OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Micronations/Micronational war/Second Conch-American War

The Second Conch-American War was a 1995 war between the United States and the Conch Republic. It ended in an American defeat.

## Invasion of the Conch Republic

On September 20, 1995, it was reported that the 478th Civil Affairs Battalion of the United States Army Reserve was to conduct a training exercise simulating an invasion of a foreign island. They were to land on Key West and conduct affairs as if the islanders were foreign (which, ignored by the federal government and the 478th, they actually were.) However, no one from the 478th notified Conch officials of the exercise.

## War

Seeing another chance at publicity, Wardlow and the forces behind the 1982 Conch Republic secession mobilized the island for a full-scale war and protested to the Department of Defense for arranging this exercise without consulting the government of the Conch Republic. The leaders of the 478th issued an apology the next day, and they submitted to a surrender ceremony on September 22, ending the war.

## References

* John Ryan, George Dunford & Simon Sellars (2006). Micronations. Lonely Planet Publications. pp. 132. ISBN 1-74104-730-7.
# Micronations/Other

Other topics about micronations:

## Intermicronational Olympic Games
### Intermicronational Summer Olympic Games

* Molossia 2000

### Intermicronational Winter Olympic Games

* Molossia 2010
# Micronations/Relations
## With Recognized States

By definition a critical factor that separates micronation from a typical state is recognition by other states. However just because a micronation is not recognized by a state does not preclude a state from interaction with a micronation. Naturally these interactions are characterized by the character of both nations.
Sometimes these relationships can be symbiotic, with both states receiving a benefit. An example can be seen in the Conch Republic, which while humorous, was ultimately established to gain the attention of government authorities about an issue that was causing harm to the local tourism economy. Later the Conch Republic itself became a tourist attraction.
Other times relations can be more antagonistic. For example when Liberland established itself on Terra Nullius between two established countries, it effectively entered itself into a border dispute, leading to police vacating the area. The Free State of Jones was able to successfully resist the Confederacy in Jones County, Mississippi during the American Civil War by engaging in guerilla warfare and aligning itself with the Union cause.

## References

* ↑ "SPEAKING THE CONCH LINGO IN KEY WEST". scholar.lib.vt.edu. https://scholar.lib.vt.edu/VA-news/VA-Pilot/issues/1995/vp950122/01210034.htm.
* ↑ "Key West, in Protest On Aliens, 'Secedes' (Published 1982)". The New York Times. 25 April 1982. https://www.nytimes.com/1982/04/25/us/key-west-in-protest-on-aliens-secedes.html.
* ↑ Glusac, Elaine (17 December 2018). "44 Islands and 42 Bridges: A Florida Keys Road Trip (Published 2018)". The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/17/travel/key-west-road-trip.html.
* ↑ "The man who created a tiny country he can no longer enter". BBC News. 14 November 2016. https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-37941931.
* ↑ Widmer, Richard Grant,William. "The True Story of the ‘Free State of Jones’" (in en). Smithsonian Magazine. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/true-story-free-state-jones-180958111/.
# Micronations/Rationale

Micronations are often founded as a fun side project.
Some micro nations are founded for more serious reasons. For example some micronations are founded to attempt to claim terra nullis, or to make a political statement.
# Micronations/Starting your own micronation

This is a tutorial on how to start your own micronation. Good luck!

## Flag & Coat of Arms

Make a beautiful flag and Coat of Arms by looking at Designing a flag and a coat of arms

## Independence

See Independence

## Political and legal decisions
### Constitutional state

The third requirement for states is to have a government, to be recognized by other states, as well as making a constitution defining and/or describing their government structure and function.

### Establishing sovereignty

A micronation must establish sovereignty and make the name of that micronation known to other states. To make their sovereignty official, they draft a declaration proclaiming how and why they created a sovereign state including legal reasons, why their sovereignty is valid, and send it out to surrounding states. Some ways you can do this is by public events to represent and advertise your micronation. Plant your flags on public land such as parks and even your own lawn, attend a parade bearing your flag, and get the word out there. Remember, you need a website for a nation, but your website should not BE your nation. Just as any other archive works, you need a balance between real life and the website. If your website becomes too much of your micronation, you may not be recognized as a real micronation by other, more serious micronations, who may refuse to form alliances or even respond to your emails.

## National Defense

Defending territory against outside forces (pirates, for example) is a tough problem to overcome. If you have made treaties with other, more powerful nations, that require them to aid you if you so ask of them, this may be of great benefit in terms of defense. However, in the case of a small man-made island, the outcome of an attack against the island depends greatly on whether the other nation's forces arrive to aid you in time or not.
A state may happen to have the resources to build its own defense force. A state may set up signs around their island to warn outsiders of their existence and their right to defend themselves. Creating a defense force requires tactical and strategic placement of military resources. Most micronations don't have the money or ability to own and/or maintain large scale military firearms and thus they must rely on more basic methods. Concrete road barriers and entrenched infantry positions are useful for defending against relatively short-range attacks from the sea, however, this does require an island with enough room to store ammunition and hold up to recoil, as well as some way to repair or evacuate the island in the case of an emergency. However, even if a state has the firepower, the state must allocate substantial human resources to defend its territory which in the context of a micronation is somewhat difficult.
Planting mines *may* be against international law; a state must declare that it has mined an area, but how specific it is in declaring it is completely up to them.
# Modern Physics/Brans-Dicke theory

In theoretical physics, the Brans-Dicke theory of gravitation (sometimes called the Jordan-Brans-Dicke theory) is a minority viewpoint in physics. The Brans-Dicke theory is a well-known competitor of Einstein's more popular theory of general relativity. The theory was developed by Robert H. Dicke and Carl H. Brans building upon, among others, the earlier work of Pascual Jordan. It is an example of a scalar-tensor theory, a gravitational theory in which the gravitational interaction is mediated by a scalar field as well as the tensor field of general relativity.
At present, both Brans-Dicke theory and general relativity are generally held to be in agreement with observation, although the experiments of the golden age of general relativity have considerably constrained the allowed parameters of Brans-Dicke theory.
# Modern Physics/Gravity

This book is part of a series on Modern Physics:
Waves General Mechanics Special Relativity Quantum Mechanics Electrodynamics Nuclear Physics

## Newtons Law of Gravitation

* The Law of Gravitation
* Gravitational Field
* Gravitational Flux
* Flux from Multiple Masses
* Kepler's Laws
* Use of Conservation Laws
* Effects of Relativity
    Problems

## Modern theories of Gravitation

* General relativity

## Speculative theories

* Brans-Dicke theory

## Further Reading

* Astrodynamics
# Modern Physics/Constants

This book is part of a series on Modern Physics:
Waves General Mechanics Special Relativity Quantum Mechanics Electrodynamics Nuclear Physics

## Constants

* Constants of Nature
* Miscellaneous Conversions
# Modern Physics/Constants of Nature

This is a brief listing of some constant values that are used in this book. Constants are currently listed in no particular order.
| Constant Name | Definition |
| Absolute zero temperature | 0 K = −273.15 °C |
| Speed of light in vacuum | c = 2.99792458 × 10$^8$ m·s$^{-1}$ |
| Newtonian constant of gravitation | G = 6.6742 × 10$^{−11}$ m$^3$·kg$^{-1}$ s$^{-2}$ |
| Planck constant | h = 6.6260693 × 10$^{−34}$ J·Hz$^{-1}$ = 4.136 × 10$^{-15}$ eV·s; |
| Planck constant over $2\pi$ | $\hbar$= 1.05457148 × 10$^{−34}$ J·s |
| Elementary charge | e = 1.60217653 × 10$^{−19}$ C |
| Avogadro constant | N$_A$ = 6.0221415 × 10$^{23}$ mol$^{-1}$ |
| Constant in Coulomb's law | K = 8.988 × 10$^9$ N·m$^2$·kg$^{-2}$ |
| Boltzmann's constant | k = 1.3806505 × 10$^{−23}$ J K$^{-1}$ |
| Stefan-Boltzmann constant | σ = 5.670400 × 10$^{−8}$ W·m$^{-2}$·K$^{-4}$ |
| Unified atomic mass unit | 1 u = 1.66056×10$^{−27}$ kg |
| Bohr radius | a$_0$ = 5.292 × 10$^{−11}$ m |
| Electron radius | r$_e$ = 2.81792 × 10$^{-15}$ |
| Molar gas constant | R = 8.314472 J·mol$^{-1}$·K$^{-1}$ |
| Molar Volume | V$_{mol}$ = 22.41383 m$^3$·kmol$^{-1}$ |
| Mass of an electron | m$_e$ = 9.1093897 × 10$^{-31}$ kg |
| Mass of a proton | m$_p$ = 1.6726231 × 10$^{-27}$ kg |
| Mass of a neutron | m$_n$ = 1.6749286 × 10$^{-27}$ kg |
| Permeability of vacuum | μ$_0$ = 4π × 10$^{−7}$T$^2$·m$^3$·J$^{-1}$ = 12.566370614 × 10$^{−7}$ T$^2$·m$^3$·J$^{-1}$ |
| Permittivity of vacuum | ε$_0$ = 1/(μ$_0$c$^2$) = 8.854187817 × 10$^{−12}$ C$^2$·J$^{-1}$·m$^{-1}$ |
| Fine structure constant | α = e$^2$/(2ε$_0$hc) = 1/137.0359895 = 7.2974 × 10$^{-3}$ |
| Thomson cross-section | σ$_e$ = 6.652 × 10$^{−29}$ m$^2$ |
Some values from the 2002 CODATA recommended values of the Fundamental Physical Constants. See Constants Information at NIST.
# Modern Physics/Flux from Multiple Masses

The interruption of a constant gravity. Energy displaced as the difference of gravity occurs. A form of friction reaction between gravity differences. An occurrence of inconstant gravity difference.
# Modern Physics/Gravitational Field

Definition of gravitational field It is any region or space around a mass in which the gravitational force of the mass is felt. The gravitational field was first studied or observed on the planet on the planet by a scientist called Tychobrahe.He states three laws called kepler's laws.
# Modern Physics/Gravitational Flux

Form of energy of gravity difference. An occurrence of differences between a gravity.
# Modern Physics/Characteristics of Relativistic Waves

Special Relativity 1 - 2 - 3 - 4 - 5 - 6
In classical physics, ω and k for light are related by
    $\omega =ck\,$
In relativistic physics, we've seen that for waves with no special reference frame, such as light, ω and k are related by
    $\omega ^{2}=c^{2}k^{2}+\mu ^{2}\,$
If μ=0 then the relativistic equation reduces to the classical, so we can assume that, for light, μ does equal zero.
This means that light does not have a mimimum frequency.
If μ is not zero then the wave being described are dispersive. The phase speed is
    $u_{p}={\frac {\omega }{k}}={\sqrt {c^{2}+{\frac {\mu ^{2}}{k^{2}}}}}$
This phase speed always exceeds c, which at first may seem like an unphysical conclusion. However, the group velocity of the wave is
    $u_{g}={\frac {d\omega }{dk}}={\frac {kc^{2}}{\sqrt {k^{2}c^{2}+\mu ^{2}}}}={\frac {kc^{2}}{\omega }}={\frac {c^{2}}{u_{p}}}$
which is always less than c. Since wave packets and hence signals propagate at the group velocity, waves of this type are physically reasonable even though the phase speed exceeds the speed of light.
Another interesting property of such waves is that the wave four-vector is parallel to the world line of a wave packet in spacetime. This is easily shown by the following argument.
The spacelike component of a wave four-vector is k, while the timelike component is ω/c. The slope of the four-vector on a spacetime diagram is therefore ω/kc. However, the slope of the world line of a wave packet moving with group velocity is c/u$_g$, which is also ω/kc.
Note that when we have k is zero we have ω=μ. In this case the group velocity of the wave is zero. For this reason we sometimes call μ the rest frequency of the wave.
# Modern Physics/For Contributors

This page is going to be a brief introduction to editing this book, as well as a general style guide for new contributors.

## A Radically Modern Approach to Introductory Physics

This book was published under the GFDL, and is a good resource. Since it is under the GFDL, material can be harvested from it, and adapted for this wikibook:
* A Radically Modern Approach to Introductory Physics is a Creative Commons physics text written by David J. Raymond of New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology.
This textbook aims to cover every aspect of modern physics at an undergraduate level in such a manner that anyone who is literate, and not frightened of math, should be able to understand and use it. It can be used to add new material to the Modern Physics book.

## Navigation Templates

The following template was created for this book, to provide a standardized navigational system.
* Template:Modern Physics/Nav
Sections can also be altered to have their own navigational templates, as needed.

## Stubs

Some pages are stubs, and new pages may become stubs. To ensure that stubs are found and expanded, they should be marked. To mark a stub, you should use the following template:
* Template:Modern Physics/Stub
This will put a little notice in the section that it is a stub, and will add the page to the following category:
* Category:Book:Modern Physics/Stubs
All current stub pages are listed in that category, and new users should become familiar with it.

## Category

All pages and templates in this book should belong to the following category:
* Category:Book:Modern Physics
The navigation templates automatically add a page to this category, so any page that doesn't have an appropriate navigation template won't be included in this category. Templates can be added to this category manually.

## Contributors

Contributors can list themselves on the Modern Physics main talk page, or they can list themselves on this talk page. Contributors should not list their names on any module pages, nor should they sign their contributions on the module pages. Such signatures or name lists will be deleted.
# Calling Virtuals During Initialization
### Intent

Simulate the calling of virtual functions during object initialization.

### Also Known As

Dynamic Binding During Initialization idiom

### Motivation

Sometimes it is desirable to invoke virtual functions of derived classes while a derived object is being initialized. Language rules explicitly prohibit this from happening because calling member functions of a derived object before the derived part of the object is initialized is dangerous. It is not a problem if the virtual function does not access data members of the object being constructed, but there is no general way of ensuring it.

### Solution and Sample Code

There are multiple ways of achieving the desired effect. Each has its own pros and cons. In general the approaches can be divided into two categories. One using two phase initialization and the other one uses only single phase initialization.
The two phase initialization technique separates object construction from initializing its state. Such a separation may not always be possible. Initialization of an object's state is clubbed together in a separate function, which could be a method or a free standing function.

#### Using a non-member function.

The factory function can be moved inside the base class but it has to be static.
Constructors of class Derived should be made private to prevent users from accidentally using them. Interfaces should be easy to use correctly and hard to use incorrectly. The factory function should then be a friend of the derived class. In case of member create function, the Base class can be a friend of Derived.

#### Without using two phase initialization.

Achieving the desired effect using a helper hierarchy is described below, but an extra class hierarchy has to be maintained, which is undesirable. Passing pointers to static member functions is C'ish. The Curiously Recurring Template Pattern idiom can be useful in this situation.
Using Base-from-member idiom, more complex variations of this idiom can be created.
# Capability Query
### Intent

To check at runtime whether or not an object supports an interface.

### Motivation

Separating interface from implementation is a good object oriented software design practice. In C++, the Interface Class idiom is used to separate interface from implementation and invoke the public methods of any abstraction using runtime polymorphism. Extending the example in the interface class idiom, a concrete class may implement multiple interfaces as shown below.
Now, if we are given a container of pointers to abstract class Rollable, we can simply invoke the roll function on every pointer, as described in the interface class idiom.
Sometimes it is not possible to know in advance whether or not an object implements a particular interface. Such a situation commonly arises if an object inherits from multiple interface classes. To discover the presence or absence of the interface at runtime, a capability query is used.

### Solution and Sample Code

In C++, a capability query is typically expressed as a dynamic_cast between unrelated types.
This use of dynamic_cast is often called a cross-cast, because it attempts a conversion across a hierarchy, rather than up or down a hierarchy. In our example hierarchy of shapes and rollables, dynamic_cast to Rollable will succeed only for Circle and not for Square, as the later one does not inherit from the Rollable interface class.
Excessive use of capability queries is often an indication of bad object-oriented design.

### Known Uses

* Martin, Robert C. "Acyclic Visitor Pattern" (PDF). {{cite web}}: |archive-url= requires |archive-date= (help)

### Related Idioms

* Interface Class
* Inner Class

### References

* Dewhurst, Stephen C. "Capability Queries". C++ Common Knowledge. ISBN 0321321928.
# Algebraic Hierarchy
### Intent

To hide multiple closely related algebraic abstractions (numbers) behind a single generic abstraction and provide a generic interface to it.

### Also Known As

* State (Gamma et al.)

### Motivation

In pure object-oriented languages like Smalltalk, variables are run-time bindings to objects that act like labels. Binding a variable to an object is like sticking a label on it. Assignment in these languages is analogous to peeling a label off one object and putting it on another. On the other hand, in C and C++, variables are synonyms for addresses or offsets instead of being labels for objects. Assignment does not mean re-labelling, it means overwriting old contents with new one. Algebraic Hierarchy idiom uses delegated polymorphism to simulate weak variable to object binding in C++. Algebraic Hierarchy uses the Envelope Letter idiom in its implementation. The motivation behind this idiom is to be able to write code like this:

### Solution and Sample Code

Complete code showing an implementation of the Algebraic Hierarchy idiom:

### Related Idioms

* Handle Body
* Envelope Letter

### References

* Coplien, James (1992). Advanced C++ Programming Styles and Idioms. Addison-Wesley.
# More C++ Idioms/Authors
## Authors

* Sumant Tambe -- The initiator and lead contributor since July 2007. See my contributions.
* Many other C++ aficionados who continuously improve the writeup, examples, and references where necessary.
# Boost mutant
### Intent

Reorder the data members of a plain old data (POD) type when all members are of the same type, without physically reorganizing or copying the data items.

### Motivation

The need of this idiom is best motivated using Boost's Bimap. Boost.Bimap is a bidirectional maps library for C++. In bimap<X,Y>, values of types X and Y can both serve as keys. The implementation of such a data structure can be optimized using the boost mutant idiom.

### Solution and Sample Code

Boost mutant idiom makes use of reinterpret_cast and depends heavily on the assumption that the memory layouts of two different structures with identical data members (types and order) are interchangeable. Although the C++ standard does not guarantee this property, virtually all the compilers satisfy it. Moreover, the mutant idiom is standard if only POD types are used. The following example shows how the boost mutant idiom works.
Given a std::pair<X,Y> object of POD data members only, the layout of the Reverse<std::pair<X,Y>> is identical to that of pair's on most compilers. The Reverse template reverses the names of the data members without physically reversing the data. A helper mutate function is used to easily construct a Reverse<Pair> reference, which can be considered as a view over the original pair object. The output of the above program confirms that the reverse view can be obtained without reorganizing data:

### Known Uses

* Boost.Bimap

### References

* ↑ Capeletto, Matias. "Boost.Bimap".
* ↑ http://beta.boost.org/doc/libs/1_43_0/libs/bimap/test/test_mutant.cpp
# Checked delete
### Intent

Increase the safety of the delete expression.

### Motivation and Sample Code

The C++ Standard allows, in 5.3.5/5, pointers to incomplete class types to be deleted with a delete-expression. When the class has a non-trivial destructor, or a class-specific operator delete, the behavior is undefined. Some compilers issue a warning when an incomplete type is deleted, but unfortunately, not all do, and programmers sometimes ignore or disable warnings.
In the following example, main.cpp can see the definition of Object. However, main calls delete_object, defined in deleter.cpp, which does not see the definition of Object, but only forward declares it. Calling delete on a partially defined type like this is undefined behavior which some compilers do not flag.

### Solution and Sample Code

The Checked Delete idiom relies on calls to a function template to delete memory, which fails for declared but undefined types, rather than calls to delete.
The following is the implementation of boost::checked_delete, a function template in the Boost Utility library. It forces a compilation error by invoking the sizeof operator on the parameterizing type, T. If T is declared but not defined, sizeof(T) will generate a compilation error or return zero, depending upon the compiler. If sizeof(T) returns zero, checked_delete triggers a compilation error by declaring an array with -1 elements. The array name is type_must_be_complete, which should appear in the error message in that case, helping to explain the mistake.
NOTE: This same technique can be applied to the array delete operator as well.
WARNING: std::auto_ptr does not use anything equivalent to checked delete. Therefore, instantiating an auto_ptr using an incomplete type may cause undefined behavior in its destructor if, at the point of declaration of the auto_ptr, the template parameter type is not fully defined.

### Known Uses

* Boost's checked_delete.