OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# AQA Information and Communication Technology/ICT4/The Management of Change

The introduction of information systems will result in change. If this change is not managed, it is likely the IS will fail.
As a result of the 1996 OASIG study, it was discovered that
* 80-90% of IS's do not meet performance targets
* 80% are late or other budget
* 40% are never completed.
* Less than 40% fully address training and skills requirements
* Less than 25% properly integrate business and technology objectives
* 10-20% meet all their success criteria

## Issues which need management when a system is changed

* Skills of a workforce may not be needed under a new IS, meaning they need to be reskilled
** They will need to be retrained to use new skills, which may be of a higher order
** They will need to be retrained in the operational procedures, in additional to IT skills.
** They will need to understand the consequences of not using the new system correctly.
* Workforce attitude
** Most people are resistant to change
** The changes need to be completely explained
** Users should be involved in change from an early stage.
* Organisational structure
** Not only may the system change, but the organisation around it may need to update their working practices for the new system
** If responsibilites and delegations change, people may feel "left out" of the new system (middle managers may be disillusioned if their responsibilities are delegated lower down, etc.).

## Why people may react badly to change

* They fear redundancy
* They fear a reduction in status and job satisfaction
* Changes in organisational structure may result in a loss of promotion opportunities
* People feel their aims and ambitions are threatened
* People may fear that their proposals are criticising their past efforts
* General distrust of technology
* no one likes change especially old people

## How to successfully manage change

* Changing too much at once is a recipe for disaster.
* Encourage people who are affected by the change to participate in the change
* Ensure all your senior management are publically supportive of the change, and are repeatedly demonstrating this support
* Ensure everyone has had proper training on the change
* Make sure everyone knows why they're changing
* Share all information and plans to everyone as soon as possible
* Make sure that public information is not too technical for people to understand
* Make sure everyone participates and is properly consulted
* Divide the change into small steps to make sure people don't feel rushed into the change
* Minimise surprises
* Encourage motivation
* Minimise people who "lose" from the change.
# AQA Information and Communication Technology/ICT4/Project Management

A project is a set of activities with a defined goals that comes to an end at some point. That is, a project has finite length. A typical project team will comprise individuals with different skills and experience.
A projects will have one or more of the following characteristics:
* Specified objectives
* Specific budgets
* Specified schedule
* Temporary teams
Projects are lead by the project manager. The project manager does not need any technical skills as their role is to plan and manage the activities the technical specialists on the team must perform, not to perform this work themselves. However, it is normal for a project manager to have at least some background in the technical areas as this makes their job easier. The project manager plans the project, identifies and manages risks, issues and changes, assembles the team and ensures they are engaged on the right activities. The project manager monitors and controls project progress and reports the status to the sponsors of the project. The project manager sometimes controls budgets, prepares performance appraisals and acts as an intermediary between the users, the managers and the developers. In some cases the project team will have a line manager who is not the project manager - the project manager having only matrix responsibility for them. In these cases the project manager would not prepare performance appraisals.
The project manager assembles the development team and has to balance the size. Small teams have shorter lines of communication, are more agile and easier to manage. Larger teams can deliver more work at the cost of a higher management overhead and greater communication problems. These communication problems can lead to serious problems where different parts of the team are not fully synchronised.
The characteristics of a good team are:
* The leadership provides inspiration and motivation
* Tasks are allocated well (the best person for each job)
* Standards are set and observed (procedures, documentation, etc.)
* The costs, schedules and progression of the project are monitored and controlled.
The project plan should cover a task definition (what needs to be done), skill identification (who can do it) and training (who needs to be able to do what).
# AQA Information and Communication Technology/ICT5/Communication and IS

Originally, most large organisations had a mainframe with dumb terminals (simply front-ends to the mainframe; they did no work themselves) to use an IT system. Such systems are rare, although old-style ATM's are such an example.
Nowadays, people use distributed processing, where each terminal has its own processing power and does operations itself, rather than relying on a mainframe. Early computers tended to be stand-alone, with no communication.
Standalone computers require their own individual facilities (such as printers), and files on one can not be easily transferred to another system. However, they are more protected from external virii. Networked systems can take advantage of shared resources and easier communication and also tend to be easier to administer.
We covered networking comprehensively in ICT2. You need to know which kind of network to use for a specific application in ICT5.
When considering the Internet, you basically think of it as a series of LAN's which are connected together. Routers sit on the border of each LAN where the links are and announce to the world which IP addresses are on that LAN, and listen for other routers so it knows where to send data to.

## Distributed databases

When an organisation is spread out all over the world, it can be expensive to provide network access to a single central database, so databases are distributed.
With a distributed database, only the part of the database that is required for that area of the business is held. However, ensuring data integrity becomes important.

## Client/server databases

In the client/server model, a dedicated database machine runs the database server (typically the DBMS). The client machine connects to the server to perform queries and generate reports.
# AQA Information and Communication Technology/ICT5/Database Management Concepts

Early databases were flat-file, meaning they were small, had lots of duplicated data and could not relate data to each other. As a result of data duplication, data can be inconsistent in separate parts of the database. Flat-files also tended to be unique to a particular program, making data portability difficult.
A database management system (DBMS) was conceived to help alleviate these shortcomings. This model gives three properties:
* Entities - An area of interest about which the data may be held
* Attributes - Properties of entities
* Relationships - A link between entities There are different types of relationships:
** One-to-one - where an entity has a single link to another entity
** One-to-many - where an entity may link to many other entities
** Many-to-many - lots of one-to-ones
By using relationships, you can link data and have queries that will update linked data at the same time, saving time and increasing the accuracy of data. The Wikipedia has more information about DBMS's.
The role of a database administrator (DBA) is to manage and maintain the DBMS for most efficient usage. The DBA maintains access rights, relationships and updates the database of the design if need be.
Data normalisation is the process of increasing database efficiency by reducing duplication of records and producing the best possible database design. A normalised database is consistent and flexible.
Data consistency is ensuring that the data is consistent across all occurrences of it (this is made simple using relationships).
Data integrity is the quality of the data held in the database.
Data redundancy is where data is unnecessarily duplicated.
Data independence is where data should be independent of any other changes in the database.
# AQA Information and Communication Technology/ICT5/Networks

Local and wide area networks play an expanding role in today's business, with many companies dependent on their networks for communication.
# AQA Information and Communication Technology/ICT5

ICT5 is assessed by a 2 hour written paper consisting of a series of short, structured questions and a longer essay question, making up 15% of the total A-Level marks. The UMS for this paper is 90 marks.
ICT5 aims to cover the subject of "Information: Policy, Strategy and Systems" and has 10 topics.
    14.1 Policy and Strategy Issues
    14.2 Software
    14.3 Database Management Concepts
    14.4 Communication and IS
    14.5 Networks
    14.6 Human-Computer Interaction
    14.7 Human-Computer Interfaces
    14.8 Software Development
    14.9 Software Reliability
    14.10 Portability of Data
# AQA Information and Communication Technology/ICT5/Human-Computer Interaction

Human-Computer interaction is concerned with the design, evaluation and implementation of interactive computer systems, using Human-Computer interfaces in the safest and most healthy way.

## Ergonomics

Ergonomics are the designs and functionality of the environment. Applying this would be a study of the environment to see how improvement can be made more comfortable for the users.

### Measures to improve the ergonomics include

* Improved lighting
* Furniture better suited

### Why is this important?

* Could improve productivity
* Prevent RSI (Repetitive Strain Injury).
** With adjustable chairs and furniture in the right positions, could be prevented.
* Energy Efficiency
* Improve Job satisfaction (motivates)

## Psychological Factors

The understanding of how users receive, process and store information.
Information can be received by 4 main ways:
* Vision (seeing)
** Distinguishing colours can effect how a person reacts to a situation (Red means Warning or Danger). This shouldn't be relied on because of colour blindness.
* Hearing
** Most commonly sounds are used in warning messages - the Dong in Windows. This is standard and therefore the user knows straight away that it is a warning.
* Touch
** Human nature wants something to ensure a button has been pressed - buttons allow that pressure to be enforced.
* Movement
** The movement of small objects is understandably difficult.
# AQA Information and Communication Technology/ICT4/Organisational Structure

An organisation is a group of resources that join together to fulfil a purpose. For example, it may produce goods (as in a business), or provide a service to help people (such as a charity).

## Levels of management

Most organisations typically have a hierarchical structure, and different aspects of an ICT system are required to fulfil the different aspects of the hierarchy. A simple hierarchy may consist of:
* Senior management (strategical)
* Middle management (tactical)
* Workers/staff (operational)

### Senior management

Senior management are interested in strategies and objectives – setting goals to meet and timeframes to meet them - this is over a long time period - years. This means that the information they require must be broad, but doesn't have to be detailed.

### Middle management

Middle management prepares the tactics – the means in which to achieve these strategies - this is over a medium time period - months. This means they require information that is less broad than senior management, but is more detailed.

### Workers/staff

The workers perform the tasks assigned to them by middle management to fulfil the objectives of the organisation, and they communicate between themselves the operational data required to perform their task- this is over a short time period - days. The workers only require information that is very specific about their area of work, so lacks breadth, but is very detailed
# A-level Chemistry/AQA/Module 5/Thermodynamics
## The Fundamentals of Thermodynamics

* Temperature and the Zeroth Law
* Energy, Work, Heat and the First Law
* Thermal Machines and the Original Scope of Thermodynamics
* Entropy, the Second and the Third Law

## The Microcanonical Ensemble

* States of a Brick
* Second Law of Thermodynamics
* Microcanonical Ensemble
* Thermodynamic Temperature

## The Canonical Ensemble

* Two Bricks in Thermal Contact
* Partition Function
* Specific Heat
* Entropy and Heat Conduction

## The Grand Canonical Ensemble

* Chemical Potential
* Grand Canonical Wnsemble
* Fermi and Bose Statistics

## Critical Phenonomena

* Phase Transitions

## The Ideal Gas and Heat Engines

* Ideal Gas
* Slow and Fast Expansions
* Heat Engines
* Perpetual Motion Machines

## Further reading

* Engineering Thermodynamics
# A-level Chemistry/AQA/Module 4/Polymers

Polymers are very long chains formed by the combination of small molecules (monomers) - and have many varying uses in modern daily life. There are three main types of polymer that you need to be aware of - polyalkenes, polyesters and polyamides - and two main types of polymerisation reaction as described below:

## Addition Polymerisation

This is the simplest mechanism - whereby unsaturated monomers (i.e. alkenes) combine to form a much larger saturated polymer. The most famous examples of this process would probably be the production of poly(styrene) from phenylethene and poly(ethene) from ethene. Note that in each case it is the double bond that splits and bonds to the next molecule in the chain - so poly(stryene) has a central alkyl chain with phenyl side groups attached to it.
Addition polymers are non-biodegradable, and can produce toxic products in disposal - especially by burning, such as in the case of poly(chloroethene) [which is also referred to as "poly(vinylchloride)" or pvc]. However, they generally have very useful properties and so are ubiquitous despite their environmental impact.

## Condensation Polymerisation

This mechanism is so called because a small molecule such as water or hydrochloric acid is released with each addition to the chain.
For polyesters, the usual esterification mechanism is used - between acid and alcohol groups - but with each monomer molecule having a pair of the groups. Most often, a combination of dicarboxylic acids and diols is used, but sometimes monomers can be hydroxy dicarboxylic acids (i.e. with one of each group). Each end of the molecule bonds to one other - and so a chain is formed.
For polyamides, much the same mechanism occurs, but with a peptide link between monomers (i.e. CONH) with a nitrogen atom in place of the oxygen present in polyesters. The reactant groups are amines and carboxylic acids - and synthetic polyamides are mostly created from dicarboxylic acids and diamines a similar way to polyesters. However, you also need to be aware of natural polyamides - in biological systems, amino acids combine via peptide links to produce proteins. The only difference is that in nature amino acids are used whereas artificially dicarboxylic acids are combined with diamines.
Because of their ester or peptide bonding, condensation polymers are polar - therefore they often have very high melting points and can be extremely strong, depending on the regularity of their structure. Kevlar®, for example, is a polymer made from benzene-1,4-dicarboxylic acid and benzene-1,4-diamine (1,4-diaminobenzene).
Condensation polymers can be broken down by hydrolysis to recover the original monomers - which means that they are biodegradable and so easier than addition polymers to dispose of, but also are inappropriate for some uses involving long term regular exposure to water.
# A-level Chemistry/AQA/Module 4/Kinetics
## Order and rate equations

The reaction is investigated by running several series of experiments. In each series just one of the reactants is varied so that we may observe the effect on the rate of reaction. Here there are two reactants A and B. The units of rate are change of concentration divided by time (e.g. moles per litre by seconds). For any one reactant the change in the rate of the reaction is categorised as:
* Zero order
** Any increase in the concentration of the reactant has no effect on the rate of the reaction.
* First order
** The rate of reaction increases in direct proportion to the increased concentration of the reactant. This can be observed by comparing runs 1 and 2. The concentration of A remains constant whilst the concentration of B is doubled (x2). Consequently the rate of the reaction is doubled from 0.8 to 0.16. We would say that this reaction is first order with respect to B.
* Second order
** The rate of the reaction increases in proportion to the square of the concentration change. This can be observed by comparing runs 1 and 3. The concentration of B remains constant whilst the concentration of A is doubled. Consequently the rate of the reaction is quadrupled (x4) from 0.8 to 0.32. This reaction is second order with respect to A.
| Run | Initial concentration of A | Initial concentration of B | Initial rate |
| First | 0.01 | 0.02 | 0.08 |
| Second | 0.01 | 0.04 | 0.16 |
| Third | 0.02 | 0.02 | 0.32 |
It should be made clear that rates can only be determined by experiment.

### Constructing Rate Equations

Rate equations allow us to predict the rate of a reaction under different conditions. They take the form
Where
   * [A] is the concentration of reactant A (in moldm$^{-3}$) and a is the order of reaction with respect to A
   * [B] is the concentration of reactant B (in moldm$^{-3}$) and b is the order of reaction with respect to B
   * k is the Rate Constant. This depends on the reaction itself - how inherently fast it is - temperature, and any catalysts.
The rate equation can be rearranged in the normal manner to find any one of the required variables. At A level chemistry this is often finding k given data like above. The overall order of the reaction is the sum of the indexes a+b ..etc.

## Rate determining step

Mechanisms can have one step or a series of steps in which each step can have a different rate. The overall rate is decided be the step with the slowest rate known as the rate determining step.
# A-level Chemistry/AQA/Module 5/Thermodynamics/Heat Engines
## The Carnot Cycle

The Carnot Cycle is named after its discoverer,Sadi Carnot The Carnot Cycle is the most efficient heat engine that could be built. It converts heat energy from a heat source into work. Or if run in reverse, converts work into the movement of heat, i.e. a refrigerator. In a Carnot Cycle all Processes are reversible.

### Steps in a Carnot Cycle

* Isothermal Expansion at T$_1$ (The higher temperature). During this step work is done by heat being absorbed from a heat source.
* Adiabatic Expansion from T$_1$ to T$_2$. No heat enters or leaves the system during this step. Work is done on the surroundings in this step.
* Isothermal Compression at T$_2$. Heat flows into a heat sink during this step as the surroundings do work on the gas.
* Adiabatic Compression from T$_2$ to T$_1$. Here the surroundings again do work on the system, compressing the gas and raising its temperature.

### Efficiency of a Carnot Cycle

The Efficiency η is defined for heat engines as the amount of work done by the process divided by the Heat Input.
As energy must be conserved, the Work is equal to the heat in minus the heat out.
$W=q_{1}-q_{2}$
So the efficiency is equal to
$\eta ={\frac {q_{1}-q_{2}}{q_{1}}}$
This means that the efficiency of a Heat Engine Increases with higher heat source and with a cooler Heat Sink.
$\eta =1-{\frac {q_{2}}{q_{1}}}$
${\frac {q_{2}}{q_{1}}}={\frac {T_{2}}{T_{1}}}$
so finally
$\eta =1-{\frac {T_{2}}{T_{1}}}$
And as the heat in and out is proportional to the Temperature of the Source and Sink.

## Refrigeration and Coefficient of Performance

When a Carnot Cycle is run in reverse, it becomes a fridge, taking heat from the 'sink', and giving it to the 'source'. The coefficient of Performance is defined as
$C={\frac {q_{1}}{W}}$
$C={\frac {q_{1}}{q_{1}-q_{2}}}$

## Reversible Process'

A reversible process is one where the entropy of the system and surroundings doesn't increase.
# A-level Biology/Transport

Transport provides everything to do with the transport exam, i.e. transport systems in mammals and plants.

## Contents

* Mammalian Transport (May 31, 2008)
* Mammalian Heart (Jun 02, 2008)
* Multicellular Plants (Jun 02, 2008)
# A-level Chemistry/AQA/Module 1/Amount of Substance
## Relative Atomic Mass and Relative Molecular Mass

The isotope ${\ce {^{12}C}}$ is the standard for relative mass. A relative atomic mass of 1 is 1 twelfth of the mass of 1 atom of ${\ce {^{12}C}}$. Carbon is used due to its relative abundance in nature.

## The Mole and the Avogadro Constant (L)
### Avogadro Constant and The Mole

The Avogadro Constant is a quantity and is given the symbol L:
$L=6.023\times 10^{23}$
A mole of particles is L particles. I.e.
$1\ mole\ of\ particles=6.023\times 10^{23}\ particles$
The mass of 1 mole of particles of a substance with a relative atomic mass of 1, is precisely 1g. 1 mole of ${\ce {^{12}C}}$ (relative atomic mass 12) is 12g.

### Molarity

is a quantitative expression of the concentration of a solution.
Or more simply, it is the concentration when measured in moles per dm$^3$.
Sometimes you will see 'm' used as a short version of this. E.g. 5m acid means 5 moles per cubic decimeter. A capital M should not be used as that means meters so a small m should be used or mol to be clearer.

### Isotopes

Isotopes have different mass numbers but the same atomic numbers. They are particles with the same number of protons (same element) but with different number of neutrons. ${\ce {^{14}C}}$ is an isotope of ${\ce {^{12}C}}$ as they both have 6 protons but different number of neutrons.

## The Ideal Gas Equation

$pV=nRT$
p is the pressure of the gas in Pa (Nm$^{−2}$)
V is the volume of the gas in m$^3$
n is the number of moles
R is the gas constant (8.31 J K$^{−1}$ mol$^{−1}$)
T is the temperature in Kelvin (equivalent to degrees Celsius + 273)

## Empirical and Molecular Formulae

Definitions:
* Empirical formula: The simplest whole number ratio of atom types present in a molecule of a compound.
* Molecular formula: The actual number of atoms of each element present in a molecule of a compound.
To determine a molecular formula you need the given mass of the substance and the empirical formula mass. Divide the given mass by the empirical formula mass.
Multiply the given answer by the ratios in the empirical formula and you will have the molecular formula.
# A-level Chemistry
## Table of Contents

* OCR
* OCR (Salters) (April 13th, 2009)
* AQA (April 13th, 2009)
* Edexcel
* CCEA