OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# A-level Physics (Advancing Physics)/Internal Resistance

Batteries, just like other components in an electric circuit, have a resistance. This resistance is known as internal resistance. This means that applying Ohm's law (V = IR) to circuits is more complex than simply feeding the correct values for V, I or R into the formula.
The existence of internal resistance is indicated by measuring the potential difference across a battery. This is always less than the EMF of the battery. This is because of the internal resistance of the battery. This idea gives us the following formula:
PD across battery = EMF of battery - voltage to be accounted for
Let us replace these values with letters to give the simpler formula:
V$_{external}$ = E - V$_{internal}$
Since V = IR:
V$_{external}$ = E - IR$_{internal}$
You may also need to use the following formula to work out the external potential difference, if you are not given it:
V$_{external}$ = IΣR$_{external}$
You should also remember the effects of using resistors in both series and parallel circuits.

## Questions

1. A 9V battery is short-circuited. The potential difference across the battery is found to be 8V, and the current is 5A. What is the internal resistance of the battery?
2. What is the EMF of the battery in the following circuit?
3. What is the internal resistance of the battery in the following circuit?
Worked Solutions
# A-level Physics (Advancing Physics)/Kinematics

Kinematics is the study of how objects move. One needs to understand a situation in which an object changes speed, accelerating or decelerating, and travelling a certain distance. There are four equations you need to be able to use which relate these quantities.

## Variables

Before we can understand the kinematic equations, we need to understand the variables involved. They are as follows:
* t is the length of the interval of time being considered, in seconds.
* v is the speed of the object at the end of the time interval, in ms$^{−1}$.
* u is the speed of the object at the beginning of the time interval, in ms$^{−1}$.
* a is the acceleration of the object during the time interval, in ms$^{−2}$. Has to be a constant.
* s is the displacement (distance traveled) of the object during the time interval, in meters.

## Equations

The four equations are as follows:
1. $v=u+at\,$
2. $s={\frac {u+v}{2}}t$
3. $s=ut+{\frac {at^{2}}{2}}$
4. $v^{2}=u^{2}+2as\,$

## Derivations

It is also useful to know where the above equations come from. We know that acceleration is equal to change in speed per. unit time, so:
$a={\frac {v-u}{t}}$ (*)
$at=v-u\,$
$v=u+at\,$ (1)
We also know that the average speed over the time interval is equal to displacement per. unit time, so:
${\frac {u+v}{2}}={\frac {s}{t}}$
$s={\frac {u+v}{2}}t$ (2)
If we substitute the value of v from equation 1 into equation 2, we get:
$s={\frac {u+(u+at)}{2}}t={\frac {2u+at}{2}}t=t(u+{\frac {at}{2}})=ut+{\frac {at^{2}}{2}}$ (3)
If we take the equation for acceleration (*), we can rearrange it to get:
$at=v-u\,$
$t={\frac {v-u}{a}}$
If we substitute this equation for t into equation 2, we obtain:
$s={\frac {u+v}{2}}{\frac {v-u}{a}}={\frac {(v+u)(v-u)}{2a}}={\frac {v^{2}-u^{2}}{2a}}$
$2as=v^{2}-u^{2}\,$
$v^{2}=u^{2}+2as\,$ (4)

## Questions

1. A person accelerates from a speed of 1 ms$^{−1}$ to 1.7 ms$^{−1}$ in 25 seconds. How far has he travelled in this time?
2. A car accelerates at a rate of 18 kmh$^{−2}$ to a speed of 60 kmh$^{−1}$, travelling 1 km in the process. How fast was the car travelling before it travelled this distance?
3. A goose in flight is travelling at 4 ms$^{−1}$. It accelerates at a rate of 1.5 ms$^{−2}$ for 7 seconds. What is its new speed?
4. How far does an aeroplane travel if it accelerates from 400 kmh$^{−1}$ at a rate of 40 kmh$^{−2}$ for 1 hour?
Worked Solutions
# A-level Physics (Advancing Physics)/Ideal Gases/Worked Solutions

1. I heat some argon from 250°K to 300°K. If the pressure of the gas at 250°K is 0.1 MPa, what is its pressure after heating?
The temperature has increased by 20%, so the pressure will also increase by 20% (using the pressure law). So, the new pressure is 0.1 MPa x 1.2 = 0.12 MPa.
2. The argon is in a 0.5m long cylindrical tank with radius 10 cm. What volume does it occupy?
$V=\pi r^{2}l=\pi \times 0.1^{2}\times 0.5=0.016{\mbox{ m}}^{3}$
3. The argon is then squeezed with a piston so that in only occupies 0.4m of the tank's length. What is its new pressure?
The volume occupied decreases by 20%, which is equivalent to multiplying by 0.8. So, by Boyle's Law, the pressure is multiplied by the reciprocal of 0.8 - 1.25. So, the pressure increases by 25% to 0.15 MPa.
4. What is its new temperature?
If we combine Charles' Law with the pressure law, we find that:
$T\propto pV$
Volume is multiplied by 0.8, but pressure is multiplied by 1.25, so there is no change in temperature - it remains at 300°K.
5. 25% of the argon is sucked out. What is its pressure now?
Using the amount law, if N decreases by 25%, the pressure must also decrease by 25% to 0.1125 MPa.
# A-level Physics (Advancing Physics)/Internal Resistance/Worked Solutions

1. A 9V battery is short-circuited. The potential difference across the battery is found to be 8V, and the current is 5A. What is the internal resistance of the battery?
8 = 9 - 5R$_{internal}$
5R$_{internal}$ = 1
R$_{internal}$ = 0.2Ω
2. What is the EMF of the battery in the following circuit?
$\sum R_{\mathrm {external} }=\left({\frac {1}{8+4}}+{\frac {1}{4}}\right)^{-1}=\left({\frac {1}{3}}\right)^{-1}=3{\mbox{ }}\Omega$
V$_{external}$ = 5 x 3 = 15 V
15 = E - (5 x 10)
E = 50 + 15 = 65 V
3. What is the internal resistance of the battery in the following circuit?
$\sum R_{\mathrm {external} }=\left({\frac {1}{2+4}}+{\frac {1}{3+6+1}}\right)^{-1}=\left({\frac {4}{15}}\right)^{-1}=3.75{\mbox{ }}\Omega$
V$_{external}$ = 7.5 x 3.75 = 28.125
Which actually makes this question impossible because the current is too high for the resistance supplied to the circuit.
# A-level Physics (Advancing Physics)/Kinematics/Worked Solutions

1. A person accelerates from a speed of 1 ms$^{−1}$ to 1.7 ms$^{−1}$ in 25 seconds. How far has he travelled in this time?
u = 1, v = 1.7, t = 25
$s={\frac {u+v}{2}}t={\frac {1+1.7}{2}}\times 25=1.35\times 25=33.75{\mbox{m}}$
2. A car accelerates at a rate of 18 kmh$^{−2}$ to a speed of 60 kmh$^{−1}$, travelling 1 km in the process. How fast was the car travelling before it travelled this distance?
a = 18, v = 60, s = 1
v$^2$ = u$^2$ + 2as
60$^2$ = u$^2$ + (2 x 18 x 1)
3600 = u$^2$ + 36
u$^2$ = 3564
u = 59.7kmh$^{−1}$ (to 3 significant figures)
3. A goose in flight is travelling at 4 ms$^{−1}$. It accelerates at a rate of 1.5 ms$^{−2}$ for 7 seconds. What is its new speed?
u = 4, a = 1.5, t = 7
v = u + at = 4 + (1.5 x 7) = 14.5 ms$^{−1}$
4. How far does an aeroplane travel if it accelerates from 400 kmh$^{−1}$ at a rate of 40 kmh$^{−2}$ for 1 hour?
u = 400, a = 40, t = 1
$s=ut+{\frac {at^{2}}{2}}=(400\times 1)+{\frac {40\times 1^{2}}{2}}=420{\mbox{km}}$
# A-level Physics (Advancing Physics)/Kinetic Theory

One formula which sums up a lot of the kinetic theory of an ideal gas is the following:
$pV={\frac {1}{3}}Nm{\bar {c^{2}}}$,
where p is the pressure of the gas, V is its volume, N is the number of molecules, m is the mass of each molecule, and ${\bar {c^{2}}}$ is the mean square speed of the molecules. If you knew the speeds of all the molecules, you could calculate the mean square speed by squaring each speed, and then taking the mean average of all the squared speeds.

## Derivation

This formula can be derived from first principles by modelling the gas as a lot of particles colliding. The particles have a momentum p = mc. If we put them in a box of volume V and length l, the change in momentum when they hit the side of the box is:
$\Delta p=m(c-(-c))=2mc$
Every time the particle travels the length of the box (l) and back (another l), it hits the wall, so:
$c={\frac {2l}{t}}$,
where t is the time between collisions. Therefore:
$t={\frac {2l}{c}}$
Each collision exerts a force on the wall. Force is the rate of change of momentum, so:
$F={\frac {\Delta p}{\Delta t}}={\frac {2mc}{\frac {2l}{c}}}={\frac {2mc^{2}}{2l}}={\frac {mc^{2}}{l}}$
However, we have got N particles all doing this, so the total force on the wall is given by:
$F={\frac {Nm{\bar {c^{2}}}}{l}}$
The molecules all have different velocities, so we have to taken an average - the mean square speed. This force is the force in all three dimensions. The force in only one dimension is therefore:
$F={\frac {Nm{\bar {c^{2}}}}{3l}}$
Pressure, by definition, is:
$p={\frac {F}{A}}={\frac {Nm{\bar {c^{2}}}}{3Al}}$
But area multiplied by length is volume, so:
$p={\frac {Nm{\bar {c^{2}}}}{3V}}$
Therefore:
$pV={\frac {1}{3}}Nm{\bar {c^{2}}}$

## Questions

1. Five molecules are moving at speeds of 1,5,6,8, and 36ms$^{−1}$. What is their mean square speed?
2. What is the mass of one molecule of N$_2$ (atomic mass 14, 1u = 1.66 x 10$^{−27}$kg)?
3. Atmospheric pressure is 101,325 Pa. If one mole of Nitrogen takes up 2.3 m$^3$ at about 10 °C, what is the mean square speed of the molecules in the air outside, assuming that the atmosphere is 100% nitrogen (in reality, it is only 78%)?
4. What is the average speed of a nitrogen molecule under the above conditions?
5. The particles in question 1 are duplicated 3000 times. If they have a completely unrealistic mass of 1g, what is their pressure when they are crammed into a cube with side length 0.5m?
Worked Solutions
# WordPerfect

Use the following functions of the word processing program:

## Mail Merge

Type and print a letter to at least five different people using the same text, but personalizing each letter with the addressee's name appearing at least three times.

## Save

Type <CTRL>-S, or use the File menu at the top left and select Save.

## Copy and Paste

Highlight the text you want to copy and then press <CTRL>-C to place a copy of the text in the paste buffer (or <CTRL>-X to place a copy in the paste buffer and delete it from where it is in the document. Then position the cursor to where you would like to paste the contents of the paste buffer and type <CTRL>-V.
# Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Vocational/ExteriorInteriorPaint

Paint is made for interior or exterior use, and they are made to have different characteristics.
| Interior paint characteristics | Exterior paint characteristics |
| Good scrubbing and stain resistance | Color retention/fade resistance |
| Ability to hide/cover (whatever is being painted over) | Flexible (expands or contracts with weather changes) |
| Spatter resistance | Mildew resistance |
| Easy touch up | Durability |
# Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Vocational/Forestry - Advanced

Forestry - Advanced :
| Vocational North American Division | Skill Level 3 |
| Vocational North American Division | Year of Introduction: 2009 |

## 1. Prerequisites: AY Tree Honor; Forestry Honor.

Instructions and tips for earning the Trees honor can be found in the Nature chapter.
Instructions and tips for earning the Forestry honor can be found in the Vocational chapter.

## References

* Silvics of North America, Agriculture Handbook 654 (under the publications tab)
* Forestry Suppliers, Inc., 205 West Rankin Street, Jackson, MS 39201 (800-647-5368)
# Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Vocational/Computer - Advanced

Like many honors, the requirements for Computer - Advanced differ from one division to the next. If your division is not listed below, use the General Conference version.
Computer - Advanced (General Conference) Computer - Advanced (North American Division)
# Microsoft Word

Use the following functions of the word processing program:

## Mail Merge

Type and print a letter to at least five different people using the same text, but personalizing each letter with the addressee's name appearing at least three times.
# OpenOffice

Use the following functions of the word processing program:

## Mail Merge

Type and print a letter to at least five different people using the same text, but personalizing each letter with the addressee's name appearing at least three times.
The best instructions for doing this can be found in the Help pages of OpenOffice itself. Knowing that the function is called "mail merge" is the key to finding the right help page.

## Right Justify

Using the mouse, highlight the text you wish to right justify. Then click on the Format tab and select "Paragraph." Then click on the "Alignment" tab, check the box labelled "Right," and click on "OK".

## Center Title

This operation is identical to the "Right Justify" operation, except that instead of checking the "Right" box, check the "Justify" and select "Center" from the pull down menu.

## Change margins and page length

Click on "Format" and select "Page." Then click on the "Page" tab. This will bring up a window that will allow you to set the margins (left, right, top, and bottom) as well as the page dimensions.

## Move paragraph

Using the mouse, highlight the paragraph. Then type <ctrl>X to delete the paragraph. Move the mouse cursor to the paragraph's new location and type <ctrl>V.

## Save

Type <ctrl>S or select Save (or Save As) from the File menu.

## Copy and Paste

This is almost exactly the same as moving a paragraph, the only difference being that once the paragraph is highlighted you press <ctrl>C instead of <ctrl>X. This will put the highlighted text in the paste buffer, but it will not delete it from the document. It can then be pasted into a different place by typing <ctrl>V.
# A Quick Introduction to Unix/exercises4

* Components
* Shells and subshells
* Directory Structure
* Changing Directories
* Listing Files and Directories
* Pathnames
* Files and Processes
* Wildcards
* Exercises 1
* Creating Directories
* Creating Files
* Special Directories
* Exercises 2
* Copying Files
* Moving Files
* Deleting Files
* Exercises 3
* Redirection
* Searching Text Files
* More grep examples
* Permissions on Files and Directories
* Editing Text
* Exercises 4
* My First Shell Script
* Job Control
* Links
* Environment Variables

## Task Seven

Using a text editor (or if you insist cat), create a file called list2 containing the following fruit: orange, plum, mango, grapefruit. Display the contents of list2.

## Task Eight

Using pipes, display all lines of list2 containing the letter 'p', and sort the result. Search the file science.txt for the word ‘science’, sort the output and store it in a file (make up your own name for the file)

## Task Nine

Use the editor Pico to create a text file and name it as you wish. Try changing access permissions on the file you have just created and on the directory archive Use ls -l to check that the permissions have changed.
# A Quick Introduction to Unix/exercises1

* Components
* Shells and subshells
* Directory Structure
* Changing Directories
* Listing Files and Directories
* Pathnames
* Files and Processes
* Wildcards
* Exercises 1
* Creating Directories
* Creating Files
* Special Directories
* Exercises 2
* Copying Files
* Moving Files
* Deleting Files
* Exercises 3
* Redirection
* Searching Text Files
* More grep examples
* Permissions on Files and Directories
* Editing Text
* Exercises 4
* My First Shell Script
* Job Control
* Links
* Environment Variables

## Task One

Change to the bash shell.

## Task Two

Use the command pwd. Write down the full path to your home directory.

## Task Three

Look at the image of an example filestructure tree here. Trace and write down the path from the root to the folder ccaastu

## Task Four

Change your current view to your home directory.
List all the files with the extension .bat.
How many files are there? ls -1 | wc -l
# A Quick Introduction to Unix/exercises2

* Components
* Shells and subshells
* Directory Structure
* Changing Directories
* Listing Files and Directories
* Pathnames
* Files and Processes
* Wildcards
* Exercises 1
* Creating Directories
* Creating Files
* Special Directories
* Exercises 2
* Copying Files
* Moving Files
* Deleting Files
* Exercises 3
* Redirection
* Searching Text Files
* More grep examples
* Permissions on Files and Directories
* Editing Text
* Exercises 4
* My First Shell Script
* Job Control
* Links
* Environment Variables

## Task One

Use the commands cd, ls and pwd to explore the file system. (Remember, if you get lost, type cd by itself or cd ~ to return to your home-directory).

## Task Two

Make a directory in your home directory called unixstuff. Make another directory inside the unixstuff directory called archive.
# A Reference Guide to Cases in the Ukrainian Language/Vocative case

The vocative case is used to address someone in Ukrainian.

## Nouns
### Masculine Nouns

| | Changes | Examples |
| Masculine names that end in -а | The ending changes to -о | Микола -> Миколо |
| Masculine nouns that end with a consonant or and о | Their endings change to -е | Степан -> Степане Пан Михайло -> Пане Михайле |
| Masculine nouns that end with -ко, -ик | Take the у ending | Марко -> Марку Петрик -> Петрику |
| Male patronymic names | Add у to the add | Ігор Михайлович -> Ігоре Михайловичу |
| Masculine nouns that end with ь or й | Change the ending to ю | Андрій -> Андрію дідусь -> дідусю |
| Masculine nouns that end with -ар | Add ю to the word | кухар -> кухарю |

### Feminine nouns

| | Changes | Examples |
| Feminine nouns that end in -а | The ending changes to -о | мама -> мамо Оксана -> Оксано |
| Feminine nouns that end with a consonant + я | Their ending changes to -ю | Галя -> Галю |
| Female last names | Don’t change | |
| Foreign female first names that don’t end with -а or -я | Don’t change | |

### Plural Nouns

Most plural nouns do not change in vocative case, so “Dear friends” would be «Дорогі друзі». The word пани, does change to панове, and «Пані та панове» is the equivalent of “ladies and gentlemen”.

### Exceptions

| Word in Nominative | Word in Vocative |
| Бог | Боже |
| дід | діду |
| друг | друже |
| пані | пані |
| син | сину |
| тато | тату |
| хлопець | хлопче |
| чоловік | чоловіче |
| пани | панове |
# A Researcher's Guide to Local History Terminology
## Table of Contents

* Introduction
* Researching local history
* Abecedary
* Bibliography
* Further reading
# Task Four

cd
# A Quick Introduction to Unix/exercises3

* Components
* Shells and subshells
* Directory Structure
* Changing Directories
* Listing Files and Directories
* Pathnames
* Files and Processes
* Wildcards
* Exercises 1
* Creating Directories
* Creating Files
* Special Directories
* Exercises 2
* Copying Files
* Moving Files
* Deleting Files
* Exercises 3
* Redirection
* Searching Text Files
* More grep examples
* Permissions on Files and Directories
* Editing Text
* Exercises 4
* My First Shell Script
* Job Control
* Links
* Environment Variables

## Task Two

Move to the directory ~/unixstuff. Create a backup of your science.txt file by copying it to a file called science.bak and moving it to the archive directory you created above.

## Task Three

Create a directory called tempstuff using mkdir. Copy science.txt to tempstuff. Remove the directory tempstuff. What happens? Can you explain why?
# A Reference Guide to Cases in the Ukrainian Language
## Table of Contents

* Nominative case
* Accusative case
* Genitive case
* Locative case
* Dative case
* Instrumental case
* Vocative case
# A Reference Guide to Cases in the Ukrainian Language/Locative case

The locative case is used to denote where something or someone is in Ukrainian.

## Nouns
### Singular nouns

| | Changes | Examples |
| Most words | Add -і to the ending of the nominative form. Any ь or vowel should be dropped from the end of the word | університет -> університеті |
| All nouns ending in -ка, and some nouns ending in -к | Replace the ending with -ці | зупинка -> зупинці урок -> уроці |
| All nouns ending in -га, and some nouns ending in -г or -го | Replace the ending with -зі | книга -> книзі |
| All nouns ending in -ха, and some nouns ending in -х or -хо | Replace the ending with -сі | капелюх -> капелюсі |
| Masculine nouns that end in -й | Change the ending to -ї | музей -> музеї |
| Feminine nouns that end in -їя or -ея | Change the final -я to -ї | лекція -> лекції |
| Masculine nouns that end in -ок | Change the ending to -ку | будинок -> будинку |
| Most Masculine nouns that end in -к | Add -у to the end | парк -> парку |
| Some neuter nouns that are clearly foreign borrowings | Do not change | таксі -> таксі інтервʼю —> інтервʼю |

### Plural nouns

| | Changes | Examples |
| Masculine nouns that end in a hard constant | Add -ах to the end of the word | гори (гір) -> горах |
| Masculine nouns that end in -й or -ь | Replace the ending with -ях | |
| Feminine nouns that end in -а | Replace the ending with -ах |
| Feminine nouns that end in -я | Replace the ending with -ях | лекції (лекція) -> лекціях |

### Exceptions

| Word in Nominative | Word in Vocative |
| сад | саду |
| рік | році |
| урок | уроку |
| аеропорт | аеропорту |
# Ada Programming/Libraries/System.Fat Gen

This generic package provides a target independent implementation of the floating-point attributes that denote functions. The implementations here are portable, but very slow. The runtime contains a set of instantiations of this package for all predefined floating-point types, and these should be replaced by efficient assembly language code where possible.
The runtime representation of universal integer for the purposes of this package is integer. The expander generates conversions for the actual type used. For functions returning universal integer, there is no problem, since the result always is in range of integer. For input arguments, the expander has to do some special casing to deal with the (very annoying!) cases of out of range values. If we used Long_Long_Integer to represent universal, then there would be no problem, but the resulting inefficiency would be annoying.
# Ada Programming/Libraries/System.Storage Pools

This language feature is available from Ada 95 on.
System.Storage_Pools is a unit of the Predefined Language Environment since Ada 95.

## See also
### Wikibook

* Ada Programming/Libraries/System

### External examples

* Search for examples of System.Storage_Pools in: Rosetta Code, GitHub (gists), any Alire crate or this Wikibook.
* Search for posts related to System.Storage_Pools in: Stack Overflow, comp.lang.ada or any Ada related page.

### Ada Reference Manual
#### Ada 95

* 13.11: Storage Management

#### Ada 2005

* 13.11: Storage Management

#### Ada 2012

* 13.11: Storage Management

### Open-Source Implementations

FSF GNAT
* Specification: s-stopoo.ads
* Body: s-stopoo.adb
drake
* Specification: s-stopoo.ads
* Body: s-stopoo.adb
# Ada Programming/Libraries/System.RPC

This language feature is available from Ada 95 on.
System.RPC is a unit of the Predefined Language Environment since Ada 95.

## See also
### Wikibook

* Ada Programming/Libraries/System

### External examples

* Search for examples of System.RPC in: Rosetta Code, GitHub (gists), any Alire crate or this Wikibook.
* Search for posts related to System.RPC in: Stack Overflow, comp.lang.ada or any Ada related page.

### Ada Reference Manual
#### Ada 95

* E.5: Partition Communication Subsystem

#### Ada 2005

* E.5: Partition Communication Subsystem

#### Ada 2012

* E.5: Partition Communication Subsystem

### Open-Source Implementations

FSF GNAT
* Specification: s-rpc.ads
* Body: s-rpc.adb
# Ada Programming/Libraries/System.Storage Elements

This language feature is available from Ada 95 on.
System.Storage_Elements is a unit of the Predefined Language Environment since Ada 95.

## See also
### Wikibook

* Ada Programming/Libraries/System

### External examples

* Search for examples of System.Storage_Elements in: Rosetta Code, GitHub (gists), any Alire crate or this Wikibook.
* Search for posts related to System.Storage_Elements in: Stack Overflow, comp.lang.ada or any Ada related page.

### Ada Reference Manual
#### Ada 95

* 13.7.1: The Package System.Storage_Elements

#### Ada 2005

* 13.7.1: The Package System.Storage_Elements

#### Ada 2012

* 13.7.1: The Package System.Storage_Elements

### Open-Source Implementations

FSF GNAT
* Specification: s-stoele.ads
* Body: s-stoele.adb
drake
* Specification: s-stoele.ads
* Body: s-stoele.adb