OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Models and Theories in Human-Computer Interaction/Coordination and Social Loafing

In my workplace we do not use a WikiBook, but we do use SharePoint in a similar manner as a document and knowledge repository contributed to, and maintained by, the entire team. In many ways it can prove a highly valuable tool. About a year ago I transitioned positions to the data warehouse team I now work for. Being able to read the documentation my new team had saved in its SharePoint helped me to get up to speed far more quickly, and without needing to take productivity time from other team members, then I would have been able to otherwise. I believe it also helped that documentation made for you SharePoint is often done with the express intent of transferring knowledge efficiently. When you have a face to face interaction, unless one of the individuals in the interaction has a script or plan they are following, you often jump back and forth when discussing a topic which can make it harder to get an overall picture than following a well thought out document meant to instruct you.
However, I also ran into some coordination problems with using computer mediated communication in this manner. I ran into some synchronization problems with teammates when I trusted that their documentation on processes, and source code for solutions, were up to date when they actually hadn’t been updated in quite some time. This caused me to waste time building on top of obsolete solutions, and taking steps that no longer reflected the actual production processes. I highly doubt that those same mistakes would have been made if my knowledge transfer had been done face to face with other team members instead of through reading documentation. The lack of face to face interaction with another person can also lead to misunderstandings that are far less likely when you can receive body language and tonal cues instead of having to rely on flat text.
Social loafing can also be a problem when maintaining collaborative documentation. I am lucky to work with a highly skilled, highly motivated group of people who I know all support each other. One aspect of our work where the majority of the team, including myself, tend to be far less motivated is in documenting our work. All of us would rather be solving a new problem, or working on a project, than documenting a process we have already created. One member of our team ends up doing a far disproportionate amount of the documentation for the rest of our team, not because he enjoys it, but because he knows it is important and that the rest of us are likely to let it slip. This is not ideal for many reasons. For starters, it is clearly unfair to him, and could lead to friction with other team members. It also means that someone other than the primary architect of a process is the one having to document it, which can lead to errors in the documentation that the primary individual would be far less likely to make.
# Pinyin/Festival

Search Pinyin festival

## Noun

* a festival is a day for celebrating something.
** jierrih shih qihngzhuh mooushih d rih'zi.
# Pinyin/Fetus

See also
# Pinyin/Fifth

See also
# Pinyin/Fig

See also
A fig is a pear-shaped fruit with many small seeds that comes from a fig tree.
Wúhuāguǒ shì wúhuāguǒshù shēngzhǎng de, yǒu hěnduō xìxiǎo zhǒngzǐ de, hǎoxiàng xuělí xíngzhuàng de guǒshí.
# Pinyin/Fighting

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# Pinyin/Fighter

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# Models and Theories in Human-Computer Interaction/WikiBooks as an Example of D.Cog

Distributed Cognition is a theory that says that cognition should be studied not only neurologically within a person’s brain or mental space, but also should consider person’s individual and social activities in his or her environment.
WikiBook is a collaborative portal where users can post information about their knowledge. This resource can be seen as a good example of Distributed Cognition Theory. Following are the key components involved in interaction between users and WikiBook:
* User should have some knowledge/opinion about the topic that he or she is going to share. This is cognition of the user.
* User should interact with technologies to type in and post the information he or she wants to share. Here we see how HCI and DCog theory are intertwining with each other when the user manipulates technological tools to perform a task.
* When information becomes visible to other users, they can modify it or add their own knowledge/opinion to the post. Now it is becoming Socially Distributed Cognition.
In this example we can see the interaction between humans, and interaction between humans and technologies (tools) which is the main idea of Distributed Cognition.
# Models and Theories in Human-Computer Interaction/Wikibooks and Action Theory, Subject and Object

Wikibooks is a good example of how collaboration of actions can create a cohesive knowledge of work. In regards to activity theory, Wikibook is an interaction between a person and the rest of the world. Activity theory could be considered relating the process of the subject, (the action) to that of the object (Wikibook).
Wikis encourage people to find their place in the conversation of a subject and create their contribution to that topic. According to Victor Kaptelinin, author of the book, Activity Theory in HCI: Fundamentals and Reflections, “Subjects’ interaction with the world is also structured; it is organized around the objects” (Kaptelinin 2009). Thus, the organization of Wikibooks supports the concept of activity theory. Those posting in Wikibook must first consider what category their topic best fits into before posting. This activity helps create an order in an otherwise chaotic absorption of information.
Wikis encourage interaction, however since Wikibook is open to anyone, this means that someone with little to no background on a topic can in turn contribute to a conversation about that topic. This may lead to knowledge that is not completely factual. This still fits with the concept of activity theory. Activity theorists would argue that the activity (factual or not) is still an expression of the object (and contributor).
To solve the problem of false information being published, Wikibook contributors need to remain owners of their posts thus giving the credit where credit is needed.
Kaptelinin, Victor (2014): Activity Theory. In: Soegaard, Mads and Dam, Rikke Friis (eds.). "The Encyclopedia of Human-Computer Interaction, 2nd Ed.". Aarhus, Denmark: The Interaction Design Foundation. Available online at https://www.interaction-design.org/encyclopedia/activity_theory.html
# Models and Theories in Human-Computer Interaction/Wiener’s Cybernetics Vs Artificial Intelligence

Cybernetics is a steering function that uses the concepts of communication, information, control and feedback to recognize how complex systems maintain, adapt and self-organize. It is a concept of exploring how the system processes action and reacts to that action by using its feedback. We are using the concept of Cybernetics in our life naturally without realizing it. The concept of cybernetics not only found in mechanical systems but also social and biological systems.
Weiner’s book “Cybernetics: or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine” explains how the information is used to provide effective control of everything around us. Weiner explains that the feedback principle is a key feature of life forms from the simplest plants to the most complex animals, which change their actions in response to their environment. Wiener’s vision of cybernetics changed the way everyone thought about computer technology and inspired research into the potential to extend human capabilities with interfaces to sophisticated electronics [1].
It widely misunderstood that the Artificial Intelligence and Cybernetics are to be the same thing. However, there are more differences between Artificial Intelligence and Cybernetics than similarities. Artificial Intelligence came from a desire to make computers smarter (brain as computers). The underlying feedback mechanism does not play a central role and it assumes that knowing the world is possible and necessary. However, Cybernetics is normally focuses on a class of controlled objects and it came from a desire to understand and build the systems to achieve its goal (goal-directed systems), that is, feedback mechanism used in order to synthesizing the controller to achieve its goal. It holds that it is only necessary and only possible to be coupled to the world sufficiently to achieve goals [2].
After reading this concept, I realized that I’m applying this concept in my current role without realizing it. Software development process and software testing process, together, establish a closed-loop feedback control system. After getting feedback from the software testing process, the software developer would modify the software to achieve its desire goal.
Citations
[1] William, Stewart. "Norbert Wiener Invents Cybernetics." 1996 - 2014, 7 Jan. 2000. Web. 19 June 2015. <http://www.livinginternet.com/i/ii_wiener.htm>.
[2] Pangaro, Paul. "Getting Started” Guide to Cybernetics." Getting Started” Guide to Cybernetics. Copyright @ Paul Pangaro, 2013. Web Accessed on 19 June 2015. <http://www.pangaro.com/definition-cybernetics.html>
# Models and Theories in Human-Computer Interaction/WikiBook Transparency Increases Accountability, Decreases Social Loafing
## WikiBook Transparency Increases Accountability, Decreases Social Loafing (Karen Darko)

Until this week’s reading, I was completely unaware that social science research had uncovered a phenomenon called social loafing. Now that I’m aware of it, the phenomenon completely intrigues me. In retrospect I realize that I have experienced social loafing (and in all honesty, have probably been a social loafer). But I have so often heard the maxim “groups accomplish more than individuals” that I brushed aside any thoughts of loafing on my part or on the part of my teammates. However, after reading Kraut’s “Applying Social Psychological Theory to the Problems of Group Work” (Carroll, 2003), I realize how wrong my assumptions have been. As Kraut points out, one key way to mitigate social loafing for computer-supported cooperative work (CSCW) is to make team members accountable. Mitigating social loafing is critical because it erodes individual motivation, which can result in synchronization problems (Carroll, 2003). One CSCW platform that can reduce social loafing is the WikiBook.
The intrinsic structure of WikiBooks and Wikis boosts accountability, thereby decreasing social loafing. These CSCW platforms require users to log in so that their contributions are identified; original writings, edits, and modifications to other’s writings are linked back to the user who made them. This identifiability deters social loafing because individuals are accountable and behavior is linked to them (Carroll, 2003). By building accountability mechanisms into CSCW platforms, designers can mitigate social loafing and help to maintain individual motivation.
Work Cited
Carroll, J. M. (2003). HCI Models, Theories, and Frameworks. San Francisco: Morgan Kaufmann Publishers.
# Models and Theories in Human-Computer Interaction/Wiener’s Cybernetics
### Cybernetics and Stochastic Systems (Danielle Washburn)

To understand the beginnings of cybernetics it is useful to look into the backgrounds of the innovators with these ideas. At this point a review of Norbert Wiener is necessary. According to the International Society for the Systems Sciences, it can learned that Wiener was finished with his doctorate work by the age of 18. He traveled the world going further into Philosophy, Logic, and Mathematics. While at MIT, it was his work on anti-aircraft devices in the 1940s that brought him toward the work of cybernetics. (1) "Two main ideas play a part in cybernetics: negative feedback with its stabilizing properties, and transmission of information, which helps to make a whole of the many parts of a complex system, whether living or not. The metaphor of the computer, with the role of Boolean logic, is also present in cybernetics. It is of interest to note that Wiener, remembering Leibniz's "calculus ratiocinator" and his construction, after Pascal, of a mechanical computer, considered him a patron saint of cybernetics, whereas Warren S. McCulloch favoured Descartes." (1)
Like modern Human Computer Interaction work, cybernetics was also derived in a multi-disciplinary fashion. Besides Weiner and his Philosophy, Logic and Mathematics background, cybernetics also needed the earlier material from Shannon's Information Theory and von Bertalanffy's General Systems Theory. (2) An important definition the International Society for the Systems Sciences gives is the following: "Cybernetics is the science of effective organization, of control and communication in animals and machines." (2) This means we need to be able to regulate input/output even if the unexpected happens. This requires a complex multifaceted system to keep the machine or biological system in a steady state. In human physiology this occurs with feedback loops, gates, etc.. (Knowledge derived from my biomedical engineering background) In many high schools across the country we learn that the United States government was set up with a system of checks and balances to keep the social system in a steady state while being able to adapt as the system evolves. Therefore, the concepts of cybernetics are not only found in mechanical systems but social and biological systems as well.
References: (1) ISSS. NORBERT WIENER (1894-1964). Robert Vallée Université Paris-Nord Sept. 2OO1. Accessed June 21st, 2014 from: http://www.isss.org/lumwiener.htm. (2) ISSS. Cybernetics and Stochastic Systems. Chris Lucas March 2004. Accessed June 20th, 2014 from: http://www.calresco.org/lucas/systems.htm.
# Models and Theories in Human-Computer Interaction/Wikimedia as a CSCW, and how its transparency influenced group performance
## Input – Diversity

The personnel of Wikimedia is definitely diversified, with inputs from everywhere and anytime. The diversity made aggregation. Furthermore, the input was made in a real-time manner, so the content has the flexibility of relentless evolution and expansion.

## McGrath's Task

More interestingly, taking McGrath’s model view, the Wikibook’s group-task seems a little bit different from conventional on/offline media. Before Wikimedia comes, the online-typed CSCW formats were mainly consisted of Q&A sessions, in a form of online forum or communities. Wikimedia builds the task more aggressively, not stopping problem-solving, it sets the task of “planning” a book. Carroll discussed in the book that groups perform better than single individuals under “planning” task. Thus, Wiki format works better for cooperation.

## Source of Origin - Transparency

Another interesting feature of Wikibook is that it completely separated communication into a book (output) and discussion (process). Also, even though it opens free editing without restriction, the source of origin clearly managed with history. I think the emphasis on transparency is very interesting; historically, online media has been notorious for being unanimous; this is completely opposite. I think this unusual transparency prevents “social loafing” at a certain point. Individual’s contribution or mass-ups are all tracked and opened to the public so that there’s no chance that the output being pooled with other group members. On the other hand, this transparency might deter the active participation with “social pressure”. The user might fear being aggressive on writing or editing content to avoid being silly when it turns out completely wrong information and the source of origin is apparent.
# Models and Theories in Human-Computer Interaction/Wiener’s Cybernetics: Life Through the Cybernetic Lens
#### Life Through the Cybernetic Lens (Eric Andren)

Due to similarity in functionality of all intelligent systems we can look at life through a Cybernetic lens. The world (physical world humans experience) is a complex web of intelligent systems being influenced by each other and directed by deterministic or probabilistic changes. Each of these systems has a desired “state” or goal it wishes to assume, steering itself in a direction to reach its desired state of existence. The analogy of steering is known as regulation. Each time one of these systems is interrupted it will counter these interruptions (whether singular or complex) by reacting in a manner that allows it to regain or maintain its desired state through correction.
The act of wanting, analyzing, understanding, and adapting to reach a goal can be explained through the Cybernetic Model. This is the model defining the method all intelligent systems use to steer, guide, and correct their existence to reach or maintain a desired state of being. It offers a meta view of the world we inhabit seen as complexity thinking or complexity systems. The Cybernetics model can be applied to a wide variety of systems including organic, inorganic, mechanical, biological, technological, and social systems making it a very powerful and comprehensive language to understand the world.
# Models and Theories in Human-Computer Interaction/WikiBook Contributors, Readers, and the Art of Conversation
## WikiBook Contributors, Readers, and the Art of Conversation (Daphne Mintz)

As a computer-supported cooperative work (CSCW), the WikiBook platform provides an easy-to-use workspace for multiple contributors to co-author an online book on any topic. In terms of Activity Theory, as described in HCI Models, Theories, and Frameworks, the platform supports division of labor and all levels of users can work in the space independently, simultaneously, and in the same areas without the imposition of following a sequence. (Carroll, 294) In regards to being transparent, the users can review each other’s work. While this fact is appealing in that it can aid in avoiding repetition or contradiction, it can create a feeling of awkwardness amongst the contributors. Norman (1980) points out that human behavior is key to forming relationships and that forming relationships is key to collaboration (Carroll, 292).
The WikiBook platform could help build relationships by modeling conversation patterns and identifying ways to capture the benefits of those patterns in the platform. For example, live human collaboration usually includes some form of introduction where we establish our level of expertise in a role or on a topic. This declaration of self is very helpful in establishing a comfort level in a work environment. As a contributor to a WikiBook, a user may feel less qualified than her peers to write on a given a topic. Being able to identify oneself as a novice or student by choosing a label or tag could possibly create a more comfortable atmosphere and encourage interaction. Subject matter experts would feel more welcome to advise or clarify on points if the contributor self-proclaimed being junior.
Another example of the benefits of face-to-face context is conversational tone. Like the spoken word, the written word has tone. In conversation, we can work out in real time if we are comfortable with a casual tone or prefer to be more formal when discussing particular topics. Think of all the experiences you’ve had where someone acted either overly formal or incredibly silly and the dynamics of the situation that eventually vetted out whichever was the awkward tone. A WikiBook author who prefers a formal tone may feel unwelcome to use the approach more comfortable to him.
Readers, on the other hand, may benefit tremendously from the variety of skill levels and writing styles. Ergo, the cultural need to be aligned, to fit in on behalf of the contributor, may interfere with the needs or desires of the other user-base (the reader). Activity theory recommends that the different users be part of the design process. As such, when modeling conversation patterns, the designers would want to address all combinations: contributor-to-contributor, contributor-to-reader, reader-to-reader.
References Carroll, J. M. (2003). HCI Models, Theories, and Frameworks. San Francisco: Morgan Kaufmann Publishers.
# Models and Theories in Human-Computer Interaction/WikiBooks and Social Interaction on the Web

WikiBooks is just one example of the numerous “wiki” sites that have popped up online. Regardless of the generic or specific focus, wikis are setup to be a collaborative, living collection of documents. Since all contributors can add, edit and delete, each entry becomes amalgamation of different users’ thoughts and knowledge. At best, wikis do encourage human-to-human interaction using said wiki to mediate the potential hurdles of culture and background with the end result being an extensive entry. The activity theory and wikis go hand in hand. Each wiki entry (the object) has been built and modified by numerous users (the subjects) whose thoughts, ideas and understandings of the topic are heavily influenced by every aspect of their backgrounds (the communities) - cultural, socioeconomic, educational and religious. It is understood that the inclusion ensures the conversation continues and the result will be well-rounded.
While wikis do encourage interaction, they also have some shortcomings. Unlike the redesign approach in the CPN2000 example described by Carroll (2003) which had specific people from a variety of specific backgrounds work together, there are few, if any, restrictions on contributors to wiki entries. While the up-side is that it ensures open collaboration, it also means that inaccurate ideas can be added and presented as fact. This laxness could end up deterring knowledgeable users from contributing or limit the scope of both contributors and consumers thereby failing to expand the conversation.
As long as the editors or “owners” of the wiki acknowledge the potential challenges, wikis are prime examples of web artifacts that embody social/group interaction online.
Carroll, J.M. (2003). HCI Models, Theories and Frameworks. San Francisco: Morgan-Kaufmann Publishers.
# Models and Theories in Human-Computer Interaction/Wiener's Cybernetics and an Ecological-Materialist Approach in Anthropology
### Wiener's Cybernetics and an Ecological-Materialist Approach in Anthropology

The science of cybernetics, the study of control and communication in complex systems, has a wide range of applications in numerous fields. Concerned with input, output, and feedback, cybernetics is flexible enough to be used in technological, biological and social studies.
In the field of anthropology, a particular local population would be one example of a complex social system. If the desired output was to make sure everyone was properly nourished, an appropriate amount of control over resources and production would be needed to maintain a predictable input. The example becomes even more complex when considering the environment is a non-human actor in the system.
If the input, or amount of food per person, changed due to reduced control, such as a poor growing season, overfishing an area, or increased population, the negative feedback of failing to nourish the group would loop back and necessitate a change to achieve homeostasis. Gathering more information, such as researching enhanced fishing methods or pest management, and improving control through implementing these researched topics at the input stage would hopefully afford better odds at achieving the desired output.
Through the lens of some anthropological theories, such as the ecological-materialist approach, the concept of cybernetics may help explain topics such as why certain technologies emerged within a population or why a group migrated. With the simple framework of input, output, and feedback, cybernetics will continue to be applicable in existing and emerging fields.
McGee, J., & Warms, R. (2012). Anthropological Theory: An Introduction History.