OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Armour

This book consists of a set of short tutorials on making period armour and chain mail. We refer to items that are in or out of period in the context of which re-creation group we belong to. In the case of the armours presented here, the operational time span is that of the Society for Creative Anachronism, or the SCA. The 'uptime' cut-off date is 1600 CE, as the defining documents for the Society mandate a 'pre-16th century' mode of dress, etc. We allow a bit of leeway to include the years up to the death of Elizabeth I, at 1603 CE. The 'downtime' date(s) are a favourite argument topic; a rough estimate is 400 CE to 500 CE
Chapters:
* Making Basic Armour
* Making Period Leather Armour
* Making Period Mail
# Aros/APL

* Navbar for the Aros wikibook
* Aros User
* Aros User Docs
* Aros User FAQs
* Aros User Applications
* Aros User DOS Shell
* Aros/User/AmigaLegacy
* Aros Dev Docs
* Aros Developer Docs
* Porting Software from AmigaOS/SDL
* For Zune Beginners
* Zune .MUI Classes
* For SDL Beginners
* Aros Developer BuildSystem
* Specific platforms
* Aros x86 Complete System HCL
* Aros x86 Audio/Video Support
* Aros x86 Network Support
* Aros Intel AMD x86 Installing
* Aros Storage Support IDE SATA etc
* Aros Poseidon USB Support
* x86-64 Support
* Motorola 68k Amiga Support
* Linux and FreeBSD Support
* Windows Mingw and MacOSX Support
* Android Support
* Arm Raspberry Pi Support
* PPC Power Architecture
* misc
* Aros Public License
What follows is a copy of the APL (the original is retained in the AROS Subversion Repository, and here for tamper reasons) for your convenience only.
AROS PUBLIC LICENSE (APL) Version 1.1 (based on the MPL)
# Armenian/Prepositions

* և : and
* վեր : above
* տակ : under
* առաջ : before
* հետո : after
* առջև : in front of
* հետևում : behind
* հեռու : far from
* մոտ : near
* մեջ : in
* ներսում : inside
* դրսում : outside
* հետ : with
* առանց : without
* միջև : between
* մասին : about
* բայց : but
* հանար : for
* -ից : from
* դեպի : to
# Canadian Criminal Law/Attempts
## General Principles

A person attempting to commit an offence can be criminally liable for the attempt. For any attempt to be made out, the person's actions must be more than "mere preparation":
   Attempts 24. (1) Every one who, having an intent to commit an offence, does or omits to do anything for the purpose of carrying out the intention is guilty of an attempt to commit the offence whether or not it was possible under the circumstances to commit the offence.
   Question of law (2) The question whether an act or omission by a person who has an intent to commit an offence is or is not mere preparation to commit the offence, and too remote to constitute an attempt to commit the offence, is a question of law.
   R.S., c. C-34, s. 24.
   – CCC
There is no general criterion to distinguish between mere preparation and actual attempt.
There is however a "qualitative" distinction that can be made:
    "...the distinction between preparation and attempt is essentially a qualitative one, involving the relationship between the nature and quality of the act in question and the nature of the complete offence, although consideration must necessarily be given, in making that qualitative distinction, to the relative proximity of the act in question to what would have been the completed offence, in terms of time, location and acts under the control of the accused remaining to be accomplished. I find that view to be compatible with what has been said about the actus reus of attempt in this Court and in other Canadian decisions that should be treated as authoritative on this question."
The trial judge should consider the "relative proximity of that conduct to the conduct required to amount to the completed substantive offence. Relevant factors would include time, location and acts under the control of the accused yet to be accomplished.”
* ↑ R. v. Sarrazin, [2010] O.J. No. 3748 (C.A.), at para 54
* ↑ R. v. Root 2008 ONCA 869, (2008), 241 C.C.C. (3d) 125 (“authorities have yet to develop a satisfactory general criterion to assist trial judges in making the crucial distinction between mere preparation, on the one hand, and an attempt on the other.”) R. v. Deutsch, 1986 CanLII 21 (SCC) ("the application of this distinction to the facts of a particular case must be left to common sense judgment.")
* ↑ R. v. Deutsch, 1986 CanLII 21 at 27
* ↑ R v Root, 2008 ONCA 869
# Canadian Criminal Law/Cases/Child Pornography

| Case | Citation | Verdict | Summary |
| R v Lorenz | 2012 SKQB 293 (CanLII) | acquitted for making CP | |
| R v Jacques | 2012 SKQB 277 | guilty of possession and not guilty of making available | P2P case |
| R v Clayton | 2012 ABQB 196 | conviction | gigatribe distribution |
| R. v. Allart | 2012 BCCA 100 | conviction for poss’n CP | |
| R v Jeffrey | 2012 SKPC 12 | guilty of distributing | |
| R. v. Wanamaker | 2011 ABQB 310 | guilty | |
| R v SS, 2011 SKPC 102 | not guilty | judge could not determine age of youths in images |
| R. v. Carrano | 2011 ONSC 7718 | acquittal for innocent possession of CP | |
| R. v. Jones | 2011 ONCA 632 | | new trial ordered |
| R. v. Smith | 2011 BCSC 1826 | | |
| R. v. Love | 2011 ABPC 40 | not guilty | not guilty due to lack of evidence of possession |
| R. v. R.D. | 2010 BCCA 313 | not guilty | |
| R. v. Garbett | 2010 ONSC 2762 | | |
| R v Spencer | 2011 SKCA 144 | conviction upheld | |
| R v Leugner | 2011 SKQB 469 | | accused argued officially induced error on possession of CP books |
| R. v. Leugner | 2010 SKPC 50 | guilty of importing and possession | fictional stories of child sexual abuse |
| R. v. Rudiger | 2010 BCPC 182 | guilty | possession; considered definition |
| R. v. Pressacco | 2010 SKQB 114 | guilty of possessing and accessing CP | |
| R. v. C.M. | 2009 MBPC 35 | guilty of making and possessing CP | |
| R. v. Grant | 2009 BCCA 72 | guilty | |
| R. v. Trapp | 2009 SKPC 109 | conviction for making CP available | |
| R. v. Ballendine | 2009 BCSC 1938 | not guilty for making, but guilty for everything else | |
| R. v. Johannson | 2008 SKQB 451 | guilty of making available | |
| R. v. Dittrich | 2008 CanLII 19217 (ON SC) | guilty of possession, not guilty of accessing and making | |
| R. v. Dabrowski | 2007 ONCA 619 | | |
| R. v. Tripp | 2007 NBPC 32 (CanLII) | not guilty for possession | |
| R. v. Horvat | 2006 CanLII 13426 (ON SC) | guilty | |
| R. v. Beattie | 2005 CanLII 10273 (ON CA) | acquittal overturned | pornographic stories |
| R. v. J.E.I. | 2005 BCCA 584 | guilty | considers dominant purpose |
| R. v. S. (V.P.) | 2001 BCSC 619 | guilty | considered definition of sexual organ and dominant purpose |
| R. v. Nedelec | 2001 BCSC 1334 | guilty of possession | considers definition |
| R v. Weir | 1998 ABQB 56 | guilty of distribution | |
# Canadian Criminal Law/Defences
## General Principles

An accused person who is able to raise a defence can escape criminal liability for an offence that they could otherwise be convicted for.
Defences are often categorized as follows:
* Justification: a justifiable act is one that makes out the offence but is justified by the external circumstances in which the act was committed. (e.g. self-defence)
* Excuse: a criminal act is excused where the accused would have committed an undesirable criminal offence, for which punishment would be morally inappropriate due to the extenuating circumstances. (e.g. offences due to mental infirmities, duress)
* Affirmative Defence: a defence that, if proven, will eliminate liability despite all the elements of the offence having been made out
* Negating Defence: a defence that negates one more of the essential elements of the prosecution's case.
Under s. 794, the burden is on the defendant to prove an exception or excuse:
   794 (1) No exception, exemption, proviso, excuse or qualification prescribed by law is required to be set out or negatived, as the case may be, in an information.
   (2) The burden of proving that an exception, exemption, proviso, excuse or qualification prescribed by law operates in favour of the defendant is on the defendant, and the prosecutor is not required, except by way of rebuttal, to prove that the exception, exemption, proviso, excuse or qualification does not operate in favour of the defendant, whether or not it is set out in the information.
   – CCC
Excuses and justifications "do not negative the mens rea rather they operate by justifying or excusing what would otherwise be criminal conduct".
* ↑ R. v. Hibbert, 1995 CanLII 110 (SCC), [1995] 2 S.C.R. 973 (SCC) para. 47

## Raising a Defence

Before the trier-of-fact can consider a defence, thus requiring the crown to disprove at least one of the elements of the defence beyond a reasonable doubt, there must be an "air of reality" to the defence.
The purpose of the air of reality test is to prevent "outlandish defences" being put to the jury that would be "confusing and would invite unreasonable verdicts."
* ↑ R. v. Cinous 2002 SCC 29, (2002), 162 C.C.C. (3d) 129 (S.C.C.) at paras. 53-54 and 65
* ↑ R. v. Cinous, 2002 SCC 29, [2002] 2 SCR 3 at 84

## Topics

* Intoxication
* Automatism
* Provocation
* Necessity
* Duress
* Entrapment
* Self-Defence and Defence of Another
* Defence of Property
* Acting in Authority
* Officially Induced Error
* Corrective Force
* Accident and Mistake
* Alibi
* De Minimus
* Due Diligence
* Consent
* Alternative Suspect Defence
* Abandonment

## See Also

* Canadian Criminal Procedure and Practice/Mental Illness
* Canadian Criminal Law/Cases/Defences
# Canadian Criminal Law/Continuity
## General Principles

The Crown has the duty to prove an exhibit's integrity beyond a reasonable doubt. It must be shown that the items in evidence before the court in trial were the same items seized during the investigation. So for example, the Crown must prove that the drugs presented in court are the same that were seized at the scene of the investigation. Where the proof of the item is part of an essential element of the case, such as in a drug possession case, then it should be proven beyond a reasonable doubt. Gaps in continuity are not fatal unless they raise a reasonable doubt about the exhibit’s integrity.
However, it has been said that generally speaking, "continuity of an exhibit goes to weight, not to admissibility." A party who cannot "prove absolute continuous possession...would not preclude admissibility".
There is no specific requirement to that the crown lead continuity evidence. Nor does every person in the chain of possession need to testify. The evidence of continuity should be lead where there is potential evidence before the court, by direct or circumstantial evidence or by inference, that may raise doubt as to the continuity. Even where gaps may raise a reasonable doubt about the item in court is the same seized initially by police, it may still be admissible and the doubt will simply go do weight. For example, problems with continuity and integrity of recordings generally goes to their weight not the admissibility of the contents of the recordings.
The evidence seized by police will be catalogued and given identifying numbers. These numbers should remain consistent throughout the case. So whether the items are sent to a lab for analysis, they will always be identifiable as the same once they are presented in court. Any changes of the numbering system should be recorded and explained in court. Failure to properly track the exhibits by their identifying numbers may raise doubt as to their continuity.
* ↑ R v Oracheski, (1979) 48 CCC (2d) 217 (ABCA) R v DeGraaf 1981 CanLII 343, (1981), 60 CCC (2d) 315 (BCCA) c.f. R v Murphy 2011 NSCA 54 at para. 41 citing R v Jeffrey [1993] AJ. 639
* ↑ R v West, 2010 NSCA 16 at para. 130 see also R v Krole 1975 CarswellMan 119 at para. 27
* ↑ Krole at para. 27
* ↑ R. v. Adam 2006 BCSC 1430 at page 7
* ↑ R. v. Adam 2006 BCSC 1430 (2007) BCWLD 1987 at page 7 R. v. Andrade, (1985), 6 O.A.C. 345, 18 C.C.C. (3d) 41 (Ont. C.A.)
* ↑ R. v. Meer, [2010] A.J. No. 1123 (Q.B.), 2010 ABQB 617 at 16
* ↑ e.g. R. v. Martin, 2008 ONCJ 601 at 16
# Canadian Criminal Law/Criminal Organization
## Introduction

A criminal organization is defined in s. 467.1 of the Criminal Code:
   467.1 (1)
   “criminal organization” means a group, however organized, that
       (a) is composed of three or more persons in or outside Canada; and
       (b) has as one of its main purposes or main activities the facilitation or commission of one or more serious offences that, if committed, would likely result in the direct or indirect receipt of a material benefit, including a financial benefit, by the group or by any of the persons who constitute the group.
   It does not include a group of persons that forms randomly for the immediate commission of a single offence.

## Proof of Criminal Organization

Evidence must establish that the group is a criminal organization. It must be established on a case-by-case basis. Proof of direct control of the organization is a high standard.
Factors to consider whether the group is a criminal organization include:
* rules between the men,
* defined roles and structure,
* communication between the participants,
* actual or pending material benefit to the parties,
* an organizational structure that promotes the commission of offences.
The courts should not be rigid in applying the definition and must use a purposive approach. Criminal organizations have no incentive to have a formal structure and tend to be flexible. However, "some form of structure and degree of continuity are required".
* ↑ R v Ciarniello 2006 BCSC 1671 R v Kirton 2007 MBCA 38 See also Riley, 2009 CanLII 15450 (ON S.C.)
* ↑ R v Giles, 2008 BCSC 367
* ↑ R v. Lindsay, 2005 CanLII 24240 (ON SC)
* ↑ R. v. Venneri, 2012 SCC 33 (CanLII) at para. 28 to 29

## Effect

Several offences require there is a criminal organization:
* Enhancing a criminal organization (s. 467.11)
* Committing for the benefit of a criminal organization (s.467.12)
* Instruct the commission of an offence for a criminal organization (s.467.13)
Others are modified by the existence of a criminal organization:
* Conspiracy (s.465)
* Counselling (s.22)
* Accessory after the fact (s.23)
* Possessing explosives for a criminal organization (s.82(2))
* Intimidating the justice system and journalists (s.423.1)
Where an offence is found to be a criminal organization offence (s.2):
* the penalties will be consecutive (s.467.14)
* the wiretap powers are expanded
* there is a reverse onus on bail (s. 515(6)(a)(ii)
* presumption of 1st degree murder in a murder charge (s.231(6.1))

## References

* ↑ see s. 2 "criminal organization offences"
* ↑ Drecic, 2011 ONCA 118
* ↑ longer authorization (s.186.1 and 196), no need for "investigative necessity" (s. 185(1.1) and 186(1.1)
# Animal Behavior/Natural Selection
## Natural Selection

More offspring are produced than finite resources can support. Individuals thus can be viewed as in a constant struggle for existence. Individuals within a population are rarely clones, they commonly show variation in phenotypes as well as genotypes. Some of this variation in behavioral phenotypes is heritable. As successful variants are more likely to survive and reproduce, their genotypes will be become overrepresented in the next generation
Density-independent and density-dependent growth models: Exponential Model: a species can potentially increase in numbers according to a geometric series—Thomas Robert Malthus (1766–1834) Logistic Model: the rate of population increase may be limited, i.e. it may depend on population density—Pierre Verhulst (1838). Carrying Capacity (K): an environment's maximum persistently supportable load (Catton 1986).
Natural selection is the process by which environmental effects lead to varying degrees of reproductive success among individuals of a population of organisms with different hereditary characters, or traits. The characters that inhibit reproductive success decrease in frequency from generation to generation. It is the process whereby certain genes (alleles) gain greater representation in the following generations compared to other alleles. Adaptations are the complement of traits that increases the fitness of the owner. An individual's Fitness or Reproductive Success is the relative probability that an animal of a particular genotype and phenotype will manage to contribute its genes to the next generation
Aside from Natural Selection, changes in gene frequencies within a population may also arise from a variety of other sources including:
* Mutations: changes to individual nucleotide bases along the DNA to large scale rearrangements of chromosomes
* Gene flow: Emigration, Immigration
* Genetic drift: Changes in the genetics of the population as a result of chance. Bottlenecks and Founder Effect: Ellis-van Creveld Syndrome is an autosomal recessive skeletal dysplasia that results in short limbed disproportionate dwarfism. The syndrome most commonly occurs in the Amish population of Lancaster, Pa. The incidence is approximately 5 per 1000 live births and 2 per 1000 living persons. No case had been described in the Amish of Ohio, Indiana, or other Amish areas at the time of an extensive search performed by McKusick, et al. The genealogy of the disorder in the Amish of Lancaster, Pa. can be traced back to the immigrants Samuel King and his wife
Example: H.B.D. Kettlewell's work on Industrial Melanism
# Animal Behavior/Neuroanatomy
## Organization of the Mammalian Nervous System

The neurons can all be placed in one of two systems, the central nervous system or the peripheral nervous system.

### Central Nervous System

The central nervous system has a fundamental role in the control of behavior. It contains the brain and the spinal cord which are both encased in bone which shows their importance. Both the brain and spinal cord receive signals from the afferent neurons and send signals to muscles and glands through efferent neurons.

#### Structure and Function

The brain is split up into three major layers, the hindbrain is the first, the second is the midbrain, and the forebrain is last.

##### Hindbrain

The hindbrain is a well protected central core of the brain and includes the cerebellum, reticular formation, and the brain stem. The cerebellum plays an important role in the integration of sensory perception and motor output. It utilizes constant feedback on body position to fine-tune motor movements. The brain stem contains the pons, and the medulla oblongata. The pons relays sensory information between the cerebellum and cerebrum. The medulla oblongata is the lower portion of the brainstem. It controls autonomic functions such as breathing and vomiting, and relays nerve signals between the brain and spinal cord. The reticular formation is a part of the brain which is involved in stereotypical actions, such as walking, sleeping, and lying down.

##### Midbrain

This part of the brain is located between the forebrain and the hindbrain making up part of the brain stem. All sensory and motor information going to and from the fore brain and the spinal cord must pass through the midbrain.

##### Forebrain

The anteriormost division of the developing vertebrate brain that contains the most complex neural network in the CNS. The forebrain has two major divisions, the lower diencephalon, which contains the thalamus and the hypothalamus, and the upper telencephalon, which contains the cerebrum.

#### Methods for observing or evaluating brain activity

In the past only two methods of observation were available. The first was observing individuals who have received brain damage and assume that the part of the brain that was damaged controlled the behavior or sense that had changed. The second was connecting electrodes to the outside of someones head and recording the readings.
Newer methods include computed tomography (CT scan), positron emission tomography (PET scan), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and superconduction quantum interference devices (SQUID).

### Peripheral Nervous System

Any part of the nervous system that is not part of the central nervous system is part of the peripheral nervous system. The nerves in the peripheral nervous system is split up into the autonomic and somatic. The somatic connect the central nervous system to sensory organs (such as the eye and ear) and muscles, while the autonomic connect other organs of the body, blood vessels and glands.
# Basic Geology/Asthenosphere

The asthenosphere is part of Earth's mantle. It lies about 100 km to 350 km under the surface.
It consists of hot, weak material that can be deformed like silly putty. That means it is capable of gradual flow. It lies under the lithosphere
# Basic Geology/History
## Geological history of Earth
### Formation of the Earth

According to the widely accepted Big Bang theory, the Universe began at some point in space and time around 13,700,000,000 years ago, as evidenced by the Doppler effect observed in all stars and a 3 degree Kelvin background radiation observed elsewhere.
* In about 10E-43 seconds, physics became defined and gravity separated from other forces. The Universe was 10E32 K in temperature.
* At 10E-35 seconds, the Universe expanded to the size of a softball and the strong nuclear force separated. Energy turned into quarks and electrons and their anti-matter counterparts. The temperature was 1027 K.
* At 10E-6 seconds, quarks began to bind into protons and neutrons; matter and antimatter destroyed each other and the balance turned out to be in favor of matter. The Universe was about the size of our solar system and 1013 K hot.
* 1 second after its inception, the electromagnetic and weak nuclear forces appeared as the Universe cooled to 109 K.
* 3 minutes later, protons and neutrons fused into nuclei.
* After 100,000 years, the electrons and the nuclei came together to form atoms; photons separated from matter and there was light.
* In the next 1,000,000,000 years the Universe became clumpy as galaxies began to take shape.
* Ever since then, the Universe has cooled down to 3 K, galaxies have developed, generations of stars have passed, creating heavier elements, and life has appeared. Our galaxy, the Milky Way, contains about 200,000,000,000 stars and lies 1 million light years from its nearest neighbor.
* The solar system was formed around 4,600,000,000 years ago as dust collapsed into the protostar that was to become the Sun, and into planetesimals orbiting it. The inner planets, from Mercury to Mars, are solid because the solar winds have driven gases away and have a core; the outer planets are larger and consist of gas.

##### Geologic time scales

When referring to events in terms of Geology, it is common to use a Geologic time scale or GTS as a way of making sense of the relative order events took place.
There are different ways to determine the geologic age of formations and materials using a variety of different novel techniques and deductions. These are often categorized as being absolute or relatively dated based on whether they are in relation to a group of other events or can be drilled down to a fairly accurate time frame. Some common methods of dating include using the lithography, the way the material is stacked upon the other, the magnetic properties, and the radioactive decay rates, or half-life, of the chemical compounds that make up the material.
# Basic Geography/Settlement

A Settlement is a place where a group of people live together or is a process of settling somewhere
# Basic Geology

Geology (from Greek γη- (ge-, "the earth") and λογος ("logos", "word", "reason")) is the science and study of the solid matter of a celestial body, its composition, structure, physical properties, history and the processes that shape it. In this book, the term Geology will apply to the Earth in particular.
Geology can be split into two main branches: historical and physical. Historical geology attempts to understand the origins, composition, systems and changes of the Earth.

## Table of Contents

* Introduction
* History
* Plate Tectonics
* Volcanism
* Structure and Composition of the Earth
* Crust
* Lithosphere
* Asthenosphere
* Mesosphere
* Mantle
* Inner Core
* Outer Core
* Continental Crust
* Oceanic Crust
* Glossary