OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Japanese/Grammar/Nouns

Since Japanese nouns (名詞; めいし) don't inflect they are fairly simple to master. They do, however, take particles to indicate their place in sentences.
Some commonly used particles for nouns are: "は", "が" and "を".

## Plurals

The Japanese language lacks plurals in the English sense. Plural words are usually either preceded with a number and a counter, or simply made understood through context.
A few nouns can also suffix a pluralizing word, such as "たち" or "ら". When referring to a person, "たち" indicates company. For example, めぐみたち can mean "Megumi and more".
Yet others indicate plurality by repetition (e.g., ひと means person and ひとびと means people.) Written in kanji, the repetition mark, 々, is used (e.g., 人, 人々).

## Noun-phrase particles

    See also: Japanese/Grammar/Basic Particles
Japanese word structure, unlike Western languages which allow declensions depending on gender, tense, and many other aspects, maintains constant word forms, which are inflected by particles.
Note that particles always follow the nouns that they mark.

## Notes

* ↑ Note that when "は" is a particle, it is always pronounced as "Wa".
* ↑ The syllable "へ", when used as a particle, is always pronounced "e".
# Japanese/Grammar/Verbs/te form

The te-form is often thought of as the conjunctive form. This allows the combination of verbs, phrases, and sentences. The verb and/or phrase may even have a different meaning when it follows after the conjunctive.

## Uses

The following are some uses. These are a sample of cases where the original verbial changes its meaning after it follows a te-form verb. You shouldn't restrict your usage of the te-form to these few uses.

#### ～ている

    Explained in detail here.

#### ～ておく

When used as an auxiliary verb after the te-form, おく gives the sense of preparing a task or commiting to a task. It roughly translates to the English version of "I will do ...".
    ビールを冷やしておきます。
       I'll chill the beer.

#### ～てある

When used after the te-form, ある still has the same meaning as state-of-being, but it's more for the task being in a completed state. So, a person performed the te-form verb, and ある means the action is finished and remains in the finished state. There's no restriction for ある for inanimate and animate objects when following the te-form. This auxiliary verb is restricted to transitivity verbs only.
    ドアがしめてあります。
       The door is closed.
# Japanese/Grammar/Politeness

_: See also:
   * Japanese/Lessons/Introduction/Konnichiwa/Formality
   * Japanese/Grammar/Honorifics
   * Japanese/Lesson Giving and Receiving and Japanese/Grammar/Giving
   * Japanese/Lessons/Personal pronouns
Politeness in Japanese language is important when speaking to anyone; being punched in the face or getting fired by your employer are prime examples of what can happen when being impolite by simply speaking!
The Japanese society can be thought of like a ladder: at the top rungs are those of the highest social standing (royalty, company CEOs, high-ranking government officials, high-ranking religious figures, and so on), and then below them are the common people, and then the scum of the earth even farther below. These distinctions are quite evident in how people act around others and how they act towards them. While all cultures reflect this on some level, Japanese culture revolves around it.
From the bottom of the social ladder upwards, the Japanese language changes in sometimes subtle, sometimes noticeable ways. Let's start in the middle, with Standard Polite language. This is comprised of ていねい (teinei, or polite) verbs, grammar, and nouns. (As a side note, all foreigners should begin learning Japanese with Standard Polite forms, then move around from there.) One would use verbs ending in -ma + the ending, standard honorifics when required, and state the subject every few times once understood until the subject changes. Even further upwards, at the top, highly irregular verbs replace the more common ones, one would speak in a way to make the listener or object more honored and the speaker lower and humbler.
Going down the social ladder, the language becomes simpler, rougher, and even rude to some. The subject, once understood, can be dropped altogether at first. It would become highly repetitive to constantly say the subject over and over once understood by the listener. While this facet of informality is seen in all levels of Japanese language formality, it becomes more and more prominent in informal speech. One can replace the polite copula "desu" with the simple copula "da," or drop it altogether. Simple forms of verbs and adjectives are used more often. Vulgar or taboo words appear more frequently. Honorifics are rarely seen, if at all. Talking in this way to higher ranking people than yourself is comparable to obliviating your social life and your chances to advance in rank.
An example chart of comparitive polite forms is below.
| | Highly Formal/Polite | Very Formal/Polite | Formal/Polite | Informal | Very Informal |
| Pronoun "I" | --- Usage of the speaker's name | 私（わたくし） watakushi | 私（わたし） watashi | 僕(ぼく)／あたし boku/atashi | 俺(おれ), often spelled as "オレ" ore |
| Verb "Eat" | --- --- | 頂きます(いただきます） itadakimasu | 食べます（たべます） tabemasu | 食べる（たべる） taberu | 食らう（くらう） / 食う（くう） kurau / kuu |
| Verb "Give" | --- --- | さしあげます sashiagemasu | あげます agemasu | あげる ageru | やる yaru |
# Legal framework of textual data processing for Machine Translation and Language Technology research and development activities/Derivative Works Cases Case Studies
## Case #19 Distribution of Annotations of a Data Set I

Case description :
| Actor | Researcher-Resource Compiler & Provider |
| Intended use | Distribute the annotations to an original dataset (e.g. images, broadcasts) incl. links to specific instances of the web available dataset (e.g. the hand on an image, time sequence of a film) |
| Conditions | I have asked for permission for the originals but received no reply |
| Question | Can I distribute it under the licence of my choice? Or Do I ask for permission from sources Or Simply state the sources (attribution-like) Or Refrain from distributing it? |
| Suggested legal solution ||
| Legal position | The annotations, to the extent they are my own original work or constitute works that are not copyright protected (e.g. a URL) can be distributed under any licence of my choice. With regard to the inclusion of extracts from the original work see above. |
| Suggested course of action | Do not ask permission for linking but only for re-using original content. When the annotation includes original extracts it may still be deemed fair use/dealing or falling within the limitations and exceptions as a form of critical approach -in the broadest sense- of the original work (see e.g. Greek law 2121/1993, art.19). |
| Type of Terms and Conditions | Any licence of my choice. |
| Legal basis | Copyright Law. Emphasis on limitations and exceptions. |
# Legal framework of textual data processing for Machine Translation and Language Technology research and development activities/Annotation Case Studies
## Case #19 Distribution of Annotations of a Data Set I

Case description :
| Actor | Researcher-Resource Compiler & Provider |
| Intended use | Distribute the annotations to an original dataset (e.g. images, broadcasts) incl. links to specific instances of the web available dataset (e.g. the hand on an image, time sequence of a film) |
| Conditions | I have asked for permission for the originals but received no reply |
| Question | Can I distribute it under the licence of my choice? Or Do I ask for permission from sources Or Simply state the sources (attribution-like) Or Refrain from distributing it? |
| Suggested legal solution ||
| Legal position | The annotations, to the extent they are my own original work or constitute works that are not copyright protected (e.g. a URL) can be distributed under any licence of my choice. With regard to the inclusion of extracts from the original work see above. |
| Suggested course of action | Do not ask permission for linking but only for re-using original content. When the annotation includes original extracts it may still be deemed fair use/dealing or falling within the limitations and exceptions as a form of critical approach -in the broadest sense- of the original work (see e.g. Greek law 2121/1993, art.19). |
| Type of Terms and Conditions | Any licence of my choice. |
| Legal basis | Copyright Law. Emphasis on limitations and exceptions. |
# Legal framework of textual data processing for Machine Translation and Language Technology research and development activities/Confidential Information and Other Rights/Agreements
## Confidential Information and Other Rights/Agreements

MT & MP of LRs may be hindered if the content that is used falls under the category of trade secret or confidential information. Such could be the case particularly with regard to technical information, manuals or technical descriptions. While it could be that such information is not marked as such, it is highly unlikely that processing of such material could happen without prior knowledge of the nature of the material by the entity conducting the MP/MT. It is hence highly advisable that the MP/MT service provider obtains the relevant permission before it conducts any processing or indeed dissemination of the material. Other types of rights that could subsist in the content to be processed, such as cultural protection or geodata regulation is highly unlikely to influence any of the processing options, as these types of regulations normally involve material that is not relevant to MP/MT (e.g. maps or digital representations of monuments).
# Legal framework of textual data processing for Machine Translation and Language Technology research and development activities/Data Anonymisation Case Studies
## Case #15 Anonymising Data Sets

Case description :
| Actor | Researcher-Resource Compiler & Provider |
| Intended use | Distribute a corpus which contains person names and other personal data |
| Conditions | I have a licence for disseminating the material but the personal data should not be exposed |
| Question | Can I distribute the corpus after anonymising the personal data Or Should I refrain from disseminating it? |
| Suggested legal solution ||
| Legal position | Anonymisation is useful only to the extent that (a) the corpus is still useful and relevant after the anonymisation (b) if it is clear who and under which conditions may proceed with the anonymisation (c) if the data protection provisions allow anonymisation and the subsequent distribution of data. |
| Suggested course of action | See how anonymisation relates to the desired use. |
| Type of Terms and Conditions | Data protection rules/Terms and Conditions |
| Legal basis | Data protection law |
# Legal framework of textual data processing for Machine Translation and Language Technology research and development activities

| A printable version of Legal framework of textual data processing for Machine Translation and Language Technology research and development activities is available. | Wikipedia has more about this subject: Data mining |

## Contents

| Ιntroductory Points Introductory material Methodological approach | Legal Issues Copyright and Related Rights Licensing Copyright Analysis of MT & MP scenarios based on crawling Data Protection Public Sector Information Confidential Information and Other Rights/Agreements Risk Mitigation Strategies and Measures | Conclusions Concluding Remarks | Case Studies Public Sector Information (PSI) Case Studies Open Data and Web crawling Case Studies Distribution of Translated Data Case Studies Data Anonymisation Case Studies Lexicon Distribution Case Studies Annotation Case Studies Derivative Works Cases Case Studies |

## See also

* Legal and Regulatory Issues in the Information Economy
* US Copyright Law
* Canadian Copyright Law
# Linear Algebra/Subspaces

Suppose V is a vector space over a field F. A nonempty set of vectors H within the vector space V is defined to be a subspace of V when:
Where addition and scalar multiplication in H is defined to be the same as addition and scalar multiplication in V when all vectors involved are within H.
A subspace of any vector space is also a vector space because it is obviously true that when x, y and z are elements of H and c and d are elements of F, it is obviously true that x+y=y+x and (x+y)+z=x+(y+z) because they are elements of V, and also 1x=x, c(dx)=(cd)x, (a+b)x=ax+bx, a(x+y)=ax+ay because x and y are elements of V, and by the second condition, for every x, there exists a 0x within the set, which is the identity, so its identity is within the subspace, and also by the second condition, for every x, there exists a (-1)x, which is its inverse. Thus, all subspaces of a vector space are also vector spaces.

## Properties of Subspaces

If a set of vectors are in a subspace H of a vector space V, and the vectors are linearly independent in V, then they are also linearly independent in H. This implies that the dimension of H is less than or equal to the dimension of V.
Also, for every basis in a subspace H, there exists a basis in V which contains that basis of H. This follows from the completion theorem proven earlier.

## Dimension

A set of vectors v$_1$, v$_2$, v$_3$, ..., v$_n$ in a vector space V over a field F is said to be linearly independent over a subspace H when, for elements a$_1$, a$_2$, a$_3$, ..., a$_n$ within the field F, a$_1$v$_1$+a$_2$v$_2$+a$_3$v$_3$+...+a$_n$v$_n$ is an element of H only when a$_1$, a$_2$, a$_3$, ..., a$_n$ all equal 0. Linear independence over the subspace containing only the 0 vector is obviously the same as ordinary linear independence. The maximum number of vectors in V which are linearly independent over H is defined to be the dimension of V over H.
If a set of vectors O in V are linearly independent over H and a set of vectors I are linearly independent within H, then they union of those two sets is also linearly independent. This is because if there is a linear combination of those vectors, then it can equal 0 only when the linear combination of the vectors in O is the opposite of the linear combination of the vectors of I, which is also within H, implying that the coefficients of the elements of O are all 0, but which implies that all elements of I are also 0.
If, given any subspace H of a vector space V, one has a basis B for H, and a basis C of V containing B, then the elements of C-B are linearly independent over H since any element of H must be linearly dependent on elements of B (since it is a basis of H), and since the elements of C-B are all linearly independent to the elements of C-B, any linear combination of them in which not all coefficients are 0 must not be an element of H, thus proving that they are all linearly independent over H. Thus, if a vector space has dimension d, and a subspace has dimension s, the dimension of a vector space over that subspace is d-s.
# Linear Algebra/The Inverse of a Matrix

An n-by-n matrix A is the inverse of n-by-n matrix B (and B the inverse of A) if BA = AB = I, where I is an identity matrix.
The inverse of an n-by-n matrix can be calculated by creating an n-by-2n matrix which has the original matrix on the left and the identity matrix on the right. Row reduce this matrix and the right half will be the inverse. If the matrix does not row reduce completely (i.e., a row is formed with all zeroes as its entries), it does not have an inverse.

## Example

Let $\mathrm {A} ={\begin{bmatrix}1&4&4\\2&5&8\\3&6&9\end{bmatrix}}$
We begin by expanding and partitioning A to include the identity matrix, and then proceed to row reduce A until we reach the identity matrix on the left-hand side.
    ${\begin{bmatrix}1&4&4&{\big |}&1&0&0\\2&5&8&{\big |}&0&1&0\\3&6&9&{\big |}&0&0&1\end{bmatrix}}\rightsquigarrow {\begin{bmatrix}1&4&4&{\big |}&1&0&0\\0&-3&0&{\big |}&-2&1&0\\0&-6&-3&{\big |}&-3&0&1\end{bmatrix}}\rightsquigarrow {\begin{bmatrix}1&4&4&{\big |}&1&0&0\\0&1&0&{\big |}&2/3&-1/3&0\\0&-6&-3&{\big |}&-3&0&1\end{bmatrix}}\rightsquigarrow$
    ${\begin{bmatrix}1&0&4&{\big |}&-5/3&4/3&0\\0&1&0&{\big |}&2/3&-1/3&0\\0&0&-3&{\big |}&1&-2&1\end{bmatrix}}\rightsquigarrow {\begin{bmatrix}1&0&4&{\big |}&-5/3&4/3&0\\0&1&0&{\big |}&2/3&-1/3&0\\0&0&1&{\big |}&-1/3&2/3&-1/3\end{bmatrix}}\rightsquigarrow {\begin{bmatrix}1&0&0&{\big |}&-1/3&-4/3&4/3\\0&1&0&{\big |}&2/3&-1/3&0\\0&0&1&{\big |}&-1/3&2/3&-1/3\end{bmatrix}}$
The matrix $\mathrm {B} ={\begin{bmatrix}-1/3&-4/3&4/3\\2/3&-1/3&0\\-1/3&2/3&-1/3\end{bmatrix}}$ is then the inverse of the original matrix A.
# Molisan/Verbs/Avé

Avé, (vierbe / verb / verbo):
* to have
* avere

## Usage Note

This verb is the most commonly used auxiliary (along with èsse). It is not directly synonomous to the Italian verb avere in other cases. Rather, the verb tené is used. Avé is never used as a main verb, it only exists as a "helping verb". It is often marked with a silent initial 'h' as in Italian. It is also an essential part of the verb avé da (dovere, to need to).

## Main declensions

| | Presende | Mberfette | Passate Cuembuošte | Cuendeziunale & Uettative | Špecuelative | Mberative |
| ij | haje - heje | heve | haje avute | avésse | arraje - arreje | - |
| tu | hi | hive | hi avute | avisse | arrì | - |
| isse / ésse | ha | heve | ha avute | avésse | arrà | - |
| nuje | heme | havame | heme avute | avésseme - avassime | arrassime | - |
| vuje | hete | havate | hete avute | avassite | arrassite | - |
| lore | hanne - henne | hàvene | hanne avute | avéssene | arranne | - |

## Other forms

The various tenses of the verb avé can be combined with other verbs' participles to create many different verbal times:
* Hi magnate. (You have eaten)
* Hive magnate. (You had eaten)
* Avisse magnate nzi mmó. (You would have eaten by now.)
* Arrì magnate ggia. (You might have eaten by now.)*rarely used, often replaced by conditional.
# Monetary Economics
## Contents

* Preface
* What is Money?
** Economic Uses of Money
** Measuring the Money Supply
* The Demand for Money
** The Quantity Theories
** The Baumol-Tobin Model
** Overlapping Generations
* The Supply of Money
** Monetary Intermediation
** The Banking System
** The Supply of Credit
* Monetary Policy
** Goals of Monetary Policy
** The Problem of Time Inconsistency
** Central Banks and Strategies
* Monetary Economic History
# Molisan/Basics
## Alphabet

| a | b | c | d | e | f | g | h | i | j | l | m | n | o | p | q | r | s | t | u | v | z |
| à | è | ì | ò | ù | uò, ùo | ìj, iè, ìe |
| ê | ô | û |
| | C | G | S | [Z] |
| Senz Acčènd | (cj) | gj | (sj) | ([zj]) |
| Acčìend Nurmàl | č | (ǧ) | š | [ž] |
| Acčìend Letteràrj | ç | ģ | ş | [ʒ] |
| Us Nurmàl | č | gj | š | [ž] |
| gn, nj | gl, lj, (j) |

## Articles

These are the masculine, feminine, plural, and pre-vocalic articles used by both varieties of Molisan, as compared to Neapolitan and Italian
| | Cambuašàn | Mundagnuòl | Napletàn | Taliàn |
| Mašchj | u | lu/le* | 'o | il/lo |
| Fémmene | a | la | 'a | la |
| Chieràl | i | le/lle* | 'e | i/gli |
| Vôcàl | ll- | ll- | l'/ll' | l' |

### The Indefinite Article L'articolo indeterminativo Ll-Artìcuele Ndetermenatìv

The indefinite article is the same throughout Molise:
* nu before a masculine noun beginning with a consonant and often before words beginning with "i".
* na before a feminine noun beginning with a consonant and often before words beginning with "i".
* n' before any noun beginning with a vowel and sometimes with "g" followed by a vowel.
There is no plural indefinite article per se, but words like parìchj, čìjrt, and ne dùj (meaning "several", "some", and "a couple of") function as such.
For example:
* Nu trén (a train), nu trìt de pan (a piece of bread), nu gjardìn (a garden)
* Na tàvele (a table), na man (a hand), na fémmene (a woman)
* N'àčene de (a dash of), n'ômbr (a shadow), n'uòv (an egg)
* Če štev parìchj gjend (There were (lit. "there was") quite a few people)
* Čìert gjend če crèdene nd'u diàvele (Some people believe in the devil)
* P'a štrad jàvene ne dùj przùn (A couple of people were walking around the street, lit. "on the street went a couple of people")
# Molisan/Templates
## Basic Table

This is a template for the basic table below:
| | Column 1 Header | Column 2 Header | Column 3 Header | Column 4 Header |
| Row 1 Header | Row 1, Column 1 | Row 1, Column 2 | Row 1, Column 3 | Row 1, Column 4 |
| Row 2 Header | Row 2, Column 1 | Row 2, Column 2 | Row 2, Column 3 | Row 2, Column 4 |
| Row 3 Header | Row 3, Column 1 | Row 3, Column 2 | Row 3, Column 3 | Row 3, Column 4 |
| Row 4 Header | Row 4, Column 1 | Row 4, Column 2 | Row 4, Column 3 | Row 4, Column 4 |
{| class="wikitable" |- | !Column 1 Header !Column 2 Header !Column 3 Header !Column 4 Header |- !Row 1 Header |style="background:#efefef;" align="center" | Row 1, Column 1 |style="background:#efefef;" align="center" | Row 1, Column 2 |style="background:#efefef;" align="center" | Row 1, Column 3 |style="background:#efefef;" align="center" | Row 1, Column 4 |- !Row 2 Header |style="background:#efefef;" align="center" | Row 2, Column 1 |style="background:#efefef;" align="center" | Row 2, Column 2 |style="background:#efefef;" align="center" | Row 2, Column 3 |style="background:#efefef;" align="center" | Row 2, Column 4 |- !Row 3 Header |style="background:#efefef;" align="center" | Row 3, Column 1 |style="background:#efefef;" align="center" | Row 3, Column 2 |style="background:#efefef;" align="center" | Row 3, Column 3 |style="background:#efefef;" align="center" | Row 3, Column 4 |- !Row 4 Header |style="background:#efefef;" align="center" | Row 4, Column 1 |style="background:#efefef;" align="center" | Row 4, Column 2 |style="background:#efefef;" align="center" | Row 4, Column 3 |style="background:#efefef;" align="center" | Row 4, Column 4 |}
# Molisan/Vocabulary
## Swadesh List for Molisan (Agnonese)

| | Gloss | Molisan (Agnone) | Neapolitan | Standard Italian |
| 1 | I | jèj', joj' | io | io |
| 2 | you (sg.) | tieu | tu | tu |
| 3 | he | iss' | isso | lui, egli |
| 4 | we | nieu | nuje | noi |
| 5 | you (pl.) | vieu | vuje | voi |
| 6 | they | léure | lloro | loro, essi |
| 7 | this | chest', quist' | chisto | questo |
| 8 | that | chell' | chillo | quello |
| 9 | here | hecc | ccà | qui, qua |
| 10 | there | lèucc | lloco | lì, là |
| 11 | who | cuja | chi | chi |
| 12 | what | che, ca | che | che |
| 13 | where | addèuv' | addò | dove |
| 14 | when | quann' | quanno | quando |
| 15 | how | chigna, gna | comme | come |
| 16 | not | nne | nun | non |
| 17 | all | tutt' | tutto | tutto |
| 18 | many | tant' | assaje | tanto |
| 19 | some | cacch' | cocche | qualche, alcuni |
| 20 | few | peucc' | poco | poco |
| 21 | other | autre, antre, ontre | ato | altro |
| 22 | one | un' | uno | uno |
| 23 | two | dù | dujje | due |
| 24 | three | trè | tre | tre |
| 25 | four | quattre | quatto | quattro |
| 26 | five | cinch' | cinche | cinque |
| 27 | big | cruoss' | gruosso | grande |
| 28 | long | | luongo | lungo |
| 29 | wide | | spisso | spesso |
| 30 | thick | | | |
| 31 | heavy | | | |
| 32 | small | | | |
| 33 | short | | | |
# Molisan/Verbs/Ballà

Ballà, (glàuele / verb / verbo):
* to dance
* ballare
| | Presènd | Mberfètt | Passàt Cuembuòšt | Cuendezjunàl & Uettatìv | Špecuelatìv | Mberatìv |
| ìj | ball | ballèv / ballàv | éj ballàt | ballàss | - | - |
| tu | bìjll/bbièll | ballìv | ì ballàt | ballìss | - | bìjll/bbièll |
| iss / éss | ball | ballàv | a / e ballàt | ballàss | ballarrà | - |
| nùj | ballàm | ballavàm | èm ballàt | ballassìm | - | - |
| vùj | ballèt | ballavàt | èt ballàt | ballassìt | - | ballàt, ballèteve |
| llôr | bàllene | ballàvene | ènn ballàt | ballàssene | ballarrànn | - |