OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Introduction to Psychology/School Psychology

School Psychology is the specialty of applying psychological theories, methods and interventions to children and the school community system. Within school psychology, there are several areas of application.
Assessment There is the area of assessment of intelligence, emotional functioning and educational/learning needs. This application is one reason that school districts maintain school psychologists. This is an area that is mandated within special education law.
Counseling School psychologists provide individual and group counseling in schools as part of their role in meeting the needs of children both who are classified and mandated for counseling as part of their special education needs and for children who may be at risk for developing problems and would benefit from counseling as a preventive intervention.
Consultation The school psychologist often functions as a consultant with parents, teachers and administrators to help develop or modify educational programs and approaches, behavior management methods, and other interventions to meet the social, emotional, behavioral and educational needs of students. This approach is one of the most cost-effective and efficient methods of utilizing the expertise of a psychologist in a school system and community.
School psychologists are also able to provide expertise in areas of school development such as research, program development, committee projects, staff development, classroom workshops and parenting classes among other possible roles.
A key role of school psychologists is to work within the special education system and help administer assessments and individualized education within the legal framework of the special education law, Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act, often referred to as IDEA. Within IDEA, there are thirteen disability categories which have specific criteria within the law.
Disability Categories under IDEA
1. Autism 2. Deaf-Blindness 3. Deafness 4. Emotional Disturbance 5. Hearing Impairment 6. Mental Retardation 7. Multiple Disabilities 8. Orthopedic Impairment 9. Other Health Impairment 10. Specific Learning Disability 11. Speech or Language Impairment 12. Traumatic Brain Injury 13. Visual Impairment Including Blindness
Reference:
http://www.nichcy.org/pubs/genresc/gr3.htm
# Introduction to Python Programming
## Table of Contents

* Introduction
* Python Programming - Installing Python
* Python Programming - Data Types
* Python Programming - Control Structures
* Python Programming - Functions
* Python Programming - Class and Objects
* Python Programming - Handling Files
* Python Programming - Command Line Arguments
* Python Programming - Learning Resources
* Python Programming - Acknowledgement
# Introduction to Psychology/Social Psychology

Social Psychology is the branch of Psychology or Sociology that deals with the study of individual behaviour in a society. Psychology is the study of mind and behaviour and the basic subject matter for the study of psychology is the individual difference. The individual becomes the part of a society by the process of socialization. The major and most determining part of socialization occurs in the early childhood. This is the time when the child learns all the social norms and values.
The social psychology can be divided into two major categories based on the emphasis given to either of the constituting disciplines, Psychology and Sociology. Psychological Social Psychology (PSP) emphasizes its study on the subject's mental processes, experiences and dispositions while Sociological Social Psychology (SSP) emphasizes its study on the individual's social order, roles and the historical base of social behaviour.
Social psychology is the study of the nature and causes of human social behavior, with an emphasis on how people think towards each other and how they relate to each other. Social Psychology aims to understand how we make sense of social situations. For example, this could involve the influence of others on an individual's behavior (e.g., conformity or persuasion), the perception and understanding of social cues, or the formation of attitudes or stereotypes about other people. Social cognition is a common approach and involves a mostly cognitive and scientific approach to understanding social behavior.
A related area is community psychology, which examines psychological and mental health issues on the level of the community rather than using the individual as the unit of measurement.
Social psychology studies how the presence or perceived presence of others impacts human behavior, emotion, and cognition.
# Introduction to Psychology/Scientific method

Scientific Method is a misleading term because there is no single method of science.
A more accurate term would be Scientific Best Practices.
Science is a search for truth about the natural world.
In the past, Science was called Natural Philosophy.
Philosophy is a discipline that humans use to discover truth.
Natural is a word we use to describe anything not made by humans.
So then, Science is the search for truth about nature.
Different scientists use different methods depending on what they study.
The field of science that studies stars and galaxies is called Astronomy.
It is not possible for humans to perform experiments on stars and galaxies. Chemistry studies how atoms and molecules react to form different molecules. Chemists can experiment directly with the atoms and molecules that they study. Both Astronomy and Chemistry are sciences.
But each science uses very different methods to discover the truth about nature.
In general all sciences use two kinds of information to study nature. Observations of natural phenomenon are recorded and are called Data. Ideas that explain observations are called a Hypotheses. Scientists share data, the steps used to collect the data, and their ideas that explain the data. When many people have reproduced a set of observations and think that a particular hypotheses is true, the hypothese may become a Theory.
The open sharing of information has been part of science for hundreds of years. In recent years, some sharing of information has become controlled by greed. Corporations attempt to own scientific discoveries that their employees make.
# Introduction to Psychology/Surveys

The survey method of data collection is likely the most common of the four major methods. The benefits of this method include its low financial cost and its large sample size. The very large issue with the survey is its accuracy. More often than not, there is a large disparity between people's stated opinions and their expressed opinions. The survey is a reflection only of their stated opinions, and thus is fundamentally inaccurate. Properly interpreted, surveys may be used to understand a person's viewpoints on a matter, but this analysis is very difficult and also leaves much room for doubt. All in all, surveys have limited use in studying actual social action, but are inexpensive and are an excellent way to gain an understanding of a person's attitude toward a matter.

## Advantages of surveys

The advantages of survey techniques include:
* It is an efficient way of collecting information from a large number of respondents. Very large samples are possible. Statistical techniques can be used to determine validity, reliability, and statistical significance.
* Surveys are flexible in the sense that a wide range of information can be collected. They can be used to study attitudes, values, beliefs, and past behaviors.
* Because they are standardized, they are relatively free from several types of errors.
* They are relatively easy to administer.
* There is an economy in data collection due to the focus provided by standardized questions. Only questions of interest to the researcher are asked, recorded, codified, and analyzed. Time and money is not spent on tangential questions.
* Since the surveys are usually anonymous, it allows the people to be more candid with their responses

## Disadvantages of surveys

Disadvantages of survey techniques include:
* They depend on subjects’ motivation, honesty, memory, and ability to respond. Subjects may not be aware of their reasons for any given action. They may have forgotten their reasons. They may not be motivated to give accurate answers, in fact, they may be motivated to give answers that present themselves in a favorable light.
* Surveys are not appropriate for studying complex social phenomena. The individual is not the best unit of analysis in these cases. Surveys do not give a full sense of social processes and the analysis seems superficial.
* Structured surveys, particularly those with closed ended questions, may have low validity when researching affective variables.
* Survey samples are usually self-selected, and therefore non-probability samples from which the characteristics of the population sampled cannot be inferred.

## See also

* Questionnaire (Wikipedia)
* Statistical survey (Wikipedia)
* Survey design (Wikiversity)
# Principles of Finance/Section 1/Chapter 7/Port/OMP

The Capital Allocation Line shows how an investor can use an optimal market portfolio matched to his risk preferences. According to capital market theory, there is one particular portfolio that has the highest expected returns for its risk. However, the risk category that this portfolio is in may not be suitable for all investors. Some investors will naturally prefer lower risk, lower return securities. Other investors will prefer riskier ventures with the possibility of higher returns. The Capital Allocation Line is kinked at one point in the middle, this represents the optimal market portfolio.
The line slopes down and to the left from this point. All of the points on this left half of the line represent a lending portfolio. A lending portfolio consists of the market portfolio, plus some risk free government securities. These securities serve to reduce the risk profile of the portfolio, while of course also reducing expected returns.
The line slopes up and to the right from the point in the middle. Every point on the right half of the line represents a borrowing portfolio. This shows how an investor can buy the market portfolio, and also borrow money in order to buy more of the market portfolio. Therefore, an investor can hold the same market portfolio and increase his risk and expected return. Notice that the slope of the lending portfolio is higher than that of the borrowing portfolio. This is because the rate at which one can borrow money will always be higher than the risk free lending rate.
# Principles of Finance/Section 1/Chapter 7/Port/Correlation
## A two security portfolio

When building a portfolio, it is important not only to consider the individual securities in a portfolio, but also how they interact with one another. For example, consider a portfolio that contains two stocks, XYZ and ABC.
The following formula finds the variance of a portfolio using the correlation (rho) between two stocks in a portfolio:
$\sigma _{portfolio}^{2}=x_{1}^{2}\sigma _{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}\sigma _{2}^{2}+2(x_{1}x_{2}\rho _{12}\sigma _{1}\sigma _{2})$
Where x represents the weight of each security in the portfolio.
So, let us suppose the following information:
| | XYZ | ABC |
| Price | $50 | $60 |
| Shares | 20 | 15 |
| Variance | 0.02 | 0.04 |
| Std. Dev. | 0.1414 | 0.2 |
And the correlation between the two is 0.25
Find the variance of this portfolio.
The first thing we must do is determine the relative weights of each stock. We see that we have $1000 in XYZ, and 900 in ABC. Therefore x$_1$=0.53 and x$_2$=0.47. The other relevant information is listed, so we simply plug it into the equation:
$\sigma _{p}^{2}=0.53^{2}(0.02)+.47^{2}(0.04)+2(0.53*0.47*0.25*0.1414*0.2)=0.01798$
Now let us say we were trying to find the Beta of the XYZ company, and we know that the market has a variance of 0.04. The following formula will allow us to do so:
$\beta _{i}={\frac {\sigma _{im}}{\sigma _{m}^{2}}}$
First, we will need to find the covariance ($\sigma _{12}$) between the market and XYZ. For that, we will use the following formula:
$\sigma _{12}=\rho _{12}\sigma _{1}\sigma _{2}$
For this exercise we will need to know the correlation between the market and XYZ, which we will say is 0.75. Therefore:
$\sigma _{12}=0.75*0.1414*0.2=0.02121$
Applying our covariance of 0.02121 to the formula for beta, we find that:
$\beta _{i}={\frac {0.02121}{0.04}}=0.53$
# Principles of Finance/What is Finance?
## What is Finance?

Finance is an imprecise generalization that may encompass several branches of economics, law and general know-how on managing valuable assets. From simple currency and property to bonds and other more complex financial instruments. More specifically, one can state that through financial analysis and decisions, planned actions can be taken regarding the collection and use of those assets as to optimize financial resources toward the objectives of an organization (states, companies and businesses) or individual.
Types of finance:
* Overdraft
* Bank term loans
* Asset-based finance
* Receivables Finance
* Invoice discounting
* Angel funding
* Venture capital
* Personal resources
# Java Programming/Keywords/assert

assert is a Java keyword used to define an assert statement. An assert statement is used to declare an expected boolean condition in a program. If the program is running with assertions enabled, then the condition is checked at runtime. If the condition is false, the Java runtime system throws an AssertionError Assertions may be declared using the following syntax:
* assert expression1 [: expression2];
expression1 is a boolean that will throw the assertion if it is false. When it is thrown, the assertion error exception is created with the parameter expression2 (if applicable).
An example:
* assert list != null && list.size > 0 : "list variable is null or empty";
* Object value = list.get(0);
Assertions are usually used as a debugging aid. They should not be used instead of validating arguments to public methods, or in place of a more precise runtime error exception.
Assertions are enabled with the Java -ea or -enableassertions runtime option. See your Java environment documentation for additional options for controlling assertions.
# Java Programming/Keywords/class

class is a Java keyword which begins the declaration and definition of a class.
The general syntax of a class declaration, using Extended Backus-Naur Form, is
The extends word is optional. If omitted, the class extends the Object class, as all Java classes inherit from it.
See also:
# Java Programming/Keywords/break

break is a Java keyword.
Jumps (breaks) out from a loop. Also used at switch statement.
For example:
* for ( int i=0; i < maxLoopIter; i++ ) {
* System.out.println("Iter=" +i);
* if ( i == 5 ) {
* break; // -- 5 iteration is enough --
See also:
# Java Programming/Keywords/byte

byte is a keyword which designates the 8 bit signed integer primitive type.
The java.lang.Byte class is the nominal wrapper class when you need to store a byte value but an object reference is required.
Syntax: byte <variable-name> = <integer-value>;
For example:
* byte b = 65;
or
* byte b = 'A';
The number 65 is the code for 'A' in ASCII.
See also:
# Java Programming/Keywords/const

const is a reserved keyword, presently not being used.
In other programming languages, such as C, const is often used to declare a constant. However, in Java, final is used instead.
# Java Programming/Keywords/boolean

boolean is a keyword which designates the boolean primitive type. There are only two possible boolean values: true and false. The default value for boolean fields is false.
The following is a declaration of a private boolean field named initialized, and its use in a method named synchronizeConnection.
* Code section 1: Connection synchronization.
* private boolean initialized = false;
* public void synchronizeConnection {
* if (!initialized) {
* connection = connect;
* initialized = true;
The previous code only creates a connection once (at the first method call). Note that there is no automatic conversion between integer types (such as int) to boolean as is possible in some languages like C. Instead, one must use an equivalent expression such as (i != 0) which evaluates to true if i is not zero.
# Java Programming/Keywords/catch

catch is a keyword.
It's part of a try block. If an exception is thrown inside a try block, the exception will be compared to any of the catch part of the block. If the exception match with one of the exception in the catch part, the exception will be handled there.
For example:
* try {
* throw new MyException_1;
* } catch ( MyException_1 e ) {
* // --- Handle the Exception_1 here --
* } catch ( MyException_2 e ) {
* // --- Handle the Exception_2 here --
See also:
# Java Programming/Keywords/char

char is a keyword. It defines a character primitive type. char can be created from character literals and numeric representation. Character literals consist of a single quote character (') (ASCII 39, hex 0x27), a single character, and a close quote ('), such as 'w'. Instead of a character, you can also use unicode escape sequences, but there must be exactly one.
Syntax:
* char variable name$_1$ = 'character$_1$';
* Code section 1: Three examples.
* char oneChar1 = 'A';
* char oneChar2 = 65;
* char oneChar3 = '\u0041';
* System.out.println(oneChar1);
* System.out.println(oneChar2);
* System.out.println(oneChar3);
* Output for Code section 1
* A
* A
* A
65 is the numeric representation of character 'A' , or its ASCII code.
The nominal wrapper class is the java.lang.Character class when you need to store a char value but an object reference is required.
* Code section 2: char wrapping.
* char aCharPrimitiveType = 'A';
* Character aCharacterObject = aCharPrimitiveType;
See also:
# Java Programming/Keywords/abstract

abstract is a Java keyword. It can be applied to a class and methods. An abstract class cannot be directly instantiated. It must be placed before the variable type or the method return type. It is recommended to place it after the access modifier and after the static keyword. A non-abstract class is a concrete class. An abstract class cannot be final.
Only an abstract class can have abstract methods. An abstract method is only declared, not implemented:
* Code listing 1: AbstractClass.java
* public abstract class AbstractClass {
* // This method does not have a body; it is abstract.
* public abstract void abstractMethod;
* // This method does have a body; it is implemented in the abstract class and gives a default behavior.
* public void concreteMethod {
* System.out.println("Already coded.");
An abstract method cannot be final, static nor native. Because an abstract class can't directly be instantiated, you must either instantiate a concrete sub-class or you instantiate the abstract class by implementing its abstract methods alongside a new statement:
* Code section 1: Abstract class use.
* AbstractClass myInstance = new AbstractClass {
* public void abstractMethod {
* System.out.println("Implementation.");
A private method cannot be abstract.
# Java Programming/Keywords/case

case is a Java keyword.
This is part of the switch statement, to find if the value passed to the switch statement matches a value followed by case.
For example:
* int i = 3;
* switch(i) {
* case 1:
* System.out.println("The number is 1.");
* break;
* case 2:
* System.out.println("The number is 2.");
* break;
* case 3:
* System.out.println("The number is 3."); // this line will print
* break;
* case 4:
* System.out.println("The number is 4.");
* break;
* case 5:
* System.out.println("The number is 5.");
* break;
* default:
* System.out.println("The number is not 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5.");
# Old English/Interjections

Introduction: Introduction - Grammar - Orthography - I-mutation Grammar: Nouns - Pronouns - Articles - Adjectives - Numbers - Verbs - Participles - Adverbs - Conjunctions - Prepositions - Interjections - Appositives - Word Formation -
Interjections are words used to express an emotion. The most common Old English interjections were:
* Ēa - oh
* Ēalā - lo, oh (also said when seeing someone - like an acknowledgement)
* Hƿæt - what!
* Lā （frequently used in combination with other words or interjections - see "ēalā" above) - lo
* Ƿā - misery! woe!
* Ƿel, ƿel - well, well
Oh particular interest is the interjection "lā", which could be used in the middle of a sentence to emphasize almost anything being said, including statements, questions, requests, and commands. For example:
* Cum lā! - Come on!
* Ġief mē þā bōc lā - Please give me the book
* Saga lā þætte þū þenċest - Do say what you're thinking
* Hƿæt lā is þæt? - Whatever is that?
* He is lā ƿel grēat - He is indeed tall
They didn't really have exact equivalents for short words for "please" and "sorry" in Old English, but "lā" could at a pinch be used in a request for "please" (see above). Also, one could use the interjection "ƿālā" or "ƿālāƿā" to express sorrow or regret - approximately equivalent of "sorry".
# Old English/Language Change

In many cases, it is possible to guess the Modern English form of a word—and thereby perhaps a hint as to its meaning—by applying regular sound and spelling changes. Sometimes this process can be done in reverse to guess the Old English form of a Modern English word, though this is by no means reliable, especially since it's not always obvious whether a Modern English word came from Old English in the first place.
* ā → oa or long o: rād → road; bāt → boat; stān → stone; bān → bone
* ē → ee: fēt → feet
* ō → oo: fōt → foot; bōc → book; gōs → goose
* ū → ow/ou: cū → cow; hū → how; dūne → down; þū → thou; mūs → mouse
* h → gh: cniht → knight; rūh → rough; tōh → tough; þurh → through (this one exhibits metathesis of the r)
# Multibody Mechanics/Euler Parameters

Euler parameters (also known as Euler-Rodrigues parameters or unit quaternions) are an alternative to Euler angles as a means to describe the relative orientation of reference frames in three dimensions.
The significant difference between Euler parameters and Euler angles is that where there are only three Euler angles, there are four Euler parameters. The Euler parameters are not independent, and a valid set of parameters must satisfy the constraint that the sum of their squares is constant.
The Euler parameters are defined by an axis and angle, i.e. the relative orientation of frames is described by a rotation about a common axis. If the axis defined by the vector ${\vec {u}}$ decomposed as $u_{1},u_{2},u_{2}$ in both frames (the axis is common), and the rotation by an angle $\phi$ (right-handed about the vector) to arrive at orientation of the second frame, then the Euler parameters are
$e_{0}=\cos \left({\frac {\phi }{2}}\right)|{\vec {u}}|$
$e_{i}=\sin \left({\frac {\phi }{2}}\right)u_{i},i=1...3$
Note that it is common for one to consider Euler parameters in normalized form where the vector ${\vec {u}}$ is a unit vector ${\hat {u}}$, in which case the Euler parameters will, by definition, satisfy the constraint that their squares sum to one.
# Multibody Mechanics/Notational Conventions

Throughout this text a consistent notation is maintained, which is essentially that promoted by Kane (and presented to the author with modification by Anderson). This notation eliminates the ambiguity associated with the multiple reference frames inherent in multibody analysis. It has been the author's experience in industry that too many problems are brought on by poor notation, and the notion that for some topics this notation is too rigorous has been dismissed.
Scalar quantities are represented by numbers, letters and/or symbols. The following are all scalars:
Arbitrary vectors are denoted with over-arrows as
and unit vectors are given the usual hat notation
Reference frames are labeled with a single capital letter, with 'N' being reserved for the inertial frames (also called the 'Newtonian' frame).
Each reference frame is assumed to have a set of right handed basis vectors labeled with the same lowercase letter. Basis vectors for the frame 'B' would be: