# Lower Sorbian/Grammar/Declension of nouns
## Masculine nouns
### Hard stems

Hard-stemmed are those nouns that aren't soft-stemmed.
| | singular | plural | dual |
| NOM | dub `oak` [1] | duby [7] | duba |
| GEN | duba [4] | dubow [8] | dubowu |
| DAT | dubu [6] | dubam | duboma |
| ACC | =NOM./GEN. [2] | =NOM./GEN. [3] | =NOM./GEN. [3] |
| INS | dubom | dubami | duboma |
| LOC | dubje [5] | dubach | duboma |
[1] moving vowels: (a) -e-, (b) -o-, (c) -a- (and their soft counterparts), that stay in NOM. sg., but they disappear in oblique cases, e.g. (a) wogeń-wognja `fire`, wugeń-wugnja `chimney`, wugel-wugla `coal`, robel-robla `sparrow`, keŕ-krja `bush`, kóśeł-kotła `kettle`, nugeł-nugła `corner`, charchel-charchla `reflux`, źeń-dńa `day`; (b) djaboł-djabła `devil`, kozoł-kozła `goat`, wopor-wopra `casualty, sacrifice`; (c) pjas-psa `dog`, błazan-błazna `fool, jester`
[2] the category of animacy ACC. sg. = = { animate nouns = GEN.}, e.g. cłowjeka `of a man` = { unanimate nouns = NOM.}, e.g. dub `of an oak`
[3] the category of personhood (note: every personal nouns is also an animate noun) ACC. pl., du. =
= { personal nouns = GEN.}, e.g. cłowjekow `of men` = { impersonal nouns = NOM.}, e.g. duby `of oaks`
[4] endings of hard stem GEN. sg.: (a) –a, (b) –u (a) -a only nouns:
* 2- and more sylable nouns, e.g. cłowjek-cłowjeka
* animate nouns, np. syn-syna `son`, pjas-psa
* (1) most `bridge`, (2) list `letter; leaf`, (3) kut `corner`, (4) kśud `whip; torment`, (5) kwět `flower`, (6) šćit `defence; shield`, (7) sud `court`, (8) pšut `stock; sprout; tail`
(b) -u only nouns: (1) dom-domu `house`, (2) mjod-mjodu `honey` (c) nouns hesitating between -a/-u endings: 1-sylable unanimate nouns (it happens that a choice of the ending changes the meaning, e.g. dwór-dwóra `farm` : dwór-dwóru `yard`, lud-luda `people, nation` : lud-ludu `people, folk`]
[5] LOC. sg. hard stem masculine endings: (a) –je, (b) –u:
(a) -je only nouns:
* nouns not mentioned in (b) and (c)
* exceptional nouns ending with –k: bok - na boce `side`, flak - na flace `place`, Pśiłuk - w Pśiłuce `Preilack`, rarely also jězyk - na jězyce `language`
(b) -u only nouns:
* nouns ending with -z, -s, -c, -ž, -š, -k, e.g. woz - na wozu, gólc - we gólcu `boy`
* some nouns ending with –d i –g: (1) rod-w rodu `sex`, (2) bog - w bogu `god`*, (3) lud - w ludu*, (4) rěd - po rědu `order` - in that meaning (*), (5) narod - pśi narodu `birth`, (6) nałog - po nałogu `habit` [forms with (*) go only with the -u form]
(c) nouns hesitating between -ja and -u: nouns ending with -u, e.g. brjuch - w brjuchu / w brjuše `stomach`, měch - w měchu / w měše `bag`, proch - w prochu / w proše `dust`
[6] DAT. sg. hard stem masculine endings: (a) –u, (b) –oju: (a) -u only nouns:
* majority of nouns ending with -s, -z, e.g., np. cas-casu `time`, wóz-wózu `wagon`
* first of the nouns in a concatenation of 2 personal nouns, e.g. kněz faraŕ-knězu faraŕeju `Mr. priest`
(b) –oju only nouns:
* personal nouns, e.g. nana-nanoju `dad`, syn-synoju
* nouns with GEN. sg. ending with -u, e.g. dom-domoju, dwór-dwóroju
* nouns with LOC. sg. ending with -u, e.g. casnik-casnikoju `newspaper`, grěch-grěchoju `sin`
(c) nouns with -u or -oju: the rest not mentioned in (a) and (b)
[7] NOM. pl. hard stem masculine endings: (a) –y, (b) –e, (c) –i: (a) -y only nouns
* nouns not mentioned in (b) and (c)
* historically hard-stemmed nouns ending with -z, -s, e.g. pjas-psy, cas-casy, głos-głosy `voice`, woz-wozy, kłos-kłosy `ear of grain`, włos-włosy `hair`, kus-kusy `piece`, raz-razy `time; blow`
* nouns ended with –tš, np. wětš-wětšy `wind`, jatš-jatšy `Easter`, pśětš-pśetšy `crow beaming`, Pětš-Pětšy `Peter`, kmotš-kmotšy `godfather`
* rarely also personal nouns ending with -c, alternatively with the ending -c, e.g. gólc-gólcy
(b) -e only nouns
* nouns ending with -z, -s, -c, -ž, -š, -č, e.g. rjeśaz-rjeśaze `chain`, mjasec-mjasece `month, moon`, škórc-škórce `starling`, towariš-towariše `comrade`, muž-muže `husband; man`
(c) -i only nouns
* nouns ending with –k, -g, np. cłowjek-cłowjeki, nałog-nałogi
* (1) bratš-bratśi `brother`, (2) stari `parents`
(d) nouns hesitating between -y and -i endings: cart-carśi/carty `devil`, sused-suseźi/susedy `neighbour`, cygan-cygani/cygany `Gypsy`, Žyd-Žyźi/Žydy `Jew`, profet-profeśi/profety `prophet`, nan-nani/nany `father` [forms ending with -y name particular persons, with -i - the whole genus]
[8] GEN. pl. hard stem masculines: beside –ow ending there exist: (a) null ending - after numerals and prepositions and always in case of settlement names, e.g. korc - pěś korc `tub (measure of volume)`, gody - do god `Christmas`, jatšy - do jatš, kamjeny - do kamjen `oven (pl.tant.)`, pśěg woł `ox carriage`, šesć muž, styri raz, do Dreždźan (b) -y ending, used in same situations as (a) in case of nouns ending with -z, -s, -c, -ž, -š, -č, e.g. pjenez-pjenezy `money`

### Soft stems

Nouns ending with ź, ś, ć, j, l, ŕ, b’, p’, m’, ń, w’
| | singular | plural | dual |
| NOM | kóń `horse` [1] | kónje [7] | kónja |
| GEN | kónja | kónjow [8] | kónjowu |
| DAT | kónjoju [6] | kónjam | kónjoma |
| ACC | =NOM./GEN. [2] | =NOM./GEN. [3] | =NOM./GEN. [3] |
| INS | kónjom | kónjami | kónjoma |
| LOC | kónju | kónjach | kónjoma |
[1] Cf. moving vowels (Hard stems 1)
[2] Cf. animacy (Hard stems 2)
[3] Cf. personhood (Hard stems 3)
[6] DAT. sg. soft stem masculine endings: (a) –oju, (b) –u, (c) –eju:
(a) nouns ending with -oju: all, except those mentioned in (b) and (c) (b) –u nouns: (1) kij-kiju `stock`, (2) znoj-znoju `sweat`, (3) złoźej-złoźeju `thief`, (4) łokś-łokśu `elbow` (c) –eju nouns: nouns ending with '–aŕ i –al, denoting profession names, e.g. faraŕ-fararjeju `priest`, kowal-kowaleju `blacksmith`
[8] GEN. pl. soft stem masculine endings: apart from –ow ending, there exists -i ending, which is used in those cases, as in point Hard stems, 8a, e.g. tyźeń - wjele tyźeni `week`

### Exceptions

[1] a nouns luźe `people`
| NOM. pl. | luźe |
| GEN. pl. | luźi |
| DAT. pl. | luźam |
| ACC. pl. | luźi, resp. luźe |
| INS. pl. | luźimi |
| LOC. pl. | luźach |
[2] NOM. sg. źeń `dzień` - GEN. sg. dnja and further on like kóń (alternate LOC. sg. we dnjo) - NOM. ACC. pl. dny
[3] following nouns make special collective plural forms: kněz-kněža `mister-mistress and mistress`, bur-burja `peasant-peasantry`, kmotš-kmotša `godfather-godparents`

### Alternative and relic forms

[1] apart from INS. pl. ending with –ami, there exists INS. pl. ending with –ymi (-imi)
[2] there exist relics of vocative case: (1) kněžo! `mister`, (2) nano! `father`, (3) of deminutives: bratśiko! `little brother`, wujko! `little uncle`, synko! `little son`, (4) of 1-sylable colloquial forms of masculine names: Mato!, Fryco!, Hanzo!, (5) of surnames endings with consonantal groups: Latk - kněz Latko!, Mětk - kněz Mětko!

### Masculine nouns ending with -a

They are inflected following the patterns of feminine nouns, e.g. wojwoda `prince`, družba, podružba `best man (on a wedding)`, groba `count`, borša `apprentice`, šołta `commune leader`, nawožeńa `groom`, patriarcha, profeta, itd.; they are generally defined in masculine gender, however, rarely can they stay in feminine, e.g. taka nara, našeje boršy

## Neuter nouns
### Hard stems

| | singular | plural | dual |
| NOM | słowo `word` | słowa | słowje |
| GEN | słowa | słowow [2] | słowowu |
| DAT | słowu | słowam | słowoma |
| ACC | =NOM. | =NOM. | =NOM. |
| INS | słowom | słowami | słowoma |
| LOC | słowje [1] | słowach | słowoma |
[1] LOC. sg. hard stem neuter endings:
(a) –je: a typical ending (b) –u:
* an alternative form in over-2-sylable-long nouns ending with -stwo, e.g. w kśesćijaństwu
* an alternative form of wucho - we wuchu : we wuše `ear`
* nouns woko – we woku `eye`, łyko – pśi łyku `bast`
* diminutives ending with –ko, np. blidko – na blidku `little table`
[2] GEN. pl. hard stem neuter endings: apart from –ow ending, there also exists null ending - it follows numerals and prepositions, it's also a default form for settlement names e.g. słowo – wjele słow

### Soft stems

Neuter nouns ending with a soft consonant and those ending with -z, -s, -c, -ž, -š, -č
| | sg. | pl. | du. |
| NOM | mórjo `sea` [3] | mórja | móri [6] |
| GEN | mórja | mórjow [2] | mórjowu |
| DAT | mórju [5] | mórjam | mórjoma |
| ACC | =NOM. | =NOM. | =NOM. |
| INS | mórjom [4] | mórjami | mórjoma |
| LOC | mórju | mórjach | mórjoma |
[2] also null ending of GEN. pl. (Hard stems 2)
[3] following nouns have ending of NOM. sg. -je (1) strowje `health`, (2) zele `herb`, (3) wjasele `happiness`, (4) kopje `copy`, (5) žyźe `velvet`, (6) pjerje `feather`, (7) verbal nouns ending with -nje, np. wuknjenje `learning`
[4] in LOC. sg. of soft stem neuters there are following endings:
(a) –om: nouns with NOM. sg. ending with –o (b) –im: nouns with NOM sg. ending with -je, e.g. daśe - w daśi `giving`, (c) –i: only in a phrase na poli `in the field`
[5] in DAT. sg. there is also an alternative ending –oju, often used for 1-sylable nouns (wokno – we woknoju `window`) and verbal nouns (kšyśe – ku kšyśoju `hiding`)
[6] II palatalisation + corelation i:y - after ź, ś, ć, j, l, ŕ, b’, p’, m’, ń, w’: -i - after z, s, c, ž, š, č: -y

### Consonant stems [1]

| | sg. | pl. | du. |
| NOM | zwěrje `animal` | zwěrjeta | zwěrjeśi |
| GEN | zwěrjeśa | zwěrjetow [2] | zwěrjeśowu [4] |
| DAT | zwěrjeśu | zwěrjetam | zwěrjeśoma [4] |
| ACC | =NOM. | =NOM. | =NOM. |
| INS | zwěrjeśim[3] | zwěrjetami | zwěrjeśoma[4] |
| LOC | zwěrjeśu | zwěrjetach | zwěrjeśoma [4] |
[1] there are 2 types of thematic extensions (underlined part of a word in the table): (a) jeś:jet, (b) jenj, np. znamje-znamjenja `sign`; in the type (b) belongs also a word mě''-měnja `name`
[2] also null ending in GEN. pl. (Hard stems 2)
[3] more rarely instead of INS. sg. ending of neuter consonant-stemmed nouns –im comes –om
[4] in du. neuter nouns with -jeś:jet- take sometimes also hard thematic extension –jet–, np. zwěrjetoma

### Exceptions

[1] a noun źiśe `child`:
* in sg. it has only NOM. and ACC.
* in pl. it's inflected like consonant-stemmed neuter without thematic extension
* lacking sg. and du. forms are replaced with consonant-stemmed neuter noun with jeś:jet góle
| | sg. | pl. | du. |
| NOM | źiśe | źiśi | góleśi |
| GEN | góleśa | źiśi | góleśowu |
| DAT | góleśu | źiśam | góleśoma |
| ACC | =NOM. | =NOM. | =NOM. |
| INS | góleśim | źiśimi | góleśoma |
| LOC | góleśu | źiśach | góleśoma |
[2] plural and dual number of words (1) woko, (2) wucho
| NOM. ACC. du. | wócy | wušy |
| GEN. du. | wócowu | wušowu |
| DAT. INS. LOC. du. | wócyma | wušyma |
| NOM. ACC. pl. | wócy | wušy |
| GEN. pl. | wócow | wušow |
| DAT. pl. | wócam | wušam |
| INS. pl. | wócymi | wušymi |
| LOC. pl. | wócach | wušach |
similarly wobwócy `eyebrows`, yet woko i wucho in metaphorical meanings - regularly
[3] alternative GEN. pl. of wokno: woken

### Alternative and relic forms

[1] apart from INS. pl. ending with –ami there exists ending –ymi (imi)
[2] in DAT. sg. of consonant-stemmed neuter nouns there can come an alternative ending –oju

## Feminine nouns
### Hard stems ending with -a

+ (1) łdza `tear`,(2) sotša `sister`, (3) kmotša `godmother`
| | sg. | pl. | du. |
| NOM | ryba `fish` | ryby [1] | rybje |
| GEN | ryby [1] | rybow [2] | rybowu |
| DAT | rybje | rybam | ryboma |
| ACC | rybu | ryby [1] | rybje |
| INS | rybu | rybami | ryboma |
| LOC | rybje | rybach | ryboma |
[1] so called IV palatalisation: after k, g ending –i instead of –y, e.g. ruka-ruki
[2] endings of GEN. pl. of hard stem feminines: except from -ow ending there xists null ending, which follow numerals and prepositions and is always used in case of settlement names, e.g. krowa – wjele krow `cow`, wójca – mało wójc `sheep`

### Soft stems ending with -a and -wej

+ those ending with historically soft -z, -s, -c, -ž, -š, -č [4]
| | sg. | pl. | du. |
| NOM | duša `dusza` | duše | dušy [3] |
| GEN | duše | dušow [2] | dušowu |
| DAT | dušy [3] | dušam | dušoma |
| ACC | dušu | duše | dušy [3] |
| INS | dušu | dušami | dušoma |
| LOC | dušy [3] | dušach | dušoma |
[2] endings of soft stem feminine GEN. pl. : apart from –ow ending there exists also –i : –y ending (Cf. [3]) – it follows numerals and prepositions and is always used in case of settlement names, e.g. duša – wjele dušy
[3] i:y corelation
* after ź, ś, ć, j, l, ŕ, b’, p’, m’, ń, w’: -i
* after z, s, c, ž, š, č: -y
[4] in indlection of feminine soft stem nouns ending with –wej in oblique cases e falls out and w is becoming softened, e.g. cerkwej-cerkwje `church`

### Soft stems ending with consonant

a soft consonant or a historically soft-z, -s, -c, -ž, -š, -č
| | sg. | pl. | du. |
| NOM | rěc `language` | rěcy [3] | rěcy [3] |
| GEN | rěcy [3] | rěcow [2] | rěcowu |
| DAT | rěcy [3] | rěcam | rěcoma |
| ACC | rěc | rěcy [3] | rěcy [3] |
| INS | rěcu | rěcami | rěcoma |
| LOC | rěcu [5] | rěcach | rěcoma |
[2] ending of GEN. pl. of consonant feminines: apart from the ending –ow there exists ending –i : –y (cf. [3]) – it follows numerals and prepositions and is always used in case of settlement names, e.g. rěc – wjele rěcy
[3] i:y corelation (cf. Hard stems 3)
[5] LOC. sg. endings of consonant feminies:
(a) –i: for nouns ending with a soft consonant (ź, ś, ć, j, l, ŕ, b’, p’, m’, ń, w’), e.g. kazń-kazni `commmandment` (b) –u: for nouns ending with a historically soft consonant (z, s, c, ž, š, č)

### Alternative and relic forms

[1] apart from INS. pl. ending with –ami there exist also an ending –ymi (imi), which is particularly often used with the names of domestic animals, np. gus - z gusymi `goose with geese`
[2] a bookish and relatively rare word maś `mother` is a relic of a so-called r-stem declension: GEN. sg. maśerje (maśi) - DAT. sg. maśeri (maśi) - ACC. sg. maśeŕ - INS. sg. maśerju - LOC. sg. maśeri (maśi) - VOC. sg. maśi (maś) - du. and pl. regularly: maśeri, maśerjowu, etc.
[3] a noun kněni `mistress` before surnames isn't inflected, e.g. daj to kněni Krawcowej