OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Structural Biochemistry/Frederick Sanger
## Introduction

Frederick Sanger, a biochemist from England, was twice awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work on protein sequencing and DNA sequencing.

## Personal Life

Frederick Sanger was born on August 13, 1918 in Rendcombe, England to Frederick and Cicely Sanger. He was one of three children, and was heavily influenced by his father, a stark Quaker and medical practitioner. From 1932 to 1936 Sanger attended the Bryanston School in Dorset, which employed the Dalton system and supported liberal regime. After receiving his B.A. in 1939 from Cambridge University, he chose to stay and complete in pH.D in biochemistry in 1943 under Albert Neuberger, where he delved into the chemistry behind lysine, an amino acid. During his time at Cambridge Sanger, who is a strong believer in Pacifism, joined the Peace Pledge Union, where he met his wife Joan Howe, a student of economics at Newnham College.

## Nobel Prize of 1958

After Sanger completed his education in 1943, he joined Charles Chibnall's research group, where he studied the amino acid composition of bovine insulin. His efforts proved successful as he determined the amino acid sequence of two polypeptide chains of insulin, suggesting that proteins do in fact have a definite chemical composition. By using the Sanger Reagent, or fluorodinitrobenzene he could hydrolyze the insulin into smaller peptide chains, which were fractionated by electrophoresis and chromatography. Those fragments were recognized by ninhydrin and appeared as fingerprints. Sanger determined a technique for ordering amino acids, and in 1958 was the recipient of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for presenting the complete structure of insulin.

## Nobel Prize of 1980

In 1977 Sanger developed the Sanger Method, or dideoxy chain method for sequencing DNA molecules. This breakthrough was significant as it allowed scientists to sequence long stretches of DNA rapidly and accurately, and eventually was utilized for sequencing the Human Genome. He shared his prize of determining base sequences in nucleic acids with Walter Gilbert and Paul Berg.

## References

"Frederick Sanger." HowStuffWorks. N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Nov. 2012. <http://science.howstuffworks.com/dictionary/famous-scientists/biologists/frederick-sanger-info.htm>.
"Concept 23A Gene Is a Discrete Sequence of DNA Nucleotides." Frederick Sanger. N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Nov. 2012. <http://www.dnaftb.org/23/bio.html>.
"Frederick Sanger." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 21 Nov. 2012. Web. 21 Nov. 2012. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Sanger>.
# Structural Biochemistry/Function Attribution

Background
On a microscopic scale, macromolecular structure is seen as a reflection of a specific function. Scientists have concluded that structural patterns found in genes and gene products serve as a key in understanding function. Each macromolecule exhibits certain characteristics, distinct of all other macromolecules. This allows for researchers the ability to interpret molecular function as a product of structure. Albeit this is often mislabeled as a simple and efficient process, the complexity and intricacy required in relating structure to function is immense.
Problem
A major issue facing modern biochemists is the nature in which those structures are interpreted and how they translate into function. Despite common misconceptions this process has been the focus of hundreds of research papers. As a result, structures including genes and gene products have been a focus of study by researchers. In order to decode molecular structure, researchers have employed several techniques, each addressing different attributes. Each technique or method addresses a different attribute. As a result, if a researcher is to observe a certain functional attribution, they must employ the appropriate method.
Interpretation
For example, a certain technique requires a cellular protein to be isolated and prepared in a buffer solution as to allow for the detection of a particular catalytic activity. After the addiction of a substrate, if a certain enzymatic activity is detected by the researcher, that specific activity is then attributed to the cellular protein in question. The formal term attributed to that type of activity would be known as biomedical function. In this particular experiment, the effects observed would be directly attributed to the protein in question. On a different note, if a protein were to be changed by the deletion or modification of its amino acid sequence, major phenotypic changes may be observed in the resulting cellular content. The observed changes may consequently be attributed to the gene and gene product which are associated with protein function. Although minute, such functional changes can have major impacts and are crucial to bodily systems.
# Structural Biochemistry/G Proteins

G-protein coupled receptors GPCR) is transmembrane receptor protein that stimulates a GTP-binding signal transducer protein(G-protein)which in turn generates an intracellular receptor. GPCR is large family of receptors that transmembrane protein that is serpentine in shape, crossing the lipid bilayer seven times. G-protein have two major groups:
1. Small GTP binding protein.
2. Heterotrimeric G protein(directly coupled to receptor and enzyme)
R have alpha, beta and gramma subunit. An alpha subunit contains the GTP/GDP binding site, to identify beta and gramma subunits. A hormone called epinephrine triggers the communication between inner parts of cells to pass cellular messages. The signal transduction, in detail, is occurred in three distinct steps. First, epinephrine message makes contact with the receptor on the surface of the cell. Second, the connecting transducer, the one with the role of switch, passes the message inward. Lastly, the signal gets amplified and it stimulates the cell to do its work.
Overall, G Proteins simply act as a switch in the process of cell signaling. Put another way, it is the baton in the relay of cell-signaling. However, they must be activated (turned on) only when needed and deactivated (turned off) immediately. If the G protein is left on at all times, illnesses and fatal diseases can and may occur. A G-protein may be left on in the active conformation even in the absence of ligand binding, leading to improper regulation of the proteins. Such fatal diseases that arise from improper regulation of the G-proteins include cholera: a life-threatening condition that occurs when the G-protein controlling water balance is left uncontrollably on. The result of this pathway kept aberrantly on leads to continuous diarrhea which becomes increasingly dangerous to the individual's well-being.

## Nobel Prize Winners

This switch was named G-protein by the 1994 Nobel Prize Winner Alfred G. Gilman from the University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center in Dallas. The name came not from his last name, but from the energy source of these G-proteins: GTP (Guanosine Tri-Phosphate). This discovery sparked considerable activity in further research of this molecule because it gives helpful clues to how cell-signaling works. The impact of this discovery still remains influential, as scientists continue to pay close attention to this molecule today. In 2012, Robert J. Lefkowitz and Brian K. Kobilka were awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their study of the G-protein coupled receptors, specifically on their studies of its three-dimensional structure.
* ↑ Berg, Jeremy M., ed. (2002), Biochemistry (6th ed.) New York City, NY: W.H. Freeman and Company,
* ↑ Davis, Alison, Ph.D., (2006), Medicines By Design: The G Switch (NIH Publication No. 06-474): U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES,
* ↑ Davis, Alison, Ph.D., (2006), Medicines By Design: The G Switch (NIH Publication No. 06-474): U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES,
* ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2012". Nobelprize.org. 22 Nov 2012 http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/2012/
# WikiLang/Plattdüütsch Portal

Template:RFD
| Sections | Technical info |
| Differences between High German and Low German Orthographies Phonology Grammar Dialects Dictionaries Vocabulary (lists of some basic words by category) Numbers Wikimedia Plattdüütsch Wikipedia Plattdüütsch Wiktionary Preservation/revitalization projects Sprachausbau Learning the language lessons Lesson 1 Lesson 2... Other topics... Other projects External resources Native speaker Wikilangians: Zylbath Speaker Wikilangians: Zylbath Learners: None | Endonym: Plattdüütsch, Nedderdüütsch, Neddersass'sch, Neddersassisch, Nedersaksies, Plautdietsch Other names: germ. Plattdeutsch, Niederdeutsch, Niedersächsisch; engl. Low German, Low Saxon Language family: West Germanic languages > North Sea Germanic languages Script(s): Latin ISO 639-2: nds Language status: officially recognised as regional language in Germany and the Netherlands, as minority language in Mexico, Bolivia, Paraguay Number of speakers: 5-9 millions Regions: Northern Germany, Eastern Netherlands Majority language(s): German, Dutch English Wikipedia article about the language: Low German |
# WikiLang/Quechua languages

The Quechua languages are a native South American language family spoken mostly around the Andes, all from a common proto-language. Together, they are sometimes considered as one language, and under such a definition they are the most spoken language of the indigenous peoples of the Americas, with probably between 8 and 10 million speakers. It well known as the language of the Incas, and Quechua variants have official status in Bolivia and Peru. The most spoken variant of Quechua is Southern Quechua, which includes Bolivian Quechua and Cuzco Quechua. Northern Quechua is spoken in northern Peru, Colombia, and Ecuador, where it has a significant number of speakers.
Although Quechua was spread further in the Incan Empire, it had already spread far before that. It was also thrived after the Spanish conquest of the 16th century as a kind of general language for communication between the Spanish and the indigenous population, including being used by the Catholic Church for evangelization efforts. However, use by the church ended in the 18th century when it was banned from public use in Peru in response to the Tupac Amaru II rebellion. Today it is mostly spoken in rural areas.
The oldest written records of the language are the writings of Fray Domingo de Santo Tomás, who arrived in Peru in 1538 and learned the language from 1540, and published his book Grammatica o arte de la lengua general de los indios de los reynos del Perú in 1560.
Today, even though it is a co-official language with Spanish in Peru and Bolivia, there is relatively little written material, meaning that it is mostly an oral language. Recently, Quechua has been introduced as part of intercultural bilingual education in Bolivia, Ecuador, and Peru, which is only reaching parts of the Quechua-speaking population. Quechua continues to decline in usage, being replaced by Spanish for the purpose of social advancement.

## Influences

In the time of the Empire of the Incas, Southern Quechua's grammar, vocabulary, and possibly phobology were heavily influenced by Aymara.
Quechua has borrowed several hundred, at least, words from Spanish, even borrowing some grammatically important common words. Spanish, in turn, has also borrowed a notable number of words from Quechua, some of which have found their way into English, for example "llama" and "viscacha".
Many native American languages have been significantly influenced by Quechua

## See also

* WikiLang/Southern Quechua Sprachausbau

## External resources

* Southern Quechua Wikipedia
* Freelang Dictionary
# WikiLang/South America

South America includes 12 countries and two non-sovereign entities: Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Falkland Islands (United Kingdom), French Guiana (France), Guyana, Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, Uruguay and Venezuela. Spanish is the official language in all South American countries except Brazil, Guyana, Suriname French Guiana and the Falkland Islands, and is spoken even in country that are not historically Spanish. Portugese is the official language in Brazil. Official languages in Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana are respectively English, Dutch and French. English is also spoken in the Falkland Islands.
Before colonization from European nations, South America was inhabited by several Aboriginal nations speaking a wide variety of languages from different language families, most of them being long forgotten now, but a lot are still known by few and are currently in danger of extinction. At the time of European contact, it is estimated that 1,500 languages were spoken in South America; only 350 of those languages are still spoken today. Quechua is the native language family with the most speakers.
The classification and studies of indigenous languages in South America is not very advanced compared to the classification of North American indigenous languages. As such, it is difficult to determine what languages are related to each other to develop proper language families.

## List of indigenous languages

This list only includes languages with living speakers.
* Akawaio (Brazil, Guyana, Venezuela)
* Arawak (French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname, Venezuela)
* Arutani (Brazil, Venezuela)
* Baniwa (Brazil, Venezuela)
* Baré (Venezuela)
* Barí (Colombia, Venezuela)
* Carib (French Guinea, Guyana, Suriname, Venezuela)
* Chaima (Venezuela)
* Cuiba (Colombia, Venezuela)
* Cumanagoto (Venezuela)
* Curripaco (Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela)
* E’ñapa Woromaipu (Venezuela)
* To be completed...

## Other languages

* German, Colonia Tovar (Venezuela)
* To be completed...

## Extinct languages

* Baniva
* To be completed...
# WikiLang/WikiLang:About

WikiLang is a free Mediawiki-based project that anyone can edit operated by the Wikimedia Foundation with the goal of documenting, recording, sharing and teaching all languages, including endangered and dead languages.
# WikiLang/WikiLang:Introduction

| Introduction | Learn more about editing | Explore WikiLang | Tutorial |
What is WikiLang?
Wikilang is a free project, written collaboratively by the people who use it, to document, share, teach and record all languages, including endangered and dead languages. It is based on Mediawiki, a type of website called "wiki" designed to make collaboration easy. Everybody can contribute to Wikilang.
For a more detailed account of the project, see About Wikilang.
How you can contribute Don't be afraid to edit – everybody can edit almost every page and is encouraged to be bold! You can improve every pages to make them better by adding content or by correcting spelling and grammar mistakes.
Remember – you can't break Wikilang; all edits can be reversed, fixed or improved later. Wikilang is allowed to be imperfect. So go ahead, edit an article and help make Wikilang the best information source about languages on the Internet!
Why not try out the editor right now?
* Click here to edit the sandbox, a place to make test edits. (If there is already some text there, add to the end of the text.)
* Type some text.
* Click Show preview to test your changes, or Save page when you're happy with the way it looks.
    Note that saving the page will make the text publicly visible, but previewing it won't.
# WikiLang/Writing systems

A writing system is a method of visually representing verbal communication based on a script and an orthography or set of rules regulating its use.
# WikiLang/Sign languages

Sign languages use visually transmitted patterns to convey meanings, instead of sounds like spoken languages. Signs languages are specifically developed in deaf communities, which also includes interpreters as well as friends and families of deaf people. Hundreds of sign languages are used around the World, some having legal recognition.
# WikiLang/Southern Quechua Sprachausbau
## Computer-related words used by Microsoft Windows 8 Quechua translation

Microsoft Windows has a Quechua translation. This is probably quite groundbreaking in terms of computer terminology in Quechua because it is perhaps the only desktop operating system with a GUI translated into Quechua (at least, Ubuntu and Mac OS X do not have Quechua translations as of May 2013). As such, it is appropriate to document the precedents set by it.
Note that many of these words are very obvious to use, for example "maskay" - "to search" for searching.
Also, the Windows translation is not 100% complete as of April 2013, and many words were borrowed from Spanish.
Look here for Quechua version of this, with table.

### General

* akllana - option
* chaylla yaykuna - shortcut
* chiru - icon
* computadora (borrowed from Spanish) - computer
* hanpara - desptop
* harkasqa - security
* hatun llinpinachiq - theme
* hatunyachiy - to maximize (a window)
* kallpa - power (to turn on, off, restart)
* kipu - file
* kawsachisqa - on (of an option)
* kuchuy - to cut
* kunayachiy - an update
* laqay - to paste
* llamkana - program (literally "tool")
* llika - network
* llinpi - colour
* lista (borrowed from Spanish) - list
* maskay - to search
* mirachiy - to paste
* munasqakuna - favorites (list of favorite locations in file explorer)
* purichiy - to play (music, video)
* reqsichiy - edit (dropdown menu from top bar)
* qawana - display (settings)
* qaway - view (option to change how something is displayed, for example in file explorer)
* qillqa willakuquna - documents (media library)
* qunakuy - to share (content on the web)
* rikchaq - format (for file)
* rikchaykuna - pictures (media library)
* rurana - task
* ruwaq - user
* sayachiy - to cancel
* taki - song, piece of music
* tupachiy - settings (used in the search)
* uchuyachiy - to minimize (a window)
* uraykaychikuna - downloads (folder)
* yapay - add (to a list)
* wañuchisqa - off (of an option)
* waqaychana - folder
* waqaychay - to save
* wichqay - to close (a program)
* willana - notification
* yachay taqikuna - media libraries
* yanapay - help (dropdown menu from top bar)

### Windows-specific features and apps

* kamachina qata - control panel
* kaylla ruyru - local disk
* kipukuna maskana - file explorer
* qallariy - "start", start screen
* tupuq - calculator
* uchuy word - wordpad
* warmakuna harkaq - family safety (the setting)
* wasihuñu - homegroup
* willakuykuna qellqana - notepad (the program)
# WikiLang/Today's featured article

* Plattdüütsch (Low German), an endangered and regional Germanic language descended from Old Saxon that is spoken in Northern Germany, the Eastern Netherlands, and in small communities throughout the world.
* Gothic, a dead Germanic language that was spoken in the middle of the first millennium.
* Mi'kmaq, an Algonquian language spoken in Eastern Canada and the United States.
# Stamps of Liechtenstein

Until January 31st 1921 Austrian stamps could be used in Liechtenstein.
* Postage stamps and postal history of Liechtenstein (English)
* История почты и почтовых марок Лихтенштейна (Russian)

## 1912

| February 1st, 1912 | Fürst Johann II. (1840-1929) | Fürst Johann II. (1840-1929) | Fürst Johann II. (1840-1929) |
| Image | Catalogue Number | Description | Value |
| Not Available | 1 | 5 heller - green, dark green | x |
| Not Available | 2 | 10 heller - purple pink | x |
| Not Available | 3a | 25 heller - blue | x |
| Not Available | 3b | 25 heller - ultramarine | x |

## 1917

| Date issue | Description | Description | Description |
| Image | Catalogue Number | Description | Value |
| Not available | 4 | 3 heller - violet | x |
| Not available | 5 | 5 heller - bright green | x |
| Not available | 6 | 10 heller - purple red | x |
| Not available | 7 | 15 heller - brownish red | x |
| Not available | 8 | 20 heller - darkgreen | x |
| Not available | 9 | 25 heller - blue | x |
# World Stamp Catalogue/List of barn swallows on postage stamps

Back to: World_Stamp_Catalogue
Barn Swallows are one of the most depicted birds on postage stamps around the world.
| Country | Year | Notes/References |
| Alderney | 2002 | |
| Austria | 1950 | |
| Barbados | 1987 | |
| Belgium | 1992 | |
| Burkina Faso | 1998 | |
| Estonia | 2010 | |
| Estonia | 2011 | |
| Estonia | 2019 | |
| Grenada | 1989 | |
| Guinea | 2013 | This series of two stamps features the image of Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge (of the UK) with a barn swallow seen behind her head, and a second stamp depicting both her and Prince William, Duke of Cambridge with a pair of barn swallows seen behind their head. |
| Hong Kong | 2006 | |
| Hungary | 1966 | |
| Israel | 1992 | |
| Jersey | 2011 | |
| Laos | 1982 | |
| Madagascar | 1991 | |
| Moldova | 1992 | |
| Philippines | 2008 | |
| Romania | 1993 | |
| United States | 2017 | |
| United States | 1987 | Part of a 50 stamps Wildlife of North America series |
| USSR | 1989 | |

## References

* ↑ of Barn Swallow stamps from Bird-Stamps.org
* ↑ The American Topical Association lists more than 1000 depictions of swallows and martins on postage stamps around the world. See
* ↑ Scott 2019 Standard Postage Stamp Catalogue, Volume I
* ↑ Scott 2019 Standard Postage Stamp Catalogue, Volume I
* ↑ Scott 2019 Standard Postage Stamp Catalogue, Volume I
* ↑ Scott 2019 Standard Postage Stamp Catalogue, Volume I
* ↑ Scott 2019 Standard Postage Stamp Catalogue, Volume I
* ↑ Scott 2019 Standard Postage Stamp Catalogue, Volume 2
* ↑ Scott 2019 Standard Postage Stamp Catalogue, Volume 2
* ↑ Scott 2019 Standard Postage Stamp Catalogue, Volume 2
* ↑ Scott 2019 Standard Postage Stamp Catalogue, Volume 3
* ↑ Scott 2019 Standard Postage Stamp Catalogue, Volume 3
* ↑ Scott 2019 Standard Postage Stamp Catalogue, Volume 3
* ↑ Scott 2019 Standard Postage Stamp Catalogue, Volume 3
* ↑ Scott 2019 Standard Postage Stamp Catalogue, Volume 3
* ↑ Scott 2019 Standard Postage Stamp Catalogue, Volume 4
* ↑ Scott 2019 Standard Postage Stamp Catalogue, Volume 4
* ↑ Scott 2019 Standard Postage Stamp Catalogue, Volume 4
* ↑ Scott 2019 Standard Postage Stamp Catalogue, Volume 4
* ↑ Scott 2019 Standard Postage Stamp Catalogue, Volume 5
* ↑ Scott 2019 Standard Postage Stamp Catalogue, Volume 5
* ↑ Scott 2019 Standard Postage Stamp Catalogue, Volume 1
* ↑ Scott 2019 Standard Postage Stamp Catalogue, Volume 1
* ↑ Scott 2019 Standard Postage Stamp Catalogue, Volume 5
# World Stamp Catalogue/Lithuania/1995
## Via Baltica highway project

LTU-1995-15
| 1995-04-20 | Via Baltica, perf 14 | Via Baltica, perf 14 | Via Baltica, perf 14 | Via Baltica, perf 14 |
| Image | Catalogue Number | Description | Reference | Notes |
| File:LTU-1995-1501.jpg | LTU-1995-1501 | 20 centai, Kaunas | Sc 508 | |
| File:LTU-1995-1502.jpg | LTU-1995-1502 | Souvenir sheet with three following stamps | Sc 509 | |
| File:LTU-1995-1503.jpg | LTU-1995-1503 | 1 litas, Beach hotel in Parnu, Estonia | Sc 509a | |
| File:LTU-1995-1504.jpg | LTU-1995-1504 | 1 litas, castle in Bausaka | Sc 509b | |
| File:LTU-1995-1505.jpg | LTU-1995-1505 | 1 litas, Kaunas, Lithuania | Sc 509c | |
See also corresponding stamps for Estonia and Latvia
# World Stamp Catalogue/M
### M

* Macau
* Macedonia
* Madagascar and Dependencies
* Madeira
* Malagasy Republic
* Malawi
* Malaysia
* Maldive Islands
* Mali Republic
* Malta
* Marshall Islands
* Mauritania
* Mauritius
* Memel
* Mexico
* Micronesia
* Modena
* Moldova
* Monaco
* Mongolia
* Montenegro
* Morocco
* Mozambique
* Mozambique Territories