OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Development Cooperation Handbook/Definitions/Empowerment

In a general sense to empower is "to give authority or power" but in the development field to empower is "to enable", "to promote the self-actualization".
The World Bank defines empowerment as
       "the process of enhancing the capacity of individuals or groups to make choices and to transform those choices into desired actions and outcomes."
In the UN Guidelines on Women's Empowerment empowerment is defined in terms of the faculties achieved once empowered.
       " Women's empowerment has five components: women's sense of self-worth; their right to have and to determine choices; their right to have access to opportunities and resources; their right to have the power to control their own lives, both within and outside the home; and their ability to influence the direction of social change to create a more just social and economic order, nationally and internationally."
Empowerment cannot be "given" in the same way that education cannot be delivered and participation cannot be bought. It is a process that requires communication and cooperation and that it is possible only as far as the counterparts are acting in a reciprocally empowering manner, because they recognize that, in order to fully realize themselves, they need the self realization of the others.
It is possible to act in a reciprocally empowering modality only if there is reciprocal trust and all counterparts believe that they would benefit much more acting in a positive sum game modality rather then in conflictual manner. Persons, communities and institutions act in reciprocally empowering manner when they believe that their authority is reinforced by the authority of the others. A typical form of institutional empowerment is the practice of subsidiarity.
Like communication produces new knowledge that none of the communicators had beforehand, so "empowerment" is a process that establishes a new authority in the partners of the process of empowerment. Through successful communication and cooperation the partners actualize a new potentiality of their being, a dimension of themselves that they could not realize in mutual isolation. Their respective potentialities are in fact actualized by understanding where there is equality and where there is difference amongst them. By valuing these differences in a spirit of equal dignity, they act , reciprocally and simultaneously, as the "empowerer" and the "empowered".

## References

* ↑ What is Empowerment?, World Bank.
* ↑ UN Guidelines on Women's Empowerment, United Nations.

## See also

In other sections of this handbook
Subsidiarity
The employee empowering organization
Manage the Project Team
Decision Making in Groups
On Wikipedia
Empowerment On other Wikibooks Placing Women's Empowerment Back Into the Gender Equality Framework
# Development Cooperation Handbook/Definitions/Donors

Who provides aid
Bilateral Aid is given by the government of one country directly to another. Many dedicated governmental aid agencies dispense bilateral aid, for example Europeaid, USAID, DFID, MAE.
Multilateral aid is given from the government of a country to an international agency, such as the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, or the European Development Fund. These organizations are usually governed by the contributing countries. Donations from private individuals and for-profit companies are another significant type of aid.
Many immigrants move to areas of increased economic opportunity, and send money to friends and family members who still live in the countries they left. These payments are known as remittances and constitute a significant portion of international monetary transfers.
Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) play a major role in distributing aid. Many non-profit charitable organizations solicit donations from the public to support their work; charitable foundations often oversee an endowment which they invest and use the proceeds to support aid organizations and other causes. Aid organizations may provide both humanitarian and development aid, or specialize in one or the other. SOme NGOs have an affiliation with a religious denomination.
Many NGOs conduct their own international operations - distributing food and water, building pipelines and homes, teaching, providing health care, lending money, etc. Some government aid agencies also conduct direct operations, but there are also many contracts with or grants to NGOs who actually provide the desired aid.
Scholarships to foreign students, whether from a government or a private school or university, might also be considered a type of development aid.
Private aid
Development charities make up a vast web of non-governmental organizations, religious ministries, foundations, business donations and college scholarships devoted to development aid.
# Development Cooperation Handbook/Definitions/Evaluation

An assessment, as systematic and objective as possible, of an on-going or completed project, programme or policy, its design, implementation and results. The aim is to determine the rele-vance and the fulfilment of objectives, developmental efficiency, effectiveness, impact and sustainability.
Evaluation may be of different kind according to:
* its timing: prior to action (ex ante ), during it (mid-term), or after completion (ex post).
* its doer: the ones involved in the performed action itself (self or in-ternal) or an external body or consultant (external), or a combination of both.
* its focus: on accountability (summative) or on learning, improving performance (formative).
* its trigger: evaluation defined, carried out by entities and persons free of the control of those responsible for the design and the implementation of the action (independent), or by entities involved in its management or its steering.
additional features:
* its driver: led by donor or partner (donor-led, partner led), by sev-eral authorities, donors (joint), along with stakeholders (participa-tory).
* its reach: when limited to one’s performed activities (self)

## See also

How do we Monitor and Evaluate Projects and Programmes?
On other Wikibooks
    Evaluating Development Cooperation
On Wikipedia
    Evaluation
* in Devcopedia - EuropeAid Wiki
** Aid effectiveness
# Development Cooperation Handbook/Definitions

* Accountability
* Aid
* Aid effectiveness
* Baseline
* Cooperation
* Communication
* Communication climate
* Culture
* Development
* Donors
* Empowerment
* Evaluation
* Human development
* Humanitarian aid
* Interculturalism
* The Logframe
* Participated development
* Relevance
* Stakeholder
* Subsidiarity
* Sustainable development
* Visibility
# Foundations and Assessment of Education/Edition 1/Foundations Table of Contents/Chapter 9/Additional Resources
## Additional Resources

Mentoring
US Dept of Education Mentoring Program
This is a program under the United States Department of Education that provides resources for creating a mentoring partnership and also how to apply for a grant to establish a mentorship program in schools.
National Education Association Information about Mentoring
The National Education Association has created this website that gives detailed information for establishing or improving mentorship programs for teachers.
Early Intervention-Pre K
Developmental Psychology Study about effects of Pre- Kindergarten
This was a published study in the American Psychological Association about the effects of Pre-Kindergarten on students that continue on through the public school system. There are many interesting statistics and information in this article.
Literacy Intervention for at risk Preschoolers
In this study done by researchers at the University of Virginia, they studied the effects of Literacy Intervention on pre-schoolers that had certain risk factors. This study was also published by the American Journal of Speech-Language pathology.
Effective Schools
Intervention Goals for Safe and Effective Schools
This is a chapter from a book that details specific risk factors for students that could create anti-social or criminal behavior and what steps teachers can do to help students to deal with the risk factors. There were many interesting topics within this article and would benefit any education student and educator.
Book that focuses on successful teachers and schools
The book details the effective strategies of reading by a group of teachers. There are many insightful details in this book and there is a distinct correlation between the successful teachers and their understanding of their students and the community that they come from.
School & Community Partnerships
Book about Partnerships between Schools, Families and Communities
This book describes many ways that schools can create great partnerships with families and the community that they live in. There are many details that would be beneficial for any education student to read to prepare them for the resources that they will need in their classroom.
School and Community Partnerships: A Handbook for Action
The author describes this book as a handbook for action and gives very clear reasons that partnerships will work between schools and the communities that they are in. This book is very informative and easy to read, the information will be beneficial to future teachers.
Creating Positive Learning Environments
Using Technological Blends to Create Diverse Learning Environments
This is a very interesting book that is extremely relevant for the teachers of tomorrow. There are many resources in this book that will help teachers to use technology to help their students to experience the information in many of the same mediums that they use outside of school.
* Rate This!
# Foundations and Assessment of Education/Edition 1/Foundations Table of Contents/Chapter 9/Author Sign-Up Page

* Students...
* To sign up for an author duty, click "edit this page", and sign your username (using four tildes) directly after the name of the duty you want to claim.
* Remember, each author duty will be completed by only one student. This means, if a username appears next to a duty, that duty is not available. Please choose another author duty in this or another chapter.
* EXAMPLE:
* Chapter FAQ PbakerODU (talk) 19:21, 11 May 2009 (UTC)
* This indicates that PbakerODU correctly signed up for this editor duty.

## Author Duties

Experts Take Sides
In the News
Chapter FAQSston008 (talk) 20:13, 15 May 2009 (UTC)
The Scoop From Someone Who Knows
* Questions? Refer to How to Use This Book
# ERP Internals/Data Tables/Parameters/General Ledger

This set of parameters contains the General Ledger options and values.
* Fiscal Year Start Date
* Number of Fiscal Periods
# ERP Internals/Data Tables/Parameters/Accounts Receivable

This set of parameters contains the Accounts Receivable options and values.
* Age based on Invoice/Due Date
* Accounts Receivable Aging Period 1 (days)
* Accounts Receivable Aging Period 2 (days)
* Accounts Receivable Aging Period 3 (days)
* Accounts Receivable Aging Period 4 (days)
* Customers Are Organizations/Individuals/Both
* Enforce credit limits
* Write off balances below this amount
* Require Purchase Order Number (Yes/No)
* Interest Rate
* Interest Days
* Statement Comment
* Invoice Comment
* Customer Entity Name (used if, for example, customers are called "clients")
* Sales Name
* Invoice Name
* Receipt Name
* General Ledger Accounts Receivable account number
* General Ledger Cash account number
* General Ledger Discount account number
* General Ledger Freight account number
* General Ledger Tax account number
* General Ledger Interest account number
* Next Invoice Number
* Next Credit Memo Number
* Next Statement Number
# ERP Internals/Data Tables/Purchase Order/Header

This table contains one record for each purchase order.
Used by: Purchasing
Key: Purchase Order Number
Fields:
* Purchase Order Number (a unique identifier assigned by the user)
* Supplier Number
* Type
* Date Issued
* Date Required
* Revision Number
* Buyer (Employee Number)
* Requisitioner (Employee Number)
* Ship To
* Amount
* Currency
* Status (Open/Closed)
* Hold Date
* Hold Authorization (User and Date/Time, encrypted)
* Hold Type
* Supplier Invoice Number (entered after invoice is received)
* FOB
* Terms
* Drop Ship (Yes/No)
* Drop Ship Name, Address, and Contact
* Notes
# ERP Internals/Data Tables/Quotation

This data consists of the following two tables:
* Header
* Line
# ERP Internals/Data Tables/Quotation/Header

This table contains one record for each quotation/estimate.
Used by: Quotation/Estimate
Key: Quotation Number
Fields:
* Quotation Number (a unique identifier assigned by the user)
* Customer Number (either Customer or Contact Number must be entered but not both)
* Contact Number
* Type
* Date Issued
* Expiry Date (Calculated for Date Issued and parameter)
* Date Required
* Scheduled Follow-up Date
* Actual Follow-up Date
* Price List
* Terms
* FOB
* Ship Via
* Quote Amount (a calculated field that the user cannot change)
* Freight
* Currency
* Sales Representative Number
* Status (Open/Declined/Accepted)
# ERP Internals/Data Tables/Quotation/Line

This table contains one record for every line on every quotation/estimate.
Used by: Quotation/Estimate
Key: Quote Number, Line Number
Fields:
* Quote Number
* Line Number (a unique number assigned by the ERP package)
* Item Number
* Description
* Quantity
* UOM
* Price
* Tax Code
* Tax Amount
* Extended Amount (Price x Quantity - Tax)
# ERP Internals/Data Tables/Parameters/Systems Administration

This set of parameters contains the Systems Administration options and values. Most of these are used by many or all modules.
* Name (the name of the enterprise)
* Address 1
* Address 2
* City
* State/Province
* Country
* Zip/Postal Code
* Telephone
* 1-800 Number
* FAX
* E-mail
* Website
* Logo (a graphic that appears on forms)
* EDI Partner
# ERP Internals/Data Tables/Purchase Order/Line

This table contains one record for every line on every purchase order.
Used by: Purchasing
Key: Purchase Order Number, Line Number
Fields:
* Purchase Order Number
* Line Number (a unique number assigned by the ERP package)
* Manufacturer's Part Number
* Item Number
* Job Number
* Description (this is commonly multi-line)
* Location
* Drop Ship (Yes/No)
* Quantity
* UOM
* Price
* Tax Code
* Tax Amount
* Extended Amount (Price x Quantity - Tax)
* Weight
* Received (Yes/No)
* Notes
# ERP Internals/Data Tables/Sales Analysis

This table contains one record for every order line. It is optimized for quick access and updated once a day from the live data.
Used by: Sales Analysis, Order Entry/Invoicing
Key: Transaction Number
* Transaction Number (a unique number assigned by the ERP package)
* Customer Number
* Sales Representative Number
* Branch Number
* Division Number
* Territory Number
* Item Number
* Date
* Quantity
* Price
* Currency
# ERP Internals/Data Tables/Purchase Order

This data consists of the following two tables:
* Header
* Line
# English-Hanzi/Picture

Special:search/picture prefix:English-Hanzi/
A picture is a image.
图画 就是 图像。
# English-Hanzi/Pinyin

Pinyin is a Chinese writing system. Another Chinese writing system is Hanzi.
拼音是一种中文书写系统。 另一种中文书写系统是汉字。
# English-Hanzi/Planet

Planet is an astronomical body running around a sun.
行星 是 一个 围绕 太阳 运行 的 天体。
# English-Hanzi/Pneumonia

Pneumonia is swelling (inflammation) of the tissue in one or both lungs. It's usually caused by a bacterial infection.
肺炎 是 一个 或 两个 肺 的 组织 肿胀（发炎），通常 由 细菌 感染 引起。
# English-Hanzi/Pineapple

Pineapple contains a lot of manganese and the body needs manganese to build strong bones.
菠萝含有大量的锰，人体需要锰来建立强壮的骨骼。
# English-Hanzi/Place

A place is a site that something is in there.
一个 地方 是 某事物 所处的 场所。
# English-Hanzi/Plant

A plant is a living thing that cannot move by itself.
植物 是 一种 不 能够 自行 移动 的 生物。
# English-Hanzi/Pleasure

A pleasure is a state of happiness.
乐趣 是 开心的 状态。
# English-Hanzi/Point

A point is one of the two endpoints of a line.
一个 点 是 一条 线 的 两个 端点 之一。
# English-Hanzi/Pizza

Special:search/pizza prefix:English-Hanzi/
Pizza is a kind of food eaten worldwide, a baked round flat dough with toppings of meats and vegetables.
pizza 是 流行 全球 的 食物，一种 烘烤 的 配有 肉类 和 蔬菜 的 圆平 的 面团。
# Electronics
## Foreword

* Aim of This Textbook
* Prerequisites
* Preface

## Chapter 1: DC Circuits

This book is part of a series on Electric Circuits:
Circuit Theory Circuit Idea Digital Circuits Practical Electronics Electronics Analogue Electronics Semiconductors Materials in Electronics
* Charge and Coulomb's Law
* Voltage, Current, and Power
* Basic Concepts
* Cells
* Resistors
* Capacitors
* Inductors
** Inductance
** Inductors/Networks
** Inductor Construction
** Inductors/Real Inductors
** Simplifying Capacitor/Inductor Networks
* Other Components
* DC Voltage and Current Laws
* Nodal Analysis
* Mesh Analysis
* Thevenin and Norton Equivalent Circuits
* Superposition
* Diagnostic Equipment
* DC Circuit Analysis
* Measuring Instruments
* Noise in electronic circuits

## Chapter 2: AC Circuits

* AC Circuits
* Phasors
* Impedance
* Steady State

## Chapter 3: Transient Analysis

* Inductors/Transient Analysis
* RC Circuits
* RL Circuits
* LC Circuits
* RCL Circuits

## Chapter 4: Analog Circuits

* Analog Circuits
* Semiconductor Basics
* Vacuum Tubes
* Diodes
* Transistors
* FET
* MOSFET
* Amplifiers
* Operational amplifiers
** Op-Amps/Non Linear Configurations
** Op-Amps/Non Linear Configurations/Inductor Gyrator
* Analog multipliers

## Chapter 5: Digital Circuits

* Digital Circuits
* Boolean Algebra
* TTL
* CMOS
* Integrated Circuits

### Elements of Digital Circuits

* Transistors
* Basic gates
* Combination gates
* Flip Flops
* Counters
* Adders
* Decoders and Encoders
* Multiplexers

### Computer Architecture

* RAM and ROM
* Registers
* ALU
* Control Unit
* I/O
* RTN

### Analog-to-Digital and Digital-to-Analog Converters

* Analog to Digital Converters
* Successive Approximation Registers
* Digital to Analog Converters

## Radio engineering

* Frequency Spectrum
* Gallery of VLF-signals
* VLF-reception with the PC
* Reception of DRM-transmitters
* Transmitter design

## Formulas Sheets

* Definitions
* Circuit Symbols (Editors should also look at Template)
* Identifying Components and Values
* Electronics Formulas
* Op Amp Applications
* Laplace Transform pairs

## Others

* Formulas
* Design Basics: Tools and Equipment
* Electro-Mechanical Analogies
* Expanded Edition
Resources: (When adding links make sure to fill out the Permission Form)
* Discuss this book
* GCSE Science/Electricity
* Wikipedia's Electronics
* Wikipedia's List of electronics topics
Resources that are not yet covered by the Permission Form
* Tony R. Kuphaldt's Lessons in Electric Circuits
# Electronic Properties of Materials/Quantum Mechanics for Engineers/Quantum Mechanics Overview

This is the first chapter of the first section of the textbook Electronic Properties of Materials.

## Quantum Mechanics Overview

The origins of quantum mechanics came about in the quantum revolution from 1890 to 1930. During this time several new discoveries facilitated this transition.
* Light has particle nature in addition to wave nature.
* Light (photons) and matter are found to interact and develop theory of atomic structure.
* Matter has wave nature in addition to particle nature.
These discoveries led to the birth of modern quantum mechanics.

## Light Has A Particle Nature

As early as 1877, Boltzmann proposed that energy was not continuous, but rather discretized. In 1905, Raleigh-Jean applied this to black bodies, a perfect radiator where radiation is emitted form vibrating atoms that act as little dipoles to create the Raleigh-Jean Theory. This theory takes ⟨E⟩{\textstyle \langle E\rangle } as the expectation value of the energy giving:
$\langle E\rangle ={\int _{0}^{\infty }Ee^{-\beta E}\operatorname {d} \!E \over \int _{0}^{\infty }e^{-\beta E}\operatorname {d} \!E}$
This distribution is energy times the distribution over the partition function which produces $kT$. While this generally follows experimental results at large wavelengths, at shorter wavelengths the prediction diverges from experimental results.
In 1901, Plank also took the existing theory and modified it to replace continuous energy with discrete energies giving:$E=\eta h\nu =\eta h{c \over \lambda }$
This 'fix' for the UV catastrophe was completed by incorporating Wein's Law (1893).

### Discrete Energies

When we think about energies they may look continuous but they are actually discretized. Furthermore, in 1905 Einstein said that not only is energy quantized, but so is electromagnets. in 1887, Hertz showed through his photoelectric effect experiment
# Electronic Properties of Materials/Quantum Mechanics for Engineers/Variational Methods

This is the eighth chapter of the first section of the book Electronic Properties of Materials.
**INCOMPLETE**
An extremely useful fact is that the time-independent Schrödinger Equation is equivalent to a variation principle. The energy is a functional, or a function of functions, of the wavefunction.
$\langle E\rangle \ =\ \langle \psi \ H\ \psi \rangle \ =\ E[\psi ]$
The $E[\psi ]$ is minimized when $\psi$ is the ground state wavefunction. This can be proven by calculus of variation methods or by methods of Lagrange multipliers. Here, we're going to show this by a practical example.

## A Practical Example

Say $\psi _{n}$ are a complete set of orthonormal eigenfunctions of $H$.
$H\psi _{n}=E_{n}\psi _{n}$
$\phi$ is an arbitrary square-integrable function, in that you can take the integral of $\phi ^{*}\phi$ without singularity.
We can write $\phi =\sum _{n}a_{n}\psi _{n}$ as:
${\begin{aligned}E[\phi ]&={\int \phi ^{*}H\phi \over \int \phi ^{*}\phi }\\&={\sum _{n}\sum _{n'}\int a_{n}^{*}\ \phi _{n}^{*}\ H\ a_{n'}\ \psi _{n'} \over \sum _{n}\sum _{n'}\int a_{n}^{*}\ \psi _{n}^{*}\ \psi _{n'}\ a_{n'}}\\&={\sum |a_{n}|^{2}E_{n} \over \sum |a_{n}|^{2}}\end{aligned}}$
Further subtracting the lowest possible energy, called the ground state ($E_{o}$), from both sides gets us:
$E[\phi ]-E_{o}={\sum _{n}|a_{n}|^{2}E_{n} \over \sum _{n}|a_{n}|^{2}}-E_{o}$
Since $E_{n}$ is always greater than or equal to $E_{o}$ for all $n$, the right side of this equation must always be greater than zero.
This equality has a very practical importance. It means that if $\phi$ is not the ground state wave function the energy will be larger than $E_{o}$. As it also happens, if $\phi H=E\phi$ and $E=E_{o}$, then $\phi$ is $\psi _{o}$. (for many non-degenerate $\psi$)
So... say you have a difficult $H$ and can't solve it, but you have a "good" guess for $\Psi$, say $\phi$. If you can find some way to tweak $\phi$ to minimize $E$ then $\phi \rightarrow \psi$. This allows for Rayleigh-Ritz Variational Method

### Rayleigh-Ritz Variational Method

* Guess: $({\vec {\phi }},\ {\vec {\alpha }})$ which has a good form, where ${\vec {\alpha }}$ are a set or variational parameters.
* Calculate $\langle E\rangle ={\int \phi ^{*}H\phi \over \int \phi ^{*}\phi }$
* Solve ${\partial \langle E\rangle \over \partial \alpha _{i}}=0$, for each $\alpha _{i}$
To find the set of ${\vec {\alpha }}$ that minimizes $\langle E\rangle$ and returns the best $\phi$ given the chosen form of $\phi (x)$.

#### Rayleigh-Ritz Example

Take as an Example, the Hydrogen atom. What if we can't solve for it? We can try making a good guess. Let's see how close a reasonable guess is.
<INSERT MATH>
Excellent Guesses will get you close to the true ground state. Good guesses will still do "ok" but not great. The shortcoming of this method is that you can't know if your guess for $\phi$ is close unless you already know the general solution. The best approach is to make several educated guesses based on asybiotic behavior of $\psi$ in the extreme limits.
<LENNARD-JONES>