OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Chess/The Endgame/Rook and Pawn Endings

Endgames where one side has a rook and the other a rook and one or more pawns, with no other pieces except the kings, is one of the most common in chess. Knowing the concepts of how these endgames work is essential to the intermediate to advanced player, and can result in many wins from otherwise drawn situations (or draws from otherwise lost situations).
Rook and pawn endings are very complex, and even professional players don't always execute them correctly. This module cannot provide a completely comprehensive guide of the subject, but aims to educate you to the most common, basic techniques.
Following is a list of different rook vs. rook scenarios. They assume that there are no other pieces on the board not indicated (except for kings). The goal in each for the attacking side is to promote a pawn, in which case the attacking side can then exchange rooks and execute a king-and-queen-versus-king checkmate.

## Three or More Pawns and Rook vs. Rook

This situation should always be a win for the side that has the pawns and is not terribly difficult to play (especially if at least two of the pawns are on adjacent files.). The defending player's rook cannot cover all pawns at once as they advance down the board.

## Two Pawns and Rook vs. Rook

This scenario usually results in a win for the player that's ahead, but in practice can be more challenging to execute. If the two pawns are connected, or on adjacent files, then the win is comparatively easy because one pawn can support another as they march down the board and the defending side cannot block one pawn with his king without getting checked.
When the pawns are separated, then things are less clear. If there is a large distance between pawns (two or more files), the attacking side may have trouble defending both at once and may opt to give up one pawn to transition into a more favourable (but harder) single pawn endgame.
It is also important to take into consideration how advanced the pawns are. If they are on the second-third rank, then queening will be inherently harder because of the distance they need to travel to reach (which results in more time for the defending player to blockade).

## One Pawn and Rook vs. Rook

Situations where one side has only a single pawn are the most complex of all rook and pawn endgames. Unlike the two above scenarios, they are not cut-and-dried, and there are more factors involved, such as the positions of both kings and rooks and the file the pawn is on.
| | a | b | c | d | e | f | g | h | |
| 8 | | | | | | | | | 8 |
| 7 | | | | | | | | | 7 |
| 6 | | | | | | | | | 6 |
| 5 | | | | | | | | | 5 |
| 4 | | | | | | | | | 4 |
| 3 | | | | | | | | | 3 |
| 2 | | | | | | | | | 2 |
| 1 | | | | | | | | | 1 |
| | a | b | c | d | e | f | g | h | |
As a general rule of thumb, if the defending side's king is a rank or more behind the pawn, then the pawn will queen because the attacking Rook can cut off the king from the action. (see Diagram 1). In this instance, white to play wins with 1. d6 Re8+ 2. Kd7 Rg8 3. Kc7 Rg7+ 4. d7! when black is out of checks and cannot defend the queening square.
# Chess/The Endgame/Endings with Multiple Major Pieces

Endings with more than two major pieces usually proceed to checkmate in the same way as those with just two major pieces.
Of course a tremendous advance in material allows for shortcuts.
| | a | b | c | d | e | f | g | h | |
| 8 | | | | | | | | | 8 |
| 7 | | | | | | | | | 7 |
| 6 | | | | | | | | | 6 |
| 5 | | | | | | | | | 5 |
| 4 | | | | | | | | | 4 |
| 3 | | | | | | | | | 3 |
| 2 | | | | | | | | | 2 |
| 1 | | | | | | | | | 1 |
| | a | b | c | d | e | f | g | h | |
1. Ra5+
This denies the fifth rank to Black. He'll have to chose between 4th and 6th rank, but both are equally doomed.
1... Kg4
The king tries to approach the rook (hopelessly).
2. Rb3
This cuts off the third rank. The black king is fixed on the fourth rank and one move away from being mated.
2... Kf4
The king, although he knows that death is imminent, continues to approach the rooks.
3. Rc4#
Checkmate! The Black king cannot stay on the fourth rank because of the rook on c4. He can't flee to the fifth rank because of the rook on a5. And he can't flee to the third rank because of the rook on b3. My, that was quick, wasn't it?
| | a | b | c | d | e | f | g | h | |
| 8 | | | | | | | | | 8 |
| 7 | | | | | | | | | 7 |
| 6 | | | | | | | | | 6 |
| 5 | | | | | | | | | 5 |
| 4 | | | | | | | | | 4 |
| 3 | | | | | | | | | 3 |
| 2 | | | | | | | | | 2 |
| 1 | | | | | | | | | 1 |
| | a | b | c | d | e | f | g | h | |
# Floating Point/Floating Point Arithmetic
## Arithmetic

Floating point numbers would be useless if we couldnt operate on them. Fortunately, there are algorithms for performing the basic arithmetic operations (Addition, subtraction, multiplication, division), as well as other operations such as exponentials, square-roots, and trancendentals. This page will introduce some of the basic arithmetic operations, and more advanced algorithms will be saved for a later page.

## Multiplication

Let's multiply the following two numbers:
Variable sign exponent fraction X 0 1001 010 Y 0 0111 110
Here are the steps again:
* First, convert the two representations to scientific notation. Thus, we explicitly represent the hidden 1.
* In this case, X is 1.01 X 22 and Y is 1.11 X 20.
* Let x be the exponent of X. Let y be the exponent of Y. The resulting exponent (call it z) is the sum of the two exponents. z may need to be adjusted after the next step.
* For now, the resulting exponent is 2 + 0 = 2
* Multiply the mantissa of X to the mantissa of Y. Call this result m.
* Multiplying 1.01 by 1.11 results in 10.0011
* If m is does not have a single 1 left of the radix point, then adjust the radix point so it does, and adjust the exponent z to compensate.
* Now, we have to renormalize 10.0011 to 1.00011 and increase the exponent by 1 to 3
* Add the sign bits, mod 2, to get the sign of the resulting multiplication.
* The sign bit is 0 + 0 = 0.
* Convert back to the one byte floating point representation, truncating bits if needed.
* We need to truncate 1.00011 x 23 to 1.000 x 23 and convert.
# Floating Point/Floating Point Formats
## Floating-Point Formats

There are 4 different formats of floating point number representation in the IEEE 754 standard:

### Double, Extended-Precision
## Single-Precision

Single precision floating point numbers are 32 bits wide. The first bit (bit 31, the MSB) is a sign bit, the next 8 bits (bits 30-23) are the exponent, and the remaining 23 bits are for the significand. Note that even though 23 bits are stored for the significand, the precision($p$) is actually 24 bits. This is a trick made possible by a normalized floating point system with $b=2$. The exponent is biased by 127, so that negative exponents can be expressed.

## Double-Precision

Double-precision numbers are 64 bits wide. The MSB (bit 63) is the sign bit. The next 11 bits (bits 62-52) are the exponent, and the rest of the bits (bits 51-0) are for the significand. Again, the precision is actually 53 bits (not 52) because of the same normalization trick.

## Review

| Format | Width | Precision | Exponent | Significand |
| Single | 32 bits | 23 bits | bits 30-23 | bits 22-0 |
| Double | 64 bits | 52 bits | bits 62-52 | bits 51-0 |
# Floating Point/Floating Point Hardware
## Hardware

This page is going to talk about creating floating-point hardware. This page assumes a prior knowledge of Digital Circuits and Semiconductors.

## Further reading

* Microprocessor Design
# Floating Point/IEEE 754
## IEEE 754

The most common floating-point standard is the IEEE 754 standard. This standard has the following official titles:
* IEEE Standard for Binary Floating-Point Arithmetic (ANSI/IEEE Std 754-1985)
* IEC 60559:1989, Binary floating-point arithmetic for microprocessor systems

## IEEE 754r

The IEEE 754 standard is currently undergoing review and possible revisions. The revised standard is called IEEE 754r.
# Floating Point/Rounding
## Rounding

IEEE 754 specified four distinct rounding modes. We will talk about those modes, and their effects in this chapter. Also, rounding can play an important role in the accuracy of a floating-point computation, so we will discuss those effects here as well.

## Relative Error

Relative error is one measure of error commonly used with floating point numbers. If ${\tilde {x}}$ is an approximation to $x$, then the relative error, $r$, is defined as
    $r={{|x-{\tilde {x}}|} \over x}$
# Floating Point/Floating-Point Numbers

This page is going to introduce floating point numbers, and explain some key terminology.

## Terminology
### base

    The base of a floating-point number is the number to which the exponent is applied. In our decimal counting system, the base is usually 10. In a binary system, however, the base is usually 2. In the following number: $1.2345\times 10^{6}$, 10 is the base.

### precision

    The precision of a number is the amount of places available after the decimal point. In the scientific-notation number: $1.2345\times 10^{6}$, the precision is 4 because there are 4 digits after the decimal point.

### significand

    The significand is the value of the non-exponent part of the number. In the number $1.2345\times 10^{6}$, 1.2345 is the significand. This is also called the mantissa.

### exponent

    The exponent is the number to which the base is raised. In the number $1.2345\times 10^{6}$, 6 is the exponent.
| $m\times b^{e}$ | Where: m is the significand b is the base e is the exponent |

## Biasing

In computer science, a number is called biased, if it has associated with it a certain additive offset value. For instance, if we have a 3 bit number (from 0 to 111$_2$, which is 7 in decimal), we can define a bias of 4, so that every number value has 4 subtracted from it to provide the final value. Here are some examples:
| unbiased number | biased number |
| 0 | 0 - 4 = -4 |
| 7 | 7 -4 = 3 |
This means that our number, now that it has been biased can go from -4 to 3. Biasing is only one of many methods for allowing binary values to express negative values.

## Variables

There are a number of variables that we will use throughout this book, and we are going to explain a few of them here:

### b

    b is the base number.

### e

    We will use the letter e to represent the number of bits in an exponent. This means that the exponent can take all integer values from 0 to $b^{e}-1$.

### p

    This is the precision value of the significand.
# Floating Point/Introduction
## What This Book is About

This book is about the use of floating point numbers for computers. The beginning parts of this book explore floating-point numbers in general, but we quickly focus our attention on the famous IEEE 754 floating point standard. This book will cover topics of floating-point theory, floating point algorithms, and floating-point hardware.

## Who This Book is For

It has been said that every computer programmer should know about floating-point numbers, because they are so pervasive in modern computers. Beyond that, scientists and engineers should also know about the limitations and quirks of a floating point system. Since this book is going to attempt to explore floating point numbers in their entirety, all people who come in contact with floating-point numbers may find it useful (or even be able to contribute!). This includes software programmers, hardware designers, and casual computer users.

## How This Book is Organized

This book attempts to be organized in a logical manner, with basic and broad subjects being covered in the first section. Subjects that are more specialized and difficult are presented at later chapters. The first section will talk about scientific notation, and introduce the concepts of floating point and fixed-point numbers. The second section will present the IEEE 754 floating point standard, including data formats, special numbers, and normalization. The third section will discuss the topic of floating-point arithmetic, including algorithms, hardware implementation, and related topics. The fourth section will talk about some advanced topics, such as floating point exceptions, flags, and trap handlers. Additional sections may be added later.

## Where to Go From Here

This book aims to be a complete resource for the use of floating-point numbers and therefore there are no other wikibook resources available for further reading on the topic.
# Floating Point/Scientific Notation
## Scientific Notation

Scientific notation, as many people may remember, is a method of writing out large or small numbers, as a normalized fraction, and a multiplier. The term normalized, in this case, means that the magnitude (absolute value) of the number is between 1 and 10. If the number we have lies outside this range, we multiply or divide by successive powers of 10, as necessary, until the fractional part of the number is within that range.
This book assumes the reader has a certain amount of prior knowledge in scientific notation, and includes this page as simply a refresher.

## Example

Let's say that we have a large number: 123,456,789 in scientific notation, we want to divide this by a power of 10, so that the result lies between -10 and 10 (non-inclusive). To do this, we divide by 100,000,000 (hundred million), and we get the final result:
    ${\frac {123456789}{100000000}}=1.23456789$
Now, to express our original number, we have to multiply this fractional number times the amount we divided by originally:
    $123456789=1.23456789\times 100000000$
And for ease, we frequently write the last term as an exponent of 10:
    $123456789=1.23456789\times 10^{8}$

## Binary

In a binary number system, the idea of scientific notation is similar, but uses powers of two, instead of powers of 10. Let's say that we have a binary number 1001011 (75, decimal). We divide this by 1000000 (64, decimal), and get our result: 1.001011. Now, what does it mean when we have binary numbers after the decimal point?

### Note

    Since the point is called a "decimal point" in a decimal (base 10) number system, it is common to refer to the same exact point as a "binary point" when in a binary system. The terminology is not important however, because a "decimal point" and a "binary point" look exactly the same, and do the same thing. These terms will be used interchangeably in this book.
To the left of the decimal point are increasing powers of two. It would only make sense then that to the right of the decimal point are decreasing powers of two. Here is a quick example:
    $1001011=2^{6}+2^{3}+2^{1}+2^{0}=75_{decimal}$
And our normalized number:
    $1.001011=2^{0}+2^{-3}+2^{-5}+2^{-6}=1.171875_{decimal}$
Now, we can write the final binary product as:
    $1001011=1.001011\times 2^{6}$
# Fujitsu Siemens Loox 720/Activating the VOIP Speaker

Like most pocketpc's with WIFI, the Loox 720 can use VOIP services such as Skype. In fact the Loox is specifically designed to exploit this exciting new development by the inclusion of two speakers, one large for music and alarms, and one small, placed on the top of the unit close to your ear if you held the device to your face. Unfortunately the Loox 720 did not expose the controls to this small speaker. This led to a very poor performance with VOIP applications unless a headset was used. This problem has now been rectified with the use of an application called OzLooxSpeaker by Oz, which allows the selective deactivation of the main speaker, allowing the exclusive use of the small top earphone for use mainly with VOIP software, but also for any other reason you would rather hold your Loox up to your head.
Its available for download on the Firstloox.org website here.
# Fukushima Aftermath/Contributors sources wikipedia
## See also

| Background w:Genpatsu-shinsai, an event predicted by professor Katsuhiko Ishibashi in 1997 w:International Nuclear Event Scale Kyshtym disaster (1957, INES 6) w:Three Mile Island accident (1979, INES 5) w:Chernobyl disaster (1986, INES 7) w:Orders of magnitude (radiation) w:Nuclear safety Hydrogen production at high temperature w:Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant w:China Syndrome w:Prompt criticality | Ongoing w:Timeline of the Fukushima I nuclear accidents w:Fukushima 50 w:2011 Japanese nuclear accidents w:2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami w:International reaction to Fukushima I nuclear accidents w:Evacuations and Japanese reaction to the Fukushima I nuclear accidents w:Radiation effects from Fukushima I nuclear accidents | Nuclear lists w:List of civilian nuclear accidents w:List of civilian nuclear incidents w:List of civilian radiation accidents w:Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents w:Japanese nuclear incidents | Major earthquakes of Japan w:1923 Great Kantō earthquake w:Tokai earthquakes of 1498, 1605, 1707 and 1854 w:869 Sanriku earthquake and tsunami in area around Sendai w:Great Hanshin Earthquake of 1995 near Kobe w:List of earthquakes in Japan |
# Fukushima Aftermath/Appendix B: Further readings
## Further reading

* Brown, Jerry and Rinaldo Brutoco (1997). Profiles in Power: The Anti-nuclear Movement and the Dawn of the Solar Age, Twayne Publishers.
* Lovins, Amory B. and Price, John H. (1975). Non-Nuclear Futures: The Case for an Ethical Energy Strategy, Ballinger Publishing Company, 1975, ISBN 0884106020
* Natti, Susanna and Acker, Bonnie (1979). No Nukes: Everyone's Guide to Nuclear Power, South End Press.
* Ondaatje, Elizabeth H. (c1988). Trends in Antinuclear Protests in the United States, 1984-1987, Rand Corporation.
* Price, Jerome (1982). The Antinuclear Movement, Twayne Publishers.
* Smith, Jennifer (Editor), (2002). The Antinuclear Movement, Cengage Gale.
* Walker, J. Samuel (2004). Three Mile Island: A Nuclear Crisis in Historical Perspective, University of California Press.
* Wellock, Thomas R. (1998). Critical Masses: Opposition to Nuclear Power in California, 1958-1978, The University of Wisconsin Press, ISBN 0299158500
* Wills, John (2006). Conservation Fallout: Nuclear Protest at Diablo Canyon, University of Nevada Press.
# Fujitsu Siemens Loox 720/How to use the Audio In via Headphone socket

The Loox 720 comes equipped with an adequate built-in microphone at the base of the unit. The range and quality is however limited. If you wish to use the Loox 720 to record a lecture or interview, you may want to use an external microphone. This is possible through the inclusion of Audio-In via the headphone jack. It requires a 4-conductor jack audio jack with mic input currently know to be available at PC-Mobile to use with your choice of 3.5mm microphone.
# Fukushima Aftermath/Core principles

The core principles are the overal principles of Wikibooks as applicable to this series.
* (1) consistency with the policies of Wikibooks and Wikiversity and
* (2) consistency with standards of "Good Book" and "Featured Book" as outlined at Wikibooks

## Corollary principles

* (3)consistency with a Manual of style for the series.
* (4)consistency with a Manual of Style developed for each book
* (5)consistency with the subjects defined for this series which include political activism, nuclear engineering and environmental law.
* (6) consistency with the established use of real name editing which may facilitate a more collegial tone and
* (7) invited contribution from persons with specific areas of interest and expertise
# Hacking/Tools/Network/Changing Your MAC Address

Although physical MAC addresses are permanent by design, several mechanisms allow modification, or "spoofing", of the MAC address that is reported by the operating system. This can be useful for privacy reasons, for instance when connecting to a Wi-Fi hotspot, or to ensure interoperability. Some Internet service providers bind their service to a specific MAC address; if the user then changes their network card or intends to install a router, the service won't work anymore. Changing the MAC address of the new interface will solve the problem. Similarly, some software licenses are bound to a specific MAC address. Changing the MAC address in this way is not permanent: after a reboot, it will revert to the MAC address physically stored in the card.
Other methods of changing the MAC address are permanent; at least one network card manufacturer bundles networking hardware with software that allows the user to change the MAC address. These network cards usually come with a bootable CD-ROM that executes a utility that permits the user to change the MAC address burned into the EEPROM. When a hardware-based solution is not utilized, the user who intends to change the MAC address must instead rely on a software-based solution. The appropriate software solution is dependent on the operating system installed on the computer. Various software-based solutions are described below.
As a MAC address can be changed, it can be unwise to rely on this as a single method of authentication. IEEE.1x is a standard better suited to authenticating devices at a low level.

## Table of contents

* Linux
* Mac OS X
* Windows
* Other systems
# Hacking/Tools/Network/Changing Your MAC Address/Mac OS X

Under Mac OS X, the MAC address can be altered in a fashion similar to the Linux and FreeBSD methods:
    ifconfig en0 lladdr 02:01:02:03:04:05
or
    ifconfig en0 ether 02:01:02:03:04:05
This must be done as the superuser and only works for the computer's ethernet card. Instructions on spoofing AirPort Extreme (2.0) cards are available here. For OS X 10.5, instructions are available here. There are not, as of yet, any known ways to spoof original AirPort (1.0) cards.
This page on the KisMAC wiki (see section "MAC Address Spoofing") contains links to download several utilities to change your MAC address on Mac OS X, including MacDaddy, SpoofMAC, and AirportClown:
# Hacking/Tools/Network/Changing Your MAC Address/Other systems

You can use a third-party utility to change the MAC of almost any Ethernet adapter.
Most consumer-grade routers allow for a user-specified MAC address to be given.
AIX:
Original MAC address:
Hardware Address: 00:09:6b:be:f8:ed
Using alternate MAC address:
ent1 changed
Hardware Address: 12:34:56:78:9a:bc
Returning original MAC address:
ent1 changed
Hardware Address: 00:09:6b:be:f8:ed
Under FreeBSD, the MAC address can be changed in a similar way to Linux:
    ifconfig fxp0 ether 02:01:02:03:04:05
This can be done without needing to take the interface down and back up.
As of OpenBSD 3.8, the MAC address can be changed as follows:
    ifconfig bge3 lladdr 02:01:02:03:04:05
As of version "I'm not sure" and at least 5.3, it can be done within the hostname file, for example /etc/hostname.bge3:
    dhcp lladdr 02:01:02:03:04:05
or static:
    inet 1.2.3.4 255.0.0.0 1.255.255.255 lladdr 02:01:02:03:04:05

### Changing MAC address without root privileges

There are a number of techniques for changing your MAC address without root privileges on Unix based systems (Linux, BSD, OSX, etc.). This can be done with such techniques as LD_PRELOAD or ptrace.