OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Bookbinding/Equipment
## Bone Folder

A bone folder is a tool used to apply pressure for creasing paper and pressing glued surfaces together without leaving a residue on the work. It is shaped vaguely like a knife, but with only smooth, dull surfaces. As the name suggests, traditional bone folders were made out of the bones of animals. Today, bone folders are made out of both bone and various plastics.

## Paper knife

The correct term for this instrument is a 'bone folder'. It is traditionally fashioned from dense wood or cow-bone. Commonly it is a double-sided dull knife with one dull pointed pyramid-apex at one end.
The traditional name for a paper knife is a 'shoe knife', used to cut paper a bookbinder uses this in conjunction with the bone folder to fold and cut paperinto 'signitures' (grouped pieces of 2 or more sheets of paper folded against with the grain)

## Book plane

Rather than using a guillotine to cut a books pages all at once, a plane can be constructed to slice pages a few at a time, with many cuts all on the same plane. Douglas Jones described making such a plane from a wood chisel:
   I attached the chisel to my plowing jig with a pair of countersunk wood screws that grasped the narrowest part of the shank of the chisel between the handle and flat part of the blade. Most of the flat part of the blade is countersunk into the body of the jig in a slot I cut with the same chisel. The final adjustment of the blade height is critical. I do this by trial and error, adding scraps of paper behind the chisel blade or shank, as needed, to bring the flat of the blade exactly into the plane of the bottom of the jig.
   In retrospect, I should have made one jaw of the clamp about twice as thick as the other, because by the time I've plowed off half the pages, the far end of the jig holding the chisel falls off the jaw of the clamp and it's a bit harder to keep the cutting edge of the chisel exactly on the plane I'm trying to follow. The problem isn't serious enough to make me go back and make a new clamp, though.
   It is crucial that your chisel be very sharp, and there must be no bevel at all on the flat side of the blade! Careless sharpening will frequently put a slight bevel on the flat side, and this will make your plowing ride up as you work across the book instead of allowing you to hold to the plane established by the jaws of your book clamp.
The plowing jig against the spine of the book.
    H: The chisel handle
    C: The two clamp jaws
    J: The hardwood jig holding the chisel.
This work includes text or images adapted with permission from Bookbinding: A Tutorial © 1995 by Douglas W. Jones, who has agreed to this use under the terms of the GFDL.
# Bookbinding/Motivation

Why would anyone want to bind their own books? Here are a few answers to that question, though this list is by no means exhaustive.

## Preservation

With the right choice of binding techniques and materials, books can survive hundreds of years of gentle use. Even mediocre books outlive most electronic storage media: magnetic tapes and disks lose their magnetization, and optical media such as CDs and DVDs are prone to oxidation of the metallic layer and degradation of any heat-sensitive dye. The format of the printed word is immune to trends in editing software and advances in compression protocols. Creating printed copies can preserve digital information for the long term.
Existing printed matter can also be preserved and made more usable by proper bookbinding techniques. If a book is damaged, replacing the binding can be a relatively straightforward process. Brittle, decayed paper can be replaced entirely, using a photocopier and some careful planning ; the copied book can then be placed in a more durable, permanent binding.

## Creation

Books can be works of visual art in their own right, regardless of their content. Hopefully, the methods in this book will introduce more artists to this practical and beautiful medium. Also, making one's own sketchbook, journal, photo album, or notebook often serves as an inspiration to capture other forms of expression with more energy and personality.

## Convenience

Information is easy to find on the internet, but most people find that e-books, integrated circuit spec sheets , professional journal articles, and many other materials are easier to use if they are printed out and bound together. While stapling the top corner may be appropriate for thin documents that will be kept in a file folder and read only a few times, a little extra effort produces a volume that goes comfortably from bookshelf to backpack, and can be leafed through several times a day without worrying that the outside pages will fall off.
# Bookbinding/Perfect binding

Perfect binding is not a stitch binding at all, but a solely adhesive based binding. It is the easiest and least durable way to produce books, and is how most paperback books are bound. Single leaves are jogged to form a straight block, and the spine edge is glued with a hotglue - PUR or EVA - and glued instantly inside a card cover. Hot glue results in a stiff inflexible spine that is prone to cracking over time.
Below is a description of cold-glue fan-binding which is not perfect binding. A proper description of commercial perfect binding needs to be edited in here and a separate page on cold-glue fan-binding (or double-fan binding) written.
Gluing is done with a stiff brush, and is done with a jabbing or light stabbing motion more than a painting one.
The text block is held in place by a screw press, or just something heavy, like a couple of bricks for a small book. About an inch on the spine side is left hanging over the table in the case of the bricks, and the glue is brushed onto the spine in layers. Press down on the inch over the table to slant that part of the text block and paint glue over the spine again, so that the glue will get into the little spaces between the very edge of the pages. Then, holding the text block, slant the spine pages upward. Without the screw press, these two steps could get all of your pages scattered on the floor if you are not careful. Finally, letting the text block return to its unslanted state, paint glue on again.
You will need to press the glued pages together at this point and reinforce with a piece of mull that is the same height as the book; otherwise, you will find that the glue will separate the pages sufficiently where you may end up with two or three books instead of one. If you have a screw press, drop the book into the press so that the spine takes pressure and let the glue set in this manner. Protect your book and press with some waxed paper, being careful not to adhere the wax paper to the spine. If you don't have a screw press, take some boards (binder's board, wooden boards) and use these to protect and distribute the weight of the pressure you apply, whether it be in the press or with bricks.
After this dries, the cover is generally glued to the spine to complete the book. Be aware that if you reinforce with mull and intend to glue the book into an existing cover, you will have space issues. If you are making the cover to fit afterwards, there will be no such difficulty.
# Bookbinding/Materials
## Spine
### Super
### Thread

Traditionally, unbleached linen thread is the preferred material for bookbinding, but unbleached long-staple cotton will do almost as well. The key is that it is a natural fiber comparable in expected lifetime to the paper and the cover material, and that it have very long fibers, giving it great strength. For less traditional projects, carpet thread, strong nylon thread, or even waxed dental floss can also be used.
The thread should be heavy, heavy enough that you might be as likely to call it fine cordage as you are to call it heavy thread! Thread diameters of close to a millimeter (when uncompressed and not under tension) are quite reasonable. The thread should compress to about 1/2 millimeter when successive turns are wrapped tightly around a pencil.
Before you start sewing, it helps (but is not strictly necessary) to wax the thread with beeswax. To do this, clamp the thread against a block of beeswax with your thumb and pull it through with your other hand. The thread will tend to cut a slot in the wax, so keep changing the angle of pull to even out the wear on the wax. Do this two or three times with the full length of thread before you start sewing.
This work includes text or images adapted with permission from Bookbinding: A Tutorial © 1995 by Douglas W. Jones, who has agreed to this use under the terms of the GFDL.

## Cover
### Museum board

Museum board is a special type of cardboard. Specifically, it is a white, acid free cardboard with the interesting property that it flexes fairly easily in one direction but it is fairly stiff in the other. This is because of the grain of the paper fibers. Denny Jones recommends two ply museum board for long stitch binding. Good art-supply stores carry this. One sheet will make about eight book covers for books printed on standard sized typing paper.
This work includes text or images adapted with permission from Bookbinding: A Tutorial © 1995 by Douglas W. Jones, who has agreed to this use under the terms of the GFDL.

### Re-used materials

Bookbinding/Re-used materials
# Bookbinding/Plane

Rather than using a guillotine to cut a books pages all at once, a plane can be constructed to slice pages a few at a time, with many cuts all on the same plane. Douglas Jones described making such a plane from a wood chisel:
   I attached the chisel to my plowing jig with a pair of countersunk wood screws that grasped the narrowest part of the shank of the chisel between the handle and flat part of the blade. Most of the flat part of the blade is countersunk into the body of the jig in a slot I cut with the same chisel. The final adjustment of the blade height is critical. I do this by trial and error, adding scraps of paper behind the chisel blade or shank, as needed, to bring the flat of the blade exactly into the plane of the bottom of the jig.
   In retrospect, I should have made one jaw of the clamp about twice as thick as the other, because by the time I've plowed off half the pages, the far end of the jig holding the chisel falls off the jaw of the clamp and it's a bit harder to keep the cutting edge of the chisel exactly on the plane I'm trying to follow. The problem isn't serious enough to make me go back and make a new clamp, though.
   It is crucial that your chisel be very sharp, and there must be no bevel at all on the flat side of the blade! Careless sharpening will frequently put a slight bevel on the flat side, and this will make your plowing ride up as you work across the book instead of allowing you to hold to the plane established by the jaws of your book clamp.
The plowing jig against the spine of the book.
    H: The chisel handle
    C: The two clamp jaws
    J: The hardwood jig holding the chisel.
This work includes text or images adapted with permission from Bookbinding: A Tutorial © 1995 by Douglas W. Jones, who has agreed to this use under the terms of the GFDL.
# Bookbinding/Museum board

Museum board is a special type of cardboard. Specifically, it is a white, acid free cardboard with the interesting property that it flexes fairly easily in one direction but it is fairly stiff in the other. This is because of the grain of the paper fibers. Denny Jones recommends two ply museum board for long stitch binding. Good art-supply stores carry this. One sheet will make about eight book covers for books printed on standard sized typing paper.
This work includes text or images adapted with permission from Bookbinding: A Tutorial © 1995 by Douglas W. Jones, who has agreed to this use under the terms of the GFDL.
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## References

Your references go here. Use APA style.
# Canadian History/The People of the Lands/Chipewyan
## Overview

Chipewyan comes from a Cree term meaning ‘pointed skins,’ but they called themselves ‘Dene’ which means people. They speak a language which belongs to a branch the northeastern Athapaskan language family. Their ancestors were the Taltheilei.

## Fur trade

Before the Europeans’ arrival, they inhabited the Northwest, an area dominated by the Canadian shield, along with three other nations: the Ojibwa, the Assiniboin, and the Cree. Historically, the Chipewyan lived on the tundra for parts of the year and hunted the migratory herds of Barren Ground caribou. Families would gather to form hunting groups that would coalesce and disperse with the herds. Leaders were chosen for ability, wisdom and generosity and had limited authority. Later, lured by the fur trade, they left the tundra to take up year-round residence in the boreal forests to the south. This opened up a gap in the tundra for the Caribou Inuit who had traded their traditional marine lifestyle to follow the caribou.
Because of the location of their land, the Chipewyan played a large part in establishing the fur trade. In the 1770s, guides from the Chipewyan nation helped guide Samuel Hearne’s exploration of Rupert’s Land. As posts were built around Lake Athabasca, they became the main suppliers. According to Chipewyan tradition, it was a young woman named Thanadelthur who introduced her people to the Europeans. This successful meeting led to the establishing of Prince of Wales Fort, or Churchill, in 1760 by the Hudson Bay Company for the Chipewyan fur trade. Competition in the fur trade created hostility between many first native groups, including the Chipewyan with their southern neighbours, the Cree and the Inuits, who were to the north.

## Expansion

By the early 19th century, the fur trade has expanded west from Hudson Bay to Great Slave Lake. Likewise, the Chipewyan extended their territories south to the full boreal forest, where fur-bearing animals were more abundant. Some even ventured into the northern edge of the parkland to hunt bison. Not all Chipewyan worked in the trade business though, some only traded for food provisions. By late 19th century, they were occupying most of the regions they do today.

## Exposure to disease

The Chipewyan’s close contact with Europeans exposed them to deadly diseases for which they hadn’t built up an immunity for. Smallpox and measles were two of the most deadly and contributed largely to native population decline. An example is the outbreak of smallpox in 1780-82 which killed off much of the Chipewyan and Cree population around Hudson Bay.

## Sources

http://http-server.carleton.ca/~bgordon/Spatial/Cultures/Chipewyan.htm
https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/chipewyan
Horizons: Canada Moves West by Michael Cranny, Graham Jarvis, Garvin Moles, and Bruce Seney
# Canadian History/The People of the Lands/Haida
## Location

The Haida are situated on the Queen Charlotte Islands, an archipelago off the mainland of British Columbia, which they affectionately call Haida Gwaii$^{[1]}$ (Land of the People).$^{[2]}$ A few Haida are also situated on southern Alaskan islands.

## Social Organization

Haida society is matrilineal. Everything is passed down through the maternal side. This includes property, titles, names, crests, and even such things as performances and songs. Out of all the Haida, there are two moieties (formerly known as clans), the Eagle and the Raven. Marriage was to occur across clans. Members of the Eagle moiety married members of the Raven moiety, and vice versa. One's membership in a clan was inherited matrilineally. Going even further still, each clan was divided into lineages, of which there are now approximately 40 occupying the two main villages Skidegate and Old Massett. Lineages are groups of families with common ancestry.$^{[3]}$ The chief (a title inherited from the maternal uncle) of the lineage, was responsible for lineage property.

## Villages

Each Haida village was politically independent, but the Haida people have much pride in their clans, which are common ground between villages. Clan membership was promulgated through crests carven on totem poles, war canoes, masks, and other such objects.$^{[4]}$ Haida villages are often built on shores, in one or two rows of houses. This is due to fish being a significant factor of Haida diet and economy. Their houses were often constructed of planks of red cedar, and corner posts supported the framework of wooden beams. The entrance was often a doorway carved either into the front of the house, or into a massive totem pole in the same location, one that was decorated elaborately with lineage and moiety crests.$^{[5]}$

## Sources

$^{[1]}$"Haida." Encyclopedia of British Columbia. 2000. Harbour Publishing. 23 Mar 2009
    <http://www.knowbc.com/IEBC/IEBC.asp>.
$^{[2]}$"Haida Gwaii Tourism, Queen Charlotte Islands Tourism, Island, Information, BC, Canada." Haida Gwaii Tourism. Haida Gwaii Tourism Association, Queen Charlotte Islands. 23 Mar 2009
    <http://www.haidagwaiitourism.ca/>.
$^{[3]}$"Haida Culture and Ocean." Virtual Museum of Canada - Musee virtuel du Canada. 24 Mar 2009
    <http://www.virtualmuseum.ca/Exhibitions/Haida/java/english/c+o/co2a.html>.
$^{[4]}$Gessler, Trisha. "Haida (Native Group)." The Canadian Encyclopedia (including the Encyclopedia of Music in Canada). 2009. Historica Foundation. 25 Mar 2009
    <http://canadianencyclopedia.ca/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA000352
$^{[5]}$"Haida Houses." Canadian Museum of Civilization. 08 June 2001. Canadian Museum of Civilization Corporation. 25 Mar 2009
    <http://www.civilization.ca/cmc/exhibitions/aborig/haida/havho01e.shtml>.
# Canadian History/The People of the Lands/First Nations

The "First Nations" is the name given to the peoples descended from those who inhabited Canada at the time of its discovery by European explorers. The First Nations are organised into a number of different tribes, each with its own unique social structure and beliefs. It is believed that they arrived in North America via an ice bridge between Alaska and eastern Russia during the last ice age. Differences in geography have divided the First Nations into five major groups, each of them having different resources, technologies, and spiritual stories. Within those major groups, there are multiple tribes. The five major groups are as follows:

## Inuit

The Inuit people live the farthest north of all the First Nations. Inuit ancestry goes back hundreds of thousands of years in the Canadian Arctic. Staying alive while living in the Arctic was difficult, and people lived on every last resource they could find.

## Northwest Coast

The People of the Northwest Coast were very "spoiled" as far as natural resources go. They had plenty of food that could easily be stored and preserved. This allowed them to develop a complex social structure and gave them the ability to live in either their winter or summer houses.

## Plains

The people of the plains moved from place to place following buffalo, their main source of food and tools. Obviously, they lived on the great plains of Canada and the United States.

## Plateau

The people of the plateau lived in western Canada, but not as far west as the Pacific Ocean. They had winter pit houses and relied on hunting, gathering and fishing for food.

## Iroquois

The Iroquois were located in present day southern Ontario and around the Great Lakes. They used agriculture as a primary source of food and lived in large towns sometimes containing as many as 1000 people.
# Canadian History/The People of the Lands/Cree

The Cree were a First Nations people that mostly lived on the territory of modern Saskatchewan, Alberta, and Manitoba, though they spread as far east as Quebec. Their culture and lifestyle were that of the Plains people, a large group of tribes living in the Interior Plains. There were three general types of Cree-the Plains Cree, in Alberta and Saskatchewan, the Woods Cree, in Saskatchewan and Manitoba, the Swampy Cree, in Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec.

## Plains Cree

The culture and lifestyle of the Cree depended largely on the bison. Bison made up a large part of their lives, including clothing, shelter, and food. Items such as clothing, cups, spoons, teepees/tipis, strings, and weapons were created using the various parts of the bison, among others.

## Cree Language

The Cree language was a language of the Algonquian family. Despite not developing a written syllabary until the early nineteenth century with contact with Europeans, by the beginning of the twentieth century the Cree had one of the highest literacy rates in the world.

## Spirituality

Cree spirituality was based on interactions with animals and other spirits that appeared in dreams, as was common among Native Americans.
An event called the Thirsting Dance by the Cree, and the Sun Dance by other Plains Nations, was central to Plains spirituality. The Sun Dance was an annual event, taking place in the summer generally right before the big bison hunt, as that was when most members of a nation were present in one place. The sponsor of the event would often be either a much-admired woman or a man who had experienced success in a war raid.
A lodge would be built for the ceremony, and when it was completed, the dances would begin. The dancers were those who had made a vow to the tribe. Without food, drink or rest, they danced for the several days the ceremony took place. Staying on the spot, they danced with their eyes permanently focused on the top of the centre pole. To prove themselves, the young men of the tribe would have their chests pierced with skewers of bone, which were attached by a rope to the centre pole. While dancing, they would lean back until the skewers were ripped out.

## Cree in Modern Times

Today, the Cree is the largest First Nations group in (Canada), with 200,000 people members and 235 registered bands. A Cree band, the Lac La Ronge band, is the second largest in Canada.

## References

Minnesota State University
Canadian Encyclopedia
Michael Cranny,"Crossroads: A Meeting of Nations"
# 8th Grade Science/Section 3: Newton's Third Law

Newton’s third law states that when two bodies interact with one another, they apply forces to one another that are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.
The third law is also known as the law of action and reaction. This law is important in analyzing problems of static equilibrium, where all forces are balanced, but it also applies to bodies in uniform or accelerated motion.
For example, as shown in picture at the right,a book resting on a table applies a downward force equal to its weight (mg) on the table. According to the third law, the table applies an equal and opposite force to the book (N). This force occurs because the weight of the book causes the table to deform slightly so that it pushes back on the book like a spring.
# 8th Grade Science/Chapter 3: The Table of Elements

This chapter deals with the basics of chemistry, the elements. An element is the most basic material you can get, so that it is what separates a car from air from water. Almost everything is composed of elements (we will talk about non-elemental materials in the end of the chapter). There are 118 element on the Periodic Table of Elements. There are 91 elements that are known to make up the earth, the landscape, plants, animals and people. However, furthur research has led scientists to believe that the first 98 elements all occur in nature.

## Table of Contents

* Periodic Table of Elements
* Connections Between Elements
* Elements Interact
* Organic Materials
* Complex Materials - Polymers, Heavy elements, α-particles and others.