OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Programming Fundamentals/Strings and Files
## Overview

This chapter introduces string and file processing.

## Chapter Outline

* Strings
* String Functions
* String Formatting
* File Input and Output
* Error Handling
* Loading an Array from a Text File
* Code Examples
** C++
** C#
** Java
** JavaScript
** Python
** Swift
* Practice: Strings and Files

## Learning Objectives

* Understand key terms and definitions.
* Given example pseudocode, flowcharts, and source code, create a program that processes strings to solve a given problem.
* Given example pseudocode, flowcharts, and source code, create a program that processes a text file to solve a given problem.
* Understand how to replace, add or remove strings into a file.
* Be able to read and understand a given file and string program.
* Be able to organize a file from any given format.
* Understand how to use outside functions within a file and string program.
* Understand how to delete, read, or create a file.
# Models and Theories in Human-Computer Interaction/Predicable Outcomes
### Predictable Outcomes (Steven Campbell)

Design approaches are varied and many, as are the approaches to the science of Cybernetics, which is a basically a study of feedback. The thing to remember is that predictable, constant and reproducible out comes are the primary concern of Cybernetics. Basically to maintain an equilibrium in potential outcomes. Also it’s concerned with how inputs affect that desired outcome state. It can be applied to any complex system be it biological, technological or social.
As it a study of feedback, which hopes to achieve a stated outcome there are several ways this feedback could play out – a steady manner, in a growth manner, or in a change manner. The steady manner involved the outcome not being positive in the direction we are looking for and at the end the system auto corrects back to base. The growth manner where the expected outcome develops on a new course, based on the situation usually something negative occurring. The change is manner where a different outcome is the achieved state, usually based on interaction of positive and negative actions.
These manners can help explain how system/organisms will respond given different inputs.
# Models and Theories in Human-Computer Interaction/Perception: Needs biological considerations of human

The book ‘HCI Models, Theories, and Frameworks (Carroll, J. M., 2003)’ discussed many design guidelines based on perception which assumed to be relatively permanent and are often accepted across different cultural. Perception often influenced greatly by external design. Display design such as low contrast, clutter, disorganized layout, unnecessary detail, ineffective color combinations, absence of saliency, lack of differentiation between foreground and background can impact human perception. However in the book ‘HCI Models, Theories, and Frameworks (Carroll, J. M., 2003)’ failed to include some biological factors that influence perception such as lower cognitive abilities in old age and gender variability. Old age often considered major impediment as it diminishes sensory receptivity and cognitive capacity. Studies confirmed that emotional perceptions differs in old and the young age. A research by National Institute of Health suggests “older adults perceived pictures differently than younger adults. Older adult rated positive pictures as more arousing than negative or neutral pictures, and more arousing than younger adults (Neiss, M. B., Leigland, L. A., Carlson, N. E., & Janowsky, J. S., 2009).” The same research also found gender bias in women as “they rated positive pictures more positively and negative pictures more negatively.”
Several researches also offer support for impact of gender differences on human perception. A research by Dae-Young Kim, Xinran Y. Lehto, Alastair M. Morrison suggested that males and females differ in their attitudes toward web travel information sources and information search behavior in on and offline sources. It also explored the underlying cognitive dimensions of website information attitudes and preferences, and assessed gender differences within the context of these dimensions. They found significant differences between genders on perception of Website functionality and online information search behavior. This research suggests that even though most websites may be gender-neutrally designed, women are better off using them both in terms of functionality and scope of content than men. To be successful in the current competitive e-environment it would be a prudent choice to create gender specific websites.
Another research by Diane F. Halpern and Mary L. LaMay explains male and female do not differ in intellect however their cognitive abilities are different. Males have an upper hand in spatial perception, mental rotation, spatial visualization, mathematical reasoning and generation and maintenance of spatial image. On the other hand females are good at recovering information from long-term memory and using verbal information. This suggests that there is no segregation of genders based on smartness; they simply differ in different areas of expertise in cognitive function. Therefore study of human perception should also include biological factors like age and gender.
References:
# Models and Theories in Human-Computer Interaction/Norman's Psychology of Everyday Actions, an Example of Wiener's Cybernetics

Norman's Psychology of Everyday Actions, an Example of Wiener's Cybernetics (Valerie Van Ee)
"Cybernetics is the most powerful language for describing systems that have goals," says Paul Pangaro, "That's the purpose of cybernetics. And all of these kinds of systems, technological, social, biological, have goals, so it's the perfect marriage."
Cybernetics is used to describe the "steering" process. All intelligent systems have this process; There is a goal, action is taken, senses the change, compares to the goal, and correct course. This is a continuous loop, a self-correcting mechanism. Without this process, there is no intelligence; there is no way to know when a failure has occurred. Cybernetics is used to describe a self-correcting process that results in stability or equilibrium. Another way to describe cybernetics is a cause, effect, feedback. It is a circular loop. This feedback can be in 2 forms. Positive feedback reinforces or increases the input, whereas negative feedback reduces or opposes the input. Both types of feedback are used to correct the direction or "steer" towards the goal.
Interestingly, I found a good example of a cybernetic process in Norman's Psychology of Everyday Actions (page 46). Norman discusses how everyday actions are the results of formulating a goal, taking action, and checking to make sure the goal was accomplished. This is broken down into 7 stages.
* Forming the goal
* Forming the intention
* Specifying an action
* Executing the action
* Perceiving what happened in the world
* Interpreting or making sense of it
* Evaluating (comparing what happened to what was wanted)
This is a continuous feedback loop in which the results of one action affect and steer the future actions.
# Models and Theories in Human-Computer Interaction/Norman’s Affordances
### Norman’s Affordances
#### Affordances

The term affordance was originally proposed by psychologist James J. Gibson in 1977. Don Norman applied the concept in the context of Human Computer Interaction in 1988, refers to “the perceived and actual properties of the things, primarily those fundamental properties that determine just how the thing could possible be used”. He believed that affordances, along with constraints and mappings, can provide strong visual clues to help users know intuitively how things operate. He took a pair of scissors as an example in his book “The Design of Everyday Things” to illustrate the concept: the hole-shape structures are affordances imply that you can put fingers into; the constraints of holes’ sizes limit the fingers that can be possibly used; and the mappings between fingers/holes and their movements and the possible results hint the set of operations.

#### Principles of design for understandability and usability

In addition to making things visible, Norman pointed out that providing a good conceptual model/mental model is also required to facilitate the understandability and usability of a design, especially for a complex product. Norman defined mental models as “our conceptual models of the way objects work, events take place, or people behave, result from our tendency to form explanations of things”. Therefore, he strongly believed that good mental models can help users to predict the outcomes of their actions and handle the unexpected occurrences when operating a product.

### Norman's Affordances

Norman uses the term affordance to describe the number of potential uses an object inherently has – intended or not (e.g. a glass pane for looking through or for breaking) – and how keeping these uses in mind can lend to proper design of said object. According to Norman, users of well-designed objects should be able to form a conceptual model – that is, be able to imagine how it is used and/or the potential outcome of its use – from simply looking at it. A dial on an oven should have indications as to the temperature at each slight rotation as well as to what part of the oven the temperatures refer to. Is it to the main heating unit itself or potentially to one of two or four stove-top burners?
To ease the ability to form a conceptual model for the use of an object Norman says that visibility is important. As he notes in his book The Design of Everyday Things, “Visibility indicates the mapping between intended actions and actual operations.” Rely on learning-by-doing represents poor design. Users should be able to mentally map what they perceive to be its usage and how it is used as close as possible with its actual use and actual effect for that object to be considered well designed.
# Models and Theories in Human-Computer Interaction/Predictive (models of performance): Fitts
### Fitts’ Law in rapid and reciprocal aiming movements? (Wei-Ting Yen)

Fitts’ law states the log-linear relationship between the amplitude of the movement (A), the target width (W), and the mean movement time (MT). Fitts believed that a person has to adapt to a difficult combination of A and W by increasing the MT or by becoming less accurate, because the amount of information a human neuro-motor system can process is limited. However, it has been found that this statement represents a far too limited brain concept. The functional limitations are not solely defined by transmission rates within the brain itself. It appears that the human neuro-motor system abruptly engages a different control mechanism when task difficulty increases.
Many research studies have been conducted to criticize the theory foundations of Fitts’ Law. For example, Huys et al. (2009) demonstrated that Fitts’ Law is discontinuous in reciprocal aiming movements owing to the transition in operative motor control mechanisms with increasing task difficulty. Smits-Engelsman (2002) examined whether Fitts’ Law still applies if people use different muscle use strategies during reciprocal aiming tasks. They found that there were fundamental characteristics differences between the discrete and cyclic aiming movements. Accordingly, the performance of cyclic movements was twice as high as of discrete movements with the same task difficulty. Therefore, it can be concluded that a more modern view of brain capacity would imply the relationship between central brain processes and more peripheral dynamic contributions to motor outputs from the strategic use of limb muscles.
References:
* Huys, R., Fernandez, L., Bootsma, R.J., & Jirsa, V.R., (2010). Fitts’ law is not continuous in reciprocal aiming. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 277, pp.1179-84
* Smits-Engelsman, B.C.M., Van Galen, G.P., & Duysens, J., (2002). The breakdown of Fitts’ law in rapid, reciprocal aiming movements. Experimental Brain Research, 145, pp.222–230
# Models and Theories in Human-Computer Interaction/Problem of undercontribution to online collaborative platform

Problem of undercontribution to online collaborative platform (Wei-Ting Yen)
WikiBook is an online collaborative platform and it supports online groups to contribute knowledge and share information. However, just like other online forums, a common characteristic is that the distribution of members’ contributions is highly uneven. A small portion of active participants contribute the vast majority of the contents, whereas the remainder do not post anything or only read. This phenomenon is called social loafing, means “group membership degrades individual motivation” (Carroll, 2003). Individuals tend to spend less efforts when they are part of a working group than when they work alone.
Carroll (2003) discussed the possible solutions that can solve the problem of undercontribution to online groups according to social-psychological theories. For example, he suggested that one can increase the attractiveness of a group either by influencing members’ connections to particular others in the group, or by influencing their identification with the group as a whole. Carroll called this strategy attractive principle. The other way to motivate members to increate their commitment to a group, as suggested by Carroll, is to emphasize properties of the group itself, instead of the people who constitute it. He believed that people will feel more committed to groups that have clear boundaries, which differentiate group members from outsiders.
# Models and Theories in Human-Computer Interaction/Relational Affordance

In 1988, Donald Norman published a book titled "The Design of Everyday Things". This book has several interesting topics, including the definition of the concept of affordance. Norman wrote that “The term affordance refers to the relationship between a physical object and a person (or for that matter, any interacting agent, whether animal or human, or even machines and robots). An affordance is a relationship between the properties of an object and the capabilities of the agent that determine just how the object could possibly be used.” (Norman, 1988)
To go a step further, it is further clarified that an affordance is relational versus subjective. He later addresses the issue of the affordances of glass. An animal (or humans, in some cases) may subjectively think that glass is clear, and therefore matter can pass through it. This can be seen with small children and infants as they are amazed when they are introduced to glass for the first time. However, on a relational basis matter cannot pass through glass but sight can, which give us the affordance (or in this example, the blockage provides for an anti-affordance) that “glass affords seeing though and support, but not the passage of air or most physical objects)” (Norman, 1988)
Norman also makes it very clear that affordances and anti-affordances need to have the capacity of being perceived- if the capability of perception is not present, it cannot be an affordance.
References Norman, D. (1988). The Design of Everyday Things. New York: Basic Books.
# Models and Theories in Human-Computer Interaction/Nyquist–Shannon sampling theorem
### Nyquist–Shannon sampling theorem(CheeKang Tan)

The Nyquist Theorem is also called sampling theorem. It is used in signal processing and electrical circuit, the sample allows ADC(Analog to Digital Conversion) to generate a good analog waveform frequency. Sampling rate frequency refers to the number of samples per second.
Nyquist formula: C = 2B log2 V (Bits/Sec), B refers to bandwidth in hertz(Hz), V refers to signal levels.The bandwidth of a signal is determined by the highest signal rate in the sine wave. The higher the frequency, the greater the bandwidth. According to Nyquist, if the transmitted rate is less than 2 times the bandwidth, then the frequency is insufficient to carry the signal.
The Shannon-Weaver model of communication has known as the "mother of all models". It concludes the concepts of signals, channel, noise, information source, message, probability of error, encoding, decoding, channel capacity, information rate and so on. The channel capacity refer to the reliable information signal for communication channel. It helps transmitting a signal through a noisy channels with a great understanding of error correcting methods, level of noise interference and data corruption.
SNR(in dB) = 10 log10 (S/N), C = B log2(1+SNR); them refer to Channel capacity C (bit/sec), Signal power spectrum S(f), Noise power spectrum N(f), Signal to noise ratio (in decibels) SNR,and Bandwidth of the channel B. These formulas can be used for calculate the approximation of small, large, or constant of signal to noise ratios. In conclusion, the channel capacity is proportional to the bandwidth and SNR, which mean channel capacity and bandwidth can be increase linearly with the fixed SNR requirement. This way we can transmit a continuous signal with less power and noise.
Reference: https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~www_pa/Scots_Guide/iandm/part8/page1.html https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyquist%E2%80%93Shannon_sampling_theorem
# Models and Theories in Human-Computer Interaction/Power of Cybernetics

The Power of Cybernetics According to the video from Paul Pangaro and my own understanding, Cybernetics is a natural, social or technical interactive power that can correct the system itself when there is a goal of this system [1]. To get the goal, to fulfill the purpose, and to avoid failing; things and people existing in this system have to work to correct and adjust the mistakes based on the right direction. For example, the user test is Cybernetics in the whole process of interface development. The goal is to make the specific interface to be easily used for the end users; when doing the user tests, there are interactions between developers and testers, so we can get feedback by looping ideas back and forth; then by taking advantage of the feedback, developers will give improvements to the interface to make it much more enjoyable and acceptable; and finally the interface could be refined after evolutions at first order, second order…
In a word, Cybernetics can be regarded as a ruler, controller, organizer communicator and capital among all elements of a whole system which has a specific goal. It seems like a steersman maintain the balance, stability, speed and direction of a ship by keep correcting and adjusting based on the existing goal.
References: 1. https://vimeo.com/41776276
# Proteomics/Proteomics and Drug Discovery/References
## References

* Anderson, Amy . "The Design and Docking of Virtual Compound Libraries to Structures of Drug Targets." Current Computer Aided Drug Design 1 Dec 2005. 29 Mar 2006. Free Text (PDF)
* Anderson, Amy . "The Process of Structure-Based Drug Design." Chemistry & Biology 10 (2003). 29 Mar 2006. Free Text
* Burbaum, Jonathan. "Proteomics in drug discovery." Current Opinion in Chemical Biology 6 (2002). 29 Mar 2006. Abstract Only
* Chen, X. "TTD: Therapeutic Target Database." Nucleic Acids Research 1 Jan 2002. 29 Mar 2006 Free Text
* Krovat, E. M. "Recent Advances in Docking and Scoring." Current Computer Aided Drug Design 2005. 29 Mar 2006. Free Text (PDF)
* Wang, Ying. "Proteomics in Computer-Aided Drug Design." Current Computer Aided Drug Design 16 Oct 2005. 29 Mar 2006. Free Text (PDF)
* Yosida, M. "Proteomics as a tool in the pharmaceutical drug design process." Current Pharmaceutical Design. 1 March 2001. 29 Mar 2006 Free Text
# Proto-Finnic
## Contents

Welcome to this Wikibooks page! This will be intended as a full description of the grammar (and maybe specific vocabulary) of Proto-Finnic language.

### Prelude

* About and contributors
* Classification

### Phonology

* Phonology
* Later phonological changes

### Nominals

* Nominal cases
* Nouns and adjectives
* Pronouns and numbers
# Proteomics/Proteomics and Drug Discovery/Contacts
## Contacts

Anthony Esposito (age5719-AT-rit-DOT-edu)
Lukas Habegger (lh9357-AT-rit-DOT-edu)
# Proteomics/Topic List
### Presentation

| Introduction | Topic List | Introduction to Proteomics | Introduction to Proteomics |
* Introduction to Proteomics
* Protein Sample Preparation
* Experimental Protocols
* Protein Separations - Chromatography
* Protein Separations- Electrophoresis/Introduction to Electrophoresis
* Protein Separations - Centrifugation
* Emerging and Miscellaneous Proteomics Technologies
* Protein Identification - Mass Spectrometry
* Protein Primary Structure
* Post-translational Modification
* Protein - Protein Interactions
* Protein Chips
* Proteomics and Drug Discovery
* Biomarkers
* Experimental Protocols
* Contributors
# Pokémon/Pokédex/Granbull
## Basic Statistics

* National Index: 210
* Johto Index: 124
* Hoenn Index: 353
* Stage: Stage 1
* Height: 1.4m/4'7"
* Weight: 48.7kg/107.0lb
* Gender Distribution: 75% Female
* Ability: Intimidate
* Type: Normal
* Species: Fairy
* Egg Group: Ground/Fairy
* Hatch Steps: 5120
* Catch Rate: 75
* Base Experience: 178
* Max Experience: 800000
| | HP | Attack | Defense | Speed | Special Attack | Special Defense |
| Base Stats (RB/Y) | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Base Stats (GS/C) | 90 | 120 | 75 | 45 | 60 | 60 |
| Base Stats (RS/FL/E) | 90 | 120 | 75 | 45 | 60 | 60 |
| Base Stats (DP/PT/HGSS) | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Base Stats (BW/B2W2) | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Base Stats (XY/ORAS) | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Base Stats (SM/USUM) | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Base Stats (Sword/Shield/BDSP) | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Max Stats (RB/Y) | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Max Stats (GS/C) | 383 | 338 | 248 | 188 | 218 | 218 |
| Max Stats (RS/FL/E) | 384 | 372 | 273 | 207 | 240 | 240 |
| Max Stats (DP/PT/HGSS) | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Max Stats (B/W/B2W2) | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Max Stats (X/Y/ORAS) | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Max Stats (SM/USUM) | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Max Stats (Sword/Shield/BDSP) | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Effort Points (Sword/Shield/BDSP) | – | – | – | – | – | – |

## Type Matching
### Before Generation 6

Move types which are good on Granbull: Fighting Move types which don't effect Granbull: Ghost
All other move types are normal effectiveness on Granbull.

### Generation 6 and after

Granbull becomes a Fairy type.

## Moveset

| Level | Gold / Silver | Crystal | Ruby / Sapphire Emerald XD / Colosseum | Fire Red / Leaf Green |
| Start | Tackle Scary Face | Tackle Scary Face | Tackle Scary Face | Tackle Scary Face |
| 4 | Tail Whip | Tail Whip | Tail Whip | Tail Whip |
| 8 | Charm | Charm | Charm | Charm |
| 13 | Bite | Bite | Bite | Bite |
| 19 | Lick | Lick | Lick | Lick |
| 28 | Roar | Roar | Roar | Roar |
| 38 | Rage | Rage | Rage | Rage |
| 49 | - | - | Take Down | Take Down |
| 51 | Take Down | Take Down | - | - |
| 61 | - | - | Crunch | Crunch |

### TM/HM

* GS/C/RS/FL: Attract, Double Team, Frustration, Hidden Power, Hyper Beam, Protect, Rain Dance, Rest, Return, Roar, Rock Smash, Shadow Ball, Sludge Bomb, Strength, Sunny Day, Thief, Thunder, Toxic
* C/RS/FL: Thunderbolt
* GS/C: Curse, Defense Curl, Detect, Dynamicpunch, Endure, Fire Punch, Headbutt, Ice Punch, Mud-Slap, Sleep Talk, Snore, Swagger, Thunderpunch, Zap Cannon
* RS/FL: Brick Break, Bulk Up, Dig, Earthquake, Facade, Fire Blast, Flamethrower, Focus Punch, Iron Tail, Overheat, Rock Tomb, Secret Power, Shock Wave, Solarbeam, Taunt, Torment, Water Pulse

### Evolution

* GS/C/RS/FL: Crunch, Faint Attack, Heal Bell, Metronome, Present, Reflect
* GS/C: Leer, Lick
* RS/FL: Smellingsalt, Snore

## Trading Cards

* Neo Genesis #37 - Granbull
* Skyridge #61 - Granbull
| Basic: Snubbull | Stage 1: Granbull | (No Stage 2) |
# Pokémon/Pokédex/Goodra
## Description

A gooy snail-like Pokémon.

## Base Statistics

A Dragon type Pokémon.

## Type Matching

Moves that deal 200% of their damage to Goodra: ice, dragon, fairy Moves that deal 50% of their damage to Goodra: fire, water, grass, electric
# Pokémon/Pokédex/Gothita
## Description

A small Pokémon.

## Base Statistics

A Psychic type Pokémon.

## Type Matching

Moves that deal 200% of their damage to Gothita: bug, ghost, dark Moves that deal 50% of their damage to Gothita: fighting, psychic