OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# History of Brazil/Indigenous peoples in Brazil

Historians claim that before Europeans arrived in America there were approximately 100 million Indians on the continent. In Brazilian territory alone, this number reached approximately 5 million natives.
These Brazilian Indians were divided into tribes, according to the linguistic trunk to which they belonged: Tupi-Guarani (coastal region), macro-jê or tapuias (Brazilian Highlands), Aruak and Caribbean or Karib (Amazon).
Currently, it is estimated that only 800 thousand Indians occupy Brazilian territory, mainly in indigenous reserves demarcated and protected by the government. There are about 305 indigenous ethnicities and 274 languages. However, many of them no longer live as they did before the arrival of the Portuguese. Contact with the white man caused many tribes to lose their cultural identity.

## The indigenous society at the time of the arrival of the Portuguese

The first contact between Indians and Portuguese in 1500 was very strange for both parties. The two cultures were very different and belonged to completely different worlds. We know a lot about the Indians who lived at that time, thanks to the Letter of Pero Vaz de Caminha (notary of the expedition of Pedro Álvares Cabral) and also to the documents left by the Jesuit priests.
The indigenous people who inhabited Brazil in 1500 lived from hunting, fishing and agriculture of corn, peanuts, beans, pumpkin, sweet potatoes and mainly cassava. This agriculture was practiced in a very rudimentary way, as they used the technique of coivara (clearing of forest and burned to clean the soil for planting).
The Indians domesticated small animals, such as wild pig and capybara. They did not know the horse, the ox and the chicken. In the Letter of Caminha it is reported that the Indians were astonished when they first came into contact with a chicken.
The indigenous tribes had a relationship based on social, political and religious rules. The contact between the tribes took place during times of wars, weddings, burial ceremonies and also when establishing alliances against a common enemy.
The Indians made objects using raw materials from nature. It is worth remembering that the Indian respects the environment a lot, removing only what is necessary for his survival. From this wood, they built canoes, bows and arrows and their dwellings (hollow). Straw was used to make baskets, mats, nets and other objects. Ceramics were also widely used to make pots, pans and household items in general. Animal feathers and skins were used to make clothes or ornaments for the tribes' ceremonies. Annatto was widely used to make body paintings.
# Numerical Differentiation

Objectives:
* explain the definitions of forward, backward, and center divided methods for numerical differentiation
* find approximate values of the first derivative of continuous functions
* reason about the accuracy of the numbers
* find approximate values of the first derivative of discrete functions (given at discrete data points)
Resources
* numpy
* Numerical Differentiation

## Forward Divided Difference Method

$f^{'}(x)={\frac {f(x+h)-f(x)}{h}}+O(h)$
The following code implements this method:

## Backward Divided Difference Method

$f^{'}(x)={\frac {f(x)-f(x-h)}{h}}+O(h)$
The following code implements this method:

## Center Divided Difference Method

$f^{'}(x)={\frac {f(x+h)-f(x-h)}{2h}}+O(h^{2})$
The following code implements this method:

## Second Derivative

$f^{''}(x)={\frac {f(x+h)-2f(x)+f(x-h)}{h^{2}}}+O(h^{2})$

## Taylor Series

Taylor series allows us to taylor expand a function into an infinite series. If the function is infinitely differentiable at number h, we can use the Taylor series to approximate the function. We can derive the backward, the forward, and the center divided difference methods using Taylor series, which also give the quantitative estimate of the error in the approximation.
$f(x+h)=f(x)+f^{'}(x)h+{\frac {f^{(2)}(x)}{2!}}h^{2}+{\frac {f^{(3)}(x)}{3!}}h^{3}+\cdots \quad$
For instance the $sin(x)$ function can be approximated by the truncated Taylor series:
$\sin \left(x\right)\approx x-{\frac {x^{3}}{3!}}+{\frac {x^{5}}{5!}}-{\frac {x^{7}}{7!}}\!$

## Effect of Step Size

The following is a program that calculates the first derivative of $e^{x}$ at x=0.5 from the center divided difference formula using different values of h. The result shows that the approximation becomes more accurate (more significant digits) as step size becomes smaller but the when the step size becomes too small the rounding off error become significant.
# Carbapenems

* Ertapenem

## Antipseudomonal Carbapenems

* Doripenem
* Imipenem
* Meropenem
# ID Board Review/Antimicrobial Therapy/Antibacterials/β-Lactams/Monobactams/Aztreonam

* Aztreonam has good gram-negative coverage
* It's often used for patients with beta-lactam allergies
** The one exception is ceftazidime, which has the same side chain, and can cause cross-reactivity
* It can also be used as an alternative to aminoglycosides, since aztreonam isn't ototoxic or nephrotoxic
* ↑ 10.1016/s0025-7125(16)30036-0
* ↑ 10.1016/s0025-7125(16)30036-0
# ID Board Review/Antimicrobial Therapy/Antibacterials/β-Lactams/Cephalosporins

Cephalosporins are a large and varied class of antibiotics that is conceptually split into five different "generations." As the generations progress, so do their gram-negative coverages.

## First Generation

The 1st generation has a fair amount of gram-positive coverage (including S. aureus) with very basic gram-negative coverage. This is why 1st generation cephalosporins are often used for surgical prophylaxis to prevent skin/surgical site infections.
* Cefazolin (Ancef)
* Cefalexin (Keflex)

# Second Generation

The 2nd generation has less gram-positive coverage than the 1st generation, but has better gram-negative coverage.
* Cefuroxime
* Cefoxitin

# Third Generation

The 3rd generation has more gram-negative coverage than the 2nd generation, but less gram-positive coverage. Ceftazidime stands out as the only 3rd generation cephalosporin with antipseudomonal coverage.
* Ceftriaxone (Rocephin)
* Cefdinir (Omnicef)
* Cefpodoxime (Vantin)
* Cefixime
* Cefotaxime
* Ceftazidime Antipseudomonal

# Fourth Generation

The 4th generation, while small, has good pseudomonal spp coverage (hence why many patients are started on a 4th generation cephalosporin, then de-escalated once pseudomonas is ruled out).
* Cefepime

# Fifth Generation

The 5th generation has the same gram-negative coverage as the 3rd and 4th generations, but has significantly better gram-positive coverage, including MSSA, MRSA and S. pneumoniae, and is considered to be a very broad-spectrum.
* Ceftaroline
* Ceftolozane-Tazobactam (Zerbaxa)
* Ceftobiprole-Avibactam (Avycaz)
# Antivirals (non-HIV)

See HIV Treatment Regimens for HAART
* For influenza
* For herpes simplex
* For cytomegalovirus
* For hepatitis C and respiratory syncytial virus (RSV)
* For hepatitis B
* Interferon alfa 2a and alfa 2b
* For hepatitis C
# ID Board Review/Bacterial Diseases

Bacterial diseases is the highest yield topic in the ABIM ID Certification Exam, accounting for 27% of the test. Test questions will focus on evaluating physicians' abilities to make diagnoses, ordering and interpreting tests, and selecting appropriate treatments. Each chapter will touch upon Etiology, Pathology, Clinical Presentation(s), Diagnostic Criteria, and Management/Treatment for each disease.

## Bacterial Infections Categorized by Syndromes/Locations

* Cardiovascular Infections
* Neurologic Infections
* Head and Neck Infections
* Respiratory Infections
* Gastrointestinal Infections
* Ophthalmologic Infections
* Genitourinary Infections
* Dermatologic Infections
* Musculoskeletal Infections

## Bacterial Infections Categorized by Histology and Species
### Gram-positive cocci (GPC)

* Staphylococcus aureus
* Streptococcus spp
* Enterococcus spp

### Gram-positive rods (GPR)

* Listeria spp
** Listeria monocytogenes
* Corynebacterium spp (Diphtheroids)
** Corynebacterium diphtheraie
* Bacillus spp
* Erysipelothrix spp
** Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae

### Gram-Negative cocci and coccobacilli, Aerobics

* Neisseria spp
** Neisseria gonorrheae
** Neisseria meningitidis
* Moraxella catarrhalis
* Haemophilus Spp

### Gram-negative Rods (GNR)
#### Glucose Fermenting and Oxidase Positive

* Pasteurella spp
* Vibrio Spp
* Aeromonas spp

#### Glucose Fermenting and Oxidase Negative

* Enterobacteriaceae
** Lactose non-fermenting
*** Salmonella spp
*** Shigella
*** Yersinia spp
** Lactose fermenting
*** Escherichia coli
*** Citrobacter spp
*** Klebsiella spp
*** Serratia spp

#### Glucose Non-Fermenting

* Pseudomonas spp
* Stenotrophomonas maltophilia
* Acinetobacter baumannii
* Burkholderia cepacia

#### No Growth on MacConkey Agar

* Bartonella henselae
* Bordetella spp
* Brucella
* Campylobacter spp
* Capnocytophaga spp
* Francisella spp
* Haemophilus spp
* Helicobacter spp
* Legionella spp
* Streptobacillus moniliformis

### Anaerobes

* Gram-positive cocci
* Gram-positive rods
** Clostridioides difficile
** Clostridium perfringens
* Gram-negative rods
** Klebsiella spp
** Bacteroides spp
** Prevotella spp

### Actinomycetes

* Nocardia
* Actinomyces

### Spirochetes

* Treponema spp
* Borrelia spp
* Leptospira

### Mycoplasma

* Mycoplasma pneumoniae
* Mycoplasma genitalium

### Chlamydia

* Chlamydia trachomatis
* Chlamydia pneumoniae
* Chlamydia psittaci

### Rickettsia

* Rickettsia conorii
* Rickettsia akari
* Rickettsia rickettsii
* Rickettsia prowazekii
* Rickettsia typhi
* Rickettsia parkeri
* Rickettsia africae
* Coxiella burnetii
* Orientia tutsugamushi

### Ehrlichia

* Ehrlichia chaffeensis
* Ehrlichia ewingii
* Anaplasma phagocytophilum

### Mycobacterium

* Mycobacterium tuberculosis (TB)
* Mycobacterium bovis
* Mycobacterium leprae (Leprosy)
* Non-TB Mycobacterium (NTM)

## Alternative Organizational Systems

* Encapsulated Organisms
* HACEK Organisms
* ↑ https://www.abim.org/Media/mucpauyz/infectious-disease.pdf
# Narrow Spectrum Penicillins
### β-Lactamase Sensitive (First Generation)

* Penicillin G (PenG)
* Penicillin V (PenV)

### β-Lactamase Resistant (Second Generation)

* Cloxacillin
* Oxacillin
* Nafcillin

# Extended Spectrum Penicillins
### Aminopenicillins (Third Generation)

* Amoxicillin
* Ampicillin

### Carboxypenicillins (Fourth Generation)

* Ticarcillin

### Ureidopenicillins (Fifth Generation)

* Piperacillin
# ID Board Review/Bacterial Diseases/Actinomycetes
## Actinomycetes Overview

* Gram positive branching rods

###### Aerobic Actinomycetes

* Nocardia

###### Anaerobic Actinomycetes

* Actinomyces
# Introduction to Software Engineering/Testing/Labs
## Labs
### Lab 1: XYZ (30 min)

Let us get started... x+y=6

### References
## Questions

* What is 1+1?
# Introduction to Software Engineering/Reengineering

The reengineering of software was described by Chikofsky and Cross in their 1990 paper, as "The examination and alteration of a system to reconstitute it in a new form". Less formally, reengineering is the modification of a software system that takes place after it has been reverse engineered, generally to add new functionality, or to correct errors.
This entire process is often erroneously referred to as reverse engineering; however, it is more accurate to say that reverse engineering is the initial examination of the system, and reengineering is the subsequent modification.
Re-engineering is mostly used in the context where a legacy system is involved. Software systems are evolving on high rate because there more research to make the better so therefore software system in most cases, legacy software needs to operate on a new computing platform. 'Re-engineering' is a set of activities that are carried out to re-structure a legacy system to a new system with better functionalities and conform to the hardware and software quality constraint.

## See also

* Code
* Rewrite (programming)
* Program transformation
* DMS Software Reengineering Toolkit

## References

* ↑ Chikofsky, E. and Cross, J., 1990. Reverse Engineering and Design Recovery: A Taxonomy. IEEE Software, 7(1):13-18.
* ↑ Asit Kumar Gahalaut et. al. / International Journal of Engineering Science andnology Vol. 2(06), 2010, 2296-2303
* Robert S.Arnold: "Software reengineering", IEEE Computer Society Press, 1993
* Object Management Group, Knowledge Discovery Metamodel (KDM) 1.0 specification, 2007

## External links

* The Program Transformation Wiki
* The Architecture-Driven Modernization website at OMG
* Re-Engineer SAP Implementation, with Developments, Configuration, Roles and DDIC
# Introduction to Software Engineering/Reengineering/Labs
## Labs
### Lab 1: XYZ (30 min)

Let us get started...

### References
## Questions

* What is 1+1?
# Internal Improvements of the State of Ohio/General Assembly Acts/Local Acts

This is a list of acts of a local nature of the General Assembly of Ohio with regard to internal improvements, sorted by year.
* Volume I (1802-1803)
* Volume II (1803-1804)
* Volume III (1804-1805)
* Volume IV (1805-1806)
* Volume V (1806-1807)
* Volume VI (1807-1808)
* Volume VII (1808-1809)
* Volume VIII (1809-1810)
* Volume IX (1810-1811)
* Volume X (1811-1812)
* Volume XI (1812-1813)
* Volume XII (1813-1814)
* Volume XIII (1814-1815)
* Volume XIV (1815-1816)
* Volume XV (1816-1817)
* Volume XVI (1817-1818)
* Volume XVII (1818-1819)
* Volume XVIII (1819-1820)
* Volume XIX (1820-1821)
* Volume XX (1821-1822)
* Volume XXI (1822-1823)
* Volume XXII (1823-1824)
* Volume XXIII (1824-1825)
* Volume XXIV (1825-1826)
* Volume XXV (1826-1827)
* Volume XXVI (1827-1828)
* Volume XXVII (1828-1829)
* Volume XXVIII (1829-1830)
* Volume XXIX (1830-1831)
* Volume XXX (1831-1832)
* Volume XXXI (1832-1833)
* Volume XXXII (1833-1834)
* Volume XXXIII (1834-1835)
* Volume XXXIV (1835-1836)
* Volume XXXV (1836-1837)
* Volume XXXVI (1837-1838)
* Volume XXXVII (1838-1839)
* Volume XXXIX (1840-1841)
* Volume XL (1841-1842)
* Volume XLI (1842-1843)
* Volume XLII (1843-1844)
* Volume XLIII (1844-1845)
* Volume XLIV (1845-1846)
* Volume XLV (1846-1847)
* Volume XLVI (1847-1848)
* Volume XLVII (1848-1849)
* Volume XLVIII (1849-1850)
* Volume XLIX (1850-1851)
# Investment

* Investment is the expenditure(E) on new capital equipment which will be used to produce final goods & services(g+s) in the future. It includes building construction, housing, etc.

## Factors Affecting Investment:

    The level of I is the most volatile component of AE, particularily because it is forward planning/focused.

### Determinants

The level of investment in the economy is determined by:
* (T) → Taxation
* (W) → World events
* (I) → Inflation
* (G) → Government policies
* (I) → Interest rates
* (S) → Stocks
* (P) → Past profits
* (E) → Expectations
* (C) → Competition
* think TWIGISPEC!
* Private sector investment comprises 10-20% of AE.
# Macroeconomics/Harrod-Johnson Diagram

In two-sector macroeconomic models, a Harrod-Johnson diagram is a way of visualizing the relationship between the output price ratios, the input price ratios, and the endowment ratio of the two goods. Often the goods are a consumption and investment good, and this diagram shows what will happen to the price ratio if the endowment changes. The diagram juxtaposes a graph which has input price ratios as its horizontal axis, endowment ratios as its positive vertical axis, and output price ratios as its negative vertical axis. This may seem unintuitive, but by doing this, it is easier to see the relationship between the output price ratios and the endowment. The diagram is named after economists, Roy F. Harrod and Harry G. Johnson.

## Derivation

If we let our good 1 be an investment good, governed by the equation $Y_{1}=F_{1}(K,L)\,$
and good 2 be a consumption good: $Y_{s}=F_{s}(K,L)\,$
To calculate rental and wage rates, we optimize a representative firm's profit function, giving $p_{1}D_{K}[F_{1}(K,L)]=r=p_{2}D_{K}[F_{2}(K,L)]\,$ for the rental rate of capital, r, and $p_{1}D_{L}[F_{1}(K,L)]=w=p_{2}D_{L}[F_{2}(K,L)]\,$ for the wage rate of labor, w.
so the input price ratio, $\omega$ is $\omega =w/r={\frac {p_{i}D_{L}[F_{i}(K,L)],p_{i}D_{K}[F_{i}(K,L)]}{\,}}$ for $i=\{1,2\}$ Normalizing this equation by letting $k_{i}=K_{i}/L_{i}$, and solving for $k_{i}$ gives us the formulas to be graphed in the first quadrant.
On the other hand, normalizing the equation $p_{1}D_{K}[F_{1}(K,L)]=p_{2}D_{K}[F_{2}(K,L)]\,$ (or $p_{1}D_{L}[F_{1}(K,L)]=p_{2}D_{L}[F_{2}(K,L)]\,$, which is presumably equivalent), and solving for the price ratio, $p_{1}/P_{2}$ gives the formula which is to be graphed in the fourth quadrant.
With these three functions graphed together, we can see our relationship.
# Macroeconomics/Macroeconomic Equilibrium
## Macroeconomic Equilibrium

Equilibrium is the situation where there is no tendency for change. The economy can be in equilibrium at any level of economic activity that is a high level (boom) or a low level (recession). Due to the size of many modern economies, equilibrium is a very temporary state, as changing variables affect the economy.
Macroeconomic Equilibrium can be shown through the C.F.M. using:
* S + T + M = I + G + X
Savings + taxation + imports = investment + government spending + exports
This can be understood as savings approximately equal to investment, government spending to taxation, and similarly imports to exports, at least over the long run. It means that, at equilibrium, injections into the income stream equal the leakages from the income stream.
* ∑E = ∑O = ∑Y
Total expenditure = total output = total income
It is easier to remember if you just think that they are really different ways of measuring the same thing, which is the flow of factors through the economy, which can be demonstrated with the CFM.
* Leakages = Injections
A change in the leakages and injections will cause a new equilibrium to be established where total income (∑Y), total output (∑O), and total expenditures (∑E) will again equate but at either a higher or lower level than the original equilibrium.
Leakages do not have to equal injections
e.g. imports constitute a leakage from the importing country's economy, but an injection to the exporting countries economy.
So looking at the world economy it is zero sum game, where Leakages = Injections, but looking at any one country's economy this need not be the case.
# Macroeconomics/Imports-Exports

To begin with, exports-important represents net exports or otherwise abbreviated as NX. If exports>imports then we have a trade surplus and therefore adds to the economies well-being (GDP). If Imports>Exports then we have a trade deficit. Since NX is exogenous to the variables in the keynesian cross, an increase or decrease in NX will be reflected by a parallel shift upwards (if we have a trade surplus) or parallel shift downwards (if we have a trade deficit).
# Macroeconomics/Introduction
## What is Economics?

Simply put, economics is the study of the allocation of scarce resources to satisfy competing ends. In general, this applies mainly to microeconomics. This is because in Macroeconomics, there are many situations where resources are not scarce.

## Microeconomics vs Macroeconomics

Microeconomics applies to small elements of an economy. This may be trade between two people, or trade between two countries. It usually focuses on a small basket of goods being traded between a small group of agents. On the other hand, Macroeconomics is the study of an entire economy. It looks at aggregate inputs and outputs with the goal to understand the flows of total consumption, employment rates, wages, prices and many other aggregate parts of an economy. In macroeconomics we look at both the long run and short run changes in the economy.
Microeconomics is the study of decisions that people and businesses make regarding the allocation of resources and prices of goods and services. This means also taking into account taxes and regulations created by governments. Microeconomics focuses on supply and demand and other forces that determine price levels for specific companies in specific industry sectors. For example, microeconomics would look at how a specific company could maximize its production and capacity so it could lower prices and better compete in its industry.
Macroeconomics, on the other hand, is the field of economics that studies the behavior of the economy as a whole and not just on specific companies, but entire industries and economies. This looks at economy-wide phenomena such as Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and how it is affected by changes in unemployment, national income, rate of growth, and price levels. For example, macroeconomics would look at how an increase/decrease in net exports would affect a nation's capital account or how GDP would be affected by unemployment rate.
While these two studies of economics appear to be different, they are actually interdependent and complement one another since there are many overlapping issues between the two fields. For example, increased inflation (macro effect) would cause the price of raw materials to increase for companies and in turn affect the end product's price charged to the public.
The bottom line is that microeconomics takes a bottoms-up approach to analyzing the economy while macroeconomics takes a top-down approach. Regardless, both micro- and macroeconomics provide fundamental tools for any finance professional and should be studied together in order to fully understand how companies operate and earn revenues and thus, how an entire economy is managed and sustained.

## Main Questions

The study of Macroeconomics looks to solve one broad question:
* What Causes Economic Growth?
In pursuit of solving this question, macro economists look at causes of business cycles, inflation, employment and many other aspects of the economy.

## Notes

* ↑ Quoted from Gary Becker
# Macroeconomics/Macroeconomic Variables
## Macroeconomic Variables

∑E = ∑O = ∑Y

### Autonomous

That element of a factor (variable) which is independent of the level of income. E.g. the level of consumption you need to survive even when you have no income.

### Induced

That element of a factor (variable) which is influenced by the level of Y. E.g. the level of income the government receives from tax (personal income). As the income level increases → so does government tax receipts.

### Example: Investment

Investment (I), is defined as the purchase of new capital goods which add to the stock of capital. Capital goods are those produced not to satisfy consumer wants directly but for increasing the level of production in the future. Capital consists of items such as factories, machinery and railways.
* Autonomous I. refers to that formation motivated by reasons independent of changes in consumer demand indicated through income. This I. is undertaken in 'expectation' of a profit to be derived in the future.
* Induced I. refers to that capital formation motivated by increased consumer demand or income.
* If the I. function is given by: I = 50 + 0.1Y, it means that autonomous I is 50 and is undertaken irrespective of the level of Y, and induced I. is 10% of the level of Y. If Y equalled 1000 then I. would be 150.