OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Conlang/Intermediate/History/Grammar changes

Grammar changes occur when a part of the grammar of a language changes over time, so that the language evolves a new way of expressing the same idea. For example, when French evolved from Latin it did not have a fixed word order, while it now does; much information that in Latin was conveyed by use of case, is conveyed by word order in modern French. In other words, while Latin conveyed relationships between words using morphology, French does so with syntax. (Italian too)
* Latin: Parva mensa rufa non est.
* French: La petite table n'est pas rouge.
* English: The little table isn't red.
* Italian: Il tavolino non è rosso.

## Processes of Grammatical Change

Grammar changes may take place in a variety of ways:
* Sound changes
Latin :
| | aqua, -ae water f. | aqua, -ae water f. | aqua, -ae water f. | aqua, -ae water f. | agricola, -ae farmer m. | agricola, -ae farmer m. | agricola, -ae farmer m. | agricola, -ae farmer m. |
| | Singular | Singular | Plural | Plural | Singular | Singular | Plural | Plural |
| Nominative | aqua | –a | aquae | –ae | agricola | –a | agricolae | –ae |
| Genitive | aquae | –ae | aquārum | –ārum | agricolae | –ae | agricolārum | –ārum |
| Dative | aquae | –ae | aquīs | –īs | agricolae | –ae | agricolīs | –īs |
| Accusative | aquam | –am | aquās | –ās | agricolam | –am | agricolās | –ās |
| Vocative | aqua | –a | aquae | –ae | agricola | –a | agricolae | –ae |
| Ablative | aquā | –ā | aquīs | –īs | agricolā | –ā | agricolīs | –īs |
| Locative | aquae | -ae | aquīs | –īs | agricolae | -ae | agricolīs | –īs |
# Conlang/Intermediate/History/Etymology
## What is etymology

Etymology is the study of the origin of words, for example the modern English word "today" from the on-line etymological dictionary
" O.E. todæge, to dæge "on (the) day," from to "at, on" (see to) + dæge, dative of dæg "day." Generally written as two words until 16c., after which it usually was written to-day until early 20c. Similar constructions exist in other Gmc. languages (cf. Du. van daag "from-day," Dan., Swed. i dag "in day"). Ger. heute is from O.H.G. hiutu, from P.Gmc. *hiu tagu "on (this) day," with first element from PIE pronomial stem *ki-, represented by L. cis "on this side." "
It might not be too far to say that some words in a conlang will not have an etymology, but doubtless most will. All of the words in esperanto are taken from another language, so all of them will share most of their etymology with the root. so kiso comes from the english kiss, and shares the rest of that words etymology.
In another conlang, Jorayn, the word dufadufath, meaning deer has the etymology that follows
"Imitative of the sound made by a deer's feet as they fall upon the freshly rained upon earth of the forest floor"
So the etymology might be more complex, such as that of Tolkien, who had the Quendian language family.
above is a chart tracing the etymology of the word for people
kwendī -> pendi -> penni
If you want to have full etymologies for your language it would be best to have it evolve from a proto-language, following sound changes and lexical shifts along the way.
# Fundamentals of Transportation/Modes

Wikipedia's article gives a list of a variety of modes largely defined by their technology (are they powered by animals or engines, are the engines on the vehicle or is the vehicle powered by a cable, do the vehicles travel on land, sea, or water, etc. While this is a reasonably comprehensive list and a reasonable organization of the subject for Wikipedia, it does not really get at the transportation aspect of modes, focusing instead on their mechanical aspects.
What characteristics describe and differentiate modes? Every mode must differ from every other mode on at least one dimension (otherwise they would be the same mode). This is analogous to the idea of speciation in biology. The Figure is a first cut at this for surface passenger transportation.
This distinguishes primarily on the non-mechanical (non-propulsion) characteristics of the service. Of course not every possible dimension is identified, and a few of the circles contain multiple modes which are otherwise obviously distinct (e.g. gondolas and subways are much the same from a transportation service perspective but for one is underground and uses a train and the other is suspended by a cable which moves it). This taxonomy differentiates things that were qualitatively different rather than quantitatively different.
So the first cut is about time, is a reservation required or not (i.e. does it need some advance planning).
The second cut is about time as well, is the service scheduled or dynamic.
The third cut is about space, are the routes fixed or dynamic.
If the route is fixed, are stops fixed (i.e. does the vehicle stop at every stop, or only when called, like a bus).
Otherwise if the routes are dynamic, things get a bit more ad-hoc, as the key question changes.
Some traditional distinctions (access mode vs. primary mode, such as walk to transit vs. drive to transit) are not distinguished here, rather that would be thought of as at least two trips, one where you walk or drive to some place (with the purpose of changing modes), and second where you take some form of transit.

## References

* A Taxonomy of Modes
# Fundamentals of Transportation/Operations/Additional Problems
## Additional Questions

* Where does the $E_{T}$ and $E_{R}$ come from, how was it computed?
* How much does future growth influence the planning and development of new roads?
* Why design roads for use today when the road won’t be built until next year?
* How is weather addressed in design?
* How do you adjust for trucks and buses and recreational vehicles (rvs) when computing the heavy vehicle factor? Are trucks, buses, and rvs considered passenger vehicles? Do heavy vehicle factors vary greatly? Is there a set number? What is a passenger car equivalent? What type of vehicles are subject to $f_{H}V$
* What is level of service? What are the different levels? Describe LOS F.
* Why are there adjustment factors when computing service flow? What are they?
* How do freeways differ from other roads? What do we mean when we model a freeway as a pipeline?
* What is the trade-off when we narrow or widen a lane? Why is 12’ ideal?
* What is the assumed population adjustment factor $f_{p}$
* Name some “ideal conditions” for use in freeway section LOS analysis
* How do you compute maximum service flow? How does $f_{H}V$ affect MSF?
* Explain the hierarchy of roads
* At what LOS does $(V/C)_{i}$) = 1
* How does the number of lanes affect capacity? Why is this non-linear? (If I go from 1 lane to two lanes does the capacity double, more than double, or less than double?)
* Is MSF computed with ideal or non-ideal conditions?
* What are parameters in designing for LOS?
* What is lane width in ideal conditions
* What is pcphpl
* What is the “ideal” number of freeway lanes?
* What is the percent of heavy vehicles in ideal conditions?
* Why does the grade of the terrain affect non-passenger vehicles
* Would oncoming vehicles be considered lateral obstacles?
* What is the idea of "design year"?
* In the interest / growth rate equation, what is principal?
* Why is the 30th highest hour used (not the 40th, not the 20th)?
* Describe the differences between rural 2 lane highways and freeways. Why do freeways have a higher capacity? What is the maximum of each?
* What is the design hour factor, how does it differ from the peak hour factor? What method is used to determine the hourly volume as a share of AADT (K)? Where is it used?
* What assumptions need to be made about 2-lane rural roads. How are these different than analysis of freeway sections?
* What are the two levels of analysis for two-lane rural highways
* What is the directional split on rural highways? Why do we assume 60/40 directional split for rural highway planning, why not 50/50?
* How accurate are the growth rates? Compare them to more sophisticated planning models developed at the beginning of the semester
* What is the difference between the SF equation for two lane roads and freeways.
* How is capacity found?
* Where does the v/c factor come from when evaluating rural highways
# Fundamentals of Transportation/Mode Choice/Solution

You are given the following mode choice model.
$U_{ijm}=-1C_{ijm}+5D_{T}\,\!$
Where:
* $C_{ijm}$ = travel cost between $i$ and $j$ by mode $m$
* $D_{T}$ = dummy variable (alternative specific constant) for transit
Auto Travel costs :
| Origin\Destination | Dakotopolis | New Fargo |
| Dakotopolis | 5 | 7 |
| New Fargo | 7 | 5 |
Transit Travel costs :
| Origin\Destination | Dakotopolis | New Fargo |
| Dakotopolis | 10 | 15 |
| New Fargo | 15 | 8 |
Part A
A. Using a logit model, determine the probability of a traveler driving.
Solution Steps
* Compute Utility for Each Mode for Each Cell
* Compute Exponentiated Utilities for Each Cell
* Sum Exponentiated Utilities
* Compute Probability for Each Mode for Each Cell
* Multiply Probability in Each Cell by Number of Trips in Each Cell
Auto Utility: $U_{auto}$ :
| Origin\Destination | Dakotopolis | New Fargo |
| Dakotopolis | -5 | -7 |
| New Fargo | -7 | -5 |
Transit Utility: $U_{transit}$ :
| Origin\Destination | Dakotopolis | New Fargo |
| Dakotopolis | -5 | -10 |
| New Fargo | -10 | -3 |
$e^{U_{auto}}$ :
| Origin\Destination | Dakotopolis | New Fargo |
| Dakotopolis | 0.0067 | 0.0009 |
| New Fargo | 0.0009 | 0.0067 |
$e^{U_{transit}}$ :
| Origin\Destination | Dakotopolis | New Fargo |
| Dakotopolis | 0.0067 | 0.0000454 |
| New Fargo | 0.0000454 | 0.0565 |
Sum: $e^{U_{transit}}+e^{U_{auto}}$ :
| Origin\Destination | Dakotopolis | New Fargo |
| Dakotopolis | 0.0134 | 0.0009454 |
| New Fargo | 0.0009454 | 0.0498 |
P(Auto) = $e^{U_{auto}}/(e^{U_{auto}}+e^{U_{transit}})$ :
| Origin\Destination | Dakotopolis | New Fargo |
| Dakotopolis | 0.5 | 0.953 |
| New Fargo | 0.953 | 0.12 |
P(Transit) = $e^{U_{transit}}/(e^{U_{auto}}+e^{U_{transit}})$ :
| Origin\Destination | Dakotopolis | New Fargo |
| Dakotopolis | 0.5 | 0.047 |
| New Fargo | 0.047 | 0.88 |
Part B
B. Using the results from the previous problem (#2), how many car trips will there be?
Recall
Total Trips :
| Origin\Destination | Dakotopolis | New Fargo |
| Dakotopolis | 9395 | 5606 |
| New Fargo | 6385 | 15665 |
Total Trips by Auto = $T_{ij}*P(Auto)$ :
| Origin\Destination | Dakotopolis | New Fargo |
| Dakotopolis | 4697 | 5339 |
| New Fargo | 6511 | 1867 |
# Fundamentals of Transportation/Planning/Additional Problems
## Additional Problems

* List five inputs to transportation planning models – are they measured or forecast?
* Why is modeling important, (give reasons, purposes of modeling)?
* What would be a possible complication or problem that would arise if in the planning of a project no forecasting was used?
* What are the steps in the rational planning model?
* Why is the rational planning model not always used (examples when it is not used)?
* What are some of the factors preventing accurate forecasting?
* List the steps in the four-step urban transportation planning model?
* Explain the advantages and disadvantages of public vs. privately owned transportation?
* What types of matrices are there in the transportation model, how do they differ?
* How does the effect of population increase effect transportation planning?
* What are the step in the generic modeling process?
* Are all transportation modes publicly owned? Give examples of public and private.
* When would it be reasonable to use the rational planning model?
* What significance does the equilibrium point in transportation economics have in design?
* What makes forecasting with one method better than another, and how are differences resolved?
* How do measured inputs affect the forecasting inputs?
* What is the idealized model to plan for a transportation project?
* On what type of economic model does transportation depend?
* Who, other than planners and engineers, should be involved in defining the needs and objectives for future projects?
* Can we steer development and growth trends through transportation planning decision?
* Give three examples of intermodalism?
* Are actual transportation routes planned using the Rational Planning model?
* List at least 10 things that must be considered before undertaking a major transit project?
* How is the rational planning model used?
* Why do we combine vector matrices to a full matrix?
* Is household income measured or forecast?
* What statistical methods play a role in transportation engineering/planning?
* Who measures transit use or travel times?
* What is a zone centroid?
* What is forecasting?
* How are various transportation needs provided?
* What is considered a carrier?
* How does vehicle occupancy influence our design process?
* Is rational planning process more likely to be used on major projects or small ones?
* What are the axes labels on the supply / demand curve?
* Explain why all forecasts are wrong?
* How does supply and demand work? How do they relate?
* How does intermodealism affect forecasting?
* What is the difference between modalism and intermodalism?
# Fundamentals of Transportation/Mode Choice/Solution2

Prior to the collapse, there were two modes serving the Marcytown-Rivertown corridor: driving alone (d) and carpool (c), which takes advantage of an uncongested carpool lane. The utilities of the modes are as given below.
$U_{d}=-t_{d}\,\!$
$U_{c}=-12-t_{c}\,\!$
where t is the travel time
Assuming a multinomial logit model, and
A) That the congested time by driving alone was 15 minutes and time by carpool was 5 minutes. What was the modeshare prior to the collapse?
B) How would you interpret the constant of -12 in the expression for Uc?
C) After the collapse, because of a shift in travelers from other bridges, the travel time by both modes increased by 12 minutes. What is the post-collapse modeshare?
D) The transit agency decides to run a bus to help out the commuters after the collapse. Again assuming the multinomial logit model holds, without knowing how many travelers take the bus, what proportion of travelers on the bus previously took the car? Why? Comment on this result. Does it seem plausible?
A) That the congested time by driving alone was 15 minutes and time by carpool was 5 minutes. What was the modeshare prior to the collapse?
Ud = -15
Uc = -17
Pd = 0.88
Pc = 0.12
B) How would you interpret the constant of -12 in the expression for Uc?
The constant -12 is an alternative specific constant. In this example, even if the travel time for the drive and carpool modes were the same, the utility of the carpool mode is lesser than the drive alone due to the negative constant -12. This indicates that there is a lesser probability of an individual choosing the carpool mode due to its lower utility.
C) After the collapse, because of a shift in travelers from other bridges, the travel time by both modes increased by 12 minutes. What is the post-collapse modeshare?
In this question since the travel time for both modes increase by the same 12 minutes, the post-collapse mode share will be the same as before
D) The transit agency decides to run a bus to help out the commuters after the collapse. Again assuming the multinomial logit model holds, without knowing how many travelers take the bus, what proportion of travelers on the bus previously took the car? Why? Comment on this result. Does it seem plausible?
The logit model will indicate that 88% of the bus riders previously drove alone due to the underlying Independence of Irrelevant Alternatives (IIA) property. The brief implication of IIA is that when you add a new mode, it will draw from the existing modes in proportion to their existing shares. This doesnt seem plausible since the bus is more likely to draw from the carpool mode than the drive alone mode.
# Fundamentals of Transportation/Planning/Homework
## Homework

1. Explain the four-step transportation planning model?
2. What are the outputs of the planning model and what they are used for?
3. What are the strength and weaknesses of this type of the forecasting procedure?
4. List 4 applications of transportation planning models.
5. List 4 typical data sources used in estimating, calibrating, and validating transportation planning models.
6. What is the rational planning model, and how does the four-step transportation planning model relate to it?
7. Identify 5 ways in which the conventional 4-step transportation planning model is imperfect.
# Free ABA Basics/Introduction

| Free ABA Basics | Edit template |
Introduction | Contributing | Authors | Discrete Trials | Assessment

## What is Free Applied Behavior Analysis Basics?

* Definition of Applied behavior analysis
* Definition of Free Curriculum - read and extrapolate from Free Software Foundation (FSF). While the FSF is for software but you can use your imagination to extrapolate.

## Benefits of Wikibooks

By placing an assessment tool into an electronic media you gain the following benefits:
* Adaptable - if a segment of the information is weak, a contributor might login to wikibooks.org and either add to the discussion for this module (see tabs) or make a change in the module for the section. Furthermore, a user can make a copy and customize it for his or her own use.
* Portable - this book can be placed on a laptop and/or printed out. No more lugging books around.
* Reduced costs - some ABA books have been known to cost over $100
* Durable - electronic media can often be put into various types of formats such as a database, web page, or even printed in sections.
* Expandable - the use of hyperlinks to get more information on an idea or item can assist users in learning the information more completely and quickly.
* Multimedia - Wikibooks has the ability to add pictures and short videos that are not under copyright and publicly available. Pictures or video clips can be used as training tools for users.

## Who Should Contribute?

Anyone interested in Applied Behavior Analysis.
The idea of providing schools with free, effective, field tested curriculum will save money and give us a more educated, competitive populace.
# Free ABA Basics/Assessment

| Free ABA Basics | Edit template |
Introduction | Contributing | Authors | Discrete Trials | Assessment

## Assessment Categories
### Early Intervention Age - Reorder

* Cooperation & Reinforcer Effectiveness
* Visual Performance
* Motor Imitation
* Receptive Language
* Verbal Imitation/Echoics
* Manding/Requesting
* Tacting/Labeling
* Intraverbals/Fill In the Blank/Wh?
* Spontaneous Vocalizations (ask Sue & Patty)
* Play
* Fine Motor
* Leisure
* Social Interaction
* Gross Motor
* Toilet Training
* Eating
* Self Help

### Early Special Education Grade K+

* Group Interactions
* Classroom routines
* General Responding
* Grooming

### Special Education Grade 1+

* Math
* Reading
* Writing
* Spelling
# Free Direct Instruction Curriculum and Training/Math Facts

Created 2007 02 10 | Percent completed:
Edit template Direct Instruction Approach Specifications | Science K | Science 1 | Science 2 | Reading K | Reading 1 | Math K | Math 1 | Math Facts

## Math Facts Worksheets

* Addition
* Multiplication

## Directions

Info:Present one to three lines as follows: "When I give a problem, you give me the answer. One times two. What's the answer?"
If you hear any student give the wrong answer, immediately correct the answer and repeat the question. Then go back 2 and start again.
Present the worksheet.
One student has the worksheet and another has the answers.
Ensure students can write 40 answers per minute. If a student is suspected of having motor issues, test the student's handwriting. Ensure the student can write 40 numbers (one and two digit) in one minute. If not, it might be better to have students practice by saying the entire problem and answer.
Have students work for 2 minutes or until they have finished the practice session. Then do the timing for one minute (40 correct problems). If students are able to do the practice without many mistakes but are unable to do 40 problems in one minute, then break up the timings into 15 second sessions. Do 15 second sessions until student is able to do 30 second sessions, then build to 45 second sessions, then one minute. Build slowly. Do not repeat the same timings in one session more than twice. If the student is able to pass all four subsections with 15 second timings, test for the 30 second timing. If the student cannot pass the 30 second timing, move on and consider it passed. Don't bore the student. Students should be able to pass within 1 or 2 test tries. If the student continues to fail the test, go back to the practice and ensure the correction procedures are being done. The student might be learning one or math facts wrong by practicing those wrong.
During practice, ensure the correction procedure is done fully. Correction procedure involves:
* The teacher or partner giving the correct answer
* The student repeating the full problem and answer correctly
* The student going back 1-3 problems
* If another incorrect answer is given during the correction procedure, start at number 1 and go back another 1-3 problems
# Free ABA Basics/Authors

| Free ABA Basics | Edit template |
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This book has been written by:
* Mike
* K Harris (Contributions)
# Free ABA Basics/Contributing

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## How to Prepare in Order to Contribute

Please ensure you have read up on ABA and the Wikibook model.

### ABA links

* Ascribe.org - 'Cal State University Stanislaus Professors Publish Revealing Report on Methods for Treating Autism' (August 5, 2005)
* BACB.com - 'Defining the Field of Behavior Analysis', Behavior Analyst Certification Board
* Behavior.org - Cambridge Center for Behavioral Studies
* Sentex.net - 'The Misbehaviour of Behaviourists: Ethical Challenges to the Autism-ABA Industry', Michelle Dawson (2004)
* centerforautism.com - Understanding ABA, Center for Autism and Related Disorders

### ABA books

* Department of Health and Rehabilitative Services, Developmental Services Program. (1996). Chapter 10F-4, service delivery practice and procedure. Tallahassee, FL: Author.
* Moran, D.J., & Malott, R.W. (2004). Evidence-Based Educational Methods. San Diego, CA: Elsevier Academic Press
* Lovaas, O. I. (1987). Behavioral treatment and normal education and intellectual functioning in young autistic children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 55, 3-9
* McEachin, J.J., Smith, T, & Lovaas, O. I (1993). Long-term outcome for children with autism who received early intensive behavioral treatment. American Journal of Mental Retardation, 97, 359-372
* Howard, Sparkman, Cohen, Green, & Stanislaw, (2005). A comparison of intensive behavior analytic and eclectic treatments for young children with autism. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 26, (2005), pp. 359–383
* Schoneberger, T. (2006). EIBT research after Lovaas (1987): A tale of two studies. The Journal of Speech-Language Pathology and Applied Behavior Analysis, 1, 207-217. Available: http://www.slp-aba.com/SLP-ABA-1-3.pdf

### Wikibooks links

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## How to Contribute

* If you wish to contribute you should read and join us by clicking on the discussion tab at the top or click Talk:Free ABA Basics
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