OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Insubric/Dialects

The Insubric language is spoken in Lombardy (Italy), in province of Milan, Monza, Lodi, Pavia, Como, Varese, Lecco, Verbania, Novara, a part of Cremona and in Valsesia, and in Canton Ticino and some valleys of Grigioni (Switzerland).
There are many local variants, sometimes with big differences of pronunciation and lexicon from the central and literary variety, the Milanese dialect or Meneghin. The dialects are quite intercomprehensible.
The dialects of Insubric are very heterogeneous, so their cataloguing is fairly difficult. A more scientific system consists in grouping them in four macro-sections: lombardo alpino (provinces of Sondrio and of Verbania, Sopraceneri of Canton Ticino, Grigioni), lombardo-prealpino occidentale (provinces of Como, Varese and Lecco), basso-lombardo occidentale (Pavia and Lodi), and macromilanese (provinces of Milan, Monza and Novara). The traditional catalogue is based on historical-geographical factors mor then purely linguistic: Milanese or Meneghin, Bustocco-Legnanese, Brianzolo, Comasco-Lecchese, Ticinese, Varesino or Bosin, Lombardo Alpino, Basso-Lombardo Occidentale.
In this course we will ever refer to Milanese dialect, while sometimes indicating some notable dialectal variant.
# Insubric/Particular conjugations

vess="to be"
* The t in 1st person is euphonic.
* The form with v instead of r in imperfect is archaic or dialectal.
* Remember that desinences -om and -ov can be replaced by -em and -ev.
* The h of hinn is soundless because it is pseudoetymologic.
# Integrating Technology In K12

This Wikibook will be created by students (9:40 am - 11:10 am) in EDL 325 Instructional Technology at the University of Wisconsin Oshkosh for 2010 Fall semester.
| Chapter | Author |
| Chapter 1. Opening the Door to Technology in the Classroom | Nicole, Jenni, & Monica |
| Chapter 2. Integrating Technology in the Elementary Classroom | Alyssa, Ashley, & Cassie |
| Chapter 3. Advantages of Technology in the Elementary Classroom | Katelyn, Amanda, & Mallory |
| Chapter 4. Using Blogs in the Classroom | Laura, Amanda, & Vanessa |
| Chapter 5. Textbooks vs. iPad | Amy, Zach, & Lyndsay |
| Chapter 6. Adaptive Technology | Alex, Kristin, & Sarah |
| Chapter 7. SmartBoards in a Language Arts Classroom | Jess, Catie, & Alex |
| Chapter 8. SmartBoards in a Classroom | Kelsey & Margaret |
| Chapter 9. 21st Century Classrooms | Saige & Jenny |
# GLPK/Help-GLPK and Bug-GLPK Searchable archive

GLPK maintains two mailing lists — which may be searched using the following URLs:
* help-glpk : http://lists.gnu.org/archive/html/help-glpk
* bug-glpk : http://lists.gnu.org/archive/html/bug-glpk
Posting policy: These two mailing lists are for traffic about the mainline GLPK project. You will find material regarding ancillary projects on the [help-glpk] archive. But new queries concerning these other projects should be directed to the relevant support channels and not to the GLPK mailing lists.
# GLPK/IAJAAR.H project

This page describes a C++ class that wraps the C-style GLPK vectors ia, ja, and ar. The class can be used directly with C++ or via language bindings for Java and R created with SWIG.

## IAJAAR.H project

IAJAAR.H is a small project that provides the specialized triple container class IAJAAR. The purpose of this C++ class is to offer more convenient problem build calls than those available using straight C code. The author is Nigel Galloway.

### C++ class IAJAAR definition

The C++ IAJAAR class definition is:
The member function IAJAAR::Add adds 3-tuples (triples) in the form (row, col, value). The respective arrays can be later retrieved using the member functions IAJAAR::ia, IAJAAR::ja, and IAJAAR::ar. The member function IAJAAR::ne returns the current number of entries.
IAJAAR is designed to work with the following GLPK routine:
It would be possible to reformulate class IAJAAR using std::vectors internally. That would omit the need to pre-specify the maximum size s in advance, although an optional hint could be given.

### C++ usage

Usage with C++ is straightforward — no special language bindings are required. A description of the underlying problem is can be found on the project website.

### Python usage

IAJAAR can be used with Python. This February 2011 posting explains more.

### Java usage

Java usage requires dedicated language bindings. Unlike the C++ example, Q and N are hardcoded.

### R usage

R usage requires dedicated language bindings. Unlike the C++ example, Q and N are hard-coded.
Further information is available from the project website. In particular, the source code for iajaar.cpp is worth reviewing.
# GLPK/JavaScript

This page describes JavaScript interfaces to GLPK. These interfaces allow GLPK to be called from webpages on either the client side or the server side. At present there is one JavaScript project.

## GNU Linear Programming Kit for JavaScript

This project by Henri Gourvest is abbreviated to glpk.js. The code is hosted on github. There is also an online test here.
These bindings allow GLPK to be run either inside a web browser or from a web server As of December 2012, the project offers a CPLEX format model parser and access to the GLPK solver.
See this December 2012 thread for more details.
# GLPK/Julia

The GLPK.jl package allows use of the GLPK in julia in different ways. In an increasing level of abstraction these are: (a) directly (by wrapping the C API); (b) as interface to MathOptInterface or (c) as the "solver engine" of the algebraic modelling language JuMP.jl.
For example to solve the problem `Max$_{x,y}$ x + 2y` s.t. `x+y = 3` and `x,y >=0` you could write:
(a) Using the GLPK C API wrapper:
(c) using the JuMP API:
# GLPK/Known issues

The page lists known issues with GLPK. Most apply to the underlying library and can therefore affect GLPSOL users and API programmers alike. At the risk of being trite, issues require "work arounds" and bugs require "fixes". If you find a bug, please report it to the [bug-glpk] mailing list.

## Unbounded integer variables

This issue may arise when a MIP problem instance has an LP relaxation with no finite maximum and an integer feasible region which is empty. In such circumstances, the MIP preprocessor can fall into an infinite loop. This issue was present in version 4.45 and is essentially innate.
One work-around is to specify some extra bounds so that the preprocessor can successfully detect that the instance has no integer feasible solution. Another is to disable the MIP preprocessor. The issue is discussed more fully in this posting and this posting.

## MIP gap reporting

As of version 4.47, the function ios_relative_gap computes the relative gap as follows:
This means that the gap may rise as you solution improves!
It is nonetheless the same formula used by CPLEX function CPXgetmiprelgap. See here for a mid-2012 discussion on alternative formulations.

## Solution time limits

The GLPSOL option --tmlim nnn limits the solution time to nnn seconds. The timer however is not always active during all phases of a solution. See here for a mid-2012 discussion on the topic.
Those on Linux can use the timeout utility from GNU coreutils to limit the elapse time. In this example, the GLPSOL call will terminate after two hours if it is still running:
# GLPK/Language Bindings

To use the GLPK library with languages other than C and C++, it is necessary to create code which can interface between the client and library languages. This code is known as a language binding.
Caution: GLPK is undergoing an overhaul of its application programming interface, with many APIs being deprecated. In parallel, several new APIs have been added. Users should therefore exercise considerable caution when evaluating or using language bindings that are not under active maintenance.

## Specific languages

The following language bindings have dedicated pages:
* Ada language bindings
* C# language bindings
* Fortran language bindings
* GAMS language bindings
* Java language bindings
* JavaScript language bindings
* Julia language bindings
* Matlab (and Octave) language bindings
* OCaml language bindings
* Octave language bindings
* OptimJ language bindings
* Python language bindings
* R language bindings
* Ruby language bindings
The following language bindings do not yet have dedicated pages (please make them if you think it appropriate):
* Common lisp language bindings — last active 2007, read this revealing posting
* Erlang language bindings — last active GLPK 4.38 (02 May 2009)
* Perl language bindings — last active 2007
# IB Mathematics
## Table of Contents
### Mathematics Studies Standard Level

To be completed.

### Mathematics Standard Level

To be completed.

### Mathematics Higher Level

| Algebra Sequences and Series Exponents and Logarithms Permutations and Combinations Binomial Expansion Proof by Induction Complex Numbers The Complex Plane De Moivre's Theorem Functions and Equations Basics and Functions Graphs and Functions Reciprocal Functions Quadratic Functions Inequalities Polynomial Functions Exponential and Logarithmic Functions Circular Functions and Trigonometry Definitions and Formulae Trionometric Formulae | The Solution of Triangles Graphing Periodic Functions Vectors Basics of Vectors Scalar (Dot) Product Vector (Cross) Product Equations of Lines Equations of Planes Intersections Angles in Three Dimensions Statistics and Probability Basics of Statistics Cumulative Frequency Probability Notation and Formulae Lists and Tables of Outcomes Venn Diagrams Tree Diagrams Discrete Probability Distributions Binomial Distribution Poisson Distribution | Continuous Distributions The Normal Distribution Calculus The Basics of Differentiation Differentiation from First Principles The Chain Rule The Product and Qutotient Rules Second Derivative Graphical Behaviour of Functions Sketching Graphs Applications of Differentiation Implicit Differentiation Indefinite Integration Definite Integration Integration by Substitution Integration by Parts General Methods of Integration Differential Equations Volumes of Revolution Non-Calculator Calculus Techniques |
# IB Mathematics (HL)

Future students of IB HL Maths are advised that the content of these pages will be out of date soon, and will no longer be appropriate for courses starting in August 2012.
The IB Mathematics HL curriculum consists of seven core topics and four options. All seven core subjects are required and one of the four options must be chosen.

## Core Syllabus

* Topic 1: Algebra
* Topic 2: Functions and equations
* Topic 3: Circular functions and trigonometry
* Topic 4: Matrices
* Topic 5: Vectors
* Topic 6: Statistics and Probability
* Topic 7: Calculus

## Options

* Further Statistics and Probability
* Sets, Relations, and Groups
* Series and Differential Equations
* Discrete Mathematics
# IB History of the Americas/Chapter 4

Pro-slavery arguments
The slave-owners justified the use of slaves by different means. One common argument was that the Africans were recipients of the "curse of Ham."
In Latin America, black slavery became widespread after mounting pressure from the Catholic Church to cease the use of Amerindian slaves who were dying from overwork.
-The blacks were already better off by just being in the United States, rather than Africa. “The blacks are immeasurably better off here than in Africa, morally, physically, socially.” (Robert E. Lee)
-Slavery is a necessary part of their lives. “The painful discipline they are undergoing is necessary for their further instruction as a race, and will prepare them…for better things.” (Robert E. Lee)
-Slavery is actually a good thing: every society has a portion of it’s people who live upon labor of others, and the slaves are treated well and are better off than the workers in Europe, and conflicts between capital and labor are nonexistent. (ideas of John C. Calhoun)
-Slavery is for their own good: it was often argued that slavery protected slaves from the harsh reality of the new market economy and shielded them from suffering from “Northern wage slavery” with the immigrants.
-Bible argument: southern scholars such as John C. Calhoun felt the Bible was the “ultimate justification” for slavery, as the Bible does not condemn it, and rather casually mentions slavery without criticism.
# IB Mathematics/HL/Algebra

Sequences and Series
Exponents and Logarithms
Permutations and Combinations
Binomial Expansion
Proof by Induction
Complex Numbers
The Complex Plane
De Moivre's Theorem
# Internet Explorer/Feeds
## What are they?

Feeds was introduced in Internet Explorer 7. Feeds are included in sites such as Wikipedia itself and allow you to get regular updates in the form of a feed. Note that feeds can also be used by other applications such as Microsoft Outlook. You can get regular feed updates. Feeds could be seen directly in Internet Explorer 7 and 8. For those who run IE9 or later, it is not shown(but it's still enabled) by default.

## Determining whether a website has a feed

To determine whether a website has a feed, first open the Command bar by right-clicking on the top area of Internet Explorer. If you use IE7 or IE8, this is not necessary. The menus you see are basically the menus you used to see in IE7 and IE8 which are now replaced by the Home, Favourites and Settings(the gear icon) in IE9.
This website is blank and has no feeds, hence the feed icon cannot be clicked.

## Adding a feed

If there is a website which has a feed, the feed icon will light up to indicate that there is one or more feed available in that webpage.
(1) will be seen on a later stage. It is anyway not used by most websites. When you click (2), you'll get this. The picture below should explain everything.

## Web Slices

Web Slice(1) is a web feed technology introduced in Internet Explorer 8 that allows certain portions of a web page to be subscribed to. Since most browsers do not support this feature, this feature is not in much use.

## Feeds pane

The steps for opening the Feeds pane is the same to that of opening the Favourite Pane, but in addition to that, click the Feeds tab. This tab shows the feeds that you have subscribed to.
# Internet Explorer

Internet Explorer was a web browser developed by Microsoft. This book will help you learn the ins and outs of its use.
Microsoft Edge is the browser included in Windows 10 that replaced Internet Explorer as the default browser. It is no longer recommended to use Internet Explorer for general browsing as there are a number of usability and security issues associated with using Internet Explorer on the modern World Wide Web. However, there are many instances where legacy software requires Internet Explorer specifically. Because of this, some organizations and businesses continue to use Internet Explorer to this day.

## Contents

* The basics and installation
* UI interface
* The menu
* Favorites and history
* Feeds
* F12 Developer Tools
* Adding User Styles (IE8)
* The future
# Internet Explorer/UI interface

The UI(User interface) of Internet Explorer is similar since IE9. Here is the layout of Internet Explorer 11.

## Basic UI

* This shows the address of the website. The main domain (here msn.com) is shown in bold.
* This shows the title of the tabs.
* This adds a new tab.
* This directs the user to the Home page , which can be changed in Internet Settings.
* This shows the currently added favourites.
* This shows setting-related operations of Internet Explorer.
We'll be seeing more of this in the next sections.

## about:tabs page

The about:tabs screen is shown by default when you click New Tab. If you do not see the about:tabs screen, make sure that the setting is not changed.
The Frequent Sites listing (which has been set to hide websites) shows the websites which you've visited most frequently. A bar shows how active you are in that site. You can delete individual tiles, and if you do so, the next active website will take over.
Below it (which is covered with a white rectangle) shows the websites that you've visited on your other Internet-connected Windows PC's. This applies to Windows 8.1 systems only and those which use a Microsoft account as your user account. Below that gives you the option to let Internet Explorer suggest sites for you. On the right gives the option to hide/show sites.
Finally, the bottom of the page shows (in order from left), the websites which you've closed in your session, the option to reopen the last session, and the option to start in Private browsing (more on that in the next sections).
# Human Digestive System/Small intestine

The small intestine is where food breakdown continues and absorption of nutrition occurs. The small intestine is about 7 meters long and is divided into three sections: duodenum, jejunum and ileum. Different types of nutrition are absorbed in the different sections of the small bowel.
As food passes from the stomach, it is bathed in secretions of the liver (bile) and pancreas, breaking down fats and proteins and carbohydrates. There are small, finger-like projections from the surface of the small bowel, called villi. If you look under a microscope you can see where much of the nutrition breakdown and absorption occurs.
Eventually, most of the nutrients are extracted from the food and the waste is passed into the colon.
# Human Digestive System/Liver

The liver is the largest visceral organ and performs over 200 functions. Some of the main functions include:
- carbohydrate metabolism: synthesize and store glycogen when glucose levels become elevated and breakdown of glycogen when glucose levels drop below normal
- lipid metabolism: triaglycerides and cholesterol are released from the liver when blood levels drop
- amino acid metabolism: amino acids are synthesized into proteins or can be changed into glucose or lipids when there is demand for energy.
- vitamin and mineral storage: liver serves as a reservoir for most vitamins and minerals.
- drug, waste product and toxin removal
- elimination of antibodies
- processing of hormones circulating in the blood like adrenal, thyroid, hormones, vitamin D, etc.
- makes plasma proteins such as albumin and clotting factors
- produces bile
The production of bile is important for digestion. Bile salts help emulsify fats by creating micelles (lipid like droplets). The formation of micelles creates a hydrophobic region inside the core and a hydrophilic region outside. Inside a micelle there are lipids and cholesterol and lipase enzymes secreted from the pancreas can break down triaglycerides into monoglycerides, fatty acids and glycerol. After this process, bile salts are recycled.
When the liver does not produce adequate bile salts to create micelles properly, cholesterol breaks off and causes gallstones
# Human Digestive System/Mouth

The mouth is the entry point for our nutrition. The most obvious function is to masticate, or chew, food to a size and texture able to pass through the esophagus to the stomach. Many more things happen in the mouth. Saliva is produced by glands called the salivary glands. Saliva contains enzymes that begin to break down food. The nerves of the brain send signals to the rest of the digestive tract to prepare for digestion. Both fluids and chewed foods have to be passed to the back of the throat and into the esophagus without blocking the breathing tube (the trachea). The teeth grind food. The tongue tastes food and crushes food against the hard palate. The tongue moves food particles into a bolus that is pushed into your pharynx. The soft palate and uvula close off the nasopharynx when swallowing.
# Human Digestive System/Pancreas

Pancreas is a digestive gland which helps to digest the food by secreting pancreatic juice. It is located inside the abdomen, just behind the stomach. It plays an essential role in converting the food we eat into fuel for the body's cells.
The pancreas has two main functions: an exocrine function that helps in digestion and an endocrine function that regulates blood sugar.

## Exocrine Function

The pancreas contains exocrine glands that produce pancreatic juices important to digestion. The pancreatic juices and bile that are released into the duodenum, help the body to digest fats, carbohydrates, and proteins.

## Endocrine Function

The endocrine component of the pancreas create and release important hormones directly into the bloodstream. Two of the main pancreatic hormones are insulin, which acts to lower blood sugar, and glucagon, which acts to raise blood sugar.
# Human Digestive System/Biliary tract

The biliary tract (biliary tree or biliary system) functions to make, store, and secrete bile. First the liver makes bile, which travels through the right and left hepatic ducts into the common hepatic duct. Where will it go next? The common bile duct or the cystic duct that can be stored in the gallbladder. Then the bile from the gallbladder will get squeezed out by cholecystokinin. That bile then goes into the common bile duct. The bile from the common bile duct will go into the duodenum. The other bile that went into the common bile duct will go into the duodenum too.
# Human Digestive System/Pharynx

The pharynx occurs at the back of the mouth cavity and is the area where the nasal passages and the alimentary tract cross each other. It moves food from the mouth to the esophagus.As the pharynx also serves the respiratory system,it also leads to the trachea by means of an opening called glottis. When food is swallowed the glottis is closed by means of a leaf shaped cartilage called epiglottis.
# Human Digestive System/Colon

The main function of the colon is to absorb water. The water and other things get absorbed that feces are formed. The feces is stored in the rectum. The internal sphincter then opens. The external sphincter then decide when to open. When it is open, the feces go out the anus. The appendix is a little pouch that stores good bacteria which can squirt it out. It squirts it out to help digest food.
# Human Digestive System
## Introduction

The human body requires energy to function properly. Energy is obtained from the external environment by ingesting food. The digestive system’s main function is to transfer energy from food to cells; it breaks down food into small, accessible units called nutrients that cells can use. Unnecessary material is then excreted.
There are four processes that the digestive system performs to achieve its function.
* Motility: refers to the mixing and movement of food from the mouth to the anus with the help of smooth muscle that is found along the gastrointestinal tube.
* Secretion: the discharge of enzymes, water and other substances into the lumen of the digestive track by specialized tissues called exocrine glands.
* Digestion: the breakdown of food into smaller pieces or the degradation of large molecules into smaller ones.
* Absorption: the transport of nutrients in the blood or lymph to be circulated around the body.
The digestive system is a group of organs working together to convert food into energy. The digestive system consists of structures along the gastrointestinal tube such as the mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small intestines and large intestines, as well as accessory organs such as the salivary glands, pancreas, liver and gallbladder.

## Contents

* Mouth
* Pharynx
* Esophagus
* Stomach
* Small intestine
* Liver
* Biliary tract
* Pancreas
* Colon
# Human Digestive System/Esophagus

The esophagus is a soft tube that is usually about 25 centimeters in length. When food or liquids are passed from the mouth, it is pushed down the esophagus by circular muscles. These muscles squeeze in top to bottom order, pushing the food and liquid down, like toothpaste being pushed through a tube. At the bottom of the esophagus is a barrier called a sphincter. This muscle is like a door that opens to let the esophagus contents enter the stomach. The sphincter then closes to keep stomach contents from coming up. Sometimes this muscle doesn't work well and stomach juices splash into the esophagus causing acid reflux and heartburn.
# Irish/Common phrases

Common Irish Phrases (at Wikiversity's Department of Irish Studies) This page is a soft redirect.