OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Handbook of Management Scales/Generational consolidation
## Generational consolidation (alpha = 0.67)
### Description

A comprehensive set of measures is developed to assess an innovation’s locus, type, and characteristics. The measure described on this page is one of these measures. It is found that the concepts of competence destroying and competence enhancing are composed of two distinct constructs that, although correlated, separately characterize an innovation: new competence acquisition and competence enhancement/destruction. Scales are developed to measure these constructs and show that new competence acquisition and competence enhancing/destroying are different from other innovation characteristics including core/peripheral and incremental/radical, as well as architectural and generational innovation types.
Following the typical process of scale construction, the empirical analysis is divided into four stages:
* content face validity analysis with expert judges.
* scale puriﬁcation through exploratory and conﬁrmatory factor analysis.
* assessment of discriminant and convergent validity through analysis of covariance structures.
* nomological validity through the analysis of the effect of innovation characteristics on time to introduction and commercial success.

### Definition

Generational innovation involves changes in subsystems linked together with existing linking mechanisms. It is found that generational innovation consists of two factors: Generational consolidation and generational expansion.

### Items

* PRODUCT no longer contains at least one subsystem that it used to contain before INNOVATION was introduced.
* PRODUCT now contains at least one subsystem that combines what used to be separate subsystems before INNOVATION was introduced.
* PRODUCT now contains fewer subsystems than it did before INNOVATION was introduced.

### Source

* Gatignon et al. (2002): A Structural Approach to Assessing Innovation: Construct Development of Innovation Locus, Type, and Characteristics. Management Science, Vol. 48, No. 9, pp. 1103–1122.
# Handbook of Management Scales/Generational expansion
## Generational expansion (alpha = 0.77)
### Description

A comprehensive set of measures is developed to assess an innovation’s locus, type, and characteristics. The measure described on this page is one of these measures. It is found that the concepts of competence destroying and competence enhancing are composed of two distinct constructs that, although correlated, separately characterize an innovation: new competence acquisition and competence enhancement/destruction. Scales are developed to measure these constructs and show that new competence acquisition and competence enhancing/destroying are different from other innovation characteristics including core/peripheral and incremental/radical, as well as architectural and generational innovation types.
Following the typical process of scale construction, the empirical analysis is divided into four stages:
* content face validity analysis with expert judges.
* scale puriﬁcation through exploratory and conﬁrmatory factor analysis.
* assessment of discriminant and convergent validity through analysis of covariance structures.
* nomological validity through the analysis of the effect of innovation characteristics on time to introduction and commercial success.

### Definition

Generational innovation involves changes in subsystems linked together with existing linking mechanisms. It is found that generational innovation consists of two factors: Generational consolidation and generational expansion.

### Items

* PRODUCT now contains at least one subsystem that it did not contain before INNOVATION was introduced.
* PRODUCT now contains more subsystems than it did before INNOVATION was introduced.

### Source

* Gatignon et al. (2002): A Structural Approach to Assessing Innovation: Construct Development of Innovation Locus, Type, and Characteristics. Management Science, Vol. 48, No. 9, pp. 1103–1122.

### Comments

The items are quite similar. It might therefore be difficult to capture different aspects of the construct. Only two items were used. It is strongly recommended to use more items.
# Handbook of Management Scales/Good employer
## Good employer (AVE = 0.66; CR = 0.90)
### Description

Based on a comprehensive scale development and validation procedure, the authors find support for a five-dimensional scale to measure customer-based corporate reputation of a service firm: customer orientation, good employer, reliable and financially strong company, product and service quality, and social and environmental responsibility.

### Definition

A good employer relates to the customers’ perceptions as to how the company treats employees and that the company is well-managed and has competent employees.

### Items

* Looks like a good company to work for. (0.71)
* Seems to treat its people well. (0.70)
* Seems to have excellent leadership. (0.67)
* Has management who seems to pay attention to the needs of its employees. (0.66)
* Seems to have good employees. (0.65)
* Seems to maintain high standards in the way that it treats people. (0.63)
* Seems to be well-managed. (0.59)

### Comments

Some items (1, 3, 5, 6, 7) were adapted from a scale by Fombrun et al. (2000). Item 5 seems to measure if the employees are good rather than the employer. The wording of item 7 seems to be too general.

### Source

* Walsh & Beatty (2007): Customer-based Corporate Reputation of a Service Firm: Scale Development and Validation. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Vol. 35, No. 1, pp. 127-143.
# Handbook of Management Scales/Group identification
## Group identification
### Description

Group identification was measured with four items taken from Wu, Tsui & Kinicki (2010).

### Items

* I identify myself as a member of my group.
* I am glad to be a member of my group.
* I identify with other members of my group.
* I feel strong ties with other members of my group.

### Source

* Zhang et al. (2014): Relational Versus Collective Identification Within Workgroups: Conceptualization, Measurement Development, and Nomological Network Building. Journal of Management, Vol. 40, No. 6, pp. 1700–1731
# Handbook of Management Scales/Functional participation
## Functional participation (alpha = 0.75)
### Description

The authors reconceptualize organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) in terms of civic citizenship and propose a new OCB measurement. It uses five categories of citizenship: loyalty, obedience, social participation, advocacy participation, and functional participation. Based on data from 950 employees, support is found for the measurement's construct validity.

### Definition

Organizational citizenship can be conceptualized as a global concept that includes all positive organizationally relevant behaviors of individual organization members.
Hereby, organizational participation is interest in organizational affairs guided by ideal standards of virtue, validated by an individual's keeping informed, and expressed through full and responsible involvement in organizational governance.
Particularly, functional participation relates to a form of participatory contribution in which individuals focus on themselves rather than others in their organizations but yet contribute to organizational effectiveness.

### Items

* Does not pursue additional training to improve performance (R). (0.64)
* Avoids extra duties and responsibilities at work (R). (0.57)
* Does not work beyond what is required (R). (0.56)
* Volunteers for overtime work when needed. (0.47)
* Has difficulty cooperating with others on projects (R). (0.39)

### Source

* Van Dyne, Graham & Dienesch (1994): Organizational Citizenship Behavior: Construct Redefinition, Measurement, and Validation. Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 37, No. 4, pp. 765–802

### Comments

The factor loadings of most of the items were below 0.60 and, thus, relatively low. The loadings of the last two items was even below 0.50.

### Related Scales

* social participation
* advocacy participation
# Handbook of Management Scales/Group efficacy
## Group efficacy
### Description

Group efficacy was measured with four items taken from Salanova, Llorens, Cifre, Martínez & Schaufeli (2003).

### Items

* I feel confident about the capability of my group to perform the tasks very well.
* My group is able to solve difficult tasks if we invest the necessary effort.
* I feel confident that my group will be able to manage effectively unexpected troubles.
* My group is totally competent to solve the task.

### Source

* Zhang et al. (2014): Relational Versus Collective Identification Within Workgroups: Conceptualization, Measurement Development, and Nomological Network Building. Journal of Management, Vol. 40, No. 6, pp. 1700–1731
# Handbook of Management Scales/Growth
## Growth (AVE = 0.517; CR = 0.761)
### Description

The authors test the construct validity of indicators of three dimensions of organizational performance, a fundamental construct in strategic management. Based on an examination of reliability, convergent validity, discriminant validity and nomological validity, and on additional analyses, the authors find evidence of four rather than three dimensions of organizational performance: liquidity, profitability, growth, stock market performance.

### Items

* Employment growth (0.472)
* Sales growth (0.440)
* Assets growth (0.638)

### Source

* Hamann et al. (2013): Exploring the Dimensions of Organizational Performance: A Construct Validity Study. Organizational Research Methods, Vol. 16, No. 1, pp. 67-87

### Comments

The authors did a lot to ensure reliability and validity of their scales. However, the factor loadings are just too low. Also AVE is relatively low. Richard et al. have conduct related research: Richard et al. (2009): Measuring Organizational Performance: Towards Methodological Best Practice. Journal of Management, Vol. 35, Nr. 5, pp. 718-804.

## Related Scales

* Comparative organizational performance
* Cost performance, delivery performance, flexibility performance, and quality performance
* Firm's financial performance over the past 5 years
* Performance
* Organizational performance: liquidity, profitability, growth, stock market performance
# History of the National Hockey League/1942–1967/Norris House League

During the 1960s, it was often joked that "NHL" stood for "Norris House League" as the Norris family held interests in several of the league's teams, interests inherited from the patriarch, James E. Norris. James E. Norris had once played ice hockey for the Montreal Hockey Club, and fashioned the Red Wings logo to resemble the Montreal team's logo. When he died in 1952, he passed his interests along to his sons Bruce and James D. James D. Norris was a co-owner of the Black Hawks along with Arthur Wirtz, while his brother Bruce inherited ownership of the Red Wings. James D. Norris was also the largest shareholder in Madison Square Garden, giving him control over the Rangers.
The Black Hawks qualified for the playoffs only once between 1949 and 1957. The team's fortunes turned in 1958–59, following the acquisition of Ted Lindsay and Glenn Hall from Detroit. The Black Hawks made the playoffs, losing to Montreal in the semi-finals in 1959 and 1960 before capturing their first championship in 23 years in the 1961 Stanley Cup Finals. It was to remain Chicago's last title until 2010, the longest active streak in the NHL.
The Hawks' resurgence in the 1960s led Norris and Wirtz to take advantage of their customers. Dubbed the "Chicken Wings" by fans, the Hawks were famous for fleecing their fans. Ticket sellers were arrested for scalping from the box office, while the team charged $9 for playoff tickets in 1965, $3 more than Detroit, Toronto or Montreal. The Hawks also refused to broadcast road playoff games in Chicago, preferring to charge fans to watch the games via closed-circuit television at Chicago Stadium. Fans responded to the announcements by littering the ice and passing out leaflets urging a boycott of the team during Chicago's last regular season game in 1964–65.
# History of the National Hockey League/1942–1967/Rules and innovations

Due to travel restrictions required during World War II, league president Frank Calder abolished the 10-minute overtime for regular season games in 1942 so that teams could catch their trains without delays. Regular season overtime did not return with the conclusion of the war, though playoff games continued until a winner was decided. Overtime was not re-introduced for the regular season until the 1983–84 season.
In 1943, the rules committee was looking for ways to increase the speed of the game and make it more entertaining. Rangers coach Frank Boucher proposed that the neutral zone be divided by a centre red line, and that teams be allowed to pass the puck out of the defensive zone into their half of the neutral zone. Previously, the league required that defensive players skate the puck out of their defensive zone, not permitting a pass across the blue line.[4] Introduced in 1943–44, the new rule changed how the game was played. Where strong forechecking teams were previously able to pin their opponents in their own zone for minutes at a time, teams were able to create rushes up the ice by having defencemen pass to forwards across the blue line. Scoring increased 10% league-wide, and four of six teams topped 200 goals, the first teams to do so.
Stan Mikita inadvertently introduced the curved blade to the hockey stick in the early 1960s. Having cracked his blade during a practice and not wanting to go get another, Mikita shot the puck in anger. He noticed that the curve made by the crack caused the puck to behave differently. Mikita and Bobby Hull experimented with heating and bending the blade of their sticks to create different curves. Mikita went on to win four Art Ross Trophies as the NHL's leading scorer using a curved blade. He later said that he regretted the idea. "It's one of the worst inventions in hockey, because it eliminated the use of the backhand."
The NHL Amateur Draft was first held on June 5, 1963 at the Queen Elizabeth Hotel in Montreal, Quebec. It was created by Campbell as a means to distribute talent on a more even basis. To that point, teams had sponsored junior clubs directly, buying the rights to players on those teams. The first player selected in the 1963 draft was Garry Monahan, a 16-year-old player with the St. Michaels Juveniles. Monahan remains the youngest player ever selected in an NHL draft. The Entry Draft system did not fully replace the sponsorship system until 1969.
# History of the National Hockey League/1942–1967/Expansion

In 1963, Rangers governor William Jennings introduced to his peers the idea of expanding the league to the American West Coast by adding two new teams for the 1964–65 season. His argument was based around concerns that the Western Hockey League intended to operate as a major league in the near future. He also hoped that teams on the west coast would make the league truly national, and improve the chances of returning to television in the United States as the NHL had lost its deal with CBS. While the governors did not agree to the proposal, the topic of expansion came up every time the owners met from then on out. In 1965, it was decided to expand by six teams, doubling the size of the NHL. San Francisco–Oakland and Vancouver were declared "acceptable cities" with Los Angeles and St. Louis as potential sites. Fourteen applications were received from across Canada and the United States, including four from Los Angeles.
In February 1966, the governors met and decided to award franchises to Los Angeles, Minnesota, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, San Francisco and St. Louis. The league rejected bids from Baltimore, Buffalo and Vancouver. The six winning bids each paid $2 million for their franchises.[1] St. Louis was awarded despite no bid being received. The league's decision to grant the city a team if a potential owner stepped forward was influenced by the Norris and Wirtz families, who owned the St. Louis Arena.
Canadians were outraged that none of the expansion teams were awarded to Canada. Prime Minister Lester B. Pearson stated that "the NHL decision to expand only in the U.S. impinges on the sacred principles of all Canadians." Maple Leafs coach Punch Imlach stated that Vancouver was "sold out" and that Toronto and Montreal did not want to share television revenue with another Canadian team. Leafs co-owner Stafford Smythe put the blame on the city of Vancouver. Smythe had offered to build and operate an $8 million facility in the city's downtown area but a proposal to sell a $2.5 million section of land to Smythe for $1 was defeated in a municipal referendum. "Vancouver lost its chance the day it turned down the referendum on our arena proposal", Smythe said. "That proved to me that the people out there aren't interested in going major league."
# History of the National Hockey League/1942–1967/Rules and innovations/Goaltending
### Goaltending

Clint Benedict was the first goaltender to wear facial protection, donning it in 1930 to protect a broken nose. He quickly abandoned his mask as its design interfered with his vision. Twenty-nine years later, Jacques Plante made the goalie mask a permanent fixture in hockey. Plante began wearing a mask in practice in 1956 after twice suffering broken cheekbones on shots from his teammates during workouts. Montreal coach Toe Blake refused to allow Plante to wear his mask in games. That changed on November 1, 1959 when Plante was struck in the face early in a game at Madison Square Garden. As teams did not dress backup goaltenders during this time, the game was delayed 20 minutes while doctors frantically stitched Plante up. When Blake asked Plante if he was ready to return to play, Plante refused to return to the ice unless he was allowed to wear his mask. Blake was livid, but agreed only if Plante removed the mask when his face was healed. Wearing the mask, Plante led the Canadiens on an 18-game unbeaten streak. He finally removed the mask at Blake's urging and promptly lost the first game. Defeated, Blake relented. Plante's mask became a permanent fixture as he led the Canadiens to their fifth consecutive Stanley Cup. Other goalies followed Plante's lead soon after.
Despite not wearing a mask for most of his career, Terry Sawchuk played goal crouched down so low that his shoulders nearly touched his knees, a technique which became known as the "gorilla crouch". Sawchuk relied on his ability to see the puck under the players' bodies, his increased mobility and his own reflexes to win four Vezina Trophies during his career. By 1955, he was regarded as the greatest goaltender to ever play the game. Sawchuk's career was cut short when he died in 1970 from injuries suffered in a drunken incident with teammate Ron Stewart. The Hall of Fame waived its waiting period, immediately inducting Sawchuk, who died as the NHL's all-time record holder in wins (447) and shutouts (103). Sawchuk's style of play was a precursor to the modern butterfly style of goaltending.
The butterfly style, which is used by almost all modern goaltenders, was invented by Glenn Hall: considered both unique and foolish, Hall's style of dropping to his knees and kicking his pads out in a V formation forced shooters to aim for the top half of the net. Hall adopted the technique as a youth when he lacked the arm strength to stop shots with his stick. Hall, an eight-time All-Star, became an NHL regular at the start of the 1955–1956 season and began a sequence of 502 consecutive games as a goaltender for Detroit and Chicago, a record that has been hailed as one of the NHL's most unbreakable.
# History of the National Hockey League/1942–1967/Television

In the fall of 1951, Conn Smythe watched special television feeds of Maple Leaf games in an attempt to determine whether it would be a suitable medium for broadcasting hockey games. Television already had its detractors within the NHL, especially in Campbell who declared it to be "the greatest menace of the entertainment world". In 1952, even though only 10% of Canadians owned a television set, the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) began televising games. On November 1, 1952, Hockey Night in Canada was first broadcast on television, with Foster Hewitt calling the action between the Leafs and Bruins at Maple Leaf Gardens. The broadcasts quickly became the highest-rated show on Canadian television. The broadcast came three weeks after Montreal radio host René Lecavalier presented a French-language telecast of the Montreal Canadiens' opener against Chicago, marking the beginning of La Soirée du hockey which Radio-Canada, the French arm of the CBC, broadcast until 2004. On that same night, Danny Gallivan made his debut as the English language play-by-play announcer for the Canadiens.
While Campbell feared televised hockey would cause people to stop attending games in person, Smythe felt the opposite. "There'll be thousands of people seeing hockey as played by the pros for the first time. They'll be sold on it because it's a great game, and they won't be satisfied to stay [at home] but will turn out to the rinks." CBS first broadcast hockey games in the United States in the 1956–57 season as an experiment. Amazed with the initial popularity of the broadcasts, it inaugurated a 21-game package of games the following year. The NHL itself adapted to be viewer-friendly. In 1949, the league mandated that the ice surface be painted white to make the puck easier to see. In 1951, it required that the home team wear coloured jerseys, and the road team wear white so that each team was distinguishable on black and white television. For the same reason, teams began to paint the centre red line in a checkered pattern to set it apart from the solid blue lines.
# History of the National Hockey League/1942–1967/Unionization

/Alan Eagleson
The first players' union was formed February 12, 1957 by Red Wings player Ted Lindsay who had sat on the board of the NHL's Pension Society since 1952. Lindsay and his fellow players were upset by the league's refusal to let them view the books related to the pension fund. The league claimed that it was barely breaking even financially, and so could not contribute more than it did. Players on the Pension Committee suspected otherwise, leading Lindsay and Doug Harvey of the Canadiens to discussions on forming a union in 1956. The idea quickly gained popularity and when the union's founding was announced publicly, every NHL player had signed up with the exception of Ted Kennedy, who was retiring.
The owners immediately worked to crush the union. Toronto owner Conn Smythe compared the players association to communism: "I feel that anything spawned in secrecy as this association was certainly has to have some odour to it." Red Wings president Bruce Norris responded by trading Lindsay to his brother's team, the Black Hawks. The move was widely seen as punitive, as the Hawks had finished last in the NHL every season, save one, from 1949 until 1957. Lindsay was not the only player sent to Chicago as punishment; Glenn Hall was included as he refused to distance himself from Lindsay. In Toronto, Smythe repeatedly benched Jim Thomson, who was the union's secretary, before also dealing him to the Black Hawks. The Players' Association responded by filing a $3 million anti-trust lawsuit against the NHL. Persuaded by teammates Gordie Howe and Red Kelly, the Red Wings players voted to withdraw from the association in November 1957. Other teams quickly followed, and the union capitulated. Union leadership ultimately agreed to drop the lawsuit in exchange for small concessions, which included a minimum annual salary of $7,000, increases to the pension contributions and moving expenses for traded players.