OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# A Quick Introduction to Unix/Shells and subshells

* Components
* Shells and subshells
* Directory Structure
* Changing Directories
* Listing Files and Directories
* Pathnames
* Files and Processes
* Wildcards
* Exercises 1
* Creating Directories
* Creating Files
* Special Directories
* Exercises 2
* Copying Files
* Moving Files
* Deleting Files
* Exercises 3
* Redirection
* Searching Text Files
* More grep examples
* Permissions on Files and Directories
* Editing Text
* Exercises 4
* My First Shell Script
* Job Control
* Links
* Environment Variables

## Shells and subshells

When we open a terminal session a shell will be started for us. That is why we have a prompt visible in our terminal window.
Within a shell we can open another shell - a subshell - by invoking the shell program file or executable. Imagine for example that you have a shell open, the plain vanilla shell sh. You see this:
At the prompt in this shell, I can invoke a new subshell. I can invoke bash shell with the command bash. The new shell can be closed down with the command exit. If I invoke a bash subshell I will see something like:
And if I close this shell with exit I see:

### Shells contain processes and variables

A shell provides
* a prompt for the user to communicate by starting, managing, interacting with and ending processes
* a container for processes and variables
When you invoke a subshell, any processes started in that shell are contained within it. Any data items that are created die with the shell unless they are committed to some persistent storage - perhaps written to a file on a hard drive or exported from the parent shell to new shells. Exporting is not covered here: we assume for now that variables die in the shell they are created in.
To make this more concrete, consider this sequence. We start from any shell in a terminal session and create a shell variable, like this
To check the contents we can use echo and we prefix the variable name with $, like this:
Now we invoke a subshell. We will use the bash shell. Like this
This starts a new bash subshell which we can see from the changed prompt, and in the subshell we create a shell variable like this
To check the contents of this variable we use echo exactly as before:
Before going further, make sure you know what this will display.
Now, if we exit, the bash subshell closes and we return to our original shell. Work out what the result of typing
would be.
# A Quick Introduction to Unix/Special Directories

* Components
* Shells and subshells
* Directory Structure
* Changing Directories
* Listing Files and Directories
* Pathnames
* Files and Processes
* Wildcards
* Exercises 1
* Creating Directories
* Creating Files
* Special Directories
* Exercises 2
* Copying Files
* Moving Files
* Deleting Files
* Exercises 3
* Redirection
* Searching Text Files
* More grep examples
* Permissions on Files and Directories
* Editing Text
* Exercises 4
* My First Shell Script
* Job Control
* Links
* Environment Variables

## The abbreviated directories . and ..

The directories named . and .. are relative names. They are interpreted by the shell in the current context. While this takes a moment or two longer to grasp than ordinary absolute directory names, it is a very useful thing about Unix. In any directory you can type
As you will see, there are two directories listed called (.) and (..). These appear in all Unix directories.

### Current directory (.)

In Unix . means the current directory, so typing
means that you stay where you are.
This may not seem very useful at first, but you will often find it very useful – remember that it is a relative directory name.

### Parent directory (..)

.. means the parent of the current directory, so typing
will take you up one directory.

### Home directory (~)

Typing cd alone or cd ~ always returns you to your home directory. This is very useful if you are lost in the file system. Typing cd / takes you to the root.
What do you think
would list?
# Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Edible Wild Plants/Pickerelweed

Pickerelweed :
* Description: Pickerelweed is a genus of aquatic plants. They have large waxy leaves, succulent stems and a thick pad of fibrous roots. The roots give rise to rhizomes that allow rapid colonization by vegetative reproduction. Species are perennial, and produce a large spike of purple flowers in the summer.
* Where found: Pickerelweed is endemic to the Americas, distributed from Canada to Argentina, where it is found in partially submerged in shallow water or on mud.
* Availability: Early Summer (leaves), Late Summer to Early Fall (fruit)
* Use: The young leaves, if picked before they unfurl can be eaten raw in salads or boiled for ten minutes and served with butter as greens. The nut-like fruit can be gathered in late summer to early fall and roasted or eaten out of the hand like granola.
# Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Edible Wild Plants/Pine Needles

Pine Trees :
* Description: Pines are evergreen and resinous. The bark of most pines is thick and scaly, but some species have thin, flaking bark. The branches are produced in regular "pseudowhorls", actually a very tight spiral but appearing like a ring of branches arising from the same point. Many pines are uninodal, producing just one such whorl of branches each year, from buds at the tip of the year's new shoot, but others are multinodal, producing two or more whorls of branches per year. The new spring shoots are sometimes called "candles"; they are light-colored and point upward at first, then later darken and spread outward.
* Where found: Pines are native to most of the Northern Hemisphere. In North America, they range from the Arctic south to Nicaragua and Hispaniola, with the highest diversity in Mexico and California. In Eurasia, they range from Portugal and Scotland east to the Russian Far East, Japan, and the Philippines, and south to northernmost Africa, the Himalaya and Southeast Asia, with one species (Sumatran Pine) just crossing the Equator in Sumatra. Pines are also extensively planted in many parts of the Southern Hemisphere
* Availability: All year
* Use: The needles can be eaten year-round. The young shoots can be eaten as candy when stripped of the needles, peeled, boiled until tender, and then simmered for 20-30 minutes in a sugary syrup.
# Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Edible Wild Plants/Pine Nuts

Pine Nuts :
* Description: Pine nuts are the edible seeds of pine trees. About 20 species of pine produce seeds large enough to be worth harvesting; in other pines the seeds are also edible, but are too small to be of value as a human food. The nuts are located at the base of the scales of the cones.
* Where found: Temperate areas of North America, Europe, and Asia.
* Availability: Fall
* Use: Pine nuts can be eaten raw or baked into a casserole.
# Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Edible Wild Plants/Spicebush

Spicebush :
* Description: The leaves can be either deciduous or evergreen depending on species, and are alternate, entire or three-lobed, and strongly spicy-aromatic. The flowers are small, yellowish, with six petaloid sepals and no petals. The fruit is a small red, purple or black drupe containing a single seed
* Where found: Native to eastern Asia but with three species in eastern North America.
* Availability: Late Summer, Early Fall
* Use: The fruits of the spice bush can (as the name suggests) used as a spice.
# Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Edible Wild Plants/Sassafras

Sassafras :
| Description: Sassafras is a small tree with brown, furrowed bark. The leaves come inthree shapes: an oval (one lobe); a mitten (two lobes); and a glove (three lobes). Where found: Eastern US, west to eastern Texas, north to Illinois, east to New Hampshire. Use: dig up the roots, peel them, and boil them to make a rootbeer-like tea. WARNING: Safrole, which is the main component (75-80%) of sassafras essential oil, is now recognized by the United States Department of Agriculture as a potential carcinogen. | Three-lobed sassafras leaf |
# Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Edible Wild Plants/Sheep Sorrel

Sheep Sorrel :
* Where found: Throughout the Northern Hemisphere
* Availability: Spring, Summer, Fall
* Use: Nibble on the raw leaves - a great addition to a salad. They may also be boiled and eaten like greens, or steeped to make a tea.
* WARNING: Sheep sorrel contains small amount of oxalic acid which gives it its pleasantly sour taste. If eaten in large quantities over a period of time, however, may inhibit the body's ability to absorb calcium.
# Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Edible Wild Plants/Strawberry

Wild Strawberry :
* Description: Similar to the domestic variety, but the berries are quite a bit smaller, measuring about quarter inch (6 mm) in diameter. The Woodland Strawberry was widely cultivated in Europe before being largely replaced by the Garden Strawberry (Fragaria x ananassa and other hybrids), which have much larger berries. Woodland Strawberry fruit is strongly flavored, and is still grown on a small scale commercially for the use of gourmets. Unlike most commercial and garden cultivars of strawberries, Woodland Strawberries rarely form runners, and are usually propagated by seeds or division of the plants.
* Where found: Throughout the Northern Hemisphere
* Availability: Summer
* Use: The fruits can be eaten raw or cooked into jellies and jams. It can also be baked into pies. An herbal tea made from the leaves, stems, and flowers is believed to aid in the treatment of diarrhea.
# Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Edible Wild Plants/Plantain

Plantago Major, or Broadleaf Plantain :
* Description: The Broadleaf Plantain or Greater Plantago (Plantago major) is a member of the plantago family, Plantaginaceae. In North America, this plant is primarily a weed, though it is edible and is used in herbal medicine. The plant is native to Europe, and is believed to be one of the first plants to naturalize in the colonies.
* This plant does best in compacted soils, and hence is sometimes called "roadweed". It is commonly found on field boundaries as it is tolerant to pesticides and herbicides. It is wind-pollenated, and a cause of summer allergies when in flower.
* Where found: Common lawn weed found throughout
* Availability: Best in Early Spring, also usable in Summer and Fall, but tough and stringy.
* Use: Crushed leaves can be applied directly to the skin to stop bleeding, bee stings and insect bites. Psyllium seeds are a bulk laxative. The young leaves are delicious raw in salads. In summer and fall the leaves can be eaten when boiled as greens.
# Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Edible Wild Plants/Puffball Mushrooms

Giant Puffball Mushroom :
* Description: Most giant puffballs grow to be 10 to 70 cm in diameter, although occasionally some can reach diameters up to 150 cm and weights of 20 kg. The inside of the mature Giant puffballs is greenish brown, whereas the interior of immature puffballs is white. The large white mushrooms are edible when young.
* Where found: Throughout North America
* Availability: Late Summer, Fall
* Use: Cooked vegetable, or use like cultivated mushrooms
* WARNING: Cut the mushroom open before using it, and check for rudimentary gill or stem. The deadly Amanitas looks like a puffball when it is young before its stem grows, but it will have the gills or stem. Also, make sure the interior flesh is pure white rather than yellowish.
# Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Edible Wild Plants/Rose

Rose :
* Description: The rose is a common garden shrub, but it also grows wild in many places. The leaves of most species are 5–15 cm long, pinnate, with 3–13 leaflets and basal stipules; the leaflets usually have a serrated margin, and often a few small prickles on the underside of the stem. The vast majority of roses are deciduous, but a few (particularly in southeast Asia) are evergreen or nearly so.
* Where found: There are more than a hundred species of wild roses, all from the northern hemisphere and mostly from temperate regions.
* Availability: Fall
* Use: The fruit of the rose bush (rose hips) are sometimes eaten, mainly for their vitamin C content. They are usually pressed and filtered to make rose-hip syrup, as the fine hairs surrounding the seeds are unpleasant to eat (resembling itching powder). They can also be used to make herbal tea, jam, jelly and marmalade. They are also used to make pies and bread.
# Canadian Refugee Procedure/RPD Rule 57 - Proceedings Conducted in Public
## RPD Rule 57 - Proceedings Conducted in Public

The text of the relevant rule reads:

### By default, the Act requires proceedings to be conducted in private

By default, the IRPA requires that hearings before the RPD be conducted in camera: Canadian Refugee Procedure/166 - Proceedings must be held in the absence of the public. That said, the Board may open a refugee hearing to the public in exceptional circumstances. The Irwin Law text Refugee Law states that this almost always happens with the consent of the claimant. It notes, by way of example, that in recent years, several high-profile refugee claims have been heard in public with the consent of the claimants, including the claims of US military deserters Jeremy Hinzman and Brandon Hughey; US marijuana campaigner Steven Kubby and his family; and Chinese businessman Lai Cheong Sing and his family.

### The Board may order that proceedings be conducted in private, in whole or in part

The Board's public commentary on the analogous Immigration Division rules states that "The [Division] may take any necessary measures to ensure the confidentiality of the proceeding, such as: a) hearing in private the evidence concerning the factors to be taken into consideration; and b) ordering that the proceeding be conducted in private, in whole or in part." A panel can attach conditions to its order, for example in Key (Re), a panel of the Refugee Protection Division provided for the following conditions on allowing the media to observe a hearing: "only non-disruptive audio equipment be allowed in the hearing room during proceedings and cameras to take still photographs only be allowed in the hearing room when the hearing was not in progress."

### The Board may order a publication ban, in whole or in part

The Board's public commentary on the analogous Immigration Division rules states that "Even if it allows the proceeding to be conducted in public, the [Division] may take any necessary measures to ensure the confidentiality of the proceeding, such as: 1. hearing in private the evidence concerning the factors to be taken into consideration; and 2. ordering a ban on publication of the proceedings, in whole or in part."

### The Board may issue sealing orders or confidentiality orders

See: Canadian Refugee Procedure/166 - Proceedings must be held in the absence of the public#The Board may issue a sealing order or confidentiality order.

## References

* 1 2 Martin David Jones and Sasha Baglay. Refugee law (Second Edition). Irwin Law, 2017, page 297.
* 1 2 Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, Commentaries to the Immigration Division Rules, Date modified listed on webpage: 2018-06-23, <https://irb-cisr.gc.ca/en/legal-policy/act-rules-regulations/Pages/CommentIdSi.aspx> (Accessed January 27, 2020).
* ↑ Key (Re), 2010 CanLII 62705 (CA IRB), par. 3, <http://canlii.ca/t/2d3c7#par3>, retrieved on 2020-08-16.
# Canadian Refugee Procedure/RPD Rule 58 - Observers
## RPD Rule 58

The text of the relevant rule reads:

### RPD Rule 58 should be read in conjunction with section 166(e) of the IRPA

Section 166(e) of the IRPA provides:
For further details, see: Canadian Refugee Procedure/Proceedings must be held in the absence of the public.

### It is best practice to provide counsel with an opportunity to comment on the presence of any observers who are RPD employees

In Azanor v. Canada, an opportunity was provided to counsel to comment on the presence of persons observing the hearing, and it was not taken. The court concluded that "it is conceivable that the presence in the hearing room of the Principal Applicant’s two children, and the two observers from the IRB, created some awkwardness and discomfort for the Principal Applicant. Nevertheless, objections to this were not raised by the Principal Applicant or her counsel at the time of the hearing. These objections were only raised afterwards. In the absence of complaint, the RPD Member did not err in proceeding with the sensitive yet relevant line of questioning concerning the Principal Applicant’s sexual identity."

### A panel should ensure the proper comportment and behaviour of observers

A panel should ensure the proper comportment and behaviour of observers. A panel should not allow observers to make comments or gestures to witnesses, for example.

## References

* ↑ Azanor et al v. CIC (F.C. no. IMM-4472-19), Mosley, May 12, 2020, 2020 FC 613.
* ↑ Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada. CRDD Handbook, Dated March 31, 1999, online <https://web.archive.org/web/20080331073416/https://www.irb-cisr.gc.ca/en/references/legal/rpd/handbook/hb01_e.htm> (Accessed November 9, 2023).
# Annotated Republic of China Laws/Penal Act of Offenses Against National Currency/Article 6

| ←Article 3 to Article 5 | Penal Act of Offenses Against National Currency Republic of China Law from Mainland Era to Taiwan Article 6 | Article 7→ |

## Promulgated amendment on 1973-09-04
### Article 6

    If an offense specified in this Act is committed, the silver, gold, any kind of new or old coins, or counterfeit, falsified or destroyed coins and notes shall be confiscated regardless of whether or not they belong to the offender.

## Annotated by Wikibooks

* ↑ "Penal Act of Offenses Against National Currency: Article 6". Laws & Regulations Database of The Republic of China. Ministry of Justice (Taiwan). 2011-06-29. Retrieved 2016-09-07.
# Annotated Republic of China Laws/Punishment Act for Violation to Military Service System
## History

From http://law.moj.gov.tw/ENG/LawClass/LawHistory.aspx?PCode=F0120002 :
* The enacted Act was promulgated by the Government of the Republic of China on 29 June 1940.
* The amended Act was promulgated by the Government of the Republic of China on 27 May 1943.
* The amended Act was promulgated by the Government of the Republic of China on 17 July 1947.
* The amended Act was promulgated by the President on 5 September 1949.
* The amended Act was promulgated by the President on 3 June 1950.
* The amended Act was promulgated by the President on 30 May 1955.
* The amended Act with a total of 28 articles was promulgated by the President on 19 July 1976.
* The amended Article 23 was promulgated by the Presidential Decree hua-zong-yi-yi-zi No. 1782 on 6 April 1992.
* The amended Act with a total of 25 articles was promulgated by the Presidential Decree hua-zong-yi-yi-zi No. 09100128070 on 26 June 2002 and enforced on the aforementioned date.
* The amended Articles 25 was promulgated by the Presidential Decree hua-zong-yi-yi-zi No. 09500075671 on 30 May 2006, and Article 23 was castrated. Enforcement of the amended Act was on 1 July 2006.
* The amended Article 16 and Article 17 were promulgated by the Presidential Decree hua-zong-yi-yi-zi No. 10000097611 on 18 May 2011.

## Wikibooks annotation

* 1 2 3 4 This full amendment is in a separate page, and later partial amendments are in other separate pages per articles.
# Annotated Republic of China Laws/Postal Act/Article 20

| ←Article 10 to Article 19 | Postal Act Republic of China (Taiwan) Law Article 20 | Article 21 to Article 49→ |

## Promulgated complete amendment on 2002-07-10

(Effective on 2003-01-01, from http://law.moj.gov.tw/Eng/news/news_detail.aspx?id=965 )

### Article 20

    In accepting a parcel for delivery, Chunghwa Post may, whenever it deems the contents to be contraband or in violation of postal regulations, request the mailer to open the parcel for inspection. Once the inspection has been completed, the postal clerk shall affix a mark to show that the parcel has been inspected.
    If the mailer refuses to open a parcel for inspection, Chunghwa Post may refuse to accept the said mail item for delivery.

## Promulgated deletion on 2011-04-27

(From http://law.moj.gov.tw/eng/LawClass/LawSearchNo.aspx?PC=K0050001&DF=&SNo=20 )

### Article 20

    （Deleted）
# Annotated Republic of China Laws/Postal Act/Article 10

| ←Article 5 to Article 9 | Postal Act Republic of China (Taiwan) Law Article 10 | Article 11 to Article 20→ |

## Promulgated complete amendment on 2002-07-10

(Effective on 2003-01-01, from http://law.moj.gov.tw/Eng/news/news_detail.aspx?id=965 )

### Article 10

    Neither Chunghwa Post nor its employees may open the items of mail belonging to others except under the following circumstances:
* If substantial evidence suggests that the contents of the item of mail are contraband or that the received preferential rate does not apply to the mail item.
* When it is necessary to open the mail item in the case of undeliverable mail in order to return it to the sender.
* Other items of mail subject to inspection by law.

## Promulgated amendment on 2011-04-27

(From http://law.moj.gov.tw/eng/LawClass/LawSearchNo.aspx?PC=K0050001&DF=&SNo=10 retrieved on 2016-02-25)

### Article 10

    Neither Chunghwa Post nor its employees may open items of mail belonging to others except when they obtain the consent of the sender or the addressee and substantial evidence suggests that the mail item contains matter not permitted to be sent through the mail, the received preferential rate does not apply, or there has been a violation of postal laws.
    Proof of inspection shall be issued after the inspection is completed as mentioned in the previous paragraph. In the event that the sender or the addressee refuses the inspection request, Chunghwa Post may decline to accept or deliver the said mail item.
# Annotated Republic of China Laws/Penal Act of Offenses Against National Currency/Article 2

| ←Article 1 | Penal Act of Offenses Against National Currency Republic of China Law from Mainland Era to Taiwan Article 2 | Article 3→ |

## Promulgated amendment on 1973-09-04
### Article 2

    Whoever, with intent to gain, destroys any kind of new or old coins, shall be imprisoned for at least 1 year up to 7 years; in addition thereto, a fine of up to three times of the nominal or market value of the coins may be imposed.
    An attempt to commit an offence specified in the preceding paragraph is also punishable.

## Annotated by Wikibooks

* ↑ "Penal Act of Offenses Against National Currency: Article 2". Laws & Regulations Database of The Republic of China. Ministry of Justice (Taiwan). 2011-06-29. Retrieved 2016-09-07.
# Annotated Republic of China Laws/Penal Act of Offenses Against National Currency/Article 3

| ←Article 2 | Penal Act of Offenses Against National Currency Republic of China Law from Mainland Era to Taiwan Article 3 | Article 4 to Article 6→ |

## Promulgated amendment on 2011-06-29
### Article 3

    Whoever counterfeits or falsifies any coins or notes with intent to circulate shall be imprisoned for at least 5 years; in addition thereto, a fine of up to 5,000,000 New Taiwan Dollars may be imposed.
    A person, who has committed the offense specified in the preceding paragraph that has resulted in severe disruptions to the financial system of the country, shall be imprisoned for life or at least 10 years; in addition thereto, a fine of up to 10,000,000 New Taiwan Dollars may be imposed.
    An attempt to commit the offense specified in the first paragraph is also punishable.

## Annotated by Wikibooks

* ↑ "Penal Act of Offenses Against National Currency: Article 3". Laws & Regulations Database of The Republic of China. Ministry of Justice (Taiwan). 2011-06-29. Retrieved 2016-09-07.