OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Principles of Finance/Section 1/Chapter 1/The Basics/Role

Finance manager normally has following functions or areas of responsibilities:
1. Planning function
# Principles of Finance/Section 1/Chapter 2/Time Value of Money/Compounding and FV

Due to the effect of compounding interest, large gains on principle can be achieved over a period of many years. For example, suppose one were to invest $100 at an interest rate of 7% for 20 years. Without compound interest, the total at the end of 20 years would be $240.
FV$_{simpleinterest}$ $=\ C\ +\ t(C*r)$
However, when the interest earnings from one year are reinvested the next, the following formula is used:
FV$_{compoundinterest}$ $=\ C\,(1+r)^{t}$
Substituting 100 for C, 0.07 for r, and 20 for t, we see that
FV$_{compoundinterest}$ $=\ \$100\,(1.07)^{20}=\$386.97$
Clearly, compound interest enables significant gains over a period of many years.
The following diagram shows how $1 will become $10 after 47 years of 5% compound interest:
# Principles of Finance/Section 1/Chapter 2/Time Value of Money/Opportunity Cost

The opportunity cost of capital is the amount of money you forego by investing money in one asset compared to another. For eg. If you have only two alternatives
If you choose the first option, you wont be able to take advantage of the second option. The difference between what you are earning and what you could be earning is the opportunity cost of capital. In this scenario it is 1% (6%-1%). Take another example: say you have a piece of land kept idle. If you make a warehouse over it ,then you cannot use it for any other purpose. So, you miss the earning possibility from any alternative use. That is your opportunity cost.
# Principles of Finance/Section 1/Chapter 4/Bonds/The Yield Curve

The "Yield curve" plots the yield (return) of a financial instrument [e.g. bond] as a function of time. Usually, the yield curve has an "S" shape and sometimes referred to as the "S curve" (which helps junior students to remember its shape). This emphasizes two characteristics, namely as time increases, diminishing returns sets in, indicated by the asymptotic shape. The other influencing factor is that the curve is monotonically non-decreasing, indicating that one expects a better return on an investment the longer the investment is held [under non-Giffen market conditions].
Given that consumers behave rationally and that there are no other influencing factors, the yield curve reflects the status that consumers prefer to get a better return on an investment. If the curve was not increasing, then a consumer is expected to pull out his money at the peak and then reinvest at some later time.
According to Keynesian economics, a "Giffen market condition" is one in which demand increases as price decreases and interest rates are positive. Historically, there are times when this supply-demand curve was not followed, e.g. during the Irish potato famine. During that time, prices of potatoes went up as the demand decreased. However, there were many government induced factors in the economy going on during those times.
A negative interest rates implies that one would get less money back at the return than at the time of the investment.
# Principles of Finance/Section 1/Chapter 1/The Basics/Money

Money is the underlying concept of finance which is an abstract unit form of a resource. Finance studies and addresses the ways in which individuals and organizations raise, allocate, and use monetary resources over time while taking into account risk. Since we are dealing with modern times, these monetary resources refer to money as we know it. Before getting into the principles of finance one must have an understanding of money and its origins.

## What is Money?

Money is anything that is generally accepted as payment for goods and services and repayment of debts. Money thus enables payments to be made for purchases and savings. It can come in various forms, such as coins, bills, checks and credit cards.

## Functions of Money

Money has many important functions. The first would be to place a value on any product or service.
# Principles of Finance/Section 1/Chapter 3/Applications of Time Value of Money/Annuities

The term annuity is used in finance theory to refer to any terminating stream of fixed payments over a specified period of time. This usage is most commonly seen in academic discussions of finance, usually in connection with the valuation of the stream of payments, taking into account time value of money concepts.
An annuity can be valued with the following formula, where C is the amount of the payment, r is the discount rate, and t is the number of periods for which the payment will be received.
PV$_{annuity}$ = $C\left[{\frac {1}{r}}-{\frac {1}{r\left(1+r\right)^{t}}}\right]$
Thus, we can see that a 10 year, $100 per year annuity would be worth $614.46 with a 10% discount rate.
We can also find the present value of an annuity whose payments grow by a fixed rate g.
PV$_{growingannuity}$ = ${C \over (r-g)}\left[1-\left({1+g \over 1+r}\right)^{t}\right]$
Solving a similar problem, with a payment of $100 that grows at a rate of 5% for 10 years, with a 10% discount rate, we get a present value of $743.98.
Note that the preceding two formulas assume that the payment will be made at the end of each period. If the payment is to be received at the beginning of each period, it is called an Annuity Due. The preceding two formulas can still be used in the case of an annuity due, with some modification. Simply subtract 1 from the number of periods, and then add the amount of the payment to the resulting answer. For example, if the first problem we did were an annuity due, it would look like this:
PV$_{annuitydue}$ = $100\left[{\frac {1}{0.1}}-{\frac {1}{0.1\left(1.1\right)^{9}}}\right]+100$
The answer, of course, is $675.90. Note that an annuity due will always have a higher present value than an equivalent standard annuity, due to the time value of money. That is, a dollar received at an earlier date is more valuable than a dollar received at a later date.
# Principles of Finance/Section 1/Chapter 2/Time Value of Money/Introduction
## Introduction

The time value of money is the premise that a fixed amount of money available today is more valuable/desired than the same amount of money available in the future. This premise can be generalized for economic resources (of which money is an embodiment by social contract). We can state two reasons to justify the premise for all resources: 1) We prefer to have in our control a resource today rather than in the future, because of the inherent uncertainty that characterizes any future event. We cannot be certain that we will acquire the resource in the future. 2) We prefer to have in our control a resource today rather than in the future, because we could use to our favor this resource in the meantime (this is a temporal version of the notion of "opportunity cost").
Especially for money, there is a third reason, namely the existence of inflation: given inflation, the same amount of money will buy tomorrow fewer goods than today. It must be noted however that while Uncertainty of the Future and Opportunity Cost, are rooted in the very foundations of human existence, inflation is a historical event that may change direction. In the case of "negative inflation", ie where money increases rather than loses its value as time passes, then "money tomorrow" tends to be more valuable than "money today" (or at least, it partially offsets the pull of the other two fundamental reasons given above towards the opposite direction). Nevertheless, in modern market economies, a consistent trend of negative inflation is absent for almost a century.
A fourth reason is the belief that maybe the money might not be around in the future. The borrower might not be around or the repayment contract could be lost. The currency could be abolished or a catastrophy could occur rendering money valueless.

## The Discount Rate

The time value of money can be easily quantified at a personal level. A person can ask herself, "What do I prefer, 100 euros today or XXX euros in a year from now?" When she finds the amount that makes her "indifferent", then she can calculate easily her Personal Discount Rate. Assume that given the question, "100 euros now or 120 euros in one year from now," a person replies, "it's all the same to me". Then this person's Yearly Personal Discount Rate (YPDR) is calculated as
and in general terms
Note that YPDR quantifies together the effects of all the reasons given above that lead to "money tomorrow" being worth less than "money today".
If a person has calculated his own YPDR honestly, carefully, and rationally, and has tested it over a period of time for stability of preferences, he can then use it as a tool to assist him in taking economic decisions that involve different amounts and timings of money (to be given or to be received). Essentially, by using the discount rate, we can calculate what amount of money received or given today is -for us- equivalent with an amount of money to be received (or to be given) in the future.
# Vision Science: Scientific Papers Database/Form Perception
## Masking phenomena
### Crowding

* Bouma, H. (1970). Interaction effects in parafoveal letter recognition. Nature, 226, 177–178.
* Bouma, H. (1973). Visual interference in the parafoveal recognition of initial and final letters of words. Vision Research, 13, 767–782.
# VisSim/Introduction

VisSim is based around a core product that acts as an interpretive compiler that accepts as input model diagrams saved in files with the ".VSM" extension. The core product, VisSim, is used for general modeling, simulation and control system design applications. It comes with a large library of blocks, which are roughly split into two groups; signal producers and signal consumers. An example of a signal producer is a sine function and an example of a signal consumer is the Plot block. Blocks can be "wired" together and large amounts of blocks can be selected to form a compound block, to ease readability of diagrams.

## For model viewers

Most new users of VisSim are interested in the block called the "Plot Block" most of all. This is because most new users are simply running a simulation model in the View-only version of VisSim, and most often the results of any simulation are shown in the plot block. For first time users, therefore, the most important button on VisSim's menu will be the green "Go arrow" used to commence simulation. Depending on the model, the user can change many parameters of a simulation interactively. The View-only version of VisSim looks and feels just like the developer version, except the model cannot be modified. For this reason, VisSim is often used for training purposes and test runs.

## For model builders

For model builders, VisSim's visual interface offers a simple method for constructing and simulating large-scale complex dynamic systems; its math engine provides fast, accurate solutions for linear, nonlinear, continuous time, discrete time, time varying and hybrid system designs. Its layering capabilities enable a hierarchical design that is referred to as model-based development. Using VisSim's statechart view, the UML design can be run in real time.
# VisSim/State Diagrams

State chart is a graphical representation of a finite-state machine, that is, a system with a defined number of states, where transition from one state to another occurs when certain conditions are met. You can create state charts anywhere within a VisSim diagram, and you can easily exchange data between the state chart and the continuous portion of a diagram. In addition, you can interactively simulate the state chart diagram or generate code to be run on an embedded target. The continuous portion of the VisSim diagram can control state chart execution with triggers.
In VisSim the state transition block models and simulates complex event-driven systems. A system can be in a number of states, and for every state, you can have an arbitrary number of rules, or conditions. The Boolean rules determine when to transition from one state to the next.
# VisSim/The Viewer

VisSim Viewer is a view-only version of VisSim for sharing block diagram models with anyone. Engineers can distribute their models together with a licensed copy of the Viewer to such recipients as clients, fellow engineers, sales prospects, and operator trainees. With the Viewer, you can open, view, and simulate VisSim models of any size; change block and simulation parameters to test different design scenarios and make printed copies of VisSim models for presentations or archival purposes
# VisSim/Block Reference

The Blocks menu lists the standard blocks provided with VisSim. When you click on the Blocks menu, most of the items that appear have a filled triangle (s) next to them. These items are block categories. Click on a block category and a cascading menu appears listing the additional blocks.
To make it easier to find blocks in this section, they are presented in alphabetical order, regardless of their block category. For most blocks, a mathematical function is included. The following table translates the symbols that may appear in the function:
| Symbol | What It Represents |
| A | Amplitude |
| e | Naperian constant |
| dt | Derivative with respect to time |
| lb | Lower bound |
| mod | Modulus |
| s | Laplacian operator |
| t | Time |
| ub | Upper bound |
| ω | Frequency |
| x | Input signal |
| y | Output signal |
Input signals are represented as x1, x2, …xn where x1 represents the topmost signal entering the block. When n is omitted, x1 is assumed.
Output signals are represented as y1, y2, …yn, where y1 represents the topmost signal exiting the block. When n is omitted, y1 is assumed.
# VisSim/Student Version

The VisSim Student version doesn't really exist. Each academic facility has their own site license based on needs. These academic licenses are granted at a strong discount, but are not free. There are individual and site-wide licenses possible, and there is a student discount for the VisSim Personal edition.
A free academic edition of VisSim designed specifically for students of mathematical modelling is available, but it is based on version 3.0 of the software and the latest version of VisSim is 8.0. The number of add-on modules to the core product has grown significantly since version 3.0, but the list of mathematical models that ship with the free version may suit classroom needs, depending on the objectives.
Add-on modules such as the C-code generator are not in the free version but can be purchased at a strong discount. Models built in the older version will still run in the newer versions, which are fully backward compatible. To view models made in newer versions of the software, the free Viewer-only version should be used.

## Eligibility

Free and discounted academic licenses are available for all faculty and students. Proof of current enrollment in an accredited academic institution is required.

## External links

* Academic Program on VisSim website
# Vision Science: Scientific Papers Database/Neuroscience
## Single cell recording
### Primary Visual Cortex / Cats

* Hubel D., Wiesel T. (1962). Receptive fields, binocular interaction and functional architecture in the cat's visual cortex. The Journal of Physiology, 160, 106–154. FREE Full Text
A pioneering study in which microelectrodes were used to record extracellurarly responses of neurons in the primary visual cortex of anaesthetized cats. The study identified several types of neuronal receptive fields and showed that cortical neurons are selective for stimulus orientation and binocularity.

### Primary Visual Cortex / Primates

* Hubel D., Wiesel T. (1968). Receptive fields and functional architecture of monkey striate cortex. The Journal of Physiology, 195, 215–243. FREE Full Text
A pioneering study in which microelectrodes were used to record extracellurarly responses of neurons in the primary visual cortex of anaesthetized macaque and spider monkeys. The study identified several types of neuronal receptive fields and showed that cortical neurons are selective for stimulus orientation and binocularity.
# Wikimedia/The History of Wikibooks/Topics

Outline for topics that might be addressed by this book:
Inclusion and Exclusion
* What are textbooks?
* How-tos
* Video Games
* Readers' Guides
* Stubs
* Donated Books
* Transwikis
* "One topic, one book"
Structure
* Categories
* Subjects
* ISBNs
* Modularity
Community
* Community fora (Reading Room, etc.)
* Administration/Administrators
* Cliques
* User Conflicts
* Vandalism and Spam
# Wikimedia/The History of Wikipedia

* Before Wikipedia — Jimbo Wales, Nupedia and other artifacts
* The Early Days
* Developments
* When Wikipedia Became Popular
* Wikipedia Today
* Wikipedia Tomorrow
# Wikimedia/What are namespaces?

Namespaces are a system of categorization of content using the MediaWiki software. It clusters together similar content. For instance, every wiki has a "user" namespace that consists of pages about users, talk pages to contact users, and other materials generated by users to help them in their work, such as drafts. The user namespace, like most other namespaces, is an identifying word followed by a colon--User:.
The one namespace that doesn't have an identifying word is the "main" namespace, where the word is absent and the colon is optional. In Wikipedia, this main namespace is reserved for articles. In Wikibooks, for books.
There are many namespaces, which differ according to which project you are using in the Wikimedia universe.
# Wikimedia/The History of Wikipedia/Before Wikipedia

One day, two friends called Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger had an idea. Their goal was to collect all human knowledge and place it in this one, centralised location. They called the project Nupedia, and launched it in early 2001. This project was not a wiki, meaning that not everyone could edit it. The project had numerous versions, including a French version, a German version, an Italian version and a Spanish version. Nupedia had a strict review process, which consisted of around 7 complex steps. People who contributed generally had to be experts in their respective field, and in most cases, a PHD was preferred. Nupedia eventually shut down in 2003, and the foundation associated with it, Bomis, disbanded in 2006.

## Next page

* The Early Days
# Wikimedia/The Wikis of Wikimedia, and What Goes Where

* Wikipedia - Hosts original encyclopedic content. This is a place to put informational articles and informative lists.
* Wiktionary - Hosts word definitions. This is the place to put definitions of words, and thesaurus entries.
* Wikiquote - Hosts quotes. This is place to compile quotes related to an event or person.
* Wikibooks (What you're reading right now) - Hosts informative text books and informational books. It also hosts cookbooks and a mini-Wikipedia for kids, Wikijunior.
* Wikisource - Hosts free texts, which must obide with copyright laws.
* Wikinews - Hosts news. This is the place to put original, or derived news reports.
* Wikiversity - Hosts free educational material for schools and universities.
* Wikispecies - Hosts detailed taxonomy information.
* MediaWiki - Hosts documentation of the MediaWiki software, which is used by all the above wikis and hundreds more. It is currently being maintained by the Wikimedia Foundation.
* Wikimedia Commons - Hosts free images for use on all other Wikimedia Projects. Feel free to post images that you have taken yourself here, or that are free, and if you have gained permission from the content creator.
* Wikidata - The only Wikimedia wiki to use Wikibase. The primary purpouse of this is to provide structured data, and to connect all Wikimedia projects together without the need for Interwiki links.
* Wikivoyage - Hosts free travel guide information.
* Meta-Wiki - Used for co-ordination within the Wikimedia network. This is the place to propose new languages of projects and to propose new projects.
* Wikimedia Incubator - A place to develop projects in new languages (where the corresponding wiki does not exist), before they are proposed at Meta.
* Wikimedia Labs - Allows users to host tools that are used to edit Wikimedia project, run automated programs, or present information based on the content of a Wikimedia project.
* Wikimedia Foundation - A restricted wiki that hosts Wikimedia's official policies and terms of service.

## External links

* Wikimedia
* Wikipedia (English version)
* Wiktionary (English version)
* Wikiquote (English version)
* Wikibooks
* Wikisource (English version)
* Wikinews (English version)
* Wikiversity (English version)
* Wikispecies
* MediaWiki
* Wikidata
* Wikimedia Commons
* Wikivoyage (English version)
* Meta-Wiki
* Wikimedia Incubator
* Wikimedia Tools
* Wikimedia Foundation
# Wikimedia/The History of Wikipedia/The Early Days

On the side, Wales and Sanger created another project "Wikipedia". This is where people could discuss and work on content that could be submitted to Nupedia. Following the failure of Nupedia, Wales and Sanger wanted to concentrate their efforts onto Wikipedia. However, a year into the project Sanger left the site. He went off and set up his own project, called Citizendium.
At this time, Bomis ceased funding Wikipedia. Jimmy Wales released a famous statement that he would never, under any circumstances, incorporate ads into Wikipedia. In 2002, Wikipedia's first official sister project, Wiktionary launched. Several policies still intact today were introduced during this year, such as the manual of style. In 2003, Wikipedia passed 100,000 articles. Most importantly, the Wikimedia Foundation was founded.
# Wikimedia/The History of Wikivoyage

The early history of Wikivoyage is quite complex. Wikivoyage joined Wikimedia in early 2013.
# Wikimedia/User Rights

Different Wikimedia wikis have different user rights. User rights are flags given to a user account, that let them perform certain actions. Some of them are listed below, with a brief description of each.
* Autoconfirmed : A right automatically attained after 10 edits on the wiki. This right allows users to edit semi-protected pages, and perform certain advanced actions, such as using some gadgets.
* Autopatroller: A right that automatically marks the user's edits as patrolled.
* Patroller: Patrollers can mark edits and pages as patrolled, so other patrollers don't have to check it. Once an edit is patrolled, other patrollers will assume the edit was constructive (or was unconstructive, and was reverted by you).
* Rollbacker : Rollbackers can undo multiple edits at once. This tool is especially useful for anti-vandalism cases.
* Reviewer: A right introduced on some wikis which allows users to approve edits for the public to view. Anyone can revert these edits, however.
* File mover: A right that allows the user to move files. Only active on some wikis.
* Template editor: A right that allows the user to edit protected templates. Only active on some wikis.
* IP block exempt: Allows the user to avoid IP bans.

## Administrative

* Administrator: Unlocks many administrative functions, such as protection, deletion, revision deletion, blocking etc. This right automatically grants all rights listed above, except IP block exempt, which has to be granted separately. Basic rights to Special:UserRights have been given.
* Bureaucrat: Allows the user to use the full installation of Special:UserRights, allowing the user to grant and revoke bot and administrator rights. Until the feature was revoked in 2014, Bureaucrats could rename users locally.
* Oversight: Allows the user to hide revisions from the public and admins. This should only be used in exceptional circumstances. WMF requires that Oversighters should be over 18 years old.
* CheckUser: Allows the user to list all IPs that have been used by a user, and vice versa. WMF requires that CheckUsers should be over 18 years old.