# Latin/Lesson 4-Adverbs and Prepositions
## Comparatives and Superlatives of Adjectives (Comparativa et superlativa adjectivorum)

Lesson Vocabulary :
| Latin | English |
| fortis, forte | strong, brave |
| vir | man |
| long-us, -a, -um | long |
| ingeniosus, -a, -um | clever, talented |
| denarius, -i, m. | denarius (unit of currency) |
| soror, sororis, f. | sister |
| quam | than |
| habet | he/she has |
There are three types of adjectives: Positive (the 'normal' adjective, eg. the brave man: fortis vir), Comparative (eg. the braver man, or the rather brave man: fortior vir) and Superlative (eg. the bravest man, or the very brave man: fortissimus vir). Comparatives and superlatives of adjectives are usually formed by appending the suffix -ior for masculine/feminine nouns and -ius for neuter ones (genitive is -ioris) to form the comparative. Append the suffix -issimus to form the superlative. However, the superlatives of adjectives ending in -er (eg. the fair boy: pulcher puer) are formed by adding the suffix -rimus to the Nominative, then we will have pulcherrimus puer (fairest puer).
All comparatives are declined like third declension nouns while superlatives are declined like second declension nouns, and thus must match the gender of the noun the superlative modifies. Often stem changes occur when appending theses suffixes.
Adjective: longus (long) :
| longus | longior | longissimus |
| long | longer | longest |
Adjective: pulcher (fair) :
| pulcher | pulchrior | pulcherrimus |
| fair | fairer | fairest |

### Irregular Adjectives

Fortunately, there are only a few irregular adjectives.
Irregular Adjectives :
| Meaning | Positive | Comparative | Superlative |
| good | bonus | melior (better) | optimus (best) |
| bad | malus | peior (worse) | pessimus (worst) |
| large, great | magnus | maior | maximus |
| small | parvus | minor | minimus |
| many | multus | plus | plurimus |
Examples:
| Latin | English |
| Marcus est fortior quam Publius | Marcus is braver than Publius |
| Publius ingeniosior est quam Marcus | Publius is more clever than Marcus |
| Marcus plures denarios habet quam Publius | Marcus has more denariuses$^1$ than Publius |
| Publius plures sorores habet quam Marcus | Publius has more sisters than Marcus |
| 1: We won't say "Marcus has more money" (pecunia) since plus in the singular takes the genitive case, which will not be covered for a few more lessons ||

## Adverbs

Adverbs are formed usually by replacing the suffix appended to the stem with the -e, or -i and sometimes -um in the first and second declension. For the third declension, usually the suffix appended is replaced by -iter.
Adverbs modify the verb in the clause that contains the adverb. The adverb may be placed anywhere with the clause. Adverbs may be of positive, comparative and superlative form. Unlike adjectives and substantives, adverbs do not have declension or gender. And thus they are referred to as being 'indeclinable.' The following suffixes are appended to form the comparative and superlative forms of adverbs: -ius for comparatives and -issime for superlative.

### Examples

Adverbs :
| verum | verius | verissime |
| truly | more truly | most truly |
Adverbs :
| fortiter | fortius | fortissime |
| bravely | more bravely | most bravely |
Irregular adjectives form adverbs regularly from the adjective forms.
For example:
* melior (better) -> melius
* maximus (greatest) -> maxime
Some adverbs do not come from adjectives but rather exist on their own:
* diu (for a long time) -> diutius, diutissime
* saepe (often) -> saepius, saepissime

### Exercise 1

* What is the comparative adverbial form of sol-us, sol-a, sol-um (alone)?
* What is the positive adverbial form of laetus? (happy)
* What is the positive adjectival form of īrātior? (angrier)
* What is the positive adverbial form of certus? (certain)
* What is the superlative adjectival form of certus?
* What is the superlative adverbial form of certe?
* What is the superlative adjectival form of male?
* What is the superlative adverbial form of malus?
* What is the comparative adjectival form of dēsertus? (deserted)
* Solius
* Laete
* Īrātus
* Certe
* Certissimus
* Certissime
* Pessimus
* Pessime
* Dēsertior

## Conjunctions

Conjunctions are indeclinable particles that join clauses together to form sentences. Examples of forms of conjunctions in English are: and, but and so. Conjunctions are either coordinating (joining two main clauses) or subordinating (joining a subclause to a main clause).
List of Common Conjunctions :
| Coordinating Conjunctions ||
| atque | and |
| aut | or |
| aut...aut^^ | either...or |
| enim (usually placed second in sentence) | for |
| ergo | and so, therefore |
| et | and |
| et...et^ | both...and |
| igitur | therefore |
| itaque | and so |
| nam | for |
| nec/neque | and not, nor |
| nec/neque...nec/neque^ | neither...nor |
| -que* | and |
| sed | but |
| tamen (usually placed second in a sentence | however |
| Subordinating Conjunctions ||
| cum | when |
| dum | while, for the time |
| nisī | unless, except |
| quamquam | however |
| quod | because |
| sī | if |
| ubi | where, when |
| ut | as/with result clauses: in order to, so, to |

### Exercise 2

Notes :
| virtus, virtutis | virtue, courage | |
| in animo habeo | I have in mind, I intend | Takes an infinitive |
| ire | to go | The indicative forms (I go, you go, etc) are eo, is, it, imus, itis, eunt |
| hodie | today | hodie is an adverb, don't try to use it as a noun ("Today is a good day") |
| domi | at home | An instance of the locative case, normally used for cities |
| ambulat | he/she walks | |
| forum, -i | marketplace | |
Based upon your reading of the table of conjunctions, how would one translate these sentences?
* Aut tu es bonus aut tu es malus ergo dīc mihi vēritātem (tell me the truth).
* Cavēte canem quod nec estis fortes nec cum virtūte.
* Puer ē forō cum canē ambulat
* Et canis et cattus sunt laetī.
* In animō habeō īre ad grammaticum hodiē sed habeō labōrem (work) domī.

## Prepositions

You have met a few prepositions already. Prepositions are indeclinable and genderless. Prepositions are placed before substantives and adjectives. Most prepositions take only the accusative or ablative case. Some prepositions may take both, however their meanings differ depending on the case.
List of Common Prepositions :
| Prepositions Taking the Accusative Case ||
| ad | to |
| ante | before |
| circum | around |
| contra | against |
| extra | outside |
| in* | into |
| inter | between, among |
| per | through |
| post | after |
| prope | near |
| propter | because of |
| super | above |
| trans | across |
| Prepositions Taking The Ablative Case ||
| a/ab** | from |
| cum | with |
| de | about, down from |
| e/ex** | out of |
| in* | in |
| pro | for, on behalf of |
| sine | without |
| sub | under |
| *notice the two different meanings of in depending on the case ||
| ** Similar to a/an in English, the form with the consonant is used when the following word begins with a vowel or 'h'. ||
Ablative case forms for nouns and adjectives :
| Nominative singular | puell-a (1st decl.) | domin-us (2nd decl. m.) | triclini-um (2nd decl. n.) | canis (3rd decl.) |
| Ablative singular | puell-ā | domin-o | tricilini-o | can-e |
| Ablative plural | puell-is | domin-is | triclini-is | can-ibus |

### Exercise 3

English :
| ero eris erit erimus eritis erunt | I will be You will be He/she will be We will be You will be They will be |
| dives, divitis | wealthy |
| aedificium, -i | building |
| anima, -ae | mind, soul |
| venit | he/she comes |
Translate the following sentences:
* ero domum (Latin omits 'ad' with 'domus,' specific city names, and small islands; e.g. Eunt Romam = They go [to] Rome.)
* cum bona fortuna ero dives!
* circum agrum est aedificium cum atrio
* tu non es vir sine animis.
* familia venit cum amore.

## List of Frequent Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions in Latin

Taken from http://www.georgetown.edu/faculty/irvinem/classics203/resources/latin.lex
* atque, ac (conj): and [also], and; atque is used before consonants, ac before vowels
* ad modum: adv. very, quite; fully; + neg. = at all
* ad huc/adhuc: thus far, as yet, still, in addition, in the future
* aliquam: in some degree
* aliqui -qua -quod: some, any
* aliquis -qua -quid: someone, something; some, any
* aliquando: at times, sometimes; once, formerly
* aliquotiens: several times, at different times
* at (form of ad = in addition to): but (intro startling transitions)
* atque: and as well, even, together with, in everything;
* atque...atque, both..and
* atqui: rather, however, but at any rate, but for all that (transition in arg.)
* aut: or, at least, or else; aut...aut: either...or
* autem: but, on the other hand, however
* coram: adv. and prep. in the presence of, before
* dehinc: adv. while, from here, from now, henceforth; then, next
* deinde: adv. from there; then, afterwards; secondly, next (in order), in the second (next) place
* demum: adv. at last, finally, not till then; precisely, exactly, just, in fact, certainly, to be sure; modo demum: only now, just now.
* denique: adv. finally
* donec: while, as long as, until
* dum: conj. while, now; so long as, provided that, if only; until
* enim: (conj) namely, indeed, certainly, in fact, for, because
* eo quod: because
* etenim: (conj) and indeed, for, as a matter of fact
* etiam: also, besides; even, actually; (time) still
* etsi: (conj.) though, although, and yet
* fas (est): indecl. (it is) right, proper
* huc: here, to this place; so far, for this purpose
* ibi: there, then, therein, on that occassion
* idcirco: for that reason, on that account, therefore
* ideo: therefore, for this reason
* illuc: (adv.) (to) there; to that; to him/her
* immo: (adv.) or rather; indeed; no, yes (emphasis)
* interdum: occasionally, sometimes, now and then
* inde: from there, from that source, then, after; from then
* iuxta: (adv) near by, alike, equally; (prep) close to, right after, near to, beside.
** iuxta (7th-15th c.): according to
** iuxta aliquid: to some extent
* ita: thus, so, in this way; ita...ut: just as, so...that
** ita...quomodo: just as
* licet: all right; (with dat + inf) it is right for someone to; (conj) although, even if
* modo: only, just now
* necnon: also, moreover, certainly, besides
* nempe: to be sure, of course
* non numquam: sometimes
* nondum: not yet
* nonnullus -a -um: some, several
* nuper: recently, lately
* nusquam: nowhere
* ob: before, in front of; on account of, because of; for the sake of; instead of; in proportion to
** ob rem: to the purpose, usefully
** quam ob rem: wherefore, accordingly
* olim: once; of old; one day
* praeterea: besides, moreover; hereafter
* postea: afterwards
* postmodum: afterwards; presently
* procul: far off
* proinde: adv. consequently, therefore; just as
* propterea: for that reason, therefore
* prorsus/prorsum: (adv.) forwards; absolutely; in short
* prout: (conj) according as
* qua: (adv) where, as far as, how; qua..qua: partly...partly
* qualibit: anywhere, any way, as you please
* qualis -e: what sort of, what kind of, such as, as
* qualiter: adv. how, as, just as
* quam: (adv) how, how much; as, very
* quamdiu: as long as; while; inasmuch as
* quamquam: although
* quamvis: (adv) however; (conj) although
* quando: when (after nisi, ne) ever; (conj) when, since, because
* quandoque: (adv) at some time; (conj) whenever, as often as, since
* quantum: (adv) as much as, as far as, so much as, to what extent
* quantus: how great, how much
** in quantum: to what extent
** quanto: for how much
* quantum ad: in terms of, as far as x is concerned, with respect to
* quapropter: wherefore
* quare: by what means, how; why, wherefore
* quasi: as if, as though
* quatenus: adv.(inter.) how far, how long? (rel.) as far as, in so far as, since
* quemadmodum: (adv) in what way, how; (conj) as, just as
* quicquam: anything
* quicumque quae- quod-: whoever, whatever; all that, any whatever
* quidam quae- quid-: a certain one, someone, a kind of
* quidem: indeed, in fact
* quippe: adv. certainly, of course; conj.(explaining) for in fact, because, since
* quisquam quid-: anyone, anything
* quisque quidque: each, each one, every
* quisquis, quidquid: whoever, whatever; all
* quo: where, what for, to what end
* quoad: as to, with respect to
* quocumque: wither so ever, how so ever
* quod: (conj) because, as far as, in so far as, as for the fact that, in that, that
** quod si: but if
* quodamodo: in a way
* quomodo: how, in what way; (rel) as, just as
* quondam: once, sometimes, formerly
* quoniam: because, since, seeing that, now that
* quoque: also, too
* quot: how many; (conj) as many
* quotiens: how often (rel) as often as
* rursus: again, in turn
* recte: rightly, correctly
* rursum: again
* sane: reasonably, sensibly; certainly, doubtless, truly; of course; c. neg. = really, at all; to be sure, however
* scilicet: adv. evidently, naturally, of course; (as explan. particle:) namely, that is to say, in other words
* semel: once
* seu: and
* simul: at the same time; together; likewise
* sin: but if
* siquidem: if in fact; if only, if indeed; since indeed, since that
* talis -e: adj. such, of such a kind, the following
* taliter: in such a manner, so
* tam: so, so greatly; tam...quam: so...as, much...as well as
* tamen: yet, nevertheless, still
* tamquam: as, just as; (conj) as if, just as if
* tandem: at last, finally
* tantum: (adv) so much, so greatly; to such a degree; so far; only
* tantus -a -um (adj): of such (a size); so great, so much
* tot: as many, so many
* tunc: (avd) then, just the; thereupon, accordingly, consequently
* ubicumque: wherever, everywhere
* unde: whence, from where; wherefore; this being the case
* usque: as far as, all the way, continually, straight on, up to; until
* ut...ita: while...nevertheless
* uterque -raque -rumque: both, each (of two)
* utinam: would that, if only
* utique: anyhow, at least, at any rate
* utpote: as, in as much as
* utrum: (conj) either, whether
* velut: as, just as, as it were, as though
* verumtamen: but yet, nevertheless
* vero (conj): but, truly
* videlicet: clearly, evidently; namely