OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# HKDSE Geography/M7/Radiation Budget

The earth's solar radiation budget is made up of two components: Incoming radiation and outgoing radiation.

## Incoming solar radiation

What is insolation? Simple.
Energy transmitted from the sun to the earth is solar radiation. They are in the form of electromagnetic waves. The type of radiation depends on the electromagnetic spectrum. Around 99% of the insolation is belongs to the middle range of the electromagnetic spectrum: ultraviolet, visible light and infrared.
Solar radiation is also known as short-wave radiation. There is also long-wave radiation, which we will look at later.
Solar radiation is measured in Watts per square metre (W/m$^2$).

## Surplus and Deficit

When incoming radiation exceeds outgoing radiation, the net radiation is positive and a surplus occurs. When outgoing radiation exceeds incoming radiation, the net radiation is negative and a deficit occurs.
Low latitudes tend to have surplus budgets and high latitudes tend to have deficits. This will be explored later.

## Transfer processes

Short-wave radiation processes:
* After insolation enters the atmosphere, it may be:
** Reflected and scattered by the clouds
** Reflected by the atmosphere
** Absorbed by the atmosphere
* After it reaches the ground,
** It can be reflected by the earth's surface.
** It can be absorbed by the earth's surface.
Long-wave radiation
* After heat energy is absorbed by the earth's surface,
** It can be re-radiated back to the atmosphere. This is long-wave radiation or terrestrial radiation.
* The terrestrial radiation will then go these processes:
** It may be radiated directly into space.
** It may be radiated into the atmosphere.
*** Some of it will be radiated into space.
*** Some of it will be trapped in the atmosphere by greenhouse gases. This is the greenhouse effect.
**** The heat trapped by greenhouse gases will be re-radiated back to the earth's surface as counter-radiation.
** It may return to the atmosphere through conduction, convection and evaporation.
# HKDSE Geography/M7/Afforestation

Afforestation is the large-scale planting and seeding of trees on land that has not been forested for a long period of time. Planting trees helps absorb carbon dioxide by increasing the photosynthetic capacity of our natural environment, and expands the carbon sinks forests provide.
# HKDSE Geography/M7/Heat Island Effect

Urban heat island refers to a higher mean air temperature in urban areas than rural areas. Urban heat effect is intensified in following ways
* Blanket effect from pollutants and water vapour
* Man-made heat from air-conditioners and transportations
* Tall and dense buildings block airflow
* Less vegetation leads to little evapotranspiration
# HKDSE Geography/M7/Natural Factors in Global Warming
## Orbital Change

A change in the earth's orbit is said to be a cause. The earth's orbit shifts between elliptical and circular. When it is elliptical, it will be closer to the sun during winter months and farther away in summer, and thus the Northern hemisphere has warmer winters, causing snowmelt while the Southern Hemispher has hotter winters, causing glaciation

## Earth's Axis

The earth's axis is tilted. At the moment, it is 23.5 degrees to the vertical, but it shifts between 22.2 to 24.5 over thousands of years, and is becoming more tilted at the moment. When the earth is more tilted, there will be a larger annual range of temperature and thus glaciation is discouraged by hot summers.

## Volcanic Eruptions

Volcanic eruptions are a natural source of aerosols, including volcanic ash and dust, which induce temporary cooling. However, they also release methane and carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, intensifying the greenhouse effect.

## Natural Sources of Greenhouse Gases

-Water vapour (1-4%) :Evaporation from the Earth's surface
-Carbon dioxide (0.036%) :Respiration of organisms, decomposition of dead plants and animals, release from warm seas and oceans
-Methane (0.00017%) :Breakdown of organic matter by bacteria in an anaerobic environment, such as in swampy areas and rice paddies
-Nitrous oxide (0.00003%) :Release from oceans and bacteria in soils
# HKDSE Geography/M7/Heat Transfer

After sunlight enters the atmosphere, heat transfer processes will occur.

## Radiation

Radiation's role in the earth's radiation budget was discussed in the last page.
When radiation hits an object, two processes may occur: reflection and absorption. The amount absorbed depends on the albedo of the object. For example, a dark-coloured rock has low albedo, so most heat is absorbed and little heat is reflected. Ice has high albedo, so most heat is reflected and little is absorbed.
Radiation transfers sensible heat.

## Convection and Conduction

They also transfer sensible heat.
Conduction means heat is transferred from a hotter object to a colder object.
Convection occurs in fluids. Hot gas or liquid rises. As it rises, it cools downs and sinks again. Thus heat is transported upwards.

## Evaporation

Evaporation transfers latent heat. Latent heat is absorbed when water evaporates. As it rises up, the latent heat is transferred upwards and released when the water condenses.

## Advection

Advection is the horizontal movement of air. It transfers heat horizontally.
# HKDSE Geography/M7/Human Factors in Global Warming

Numerous human factors lead to global warming.

## Carbon dioxide

The main greenhouse gas, carbon dioxide is generated in the following situations:
* Burning of fossil fuels: The burning of coal, oil and natural gas
* Burning of petroleum-based fuels by transport: The combustion of fuel for transport, such as aeroplanes and land vehicles
* Forest fires: Forests are important carbon sinks and carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere by forest fires.
* Incinerators: Carbon dioxide is produced when burning solid waste in incinerators.

## Methane

* Livestock rearing: Rearing of livestock, particularly cattle ranching, produces methane.
* Wet rice cultivation
* Decomposition of solid waste in landfills
* Fossil fuel and biofuel combustion also causes methane release

## Nitrous oxide

* Use of nitrate fertilisers in arable farming: When nitrate fertilisers are decomposed in soil, nitrous oxide is released.
* Fossil fuel combustion
* Combustion of solid waste in incinerators
* Nylon production

## Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

* Air conditioning and refrigeration
* Aerosol sprays
* Cleaning solvents
* Styrofoam
# Linux Networking/Token Ring
## Token Ring

Token ring device names are `tr0', `tr1' etc. Token Ring is an IBM standard LAN protocol that avoids collisions by providing a mechanism that allows only one station on the LAN the right to transmit at a time. A `token' is held by one station at a time and the station holding the token is the only station allowed to transmit. When it has transmitted its data it passes the token onto the next station. The token loops amongst all active stations, hence the name `Token Ring'.
Kernel Compile Options:
Configuration of token ring is identical to that of ethernet with the exception of the network device name to configure.
# Linux Networking/Parallel port cable (PLIP cable)

Hi there is the link on your account so we are going for a call from your client tomorrow at the latest and I’ll let you know if I have to wait till

## Parallel port cable (PLIP cable)

If you intend to use the PLIP protocol between two machines then this cable will work for you irrespective of what sort of parallel ports you have installed.
Notes:
· Do not connect the pins marked with an asterisk `*'.
· Extra grounds are 18,19,20,21,22,23 and 24.
· If the cable you are using has a metallic shield, it should be
While you may be able to run PLIP cables for long distances, you should avoid it if you can. The specifications for the cable allow for a cable length of about 1 metre or so. Please be very careful when running long plip cables as sources of strong electromagnetic fields such as lightning, power lines and radio transmitters can interfere with and sometimes even damage your controller. If you really want to connect two of your computers over a large distance you really should be looking at obtaining a pair of thin-net ethernet cards and running some coaxial cable.
# Linux Networking/Routing in Linux-2.2
## Routing in Linux-2.2

The latest versions of Linux, 2.2 offer a lot of flexibility in routing policy. Unfortunately, you have to wait for the next version of this howto, or go read the kernel sources.
# Linux Networking/PLIP for Linux-2.2
## PLIP for Linux-2.2

During development of the 2.1 kernel versions, support for the parallel port was changed to a better setup.
Kernel Compile Options:
The new code for PLIP behaves like the old one (use the same ifconfig and route commands as in the previous section, but initialization of the device is different due to the advanced parallel port support.
The ``first PLIP device is always called ``plip0, where first is the first device detected by the system, similarly to what happens for Ethernet devices. The actual parallel port being used is one of the available ports, as shown in /proc/parport. For example, if you have only one parallel port, you'll only have a directory called /proc/parport/0.
If your kernel didn't detect the IRQ number used by your port, ``insmod plip will fail; in this case just write the right number to /proc/parport/0/irq and reinvoke insmod.
Complete information about parallel port management is available in the file Documentation/parport.txt, part of your kernel sources.
# Linux Networking/Other Network Technologies
## Other Network Technologies

The following subsections are specific to particular network technologies. The information contained in these sections does not necessarily apply to any other type of network technology. The topics are sorted alphabetically.
# Linux Networking/Serial NULL Modem cable
## Serial NULL Modem cable

Not all NULL modem cables are alike. Many null modem cables do little more than trick your computer into thinking all the appropriate signals are present and swap transmit and receive data. This is ok but means that you must use software flow control (XON/XOFF) which is less efficient than hardware flow control. The following cable provides the best possible signalling between machines and allows you to use hardware (RTS/CTS) flow control.
# Linux Networking/PPP
## PPP

PPP devices names are `ppp0', `ppp1, etc. Devices are numbered sequentially with the first device configured receiving `0'.
Kernel Compile Options:
PPP configuration is covered in detail in the PPP-HOWTO.

## Maintaining a permanent connection to the net with pppd .

If you are fortunate enough to have a semi permanent connection to the net and would like to have your machine automatically redial your PPP connection if it is lost then here is a simple trick to do so. Configure PPP such that it can be started by the root user by issuing the command:
Be sure that you have the `-detach' option configured in your /etc/ppp/options file. Then, insert the following line into your /etc/inittab file, down with the getty definitions:
This will cause the init program to spawn and monitor the pppd program and automatically restart it if it dies.
# High School Physics/Index of physics equations

Index of useful physics equations

## Classical mechanics (movement)

General Form: $A=B\times C$ use the "algebra pyramid" to rearrange the equation respectively
* $force=mass\times acceleration$
* $weight=mass\times acceleration_{duetogravity}$
* $density={\frac {mass}{volume}}$
* $acceleration={\frac {v_{f}-v_{i}}{t_{f}-t_{i}}}$
* $velocity={\frac {distance}{time}}$
* $distance={\frac {acceleration_{duetogravity}\times time^{2}}{2}}$ (for something that is falling. usually the y component)
* $displacement=Originalvelocity\times time+{\frac {1}{2}}acceleration\times (time^{2})$

## Kinetic and potential energy

* $kineticenergy={\frac {mass\times velocity^{2}}{2}}$
* $potentialenergy=mass\times acceleration_{duetogravity}\times h$
* $momentum=mass\times velocity$
* $I=F\times T$

## Waves

Speed = Distance/Time s = d/t Velocity = Frequency * Lambda v=f*ʎ

## Electromagnetics (electricity)

* $power=voltage\times current$
* $current={\frac {voltage}{resistance}}$
# High School Physics/Mid semester cheat sheet / equation reference

Linear F = Ma A = Force/mass V = D/t Acceleration = Velocity/time Density = Mass/Volume
P = Mv M1(V1i) = M1(V1f) + M2(V2f) I = Ft
$F=G(M1*M2)/r^{2}$
Circular
distance = r (theta)
fd = fd
time = 2*pisqrt(l/g) Frequency = 1/period E = RC R(series) = R (parallel) = C(series) C(parallel)
# High School Physics/Introduction to physics

So, you are now embarking into the wonderful world of physics. Physics is probably the most applicable of the three pure sciences (Biology, Physics, and Chemistry). The study of physics is not meant to answer fundamental questions about our existence in this wonderful universe. In physics, scientists make observations, develop theories, experiment and revise their theories. Physics tells us how gravity behaves but does not speak to gravity's origin. Don't confuse physics and philosophy. If one desires to obtain meaningful answers to life's deepest questions, he or she should not rely exclusively on the study of physics.
Physics textbooks often explain ideas in complex terms and these terms tend to confuse most students. This textbook will attempt to explain ideas in the simplest terms possible and avoid confusing language.
Throughout the book there will be the following conventions to help you understand physics.
Mnemonics basically, it will represent easier ways to represent complex ideas
"Think of it this way" will present applied ways to think about the concept
"Falling apples" presents possibilities in which people commonly associate with the wrong idea in mind and to be sure to fix that mistake.
# High School Physics/Newtons Apple

Human beings have a tendency to understand their surroundings and figure out an explanation for the various phenomenons that take place. When they observed that an object in motion slowly de-accelerates they concluded that it is the nature of an object to remain at the state of rest. Similarly observing the sun, the moon, and even the rotating of stars around the pole star they concluded that earth is the center of the universe and all other objects revolve around it.
Later Newton stated three important laws explaining the motion of an object. There is even a popular story that Newton devised his theory of gravitation by observing the fall of an apple from a tree. His theory of gravitation and his three laws of motion redefined the way we look at the world and laid the foundations of basic physics.
The theory of gravitation states that the force of gravity is directly proportional to the product of masses of the two bodies and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. The constant which gives us the exact value of the force of gravitation is called the gravitational constant and is symbolised by the sign 'G'.
G = 6.67*10^-11 m^3 kg^-1 s^-2
# High School Physics/Physical intuition

Physical intuition is best defined as the prediction of movement in which we humans usually can predict from common experience. New methods to take away the common confusion that students are frustrated by is by taking this to mind:
What this means is that students commonly are taught in the "cook book approach." The difference is that you will engage yourself in an immersive, interactive way which makes you think about the relationships of the derived laws.
Learning just basic physical intuition we can reasonably and logically conclude if the movement of the physical system seems to be right. By using a combination of physical laws, physical intuition, and diagrams, most if not all problems of classical physics can be solved. Another helpful skill is "physical perspectives" which can be used to analyze what the answer should look like.
We will employ the "more, less, and contrast" method to compare various situations.
In order to build up skills of such intuition, observe the following experiences.

## Steps to developing excellent physical intuition

-Consults the equation and recognize the types of units involved in it. -From common experience, See what would typically occur.
-Connect the equation and common experience together to get a better understanding of the subject. -Contruct diagrams and "deconstruct" the aesthetic diagram into a physical diagram. -Make sense of the reasonableness of the numbers. -Make the final prediction of what will happen.

## Sports:

-Parabolic motion-the position of the ball. -Tennis: Spin, speed, angle-the motion of the ball -Vectors-the amount of force in certain direction to produce such motion -Vibration of sports instruments. -Football: the pass -Skating:Conservation of motion -Friction

## Food

-kinetic and potential energy. -Sugars,Carbohydrates, and Fats.

## Transportation

-the relationship of mass and speed/energy.
it is generally known that usually more massive things tend to accelerate slower. the example is the difference between driving a loaded car and an unloaded car.
-the difference between a loaded car and a unloaded car -drag forces: the relationship of volume and speed. -closed and open windows in a transportation vehicle -Positions in bicycle riding that promote better speed. -Carnot engines and general efficiency -elastic and inelastic collisions.
# High School Physics/Momentum

"Joey Newtons recently just got his car, the Speeder 3000. On the first day of school, he noticed he was late. Joey Newtons is unwilling to slow down for anybody. Thus he decided to go to school above the speed limit. While driving to school really fast, he notices that a sign says "There are moments when going too fast simply can't stop you... Take Sleepeasy to make your day better."
With such a distraction, he realises that he is about to collide with the town's mascot, Rubber Wally. Just in the nick of time, the car hits Wally, who is then thrown into a pool. Unfortunately, Joey also hits the town's historic house, Rubber Wall. He said to himself "I didn't know getting distracted for a moment would get my car back to where I live!"
That said, the combination of Mass and Velocity creates the effect we call "momentum." Momentum is basically an alternate of our beloved concept called force which is basically about the willingness of an object with a certain mass to move with a certain speed.
The momentum of an object is the velocity of an object multiplied by its mass:
Since the velocity of an object is a vector (it has a direction as well as a magnitude) momentum is also considered to be a vector. Splitting the above equation into its direction and magnitude components:
* Magnitude: $p=m\cdot v$
* Direction: ${\bar {p}}={\bar {v}}$ — the direction of an object's momentum is the same as that of its velocity
So for example a car with a mass of 1,000 kilogrammes and travelling at 5 metres per second has a momentum of 5,000 kilogramme metres per second, in the direction of travel.
Impulse = Force * Time
"Joey newtons is highly impulsive because he doesn't like to wait for anything."
Relation of the two concepts
P = mv I = FT
P = I
# High School Physics/Physics experiments
## Force

Rubber bands, known weights
# High School Physics/Rotational Motion
## Precession

In a classic beginning physics demonstration, the instructor stands on a swiveling platform and holds a spinning bicycle wheel at arm's length. The wheel is vertical and the instructor is standing still. The instructor then tilts the wheel toward horizontal. This causes the instructor to start spinning slowly on the platform. Bringing the wheel back to vertical and tilting it the other way makes the instructor spin the other way. Why?
Imagine the wheel as a collection of small particles. Particles want to move in a straight line. In order for them to move in a circle there must be a force accelerating the particles toward the center of the circle (acceleration is a change in speed or direction or both — in this case just direction). This force is ultimately provided by bonds between the atoms in the wheel and spokes.
What happens when the instructor turns the spinning wheel from vertical to horizontal? Consider a particle somewhere on the wheel. If the wheel weren't being tilted, it would be accelerated around the circle as always. But since the wheel is tilting, it now has to follow a new path. A change in path is an acceleration, which in turn requires force (from the instructor's hands, transmitted through the spokes to the rim). Now consider the particle opposite the first particle on the wheel. It also has to change path, but in the opposite direction. Since the forces on opposite sides are in opposite directions, the result is torque. Each pair of opposite particles on the wheel contributes to the torque that causes the instructor to turn on the platform. The particles that are further away have a longer lever-arm in relation to the professor, so the net torque is non-zero. (Torque=Force*Lever-arm)
Tilting the wheel the other direction produces torque in the opposite direction, slowing the instructor's spin and eventually reversing it.
# Java Programming/Aggregate

* Navigate Aggregate topic: ( v • d • e )
* Collection
* ArrayList
* Map
* Comparing Objects
* Topics:
* Preface
* Getting started
* Language fundamentals
* Classes and objects
* Aggregate
* Exceptions
* Concurrent Programming
* Javadoc & Annotations
* Designing user interfaces
* Advanced topics
In the previous chapters, we have discovered the array. An array stores a group of primitive types. To group objects, or to reference a group of objects, we can use Java aggregate classes. There are two main interfaces, those are java.util.Collection and java.util.Map . Implementations for those interfaces are not interchangeable.

## Collection

The implementations of java.util.Collection interface are used for grouping simple java objects.

### Example

    We can group together all patients in a Hospital to a "patient" collection.

## Map

The implementations of java.util.Map interface are used to represent mapping between "key" and "value" objects. A Map represents a group of "key" objects, where each "key" object is mapped to a "value" object.

### Example

    For each patient, there is one and only one main nurse assigned to. That association can be represented by a "patient-nurse" Map.

## Choice

A collection is better when you have to access all the items at once. A map is better when you have to randomly access an item regularly.
Before selecting a particular collection implementation, ask the following question:
Can my collection contain the same elements, i.e. are duplicates allowed?
Can my collection contain the null element?
Should the collection maintain the order of the elements? Is the order important in any way?
How do you want to access an element? By index, key or just with an iterator?
Does the collection need to be synchronized?
From a performance perspective, which one needs to be faster, updates or reads?
From a usage perspective, which operation will be more frequent, updates or reads?
Once you know your needs, you can select an existing implementation. But first decide if you need a Collection, or a Map.
Note that the above associations are explicit. The objects them-self do not have any knowledge/information about that they are part in an association. But creating explicit associations between simple java objects is the main idea about using the aggregate/collection classes.
# Java Programming/3D Programming

Although Java comes with the Java 3D library other libraries have been developed over time with similar functionality. Thus, unlike many other areas of Java development explored in this book, a Java programmer has a choice to make as to which 3D library to use.

## 3D graphics Java libraries

* Java 3D
* JOGL
* JPCT
* Light Weight Java Game Library
# Java Programming/API/java.nio.file.Files

The Files class contains only static methods and operates on files and directories, examples of what it can do:
* copy, more, and delete files or directories
* check if files or directories exist
* check file properties

## External links

* https://docs.oracle.com/javase/7/docs/api/java/nio/file/Files.html