OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# A-level Physics/Wave properties/Reflection and Refraction
## Definitions and units

* Frequency (f) — the number of complete oscillations of a particle each second.
** Frequency is measured in hertz (Hz). 1 Hz = 1 complete cycle per second.
* Period (T) — the time taken for one complete oscillation.
** Period is usually measured in seconds, especially when used in equations.
* Amplitude (A) — the maximum displacement of a particle from its equilibrium position.
* Wavelength (λ) — the shortest distance between two parts of the same wave that are oscillating in phase with each other.

### Relationship between f and T

$T={\frac {1}{f}}$ and hence,
$f={\frac {1}{T}}$

## Wave speed

The speed of a wave (v) is just the distance the wave has travelled over the time. If we take the time to be one period, then the distance will be one wavelength. Hence the speed of the wave is given by:
    $v={\frac {wavelength}{period}}\,\,=\,\ {\frac {\lambda }{T}}$
Using the fact that,
    $f={\frac {1}{T}}$
we can re-arrange the above equation to give
    $v=f\,\lambda$

## Laws of reflection

Angle of Incidence = Angle of Reflection
The incident ray, reflected ray and the normal to the surface at the point of incidence are all in the same plane.

## Refractive index

When light passes from one material to another the refractive index is the ratio of the speeds of light in the two materials.
Refractive Index = Speed in Air / Speed in Medium

## Snell's Law

Snell's law is the simple formula used to calculate the refraction of light when travelling between two media of differing refractive index.
$Refractive\,index={\frac {1}{SinC}}$
# A-level Physics (Advancing Physics)/Bandwidth/Worked Solutions

1. A broadband internet connection has a bit rate of 8Mbit s$^{−1}$ when downloading information. What is the minimum bandwidth required to carry this bit rate?
$2B=8\times 10^{6}$
$B={\frac {8\times 10^{6}}{2}}=4\times 10^{6}{\mbox{ Hz}}=4{\mbox{ MHz}}$
2. The same connection has a bandwidth of 100 kHz reserved for uploading information. What is the maximum bit rate that can be attained when uploading information using this connection?
b = 2 x 100 x 10$^3$ = 200 x 10$^3$ bits / second = 24.4 kbytes / second
3. A lighthouse uses a flashing light and Morse Code to communicate with a nearby shore. A 'dash' consists of the light being on for 2s. The light is left off for 1s between dots and dashes. What is the bandwidth of the connection?
One bit takes 3 seconds to transmit.
$B={\frac {1}{3}}{\mbox{ Hz}}\approx 333{\mbox{ mHz}}$
4. The broadband connection in question two is used to upload a 1Mbyte image to a website. How long does it take to do this?
The bit rate is 200 x 10$^3$ bits / second.
1 Mbyte = 1048576 bytes = 8388608 bits.
$b={\frac {\mbox{no. of bits}}{\mbox{no. of seconds}}}$
$200\times 10^{3}={\frac {8388608}{\mbox{no. of seconds}}}$
${\mbox{no. of seconds}}={\frac {8388608}{200\times 10^{3}}}\approx 42{\mbox{ s}}$
# A-level Physics (Advancing Physics)/Big Bang Theory/Worked Solutions

1. What is the Hubble Constant in s$^{−1}$?
$H_{0}=70{\mbox{ kms}}^{-1}{\mbox{Mpc}}^{-1}=0.07{\mbox{ ms}}^{-1}{\mbox{pc}}^{-1}$
1 pc = 3.09 x 10$^{16}$ m
$H_{0}={\frac {0.07}{3.09\times 10^{16}}}=2.27\times 10^{-18}{\mbox{ s}}^{-1}$
2. How old is the universe?
${\frac {1}{H_{0}}}=4.41\times 10^{17}{\mbox{ s}}=14.0{\mbox{ bn years}}$
3. What effect might gravity have had on this figure?
Gravity would slow the expansion of the universe, so the age of the universe would actually be lower than 14.0 billion years.
4. Polaris is 132pc away. What is its velocity of recession, according to Hubble's Law?
$v=H_{0}d=70\times 132\times 10^{-6}=9.24{\mbox{ ms}}^{-1}$
# A-level Physics/Wave properties/Superposition

When two waves are superimposed the displacement of the resultant wave is equal to the algebraic sum of the individual displacements.

## Diffraction and interference

Diffraction is the spreading out of waves as they pass through a narrow gap or obstacle. When light diffracts through two slits, the relationship connecting the separation of the light sources (i.e., the separation of the slits), a, the separation of the fringes of the interference pattern, x, the wavelength of the light and the distance of the screen from the sources, D is as follows:
$\lambda ={\frac {ax}{D}}$

## Superposition

At a point where two or more waves meet, the instantaneous displacement is the vector sum of the individual displacement due to each wave at that point.

## Coherence

Two waves are said to be coherent with each other if the path difference between them stays constant from the source up to the detection.they may or may not have same wavelength, frequencies and amplitudes.

## Monochromatic

Waves of a single wavelength or frequency are monochromatic.

## Path Difference

Path difference = $n\,\lambda$ for constructive waves.
Path difference = $(n\ +{\frac {1}{2}})\lambda$ for destructive waves.
(where n is an integer).

## Formation of a stationary wave

It forms due to the superposition of wave travelling in 1 direction with a wave of equal amplitude and wavelength travelling in the opposite direction.
Stationary waves on a string occur when $1\ =n\,{\frac {\lambda }{2}}$
# A-level Physics (Advancing Physics)

Welcome to the Wikibooks textbook on Physics, designed to contain everything you need to know for the OCR Physics B (Advancing Physics) specification . All sorts of useful documents for this specification are available at http://www.ocr.org.uk/qualifications/as-a-level-gce-physics-b-advancing-physics-h159-h559/ .
All units are assumed to be SI units, unless stated otherwise. Diagrams can be enlarged by clicking on them.
Chapters are probably marked as 75% complete because they are complete, but may require some attention. Please look at these and check them!

## Contents
### AS notes
#### Physics in Action
##### Optics

* Lenses
* Refraction

##### Communication

* Digital Storage
* Digital Processing
* Digitisation
* Signal Frequencies
* Bandwidth

##### Electricity

* Charge
* Current
* Voltage
* Power
* Resistance and Conductance
* Internal Resistance
* Potential Dividers
* Sensors
* Resistivity and Conductivity
* Semiconductors

##### Material Structure

* Stress, Strain & Young's Modulus
* Metals
* Polymers

#### Understanding Processes
##### Waves

* What is a wave?
* Phasors
* Standing Waves
* Young's Slits
* Diffraction
* Finding the Distance of a Remote Object

##### Quantum Physics

* Light as a Quantum Phenomenon
* Quantum Behaviour
* Electron Behaviour as a Quantum Phenomenon

##### Mechanics

* Vectors
* Graphs
* Kinematics
* Forces and Power (and Energy and Work Done)
* Fluid dynamics

#### Physics in Practice
##### Quality of Measurement

* Data Handling

##### Physics in Use (presentation)
### A2 Exams
#### Rise and Fall of the Clockwork Universe
##### Decay

* Exponential Relationships
* Capacitors
* Radioactive Decay
* Half-lives

##### Gravity

* Gravitational Forces
* Gravitational Fields
* Gravitational Potential Energy
* Gravitational Potential

##### Mechanics

* Simple Harmonic Motion
* Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion
* Damping
* Resonance
* Conservation of Momentum
* Forces and Impulse in Collisions
* Rockets, Hoses and Machine Guns
* Circular Motion

##### Astrophysics

* Radar and Triangulation
* Large Units
* Orbits
* Doppler Effect
* Big Bang Theory

##### Temperature

* Heat and Energy
* Specific Heat Capacity
* Ideal Gases
* Kinetic Theory
* Boltzmann Factor

#### Field and Particle Physics
##### Magnetic Fields

* Flux
* Induction
* Force
* Transformers
* Motors
* Generators

##### Electric Fields

* Electric Force
* Electric Field
* Electric Potential
* Electric Potential Energy

##### Particle Physics

* The Standard Model
* Quarks
* Bosons
* Leptons
* Millikan's Experiment
* Pair Production and Annihilation
* Particle Accelerators
* Cloud Chambers and Mass Spectrometers

##### Nuclear Physics

* Quantum Principles
* Radioactive Emissions
* Energy Levels
* Fission
* Fusion
* Binding Energy
* Risks, Doses and Dose Equivalents
# A-level Physics/Wave properties/Waves
## Electromagnetic Waves

The electromagnetic spectrum is a family of waves that share the following properties:
* They are able to transmit through a vacuum.
* They all travel at the same speed in a vacuum (3×10$^8$ ms$^{−1}$).
* They are all transverse waves consisting of magnetic and electric fields oscillating at right angles to each other.
* They all transfer energy as photons (the higher the frequency of a particular radiation the greater the energy contained in each photon.
* They can all be reflected, refracted, diffracted and create interference patterns.
* Properties of these waves change with their frequency / wavelength so they are divided into seven sub groups which are radio wave, microwaves, infra red waves, visible light, ultraviolet, x rays and gamma rays.
Radio Waves
Radio waves are used mainly in communication over short or long distances. Shorter wavelengths are used for television and FM radio while longer wavelengths are used for AM radio.
Long Wave Wavelength = 1*10$^4$m
Medium Wave Wavelength = 1*10$^2$m
Short Wave Wavelength = 1*10$^0$m
Microwaves
Some microwaves pass easily through Earths atmosphere and are used for communications with satellites and or mobile phones.
Microwaves are also commonly used for cooking with the aid of a microwave oven.
Typical Values are as follows: Wavelength (m) = 3*10$^{−2}$ Frequency (Hz) = 1*10$^{10}$
Definitions
Transverse Wave
The direction of energy transfer is at 90 degrees to the direction of the vibrating particles.
Longitudinal Wave
The particles vibrate backwards and forwards along the line of the direction of the energy transfer in the wave.
Amplitude
The greatest displacement of the wave.
Period (T)
Is the time taken (in seconds) for one complete cycle of the wave.
Frequency (f)
The number of cycles of the wave per second.
Wavelength (λ)
The shortest distance between 2 particles on the wave with the same phase.
Speed of wave
Distance travelled by the wave in one time period. (λ/T)
# A-level Physics (Advancing Physics)/Bandwidth

Bandwidth is the frequency of a signal. Although original signals have varying frequencies, when these are transmitted, for example, as FM radio waves, they are modulated so that they only use frequencies within a certain range. FM radio modulates the frequency of a wave, so it needs some variation in the frequencies to allow for transmission of multiple frequencies. Since bandwidth is a frequency, it is the number of bits per. second. The bandwidth required to transmit a signal accurately can be calculated by using 1 as the number of bits, giving the formula:
$B={\frac {1}{t}}$
where B is bandwidth (in Hz), and t is the time taken to transmit 1 bit of data (in s).
The bandwidth of a signal regulates the bit rate of the signal, as, with a higher frequency, more information can be transmitted. This give us the formula (similar to the formula for lossless digital sampling):
b = 2B
where b is the bit rate (in bits per. second), and B is the bandwidth (in Hz).

## Questions

1. A broadband internet connection has a bit rate of 8Mbit s$^{−1}$ when downloading information. What is the minimum bandwidth required to carry this bit rate?
2. The same connection has a bandwidth of 100 kHz reserved for uploading information. What is the maximum bit rate that can be attained when uploading information using this connection?
3. A lighthouse uses a flashing light and Morse Code to communicate with a nearby shore. A 'dash' consists of the light being on for 2s. The light is left off for 1s between dots and dashes. What is the bandwidth of the connection?
4. The broadband connection in question two is used to upload a 1Mbyte image to a website. How long does it take to do this?
Worked Solutions
# Bikol/Spatio-temporal Dimensions

Bikol has ha– as prefix for a special class of adjectives, with the rest of adjectives using ‘ma-. Ha– is affixed only to bases indicating spatio-temporal dimensions.
| Bikol | English |
| halangkaw | tall |
| hababâ | low |
| hararom | deep |
| hababaw | shallow |
| halìpot | short |
| halabà | long (spatial) |
| harayô | far |
| harani | near |
| hayakpit | narrow |
| halakbang | wide |
| halawig | long (temporal) |
| haloy | long (temporal) |
# Bikol/Where Are You From?

In this lesson we learn how to express where you live and where you come from. We will also see a few more common phrases for introductions.
Lesson 1: Tagasaen ka? - Where are you from? :
| Bikol | English |
| Kumusta! Tagasaen ka? | Hello! Where are you from? |
| Taga-Legazpi ako. Tagasaen ka man? | I'm from Legazpi. And you? |
| Taga-Hapon ako. Saro akong Hapones. | I'm from Japan. I'm Japanese. |
Kumusta, means both hello and how are you?, the phrase kumusta ka na means more exclusively how are you?. You recognise the word ka, which stands for ika and means you. The new word na, means now.

### Translation Exercise

* Kumusta! Koreano ka?
* Taga-Albay ka?
* Saro akong Bikolano.
* Tagasaen ako? Taga-Manila ako.
* Tagasaen ka?
# Bilingual Education

In our globalized world the need to know and understand each other is imperative. This book is thought out to be a reference book for teachers, students and anyone currently working on issues regarding Bilingual Education. Some of its content emerged as academic papers from a Graduate Level course in a University in Colombia.
* Definitions of Bilingualism
* Models of Bilingual Education
* Elite and Prestige Bilingualism
* Coercive Power and Language
* Culture and Language
* Theory and Practice
# Bikol/Why Study Bikol?

Studying Bikol language, or any language for that matter, can have several benefits. Here are a few reasons why studying Bikol language can be valuable:
Overall, studying the Bikol language can offer personal, professional, and cultural benefits, allowing you to connect with people, understand their culture, and contribute to the preservation of linguistic diversity.
# Bikol/Vocabulary

| Bikol | Meaning in English |
| orag | power, ability, talent |
| orag-orag | tantrums |
| oragan | to hit, to strike, to injure or harm |
| kaoragan | vanity, whims |
| orag-oragon | wild, irresponsible |
| pahingorag | abundance, plenty, numerous |
| pag-oorag/nag-oorag | improving, developing |
| nangongorag | to be brutal |
| makaorag | irritating, annoying |
| paororagan | contest of ability |
| inooragan | to be obsessed, to be overwhelmed by something or someone |
# Bikol/Telling Time

Times are written as in English (as in 2:23) but spoken in Spanish (as in alas sais bainte tres).

## six o'clock AM

    a las sais nin pagkaaga

## seven o'clock AM

    a las syete nin pagkaaga

## noon

    udto

## one o'clock PM

    a la una nin pagkahapon

## two o'clock PM

    a las dos nin pagkahapon

## six o'clock PM

    a las sais nin pagkabanggi

## seven o'clock AM

    a las syete nin pagkabanggi

## midnight

    matangâ

## now

    ngunyan

## later

    atyan

## before

    bago

## morning

    aga

## afternoon

    hapon

## evening

    banggi

## night

    banggi

## today

    ngunyan na aldaw

## yesterday

    kasuodma

## tomorrow

    sa aga

## this week

    ngunyan na semana

## last week

    kan nakalihis na semana

## next week

    sa masunod na semana

#### Duration
##### _____ second(s).

    _____ segundo.

##### _____ minute(s).

    _____ minuto.

##### _____ hour(s).

    ______ oras.

##### _____ day(s).

    ____ aldaw.

##### _____ week(s).

    ____ semana.

##### ______ month(s).

    ____ bulan.

##### _____ year(s).

    ____ taon.
# Bikol/This and That

Bikol uses three words to represent the words "this" and "that": ini, iyan and idto. Ini means "this", while both iyan and idto mean "that", depending on the context.

## This

The word ini can be used in different ways, depending on its location within the sentence. In most cases, if it is in the middle or at the end of a sentence, it is written by itself without modification, as in the cases of this sentence:
* An tawong ini, turog. (This person is asleep.)
* Ano ini? (What is this?)
The ligature -ng is attached when describing objects. This never happens at the end of a sentence and only occurs if ini is placed at the beginning or at the middle. Some examples include:
* Sakuya ining libro. (This book is mine.)
* Haen ining lugar? (Where is this place?)
Attaching the ligature -ng and the case marker mga makes ini plural, becoming "these", as shown by this sentence:
* Saiya ining mga awto. (These cars are his/hers.)

## That

iyan or idto are used depending on the relative distance of the referred object or person to the speaker and to the listener. The difference is as follows:
* iyan is used when the referred object or person is far from the speaker but near the listener.
* idto is used when the referred object or person is far from both the speaker and the listener.
Let's have an example. Two kids named James and Nadine are pretty far apart. A cat passes near Yssa.
(Bikol)
    James: Yssa, ano iyan?
    Nadine: Ikos iyan.
(English)
    James: Yssa, What's that? (near you or close to you)
    Nadine: That's a cat.
Later on, James and Nadine both see a spider crawling on the ceiling.
    James: Yssa, ano idto?
    Nadine: Lawa.
    James: Yssa, what's that? (over there)
    Nadine: That's a spider.
# AI Art Generation Handbook/VCAT/Artist Style/Germany

The prompt used is
<<Art Style>> by <<Artist Name>> ,Rhinoceros wearing a business suit screaming aloud while seeing the stock price crash
To ensure fair judgement, following steps are done
(i) All of prompts are generated 2 times with 8 images each
(ii) Images selected is randomly selected using this dice
(iii) No extra settings are selected except for changing Fooocus resolutions into 1024*1024 pixels
| Art Style | Artist name | Images Generated By DALL-E2 | Images Generated By Stable Diffusion (Fooocus) | Verdict |
| Renaissance (Engravings) | Albrecht Dürer https://www.wikiart.org/en/albrecht-durer | | | Verdict : SD |
# AI Art Generation Handbook/VCAT/Artist Style/Italy

The prompt used is
<<Art Style>> by <<Artist Name>> ,Rhinoceros wearing a business suit screaming aloud while seeing the stock price crash
To ensure fair judgement, following steps are done
(i) All of prompts are generated 2 times with 8 images each
(ii) Images selected is randomly selected using this dice
(iii) No extra settings are selected except for changing Fooocus resolutions into 1024*1024 pixels
| Art Style | Artist name | Images Generated By DALL-E2 | Images Generated By Stable Diffusion (Fooocus) | Verdict |
| Renaissance (Sketches) | Leonardo da Vinci https://www.wikiart.org/en/leonardo-da-vinci | | | Verdict : SD |
# AI Art Generation Handbook/VCAT/Artist Style/Indonesia

The prompt used is
<<Art Style>> by <<Artist Name>> ,Rhinoceros wearing a business suit screaming aloud while seeing the stock price crash
To ensure fair judgement, following steps are done
(i) All of prompts are generated 2 times with 8 images each
(ii) Images selected is randomly selected using this dice
(iii) No extra settings are selected except for changing Fooocus resolutions into 1024*1024 pixels
| Art Style | Artist name | Images Generated By DALL-E2 | Images Generated By Stable Diffusion (Fooocus) | Verdict |
| Romanticism | Raden Saleh https://www.wikiart.org/en/raden-saleh | | | Verdict : Tie |
| Balinese | I Ketut Gedé | | | Verdict : SD |
# AI Art Generation Handbook/VCAT/Artist Style/Japan

The prompt used is
<<Art Style>> by <<Artist Name>> ,Rhinoceros wearing a business suit screaming aloud while seeing the stock price crash
To ensure fair judgement, following steps are done
(i) All of prompts are generated 2 times with 8 images each
(ii) Images selected is randomly selected using this dice
(iii) No extra settings are selected except for changing Fooocus resolutions into 1024*1024 pixels
| Art Style | Artist name | Verdict |
| Abstract | Atsuko Tanaka https://www.wikiart.org/en/atsuko-tanaka | Verdict : SD Most of the Atsuko's art are more to random circles . THerefore, SD win |
| Ukiyo-e | Katsushika Hokusai https://www.wikiart.org/en/katsushika-hokusai | Verdict : SD |
| Abstract Expressionism | Kazuo Shiraga https://www.wikiart.org/en/kazuo-shiraga | Verdict : Dall-E |
| Sōsaku-hanga | Kiyoshi Saito https://www.wikiart.org/en/kiyoshi-saito | Verdict : SD |
| Sumi-e calligraphy | Sengai https://www.wikiart.org/en/sengai | Verdict : SD </br>The calligraphy stoke is more profound and the use of yellowish colours reflect the paper that was used during that era |
| Surrealism | Tetsuya Ishida https://www.wikiart.org/en/tetsuya-ishida | Verdict : SD |
| Yamato-e | Tosa Mitsuoki https://www.wikiart.org/en/tosa-mitsuoki | Verdict : SD |
# Introduction
## A History of Unix and C
## Intended Audience

(01:36, 10 January 2007 (UTC))
This book is intended as a sophomore level university text book. The coverage of subject material assures that the reader has a working knowledge of higher level languages in general and is familiar with a reasonable modern program development environment. The purpose of the book is to introduce those already familiar with programming to a more system-oriented language that provides the programmer with a greater degree of freedom (and therefore responsibility).
Our undergraduate Computer Science curriculum requires that our students learn at least three high level languages. The first two semesters of the degree program use Java. The course for which this book is designed follows early in the sophomore year. This book assumes successful completion of those first two courses and as such this book does not need to focus too much on general program structure, flow control or syntax. Where structure, syntax and flow control are mentioned, the emphasis should be on how C differs from Java.
The rationale for developing this book is to provide students with a means to:
# AI Art Generation Handbook/VCAT/Artist Style/Spain

The prompt used is
Panting in <<Art Style>> style by <<Artist Name>> ,Rhinoceros wearing a business suit screaming aloud while seeing the stock price crash
To ensure fair judgement, following steps are done
(i) All of prompts are generated 2 times with 8 images each
(ii) Images selected is randomly selected using this dice
(iii) No extra settings are selected except for changing Fooocus resolutions into 1024*1024 pixels
| Art Style | Artist name | Images Generated By DALL-E2 | Images Generated By Stable Diffusion (Fooocus) | Verdict |
| Surrealism | Salvador Dali https://www.wikiart.org/en/salvador-dali | | | Verdict : SDSD are able to convey surrealism style of DALL-E painting more realistically |
# AI Art Generation Handbook/VCAT/Artist Style

There are too many artiste to be covered here , so we focus on the past and present , we divide the sections by countries.
The criteria that we included have passed away (at least more than 10 years) and quite famous in artist world
* Link
* Belgium
* France
* Germany
* Indonesia
* Italy
* Japan
* Spain
* United States
# AI Art Generation Handbook/VCAT/Artist Style/Belgium

The prompt used is
<<Art Style>> by <<Artist Name>> ,Rhinoceros wearing a business suit screaming aloud while seeing the stock price crash
To ensure fair judgement, following steps are done
(i) All of prompts are generated 2 times with 8 images each
(ii) Images selected is randomly selected using this dice
(iii) No extra settings are selected except for changing Fooocus resolutions into 1024*1024 pixels
| Art Style | Artist name | Images Generated By DALL-E2 | Images Generated By Stable Diffusion (Fooocus) | Verdict |
| Surrealism | René Magritte https://www.wikiart.org/en/rene-magritte | | | Verdict : SD |