OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Chemical Sciences: A Manual for CSIR-UGC National Eligibility Test for Lectureship and JRF/Triatomic molecule

Triatomic molecules are formed by three atoms. Examples include H$_2$O, CO$_2$, HCN etc.

## Molecular vibrations

The vibrational modes of a triatomic molecule can be determined in specific cases.

### Symmetric linear molecules

A symmetric linear molecule ABA can perform:
* Antisymmetric longitudinal vibrations with frequency
    $\omega _{a}={\sqrt {\frac {k_{1}M}{m_{A}m_{B}}}}$
* Symmetric longitudinal vibrations with frequency
    $\omega _{s1}={\sqrt {\frac {k_{1}}{m_{A}}}}$
* Symmetric transversal vibrations with frequency
    $\omega _{s2}={\sqrt {\frac {2k_{2}M}{m_{A}}}}$
In the previous formulas, M is the total mass of the molecule, m$_A$ and m$_B$ are the masses of the elements A and B, k$_1$ and k$_2$ are the spring constants of the molecule along its axis and perpendicular to it.

## Types

Ozone, O$_3$ is an example of a triatomic molecule with all atoms the same. Triatomic hydrogen, H$_3$, is unstable and breaks up spontaneously. H$_3$$^+$, the trihydrogen cation is stable by itself and is symmetric.
# Chemical Sciences: A Manual for CSIR-UGC National Eligibility Test for Lectureship and JRF/Trimethylsilyl propionate

Trimethylsilyl propanoate (TMSP or TSP) is a chemical compound containing a trimethylsilyl group. It is used as internal reference in the NMR spectrum nuclear magnetic resonance for aqueous solvents (e.g. D2O). For that usage it is often deuterated (3-(trimethylsilyl)-2,2',3,3'-tetradeuteropropionic acid or TMSP-d4). Other internal references that are frequently used in NMR experiments are DSS (NMR standard) and Tetramethylsilane.
# Chemical Sciences: A Manual for CSIR-UGC National Eligibility Test for Lectureship and JRF/Velocity selector

A velocity selector is used in accelerator mass spectrometry to select particles based on their speed. The velocity selector is composed of orthogonal electric and magnetic fields, such that particles with the correct charge to mass ratio and speed will be unaffected, and other particles will be deflected.

## Theory

Any charged particle in an electric field will feel a force proportional to the charge and field strength such that ${\vec {F}}=q{\vec {E}}$, where F is force, q is charge, and E is electric field. Similarly, any particle moving in a magnetic field will feel a force proportional to the velocity and charge of the particle. The force felt by any particle is then equal to ${\vec {F}}=q{\vec {v}}\times {\vec {B}}$, where F is force, q is the charge on the particle, v is the velocity of the particle, B is the strength of the magnetic field, and $\times$ is the cross product. In the case of a velocity selector, the magnetic field is always at 90 degrees to the velocity and the force is simplified to $F=qvB$ in the direction described by the cross product.
Setting the two forces to equal magnitude in opposite directions it can be shown that ${\frac {E}{B}}=v$. Which means that any combination of electric (${\vec {E}}$) and magnetic (${\vec {B}}$) fields will allow charged particles with only velocity ${\vec {v}}$ through.
# Diagnostic Radiology/Musculoskeletal Imaging/Joint Disorders/Osteoarthritis
## Etiology

The cause of OA is generally multifactorial. Joint integrity, local inflammation, mechanical forces, genetic predisposition, and cellular/biomechanical processes all play a role in the development of OA. Although the etiology cannot always be identified, in general it is caused by repetitive biomechanical stress on the articular cartilage and subchondral bone of the affected joint. This is often due to a preexisting deformity such as developmental dysplasia of the hip, or genu varus of the knee. Additionally, there are multiple risk factors that increase a patient’s predisposition for OA. These include:
* Advanced age
* Female sex
* Obesity
* Occupation
* Sports activities
* Previous injury to the affected joint
* Muscle weakness/imbalance around affected joint
* Acromegaly
* Calcium crystal deposition disease

## Clinical Findings

Most often seen in patients over 40 year old. The most common complaint is pain worsened with activity and lessened with rest. Joint effusions and crepitus are often seen on clinical exam, and large osteophytes can be palplated at the affected joint.
The joints most commonly involved in primary OA include the knees, hips, hands, and spine, and less often the elbow, wrist, and ankle.
Symptoms in various joints:
* Knees: Crepitus, joint effusion, osteophytes, pain, decreased ROM.
* Hips: Pain in hip or referred to knee.
* Hands: DIP (Heberden’s nodes), PIP (Bouchard’s nodes), and 1st CMC joint involvement which manifests as enlarged joints.
* Spine: Most commonly seen at points of greatest spinal flexibility (C5, T8, and L3).
* C-Spine: Uncovertebral and facet joint osteophytes can narrow the foramina and spinal canal.
* L-spine: Apophyseal osteophytes can cause spinal stenosis.

## Radiologic Findings

Plain films often do not correlate with physical exam findings in early disease. Findings consistent with OA include subchondral sclerosis, osteophytes, subchondral cysts, and joint space narrowing.

## Prognosis

The most common course of OA is an intermittent, progressive worsening of symptoms over time, although in some patients the disease stabilizes. Prognosis also varies depending on which joint is involved.
Factors associated with progression of OA:
* Knees: High body mass index, varus or valgus knee deformity.
* Hips: Female gender, night pain, presence of femoral osteophytes and subchondral sclerosis.
* Hands: Older age.

## References

* Osteoarthritis by Leah Kiviat, M.D., University of Washington Department of Radiology.
* Wikipedia listing for osteoarthritis
# Diagnostic Radiology/Musculoskeletal Imaging/Joint Disorders/Osteochondroses

The osteochondroses are a motley group of entities that were initially lumped together due to morphological similarity. They often occur in children are associated with apparent fragmentation of bone in an epiphysis or apophysis. With the perspective of time, we can now divide these entities into one of three rough groups: post-traumatic, osteonecrosis and normal variants of ossification.

## Kienböck's Disease

Definition: Avascular necrosis of the lunate bone, one of the bones in the most proximal carpal row. It is also known as lunatomalacia.
Etiology: Idiopathic or secondary to repetitive trauma. Has been associated in the past past with negative ulnar variance, however this has been recently questioned. The condition was first described in 1910 by a Viennese radiologist, Dr. Robert Kienböck.
Clinical Findings:
Many people with Kienböck’s disease believe they have a sprained wrist at first, usually after some form of trauma to the wrist, such as a fall. This type of trauma can disrupt the blood flow to the lunate. In most people, two vessels supply blood to the lunate, but in some people there is only one source. This puts them at greater risk for developing the disease. As the disease progresses, other signs and symptoms are noted, including:
* A painful and sometimes swollen wrist
* Limited range of motion in the affected wrist (stiffness)
* Decreased grip strength in the hand
* Tenderness directly over the bone (on the top of the hand at about the middle of the wrist)
* Pain or difficulty in turning the hand upward
Stages of Disease:
Kienböck’s disease follows a specific progressive pattern through four stages.
| Stage 1: | Symptoms similar to those of a wrist sprain. X-rays may be normal or show a line indicating a possible fracture. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) may also be helpful in making the diagnosis in this early stage. |
| Stage 2: | Radiographs may demonstrate lunate sclerosis. Either an MRI or a computed tomography (CT) scan may be used to assess the condition of the bone. Recurrent pain, swelling and wrist tenderness are common. |
| Stage 3: | The avascular bone begins to collapse. The surrounding bones may begin to shift position. Patients experience increasing pain, weakness in gripping, and limited motion. |
| Stage 4: | The surfaces of adjoining bones are affected, resulting in arthritis of the wrist. |
Treatment:
In its early stages, Kienböck’s disease may be difficult to diagnose because the symptoms are so similar to those of a sprained wrist and radiographic findings are often negative. Splinting or casting the wrist for two to three weeks is often attempted initially, as well as anti-inflammatory medications such as aspirin or ibuprofen for pain relief.
Surgical options include bone grafting, bone leveling, proximal row carpectomy and eventually fusion procedures, but none are curative.
References:
* Chung KC, Spilson MS, Kim MH. Is negative ulnar variance a risk factor for Kienbock's disease? A meta-analysis. Ann Plast Surg. 2001 Nov;47(5):494-9.
* The Kienböck Disease Information Center
# ERP Internals/Modules

A "module" is a group of related programs performing a major function within an ERP. Since there is no particular order that makes sense, we have chosen to list the modules in alphabetical order. Some of the decisions about what constitutes a module are not arbitrary. Since an ERP is designed to accommodate a variety of industries, not every enterprise would use every module.
Module Documentation Layout describes how the information about each module is organized.
An ERP package is composed of the following modules:
Finance and Performance Management
* Accounts Payable
* Accounts Receivable
* Bank Reconciliation
* Cash Management
* Currency
* Fixed Assets
* General Ledger
* Bond Manager
* Job Costing
* Time Billing
* Investment Manager
* Share Manager
Customer Relationship Management
* Customer Relationship Management (CRM)
* Help Desk
* Call Center
* Contacts
* Sales Analysis
* Sales Compensation
Human Resource Management
* Employee Scheduling
* Human Resources
* Payroll
Supply-Chain Management
* Inventory
* Manufacturing
* Order Entry/Invoicing
* Preventative Maintenance
* Pricing
* Purchasing
* Quotation/Estimation
* Receiving
* Shipping
* Service Management
Technical Architecture
* Systems Administration
* Business Intelligence (BI)
* Workflow
# ERP Internals/Modules/Accounts Payable/Functions/Find an Invoice

This function is used when the user doesn't know the invoice number but does know some information about the invoice. They enter what they know and the ERP displays all the invoices that match the criteria. This function becomes more and more useful as the size of the enterprise increases
# ERP Internals/Glossary/Workman

A Canadian program that compensates workers for injuries suffered on the job.
# ERP Internals/Glossary/Zip Code

An identifier assigned by the US Postal Service for the purposes of delivering mail. "04106" is a sample zip code. Zip codes can also have the format xxxxx-xxxx. Contrast with Postal Code.
# ERP Internals/Industries

There are millions of enterprises organized into thousands of industries. When all factors are considered, each enterprise is unique but there is a great deal of overlap (e.g. everyone has a General Ledger and Accounts Payable). The biggest industry in terms of revenue is manufacturing. The second biggest is retail. Although there are thousands of industries, there are only a few dozen intrinsic functions. An ERP system is designed to accommodate many industries using a common base of functions.

## Manufacturing

Manufacturers create their products from raw materials and parts. This can be as simple as assembling a dozen standard parts to creating products that have thousands of components, hundreds of operations, and require weeks of engineering. Some manufacturers sell their products directly to the end-users; others sell them to distributors or large retailers. Some manufacturers produce millions of identical products; others produce custom, one-off products. The Manufacturing sub-system is key to manufacturers.

## Distribution

Distributors buy products from manufacturers in large quantities (truckloads, railcar loads) and sell them in smaller quantities to retailers. Inventory and Warehousing are important functions for distributors.

## Retail

Retail stores sell products in small quantities to businesses or consumers. A large retailer might buy directly from the manufacturer; others buy from distributors. Point of Sale (POS) is an important function for retail.

## Construction

Construction enterprises build things. This can vary from a modest house to a multi-million dollar skyscraper or a six-lane freeway. Job Costing and Project Management are important functions for construction enterprises.

## Professional Services

Professional Service enterprises include lawyers, accountants, consultants, architects, and other firms that bill their clients for their services. Since they live or die on billings to clients, timesheets are an important function for professional service enterprises.

## Not-for-profit

For-profit enterprises exist to maximize value for their shareholders. Not-for-profit enterprises exist to maximize services to their clients given the amount of resources they have. Not-for-profits use different accounting practices and produce different financial statements than for-profits
# ERP Internals/Glossary/Write off

When a customer debt is declared uncollectable, it is written off by debiting (increasing) an expense account and crediting (decreasing) Accounts Receivable.
# ERP Internals/Modules/Accounts Payable/Functions

Accounts Payable has the following functions:
* Maintain Supplier Information
* Find a Supplier
* Find an Invoice
* Maintain Recurring Transactions
* Enter Supplier Invoice
* Create Supplier Invoice
* Authorize Invoices for Payment
* Hold/Release Invoices
* Pay Invoices
* Generate Cash Requirements
* Generate Accounts Payable Summary
* Print Labels
* Print 1099's
* Change Supplier Number
* Periodic Processing
* Maintain Module Information
# ERP Internals/Modules/Accounts Payable/Functions/Find a Supplier

This function is used when the user doesn't know the supplier's number or name but does know some information about the supplier. They enter what they know and the ERP displays all the suppliers that match the criteria. This function becomes more and more useful as the size of the enterprise increases.
# ERP Internals/Modules/Accounts Payable

Every enterprise purchases goods, services, assets, or office supplies from its suppliers (also known as vendors). Accounts Payable pays these suppliers on time (taking advantage of payment discounts if possible) while avoiding duplicate payments and bank over-drafts. Accounts Payable is the last step in the supply chain where Purchasing is the first. Accounts Payable accepts invoices, selects invoices to be paid, generates checks and forecasts future cash requirements based on due dates. Some AP checks are issued to people or organizations that are not worth putting on file since they are likely to receive only one check. Some enterprises prepay part of the invoice amount because the supplier requires a deposit. Every ERP has an Accounts Payable module.
* Functions
* Reports

## Self-service

Suppliers can see their invoices and checks and basic information via the web and update some portions of it (name, address, and contact information for example).

## Tables

There are several major groups of tables in Accounts Payable.
* Supplier information is the master data used by Accounts Payable. It contains information about the enterprise's suppliers and other creditors. Information about the supplier, its locations, contacts etc. These tables are also used by Purchasing.
* Bank information is also master data. It contains information about the enterprise's banks and bank accounts.
* Invoices are documents issued by suppliers giving notice of what is owed them. Examples are standard invoices, credit memos, debit memos, interest memos. These transaction tables typically contains the invoice header, lines and payment schedules.
* Payments or checks are transaction data reflect payments done to suppliers.
* Accounting Entries are transaction data with the accounting generated by invoice and payment transactions.

## Data Exchange

Accounts Payable sends pricing data to Inventory, assets to Fixed Assets and accounting journal entries to General Ledger. Accounts Payable receives purchase orders and receipts from Purchasing in order to match invoices.

## Transactions

The first transaction records a supplier invoice. This can be verified against the related purchase order if there is one and the receiving report that lists what goods were actually received. Not every enterprise uses the last two options.
The second transaction pays supplier invoice(s). Each check can pay one or more supplier invoices. Invoices must be approved for payment before they can be paid.
The vast majority of the module's transactions consist of the above two. The third fundamental transaction is that of adjustment when things go wrong. We will document this later.
# Economic Sophisms/54

<pagequality level="4" user="Zoeannl" />style="background: #ececec; text-align: left; padding-left: 0.5em; font-weight: bold;" class="table-rh"protectionist sophisms are not only not true but are the very reverse of true.
If taxes are unproductive, suppress them, if you can; but assuredly the strangest mode of neutralizing their effect is to add individual to public taxes. Fine compensation truly! You tell us that the State taxes are too much; and you give that as a reason why we should tax one another!
A protective duty is a tax directed against a foreign product; but we must never forget that it falls back on the home consumer. Now the consumer is the tax-payer. The agreeable language you address to him is this: "Because your taxes are heavy, we raise the price of everything you buy; because the State lays hold of one part of your income, we hand over another to the monopolist."
But let us penetrate a little deeper into this sophism, which is in such repute with our legislators, although the extraordinary thing is that it is just the very people who maintain unproductive taxes who attribute to them our industrial inferiority, and in that inferiority find an excuse for imposing other taxes and restrictions.
It appears evident to me that the nature and effects of protection would not be changed, were the State to levy a direct tax and distribute the money afterwards in premiums and indemnities to the privileged branches of industry.
Suppose that while foreign iron cannot be sold in our market below eight francs, French iron cannot be sold for less than twelve francs.
On this hypothesis, there are two modes in which the State can secure the home market to the producer.
The first mode is to lay a duty of five francs on foreign iron. It is evident that that duty would exclude it, since it could no longer be sold under thirteen francs, namely, eight francs for the cost price, and five francs for the tax, and at that price it would be driven out of the market by French iron, the price of which we suppose to be only twelve francs. In this case, the purchaser, the consumer, would be at the whole cost of the protection.
Or again, the State might levy a tax of five francs from
# Economic Sophisms/52

<pagequality level="4" user="Zoeannl" />style="background: #ececec; text-align: left; padding-left: 0.5em; font-weight: bold;" class="table-rh"
WE have here again the same sophism. We demand that foreign products should be taxed to neutralize the effect of the taxes which weigh upon our national products. The object, then, still is to equalize the conditions of production. We have only a word to say, and it is this: that the tax is an artificial obstacle which produces exactly the same result as a natural obstacle, its effect is to enhance prices. If this enhancement reach a point which makes it a greater loss to create the product for ourselves than to procure it from abroad by producing a counter value, laissez faire, let well alone. Of two evils, private interest will do well to choose the least. I might, then, simply refer the reader to the preceding demonstration; but the sophism which we have here to combat recurs so frequently in the lamentations and demands, I might say in the challenges, of the protectionist school, as to merit a special discussion.
If the question relate to one of those exceptional taxes which are imposed on certain products, I grant readily that it is reasonable to impose the same duty on the foreign product. For example, it would be absurd to exempt foreign salt from duty; not that, in an economical point of view, France would lose anything by doing so, but the reverse. Let them say what they will, principles are always the same; and France would gain by the exemption as she must always gain by removing a natural or artificial obstacle. But in this instance the obstacle has been interposed for purposes of revenue. These purposes must be attained; and were foreign salt sold in our market duty free, the Treasury would lose its hundred millions of francs (four millions sterling); and must raise that sum from some other source. There would be an obvious inconsistency in creating an obstacle, and failing in the object. It might have been better to have had recourse at first to another tax than that upon French salt. But I admit that there are certain circumstances in which a tax may be laid on foreign commodities, provided it is not protective, but fiscal.
But to pretend that a nation, because she is subjected to heavier taxes than her neighbours, should protect herself by tariffs against the competition of her rivals, in this is a sophism, and it is this sophism which I intend to attack.
I have said more than once that I propose only to explain the theory, and lay open, as far as possible, the sources of protectionist errors. Had I intended to raise a controversy, I
# Economic Sophisms/51

<pagequality level="4" user="Zoeannl" />style="background: #ececec; text-align: left; padding-left: 0.5em; font-weight: bold;" class="table-rh"The theory of which in this chapter I have endeavoured to trace the outlines would require great developments. I have glanced at it only in as far as it bears upon my subject of free trade. But perhaps the attentive reader may have perceived in it the fertile germ which in the rankness of its maturity will not only smother protection, but, along with it, Fourierisme, Saint-Simonianisme, communisme, and all those schools whose object it is to exclude from the government of the world the law of competition. Regarded from the producer's point of view, competition no doubt frequently clashes with our immediate and individual interests; but if we change our point of view and extend our regards to industry in general, to universal prosperity—in a word, to consumption—we shall find that competition in the moral world plays the same part which equilibrium does in the material world. It lies at the root of true communism, of true socialism, of that equality of conditions and of happiness so much desired in our day; and if so many sincere publicists, and well-meaning reformers seek after the arbitrary, it is for this reason—that they do not understand liberty.