OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Measuring Errors

In this lesson we will learn how to quantify errors.
Learning objectives
* identify true and relative true errors
* identify approximate and relative approximate errors
* explain the relationship between the absolute relative approximate error and the number of significant digits
* identify significant digits
Reference
    Chapter 1 of Holistic Numerical Methods

## True and Relative True Errors

A true error ($E_{t}$) is defined as the difference between the true (exact) value and an approximate value. This type of error is only measurable when the true value is available. You might wonder why we would use an approximate value instead of the true value. One example would be when the true value cannot be represented precisely due to the notational system or the limit of the physical storage we use.
A true error doesn't signify how important an error is. For instance, a 0.1 pound error is a very small error when measuring a person's weight, but the same error can be disastrous when measuring the dosage of a medicine. Relative true error ($\epsilon _{t}$) is defined as the ratio between the true error and the true value.

## Approximate and Relative Approximate Errors

Oftentimes the true value is unknown to us, especially in numerical computing. In this case we will have to quantify errors using approximate values only. When an iterative method is used, we get an approximate value at the end of each iteration. The approximate error ($E_{a}$) is defined as the difference between the present approximate value and the previous approximation (i.e. the change between the iterations).
Similarly we can calculate the relative approximate error ($\epsilon _{a}$) by dividing the approximate error by the present approximate value.

## Relative Approximate Error and Significant Digits

Assume our iterative method yield a better approximation as the iteration goes on. Oftentimes we can set an acceptable tolerance to stop the iteration at when the relative approximate error is small enough. We often set the tolerance in terms of the number of significant digits - the number of digits that carry meaning contributing to its precision. It corresponds to the number of digits in the scientific notation to represent a number's significand or mantissa.
An approximate rule for minimizing the error is as follows: if the absolute relative approximate error is less than or equal to a predefined tolerance (usually in terms of the number of significant digits), then the acceptable error has been reached and no more iterations would be required. Given the absolute relative approximate error, we can derive the least number of digits that are significant using the same equation.
# Introduction to Moral Reasoning/The dissertation

The following has been translated from the french philosophy wikibook:
The dissertation is the philosophical exercise par excellence. It permits the evaluation of the assimilation of knowledge by the student, and has the capacity to serve as a personal yet rigourous reflection. These two aspects mean that the dissertation does not reduce to a simple scholastic exercise. Great philosophers have written dissertations, which are also great works. But one cannot expect a student to produce such a work: it is therefore necessary to start by learning to write the dissertation purely as a school exercise, and to this end it is good to formulate some rules which sure enough are a formal, but which guide the reflection and give it the maximum rigour possible.
To succeed in a philosophy dissertation, it is necessary first of all to know that there exist many possibilities of good argument. Thus there is no single method which drives infallibly to success, but many good methods from which the author can choose. The choice of a plan thus indicates the understanding, good or bad, of the subject. However it remains possible to formulate some general rules:

## types of subject

* question
* idea or group of ideas

## introduction

* introduce the subject
* say what the problems are
* announce the plan
* follow the plan

## development

* several types of plan

## conclusion

* recapitulate
* conclude by answering the question

## how to organize oneself

* read the subject
* work on the draft
* write a proper introduction
* write the development
# Introduction to Moral Reasoning/What is Moral Reasoning?

Moral reasoning is a thinking process with the objective of determining whether an idea is right or wrong.
To know whether something is "right" or "wrong" one must first know what that something is intended to accomplish. Thus, to know if "this direction" is the right direction to follow to get to a coffee shop, one must first know where one is, where the coffee shop is, and the terrain between here and there (to avoid blocks, etc).
Or, to know if this action is the right action to take, one must know what one wants to accomplish, where one is, and the environment between here and the accomplished state (for example, to impress my boss, I have to know what is likely to impress him/her, what I, myself, can do at the work-place or where he/she would observe, etc).
Thus, to know if something (an idea, an action, a behavior) is "right" one has to know both what one intends to accomplish and the environment that exists between "here" and "there.
But that alone is not enough! To go to a bank and threaten the cashier might well accomplish your aim because you know security is weak and the prospect of capture is low. There is a third consideration: is it good for the people who live around me, and supply the things my stolen cash will buy. Here we have a further dilemma: a quick injection of stolen cash may well help my closest suppliers, but where should we draw the boundary? The neighbourhood? The city? Our Nation? or The whole world? Only this last reason: Good for all humanity, yields "moral reasoning"
Satisfactory solutions to problems are determined by using this principle. Problems or behaviors are difficult to solve when either the environment or the desired accomplishment are incompletely understood from a global perspective. (Religions face this difficulty.)
Therefore, moral reasoning can not be correctly performed until what is sought and the surrounding world-wide environment is fully understood. An example: is it "right" to use fetal stem cells? Only by first deciding "what" the use is intended to accomplish and if the way of accomplishing this is understood could such a question be answered. This is discussed in Thinking And Moral Problems
# Introduction to Numerical Methods

The target audience of this book are computer science students wanting to learn numerical algorithms and apply them in scientific computing.

## Table of Contents

* Introduction
* Rounding Off Errors
* Measuring Errors
* Python Programming
* Numerical Differentiation
* Roots of Equations
* System of Linear Equations
* Interpolation
* Regression
* Integration
* Ordinary Differential Equations
# Haskell/Kinds

* Kinds (Solutions)
* Fun with Types
* Polymorphism
* Existentially quantified types
* Advanced type classes
* Phantom types
* Generalised algebraic data-types (GADT)
* Datatype algebra
* Type constructors & Kinds

## Kinds for C++ users

* * is any concrete type, including functions. These all have kind *:
* * -> * is a template that takes one type argument. It is like a function from types to types: you plug a type in and the result is a type. Confusion can arise from the two uses of MyData (although you can give them different names if you wish) - the first is a type constructor, the second is a data constructor. These are equivalent to a class template and a constructor respectively in C++. Context resolves the ambiguity - where Haskell expects a type (e.g. in a type signature) MyData is a type constructor, where a value, it is a data constructor.
* * -> * -> * is a template that takes two type arguments
* (* -> *) -> * is a template that takes one template argument of kind (* -> *)
* Kinds
* Solutions to exercises
* Fun with Types
* Polymorphism
* >> Existentially quantified types
* >> Advanced type classes
* >> Phantom types
* >> Generalised algebraic data-types (GADT)
* >> Datatype algebra
* >> Type constructors & Kinds
* Haskell
* Haskell Basics
* >> Elementary Haskell
* >> Intermediate Haskell
* >> Monads
* Advanced Haskell
* >> Fun with Types
* >> Wider Theory
* >> Haskell Performance
* Libraries Reference
* >> General Practices
* >> Specialised Tasks
# Haskell/Libraries

* Libraries (Solutions)
* Libraries Reference
* Introduction
* Maybe IO Random
* Data structures primer
* Arrays Maps
Haskell has a rich and growing set of libraries. They fall into several groups:
When Haskell 98 was standardized, modules were given a flat namespace. That turned out to be inadequate, and a hierarchical namespace has been added by allowing dots in module names. For backward compatibility the standard libraries can still be accessed by their non-hierarchical names, so the modules List and Data.List both refer to the standard list library.
For details of how to import libraries into your program, see the Modules chapter. For an explanation of the Cabal system for packaging Haskell software see Haskell/Packaging.

## Haddock Documentation

Library reference documentation is generally produced using the Haddock tool. The libraries shipped with GHC are documented in this way. You can view the documentation online, and if you have installed GHC then there should also be a local copy.
Haddock produces hyperlinked documentation, so every time you see a function, type, or class name you can click on it to get to the definition. The sheer wealth of libraries available can be intimidating, so this tutorial will point out the highlights.
Note that Haddock cross-references types and classes by instance. For example, in the Data.Maybe library the Maybe data type is listed as an instance of Ord:
If you declare a type Foo is an instance of Ord then the type Maybe Foo will automatically be an instance of Ord as well. If you click on the word Ord in the document then you will be taken to the definition of the Ord class and its (very long) list of instances. The instance for Maybe will be down there as well.

## Notes

* ↑ Packages are the units of distribution of libraries. They consist of a set modules, packaged for ease of distribution and installation.
* Libraries
* Solutions to exercises
* Libraries Reference
* Introduction
* >> Maybe >> IO >> Random
* >> Data structures primer
* >> Arrays >> Maps
* Haskell
* Haskell Basics
* >> Elementary Haskell
* >> Intermediate Haskell
* >> Monads
* Advanced Haskell
* >> Fun with Types
* >> Wider Theory
* >> Haskell Performance
* Libraries Reference
* >> General Practices
* >> Specialised Tasks
# Haskell/Libraries/Maps

* Maps
* Libraries Reference
* Introduction
* Maybe IO Random
* Data structures primer
* Arrays Maps
The module Data.Map provides the Map datatype, which allows you to store values attached to specific keys. This is called a lookup table, dictionary or associative array in other languages.

## Motivation

Very often it would be useful to have some kind of data structure that relates a value or list of values to a specific key. This is often called a dictionary after the real-world example: a real-life dictionary associates a definition (the value) to each word (the key); we say the dictionary is a map from words to definitions. A filesystem driver might keep a map from filenames to file information. A phonebook application might keep a map from contact names to phone numbers. Maps are a very versatile and useful datatype.

### Why not just [(a, b)]?

You may have seen in other chapters that a list of pairs (or 'lookup table') is often used as a kind of map, along with the function lookup :: a -> [(a, b)] -> Maybe b. So why not just use a lookup table all the time? Here are a few reasons:
* Working with maps gives you access to a whole load more useful functions for working with lookup tables.
* Maps are implemented far more efficiently than a lookup table would be, specially in terms of lookup speed.

## Library functions

The module Data.Map provides an absolute wealth of functions for dealing with Maps, including setlike operations like unions and intersections. The full list can be found in the core libraries documentation.

## Example

The following example implements a password database. The user is assumed to be trusted, so is not authenticated and has access to view or change passwords.

## Notes

* ↑ In the specific case of Data.Map, the implementation is based on size balanced binary trees.
* ↑ http://hackage.haskell.org/package/containers-0.6.0.1/docs/Data-Map.html
* Maps
* Libraries Reference
* Introduction
* >> Maybe >> IO >> Random
* >> Data structures primer
* >> Arrays >> Maps
* Haskell
* Haskell Basics
* >> Elementary Haskell
* >> Intermediate Haskell
* >> Monads
* Advanced Haskell
* >> Fun with Types
* >> Wider Theory
* >> Haskell Performance
* Libraries Reference
* >> General Practices
* >> Specialised Tasks
# Modules 2.1 – 2.8 ASSESSMENT

Exercise: Use at least 8 Case Studies to complete the table below:
* Case Study
* 1
* 2
* 3
* 4
* 5
* 6
* 7
* 8
* Role play: Participants should volunteer to take the following roles – Manager, Client. Chose a Case study and act these roles.
* Discussion: Discuss and list down as many obstacles as possible to the use of FOSS in your business organization.
* Assignment/Interview: Use the template below to interview a FOSS-based company in your country.
Company Name:................................... Country:........................................... Year Founded................................... Website:................................................... Services offered:................................................. :
| Section 1: Outlook and Experience report | Q1. When was you company founded and how many people are employed by your company? Q2. In your years of operation, what problems (e.g. getting start-up capital, getting loans to finance some aspects your activities, building a client base, hiring employees, finding office space, getting company documents, etc.) have you encountered? AND possible solutions Q3. Looking at other companies (in and outside your country) who may be offering similar services as you do, what would you say works well for your company? Q4. What is your advise for someone building business around open source software in Africa in general, and your country in particular? |
| Section 2: Revenue generation | Q5. Which services (e.g. training, marketing, technical support, hosting and software development, consultancy, etc.) is your company offering Q6. Which of the services in Q5 is generating more income for your company? Q7. What is the annual turnover for each of the service sectors? Q8. What are some of the difficulties, if any, you face in getting paid for the services you offer? |
| Section 3: Service line and FOSS motivation | Q9. What is the motivation for going into open source as a major business? Q10. Are you developing new products (software and/or training materials) or customizing existing open source solutions (bespoke software) to fit your customers’ needs? Q11. What are some of the strategies you use to market your products and services? Q12. Who are your most prolific customers and the types of services they request most? Q13. Are you localizing (translating into local languages) some of your products? Q14. How would you describe your company, "pure open source company" developing, distributing and providing services around open source software or a “hybrid company” developing, distributing and providing services around both open source software and proprietary software? Q15. What are some of your business plans for the next few years to improve the competitive standing of your company? |
# Horticulture/Podophyllum

Podophyllums :
| Genus: | Podophyllum |
| Family: | Berberidaceae |
| Type: | Herbaceous perennials |
| Toxicity and edibility: | Contains toxic compounds |
Podophyllum is a genus of six species of herbaceous perennial plants in the family Berberidaceae, native to eastern Asia (five species) and eastern North America (one species). They are woodland plants, typically growing in colonies derived from a single root.

## Description

The stems grow to 30–40 cm tall, with palmately lobed umbrella-like leaves up to 20–40 cm diameter with 3–9 shallowly to deeply cut lobes. The plants produce several stems from a creeping underground rhizome; some stems bear a single leaf and do not produce any flower or fruit, while flowering stems produce a pair or more leaves with 1–8 flowers in the axil between the apical leaves. The flowers are white, yellow or red, 2–6 cm diameter with 6–9 petals, and mature into a green, yellow or red fleshy fruit 2–5 cm long.

## Species

* Podophyllum aurantiocaule. Southwest China (Yunnan).
* Podophyllum delavayi. Southwest China.
* Podophyllum hexandrum. Western China, Himalaya.
* Podophyllum peltatum - Mayapple. Eastern North America.
* Podophyllum pleianthum. Central and southeast China.
* Podophyllum versipelle. China, Tibet.
# Horticulture/Polygonatum odoratum

Solomon's Seal :
| Binomial: | Polygonatum odoratum |
Polygonatum odoratum, commonly known as Angular Solomon's-seal or Scented Solomon's-seal, is a plant species of the genus Polygonatum. In Britain it is one of three native species of the genus, the others being Polygonatum multiflorum and Polygonatum verticillatum.

## Description

Polygonatum odoratum is a colonizing herbaceous plant with alternate, simple leaves, on green stems. The flowers are white, borne in spring.

## Varieties

Variegated Solomon's seal (P. odoratum 'Variegatum') is often cultivated in shade gardens.

## Uses

P. odoratum is used in traditional Chinese medicine, where it is called yùzhú (玉竹).
# Horticulture/Pollination

Pollination is likely the most overlooked aspect of gardening, and inadequate pollination often limits gardeners' production of fruits and vegetables; indeed many times the problem is not even recognized. Mis-information is also frequently promulgated, even by those who should be experts. A good understanding of pollination, and active involvement in the various aspects of pollination mark an up-to-date gardener.
* 1. Summary of pollination biology and pollination terms
* 2. Pollinator decline: an environmental issue of our times
* 3. Recognizing pollination problems
* 4. Fixing pollination problems
# Horticulture/Planting Techniques

Outline:
* Planting from seed
* Planting from containers
* Planting from B&B
* Transplanting
# Horticulture/Podophyllum peltatum

Mayapple :
| Binomial: | Podophyllum peltatum |
| Family: | Berberidaceae |
| Type: | Herbaceous perennial |
| Light requirements: | Sun to shade |
| Bloom season: | Mid-spring |
| Weediness: | Can be weedy |
| Pollination: | Insects |
| Seed Dispersal: | Fruits attractive to tortoises and small mammals |
| Toxicity and edibility: | Highlt toxic to humans and livestock. |
The Mayapple (Podophyllum peltatum) is a herbaceous perennial plant in the family Berberidaceae, native to the eastern part of North America. Other common names include Devil's apple, Hogapple, Indian apple, Umbrella plant (for the shape of the leaves), Wild lemon (for the flavor of the fruit), Wild mandrake, and American mandrake (for the shape of rhizomes).

## Description

The stems grow to 20-40 cm tall, with palmately lobed leaves up to 20-30 cm diameter with 5-9 deeply cut lobes. The plant produces two growth forms. The form with a single umbrella-like leaf does not produce any flower or fruit. Stems having a twin leaf (rarely three-leaf) structure, however, bear a single white flower 3-5 cm diameter with six (rarely up to nine) petals, between the two leaves; this matures into a yellow-greenish fruit 2-5 cm long. The plant appears in colonies in open woodlands. Individual shoots are often connected by systems of thick tubers and rhizomes.

## Uses

The rhizome of the mayapple has been used for a variety of medicinal purposes, originally by Native Americans and later by other settlers.
All the parts of the plant, excepting the fruit, are poisonous. This plant can kill humans within 24 hours. Even the fruit, though not dangerously poisonous, can cause unpleasant red/yellow diarrhea. The plant contains podophyllotoxin, which is used as a cytostatic and topically in the treatment of genital warts.

## References

* 1 2 Fondren, Brian T. "Mayapple". Ethnobotanical leaflets. Retrieved 2006-06-03.
* ↑ Moraes, R.M., H. Lata, E. Bedir, M. Maqbool, and K. Cushman. 2002. On American Mayapple as practical source of podophyllotoxin p. 527–532. In: J. Janick and A. Whipkey (eds.), Trends in new crops and new uses. ASHS Press, Alexandria, VA.
* Neltje Blanchan (2002). Wild Flowers: An Aid to Knowledge of our Wild Flowers and their Insect Visitors. Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. {{cite book}}: Text "Blanchan, Neltje" ignored (help)
# Horticulture/Poecilocapsus lineatus

Fourlined Plant Bug :
| Type: | Insect |
| Binomial: | Poecilocapsus lineatus |
| Family: | Miridae |
| Order: | Hemiptera |
| Metamorphosis: | Simple |
| Generations per year: | One |
The Fourlined Plant Bug is a pest of many food crops and ornamental species, capable of causing serious damage if infestations are heavy.

## Description

The adult has a unique appearance, with yellow and black striped along its back.

## Symptoms and Signs

Foliar spotting, blotching, distortion, and leaf drop.

## Host plants

* Acer (Maple)
* Aconitum (Monkshood)
* Ageratum (Flossflower)
* Alchemilla (Lady's Mantle)
* Antirrhinum (Snapdragon)
* Artemisia
* Astilbe (Astilbe)
* Chrysanthemum
* Cirsium (Thistle)
* Coreopsis (Tickseed)
* Cornus (Dogwood)
* Cucumis (Cucumber)
* Cucurbita (Squash)
* Dahlia
* Delphinium
* Forsythia
* Gaillardia (Blanket flower)
* Geranium (Hardy Geranium)
* Helianthus (Sunflower)
* Heuchera (Alumroot)
* Hydrangea
* Hyssopus (Hyssop)
* Ipomoea (Morning Glory)
* Lactuca (Lettuce)
* Lavandula (Lavender)
* Leucanthemum (Daisy)
* Lonicera (Honeysuckle)
* Lupinus (Lupine)
* Mentha (Mint)
* Origanum (Oregano)
* Paeonia (Peony)
* Papaver (Poppy)
* Pastinaca (Parsnip)
* Phlox
* Pisum (Pea)
* Potentilla
* Raphanus (Radish)
* Rhododendron (Rhododendron, Azalea)
* Ribes (Currant)
* Rosa (Rose)
* Rubus (Bramble)
* Rudbeckia (Coneflower)
* Salvia (Sage)
* Solanum (Nightshade)
* Veronica (Speedwell)
* Viburnum
* Weigela
* Zinnia

## Control

* Cultural controls: Control weedy hosts
* Physical removal: Hand picking
* Pesticides: Acephate, Pyrethroids, Chlorpyrifos, Cyfluthrin, Fluvalinate, Malathion
* Organic pesticides: Horticultural Oil, Insecticidal Soap, Pyrethrum
* Biocontrols (microscopic): Beauveria
* Timing: Apply sprays in late spring or early summer, monitor in mid to late spring.

## References

* University of Vermont
* University of Arkansas
* University of Connecticut
* Penn State University
# History of wireless telegraphy and broadcasting in Australia/Topical/Stations/VIB Brisbane
## Transcriptions and Notes

More than 50 key articles relevant to VIB, mainly from the NLA's Trove Digitised Newspapers have been transcribed for ease of reference here: VIB Transcriptions and Notes
# History of wireless telegraphy and broadcasting in Australia/Topical/Stations/VKT Nauru

Station VKT was a coastal radio station in Nauru. It was established about 1912 by the German administration. The island, including the radio station was captured by the Australian military in 1914. The callsign for military use has Specific resources available are as follows:
* Transcriptions and Notes - KBN-VKT Nauru
* Photos, QSL cards and other graphics - KBN-VKT Nauru
* Draft Wikipedia Article - KBN-VKT Nauru
# Horticulture/Cultural Controls

Cultural Controls are methods for garden pests, diseases, and weeds by altering the environment in a way that makes it an unsuitable habitat for the target organisms.
Controls include mulching or removing mulch, pruning to provide better air circulation, and companion planting.
Controls alter any one of the following:
* Air circulation
* Sunlight exposure
* Soil chemistry, content, texture, and structure
* Atmospheric and soil moisture
This page is a stub entry in Horticulture. Please see the Manual of Style for guidelines on how to expand it.