OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Data Coding Theory/Forward Error Correction
## Forward Error Correction

If we are sending data through an unreliable communications channel, it is frequently a good idea to provide some mechanism to correct data that has been received in error. Incorporating redundancy into your packet, in order to detect and possibly correct errors in the data is known as forward error correction (FEC).

## Forms of FEC

There are many forms of FEC. Some of the most simple are repitition codes where the data is replicated and transmitted multiple times. If the information does not match between the repititions, the value that has been received most commonly is selected as the "correct" version.
More advanced forms of FEC are block codes and hamming codes. We will discuss all these things later.

## Parity

Parity is not strictly an FEC technique, but it's one that we will reference frequently. In a parity situation, an extra bit is appended to the data to detect simple errors. There are two types of parity: even and odd parity.

### Even parity

    Even parity counts the number of 1's in the data. If there is an odd number of 1's the parity bit is 1. Otherwise, the parity bit is 0.

### Odd parity

    Odd parity counts the number of 1's in the data. If there is an even number of 1's, the parity bit is 1. Otherwise it is zero.
Parity can detect when a single bit is in error, but it cannot determine which bit is wrong. Also, parity cannot detect errors in multiple bits. If two bits, 4 bits, or 6 bits are in error, the parity will indicate that the data is correct.

## FEC Limitations

Just as parity can only account for situations with up to 1 error, various FEC codes are designed for other situations. FEC codes can detect one number of errors, and can correct another number. For instance, a particular code could detect up to 3 errors, but only be able to correct up to 1 error.

## Further reading

* Serial Programming:Error Correction Methods
# Data Coding Theory

This book will study the use of coding in digital communications. This book will serve as an accompaniment to the Communication Systems book, which will discuss the underlying systems in more detail.
This book is newly created and needs help. Since this is a wiki, you can help edit it.

## Table of Contents

* Introduction

### Basics

* Information
* Transmission Codes
* Shannon capacity
* Modulo-2 Arithmetic
* Data Compression

### Error detection

* Error detection

### Forward Error Correction

* Forward Error Correction
** Repetition Codes
** Block Codes
** Hamming Codes
** Convolutional Turbo Codes
** Block Turbo Codes

### Cyclic Codes

* Cyclic Codes
* Bose Chaudhuri Hocqenghem Codes
* Reed-Solomon Codes

### Algebraic Geometric Codes

* Riemann Roch theorem
* Simple construction
* Error locators
* Majority voting

### Prefix Coding

* Prefix Coding
* Huffman Coding

### Convolutional Codes

* Convolutional Codes
* Encoding Trees
* Trellis
* State Diagrams
* Viterbi Algorithm

### Interleaving

* Interleaving
* Block Interleaving
* Convolutional Interleaving
* Repetitive Interleaving

### Spread-Spectrum Codes

* Spectrum Spreading
* Walsh-Hadamard Codes
* Maximal-Length Sequence
* Gold Code

## Resources and Licensing

* Resources
* Licensing
# Data Coding Theory/Modulo-2 Arithmetic
## Modulo

The modulo operation, commonly expressed as a "%" operator, is a useful operation in data coding. Modulo is the remainder of a division operation between two numbers. For instance, if we divide 10 by 3 and we don't calculate decimal points, we get:
    ${\frac {10}{3}}=3$
And the remainder would be:
    $10\%3=1$
In division, we typically have the equation:
    $s=n\times d+r$
Where s is our dividend, d is our divisor, n is our quotient, and r is the remainder. From this equation, we have two operations:
    $s\div d=n$
    $s\%d=r$
Notice from these equations that r must always be smaller than d.

## Modulo-2 Arithmetic

Modulo-2 arithmetic is an arithmetic system where every result is taken modulo-2. Here are some examples:
    $(10+5)_{\%2}=1$
    $(2\times 8)_{\%2}=0$
In short, the result of the operation is 1 if the result is odd, and 0 if the result is even. Since we are dealing with individual bits in our data coding, most of our operands will be a 1 or a 0. So long as our operands are 1 or 0, and our results are modulo 2, all the number we write should be 1 or 0.
A common application of modulo-2 arithmetic is in digital circuitry, where logic operations are all performed modulo-2.

## Modulo-2 operators

In our modulo-2 arithmetic system, we define new operators. These operators are frequently very similar to boolean logical operators, so we will discuss those here too.

### Add

    To add two numbers, we take the modulo-2 of the result. Here is a truth table for an add operation:
    +01 0 0 1 1 1 0
    If you are familiar with boolean logic, you will see that addition is identical to the xor operation. Because of this, we will use the terms "add" and "xor" interchangeably, and we will denote the modulo-2 addition operation with a "circle-plus":
       $1\oplus 1=0$

### Multiply

    Multiplication in modulo 2 happens normally, and no new operator needs to be defined. Here is the truth table for a multiplication operation:
    ×01 0 0 0 1 0 1
    This is exactly the same as the boolean "and" operation. We will use the words "multiplication" and "and" interchangeably.
Subtraction and division operations are rare in data coding, so we won't discuss them here.
# Development Cooperation Handbook/Goal 3: Promote gender equality and empower women

The 8 MDGs - index
Youtube ⇒ playlist
⇒ MDG 3: Promote gender equality and empower women

## Goal 3: Promote gender equality and empower women

Most women of the world obtain much less education and earn much less money than men. Women are much less represented than men at political and managerial levels.
The MDG 3 tackles gender inequality and promotes the empowerment of women.
Global data shows that the poorer the country, the higher the gender inequality.
In the world today, two out of every three illiterate persons are women.
Gender equality is a determining factor of development. What is needed is to create a virtuous circle of empowered women who generate stronger and healthier families which set the stage for more prosperous and just societies.

## MDG 3 - Targets

* Hard Facts
* Men continue to outnumber women in paid employment; however, the share of women in paid non-agricultural wage employment is increasing, having globally reached 41% in 2008;
* Gender gaps in access to education have narrowed but disparities remain high in university-level education in some developing regions;
* The share of women employed outside of agriculture remains as low as 20% in Southern Asia, Northern Africa and Western Asia, and 32% in sub-Saharan Africa.
* In 2008, there were 96 girls for every 100 boys enrolled in primary school, and 95 girls for every 100 boys in secondary school in developing regions.
* The share of women in parliament, on a global level, increased from 11% in 1995 to 19% in 2010;
* In 2009, the average share of women elected to parliament was 27% as compared to 14% in countries that did not apply quotas and other preferential measures

## See also

On YouTube ⇒ playlist
⇒ MDG 3: Promote gender equality and empower women
Development Cooperation Stories :
⇒ Village Business Incubator
⇒ Women as Entrepreneurs - Petifu Chain ⇒ Weaving Empowerment
⇒ SKILLS - Training Young Syrian Journalists ⇒ Fostering Social and Economic Empowerment among Women
# Development Cooperation Handbook/Goal 4: Reduce child mortality

The 8 MDGs - index
Youtube ⇒ playlist
⇒ Episode 4 - Reduce child mortality

## Goal 4: Reduce child mortality

Each year, millions of children die due to lack of hygiene and exclusion from health care services.
The number of children dying in the poorest countries is nearly 20 times higher than those dying in developed countries. In a world that has so many resources and means, allowing such massacre to take place is unacceptable.
The MDG 4 aims at lowering child mortality rates through expanding health care services and addressing determinants of child health.
In the world now, child mortality rates are falling but 22.6 million children still lack access to basic vaccines and an ever increasing number of poor children die before reaching their fifth birthday.
There are still countries like Sierra Leone where governments are unable to provide free primary health care and where the presence of international non-government medical organisations is indispensable for saving lives.

### MDG4 - Target

* Target: Reduce by two-thirds, between 1990 and 2015, the under-five mortality rate
* Under-five mortality rate
* Infant (under 1) mortality rate
* Proportion of 1-year-old children immunised against measles
* Hard Facts
* In 2007, the number of children dying before the age of five has fallen below 10 million per year;
* The highest rates of child mortality are in sub-Saharan Africa, where, in 2008, one in seven children died before their fifth birthday;
* Rates of exclusive breastfeeding of infants have significantly improved in 16 countries of sub-Saharan Africa over the past decade;
* Among 67 countries defined as having high child mortality rates, only 10 are currently on track to meet the MDG target;
* Almost one third of the 49 least developed countries have managed to reduce their underfive mortality rates by 40 per cent or more over the past 20 years.

## See also

Youtube ⇒ playlist
⇒ Episode 4 - Reduce child mortality
Development Cooperation Stories :
⇒ Emergency Surgical Hospital - Goderich - ⇒ playlist ⇒ A contagious joy transmitting health to children - The Ramakrishna Mission at Varanasi ⇒ Moving Hopes - Damascus - ⇒ playlist
# Development Cooperation Handbook/Goal 5: Improve maternal health

The 8 MDGs - index
Youtube ⇒ playlist
⇒ Episode 5 - Improve maternal health

## Goal 5: Improve maternal health

Each year, hundreds of thousands of women die of childbirth in developing regions. Women dying of childbirth in the poorest countries is 200 times higher than those dying in developed countries.
The MDG 5 aims at reducing maternal mortality rates through greater access to reproductive health care, reducing adolescent pregnancies and promoting the use of contraceptives.
The target set for this goal was to reduce annual maternal mortality by 75%. But due to insufficient funds for actions taken to achieve this goal, the current decline in the annual mortality rates is only around 31%.
The inability of some governments to provide free basic medical services not only impacts the health and mortality of its citizens but also their wealth since they have to spend much more on health.

### MDG 5 - Target

* Target: Reduce by three quarters, between 1990 and 2015, the Maternal maternal ratio
* Maternal mortality ratio
* Proportion of births attended by skilled health personnel
* Hard Facts
* More than half a million women die every year of complications during pregnancy or childbirth, 99% among these are in developing countries;
* Every year, more than 1 million children are left motherless;
* In sub-Saharan Africa, a woman’s maternal mortality risk is 1 in 22, as compared to 1 in 7,300 in developed regions;
* Percentage births attended by skilled health workers has increased from 53% in 1990 to 63% in 2008; While in Northern Africa, 74% women access these services, only 63% access in South-Eastern Asia;
* Official development assistance (ODA) for family planning has declined sharply from 8.2% in 2000 to 3.2% in 2008

## See also

Youtube ⇒ playlist
⇒ Episode 5 - Improve maternal health
Development Cooperation Stories :
    ⇒ Mothers Preparing Mothers - Susan and Cline Bays ⇒ playlist
    ⇒ Counselling Centres for Women - Damascus ⇒ playlist
    ⇒ Community at Work - Ciudad Bolivar - Jan Pablo II ⇒ playlist
Back to the ⇒Table of Content
# Development Cooperation Handbook/Goal 7: Ensure environmental sustainability

The 8 MDGs - index
MDG 7: Ensure environmental sustainability
Youtube ⇒ playlist
Episode 7 - Ensure environmental sustainability

## Goal 7: Ensure environmental sustainability

The depletion of the Earth's resources is higher than the rate of regenerating resources. This means that we have not chosen a sustainable path of economic development.
The MDG 7 acknowledges that development can be sustained only by environment conservation and recognizes the right of future generations to inherit an environment as preserved as the one that we are enjoying.
Although the rate of depletion of natural resources is decreasing, humanity is unable to protect plant and animal species at the risk of extinction.
South East Asia's contribution to green house gases increased by 82% in the past decade although per capita emissions remain the highest in the developed regions.
More than half the population of countries like Sierra Leone and Mozambique remain without access to safe drinking water.

### MDG 7 - Targets
## See also

On YouTube ⇒ MDG7 playlist
Issue 10 ⇒ Sharing knowledge and resources
Development Cooperation Stories :
⇒ Valuing Water On YouTube ⇒ playlist
⇒ Community Tourism - On YouTube ⇒ playlist
⇒ Unsustainable Growth - On YouTube ⇒ playlist
⇒ Green Hands - Coimbatore (7) - ⇒ playlist
# Development Cooperation Handbook/Good practices

A Good Practice is an action proven to effectively and efficiently produce expected results. In project management, “Good Practice” is a standardized and replicable method of performing an action that can be applied by departments/organizations, having analogous objectives, in order to achieve analogous results.
The word “practice” is strictly related to the word “theory”. Any action carried out as a result of a human choice contains:
and
See → Template for describing a Good Practice → Development Cooperation Stories

## Feedback

Please comment on the Talk Page if you'd like to provide feedback, criticism, correction, suggestions etc. regarding this wikibook or share any resource and tool that can be linked to it
# Development Cooperation Handbook/Guidelines//How to check the level of togetherness in a team

Development Cooperation in Action: steps and tools
To accomplish anything, a small group has to be able to work together. As in a well-tuned machine, or a championship sports team, each member has to function smoothly, with all the effort aimed at common goal. Four factors must be considered:
# Unit 3: Elementary Spanish

In this Unit, we will focus on the themes of personal experience and family tradition. :
Goals
Introduction to adverbs
Click here for the Warm Up Activity
In a previous lesson, we learned that illustrations give a plethora of information in fiction books. In non-fiction books, the picture can also give us hints about definition of words. Using the pictures, please identify what kind of animal is underlined in the story. :
* Next, we'll read through the Featured Story for this lesson: Los Animales de la Ciudad. This is a nonfiction story about city animals. Try to practice information from previous lessons and determine the tense of the verbs within the story and identify nouns.
* Featured Story: Los Animales de la Ciudad
In this section, we'll begin a more focused practice on the use of adverbs. Adverbs, or verb descriptors, typically follow a uniform formula for creating -ly adverbs based on the root.
Generally, to create -ly adjectives, you take the root word followed by -mente.
For example:
Adjective:
Adverb:
Example:
silenciosa [quiet]
silenciosamente [quietly]
El hombre camina silenciosamente en la biblioteca.
rapido [quick]
rapidamente [quickly]
La profesora habla rapidamente.
Adverb Activities
Activity 1 To get more familiarity with adverbs, use these flash cards.
Activity 2 Make a list of the adverbs in Activity 1 and use them to create original sentences of your own. :
# Elementary Spanish/Unit3 Sec2

In this section, we will continue to practice adverb formation and recognition.
Guided AdVerb Activities
Adverb Practice
Activity 1
In this activity, you will be prompted with stems from sentences of the story. Choose the correct ending for each sentence, by paying attention to which verb and adverb match best together.
Activity 2 Use this activity to practice distinguishing between different tenses and to use the adverbs referenced throughout the unit.
Dialogue: Listening for Adverbs
In this dialogue, you'll hear a conversation between a mother and daughter about weekend plans. Identify the verbs and their corresponding adverbs. :
# Elementary Spanish/Unit3 Sec3

In this section, we will provide activity prompts that draw on the adverbial grammatical concepts.
Production Activities
Activity 1: For this activity, use the adjective given and make a list of corresponding adverbs.
paciente
inteligente
lenta
rapido
activo
automático
fuerte
triste
silencio
sigilo
feroz
Activity 2: Story Creation In this section, create your own book on animals in Spanish. Make sure to include some adverbs to make your writing more interesting.
Read the featured story again to get ideas.
Featured Story: Los Animales de la Ciudad :
# Elementary Spanish/Unit2 Sec3

In this section, we will provide activity prompts that draw on the grammatical concepts we have worked on throughout the unit.
Production Activities
Activity 1: For this activity, use the prompt chart we creating in the first section of this unit. Expand these smaller phrases into larger concepts to create a full length story about your family's history and their arrival to the U.S. Re-read the original story for reference.
Featured Story: La Historia de Mi Familia
Activity 2: Dialogue Creation In this section, create a dialogue between two characters in your story, focusing on the use of the past tense. :
# Unit 4: Elementary Spanish

In this Unit, we will continue to work with adverbs in new forum through the conext of ecosystems. :
Goals
Continued Adverb Practice
Introduction to future tense
Click here for the Warm Up Activity
Warm up: The following book is a “How To” book that shows kids how to safely have fun in New York City public parks, while maintaining the safety of all living things around them. In six simple steps, kids will know how to enjoy the park while letting plants, animals and other people enjoy the park too.
While reading the book, sort the steps into three categories. Which steps are to ensure the safety of animals? Which steps are to ensure the safety of people? Which steps are to ensure the safety of plants? :
* Next, we'll read through the Featured Story for this lesson: The Ecosystem. This is a nonfiction story about city animals. Try to practice information from previous lessons and determine the tense of the verbs within the story and identify nouns.
* The Ecosystem
* Adverb Activities
* Activity 1 This activity practices different verb tenses covered in earlier lessons, as well as new vocabulary learned in this story.
* Activity 2 In order to get more familiar with the adverbs used in this story, try to identify the correct translations of the adverbial phrases within the story.
# Elementary Spanish/Unit4 Sec2

In this section, we will continue to work with adverbs and identity their different types.
Adverb Activities
Adverb Practice
Activity 1
In this activity, you will be prompted with stems from sentences of the story. Choose the correct ending for each sentence, by paying attention to which verb and adverb match best together.
Grammar Review: Part 4 Review this section for a more detailed explanation about adverbs and their different categories.
Dialogue: Listening for Adverbs
In this dialogue, you'll hear a conversation between a mother and a father discussing the actions of their son. Listen for adverbs and the introduction to future tense using 'voy a' - 'going to' :
# Elementary Spanish/Unit4 Sec3

Production Activities :
* Activity 1: How To Creation In New York City, kids like to go on play dates. They visit other kids homes to play. Every home has its own set of rules. Write your own HOW TO book, showing kids HOW TO have a safe and fun time in your home.
* Activity 2: After creating your set of rules, write a short description of the activities that will happen on your next play date.
* Read the featured story again to get ideas.
* Featured Story: The Ecosystem
# Elementary Spanish/Unit2 GrammarPastTense

Go Back to Unit 2!
Grammar Guided Practice: Verb Conjugations - Past Tense :
* Conjugations in the Past Tense occur in the same way as the present tense, but use different endings.
* Here, we will begin making short phrases by combining subjects and verbs in a single word.
* Past Tense Practice
* The general formula for creating verb conjugations is to replace the infinitive verb ending (-ar/-er/-ir) with the appropriate ending of the subject.
* Although there are three verb-ending categories, -er and -ir verbs tend to share most of the conjugation endings.

### Conjugated Verbs: Past Tense

| | Subject - Verb Ending Conjugations |
| In Spanish, verbs are conjugated depending on the subject they are associated with, as well as the tense. Now, we will transfer our knowledge about verb endings in relation to subject pronouns and relate it to new past tense endings. Each subject pronoun is associated with a particular verb-ending type, that is different in the past tense. | Persona Verb ends in: Español Inglés Yo : I -é / í Tú : You -aste / -iste Él : He -ó / ío Ella: She -o / -ío Nosotros: We -amos / -imos Ellos / Ellas: They -aron / -ieron Regular Verbs: Past Tense These tables show how verbs change based on the subject pronouns used in the sentence. The ending of the verb is typically dropped, and the corresponding subject pronoun ending is added. |
-Ar Verbs Table
-AR Verbs
Subject Pronoun
Verb Ending
Infinitive Verb
Conjugated Verb
Example - Spanish
Example - Translation
Yo
-o
hablar
hablé'
Ayer, hablé con mi mama.
Yesterday, I talked with my mother.
Tú
-aste
mirar
miraste
Anoche, miraste la película.
Last night, you watched the movie.
Él
-ó
recordar
recordó
Él recordó estudiar ayer.
He remembered to study yesterday.
Ella
-ó
comprar
compró'
Ella compró harina del marcado ayer.
She bought flour from the store yesterday.
Nosotros
-amos
limpiar
limpiamos
Limpiamos la cocina.
We clean the kitchen.
Ellos / Ellas
-aron
regresar
regresaron
Ellos regresaron a las once anoche.
They returned at 11 last night.
ER/IR Verbs Table
-ER / -IR Verbs
Subject Pronoun
Verb Ending
Infinitive Verb
Conjugated Verb
Example - Spanish
Example - Translation
Yo
-é / í
conocer
conocí
Yo conocí este ciudad cuando viví aquí, pero ahora no la recuerdo.
I knew this city when I lived here, but now I don't remember it.
Tú
-iste
caer
caíste
Caíste de su bicicleta.
You fell from your bike.
Él
-ó / ío
vivir
vivió
Él vivió en Buenos Aires por tres años.
He lived in Buenos Aires for three years.
Ella
-ó / ío
leer
leyo
Ella ya leyo este libro.
She already read this book.
Nosotros
-imos / -emos
comer
comemos
Comemos juntos a la fiesta del Día de Independenia.
We eat together at the Independence Day party.
Ellos
-ieron
comer
comieron
Ellos comieron pizza ayer.
They ate pizza yesterday. :
Go Back to Unit 2!