OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Modeling from A to Z/Front Cover

MODELING FROM A TO Z
This book is for all who want to learn about the use of mathematics and logic in the design of computing systems.
A model is like the architectural drawings. It gives a feeling for the actual thing yet to be built.
We will look at some apparently very simple models of
* an address book
* a waste management system
* and so on
We will show how to build the model, how to exercise the model, how to verity the rightness of the model using very well-known but techniques such as
* Alloy
* B-tool
* not C or C++ or an other C-like programming language
* VDM
* Z
# Modelling Theory and Practice

Mastering Complexity by the Means of Abstraction.
Part I: Finite Relational Structures.
Modelling is a basic technique for handling complex problems, especially in Software Engineering and Business or Systems Analysis. This book deals with the subject from its rigorous foundations in Logic and Discrete Mathematics to its relevant contributions to typical Software and Business Engineering problems.
Introduction
* Motivation and Summary
* The Notion of Models and Abstraction
* Models in Software Engineering and Business Analysis
Basic Finite Relational Modelling
* Overview and Trivial Cases
* Modelling with Concepts
* Modelling with Components
Pushing Complexity
* Complexity Aware Modelling
* Modelling with Constraints (Queries)
* Modelling with Meta Relations
* Modelling with combined Concepts and Components
# Modeling from A to Z/Back Cover

I suggest that we have a picure of a power station on the back cover.
Will upload one today.

# Contributors

* HUGHES, Arthur
# OWL-DL

Let us begin with a focus on our running example: the Tracking Management System. Some of the key terms we use are related to containers and materials. Here are some containment laws:
* The contents of any container must be known.
* Crates contain only packages.
* Packages contain only raw material.
* Liners contain only packages.
* Drums contain only pucks and liners.
* Pucks contain only one liner of non-liquor material.

## Semantic Web Ontology Language

There is a very good overview of OWL which is publicly avaiiable.

## Protégé-OWL

For practical work we suggest the Protégé-OWL editor.

## Semantic Web Rule Language

A very brief overview of the SWRL is available.

# Notes

* ↑ Fitzgerald&Jones 1998, p.6

# Reading links

* Bicarregui, Juan Carlos (editor), (1988). Proof in VDM: case studies. London: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-3540761860. {{cite book}}: |first= has generic name (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
* Fitzgerald, John (1998). "A Tracking System". In Bicarregui, Juan Carlos (ed.). Proof in VDM: Case Studies. London: London: Springer-Verlag. pp. 1–29. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coeditors= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
# NoWasteNoWant (NwNw) Firm
## Business model

Our new company NwNw will be a network firm, that is distributed geographically with a communication network infrastructure overlaid on the Internet.

## Internet infrastructure

* mobile communications for the truck drivers.
* satellite tracking management system (TMS)
* waste management plant tracking management system (TMS)
# PSP Programming/Introduction
## Introduction

A short introduction as to the subject of this wikibook.

### The PSP

Sony's PSP (official acronym for PlayStation Portable) is a powerful handheld console. To read more about the hardware capabilities of the PSP, you should go to the next page.

### Homebrew

Homebrew are applications which run on a system that wasn't designed to let the user program for it. What this means is that even though Sony did not plan to let users develop applications for the PSP, some people managed to find a way around which led to a toolchain which anybody can use to program for the PSP.

### Why program on the PSP

There are several reasons a person might want to program for the PSP. First of all, the PSP is a handheld multimedia system, not just designed for games. Another reason is because it has been homebrew capable for quite a while, and thus has quite a community following because of that. Yet another reason, is because one might want to expand their knowledge to other platforms which might have their own limitations which the developer must program around.

### Requirements

In order to program for the PSP you will of course need a PSP. How else would you look at your progress? Your PSP should also be homebrew capable, and you will also need to have a memory card from which you can run your programs. Aside from the material possessions which you will need, you also need to have acquired some knowledge of general programming in the 'C' language. Although this wikibook won't assume you are an expert in 'C' or 'C++', it won't go out of its way to explain to you the fundamentals of programming.
# PSP Programming/Linux
## External links

* Setting up the Toolchain
* Toolchain on Linux
# PSP Programming/Setting Up

Before you can start programming for the PSP, we need to download and install the PSP toolchain. The PSP toolchain is a set of program tools which helps us develop for the PSP. Since these program tools were developed on Linux, it can take a little more effort to make it work on Windows. If you are using Windows, you have two options: using MinPSPW which runs natively on Windows, or using CYGWIN which is a Linux emulator. The first option being the easier one. Or if you are running on Linux, you can compile it directly from there.
Note: Both CYGWIN and Linux will take a long time to compile everything, where as PSP Devkit is precompiled, meaning you won't have to wait to get started.
# PSP Programming/Creating Makefiles
## Makefile

A makefile is used to quickly and easily compile our program when we are not using an IDE automating it. To create a makefile we just create a new file with no extension and give it the name "Makefile". We can then edit it in any simple text editor. To compile a program using a makefile we simply go to the folder using the command line (using "cd"), and type "make". The command line will tell you whether everything worked fine, or if there are errors to fix. Let's look at an example:
As you can see, it's not that scary looking. Most of these parameters you won't even have to touch. The "target" tells the compiler the name of our source file, and "objs" to create a "main.o" and "myLibrary.o" as we are using "main.c" as the file where we program the code and “myLibrary.c” as a helper class. For now will not talk about the next four lines, just understand that we need them unchanged. Next we tell it the lib direction (same folder, so it is unchanged), a couple parameters, and the libraries which we will use.
Next we tell it to build a PRX binary rather than a static ELF binary. Static ELFs are generally depreciated, and only PRX-based homebrew can be signed to run on any PSP firmware. (PRX binaries in EBOOTs are different from PRX kernel mods!)
Afterwards we also create an "EBOOT.PBP" which is the file that will actually start up. Then you give it the title and have an option of an icon (144x80), a background picture (480x272), and a PSP sound file (at3). If you don't want one of these, then just delete the lines.
# PSP Programming/General/Common Callback
## Common Callback

Before we begin programming for the PSP, we will start by creating a folder named “common” in our programming directory. This folder will contain several files which will often be used in our programs. We'll put these files here so that we don't constantly have to write the same code over and over again.

### callback.h

Now let's create a new file with the name "callback.h". This header file will declare some of the stuff needed so that we can get our program to run on the PSP.
The 'ifndef' is used to make sure that this file only gets imported once, otherwise an error will occur. Then it should be pretty self-explanatory; we will have two functions which we will use: "isRunning" to check if the user has requested to quit the program, and "setupCallbacks" which will setup all the necessary things for your program to run on the PSP.

### callback.c

Now that we have the header definitions we can also create the source file: name it "callback.c". We'll start by including the file "pspkernel.h" which gives us access to several kernel methods.
Next we create a boolean. Executing the method "isRunning" will tell us whether a request to exit the application was created by the user. We will use this function in our program so that we can clean up any leftover memory, and exit gracefully.
Now this is where the hard part comes in... the good news, is that you don't need to completely understand it! Essentially what it does is create a new thread, which will create an exit callback. The callback will then make "exitRequest" equal to true if the user presses the "home" and "exit" button on the PSP. See for yourself:
Don't worry if you don't completely understand it, that's why we created a separate file for it. It's not going to change, so all we have to do is include it.
Now you can go into the next section, which will show you how to create a simple "Hello World!" program.
# PSP Programming/General/Hello World
## Hello World!

Now that we've got a common folder for files which we're going to use often, and created our callbacks file we can begin creating a simple "Hello World!" program.

### main.c

We'll start by including “pspkernel.h” which will allow us to exit the application, "pspdebug.h" so that we can get a simple debug screen started, "pspdisplay.h" for "sceDisplayWaitVblankStart" function, and "callback.h" of course so that the user can quit at any time by pressing 'home' and then 'exit'.
Next, we will tell the PSP a little about our program. In "PSP_MODULE_INFO" we will tell it the name of our program, any attributes, and its major and minor version. You can ignore most of these attributes for now. Then to make things easier for ourselves (so that we don't have to type as much), we will replace "pspDebugScreenPrintf" with "printf" which will allow us to type text on the screen.
So, first we will initialize the debug screen, and setup our callbacks. Then inside a loop we place the position to write to at (0,0) (so that printing doesn't go to the next line) and print out our message, then to prevent “ripping” effects we call “sceDisplayWaitVblankStart”. Once the user quits and the loop is broken (remember we are using the "isRunning" method), we do a last call to "sceKernelExitGame" which will exit our application and return zero thus closing off the program.
Now if you are using an IDE that can also compile your PSP programs, you can hit compile and put the "EBOOT.PBP" in a folder on your PSP, and then run it. If on the other hand you choose to do things manually, then we will have to create the Makefile before compiling.

### Makefile

So... create a "Makefile" file (no extension) in your project's directory and open it up in your favorite text editing application.
Compile the program by using the word “make” and... sign it! :)

### Signing your program (Linux)

Yes, with the release of Geohot's root signing keys, any PSP can run only signed applications. So, you must have a program which you will force sign your application. :)
I use PSCrypter. Download "PSCrypter Signed 2.0", extract it somewhere and make.
If you got error sort of "unknown command psp-config" then export pspdev path:
Next, copy entire PSCrypter folder (which you extracted) to <your_psp_root>/PSP/GAME/ and move your EBOOT.PBP to "sign" folder there. Go to "Memory Stick" on your PSP and run PSCRYPTER. Wait...
When PSP will reboot rename EBOOT_Signed.PBP in "sign" folder to EBOOT.PBP. Create any folder in <your_psp_root>/PSP/GAME/ (e.g. "hello_world") and move EBOOT.PBP there.
Now you can run own first PSP program! ;)
Once you're done with this you can proceed to the next tutorial.
# PSP Programming/MinPSPW

Installing Minimalist PSPSDK for Windows is pretty straight forward, just download the latest installer from https://sourceforge.net/projects/minpspw/ and run it. You will be asked what components to install (a choice from the main PSP DevKit, SDK Samples, PSP Link (a debugging program), and HTML doumentation) and where to install to. After installing the toolchain you may proceed to the next section.
# PSP Programming/General/Button Input
## Button Input

In this tutorial we will learn how to work with handling user input. Let's start by including some headers. You should already know what the first two are for, and the third one is to get controller input. As before we will also include the callback header.
We'll raise the revision so that our program is now at version 1.1. This is assuming each progression of tutorial deserves a raise to the revision. The rest of the code is the same aside from the name change in the psp module info.
In our main function we do the usual, but this time create an 'running' variable so that we can update it if the exit callback occurs or if the user presses the button 'start' (more on this later). Then we create the button input object and set the sampling rate to 0, and allow analog mode so that we can read where the analog pad is.
Now we start the while loop, update our variable from the exit callback telling us if we should quit or not. We reset the position to print, and print out the analog pad position. Printing the variable is done by passing it in the second parameter and using '%d' as a placeholder for it.
One thing to remember, when you get the position of the analog stick using the 'Lx' and 'Ly' properties, you get a value from 0 to 255. You can subtract 128 from that so that the center would be 0. Unfortunately there is such a thing as a “dead-zone” which means that the user might not even be touching the analog stick, but it may still detect a value between -30 to 30. We'll learn how to deal with this problem in later tutorials.
To update our button input variable with the button information we call 'sceCtrlPeekBufferPositive' and give it the reference to our variable. When we want to check what buttons are pressed we first check if any buttons are pressed at all. If the 'start' button is pressed, we print it out and then close our program by making 'running' equal to zero.
We do the same thing with the other buttons, but we do not close the program, just print out the name of the button.
At the end we close our program. You may notice that we don't check for all buttons, this is because we need kernel control to check for those buttons. More on that in later tutorials or if you want to check how to get kernel control in your program, you can skip right to it.

### Makefile

Once again create the 'Makefile' file and make it like so, the only difference being the names again.
Once you're done with this and everything is working, you can proceed to the next tutorial.
# Modern History/Schrammel accordion

A Schrammel accordion (German: Schrammelharmonika) is an accordion with a melody (right hand) keyboard in the chromatic B-Griff system and a twelve-button diatonic bass keyboard. It is named for a traditional combination of two Violins, Accordion and Contrabass known as Schrammelquartett, the music being performed was called Schrammel music, in the Vienna chamber music tradition.
In most cases, it has two or three sets of reeds tuned in unison configuration. The sound is quite different or special, when compared to modern chromatic button accordions. This is because it is much smaller and lighter than modern CBAs. The handmade reeds used may also contribute to its sound.
# Modern History/Space Exploration/Space Race
## The Men

Werner Von Braun
German scientist and creator of the German V-2 rocket which devastated London during WWII. He would prove instrumental in the design and creation of technology for the space program.
Yuri Gagarin
Russian cosmonaut; first man in space.
Vladimir Komarov
Russian Cosmonaut; First man to die in space. After a short period in space upon re-entry the parachutes on his spacecraft failed to open to slow the vehicle descent. Russian spacecraft of the era landed on earth rather than in the ocean as did the United States' spacecraft 'splashdown'. The parachutes of Cosmonaut Komarov's craft were burnt off during re-entry and this was noticed by observers in the upper part of the atmosphere. Communication with the spacecraft was established soon after re-entry and Cosomonaut Komarov was informed of the development and appraised that nothing could be done. There was time to inform his wife and have her present in the control room for the final moments. This man has been called a hero.
Alan Shepard
American astronaut; first American in space. Would later walk on the moon on Apollo 14 after battling an inner ear disease.
Neil Armstrong
American astronaut; first man to walk on the moon.
Jim Lovell
American astronaut; commander of the ill-fated Apollo 13 mission.

## Mercury

Mercury Missions

## Gemini

A two man space craft that was instrumental in developing docking and EVA techniques. Gemini hardware was used to perform the first manned-unmanned docking in space.
Gemini Missions

## Apollo

A three man space craft consisting of a service module, which contained the engines and most of the flight hardware, and the command module, which was the portion of the spacecraft that would return to Earth.
Apollo 11 carried the Lunar Module to the Sea of Tranquility region of the moon, where it touched down for the first manned lunar landing. Apollo would serve as the primary NASA spacecraft until it was replaced by the Space Shuttle Transportion System (STS).
Apollo Missions

## Lunar Module

A spider-like spacecraft composed of a descent stage, which carried the descent and ascent stages to the surface of the moon, and an ascent stage, which used the descent stage as a launchpad to return to the Apollo command module in lunar orbit.
The lunar module was stored in the uppermost stage of the Saturn V rocket, until it was retrieved by the Apollo spacecraft through a docking maneuver.
# Modern History/Russian Revolution

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Russian Revolution can refer to the following events in the history of Russia:
The Russian Revolution of 1905 was a series of strikes and anti-government violence against Tsar Nicholas II. The Russian Revolution of 1917, which included: February Revolution, which resulted in the abdication of Nicholas II of Russia. October Revolution, which was the Bolshevik seizure of power. The Third Russian Revolution was the failed anarchist revolution against the Bolsheviks and the White movement 1918 - 1922. When the year is not indicated in the reference, the term "Russian Revolution", if used as a time mark, usually refers to the October Revolution of 1917, whereas references to the revolution of 1905 always mention the year and references to the February Revolution always mention the month.
# Modern History/Spanish Civil War

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The Spanish Civil War (July 18, 1936–April 1, 1939) was a conflict in which the incumbent Second Spanish Republic and political left-wing groups fought against a right-wing nationalist insurrection led by General Francisco Franco, who eventually succeeded in ousting the Republican government and establishing a personal dictatorship. It was the result of the complex political, economic and even cultural divisions between what Spanish writer Antonio Machado characterized as the two Spains.
# Modern History/Queen Victoria

Victoria (Alexandrina Victoria) (24 May, 1819 – 22 January, 1901) was the eminent Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 20 June, 1837, and Empress of India from 1 January, 1877, until her death in 1901. Her reign lasted more than sixty-three years, longer than that of any other British monarch. As well as being Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, she was also the first monarch to use the title Empress of India. The reign of Victoria was marked by a great expansion of the British Empire. The Victorian Era was at the height of the Industrial Revolution, a period of significant social, economic, and technological change in the United Kingdom. In that period the United Kingdom became the largest superpower the world had ever seen. Victoria, who was largely of German descent, was the last monarch of the House of Hanover; her successor belonged to the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha.
# Modern History/Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan

The Soviet Union dispatched forces to defend the communist government in Afghanistan. However, the mujaheddin, with foreign support from Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, and the United States, fought against the Soviets. Osama bin Laden was part of a group of Arabs in the Afghan resistance.
# Modern History/Space Exploration

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## Early Ideas of Space
### Heliocentric Model

The Roman Catholic Church was very much in control of early astronomy.

## Space Race
### USSR Space Attempts and Success

Sputnik, a small metal ball with instruments attached to it, was the first man-made object to leave earth and orbit it. It was really technologically, simple, and would set the tone for much of the Soviet Union's space exploration program.

### US Space Attempts and Success

The first satellites were launched by the Soviet Union at the end of the 1950's. If they can put a satellite into space, they can launch a warhead at the United States. This was what spurred the United States to start their own space program to challenge the perceived "Soviet Superiority", and start academically challenging students to be successful in Math and the Sciences.