OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Introduction to Sociology

Sociology is the study of human social life. Human social life is complex and encompasses many facets of the human experience. Because of its complexity, the discipline of sociology has been subdivided over time into specialty areas. The first section of this book covers the foundations of sociology, including an introduction to the discipline, relevant study methodologies, and dominant theoretical perspectives. The remaining chapters focus on the different areas of study in sociology.

## Table of Contents

* A printable version of Introduction to Sociology is available.
* A PDF version is available. (info)
* The Foundations of Sociology
** Introduction
** Sociological Methods
** General Sociological Theory
* Social Life
** Society
** Culture
** Socialization
** Groups
** Demography
** Aging
** Deviance and Norms
* Social Inequality
** Stratification
** Race and Ethnicity
** Gender
* Social Institutions
** Economy
** Family
** Religion
** Health and Medicine
** Politics
* Social Change
** Collective Behavior
** Social Movements
** Sociological Practice
* Additional Information
** Being a Sociologist
** Sociological Videos
** Famous Sociologists

## Instructor Resources

* Noted Contributors
* Course Adoptions (if you adopt this text for your course, please make a note of it on this page)
Course Materials

## Future Chapters

* Human Rights
* Sexuality
* Education
* Organizational Behavior
* Technology, the Internet, and Virtual Worlds
* Human Ecology and the Environment
* Military
* Sociology of Sports
* Social psychology
* Media
* Social Structure
* Organizations
* Television
# Mario franchise strategy guide/Enemies/Manky Kong

Manky Kongs are one of the obstacles in the Donkey Kong Country game series. They are the only apes in the series that work for King K. Rool.

## Background

It is believed that the Manky Kongs were originally jealous of Donkey Kong's huge Banana Hoard and so they took off from DK Isles. It is unknown why they had teamed up with King K. Rool. Manky Kongs throw barrels (sometimes TNT barrels) at both DK and Diddy Kong every time they run into them, similar in fashion to the original Donkey Kong arcade game. Manky detests all Kongs, and attacks them on sight. However, their barrels are very weak and they can be defeated relatively easily.

## Strategy

Diddy can easily defeat Manky with his agile summersaults. He can also be defeated by Rambi the rhino, Winky the Frog, or sometime Enguarde the swordfish (by a GBA gameshark for the GBA version) in some stages. Manky Kongs have relatively limited intelligence and are not too difficult to injure. They are minor enemies, and nothing more than a diversion. To a skilled player, Manky Kongs are harmless.

## Kong Family Relations

It has been pointed out by fans that Manky bears a vague resemblance to Lanky Kong, from Donkey Kong 64, due to his name and color, though this seems unlikely. Such claims are unsupported and have not been confirmed by Rareware or Nintendo. It goes without saying that Manky Kong is no longer on good terms with any of the Kongs on DK Isles, and as such is not important in any plot lines. The manual for the SNES version of Donkey Kong Country describes them as "Kong reject orangutangs."
# Mario franchise strategy guide/Enemies/Magikoopa

A Magikoopa is an enemy creature from Nintendo's Mario series of video games and first appeared in Super Mario World for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System. It takes on the appearance of a Koopa Troopa dressed in a blue cap, blue robe, and spectacles, and uses its magic wand to fire magic at Mario. This magic can also change certain blocks into other enemies. Magikoopa also has the ability to teleport itself to another location after launching its attack, meaning a fast player is needed to defeat it. The most famous of the Magikoopas are Kamek and Kammy. Magikoopa is also a playable character in Mario Superstar Baseball.
# Mario franchise strategy guide/Enemies/Koopa Paratroopa

Koopa Paratroopas are a winged variant of Koopa with a red shell. They first appear in Super Mario Bros., and have also appeared in subsequent installments of the Super Mario series.
# Personal Finance/Housekeeping
## Diapers

    Use cloth diapers if at all possible. They are much cheaper and better for the environment.

## Sales, special offers and freebies

    Free stuff can be okay but one should watch for the reason why something is free. Some trash is truely another man's treasure but not always. There is a carrying cost to having stuff so one should see how much utility to cost they would get from cheap stuff.

## Garage sales

    Some used goods can be really good. Baby clothes should all be bought used as they'll be useless in a few months anyway. Electronics get upgraded so quickly that only the richest can keep up. Buy used computers at reputable stores and keep them until they break. Then "upgrade" to the next model. Computers should not cost more than 150-200 US$/year.

## Internet and technology

    Use e-mail rather than the phone to keep in touch with relatives and friends... Especially overseas ones. Use tools like Facebook and MSN to keep in touch with co-workers and associates reducing unnecessary meetings and trips for get togethers. Don't fool around with e-mail attachments and dirty sites that will infect your computer and require replacement. Get rid of your cell phone and only conduct your business online or face to face. This will increase professionalism and take out a lot of stress from your life. For personal uses you can have free software, many of them are as good or even better than the so called paid software-Linux/Openoffice.org/Firefox/Evolution are some of such solutions.

## Conserve

    Energy prices are increasing. Walk more. Use your bicycle to cut fuel costs. Use a fan instead of the air conditioning. Put on sweaters instead of turning up the heating or do some stomach crunches to warm up. Always turn off the lights when you leave a room. Get a library card instead of watching television.

## Reuse and recycle

    Old clothes can become rags. Milk containers can become cutting boards. Misprinted material can become fax paper.
# Personal Finance/Other
## Entertainment

    Try out cheaper entertainment. Instead of going out to a restaurant, why not a picnic? It'll be much cheaper and healthier. Only go to the movies on cheap night, at the cheap theater. Try renting movies instead or use NetFlix' service to rent unlimited DVDs for a fixed monthly price. You may not even need to buy cable! Bicycle rides are cheaper than drives. Home parties are better than going to the bar with your friends. Get in a habit of going to your local parks and being nice to people there. Be friends with your neighbors. Overcome social stigmas and stereotypes if you have to and meet people locally instead of going to bars and clubs and getting hung over the next day.

## Spirituality

    Try to go to a place of worship closest to your home. Ultimately, you should be attending somewhere within walking distance. If you can not get along with the people at the church across the street because of their race or culture or other personal differences and have to drive or bum of rides to somewhere half way across town just to worship, you have probably missed out the whole point of going to church. Do the things you enjoy, even if it means being alone or not going to church until you are ready. This will save a lot of money on alcohol, cigarettes comfort food or medical expenses in the long run.

## Share

    Carpool to work. Once you're done with your children's clothes, keep them and give them to a family member. Take any old children's clothes that are in good shape and still semi-fashionable that your relatives and friends have to offer. The same goes for strollers and baby seats.

## Re-gift

    Got a gift you don't need? Give it to someone else instead of throwing it away. If you don't have a friend available, take it to the front or in a visible area where one of the neighbors can pick it up. You might just make more friends.
# Persian Calendar

This book meant to collect data about Jalali/Persian Calendar, which is currently used by Iranian. I wish others help me to complete the historical information, but what I want to share is some functions about how to calculate the leap years of this calendar.

## Leap Years

The year was computed from the vernal w:equinox, which is take 365.24219 days (The actual value is 365.2422464 days). In order to evaluate the length of one year, Khayyam made a 2820-year cycle rule to find the leap years. Leap years have 366 days and others have 365 days. Here we explain the rule and write its algorithm. The 2820-year cycle is divided into 21 subcycles of 128 years each, and a 132-year subcycle at the end of each 2820-year cycle. A 128-year subcycle consists of a 29-year sub-subcycle, followed by 3 sub-subcycles of 33 years each. Finally, the 132-year subcycle consists of one sub-subcycle of 29 years, followed by two 33-year sub-subcycles and a final sub-subcycle of 37 years. The years are numbered within each cycle. Writing n for the number of a year within a cycle, this year is a leap year if n > 1 and n mod 4 = 1. This algorithm in python3 programming language is
where 38 represents the years separating the beginning of the 2820-year cycle from Hejira - the year of Mohammed's flight from Mecca to Medina, corresponding to 621-622 AD, which the Jalali panel of scientists chose as the first year of the Iranian calendar. As you can see this algorithm is too long and slow. To improve the calculation here is an extrapolation of above function
where a and b are two parameters, which are tuned. Another function that is so useful in programming is how to extrapolate the days that passed from the epoch (FARVARDIN 1, 1) to the first day of each year (FARVARDIN 1, year).
There is no limitation for these functions as long as Kayyam rules are correct. To become convinced anyone can use this test function.
* ↑ Kazimierz M. Borkowski, "The tropical year and solar calendar", The Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada 85/3 (June 1991) 121–130.
* ↑ http://www.ortelius.de/kalender/pers_en.php
* ↑ The repository for main functions. http://github.com/hadilq/persian-calendar-important-functions/blob/master/persianCalendar.py.
* ↑ http://www.aitotours.com/aboutiran/14/iranian-calendar/default.aspx
# Personal Finance/Assets
## Personal assets definition

Personal assets in simple terms can be described as things (at times virtual things like web-addresses, copyrights etc) that possess value. Additionally, an important feature of assets is that they generate personal income.

## Types of assets

Personal assets can be broken down into different classes:
* Cash
* Money Market
** Government money market
** Taxable money market
** Tax-free money market
* Bonds
** Government Bonds
** High-grade corporate bonds
** High Yield Bonds
** Global bonds
** Convertible bonds
* Stock
** Conservative domestic stocks
** Aggressive (growth) domestic stocks
** International stocks
** Emerging market stocks
** Small Cap Stocks
** Mid cap stocks
** Large cap stocks
* Real Estate
* Intellectual Property
* Commodities
** Gold
** Silver
# Personal Finance/Assets/Stock
## United States

The Stock Market building resembles the New York Public Library. On the entrance building the sign reads "New York Stock Exchange". This is the heart and soul of all of the United States' major financial institutions. It is today what Fort Knox was almost two hundred years ago - the place where billions of dollars of wealth changes hands daily. A symbol of capitalism in action.
The New York Stock Exchange has been the targeted by terrorism in the past. However, the physical destruction of the building would have little effect as the majority of the exchange trading is computerized with backup computers located in a different locations.
Most major American companies like Microsoft, IBM, Pfizer, Lockheed Martin, and Apple trade on the NYSE or NASDAQ. Foreign companies may be ADRs on the OTC Markets (e.g. Tencent). However, some are not traded, like Koch Industries. Anyone can own a piece of any corporation that is publicly traded by purchasing some shares and becoming a stock holder. A popular way is through a broker.

### How the Stock Market was founded

Let’s see how the stock market founded. Two hundred years ago in front of Trinity Church in Manhattan a few business men got together to exchange merchandise with each other. At that time the monetary system we know today did not exist. Paper money did not exist - gold and silver coins were used. These unknown businessmen made an agreement amongst themselves that promised a share of the value in ships transporting goods from abroad. This was the beginning of a new trade that eventually lead to the NYSE being born.
Years later during the American Revolution the United States Government needed money. In their effort to raise capital for the war, government bonds were invented. Our forefathers needed money to continue their cause so they asked people to lend money to the Government. The people were issued with a "bond" showing how much they had lent, which paid interest every year. After the term of the bond expired, usually thirty years, the Government repaid the money. These bonds are now known as Treasury Bonds and are sold throughout the world.
Then in 1792 twenty four businessmen gathered together and signed an agreement to do business among themselves. This included selling shares, or part of their companies, to each other. The modern New York Stock Exchange was born.
The industrial revolution brought more prosperity for Wall Street. Everyone was interested in having "a piece of the action". Not all the stocks being sold were of good and reliable companies, and the NYSE would not deal with them. So, these stocks were sold outside of the building - by the curb. At that time these kinds of deals were referred to as “curb treading" - eventually they would become the American Stock Exchange (AMEX).
Today NASDAQ, NYSE and AMEX have been combined. They are located at 60 Wall Street, New York City which is part of lower Manhattan. AMEX is now mostly gone because NYSE Euronext has acquired it.
# Persian/Websites
## Lessons

Modern Persian
* Iraj Bashiri's Persian For Beginners
* Virtual Persian
* Grammaire Iranien PDF Grammaire Iranien (in French)
Old Persian
* Iranian Studies at Harvard University

## Online Dictionaries

* Aryanpour's Persian-English and English-Persian online dictionary
* A comprehensive Persian-English dictionary Francis Steingass's dictionary online, includes a guide to pronunciation.

## Language Tools, Games and Software

* Persian verb conjugator

## Persian Media

* Persian Media
* BBC Persian
* Radio France International
* NHK Persian (Japan)

## Universities teaching Persian as a Foreign Language

Europe
* University of Manchester
* University of Cambridge
East Asia
* Peking University School of Foreign Languages北京大學外國語學院東方語言文化係 (in Chinese)
* Shanghai Foreign Languages Univeristy上海外國語大學 東方語學院 (in Chinese)
Middle East
America

## Language Exchange

* mylanguageexchange.com Find a Persian-speaking language exchange partner

## Foundations and Trusts

* Iranian Heritage Foundation UK
* British Institute of Persian Studies UK
* American Institue of Iranian Studies UK
* Institut für Iranistik Institute for Iranian Studies, Austria
* Contents • Introduction
* Persian Alphabet lessons: 1 ( ۱ ) • 2 ( ۲ ) • 3 ( ۳ ) • 4 ( ۴ )
* Elementary grammar: 5 ( ۵ ) • 6 ( ۶ ) • 7 ( ۷ ) • 8 ( ۸ ) • 9 ( ۹ )
* 10 ( ۱۰ ) • 11 ( ۱۱ ) • 12 ( ۱۲ ) • 13 ( ۱۳ ) • 14 ( ۱۴ ) • 15 ( ۱۵ )
* Intermediate: 16 ( ۱۶ ) • 17 ( ۱۷ ) • 18 ( ۱۸ ) • 19 ( ۱۹ ) • 20 ( ۲۰ )
* 21 ( ۲۱ ) • 22 ( ۲۲ ) • 23 ( ۲۳ ) • 24 ( ۲۴ ) • 25 ( ۲۵ ) • 26 ( ۲۶ )
* Advanced:
* Appendix: Alphabet • Glossary • Handwriting
# Personal Finance/Food
## Coupons

    Coupons are your friends. Clip them, collect them and use them. If possible, never buy a food item without coupons if it's not already on sale. Supermarkets often sell items at below-cost prices to attract customers. Buy those. Leave the high-margin stuff alone. Go to a number of stores to maximize the use of your coupons and notice how different stores make money on different items. Buy only the goods that are truly cheap.

## Eat vegan

    Eat foods like porridge grains and plant based foods. Meat, dairy and processed foods take more energy to digest and have the effect of making you hungrier, even though you've consumed more calories!

## Grow your food

    Try growing whatever comestibles will grow in your environment. Having a spice garden can be a cheap, low-maintenance way to save on spices. Compost and grow a fruit tree or a berry bush in your yard. This will make a big dent in your grocery bills and possibly attract more kids to play in the neighborhood which is a stress reducer.

## Eat healthy

    Learn to cook and eat fresh food and more raw food. Eating healthy is not expensive. The western and developed nations spend the most amount of money on food. Yet they are some of the most obese, malnourished and unhealthy people on the planet. If you're spending more than a couple of hundred dollars a month on groceries, there is something wrong with your eating habits. Volunteer at restaurants, learn about food and how it effects your nutrition. Understanding the role food plays in your life, might be the ultimate key to solving your money troubles and improving your health in the process as well.

## Shop locally

    Shop at your local grocers that you can reach by walking. Supermarkets usually have slightly lower prices, but the expense of driving forces you to buy large quantities which either interferes with your diet or wastes a lot of money on spoiled food. Smaller grocers have better quality because they can customize. The extra boost you get from carrying your groceries will keep you warm and healthier saving on heating and medical bills.

## Junk food

    Junk food is almost always overpriced. Try to cut down. Make your own junk-food such as 'smores or cakes and cookies.
# Personal Finance/Employment

Try to combine your work with your hobbies, so that you're doing what you like and can avoid the extra step. For example, if you like sports, try to get a job in construction which allows you to be physically active and avoid the gym fees. Similarly if you like food and cooking, get a job at a restaurant even volunteer, instead of spending your own time and money to cook at home.
Try to work close to home or even from home, use internet and technology to help you achieve this. E-mail and instant message your associates instead of spending time and money on faxes, pamphlets and cell phone bills.
Try to work in the closest establishment to your house. A higher pay might be enticing to put up with the traffic and travel time, but it's not worth it after taxes and travel cost cutting into your private time. The reality is that much like people, all businesses are the same. If someone was willing to pay you for your skill at one business, likely you will be able to implement your talent just as well anywhere else. Remember, time is money.
Don't switch jobs often or take another job simply because it has a little better pay. These days employers are spending a lot of effort to solicit the work force. Almost always it turn out too good to be true. The rule of thumbs is that if you don't know how your boss makes all the money, don't take the job. You will be saving your self a lot of headaches which will turn out to save you money and your health in the long term. Take a job that allows you to move to downtown where everything is within walking distance and sell your car.
# LMIs in Control/pages/Notion of Matrix Positivity
## Notation of Positivity

A symmetric matrix $A\in \mathbb {R} ^{n\times n}$ is defined to be:
positive semidefinite, $(A\geq 0)$, if $x^{T}Ax\geq 0$ for all $x\in \mathbb {R} ^{n},x\neq \mathbf {0}$.
positive definite, $(A>0)$, if $x^{T}Ax>0$ for all $x\in \mathbb {R} ^{n},x\neq \mathbf {0}$.
negative semidefinite, $(-A\geq 0)$.
negative definite, $(-A>0)$.
indefinite if $A$ is neither positive semidefinite nor negative semidefinite.

## Properties of Positive Matricies

* For any matrix $M$, $M^{T}M>0$.
* Positive definite matricies are invertible and the inverse is also positive definite.
* A positive definite matrix $A>0$ has a square root, $A^{1/2}>0$, such that $A^{1/2}A^{1/2}=A$.
* For a positive definite matrix $A>0$ and invertible $M$, $M^{T}AM>0$.
* If $A>0$ and $M>0$, then $A+M>0$.
* If $A>0$ then $\mu A>0$ for any scalar $\mu >0$.

## External Links

* LMI Methods in Optimal and Robust Control - A course on LMIs in Control by Matthew Peet.
* LMI Properties and Applications in Systems, Stability, and Control Theory - A List of LMIs by Ryan Caverly and James Forbes.
* LMIs in Systems and Control Theory - A downloadable book on LMIs by Stephen Boyd.
# LMIs in Control/pages/Mixed H2 HInf Optimal Observer

The goal of mixed $H_{2}-H\infty$-optimal state estimation is to design an observer that minimizes the $H_{2}$ norm of the closed-loop transfer matrix from $w_{1}$ to $z_{1}$, while ensuring that the $H\infty$ norm of the closed-loop transfer matrix from $w_{2}$ to $z_{2}$ is below a specified bound.

## The System

Consider the continuous-time generalized plant $P$ with state-space realization
    ${\begin{aligned}{\dot {x}}&=Ax+B_{1,1}w_{1}+B_{1,2}w_{2},\\y&=C_{2}x+D_{21,1}w_{1}+D_{21,1}w_{2}\\\end{aligned}}$
where it is assumed that $(A,C_{2})$ is detectable.

## The Data

The matrices needed as input are $A,B_{1},B_{2},C_{2},D_{21},D_{11}$.

## The Optimization Problem

The observer gain L is to be designed to minimize the $H_{2}$ norm of the closed-loop transfer matrix $T_{11}(s)$ from the exogenous input $w_{1}$ to the performance output $z_{1}$ while ensuring the $H\infty$ norm of the closed-loop transfer matrix $T_{22}(s)$ from the exogenous input $w_{2}$ to the performance output $z_{2}$ is less than $\gamma _{d}$, where
    ${\begin{aligned}T_{11}(s)=C_{1,1}(s1-(A-LC_{2}))^{-1}(B_{1,1}-LD_{21,1})\\T_{22}(s)=C_{1,2}(s1-(A-LC_{2}))^{-1}(B_{1,2}-LD_{21,2})+D_{11,22}\end{aligned}}$
is minimized. The form of the observer would be:
    ${\begin{aligned}{\dot {\hat {x}}}=A{\hat {x}}+L(y-{\hat {y}}),\\{\hat {y}}=C_{2}{\hat {x}}\\\end{aligned}}$
is to be designed, where $L\in \mathbb {R} ^{n_{x}\times n_{y}}$ is the observer gain.

## The LMI: $H_{\infty }$ Optimal Observer

The mixed $H_{2}-H\infty$-optimal observer gain is synthesized by solving for $P\in \mathbb {S} ^{n_{x}},G\in \mathbb {R} ^{n_{x}\times n_{y}}$, and $\nu \in \mathbb {R} _{>0}$ that minimize $\zeta (\nu )=\nu$ subject to $P>0,Z>0$,
       ${\begin{aligned}{\begin{bmatrix}PA+A^{T}P-GC_{2}-{C_{2}}^{T}G^{T}&&PB_{1}-GD_{21}\\\star &&-1\end{bmatrix}}<0\\{\begin{bmatrix}PA+A^{T}P-GC_{2}-{C_{2}}^{T}G^{T}&&PB_{1}-GD_{21}&&C_{1}\\\star &&-\gamma 1&&{D_{11}}^{T}\\\star &&\star &&-\gamma 1\end{bmatrix}}<0\\{\begin{bmatrix}P&&C{_{1,1}}^{T}\\\star &&Z\end{bmatrix}}>0\\trZ<\nu \end{aligned}}$

## Conclusion:

The mixed $H_{2}-H_{\infty }$ -optimal observer gain is recovered by $L=P^{-1}G$ , the $H_{2}$ norm of $T_{11}(s)$ is less than $\mu ={\sqrt {\nu }}$ and the $H_{\infty }$ norm of T(s) is less than $\gamma _{d}$.

## Implementation

Link to the MATLAB code designing $H_{2}-H\infty$- Optimal Observer
Code $H_{2}-H\infty$ Optimal Observer

## External Links

* LMI Methods in Optimal and Robust Control - A course on LMIs in Control by Matthew Peet.
* LMI Properties and Applications in Systems, Stability, and Control Theory - A List of LMIs by Ryan Caverly and James Forbes.
* LMIs in Systems and Control Theory - A downloadable book on LMIs by Stephen Boyd.

## Related LMIs

* $H_{2}$ Optimal observer
* $H\infty$ Optimal observer