OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Scouting/BSA/Coin Collecting Merit Badge

1. Understand how coins are made, and where the active U.S. Mint facilities are located.
2. Explain these collecting terms:
3. Explain the grading terms Uncirculated, Extremely Fine, Very Fine, Fine, Very Good, Good, and Poor. Show five different grade examples of the same coin type. Explain the term “proof” and why it is not a grade. Tell what encapsulated coins are.
4. Know three different ways to store a collection, and describe the benefits, drawbacks, and expenses of each method. Pick one to use when completing requirements.
5. Do the following:
6. Describe the 1999-2008 50 State Quarters Program. Collect and show your counselor five different quarters you have acquired from circulation.
7. Collect from circulation a set of currently circulating U.S. coins. Include one coin of each denomination (cent, nickel, dime, quarter, half-dollar, dollar). For each coin, locate the mint marks, if any, and the designer’s initials, if any.
8. Do the following:
9. Do ONE of the following:
10. Do ONE of the following:
* Earning Merit Badges in the Boy Scouts of America
* Indoor Hobbies and Arts and Crafts
* Art | Basketry | Bugling | Coin Collecting | Collections | Cooking | Dog Care | Fingerprinting | Genealogy | Indian Lore | Leatherwork | Model Design and Building | Moviemaking | Music | Painting | Pets | Photography | Pottery | Programming | Radio | Railroading | Reading | Sculpture | Stamp Collecting | Theater | Wood Carving | Woodwork
# US Tort Law/Overview

The Torts Casebook is intended to be a casebook treating the subject of Torts much as would happen in a US law school. It is based on a series of podcasts by Neil Wehneman, which he has been recording as he attends law school.
The class that Neil is taking follows the traditional North-American format of legal education, where the students are supposed to discover the principles of law gradually as they study one or more historical cases for each lecture. It is therefore important to take such a course as a whole, lest you end up with an outdated or simplistic view of the law.
The podcasts themselves are under Creative Commons, but Neil has given explicit permission for use of his materials in GFDL'ed Wikimedia projects.
To help write this textbook, you can follow a very simple procedure:
* Listen to an episode of Neil's torts podcast
* Create a chapter of the book containing
** A link to the podcast
** Links to relevant source materials
** Links to relevant Wikipedia articles
** A summary (or elaboration) of the episode's contents
# US Trademark Law/Types of protected mark

Trademark law protects marks. Marks can be words, names, symbols or devices. They come in several classes:

## Trademark

Strictly speaking, a trademark is a mark that distinguishes one person's goods from others'. In practice, the word "trademark" is often used to refer to any class of mark that is protected under trademark law.

## Service mark

A service mark is similar to a trademark, except that it is used to distinguish one person's services from others'. Service marks are registrable in the same manner as trademarks and are denoted by the ® symbol once they are registered on the Principal or Supplemental Registers. If they are not registered, they often carry an SM symbol.

## Trade name

A trade name is a mark used to identify a business, as opposed to a good or service. The Lanham Act does not allow trade names to be registered unless they also function as trademarks or service marks by identifying the source of a good or service. However, many states allow trade names to be registered and protected under state law.

## Certification mark

A certification mark is a mark used to certify a good in some way, regardless of its specific source. Seals of approval (e.g. the Good Housekeeping Seal of Approval) and marks of origin (e.g. Roquefort cheese) are examples of certification marks. A certification mark is held by an organization and is protected under trademark law so long as the holder establishes a standard for awarding the mark and polices that standard effectively.

## Collective mark

A collective mark is a mark held by a group for the use of its members. Examples include union stamps and franchise marks. Collective marks are treated like regular trademarks and service marks under the Lanham Act.

## Trade dress and product configuration

Trade dress refers to the distinctive packaging of a product. One example of trade dress is the decor of a restaurant chain. Trade dress is protected if it is inherently distinctive.
Product configuration refers to the distinctive design and shape of a product. The best-known example is the glass Coca-Cola bottle. A product configuration must have secondary meaning to be protected, regardless of whether it is inherently distinctive or not. Secondary meaning means that the appearance of the product should indicate its source to a consumer.
Both trade dress and product configuration can be registered as trademarks, but they are more often protected without registration as a "false designation of origin" under 15 U.S.C. § 1125(a). They pose special problems in trademark law because of their non-verbal nature. Words are easy to protect: more abstract designs are not.
# US Tort Law/Ordinary Person of Reasonable Prudence

Tortfeasors are generally judged by the "reasonable prudent person" standard. This is an objective person, not the individual in question. The RPP is judged based on an individual in like circumstances.
Here is my section from my Torts outline on this. It was the first outline I did, so it may not be great. I'll try to "clean it up" later, but if someone else wants to, feel free.
# US Trademark Law

* Trademarks are distinguishing devices used by businesses to distinguish their goods and services from those produced by others. They are a basic form of intellectual property. This book is about US Trademark Law, its history, development and current state.
* Contents
* Introduction
* Types of protected mark
* Trademarkability
* Infringement
* Remedies
# Uim
## About

This book documents the uim input method framework; installation, setup and usage.

## Introduction

Here you will find a description of uim and its design along with a comparison to a few alternatives. The page also lists a some related software.
| Installation Currently, this page only describes installation from source. For distribution specific instructions, please refer to your package manager's documentation. Setup Your system must be set up correctly to redirect keyboard input through respective bridges to uim. Furthermore uim must be told which input method to use, and you can optionally set up a toolbar. | Usage Basic usage. Keyboard control. Toolbar control of the active conversion engine and its various modes. Creating user defined dictionaries. Configuration Graphical tools Text files |
| Support FAQs Troubleshooting Mailing list Requesting features and reporting bugs Manuals ||

## Appendices

* Glossary
# US Tort Law/Wrongful Death

Disclaimer: This page is sourced from an actual law student. Neither he or the editors of this article are licensed attorneys. All information discussed herein is a work in progress and cannot be construed as legal advice.
In this chapter of the Torts Casebook we will discuss Wrongful Death

### Sources:

* Neil Wehneman's podcast on this topic:
* Neil Wehneman's notes on this topic (personal communication).

## Cases:
### Eleason v. Western Casualty & Surety Co. - Wisconsin Supreme Court 1948
#### Facts:

* The plaintiff was the executor of an estate that belonged to a man run down by a truck and killed
* The defendant was an insurance company
** at this point in time, Wisconsin allowed direct action against an insurance company
* Luer, driver of the truck, was driving the truck within the scope of his employment; respondeat superior would have kicked in through vicarious liability
* Within a few hours of the man's death, his wife died after finding out about the tragedy
* Luer knew that he had "spells" where he would lose consciousness
* It was illegal for someone with epilepsy to get a driver's license

#### Issues:

Is it negligence, specifically wrongful death action, for an individual who suffers from "spells" (even if he does not understand their reason) to drive?

#### Decision:

Yes, the reasonable person would be aware of the danger caused by these "spells".
The defense in turn justified the actions by saying they were "Acts of God"
Response by the Supreme Court Justice: "the term Act of God in its legal sense means such inevitable accident as cannot be prevented by human care, skill, or foresight."

## Wrongful Death Overview:

Wrongful death is one of the most significant torts, as far as damages go; it does not fall under the common law, it is a statutory tort.
Statutes
Under common law, you cannot recover from wrongful death. The theory is that you cannot be "made whole" if you are dead.
The statutes fixed this problem by assigning the rights to the heirs of the deceased. (Note: If the heirs are not determined by the will, the state has a means of finding your rightful heirs)
Damages
Due to tort reform the common law often puts a caps on tort damages. In Ohio, the constitution states that wrongul death damages cannot be capped, but a statute is in place that does not allow for punitive damages.
There is huge list of damages that can be included, ie consortium, companionship, education, etc...
Survival Action
This is a period after the negligent action by the plaintiff, but before the eventual wrongful death.
       This period of time involves medical expenses, lost wages, and mental and physical pain.
If you die immediately you cannot recover, and if you are unconscious you will only get medical expenses.
Unmarried, Long Term Couples
In general, unwed couples do not have the ability to recover from a wrongful death unless it is stated explicitly in the statute. However, they do have legal recourse if they are mentioned in the explicit will.
# Structural Biochemistry/Carbon Monoxide: A Stealthy Killer

Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colorless and ordorless gas. CO has a greater affinity for hemoglobin than oxygen and when it binds to hemoglobin it is called a carboxyhemoglobin, COHb. This can be fatal because not only does it lessen the amount of protein able to bind to oxygen, but it increases the affinity for oxygen dramatically. This is not necessarily good because even though it binds well with oxygen now, it will less likely want to release the oxygen into the tissue because it wants to be bound to the oxygen more. Therefore very little oxygen will be released into the tissue after it binds to the lungs. This leads to oxygen deprivation in the tissue that can become severe rapidly. This will eventually lead to the person’s death because of respiratory failure. In general death will occur if COHb levels are above 60%. To protect oneself from accidental exposure to high levels of carbon monoxide in the house, install a simple CO detector.

## The effects of COHb (Carboxyhemoglobin

1) If COHb levels are below 10% no effect
2) If COHb levels are at 15% the person may experience headaches
3) If COHb levels are between 20%-30% the headache is severe and the person may experience nausea, dizziness, confusion, disorientation, and visual disturbances
4) If COHb levels are between 30%-50% the neurological symptoms become more severe
5) If COHb nears 50% the person will lose consciousness and sink into coma and respiratory failure may follow.

## Sources of Carbon Monoxide

1) Engines
2) Household Furnace
3) Tobacco smoke
4) Byproducts of natural processes

## Reference

1. Nelson, David L., Michael M. Cox, and Albert L. Lehninger. "Carbon Monoxide: A Stealthy Killer." Lehninger: Principles of Biochemistry. New York: W. H. Freeman and, 2005. N. pag. Print.
# Structural Biochemistry/Carboxypeptidase

Carboxypeptidase is a pancreatic enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of the peptide bond at the carboxyl end of proteins and peptides, with a strong preference for amino acids with an aromatic or branched aliphatic side chain. The zinc ion is bound in a 5-coordinate site by two histidine nitrogens, both oxygens from a glutamic acid carboxyl group, and a water molecule. A pocket in the protein structure accommodates the side chain of the substrate. Evidence indicates that the negative carboxyl group of the substrate hydrogen bonds to an arginine on the enzyme while the zinc bonds to the oxygen of the peptide carbonyl. A Zn-OH or Zn-OH$_2$ combination seems to be the group that reacts with the carbonyl carbon, with assistance of a glutamic acid carboxyl group from the enzyme that assists in the transfer of H$^+$ from the bound water to the amino acid product. An artificial peptidase model compound has been made with a Cu(II) bound by four nitrogens in a chain that ends in a guanidinium ion, all attached to a cross-linked polystyrene. The catalytic activity is high for hydrolysis of amides with carboxyl groups attached, similar to a carboxypeptidase activity. The H$^+$ on the guanidinium group can hydrogen-bond to the carboxyl group, holding the substrate in position near the Cu, which is the active site.

## References

Gary L. Miessler, Donald A. Tarr, Inorganic Chemistry, Third Edition, 2004
# Structural Biochemistry/Carbohydrates/Sequencing Oligosaccharides using glycosidases

"Sequencing" an Oligosaccharide
Sequencing an Oligosaccharideinvolves identifying its structure. The most common method in doing so uses enzymes that cleave oligosaccharides at certain linkage points. The first step is to remove it from the protein it is attached to. From this point, the oligosaccharide can be isolated and the mass can be found using mass spectrometric techniques such as MALDI-TOF (Matrix Assisted Laser Desorption/Ionization Time-of-Flight). Unfortunately, since many possible oligosaccharide structures exist within a given mass. A better analysis can be obtained by further decomposing the oligosaccharide into smaller pieces using specific enzymes. The decomposition and analysis of the pieces of the oligosaccharide can be repeated as many times as possible or needed to find the structure of the oligosaccharide.
# Structural Biochemistry/Carbon-Phosphorus Bond
## Natural products with carbon-phosphorus bond

Phosphonic and phosphinic acid are similar to phosphate ester and anhydrides with instead of carbon oxygen bond have the C-P-C bond. They are stable and can withstand harsh chemical treatments.
The first naturally produced phosphonate compound was 2-aminoethylphosphonate (AEP). AEP was found in phosphonolipids. Phosphonolipids are present in many protozoa, plants, bacteria and even humans. It was found they are formed through ingestion and not made by the body. These phosphonolipids have a fatty acid chain and different phosphonate headgroups. Studies have shown that phosphonates can affect metabolism although the effects and causes are not well understood. The synthesis of AEP from phosphonoenolpyruvate (PEP) is the shortest known pathway to produce natural phosphonates. This pathway requires only three enzymes: PEP mutase, phosphonopyruvate decarboxylase, and AEP transaminase
Fosfomycin aka: (1R,2S)-Epoxypropylphosphonic acid It is used for the treatment of acute cystitis (urinary tract infections) and gastrointestinal infections. It has activity against methicillin- vancomycin-resistant organisms. Fosfomycin works by inhibiting the activation of necessary enzyme, UDP-N-acetylglucosamine- 3-O-enolpyruvyltransferase (MurA) is needed for catalyzing the first step of cell wall synthesis. This is done by alkylation of the active site cysteine.
Major Points
* Phosphonates and phosphinates have similar function to phosphate esters or anhydrides or carboxylate groups in enzyme substrates.
* Reactions involved in the biosynthesis of fosfomycin, phosphinothricin, and FR900098 is highly studied in this field
* Phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) mutase catalyzes the C-P bond-forming step in all naturally occurring phosphonates. Therefore, degenerate primers for PEPM can be used for the discovery of new phosphonate encoding gene clusters and hence new natural products.
* Given the current commercial use of phosphonates and phosphinates in medicine and agriculture, discovery of new naturally occurring compounds beyond the twenty or so currently known structures may provide an important untapped source of new products for human use.

## Reference

Metcalf, William W., and Wilfred A. Van Der Donk. "Biosynthesis of Phosphonic and Phosphinic Acid Natural Products." Annual Review of Biochemistry 78.1 (2009): 65-94.
# Carbon Nanomaterials

There are four types of carbon nanomaterial, graphene (a two dimensional sheet of benzene rings), carbon nanotube (a nanosize tube that can be imagined as a rolled-up graphene sheet), fullerenes (a zero dimensional ball), and dimondoid.
The properties of these materials are summarized in the table below.

## Graphene sheet

The figure shown below is a graphene sheet. It is made up by perfectly align benzene rings. The carbon to carbon bond length is approximately 1.41 angstrom, which is really small. There are rarely any impurities present in graphene sheet.
Graphene sheet is a perfect conductor. As can be seen from the figure below, graphene sheet has an idealized density of state. There is no gap between HOMO (highest occupied molecular orbital) and LUMO (lowest unoccupied molecular orbital) such that electrons can be promoted easily from HOMO to LUMO, thus, making it a perfect conductor. The unit hexagonal cell of graphene contains two carbon atoms and has an area of 0.052 nm^2. We can therefore calculate its density as being 0.77 mg/m^2. The strength of a 1 m^2 graphene sheet is incredibly high. 1 m^2 graphene sheet, weight less than 1 mg, can hold an object that is up to about 4 kg before it would break.

## Carbon nanotube

Carbon nanotube can be imagined as a “rolled-up” graphene sheet. Different orientation of rolling, or different chirality, determines the conductivity of the carbon nanotube. There are three types of carbon nanotubes, depending on the chirality, armchair tube, zigzag tube, and chiral tube.
(n,m) represent the unit vector of a graphene structure. The zigzag tube has unit vector of (n,0), the armchair tube has unit vector of (n,n), and the chiral tube has unit vector of (n,m)
The figure above illustrated how the chirality affects the conducting property of the carbon nanotube. If n – m = 3q, where q is an integer, then the tube is conducting Otherwise, the tube is semiconducting.
As can be seen from the figure above, Figure a represents the DOE of conducting, and Figure b represents the DOE of semiconducting carbon nanotube. In Figure a, there is clearly no gap in DOE, making it very easy to promote electrons from lower molecular orbital to higher molecular orbital, hence conducting electricity. However, in the case of semiconducting nanotube in Figure b, there is clearly a gap from approximately -1 to 1 unit energy, making it hard to promote electrons.

# References

Tao, Andrea. Lecture 7. University of California, San Diego, La Jolla. 14 Oct. 2010.
# Turkish/Verbs

All infinitives end either in -mak or -mek according to the vowel harmony (last vowel of the verb stem).
almak (to take, to buy) bulmak (to find) vermek (to give) gitmek (to go) öğrenmek (to learn) bilmek (to know) söylemek (to say) konuşmak (to talk) dinlemek (to listen) çalışmak (to study/to work) sevmek (to love) tanışmak (to get acquainted) yazmak (to write) okumak (to read) Turkish knows also the negative verb infinitives (not to do, not do learn, etc.). The stem contains the negative suffix -ma- or -me-. "-me" or "-ma" is used according to the vowel harmony (last vowel of the verb stem). If the last vowel of the noun is a back vowel (a, ı, o, u), the negative suffix -ma is used. if the last vowel of the noun is a front vowel (e, i, ö, ü), the negative suffix -me is used.
almamak (not to take, not to buy) bulmamak (not to find) vermemek (not to give) gitmemek (not to go) öğrenmemek (not to learn)
The negative stem (alma-, bulma-, etc.) is used for building negative forms of most tenses (past tense, simple present, future, ...).

## Personal Endings

Turkish verbs indicate person as Spanish verbs do. Thus, personal pronouns are not generally used in sentences as the verb of the sentence already indicates it. Please note that vowels in the suffixes change according to the vowel harmony, i.e. -im can be -ım or -sin can be -sın. Different suffixes are added to the verb to indicate person (letters in brackets are used only when necessary):
| Subject | Personal Ending |
| Ben (I) | -(i)m |
| Sen (You) | -(s)(i)n |
| O (He/she/it) | No suffix |
| Biz (We) | -k (only in seen past tense and conditional) or -(y)iz (in other tenses and moods) |
| Siz (You) | -(s)(i)niz |
| Onlar (They) | -ler |
# Turkish/Pronunciation and Alphabet/S-Z

Now that you've learnt everything up to and including r, let's learn the rest of the alphabet:

### S

| /s/ | Click for sound (help·info) |
Or se. Pronounced like the s in see.
For example:
* soğan - onion
* salam - salami (a Turkish delicacy)
* sel - flood, bruh

### Ş

| /ʃ/ | Click for sound (help·info) |
Or şe. Pronounced like the sh in shout.
For example:
* şey - thing
* şarap - wine
* şişe - bottle

### T

| /t/ | Click for sound (help·info) |
Or te. Pronounce like the t in tea.
For example:
* tabak - plate
* tavsiye - recommendation
* televizyon - television

### U

| /u/ | Click for sound (help·info) |
Pronounced like the ou in the French word boum.
For example:
* uçak - plane
* ucuz - cheap
* ufak - small

### Ü

| /y/ | Click for sound (help·info) |
Pronounced just like the German ü, or the u in the French expression, "j'ai perdu".
For example: It is pronounced the same as the "u" in pure.
* ürün - product
* üç - three
* üzüm - grape

### V

| /ʋ/ | Click for sound (help·info) |
Pronounced like the v in vase.
For example:
* Vikikitap - Wikibooks (Ws are transliterated as Vs in Turkish, therefore Wiki would be transliterated as Viki, and the word kitap means book)
* vazo - vase
* Venedik - Venice

### Y

| /j/ | Click for sound (help·info) |
Where's the w and x? Turkish also doesn't have these letters. Y is pronounced like the y in in you.
For example:
* yarın - tomorrow
* yarım - half
* yukarı - above

### Z

| /z/ | Click for sound (help·info) |
The final letter of the Turkish alphabet. Pronounced like the z in zoo.
For example:
* zeytin - olive
* zil - bell
* zehir - poison
So, you've managed to learn the alphabet! Well done! Before you move on to the real lessons, though, please take a look at a useful grammatical note by clicking "next" below.
# Turkish/Ways of enhancing your Turkish

Learning Turkish, as any other language, is a matter of intense contact, interest and practice of the spoken and written language. The Turkish media may become an endless source for practising and improving your Turkish, to explore the Turkish culture or other interests (history, politics, music, ...).
Below you find real examples from the Turkish television. These are only small bits, not always complete sentences.
The following examples may help you to learn and understand the Turkish used in the media. Please feel free to edit the content, reorganize it, add your words and sentences. Correction of spelling or translation errors is also welcome.
With your contribution this wikibook will, inşallah, grow over time.
* Turkish Satellite Television
* Turkish Music
* Turkish Movies
* Turkish on the internet
* Turkish newspapers & magazines
* University Courses Directory
* http://radiotime.com/genre/c_163/Turkish.aspx