OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Economic Sophisms/79

<pagequality level="3" user="Zoeannl" />style="background: #ececec; text-align: left; padding-left: 0.5em; font-weight: bold;" class="table-rh"to improving his agricultural implements and farm buildings. He had even some savings in the neighbouring town with his banker, who, of course, did not let the money lie idle in his till, but lent it to shipowners and contractors for public works, so that these savings were always resolving themselves into wages.
At length the countryman died, and his son, who succeeded him, said to himself, "My father was a dupe all his life. He purchased oil, and so paid tribute to Provence, whilst our own land, with some pains, can be made to grow the olive. He bought cloth, wine, and oranges, and thus paid tribute to Brittany, Medoc, and Hyères, whilst we can cultivate hemp, the vine, and the orange tree with more or less success. He paid tribute to the miller and the weaver, whilst our own domestics can weave our linen and grind our wheat." In this way he ruined himself, and spent among strangers that money which he might have spent at home.
Misled by such reasoning, the volatile youth changed his rotation of crops. His land he divided into twenty divisions. In one he planted olives, in another mulberry trees, in a third he sowed flax, in a fourth he had vines, in a fifth wheat, and so on. By this means he succeeded in supplying his family with what they required, and felt himself independent. He no longer drew anything from the general circulation, nor did he add anything to it. Was he the richer for this? No; for the soil was not adapted for the cultivation of the vine, and the climate was not fitted for the successful cultivation of the olive; and he was not long in finding out that his family was less plentifully provided with all the things which they wanted than in the time of his father, who procured them by exchanging his surplus produce.
As regarded his workmen, they had no more employment than formerly. There were five times more fields, but each field was five times smaller; they produced oil, but they produced less wheat; he, no longer purchased linens, but he no longer sold rye. Moreover, the farmer could expend in wages only the amount of his capital, and his capital went on constantly diminishing. A great part of it went for buildings, and the various implements needed for the more varied cultivation in
which he had engaged. In short, the supply of labour Template:Hws
# Economic Sophisms/8

<pagequality level="4" user="Theornamentalist" />
PRINTED BY OLIVER AND BOYD,
# English-Hanzi/Daylight

Daylight is the light that comes from the sun.
日光 是 来自 太阳 的 光。
# English-Hanzi/Datum

A datum is a piece of information.
数据 是 一个 资讯。
# English-Hanzi/Cough

A cough is an action the body takes to get rid of anything that irritates the lungs or throat. To do this, muscles in the thoracic cavity contract to make air leave the lungs with a lot of force. Coughs often happen quickly and more than once, and are usually accompanied by a unique sound.
咳嗽 是 身体 为 消除 任何 刺激 肺部 或 喉咙 的 物质 而 采取 的 行动。为此，胸腔 内 的 肌肉 收缩，使 空气 以 很 大 的 力量 离开 肺部。咳嗽 经常 发生 很 快 而且 不止 一次，并且 通常 伴有 独特 的 声音。
# English-Hanzi/Country

A country is a place that has an independent government.
国家 是 一个 拥有 独立 政府 的 地方。
# English-Hanzi/Danger

A danger is a risk.
危险就是风险。
# English-Hanzi/Dance

Dance is a performing art form consisting of purposefully selected sequences of human movement.
舞蹈是一种表演艺术形式，由有目的地选择的人类运动序列组成。
# English-Hanzi/Day

A day is one seventh of a week.
一日 是 一星期 的 七分之一。
# English-Hanzi/Daytime

Daytime is a period that has daylight.
白天 是 一个 有 日光 的 期间。
# English-Hanzi/Corn

Special:search/corn prefix:English-Hanzi/
Corn is a food. It is a kind of yellow seeds.
玉米 是 一种 食物。它 是 一种 黄色 的 种子。
# English-Hanzi/Cuba

Cuba is a country in the south of North America. It is also a country of Latin America.
Cuba 是 北美 南部 的 一个 国家。它 也是 拉美 的 一个 国家。
# English-Hanzi/Fuel

Special:search/fuel prefix:English-Hanzi/
A fuel is a kind of energy resource, such as oil, gas, coal, and wood. It produces light and heat or power when it is burned.
燃料 是 一种 能源，如 石油，天然气，煤炭，和 木头。当 它 被 燃烧 时，它 产生 光 和 热 或 动力。
# English-Hanzi/Garden

Garden is a place for growing flowers and plants.
花园 是 种植 花卉 和 植物 的 地方。
# English-Hanzi/Gland

A gland is an organ in the body. It produces a substance helps to carry out a task.
腺体 是 身体 的 器官。它产生一种物质帮助执行任务。
# English-Hanzi/Glucose

Special:search/glucose prefix:English-Hanzi/
Glucose is a simple carbohydrate. It is the energy source for living things. It is called blood sugar when circulating in the blood.
葡萄糖 是 一种 简单的 碳水化合物。它 是 生物 的 能源。它 在 血液 中 循环 时 被 称为 血糖。
# English-Hanzi/Fruit

A fruit is an edible product of a plant. It contains flesh and seed. A ripe fruit is soft, sweet and juicy.
水果 是 植物 的 可食用 产品。它 包含 果肉 和 种子。成熟 的 水果 柔软 甜美 多汁。
# English-Hanzi/Full stop

A full stop is a punctuation mark that is used at the end of a sentence.
句号 是 在 句子 末尾 使用 的 标点 符号。
# English-Hanzi/Gas

Gas is a substance such as air, hydrogen, and oxygen. It is not a liquid and not a solid.
气体 是 一种 物质，如 空气，氢气，和 氧气。它 不是 液体，也 不是 固体。
# English-Hanzi/Galaxy

A galaxy is a large group of suns that run around a center.
一个 星系 是 围绕 一个 中心 运行 的 一大群 太阳。
# English-Hanzi/Gallbladder

The gallbladder is a pear-shaped organ in your abdomen. It stores about 50 ml of acidic liquid (bile) until the body needs it for digestion. That liquid helps digest fat. The gallbladder is about 7-10cm long in humans. It is dark green in color because of the bile in it. It is connected to the liver and the duodenum by the biliary tract.
胆囊 是 你 腹部 的 梨形 器官。它 储存 约 50毫升 的 酸性 液体（胆汁），直到 人体 需要 消化。这种 液体 有助于 消化 脂肪。人体 中 胆囊 长 约 7-10cm。由于 胆汁 的 存在，它 呈 深绿色。它 通过 胆道 与 肝脏 和 十二指肠 相连。
# English-Hanzi/Glaucoma

Special:search/glaucoma prefix:English-Hanzi/
Special:search/eye prefix:English-Hanzi/
Glaucoma is an eye disease that can cause blindness.
青光眼 是 一种 可 导致 失明 的 眼病。
# English-Hanzi/Spine

The spine is a column of vertebrae in the back part of the torso (upper body). It is also called the backbone or vertebral column. There is a canal that runs through the length of the spine. Inside this canal is the spinal cord. Animals that have a spine are called vertebrates, and animals that don't have one are called invertebrates. Humans have a spine, so we are vertebrates. Many vertebrates, including mammals, have intervertebral discs separating the vertebrae.
脊椎 是 躯干（上身）后部 的 一列 椎骨。它 也 被 称为 脊骨 或 脊柱。有 一条 管道 贯穿 整条 脊椎。这条 管道 里面 是 脊髓。有 脊椎 的 动物 称为 脊椎动物，而 没有 脊椎 的 动物 称为 无脊椎动物。人类 有 脊椎，所以 我们 是 脊椎动物。包括 哺乳动物 在内 的 许多 脊椎动物 都 有 将 椎骨 分开 的 椎间盘。
# English-Hanzi/Spring

Special:search/spring prefix:English-Hanzi/
Spring is the first season of a year.
春天 是 一年 的 第一个 季节。
# English-Hanzi/Sri Lanka

Special:search/Sri Lanka prefix:English-Hanzi/
Special:search/South Asia prefix:English-Hanzi/
Special:search/Asia prefix:English-Hanzi/
Sri Lanka is an island country in the south of Asia. Its population is 22 million. Its capital is Colombo.
Sri Lanka是一个在亚洲南部的岛国。它的人口是2200万。它的首都是Colombo。
# English-Hanzi/State

State is the condition of something.
状态 是 某事物 的 状况。
# English-Hanzi/Speed

Speed is the rate that something changes.
速度 是 某事物 发生 的 速率。
# English-Hanzi/Spice

Special:search/spice prefix:English-Hanzi/
Spice is a substance that is added to a food to enhance the flavor.
香料 是 一种 添加 到 食物 以 增强 味道 的 物质。
# English-Hanzi/Specialist

A specialist is a person who has special knowledge or skill.
专家 是 具有 特殊 知识 或 技能 的 人。
# English-Hanzi/Spinal cord

The spinal cord is a bundle of nerves that go to and from the brain. It is enclosed in and protected by the bony vertebral column. The main function of the spinal cord is transmission of neural inputs between the periphery and the brain.
脊髓 是 来往 大脑 的 一束 神经。它 被 封闭 在 骨性 脊柱 中 并 受 其 保护。脊髓 的 主要 功能 是 在 外周 和 大脑 之间 传递 神经 输入。
# English-Hanzi/Spices

A spice is a seed, fruit, root, bark, or other plant substance primarily used for flavoring, coloring or preserving food.
香料是种子，果实，根，树皮或其他主要用于调味，着色或保存食物的植物物质。
# English-Hanzi/Star

A star is a sun. Its planets run around it.
恒星 是 一个 太阳。它的行星围绕它运行。
# Biology, Answering the Big Questions of Life/cell transport
## Cellular Transport

The plasma membrane forms the border of a cell. It is a barrier made of phospholipids that separates the inside and outside of the cell. Most molecules can not pass through the barrier without help. There are many structures floating within the plasma membrane that aid the entry and exit of substances into the cell. The process by which items enter and exit the cell is called cellular transport.
The main part of all membranes is a lipid bilayer
The lipid molecules keep separate from the water by forming a liquid barrier that hydrophobic proteins can dissolve in.

### Endocytosis and Exocytosis

Transport across a membrane can be done by endocytosis where the membrane wraps around an object and takes it into a cell as a vesicle. This is how many protists eat their food. The membrane flows around the food and merges forming a food vacuole that will merge with a lysosome to digest the food.
When the food has been digested, it will merge back with the membrane and eject the undigested wastes is a process called exocytosis. Many cells without cell walls eat and drink this way. Cell eating is called phagocytosis and cell drinking is called pinocytosis.
Receptor mediated endocytosis requires membrane proteins called receptors to recognize and bind to a molecule outside of the cell before it is enveloped and brought into the cell in a vesicle.

### Membrane Proteins

Proteins have many functions, but many of them are involved in cellular transport as pumps and channels. Pumps and channels are transmembrane proteins (they cross the membrane) that allow objects to pass through. Channels usually allow specific molecules to travel passively through the membrane by diffusion. Pumps carry objects through the membrane but require payment in the form of energy from molecules such as ATP.
# Biology, Answering the Big Questions of Life/classification

Living organisms have been tried to classify since ancient times. Many ancient cultures, from different parts of the world have named organisms using a nested classification, as we do now according to Linneo.
# Biology, Answering the Big Questions of Life/evolve3

* INTERMEDIATE

## Natural Selection
### Mutations

A normalizing or stabilizing mutation favors those individuals that are like those that came before. Example: Snakes on an island on lake Erie are grey. If any are born with stripes they get eaten, so most snakes on the island remain grey.
Directional mutations are ones that go in one direction over time. The fossil record shows that the ancestors of horses were shorter. As time went on, larger animals were favored and survived so the species as a whole got larger.
Diversifying selection is when two or more phenotypes are maintained. For example near copper mines some of the soil is heavily contaminated with copper. Some alleles allow growth of plants on the copper. Wild type plants will die on the copper, so both alleles are maintained in the population.
In rare cases such a dimorphism of environment leads the species to divide into groups. This is called a disruptive selection.

### Speciation

A species according to the biological species concept is defined as a group of actually or potentially interbreeding individuals reproductively isolated from others.
Factors such as mutation can cause a species to change into another species. This is called speciation. There are many ways that speciation can occur.
Speciation often occurs because individuals of a species cannot breed with each other. It is called reproductive isolation. When individuals are reproductively isolated, they begin to differ from each other.
Methods that occur before fertilization are called prezygotic. Those that occur after fertilization are called postzygotic. Prezygotic methods include ecological isolation, behavioral isolation, mechanical isolation, temporal isolation. Postzygotic isolation includes hybrid inviability. hybrid sterility, hybrid breakdown which occurs when there is reduced viability in later generations.

### Methods of Species Change

When some kind of barrier like a mountain rises up between two groups of the same species, it may cause allopatric speciation. Sometimes species will split without geographic isolation for reasons such as chromosome duplication (polyploidy). When new species result this way it is called sympatric speciation.
Sometimes it is hard to tell if two species have descended from a common ancestor ( share a phylogeny). When two organisms who may or may not be distantly related develop a similar appearance that evolved completely independently it is called parallel evolution.
When organisms that are only distantly related develop analogous modifications (similar structures) because of similar selective forces on them, it is called convergent evolution. Examples include how dolphins and penguins have fins because they live in the ocean. divergent evolution happens when a species splits and forms different but related new species. This is also called radiation.
Homology occurs when some biological structure derives from the same ancestral structure. For example what became hands for humans became wings for birds and bats.
# Biology, Answering the Big Questions of Life/Taxonomy

Previous < Up > Next : Index
* EASY

# Classification of living things

In order to get a handle on the diversity of all living things, we give organisms names. Names like cat, squirrel, tree, mushroom and jellyfish.
These names used in everyday speech to describe an organism are called COMMON NAMES .
We also group different kinds of living organisms into groups:
* Domains
* Kingdoms
* Phylum
* Class
* Order
* Family
* Genus
* Species
** subspecies
When we refer to individual organisms, we use only the last two terms GENUS and SPECIES
This way of referring to organisms using two names is called BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE and it was proposed by the Swedish Biologist Carolus Linnaeus in the mid 1700s
In Science, we prefer to use SCIENTIFIC NAMES (those using binomial nomenclature) to COMMON NAMES because common names change from place to place, but Scientific names are the same all over the world.
SCIENTIFIC NAMES are written in Latin. Since Latin is no longer spoken as a living language, it does not change.
HUMAN is our common name. Our scientific name is HOMO SAPIENS
Our entire classification is...
* Domain EUKARYA
* Kingdom ANIMALIA
* Superphylum DEUTEROSTOMIA
* Phylum CORDATA
* subphylum VERTEBRATA
* Class MAMMALIA
* subclass PLACENTALIA
* Order PRIMATES
* suborder HAPLORRHINI (dry nosed or simple nosed as opposed to wet/curved nose)
* Family HOMINIDAE
* subfamily HOMININAE
* Genus HOMO
* Species SAPIENS
* Subspecies SAPIENS
* Classification changes as new discoveries are made , just as theories change.
When Linnaeus wrote down the first widely accepted system, there were two kingdoms: Animalia and Plantae.
Due to advances in genomics, we have been able to compare the genetic sequences of organisms and have come up with new classifications largely due to the work of Carl Woese whose RNA comparison studies suggested that a new group ARCHAEA be separated from both Eukaryotes and prokaryotes.
The current preferred system is the 6 kingdom system.
ARCHAEA Single celled, non nucleated organisms with radically different genetic sequences. Most are extremophiles that grow in harsh places. An example are Halophites. Single celled organisms that grow in salty areas like the great salt lake where salt content is 15 - 20%.
BACTERIA Single celled, non nucleated organisms. They are common all throughout the Earth. An example is ‘’Escherichia coli’’ an intestinal bacteria.
PROTISTA Single celled organisms that may be found in organized groups. These organism have a nucleus and internal organelles. An example of a protist is an Amoeba.
FUNGI Single or multicellular organisms that eat by secreting digestive chemicals and absorbing nutrients. An example of a Fungus is a shiitake mushroom.
PLANTAE Multicellular organisms that use light to create energy and sugar by a process called photosynthesis. An example of a plant is a dandelion.
ANIMALIA Multicellular organisms that eat food internally. An example of an animal is a grasshopper.
# Biology, Answering the Big Questions of Life/cell division2

* INTERMEDIATE
Mitosis is a form of cell division which produces two daughter cells from a mother cell. It consists of 4 phases of division: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.

## Before Mitosis

The period in the cell cycle before mitosis takes up the bulk of a cell's life and is called interphase. Interphase can be split into three periods: G1, S, and G2. G1 and G2 are periods during which cellular processes continue as normal, while the S phase is when DNA is replicated.
During much of mitosis, DNA is wrapped and condensed into chromosomes (pictured). However, during this phase, DNA is uncondensed, and remains in the nucleus as a mass of chromatin, or a combination of DNA and proteins that the DNA wraps around.
Some cells, such as muscle cells or nerve cells, do not replicate after they become specialized during embryonic development. These cells are sometimes said to be in the G0 phase.

## Prophase

During prophase, the longest phase of mitosis, the nuclear membrane of the cell begins to disintegrate, and the nucleolus disappears. A centrosome -- an organelle that produces microtubules -- moves to each side of the cell. The DNA begins to condense into chromosomes. Because all the DNA has been replicated already, each chromosome is made up of two sister chromatids which have identical DNA. The two sister chromatids of a chromosome are connected in the center of the chromosome, called the centromere. Microtubules called spindle fibers begin extending from the centrosomes and begin to attach to the kinetochores of the chromosomes, which are at the centromeres (centers) of the chromosomes.
Note that a centrosome and a centromere are different. A centrosome is an organelle that produces microtubules that attach to the chromosomes, while a centromere is the center of a chromosome that connects two sister chromatids.

## Metaphase

During metaphase, the chromosomes, which each have two spindle fibers connected to them, line up in the center of the cell. The centromeres at this point are at opposite sides of the cell and have a spindle fiber attached to each chromosome. Some spindle fibers connect in the middle. They will help to push the cells apart.

## Anaphase

During anaphase, the chromosomes are pulled apart by the spindle fibers. A single copy of an organism's DNA should reside on each side of the cell. Anaphase is usually the shortest phase of mitosis

## Telophase

During telophase, two new nuclei form around the two sets of DNA, and the chromosomes will unravel into a mass of chromatin that is more convenient for the normal tasks of a cell. The centromeres duplicate so that each daughter cell will have two centromeres.
Cytokinesis is a separate process that is often combined with telophase. Cytokinesis is the splitting of the cytoplasm; the cell physically divides into two new cells. Sometimes, cytokinesis fails to occur, resulting in a large cell with multiple nuclei. This occurs naturally in some tissues, as in liver, and skeletal muscle cells.
# Biology, Answering the Big Questions of Life/genetics2

* INTERMEDIATE

## Mendelian Genetics

Definitions:
phenotype: The trait that that you can see.
genotype: What traits are carried in the genes on the chromosome. Dominant: The trait that is visibly expressed. (e.g. Y yellow seed coat) Recessive: The trait that is hidden. (e.g. y green seed coat) Homozygous: having two identical genes. (e.g. yy or YY) Heterozygous: Having two different genes. (e.g. Hh ) Gametes: The haploid sex cells. Truebreeding: The parents are homozygous for a trait (e.g. YY)
In Classical Mendelian Genetics, each trait can be either dominant or recessive. When two true breeding parents are crossed, the recessive trait is hidden in the offspring, only to reveal itself later in the grandchildren.
The classic ratio for a monohybrid cross with straight dominance is 3:1 Dominant to recessive in the F2.
The classic ratio for a dihybrid cross with straight dominance is 9:3:3:1 in the F2.
1. A true breeding plant with yellow seeds (YY) is crossed to a plant with green seeds (genotype yy). Yellow is dominant to green. Draw the first filial (F1) and second filial (F2)cross. What is the genotypic and phenotypic ratio of the offspring?
2. A true breeding cat with a striped coat (SS) is crossed to a cat with a solid colorcoat(ss). Show the F1 and F2 generations (show gametes for each cross).
The Monohybrid cross
1. Yellow and Green seeded plant cross
P1 (parents)
Phenotype: Yellow Seeds X Green Seeds Genotype: YY X yy
Gametes: Y y
F1 cross (First Filial)
Phenotype: All Yellow seeds
Genotype: Yy
F2 (Second Filial) cross the F1 to the F1
Phenotype: Yellow Seeds X Yellow Seeds
Genotype: Yy X Yy
F1 Gametes: Y, Y and Y, y
Offspring genotypic ratio: 1/4 LL, 1/4 Ll, 1/4 lL, 1/4 ll
Phenotypic ratio: 3 Long Stemmed: 1 short stemmed
The Yellow seed coat trait is DOMINANT to the green seeded trait. The Dominant gene is drawn with a capital letter, and the recessive gene has the same letter as the dominant gene, only in the lower case.
2. Striped and Solid plant cross
P1 (parents)
Phenotype: Striped X solid Genotype: SS X ss
Gametes: S s
F1 cross (First Filial)
Phenotype: All Striped Cats
Genotype: Ss
F2 (Second Filial) cross the F1 to the F1
Phenotype: Striped cat X Striped cat
Genotype: Ss X Ss
F1 Gametes: S, s and S, s
Offspring genotypic ratio: 1/4 SS, 2/4 Ss, 1/4 ss
Phenotypic ratio: 3 Striped cats: 1 solid cat

## Exceptions to Mendel

I. Exceptions to straight dominance
II. Exceptions to the second law
III. Other
1. A light Blue flower (Bb) is crossed with another light blue flower (Bb). The offspring have three different colors 1/4 Dark Blue, 1/2Light blue, and 1/4 white.
What type of dominance is shown here? Show the cross and the genotypes of the offspring.
Incomplete dominance - The heterozygote has a visibly different phenotype.
Phenotype: Light blue(Bb) X Light blue (Bb)
Genotype: Bb X Bb
F1 Gametes: B, b and B, b
Offspring genotypic ratio: 1/4 BB (dark blue phenotype), 2/4 Bb (Light blue phenotype), 1/4 bb (white phenotype)

## References

Experiments in Plant Hybridization (1865)
by Gregor Mendel