OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Ada Programming/Attributes/'Asm Input
## Description

The Asm_Input attribute denotes a function that takes two parameters. The first is a string, the second is an expression of the type designated by the prefix. The first (string) argument is required to be a static expression, and is the constraint for the parameter, (e.g., what kind of register is required). The second argument is the value to be used as the input argument. The possible values for the constant are the same as those used in the RTL, and are dependent on the configuration file used to built the GCC back end.
# Ada Programming/Attributes/'Asm Output
## Description

The Asm_Output attribute denotes a function that takes two parameters. The first is a string, the second is the name of a variable of the type designated by the attribute prefix. The first (string) argument is required to be a static expression and designates the constraint for the parameter (e.g., what kind of register is required). The second argument is the variable to be updated with the result. The possible values for constraint are the same as those used in the RTL, and are dependent on the configuration file used to build the GCC back end. If there are no output operands, then this argument may either be omitted, or explicitly given as No_Output_Operands.
# Ada Programming/Attributes/'Base
## Description

Represents the base type of another type or subtype. This attribute is used to access attributes of the base type.
T'Base refers to the "base range" of the type, which defines the range in which intermediate calculations are performed.

## Base for Integer Types

The standard states that the range of T'Base:
* includes the value 0
* is symmetric about zero, with possibly an extra negative value
* includes all of the values in the subtype T
So for example, if T is:
then the compiler will choose a hardware supported type that includes this range, in this case probably an eight bit type (on a two's complement machine)
This definition is not to be taken literally, as by Ada semantics, T and T'Base would be incompatible. In effect, the declaration of T would then be
Note that built-in operators go through the base type, and T's "+" op for example is implicitly declared as:
There are no constraint checks on T'Base, so for example:
then in the first assignment to O1, there is a constraint check to ensure that the result of 1 + 2 is in the range of T, but in the second assignment to O2, there is no check.
T'Base is useful for generics, when you need to be able to recover the base range of the type, in order to declare an object with value 0; for example, if this is an accumulator.
It is helpful to know something about the base range of the type, so that you have a guarantee that you don't get any overflow during intermediate calculations. For example, given type T above then:
This is a problem, since if the sum of O1 and O2 is large (that is, greater than T'Base'Last), then you'll get overflow. Knowing that you're going to be adding two values together means you should declare the type this way:
That way you know that (sub)type T's range is 1 .. 42, but you also have a guarantee that T'Base'Last >= 84, and hence the sum of two values of type T cannot overflow.
Note that a declaration of the form:
actually declares a subtype, named T, of some anonymous base type. We can refer to the range of this base type as T'Base.

## Base for Enumeration Types

An enumeration type is its own base type, so given this type:
then the range of ET is the same as the range of ET'Base. If you need some extra literals in your "base" type, then you have to declare them manually, not unlike what we did above:
Now you can say ET'Succ (ET'Last) and you'll get a meaningful answer. This is necessary when you do something like:
Also when you derive from ET_Base with a range constraint, the base of the derived type will include all values of the base type:
Note that here ET_BASE_First is of type New_ET.

## Example

If you declare:
and
then Sub_Enum'Base'Last is Enum3.

## See also
### Wikibook

* Ada Programming

### Ada Reference Manual

* 13.3 Operational and Representation Attributes (Annotated)
* Annex K Language-Defined Attributes (Annotated)
# Ada Programming/Attributes/'Bit
## Description

obj'Bit, where obj is any object, yields the bit offset within the storage unit (byte) that contains the first bit of storage allocated for the object. The value of this attribute is of the type universal_integer and is always a nonnegative number smaller than System.Storage_Unit.
For an object that is a variable or a constant allocated in a register, the value is zero. (The use of this attribute does not force the allocation of a variable to memory).
For an object that is a formal parameter, this attribute applies to either the matching actual parameter or to a copy of the matching actual parameter.
For an access object the value is zero. Note that obj.all'Bit is subject to an Access_Check for the designated object. Similarly for a record component X.C'Bit is subject to a discriminant check and X(I).Bit and X(I1..I2)'Bit are subject to index checks.
This attribute is designed to be compatible with the DEC Ada 83 definition and implementation of the Bit attribute.
# Ada Programming/Attributes/'Callable
## Description

X'Callable is an Ada attribute where X is any task object. If the task is completed or has been terminated, this attribute is false. Otherwise, this attribute is true (i.e. the task is callable).
Be warned - calling X'Callable can result in a race condition. X'Callable may be true at the time the attribute value is read, but it may become false at the time action is taken based on the value read. Once X'Callable is false, however, it can be expected to stay false.

## See also
### Wikibook

* Ada Programming
* Ada Programming/Attributes
* Ada Programming/Attributes/'Terminated

### Ada Reference Manual

* 13.3 Operational and Representation Attributes (Annotated)
* Annex K Language-Defined Attributes (Annotated)
# Ada Programming/Attributes/'Bit Position
## Description

R.C'Bit_Position, where R is a record object and C is one of the fields of the record type, yields the bit offset within the record contains the first bit of storage allocated for the object. The value of this attribute is of the type universal_integer. The value depends only on the field C and is independent of the alignment of the containing record R.
# Ada Programming/Attributes/'Body Version
## Description

Yields a value of the predefined type String that identifies the version of the compilation unit (P) that contains the body (but not any subunits) of the program unit.
# C++ Programming/Code/Standard C Library/Functions/isalnum
#### isalnum

| Syntax | #include <cctype> int isalnum( int ch ); |
The function isalnum returns non-zero if its argument is a numeric digit or a letter of the alphabet. Otherwise, zero is returned.

##### Related topics

    isalpha - iscntrl - isdigit - isgraph - isprint - ispunct - isspace - isxdigit
# C++ Programming/Code/Standard C Library/Functions/ispunct
#### ispunct

| Syntax | #include <cctype> int ispunct( int ch ); |
The ispunct function returns non-zero if its argument is a printing character but neither alphanumeric nor a space. Otherwise, zero is returned.

##### Related topics

    isalnum - isalpha - iscntrl - isdigit - isgraph - isspace - isxdigit
# C++ Programming/Code/Standard C Library/Functions/isupper
#### isupper

| Syntax | #include <cctype> int isupper( int ch ); |
The isupper function returns non-zero if its argument is an uppercase letter. Otherwise, zero is returned.

##### Related topics

    islower - tolower
# C++ Programming/Code/Standard C Library/Functions/isprint
#### isprint

| Syntax | #include <cctype> int isprint( int ch ); |
The function isprint returns non-zero if its argument is a printable character (including a space). Otherwise, zero is returned.

##### Related topics

    isalnum - isalpha - iscntrl - isdigit - isgraph - ispunct - isspace
# C++ Programming/Code/Standard C Library/Functions/isalpha
#### isalpha

| Syntax | #include <cctype> int isalpha( int ch ); |
The function isalpha returns non-zero if its argument is a letter of the alphabet. Otherwise, zero is returned.

##### Related topics

    isalnum - iscntrl - isdigit - isgraph - isprint - ispunct - isspace - isxdigit
# C++ Programming/Code/Standard C Library/Functions/iscntrl
#### iscntrl

| Syntax | #include <cctype> int iscntrl( int ch ); |
The iscntrl function returns non-zero if its argument is a control character (between 0 and 0x1F or equal to 0x7F). Otherwise, zero is returned.

##### Related topics

    isalnum - isalpha - isdigit - isgraph - isprint - ispunct - isspace - isxdigit
# C++ Programming/Code/Standard C Library/Functions/isgraph
#### isgraph

| Syntax | #include <cctype> int isgraph( int ch ); |
The function isgraph returns non-zero if its argument is any printable character other than a space (if you can see the character, then isgraph will return a non-zero value). Otherwise, zero is returned.

##### Related topics

    isalnum - isalpha - iscntrl - isdigit - isprint - ispunct - isspace - isxdigit
# C++ Programming/Code/Standard C Library/Functions/islower
#### islower

| Syntax | #include <cctype> int islower( int ch ); |
The islower function returns non-zero if its argument is a lowercase letter. Otherwise, zero is returned.

##### Related topics

    isupper
# C++ Programming/Code/Standard C Library/Functions/isspace
#### isspace

| Syntax | #include <cctype> int isspace( int ch ); |
The isspace function returns non-zero if its argument is some sort of space (i.e. single space, tab, vertical tab, form feed, carriage return, or newline). Otherwise, zero is returned.

##### Related topics

    isalnum - isalpha - iscntrl - isdigit - isgraph - isprint - ispunct - isxdigit
# C++ Programming/Code/Standard C Library/Functions/isdigit
#### isdigit

| Syntax | #include <cctype> int isdigit( int ch ); |
The function isdigit returns non-zero if its argument is a digit between 0 and 9. Otherwise, zero is returned.

##### Related topics

    isalnum - isalpha - iscntrl - isgraph - isprint - ispunct - isspace - isxdigit
# C++ Programming/Code/Standard C Library/Functions/raise
## raise

| Syntax | #include <csignal> int raise(int) |
The raise function raises a signal specified by its parameter.
If unsuccessful, it returns a non-zero value.

### Related topics

    signal
# C++ Programming/Code/Standard C Library/Functions/rewind
#### rewind

| Syntax | #include <cstdio> void rewind( FILE *stream ); |
The function rewind moves the file position indicator to the beginning of the specified stream, also clearing the error and EOF flags associated with that stream.

##### Related topics

    fseek
# C++ Programming/Code/Standard C Library/Functions/putchar
#### putchar

| Syntax | #include <cstdio> int putchar( int ch ); |
The putchar function writes ch to stdout. The code
is the same as
The return value of putchar is the written character, or EOF if there is an error.

##### Related topics

    putc
# C++ Programming/Code/Standard C Library/Functions/puts
#### puts

| Syntax | #include <cstdio> int puts( char *str ); |
The function puts writes str to stdout. puts returns non-negative on success, or EOF on failure.

##### Related topics

    fputs - gets - printf - putc
# C++ Programming/Code/Standard C Library/Functions/realloc
## realloc

| Syntax | #include <cstdlib> void *realloc( void *p, size_t s); |
The function realloc resizes a block created by malloc or calloc, and returns a pointer to the new memory region.
If the resize operation fails, realloc returns NULL and leaves the old memory region intact.

### Related topics

    calloc - free - malloc
# C++ Programming/Code/Standard C Library/Functions/remove
#### remove

| Syntax | #include <cstdio> int remove( const char *fname ); |
The remove function erases the file specified by fname. The return value of remove is zero upon success, and non-zero if there is an error.

##### Related topics

    rename
# C++ Programming/Code/Standard C Library/Functions/rename
#### rename

| Syntax | #include <cstdio> int rename( const char *oldfname, const char *newfname ); |
The function rename changes the name of the file oldfname to newfname. The return value of rename is zero upon success, non-zero on error.

##### Related topics

    remove
# C++ Programming/Code/Standard C Library/Functions/putc
#### putc

| Syntax | #include <cstdio> int putc( int ch, FILE *stream ); |
The putc function writes the character ch to stream. The return value is the character written, or EOF if there is an error. For example:
Generates a copy of the file tmp.c called tmpCopy.c.

##### Related topics

    feof - fflush - fgetc - fputc - getc - getchar - putchar - puts
# C++ Programming/Code/Standard C Library/Functions/qsort
## qsort

| Syntax | #include <cstdlib> void* qsort( const void *base, size_t num, size_t size, int (*compare)(const void *, const void *)); |
The function qsort performs a Quick sort on an array. Note that some implementations may instead use a more efficient sorting algorithm.
*base refers to the array being sorted. This array contains num elements, each of size size.
The compare function accepts two pointers to the object within the array - which need to first be cast to the object type being examined. The function returns -1 if the first parameter should be before the second, 1 if the first parameter is after, or 0 if the object matches.

### Related topics

    bsearch
# C++ Programming/Code/Standard C Library/Functions/rand
## rand

| Syntax | #include <cstdlib> int rand( void ); |
The function rand returns a pseudo-random integer between zero and RAND_MAX. An example:
The rand function must be seeded before its first call with the srand function - otherwise it will consistently return the same numbers when the program is restarted.

### Related topics

    srand
# Cell Biology/Nucleus

In cell biology, the nucleus is an organelle, found in most eukaryotic cells. The nucleus contains the cell's genetic material as DNA. Nuclei have two primary functions: to control chemical reactions within the cytoplasm and to store information needed for cellular division.
# Cell Biology/Peroxisomes

Cell Biology | Parts of the cell | Organelles
<< Lysosomes | Peroxisomes | Cytosol >>
It used to be thought that peroxisomes are formed by the budding of smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER). However, now it is thought that they form through self-assembly. (I will get more information references as I do some more thorough literature searches). The peroxisome is another major source of Oxygen utilization (along with the mitochondrion). There are specific proteins associated with the peroxisomes membrane, also there are 3 oxidation enzymes associated with peroxisomes:
* D-amino acid oxidase
* Urate Oxidase
* Catalase
The enzyme contents vary with various types of cells. One of the main functions of peroxisomes in liver cells is detoxification. This is done by the oxidation of substances like:
* Alcohol - About 1/2 of the ethanol one drinks is converted to acetaldehyde by oxidation.
* Phenols
* Formic acid
* Formaldehyde

### Why peroxisomes are not like lysosomes

Peroxisomes are organelles that contain oxidative enzymes, such as D-amino acid oxidase, urate oxidase, and catalase. They may resemble a lysosome, however, they are not formed in the Golgi complex. Peroxisomes are distinguished by a crystalline structure inside a sac which also contains amorphous gray material. They are self replicating, like the mitochondria. Components accumulate at a given site and they can be assembled into a peroxisome. They may look like storage granules, however, they are not formed in the same way as storage granules.
Peroxisomes function to rid the body of toxic substances like hydrogen peroxide, or other metabolites. They are a major site of oxygen utilization and are numerous in the liver where toxic byproducts are going to accumulate.
The peroxisome is made as a phospholipid bilayer, encapsulating oxidative materials. They would be 'sphere-ish' in shape, not necessarily a perfect sphere, and sometimes, they may take other shapes. But most electron micrographs I have seen (2 dimensions) show them as circles. (As you may be aware, the Cell membrane is also a phospholipid bilayer.) Peroxisomes have membrane proteins that are critical for peroxisomal function, to import proteins into their interiors, proliferate or segregate to daughter cells (This update, thanks to Babich Temps). The main differences would be:
* Types of phospholipids used.
* Size of the membrane (i.e. peroxisomes are MUCH smaller than the cell).
<< Lysosomes | Peroxisomes | Cytosol >>
Cell Biology | Parts of the cell Organelles
# Cell Biology/Nucleolus

The nucleolus is the only structure in the nucleus that is detectable in a light microscope without staining. It is the site of rRNA synthesis. (rRNA or ribosomal RNA is an essential part of ribosomes, the structures in the Cytoplasma where proteins are made from mRNA templates.) The nucleolus contains many rDNA genes from which the rRNA is made. The human genome contains 10 chromosomes with arrays of rDNA genes (two copies of chromosomes 13, 14, 15, 21 and 22) but not all of these arrays are necessarily actively used in all cells.
# Cell Biology/Organelles/Other
## Peroxisomes

Peroxisomes perform a variety of metabolic processes and as a by-product, produce hydrogen peroxide. Peroxisomes use peroxase enzyme to break down this hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen.

## Lysosomes

Lysosomes are vacuoles containing digestive and destructive membranes. In white blood cells, these are used to kill the bacteria or virus, while in tadpole-tail cells they kill the cell by separating the tail from the main body.
They also do much of the cellular digestion involved in apoptosis, the process of programmed cell death.

## Vacuole

Vacuoles are cellular storage places. Like the cell membrane, they are comprised of a lipid bilayer that functions as a selectively permeable barrier to regulate movement of materials into and out of the compartment. They can serve a variety of purposes, storing food, water, or waste products, or immune functions such as containing dangerous materials or maintaining turgor pressure (in plants). Vacuoles serve very different purposes in plant cells than they do in animal cells.
Plant Cells In plants, vacuoles comprise a significant portion of the cell's total volume and often contribute significantly to the function of a differentiated cell. For example, vacuoles in stomata cells contain large numbers of potassium ions, which can be pumped in or out to open or close the stomata.
Animal Cells In animal cells, vacuoles serve more subordinate roles, such as assisting in endo- and exocytosis or basic storage of food and waste.
Central Vacuole The central vacuole is found only in plant cells. It is filled with water and is pressurised, like a balloon. This forces all the other organelles within the cell out toward the cell wall. This pressure is called turgor pressure and is what gives plants their "crisp" and firm structure.

## Golgi apparatus

The Golgi Complex basically functions as a "packaging center" for the cell, attaching "address labels" (functional groups) to various cell products to direct them to their respective locations, and "packaging" the products into vacuoles to ensure delivery. Anatomically, the Golgi Complex consists of layers of lipid membrane stacked one one top of another, with a cis face and a trans face. As the molecular product being packaged moves through the complex, various enzymes act upon it to induce vacuole formation and functional group attachment.

## Endoplasmic Reticulum

The Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) acts as a transport from the nucleus and ribosomes to the Golgi apparatus. There are two types of endoplasmic reticulum:

### Smooth ER

Smooth ER act as transport for various things, mainly the RNA from the nucleus to the ribosomes (RNA is a small piece of the DNA code specifically designed to tell the ribosomes what to make). Smooth ER appears smooth in texture, hence the name. Smooth ER plays an important role in lipid emulsification and digestion in the cell.

### Rough ER

Rough ER are "rough" because of the ribosomes embedded in them. The rough ER take the protein to the Golgi apparatus to be packaged into vacuoles
# Cell Biology/Parts of the cell

Cell Biology | Introduction | Types of cells | Parts of the cell | Cell division | Gene expression and translation
* Membranes
* Organs
* Genetic material
* Energy supply (chloroplasts and mitochondria)|Energy supply (chloroplasts and mitochondria)
Cell Biology | Introduction | Types of cells | Parts of the cell | Cell division | Gene expression and translation
# Cell Biology/Models/Yeasts
## Yeasts

Yeasts are chosen as model eucaryotes. Biologists are focusing on one type of yeasts: Saccharomyces cerevisiae. This one is used for brewing beer and baking bread.
'Saccharo' and 'myces' derived from Greek, means 'sugar' and 'fungus' respectively. 'Cerevisiae' derived from Latin, means 'of beer'.
# Cell Biology/Organelles/Chloroplasts
## Chloroplasts

Chloroplasts are major organelles. They contain green pigments that make plants green. They are often called plastids, though plastids and chloroplasts are not exactly the same thing—a chloroplast is a special kind of plastid that photosynthesizes. Chloroplasts do lots of things, but their main function is photosynthesis.
Plant cells, and some protists have chloroplasts, though animal and fungal cells lack them. Prokaryotes do not have chloroplasts (or any other organelles), though some can carry out photosynthesis, its cell acting like one big chloroplast. Chloroplasts are mainly green in colour since it absorbs red and blue light via their green pigment chlorophyll that is present in the thylakoid membranes.(Refer to wikibooks.org for more information)
Chloroplasts are cellular generators. They take in carbon dioxide and water, and release sugar and oxygen. This process is called photosynthesis. Mitochondria then use the sugar and oxygen to carry out cellular respiration, producing energy.
Mitochondria are essential parts of many eukaryotes, but they are useless without oxygen. Therefore, chloroplasts are extremely important. They produce breathable air for life.
Root hairs are seen to not have chloroplasts as their job is to collect water and nutrients. They do NOT carry out photosynthesis.
Like mitochondria, chloroplasts have their own DNA. Scientists also think chloroplasts are descended from a kind of bacteria, called cyanobacteria. Cyanobacteria are the photosynthetic bacteria we mentioned earlier. In early stages of Earth, cyanobacteria produced oxygen for their friends, the ærobic bacteria (ærobic means they use oxygen). Some of these ærobic bacteria later migrated into a eukaryotic cell, becoming mitochondria. The cyanobacteria followed, becoming chloroplasts. All eukaryotic cells contain mitochondria, but only plants and algæ contain chloroplasts, so scientists think mitochondria came first.
# Cell Biology/Organelles/Nucleus
## Nucleus

In case you forgot, cells have their genetic instructions stored in DNA molecules. These molecules can be either 'covered' or not. This cover is called nucleus. Prokaryotes don't have a nucleus, whereas, eukaryotes do.
There are 2 concentric layers covering nucleus, which is the nuclear envelope. In interphase, the nucleus does not show its chromosomes (which are coined DNA anyway). When the cell is about to divide, its nucleus condenses and chromosomes gradually appear as 2 bunch of wires, each one move to one side of the cell.
# Aros/Developer/USBDrivers

How to use POSEIDON classes in software applications