OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Introduction to Programming Languages/Syntax Directed Interpretation
### Syntax Directed Interpretation

An interpreter is a program that simulates the execution of programs written in a particular programming language. There are many ways to implement interpreters, but a typical implementation relies on the parsing tree as the core data structure. In this case, the interpreter is a visitor that traverses the derivation tree of the program, simulating the semantics of each node of this tree. As an example, we shall build an interpreter for the language of arithmetic expressions whose logic grammar is given below:
Any program in this simple programming language is ultimately a number. That is, we can ascribe to a program written in this language the meaning of the number that the program represents. Consequently, interpreting a program is equivalent to finding the number that this program denotes. The attribute grammar below implements such interpreter:
Notice that we can use more than one attribute per node of our derivation tree. The node number, for instance, has two attributes, which we use to compute the value of a sequence of digits. Below we have a few examples of queries that we can issue in this language, assuming that we have saved the grammar in a file called interpreter.pl:
← Logic Grammars · Syntax Directed Translation →
# Linux Networking/Creating your network interfaces

In many Unix operating systems the network devices have appearances in both the filesystem namespace (e.g. the /dev directory) and the network interface namespace. This is not so in Linux, where no character devices are used.
In the majority of cases, the network interface is automatically created by the device driver while it is initializing after it has located your hardware. For example, the ethernet device driver creates eth[0..n] interfaces sequentially as drivers locate your ethernet hardware. The first ethernet card found becomes eth0, the second eth1, etc.
In some cases though, notably slip and ppp, the network devices are created through the action of some user program. The same sequential device numbering applies, but the devices are not created automatically at boot time. The reason for this is that, unlike ethernet devices, the number of active slip or ppp devices may vary during the uptime of the machine. These cases will be covered in more detail in later sections.
# Linux Networking/ATM
## ATM

Werner Almesberger <werner.almesberger@lrc.di.epfl.ch> is managing a project to provide Asynchronous Transfer Mode support for Linux. Current information on the status of the project may be obtained from: lrcwww.epfl.ch.
# Linux Networking/AX25 (AF AX25)
## AX25 ( AF_AX25 )

AX.25 device names are `sl0', `sl1', etc. in 2.0.* kernels or `ax0', `ax1', etc. in 2.1.* kernels.
Kernel Compile Options:
The AX25, Netrom and Rose protocols are covered by the AX25-HOWTO. These protocols are used by Amateur Radio Operators worldwide in packet radio experimentation.
Most of the work for implementation of these protocols has been done by Jonathon Naylor, jsn@cs.nott.ac.uk.
# Linux Networking/Configuring a network interface

When you have all of the programs, you need and your address and network information you can configure your network interfaces. When we talk about configuring a network interface, we are talking about the process of assigning appropriate addresses to a network device and to setting appropriate values for other configurable parameters of a network device. The program most commonly used to do this is the ip command.
Typically you would use a command similar to the following:
In this case, I am configuring an ethernet interface "eth0" with the IP address 192.168.0.1 and a prefix length of 24 to specify the network size. The second command tells the operating system that it should set the interface active, but can usually be omitted, as it is the default. To shutdown an interface, you can just call `ip link set eth0 down`.
iproute2 assumes certain defaults when configuring interfaces. For example, if you do not specify a prefix length, it will use /32.
There are many other options to the ip link command. The most important of these are:
For ip addr, one can specify
You may use the ip command on any network interface. Some user programs such as pppd and dip automatically configure the network devices as they create them, so manual use of ifconfig is unnecessary.
# Linux Networking/DECNet
## DECNet

Support for DECNet is currently being worked on. You should expect it to appear in a late 2.1.* kernel.
# Linux Networking/Cables and Cabling
## Cables and Cabling

Those of you handy with a soldering iron may want to build your own cables to interconnect two linux machines. The following cabling diagrams should assist you in this.
# Linux Networking/EQL - multiple line traffic equaliser
## EQL - multiple line traffic equaliser

The EQL device name is `eql'. With the standard kernel source you may have only one EQL device per machine. EQL provides a means of utilizing multiple point to point lines such as PPP, slip or plip as a single logical link to carry tcp/ip. Often it is cheaper to use multiple lower speed lines than to have one high speed line installed.
Kernel Compile Options:
To support this mechanism the machine at the other end of the lines must also support EQL. Linux, Livingstone Portmasters and newer dial- in servers support compatible facilities.
To configure EQL you will need the eql tools which are available from: metalab.unc.edu.
Configuration is fairly straightforward. You start by configuring the eql interface. The eql interface is just like any other network device. You configure the IP address and mtu using the ifconfig utility, so something like:
Next you need to manually initiate each of the lines you will use. These may be any combination of point to point network devices. How you initiate the connections will depend on what sort of link they are, refer to the appropriate sections for further information.
Lastly you need to associate the serial link with the EQL device, this is called `enslaving' and is done with the eql_enslave command as shown:
The `estimated speed' parameter you supply eql_enslave doesn't do anything directly. It is used by the EQL driver to determine what share of the datagrams that device should receive, so you can fine tune the balancing of the lines by playing with this value.
To disassociate a line from an EQL device you use the eql_emancipate command as shown:
You add routing as you would for any other point to point link, except your routes should refer to the eql device rather than the actual serial devices themselves, typically you would use:
The EQL driver was developed by Simon Janes, simon@ncm.com.
# Illustrated Guide to the world of Spira (FFX and FFX-2)/Places/Moonflow
### Moonflow Pictures:

River bank, pyreflies, Moonflow - water lilies , South bank, Shoopuf loading dock, Crossing the Moonflow - riding on a Shoopuf, Moonflow submerged city, Moonflow submerged city
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# Illustrated Guide to the world of Spira (FFX and FFX-2)/Places/Thunder Plains
## Open Area

* Thunder Plains Travel Agency
* Thunder Plains

## Secret Places

* Thunder Dungeon 1 - Lightining Tower 9
* Thunder Dungeon 2 - Dragon Dungeon

## Gallery

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# Illustrated Guide to the world of Spira (FFX and FFX-2)/Places/Mushroom Rock
## Open Area

* Summit: Mi'hen Operation HQ, Youth League HQ
* Mushroom Rock Road
* Summit trail

## Secret Places

* Den of Woe
* Lord Mi'hen's statue

## Gallery

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# Illustrated Guide to the world of Spira (FFX and FFX-2)/Places/Ronso
## Open Areas

* Mt. Gagazet Gate

## Secret Places

* The entire village is a mystery: No one has ever seen a Ronso house
# Illustrated Guide to the world of Spira (FFX and FFX-2)/Temples

Each temple has a distinctive Architectural style, which is not very similar to Zanarkand's. This can be easily explained for the Temples that are part of a Summoner's pilgrimage: They were all built after Zanarkand fell, by the Yevon Church.

### Open Temples

* Besaid Temple - Valefor Aeon - No element
* Kilika Temple - Ifrit Aeon - Fire Element
* Djose Temple - Ixion Aeon - Energy Element
* Macalania Temple - Shiva Aeon - Ice Element
* Bevelle Temple - Bahamut Aeon - No element

### Lost Temples

* Baaj Temple - Anima Aeon
* Remiem Temple - Magus Sisters Aeon
* Floating Ruins - No Aeon - only available in FFX2, very distinctive Architecture suggesting a Water Element theme.
# Illustrated Guide to the world of Spira (FFX and FFX-2)/Places/Luca
## Open Places

* Blitzball Statium
* Luca Bar
* Luca Streets
* Luca Theater
* Luca Harbor - Docks 1-5

## Secret Places

* None found so far

## Gallery
### Luca pictures:

Luca Stadium - exterior,Luca Stadium - Final Speech by FFX2 3 leaders, Luca Stadium - Yuna's concert
# Illustrated Guide to the world of Spira (FFX and FFX-2)/Places/Mihen
## Open Places

* Mi'hen Highroad
* Mi'hen Oldroad
* Rin's Travel Agency

## Secret Places

* Mi'hen oldroad
* Hover Crash site Dungeon
# Illustrated Guide to the world of Spira (FFX and FFX-2)/Places/Zanarkand Ruins
## Open Areas

* Trail to Zanarkand Dome
* Zanarkand Dome

## Secret Areas

* Zanarkand Dungeon

## Gallery

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# On 2D Inverse Problems/Embedded

The duality play surfaces:
# On 2D Inverse Problems/Harmonic functions

Harmonic functions can be defined as solutions of differential and difference Laplace equation as follows.
A function/vector u defined on the vertices of a graph w/boundary is harmonic if its value at every interior vertex p is the average of its values at neighboring vertices. That is,
    $u(p)=\sum _{p\rightarrow q}\gamma (pq)u(q)/\sum _{p\rightarrow q}\gamma (pq).$
Or, alternatively, u satisfies Kirchhoff's law for potential at every interior vertex p:
    $\sum _{p\rightarrow q}\gamma (pq)(u(p)-u(q))=0.$
A harmonic function on a manifold M is a twice continuously differentiable function u : M → R, where u satisfies Laplace equation:
    $\Delta _{\gamma }u=\nabla \cdot (\gamma \nabla u)=0.$
A harmonic function defined on open subset of the plane satisfies the following differential equation:
    $(\gamma u_{x})_{x}+(\gamma u_{y})_{y}=0.$
The harmonic functions satisfy the following properties:
The value of a harmonic function is a weighted average of its values at the neighbor vertices,
Corollary: the maximum (and the minimum) of a harmonic functions occurs on the boundary of the graph or the manifold,
One can use the system of Cauchy-Riemann equations
    ${\begin{cases}\gamma u_{x}=v_{y},\\\gamma u_{y}=-v_{x}\end{cases}}$
to define the harmonic conjugate.
Analytic/harmonic continuation is an extension of the domain of a given harmonic function.

### Dirichlet problem

Harmonic functions minimize the energy integral or the sum
    $\int _{\Omega }\gamma |\nabla u|^{2}{\mbox{ and }}\sum _{e=(p,q)\in E}\gamma (e)(u(p)-u(q))^{2}$
if the values of the functions are fixed at the boundary of the domain or the network in the continuous and discrete models respectively. The minimizing function/vector is the solution of the Dirichlet problem with the prescribed boundary data.
# On 2D Inverse Problems/Dual graphs and harmonic conjugates

Given two dual graphs G and G$^*$ embedded to a manifold M(G), for every harmonic function u, defined on the vertices of G, one can define a harmonic conjugate v of u on the vertices of G$^*$ using the analogy of Cauchy-Riemann equations. In the case of a simply connected region of the complex plane C the harmonic conjugate is well-defined up to an additive constant.
Exercise (*). Prove that a conjugation is a duality relationship on the space of harmonic functions on dual planar graphs.
The Dirichlet-to-Neumann operator of a planar graph essentially gives the correspondence between boundary values of a harmonic function and its conjugate.
# On 2D Inverse Problems/Electrical networks

An electrical network can be defined as a weighted graph with boundary $G(V,\partial G,E,\gamma ),\partial G\subset V.$
The weight function defined on the edges of the graph is called conductivity. The Laplacian matrix of an electrical network is symmetric. It is often called Kirchhoff matrix. The boundary measurements for inverse problems can be expressed conveniently in terms of the matrix blocks.
The Dirichlet-to-Neumann map is a special type of Poincaré–Steklov operator. On a surface w/boundary it is the pseudo-differential operator from the Dirichlet boundary values (potential) to the Neumann boundary values (current) of the harmonic functions. It is well-defined because of uniqueness and existence of the solution of the Dirichlet problem.
    Exercise (*). Prove that the Dirichlet-to-Neumann map of an electrical network equals to the Schur complement of its Kirchhoff matrix.
$\Lambda _{G}={\begin{pmatrix}A&B\\B^{T}&C\end{pmatrix}}/(C)=A-BC^{-1}B^{T}.$
The Laplace equation gives the direct connection between the hitting probability of the random walk started at the boundary and the value of a harmonic function at a vertex/point, see [10]. The connection follows from the sum of the geometric series identity applied to the blocks of the Kirchhoff matrix of the network/graph $\Lambda _{G}=D_{A}(I-W_{G})=A-B^{T}D_{C}\sum _{k}(I-D_{C}^{-1}C)^{k}B.$
This is a special case of the convergent geometric Neumann series applied to the diagonally dominated matrix.
The effective conductivity b/w two nodes of an electrical network G equals to the ratio b/w the total current and the difference of potentials b/w the two nodes. The effective conductivities can be calculated in terms of the Schur complement of the Kirchhoff matrix of the network.
Exercise (*). Prove that the effective conductivities b/w all pairs of boundary nodes of a network G. determine the Dirichlet-to-Neumann map of G, and vice versa.
Exercise (***). Prove that the effective conductivities b/w all pairs of nodes of a network G determine the conductivities of the edges of the network G, and vice versa.
# On 2D Inverse Problems/Hamiltonian paths

The existence of the paths in a graph and its dual with the following properties plays an important role in the connection between global and local properties of the graph: Two sets of paths between two subsets of boundary nodes in the graph and its dual are Hamiltonian if the paths go through every interior point of the graph and its dual.
# On 2D Inverse Problems/Kernel of Dirichlet-to-Neumann map

$\Lambda f=g,$ then $g(\phi )=\int _{\partial \Omega }K(\phi ,\theta )f(\theta )d\theta ,$ where $\phi$ and $\theta$ parametrize the boundary w/arclength measure.
$K(\phi ,\theta )=k(\phi -\theta ),$ where k is a distribution on a line. Therefore, the calculation reduces to solving the Dirichlet problem for a $\delta _{0}$-function at the origin and taking outward derivative at the boundary line.
Exercise (**). Complete the calculation of the kernel K for the half-plane to show that $K(x,y)={\frac {-1}{\pi (x-y)^{2}}}$ off the diagonal.
Exercise (*). Prove that for rotation invariant domain (disc w/ conductivity depending only on radius) the kernel of Dirichlet-to-Neumann map is a convolution.
The Hilbert transform gives a correspondence between boundary values of a harmonic function and its harmonic conjugate. $H:u|_{\partial \Omega }\rightarrow v|_{\partial \Omega },$ where $f(z)=u(z)+iv(z)$ is an analytic function in the domain.
For the case of the complex upper half-plane the Hilbert transform is given by the following formula: $Hf(y)={\frac {1}{\pi }}\ {\text{p.v.}}\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }{\frac {f(x)}{y-x}}dx.$
Exercise (*). Differentiate under the integral sign the formula above to obtain the kernel representation for the Dirichlet-to-Neumann operator for the half plane.
# On 2D Inverse Problems/Graphs and surfaces

Throughout this book a graph G(V,E) is a pair of sets, where E is a subset of pairs of elements of the set V. The elements of V are called vertices, and the elements of E edges. For every edge (a,b) in E we call b a neighbor of a. A graph w/boundary is a graph w/chosen subset ∂G of boundary nodes.
A surface S is a topological space, such that around its every point p there is an open set U homeomorphic to the open unit disc D:
    ${\begin{cases}p\in U,\\\phi _{U}(p)=0,\\\phi _{U}(U)=\mathbf {D} .\end{cases}}$
or neighborhood homeomorphic to the half of the unit disc for the boundary nodes:
    ${\begin{cases}p\in U,\\\phi _{U}(p)=0,\\\phi _{U}(U)=\mathbf {D} \cap \{z:\Im z\geq 0\},\\\phi _{U}(U\cap \partial S)=(-1,1).\end{cases}}$
A simple arc in a surface S is an image of a homeomorphism of the interval [0,1] to the surface. An embedding of a graph G(V,E) to a surface S is a representation of the vertices V of the graph by distinct points of S, w/the boundary of the graph on the boundary of the surface and the edges E by the simple non-intersecting and non-touching simple arcs connecting corresponding endpoints.
For a graph G embedded in a surface S the connected components of S\E are called faces. The embedding is proper if the faces are simply connected, except possibly the unbounded infinite one. The embedded graph G$^*$ is called dual to graph G if its vertices are located in distinct (and all) faces of graph G and vice versa, and its edges connect vertices w/corresponding adjacent faces. The edges of the graph G and its dual G* are in the 1-to-1 correspondence. The embedded graph and its dual can be unified in a single construction of the medial graph M(G) defined later in the book. It will be clear from the context how to slightly modify the definitions for graphs w/boundary.
A graph that can be embedded in the plane or the sphere is called planar graph.
# On 2D Inverse Problems/Fourier coordinates

    $F_{\omega }={\frac {1}{\sqrt {N}}}{\begin{bmatrix}1&1&1&\ldots &1\\1&\omega &\omega ^{2}&\ldots &\omega ^{(N-1)}\\1&\omega ^{2}&\vdots &\ldots &\omega ^{2(N-1)}\\\vdots &\vdots &\vdots &\ddots &\vdots \\1&\omega ^{(N-1)}&\omega ^{2(N-1)}&\ldots &\omega ^{(N-1)^{2}}\\\end{bmatrix}}$
    $F_{e^{2\pi i/5}}={\frac {1}{\sqrt {5}}}{\begin{bmatrix}1&1&1&1&1\\1&\omega &\omega ^{2}&\omega ^{3}&\omega ^{4}\\1&\omega ^{2}&\omega ^{4}&\omega ^{6}&\omega ^{8}\\1&\omega ^{3}&\omega ^{6}&\omega ^{9}&\omega ^{12}\\1&\omega ^{4}&\omega ^{8}&\omega ^{12}&\omega ^{16}\\\end{bmatrix}}={\frac {1}{\sqrt {5}}}{\begin{bmatrix}1&1&1&1&1\\1&\omega &\omega ^{2}&\omega ^{3}&\omega ^{4}\\1&\omega ^{2}&\omega ^{4}&\omega &\omega ^{3}\\1&\omega ^{3}&\omega &\omega ^{4}&\omega ^{2}\\1&\omega ^{4}&\omega ^{3}&\omega ^{2}&\omega \\\end{bmatrix}}.$
    Exercise (*). The square of the Fourier transform is the identity transform:
    $F_{N}^{2}=Id.$
    Exercise (*). If an e-network is rotation invariant, then so 's the conductivity equation and the Dirichlet-to-Neumann map is diagonal in the Fourier coordinates (the column vectors of the matrix.
# On 2D Inverse Problems/Medial graphs

The following transformations of the geodesics of the medial graph M(G) are similar to the Reidemeister moves of the knot theory. They correspond to the Y-Δ transformations of the graph G and G$^*$.
The following matrix consists of the distances (the fewest number of jumps across the geodesics or the edge distance in M$^*$(G)) b/w boundary faces of the medial graph below.
    ${\begin{pmatrix}0&1&2&3&2&3&2&1\\1&0&1&2&3&4&3&2\\2&1&0&1&2&3&4&3\\3&2&1&0&1&2&3&4\\2&3&2&1&0&1&2&3\\3&4&3&2&1&0&1&2\\2&3&4&3&2&1&0&1\\1&2&3&4&3&2&1&0\end{pmatrix}}$
The geodesics of the medial graph form an arrangement of pseudo-lines if
* none of them intersect itself
* none of them are closed
* no two of them intersect more than once
(Hint). Look for the pattern
    ${\begin{pmatrix}k+1&k\\k&k+1\end{pmatrix}}$
in the matrix of boundary distances. See [PU] for a continuous analog of the boundary distance rigidity result.
The following min-cut max-flow result was formulated w/help of Derek Jerina, a student of REU summer school on inverse problems at the University of Washington.
It was proved in [DeV1], [DeV2] and [CIM] that if the medial graph of a planar network w/natural boundary is an arrangement of pseudo-lines then the conductivities of its edges are uniquely determined by its Dirichlet-to-Neumann operator and can be found by a layer stripping algorithm.
# On 2D Inverse Problems/Notation

    $\mathbb {N} {\mbox{ of natural numbers}}$
    $\mathbb {D} {\mbox{ is the open disc domain}}$
    $\mathbb {b} {\mbox{ is the open domain nature boundary}}$
    $\mathbb {C} ^{\pm }{\mbox{ is the complex half-plane}}$
    $mega{\mbox{ is a root of unity}}$
    $\nabla {\mbox{ is the gradient}}$
    $\Delta =\nabla \cdot \nabla {\mbox{ is the Laplace operator}}$
    $\Lambda {\mbox{ is Dirichlet-to-Neumann operator}}$
    $D_{x}{\mbox{ is a diagonal matrix w/the vector }}x{\mbox{ on the diagonal }}(D_{x}1=x)$
    $D_{A}{\mbox{ is the diagonal matrix, coinciding on diagonal w/the matrix }}A$
    $y,\lambda {\mbox{ is eigenvalue of operator/matrix}}$
    $ma(A){\mbox{ is spectrum of matrix }}A,{\mbox{ zeros of characteristic polynomial }}$
    $\rho (A){\mbox{ is the characteristic polynomial of matrix }}A$
    $\tau {\mbox{ is the Cayley transform}}$
    $ega{\mbox{ is a continuous domain}}$
    $G/G^{*}{\mbox{ is graph or network and its dual}}$
    $V_{G}{\mbox{ is the set of vertices of a graph}}$
    $E_{G}{\mbox{ is the set of edges of a graph}}$
    $M_{G}{\mbox{ is the medial graph of an embedded graph }}G$
    $c{\mbox{ is conductivity}}$
# Introduction to Sociology/Course Adoptions
## Courses that have used this wikibook

| College/University | Course | Date | Instructor |
| Far Eastern University (Makati Campus) | Society & Culture (SOCUL) | 2015-2016 | Louis Marvil G. Abala |
| The University of Tampa | Introduction to Sociology - all sections | 2014-2015 | Ryan T. Cragun |
| Lake Land College | Introduction to Sociology | 2013-2014 | Stephanie Medley-Rath |
| Bracknell and Wokingham | Health and Social care Level | 2011 | Louise Kirkham |
| Boston College | SC00106 Introductory Sociology | 2010 | Ross Glover |
| Longwood University | SOCL 101 Principles of Sociology | 2010 | Jake Milne |
| Saint Anselm College | SO101 B&C Introduction to Sociology | 2009 | Dennis MacDonald |
| Concordia University | SOCI 203/2A Introduction to Society | 2009 | Alex Enkerli |
| Colorado Mountain College | Intro to Sociology I | 2009 | Melissa DeHaan |
| University of Tampa | Introduction to Sociology | 2009 | Ryan T. Cragun |
| Ramapo College of NJ | FYS 101 First Year Seminar | 2009 | Valerie J. Scott |
| St. Petersburg College | SYG 2000 (Introductory Sociology) | 2009 | Lisa McDonnell |
| University of Redlands | SOAN 100 (Intro to Sociology) | 2009 | Jim Spickard |
| Grossmont College | SOC 120 (Introductory Sociology) | 2008 | Rob Fargo |
| Southern Illinois University, Edwardsville | Sociology SOC-201 | 2008 | Muhammad Raquib |
| La Carlota City College (Philippines) | Sociology 1 | 2008 | Greg Rosales |
| Naugatuck Valley Community College (Connecticut) | Sociology 101 | 2008 | Samuel R. Brown |
| Radford University | Sociology 110 | 2007 | Peg Wimmer |
| West Chester University of Pennsylvania | SOC 200 Introduction to Sociology | 2006 | Douglas McConatha |
| University of Cincinnati | 15 Soc 141-101 | 2005 | Ryan T. Cragun |
| University of Cincinnati | 15 Soc 141-101 | 2005 | Stephan Groschwitz |
| College of the Sequoias | Sociology 1 | 2017 | Jeffrey Basham |
| Universidad Autonoma de Aguascalientes, Mexico | Bases Socioculturales de la Conducta | 2017 | Maria Estela Esquivel Reyna |
| Dominican University of California | Introduction to Sociology | 2018 | George Faithful |
| Anoka Technical College, Anoka Minnesota, USA | Introduction to Sociology - all sections | 2017-now | Donovan Jackman |
| Millikin University | Introduction to Sociology | 2019-2020 | Kenneth Laundra |