OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Horticulture/Topping

Tree topping is the practice of removing large branches and/or trunks from the top of a tree's canopy. Topping is often harmful for the tree. Large pruning wounds often fail to heal and become entry points for disease and pests, undermining the long term health of the tree. Aesthetic appeal is compromised as the natural shape of the tree is lost. Trunks grow at the topping location and as these weakly attached trunks increase in size, they often fall during windstorms.
Previously topped trees are often dangerous and should be inspected by a qualified arborist who can recommend possible solutions: removal, cabling/bracing, or ongoing inspection. Better alternatives to tree topping, based on scientific research, are replacing the practice of tree topping. Spiral thinning (canopy thinning) decreases wind resistance and allows the wind to pass through the trees, decreasing the likelihood that the tree will fall due to wind-throw. It also allows more light penetration and air circulation, both important for the tree’s health.
# Horticulture/Thymus 'Spicy Orange'

'Spicy Orange' Thyme :
| Genus: | Thymus |
| Family: | Lamiaceae |
| Variety: | 'Spicy Orange' |
| Type: | Perennial herb |
| Light requirements: | full sun to light shade |
| Bloom season: | spring |
'Spicy Orange' is a hybrid cultivar of Thymus grown for its strong flavor and sweet, citrus-like scent.

## Description

'Spicy Orange' is a low, spreading thyme with sharp awn-shaped leaves and pale purple flowers.

## Growing Conditions

As with most thymes, good drainage is essential, otherwise not picky about soils.

## Uses

A very strong flavored herb when used fresh. Also grown as a scented ground cover, and tolerates some foot traffic.

## Propagation

Propagate by cuttings or division.

## Harvest

Best used as a fresh herb. Cut growing tips 1-2" long, cool and refrigerate until ready to use.

## Pests and Diseases

See Thymus
# Horticulture/Tradescantia

Spiderworts :
| Genus: | Tradescantia |
Spiderworts (Tradescantia) are a genus of an estimated 71 species of perennial plants in the family Commelinaceae, native to the New World from southern Canada south to northern Argentina. Though sometimes accounted a weed, spiderwort is cultivated for borders and also used in containers. Where it appears as a volunteer, it is often welcomed and allowed to stay. The genus takes its name from John Tradescant the elder, a 17th-century English plant collector and nurseryman.
The first species described, Virginia Spiderwort T. virginiana, is native to the eastern United States from Maine to Alabama, and Canada in southern Ontario. Virginia Spiderwort was introduced to Europe in 1629, where it is cultivated as a garden flower.
The Western Spiderwort T. occidentalis is listed as an endangered species in Canada, where the northernmost populations of the species are found at a few sites in southern Saskatchewan, Manitoba and Alberta; it is however more common further south in the United States south to Texas and Arizona.
The three species of Wandering Jew, one native to eastern Mexico, also belong to the tradescantia genus. Other names used for various species include Spider-lily, Cradle-lily, Oyster-plant and Flowering Inch Plant.

## Description

They are weakly upright to scrambling plants, growing to 30-60 cm tall, and are commonly found individually or in clumps in wooded areas and fields. The leaves are long, thin and bladelike to lanceolate, from 3-45 cm long. The flowers are white, pink or purple but most commonly bright blue, with three petals and six yellow anthers. The sap is mucilaginous and clear. A number of the species flower in the morning and when the sun shines on the flowers in the afternoon they close up, but the flowers can remain open on cloudy days until evening.

## Uses

The cells of the stamen hairs of some Tradescantia are colored blue, but when exposed to sources of ionizing radiation such as gamma rays, the cells mutate and change color to pink; they are one of the few tissues known to serve as an effective bioassay for ambient radiation levels.

## References

* ↑ http://www.journalarchive.jst.go.jp/english/jnlabstract_en.php?cdjournal=ggs1921&cdvol=47&noissue=6&startpage=411
* Front view of leaves of Tradescantia pallida cv. "Purple Heart".
* Back view of leaves of Tradescantia pallida cv. "Purple Heart".
* Front view of leaves of Tradescantia zebrina cv. "Tricolor".
* Back view of leaves of Tradescantia zebrina cv. "Tricolor".
* Tradescantia ohiensis Ohio Spiderwort
# Guide to Unix/Commands/Kernel Commands

| Wikibooks Guide to Unix Computing | Edit template |
   General: Introduction | Explanations | Why Unix-like Platforms: Linux | BSD Quick Reference: Commands | Environment Variables | Files | License
   Commands: Getting Help | File System Utilities | Finding Files | Devices | File Viewing | File Editing | Text Processing | File Compression | File Analysing | Multiuser Commands | Self Information | System Information | Process Management | Kernel Commands | Miscellaneous | SW Development |

### lsmod

lsmod lists the modules loaded by the Linux kernel.
Links:
* lsmod, manpages.ubuntu.com

### modprobe

modprobe loads a Linux kernel module. You can specify only the name of the module, and modprobe will load it from the correct location and also load any dependent modules.
Many modules load automatically. For example, Linux loads a USB keyboard module when a USB keyboard is attached. It also loads the base USB modules as dependencies. Some modules must be loaded manually, and "modprobe" is the easiest way to do this.
Links:
* modprobe, manpages.ubuntu.com

### sysctl

sysctl sets a parameter to change the behavior of the kernel. The available parameters vary by kernel, so check the man page for sysctl in your distribution.
Examples:
Check the setting for the "vm.swapencrypt.enable" parameter:
Root can set the parameter to 1.
Links:
* sysctl, freebsd.org
* sysctl, manpages.ubuntu.com
# Guide to Unix/Commands/Multiuser Commands

| Wikibooks Guide to Unix Computing | Edit template |
   General: Introduction | Explanations | Why Unix-like Platforms: Linux | BSD Quick Reference: Commands | Environment Variables | Files | License
   Commands: Getting Help | File System Utilities | Finding Files | Devices | File Viewing | File Editing | Text Processing | File Compression | File Analysing | Multiuser Commands | Self Information | System Information | Process Management | Kernel Commands | Miscellaneous | SW Development |

### who

who gives information about the users logged into the machine. The information includes the user's terminal, login date ,login time and the location they are connecting from.
Examples:
The option "-w" shows wheter or not a user's tty is accessible with commands like write or talk. + indicates that the tty is accessible, and - that it's not:
Using "who" with two non-option words gives your username. On some systems, this gives your actual username, and using "su" or "sudo" to switch user does not change this name.
On other systems, this gives more information:
Links:
* who, opengroup.org
* who man page, man.cat-v.org
* 20.6 who in GNU Coreutils manual, gnu.org

### finger

finger finds out information about a user. If the user has created a .plan (several lines) and/or a .project (one line) file in their home directory this will also be displayed.
Examples:
Links:
* finger, freebsd.org
* GNU Finger, a manual, gnu.org

### su

su switch user
Examples:
Become another user:
Become root... then become another user:
Switching user and using the new user's environment (shell, shell-variables, home-directory) as if after a normal log-in:
Run a program as another user (as root unless otherwise specified):
Note: The permission and owner/group of su - as well as other config-files (typically /etc/su and /etc/login.defs) - may prevent users not belonging to certain groups from switching user even with the correct password, or even being able to execute su at all (E.g. in BSD it's traditionally been restricted to members of the wheel-group only).
Links:
* C.4 Utilities, opengroup.org
* su man page, man.cat-v.org
* su, freebsd.org
* 22.5 su, a manual for old coreutils, ftp.gnu.org
# Guide to Unix/Commands/Getting Help

| Wikibooks Guide to Unix Computing | Edit template |
   General: Introduction | Explanations | Why Unix-like Platforms: Linux | BSD Quick Reference: Commands | Environment Variables | Files | License
   Commands: Getting Help | File System Utilities | Finding Files | Devices | File Viewing | File Editing | Text Processing | File Compression | File Analysing | Multiuser Commands | Self Information | System Information | Process Management | Kernel Commands | Miscellaneous | SW Development |

### man

Displays the manual page for the specified command
A useful option is:
This searches manual page titles and synopsis lines for TEXT
Examples:
To display the manual page for the chown command:
man has different sections.
* section 1 is user commands
* section 2 is system calls (used by programs to communicate with the kernel)
* section 3 is library reference (for programming in C)
* section 4 is device drivers
* section 5 is configuration files and other file formats
* section 6 is games
* section 7 is miscellaneous (for example, "ascii" map and C "operator" precedence)
* section 8 is system commands (like user commands, but mostly for root)
A section number can be specified before the page name. For example, man chmod normally shows the user command "chmod". To see the system call "chmod":
To search the man pages for "newsgroups",
* If this does not work you may have to run the makewhatis command.
Links:
* man, opengroup.org
* man man page, man.cat-v.org

### info

An advanced man command that is sometimes available. It displays the improved manual pages in Info format for specified command. Seems absent from POSIX.
Examples:
To display the manual page for the grep command:
To find occurrence of 'grep' in all info manual pages:
To see the physical location of 'grep' info manual page:
To view a file a info page:
Links:
* info man pag, freebsd.org
* info man page, manpages.ubuntu.com
* Stand-alone GNU Info 6.2 - GNU manual, gnu.org

### apropos

Searches the manual page short descriptions for a specified keyword. Seems absent from POSIX.
On many systems this is exactly the same as the -k option of the man command.
Examples:
Links:
* apropos man page, freebsd.org

### whatis

Displays short man page descriptions. Seems absent from POSIX.
Examples:
Links:
* whatis man page, freebsd.org

### makewhatis

Creates the database for the whatis, apropos, and man -k commands. This is commonly run automatically by your system however sometimes you need to run this manually. Seems absent from POSIX.
Examples:
Links:
* makewhatis man page, freebsd.org
# Guide to Unix/Commands/Networking

| Wikibooks Guide to Unix Computing | Edit template |
   General: Introduction | Explanations | Why Unix-like Platforms: Linux | BSD Quick Reference: Commands | Environment Variables | Files | License
   Commands: Getting Help | File System Utilities | Finding Files | Devices | File Viewing | File Editing | Text Processing | File Compression | File Analysing | Multiuser Commands | Self Information | System Information | Process Management | Kernel Commands | Miscellaneous | SW Development |

### ifconfig

Configures a network interface.
Links:
* ifconfig, freebsd.org
* ifconfig, manpages.ubuntu.com

### ifdown

Brings a network interface down. See also #ifup.
Links:
* iup, ss64.com

### ifup

Brings a network interface up. See also #ifdown.
Links:
* iup, ss64.com

### ping

Sends ICMP packets to network hosts, mostly to see whether they are up.
Examples:
* ping www.wikibooks.org
Links:
* ping, freebsd.org
* 6 ping: Packets to network hosts in GNU Inetutils manual, gnu.org
* W:ping (networking utility)
# German/Lesson 11

<< Lektion 10 | Lektion 11 | Lektion 12 >> |

# Ein Treffen in Hannover (WIP)

(Don't be too afraid, it's a lot of text but simple grammar!)
Katja hat sich mit einem Freund, Markus, verabredet, den sie im Chat kennengelernt hat. Sie hat ein Foto von ihm gesehen, und vielleicht gefällt er ihr ja. Am "Kröpcke", der größten U-Bahnstation in Hannover, steigt sie aus der U-Bahn. Täglich betreten Hunderte von Menschen diese Station, Schüler, Studenten, Angestellte und Rentner. Sie ist 22, studiert seit 2 Jahren Tiermedizin in Hannover, und ist im Moment ledig.
Sie geht auf die Rolltreppe, betritt die Stufen, und fährt zwei Stockwerke nach oben. Währenddessen schaut sie nach unten. Ihre U-Bahn hat die Station verlassen. Eine andere U-Bahn hat bereits gehalten, und die Fahrgäste sind aufgestanden und ausgestiegen. Sie kommt auf der zweiten Ebene an und geht weiter, Richtung Sonnenlicht, in die Pasarelle. Die Pasarelle führt Richtung Hauptbahnhof, und links und rechts locken die Schaufenster der Geschäfte. Nach einer Weile hat sie die Rolltreppe erreicht, die zum Hauptbahnhof führt. Nun sieht sie in voller Breite den Hauptbahnhof von Hannover, und davor einen Sockel mit einer Statue von einem Pferd mit Reiter. Dort hat Markus schon fünf Minuten gewartet und begrüßt sie, bevor sie sich ins Eiscafe nebenan setzen.

## Word Order

Inverted word order occurs under several circumstances, among which are:
* Interrogatives
* Time Expressions
* Subordinating Conjunctions
For interrogatives, a simple statement, "Du hast das Buch." becomes "Hast du das Buch?" when converting it to a question. The method is simply switching the verb and subject of the sentence.
Time expressions, such as "Nach der Schule" prefacing a sentence cause inverted word order. The formula is "Time Expression", "Verb", "Subject" and "Rest of sentence." Practically applied, "Every day, I go to school" becomes "Jeden Tag gehe ich zur Schule."
Subordinating conjunctions connect a dependent clause to an independent clause. Some subordinating conjunctions are: dass (that), obwohl (although), seit (since), weil (because), and wenn (if, when). The formula for a dependent clause is "subordinating conjunction" "subject" "rest of clause" "verb" and is offset from the independent clause by a comma. Here are some examples (the dependent clause is underlined):
# German/Lesson 13

<< Lektion 12 | Lektion 13 | Lektion 14 >> |

## Mein Arm schmerzt !

Franz met his friend Karl , Karl got a plaster on his arm .
Franz : guten Tag Karl , wie geht`s?
Karl : guten Tag Franz , nicht so gut , mein Arm schmerzt , und ihnen?
Franz : wie bitte ? Arm schmerzt ? warum ?
Karl : gestern , im Fussballspiel ,hatte ich eine Wunde .
Franz : gehst du zum Arzt ?
Karl : ja . auf Widersehen .
Franz : auf Widersehen.
_ _ _ _

## Vokabeln

| German | English |
| guten Tag | good day |
| mein Arm | my arm |
| schmerzt | it's paining |
| wie bitte | why? |
| gestern | yesterday |
| die Wunde | wound |
| der Arzt | doctor |
| auf Widersehen | good bye |
| Apotheke | pharmacy |
_ _ _ _
(The plural article is always "die".)German
| Der Körper | The Body |
| German singular | German plural | English |
| der Körper | Körper | body |
| der Kopf | Köpfe | head |
| das Gesicht | Gesichter | face |
| das Auge | Augen | eye |
| das Ohr | Ohren | ear |
| die Nase | Nasen | nose |
| der Mund | Münder | mouth |
| der Zahn | Zähne | tooth |
| German singular | German plural | English |
| die Schulter | Schultern | shoulder |
| der Arm | Arme | arm |
| der Ellenbogen | Ellenbogen | elbow |
| die Hand | Hände | hand |
| der finger | finger | finger |
| der Fingernagel | Fingernägel | fingernail |
| das Bein | Beine | leg |
| das Knie | Knie | knee |
| die Wade | Waden | waste |
| der Fuß | Füße | foot |
| die Wunde | Wunden | wound |
| die Narbe | Narben | scar |

## Adjectives

Adjectives are words that describe nouns. Most adjectives are stand-alone words; however, present and past participles can also be used as adjectives. Numbers are also adjectives, though they do not decline.
Adjectives may be either predicate or attributive. Predicate adjectives are adjectives connected to a noun through a verb known as a copula. Those verbs in German are sein (to be), werden (to become), and bleiben (to remain). Other verbs, such as machen and lassen impart a predicate adjective onto an accusative object. Predicate adjectives are never inflected.
# German/Lesson 10

<< Lektion 9 | Lektion 10 | Lektion 11 >>

## Wiederholung

Lesson 10 is a review (Wiederholung) lesson to summarize the German language lessons presented in Lessons 6 through 9. You should, as well, return to Lektion 6 and review (that is, completely reread) each of the four lessons back up to this point. For a more advanced course, you should now incorporate each of the advanced lessons into this "review" process. That is: review Lesson 6, then do Lesson 6A, review Lesson 7, then do Lesson 7A, etc. If the advanced lessons have already been completed, then now review lessons in the order 6 -> 6A -> 7 -> 7A -> 8, etc.

## Verb Conjugation

You have learned that there is a relationship between the subject of a verb and the form that verb takes in German. Some verbs follow a predictable regular pattern, while others are less predictable (irregular verbs).
As you can see, any verb uses the same declination for wir, sie and Sie. Also, er/sie/es uses the same declination for all three genders.
# German/Lesson 14

<< Lektion 12 | Lektion 13 | Lektion 14 >> |

## Tier

| German | English |
| der Tiergarten | zoo | |
| das Tier | Animal | "pl.die Tiere" |
| der Hund | dog | |
| der Schäferhund | sheepdog | |
| der Wolf | wolf | |
| der Fuchs | fox | |
| der Welpe | puppy |
| die Katze | cat | masc. der Kater |
| die Maus | mouse | also for computer mouse |
| das Kaninchen | rabbit | coll. Karnickel |
| der Hase | bunny, hare | coll. Mümmelmann |
| das Eichhörnchen | squirrel | |
| der Biber | beaver | |
| der Siebenschläfer | fat dormouse | In Germany, June 27 is Siebenschläfertag |
| der Bär | bear | |
| der Braunbär | brown bear | |
| der Hirsch | deer | |
| das Rentier | rendeer | |
| die Fledermaus | bat | |
| der Luchs | lynx |
| der Seehund | seal | |
| die Kuh | cow | |
| der Ochse | ox | |
| der Bulle | bull | |
| die Ziege | goat | |
| das Kalb | calf | |
| das Pferd | horse | arch. Ross |
| das Fohlen | colt | |
| das Schaf | sheep | |

## Grammatik

Adverbs
Adverbs based on adjectives (remember last lesson)are one of the simplest parts of German grammar. Any adjective can be used as an adverb simply by placing its uninflected form within the sentence, usually towards the end.
Other adverbs have no adjectival equivalent. Many of these express time.
# IB/Group 3/Geography
## Introduction

Welcome to the IB Geography Wikibook. Here, you can see the different topics (Paper 1, 2 and 3) as well as the optional themes.
# IB/Group 3/History/Assessment

=== Assessment Objectives === There are six IB assessment objectives that are relevant to the core externally examined papers. Specifically, the assessment objectives are:
* To demonstrate historical understanding through the acquisition, selection, and effective use of knowledge (Papers 1, 2, and IA).
* To demonstrate an understanding of historical context; cause and effect; continuity and change (Papers 1, 2, 3 and IA).
* To evaluate different approaches to, and interpretations of, historical events, and topics (Papers 1, 2, 3, and IA).
* To comprehend, analyze, and evaluate historical sources as evidence (Paper 1).
* To present historical explanations using arguments that are clear, coherent, relevant, and well substantiated (Papers 2 and 3).
* To compare and contrast issues or events across time and space (Paper 2 and 3).
There is one more assessment objective for both Standard and Higher students:
This objective is focused on the Internal Assessment.
Higher-level students also have to cover:
# IB/Group 3/History/Assessment/Paper 1

For the IB history course, one must study in depth, one prescribed subject for paper 1. The choice of prescribed subject will have to be based on several factors, including student interest, available resources, and the selected paper 2 topics and higher level option. Some may base their choice on the need to complement other papers, while others may choose the subject to extend student knowledge. The study of history does not fit neatly into watertight compartments, and the three IB external components will all help to produce a wider and deeper historical understanding, and international outlook.
# IB/Group 3/Economics/International Economics

| International trade Exchange rates The balance of payments Economic integration and trade liberalisation Terms of trad | Higher Level only: Quantitive issues |
# IB/Group 3/Economics/Macroeconomics

| Macroeconomic goalas Introducing aggregate demand and aggregate supply Macroeconomic objectives Fiscal policy Money and monetary policy | Higher Level only: Quantitive issues |
# IB/Group 3/History

History is more than the study of the past. It is the process of recording, reconstructing and interpreting the past through the investigation of a variety of sources. It is a discipline that gives people an understanding of themselves and others in relation to the world, both past and present.

## Course Content

Whichever route is selected the course provides both structure and flexibility, fostering an understanding of major historical events in a global context. It requires students to make comparisons between similar and dissimilar solutions to common human situations, whether they be political, economic or social. It invites comparisons between, but not judgments of, different cultures, political systems and national traditions.

### Route 1

Route 1 explores the main developments in the history of Europe and the Islamic world (from 500 to 1570).

#### History of Europe and the Islamic world — Prescribed Subjects

The Origins and Rise of Islam c500–661
The Kingdom of Sicily 1130–1302

#### History of Europe and the Islamic World — Topics

Dynasties and Rulers
Society and Economy
Wars and Warfare
Intellectual, Cultural, and Artistic Developments
Religion and the State

#### Higher Level Options (3 of the following)

Christianity c500-1300
The Fatimids 909-1171
Monarchies in England and France 1066-1223
The Crusades 1095-1291
The Mongols 1200-1405
Muslim, Christian and Jewish Interactions in Spain, 711-1492
Emperors and Kings 1150-1300
Late Medieval Political Crises 1300-1485
14th Century Famine, Pestilence and Social Change
The Ottomans 1281-1566
Renaissance Government and Society in Italy 1300-1500
New Horizons: Exploration 1400-1550

### Route 2

Route 2 encompasses the main developments in the 20th century world history.

#### 20th Century World History — Prescribed Subjects

Peacemaking, Peacekeeping—International Relations 1918–36
The Arab–Israeli Conflict 1945–79
Communism in Crisis 1976–89

#### 20th Century World History — Topics

Causes, Practices, and Effects of Wars
Causes and Effects of World War One (2020 Specification);
Causes and Effects of the Spanish Civil War (2020 Specification);
Democratic states—Challenges and Responses
Origins and Development of Authoritarian and Single-Party States
Nationalist and Independence Movements in Africa and Asia, and post-1945 Central and Eastern European states
The Cold War

#### Higher Level Options (1 of the following)

Aspects of History of Africa
Aspects of History of the Americas
Aspects of History of Asia and Oceania
Aspects of History of Europe and the Middle East

## Assessment

* Paper 1
* Paper 2
* Paper 3
* Internal Assessment

## Useful Links

* History Guide (First Examinations 2010)
* IB History of the Americas (Not part of this book)
* IB European History (Not part of this book)

## Contributing

For those interested in contributing towards this book, Route 1 is very much unexplored and it is recommended. Sections under Route 2 are planned.
# IB/Group 3/Economics/Microeconomics

| Competitive markets: demand and supply Elasticity Government intervention Market failures Theory of the firm and market structure | Higher Level only: Quantitive issues |