shed during life cycle.

## 9

incomplete
Orthonectida, Rhombozoa, Acoelomorpha, Chaetognatha, Hemichordata, Xenoturbellida, Platyzoa, Lophotrochozoa
# Dichotomous Key/Anseriformes
## 1

* Feet
** Entirely webbed - #3: Anatidae
** Not entirely webbed - #2
* Aves keys
* Orders
* Accipitriformes | Anseriformes | Apodiformes | Caprimulgiformes | Charadriiformes | Dichotomous Key/Ciconiiformes | Coliformes | Columbiformes | Coraciiformes | Cuculiformes | Falconiformes | Galliformes | Gaviiformes | Gruiformes | Passeriformes | Pelecaniformes | Podicipediformes | Procellariiformes | Psittaciformes | Pterocliformes | Sphenisciformes | Dichotomous Key/Strigiformes | Struthioniformes | Dichotomous Key/Tinamiformes | Trochiliformes | Trogoniformes | Turniciformes

## 2

* Bill
** Hooked - Anhimidae
** Not hooked - Anseranas semipalmata

## 3: Anatidae

* Call
** Whistling - Dendrocygninae
** Other - #4
# Dichotomous Key/Archaea

The most primitive group, the archaebacteria, are today restricted to marginal habitats such as hot springs or areas of low oxygen concentration.
# Dichotomous Key/Arales
## 1 Arborescence - Growth type

* Is it Tree like in growth or appearance
** Yes. Plant arborescent, stem with scars of leaf bases, flowers in fleshy spikes Arecaceae or Aracaceae
** No. Plant free floating, thalloid aquatics Lemnaceae
# Electronics/Sampling Theorem

To perfectly reconstruct the digital signal that was got by sampling an analog signal, the Sampling Theorem must be followed.
Sampling Theorem states that a sampling frequency must be at least twice the highest (maximum) frequency.
    F$_s$>=2F$_m$
where
* F$_s$ is the sampling frequency
* F$_m$ is the maximum frequency of the signal to be sampled
# Electronics/RTN

Electronics | Foreword | Basic Electronics | Complex Electronics | Electricity | Machines | History of Electronics | Appendix |

## RTN (Register Transfer Notation)

Register Transfer Notation is a way of using special math notation to analyze different types of computer architectures. RTN easily shows the number of transfers and clocks required for a given architecture to do a specific process.
# Electronics/Rectifier

Rectifiers are used to make DC out of AC. Usually equipment that uses semiconductors, such as TV sets or computers, operate on DC, yet they obtain their power from the AC socket, which is commonly found in buildings.
While the voltage supplied is usually either about 115 or 240 Volt, the equipment connected to this AC supply may use different DC voltages, and there is a need for suitable transformers to change the line/mains voltage to whatever is needed. This lower voltage is then fed into a set of rectifier diodes, often in the form of a "rectifier bridge" that consists of 4 rectifier diodes, all 4 often contained in a single plastic package with 4 connections: 2 for the applied AC voltage, and the other 2 for the + and - DC output voltage. Different rectifier ratings exist to provide a suitable range of maximum available output current. The frequency (usually 50 or 60 Hz) is important only for the transformer rating, not the rectifiers.
Normally there is a comparatively large capacitor connected across the DC terminals to "smooth" the DC output voltage, the capacitor's size depending on not only the acceptable maximum "ripple" of the DC output voltage, (AC superimposed on the DC voltage) but also on the maximum current rating of the rectifier arrangement.

### example

Reference: "Silicon Zener Diode and Rectifier Handbook, theory, design characteristics and applications" published in 1961 by Motorola Inc.
* from page 119 "The Diffused-Junction Silicon Rectifier":
The Forward Current (Amps) versus Forward Voltage (Volts) graph shows that there are slight differences depending on the rectifier's temperature, but only a very small current flows unless the voltage is at least about 0.6 V. The current is about 2 A, with no resistance in the circuit, when the voltage is about 1 V.
* Note that rectifier power ratings must not be exceeded in order to prevent damage, and any graph should also show the proper curve according to the maximum permitted current versus voltage relationship.
* from page 120: The typical static current versus reverse voltage characteristic curves, again depending on the temperature of the rectifier, show that, with a reverse voltage of about 500 V, only about 10 microamperes flow. There are one million microamperes in an Ampere. A breakdown happens if the reverse voltage is too high.
See also
* Diodes
* Wikipedia: Rectifiers
# Electronics/Requests

Links used:
* E&M
* Relativity
# Electronics/Scratch pad
## Parts list and theory

Voltage = potential between two charges.
Defined as the derivative of the flux linkage:
$V(t)={\frac {d(Ni(t))}{dt}}$
Current = flow of electrons Defined as the rate of change of the charge:
$I(t)={\frac {dQ(t)}{dt}}$
There are 3 parameters in an electrical circuit:
Resistance =
$R={\frac {V}{I}}$
In a resistor voltage and current are in sync.
$V(t)=Ri(t)$
In capacitors voltage leads current. Capacitors are good as a low pass filter.
$V(t)={\frac {1}{C}}\int i(t)dt$
In inductors current leads voltage. Current equals the negative derivative of the voltage. Inductors are good as a high pass filter.
$V(t)=L{\frac {di(t)}{dt}}$
relationship between voltage and current
$P=VI$
in a circuit
in series voltage drops and current stays constant in parallel voltage stays constant and current divides according to the resistance
voltage stays constant in parallel and current drops in p
pizoelectric = a crystal under compression creates current
transformers
vacuum tube = electron emitter in a vacuum
integrated circuit a semiconductor doped with impurities
group 4 elements doped with group 3 and 5
electrons and holes
ground

## applications

Resistors in series (Christmas lights, stove)
computer
3.5, 5, 12 Volts
lamp
monitor
power distribution (three phase power)
radio
modem
speaker

## circuit design

bandgap
cmos
flip flop
computer parts
leakage current
# Electronics/Signal Modulation

Electronics | Foreword | Basic Electronics | Complex Electronics | Electricity | Machines | History of Electronics | Appendix |

## Modulation and Mixing

Put simply, modulation is the change of an electric signal based on the change in another signal. Another way to look at it practically, is the use of electric signals to carry information.
mixing is the addition and subtraction of signals.
Magic equation: $cos(x)cos(y)={\frac {cos(x-y)+cos(x+y)}{2}}$ Has strange effects on bandwidth and creates sidebands.

## CW (Continuous Wave)

* morse code

## AM (Amplitude Modulation)

simpler than FM. An AM receiver detects the power of the radio wave, and amplifies changes in the power measurement to drive a speaker or earphones.
AM radio. known as medium wave. started in the 1920s. has a long enough wavelength that it diffracts and follows the curvature of the earth traveling a great distance. lower audio fidelity. used for broadcasts. Affected by light and solar flares, and works better during the night. Clear channel stations are allowed to broadcast all the time, but other stations are only allowed to broadcast during the day.
* Crystal Radio: primitive radio consists of an antenna and a diode and a speaker in parallel.

### SSB (Single SideBand)

AM with only one side band. carrier.The other one sideband block or can be use for other information transmission. qadeerhussain99@yahoo.com

## FM (Frequency Modulation)

* VCO (Voltage Controlled Oscillator): Oscillator that is controlled by voltage.
In FM modulation, frequence of carrier signal vairy according to the audio frequency signal(Which is our actual signal).

## PM (Phase Modulation)

Change phase by modifying capacitor and inductor values. Since capacitors and inductors are 180 degrees out of phase.
# Electronics/Registers
## Registers

Registers can move two types of digital information: parallel and serial. Registers also have two basic ways of moving it: FIFO and LIFO. The simplest register is a FIFO, which is only one level deep and one bit wide. It is basically a single D Type Flip/Flop.

### FIFO

A FIFO (First In First Out) is a digital device that moves data in the same way a queue would. The first chunk of information in is moved over as more is loaded in behind it. This continues until it is pushed out the end. Like a grocery line.

### LIFO

A LIFO (Last In First Out) is a like a FIFO only the data comes out in the reverse order it came in. Data is processed like a stack data structure. Imagine putting items onto a stack, the first item taken off would be at the top of the stack. Thus, the last item in (item at the top of the stack), would be the first item out

### Parallel

Parallel Registers take in mulitple bits at a time.

### Shift Registers

Shift Registers are the simplest serial interfaces. They take serial data in one bit at a time and convert it to parallel form or the other way around. The first way is Serial In Parallel Out and the latter is Parallel In Serial Out. Shift Registers are used to make larger state machines like counters and UARTs.

#### Serial In Parallel Out

Tons of information about Serial in Parallel out circuits and how they are constructed
# Electronics/Resonance

Electronics | Foreword | Basic Electronics | Complex Electronics | Electricity | Machines | History of Electronics | Appendix |
Resonance is where the reactance of capacitors and inductors cancel at a specific frequency.
    $Z_{C}=Z_{L}$
    ${\frac {1}{j\omega C}}=j\omega L$
    $\omega ={\frac {1}{\sqrt {LC}}}$
This frequency is called Resonance Frequency usually, denoted as $\omega _{o}={\frac {1}{\sqrt {LC}}}$
# Electronics/Semiconductor Basics

Semiconductors typically use silicon as a base material. Silicon has 14 electrons in three shells. The inner two shells are full with 2 and 8 electrons each. The outermost shell has spots for 8 electrons, but only 4 are present.
With four electrons and four holes, multiple silicon atoms can form a stable configuration, each sharing electrons with neighboring atoms to fill their electron shells.
In a pure crystal of silicon, all atoms share electrons perfectly with all their neighboring atoms. However, other elements can be introduced to the crystal via semiconductor doping to produce extra electrons or extra holes (unfilled spots for an electron). These types of crystals are called n-doped semiconductors (for having a net negative charge due to extra electrons) and p-doped semiconductors (for having a net positive charge due to having a deficit of electrons).
* Group of 9 silicon atoms, sharing electrons
* n-doped semiconductor: silicon atoms with one phosphorous atom
* p-doped semiconductor: silicon atoms with one gallium atom
It doesn't take many impurity atoms to create a semiconductor; one impurity atom per half-million silicon atoms will make a reasonable semiconductor. The most common elements used in semiconductor doping are ones with only one extra electron or hole relative to silicon: boron, phosphorous, gallium, and arsenic are all common dopants.
Electrical current flows in a material by causing a cascading jumping of electrons/holes. An electron will enter one side of the material and knock another electron free from its shell, taking its place. That electron will continue in a similar direct and do the same. Eventually, an electron will come out the other end of the material.
# Electronics/Urban Legends

Various legends and their status as true or false.
1. Touching both ends of a 12 Volt car battery will kill me. False. The human body has millions of ohms of resistance so unless you are wet or are bleeding you should be ok. Millions of ohms of resistance means that the amount of current flowing will be astronomically small.
2. Cell phones cause cancer or brain damage. Probably false. A cell phone operates at 900 MHz and 3GHz. Visible light has a frequency of 1 Petillion 10^15 Hz. Just below that is UV where you get sunburns. That's a million times the frequency. So if cell phones hurt you than what must visible light be doing to you? If you believe it will hurt you than your only hope is to live in darkness inside a Faraday cage like a CHUD. No microwave, infared, or visible light for you.
3. One time a cell phone caused a fire at a gas station.
4. CRTs are bad for you and expose you to x-rays. False, there are some x rays that get through occasionally, but not frequently enough to cause real damage.
# Electronics/Timeline

< Electronics/Expanded Edition
Different ways of looking at electronics.
* Timeline
* Introduction: The saga
* Early days: Early developments
* Academics: E&M experiments
* Electricity: Dynamos, motors, and AC power distribution.
* Energy Sources: how to power everything
* Broadcasting: Radio and TV
* Radio Astronomy: Looking at the solar system and the universe

## Chronological

| Year | Event |
| | Greeks decide to name electricity after 'amber' |
| 1865 | Maxwell's equations predict the existence of electromagnetic waves. |
| | Tesla and ball lightning |

## Discovery

| Discovery | Description |
| Ball lightning | Ball lightning is a mysterious phenomenon, first documented by the Greeks. |
| Lightbulb | A filament that glows due to ohmic heating (electron flow causes friction - heat - which causes the filament to glow white hot) |
| Morse Code | A method of communicating by pulses |

## Famous people and their contributions

| Person | Description/Inventions |
| Ampère | Theory of electromagnetism ("electrodynamics") |
| Bell | Telephone, Telephone network |
| De Forest | Triode vacuum tube used for detection, amplification, and oscillation |
| Edison | DC power distribution, light bulb, phonograph, Edison Effect: thermionic emission |
| Faraday | Electric motor, electric generator, electromagnetic induction, laws of electrolysis, diamagnetism |
| Fleming | Vacuum tube diode, based on thermionic emission, used as detector or rectifier |
| Henry | Self inductance, mutual inductance, electric relay |
| Hertz | Experimental testing of Maxwell's equations by sending and detecting electromagnetic radiation. Also photoelectric effect |
| Joule | Found the relationship between the flow of current through a resistance and the heat dissipated, now called Joule's law. |
| Kilby, Noyce | Integrated circuit |
| Marconi | Practical wireless telegraphy |
| Maxwell | Electromagnetic wave equations |
| Morse | Practical telegraph |
| Ohm | Electrical current theory, "Ohm's Law:" R=V/I |
| Ørsted | Electromagnetism: electric current produces magnetic field |
| Shockley, Bardeen and Brattain | Transistor |
| Tesla | Alternating current induction motor, polyphase electric transmission,Tesla coil for high frequency , high voltage electric fields, wireless remote control, wireless transmission of electromagnetic energy. |
| Volta | battery |
# Electronics/Transistors

Electronics | Foreword | Basic Electronics | Complex Electronics | Electricity | Machines | History of Electronics | Appendix |

## Transistor

A transistor is a solid state device made by joining three positive-type and negative-type semiconductors together. In general, all transistors have three pins: base, collector, and emitter. Transistor is a bi-polar device that is a transistor with two junctions namely BE and CE DE EE FE. In theory we take a specified formulae incorporate this with using any type of meter in figuring the mathematical solution.

### Construction

A lightly doped region called base is sandwiched between two regions called the emitter and collector respectively. The collector handles large quantities of current, hence its dopant concentration is the highest. The emitter's dopant concentration is slightly lesser, but its area is larger to provide for more current than the collector. The collector region should be heavily doped because electron-hole pairs recombine in that region, while the emitter is not such a region. We can have two varieties in this kind of transistor.

### NPN Transistor

An NPN transistor is made by joining one positive-type semiconductor in between two negative-type semiconductors. Here a lightly doped p-type semiconductor (semiconductor with more holes than electrons) is sandwiched between two well-doped n-type regions. It is like two pn-junctions facing away. An IEEE symbol for the NPN transistor is shown here. The arrow between the base and emitter is in the same direction as current flowing between the base-emitter junction. Power dissipated in the transistor is
    $P=V_{CE}I_{C}$, where $V_{CE}$ is the voltage between the collector and the emitter and $I_{C}$ is the collector current.

### PNP Transistor

A PNP transistor is made by sandwiching a negative-type semiconductor in between two positive-type semiconductors.

## Transistor Operation
### Amplifier

A transistor conducts current when the base voltage is greater than BE junction's voltage. Current is non zero.
    $I_{B}\neq 0$
    $I_{C}=\alpha I_{E}$
    $I_{C}=\beta I_{B}$

### Switch

A transistor conducts current when the base voltage is greater than BE junction's voltage. Current is non zero. This corresponds to a closed switch. A transistor does not conduct current when the base voltage is less than BE junction's voltage. Current is zero. This correspond to an open switch.
# Electronics/Units

Electronics | Foreword | Basic Electronics | Complex Electronics | Electricity | Machines | History of Electronics | Appendix |
These are the units you would find when doing problems in electronics. The majority of these units are named after famous people in the field who either discovered the units or had someone else name the units after them.
One reason people don't understand math or Physics very well is that it literally is Greek to them.
(Do we want these separated from the definitions page? or should we include all of these on the definitions page and just have a separate units page too?)
My take on the units page is that it is a guide for doing math problems. Imagine doing a math problem and coming across Ξ. That's where the units page comes in handy as you only have to search through a small number of units to find the unit you want. Ideally all the definitions in Units should find their way into the main definitions page.
Ok. So we should copy all of these to the definitions page as well? Things like frequency, length, time and wavelength are not units; they should be in the definitions section and not here. Hertz, meters, and seconds are units.
Ampere, Amp (A): The SI unit for current I. Equals a coulomb (1 C) of charged particles moving past a point in one second (1 s). $A={\frac {C}{s}}$
Coulomb (C): The SI unit for charge Q. 1 C = 6.24 x 10$^{18}$ Q
Cycles per second (cps): As the name implies, a measurement of frequency in full cycles of a wave per second. This is equivalent to Hertz, but Hertz is the official unit. The unit cps (or kilocycles, megacycles, etc.) is more often seen in older documents.
Farad (F): The SI unit for Capacitance (C). One Farad equals a capacitor that has a Coulomb (1 C) of charge on it with a voltage separation of a Volt (1 V). $F={\frac {C}{V}}$
Inductance
Henry (H): The SI unit for inductance.
$H=V{\frac {s}{A}}$
Frequency
Hertz (Hz): The SI unit for frequency. One Hz is one cycle per second.
Horse Power (HP): The power a horse can achieve. 1 HP = 746 W
Joule (J): The work required to move a Newton (1 N) a meter (1 m). J = N m
Length: (l): The symbol for distance in meters (m).
Meter (m): The SI unit for distance. The distance light travels in 1/299,792,458 second.
Ohm (Ω): A measure of resistance or impedance. 1 Ohm =
Second (s): The SI unit for time.
SI: The standard system of units.
Time (t): The symbol for time in seconds (s).
Volt (V): A potential due to an electric field. $V={\frac {C}{J}}$
Watt (W): A measure of power (P). A Watt is a Joule (1 J) of work done in a second (1 s).
$W={\frac {J}{s}}$
Wavelength (λ): The distance between two peaks of a cycle.
# Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Nf3/2...Nc6/3. Bb5/3...a6/4. Ba4

| | a | b | c | d | e | f | g | h | |
| 8 | | | | | | | | | 8 |
| 7 | | | | | | | | | 7 |
| 6 | | | | | | | | | 6 |
| 5 | | | | | | | | | 5 |
| 4 | | | | | | | | | 4 |
| 3 | | | | | | | | | 3 |
| 2 | | | | | | | | | 2 |
| 1 | | | | | | | | | 1 |
| | a | b | c | d | e | f | g | h | |

# Ruy Lopez, Morphy Defence

The last two moves ...a6 and Ba4 have made no substantial change to the position, therefore Black's options are much the same as they were on his previous move, although they are now known as deferred defences.
4...Nf6 is the most often played move and is referred to as the main line (rather than the Berlin Deferred). It attacks White's currently undefended e-pawn and helps prepare kingside castling.
4...d6 is the Steinitz Deferred. Much more popular than the true Steinitz Defence, it cuts out any threats to the e-pawn and reserves the option of an f5 push.
4...Bc5 is the Classical Defence Deferred. It develops a piece and controls the a7-g1 diagonal.
Hunting down White's bishop now is not wise. Black can play 4...b5 5.Bb3 Na5, hunting down White's light-squared bishop, however, this takes a lot of time, and after 6.O-O Nxb3 7.axb3, Black is far behind in development. The game Pavlovic-Agdestein, 2003 continued (after 5...Na5) 6.O-O d6 7.d4 f6 (holding on to e5 is Black's main idea in the Ruy Lopez) 8.Nc3 Nxb3 9.axb3 (Black doesn't have one piece off the back rank). Now, White can attack after Bb7 Qe2 g6 Be3 c6 dxe5 fxe5 Ng5 Be7 f4! opening more lines.

## Theory table

For explanation of theory tables, see theory table and for notation, see algebraic notation. .
    1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.Bb5 a6 4.Ba4
| | 4 | 5 | 6 |
| Main Line | Ba4 Nf6 | O-O Be7 | Re1 b5 | = |
| Steinitz Defence Deferred | ... d6 | c3 Bd7 | d4 Nge7 | = |
| Caro variation | ... b5 | Bb3 Na5 | O-O d6 | = |
| Classical Defence Deferred | ... Bc5 | O-O Nf6 | c3 b5 | = |
| Schliemann Defence Deferred | ... f5 | d4 exd4 | e5 Bc5 | +/= |
When contributing to this Wikibook, please follow the Conventions for organization.

## References

* ↑ https://books.google.com/books?id=WCiiuAAACAAJ&dq=Ruy+lopez+move+by+move
* Kasparov, Garry, & Keene, Raymond 1989 Batsford chess openings 2. ISBN 0-8050-3409-9.