OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# First Aid/Anaphylactic Shock

Anaphylaxis is a life-threatening medical emergency because of rapid constriction of the airway, often within minutes of exposure to the allergen. It is commonly triggered by insect stings and foods such as shellfish or peanuts. Call for help immediately. First aid for anaphylaxis consists of obtaining advanced medical care at once. Look to see if a device such as an epinephrine autoinjector (“Epi-pen”) is available – most people who know they have anaphylactic reactions will carry such a device with them. First aiders in many jurisdictions are now permitted to administer epinephrine in the form of an Epi-pen if the victim is unable to do so themselves. Check what the law says in your area.

## Recognition

* Hives or rash all over accompanied by itchiness
* Swelling or puffiness of the lymph nodes, especially around the neck and mouth
* Swelling of the airway and tongue
* Difficulty breathing, wheezing or gasping

## Treatment

* Call EMS immediately
* Have the victim administer their epinephrine autoinjector if possible
* If available, administer an antihistamine to decrease swelling
* Encourage the victim to breathe slowly; calm them
* The victim should rest until EMS arrives
* Monitor ABCs and begin CPR if required
* If the victim is unable to administer their epinephrine autoinjector and it is legal to do so, administer it for them

### Administering an epinephrine autoinjector

Epinephrine autoinjectors are designed for ease of use. There are instructions in the tube with the auto-injector, but you should know how to use one ahead of time. They're designed to inject through clothes, so you don't have to remove the victim's pants - even if they're wearing a heavy material like denim. Whenever possible, the victim should inject themselves, but if they're unable to do so, you may be legally permitted to inject the victim.
Remove the auto-injector from the protective tube. One end has a black tip - this is where the needle will come out. Do not touch this tip! The other end has a grey cap. Remove the grey cap, hold the autoinjector in your fist, and press it firmly against the outside of the victim's outer thigh. There should be an audible click. If there is not, try again but pressing harder. Hold the auto-injector in place for 10 seconds. When you remove it, massage the area for 10 seconds, then reinsert the applicator into its protective tube needle end first to avoid any danger. When EMS arrives, they can dispose of it for you.
# First Aid/Authors

Among many others:
* Mike.lifeguard (discuss · email · contribs · logs · count)
* Mike6271 (discuss · email · contribs · logs · count)
* Firefighter04 (discuss · email · contribs · logs · count)
* ChopStick (discuss · email · contribs · logs · count)
* Owain.davies (discuss · email · contribs · logs · count)
* Nugger (discuss · email · contribs · logs · count)
* Geo.plrd (discuss · email · contribs · logs · count)
* Peter.C (discuss · email · contribs · logs · count)
* Whoop whoop pull up (discuss · email · contribs · logs · count)
# First Aid/Appendix D: Notes for First Aid Instructors
## Education

The teaching of first aid is in itself a valuable safety measure. Educating even a few people in first aid improves the safety of everyone they come into contact with.
Teaching first aid also provides an opportunity for teaching safety, prevention and risk reduction measures at the same time, as part of the first aid curriculum.
A person trained in first aid is more motivated to avoid personal injury, because their first aid training gives them a greater appreciation of the potential serious consequences.
Last but not least, someone trained in first aid can be taught to appreciate the importance of safety, prevention and risk reduction. This makes them an ideal advocate for spreading safety awareness to others in their organization or family. This "peer to peer" education can be very valuable.
# General Chemistry/Orphaned Pages

* Measurement
* Basic Chemical Concepts
** Properties of matter
** Atoms and molecules
** Nomenclature
** Calculations
** Molar Concepts
The following are a set of old modules copied from wikipedia that were previously on the front page. The current pages are much better written and form a cohesive book structure. The pages below contain a fair bit of irrelevant information (who needs 7 definitions of acid/base reactions) and are not as well suited to a textbook format (because they are from an encyclopedia).
Many pages were stubs. Most have been redirected to the more appropriate page, but some still remain.
* Matter is measured
* Properties of elements are periodic
* Chemical formulas describe chemical compounds
* Gases, liquids and solids each have specific physical characteristics
# General Chemistry/Phases of Matter

* Solids
* Liquids
* Gases
* Phase Changes

### Gases

* Behaviour of Gases
* Diffusion and Effusion
* Gas Laws
# General Chemistry/Overview of bonding

← Compounds and Bonding ·Electronegativity →

## Introduction to Bonding

Put simply, chemical bonding join atoms together to form more complex structures (like molecules or crystals). Bonds can form between atoms of the same element, or between atoms of different elements. There are several types of chemical bonding which have different properties and give rise to different structures.
In many cases, atoms try to react to form valence shells containing eight electrons. The octet rule describes this, but it also has many exceptions
* Ionic bonding occurs between positive ions (cations) and negative ions (anions). In an ionic solid, the ions arrange themselves into a rigid crystal lattice. NaCl (common salt) is an example of an ionic substance. In ionic bonding there is an attractive force established between large numbers of positive cations and negative anions, such that a neutral lattice is formed. This attraction between oppositely-charged ions is collective in nature and called ionic bonding.
* Covalent bonds are formed when the orbitals of two non-metal atoms physically overlap and share electrons with each other. There are two types of structures to which this can give rise: molecules and covalent network solids. Methane (CH$_4$) and water (H$_2$O) are examples of covalently bonded molecules, and glass is a covalent network solid.
* Metallic bonding occur between atoms that have few electrons compared to the number of accessible orbitals. This is true for the vast majority of chemical elements. In a metallically bonded substance, the atoms' outer electrons are able to freely move around - they are delocalised to form an 'electron pool'. Iron is a metallically bonded substance.
Chemical bonding is one of the most crucial concepts in the study of chemistry. In fact, the properties of materials are basically defined by the type and number of atoms they contain and how they are bonded together.
So far, you have seen examples of intramolecular bonds. These bonds connect atoms into molecules or whole crystals. There are also intermolecular bonds that connect molecules into large substances. These are also called intermolecular forces, or IMF. IMF are weaker than intramolecular bonds, and as they do not permanently join two molecules or ions, it is generally considered incorrect to refer to them as bonds. Sometimes, a substance will not have both IMF and intramolecular bonds. In the case of ionic crystals (like salt) or covalent networks (like diamond), the solid is made out of a network of intramolecular bonds connecting all the component atoms or ions in a repeating pattern, with no separate units to be attracted to each other by IMF. In the case of metallic bonding, the atoms are all interconnected into one large piece of metal, but the electrons move freely rather than being confined to the static bonds of a crystal lattice or covalent network.
# General Chemistry/Phase Changes

← Gases ·Behaviour of Gases →

## Phase Diagrams

Phase diagrams predict the phase of a substance at a certain pressure and temperature.
The triple point is where all three phases of matter can exist in equilibrium. Points that are on a line are where two phases of matter can coexist.
The critical point is the highest pressure and temperature that the three normal phases can exist. Any further, and the characteristics become a blend of liquid and gas.

## Changes in State

If the temperature and pressure change and move across a line in the diagram, the phase will also to change. There are six ways this can happen:
* Solid to liquid: melting
* Liquid to solid: freezing
* Liquid to gas: evaporation
* Gas to liquid: condensation
* Gas to solid: deposition
* Solid to gas: sublimation
The diagram on the right also shows the plasma state of matter. A plasma is simply a gas that has been completely ionized, so that there is a mixture of positive ions and electrons. It has interesting electrical properties, but it is not important in the scope of General Chemistry.

### Energy Changes

If you boil water, it never goes above 100 degrees Celsius. Only after it has completely evaporated will it get any hotter. This is because once water reaches the boiling point, extra energy is used to change the state of matter and increase the potential energy instead of the kinetic energy. The opposite happens when water freezes. To boil or melt one mole of a substance, a certain amount of energy is required. These amounts of energy are the molar heat of vaporization and molar heat of fusion. If that amount of energy is added to a mole of that substance at boiling or freezing point, all of it will melt or boil, but the temperature won't change.
The graph shows the temperature of ice as heat is added. Temperature increases linearly with heat, until the melting point. Then, the heat added does not change the temperature. That heat energy is instead used to break intermolecular bonds and convert ice into water. At this point, there is a mixture of both ice and water. Once all ice has been melted, the temperature again rises linearly with heat added. At the boiling point, temperature no longer rises with heat added because the energy is once again being used to break intermolecular bonds. Once all water has been boiled to steam, the temperature will continue to rise linearly as heat is added.
# General Chemistry/Physical Change

General Chemistry
Physical changes in chemistry include phase changes and anything else that changes the way that matter is arranged in space.
Examples of physical changes are:
* breaking a stick
* crushing ice
* melting ice
* stretching a rubber band
* boiling water

## Phase changes

The three basic phases of matter are solid, liquid, and gas. (Under certain unusual conditions matter can transform into a phase called plasma)
A phase change is a change from one phase to another. The most common example is liquid water freezing into ice or evaporating into a gas. Phase changes result in different properties for the substance changing phases but the chemical identity of the material does not change. In the case of water, its molecules are always composed of two hydrogen atoms bonded to one oxygen atom. However, in frozen water the molecules are frozen into place in relation to each other in a structure called a crystal; in liquid water the molecules flow relative to each other; and water molecules in the gas phase are flying freely in space and seldom even contact each other.
Phase changes are controlled by temperature and pressure. By lowering the temperature of a gas it can be condensed into a liquid and then even into a solid. Heating a solid melts it into a liquid and then, with further heat, into a gas.
# General Chemistry/Predicting Chemical Reactions

← Energy changes in chemical reactions ·Redox Reactions/Oxidation state →

## Types of Reactions

There are several guidelines that can help you predict what kind of chemical reaction will occur between a mixture of chemicals.
* Several pure elements mixed together may undergo a synthesis reaction.
* A single compound may undergo a decomposition reaction. It often forms water or hydrogen gas.
* A pure element mixed with an ionic compound may undergo a single replacement reaction.
* Two different ionic compounds are very likely to undergo a double replacement reaction.
* An organic compound (containing carbon and hydrogen) can usually react with oxygen in a combustion reaction.
However, not all elements will react with each other. To better predict a chemical reaction, knowledge of the reactivity series is needed.

## Reactivity

When combining two chemicals, a single- or double-replacement reaction doesn't always happen. This can be explained by a list known as the reactivity series, which lists elements in order of reactivity. The higher on the list an element is, the more elements it can replace in a single- or double-replacement reaction. When deciding if a replacement reaction will occur, look up the two elements in question. The higher one will replace the lower one.
Elements at the very top of the series are so reactive that they can replace hydrogen from water. This explains the explosive reaction between sodium and water:
$2{\hbox{Na}}_{(s)}+2{\hbox{H}}_{2}{\hbox{O}}_{(l)}\to 2{\hbox{NaOH}}_{(aq)}+{\hbox{H}}_{2(g)}$
Elements in the middle of the list will react with acids (but not water) to produce a salt and hydrogen gas. Elements at the bottom of the list are mostly nonreactive.
Elements near the top of the list will corrode (rust, tarnish, etc.) in oxygen much faster than those at the bottom of the list.

### The Reactivity Series

* Red: elements that react with water and acids to form hydrogen gas, and with oxygen.
* Orange: elements that react very slowly with water but strongly with acids.
* Yellow: elements that react with acid to form hydrogen gas, and with oxygen.
* Grey: elements that react with oxygen (tarnish).
* White: elements that are often found pure; relatively nonreactive.
Most Reactive
* Cs
* K
* Na
* Li
* Sr
* Ca
* Rb
* Ba
* Mg
* Al
* (C)
* Mn
* Zn
* Cr
* Fe
* Cd
* Co
* Ni
* Sn
* Pb
* (H$_2$)
* Sb
* Bi
* Cu
* Hg
* Ag
* Pt
* Au
Least Reactive
# Government and Binding Theory/Head Movements

In interrogatives, if we move wh-elements to the beginning of the sentence, we need to move the auxiliary verb or be after it as well. Yes-no questions have a similar requirement. If there is no auxiliary verb, then English uses the do-insertion process to inject one:
(1a) You will go where? ⇒ Where will you go? (1b) You do want what from me? ⇒ What do you want from me? (1c) You are crazy? ⇒ Are you crazy?
The subject-verb inversion involved is called head movement as only the head is moved to the beginning: the rest of the phrase is untouched. It is contrasted with phrase movement, which describes the movements we've seen prior to this chapter.
* Head movements
* The movement of the head of a phrase, rather than entire phrase.

## I and V movements

The movement of English inflectional suffixes is a kind of head movement:
As is the movement of French verbs:

## Subject-auxiliary inversion

Subject-auxiliary inversion in English moves the auxiliary in C position:

### do-insertion

In English, only auxiliaries can be moved through head movement. Lexical verbs cannot:
(2a) *Know you how to play football?
Note that other languages, such as French, allow lexical verbs to be moved to the front, and lack do-insertion. Consider this example:
(2b) Savez-vous jouer au football ? (Know you to play to the football?)
We can explain this easily as the French verb can be moved out of the VP while the English verb cannot:

## V2

In our discussion of the head parameter, we have discussed how word orders other than SVO can be derived. In our discussion of the articulated CP hypothesis, we covered more fluid word orders like Italian as well. However, we are yet to touch on V2 (Verb Second) word order, which is found in the Germanic Languages:
* The verb is always the second element in the sentence.
* The element to be emphasised comes first, and it can be a subject, an object or even an adjunct.
# Government and Binding Theory/Relativised Minimality
## Move α

After having seen so many rules regarding movement, it's about time we rid ourselves of another outdated concept we've grown out of: transformation rules. Rather than giving concrete rules on how constituents are moved, we now prefer to assume at first that we can move anything, anywhere, then use a set of rules that restrict movement. Since we've already done the boot thing, let's try something new. Let's use... Donald Trump.
You're fired.
Obviously, movement doesn't just happen all the time as long as they conform to bounding theory. There needs to be 'motivation' for movement. Case theory gives this motivation...
# Government and Binding Theory/Logical Form

In the book, we have discussed syntax in great detail, without touching on semantics. However, there is an interface between semantics and syntax, so this isn't something we can simply discard - without semantics, syntax would be of no use. Thus far, we have discussed two forms, the D-structure and the S-structure. It may be tempting to think that one of these is the semantic interface, but we can see that this is not the case. Scope ambiguity, for example, often occurs in English. Refer to the following example:
(1) Everybody heard something.
In (1), there is no movement between D- and S-structures, so the argument applies to both. Let H be a predicate '____ heard ____', T be a predicate '____ is a thing', and P be a predicate '____ is a human'. There are two possible interpretations:
(2a) ∃x(Tx&∀y(Hy→Hyx)) (2b) ∀x(Hx→∃y(Ty&Hxy))
If neither D-structure nor S-structure is the syntax-semantics interface, then what?

## Quantifier

Linguists have proposed a third syntactic layer of representation that serves as the interface between the syntax and semantics. This is the Logical Form (LF). Quantifiers are moved to the front in the logical form. Refer to the following example (let i be a constant meaning whoever I is, and let E be a predicate '____ ate ____'):
(3a) S-structure: I ate everything. (3b) LF: Everything I ate. (3c) ∀x(Tx→Eix) (3d) For every x, where x is a thing, I ate x.
The S-structure (3a) is transformed into the LF (3b), which in turn is interpreted by our conceptual-intentional system as the semantic representation (3c).
Moreover, the S-structure is transformed into another form, the Phonetic Form (PF), which is interpreted by our sensorimotor system so that we can read out the word in our minds. This led to the T-model of transformation below:
[DIAGRAM NEEDED]
# Government and Binding Theory/Principles and Parameters

No discussion on GB theory can begin without addressing the two core concepts: principles and parameters. In fact, GB theory is often said to be a misnomer because government and binding are simply two of the many modules in GB theory. Thus, the theory is more accurately named Principles and Parameters (P&P) Theory.
# Government and Binding Theory/Recursion

Last chapter, we covered one type of recursion we have met before: the complementiser clause. There is another type of recursion we have thus far failed to explain: The adjunct.

## Adjuncts are recursive beings

Adjuncts occur after the phrase, so we might be tempted to think that they are complementisers. This is wrong on many levels:
* Unlike complements, adjuncts are recursive, and we can append lots of these guys.
* Unlike complements, adjuncts are not subcategorised by the head.
* Unlike complements, adjuncts can occur before the head: You are really, really annoying.
This leads us to believe that there is another system concerning adjuncts. So, without further ado, let's introduce it:
* Rewrite rule for adjuncts
* X′ → X′ YP
Note that the projection level remains unchanged after the addition of the adjunct. This is the beauty of the system: It allows for recursion.
Let's look at a few examples of this type of recursion in action:
Moreover, this also explains why adjuncts are not as close to the head than the complement:
[DIAGRAM]
This schema would not allow *I talk sadly about the incident.
Of course, this raises the problem of adjuncts that do occur closer to the head than the complement, as in this French example:
(1) Je parle tristement de l'affaire. (I talk sadly about the incident)
de l'affaire is subcategorised by parler and is thus not regarded as an adjunct, yet it is closer to the head than tristement, an adjunct. This can be solved by changing our rewrite rule:
* Rewrite rule for adjuncts
* X$^n$ → X$^n$ Y$^m$, where n → {0, 1, 2} and m → {0, 2}
In a few chapters, we will discuss an alternative solution to this phenomenon.
# Government and Binding Theory/Subjacency

Despite what we've seen last time, movement is not unrestricted. It is not always possible to move anything anywhere. Consider this example:
(1a) You did do what? ⇒ What did you do? (1b) John did think you did what? ⇒ What did John think you do? (1c) John asked if Mary thought I had really stolen what? ⇒ *What did John ask if Mary thought I had really stolen?
This shows that there seems to be restrictions on how far elements can move, leading to bounding theory.

## Subjacency

Although movement is clearly restricted, it is often hard to pinpoint on a specific node that prevents movement. As we have seen above, moving a wh-element to the front is grammatical across one phrase, but not across two. Subjacency is a proposed principle that explains why movements of certain lengths cannot occur.
* Subjacency Principle
* Movements can cross a maximum of one bounding node.
What counts as a bounding node is parameterised across languages. Consider this ungrammatical example:
In our example, what$_1$ must have jumped across two bounding nodes, which is unacceptable. The question remains: Is the bounding node CP or IP? We can consider these two examples, one of an interrogative and one of a relative clause:
Here, there was only one CP node crossed, but multiple IP nodes. The resulting sentence is wrong. Clearly, IP, not CP, matters.
However, note that sometimes multiple movements occur. In this case, as long as each movement only hops across one bounding node, the sentence is fine:
Note that what first moves to the specifier position of the CP it's in, crossing one IP node on the way. Then it moves to the specifier position of the greater CP, leaving a trace in the original CP and again crossing an IP node.
IPs are not the only bounding nodes in English. DP exhibits similar properties.
It is thus said that IPs and DPs are the bounding nodes of English.