OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Electronics/Digital to Analog Converters

D/A converter converts digital or binary data into its equivalent analog data.This analog data is required to drive motors and other analog devices. The converted analog value is either in voltage or current form.
There are two types of D/A converters:
* Weighted Resistor or Resistive Divider type
* R-2R Ladder type

## Weighted Resistor Type Digital-to-Analog Converter

In the weighted resistor type D/A Converter, each digital voltage is converted into an equivalent analog voltage or current. In a 4-bit D/A converter, from 0000 to 1111, there are 15 discrete levels and hence it is convenient to divide the output analog signal into 15 discrete levels.
# Electronics/Diodes/Zener diode

A diode usually is thought of as a device that lets current flow through/thru it in only ONE direction; however Zener diodes are made to permit current to flow also in the reverse direction if the voltage that is applied is larger than the rated "Zener voltage". Zener diodes are therefore used as voltage sources, with different Zener diodes being available to supply different rated voltages. Resistors are connected in series to limit the current flowing under all applicable conditions, and the current that this voltage source can supply is limited too. Usually, when used as a voltage reference, the current output is quite low.

# Example
## Reference:

"Silicon Zener Diode and Rectifier Handbook", published in 1961 by Motorola, Inc.

### page 6: Current versus voltage relationship of type 50M30Z (50 Watt, 30 Volt, Zener)

* In the forward direction, as the voltage is increased from 0, at first negligible current flows until the voltage (V) reaches about 0.75 volts. As V is increased to about 1.2, the current, if there is no external resistance, is then already about 15 Amperes (A); even more if V is higher.
* In the reverse direction, as V is increased from 0, at first negligible current flows. Then, as the voltage reaches about 29 Volts, the current is about 5 milliamperes (mA). With the applied voltage being about 31 Volts, the current, if no series resistance is in the circuit, is about 1.5 A.
* All diodes have a rated power maximum; type 50M30Z is rated at 50 Watts (W), and Voltage ratings are listed as between 6.8 and 200 V. Characteristics vary with the temperature of the device, but some temperature-compensated types are available. Very small, temperature-compensated, listed Zener diodes for reference purposes are rated at only 400 milliwatts, with Zener voltages of 6.2 or 8.4 V (5% tolerance), for examples.

### page 177: List of 50 Watt Zener diodes

Two of these listed Zener diodes have, for this example, a Zener knee voltage of about 30 V. They are type number 1N2823 (in TO3 package), and 1N3324 (in stud mounting package); both are otherwise equal. When about 22 Volts are applied in the reverse direction, only about 5 microAmperes can flow, but, at their nominal Zener Voltage of about 30 V, about 420 mA flows, with the maximum permitted DC Zener current (meaning the reverse-direction current a device is expected to be able to carry without damage) of these two types being 1400 mA at 75 degrees Celsius (to be derated if the temperature is higher). The resistance included in the circuit must be sufficiently high to limit the current, at any applied voltage, to that amount. The Zener voltage (at the knee) changes typically about 0.085% per degree Celsius for these two types.

# See also

* Semiconductors/Zener Diode
* Practical_Electronics/Diodes#Zener_diodes
Diodes in general
About semiconductors
# Estonian/Postpositions

A postposition (tagasõna) fills the same role as a preposition in English, but it occurs after the word it modifies.
| Tagasõnad | Postpositions |
| Taga | Behind |
| kõrval | Near |
| Ees | In front of |
| All | Under |
| Sees | Inside |
| Peal | On |
| Vahel | Between |
In phrases
* Laua peal : On the table
* Diivani all : Under the couch
* Karbi sees : Inside the box
* Staadioni kõrval : Next to the stadium
* Kapi taga : Behind the cupboard
* kahe tooli vahel : Between two chair.
In tenses
* Kell on seina peal
** The clock is on the wall
* Jari on ema kõrval
** Jari is next to mother
* Kruus on laua peal
** The cup is on the table
* Siga on akna juures
** The pig is near the window
* Ma panen vihiku laua peale
** I am putting the notebook onto the table
* Vihik on laua peal
** The notebook is on the table
* Ma võtan vihiku laua pealt
** I take the notebook from the table
# Estonian/Questions

On this page we'll finally learn some useful phrases for exchange students, queries and the Indicative Future as a bonus.

## Questions

Küsimused
| English | Nominative | Genitive | Partitive |
| what? | mis? | mille? | mida? |
| who? | kes? | kelle? | keda? |
| where? | kus? | kuhu? | kust? |
| when? | millal? | | |
| why? for what? | miks? milleks? mille jaoks? | | |

## Nouns

Sõnavara
| Nimisõnad | Nouns |
| köök | kitchen |
| pood | store/shop |
| tuba | room (of building) |
| bannituba | bathroom |
| WC | toilet |
Grammatika
| Nominative | Genitive | Partitive |
| köök | köögi | kööki |
| pood | poe | poodi |
| tuba | toa | tuba |
| vannituba | vannitoa | vannituba |
| WC | WC | WC-d |

## Verbs

Verbs in Estonian have two kinds of Infinitives, ending with -ma and -da. The -ma Infinitive is used in dictionaries to list verbs. Here we'll show how to conjugate when given a -ma Infinitive. Some are straightforward while others take some additional vowels or change entirely.
| English | -ma Infinitive | mina | sina | tema | meie | teie | nemad |
| to come | tulema | tulen | tuled | tuleb | tuleme | tulete | tulevad |
| to arrive | saabuma | saabun | saabud | saabub | saabume | saabute | saabuvad |
| to buy | ostma | ostan | ostad | ostab | ostame | ostate | ostavad |
| to go | minema | lähen | lähed | läheb | läheme | lähete | lähevad |
| to leave | lahkuma | lahkun | lahkud | lahkub | lahkume | lahkute | lahkuvad |
| to get | saama | saan | saad | saab | saame | saate | saavad |

## Estonian Future

Estonian verbs have no Indicative Future. Instead, the Indicative Present shows the Future. Often the verb saama (to get) is used with the appropriate Nominal form of the verb (not Nominative case) to indicate the Future as well, which we won't be covering here yet.
Määrsõna
| Määrsõnad | Adverbs |
| täna | today |
| homme | tomorrow |
| varsti | soon |
| hilja | late |
| siin | here |
| seal | there |

## Phrases

* Kus on Toomas?
** Where is Toomas
* Millal Katrin tuleb?
** When is Katrin coming?
* Katrin tuleb varsti
** Katrin will come soon
* Kes täna tuleb?
** Who is coming today?
* Kus on köök?
** Where is the kitchen?
* Miks on Martin siin?
** Why is Martin here?
* Miks Martin siin on?
** Why is Martin here?
* Kus pood on?
** Where is the shop?

## Questions & answers

Aeg
* Mis ajal? : What time on?
** Hommikul : On morning
** Laupäeval : On saturday
* Mis ajas? : What time at?
** Veebruaris : At february
** Kevadel : On summer
* Mis ajaks : What time for?
** Tänaseks : For today
** Juuniks : For june
* Kui tihti? : How much often?
** Viis korda päevas : 5 times a day
** Iga päev : Any day
* kui kaua? : How much time?
** Terve päev/päeva : Whole day
** Kogu päev/päeva : All day
** Mitu päev : Several day
KUS
* Kus sul on müts?
** Where do you have the hat?
* Mul on mütsi peas
** I have the hat in the head
* Kuhu sa paned müts?
** Where do you put the hat?
* Ma panen mütsi pease
** I put the hat into the head
* Kust sa võtad müts?
** Where do you take the hat?
* Ma võtan mütsi peast
** I take the hat out of the head
# Estonian/Partitive

Osastav kääne
As we'll try to cover the first three cases as heavily as possible before moving on, in this lesson we'll talk about accusing partitive and total direct objects. The English language uses "of" to mark part of a noun, for instance it can be used to form the direct object "part of a noun", used with the verb "mark" earlier in this sentence.
The Estonian Accusative case is actually partitive in some verbs. In other verbs the partitive makes no sense, but the Accusative remains the only option despite talking about the whole of something:
With some verbs, the Genitive is used to mark the total or final of a direct object.
This clearly does not happen with teadma:
The partitive can talk about part of a direct object (such as uncountable nouns like water) or that of an unfinished action.

## Verbs

Here are the verbs we'll be using in this lesson:
| English | -ma Infinitive | mina | sina | tema | meie | teie | nemad |
| to want | tahtma | tahan | tahad | tahab | tahame | tahate | tahavad |
| to take | võtma | võtan | võtad | võtab | võtame | võtate | võtavad |
| to paint | värvima | värvin | värvid | värvib | värvime | värvite | värvivad |
Keep in mind that when using the Genitive case, the question determiner for the noun will always be mille? or kelle? (persons).

## Vocabulary

* sein - seina - .seina (n) - wall
* vesi - vee - vett (n) - water
* ära (adv) - perfective situation marker
* ära (positional) - away. This sometimes substitutes the adverbial "ära" entirely
* .kaasa (adv) - along with (implied Comitative (with-saying, XIV) noun)

## Examples

* Sa tahad seda
* Translation
* You want that (that one)
* Ma värvin .seina
* Translation
* I'm painting the wall
* Ma värvisin seina ära
* Translation
* I painted the wall (entirely)
* Ma võtan vett
* Translation
* I'm taking some water
* Ta võtab lapse kaasa
* Translation
* He/She takes the child along
* Me tahame maja
* Translation
* We want a house
* Ma värvisin seda
* Translation
* I was painting this Note: here the finished action would require "ära" with the Genitive
* Ta võtab vee ära
* Translation
* He/She takes the water away He/She cuts off the water supply
* Ta võtab selle
* Translation
* He/She takes this one
# Estonian/Plural

In this lesson we'll learn about the Plural quantity, the Null subject and impersonal verbs.

## Plural

| English | Nominative s. | Genitive s. | Accusative s. | Nominative pl. | Genitive pl. | Accusative pl. |
| this | see | selle | seda | need | nende | neid |
| cat | kass | kassi | .kassi | kassid | kasside | .kasse .kassisid |
| dog | koer | koera | .koera | koerad | koerade koerte | .koeri .koerasid |
| newspaper | ajaleht | ajalehe | aja.lehte | ajalehed | aja.lehtede | aja.lehti aja.lehtesid |
| cup | tass | tassi | .tassi | tassid | tasside | .tasse .tassisid |
| mug | kruus | kruusi | .kruusi | kruusid | kruuside | .kruuse .kruusisid |
| Adjectives |||||||
| big | suur | suure | suurt | suured | suurte | .suuri .suuresid |
| small | väike | väikse väikese | väikest väikset | väikesed väiksed | väikeste väiksete | väikseid väikeseid |
| heavy difficult | raske | raske | rasket | rasked | raskete | raskeid |
| light easy | kerge | kerge | kerget | kerged | kergete | kergeid |
| enough sufficient | .piisav | .piisava | .piisavat | .piisavad | .piisavate | .piisavaid |

## Plural direct object

In Partitive we learned that there are some verbs that distinguish between partial and whole direct objects like "võtma" - to take. In the whole case, these verbs took the Genitive instead of the Accusative. With plural direct objects, they will instead take the Nominative:
* Verb with distinction: Whole: ta võtab kruusi - ta võtab kruusid. Partitive: ta võtab .kruuse
* Verb without distinction: Whole: ta tahab seda - ta tahab neid. Partitive: ta tahab neid

## Nouns

* raha (uncountable) - money
* töö - job, work

## Adverbs

* ka - also, as well
* samuti - synonym of ka
* väga - very
* .liiga - too, excessively
* palju - many
* vähe - little, too little
* pisut - little
* veidi - synonym of pisut
* .liiga vähe - too little
* .liiga pisut - synonym of liiga vähe, but adopted from western European languages and might sound slightly foreign
* .piisavalt/.piisavasti - enough-adverbial. This is available in the two common adverb endings -lt and -sti

## Verbs

* hoidma - hoia - to hold
* leidma - leia - to find
* üles leidma/leidma üles - üles leia/leia üles - whole of "leidma". "Üles" here is similar to "ära" in Partitive
* otsima - otsi - to look for/to search
* andma - anna - to give

## Phrases

* Ta otsib .kruuse
* Translation
* He is looking for mugs
* Siin on .liiga palju koeri
* Translation
* There are too many dogs here
* Ta annab piisavalt raha
* Translation
* He gives enough money
* Sa teed seda liiga vähe
* Translation
* You do this too little
* Ma tean, et see ajaleht on väga suur
* Translation
* I know that this newspaper is very big
* Ka tema koer on liiga väike
* Translation
* His/Her dog is too small too Even his/her dog is too small
* Ma pean iga tassi üles leidma
* Translation
* I must find every cup
* Kas seda on piisavalt?
* Translation
* Is there enough of this?
* Ta teeb väga kerget tööd
* Translation
* He does a very simple job
# Estonian/Pronouns

A pronoun (asesõna) has a long and short form. Here are the singular Estonian pronouns in the first three cases:
| English | Nominative | - short | Genitive | - short | Accusative |
| I | mina | ma | minu | mu | mind |
| you (singular) | sina | sa | sinu | su | sind |
| he/she | tema | ta | tema | ta | teda |
| we | meie | me | meie | me | meid |
| you (plural) | teie | te | teie | te | teid |
| they | nemad | nad | nende | nad | neid |

## Pronouns & cases

Omastav kääne
| Kelle? | whose? |
| Minu ema | My mother |
| Sinu isa | your father |
| Tema taldrik | His/her plate |
| Meie õpetaja | Our teacher |
| Teie õde | Your sister |
| Nende vend | Their brother |
Here we have some tenses in genitive case.
* Kelle oma? : Who own is?
** Venna õpik : The brother's textbook
** Minu õpik : My textbook
** Õe kleit : The sister's dress
** Tema kleit : Her dress
* Kelle pall see on? : Who is this ball?
** See on lapse oma : The child's own this
** See on lapse pall : The child's this ball
* Kelle oma see on? : Who own this is?
** See on minu õe oma : My sister's own this
* Kelle vihit see on? : Who notebook this is?
** See on õpilase vihik : The student's this notebook
** See on õpilase oma : The student's own this
Osastav kääne
| Keda? | Whom? |
| Mind ei ole | Don't is me |
| Ma armastan sind | I love you |
| Ma vihkan teda | I hate him/her |
| Ta ootab meid | He/she waits us |
| Ta nägi teid | He/she saw you |
| Ta kuulis neid | He/she heard them |
# Electronics Communication/Signal Processing/Signal Modulation & Demodulation/PM Modulation
## PM Modulation

PM Modulation which stands for Phase Modulation . PM Modulation is a process of mixing Signal wave with Carrier wave in such way that the magnitude of the two ways remain the same only the Phase Angle is changed
# Electronics Communication/Signal Processing/Signal Conversion
## Signal Conversion

Signal conversion is done using the following devices
* Microphone. An acoustic device that is made to convert sound waves to electrical signal
* Speaker. An acoustic device that is made to convert electrical signals to sound waves
# Electronics Communication/Signal Processing/Signal Encoding and Decoding/ASCII
## ASCII

ASCII stands for American Standard Communication Information Interchange . ASCII uses 7 bit binary numbers to represent number from 0 - 9, Alphabets a - z, and A - Z
# Electronics Communication/Signal Processing/Signal Modulation & Demodulation/FM Modulation
## FM Modulation

FM Modulation which stands for Frequency Modulation . FM Modulation is a process of mixing Signal wave with Carrier wave in such way that the magnitude the two ways remain the same only the frequency is changed
# Electronics Communication/Signal Processing/Signal Modulation & Demodulation/AM Modulation
## AM Modulation

AM Modulation stands for Amplitude Modulation . AM Modulation is a process of mixing Signal wave of low frequency with Carrier wave of high frequency in such way that the magnitude of the Carrier wave varies with the magnitude of Signal wave
# Electronics Communication/Signal Processing/Signal Modulation & Demodulation/FM Demodulation
## AM Demodulation

AM demodulation is the process of tuning, rectifying and converting an AM modulation wave into a signal wave
# Electronics Communication/Signal Processing/Signal Modulation & Demodulation/PM Demodulation
## AM Demodulation

AM Demodulation is the process of tuning, rectifying and converting AM modulation waves into signal waves
# Electronics Communication/Signal Processing/Signal Encoding and Decoding
## Signal Encoding and Decoding

Signal can be Encoded using Encoder and Decoded using Decoder . Encoder and Decoder are IC chip that use Binary number of certain bit to represent a physical quantities like Number from 0 - 9 and Alphabet A - Z and a _ z

## Coding Schemes

* BCD
* ASCII
# Electronics Communication/Signal Processing/Signal Modulation & Demodulation
## Signal Modulation & Demodulation

Signal modulation is the process of mixing signal wave of low frequency with a carrier wave of high frequency to produce a broadcast wave for transmission over a long distance from a transmitter to a receiver.

## Signal Modulation

Signal modulation takes place at the transmitter
* AM Modulation
* FM Modulation
* PM Modulation

## Signal Demodulation

Signal modulation takes place at the receiver. The process involves tuning, rectifying and converting the modulation wave into a signal wave
* AM Demodulation
* FM Demodulation
* PM Demodulation
# Electronics Communication/Signal Processing/Signal Modulation & Demodulation/AM Demodulation
## AM Demodulation

AM demodulation is the process of tuning, rectifying and converting AM modulation waves into signal waves
# English Grammar Worksheet/Past passive tense

Use all the verbs in passive form (past tense):
Example: The car was fixed (fix) yesterday.
1) We _____________ (visit) by our friends last week.
2) The building ________________(renovate) in 2015.
3) The child ____________(feed) two hours ago.
4) The reports ____________(send) yesterday.
5) ___________ the room __________(clean)?
Turn each sentence into passive:
1) Jim solved the problem.
2) The government funded the project.
3) The city council built new facilities in the city.
4) Did they maintain the machines?
5) She didn't write the letter.
# English Grammar Worksheet/Past simple tense

* Part 1 (Jul 06, 2009)
* Part 2 (Jul 06, 2009)
* Part 3 (Jul 06, 2009)
* Part 4 (Jul 06, 2009)
# English Grammar Worksheet/Positive, negative and interrogative sentences

Change the following sentences into negative sentences:
* I like going to the cinema.
* Mum is going to cook spinach tonight.
* Do you think they are going to win the match?
* Are you going to the United States?
Change the following into positive sentences:
* He doesn't like playing video games.
* Did the burglar steal anything valuable?
* He does not like his job.
* Is Grandma's situation serious?
Change the following into yes-no questions:
* He does not enjoy fishing.
* Mary moved into a new flat.
* Dad's car broke down yesterday.
* I don't think I have left it in my locker.
Answer the following interrogatives according to your own experience.
* Where did you visit last summer?
* What is your favourite hobby?
Construct 5WH questions using the answers below.
* Louis must have done it.
* I like apples the most.
# English Grammar Worksheet/Reported and unreported speech

CHANGE THE FOLLOWING INTO DIRECT SPEECH
Ramu said that they had had no rain since January.
James said that he had had a bad week.
He requested me to wait there till we returned.
The students wished the teachers good morning.
She suggested to him that he should find a job.
The officer ordered to open the door.
The teacher advised the students not to waste time.
Doctor suggested me to exercise daily.
I advised the child not to look down.
He claimed to have won $10000.
He threatened to send me to to my room if I wasn't quiet.
He warned me not to touch the wires.
He reminded me to feed the dog.
He forbade me to park there.
He begged me not to hurt him.
He advised me to study mathematics.
# English Grammar Worksheet/Should or shouldn't/Part 1

o answers)Fill in the blanks with should or shouldn't.
* You ..... waste electricity.
* She ..... recycle old newspaper into good paper.
* Matthew ..... turn on the TV before leaving the house.
* You ..... buy recycled paper.
* He ..... use rechargeable batteries more often than normal batteries.
* You ..... drink milk in a papercup.
* We ..... should consider the opinions of others before choosing to wear animal fur.
* She ..... use old clothes for cleaning floor.
* You ..... walk to the mailbox at the end of the driveway instead of driving.
* Ken ..... use a lot of paper.
# English Grammar Worksheet/Can or can't

In English Grammar, Can and Can't which is short for cannot has a significant value.
Can is used when a person is able to do something.
Can't (short of Cannot) is used when a person is not able to do something.
For example;
I can help you.
In Negative sentences, it will be;
I cannot help you or I can't help you.
While in Interrogative Sentences, it will be;
Can I help you?.
There are more sentences like;
I can run 5 miles a day.
I can read one book a day.
I can write 1000 words a day. etc.
# English Grammar Worksheet/Conjuction

Fill in the blanks using the correct connectives.
I went to the cinema last night _____ watched a great movie. David wanted to watch the movie too, _____ he had to do his homework. _____ Alice, Jack, _____ I also saw the movie. _____ Alice and I enjoyed the movie very much, Jack hates it; _____, he promised he will go to the movies with us again another day.
Nowadays, most young children have mobile phones. _____, are mobile phones really good for them? _____ the experts _____ the parents agreed the mobile phones are bad because they think that the mobile phones will affect the children's health. _____ they use it too often, they may become stupid. _____ parents are careful about their children's usage of the mobile phones, the consequences may be dangerous.
I was sitting in the living room _____ watching the television _____ Mom told me to have dinner. Pizza Hut was closed, _____ we had to eat Chinese food. Dad hates Chinese food. He hated _____ the fried rice _____ the noodles. _____, he refused to eat any food _____ Mom cooked other kinds of food. I tried to be helpful _____ giving Dad some bread _____ butter, but he refused to eat it. '_____ the food is cooked by Mom, I will not eat it,' he explained. Mom had to cook some spaghetti _____ of Dad's behavior and demand.
# English Grammar Worksheet/Should or shouldn't

* Part 1 (Jul 07, 2009)
* Part 2 (Jul 07, 2009)
* Part 3 (Jul 07, 2009)
# English Grammar Worksheet/Past simple tense/Part 1

Change the underlined verb into the past tense.
* Mill going to the mall yesterday.
* John eating a hamburger 2 weeks ago.
* Catherine swimming in hotel pool 5 days ago.
* He playing bakiak last week.
* He washing the motorcycle 3½ hours ago.
* Jill writing the letter to Scott yesterday.
* Linda ride the bike last week.
* Cheng travel to Michigan last month.
* Ling understand the school schedule last year.
* Inari eat the biscuit this morning.
* Mary commits suicide yesterday.
Change to past tense.
* drive -
* move -
* paint -
* arise -
* shake -
# English Grammar Worksheet/Possessive pronoun

Use the Correct possessive pronoun: (mine/yours/ours/his/hers/theirs)
1) Give Sally the book. It's _________.
2) I cleaned my room but Jim didn't clean __________.
3) We don't have a new house. Actually _________ is old.
4) This isn't Jack and Diana's house. _________ is downtown.
5) Give me this book. It's _________.
Turn the underlined words into possessive pronoun:
1) This book is my book.
2) George's car is black but their car is red.
3) I forgot my keys. Do you have your keys?
4) Kathy did her homework and Tom did his homework too.
5) Yuri passed his test. Did Jenny pass her test too?