# Transportation Deployment Casebook/2023/Mexico

Streetcars (also known as trams or trolleys depending on region) were a once prominent form of public transit. The implementation of streetcars was vital in urban development, notably observed in Latin America such as Mexico. The cycle of technology saw streetcar systems removal or conversion to newly favoured modes(i.e. vehicle privatisation). Mexico City (Capital City of Mexico) will be used to make generalisations for all streetcar systems in Mexico due to a lack of information surrounding electric streetcars for all the cities.

## 1 Streetcars Technological Characteristics

Streetcars influenced the landscape of transportation throughout late 19th to early 20th century. At the time, the prominent form of the single unit streetcars operated using electric motors on tracks embedded in public urban streets. The transition from animal, steam drawn and battery powered streetcars to electric was the building block of the dynamo generator. It enabled the application of transmitting power via overhead electrified wires to streetcar’s trolley pole (metal tracks and wheels ground the electric current in the circuit); spreading throughout Britain, Europe and the United States (Gregersen & Britannica Educational Publishing Staff, 2011). The electrification of streetcars surpassed previous forms due to its ability to unite spaces and alter passenger behaviours through its efficiency, speed, range and reliability. The main market demand for electrified streetcars generated from its ability to modernise environments to navigate large passenger clusters through congested regions; becoming habitual in the daily lives within growing cities (The Streetcar in the Urban Imaginary of Latin America - Anton Rosenthal, 2016, n.d.).

## 2 History of Modes

Depending on the region of the world, various available modes of transport competed with the electrified streetcar. As not all technologies were adopted simultaneously globally. The primary modes of public transportation in Mexico included walking and animal drawn vehicles. A summary of the advantages and disadvantages of the prominent modes of transport are in Table 1. It should be noted that Table 1 considers the mode of transports as single trips only, whereas in reality a combination of the modes would be taken such as walking and streetcars to reach destinations. These transportation modes acted as building blocks for each subsequent innovation through its market’s requirements. As pedestrians envisioned a mode of transport which enabled for intracity and safe travel under various weather conditions; promoting animal drawn carriages prominently for several decades up until the late 19th century. Then the market garnered interest from passengers and government bodies to identify energy sources which weren’t disadvantaged by the limitations of animals; thus introducing the first local electrified streetcar system to Mexico, Mexico City in 1900 (Wirth, 1997).
Table 1 Summary of Advantages and Disadvantages for Electric Streetcars and other Available Modes of Transport in Mexico :
| | Walking | Animal (mule/horse) drawn streetcars | Electrified Streetcars |
| Advantages | 1)No fare required. 2) Promoted physical activity and health. | 1) Mode of transport available which was less energy exerting than walking. 2)Seating provided. | 1) Increased speed for intracity transportation (8-10mph). 2) Tripled seating capacity of animal drawn. 3) Lower fare capacity compared to animal drawn. 4) Provided accessibility to new destinations. 5) Enclosed carriage unit for travel in poor weather conditions. 6) Reduction in pedestrian congestion on roads (Safety). 7)Increased frequency of mode. |
| Disadvantages | 1)Distance travelled varied each trip depending on pedestrian. 2) Certain locations out of reach due to terrain and distance. | 1) lower speed than electric form. 2) Sanitation issue from animal waste produced on streets. 3)Unreliable in poor weather conditions. 4) Cost of animal care and feed. 5) Smell of animals detracted passengers. 7) Damaged roads. | 1)Fixed routes and stops. 2) Electricity at the time 3) Short track lines (<10km) relative to rapid transit |

## 3 Invention of Mode/Technologies

The invention of the streetcar began with animal drawn carriages; either small horses or mules. Mexico City in the late 19th century acquired majority of their trams by the John Stephenson Company in New York, an American manufacturer of streetcars and horsecars (John Stephenson Car Co., n.d.). The service provided increased capacity and economical accessibility to public transport for intracity travel. Animal drawn carriages could operate both on and off steel rails, however the street tracks reduced friction between the contact surfaces to help combat animal fatigue. Animal drawn vehicles existed since 3000BC where the Mesopotamians utilised the first horse-drawn vehicles for chariots during royal funeral processions(The History of Horse-Drawn Vehicles, 2007). This technology then incorporated design and policies about seating, carriage and wheel systems to maximise efficiency; reaching speeds of 4-5 mph and a carrying capacity of approximately 14 passengers per single level carriage unit. Animals presented physical limitations (Refer to Table 1) which rendered their ability to work for several hours at any instance; requiring the operating bodies to have several mules and or horses ready to substitute.
The transition to electric streetcars was marked by the expertise in mechanical and electrical engineering. After developed nations such as the United States and Europe had transitioned, other countries soon followed including Latin America. Frank Julian Sprague is credited with the invention of electric street railway system(Trolleys, Light Rail and Subways, n.d.). Frank Sprague’s design incorporated traction motors which drove the wheels. Streetcars supplied the energy required through catenaries (overhead wires) (Trolleys, Light Rail and Subways, n.d.). The wires had a curved upper strong wire in contact to a secondary wire below known as the “contact wire” (Trolleys, Light Rail and Subways, n.d.). The contact wire provided a smooth surface for the overhead poles and conductors on the vehicle. Frank Sprague’s motor was the first practical and reliable motor for streetcars to create affordable and rapid transport networks as it was able to maintain a constant speed (Trolleys, Light Rail and Subways, n.d.) The shift towards this new power source during the 1890s in an attempt to correct the issues with its predecessor was not instantaneous, as majority of world had acclimated to animal drawn streetcars and that electricity had not been readily accessibly globally. Mexico faced economic, legal, and political factors which saw Mexico’s capital city being electrified in 1881 (The Mexican Electricity Sector: Economic, Legal and Political Issues (Chapter 5) - The Political Economy of Power Sector Reform, n.d.). The limited accessibility to electricity meant that electric streetcars were mainly within major cities and not rural areas. The transition to electric streetcars in Mexico made previous streetcar forms obsolete in major cities however still vital in communities without electricity.

## 4 Market Development

The transportation available in Mexico as mentioned in Section 2 operated at a walking pace, were unreliable or too expensive. This demand prompted a restructuring of existing networks to practically serve high populations in major cities through electric streetcars. Electric streetcars served multiple markets such as shopping, economy, and socialisation.
The influence of electric streetcars on existing shopping patterns expanded the daily trip distance. Households prior to electric cars were required to walk to their nearby markets to make purchases. Groceries were commonly daily trips as personal refrigeration had not become widely available and therefore the trips had to be short to prevent food spoilage (You, 2021). This issue was further compounded as stores were often specialised and had limited stock. Electric streetcar’s extended range and speed enabled for trips to other grocery stores previously restricted. Given that groceries were generally bulky items as well, the space on carriages (when available) aided shoppers in reducing fatigue.
The economic sector experienced major shifts with the introduction of emerging technologies. The growths can be noticed through the accessibility and speed providing workers with new work opportunities, employment generated through development, construction, and operation of the streetcar railway locally (e.g. conductors) and externally (e.g. John Stephenson Company), and real estate opportunities as developments near stations (Hinners et al., 2018) would increase in market value. The nature of the technology cycle observes a decline in the superseded technology such as the animal-drawn streetcars, thus those involved in that work would experience a down turn subsequently. However, this generalisation wasn’t observed in Mexico given that streetcars were still relatively expensive.
The desired functional discovery of socialisation through the presence of urban popular culture was unfortunately underpinned by social issues. The idea of the streetcar promoting social mixing as a way to foster relations and create new market demand (The Streetcar in the Urban Imaginary of Latin America - Anton Rosenthal, 2016, n.d.), through mass gatherings such as sport events and cultural events. This ideal vision however was subject to the underlying racial and gender prejudice attitudes.

## 5 Role of Transport Policy

Mexico during the late 19th century experienced a lack of transport policies to regulate safe and functional transport systems due to several outstanding factors. The outcome of Mexico’s War of Independence (1810-1821) left many road infrastructure in disrepair, consequentially increasing transportation costs as residents were required to walk significant distances. Even with the efforts of the Bourbon administrators and merchant guilds to fix the Royal roads, the success was minor. The restoration phase of Mexico meant that most of their policies were relatively new and had not been seen in precursor models. Section 6 highlights the innovative policies which shaped the streetcar mode.

## 6 Birth and Growth of the Mode

The combined efforts of both public and private sectors promoted the electrification of Mexico’s streetcar railway systems. Under the presidency of Porfirio Díaz (1876–1880, 1884–1911) saw a significant growth of both heavy and light rails which took over half a century in transport planning. The aftermath of Mexico’s war of independence contributed to the decades long effort to revitalise the transport network and community (Moving about in Mexico City, n.d.). The inauguration of the first major railway line in Mexico aided the trajectory of the amount of electric streetcar tracks. This was accomplishable through new policy incentives for private firms through concessions and subsidies (Freeman & Soto, 2019). A major government sanction in the boom of electric street cars was through the Compañía de Ferrocarriles del Distrito Federal, the principal tramway operator in Mexico City being instructed to electrify the predominantly animal power streetcars (The Tramways of Mexico City: Part 2, n.d.). These two policies through government intervention was a turning point in the spread of electric streetcars.
For surrounding infrastructure of the network, the Díaz regime sought to fix and expand the grand road Maxilimian. The road was responsible for reducing travel time between the national palace and the core, however it was effectively abandoned after the restoration of the republic in 1867 (Moving about in Mexico City, n.d.). The new construction would involve the widening of the roads, new buildings, and electric lights (Moving about in Mexico City, n.d.). The supporting infrastructure would form a positive feedback loop to incentivise travel on streetcars while exploring the then new urban showpiece. This project was accomplishable through he municipal government support and federal authorities.

## 7 Development during Maturity and Decline Phases

The mature phase of the streetcar was mainly characterised by the mass production of streetcars from 35 to 514 between 1900 and 1950 in Mexico city (Wirth, 1997). The subsidies provided by the government meant that Mexico’s approach to managing their growing population was through increasing the frequency of the services (Wirth, 1997). The issue with this locked-in approach was that introducing other transport modes were often unfavoured by the investors (Trolley firms were mainly owned by the British) as there was significant investment.
Buses eventually were introduced to the network and were favoured amongst government decision makers and passengers for their route flexibility (Wirth, 1997). Lobbying from the bus owner’s association, Alianza de Camioneros increased subsidies at the expense of the streetcar system (Wirth, 1997). These factors saw the decline of streetcars to 193 in Mexico City within five (5) years and have remained low until its eventual abandonment in the early 1980s after services were reduced in 1950 (Wirth, 1997). The bus fleet experienced mass expansion from 3,694 in 1950 to 10,000 in 1985 (Wirth, 1997).
From observing the lifecycle of electric streetcars, railways are integral for metropolitan transport networks. Travellers must be provided with numerous station options within an acceptable catchment area of their residence (for example, 800m as per TfNSW train stations) and alight at stations near their desired destinations. This level of service was dependent on innovations building upon the fundamentals seen in streetcars such as capacity, range, speed and accessibility. This saw Mexico’s first metro railway constructed over three phases during the mid to late 20th century (Wirth, 1997). The metro incorporated 178km of track (both directions), 213 stations and is able to serve 4 to 5 million passengers daily (Wirth, 1997). This evolution in transport technology demonstrates how innovation in transport is significantly influenced by the decisions made in policies and history.

## 8 Quantitative Analysis

The quantitative analysis for Mexico’s streetcar railway system used the ‘McGraw Electric Railway Manual - the red book of American street railway investment' (McGraw Electric Railway Manual - the Red Book of American Street Railway Investment, 1903) to assess its lifecycle between 1903 and 1920. The birth, growth and maturity periods of the S-Curve were identified using a three-parameter logistic function (Refer to Equation 1). The S-Curve required several assumptions to produce Figure 1 and the Country Sum Model Results in Table 2. The assumptions for the analysis included:
* Railways specified as electric were only studied.
* For railways which crossed countries (i.e Mexico and US), the apportion of the track was taken as 1:1 (Required for Juarez and Neuvo Laredo).
Equation 1 Three Parameter Logistic Function
S(t)=S$_{max}$/([1+e$^{((−b(t−to))}$]) {\textstyle S(t)={\frac {S_{max}}{[1+e^{((-b(t-t_{o}))}]}}}
Where:
* $S(t)$ is the predicted system size in year
* $t$ is time (years)
* $t_{0}$ is the inflection time (year in which 1/2 S$_{max}$ is achieved)
* $S_{max}$ is the saturation status level.
* $b$ is the coefficient to be estimated.
Table 2 Country Sum Model Results :
| Variable | Description | Value |
| S_max | Saturation Status Level | 340 |
| b | Coeffcient | 0.44138 |
| r^2 | R-squared | 0.90585 |
| t_0 | Inflection Time | 1913.957 |
The R-squared value from the model showed that 91% of the actual values fit the regression model. This model is outside the generally accepted range of 95%. However the S-Curve shows a fairly strong fit. The limitations in the results can factor in the assumptions considered and due to the data available in the McGraw Electric Railway Manual. The raw data taken was influenced by the factors below:
* Manual only recorded major urban cities in Mexico from 1917 onwards.
* Manual doesn’t incorporate years 1915 and 1916 due to World War 1.
Based on the model produced, it can be interpreted that the birth, growth, and mature periods are respectively from 1903 to 1906, 1906 to 1920, and 1920 onwards. The end of the mature and start of the decline period can’t be determine from the McGraw’s Manual time scope provided (Refer to Section 7 for supporting information on maturity and decline periods).

## References

Frank Sprague | Lemelson. (n.d.). Retrieved March 12, 2023
Freeman, J. B. F. B., & Soto, G. G. S. G. (2019). Travel and Transport in Mexico. In The Oxford Encyclopedia of Mexican History and Culture. Oxford University Press.
Gregersen, E. & Britannica Educational Publishing Staff. (2011). The Complete History of Wheeled Transportation: From Cars and Trucks to Buses and Bikes. Rosen Publishing Group.
Hinners, S. J., Nelson, A. C., & Buchert, M. (2018). Streetcars and Economic Development: Do Streetcars Stimulate Employment Growth? Transportation Research Record, 2672(8), 339–350.
John Stephenson Car Co. (n.d.). Retrieved March 12, 2023
McGraw electric railway manual—The red book of American street railway investment. (1903). Street Railway Publishing Company.
Moving about in Mexico City: Past and Present Reflections – International Association for the History of Transport, Traffic and Mobility. (n.d.). Retrieved March 12, 2023
The History of Horse-drawn Vehicles (p. 2). (2007). ExhibitsUSA, a national division of Mid-America Arts Alliance.
The Mexican Electricity Sector: Economic, legal and political issues (Chapter 5)—The Political Economy of Power Sector Reform. (n.d.). Retrieved March 12, 2023
The Streetcar in the Urban Imaginary of Latin America—Anton Rosenthal, 2016. (n.d.). Retrieved March 11, 2023
The Tramways of Mexico City: Part 2. (n.d.). Retrieved March 12, 2023
Trolleys, Light Rail and Subways. (n.d.). Retrieved March 12, 2023
Wirth, C. J. (1997). Transportation Policy in Mexico City.
You, W. (2021). The Economics of Speed: The Electrification of the Streetcar System and the Decline of Mom-and-Pop Stores in Boston, 1885–1905. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 13(4), 285–324