OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Intelligence Intensification/Information Grasping
## Vocabulary

Learn to be cognizant of words that you do not yet understand. Cognizant means to be consciously informed.
It is generally known that it is easier to learn something which you want to learn. When do we want to learn? One situation when we usually want to learn is when we have to in order to solve a concrete problem. This leads to the concept of information availability. If you have access to information when you need it, you will learn more. For instance, if you need to understand a word and have a handheld computer with a dictionary, you will probably look it up. If you haven't any dictionary available, and the need of knowing the word cease to exist, you never learn the word.
We also learn when we are curious. If you can access the information you need, again maybe using a handheld computer, you can learn while you are curious. Later in the day you might feel that other things are more important.

## Metaphor

According to some cognitive scientists, notably George Lakoff, most abstract concepts are founded on metaphor. The number line represents quantity as distance, for example, and the Cartesian coordinate system generalizes that same metaphor to function in two dimensions. René Descartes did not invent this metaphor: people from many cultures say "the price went up" (or the equivalent), regardless of their native language. The metaphor "more IS up" (in Lakoff's notation) is quite old, but Descartes did formalize and extend it, allowing it to be applied to a new array of intricate concepts.
But a metaphor can only be extended by a certain amount, after which it loses its meaning. Much of the power of mathematics comes from systematic and well-documented limits to the application of its metaphors. As soon as a new metaphor is added to the field, mathematicians thoroughly test exactly where it does and does not apply, and record their results explicitly in theorems that guide future work.
The convention in other fields is to give metaphors much less explicit limits, forcing the reader or listener to find them out by trial and error. Returning to the "more IS up" example, some quantities tend to go up only with difficulty but go down quite easily, or vice-versa. In these cases, your intuitive understanding of gravity can be added to the metaphor, if you imagine that some quantities sink, while others float. If this doesn't apply, then the metaphorical "weight" of a quantity won't help your understanding.
Some teachers are cognizant of the role that metaphor plays in learning, but in many courses, the metaphors behind the concepts presented are only vaguely hinted at. Actively searching for them and thoroughly testing their limits as early as possible can be quite helpful.
# Intellectual Property and the Internet/US House Judiciary Subcommittee on Intellectual Property, Competition, and the Internet

The House Judiciary Subcommittee on Intellectual Property, Competition, and the Internet is a subcommittee within the House Judiciary Committee. It was established in 2011.

## Jurisdiction

The subcommittee has jurisdiction over include copyright, patent, trademark law, information technology, and antitrust matters.

## Members, 112th Congress

| Majority | Minority |
| Bob Goodlatte, Virginia, Chairman Ben Quayle, Arizona, Vice Chair Jim Sensenbrenner, Wisconsin Howard Coble, North Carolina Steve Chabot, Ohio Darrell Issa, California Mike Pence, Indiana Jim Jordan, Ohio Ted Poe, Texas Jason Chaffetz, Utah Timothy Griffin, Arkansas Tom Marino, Pennsylvania Sandy Adams, Florida Mark Amodei, Nevada | Mel Watt, North Carolina, Ranking Member John Conyers, Michigan Howard Berman, California Judy Chu, California Ted Deutch, Florida Linda Sánchez, California Jerrold Nadler, New York Zoe Lofgren, California Sheila Jackson Lee, Texas Maxine Waters, California Hank Johnson, Georgia |
| Ex officio ||
| Lamar S. Smith, Texas | |

## See also

* United States House Committee on the Judiciary

## References

* ↑ "Chairman Smith Announces Subcommittee Chairmen". January 7, 2011. Retrieved 2011-01-07.
* ↑ "Committee on Judiciary Subcommittee Jurisdiction". Retrieved 2011-01-07.
* ↑ Rep. Conyers is an ex officio member of all subcommittees as Ranking member of the full committee, but is already a full member of this subcommittee
Template:United States House Judiciary Subcommittees Template:USCongressCommittees
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# Intelligence Intensification
## Contents
### Introduction

    The need of a book on this subject

### Information Sifting
   ### Speed Reading
### Information Grasping
   ### Memory Techniques

   * Visual Techniques
   * Phonetic Techniques
   * Kinaesthetic Techniques
   * Exercises
   * Drugs and Vitamins

   ### Repetition
   ### Visualization
### Information Evaluation
   ### Proofs

   * Different levels of proof
   * Scientific proof

### Information Invention
   ### Idea Generation Techniques

   * The trivial cases
   * Brainstorming
   * Variations on a theme
   * The ludicrous cases

   ### Idea Charting Techniques

   * Idea Mapping and Associative Grouping
   * Building Layered Abstraction Structures

### Information Utilization
   ### The Theoretician Versus the Practician
   ### The Concept of Change
   ### General Tips For Practicing
## See also

* Contemporary Educational Psychology/Chapter 2: The Learning Process Wikibooks – Various theories of learning, including constructivism, that are important to intelligence intensification.

## Authors

* DanielJanzon
* Mike Hebel
# General Astronomy/The First Three Minutes

The first three minutes after the Big Bang is a time period worth of a whole book (indeed, such has been written). It is important because it was during this very short time period that all the hydrogen and most of the helium in the Universe today was formed. These are the two most abundant elements in the Universe, and are the basic materials from which the first galaxies and stars formed.
At the very instant of the Big Bang, the Universe formed as a rapidly expanding ball of energy at extremely high temperatures (trillions of degrees). As soon as it began to expand, it began to cool, and as it cooled some of the energy "froze" out in what physicists call a "symmetry breaking." This is similar to water freezing into ice, except in this case it was pure energy solidifying into matter. The conditions were right for about 75 percent of the "frozen" energy to become proton (hydrogen nuclei) and the rest to form combinations of protons and neutrons in the helium nuclei. This continued for only about 3 minutes, after which the Universe had expanded and cooled to the point that the process was no longer possible.
Thus, just some 3 minutes after the Big Bang began, the Universe was composed of hydrogen and helium nuclei with a great deal of leftover energy.
This seminal 3 minute period is populated with very short periods known as the Planck Era, the GUT Era, the Electroweak Era, the Particle Era, and the Era of Nucleosynthesis. However, the important thing to know is that it was during this very short time that the major building blocks for today's Universe were formed -- and have persisted to this day.
On final note may be in order. Most of the things around us in everyday life are composed of materials other than hydrogen and helium, although obviously there is much hydrogen in ordinary water, and protons (hydrogen nuclei) are part of all matter. But what about the heavier elements such as carbon, oxygen, silicon, iron and others? They were not formed in the Big Bang, so where did they come from?
After the first 3 minutes of the Big Bang, no further elements were created for millions of years, so the Universe was entirely hydrogen, helium and energy. However, eventually clouds of hydrogen and helium collected and contracted into stars under the force of gravity. In the cores of these stars nuclear fusion began and hydrogen fused into more helium, helium fused into carbon, and various other elements up to iron. For smaller stars, this is where it stopped. However, some of the most massive stars underwent enormous supernova explosions. In the supernovas conditions were right to form even heavier elements, all the way up to Uranium.
It is a sobering thought that every atom in your body can be traced back (in theory anyway) to the Big Bang, and the nitrogen and oxygen you breathe, the carbon your body is composed of all came from some ancient star. And the heavier elements, of which there are traces in your body, formed in the fiery furnaces of supernovas! No wonder the late Carl Sagan was fond of saying that we are all "star stuff."
# General Astronomy/The Death of Low Mass Stars

Basically, the greater a star's mass, the greater the pressure in its core (caused by gravity) and the higher the internal temperature. High temperatures force a greater consumption of the available nuclear fuel. The greater the consumption of fuel, the hotter and brighter the star, and the shorter its lifetime.
Stars that are mid-range in mass, such as our Sun, typically live a few billion years (about 10 for the Sun). Smaller stars live much longer, perhaps several hundred billion years. The universe is still too young to have any of the oldest of the smallest stars to have consumed all their fuel. Their lives are longer than that of the universe to date.
But a middle-sized star such as the Sun cannot last as long as the universe has existed. Our sun has existed less than a half the time since the Big Bang (about 13-14 billion years ago). Since the Sun is thought to be typical, we can use it as an example for studying similar stars.
A star like the sun first fuses hydrogen (as it does now) into helium thereby releasing energy, that ultimately leaves the Sun as sunlight. When the Sun is about twice as old as it now is, it will no longer have enough hydrogen in its core to sustain stable hydrogen fusion. The resulting slow down in fusion will result in less outward pressure, to withstand the inward pull of gravity. As a result, the star will contract, compressing the core, and causing its temperature to rise.
The higher temperatures in the sun's core will allow it to fuse helium into heavier elements, but at the same time, the sun's outer layers will expand and cool. As a result it will turn red, making it a red giant.
For our Sun, this stage lasts only a few tens to a few hundreds of millions of years, and another collapse ensues. This time the core is compressed and heated further, but it has run out of hydrogen and helium fuel in its core and is in essence, a hot, dying ember composed largely of carbon called a white dwarf.
A white dwarf is a strange beast, having the mass about the same as the Sun, yet is only about as large as the Earth. At this point, the white dwarf is so tightly packed that a teaspoon of its matter would weigh about 2 tons on Earth! In fact, it is no longer even normal matter that obeys the laws of physics we are used to. Instead, it obeys quantum mechanical laws that prevent it from collapsing any further.
At the same time the white dwarf is formed from the leftover core of the star, the outer layers of the red giant are blown off into space to form a planetary nebula. The white dwarf remnant simply cools, slowly changing from white hot through the range of colors eventually ending, after tens of billions of years, as a cold black dwarf.
The upper limit for the mass of a white dwarf is about 1.44 times the mass of the Sun. So any star whose core ends up with a mass of more than 1.44 solar masses at the end of its life (after the outer layers have been blown off into a planetary nebula) cannot form a white dwarf, but ends up in an even more bizarre state. This is called the Chandrasekhar Limit.
More massive stars have even wilder lives.
# General Astronomy/The First Physics

Anaximander (611-547 BC) postulated that there were five elements: earth, air, fire, water...and quintessence, which heavenly bodies were made of.
Astrology is based on Ptolemy's Tetrabiblos, written in 140 AD. The horoscope is divided up into 12 "houses", 12 constellations along the ecliptic. Ptolemy believed that an "8th Sphere" held up the stars in the sky.
Kinetic energy is the energy of motion. The formula for this is ${\frac {1}{2}}MV^{2}$ ($M$ is mass, and $V$ is velocity).
# General Astronomy/The Doppler Effect

The Doppler effect or Doppler shift describes a phenomenon in which the wavelength of radiated energy from a body approaching the observer is shifted toward shorter wavelengths, whereas the wavelengths are shifted to longer values when the emitting object is receding from the observer. This happens with any form of any energy emitted in waves, including sound and light. Sound propagates in a different manner from electromagnetic energy, but the effect is analogous.
With the sound of a moving object, like with a train, the wavelength of the approaching train horn will sound like a buzzing noise at first getting louder intill it passes you and then fades away at a lower tone. That is because the wavelengths that you are hearing is being squished in the front of the train and then stretched out as it passes by. When the wavelength is shorter (coming closer to you) the frequency of the wavelength is going to be bigger, with a higher pitch. The opposite happens when the wavelength is longer; the frequency will be smaller, which is an effect that rapidly changes to a lower pitch as the train passes, going away from you. This works with light waves as well, in terms of visible light. Approaching objects shift toward shorter wavelengths are called blue shifted. Where as the light of receding objects have longer wavelengths, those wavelengths are known as red shifted. As shown in the diagram below if you’re looking outward from the telescope, you can see the red shift going out toward an object, or in this case an unseen planet. Then there are the blue shifted wavelengths that are coming back towards the telescope from the unseen planet.
The relative speed of stars moving toward or away from the Sun, as detected through the doppler effect, gives clues to the Sun's motion through the Milky Way Galaxy as well as other information about the motion of stars, star clusters and gas clouds in space. The relative motions of binary stars (two stars orbiting around a common center of gravity) can be detected in the variations of their light, and in fact even some binary stars have been detected that cannot be seen as separate stars, but whose binary nature is known from the variations in their combined spectra.
Since both sound and light waves have red and blue shifts, Edwin Hubble was able to use the doppler effect to discover that our neighboring galaxies are receding from the Milky Way. This lead to his conclusion that the universe was expanding. The red shift or more specifically known as the Cosmological Red Shift because of its implications for cosmology; the study of origin and evolution of the universe. Scientist could even go further into discovering more of the universe when they realized they could add velocity to Hubble's equation. Using the shift spectrum they now can find the distances based off of those observations.
# General Astronomy/The H-R Diagram

The Hertzsprung-Russell diagram - usually referred to by the abbreviation H-R diagram - is a diagram that illustrates the properties of stars. As stars progress through their lives, they move around on this diagram since their properties change over time.
The original form of the H-R diagram consists of the absolute magnitude of the star graphed against the color of the star. It was this form that was first created around 1910 by Danish astrophysicist Ejnar Hertzsprung and American astrophysicist Henry Norris Russell, and represented a huge leap forward in understanding stars because once one graphs stars against these axes, it becomes obvious that stars fall into different categories. The diagram plots luminosity and spectral type (which also plots temperature). On the vertical plane, stars are brighter if they are higher up on the diagram. In the horizontal plane, the leftmost stars are the hottest.
When all the known stars are placed in this diagram according to luminosity and temperature, many of the stars - even our Sun - appear along a diagonal line that stretches from the top left of the diagram to the bottom right. This diagonal line is what is known as the main sequence. Stars spend the majority of their lifetimes here. It is the phase in which stars burn hydrogen into helium. At this point in a star's life, its size and luminosity remain about constant because the forces within the star have reached a near-equilibrium. The gravity of the star pointing inwards balances the internal thermal (gas) pressure which pushes outwards. The time that a star spends in the main sequence is determined by its mass. Smaller, cooler stars have slower fusion reactions rates and therefore will remain in the main sequence longer.
Stars which lie along the top right of the diagram are luminous and cool and are known as supergiants. Fainter, hotter stars - which appear at the bottom left of the diagram - are known as white dwarfs. Hot and bright stars are located at the top left of the diagram, and cool, dim stars at the bottom right.
The HR diagram is a powerful tool in astronomy that allows us to probe stellar evolution and even cosmology. Knowing a star's location on the HR diagram allows us to find its mass, its evolutionary state (and age), and its physical size. We can date individual star clusters by using the main sequence turn off, the point where main sequence stars start evolving (i.e., cease to be hydrogen burning, the initial stellar condition).
The first version of the diagram is often known as the observer's version of the H-R diagram as it can be drawn from data taken directly from a telescope. The second version of the diagram is often known as the theorist's version as it is the version against which the output from computer models can be plotted.
# General Chemistry/Diffusion and Effusion
## Diffusion and Effusion
### Diffusion

Diffusion is the process of a substance spreading out to evenly fill its container or environment. In a solution, a concentrated solute diffuses to spread evenly in its solvent. This is the process where the particles move from high concentration to low concentration. Diffusion explains why an open bottle of ammonia will fill an entire room with odor. The gas molecules escaping from the bottle spread out to fill their new container: the room. As a result, the whole room smells. Upon opening the windows, the gas will diffuse into the environment.
Diffusion is also the process of two gases mixing together, if both stored in the same container. They will spread out evenly, resulting in a solution (homogeneous mixture).

### Effusion

Effusion is the process of gas molecules escaping from a small hole in the container. Effusion explains why fumes are noticeable near a leaky fuel pipe.
Effusion obviously depends on the size of the hole. If small enough, effusion may not occur because, like a beach ball hitting a basketball hoop, the molecules can't fit. If the hole is large enough, the process may be considered diffusion instead of effusion.
Effusion can be seen with balloons. Effusion proves that the balloon has holes in it, even though it looks totally impassable. When left alone for several days, a balloon filled with helium will eventually deflate. If that balloon were filled with hydrogen, it would deflate in less time because the molecules are smaller and escape with ease. and you can try that
The more massive a gas is, the slower it effuses. The relationship is given by Graham's Law.
${\frac {Rate_{1}}{Rate_{2}}}={\sqrt {\frac {M_{2}}{M_{1}}}}$
As an example, assume there are two identical containers with holes. Container A has hydrogen gas (M=2 g/mol) and Container B has helium gas (M=4 g/mol). If the hydrogen gas effuses at a rate of 4 mol/hr, the helium gas would effuse at a slower rate (being heavier). Using Graham's Law, we can see that it would effuse at a rate of about
# General Chemistry/Compounds and Bonding

* Overview of bonding
* Electronegativity
* Ionic bonding
* Covalent bonds
* Metallic bonding
* Molecular Shape
* Intermolecular bonds
# General Chemistry/Formulas and Numbers

← Naming Substances ·Stoichiometry →

## Calculating Formula Masses

The calculation of a compound's formula mass (the mass of its molecule or formula unit) is straightforward. Simply add the individual mass of each atom in the compound (found on the periodic table). For example, the formula mass of glucose (C$_6$H$_{12}$O$_6$) is 180 amu.
Molar masses are just as easy to calculate. The molar mass is equal to the formula mass, except that the unit is grams per mole instead of amu.

## Calculating Percentage Composition

Percentage composition is the relative mass of one substance in a compound compared to the whole. For example, in methane (CH$_4$), the percentage mass of hydrogen is 25% because hydrogen makes up a total of 4 amu out of 16 amu overall.

### Using Percentage Composition

Percentage composition can be used to find the empirical formula of a compound, which shows the ratios of elements in the compound. However, this is not the same as the molecular formula. For example, many sugars have the empirical formula CH$_2$O, which could correspond to a molecular formula of CH$_2$O, C$_2$H$_4$O$_2$, C$_6$H$_{12}$O$_6$, etc.

#### To find the empirical formula from percentage composition, follow these procedures for each element.

* Convert from percentage to grams (for simplicity, assume a 100 g sample).
* Divide by the element's molar mass to find moles.
* Simplify to lowest whole-number ratio.
For example, a compound is composed of 75% carbon and 25% hydrogen by mass. Find the empirical formula.
* 75g C / (12 g/mol C) = 6.25 mol C
* 25g H / (1 g/mol H) = 25 mol H
* 6.25 mol C / 6.25 = 1 mol C
* 25 mol H / 6.25 = 4 mol H
Thus the empirical formula is CH$_4$.

### Calculating Molecular Formula

If you find the empirical formula of a compound and its molar/molecular mass, then you can find its exact molecular formula. Remember that the molecular formula is always a whole-number multiple of the empirical formula. For example, a compound with the empirical formula HO has a molecular mass of 34.0 amu. Since HO would only be 17.0 amu, which is half of 34.0, the molecular formula must be H$_2$O$_2$.

#### Exercise for the reader

An unknown substance must be identified. Lab analysis has found that the substance is composed of 80% Fluorine and 20% Nitrogen with a molecular mass of 71 amu. What is the empirical formula? What is the molecular formula?
# General Chemistry/Constants
## Useful Physical/Chemical Constants

| Constant | Value |
| Avogadro's Number | N$_A$ = 6.022 14 × 10$^{23}$ mol$^{-1}$ |
| Faraday Constant | F = 96 485.33 C mol$^{-1}$ |
| Atomic Mass Constant | 1 amu = 1.660 538 × 10$^{-27}$ kg |
| Molar Gas Constant | R = 8.314 4 J mol$^{-1}$ K$^{-1}$ |
| Molar Gas Constant | R = 0.082 057 46 L atm K$^{-1}$ mol$^{-1}$ |
| Coulomb's Constant | k$_e$ = 8.987 551 × 10$^9$ N m$^2$ C$^{-2}$ |
| Speed of Light (Vacuum) | c = 299 792 458 m s$^{-1}$ |
| Boltzmann Constant | k$_b$ = 1.380 65 × 10$^{-23}$ J K$^{-1}$ |
| Charge on a Proton/Electron | e = 1.602 176 × 10$^{-19}$ C |
| Standard acceleration of gravity | g = 9.806 65 m s$^{-2}$ |
| Rydberg constant | R$_∞$ = 1.0973 731 568 539 × 10$^7$ m$^{-1}$ |
| Planck's Constant | h = 6.62607004 × 10$^{-34}$ J s |
| Specific heat capacity of liquid water | c = 4.18 kJ kg$^{-1}$°C$^{-1}$ |
These constants were obtained from The NIST Reference on Constants, Units and Uncertainty.