OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Organic Chemistry/Foundational concepts of organic chemistry/History of organic chemistry/Organic vs inorganic chemistry

<< Synthesis of urea | Atomic structure >>
# Organic Chemistry/Foundational concepts of organic chemistry/Nomenclature

< Acids and bases

# Organic Chemistry Nomenclature

Nomenclature means a system of naming. In organic chemistry, naming can be difficult to get a good handle on. Many chemicals were named before a systematic approach was designed and those names are often called the "common names". A great deal of the basics of modern organic chemistry began to be systemized in the latter half of the 19th century and continued into the early 20th century. Chemists often offered different systems of naming and sometimes one outlasted the other and sometimes a mix of the two came into to use. This has lead to a variety of unusual names and often multiple names for the same thing. While many naming conventions in organic chemistry are derived from Greek, some are derived from Latin. And sometimes a mix is used. For example, many organic molecules are named based on the number of carbons in the chain. From one to ten, those prefixes are meth-, eth-, prop-, but-, pent-, hex-, hept-, oct-, non-, dec-. The first 4 are from common usage prior to any systemic naming. pent- through oct- and dec-, all derive from Greek numbers, and non- derives from the Latin number for nine.
The current standard in naming in organic chemistry is called the IUPAC nomenclature. IUPAC is the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry and IUPAC has come up with a standard naming convention for all compounds. As there are millions of known organic molecules and many varieties of piecing them all together, one can imagine that the rules are many and complex.
This tome of naming is the IUPAC Gold Book. When describing naming procedures, this book will often provide simpler rules of naming that don't include all of the exceptions to the rules. We may not discuss all of the possible variations of names, but will more often than not, provide the most common naming methods. These procedures will generally hold you in good stead for almost all situations. When in doubt, however, you will need to consult the Gold Book. This really becomes more important when you're publishing papers in chemistry and you're sharing the information with a wide audience.
Besides legacy names from the early days of chemistry, there are also some variations within the IUPAC naming that can allow a compound to have more than one possible name. You'll witness that in this book where two identical compounds may have two different, but equal names. This variation is provided to give the reader the opportunity to see and become accustomed to the variation. It is weighed against the confusion it causes but as a student of chemistry, you must learn the language, even when that language is sometimes confusing.
<< Foundational concepts | < Acids and bases | Nomenclature | Alkanes >>
# Organic Chemistry/Foundational concepts of organic chemistry/History of organic chemistry/Synthesis of urea

<< Vital force theory | Organic vs inorganic chemistry >>
# Organic Chemistry/Foundational concepts of organic chemistry/History of organic chemistry/Vital force theory

<< Foundational concepts | Synthesis of urea >>
Long ago, people observed the differences between compounds that were derived from living things and those that were not. There seemed to be an impassable gap between the properties of the two groups. Someone proposed the vital force theory to explain the difference. The theory said that there was a something called a vital force that dwelled within the organic material that did not exist in the nonorganic materials. However, to echo the words of President Ronald Reagan, it was "only" a theory.
Synthesis of urea >>
# Organic Chemistry/Foundational concepts of organic chemistry/Atomic structure/Octet rule and exceptions

<< Filling electron shells | Molecular orbitals >>
The octet rule refers to the tendency of atoms to prefer to have eight electrons in their valence shell.
The main exception to the rule is hydrogen, which is at lowest energy when it has two electrons in its valence shell.
Other notable exceptions are aluminum and boron, which can function well with six valence electrons; and some atoms beyond group three on the periodic table that can have over 8 electrons, including sulfur. Additionally, some noble gasses can form compounds when expanding their valence shell.
The other tendency of atoms with regard to their electrons is to maintain a neutral charge. Only the noble gasses have zero charge with filled valence octets. All of the other elements have a charge when they have eight electrons all to themselves. The result of these two guiding principles is the explanation for much of the reactivity and bonding that is observed within atoms; atoms seeking to share electrons in a way that minimizes charge while fulfilling an octet in the valence shell.
<< Foundational concepts | << Filling electron shells | Molecular orbitals >>
# Parrot Virtual Machine/Resources
## Resources

These blog posts are released into the public domain and can be adapted directly:
* http://www.parrotblog.org/2008/03/targeting-parrot-vm.html
* http://www.parrotblog.org/2008/03/episode-2-poking-in-compiler-guts.html
* http://www.parrotblog.org/2008/03/episode-3-squaak-details-and-first.html
* http://www.parrotblog.org/2008/03/episode-4-past-nodes-and-more.html
* http://www.parrotblog.org/2008/03/episode-5-variable-declaration-and.html
* http://www.parrotblog.org/2008/03/episode-6-scope-and-subroutines.html
* http://www.parrotblog.org/2008/03/episode-7-operators-and-precedence.html
* http://www.parrotblog.org/2008/03/episode-8-hashtables-and-arrays.html
Other Resources
* Parrot Documentation
* Parrot Design Docs
* Parrot Project Home
# Parrot Virtual Machine/Parrot Embedding
## Embedding Parrot

Because the Parrot Virtual Machine is modular, we can link the libparrot library into other executables, creating programs which contain a Parrot interpreter object. One simple use for such a technology would be to create an executable file which contains data in the form of precompiled bytecode and a simple instantiation of the Parrot interpreter to create a standalone executable for a particular programming language. This is called Native Execution, and we will discuss it in more detail below.

## Resources

* http://www.parrotcode.org/docs/pdd/pdd10_embedding.html
* http://www.parrotcode.org/docs/native_exec.html
# Parrot Virtual Machine/Packfiles
## Packfiles

Parrot bytecode files are called "packfiles" internally. Access routines to get information from and feed information to a packfile are stored in /src/packfile.c
Some things that can affect the way a file is stored are:
* Endianness. Some computers are called "little endian" and some computers are called "big endian". This has to do with the way that bits are ordered in a byte. Instead of picking one or the other to be the default.
* Value sizes. Things like pointers and INTVALs are going to be different sizes on different computers. Parrot must translate between 16 bit, 32 bit, and 64 bit values for these and other things. Also, FLOATVALS may be 32bit, 64bit, or 128bit, and need to be translated.

## Serialization

HLL code is most often used on the computer where it is first compiled. To that end, Parrot is optimized to write packfiles using local settings. If a packfile is read which has been created on some other computer, Parrot must translate it internally so that it can be run on your computer. This translation process adds extra execution overhead, but it only needs to be run once on your computer to get things into the proper local format.

### Freeze and Thaw

Serialization occurs through two interfaces: Freeze and thaw. Freezing is the process of converting a PMC or other type of data into a format ready for insertion into a packfile. Thawing is the process of reading data out of a packfile and recreate the PMC or other data object. PMCs have optional Freeze and Thaw vtable methods, although good defaults are available if the PMC does not use any additional storage. If you use additional storage, especially storage which has been allocated from the system using malloc, you must supply custom Freeze/Thaw methods to store and retrieve that.
# Peacebuilding Manual/Skills for a Peacebuilder

Skills for a Peacebuilder
To read more on this topic, please read "Building local capacities in long-term peacebuilding"
# Peacebuilding Manual/Negotiation

Peacebuilding Manual
Negotiation
Nearly everyone employs negotiation skills in everyday life - for example: when deciding as a family where to go on holidays, when agreeing a work plan and setting the allocation of tasks with on colleagues, or when discussing plans with friends and relatives. Negotiation is a basic way of getting what you want from someone else, usually using verbal communication. We all negotiate every day – with a vendor at the market, with our friends or relatives in deciding what to eat or where and how to travel. American authors Roger Fisher and William Ury developed a model of business negotiation in 1981 that has become extremely popular. Essentially, they propose four principles of negotiation (Fisher and Ury, 1981):
* Separate the people from the problem. The relationship (the “people”) is separate from any substantive conflict (the “problem”) you have. By disentangling the relationship from the problem, you reduce the possibility of miscommunication and emotions negatively affecting the negotiation. You want to establish good working relationships in negotiation.
* Focus on interests not positions. Interests are underlying needs, desires, concerns, wants, values, or fears. Interests motivate people, but often individuals will state a position. For example, many countries have a position that “we will not negotiate with terrorists.” This is a position, but the underlying interests probably relate to concerns and fears about personal security. In conflict, individuals and groups often state only one position. It is usually difficult to negotiate compromises on positions. Behind positions are multiple interests, and focusing on interests allows negotiators more room to generate solutions acceptable to all parties.
* Invent options for mutual gain. This requires creativity and the commitment to brainstorm options that will be acceptable to both parties. In brainstorming, negotiators need to separate the stage of evaluating options from the stage of generating options. Both parties need to broaden the number of possible options and not search for just one option. Both parties also need to think about options that will satisfy the interests of the other side.
* Insist on using objective or mutually acceptable criteria. Often it is possible to identify several relevant standards or criteria by which parties can evaluate the fairness or acceptability of a negotiated agreement. Negotiators can brainstorm criteria or standards in the same way as they brainstorm options.
# Peacebuilding Manual/Perception

Peacebuilding Manual
Perception
Perceptions are central to how we communicate and act in conflict situations. In our everyday routines, we interpret events or conversations based upon our past experiences, religious and cultural background, and even our mood. Our senses of sight, taste, smell, hearing, and touch also influence our interpretation. What we believe to be true is relative to who we are. In any situation, multiple interpretations exist. Our perception of events, information, people, or relationships influences how we communicate, how we see and act in conflict, and how we define solutions to problems. Conflict and communication are intimately tied to perceptions. How we see the world depends upon where we stand, and where we stand is affected by our beliefs that are grounded in our culture, religion, family background, status, gender, and personal experiences. Individuals who experience the same event who come from the same general background will still come up with different perspectives on that event, and define “truth” in that setting in different ways.
# Peacebuilding Manual/Problem Solving

Peacebuilding Manual
Problem-Solving
Problem solving is a technique that encourages individuals in conflict to jointly define the conflict or problem, analyse its causes, suggest various options for solving the conflict, and then select and implement the preferred solution. It is a five step process in which a group: (i) defines the conflict; (ii) analyses causes of the conflict; (iii) generates or brainstorms options for resolution; (iv) selects the preferred option; and (v) implements the solution.
Problem solving is often used in small groups to permit analytical thinking. It is a skill that can be extremely useful in conflict, especially for jointly defining the problem or conflict. Usually, not all groups agree on the causes of the conflict! Problem solving is not necessarily useful in restoring relationships. Another similar methodology is called appreciative inquiry. Appreciative inquiry takes a more positive approach and analyses and appreciates the capacities that exist, rather than looking at the deficiencies or problems. It discovers and appreciates the best of what is, dreams about what might be, and envisions possible impact, designs and creates what should be, and finally, takes steps to make these processes sustainable.
# Peacebuilding Manual/Resolving Conflicts

Peacebuilding Manual
Resolving Conflicts
After understanding peacebuilding and its impacts, its major causes and conflict prevention, the next step that a peacebuilder must know, before intervening, is about the various mechanisms to resolve conflicts before the peacebuilder intervenes. The result is determined by the choice about a specific style of resolving conflicts. For example, with the choice of juridical procedures, conflict parties stop communicating directly with each other, each lawyer has the goal of achieving as much as possible for his/her client. With mediation, the conflict parties chose to get support to understand each other better and to find a common solution agreeable to both.
Formal mechanisms In terms of formal state institutions, the police are often consulted to help resolve conflicts, especially in urban areas, where there is a much larger police presence. Police is involved when conflicts either involve violence or have the potential to turn violent; either involving short-term physical control and management of a conflict, or when alternative means of resolving the conflict have failed. Local government institutions often suffer from a lack of capacity, and in some cases legitimacy, to be in a position to resolve conflicts authoritatively.
Informal mechanisms OHW’s experience indicates that conflict resolution is largely done by community or tribal councils of elders (usually known as jirgas or shuras). These councils of elders has a variable membership, comprising elders and others with relative wealth, influence, or power in the locality, such as mullahs. They rarely include women, youth, or the poorest members of the community. They have a degree of legitimacy and institutional constancy but fail to be properly representative or inclusive, and members generally have little or no training in dispute resolution or conflict management. They tend to apply customary laws, such as pushtanwali, or sharia law. Comparatively, shura-s are perceived as being more effective than formal state mechanisms: in an Asia Foundation 2007 survey, over 75 per cent of respondents agreed that shuras were fair and trusted, followed local norms and values, and were effective at delivering justice; whereas just 57–58 per cent believed the same of state courts. Consistent with these findings, research commissioned by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) suggests that when shura-s address disputes, the most common outcomes are peace between the disputants and compensation for the victim”.
There are five broad categories in Conflict Response Styles.
The Ways of Managing Conflict could include:
# Peacebuilding Manual/Mediation

Peacebuilding Manual
Mediation
Mediation is sometimes referred to as assisted negotiation. The main difference is that mediation involves a third party whose role is to help the parties reach a mutually agreeable solution to the problem or conflict or disagreement. Mediation is a voluntary process. The exact process of mediation differs from mediator to mediator, and according to the culture in which mediation takes place. In general, there are four stages to mediation. The descriptions that accompany these four phases relate to mediation in a North American context:
* Introduction. During the introduction, the mediator greets the parties, describes the process and the role of the mediator. The parties, together with the mediator, establish the groundrules for the mediation session(s) before entering into the story-telling phase.
* Story-telling. During this phase, each party tells their story from their own perspective. The mediator usually summarises each of the stories after the party has told the story. The mediator lists the issues for resolution, and the parties agree to this list.
* Problem solving. During the problem solving stage, parties engage in a problem solving process to generate and then evaluate various options for resolving their conflict. At times, the mediator uses a caucus, which is a separate session with each party, to explore emotions, unstated interests, or goals.
* Agreement. After evaluating various options for resolving the disagreement, the parties decide on a solution. The mediator facilitates a discussion about the details of the agreement – who will do what, when, and where. This is often written down, with some details about what to do if either party does not uphold his or her part of the agreement. In a western context, mediators are seen to be impartial or neutral. This means they do not show bias toward either party but instead work to help the parties reach an agreement that is mutually acceptable. In other contexts, mediators might be seen as partial but they are acceptable to both parties. For example, a family member of one of the parties might be an appropriate mediator, provided both parties agree on the choice of a mediator for their conflict.
# Peacebuilding Manual/Purpose of a Peacebuilding Manual

Purpose of a Peacebuilding Manual
As growing shares of aid resources, time and energy are being devoted to conflict prevention and peacebuilding projects, programmes, and policy strategies, there is increased interest amongst donors and practitioners, as well as people affected by violent conflict, to learn more about what does and does not work in building peace and supporting peaceful resolution of conflicts. This quest to improve our understanding of how peace can be built at local levels, especially in post conflict countries like Afghanistan, where access to justice is a continuing challenge and where an effective judiciary is still a long way to come.
The primary goal of this Manual is to provide guidance to those conducting or facilitating peacebuilding efforts and processes at the level of the community. It aims to assist practitioners working in the conflict prevention and peacebuilding field to better understand the steps required to achieve peace or at least to contribute to peace at local levels and simultaneously help trainers in the field of peacebuilding to optimise their efforts through an understanding of steps that work in building peace and/or resolving conflicts amongst rural communities.
# Intermediate Algebra/Writing Linear Equations

Linear equations have two variables: $x$ and $y$.

## Examples

$y=5+7x$
$y=2-4x+4$
$y=7/2-4x$
If one were doing a walkathon and wanted to raise $5 for every mile walked, an equation for the total money raised, $y$ as a function of the number of miles walked, $x$ would be $y=5x$. Would donors, however, promise to not only pay $5 per mile but give an additional $30 just for taking part, the equation would be $y=5x+30$. Note that this example is limited as negative miles don't make sense, but the line defined by the equation is infinite in either direction.
# Intermediate Algebra/Systems of Equations By Algebra
## Solving Systems of Linear Equations by Using Algebra

Generally, you're not going to want to solve a system using graphs, simply because it takes too much time. There are two algebraic methods for solving systems of linear equations.

### Addition

The ideal situation for the Addition method (also known as Elimination method) is one in which a variable in the two equations has opposite coefficients. For instance: $6x+3y=42$ $2x-3y=22$ We would simply add up the values in the two equations, canceling out $y$ in the process. $8x=64$ This is the result of the initial addition. $x=8$ Simplify. Now, all we have to do is substitute $8$ for each occurrence of $x$,and solve for $y$. $6(8)+3y=42$ Substitute the value of $x$. $48+3y=42$ Simplify. $3y=-6$ Subtract 48 from each side. $y=-2$ Divide each side by 3.
However, even if the variables don't easily cancel out, simply just try with constant multiplications and so on. $3x+8y=48$ $x-4y=22$ We would simply multiply the second equation throughout by 2 and get: $2x-8y=44$ Then add up: $x=4$ Substitute: $(8)-4y=22$ $-4y=18$ $y=-{\frac {9}{2}}$
In some occasions, you may need to multiply both sides. For example:
$3y+2x=5$ $4y+3x=10$
In this case, we will multiply the first equation by three and the second equation by two.
$9y+6x=15$ $8y+6x=20$
$y=-5$
$9\times -5+6x=20$ $-45+6x=20$ $6x=85$ $x=14{\frac {1}{6}}$

### Substitution

This is another method to solve a system of linear equations. This is ideal if one of the equations is laid out where one variable has a coefficient of one or negative one. $y=3x+1$ $x+2y=16$ Here you can simply substitute the first algebraic expression that y equals in to the second. $x+2(3x+1)=16$ Now simply slove the problem $x+6x+2=16$ $7x+2=16$ $7x+2-2=16-2$ ${\frac {7x}{7}}={\frac {14}{7}}$ $x=2$ Then plug it into the equation you substituted earlier. $y=3(2)+1$ $y=6+1$ $y=7$ To check your work simply plug both x and y into one part of your system. $x+2y=16$ $(2)+2(7)=16$ $16=16$ check.
Example where variable is not on one side:
$x+y=9$ $3x+5y=25$
Switch first equation so x is on one side
$x=9-y$
Substitute
$3(9-y)+5y=25$
Distribute and solve
$27-3y+5y=25$ $2y=-2$
$y=-1$ $x=10$