OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Horticulture/Mulching to Prevent Weeds

Mulches, when applied at the right time, can be very good for weed control and prevention. The important thing is timing: if mulches are applied at a time when weed seeds are fully dormant, they will prevent any exposure of the seed to sunlight, which is for many weed seeds the primary signal that causes them to start growing.
Mulches are most commonly applied in spring for this purpose, but many biennial and perennial weeds actually germinate in autumn, so some gardeners will mulch twice per year, or even add mulches whenever they pull weeds or otherwise disturb the soil.
Mulches are sometimes applied in combination with a pre-emergent. For organic gardeners, the pre-emergent used is corn gluten meal, which is applied under the mulch.
# Guide to Unix/Explanations

| Wikibooks Guide to Unix Computing | Edit template |
   General: Introduction | Why Unix-like Platforms: Linux | BSD Quick Reference: Commands | Environment Variables | Files | License
This part of the guide contains a list of various topics which introduce and explain the use and administration of Unix-like systems.
There is an attempt to organise the subpages into parts.

### Part 1: Command Line

* Shell Prompt introducing the shell, commands, and arguments
* Quoting and Filename Expansion
* Pipes and Job Control
* Signals
* Choice of Shell
* Environment environment variables and process limits
* Connecting to Remote Unix accessing remote shells and files (October 7, 2005)

### Part 2: Common Programs

* Scheduling Jobs at, cron
* Introduction to Editors available text editors
* more
* less
* chmod
* chgrp
* cut
* sort
* sed
* awk
* bc utility for arbitrary-precision arithmetic
* roff text formatting, often for manual pages

### Part 3: Administration

* Becoming Root su and sudo for running commands as the root user
* Installing Packages binary packages from your OS-vendor (October 2, 2005)

### Part 4: Hardware

* Determining Hardware what hardware is my system using?
* Filesystems and Swap mounting disks, formatting and mounting disk images (October 2, 2005)
* Partitioning Disks creating and editting partition maps (October 3, 2005)
* Compact Discs playing audio, ripping with cdparanoia, burning with cdrecord

### Part 5: Networking

* Interprocess Communication pipes, sockets, packets, local versus network
* Real Networking Interfaces Ethernet, PPP, wireless
* Fake Networking Interfaces loopback, bridges, encapsulation
* This list needs more topics.

### Part 6: Electronic Mail

* Mail Server Overview Incoming Mail, Outgoing Mail, Local Mail, Client Connectivity
* Mail Server Related Terminology

### Part 7: Security

* Firewalls How firewalls work and how to configure them

### Part 8: Beyond This Book

* Finding Additional Help search engines and user groups
# Guide to Unix/Commands/roff

roff was a predecessor of troff and nroff typesetting or formatting command-line tools. These tools are noted by their use by the man command. They do not seem to be covered by POSIX.
groff is a GNU's free replacement for troff and nroff.

## Links

* troff manual page, man.cat-v.org
* groff(1) manual page, freebsd.org
* roff(7) manual page, freebsd.org
* GNU Troff (Groff) Manuals Online, gnu.org
* The Text Processor for Typesetters, troff.org
* troff/nroff quick reference, quut.com
* W:Roff (computer program)
* W:Troff
* W:Nroff
# Guide to Unix/Commands/System Information

| Wikibooks Guide to Unix Computing | Edit template |
   General: Introduction | Explanations | Why Unix-like Platforms: Linux | BSD Quick Reference: Commands | Environment Variables | Files | License
   Commands: Getting Help | File System Utilities | Finding Files | Devices | File Viewing | File Editing | Text Processing | File Compression | File Analysing | Multiuser Commands | Self Information | System Information | Process Management | Kernel Commands | Miscellaneous | SW Development |

### uptime

uptime tells you how long the computer has been running since its last reboot or power-off.
Example:
Links:
* uptime, freebsd.org
* 21.7 uptime in GNU Coreutils manual, gnu.org

### uname

uname displays the system information such as hardware platform,system name and processor, Operating System type.
Example:
Links:
* uname, opengroup.org
* uname, freebsd.org
* 21.4 uname in GNU Coreutils manual, gnu.org

### dmesg

dmesg display the messages from the kernel, since boot.
Example:
Tips:
While a UNIX system is booting, usually a lot of messages flash on the console screen in rapid succession; to view those messages after the system is booted, use the following command:
Using a command option, dmesg can filter the kernel messages, based on priority. The '-n 1' arguments will display only the panic messages:
Links:
* dmesg, freebsd.org
* dmesg, manpages.ubuntu.com

### free

free display used and free memory
Example:
Display in human readable form using MegaByte block sizes:
Tips: Display system memory usage every 5 seconds, use Ctl+c to exit:
Links:
* free, manpages.ubuntu.com

### vmstat

vmstat displays a compact summary of overall system activity (processes, memory, and cpu information).
Example:
Tips: Print out vmstat summaries every two seconds, for five iterations.
Links:
* vmstat, freebsd.org
* vmstat, manpages.ubuntu.com

### top

top displays system process in real time
Example:
Links:
* top, freebsd.org
* top, manpages.ubuntu.com

### df

df reports the amount of free disk space available on each partition.
To report the number of free i-nodes
Reports disk usage in human readable format with block-sizes in Kilo,Mega,Gigabytes. This option is specific for Wikipedia:GNU version of df.
In some of Unix systems (SYS V family i.e. HP-UX) df displays the information in a different way:
In such cases try to use bdf command.
Links:
* df, opengroup.org
* df man page, man.cat-v.org
* 14.1 df in GNU Coreutils manual, gnu.org

### hostname

hostname displays and set system host name
Example:
Display the host name:
Display the IP address of the system:
Set the host name of the system to 'DarkHorse':
Links:
* hostname, freebsd.org
* 21.5 hostname in GNU Coreutils manual, gnu.org
# Guide to Unix/Commands/Process Management

| Wikibooks Guide to Unix Computing | Edit template |
   General: Introduction | Explanations | Why Unix-like Platforms: Linux | BSD Quick Reference: Commands | Environment Variables | Files | License
   Commands: Getting Help | File System Utilities | Finding Files | Devices | File Viewing | File Editing | Text Processing | File Compression | File Analysing | Multiuser Commands | Self Information | System Information | Process Management | Kernel Commands | Miscellaneous | SW Development |

### nohup

nohup lets you run a program in a way which makes it ignore hangup signals. This can be used to make a program continue running after a user has logged out. The output of the program is redirected from the standard output to the file nohup.out.
Examples:
Links:
* nohup, opengroup.org
* nohup, freebsd.org
* 23.4 nohup in GNU Coreutils manual, gnu.org

### ps

ps displays a list of current processes and their properties.
Examples:
Processes owned by the current user:
All processes:
Links:
* ps, opengroup.org
* ps man page, man.cat-v.org

### kill

kill is used to send termination signals to processes.
Examples
To send the kill signal to the processes with process id 17525,
To send the kill signal to all processes,
see Guide to Unix/Commands/Process Management/Kill
Links:
* kill, opengroup.org
* kill man page, man.cat-v.org
* 24.1 kill in GNU Coreutils manual, gnu.org

### pgrep

pgrep search and kill system processes
Example: Check if apache webserver is running.
Links:
* pgrep, freebsd.org
* pgrep, manpages.ubuntu.com

### pkill

Stop xterm program with 'pkill' program:
Tips: Display all the process of a user
Links:
* pkill, freebsd.org
* pkill, manpages.ubuntu.com

### pidof

pidof display Process ID (PID) of a task
Example: Display the PID of emacs process:
Links:
* pidof, manpages.ubuntu.com

### killall

killall kill a process by name
Example:
Kill the 'xfaces' program:
Links:
* killall, freebsd.org
* killall, manpages.ubuntu.com
# Guide to Unix/Commands/Process Management/Kill

kill is a unix command used to send unix signals to running processus. By default it will try to send the TERM signal which will ask the process to stop it works hence the name kill.
Available signals are available from the kill command:
You can send a given signal to all process having a given name or only to one process giving its PID. For example if you want to send signal SIGHUP to process 23154 :
If you want to send the same signal to all process named Apache :
You can also groups pid, the two commands above can be merged in:
Issuing signals, you can control your system a bit more. Say you have an ongoing script, running under PID 12345, which use a lot of your cpu and you would like to "pause" it while doing something else. You can issue your process the STOP signal:
To later resume it, you will ask the process to CONTinue its work:
Example:
We will start a simple process (sleep) in the background (&). The sleep process does nothing but waiting for the given number of seconds (in our case 360 seconds or 6 minutes):
The shell give us back the PID of the process (7551). Let it run a bit then check its status with the ps command:
Now we ask our process to pause its work:
Press enter to update your output buffer and the shell give you the confirmation:
Sometime later, our process is still stopped:
You can notice that 6 minutes elapsed since the start although the process should have ended after 5 minutes (remember we used "sleep 360").
Now we want to tell the process to continue its operation:
Update your buffer by pressing enter:
Blam the process is finished. When you issued the CONT signal the process resumed and checked the current time, as more than 360 seconds have been elapsed it ended itself.
# Guide to Unix/Commands/Self Information

| Wikibooks Guide to Unix Computing | Edit template |
   General: Introduction | Explanations | Why Unix-like Platforms: Linux | BSD Quick Reference: Commands | Environment Variables | Files | License
   Commands: Getting Help | File System Utilities | Finding Files | Devices | File Viewing | File Editing | Text Processing | File Compression | File Analysing | Multiuser Commands | Self Information | System Information | Process Management | Kernel Commands | Miscellaneous | SW Development |

### whoami

whoami tells you your current username.
Examples:
Links:
* whoami, freebsd.org
* 20.3 whoami in GNU Coreutils manual, gnu.org

### groups

groups states the groups the current user is a member of
Examples:
Links:
* groups, freebsd.org
* 20.4 groups in GNU Coreutils manual, gnu.org

### id

id gives you the same information as the whoami and groups commands, but also includes the user id (uid) and group id (gid) integers associated with the login.
Examples:
Links:
* id, opengroup.org
* 20.1 id in GNU Coreutils manual, gnu.org

### tty

tty tells you the terminal device that is assigned to your interactive login. The tty represents your console device, network connection ("ssh", ...), or terminal emulator process ("xterm", "konsole", ...).
Examples:
Links:
* tty, opengroup.org
* tty man page, man.cat-v.org
* 19.4 tty in GNU Coreutils manual, gnu.org
# How to Ace FYLSE/Torts Format
## Intentional Torts

* Is Bill likely to prevail on any intentional tort claim against Abe?
* Is Debbie likely to prevail on a negligent infliction of emotional distress claim against Abe?

## Negligence

* Is C likely to prevail on a negligence claim against A?

## General

* What tort theories can reasonably be asserted on C's behalf against A, what defenses can A reasonably raise, and what is the likely outcome?
* What is the likelihood that W can succeed on each of the claims she has asserted in her civil suit against A?
# How to Ace FYLSE/Torts MCQ
## Products Liability

Egg skull P was injured by D’s product sold by S. The warning on the label was inadequate.
In Negligence P v. D, D wins under if:
    (A) P didn’t read the label.
    (B) The injury was not reasonably foreseeable by D.
    (C) 3rd P made the product.
    (D) D didn’t know P was egg skull

## Products Liability

Egg skull P was injured by D’s product sold by S. The warning on the product label was inadequate.
In SL P v. D, P wins if:
    (A) D is negligent.
    (B) possibility of Injury well known (I)
    (C) consumer expectation test is met.
    (D) possibility of Injury well known (II)

## Products Liability

Egg skull P was injured by D’s product sold by S. The product label said safe for normal person.
In P v. S, P wins if:
    (A) manufacturer’s negligence equals commercial supplier’s.
    (B) defective
    (C) breached express warranty.
    (D) breached a duty

## Negligence

P was at D's house and C injured P.
In negligence P v. D, P wins if:
    (A) D knew it's unsafe.
    (B) P knew it's unsafe.
    (C) P was invitee of D
    (D) A crime occurred recently.

## Misrepresentation

D hide a fact to P.
In misrepresentation P v. D, who wins?
    (A) D, b/c P thought it was.
    (B) D, b/c P permitted.
    (C) P, b/c P breached the duty to disclose.
    (D) P, if D had a duty to disclose.
# How to Ace FYLSE/October 2019 Exam
## Question 1 Criminal Law
### Fact Summary

D was a caretaker of N who was required to put a correct amount of medication for N. D stole N's jewelry and failed to put the medication which led to N's death by overdose.

### Outline

1. Criminal Law (형법) Larceny: Jewelry Embezzlement: Jewelry: Larceny of Trick: $1,000 False Pretenses: $1,000 Homicide: Causation: Actual Proximate Causation: Murder: Malice Afterthought: First Degree Murder Second Degree Murder Excuse: Voluntary Intoxication Involuntary Manslaughter: Criminal Negligence Defense: Intoxication

## Question 2 Contracts
### Fact Summary

K opened a dog breeding facility in the outskirt of the city. The facility smelled and K failed to remedy it. M raises cats next to the facility and suffered from the noise and the smell from the facility. M once sprayed air fresheners to the dog to remedy it and the dog died.

### Outline
##### 1. M v. K

Private Nuisance Substantial Interference Unreasonable Interference Risk/Utility Analysis Public Nuisance Defenses Negligence COMING TO THE NUISANCE INJUNCTION

##### 2. K v. M

Trespass to Chattel Trespass to Land Conversion
DEFENSES: DEFENSE OF PROPERTY Punitive Damages Entry to Abate a Nuisance

## Question 3 Torts

3. Torts Private/Public Nuisance Substantial Interference Unreasonable Interference Risk/Utility Analysis Defenses COMING TO THE NUISANCE INJUNCTION
Negligence Intentional Trespass to Chattel - sprays dogs Trespass to Land - sprays onto the land, sprays excrement Trespass to Chattel - sprays dogs with air freshener Conversion - sprays dogs with air freshener Punitive Damages Entry to Abate a Nuisance

## Question 4 Criminal Law
### Fact Summary

After hearing burglary in his area, N placed loaded guns that he lawfully possessed in every room. N began looking forward to the prospect of shooting an intruder. Da and Do chose to break into N’s home. Dara parked outside and Don crept toward the house. Inside, Ned’s alarm activated. On the video feeds, Ned saw that Don was right outside his dining room window. Ned entered the dining room, picked up a shotgun, and shot Don through the window, killing him. Don had not yet touched Ned’s house when Ned shot him.

#### Interrogatories

* Do's Crimes
* N's Crimes
# Hobo travel journalism/Penetrating indigenous nations cultures

It is living in the homes of indigenous peoples (as a temporary guest), and by no means visiting museums and restaurants of ethnic cuisine, that is of paramount importance for getting to know the traditions and customs. The use of cultural travel methods allows a journalist to experience the intricacies of the national culture of the inhabitants of a particular country.
To fulfill the plan, it is not necessary to contact in advance through “social networks of hospitality” with residents of “overseas” countries: spontaneous acquaintances in this case are more effective. In addition, in the tiny, godforsaken villages of Africa, Asia and Oceania, there is often no Internet, and it is precisely such settlements that are of interest to hobo travel journalism.

## Example from Wikisource

Crimean guru in Sumatra

## Gallery

Author in different parts of the world
* As a "teacher" in a rural school (Sumatra, Indonesia)
* Breakfast at the Aboriginal (Pentecost Island, Vanuatu)
* In Pashtun clothes (Kabul, Afghanistan)
* With pygmies (Bundibugyo District, Uganda)
* Visiting Malaysians (Sukau, Sabah, Malaysia)
# Hobo travel journalism

The concept is not radically new, in general, correspond to all the parameters of the printed form of travel journalism, the definition of which is given below; the only difference is in the not quite usual way of implementation: the process of collecting material is associated with a high probability of adventures and extreme situations.
Travel journalism is one of the areas of journalism, which is based on the creation of descriptive texts about routes traveled, road adventures, natural attractions, historical and archeological sites of countries and continents, subtleties of travel and everything associated with them.
On the pages of this textbook talk about the well-known now field of journalism — in the aspect of hobo tourism; an informal version of the approach is considered, in which the creator of the material intended for publication uses specific methods of wandering, while not being a regular employee of the periodical.
The chapters of the textbook are supplemented by articles by the author (in ru), presented as examples, which allows, along with the study of theory, to get a visual idea of the results

## Content
### Penetrating indigenous nations cultures

For additional reading:
Rubrics of printed publications, which were conducted at different times by the author of this textbook (in ru):
    Returning from distant wanderings (in the newspaper "Republic of Crimea")
    Wind of wanderings (in the newspaper "Crimean Time")
    With a backpack around the planet (in the newspaper "Southern Capital")
    Around the World (in the newspaper "Crimean Observer")
    Around the world (in the newspaper "Republic")
    Travel notes (in the ProX magazine)
# Hobo travel journalism/Around the world (rubric in the newspaper "Republic")

“Around the World” (in ru: «Вокруг света») is a column in the Crimean weekly “Republic” (in ru: «Республика»), published on the territory of the peninsula until 2014, whose columnist was a Russian travel journalist Viktor Pinchuk.
Date of first publication — January 2011; During the existence of the newspaper, the author prepared nine articles.

## Articles

* Иммигрировать в Украину: они действительно об этом мечтают — 12.01.2011. — № 1 (35);
* В Турцию на две недели, или в Африку на три месяца? — 1.12.2011. — № 30 (30);
* Что едят там, где нас нет — 22.03.2012. — № 11 (45);
* Всё включено. Клопы тоже! — 10.05.2012. — № 18 (52);
* Проехать Азию: поезда, автобусы, маршрутки — 6.12.2012. — № 48 (82);
* Азиатская еда: денег мало? Не беда! — 27.06.2013. — № 24 (109);
* Гость – на кровати, хозяин – на коврике — 14.11.2013. — № 44 (129);
* «Африканский водопад оставил меня без штанов и чуть не убил» — 22.05.2014. — № 18 (153);
* От дуриана до мангостина — 29.05.2014. — № 19 (154).
# Hobo travel journalism/General information

So, with some experience of traveling to distant lands (or even starting from zero), multiplied by the ability to express your thoughts literarily, you decided to go on a journey to subsequently describe what you saw.
I’ll make a reservation right away — drive away dreams and fantasies that someone will pay for the costs associated with the upcoming trip. Also, it is advisable to forget about staying in hotels (especially "star" ones) and refuse to visit Western countries.
Dirty, stinking poverty areas, noisy oriental bazaars with heaps of garbage, mehmunsarays (low-budget Eastern accommodation, often combined with diner) where guests sleep on the floor — the prospect that awaits you. "Rest abroad" and all its nuances, actively advertised by travel agencies on television and on the Internet, have nothing to do with the topic of this textbook.
If your goal is to find income and get a job, close this page: after reading the textbook material, you will gain knowledge of the opposite nature, associated with the elements of extreme and, perhaps, the complexity of the upcoming route.
The theory of long journeys carried out at low cost should be studied before picking up a ballpoint pen, after which you can begin to practice.
I warn you in advance: you should not exclude the possibility that the material prepared by you will not be published in any printed publication and the reason is not at all that it is bad.
In our time, the heads of a few print publications (there are few of them left due to competition with online publications) do not scatter fees, trying to attract authors working on a charitable basis; sometimes even a symbolic reward for a well-written article with beautiful photos may not be allocated.
As an option, for starters, you can offer the print publication a few articles for free, for testing, in order to establish yourself.

### Quote from the literary works of the author

   Once, when I was a teenager, with a backpack behind my shoulders, in shabby clothes and a hat with wide fields, went down from the highest, as it seemed to me, Crimean mountains, to where in the lowlands rural children grazed a flock of sheep. The shepherd boys surrounded me from all sides, mistaking for a wanderer and started asking... I told them about the world trip, African cannibals, described aborigines traditions and much more. The chappies listened as enchanted, opening their mouths from amazement: they have never been beyond the neighboring village. However, the fifteen-year-old narrator in those days was not yet a traveler, I deceived them... and I also deceived you: this story is fiction.

## References

* ↑ Pinchuk, Viktor. Six months by islands... and countries (in Russian). Russia: Brovko. p. 64 - 65. ISBN 978-5-9908234-0-2.
# IB Environmental Studies/Systems and Models

IB Environmental Systems
Topic 1: System and Models
system – a collection of interrelated parts that work together by way of some driving process.
surroundings – everything around the system being studied
open system – exchanges energy and matter with surroundings. Most ecosystems are open.
closed system – exchanges energy but not matter with surroundings. Our planet is [usually] closed.
isolated system – exchanges neither energy nor matter with surroundings. Laboratory experiments are usually isolated.
- First Law of Thermodynamics: Conservation of energy.
Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed from one form to another. There is a fixed amount of energy in the universe. Therefore, living organisms must get their required energy from their environment and surroundings.
-Second Law of Thermodynamics: In an isolated system entropy tends to increase spontaneously.
When energy is converted from one form to another, some of the energy is degraded into less-usable heat which disperses into the environment. Thus the amount of energy remains the same, but its usability decreases.
Entropy measures the amount of disorder in the universe – usable energy is more organized whereas less-usable energy is more diffuse/disorganized. Entropy increases naturally, or spontaneously.
Equilibrium – A state of balance among the components of a system
Stable equilibrium - The condition of a system in which there is a tendency for it to return to a previous equilibrial condition following disturbance
Steady-state equilibrium – The condition of an open system in which there are no changes over the longer term, but in which there may be oscillations in the very short term. There are continuing inputs and outputs of matter and energy, but the system as a whole remains in a more-or-less constant state.
Dynamic equilibrium – there is no specific ‘average’ state; the system has different average states at different times. After a disturbance, the system may move to a different ‘average’ state.