OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Practical Electronics/Test Equipments/Electrometer
### Electrometer

A voltmeter with extremely high input resistance capable of measuring electrical charge with minimal influence to that charge. Ubiquitous in nucleonics, physics and bio-medical disciplines. Enables the direct verification of charge measured in coulombs according to Q=CV. Additionally, electrometers can generally measure current flows in the femtoampere range, i.e. .000000000000001 ampere.
# Practical Electronics/Test Equipments/Logic Analyzer
### Logic analyzer

A logic analyzer is, in effect, a specialised oscilloscope. It is a measurement tool or device used to analyze multiple digital channels over multiple channels 8, 16, 32 or greater number of input channels and displays the timing in various format for further analysis of the embedded system.
The key difference between an analyzer and an oscilloscope is that the analyzer can only display a digital (on/off) waveform, whereas an oscilloscope can display any voltage (depending on the type of probe connected). The other difference is that logic analyzers tend to have many more signal inputs than oscilloscopes - usually 32 or 64, versus the two channels most oscilloscopes provide. Logic analyzers can be very useful for debugging complex logic circuits, where one signal's state may be affected by many other signals.
# Practical Electronics/Test Equipments/Ohmmeter
### Ohmmeter

An ohmmeter measures resistance.
The two terminals of ohmmeter are each placed on a terminal of the resistance being measured. This resistance should be isolated from other effects. (It should be taken out of a circuit, if it is in one.)
# Practical Electronics/Test Equipments/Voltmeter
### Voltmeter

A voltmeter measures voltage.
The voltmeter's terminals must be in parallel with the voltage being measured. Voltmeters have a large resistance (typically 1 megaohm), so that they only have a small effect on the voltage.
# this is a dump of an old doc from Peter Neelin from yonks ago

The basic idea is that you call voxel_loop with a list of input files, a list of output files and a function to call:
This causes voxel_loop to call the voxel function with only one buffer (but once for each file). The idea is that you take the ibuff loop and put it on the outside. However, now you need to keep track of sum1 and sum2 in buffers - well, just use the output buffers for that purpose. What if you only have one output file and need two buffers? Then set num_extra_buffers to 1 - added to the one output buffer gives two available buffers (only the first buffer is written out). The functions start_function and end_function are used to initialize and do final computation on the output buffers. Remember to make sure that your final data is in the first num_outputs buffers after end_function because that is what is written out.
# MINC/Tools/DistortionCorrection
## Geometric distortion correction Tools

TODO
# An Introduction to HDF5

(For a complete description, see the HDF5 User's Guide at http://hdf.ncsa.uiuc.edu/ ).

# HYPERSLAB FUNCTIONS (8)
## miget_hyperslab_size
## miset_voxel_value_hyperslab

%=IMAGE CONVERSION VARIABLE FUNCTIONS (4)= %==miicv_volume_attach==
%==miicv_volume_detach==
%==miicv_volume_get/miicv_volume_put==

# VALID MIN/MAX AND RANGE FUNCTIONS (6)
## miget_volume_valid_max
## miset_volume_valid_range

% THE FOLLOWING IS NO LONGER IN THE CODE (leila) %==miset_valid_range_to_default==

# Authors

Bert Vincent, Leila Baghdadi and John G Sled
# Documentation for MINC Tools

There are a large number of add-on tools that have been written for MINC, this is an attempt to draw all of the documentation for these into one cohesive place. There is a lot of it out there! The tools are organised into rough sections, feel free to add your own tools in here and add a section if required. Note that the source code for all of these tools is available here: http://packages.bic.mni.mcgill.ca/tgz Some or at least most of these packages will also have binary versions available on http://packages.bic.mni.mcgill.ca/ as well.

## Registration (alignment)

Registration is a process whereby two (more) images are aligned to each other. There are a number of methods by which you can do this but most of them involve some form of gradient descent and a matching algorithm.
mni autoreg - A registration framework written by Louis Collins

## Intensity Correction

Intensity correction in MRI typically refers to the correction of the B1 field effect, however there is also intensity correction that can occur between different scans of the same subject or indeed different subjects. There can also be intensity differences between slices of a single acquisition.
iNormalize A global intensity correction package by Alex Zijdenbos
N3 - An intensity nonuniformity correction package written by John G. Sled

## Geometric Distortion Correction

MRI scanners introduce geometric distortions caused by several factors.
DistortionCorrection - a tool for correcting distortions in anatomical images caused by the nonlinearities in imaging gradients.

## C Libraries

These libraries have been written in order to extend the functionality of MINC, typically they add certain features to MINC such as a link to an image display library.
bicpl - the BIC "programmers" library
EBTKS - Everything but the kitchen sink
bicInventor - a glue library that allows the use of Inventor/Coin in a MINC program

## Virtual Machine

A virtual machine, containing the MINC tools preinstalled and ready to use is available at https://github.com/cobralab/MINC-VM

## Interfaces to other Languages

emma - an old, ageing and un-maintained interface to MATLAB (written by an Academy award winner!)
# MINC/SoftwareDevelopment/Reference
## MINC2 Documentation

MINC2.0 Users Guide
MINC2.0 Application Programmers Interface (API)
MINC2.0 File Format Reference

## MINC1 Documentation

(older) MINC 1.X documentation for the MINC libraries and the volume_io utility library
MINC1-programmers-guide
MINC1-programmers-reference
MINC1 File Format Reference
MINC1-volumeio-programmers-reference
MINC1-voxel-loop-example
Tag file format reference
# Introduction

The MNI .tag file format was designed as a simple storage format for representations of selected points on either a single 3-dimensional data volume, or on a pair of such volumes. The .tag file is an ASCII file format only - it provides no support for other character sets or binary data.
All of the original design and implementation of this format was the work of David MacDonald. This document borrows extensively from David’s existing comments and documentation.

# Format

The file is an ASCII file, and normally uses a single linefeed as a newline character. Spaces, tabs, and newlines may be used to delimit fields. Carriage return characters are ignored.

## Header

A .tag file always begins with a single line containing the exact text:
This header line is mandatory and should appear exactly as shown (capitalization is significant).
The header is followed by the keyword Volumes followed by an equals sign, either the digit ’1’ or ’2’, and a semicolon, e.g. either:
or:
This field indicates whether the tag point file applies to one or two volumes. Again, capitalization is significant.
The next field defines the points themselves. It starts with a keyword:
followed by a list of point records. The list of point records is terminated with another semicolon.

## Point records

Each point record simply consists of either 3 or 6 floating-point numbers, represented in ASCII, and separated by spaces. The floating point numbers give the X, Y, and Z coordinates in the world space of the volume(s) to which the tag applies.
The coordinates of the point are mandatory. Other fields may be included as needed, as follows:
* A floating-point weight.
* An integer structure ID.
* An integer patient ID.
* A text label.
These fields must either all be present for a tag, they may all be absent, or the text label alone may be present. The text label may be surrounded by quotes to allow it to include space characters.
Each point record normally ends with an end-of-line character, but this is optional.

## Comments

Comments can occur anywhere in the file. They are indicated by the character ’#’ or ’%’, and are terminated by an end-of-line character.
There is an informal convention of using comments to indicate the specific volume files to which the tags apply.
* ↑ This corresponds to the size when markers are saved as tags in MNI-Display
* ↑ This corresponds to a paint label value when labels are saved as tags in MNI-Display
# Saylor.org's Early Globalizations: East Meets West (1200s-1600s)/Early Latin and South America

Beginning in the fifteenth century, the empires of Portugal and Spain founded large colonies in Latin America. As a result of these conquests, disease and warfare destroyed or transformed many of the native peoples who lived there. Gradually, a new syncretic civilization emerged in the Americas and became an integral part of the world market. Societies comprised of Africans, Spanish, Portuguese, and native peoples developed a sophisticated market economy driven by gold and silver mining as well as plantation agriculture. We will see how the colonial systems implemented by the Spanish and Portuguese in the New World had roots in the political and religious institutions of Europe.
In this unit, we will begin by examining the founding of Spain’s first New World colony—New Spain—in an area now known as Mexico. We will study how the Spanish defeated the Aztec empire and subsequently erected a colonial government and economy. We will then turn to Portugal’s main colonial enterprise in the Americas—Brazil. We will study Brazil’s indigenous population and the effects of Portuguese colonization, as well as the evolution of Brazil’s economy from plantation agriculture to mining.
# Saylor.org's Early Globalizations: East Meets West (1200s-1600s)/Reasons for Conquest

What led to the explosion of the Mongol conquests in the 13th century that created the largest contiguous land empire in world history? On the one hand, between 1180 and 1220, average temperatures dropped in Mongolia, meaning that grass could no longer grow as quickly or as plentifully as it had before. This destruction of grass would prove fatal for the Mongol way of life, as their nomadic lifestyle was so dependent on their animals. If their animals were unable to eat grass, this would have been a strong impetus to move beyond Mongolia. Another reason is perhaps due to the attempt by Northern China to reduce trade with the Mongols. If the Mongols could no longer receive the grain and manufactured goods, at least in the same quantities they had before, they would be prompted to attack and raid, particularly against the Jin dynasty that ruled China. One other popular theory used to explain the Mongol conquests is that Chinggis Khan believed he was charged by Tenggeri, the Mongolian Sky God, to bring all the world under the Mongolian faith, by sword.
# Saylor.org's Early Globalizations: East Meets West (1200s-1600s)/Globalization and History

The resources in this short, introductory section will discuss some of the meanings and developments associated with the term globalization and the manner in which they have been used by historians to account for changes in the lives of peoples throughout the world over time. One of the major insights to be gained from these resources is that the cultural and political practices (laws, languages, religions, etc.) of any given society tend in some measure to reflect the effects of interactions with the larger world, whether brought about by migration, trade or conquest. Students should keep the concepts found here in mind as they progress through the course. The following units will in fact present numerous examples of the diverse forms of encounter and “interconnectedness” described in the resources below, as well as their many causes and consequences.
# Saylor.org's Early Globalizations: East Meets West (1200s-1600s)/Humanism

"What a piece of work is a man, How noble in Reason, how infinite in faculties, in form and moving how express and admirable, In action how like an Angel! in apprehension how like a god, the beauty of the world, the paragon of animals. and yet to me, what is this quintessence of dust?"---Hamlet, Act II, scene ii
The modern connotation for the idea of 'humanism' is that of a philosophy that is only concerned with secular, human affairs. In fact, "secular humanism" is often seen a component to deism, agnosticism or atheism. In the Renaissance, 'humanism' did not necessarily indicate that a 'humanist' did not believe in God; in fact, God remained an important part of humanist thought. Renaissance 'Humanism' was less a philosophy and more an intellectual movement, a re-orientation in scholastic work to focus on the "classics", or what we now call the 'liberal arts': literature, rhetoric, art studies, history and philosophy. Humanism was a reaction against the medieval 'scholastic' tradition of education that emphasized practical, utilitarian training that produced specialists in medicine, law or theology. Humanists decried the crudely pedantic medieval method and encouraged education that might enrich the soul and consider the nature of humanity, as well as educate. Humanists desired well-rounded citizens that could speak and write eloquently, as well as to understand their fellow human beings, thus capable to engage with civic life.
Most historians agree that the Italian scholar Petrarch (Francesco Petrarca, 1304-1374) was the first of the Renaissance humanists and that Petrarch, himself, was one of the first Europeans to critique the era after the fall of the Roman Empire as an era of darkness. According to Petrarch, and other humanist successors, this darkness could be overcome by the careful study and imitation of classical authors. Humanist scholars "went back to the sources" and scrutinized them quite closely, encouraging the mastery of Latin as a way to gain wider and more accurate insight into the minds of the greats of classical thinkers. Early humanists like Petrarch, Coluccio Salutati and Poggio Bracciolini had access to and collected classical manuscripts as they were members of the clergy, lawyers or chancellors of cities, and thus had access to book copying workshops. There were important centers of humanism at Florence, Naples, Rome, Venice, Mantua, Ferrara, and Urbino.
# Saylor.org's Early Globalizations: East Meets West (1200s-1600s)/East Asia and Its Trading World

The pre-modern world of South and East Asia was a diverse one linked together by commerce. Most politically and culturally independent Asian states, including India, China, and Japan, were only marginally affected by the arrival of European traders in the fifteenth century. Although the voyages of the Portuguese explorer Vasco de Gama had opened up the East to Europe, the power of Asian states and commerce prevented European nations from dominating lucrative trade networks. Still, the strength of European sea power allowed traders to influence many aspects of the Asian spice trade.
In this unit, we will begin with an examination of the Asian trading world. We will ask what this world looked like and why Europeans were so attracted to it. In particular, we will study how Portugal, Holland, and England extended their commercial empires to South and East Asia. We will then turn our attention to China and Japan. We will explore the unique characteristics of the powerful Ming state in China as well as the tumultuous era of medieval and pre-modern Japan.
# Saylor.org's Early Globalizations: East Meets West (1200s-1600s)/Europe: East and West

In the wake of the collapse of the Roman Empire, two major civilizations emerged in Europe during the early medieval period. The Byzantine Empire, which encompassed territory in the Balkans, the Middle East, and the eastern Mediterranean, maintained a highly advanced political, cultural, and economical system between 500 and 1450 C.E. Orthodox Christianity defined characteristics of Byzantium and helped expand the empire’s influence in eastern Europe, Belarus, Ukraine, and Russia. Meanwhile, another form of Christianity that had no imperial center, Catholicism, developed in western and central Europe. Although areas of small kingdoms diffused in the early Middle Ages, the fiefdoms of western Europe had shared some common ground—Latin as lingua franca, the Catholic Church, and feudal society.
In this unit, we will first study a broad overview of Byzantine civilization before looking at its more specific components—Orthodox Christianity, imperial law and government, and Byzantine society. We will then turn our attention to an examination of medieval western Europe, beginning with the historical context of the medieval era and the definition of the term “Middle Ages.” We will then study the emergence of the powerful Carolingian Empire, the expanding scope and power of the medieval Catholic Church, the significance of feudalism and manorialism in medieval society, and the devastating impact of the Black Death.
# Saylor.org's Early Globalizations: East Meets West (1200s-1600s)/Renaissance Neo-Platonism

Platonism underwent a revival in the Renaissance, as part of a general revival of interest in Classical antiquity. Interest in Platonism was especially strong in Florence under the Medici. During the sessions at Florence of the Council of Ferrara-Florence in 1438–1445, during the failed attempts to heal the schism of the Orthodox and Catholic churches, Cosimo de' Medici and his intellectual circle had made acquaintance with the Neoplatonic philosopher George Gemistos Plethon, whose discourses upon Plato and the Alexandrian mystics so fascinated the learned society of Florence that they named him the second Plato. In 1459 John Argyropoulos was lecturing on Greek language and literature at Florence, and Marsilio Ficino became his pupil. When Cosimo decided to refound Plato's Academy at Florence, his choice to head it was Ficino, who made the classic translation of Plato from Greek to Latin (published in 1484), as well as a translation of a collection of Hellenistic Greek documents of the Hermetic Corpus, and the writings of many of the Neoplatonists, for example Porphyry, Iamblichus, Plotinus, et al.. Following suggestions laid out by Gemistos Plethon, Ficino tried to synthesize Christianity and Platonism. Ficino's student Giovanni Pico della Mirandola also based his ideas chiefly on Plato, but Pico retained a deep respect for Aristotle. Although he was a product of the studia humanitatis, Pico was constitutionally an eclectic, and in some respects he represented a reaction against the exaggerations of pure humanism, defending what he believed to be the best of the medieval and Islamic commentators (see Averroes, Avicenna) on Aristotle in a famous long letter to Ermolao Barbaro in 1485. It was always Pico’s aim to reconcile the schools of Plato and Aristotle, since he believed they both used different words to express the same concepts. It was perhaps for this reason his friends called him "Princeps Concordiae, or "Prince of Harmony" (a pun on Prince of Concordia, one of his family’s holdings.) Similarly, Pico believed an educated person should also study the Hebrew and Talmudic sources, and the Hermetics, because he believed they represented the same view seen in the Old Testament, in different words, of God. The writings attributed to Hermes Trismegistus had played an important role in the Renaissance Neoplatonic revival.
# The Basics of Technical Communication

There are three important elements when writing professional and technical documents:

## Developing an Effective Style

It is important to consider the aspect of writing that uses a voice and creates a style in your writing. Also, it is necessary to construct sentences in a clear and concise manner. This section will discuss the six guidelines of how to create one's own voice and how to put together sentences in a well-ordered and reader-centered manner. Furthermore, this section will address seven ways how to best select words for your text.

#### Link

How to Develop Your Own Voice

## Revising and Editing Documents

This portion of basic technical communication will highlight seven main areas of interest. The first will talk about why it is vital for your success to revise and edit your writing. Next, it will explain the difference between revision and editing. This section will then posit seven questions to consider when it comes to revising and editing documents. Following this will include three key actions of what revising entails for the writer. You will then read how to check your draft using your draft checklist, which is also included in this portion, and then finish with a part that talks about how to reference using both the MLA and APA formatting.

#### Link

How to Revise and Edit Your Documents

## Documenting Your Sources

Finally, it is always pertinent to appropriately document your sources. This is 100% necessary to do every time you take something, like a quote or an idea that is not your own and place it in your writing. If you do not give credit to the actual author or creator, then you can be accused of plagiarism. You can read other reasons of the importance of doing this, how to choose to proper documentation, where to place citations in your text, as well as the basic guidelines for citing resources, using the MLA and APA styles as examples.

#### Link

How to Document Your Sources
# Problems in Mathematics/To be added

2 Exercise Suppose $f$ is infinitely differentiable. Suppose, furthermore, that for every $x$, there is $n$ such that $f^{(n)}(x)=0$. Then $f$ is a polynomial. (Hint: Baire's category theorem.)
Exercise $e$ and $\pi$ are irrational numbers. Moreover, $e$ is neither an algebraic number nor p-adic number, yet $e^{p}$ is a p-adic number for all p except for 2.
Exercise There exists a nonempty perfect subset of $\mathbf {R}$ that contains no rational numbers. (Hint: Use the proof that e is irrational.)
Exercise Construct a sequence $a_{n}$ of positive numbers such that $\sum _{n\geq 1}a_{n}$ converges, yet $\lim _{n\to \infty }{a_{n+1} \over a_{n}}$ does not exist.
Exercise Let $a_{n}$ be a sequence of positive numbers. If $\lim _{n\to \infty }n\left({a_{n} \over a_{n+1}}-1\right)>1$, then $\sum _{n=1}^{\infty }a_{n}$ converges.
Exercise Prove that a convex function is continuous (Recall that a function $f:(a,b)\rightarrow \mathbb {R}$ is a convex function if for all $x,y\in (a,b)$ and all $s,t\in [0,1]$ with $s+t=1$, $f(sx+ty)\leq sf(x)+tf(y)$)
Exercise Prove that every continuous function f which maps [0,1] into itself has at least one fixed point, that is $\exists p\in [0,1]$ such that $f(p)=p$ Proof: Let $g(x)=x-f(x)$. Then
Exercise Prove that the space of continuous functions on an interval has the cardinality of $\mathbb {R}$
Exercise Let $f:[a,b]\rightarrow \mathbb {R}$ be a monotone function, i.e. $\forall x,y\in [a,b];x\leq y\Rightarrow f(x)\leq f(y)$. Prove that $f$ has countably many points of discontinuity.
Exercise Suppose $f$ is defined on the set of positive real numbers and has the property: $f(xy)=f(x)+f(y)$. Then $f$ is unique and is a logarithm.