OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Macroeconomics/Definitions of Unemployment

Unemployment has several definitions, one being those members of the population that are actively looking for work and have not found it in a certain period. The International Labour Organization (ILO) defines unemployed people as those who are: not working one hour or more; and actively seeking work; and currently available for work. The main problem with this definition is that people who become disappointed and are no longer actively looking for a job are not counted as unemployed even though they might still want to work. The way unemployment is measured also has several versions. Some are using official payroll numbers of hirings and firings, others use the number of people who apply for unemployment benefits. Other methods include sampling through phone calls, etc that inquire if any able members of the household are unemployed and looking for work. The informal sector of the economy also create problems since these are done mainly by estimates.

# Measure of Unemployment

Unemployment is usually expressed as a percentage of the labor force who are currently unemployed. This is known as the unemployment rate. The unemployment rate plays a big role in how economists measure the performance of an economy and is usually used as an indicator of economic activity. Contrary to popular beliefs, the target of the unemployment rate is not going to be zero as if the economy's unemployment rate falls below a certain level- known as the NAIRU (Non Accelerating Inflation Rate of Unemployment) - firms would be competing for labor resources, creating inflammatory pressure.
# Macroeconomics/Economic Policy

Economic policy is what a government does to ensure the economy keeps ticking over, and doesn't overheat or fall into recession. Look back to the page on macroeconomic objectives to remind yourself of government objectives. This section will go further into the reasons for government, and how policy can be applied.

## Reasons for Economic Policy
### Natural Changes in Economic Activity

Most economies go through cycles of strong economic growth and recession; it is much debated as to why this happens - arguably as a result of government policies, expectations of such cycles or other reasons. However, negative multiplier effects can ensure that an economy left to itself would be incapable of getting out of recession. A demonstration of a negative multiplier effect can be seen in areas that have recently suffered increased unemployment. Those recently unemployed will have less disposable income, causing other industries to suffer a fall in demand, resulting potentially in further layoffs of workers. When this happens on a national scale, targetted government spending may be the only way of getting out of this situation.
Secondly, remember that a macroeconomic objective is stable and sustainable economic growth. Economies, left to themselves, also have a tendency for runaway increases in demand without comparable increases in supply, resulting in high levels of inflation and borrowing and a booming stock market, which will hurt all the more when economic growth slows down.

### Economic Shocks

These are unexpected, sudden changes in the situation of the world economy or domestically. For example, a housing market crash or recently 9/11 are examples where the home/world economy was entirely unprepared. These shocks have an effect on the demand and supply of goods, as a result of changes in consumer confidence, business confidence and expectations of the future. In order for a government to reduce the impact of such blows, it must be able to partially control the demand and supply curves. diagrams of SRAS and D-side shocks

## Application of Economic Policy

There are three main method of government macroecnomic intervention in an economy, all of which will be investigated in more detail later in this section (the imbedded links are to wikipedia, the links to the relevant section in the wikibook are in the template on the right):
* Fiscal policy - is the use of government spending and taxation as a means of controlling levels of AD, both directly and indirectly
* Monetary policy - is the use of changing interest rates and the money supply to control the exchange rate, level of borrowing and levels of saving (remember MPC and MPS)
* Supply-side Policies - are a general term for all the other policies the government can employ to aid the level of supply, which is particularly important in increasing the potential output of an economy, and reducing growth-induced inflation
# Expanded Multipliers

* The simple k assumes no government or overseas (o/s) sectors in the economy. In reality Y will be subject to taxation, imports and savings before it will be spent in the domestic economy. Thus various complex multipliers incorporates these flows and is a smaller coefficient than [k = 1/MPS].
* b - Marginal Propensity to Consume (MPC)
* t - Marginal Propensity to Tax (MPT)
* m - Marginal Propensity to Import (MPM)

## The Multiplier

* ${1 \over 1-[b\cdot (1-t)-m]}\ \ \ i.e\ \ {1 \over 1-[0.7(1-0.1)-0.2]}={1 \over 0.57}\approx 1.75$
* The operation of the multiplier is essentially the same but consumption is reduced by acknowledging the other leakages in the economy.
* This multiplier is applicable to all direct spending in the economy, including government spending.

## Taxes/Transfers Multiplier

* ${-b \over 1-[b\cdot (1-t)-m]}$
* This multiplier is applicable to all indirect injections into the economy, such as cutting taxes or increasing government transfers. The multiplier is positive because it implies a positive change, or increase, in the input. (taxes).

## Balanced Budget Multiplier

* ${1-b \over 1-[b\cdot (1-t)-m]}$
* This multiplier is used when the government increases spending and uses a tax increase to pay for the spending. To model change in expenditure when the government decreases spending and cuts taxes to cover the costs, multiply by a negative input in expenditure.
* As you can see, the result is still positive if you increase both government spending and taxes. On the other hand, if you decrease both government spending and taxes, you have a negative change in expenditures, i.e. widening the recession gap.
# Macroeconomics/Government Spending

Government spending is any money spent by the government (not to be confused with taxation in the circular flow of money). Government spending can be effected by any form of government funded operations, including health, social services, unemployment packages, government payouts to banks and national defence.
Government spending is a part of fiscal policy and is used by the government to prevent the rather more pernicious side-effects of the business cycle. If, for example, the economy is experiencing a recessionary gap, the government could help by increasing government spending. This increase in government spending would help the Economy grow because that same extra money will be passed onto consumers and will lead to investment, thus helping the Economy out of recession.
# Pinyin/Desire

to desire: to want something
qiwahng: xiaangyaoh mooushihwuh
a desire: a strong wish to have or to do something
keewahng: derdaoh huoh quh zuoh mooushihwuh d qiarnglieh yuahngwahng
# Pinyin/Destroy

See also
# Pinyin/Depression

See also
Depression is a common illness worldwide, with an estimated 350 million people affected. Depression is different from usual mood fluctuations and short-lived emotional responses to challenges in everyday life. Especially when long-lasting and with moderate or severe intensity, depression may become a serious health condition. It can cause the affected person to suffer greatly and function poorly at work, at school and in the family. At its worst, depression can lead to suicide. Suicide results in an estimated 1 million deaths every year.
Yìyùzhèng shì quánqiúxìng chángjiànbìng, gūjì huànzhě yǒu 3.5 yì. Yǔ yībān de qíngxù bōdòng hé duì rìcháng shēnghuó nántí chǎnshēng de duǎnzàn qíngxù fǎnyìng bùtóng. Yóuqíshì chángqī de zhōngdù huò zhòngxíng yìyùzhèng huì chéngwéi yánzhòng de bìnghuàn. Huì jídù yǐngxiǎng huànzhě de gōngzuò, xuéxiào hé jiātíng shēnghuó. Zuì huài qíngkuàng kě yǐnzhì zìshā. Gūjì zàochéng měinián 100 wàn rén zìshā sǐwáng.
There are interrelationships between depression and physical health. For example, cardiovascular disease can lead to depression and vice versa.
Yìyùzhèng yǔ shēntǐ jiànkāng zhuàngkuàng xiānghù guānlián. Lìrú, xīnxuèguǎn jíbìng kě dǎozhì yìyùzhèng, fǎnzhīyìrán.
# Pinyin/Department

See also
# Pinyin/Dessert

See also
# South Georgia

* Meter stamps from this adhesive-stamp issuing area have been neither seen nor reported.
# Sint Maartin

* This island became a semi-independent nation in 2010 upon the dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles. Adhesive postage stamps inscribed "SINT MAARTIN" have been issued, but meter stamps have not yet been reported to or seen by us. We assume they do exist.
# Solomon Islands

* The earliest used stamp seen is dated 1967. The country was a British protectorate until it achieved independence in 1978.
* All stamps seen except Type A3A, were used on government official mail whether or not the town mark contains “O.H.M.S.” (On Her Majesty’s Service).
* The stamps are grouped by political inscription:
       A – British protectorate period, stamps inscribed “BRITISH SOLOMON ISLANDS”
       B – Post independence, stamps inscribed “SOLOMON ISLANDS”

## GROUP A: Issues during British protectorate period

* Franks inscribed “BRITISH SOLOMON ISLANDS”
* A1. Pitney Bowes “Automax” (MV), 1967.
* Upright frank with simulated perforation border.
* “POSTAGE” and “PAID” in side panels, and crown over small “EIIR” at bottom.
* M# “P.B. 1” only.
* A. TM: DC (HONIARA/ B.S.I.P.) [$60]
* B. TM: SC (both “O.H.M.S./ GIZO BSIP” and “O.H.M.S./ AUKI BSIP” known) [$30]
* C. TM unengraved
* V/F: = 0.oo
* NOTES:
* A proof or essay with £sd value figures (=/00/00) is known from 1962.
* Examples of the two single-circle stamps (A1B) have overlapping dates. This could mean that the machine was moved around, a second meter was assigned the same number, or the dates were applied incorrectly.
* A2. Satas “Baby” (MV), 1970. [$25]
* As Type A1 but smaller and squarer.
* M# with “SA” prefix. M#s SA3 and SA4 seen
* A. TM: DC (HONIARA/ B.S.I.P.)
* B. TM: SC (YANDINA/ B.S.I.P.)
* V/F: 0.00
* A3. Pitney Bowes-GB “5000” series (MV), 1972. [$15]
* Horizontal frank without complete outer frame line.
* Crown over “EIIR” between TM and value box.
* M# with “P.B.” prefix at bottom center.
* M#s 3461D and 5909D seen.
* A. M# 3461D with TM “HONIARA/ B.S.I.P.” (Commonwealth Banking Corp.)
* B. M# 5909D with TM “O.H.M.S./ HONIARA S.I.”
* TM: SC
* V/F: 0.00

## GROUP B: Post-independence stamps

* Frank inscribed “SOLOMON ISLANDS” (without "BRITISH")
* B1. Pitney Bowes-GB “5000” series (MV), 1978. [$15]
* As Type A3 but with “BRITISH” excised at top.
* Crown and “EIIR” remain.
* M# “P.B. 21444D” seen.
* TM: SC (O.H.M.S./ HONIARA S.I.)
* V/F: 0.00
NOTE: The most recent meter stamp reported from the Solomon Islands is dated 1984. It is probable more recent designs exist.
# Somalia

* The colonies of British Somaliland and Italian Somaliland united in 1960 to form the Somali Democratic Republic also known as Somalia.
* All stamps are inscribed “SOMALE” or “SOMALIA”.
* The earliest meter stamps found are from 1964.
* Meters do not seem to have been used for many years. They do not appear to be in use at the present time (2013). Examples are quite scarce.
1. Sima (MV), 1964. [$35]
    Square frank with simulated perforation outer border and straight line inner border.
    Inscribed “POSTE SOMALE” at top.
    “SH. SO.” below value figures.
    A single wavy line appears at both sides.
    The town mark and slogan are enclosed in a greater straight line outer border.
    One meter known used, by the National Bank of Somalia.
    Without M#.
    TM: SC
                                                                      V/F: ★00.00
2. Sima (MV).
    Similar to Type 1 but “POSTE” at top, and “SOMALIA” at bottom.
    With leaf ornaments at both sides.
    TM and slogan enclosed in greater outer border which is a continuation of the simulated perforation and straight line border of the frank.
    Two meters known:
                                                                      A. Used by the Bank of Rome, with appropriate slogan [$100]
                                                                      B. Used by the Commercial and Savings Bank of Somalia, without slogan [Extremely rare with only one cover known]
    TM: SC
    V/F: ◆0.00 (G)
3. Sima (MV). [$50]
    Similar to Type 2 but with wavy parallel line ornaments at the sides.
    With straight line greater outer border.
    Three users known so far: the Bank of Naples. Somali Savings and Credit Bank, and Monti & Loche.
    TM: SC
    V/F: 0.00 ★0.00
4. Sima (MV). [$75]
    As Type 3 but with two vertical lines at the sides.
    Without greater outer border.
    Two users reported so far: Ministry of Mining and Water Resource, and Ministry of Planning and Co-ordination.
    TM: SC
    V/F: 0.00
# Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Amelia Bones
## Overview

Amelia Bones is the Head of the Department of Magical Law Enforcement in the Ministry of Magic.

## Role in the Books
### Order of the Phoenix

Harry is required to attend a hearing at the Ministry regarding his use of magic while underage and in the presence of Muggles (his cousin Dudley). Somehow, instead of a hearing, this becomes a trial by the full Wizengamot. As the magic in question was the creation of a Patronus, Madam Bones is curious as to whether Harry can, in fact, produce a corporeal Patronus, one with an actual form. When the evidence has all been heard, it is Madam Bones who calls for the show of hands to vote on Harry's innocence or guilt.
At the organizational meeting of Dumbledore's Army, a question asked by Susan Bones suggests to Harry that she may be related to Madam Bones. Susan confirms that Amelia is her aunt.

### Half-Blood Prince

In the meeting between Cornelius Fudge and the Muggle Prime Minister, we learn that Madam Bones has been murdered. The Prime Minister is quite upset about this, because it happened "right around the corner", and has not yet been solved.
Narcissa Malfoy, with Bellatrix Lestrange in tow, visits Severus Snape. In the course of their conversation, Bellatrix accuses Snape of not being loyal to the Death Eaters, saying that she is Voldemort's most trusted aide. Snape wonders if that is still true, and points out that it was information Snape provided that had made the murders of Madam Bones and the Vance families possible.

## Strengths

During Harry's trial in Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, Amelia Bones showed herself to be fair-minded and honest. In contrast to Fudge, nominally her senior in the Wizengamot, and Umbridge, she had not prejudged Harry, and insisted on hearing the truth about Harry's case before forming an opinion. It seems that it was the force of her character, opposed to Fudge's, that allowed the hearing to be as fair as it ended up being.
When Fudge was explaining her murder to the Muggle Prime Minister in Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince, he described her as a highly gifted witch of her time and said Voldemort may have killed her himself after she put up quite a fight.

## Questions

Study questions are meant to be left for each student to answer; please don't answer them here.
* Why was Madam Bones so impressed with Harry's Patronus?

## Greater Picture

Although it was not explicitly stated, it is implied that Madam Bones voted in favour of clearing Harry of all charges during his trial. We are told that Fudge, Umbridge and a "heavily-moustached" wizard - among a few others - vote in favour of conviction. Madam Bones is not mentioned; therefore, we must assume she voted for clearing Harry.
This goes further towards establishing her as a character of fair and just reasoning, as she uses the evidence presented to her to make a final decision.
# Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Amos Diggory
## Overview

Amos Diggory is the father of Cedric Diggory. He is the head of the Department of Magical Transportation, in the Ministry of Magic, and he works with Arthur Weasley.

## Role in the Books
### Goblet of Fire

Amos Diggory and his son, Cedric are heading to the Quidditch World Cup. Along the way, they meet up with Harry, Hermione, and the Weasley family: Ginny, Ron, Fred, George, and Mr. Weasley. Both families, travelling by the same Portkey, are searching for it. Amos makes a big noise about how his son Cedric had beaten "the famous Harry Potter" at Quidditch, while Cedric down-plays the victory. Upon reaching their destination, the Diggorys go on to different campsite.
Amos next appears, or at least his head does, in the Weasley's fireplace, when he informs Mr. Weasley that Mad-Eye has gotten into trouble. After updating Mr. Weasley, Amos accepts a slice of toast from Mrs. Weasley, then departs.
Amos appears again immediately before the Third Task. The Champions' families have been invited to the last event, and Amos and his wife are present; Amos makes some cutting remarks about Harry participating in the Tournament, but Cedric tries to quiet him.
Finally, Amos and his wife visit Harry in the Hospital Wing after the third task, and thank Harry for returning Cedric's body. When Harry tries to give them the prize money which Cedric would have won, they refuse to accept it. Despite Harry's protests, they insist he keep the entire thousand-galleon prize.

## Strengths

Like his son, Cedric, Amos is, at heart, an honest and fair person. He is also devoted to his family, and dearly loves his son.

## Weaknesses

Amos excessively boasts about Cedric's accomplishments, often while undermining Harry Potter, much to Cedric's embarrassment and annoyance.

## Relationships with Other Characters

Amos is familiar with, and quite friendly towards, most characters and is quite close to Arthur Weasley. He is a little dismissive towards younger characters, Harry in particular, whom he sees as a rival to Cedric.
He is noticeably unfair and belittling towards Winky, shouting at her and calling her simply "elf".

## Analysis

Amos Diggory almost seems a stereotype – a man reliving his youth through his child. Amos is inordinately proud that Cedric beat Harry in a Quidditch match, and of Cedric's showing in the Triwizard Tournament. He finds Cedric's victories more noteworthy than does Cedric, who seems embarrassed by his father's effusive pride when they meet Harry and the Weasleys early on in Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire.

## Questions

Study questions are meant to be left for each student to answer; please don't answer them here.
* What house do you think Amos Diggory was in?
# Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Anthony Goldstein
## Overview

Anthony Goldstein is a student in Ravenclaw house. He is in Harry's year.

## Role in the Books
### Order of the Phoenix

In the Hogwarts Express, Ron Weasley informs Harry that Anthony is one of the two new prefects for Ravenclaw. (The other is Padma Patil.)
Anthony Goldstein is one of the students who attends the first meeting of what becomes Dumbledore's Army, in the Hog's Head.
During the first D.A. meeting in the Room of Requirement, Anthony is paired with Zacharias Smith for the disarming charm, but Fred and George Weasley keep disarming Zacharias behind his back before Anthony can do it.
When Hermione Granger is called for her Charms practical O.W.L. exam, Anthony is one of three students sent in with her, the others being Goyle and Daphne Greengrass.
Anthony is also one of the six members of Dumbledore's Army who see Draco Malfoy attempting to jinx Harry on the Hogwarts Express, and promptly return fire, leaving Draco, Crabbe, and Goyle looking like gigantic slugs squeezed into Hogwarts robes.

### Deathly Hallows

Anthony Goldstein is one of the members of Dumbledore's Army who have ended up in the Room of Requirement when the school itself became too hostile for them. While he apparently takes part in the Battle of Hogwarts, little is actually known of his role there.

## Relationships with Other Characters

Anthony seems to be good friends with Michael Corner and Terry Boot.

## Analysis

From his name, we suspect that Anthony is Jewish, which makes him the only Jewish student at Hogwarts. JK Rowling confirmed this in an after-publication interview in late 2014.

## Questions

Study questions are meant to be left for each student to answer; please don't answer them here.
# Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Alphard Black
## Overview

Alphard Black was a pure-blood wizard and a member of the Black Family. He is the uncle of Sirius and Regulus. Much like many members of the family who didn't fit the family ideology, Alphard's name was burned off the tapestry.

## Role in the Books
### Order of the Phoenix

While looking at the Black Family tapestry, Sirius notes to Harry that Alphard's name has been blasted off. He suspects that Alphard was removed because he provided Sirius with some gold after the latter ran away from his parent's home in order to get his own place.

## Strengths

Though we never meet him in person, Alphard must have been a very brave individual to go against his family to assist his runaway nephew.

## Relationships with Other Characters

Sirius seemed to have a good relationship with his uncle, as Alphard helped him get away from his parent's house. He seemed to be one of the few members of the Black Family that Sirius doesn't hold in contempt.
He didn't seem to get along with the rest of his family. At the very least he probably wasn't close with them.

## Questions

Study questions are meant to be left for each student to answer; please don't answer them here.
* Did Alphard have a good relationship with Sirius? Why else would he have been willing to help out his runaway nephew if they didn't have a good relationship?
# Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Ambrosius Flume
## Overview

Ambrosius Flume is mentioned only in passing and has no direct role in the books.

## Role in the Books
### Prisoner of Azkaban

As Harry makes his way through the basement of Honeyduke's Sweetshop after his first passage through the tunnel revealed by the Marauder's Map, he must avoid a man going into the basement to re-stock shelves. This man is never identified, but may be Ambrosius.

### Half-Blood Prince

A graduate of Hogwarts, Ambrosius Flume was one of Horace Slughorn's favourite students. Slughorn introduced him to Ciceron Harkiss who gave him his first job. Ambrosius is now affiliated with Honeyduke's Sweetshop, and still sends Slughorn a hamper of sweets every birthday.

## Relationships with Other Characters

Ambrosius would have had good relationships with many Hogwarts students and locals. He would also have a good relationships with shop assistants.

## Questions

Study questions are meant to be left for each student to answer; please don't answer them here.