OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Models and Theories in Human-Computer Interaction/GOMS & its drawbacks
### Analysis of GOMS model

GOMS basically, “a model of user performance that also centers around user goals and actions is the goals, operators, methods, and selection rules (GOMS) model developed by Card, Moran, and Newell (1983) and extended by Kieras (1988a).”
Goals are what the user is trying to accomplish in a given task for example unlocking a cell phone screen. To accomplish this goal using the ‘click/press key’ would be the example of operator. Methods are sequences of operators and sub-goals that accomplish a goal for example to set up a password steps may include the following steps 1. Select lock screen setting, 2. Select screen lock option, 3. Entering the old PIN, 4. Choosing an option among None/ Swipe/ Face Unlock/ Pattern/ PIN/ Password, 5. Set new desired password option, 6. Confirming new password, 7. Click done button. Selection rules implies which method should be picked to satisfy a particular goal, as there are different options to reach the same goal. The user can select any option among None, Swipe, Face Unlock, Pattern, PIN and Password depending upon their desired security level and knowledge. GOMS model is very practical in the case where the user have many ways to accomplish the same goal.
However “evaluation of the GOMS structure reveals problems such as too many methods for accomplishing a goal, similar goals supported by inconsistent methods, and methods that rely too heavily on long-term memory (e.g., see Gong & Kieras, 1994).” GOMS model also failed to address user behavior, biological, or organizational factors into account.
# Models and Theories in Human-Computer Interaction/GOMS and Human Nature
### GOMS and Humans (Steven Campbell)

People are creatures of habit, it's very true that our smart phones (for example) are very customizable and provide great latitude in the ability to change the makeup and positioning of how to do 'X' task, but people do like at least some of what they have used before. Once they have started using a specific key setup on a phone they are probably going to continue to use it. In this case Fitt's Law dealing with linear tasks where the relationship between the size of the control element and the time to connect with that target.
However given that we are in an era where swiping, gesture based, and other input mechanisms are being made available, a task based analysis via GOMS provides the type of analysis needed as it breaks actions down to a user case style format. Looking at the actions taken from the perspective of what are the goals we need to accomplish, what are the steps to that goals, and is the sequence we perform those actions/step to reach the goal(s).
Although GOMS falls short in the user unpredictability and only assess usability (leaving functionality out of the picture).
# Models and Theories in Human-Computer Interaction/Examining System of Systems
### ANT: A Tool for Exploring Systems of Systems (Harold Kevin Glover)

At its core, Actor-Network Theory (ANT) is a constructivist theory, where a single system is examined as a set of atomic subsystems.
Think of our own bodies as a machine, or a system, that moves to our will. We tend to think of ourselves as a whole, but the human body consists of many different actors and relationships occurring simultaneously. The sensory organs communicate with the brain through signals, blood pumps oxygen throughout the body, other organs extract nutrients from food and process waste, and so on. It is a very complicated system, but we think about it as a whole. In fact, we only notice the individual parts once something goes wrong, like joint pain or a stomachache; the illusion of the whole breaks, and we are aware of the multiple systems at work.
ANT seeks to expose these invisible relationships that are often overlooked. Like our bodies, technology is not a homogenous composition of our world, but it is a heterogeneous network of interactions. Even when typing this essay, I am not always aware of the keyword or my fingers hitting the correct keys, but it would be remiss to dismiss this interaction. In this situation, the line between human and non-human actors are blurred, as the keyboard becomes an extension of the human body. The way we view our own body and the way we integrate with our surrounding technology illustrates the characteristics of ANT not in the abstract, but as a natural occurring event.
Actor-network theory suggests that technological development accounts for social context; both human and non-human actors are part of the design negotiations; each share a symbiotic relationship and influence each other.
It is important to understand that the actor-network theory is descriptive rather than explanatory in nature. It is a tool for examining the nuanced atomic systems occurring within interactions. However, that does not make it less valuable for design; in fact, it can be considered fundamental. We need to be conscious of the connections between actors, both human and non-human, when developing new systems of interaction.
# Models and Theories in Human-Computer Interaction/GOMS Useful but Imperfect
## GOMS Useful but Imperfect (Alex Whigham)

The GOMS model presented in chapter 4 of the textbook introduced useful tools to analyze the efficiency of a system or interface. The biggest benefit of the GOMS model is in the specificity of the tasks or goals the interface can accomplish, the actions or operations that can be used to complete the tasks, and a user's performance and efficiency while completing these actions and tasks. As a web developer, I create new web pages in which users have to perform data entry and view and understand how the data relates. The GOMS model would be a great way to understand what the users need to know before using the website so that I could write a help page to ensure new or inexperienced users could use the interface efficiently. However, the GOMS model would be difficult to use because it assumes the users are experts and as I am creating new web pages, all of my users are beginners. In this case I must create the interface in a way that is intuitive and easy for users to find which operations need to be performed to accomplish their goals. The GOMS model also doesn't account for a users impatience or frustration. For example, if a web page displays an abundant amount of data and has a longer load time, users can lose focus if they frequently visit the page and wait for it to load. In this case the user's ability to perform the same task would vary over time which is often the case with my website which manipulates and displays information in a database. While the GOMS method does provide useful information on the usability of interfaces and could be used in the analysis of my web pages, it doesn't provide a complete view of the system.
# Models and Theories in Human-Computer Interaction/Fitts' Law in Touch Screen Age

Fitts’ Law in Touch Screen Age.
Fitts’ law( Fitts, 1954) states that MT=a+ b × log2(D / W + 1). This formula deals with target size, movement time, target distance, etc. Those are all essential elements and aspects that should be considered in terms of the design of touch screen interfaces.
This law reminds me a project I did last semester in another HCI design class. I designed an interface for an iphone application. I didn’t realize the important of the size and position of the buttons until I did two user tests. I found that the farther the button away of the main part of this interface, the more difficult and more time consuming for testers to find this button; at the same time, if the button is too small for testers to click and touch, the error rate will be increase.
Then I did some research saying that the Apple’s iPhone Human Interface Guidelines recommends a minimum target size of 44 pixels wide 44 pixels tall [1]. Additionally, according to Landauer and Nachbar’s study, it us clear that there is a log linear relation that can be used to evaluate whether a keypad is successful or not based on participants’ performance [2].
In my opinion, Fitts’ Law can be a very valuable formula and ruler for touch screen interface design in terms of button size and position.
References:
1. http://www.smashingmagazine.com 2. T.K. Landauer and D.W.Nachbar. “Selection From Alphabetio and Numerio Menu Trees Using A Touch Screen: Breadth, Depth, and Width.” In CHI’ 85 Proceedings. April 1985. pp 74-75.
# Models and Theories in Human-Computer Interaction/Fitts Law for Cell Phone Keyboards

Fitts law has become more and more important as new products are developed and especially new user interfaces requiring touch interaction. Fitts law is very important in considering the usability of mobile keyboards. There are many keys that need to fit on a small screen, all within close proximity to each other. The law becomes important when determining how far apart keys should be and where they are located. We can see that Apple has done many studies considering this law when creating their keyboards. On the iPad, users can split the keyboard into two to make it easier to type holding the iPad in both hands. On the iPhone, we can see that the keyboard can be changed to view more characters and the keyboard adjusts when just inputing numbers to make it easier to select keys.
Not too long ago, before smart phones, we had cell phones with physical keys that needed to be pressed and even had keys that needed to be pressed multiple times to get certain characters. Although, these buttons took more time to type with than single character buttons the arrangement of them seemed to fit well for most people and many could write text messages fairly quickly with them. If Fitts law isn't taken into consideration we would have a very hard time using our mobile keyboards and I'm sure we have all seen touch interfaces that provide very difficult to use keyboards.
# Middle School Science

This Wikibook is dedicated to creating a free, open-source science textbook replacement for Middle School Science classes. Each category has information explained in easy-to-understand terms with a number of examples for each concept, as well as quizzes, worksheets, and labs and activities that are based from the text.
* Introduction and Information
* Subjects
** Biology
** Chemistry
** Physics
** Ecology
** Geology
* Glossary
# Middle School Science/Biology
## Biology

* Life
* Life Classification
** Bacteria
** Protists
** Fungi
** Plants
** Animals
* Organization of Life
** Cells
*** Organelles
**** Nucleus
** Cellular Organization
*** Tissue
*** Organs
*** Organ Systems
# Middle School Science/Biology/Life Classification

Life Classification

## Concept

Lifeforms (organisms) are classified into groups to create a hierarchy of life.
The hierarchy of life has many divisions in it. The basic divisions are as follows:
* Domain
** Kingdom
*** Phylum
**** Class
***** Order
****** Family
******* Genus
******** Species

## Examples
### The Five Kingdoms

All life can be classified under one of five kingdoms.
* Kingdom: Bacteria
* Kingdom: Protista (Protists)
* Kingdom: Fungi
* Kingdom: Plantae (Plants)
* Kingdom: Animalia (Animals)

### Classification of Humans

Humans are living things and therefore can be classified into this hierarchy.
'Human Classification':
* Kingdom: Animilia (animals)
** Phylum: Chordata (animals with a vertebrate)
*** Class: Mammalia (mammals)
**** Order: Primates
***** Family: Hominidae (human-like)
****** Genus: Homo
******* Species: sapiens
Scientifically, the human species is identified as Homo sapiens.

## Expository Text

Think of all the different animals that you can. Make a list of all the ones that you know about--cats, dogs, elephants, giraffes, lions, tigers, bears, bugs. Now add to the list all of the plants that you can think of--pine trees, palm trees, carrots, apples trees, lettuce, cactus, grass. Combining these will create a long list of things is hard to look at and even harder to study from. There are more than 1.5 million species of organisms that have been identified by scientists. In order to study all of these organisms, scientists have put them into different categories, in other words, they classify them.
# Middle School Science/Glossary

A,B,C,D,E,F,G,H,I,J,K,L,M,N,O,P,Q,R,S,T,U,V,W,X,Y,Z
# Middle School Science/Biology/Nucleus

It is the central part of a living cell.It is spherical and has nucleoplasm surrounded by the nuclear membrane.It has few pores The nucleus has chormatin reticulum and a nucleolus.
# Middle School Science/Glossary/C
## C

* Classify: Grouping into a category based on characteristics of something.
* Characteristic: The physical features of something.
* Cell: The smallest unit in which the processes of life are carried on.
# Middle School Science/Glossary/H
## H

* Hierarchy: A system of organization based on specific factors.
# Middle School Science/Biology/Bacteria

Biology :
| Bacteria ||
| Suggested Previous Concepts Life Classification | Suggested Next Concepts Protists |

## Concept

Bacteria are most widely distributed organisms. These are unicellular micro-organisms. A scientist named Leeuwenhoek discovered bacteria in 1677 for the first time. Later, Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch worked on them. This was a milestone in the history of biology and medicine. They discovered that bacteria produce many harmful diseases in man and animals. Bacteria(Singular is bacterium) range from 1um to 10um in length and from 0.2um to to 1 um in width. Bacteria can be observed under light microscope. The habitat of bateria is not specific. They are found everywhere, in air, water, living as well as dead bodies of organisms and even in glaciers and hot springs

## Kinds Of Bacteria

On the basis of various shapes and forms, bacteria are divided into four types. First is Cocci(Singular Coccus) and means rounded. The second is Bacilli(Singular Bacillus) which is rod-like. The third one is Spirilla(Singular Spirillium) and means spiral shaped and the last is Vibrios( Singular Vibrion) which means comma shaped.
# Middle School Science/Glossary/O
## O

* Organism: A single living being, usually made up of organ systems.
* Organ: A group of different kinds of tissue working together to perform a specific function within an organism.
* Organ System: A group of organs that all work together to carry on a specific function within an organism.
# Pinyin/Essay

Search Pinyin essay
# Pinyin/Equipment

See also

## Noun

* equipment is the things that are needed for a particular purpose or activity, such as electrical equipment and computer equipment.
** shehbeih shih tehdihng muhdih huoh huordohng suooxu d dong'xi, rur diahnqih her diahnnaao shehbeih.
# Pinyin/Essential

See also
# Pinyin/Equal

See also
# Pinyin/Enzyme

Enzymes are molecules that accelerate, or catalyze, chemical reactions. In these reactions, the molecules at the beginning of the process are called substrates and the enzyme converts these into different molecules, called products. Almost all metabolic processes in the cell need enzymes in order to occur at rates fast enough to sustain life. The set of enzymes made in a cell determines which metabolic pathways occur in that cell. The study of enzymes is called enzymology.
Méisù shì yīzhǒng fēnzǐ, yòngyǐ cùjìn huò cuīhuà huàxué fǎnyìng. Fǎnyìng chūqī de fēnzǐ chēngwéi dǐcéng wùzhì, ránhòu zhuǎnhuà wéi bùtóng de fēnzǐ, jiàozuò chǎnpǐn. Jīhū suǒyǒu xìbāo de xīnchéndàixiè dōu xūyào méisù cuīhuà, yǐ wéichí shēngmìng. Xìbāo de méisù juédìng xīnchéndàixiè de fāngshì. Méisù de yánjiū chēngwéi méisùxué.
# Pinyin/Escape

See also
# Nanotechnology
## Background

Check this out: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Gthbjjvotug
Really helpful/interesting and if you watch it, you're 1/4 done with our sts hw for next week :)
For Wed. 11/8/2011 -- Annie drafts, Morgan adds
[General introduction to nanotechnology as a field.]
[Our focus: it's uses and how they impact our health.]
Toxicity and environmental factors

# Health
## Nanomedicine

"Nanomedicine is the medical application of nanotechnology." (wiki)
For Wed. 11/8/2011 -- Morgan drafts
[Nanoparticples - injecting with cancer therapy medicine - attack specific tumor]
[Main idea: what nanoparticles will do to our bodies if left there]
[Main fear: so small they will get in between cell walls. So small that they could build up in areas we don't want.]

## Other Products

For Wed. 11/8/2011 -- Andrew looks up nanoparticles in specific products (focus on products out there that we buy and use without thinking about it, but they have impacts)
[Everyday things that have nanoparticles in them (sunscreen)]

# Relevant Social Groups

Andrew start focus here http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/SPT/v8n2/schummer.html http://www.nature.com/nnano/journal/v6/n10/full/nnano.2011.169.html
Center for Nanomedicine (pro-nanomedicine)
# Neuroimaging Data Processing/Data/Storage

* Filetypes
* Organization
# Neuroimaging Data Processing/Data/Storage/Filetypes

This section introduces the different formats used for datasets and how to convert them into each other. Normally, image data are stored in a data file as either 8- or 16-bit integers. Besides the raw image data, there is usually a metadata along with to provide the descriptive information about the subject, type of image, imaging parameters as well as image dimensions. In the history of neuroimaging there have been several different image formats playing important roles. In the following sections, three major kinds of formats are going to be discussed in detail.
* DICOM
* NIfTI
* AFNI
* GIfTI
# Neuroimaging Data Processing/Data/Storage/Filetypes/DICOM
## Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine (DICOM)

Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine (DICOM) is a standard of medical images and it normally severs to the output file format of AMI scanners. DICOM generally stores each slice as a separate file; these files are conventially named using numbers reflecting the slice number. Instead of separating the storage of raw image and metadata into two files, DICOM format keeps them together in one file, and the extraction of header informaiton is possible by special software. DICOM image data can be compressed to reduce the image size. Files can be compressed using lossy or lossless variants of the JPEG format, as well as a lossless Run-Length Encoding format, and the compression informaiton can be found in the header referring to "Transfer Syntax Unique Identification". Although DICOM is the standard for MRI scanners, it can't be used directly by most analysis softwares because of its slice storage form consuming huge space. So normally the DICOM format needs to be converted to other analysis format such as the popular NIfTI file format. DCM2NII is one of the software capable to convert images from the DICOM to NIfTI format used by FSL, SPM, MRIcron and many other brain imaging analysis tools. DCM2NII is a stand-alone program that is distributed with MRIcron, and it is compatible to Windows, Linux x86, Mac OSX PPC and Mac OSX x86.

## Reference

1. Wiki-DICOM
2. http://www.mccauslandcenter.sc.edu/mricro/dicom/
3. http://www.mccauslandcenter.sc.edu/mricro/mricron/dcm2nii.html
# Neuroimaging Data Processing/Coregistration
## Coregistration

Generally, coregistration refers to the spatial alignment of a series of images, either between two or among more image volumes. Methodologically, this overlaps with Realignment and Normalization . However, what is discussed in this section is the coregistration of functional and structural images.
If the aim is to study how functional activations of a subject overlay to individual's own anatomy, functional and structural images of the same brain should be aligned together. However, the difference between the functional and structural images from the same brain is not trivial. By contrast to the high-resolution structural images with clear region boundary contours, functional images are normally blurry and suffered from geometric and intensity distortions. The basic idea regarding coregistration herein is similar to the realignment, i.e. defining a cost function with the goal to minimize the differences on image parameters among images. However, because of distortions on functional images, the rigid-body transformation with six parameters may be not enough to correct. Depending on the complexity of distortions, either a nine-parameter transformation with another three additional parameters accounting for scaling differences on x-, y- or z- axes or even more sophisticated algorithms could be used to quantify the cost function. Meanwhile, as a result of the different contrasts between functional and structural images, the mutual information is more suitable to act as cost function than the sum of squared differences.

## Implementation
#### SPM

SPM provides COREGISTER module to implement a coregistration

#### AFNI

align_epi_anat.py script computes the alignment between two datasets, typically an EPI and an anatomical structural dataset, and applies the resulting transformation to one or the other to bring them into alignment. The transformation is calculated to align the anatomical to the epi data, but the resulting transformation can be used either way that is specified. Basic input is anatomical and epi dataset, which epi volume should be the base of alignment, direction of alignment (0/mean/median/max/volume#) and which direction of alignement is required (anat2epi/epi2anat), e.g.:
In afni_proc.py the align block is not set by default but can be included by do_block align. By default this means anat2epi registration, which can be changed with the following option:

## References

1. Comparison of coregistration softwares http://brainimaging.waisman.wisc.edu/~oakes/teaching/coreg_software_comparison.html 2. Huettel, S. A., Song, A.W., & McCarthy, G. (2008). Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (2nd edition). Sinauer Associates, Inc: Sunderland, Massachusetts, USA.
* ↑ http://afni.nimh.nih.gov/pub/dist/doc/program_help/align_epi_anat.py.html
# Neuroimaging Data Processing/Data/Storage/Filetypes/AFNI

AFNI datasets consist of .HEAD and .BRIK files
The to3d tool is used to import dicom data into AFNI's native format.

## References

* ↑ http://afni.nimh.nih.gov/afni/doc/faq/40
* ↑ http://afni.nimh.nih.gov/afni/doc/faq/39
* ↑ http://afni.nimh.nih.gov/pub/dist/doc/program_help/to3d.html