OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Irish/Compound Prepositions

Lessons
Unit One: 1 2 3 4
Unit Two: 1 2 3 4 5 6
Unit Three: Lesson Index
Language Reference
Spelling and Pronunciation - Grammar
Wikiversity
More Irish language resources can be found at Wikiversity's Department of Irish Studies

## Compound Prepositions
### opposite

    ar aghaidh, os coinne, os comhair

### behind

    ar chúl, taobh thiar de

### during

    ar feadh, i gcaitheamh, i rith, in imeacht, le linn

### throughout

    ar fud

### looking for

    ar lorg

### like, in the manner of

    ar nós

### for the sake of

    ar son, thar ceann, de cheann

### about to

    ar tí

### as a result of, because of

    de bharr, dá bhrí, de thairbhe

### according to

    de réir

### on account of

    de thairbhe

### for the purpose of

    faoi choinne, le haghaidh, i gcomhair

### to meet

    faoi dhéin

### to the end of, to the top of

    go ceann

### in charge of, minding

    i bhfeighil, i gcionn

### along with

    i dteannta

### against

    i gcoinne, in aghaidh, in éadan

### in the middle of

    i lár

### present at, in the presence of

    i láthair

### among

    i measc

### after

    i ndiaidh, tar éis

### in place of

    in áit

### along with

    le cois, i dteannta, in éineacht le

### beside

    le hais, in aice (le), taobh le

### above

    os cionn

### in front of

    os coinne, os comhair

### near

    in aice (le)

### therefore

    dá bhrí sin

### under the care of

    faoi chúram

### at the head of

    ar ceann

### at the end of

    i gceann, faoi cheann

### in reference to

    um cheann (very rare)
Remember:
* A compound preposition usually governs a genitive. But if it ends in a simple preposition, then not: in éineacht le behaves essentially as the simple preposition le.
* "ar" doesn't lenite a naked noun (i.e. a noun not preceded by an article) when it's part of a compound preposition or when it signifies an abstract state rather than a concrete position, or when it signifies a relative position. Cf. ar muin capaill "on horseback", but ar mhuin an chapaill áirithe seo "on the back of this particular horse". Note, though, the phrase ar fheabhas "excellent", which violates this rule (originally ar a fheabhas).
Essentially the same rule applies to thar, cf. the expressions thar barr "excellent", thar fóir "beyond (reasonable) limits, beyond measure", thar cailc "beyond the chalked mark, overstepping the limit"
# Irish/Commonly Confused Words

Commonly Confused Words (at Wikiversity's Department of Irish Studies) This page is a soft redirect.
# IB Environmental Systems and Societies/Detection and monitoring of pollution
#### 5.2 Detection and Monitoring of Pollution

5.2.1 Describe two direct methods of monitoring pollution.
-air pollution-
   * measure the acidity of rain water to determine levels of
   * measure CO2, CO, or NOx levels in the atmosphere using a gas sensor
   * measure particulate matter suspended in the atmosphere
-soil pollution-
   * conduct tests for nitrates and phosphates according to the test manufacturer’s instructions
   * measure the level of organic matter in the soil
-water pollution-
   * nitrate and phosphate tests
   * fecal coliform tests
   * tests for heavy metals
5.2.2 Define the term biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and explain how this indirect method is used to assess pollution levels in water.
   * Biochemical Oxygen Demand: A measure of the amount of dissolved oxygen required to break down the organic material in a given volume of water through aerobic biological activity.
5.2.3 Describe and explain an indirect method of measuring pollution levels using a biotic index.
   * We can measure pollution levels 2 different ways: we can measure the pollution itself
directly, or we can use some other factor that is correlated to pollution levels as an indirect indicator of those pollution levels.
   * the Trent Biotic Index uses the presence or absence of 6 key organisms(plecopteran larvae, ephemeropteran larvae, trichopteran larvae, Gammarus, Asellus and tubificids plus red chironomid larvae) to indicate the relative level of pollution in a stream.
   * We can also use “abiotic factors that change as a result of the pollutant” to indirectly test the pollution levels such as dissolved oxygen (DO) or BOD levels of the water
# IB Environmental Systems and Societies/Eutrophication

Eutrophication: Environmental problem which consists on an increase of the primary production (fitoplacton) caused by N and P bionutrients, these elements can be found in organic material as
# IB Environmental Systems and Societies/Measuring biotic components of the system
## 2.3 Measuring biotic components of the system

2.3.1 Construct simple keys and use published keys for the identification of organisms.
   * Dichotomous Keys
2.3.2 Describe and evaluate methods for estimating abundance of organisms.
2.3.3 Describe and evaluate methods for estimating the biomass of trophic levels in a community.
2.3.4 Define the term diversity.
   * Diversity is often considered as a function of two components: the number of different species and the relative numbers of individuals of each species.
2.3.5 Apply Simpson's diversity index and outline its significance.
   * Formula: D = N(N − 1)/ ∑ n(n − 1)
Where:
   * D = diversity index
   * N = total number of organisms of all species found
   * n = number of individuals of a particular species
   * D is a measure of species richness. A high value of D suggests a stable and ancient site, and a low value of D could suggest pollution, recent colonization or agricultural management. The index is normally used in studies of vegetation but can also be applied to comparisons of animal(or even all species) diversity.
# IB Environmental Systems and Societies/Community
#### Community

What is a community?
* a group of organisms that live together in one area
What is an ecological niche?
# IB Environmental Systems and Societies/Biomes
#### 2.4 Biomes

2.4.1 Define the term biome.
   * A collection of ecosystems sharing similar climatic conditions; for example, tundra, tropical rainforest, desert.
   * Int: Biomes usually cross national boundaries (biomes do not stop at a border; for example, the Sahara, tundra, tropical rainforests).
2.4.2 Explain the distribution, structure and relative productivity of tropical rainforests, deserts, tundra and any other biome.
- Tropical Rainforests:
   * High productivity
   * High precipitation (2500 mm yr¹) throughout the year
   * High insolation
   * High temperature (26 ʻC)
   * Good nutrient cycling = High rate of decomposure
   * Highest NPP
- Temperate Forests:
   * Medium productivity
   * 4 seasons (Insolation and temperature varies)
   * Good growing season in the summer but limited in the winter
   * High temperatures and insolation in the summer = Greater productivity
   * Rainfall between 500 and 1500 mm yr¹
   * Second highest NPP
- Tundra:
   * Low productivity
   * Lowest of precipitation (50 mm yr¹)
   * Low insolation (Days are shorter)
   * Low Temperature
   * Poor nutrient cycling because itʼs locked in the permafrost therefore low rate of decomposure
   * For 1-2 months the productivity is very high because the sun is up for almost the whole day
- Deserts:
   * Very low productivity
   * Low precipitation (Under 250 mm yr¹)
   * High insolation, but all water is evaporated or absorbed by the ground
   * Hot days & Cold nights
   * Low nutrient cycle
   * Species adapted to survive
- Grassland:
   * Wide diversity, but low levels of productivity
   * Enough precipitation to prevent deserts forming, but not enough to support forests
   * Nutrient cycle is sufficient
   * Insolation, precipitation and evaporation rates are balanced
   * Grass can grow under the surface even in cold periods, waiting to emerge until the ground warms
# IB Environmental Systems and Societies/Changes

2.6.1 Limiting factors constrain populations from continuing to grow for ever Density dependent factors: operate as negative feedback mechanisms, regulating the population and leading to stability. E.g. competition for resources, disease, predation, size of territory Density independent factors: Generally abiotic. E.g. weather, long-term climate change, tsunamis Carrying capacity is the maximum number of organisms which are able to live in an area
2.6.2 J-curve: has no limiting factors, only shows exponential growth and doesn’t slow down. S-curve: has 4 different stages: the lag phase, the exponential phase, the transitional phase and the stational phase. Slows down as carrying capacity is reached.
2.6.4 Life strategies r-strategy: mostly goes for small animals which produce large amounts of offspring, most offspring dies early and individuals who survive are very likely to live for a long time. Curve: J-curve K-strategy: almost all individuals survive for their potential life span and die simultaneously. Curve: S-curve
2.6.5 Succession: a series of events by which life comes back to an area, explains how ecosystems develop from bare substrate over a period of time. Primary succession: occurs on previously uncolonized substrate (e.g. rock) Pioneer species (e.g. lichens) colonize the area and make it more suitable for new species. Secondary succession: occurs where previous community has been destroyed (e.g. after forest fires), begins on existing soil. Faster than primary succession as a soil and seed bank is present.
Seral stages = sequence of different communities Sere = whole set of successive communities Climax communities feature: greater biomass high species diversity more K-strategists - tall, long-lived species steady-state equilibrium When succession is interrupted: climax community does not develop a stage of “plagioclimax” Human activities can interrupt succession, e.g. agriculture, hunting, burning
Zonation: Change in an ecosystem over distance/along a gradient. (spatial patterns of animals and plants). E.g. changes in ecosystems up a mountain with increasing altitude. Environment gradient: area where two ecosystems meet or where one ecosystem ends Methods to measure changes along a gradient: systematic sampling (transects), continuous transect, interrupted transect
The final stage in succession is called the climax stage and involves the climax community.
# IB Environmental Systems and Societies/Acid deposition
## Topic 5.8: Acid Deposition
### Key Vocabulary:

-Acid Deposition: The accumulation of acids or acidic compounds on the surface of the Earth, in lakes or streams, or on objects or vegetation near the Earth’s surface, as a result of their separation from the atmosphere. -Dry Deposition: Emitted from industrial complexes, vehicles and urban areas. -Wet Deposition: Acids that dissolve in cloud droplets, (rain, snow, mist, and hail) that reach the ground. -Acid Rain: rain or any other form of precipitation that is unusually acidic, meaning that it possesses elevated levels of hydrogen ions, can have harmful effects on plants and infrastructure.

### Assessment Statements:

-5.8.1: Outline the chemistry leading to the formation of acidified precipitations *refer to Figure 5.14 on the back* -5.8.2: Describe three possible effects of acid deposition on soil, water, and living organisms. * (1) increased levels of dissolved metals such as copper, aluminum, zinc, and lead. (2) breaks down lipids in the foliage and damages membranes which can lead to plant death. (3) an impoverished (poor) species structure. -5.8.3: Explain why the effect of acid deposition is regional rather than global. *Acid deposition is regional rather than globally because it is predominantly focused in a certain area. Such as in the 1980s and 1990s it affected Sweden, eastern North America, Germany, Belgium, and Norway amongst others. -5.8.4: Describe and evaluate pollution management strategies for acid deposition. *burn less fossil fuel (this requires a government initiative in order to switch to nuclear or Hydro-power)
*allow decomposition of plants to return nutrients to the soil and offset the acidification process. *burn coal in presence of crushed limestone in order to reduce the acidification process *switch to low sulfur fuel (oil/gas plus high-grade coal)

### Causes of Acidification:

-Human Activities - Acidification is largely related to human activity. Many countries produce the pollutants and they may be deposited many hundreds of kilometers from their point of origin. However, there are variations within areas receiving acid rain. Some storms produce more acid rain than usual; lime-rich soils and rocks are better able to absorb and neutralize the acidity. -Natural Sources/Causes - Bog moss secretes acid, heathers increase soil acidity and conifer plantations acidify soils. Litter from conifers is acidic and not easily broken down – the Sitka spruce is non-native to Britain and specialized decomposing bacteria are absent. This leads to the accumulation of an acid humus layer in the soil. -Volcanoes are also important sources of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide. For example, before the eruption of the Soufriere volcano in 1995, Montserrat had some of the finest cloud forest in the Caribbean.
# IB Environmental Systems and Societies/Measuring abiotic components of the system
#### 2.2 Measuring abiotic components of the system

2.2.1 List the significant abiotic (physical)factors of an ecosystem.
   * PH, Temperature, Light intensity, Salinity, Turbidity, Dissolved oxygen
2.2.2 Describe and evaluate methods for measuring at least three abiotic (physical) factors within an ecosystem.
   * PH - PH meter
   * Temperature - Thermometer (C degrees)
   * Dissolved oxygen - Oxygen meter (PPM)
   * Light intensity - Light meter (LUX)
   * Salinity - Salinity meter (ppt)
   * Turbidity - Secchi circle (Visibility)
   * marine—salinity, dissolved oxygen, wave action
   * freshwater—turbidity, temperature, dissolved oxygen
   * terrestrial—temperature,wind speed, particle size, slope, soil moisture, drainage, mineral content.
# JLPT Guide/JLPT N1 Vocabulary/Row Ra

* 来場, らいじょう -attendance
* 酪農, らくのう -dairy (farm)
* 落下, らっか -fall, drop, come down
* 楽観, らっかん -optimism
* 濫用, らんよう -abuse, misuse, misappropriation, using to excess
* 理屈, りくつ -theory, reason
* 利根, りこん -intelligence
* 利子, りし -interest (bank)
* 利潤, りじゅん -profit, returns
* 理性, りせい -reason, sense
* 利息, りそく -interest (bank)
* 立体, りったい -solid body
* 立法, りっぽう -legislation, lawmaking
* 利点, りてん -advantage, point in favor
* 略語, りゃくご -abbreviation, acronym
* 略奪, りゃくだつ -pillage, plunder, looting, robbery
* 流, りゅう -style of, method of, manner of
* 流通, りゅうつう -circulation of money or goods, flow of water or air, distribution
* 了, りょう -finish, completion, understanding
* 料, りょう -material, charge, rate, fee
* 領域, りょういき -area, domain, territory, field, region, regime
* 了解, りょうかい -comprehension, consent, understanding, roger (on the radio)
* 領海, りょうかい -territorial waters
* 両極, りょうきょく -both extremities, north and south poles, positive and negative poles
* 良好, りょうこう -favorable, satisfactory
* 良識, りょうしき -good sense
* 良質, りょうしつ -good quality, superior quality
* 了承, りょうしょう -acknowledgement, understanding (e.g. please be understanding of the mess during our renovation)
* 良心, りょうしん -conscience
* 領地, りょうち -territory, dominion
* 領土, りょうど -dominion, territory, possession
* 両立, りょうりつ -compatibility, coexistence, standing together
* 旅客, りょかく -passenger (transport)
* 旅券, りょけん -passport
* 履歴, りれき -personal history, background, career, log
* 理論, りろん -theory
* 輪, りん -counter for wheels and flowers
* 林業, りんぎょう -forestry
* 類似, るいじ -analogous
* 類推, るいすい -analogy
* 冷酷, れいこく -cruelty, coldheartedness, relentless, ruthless
* 冷蔵, れいぞう -cold storage, refrigeration
* 冷淡, れいたん -coolness, indifference
* 恋愛, れんあい -love, love-making, passion, emotion, affections
* 連休, れんきゅう -consecutive holidays
* 連日, れんじつ -every day, prolonged
* 連中, れんじゅう -colleagues, company, a lot
* 連帯, れんたい -solidarity
* 連邦, れんぽう -commonwealth, federation of states
* 連盟, れんめい -league, union, alliance
* 老衰, ろうすい -senility, senile decay
* 朗読, ろうどく -reading aloud, recitation
* 浪費, ろうひ -waste, extravagance
* 労力, ろうりょく -labour, effort, toil, trouble
* 碌 (碌な), ろく (ろくな) -satisfactory, decent
* 碌 (碌に), ろく (ろくに) -well, enough, sufficient
* 露骨, ろこつ -1. frank, blunt, plain, outspoken, 2. conspicuous, open, 3. broad, suggestive
* 論議, ろんぎ -discussion
* 論理, ろんり -logic
# JLPT Guide/JLPT N2 Vocabulary

| Level N5 | Level N4 | Level N3 | Level N2 | Level N1 |
| Vocabulary Kanji Grammar | Vocabulary Kanji Grammar | Vocabulary Kanji Grammar | Vocabulary Kanji Grammar | Vocabulary Kanji Grammar |
Below are the vocabulary lists for level N2 of the Japanese Language Proficiency Test.
* あ行
* か行
* さ行
* た行
* な行
* は行
* ま行
* や行
* ら行
* わ行
* misc
# JLPT Guide/JLPT N3 Grammar

| Level N5 | Level N4 | Level N3 | Level N2 | Level N1 |
| Vocabulary Kanji Grammar | Vocabulary Kanji Grammar | Vocabulary Kanji Grammar | Vocabulary Kanji Grammar | Vocabulary Kanji Grammar |
Here is a list of the grammar points likely encountered on level N3 of the Japanese Language Proficiency Test. There is no official list, so it is possible that other grammar points may be seen. JLPT N5 grammar and JLPT N4 grammar are likely to be seen on the N3 test but are not listed again here -- see their respective pages.

### ～ようになる

A change which has taken place or will take place.

### ～ことになる

To be decided, to be arranged.

### ～とても～ない

Can't possibly

### ～らしい

Seems like, Hearsay

### ～て初めて

Only when ~, that ~; It is not until ~, that ~

### ～ないで

Without doing ~

### ～によって

Depending on ~

### ～のような

like ~

### ～ば～ほど

The more ~ the ~er something gets (the more you study the smarter you get)

### N+ばかり

Nothing but ~

### AはBで有名

~ A is famous for B

### N+を始め

for example; starting with

### 的

Turns nouns into adjectives. Like English '-al'

### ～は～くらいです

(How much) ~ (adj) is ~

### ～さえ～ば

~if only~then...

### ほど

To the extent

### まま

In its current state

### わざわざ

To bother oneself to do something

### ～としたら

If we assume ~

### ～たものだ

This used to ~ / This was what ~

### ～たて

newly/ freshly/ just did something

### ～ぐらい

about/around ~

### ～かえって

on the contrary

### ～には～の～がある

There is ~ in ~

### ～っぽい

Characteristic of ~

### ～に関する

in relation to ~

### まさか

"Impossible!"

### まい

probably won't

### きり

just, for good

### いったい（一体）

"What in the world?"

### ふり

Pretend to ~

### どうやら

I think that ~

### おかげで

Thanks to ~

### さらに（更に）

Furthermore

### すでに（既に）

already ~

### つい

Without thinking

### むしろ

rather; better; instead

### さえ

even; if only; if just; as long as; the only thing needed

### ～になれる

get used to ~ ; come to be ~

### ～に違いない

There is no doubt that ~, I am sure that ~

### なかなか

Considerably

### ～ために

In order to~

### ～ず

Without doing ~ (shortened form of ~ないで)

### ～によると

According to, Due to, By means of

### ～代わり

In place of ~

### ようにする

Make sure to do ~

### ～始める

To start to ~

### ～ても

Even if~

### ～として

As ~, In the role of ~

### ように

In order that ~

### こそ

(Emphasis)

### ～ないうちに

Before ~ happens (before it rains, ~)

### どうしても

By all means, At any rate

### ～がち

Tends to be ~

### せいぜい

As far as possible, At the most

### ～に限る

nothing better than ~

### ～とともに～

as well as; with; along with; at the same time

### ～たび～

~ whenever ~

### すぎない（過ぎない）

merely ~ ; no more than ~

### おいて（於いて）

as for ~ ; regarding ~

### ～げ

seems like~

### つもりで

having the intention of~
This list of grammar terms was compiled by Jonathan Waller, . Some definitions from JGram, .
# JLPT Guide/JLPT N1 Vocabulary/Row Wa

* 和, わ -sum, harmony, peace
* 我がまま, わがまま -selfishness, egoism, wilfulness, disobedience, whim
* 枠, わく -frame, slide
* 惑星, わくせい -planet
* 技, わざ -art, technique
* 態と, わざと -on purpose
* 態々, わざわざ -expressly, specially, doing something especially rather than incidentally
* 煩わしい, わずらわしい -troublesome, annoying, complicated
* 渡り鳥, わたりどり -migratory bird, bird of passage
* 詫び, わび -apology
* 和風, わふう -Japanese style
* 和文, わぶん -Japanese text, sentence in Japanese
* 藁, わら -straw
* 割合に, わりあいに -comparatively
* 割り当て, わりあて -allotment, assignment, allocation, quota, rationing
* 割り込む, わりこむ -to cut in, to thrust oneself into, to wedge oneself in, to muscle in on, to interrupt, to disturb
* 割り算, わりざん -division (math)
* 割引き, わりびき -discount, reduction, rebate, tenths discounted
* 悪者, わるもの -bad fellow, rascal, ruffian, scoundrel
# IB Music/Exam/SL Solo Performance

Students have to present a solo recital of at least 15 minutes which is worth 50%. (A recital of 20 minutes is a compulsory element for Higher Level students.) This has to be recorded and the student's teacher has to be in attendance. During the course students should develop their instrumental skills towards a presentation of one or more solo recitals which seeks to display the best that the student can achieve.
* Performances should be on a single instrument, or voice, but more than one is permissible.
* Any instrument, voice, style or musical genre is permitted.
* The presentation may be compiled from pieces recorded on more than one occasion.
* No more than one piece may be included which does not feature the student as a soloist.
The Recital.
* This part of the syllabus focuses specifically on the solo performer, therefore only one piece may be included which does not feature the student as a soloist.
* The programme for the presentation should be suitable for the chosen instrument or voice, with attention given to the balance of styles and character, if appropriate.
* It is not necessarily in the students interest to submit a presentation where the student performs on more than one instrument, or both sings and plays.
Assessment.
Solo performance is assessed in the first case by the teacher and is then presented for moderation.
It is marked using 4 criteria with 5 marks being awarded to each. They are as follows:
* Overall impression
* Technical competence
* Style and interpretation
* Repertoire