# Mirad/Word-building
## Taxonomic codification of letters

    The consonants of root words are taken from a conceptual ontology matrix. For example, all root words beginning with the consonant t have something to do with human beings. Root words containing the consonant j relate somehow to time.
    For example, the following words all contain the consonant p, which indicates motion:
       zíp travel
       jap precedence
       tóáp step
       zòp regression
       pán jump
       teap visit
       mamp flight
    Similarly, the following words all end in the consonant l, which indicates liquid:
       mil water
       vafil wine
       mal gasoline
       meil mud
       vozil paint
       teabil tear
    Again, the following words all end in the consonant m, which indicates place, space, location, or position.:
       tom residence
       cem table
       dénam library
       tilam bar
       epem parking lot
       mem country

### Semantic codification of vowels

    The vowels in root words have various qualitative and quantitative values based on the following scales:
| Scale | o | a | e | i | u |
| Cardinal | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 |
| Ordinal/hierarchical | zeroth | first | second | third | fourth |
| Qualitative | negative 1 | positive 1 | neutral | positive 2 | negative 2 |
| Vectorial | down | up | middle | left | right |
| Natural | underground | sky | land | water | space |
    The opposite of a word can often be produced by simply changing a vowel to the "opposing" vowel.
      * The vowels "a" and "o" are opposites in the "series 1".
      * The vowels "i" and "u" are opposites in the "series 2."
| positive | negative |
| ab on | ob off |
| man light | mon shade |
| aga big | oga little |
| án together | ón apart |
| iga fast | uga slow |
| íga hard | úga soft |
    Throughout the Mirad word construction scheme, the vowel e always has a neutral or medial value:
* medial
* éb between
* éz inside
* eza moderate
* ge equal
* zem middle
* gé rather
* ev if
* je during
* eb at
* ve maybe
    In hierarchical codification, the vowel o indicates the zeroth or toplevel element of an organization. In a qualitative codification, it has a negative slant. As a prefix, this vowel can also "nullify" a concept as in the following examples:
| absolute | nullified |
| tel food | otel hunger |
| gela same | ogela different |
| tadca married | otadca unmarried |
| es function | oes malfunction |

### Hierarchical codification with ordinal vowels

    Root words related hierarchically or organizationally differ only in their ordinal vowels. By ordinal vowels is meant that the vowels have inherent numerical values (o 0, a 1, e 2, etc.). The zeroth element of any hierarchy always contains the ordinal vowel o. For example, the words for royalty differ only by an enumerative vowel which determines the rank:
| ordinal value | royal rank |
| 1 | adeb emperor |
| 2 | edeb king |
| 3 | ideb prince |
| 4 | udeb marquis |
| 5 | ádeb count |
| 6 | édeb duke |
| 7 | ódeb lord |
    For further illustration, we can look at how the concept human being is hierarchically codified using ordinal vowels, where the larger the numeric value of the ordinal vowel, the lower the element is in the semantic hierarchy:
* human being
* tob human
* tab body
* teb head
* tib trunk
* tub arm
* tób leg

### Scalability With Contrasting Vowels

    Words can be semantically constructed along the qualitative scale of "positive", '"neutral", and "negative" through the use of vowels imbued with these values. In Mirad, there are two qualitative vowel series:
| number | positive | neutral | negative |
| 1 | a | e | o |
| 2 | i | e | u |
    As implied in the above table, root words with a contrast as semantically opposite with those with o and roots words with i contrast with those with u. Words with e are in the middle between the two extremes. The second series does sometimes lack a middle value. For example:
| series | positive | neutral | negative |
| 1 | va yes | ve maybe | vo no |
| 1 | vay certainly | vey possibly | voy not |
| 1 | aza strong | eza moderate | oza weak |
| 2 | zi right | ze middle | zu left |
| 2 | fia good | fea neither good nor bad | fua bad |
| 2 | iga fast | ega moderate | uga slow |

### Vectorial codification

    On the vectorial (or: directional, geo-spatial) scale, the vowels have the following general values (see later for a more detailed explanation):
| positive | neutral | negative |
| a | | o |
| up/north/ahead | | down/south/back |
| | e | |
| | in/middle | |
| i | | u |
| right/east/straight | | left/west/crooked |
    Some examples:
| positive | neutral | negative |
| áb up | éb between | ób down |
| ab on | eb at | ob off |
| zi right | ze in the middle | zu left |
| áber to raise | éber to contain | óber to lower |
    In the following examples, the vowels i/u and e take on directional values with respect to the doer of the action:
| bier to take | nier to consume | dier to ask | pier to leave | iper to go away | iber to receive |
| beer to keep | neer to conserve | der to say | peer to stay | eper to stop | eber to stop |
| buer to give | nuer to supply | duer to suggest | puer to arrive | uper to come | uber to send |

### Natural (geological) codification

    On the natural scale, the vowels have the following values:
| vowel | value | examples |
| a | sky/air | mampar aircraft, map wind (current) |
| e | land/soil | mempar car, mep road |
| i | sea/water | mimpar ship, mip river |
| o | underground | mompar subway, mop tunnel |
| u | outer space | mumpar spaceship, mup galaxy |

### Semantic nuancing

    Semantic nuances and gradations of quality of words are reflected through the "lengthening", that is, addition of a harmonic subordinal vowel to the ordinal vowel, yodification (adding y) of the ordinal vowel, or the addition of one in a series of intensifying (l, r) or distinguishing (c, s, v, f, etc.) consonants, or any of the above techniques in combination. In this scheme, pre-yodification signals a semantic intensification, while post-yodification indicates a weakening or mitigation of sense. A doubling of the vowel usually indicates another kind of lessened strength of the corresponding single-vowel word. Here are some examples:
    Post-yodification deintensifies the semantic value of the base word in much the same way as the suffix -ish sometimes mitigates the value of an English adjective.
| normal | deintensified |
| ama hot | àma warm |
| oma cold | òma cool |
| ima wet | ìma humid |
| at vage I want | at vàge I'd like |
| at ége I must | at yège I should |
| moza black | mòza blackish |
| e two | è half |
| gla very | glà somewhat |
| mar sun | màr star |
| ifer to love | ìfer to like |
| bók pain | bôk ache |
| tom residence | tòm home |
| dom city | dòm town |
| din story | dìn tale |
| pener to seize | pèner to catch |
| pon rest | pòn pause |
    Pre-yodification is sometimes used to intensify the semantic value of the base word:
| normal | intensified |
| om cold | óm ice |
| am heat | ám fire |
| ga more | gá most |
| pener to seize | péner to strike |
| pot animal | pót wild animal |
| vaa affirmative | váa true |
| ab on | yab above |
| ze in the middle of | zé through |
| ib away | íb far |
| bok illness | bók pain |
| paner to move | páner to jump |
    The consonant extenders "l" and "r" are sometimes used to intensify the semantic value of the base word.
| normal | strong | stronger |
| bók pain | blók agony | brók torture |
| vag desire | vlag yearning | vrag craving |
| éga necessary | égla urgent | égra critical |
| péner to hit | pénler to beat | pénrer to smash |
| fúder to offend | flúder to insult | frúder to outrage |
| dier to request | diler to beg | direr to demand |
    The ordinal vowel can be extended with a homorganic subordinal vowel in order to add an element of "lengthening" or some other nuance to the meaning of the base word:
| normal | lengthened |
| bok illness | book fatigue |
| vager to want | vaager to desire |
| dob state | doob nation |
| dab government | daab administration |
| tob body | toob gender |
| din story | diin recitation |
| béler to retain | béeler to conserve |
| mil water | miil dew |
    Here are some examples where all these techniques are employed:
| derived word | method of derivation |
| bok illness | normal |
| bòk ailment | post-yodification (mitigation) |
| book fatigue | lengthening |
| boòk lassitude | post-yodification (mitigation) |
| bók pain | pre-yodification (intensification) |
| bôk ache | post-yodification (mitigation) |
| bóok suffering | lengthening |
| blók agony | L-intensification (1st order) |
| brók torture | R-intensification (2nd order) |
| derived word | method of derivation |
| vager to want | normal |
| vlager to yearn for | L-intensification (1st order) |
| vrager to crave | R-intensification (2nd order) |
| vaager to desire | lengthening |
| vàger to wish for | post-yodification (mitigation) |
| vaàger to aspire to | lengthening |
    The consonants l, r, and c are used to differentiate nuances of words, usually in a positive degree of strength. Other consonants can also be used for derivation.
* derived word
* va yes
* vaa positive
* vala sure
* vàla certain
* vaala safe
* vara evident
* vàra manifest
* valda certified
* vàca secure
* váa true
* váya genuine
* váca correct
* vâca right
* vába regular
* vâba statutory
* váva exact
* válva perfect
* váfa precise
* váta fair
* váma real
* váama virtual
* vâma actual
* váda frank
* vála authentic

### Mnemonic and analogic association

    Mnemonics is used to the fullest to associate root words and concepts. For example, the words "neigh", "hehaw", "bark", and "meow" in Unilingua all contain a hint of the animal name with which these are associated. For example:
| animal | sound verb |
| épet dog | épeder to bark |
| apet horse | apeder to neigh |
| ápet pig | ápeder to squeal |
| ípet cat | ípeder to meow |
| apat cock | apader to crow |
| pat bird | pader to tweet |
| epèt cow | epèder to moo |
    Two or more words are often joined into a single compound, producing a new concept, where the separate elements are suggestive of the meaning of the resulting compound. In some cases, words overlap much like portmanteau words in English (breakfast + lunch = brunch). (Note, for euphony, if the final consonant of the first root word is the same as the initial consonant of the second root word, one of the consonants is dropped.)
| first concept | second concept | compound |
| il liquid | pan motion | ilpan wave |
| teac- to see | per to go | teaper to visit |
| dom city | mep way | domep street (not dommep) |
| kum side | mep way | kumep sidewalk |
| zè across | mep way | zèmep bridge |
| zé through | mep way | zémep thoroughfare |
| elám iron | mep way | elámep railroad |
| mag fire | meb mountain | magmeb volcano |
| tóáb foot | per to go | tóáper to walk |
| mic window | nof cloth | micof curtain |
| mac floor | nof cloth | macof carpet |
| bik care | nof cloth | bikof bandage |
| teb head | nof cloth | tef hat |
| új- to close | nof cloth | újof fold |
| tom home | nof cloth | tomof tent |
| nun merchandise | par vehicle | nunpar truck |
| pat bird | ij beginning | patij egg |
| án together | iv joy | ániv festival |
| oj future | nac money | ojnac credit |
| ej present | nac money | ejnac cash |
| vé relative | naz value | vénaz coefficient |
| ke- to seek | bier to take | kebier to choose |
| job time | bier to take | jobier to borrow |
| dop military | bier to take | dopbier to conquer |
| nuc payment | bier to take | nucbier to purchase |
| ko- to hide | bier to take | kobier to steal |
| tel food | tam house | telam restaurant |
| mag fire | il liquid | magil oil |
| mam sky | mil water | mamil rain |
| mir planet | nod point | mirnod pole |
| mam sky | nid line | mamnid horizon |
| mar light | nid line | marnid ray |
| nof cloth | yazser to flatten | nofyazser to iron |
| taob flesh | tel food | taol meat |
| taob flesh | fab tree | faob wood |
| faob wood | cyeb container | faocyeb barrel |
| ápet pig | tel meat | ápel pork |
    The following example of compounding with the root word mep (way, route, road) shows the efficiency of Unilingua compounding:
| first concept | combined concept |
| kum side | kumep sidewalk |
| tóáb walk | tóámep walkway |
| dom city | domep boulevard |
| dom city | domèp avenue |
| dom city | domeap street |
| éb between | ébdomeap alley |
| zè across | zèmep bridge |
| zé through | zémep thoroughfare |
| óg- short | ógmep shortcut |
| oiz indirect | oizmep byway |
| yoz out | yozmep exit |
| éz in | ézmep entrance |
| íz beyond | ízmep detour |
| úz around | úzmep beltway |
| ig- fast | igmep expressway |
| ouj- no-end | oujmep cul-de-sac |
| nùc fee | nùcmep toll road, turnpike |
| agal- main | agalmep main road |
| anog- primary | anogmep highway |
| ogal- minor | ogalmep back road |
| vó- wrong | vómep blind alley |
| áb high | ábmep raised highway |
| mom underground | momep subway |
| elám iron | elámep railroad |
| tóáp- to walk | tóámep walkway |
| par vehicle | parmep driveway |
| -et little | mepet path, lane |
| iz- direct | izmep straightaway |
| -án collective | mepán network |

## Root words

    Root words are divided into two groups:
      * 1st group: nouns.
      * 2nd group: prepositions, adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions, and verbs, that is, all other words.

## Root words of the 1st group (nouns)

    All noun root words are composed of three letters:
      * The first, a consonant, called the classifier
      * The second, a vowel, called the ordinal
      * The third, a consonant, called the generic
       Examples:
| classifier | ordinal | generic | meaning |
| t | o | b | man |
| t | a | b | body |
| d | o | t | society |
| d | o | m | city |
| t | a | m | house |

## Table of consonant semantic values

| consonant | classifier (1st group) | generic (1st group) | classifier (2nd group) |
| b | organ, illness, body | organism | gesture, manner |
| p | animal, vehicle | travel | movement |
| c | thing, furniture | form | making, c hundred |
| s | action | action | doing, action, thing |
| d | society | person | saying, writing |
| t | human being | person | knowing |
| f | vegetation | textiles, materials | quality |
| v | plant, color | cloth, linen | quality, truth |
| g | | | quantity, size, speed |
| k | | | weight, volume |
| j | time | time | time |
| z | | jewels, precious, art, color | direction |
| l | | element, liquid, food | l ten |
| m | cosmos, nature | place, building, metal | ml million |
| n | merchandise, containers | abstraction | counting |
| r | | machine, instrument | mr billion |
       The letter w does not have semantic value, only grammatical value as the sign of the passive voice. The letter h also has no semantic value; it merely forms the correlative deictics or determinants.

## Table of vowel numeric values

| vowel | numeric value |
| o | 0 |
| a | 1 |
| e | 2 |
| i | 3 |
| u | 4 |
| ó | 5 |
| á | 6 |
| é | 7 |
| í | 8 |
| ú | 9 |

## Table of vowel geo-positional values

| vowel | value |
| a | above, superior, north |
| e | center, middle, equator |
| o | below, inferior, south |
| u | left, west |
| i | right, east |

## Table of vowel vectorial values

| vowel | free movement | contact movement | position | examples |
| a | on | onto | up/north | ab (on), aper (mount), aber (apply) |
| á | up | onto | | áb (up), áper (climb), páer (rise) |
| o | under, off | underneath | down/south | ob (under), ober (remove), boer (support) |
| ó | down | down to | | óper (descend), póer (fall) |
| u | near | to | left/west | uper (come), puer (arrive) |
| ú | toward | until | | úb (near), úper (approach), púer (reach) |
| i | away | from | right/east | iper (go away), pier (leave) |
| í | far off | off | | íb (away), íber (take away), píer (originate) |
| e | between | at | center/middle | eb (at), eper (stop), peer (remain) |
| é | in | into | | éz (in), éber (contain), béer (detain) |

## Table of vowel geo-specific values

| vowel | value | -p | -m | -l |
| a | sky | map wind | mam sky | mal air |
| e | land | mep road | mem earth | mel soil |
| i | water | mip river | mim sea | mil water |
| o | underground | mop tunnel | mom mine | mol mineral |
| u | nature | mup galaxy | mum space | mul matter |

## Table of vowel temporal values (for verbs)

| vowel | value | example |
| a | past | pa went, paa had gone, pao will have gone, pae has gone |
| e | present | pe goes, pee is going, pea has been going, peo will be going |
| o | future | po will go, poa would go, poe is about to go |
| u | untensed | pu go!, that (one) go |

## Root words of the 2nd group (non-nouns)

    All words of the 2nd group, which are word roots other than noun roots, are composed of two letters, either a consonant-vowel combination like za or a vowel-consonant combination like az, not counting grammatical endings like the adjectival suffix -a or the verbal infinitive suffix -er.

## Vowel oppositions in 2nd group root words

       Root words with i ⇒ u opposition :
| positive | negative |
| fia good | fua bad |
| via beautiful | vua ugly |
| fía brave | fúa afraid |
| vía clean | vúa dirty |
| ifa lovable | ufa hateful |
| iva happy | uva sad |
| ífa modest | úfa proud |
| íva free | úva dependent |
| iga fast | uga slow |
| íga hard | úga soft |
| gia sharp | gua dull |
| gía difficult | gúa easy |
| ika full | uka empty |
| kia oblique | kua lateral |
| kíaheavy | kúa light |
| íka solid | úka fragile |
| íba far | úba near |
| bí since | bú up to |
| iza straight | uza crooked |
| zia right | zua left |
| íz beyond | úz around |
| zí all over | zúa round |
       Root words with ternary vowel opposition a ⇒ e ⇒ o and i ⇒ e ⇒ u:
| positive | neutral | negative |
| aza strong | eza medium | oza weak |
| áza flat | éza concave | óza convex |
| áz along | éz in | óz out |
| za front | ze middle | zo behind |
| zà ahead | zè across | zò back |
| záa wide | zé through | zóa narrow |
| aga big | eg- repeat | oga small |
| ága long | ég- must | óga short |
| va yes | ve maybe | vo no |
| và and, both | vè or, either | vò nor, neither |
| vager to want | veger may, can | voger to renounce |
| av for | ev if | ov against |
| váa true | véa relative | vóa false |
| áva innocent | év- to judge | óva guilty |
| ga more | ge equal | go less |
| gà also | gè as | gò but, except |
| gáa fat | géa moderate | góa thin |
| gla very | gle rather | glo slightly |
| gra too | gre just | gro insufficiently |
| gá most | gé average | gó least |
| kaer find | keer seek | koer hide |
| kyaer change | kéer fluctuate | kóer stay fixed |
| aker win | eker play | oker lose |
| áker to expect | éker to try | óker to be surprised |
| ja before | je during | jo after |
| aj past | ej present | oj future |
| já early | jé on time | jó late |
| -a past tense | -e present tense | -o future tense |
| ab on | eb at | ob off |
| áb above | éb between | ób below |
| ijer to begin | ejer to last | ujer to end |
| tijer to be born | tejer to live | tujer to die |

## 2nd Group Root Word Matrix
### Two-way i/u opposition

    In 2nd group root words, the vowel i signals a positive value, while the contrasting vowel u indicates the negative or opposite value:
| positive | negative | positive | negative |
| fia good | fua bad | via beautiful | vua ugly |
| ifa dear | ufa hateful | iva happy | uva sad |
| fía brave | fúa afraid | vía clean | vúa dirty |
| ífa modest | úfa proud | íva free | úva bound |
| gia sharp | gua dull | kia oblique | kua lateral |
| gía difficult | gúa easy | kía heavy | kúa light |
| iga fast | uga slow | ika full | uka empty |
| zia right | zua left | iza straight | uza curved |
| zí- all around | zú- round | íz- beyond | úz- around |
| ij- begin | uj- end | íj- open | új- close |
| ib from | ub to | íb far | úb near |
| ib- receive | ub- send | íb- take away | úb- bring |
| bi- take | bu- give | bí away | bú toward |
| bin- pull | bun- push | bín- ... | bún- touch |
| ip- go (away) | up- come | íp- escape | úp- approach |
| pi- depart | pu- arrive | pí- originate | pú- reach |
| pin- grab | pun- throw | pín- seize | pún- assault |

### Three-way a/e/o opposition

    Some 2nd group root words exhibit a three-way contrast where a is the base or positive value, e the middle or in-between value, and o the negative or opposite value:
| positive | intermediate | negative |
| va yes | ve maybe | vo no |
| váa true | véa relative | vóa false |
| av for | ev if | ov against |
| áva innocent | év- judge | óva guilty |
| ga more | ge equal | go less |
| gla many | gle several | glo few |
| gra too many | gre just enough | gro too few |
| gá most | gé enough | gó least |
| gáa fat | géa moderate | góa thin |
| aga big | eg again | oga small |
| ága long | ég- must | óga short |
| ka- find | ke- search | ko- hide |
| ká- change | ké- waver | kó- stay |
| ak- win | ek- play | ok- lose |
| ák- expect | ék- try | ók- be surprised |
| za front | ze middle | zo back |
| záa wide | yzé through | zóa narrow |
| aza strong | eza average | oza weak |
| áza flat | éza concave | óza convex |
| áz along | éz in | óz out |
| ja before | je during | jo after |
| já early | jé on time | jó late |
| aj past | ej present | oj future |
| ab on | eb at | ob off |
| ab- apply | eb- keep | ob remove |
| áb above | éb between | ób lower |
| áb- lift | éb- contain | ób- lower |
| ba- lean on | be- carry | bo- hold up |
| bar- press | bel- keep | bol- support |
| bá- erect | bé- lay | bó- hang |
| ban- shake | ben- hold | bon- calm |
| ap- get on | ep- stay | op- get off |
| áp- ascend | ép- intervene | óp- descend |
| pan- move | pen- seize | pon- rest |
| pá- jump | pé- stand | pó- fall |
| pán- surge | pén- attack | pón- dive |
    The following table shows how some of the 2nd group root words can be expanded on through various word-building techniques:
| positive | negative | positive | negative |
| fia good fi well fian goodness fila delicious fira excellent fìla exquisite fieca happy firsa perfect fiser to improve fider to congratulate fiader to praise flider to eulogize frider to brag fiàsener to favor fibéna polite gafia better gafi better (adv.) gafif moreso gafira famous gafifer to prefer ísfira useful fiíser to utilize | fua bad fura cruel fula malignant fùra ferocious fueca unhappy flua wicked fluica sinister frueca furious fuvára jeolous fu ill gafua worse gafu worse (adv.) fuser to spoil fuscer to bother fuder to curse furser to pollute fùser to debase fuáser to deteriorate fulser to damage fuecer to get angry fluecer to get irritated fruicer to grow furious fun fault fùn vice fuùn sin dofùna immoral | via beautiful viá pretty vila magnificent vira marvelous vria luxurious viaga somptuous vifa elegant vìfa chic vifia charming videréna eloquent vikaeá admirable viser to adorn viber to garnish viaber to decorate viaser to embellish viraser to dazzle | vua ugly vuá vile |
| ifa lovable, beloved, dear ifbier to enjoy ifbuer to please ifiber to derive pleasure from ifca pleasant ifcla charming ìfa dear ìfciona gracious ifcra delightful ifra adorable ifla tender ìfala cute ifta nice ifla nice ifrana passionate ìfsrea seductive ifer to love ìfer to like ifcer to be pleased ifcler to be charmed ifcrer to be delighted ifser to please ifsler to charm ifsrer to delight iifper to stroll ifi thanks ifider to thank ifcaler to enjoy | ufa hateful ufla disagreeable ufcea unpleasant ufta mean ufer to hate ùfer to dislike ufuer to despise ufcer to be displeased ovufer to avenge | iva gay ìva joyous ivla glad ìvla content ivra excited ivalsa amused ivca funny ivcla comical ivaser to rejoice ivraser to excite ìvler to satisfy ivalser to amuse ivàlser to entertain ivader to joke ivlaser to content | uva sad ùva melancholy uvla lugubrious uvca dramatic uvcra tragic uvder to complain uvdlier to lament uvceuzer to sigh uvteucer to whine vónùvuser to regret ébuvader to pity uvbaner to move ébuvlacer to have compassion uvalser to bore uvuser to chagrin ùvuser to punish uvluser to afflict |

## Ordinal vowel codification of hierarchical nouns

    Nouns that are related to one another in a hierarchy or organization can be codified using the ordinal feature of vowels. The o vowel (zero value) is used for the topmost element.
| job | time |
| jab | year |
| jeb | season |
| jib | month |
| jub | day |
| jób | hour |
| jáb | minute |
| jéb | second |
| tob | human |
| tab | body |
| teb | head |
| tib | trunk |
| tub | arm |
| tób | leg |
| mor | universe |
| mar | sun |
| mer | planet |
| mir | earth |
| mur | moon |
    Individual elements can be further subdivided into a secondary classification by the addition of an ordinal vowel to the right of the first vowel:
| tub | arm |
| tuab | shoulder |
| tueb | upper arm |
| tuib | elbow |
| tuub | forearm |
| tuób | wrist |
| tuáb | hand |
| tuéb | fist |
| tuíb | palm |
| tuúb | finger |
| tuób | finger nail |
| tób | leg |
| tóab | hip |
| tóeb | thigh |
| tóib | knee |
| tóub | tibia |
| tóób | ankle |
| tóáb | foot |
| tóéb | talon |
| tóíb | heel |
| tóúb | toe |
| tóób | toe nail |
    A further, tertiary subdivision can be achieved by prefixing an ordinal vowel to the base:
| tuúb | finger |
| atuúb | thumb |
| etuúb | index |
| ituúb | middle finger |
| utuúb | ring finger |
| ótuúb | little finger |
    A convenient classification is possible by prefixing an ordinal vowel to the base without any primary or secondary enumeration:
| dob | state |
| adob | empire |
| edob | kingdom |
| idob | principality |
| udob | marquisate |
| ódob | earldom |
| ádob | barony |
| édob | duchy |
| ídob | dominion |
| údob | tribe |

## Forming concepts by compounding ("portmanteau")

    New concepts can be formed by compounding simple words. If the generic (final) consonant of the first word matches the classifier (initial) consonant of the following word or his consonantally homorganic with it, the latter is suppressed for convenience and ease of pronunciation:
| concept 1 | concept 2 | compound |
| dom city | mep road | domep boulevard |
| pat bird | tub arm | patub wing |
| teb head | bók pain | tebók headache |
| tep mind | book fatigue | tebook boredom |
    In cases where two ordinated nouns with the same classifier and generic consonants are combined, the vowels are combined:
| concept 1 | concept 2 | compound |
| mil water | mal gas | mial vapor |
| mel soil | mil water | meil mud |
    When you wish to form a word composed of words of the same consonantal classification, and the ordinal vowel is o, the o is replaced with the ordinal vowel of the determinant:
| concept 1 | concept 2 | compound |
| edob kingdom | deb leader | edeb king |
| udob principality | deb leader | udeb prince |
    Two singleton words often join by replacing the generic (final) consonant of the first word with the generic consonant of the second word, producing a melded concept somewhat like portmanteau words in English ("breakfast" + "lunch" "brunch").
| concept 1 | concept 2 | compound |
| tob man | nof cloth | tof clothes |
| tóáb foot | nov tissue | tóáv sock |
| teb head | nof cloth | tef hat |
| tib trunk | nof cloth) | tif vest |
| tób leg | nof cloth | tóf pants |
| tuób hand | nof cloth | tuóf glove |
| teib nose | nov tissue | teiv handkerchief |

## Making nouns and pronouns "feminine"

    The "feminine" counterpart of a noun or pronoun is obtained by post-yodifying the ordinal vowel (i.e. adding a y glide):
| masculine | feminine |
| taf suit | tàf dress/outfit |
| tóáv sock | tóâv stocking |
| tef pants | tèf skirt |
| néf carrying case | nêf purse |
| it he | ìt she |
| tob man | tòb woman |
| apet horse | apèt mare |
| tad husband | tèd wife |

## Codifying nuances of words

    There are several ways of deriving related words with slightly different nuances from the original word:
       The l extender is used for a comparatively stronger sense, while the r extender is used for an even stronger (strongest) sense:
| absolute | comparative | excessive |
| ga more | gla very much | gra too much |
| úzbaer squeeze | úzbaler pinch | úzbarer crush |
| buer give | buler grant | burer bestow |
| ika full | ikla packed | ikra overflowing |
| aker win | akler vanquish | akrer triumph |
| dier ask | diler beseech | direr demand |
       The post-yodifying y extender is used for what usually amounts to a diminutive connotation:
| normal | mitigated |
| vager want | vàger wish |
| fuf pipe | fùf tube |
| nas price | nàs cost |
| tep mind | tèp spirit |
| din story | dìn tale |
| cin image | cìn mark |
| ciun sign | ciùn signal |
| sen action | sèn act |
       Pre-yodification of a root vowel often imparts an intensified sense to the word. In any even, the normal and pre-yodified forms are usually related semantically. Compare:
| normal | intensified |
| bok malady | bók pain |
| pan motion | pán jump |
| beer to remain | béer to detain |
| aper to get on | áper to get up |
| pet animal | pét reptile |
| otata unholy | ótata diabolical |
| vua ugly | vúa dirty |
| go less | gó least |
| ga more | gá most |
| ze in the middle | zé though |
| ijer to begin | íjer to open |

## Noun-forming derivational suffixes
### Summary

    Here is a list of suffixes that are added to word bases to form derived nouns:
| suffix | meaning | base | derived noun |
| et | subdordinative | ted father | tedet son |
| an | deadjectival nominalizer (-itude, -ity, -hood, -ness) | iva happy | ivan happiness |
| en | deverbal nominalizer (-ing, -tion, -ance) | azvader to confirm | azvaden confirmation |
| on | general abstract nominalizer | c- to be | con thing |
| un | nominalizer of result | nú- to produce | núun product |
| at | person (-er) | óga young | ógat youngster |
| ut | agent (-ist) | ces- to build | cesut builder |
| tut | expert (-ologist) | mem earth | memtut geologist |
| tun | science (-ology) | mil water | miltun hydrology |
| in | doctrine (-ism) | tot god | totin theism |
| ar | instrument | p- to go | par vehicle |
| ir | machine | vís- to clean | vísir vacuum cleaner |
| ur | aparatus | magc- to burn | magcur stove |
| am | building | tel- to eat | telam restaurant |
| em | space | vab grass | vabem prairie |
| im | room | magél- to cook | magélim kitchen |
| án | collection | nac money | nacán fund |
| a | genetive/ablative case (of/from) | at I | ata my |
| u | dative/locative case (in/at/on/to) | tam house | tamu at home |
| i | pluralizer | dén book | déni books |
| ag | augmentative | tam house | tamag palace |
| àg | augmentative affective | tam house | tamàg nice big house |
| ág | augmentative pejorative | tam house | tamág big ugly house |
| og | diminutive | tam house | tamog hut |
| òg | diminutive affective | tam house | tamòg cottage |
| óg | diminutive pejorative | tam house | tamóg shack |
| ob | infantile | tob human being | tobob child |

### Details

    Following is a detailed description of the nominalizing derivations suffixes:

#### The -et suffix

       The -et suffix is used to form nouns of the same nature, lineage, or composition of a lesser importance:
| ted father | tedet son |
| fab tree | fabet bush |
| nac money | nacet change |
| fub branch | fubet shoot |
| táb grandfather | tábet grandson |

#### The -an suffix

       The -an suffix is used to form a noun of quality or state from an adjective or noun:
| ama hot | aman heat |
| iva beautiful | ivan beauty |
| fia good | fian goodness |
| ted father | tedan fatherhood |
| dat friend | datan friendship |
| odat enemy | odatan enmity |

#### The -at suffix

       The -at suffix is used to form the word for a person described by the adjective base.
| iktila drunk | iktilat a drunkard |
| iva happy | ivat a happy person |
| ofísa hypocritical | ofísat hypocrite |
| tuja dead | tujat dead person |

#### The -ut suffix

       The -ut suffix is used to form the agent for the action described by the verb base "one who does x" or the fabricator of something described by the noun base "one who makes x":
| kobier to steal | kobiut thief |
| tóáfser to make shoes | tóáfsut shoemaker |
| teaper to visit | teaput visitor |
| deuzer sing | deuzut singer |

#### The -tut suffix

       The -tut suffix is used to form the specialist -ologist or student of something:
| tun science | tut scientist |
| memtun geology | memtut geography |
| dad language | dadtut linguist |

#### The -ob suffix

       The -ob suffix is used to form the child or younger version of something:
| tob man | tobob child |
| apet horse | apetob pony |
| rapat lion | rapatob lion cub |
| tot god | totob son of god |

#### The -ar suffix

       The -ar, ir, or -ur suffix on a verb base is used for an instrument/tool, machine, or apparatus, respectively.
| álber to lift | álbur elevator |
| álber to lift | álbar lever |
| álbir to lift | álbir fork lift |
| víarer to sweep | víarar sweeper |
| ilújer to plug | ilújar faucet |
| kácanerto transform | kácanur transformer |
| drecer to write | drecar pencil |

#### The -en suffix

       The -en suffix is used on a verb base for the verbal noun -ing, -ence, -ment, -tion:
| ecer to exist | ecen existence |
| iber to receive | iben reception |
| béer to detain | béen detention |
| otamser to demolish | otamsen demolition |

#### The -un suffix

       The suffix -un is used on a verb base for the concrete result of an action:
| vyarer to sweep | vyarun sweepings |
| gorfer to tear | gorfun a tear, a rip |
| teacer to see | teacun view |
| zéfser to make glass jewelry | zéfsun glass jewelry |

#### The -án suffix

       The suffix -án is used on a noun base for collections or groupings:
| fab tree | fabán forest |
| cir machine | cirán machinery |
| meb mountain | mebán mountain range |
| tolar food dish | tolarán dishes |
| mep road | mepán network |
| aco hundred | acoán century |
| dún word | dúnán glossary |
| tam house | tamán block (of houses) |
| màr star | màrán constellation |

#### The -ag suffix

       The -ag suffix is used on a noun base for augmentatives "big ...":
| tom residence | tomag palace |
| mapil storm | mapilag tempest |
| mep road | mepag highway |

#### The -àg suffix

       The suffix -àg is used on a noun base for affectionate augmentatives "big old...":
| tam house | tamàg big old house |
| cim chair | cimàg big old chair |

#### The -ág suffix

       The suffix -ág is used on a noun base for pejorative augmentatives "big ugly...":
| apet horse | apetág nag |
| pem car | pemág jalopy |
| teb head | tebág blockhead |
| tob man | tobág brute |
| pot animal | potág beast |
| tòb woman | tòbág hag |

#### The -og suffix

       The suffix -og is used on a noun base for diminutives "little...":
| tam house | tamog cottage |
| dén book | dénog booklet |

#### The -òg suffix

       The suffix -òg is used on a noun base for affectionate diminutives "sweet little...":
| épet dog | épetòg doggie, pooch |
| tòb lady | tòbòg little old lady |
| tèbos kiss | tèbosòg peck |

#### The -óg suffix

       The suffix -óg on a noun base for pejorative diminutives "dirty little..."
| tebzan face | tebzanóg mug |
| tob man | tobóg wretched fellow |

#### The -in suffix

       The suffix -in is used on a word base for a philosophy or doctrine -ism:
| òtota godless | òtotin atheism |
| adoba republican | adobin republicanism |
| fob vegetable | fobin vegetarianism |
| ísfrana utilitarian | ísfranin utilitarianism |

## Adjective-forming derivational suffixes
### Summary

| suffix | meaning | base | derivative |
| -a | relating to | moj night | moja nocturnal |
| -aa | past participle | tuj- to die | tujaa dead (also: tuja) |
| -ea | present participle | abdab- to dominate | abdabea dominant |
| -èna | like | tobob child | tobobèna childish |
| -èa | tending to | da- to talk | daèa talkative |
| -oa | future participle | tuj- to die | tujoa moribund |
| -wua | -able, -ible | tel- to eat | telwua edible |
| -àa | -ous, -y, -ful, having | maf cloud | mafàa cloudy |
| -òa | -less | maf cloud | mafòa cloudless |
| -ika | -ful, full of | nac money | nacika rich |
| -uka | -less, devoid of | nac money | nacuka poor |
* Note: -àa/-òa is synonymous with -ika/-uka. The latter is a new addition to Unilingua author Agapoff's original grammar.

### Details
#### The -a suffix

       The ending -a is used to mean having to do with, in the state of. This is the most common way to form an adjective from a noun:
| noun | adjective |
| tej life | teja vital |
| tuj death | tuja mortal, dead |
| moj night | moja nocturnal |
| tob man | toba human |
| yab up | yaba upper |
    In Agapoff's original work on Unlingua, the termination a was also used to form the past passive participle of verbs (ota = unknown). In this work, the proposed termination for past passive participle is waa or more simply, wa (ex: otwa = unknown). See #Verbs for more on this.
| active infinitive | passive past participle | example |
| ter to know | twa known | Ca twa ad meir ce yaza. It was known that the earth is flat. |
| fiser to improve | fiswa improved | Fiswa nyun improved product |
| ifer to love | ifwa loved, beloved, dear | Ifwa ted... Dear Father... |

#### The -éna suffix

       The ending -éna on nouns is used to give the idea of like, having the nature of:
| tobob child | tobobéna childish, infantile |
| ted father | tedéna paternal, fatherly |
| bilíg cheese | bilígéna cheesy |

#### The -éa suffix

       The ending -éa is used on verb bases to mean tending to:
| tuser persuade | tuséa persuasive |
| oceser destroy | oceséa destructive |
| abdaber dominate | abdabéa dominating |
| daer talk | daéa talkative |

#### The -ea suffix

       The ending -ea is used on verb bases to form the present participle '-ing, -ant':
| tejer live | tejea living, alive |
| tujer die | tujea dying |
| abdaber dominate | abdabea dominant |

#### The -wua suffix

       The ending -wua is used on verb bases to mean able to be ...ed '-able':
| teler eat | telwua edible |
| teacer see | teacwua visible |
| tiler drink | tilwua potable |

#### The -àa suffix

       The ending -àa is used on noun bases to mean full of, having, carrying... '-ous, -y'. This comes from -à, meaning with. It is synonymous with -ika 'full', presented further on.
| meg rock | megàa rocky |
| miek sand | miekàa sandy |
| meb mountain | mebàa mountainous |

#### The -òa suffix

       The ending -òa is used on noun bases to mean devoid of, without, un-...ed. This comes from -ò, meaning without. It is synonymous with -uka 'empty', presented further on.
| taéb hair | taébòa hairless, bald |
| tec meaning | tecòa meaningless |
| toc feeling | tocòa numb |

#### The -ika suffix

       The ending -ika full is used on noun bases to mean full of '-ful, -ous, -y'. This suffix is synonymous with -àa.
| ilpaan wave | ilpaanika wavy |
| nas money | nasika rich |
| mil water | milika watery, aqueous |
| voz color | vozika colorful |

#### The -uka suffix

       The ending -uka empty is used on noun bases to mean the devoid of '-less'. This suffix is synonymous with -òa and the opposite of -ika and -àa.
| nas money | nasuka poor |
| voz color | vozuka colorless, bland |
| teuc taste | teucuka tasteless, insipid |
| nánut population | nánutuka unpopulated, deserted |

## Adverb-forming derivational suffixes
#### The -à suffix

       Change the adjectival ending -a to -à to form an adverb:
| yufa proud | yufà proudly |
| teacèa visible | teacèà visibly |
| uva sad | uvà sadly |
** Use -à on noun bases to form an adverbial postpositional phrase mean with...:
| ìfcion grace | ìfcionà with grace |
| at me | atà with me |
| úf pride | úfà with pride |

#### The -ò suffix

       Use -ò on a noun to mean without...:
| nas cost | nasò cost-free |
| seuc noise | seucò noiselessly |
| et you | etò without you |

#### The -è suffix

       Use -è on a noun to mean by, by way of, through, via...:
| pam plane | pamè by plane |
| ìt her | ìtè by her |
| ésag hard work | ésagè through hard work |
| Paris Paris | Parisè via Paris |

## Verb-forming derivational suffixes
### Summary

| ending | meaning |
| er | infinitive |
| cer | intransitive stative verb infinitive ("to be/become") |
| ser | transitive dynamic verb infinitive ("to do/make") |
| per | intransitive verb of motion infinitive ("to go") |
| ber | transitive verb of gesture infinitive ("to put") |

### Details
#### The -er suffix

       The suffix er is used on noun bases to form a verb infinitive.
| noun | verb |
| tej life | tejer to live |
| tuj death | tujer to die |
| túj sleep | tújer to sleep |
| ij beginning | ijer to begin |
| íj opening | íjer to open |
| tíj wakening | tíjer to waken |
| új closing | újer to close |
| tém residence | témer to reside |
| drén print | dréner to print |

#### The -cer and -ser suffixes

       The ending -cer be/become is used to create intransitive verbs from nouns and adjectives where the intransitive form contrasts significantly with the transitive form. If the adjective is a base, the -a ending is dropped unless 1) the resulting consonant combination would be difficult; or 2) the meaning is literal as opposed to metaphorical, in which case the dropped -a version is taken as metaphorical. For example, aga big becomes either agacer, meaning literally to become big, or agcer, meaning metaphorically to grow, as in Vab agce ga igà adjobu mamile. The grass grows faster when it rains.
       The ending -ser do/make/act/cause is employed to form transitive verbs. In a few cases like teacer/teaser, the opposition of -cer vs. -ser is semantic in nature. In these cases, -ser imparts a more dynamic meaning. In a few other cases, -ser is used to form the causative form of a verb, meaning to make/have/cause/let someone do something.
| adjective | intransitive verb | transitive verb |
| aga big | agacer to get big | agaser to magnify |
| aga big | agcer to grow | agser to grow |
| ígza sour | ígzacer to grow sour | ígzaser to make sour |
| íva free | ívcer to go free | ívser to liberate |
| teab eye | teacer to see | teaser to look |
| man light | mancer to shine | manser to illuminate |
| ábta vertical, upright | ábtacer to stand up | ábtaser to erect |
| ázta incumbant, reclined | áztacer to lie down | áztaser to lay down |
| óbta sitting, settled | óbtacer to sit down, settle | óbtaser to set down |

#### The -per and -per suffixes

   * The ending -per is used for intransitive verbs of motion (going).
   * The ending -ber is used for transitive verbs of gesture (putting):
| base | intransitive verb | transitive verb |
| áb up | áper to rise | áber to raise |
| ón apart | ónper to go apart | ónber to separate |
| ob off | oper to get off | ober to take off |
| eb at | eper to stop | eber to stop |
| ika full | ikper to fill up | ikber to fill up |

## Forming numbers
### Cardinal numeric adjectives

    The cardinal numeric adjectives 0-9 are formed from the ordinal vowels. The tens are formed with the extension consonant l, the hundreds with the consonant c, the thousands with r, the millions with ml, and the billions with mr.
    Numbers composed with aro (1,000), amlo (1,000,0000), and amro (1,000,000,000) retain the o and are spelled separately from the rest of the numbers with a space.
| number | numeral adjective |
| 0 | o zero |
| 1 | a one |
| 2 | e two |
| 3 | i three |
| 4 | u four |
| 5 | ó five |
| 6 | á six |
| 7 | é seven |
| 8 | í eight |
| 9 | ú nine |
| 10 | alo ten |
| 11 | ala eleven |
| 12 | ale twelve |
| 13 | ali thirteen |
| 14 | alu fourteen |
| 15 | aló fifteen |
| 20 | elo twenty |
| 21 | ela twenty-one |
| 22 | ele twenty-two |
| 30 | ilo thirty |
| 31 | ila thirty-one |
| 100 | aco one hundred |
| 101 | aca one hundred one |
| 123 | aceli one hundred twenty-three |
| 200 | eco two hundred |
| 1000 | aro one thousand |
| 1089 | aro ílú |
| 2348 | ero iculí |
| 10000 | aloro ten thousand |
| 12487 | aleru ílé |
| 1000000 | amlo one million |
| 6000000 | ámlo |
| 6058720 | ámlo ólíro écelo |

### Ordinal numeric adjectives

    The ordinal numeric adjectives are formed by adding -a to the cardinal number:
| cardinal | ordinal |
| a 1 | aa first |
| e 2 | ea second |
| i 3 | ia third |
| alo 10 | aloa tenth |
| aci 103 | acia one hundred third (pron: a-CI-a) |

### Ordinal numeric substantives

    When ordinal numbers are used substantively, the letter t is appended for persons and the letter c for things:
| English | Mirad |
| The first shall be last. | Aati co ujnati. |
| The second in the series. | Eec anána. |

### Collective numeric substantives

    Collective (or: multiplicative) substantives of the cardinal numbers are formed by adding on.
| cardinal | collective |
| a one | aon single/whole/unit/solo |
| e two | eon double/couple/pair/duo/twosome |
| i three | ion triple/trio/threesome |
| u four | uon quadruple/foursome/quartet |
| ó five | óon quintuple |
| é seven | éon sevenfold |
| é seven | jubéon week |
| alo ten | alon tenfold |
| alo ten | jabalon decade |
| ale twelve | aleon dozen |
| aco hundred | acon hundredfold |
| aco hundred | aconè percent |
| aco hundred | jabacon century |
| aro thousand | aron thousandfold |
| aro thousand | aroni thousands |

### Collective numeric prefixes

    Prefixes having a collective (or: multiplicative) numeric meaning are expressed as:
| cardinal | collective | example |
| a one | an- single, mono-, uni | anzúc unicycle |
| e two | en- double, bi-, di-, duo- | enzúc bicycle |
| i three | in- triple, tri- | inzúc tricycle |
| u four | un- quadruple, quad-, tetra- | unkum tetrahedron |
| ó five | ón- quintuple, penta- | óngun pentagon |
| alo ten | alon- tenfold, deca- | alonjab decade |
| aco hundred | acon- hundredfold, hecato-, cent- | aconjab century |
| aro thousand | aron- thousandfold, kilo- | aronkín kiloliter |

### Fractional numeric substantives

    Fractional numeric substantives are formed by adding on to the corresponding fractional numeral. The on is dropped in prefixed forms of the fractions:
| cardinal | fraction | prefix | example |
| a one | àon unit, whole | à- holo- | àcin hologram |
| e two | èon half | è- semi-, demi- | ètot demigod |
| i three | ìon third | ì- terci- | ìgana terciform |
| u four | ùon quarter | ù- quatri- | ùser to quarter |
| alo ten | alòon tenth | alò- deci- | alòser to decimate |
| aco hundred | acòon hundredth | acò- centi- | acònog centrigrade |
| aro thousand | aròon thousandth | arò- milli- | aròkík milligram |

### Frequentative numeric adverbs

    Adverbs of frequency are formed with the root jig, meaning frequency, rate:
| cardinal | frequency |
| o zero | ojigu never |
| a one | ajigu once |
| e two | ejigu twice |
| i three | ijigu thrice, three times |
| co hundred | acojigu a hundred times |
| od what | odjigu? how often, at what rate? |
| ge same | gejigu at the same rate, as often |
| ga more | gajigu more often |
| go less | gojigu less often |
| ud this | udjigu this often |
| id that | idjigu that often |
| gla much | glajigu very often |
| glo little | glojigu infrequently |
| glà rather | glàjigu rather often |

### Numeric adjectives of order or rank

    nap order, rank
| cardinal | order |
| o zero | onapa zeroth |
| a one | anapa primary, first, original |
| e two | enapa secondary, second-ranking |
| i three | inapa tertiary, third-ranking |
| u four | unapa quaternary, fourth-ranking |
| za front | zanapa front-ranking, ahead |
| zo back | zonapa behind, trailing |
| ja before | janapa former, foregoing |
| jo after | jonapa next, following |
| ij beginning | ijnapa first, original |
| uj end | ujnapa last, final |
| lo un- | lonapa random, unordered |

### Numeric adjectives of degree

    nog degree, grade, stage
| cardinal | degree |
| a one | anoga primary |
| e two | enoga secondary |
| i three | inoga tertiary |
| u four | unoga quaternary |

### Numeric adjectives of base or bit

    Add -na:
| cardinal | base | grouping |
| o zero | ona zero-based | onet zero, null |
| a one | ana unary, only | anet unit |
| e two | ena binary | enet bit |
| i three | ina ternary | |
| u four | una quaternary | |
| ú eight | úna octal | únet octet, byte |
| alo ten | alona decimal | |
| alé sixteen | aléna hexadecimal | alénet 16-bit byte |

### Numeric prefixes

    If cardinal numeric morphemes are used as prefixes, -n is added, unless the base to which it is being attached already begins with that letter:
| root | numeric adjective |
| kunid edge | enkunida double-edged |
| nid line | anida single-lined |
| nag dimension | enaga two-dimenesional |
| nég space | enéga double-spaced |
| tep mind | antepa single-minded |
| neg level | enega split-level |
| mep way | anmepa one-way |
| voz color | anvoza monochrome |
| can form | ancana uniform |
| tooc sex | entoocifa bisexual |
| tot god | antotina monotheistic |
| izan direction | enizana bidirectional |

### Numeric Expressions
#### Distance/size measurements (zák = meter)

    (zág is width, ág is length, ag is size, íban is distance, ábag is height, óbag is depth, gán is girth):
| measurement | example |
| zák meter | It ca á záki íb. He was 5 meters away. |
| arozák kilometer | Ce eli arozáki bú dom. It is 23 km. to (until) the city. |
| aroyzák millimeter | Cizo alo aroyzáka nid. Draw a ten mm. line. |
| acozák centimeter | Odgan acoyzáki ága ce? How many cm. long is it? |

#### Weight measurements (kík = gram)

    (kín is weight, kíncer is to weigh):
| measurement | example |
| kík gram | Odgan kíki id kínce? How many grams does that weigh? |
| arokík kilogram | At vage u arokíki vâba. I want five kg. of grain. |
| aròkík milligram | Mez kínce e aròkíki. The crystal weighs two milligrams. |

#### Volume measurements (nék = liter)

    (néd is volume):
| measurement | example |
| nék liter | Odganu néki it ébe? How many liters does it hold? |
| aronék kiloliter | At vage u aronéki vâba. I want five kilos of grain. |
| arònék milliliter | Ézbo e arònéki mila. Insert two ml. of water. |

#### Math expressions

    (gaber to add, gober to substract, garer to multiply, gorer to divide, gecer to equal):
| Mirad | English |
| A gab a gece e. | One plus one equals two. |
| U gob a gece i. | Four minus 1 equals three. |
| E gar u gece ó. | Two times four equals eight. |
| Alo gor e gece á. | Ten divided by two equals five. |
| E veg e gece u. | Two to the second power equals four. |
| E nod u. | Two point five (2.5) |
| U gab a èon or u a èonà | 5 1/2 |

#### Clock time expressions ( jób = hour)

    The international 24-hour clock is used.
| Mirad | English |
| Odjób ce? | What time is it? (lit: Which hour is [it]?) |
| Ce a jób. | It's one o'clock. |
| Ce ali jób alá. | It's 1:15 PM. |
| Ce i jób ilo. | It's 3:30 AM. |
| Ce á jób gob alo. | It's ten 'til five. (lit: five hours minus ten) |

#### Calendar expressions

| Unilingua | English |
| Od ce uda jud? | What's today's date? |
| Udjub ce alá jiub aroúcúli. | Today is 16 April 1993. |
| Ted puo jo i jubi. | Father will arrive in two days. |
| Nunam íjwe yada juebu. | The store opens on Mondays. |
| Nunam íjwo zoa juebu. | The store opens on Monday (next). |
| Zajibu mamila gá ádjoba. | Last month it rained the most ever. |
| Ju zajub! | Until tomorrow! |
| Gla dropeki swa je jabi aroúco. | There were many wars during the 1900s. |
| Zoyejubánu juebu at so ivsej. | On monday of next week I will give a party. |

#### Age expressions (jag = age)

| Mirad | English |
| Odjaga et ce? | How old are you? |
| At ce ele jaga. | I am 22 years old. |
| At upta úlo jaga tob. | I met a 90-year-old man. |

## Forming chemical element names

    To form words for chemical elements, use the following method: The first letter is the ordinal vowel for the number of electrons. The next letters are:
* m for metals
* mc for nonmetals
* al for gases
* il for liquids
| electron count | type | Mirad English |
| 47 | metal | ulém silver |
| 13 | metal | alim aluminum |
| 26 | metal | elám iron |
| 15 | nonmetal | elómc phosphorus |
| 6 | nonmetal | ámc carbon |
| 1 | nonmetal gas | amc hydrogen |
| 7 | nonmetal gas | émcal azote |
| 8 | nonmetal gas | ímcal oxygen |
| 80 | metal liquid | ílomil mercury |

## Codifyng new words based on mnemonics and analogy

    Sometimes a word or group of words can have a connection with the meaning of a derived word. Such words are formed from this derived word by changing the generic final root consonant or sometimes other consonants of this word:
| teub mouth | < teb head |
| teud utterance | d say |
| teuz voice | z precious/art,etc. |
| deuz song | d speak/write |
| taéb hair | tab human body |
| faéb leaf | fab tree |
| vocaéb petal | voc flower |
| potaéb mane | pot animal |
| pataéb feather | pat bird |
| petaéb fur | pet land animal |
| upetaéb fleece | upet sheep |
| pitaéb fin | pit fish |
| taób skin | tab human body |
| taóf leather | nof cloth |
| faób bark | fab tree |
| fáób rind | fáb fruit |
| pitaób scales | pit fish |
| petaób hide, pelt | pet animal |
| cim chair | bimer to sit |
| cum bed | bumer to lie |
| cem table | bemer to sit down at the table |
| teacer to see | ceacer to appear beacer to keep watch neacer to target teaper to visit izeacer to show váleacer to check óneater to discern ágeacer to contemplate izeader to indicate abeacer to survey ijeacer to notice teader to witness |

## Forming new words with prefixation

    Prefixed elements (sometimes more than one) can be used to form new concepts related to the root word.
Here are examples where morphemes are joined to der to say:
| prefixed morpheme | derived concept |
| ja before | jader to predict |
| já early | jáder to warn |
| ja ve before maybe | javeder to guess |
| jo after | joder to reply |
| eg again | egder to repeat |
| oz weak | ozder to whisper/hint |
| az strong | azder to insist |
| óz out | ózder to express |
| zí all around | zíder to broadcast |
| uj end | ujder to conclude |
| ka- find | kader to reveal/admit/confess |
| ko- hide | koder to keep secret/deny |
| fi well | fider to eulogize/bless |
| fu poorly | fuder to curse/damn |
| fia good | fiader to praise |
| fua bad | fuader to malign |
| via beautiful | viader to compliment |
| vua ugly | vuader to malign |
| fri wonderful | frider to flatter |
| fru terrible | fruder to insult |
| evfia whether good | evfiader to critique |
| av for | avder to favor |
| ov against | ovder to object/oppose |
| ava favorable | avader to side with |
| ova opposed | ovader to contradict |
| av od for what | avoder to question |
| va veg yes can | vavegder to permit |
| vo veg no can | vovegder to prohibit |
| vo va no yes | vovader to contest |
| az ov strong against | azovder to protest |
| va yes | vader to affirm/decide |
| ve maybe | veder to speculate |
| vo no | voder to deny |
| fiva good yes | fivader to approve |
| o fi va not good yes | ofivader to disapprove |
| fu va bad yes | fuvader to condemn |
| az va strong yes | fivader to confirm |
| val certainty | valder to certify |
| vac assurance | vacder to assure |
| vag want | vagder to mean/express desire |
| ván truth | váder to swear |
| vón falsehood | vóder to lie |
| áva innocent | ávader to vindicate |
| óva guilty | óvader to indict |
| áva innocent | ávder to thank |
| óva guilty | óvder to blame |
| íva free | ívader to acquit |
| íva free | ívder to forgive |
| év judgement | évder to judge |
| éb between | ébder to discuss |
| ók surprise | ókder to improvisate |
| ág long | ágder to ramble |
| óg short | ógder to summarize |
| iva happy | ivader to thank |
| iva happy | ivder to congratulate |
| uva sad | uvder to complain |
| uva sad | uvader to apologize |
| jo uva after sad | jouvder to regret/mourn |
| ivcan merriment | ivcder to joke |
| fu iva bad happy | fuivader to mock |
| ók surprise | ókder to improvisate |
| aj past | ajder to evoke |
| oj future | ojder to promise |
| naz value | nazder to evaluate |
| ók surprise | ókder to improvisate |
| dún name | dúnder to nominate |
| kua lateral | kuder to remark (aside) |
| kia sloped | kider to hint |
| dún name | dúnder to nominate |
| gra too much | grader to exaggerate |
| gro too little | groder to underplay |
| gan quantity | gander to quantify |
| teab eye | teader to testify |
| cin picture | cinder to describe |
| kóa fixed | kóder to insist |
| o not | oder to keep silent |
| kebi choice | kebider to vote |
| tata holy | tatader to bless/sanctify |
| fún fear | fúnder to express fear |
| vates belief | vatesder to affirm |
| vetes doubt | vetesder to question/doubt |
| vika admiration | vikader to express admiration |
| fíl courage | fílder to encourage |
| ofíl not courage | ofílder to discourage |
| ga more | gader to say more/go on |
| ge equal | geder to agree |
| oge not same | ogeder to disagree |
| ék risk | ékder to dare say |
| ég obligation | égder to be obliged to say |
| ek play | ekder to pretend |
| iz straight | izder to say frankly |
| uz crooked | uzder to beat around the bushes/equivocate |

## Forming new adjectival concepts with compounding

    New adjectival concepts can be readily formed by compounding a noun or other rootword with an existing root adjective:
| tep intellect | aza strong | tepaza smart |
| tep intellect | oza weak | tepoza dumb |
| vag will | aza strong | vagaza strong-willed |
| vag will | oza weak | vagoza weak-willed |
| vag will | ána together | vagána consensual |
| vag will | óna apart | vagóna non-consensual |
| veg possibility | aza strong | vegaza likely |
| veg possibility | oza weak | vegoza unlikely |
| tep intellect | kía heavy | tepkía serious |
| tep intellect | kúa light | tepkúa light-hearted |
| tep intellect | káa variable | tepkáa scatter-brained |
| tep intellect | kóa fixed | tepkóa attentive |
| tep intellect | záa wide | tepzáa fair-minded |
| tep intellect | zóa narrow | tepzóa narrow-minded |
| tep intellect | íja open | tepíja open-minded |
| tep intellect | úja closed | tepúja close-minded |
| tep intellect | iga fast | tepiga quick-witted |
| tep intellect | uga slow | tepuga retarded |
| tep intellect | ána together | tepána like-minded |
| tep intellect | óna apart | tepóna dissenting |
| top spirit | íga hard | topíga cruel |
| top spirit | úga soft | topúga leninent |
| top spirit | vaa positive | topvaa optimistic |
| top spirit | voa negative | topvoa pessimistic |
| top spirit | ába high | topába up-beat |
| top spirit | óba low | topóba down-beat |
| top spirit | iva happy | topiva jolly |
| top spirit | uva sad | topuva melancholy |
| nac money | ika full | nasika rich |
| nac money | uka empty | nasuka poor |
| áb up | ága long | ábága tall |
| ób down | ága long | óbága deep |
| áb up | óga short | ábóga short (vertically) |
| ób down | óga short | óbóga shallow |
| job time | ága long | jobága long (duration) |
| job time | óga short | jobóga short (duration) |
| mep way | iza straight | mepiza direct |
| mep way | uza crooked | mepuza convoluted |
| váb rule | aza strong | vábaza strict |
| váb rule | oza weak | váboza lax |
| dab government | ava for | dabava pro-government |
| dab government | ova against | dabova anti-government |

## Word Classifiers

    The following are common combinatory morphemes used to distinguish or classify entities. Many of them are abbreviated forms. If you were to produce a list of word rhyming with any of these morphemes, you would have a list of words that all fit within a similar taxonomic category. For example, all Unilingua words ending in pyot refer to wild animals. All those ending in il are liquids.
| classifier | meaning |
| am | building |
| em | place |
| im | room |
| ém | container |
| ut | agent |
| j | time |
| jig | rate |
| nog | degree |
| bén | manner |
| caun | kind |
| can | shape |
| gan | quantity |
| pat | bird |
| pet | land animal |
| pót | wild animal |
| pét | reptile |
| pelt | insect |
| peit | amphibian |
| piit | crustacean |
| pit | fish |
| fab | tree |
| fáb | fruit |
| vob | plant |
| vab | grass |
| vol | vegetable |
| voc | flower |
| voz | color |
| ar | instrument |
| par | vehicle |
| ir | machine |
| ur | motor |
| er | verb |
| ez | gem |
| tun | science |
| tut | scientist |
| il | liquid |
| el | food |
| él | semi-solid |
| ol | solid |
| of | material |
| uf | cylinder |
| án | collective |
| ber | put |
| per | go |
| cer | be |
| ser | do |
| un | result |
| en | process |
| an | state |
| on | abstract thing |
| in | doctrine |
| ub | apendage |
| eb | head |
| euz | sound |
| dren | document |
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