OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Git/Giving Back/Code guidelines

This page's first draft was adapted from an a commit publicized on the git newsgroup by Johannes Schindelin.

## Attitude

* Most importantly, we never say "It's in POSIX; we'll happily screw your system that does not conform." We live in the real world.
* However, we often say "Let's stay away from that construct, it's not even in POSIX".
* If you are planning a new command, consider writing it in shell or perl first, so that changes in semantics can be easily changed and discussed. Many git commands started out like that, and a few are still scripts.

## Shell scripts

For shell scripts specifically (not exhaustive):
* We prefer $( ... ) for command substitution; unlike ``, it properly nests. It should have been the way Bourne spelled it from day one, but unfortunately isn't.
* We use ${parameter-word} and its [-=?+] siblings, and their colon'ed "unset or null" form.
* We use ${parameter#word} and its [#%] siblings, and their doubled "longest matching" form.
* We use Arithmetic Expansion $(( ... )).
* No "Substring Expansion" ${parameter:offset:length}.
* No shell arrays.
* No strlen ${#parameter}.
* No regexp ${parameter/pattern/string}.
* We do not use Process Substitution <(list) or >(list).
* We prefer "test" over "[ ... ]".
* We do not write noiseword function in front of shell functions.

## C Programs

For C programs:
* Use tabs to indent, and interpret tabs as taking up to 8 spaces
* Try to keep to 80 characters per line
* When declaring pointers, the star sides with the variable name, i.e. "char *string", not "char* string" or "char * string". This makes it easier to understand "char *string, c;"
* Do not use curly brackets unnecessarily. I.e. if (bla) { x = 1; } is frowned upon. A gray area is when the statement extends over a few lines, and/or you have a lengthy comment atop of it.
* Try to make your code understandable. You may put comments in, but comments invariably tend to stale out when the code they were describing changes. Often splitting a function into two makes the intention of the code much clearer.
** Double negation is often harder to understand than no negation at all.
** Some clever tricks, like using the !! operator with arithmetic constructs, can be extremely confusing to others. Avoid them, unless there is a compelling reason to use them.
* Use the API. No, really. We have a strbuf (variable length string), several arrays with the ALLOC_GROW macro, a path_list for sorted string lists, a hash map (mapping struct objects) named "struct decorate", amongst other things.
* #include system headers in git-compat-util.h. Some headers on some systems show subtle breakages when you change the order, so it is best to keep them in one place.

## Footnotes

* ^ See commit 622b80b for the precise contents.
# Git/Hosting

Here is where you can find a list of public repositories. Feel free to pull down a sample project and play with it.

## Free, public, and open source

This is a current list of repositories that will host anything (within reason) free under the condition that it is appropriately licensed and open-source.
* NotABug
* git.sv.gnu.org Free Software Foundation's official GNU Savannah Git hosting
* repo.or.cz Git's primary free repository is maintained by Petr Baudis, who is also the maintainer of the git home page. Numerous notable projects are synced to that repository such as Postgres, and Linus's copy of the linux kernel tree. The repository and all of its projects can be inspected on the web thanks to the mod_perl gitweb interface.
* Codeberg (non-profit) provides free Git hosting in Europe, for FOSS projects only
* disroot
The following sites offer free hosting and other services regardless of a project's license.
* GitHub
* GitLab
* Bitbucket

## Birds of a Feather (BOF)

Please do not ask to create a project on these public repositories unless your project relates to that of the repository.
* git.kernel.org Official Kernel git repository
* gitweb.freedesktop.org X Window System specific git repository
* git.debian.org Debian specific, hosted by Debian.

## Other

* github.com Offers free and paid repository management with some custom tools.
* Assembla Offers free public or private repository(500Mb) with Trac tickets or integrated tickets. Commercial subscriptions costs 19$/month for 2Gb of disk space.
* ↑ "The Top 10 GitHub Alternatives". 2023.
* 1 2 "Awesome GitHub Alternatives".
# Git/Overview/Deleting
## Removing Files

To remove files, use the "rm" subcommand of git.
The second variant only deletes the file from the cache, leaving the physical file in place.
# Git/Overview/Creating

Creating a local git repository is extremely simple. There are two commands that cover this functionality: git-init, and git-clone, because this is a single-developer overview git-clone is reserved for a later section.

## Creating a git repository

Creating a new git repository is simple, in the directory you want to track run git init. Or, if your playing around create a new directory.
Git should immediately come back and tell you:
The totality of your repository will be self-contained within the .git directory. Conversely, some SCMs leave droppings all over your working directory (ex, .svn, .cvs, .attic, etc.), git refrains, and puts all things in a subdirectory of the repository root aptly named .git.
Note: You may also want to create a bare repository which does not contain a copy of the working copy.
# Git/Interoperation

This chapter is about inter-operation between Git and other systems.
Git is a great version control system, but it is not the only one. Many projects still use version control systems that predate git or alternate DSCMs. Thankfully, you can still use git to participate in many of these projects, thanks to programs like git-svn, git-cvsimport, etc.
You can also work with Git directly within many text editors, IDEs and other tools.

## Customizing your command line prompt

This Bash customization script will modify your command line prompt to include some extra details whenever you're in a Git directory. It is based on Mike Stewart's work.
The current branch name is shown in red (if it's got outstanding changes) or green (if there are no changes), followed by the current path. The hostname is also shown in a low-lighted colour at the beginning.

## References

* ↑ Stewart, Mike, Ultimate GIT PS1 bash prompt
# Introduction to Psychology/Psychophysics

Psychophysics is the branch of Psychology dealing with the study of relationship between physical stimuli and individual perception. Perception is a general concept which refers to interpretation of a stimuli received by the senses. The are number of factors that affect the perception. Even the same stimuli can give different perceptions at different situations. Some of the factors that affect the perception are the individual's expectations, similarity, proximity, continuity and closure.
The propounder of the concept or discipline of psychophysics was Gustav Theodor Fechner. The concept was first mentioned in his work Elemente der Psychophysik in 1860.
# Introduction to Psychology/References

Allen, J. J. B., Harmon-Jones, E., & Cavender, J. H. (2001). Manipulation of frontal EEG asymmetry through biofeedback alters self-reported emotional responses and facial EMG. Psychophysiology, 38, 685-693.
Drake, R. A., & Myers, L. R. (2006). Visual attention, emotion, and action tendency: Feeling active or passive. Cognition and Emotion, 20, 608-622. (cited in the Emotion chapter)
Harmon-Jones, E., Vaughn-Scott, K., Mohr, S., Sigelman, J., & Harmon-Jones, C. (2004). The effect of manipulated sympathy and anger on left and right frontal cortical activity. Emotion, 4, 95-101. (Motivation and Emotion chapter)
# Introduction to Psychology/Memory/Flashbulb Memories
## (Brown & Kulik, 1977)

Where were you on September 11th? Every so-often, an event occurs that stays in the public conscience as an almost photographic memory for the rest of people's lives; JFK's assassination, Princess Diana's car crash, and many more, and we are able to recall unprecedented details about the events.
Brown & Kulik (1977) described such memories as flashbulb memories, and coined the expression "Now Print!" as the process by which such memories seem to be effortlessly created, The key characteristics of flashbulb memories are:
* Vivid
* Significant amount of detail
* Long lasting (a person may be able to recall a flashbulb memory for the rest of their lives)
* Often of emotional significance in the person's life; Robinson (1980) used cues with participants in a study and found that the recall rates for emotional word cues were faster than those for non-emotional words, which would suggest that emotion has a role in memory.
flashbulb memory is memories

## What affects flashbulb memories?

The relevance or emotional significance of an event to a person's life would seem to increase its likelihood of being stored as a 'flashbulb memory'. Brown and Kulik found that 75% of black people asked were able to recall the assassination of Martin Luther King, while just 33% of white people asked could do the same.
Excerpt from Memory at Hypnotic World Psychology. Used with permission.
# Introduction to Psychology/Neuroscience
## Introduction

Neuroscience (known archaically as psychobiology) is a relatively new scientific discipline. It arose from the merging of biology and psychology. As its name suggests, the discipline seeks to understand the biological bases of behaviour.

## Understanding the Central Nervous System

The central nervous system is composed of seven main parts. 1. the spinal cord; 2. the medulla oblongata; 3. the pons; 4. the cerebellum; 5. the midbrain; 6. the diencephalon ; and 7. the cerebral hemispheres
The nerve cells in the central nervous system are called neurons. The neuron has four main parts.
* the soma (or cell body)
* the dendrites
* the axon
* the terminal buttons
The messages are received by the dendrites, processed in the cell body, then sent down the axon to the terminal buttons. Messages may be excited or inhibited and are known as action potentials.
# Introduction to Psychology/Motivation and Emotion

An ancient, simplistic view of emotion was that positive-negative was the most interesting dimension. Magda Arnold (1969; see references chapter of this book) argued that active-passive was a more powerful conceptualization. This links the topics of emotion and motivation.
Eddie Harmon-Jones studied this issue with anger emotion. He asked whether it neurobiologically related to negative emotions or with active emotions. Is it more like the inaction of anxiety and depression or like the action tendencies associated with joy and love? Anger activates the left prefrontal cortex, like other action-oriented emotions (Harmon-Jones, Vaughn-Scott, Mohr, Sigelman, & Harmon-Jones, 2004).
This was supported by Drake and Myers (2006).

## Related books

* Cognitive Psychology and Cognitive Neuroscience/Motivation and Emotion
* Motivation and Emotion

## See also

* Introduction to motivation and emotion (Wikiversity)
# Introduction to Psychology/Neuropsychology

Neuropsychology involves the study of both healthy individuals and patients, typically who have suffered either brain injury or mental illness.
Cognitive neuropsychology and cognitive neuropsychiatry study neurological or mental impairment in an attempt to infer theories of normal mind and brain function. This typically involves looking for differences in patterns of remaining ability (known as 'functional disassociation's') which can give clues as to whether abilities are comprised of smaller functions, or are controlled by a single cognitive mechanism.
In addition, experimental techniques are often used which also apply to studying the neuropsychology of healthy individuals. These include behavioral experiments, brain-scanning or functional neuroimaging - used to examine the activity of the brain during task performance, and techniques such as transcranial magnetic stimulation, which can safely alter the function of small brain areas to investigate their importance in mental operations.
Computational modeling is a tool often used in cognitive psychology to simulate a particular behavior using a computer. This method has several advantages. Since modern computers are extremely fast, many simulations can be run in a short time, allowing for a great deal of statistical power. Modeling also allows psychologists to visualise hypotheses about the functional organization of mental events that couldn't be directly observed in a human.
Several different types of modeling are used to study behavior. Connectionism uses neural nets to simulate the brain. Another method is symbolic modeling, which represents many different mental objects using variables and rules. Other types of modeling include dynamic systems and stochastic modeling.
# Introduction to Psychology/Personality Psychology

Personality psychology studies enduring psychological patterns of behavior, thought and emotion, commonly called an individual's personality. Theories of personality vary between different psychological schools. Trait theories attempts to break personality down into a number of traits, by use of factor analysis. The number of traits have varied between theories. One of the first, and smallest, models was that of Hans Eysenck, which had three dimensions: extraversion—introversion, neuroticism—emotional stability, and psychoticism. Raymond Cattell proposed a theory of 16 personality factors. The theory that has most empirical evidence behind it today may be the "Big Five" theory, proposed by Lewis Goldberg and others.
A different, but well known, approach to personality is that of Sigmund Freud, whose structural theory of personality divided personality into the ego, superego, and id. Freud's theory of personality has been criticized by many, including many mainstream psychologists.
# Introduction to Psychology/Psychotherapy and Intervention

Editing Introduction to Psychology/Psychotherapy and Intervention
# Grand Theft Auto: Liberty City Stories

Grand Theft Auto: Liberty City Stories is a non-linear driving and shooting game released by Rockstar North on October 25, 2005 for the PlayStation Portable. A PlayStation 2 port was released on June 6, 2006 without support for multiplayer game modes to the PlayStation 3 release date on April 2, 2013. The iOS released on December 17, 2015. and the Android released on February 11, 2016. As the title implies, the game involves an amount of crime and plenty of carjacking. There is a sequel to this game, called Grand Theft Auto: Vice City Stories that is also on PSP.

## Table of contents

* Story
* Controls - A guide on how to play the game
* Vehicles - Listing of vehicles appearing in Liberty City Stories
* Weapons - A list of usable weapons
* Hidden Packages
* Rampages
* Outfits

### Missions
#### Vincenzo Cilli Missions

* Home Sweet Home
* Slacker
* Dealing Revenge
* Snuff
* Smash and Grab
* Hot Wheels

#### JD O'Toole Missions

* Bone Voyeur
* Don in 60 Seconds
* A Volatile Situation
* Blow up 'Dolls'

#### Ma Cipriani Missions

* Snappy Dresser
* Big Rumble in Little China
* Grease Sucho
* Dead Meat
* No Son of Mine
# Government and Binding Theory/The pro-drop Parameter

Apart from PRO, which we have seen in the last chapter, there's another type of null subject. For example, in written Finnish, first and second-person subject pronouns are generally omitted (although they are intact in speech):
(1)
Personal pronouns :
| Finnish | English |
| Singular ||
| minä | I |
| sinä | you |
| hän | he or she |
| Plural ||
| me | we |
| te | you |
| he | they |
| Polite ||
| Te | you |
The dropping of minä, sinä, me and te is not the same as the dropping of PRO:
* The dropping is optional.
* If the resulting null subject were PRO, the PRO theorem would be violated.
* The resulting null subject is not subject to control.
This led to the introduction of another null subject known as little pro. pro-drop does not apply to all languages though. For example, English and French do not allow it:
(2a) *Is the best professor in the field of theoretical linguistics. (2b) *Est le meilleur professeur dans le domaine de la linguistique théorique.

## Properties of pro-drop languages
### Rizzi's other properties

Rizzi listed several properties common to pro-drop languages:
* No pleonastic subjects
* Subject-VP inversion is possible
* wh-elements can be extracted more easily in certain situations
Let's examine these properties one by one. Chinese, which is pro-drop, does not have pleonastic subjects, such as the following example in Mandarin:
(3a) Xia yu-le. (Fall rain-asp.) (It has rained.) [Note: It is controversial in linguistics whether 'xia yu' is a word or a phrase, as it has the properties of both. This is irrelevant to the present discussion.] (3b) *Has rained.
Although Italian is primarily SVO, it allows subject-VP inversion, as shown in Rizzi's own example below, while French generally doesn't:
(4a) Ha telefonato Gianni. (has telephoned Gianni) (Gianni has telephoned) (4b) *A téléphoné Jean. (has telephoned Jean) [Note: French allows subject-verb inversions in certain cases like relative clauses, but this is again irrelevant.]
# Government and Binding Theory/Ā-Movements

There was a pair we left out just now:
(1a) You will try to steal what? (1b) What will you try to steal?
There are actually two movements in play. The first is the movement of what to the beginning of sentence, and the second is the inversion of you and will. If you're a visual person, here's what the D- and S-structures look like:
As you can tell from the distance travelled by will and what, these are two different types of inversion that have to be dealt with separately. We discuss the movement of what in this chapter. It is a form of Ā-movement or Wh-movement.

## Wh-movements

First, we have to make sure we understand what the wh-elements really are. In English, there are several wh-elements, used in interrogatives and relative clauses:
* DPs: what, which + noun, who...
* PPs: at which + noun, by whom + noun...
* APs: how informed, how silly...
It is important to note that not all of these are arguments. Quite a few of them can actually be adjuncts. Consider the following examples: (3a) Why are you here? (3b) When did you come to school? (3c) This isn't the road by which he came.
Movements which bring the preposition along are called Pied Piper movements.
Regardless of whether they are arguments or not, wh-elements all move to the beginning of the clause, a non-argument position. This type of movement is the Ā-movement:
* Ā-movements
* A type of movement whereby any phrase moves to a non-argument position.
We know that these movements are to non-argument positions, but there remains a question: Where exactly are these positions? We've filled up the IP's specifier position with the subject, so it can't be this. Well, remember that above the IP, we still have the CP structure. The head and specifier spots of the CP are open. We can conclude that the wh-element moves to the specifier position. In the next chapter, we will see that the auxiliary moves to the head position of the CP - let's leave that for now. Diagrammatically:
[DIAGRAM NEEDED]

### Note on other languages

Note that some languages do not have wh-movements. The existence of wh-movements is parametric. Consider this Cantonese example: (6a) Nei heoi-zo bindou? (You go-asp. where?) (6b) *Bindou heoi-zo nei? (Where go-asp. you?)

## Focus and Topic

There is another type of Ā-movement worthy of attention:
(7a) This book, I've read a hundred times already. (7b) Scarcely had I finished my meal when the phone rang.
Yet it would be problematic to move these to complementiser specifier position as they come after the complementiser:
(8a) I told him that this book, I'd read a hundred times already. (8b) It's unfortunate that scarcely had I finished my meal when the phone rang.
This gave rise to the Articulated CP Hypothesis.
[UNDER CONSTR]
# Grand Theft Auto: Liberty City Stories/A Volatile Situation
## Prerequisites

* Missions: Don in 60 Seconds
* Location: JD's strip club, Red Light District, Portland

## Walkthrough

The Sindaccos want to take out the Leone casino! You have to stop them. This is probably your first very hard mission. You have to have some big guns to beat this mission. So go down to Ammu-Nation and buy the biggest gun they have. Go to the yellow marker and you will get a phine call from JD. He says that they are coming with cars with bombs to destroy the casino. The first 2 waves come in normal Sindacco cars. A guy will come out and you have to shoot him to stop him form putting the bomb on the wall. The next car that comes will be a Patriot. The same thing will happen. A guy will get out and you will have to shoot him. The fourth and final wave is a big truck rigged with a bomb. when they come and get out steal the truck and drive it as far away as possible. When the meter is full get out and run like heck. Once the bomb explodes you have beaten the mission.

## Tips

* There is an AK-47 a couple roofs over from Jd's. So go up his back stairs and hop a couple roofs until you reach the blue one. The gun is under a water cooler.
* There is really no cover for this mission so body armor would be a real help.
* There is health behind the casino in an alley if you run low.
* Once the bomb is on the casino wall it CANNOT be defused.

## Reward

* $1000
# Atoms

Atoms are the smallest pieces of matter that still retain elemental form. An atom is rarely alone in space, but is more likely to be grouped with other atoms to form molecules. Molecules are groups of atoms that form either pure elements (all of one type of atom) or compounds (mixtures of different types of atoms within a molecule) Atoms are usually depicted as a transparant globe containing a nucleus and its attendant electrons. The transparant globe is the Atomic Wall.

## Structure
### Components

Atoms contain several component particles.
* Proton -- a nucleaic particle with Atomic Weight of 1au containing a positive charge
* Neutron -- a nucleaic particle with Atomic Weight of 1au containing a neutral charge
* Electron -- a nucleaic particle with Atomic Weight of 0.0009au containing a negative charge
While protons and neutrons are always grouped together in the center at the nucleus, electrons orbit in electron shells within the electron cloud
It contains protons (particles with a mass of one Atomic Unit containing a positive charge) and neutrons (particles with a mass of one atomic unit and a neutral charge). The nucleus is the most massive piece of the atom, containing 99.99% of the atom's mass. The second part of the atom is the electron cloud which is made up of several electron shells.
The picture to the right is of a Helium-2 atom. It contains 2 protons (red circles), 2 neutrons (green circles), and 2 Electrons (yellow circles). In an atom, the number of protons must be equal to the number of neutrons or the atom would collapse.
This atom is regular helium or Helium-2. Helium-2 is the first, most stable isotope of helium. Isotope is noted in an atom name by the number following the Element which is always equal to the number of neutrons in a single atom of that isotope. Neutrons are the only particles that can be added or removed within an atom without changing the elemental properties. However, changing the isotope of a substance can alter more minor features. Changing the isotope of Uranium cannot make it a gas, but it can, for example make the Uranium more radioactive. When a particle is given more neutrons than the nuclear force can hold within the atom they begin to be released. Depending on the element, this process can take any amount of time from a few milliseconds to millions of years. This time of loss of neutrons is called a half-life and the process of losing particles is called decay. Isotopes that have this decay are known as Unstable Isotopes Unstable Isotopes usually decay until they reach a point where they become stable again. However, some elements have no stable isotopes, and therefore will continue to decay, losing protons and electrons in the process creating a lighter, more stable element altogether.