# Transportation Deployment Casebook/2021/Nebraska
## Introduction to Streetcars: Characteristics, Advantages, and Markets

1.Describe the mode [streetcars]. What are its essential technological characteristics, its main advantages, and its main markets.

#### Description

Streetcar is a light rail transit vehicle driven by electricity and running on the track. People use the way of erecting the transmission line to solve the problems of power supply and safety. It usually runs on the street and carries passengers. Which exceeds no more than five sections, and the track and body occupy a certain amount of public space.
The advantages of road trams mainly include the following aspects.
Low construction cost
For small and medium-sized cities, streetcar is a practical and inexpensive choice. The investment required for each mile of street line is only one third to one twentieth of that of one mile of underground railway.
Convenient construction
There is no need to dig tunnels underground, and almost all construction is carried out above the road surface.
High safety factor
Compared with other road vehicles, streetcars have a fixed track, therefore the frequency of traffic accidents is much lower than horse.
High environmental protection
Because the electric power is used as the driving energy, streetcars will not emit exhaust gas, which is an environmental protection and low-carbon means of transportation$^{[1]}$.
Before the World War I, streetcars flourished in almost every city in the United States. Tram has become the most important means of transportation for people to commute from the city to the suburbs. Because of its low fare, it was favored by the middle class.

## Public Transit in Nebraska Prior to the Streetcar

2.Set the scene prior to the advent of the mode. What other modes were available? What were their limitations? How were markets for transportation evolving? How did these factors stir interest in new possibilities?

#### Horsecar

Horse drawn trams were first introduced to Bowery in New York City by Bank President John Mason in 1832, then spread to densely populated cities such as Boston, New Orleans and Philadelphia, then Paris and London, and later to small towns in the United States of America. The carriage can hold about 30 people at a time. Its internal structure is an open carriage with transverse seats, a central aisle and front and rear platforms for drivers and commanders. There are also fully enclosed and double decker carriages satisfying different kinds of needs for people.
The limitation of the carriage lies in its unstable power. Even the trained horses will have all kinds of emergencies, which cannot guarantee the safety of passengers. In the 1890s, due to the wide application of cables and electricity in rail transit, carriages gradually disappeared in the United States, in Fremont, Red Cloud and Grand Island, Nebraska, only about 6.5, 7 and 1.5 miles were in operation from 1894 to 1920, respectively$^{[2]}$.

#### Evolving Markets &New Possibilities

Nebraska is located on some of the most important arteries connecting East and West. Within the state, traffic in the East tends to flow to Omaha in Lincoln, South Sioux City in Iowa, and cities in the Platte valley$^{[3]}$. In 1867, Lincoln's capital moved south of Pratt, making it and Omaha major regional centres. The population of Nebraska increased from about 120000 to more than 1 million in 1890. Lately the International Fair held in Missouri in 1898 attracted more than 2 million people to Omaha, and the prosperity lasted for 20 years. Most western Iowa was in the trade zone of the big city Omaha. The state also operated several railways, with major lines in Omaha and Lincoln. Omaha was an important port for commercial barge transportation in Missouri$^{[4]}$. However, with the increase of population, people's complained about congestion, which also bothered daily life, and therefore the government encouraged the financing of a new innovative engine$^{[5]}$. Finally, these problems prompted scientists to try other innovative modes of transportation, such as overhead cable powered railway (also known as electric tram).

## Invention of the Electric Streetcar

3.Describe the invention of the mode / technology. What different types of technological expertise were brought together? How? How was the shift from the initial design altered in the face of early experience? Describe the shift from the initial technology to the predominant technology. Remember that technology refers both to hardware (physical artifacts) and software (the way the artifacts are used to produce transportation).

#### Invention of the Streetcar

In 1834, Thomas Davenport, a blacksmith from Brandon, Vermont, built a small battery powered motor and used it to operate a small car on a short track. In 1860, an American named G.F. opened three lines in London and one line in Birkenhead to run trams. He replaced the heavy eight wheels with the tiny four wheels, which finally had stronger carrying capacity. In 1879, Werner von Siemens, a German engineer, first tried to use electricity to drive rail vehicles at the Berlin Expo$^{[6]}$. In 1888, in Richmond, the American Spollag used the above method to switch to the electric tractor on several horse driving rail car routes, which improved the collection device, control system, motor suspension method and driving mode of the vehicle, resulting in the emergence of modern tram. In Neb, Mercer invested heavily in Omaha's trams until the 1880s, when his lines extended to North 36th and Cuming streets$^{[8]}$.

#### Technology Shift

At the hardware level, after more than 70 years of development, modern tram has made great changes in technology. Modern rail 100% low floor tram has the characteristics of energy saving, noise reduction, environmental protection, small investment, moderate passenger capacity, good riding comfort, less later maintenance costs and so on. The curbs are laid on both sides of the track with appropriate height, which usually plays a role of providing independent right of way. When the motor vehicles are seriously blocked or other accidents occur, the motor vehicles can drive past the curbs and run on the tram line.
At the software level, an important difference between modern streetcars and old is that a large number of independent rights of way are adopted. Generally, more than 50% of the new lines have independent right of way, which reduces the conflict interference and ensures the driving speed at a high level. Construction in many cities like Lincoln and Omaha simultaneously adopt the combination of old line reconstruction and maintenance and new line construction, and provides new lines in areas with high travel demand, and reasonably allocates the service level of the line or the whole network.

## Early Market Development

4. Describe early market development. What were the initial market niches? What roles did functional enhancement (serving existing markets better) and functional discovery (serving new markets) play in market development?

#### Early market development: Promote the development of urban and rural integration

Although Lincoln and Omaha were the main regional transportation hubs at that time, both their geographical location was at the easternmost end of the state boundary, which means only people engaged in commerce and agriculture on the Missouri river bank could travel to the hub towns driving westward$^{[9]}$. Therefore, the construction of streetcars in large and medium-sized cities strengthened the interaction between urban and rural people, and especially provided convenience for rural people to enter the city. It promoted the combination and development of urban commerce and rural agriculture at that time.

#### Function enhancement: Matching with the rise of cities

In recent years, the influx of foreign population and economic diversification, especially the energy crisis, environmental pollution, land shortage, traffic congestion and other problems caused by the development of food processing, machinery, chemicals and other industries, forced the Nebraska state government to take the large capacity rail transit as the focus of the development of urban public transport$^{[10]}$. Because small and medium-sized cities cannot afford the huge investment of subway, modern streetcar emerges as the times require in small cities.

#### Function discovery: New distribution system

The wide application of modern tram provides a new way for enterprises in Omaha and Douglas to distribute and process raw materials. The tram system transports heavy goods to various processing plants in batches through a fixed driving path, reducing the cost of freight transportation and the investment of human resources$^{[11]}$. For the states with agriculture as the pillar industry, the combination of tram and railway can be used to transport farm products to wholesale and retail businesses, which reduces the transaction cycle time of agricultural products and indirectly promotes the agricultural output value$^{[12]}$.

## Lifecycle of the Streetcar in Nebraska:Birthing Phase

Assess the role of policy in the birthing phase. Describe how policies from precursor models were borrowed, and how other policies were innovated. Identify policies that were embedded and policies that were imposed or sanctioned by government. Identify policies that were "locked in" during this time.

#### Role of policy

The initial policy promotes the popularization and application of streetcars. In 1863 Pres. Abraham Lincoln essentially designated Omaha–Council Bluffs the eastern terminus of the first transcontinental railroad operated by Omaha and Council Bluffs Railway and Bridge Company, which lately owned the longest track of streetcar and operated this system for several decades$^{[13]}$. When the Nebraska state joined the Union in 1867, although Omaha lost its political status as the capital of Lincoln, more and more railways led to the city, and the railway network promoted the comprehensive development of enterprise economy. The traffic bridge built in 1888 connected Omaha and Council Bluffs. In the following year, the streetcars service in two cities was established, which greatly promoted the development of the Missouri River metropolitan area.
In 1873, the mayor of Los Angeles authorized the operation of street lines, which encouraged small and medium-sized cities to own their streetcar system in other states$^{[15]}$. The act allowed the laying, operation and maintenance of tram lines on urban roads. Since then, three railway operators in Omaha including Omaha &Council Bluffs St. Ry. Co，Omaha, Lincoln &Beatrice Ry. Co and Omaha &Southern Interurban Ry. Co had laid a total of about 160 miles of lines. At the same time, when cities like Omaha and Nebraska City are expanding, and people found themselves too far away to walk and have to rely on streetcar system. This kind of long-distance service and exclusive right of way were the main reasons why people insisted on this transportation system at that time$^{[16]}$.

#### Reference and innovation policy

Similar to other cities, at the beginning of planning and laying lines, the use of overhead lines had potential safety hazards, and the cost could not be recovered in a short time in small cities, as well as fully rejected by members of Parliament. However, competitors are eager to take market share from competitors. These companies have obtained tram business licenses, but in such limited cities as Fremont and Grand Island, the coach business model continued in exchange for the high cost of laying new tracks and building cables.

#### Ticket price locked up

As Omaha gradually became the largest industrial city in Nebraska state, the operators continuously obtained the control of multiple lines from the government. In order to obtain the guarantee of huge investment in the early stage, as a transaction, the operators abided by the contract with the municipal government and kept the ticket price unchanged at 5 cents until the construction cost was recovered$^{[17]}$.

## Lifecycle of the Streetcar in Nebraska: Growth Phase

Describe the growth of the mode. What roles did the public and private sectors play in the growth? What policy issues arose, and how were they resolved? How did the policy environment influence policymaking in this period.

#### The role of government in the development mode

The rise of Missouri River urban agglomeration brought unprecedented development opportunities for urban streetcars, but also a huge challenge for the government and operating companies to formulate policies. When the industrial city expanded further, the operators noticed that the whole city was distributed into a vast area, which made them invest in the construction of lines to extend to each densely populated area of the city. At the same time, some real estate developers built suburbs around the streetcar lines to invest in factories, which urged the government and real estate developers to establish a kind of tram oriented land Investment and segmentation system, in order to reasonably distribute urban resources, avoiding the construction of long tram lines and the increase in the investment cost$^{[18]}$.

#### The role of enterprises in the development mode

Entrepreneurs saw the benefits of tram access to newly developed land. In 1902, Omaha &Council Bluffs St. Ry. Co had owned all the street railways in Omaha and leased Omaha, Council Bluffs & Suburban St. Ry. Co., Omaha & Council Bluffs Ry. & Bridge Co and East Omaha St Ry. Co, the total length of lines under its jurisdiction increased from 20 miles in 1894 to 163 miles in 1920, reaching areas among Omaha, Benson end Florence and Council Bluffs. With the enhancement of the company's strength, the company modernized the backward tram lines and continuously improved the quality of tracks, in order to provide more comfortable and stable conditions for passengers$^{[19]}$.
The influence of policy environment on policy making
During the World War I, with the soaring prices and operating costs, the tram enterprises suffered a certain impact, but the municipal government's control of tram fares was particularly loose. Thus with the support of the government, the tram companies eased the economic pressure through fare increase in a few years$^{[20]}$.

## Lifecycle of the Streetcar in Nebraska:From Maturity to Decline, then to Rise

Describe development during the mature phase of the mode. Describe attempts to adapt the mode changing markets, competitive conditions, and policy values. Describe how "lock-in" has constrained these adaptations. Identify any opportunities you see to "re-invent" the mode so that it can better serve the needs of today and tomorrow.

#### Maturity and decline

The mature period of tram is short, and it is replaced by public transportation system and private cars. Most of the operating companies in Omaha, such as Omaha Bridge Company and Council Bluffs Railway, getting less market share, were merged by Omaha and Council Bluffs Street Railway Company in 1901, which was integrated by Gurdon W. Wattles$^{[21]}$. And later he renamed Omaha traction company as Omaha Traction Company$^{[22]}$. Although it had more than 160 miles of lines before the acquisition, only less than 10 miles were actually operating in Omaha area at the end of the 19th century. From last few years of the 19th century to the early 20th century, the urban population with tram lines almost doubled. With the popularity of cars in the market, people, cars, horses and tracks coexisted in the city centre, and the growth rate of streetcars system began to slow down.

#### Failed attempts to save the market

The real problem was due to agreement signed between the tram operation company and the government. The tram operation company made concessions to the car driving. Even if the business was occupied, they still have to give subsidies to the car driving. Many operation companies have had to replace cheap buses to transport commuters to the production workshop at the end of the line. Finally, the government agreed to take actions to allow the tram operators to increase their fares. But both the Nebraska state and the federal governments were more likely to invest in roads mainly because cars and buses have greater flexibility and practicality, as well as to meet the Omaha people's preferences and attitudes.
Finally, because of the sharp increase in the number of cars and the gradual shift of urban road functionality, the rising ticket price was likely to become the last straw of the camel, which made the company facing heavy financial crisis announce to shut down the tram line. In 1952, the streetcar service stopped operation in Omaha, and then the Omaha Traction Company renamed to the Omaha Transit Company$^{[23]}$.

#### Development and opportunity of modern streetcar

Since the 1970s, while enjoying the irreplaceable convenience brought by cars, people have also noticed the accompanying energy crisis, traffic congestion and the destruction of the ecological environment, which makes public transportation the best choice for social sustainable development. Because the public transport cannot fully meet the travel demand, the cost performance of subway construction in some small and medium-sized cities is too low, and the modern streetcar system has re-entered people's vision.
Modern streetcar system not only retains the traditional advantages of reliable operation and comfort, but also develops its characteristics of environmental protection and energy saving. There are several kinds of trams like trams with special right of way in form, trams shared with railways and trams for freight transport, which are applied in different fields and scenarios. In the process of line construction, the new line is combined with the reconstruction of abandoned railway to update the tram line. This method greatly reduces the cost and provides line network services in demand$^{[24]}$.

## Quantitative Analysis of the Nebraska Streetcar Network
#### Omaha &Council Bluffs St. Ry. Co

The length (miles) of the streetcar system owned by Omaha &Council Bluffs St. Ry. Co in Nebraska from 1894 to 1920 was recorded from McGraw Electric Railway Manual – the red book of American Street Railway Investments. Table 1 shows the actual track length per year and its forecast.
Table 1 Length of Tracks Owned by Omaha &Council Bluffs St. Ry. Co :
| Year | Actual Length of Tracks（Miles） | Projected Length of Tracks（Miles） |
| 1894 | 45.5 | 78.471 |
| 1897 | 117 | 94.407 |
| 1898 | 117 | 99.565 |
| 1899 | 117 | 104.577 |
| 1900 | 117 | 109.410 |
| 1901 | 117 | 114.032 |
| 1902 | 117 | 118.422 |
| 1903 | 90.5 | 122.561 |
| 1904 | 126.95 | 126.439 |
| 1905 | 126.95 | 130.048 |
| 1906 | 132.9 | 133.388 |
| 1907 | 140 | 136.463 |
| 1908 | 140 | 139.281 |
| 1909 | 140 | 141.849 |
| 1910 | 140 | 144.183 |
| 1911 | 150 | 146.294 |
| 1912 | 120 | 148.197 |
| 1913 | 120 | 149.908 |
| 1914 | 159 | 151.443 |
| 1917 | 163.34 | 155.129 |
| 1918 | 163.34 | 156.099 |
| 1919 | 162.66 | 156.959 |
| 1920 | 162.66 | 157.722 |
Table 2 Accuracy of the model :
| Variable | Value |
| S$_{max}$ | 163.4 |
| b | 0.130897 |
| Rsquare | 0.5498 |
| ti | 1894.604 |
According to the graph, the three life cycle phases can be divided as:
Birthing phases: 1894-1902
Growth phases: 1902-1911
Maturity phases: 1911-1920

#### Omaha, Lincoln &Beatrice Ry. Co

The length (miles) of the streetcar system owned by Omaha &Southern Interurban Ry.Co in Nebraska from 1907 to 1920 was recorded from McGraw Electric Railway Manual – the red book of American Street Railway Investments. Table 3 shows the actual track length per year and its forecast.
Table 3 Length of Tracks Owned by Omaha, Lincoln &Beatrice Ry. Co :
| Year | Actual Length of Tracks（Miles） | Projected Length of Tracks（Miles） |
| 1907 | 6 | 6.073 |
| 1908 | 6.75 | 6.234 |
| 1909 | 6.5 | 6.381 |
| 1910 | 6.5 | 6.514 |
| 1911 | 6.5 | 6.635 |
| 1914 | 6.12 | 6.927 |
| 1917 | 7.25 | 7.132 |
| 1918 | 7.25 | 7.186 |
| 1919 | 6.12 | 7.233 |
| 1920 | 7.5 | 7.274 |
Table 4 Accuracy of the model :
| Variable | Value |
| S$_{max}$ | 7.56 |
| b | 0.140724 |
| Rsquare | 0.390812 |
| ti | 1897.002 |
According to the graph, the three life cycle phases can be divided as:
Birthing phases: 1907-1911
Growth phases: 1911-1918
Maturity phases: 1918-1920

#### Lincoln Traction Co.

The length (miles) of the streetcar system owned by Lincoln Traction Co. in Nebraska from 1899 to 1920 was recorded from McGraw Electric Railway Manual – the red book of American Street Railway Investments. Table 5 shows the actual track length per year and its forecast.
Table 5 Length of Tracks Owned by Lincoln Traction Co. :
| Year | Actual Length of Tracks（Miles） | Projected Length of Tracks（Miles） |
| 1899 | 55 | 52.244 |
| 1900 | 55 | 52.609 |
| 1901 | 55 | 52.966 |
| 1902 | 55 | 53.314 |
| 1903 | 55 | 53.653 |
| 1904 | 55 | 53.983 |
| 1905 | 55 | 54.305 |
| 1906 | 55 | 54.618 |
| 1907 | 55 | 54.924 |
| 1908 | 39 | 55.220 |
| 1909 | 41 | 55.509 |
| 1917 | 62 | 57.543 |
| 1918 | 60 | 57.765 |
| 1919 | 64 | 57.981 |
| 1920 | 64 | 58.189 |
Table 6 Accuracy of the model :
| Variable | Value |
| S$_{max}$ | 64.1 |
| b | 0.038278 |
| Rsquare | 0.067161 |
| ti | 1860.255 |
According to the graph, the three life cycle phases can be divided as:
Birthing phases: 1899-1907
Growth phases: 1907-1917
Maturity phases: 1917-1920

#### Omaha &Southern Interurban Ry.Co

The length (miles) of the streetcar system owned by Omaha &Southern Interurban Ry.Co in Nebraska from 1907 to 1920 was recorded from McGraw Electric Railway Manual – the red book of American Street Railway Investments. Table 7 shows the actual track length per year and its forecast.
Table 7 Length of Tracks Owned by Omaha &Southern Interurban Ry.Co :
| Year | Actual Length of Tracks（Miles） | Projected Length of Tracks（Miles） |
| 1907 | 7.3 | 7.27 |
| 1908 | 7.3 | 7.3 |
| 1909 | 7.3 | 7.33 |
| 1910 | 7 | 7.35 |
| 1911 | 7.5 | 7.37 |
| 1912 | 7.5 | 7.39 |
| 1913 | 7.5 | 7.40 |
| 1914 | 7.5 | 7.42 |
| 1917 | 7.5 | 7.45 |
| 1918 | 7.5 | 7.46 |
| 1919 | 7.5 | 7.46 |
| 1920 | 7.5 | 7.47 |
Table 8 Accuracy of the model :
| Variable | Value |
| S$_{max}$ | 7.51 |
| b | 0.276929 |
| Rsquare | 0.560995 |
| ti | 1893.23818 |
According to the graph, the three life cycle phases can be divided as:
Birthing phases: 1907-1910
Growth phases: 1910-1911
Maturity phases: 1911-1920

#### Model

S(t) = Smax/[1+exp(-b(t-ti)]
where:
* S(t) is the status measure, (e.g. Passenger-km traveled)
* t is time (usually in years),
* ti is the inflection time (year in which 1/2 Smax is achieved),
* Smax is saturation status level, (Choose the maximum length of the streetcar system that you have recorded in the data).
* b is a coefficient to be estimated.

## Reference

[1]https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E6%9C%89%E8%BD%A8%E7%94%B5%E8%BD%A6/2317603?fr=aladdin#3
[2]https://www.britannica.com/technology/horsecar
[3]https://www.britannica.com/place/Nebraska-state/History#ref78836
[4]https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E5%A5%A5%E9%A9%AC%E5%93%88/35621?fr=aladdin#2
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[9]https://www.britannica.com/place/Nebraska-state/History
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[12]National Museum of American History. (2020). The Trolley and Daily Life. Washington D.C: Behring Centre.
[13]https://www.britannica.com/place/Omaha-city-Nebraska
[14]1894, 1897-1914, 1917-1920."McGraw Electric Railway Manual". New York: McGraw Publishing Company. Retrieved 2020-03-15.https://www.dropbox.com/sh/gupewt4mpp4djt1/AACLVS4RQN7cw8nfyYlIKOWJa?dl=0
[15]Kelly, J. (2015, Mar 22). All aboard for a ride through D.C. streetcar history. The Washington Post Retrieved from https://www.proquest.com/docview/1664973005
[16]https://humantransit.org/2010/03/streetcars-vs-light-rail-is-there-a-difference.html
[17]https://www.vox.com/2015/5/7/8562007/streetcar-history-demise
[18]https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transportation_in_Omaha#Streets
[19]https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_streetcar_systems_in_the_United_States#Nebraska
[20]https://americanhistory.si.edu/america-on-the-move/streetcar-city
[21]http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archivefree/pdf?_r=1&res=9403E0DD1030E733A25757C1A96E9C946397D6CF&oref=login
[22]Larsen, L.H. and Cottrell, B.J. (1997) The Gate City: A history of Omaha University of Nebraska Press. p 107.
[23]http://www.metroareatransit.com/html/history.html
[24]https://www.metro-magazine.com/blogpost/722658/the-evolution-of-streetcar-technology