# Diagnostic Radiology/Printable version

The current, editable version of this book is available in Wikibooks, the open-content textbooks collection, at
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# Musculoskeletal Anatomy

Musculoskeletal anatomy refers to the study of the structures that make up the musculoskeletal system, which includes the bones, muscles, joints, ligaments, tendons, and other connective tissues. The musculoskeletal system provides support, stability, and movement to the body. Here's an overview of the key components of musculoskeletal anatomy:
* Bones:
** Skeletal System: The skeleton is the framework of the body, consisting of over 200 individual bones. These bones can be classified into two main categories: axial skeleton (bones of the skull, vertebral column, and ribcage) and appendicular skeleton (bones of the limbs and girdles).
** Long Bones: These bones, such as the femur and humerus, are longer than they are wide and play a crucial role in providing support and enabling movement.
** Short Bones: Short bones, like those found in the wrist (carpals) and ankle (tarsals), are roughly cube-shaped and provide stability and support.
** Flat Bones: Flat bones, such as the skull bones (e.g., frontal and parietal bones) and the scapula, protect vital organs and serve as attachment sites for muscles.
** Irregular Bones: These bones have complex shapes and include the vertebrae, facial bones, and pelvic bones.
* Muscles:
** Muscular System: Muscles are responsible for generating movement, maintaining posture, and providing support. There are three main types of muscles: skeletal (voluntary), smooth (involuntary), and cardiac (involuntary).
** Skeletal Muscles: These are the muscles attached to bones that allow voluntary movement. They work in pairs, with one muscle contracting (agonist) to produce movement and its opposing muscle relaxing (antagonist).
** Smooth Muscles: Smooth muscles are found in the walls of internal organs (e.g., digestive tract, blood vessels) and control involuntary processes, such as digestion and blood vessel constriction.
** Cardiac Muscle: Cardiac muscle is found exclusively in the heart and is responsible for the rhythmic contractions that pump blood throughout the body.
* Joints:
** Articular System: Joints are the points where two or more bones come together. They can be classified into three main types: fibrous joints (immovable), cartilaginous joints (partially movable), and synovial joints (freely movable).
** Synovial Joints: Synovial joints, such as the knee and shoulder joints, are the most common type of joint in the body and allow a wide range of motion. They are characterized by the presence of a synovial membrane that produces synovial fluid to lubricate and cushion the joint.
* Ligaments and Tendons:
** Ligaments: Ligaments are tough, fibrous connective tissues that connect bone to bone, stabilizing joints and preventing excessive movement.
** Tendons: Tendons are dense connective tissues that attach muscles to bones. They transmit the force generated by muscle contraction to the bone, allowing movement.
* Other Connective Tissues:
** Cartilage: Cartilage is a firm, flexible connective tissue found in various parts of the body, including the joints, nose, and ears. It provides support and cushioning.
** Fascia: Fascia is a connective tissue that surrounds and separates muscles, allowing them to slide past each other smoothly.
Understanding musculoskeletal anatomy is essential for healthcare professionals such as orthopedic surgeons, physical therapists, and sports medicine specialists, as well as for anyone interested in maintaining physical health and well-being. It plays a crucial role in diagnosing and treating musculoskeletal disorders, planning surgical procedures, and designing rehabilitation programs.

# Chest Anatomy

Chest anatomy refers to the structures and components located in the thoracic region of the body, commonly known as the chest. The chest houses vital organs and structures, including the heart, lungs, major blood vessels, and the thoracic cage (ribcage). Here is an overview of the key components of chest anatomy:
* Thoracic Cage (Ribcage):
** Ribs: The ribcage consists of 12 pairs of ribs, each attached to the thoracic vertebrae in the spine. Ribs provide protection to the organs within the chest, particularly the heart and lungs.
** Sternum: The sternum, or breastbone, is a flat, elongated bone located in the center of the chest. It consists of three parts: the manubrium, body, and xiphoid process. The sternum serves as an attachment point for several ribs and supports the chest's structure.
* Lungs:
** Lungs: The lungs are a pair of respiratory organs situated on either side of the chest. They are responsible for the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide during breathing. The right lung has three lobes, while the left lung has two lobes, allowing space for the heart.
** Bronchi and Bronchioles: The trachea (windpipe) divides into the right and left main bronchi, which further branch into smaller bronchi and bronchioles within the lungs. These airways transport air to and from the alveoli (air sacs) for gas exchange.
* Heart and Great Vessels:
** Heart: The heart is a muscular organ located in the chest, slightly to the left of the midline. It pumps blood throughout the body, supplying oxygen and nutrients to tissues. The heart consists of four chambers: two atria (left and right) and two ventricles (left and right).
** Aorta: The aorta is the body's largest artery and originates from the left ventricle of the heart. It carries oxygenated blood from the heart to the systemic circulation, delivering it to the body's tissues.
** Superior and Inferior Vena Cava: These large veins return deoxygenated blood from the upper (superior) and lower (inferior) parts of the body to the right atrium of the heart.
* Mediastinum:
** Mediastinum: The mediastinum is the central compartment of the chest that houses the heart, major blood vessels, esophagus, and other structures. It extends from the sternum to the vertebral column.
* Esophagus:
** Esophagus: The esophagus is a muscular tube that carries food and liquids from the mouth to the stomach through a process called peristalsis. It passes through the chest as it travels to the abdominal cavity.
* Diaphragm:
** Diaphragm: The diaphragm is a dome-shaped muscle that separates the chest (thoracic) cavity from the abdominal cavity. It plays a crucial role in the breathing process, contracting and relaxing to change the volume of the thoracic cavity and facilitate breathing.
* Major Blood Vessels:
** Pulmonary Arteries and Veins: Pulmonary arteries carry deoxygenated blood from the right side of the heart to the lungs for oxygenation, while pulmonary veins return oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left side of the heart.
** Coronary Arteries: Coronary arteries supply the heart muscle with oxygenated blood, ensuring its proper function.
Understanding chest anatomy is essential for healthcare professionals, especially those in cardiology, pulmonology, thoracic surgery, and emergency medicine. It enables the diagnosis and treatment of conditions related to the heart, lungs, and other thoracic organs.

## Normal Chest Anatomy

Name and define the three zones of the airways
Define a secondary pulmonary lobule
Define an acinus
List the lobar and segmental bronchi of both lungs
* Identify the following structures on the posteroanterior (PA) chest radiograph:
* Lungs -- right, left, right upper, middle and lower lobes, left upper and lower lobes, lingula
* Fissures -- minor, superior accessory, inferior accessory, azygous
* Airway - trachea, carina, main bronchi
* Heart - right atrium, left atrial appendage, left ventricle, location of the four cardiac valves
* Pulmonary arteries -- main, right, left, interlobar
* Aorta -- ascending, arch, descending
* Veins -- superior vena cava, azygous, left superior intercostal ("aortic nipple")
* Bones -- spine, ribs, clavicles, scapulae, humerus
* Right paratracheal stripe
* Junction lines -- anterior, posterior
* Aortopulmonary window
* Azygoesophageal recess
* Paraspinal lines
* Left subclavian artery
Identify the following structures on the lateral chest radiograph:
* Lungs -- right, left, right upper, middle and lower lobes, left upper and lower lobes, lingula
* Fissures n-- major, minor, superior accessory
* Airway -- trachea, upper lobe bronchi, posterior wall of bronchus intermedius
* Heart -- right ventricle, right ventricular outflow stripe, left atrium, left ventricle, the location of the four cardiac valves
* Pulmonary arteries -- right, left
* Aorta --ascending, arch, descending
* Veins -- SVC, IVC, left brachiocephalic (innominate), pulmonary vein confluence
* Bones -- spine, ribs, scapulae, humerus
* Retrosternal line
* Posterior tracheal stripe
* Right and left hemidiaphragms
* Raiderís triangle
* Brachiocephalic (innominate) artery

# Vascular Anatomy

Vascular anatomy refers to the study of the network of blood vessels in the human body, which includes arteries, veins, and capillaries. The vascular system plays a crucial role in the transport of blood, oxygen, nutrients, and waste products throughout the body. Here's an overview of the key components of vascular anatomy:
* Arteries:
** Arteries: Arteries are blood vessels that carry oxygenated blood away from the heart to supply oxygen and nutrients to body tissues. They have thick, muscular walls that help withstand the high pressure generated by the heart's pumping action.
** Aorta: The aorta is the largest and main artery in the body, originating from the left ventricle of the heart. It branches into multiple arteries that supply blood to various organs and regions of the body.
** Arterioles: Arterioles are smaller arteries that branch from larger arteries. They play a key role in regulating blood pressure and controlling blood flow to specific tissues.
* Capillaries:
** Capillaries: Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels and are responsible for the exchange of gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide), nutrients, and waste products between the bloodstream and body tissues. Their thin walls allow for efficient diffusion.
* Veins:
** Veins: Veins carry deoxygenated blood from body tissues back to the heart, where it is then pumped to the lungs for oxygenation. Veins typically have thinner walls than arteries and contain valves to prevent backflow of blood.
** Superior and Inferior Vena Cava: These are the body's largest veins. The superior vena cava returns deoxygenated blood from the upper part of the body to the right atrium of the heart, while the inferior vena cava returns blood from the lower part of the body.
* Venous System:
** Deep Veins: Deep veins are located within the muscles and are responsible for carrying the majority of blood in the venous system. Examples include the femoral and popliteal veins in the legs.
** Superficial Veins: Superficial veins are located closer to the skin's surface and include veins like the great saphenous vein in the leg.
* Portal System:
** Portal Veins: Portal veins are unique in that they carry blood from one group of capillaries to another without first passing through the heart. The hepatic portal vein, for example, carries nutrient-rich blood from the digestive organs to the liver for processing before returning it to the general circulation.
* Lymphatic System:
** Lymphatic Vessels: While not part of the vascular system, lymphatic vessels play a crucial role in fluid balance and immune function. They collect lymph, a clear fluid containing white blood cells, from body tissues and return it to the bloodstream via the thoracic duct and right lymphatic duct.
Understanding vascular anatomy is essential for healthcare professionals, particularly vascular surgeons, cardiologists, radiologists, and nurses who diagnose and treat vascular conditions, such as arterial blockages, venous diseases, and lymphatic disorders. Additionally, knowledge of vascular anatomy is crucial for vascular imaging and interventional procedures.

## Normal Vascular Anatomy

* Aorta
** Thoracic Aorta
*** Coronary Arteries
*** Innominate Artery
*** Left Common Carotid Artery
*** Left Subclavain Artery
*** Bronchial Arteries
*** Intercostal Arteries
** Abdominal Aorta
*** Phrenic Arteries
*** Celiac Artery
*** Superior Mesenteric Artery
*** Renal Arteries
*** Gonadal Arteries
*** Inferior Mesenteric Artery
*** Lumbar Arteries
*** Common Iliac Arteries
**** Internal Iliac Artery
**** External Iliac Artery
***** Circumflex Iliac Artery
***** Inferior Epigastric Artery
***** Common Femoral Artery
****** Profunda Femoris Artery
****** Superficial Femoral Artery
******* Popliteal Artery
******** Anterior Tibial Artery
******** Tibio-peroneal Trunk
********* Posterior Tibial Artery
********* Peroneal Artery

# Neuroradiological Anatomy

Neuroradiological anatomy is the study of the structures and components of the central nervous system (CNS), including the brain and spinal cord, using radiological imaging techniques. Radiological imaging plays a crucial role in diagnosing, monitoring, and researching neurological disorders and conditions. Here's an overview of key structures and imaging modalities used in neuroradiological anatomy:
* Brain Structures:
** Cerebrum: The largest part of the brain, responsible for higher cognitive functions such as thinking, memory, emotion, and voluntary movement. It is divided into two hemispheres.
** Cerebellum: Located at the back of the brain, the cerebellum coordinates voluntary movements, posture, balance, and motor learning.
** Brainstem: The brainstem connects the brain to the spinal cord and includes the medulla oblongata, pons, and midbrain. It controls vital functions like breathing, heart rate, and consciousness.
** Basal Ganglia: Deep within the brain, the basal ganglia plays a role in motor control and learning, as well as emotional and cognitive functions.
** Limbic System: This network of structures, including the hippocampus and amygdala, is involved in emotions, memory, and motivation.
* Imaging Modalities in Neuroradiology:
** Computed Tomography (CT): CT scans use X-rays to create detailed cross-sectional images of the brain and skull. They are often used in emergency situations to detect bleeding, fractures, or masses.
** Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): MRI provides high-resolution images of the brain's soft tissues, allowing for detailed visualization of structures, including the brain, spinal cord, and blood vessels. Functional MRI (fMRI) can map brain activity.
** Positron Emission Tomography (PET): PET scans use radioactive tracers to detect metabolic activity in the brain, aiding in the diagnosis and monitoring of neurological conditions, including tumors and Alzheimer's disease.
** Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT): SPECT imaging is used to measure blood flow and brain activity. It can help diagnose conditions like epilepsy and assess blood flow after a stroke.
** Cerebral Angiography: This procedure involves injecting a contrast dye into blood vessels to visualize blood flow and detect abnormalities like aneurysms, arteriovenous malformations (AVMs), or blockages.
* Spinal Cord Anatomy:
** Spinal Cord: The spinal cord is a cylindrical bundle of nerves that extends from the base of the brain down the vertebral canal. It transmits signals between the brain and the rest of the body.
** Spinal Nerve Roots: These roots, both dorsal (sensory) and ventral (motor), emerge from the spinal cord and carry sensory and motor signals to and from the body.
* Vascular Anatomy:
** Circle of Willis: This network of arteries at the base of the brain supplies blood to the cerebral hemispheres. It is important for maintaining blood flow in case of vessel occlusion.
** Carotid and Vertebral Arteries: The carotid arteries supply blood to the anterior part of the brain, while the vertebral arteries merge to form the basilar artery, which supplies the posterior part of the brain.
** Dural Sinuses: These venous channels within the dura mater (the brain's outermost membrane) collect blood from the brain and return it to the general circulation.
Neuroradiological anatomy is crucial for diagnosing and understanding neurological disorders such as strokes, tumors, vascular malformations, neurodegenerative diseases, and traumatic brain injuries. Radiologists, neurologists, neurosurgeons, and other healthcare professionals use neuroradiological imaging to make accurate diagnoses and guide treatment decisions.

## Brain and Coverings

* Skull, sutures
* Major apertures
* Hemispheres, cortex, gyri, sulci
* Major fissures
* Major cisterns
* Basal ganglia, thalamus, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, pineal gland
* Pons, cerebellum, cerebellopontine angle
* Ventricles, choroid plexus
* Vessels and major branches
** External carotid artery
** Common carotid artery
** Internal carotid artery
** Circle of Willis
** Anterior cerebral artery
** Middle cerebral artery
** Vertebral, basilar artery
** Supratentorial veins, dural sinuses
** Infratentorial veins, dural sinuses

## Head and Neck

* Buccal space
* Sublingual space
* Submandibular space
* Parotid space
* Parapharyngeal space
* Poststyloid parapharyngeal (carotid) space
* Masticator space
* Retropharyngeal space
* Perivertebral space
* Posterior cervical space
* Pharyngeal mucosal space
** Oral cavity
** Oropharynx and nasopharynx
** Mandible and dental structures
* Visceral space
** Larynx and hypopharynx
** Thyroid
* Orbit
* Paranasal sinuses
* Skull base
** Anterior
** Central
** Posterior
* Temporal bone

## Spine

* Vertebral bodies
* Facet joints and transverse processes
* Lamina and spinous processes
* Support ligaments
* Specific characteristics of cervical, thoracic, and lumbar segments
* Cranio-vertebral and lumbo-sacral junctions
* Normal stability and motion

# Musculoskeletal Imaging

Musculoskeletal imaging is a specialized branch of medical imaging that focuses on visualizing and diagnosing disorders and conditions related to the musculoskeletal system, which includes bones, joints, muscles, ligaments, tendons, and other connective tissues. Various imaging modalities are employed to assess and diagnose musculoskeletal conditions. Here are some key aspects of musculoskeletal imaging:
* Imaging Modalities:
** X-rays (Radiography): X-rays are commonly used to visualize bones and detect fractures, joint dislocations, and bone abnormalities. They are a quick and readily available imaging option.
** Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): MRI provides high-resolution images of soft tissues, making it ideal for assessing ligaments, tendons, muscles, and joint structures. It is commonly used to diagnose conditions like ligament tears, tendon injuries, and joint disorders.
** Computed Tomography (CT): CT scans are valuable for detailed evaluation of bones, especially in cases of complex fractures, bone tumors, and spinal conditions. They can provide 3D reconstructions for surgical planning.
** Ultrasound (Sonography): Ultrasound is used to examine soft tissues, such as tendons and muscles, as well as to guide needle placement for procedures like joint injections.
** Nuclear Medicine Imaging: Bone scans, positron emission tomography (PET) scans, and single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) scans are used to assess bone and joint diseases, including cancer, infection, and metabolic disorders.
* Common Musculoskeletal Conditions and Applications:
** Fractures: X-rays and CT scans are essential for evaluating the location and severity of bone fractures, helping in treatment decisions.
** Arthritis: Imaging can aid in diagnosing various types of arthritis, including osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, and ankylosing spondylitis.
** Soft Tissue Injuries: MRI is particularly useful for diagnosing injuries to tendons, ligaments, muscles, and cartilage. Common conditions include rotator cuff tears, ACL injuries, and meniscal tears.
** Spinal Disorders: Imaging helps in assessing spinal conditions such as herniated discs, spinal stenosis, and vertebral fractures.
** Bone Tumors: CT and MRI scans are used to evaluate bone tumors, both benign and malignant.
** Infections: Imaging can detect bone and joint infections, such as osteomyelitis and septic arthritis.
** Sports Injuries: Musculoskeletal imaging plays a critical role in diagnosing and monitoring sports-related injuries, such as stress fractures and tendonitis.
* Interventional Procedures:
** Image-Guided Injections: Musculoskeletal imaging, especially ultrasound and fluoroscopy, is used to guide injections into joints or soft tissues, providing accurate delivery of medications or contrast agents.
** Biopsies: Image-guided biopsies can help diagnose musculoskeletal tumors or infections.
* Pediatric Musculoskeletal Imaging:
** Imaging in children may require specialized techniques due to differences in anatomy and the need to minimize radiation exposure. Ultrasound and MRI are often preferred for pediatric musculoskeletal imaging.
Musculoskeletal imaging is essential for diagnosing and managing a wide range of conditions that affect the musculoskeletal system. It helps healthcare professionals make informed treatment decisions, plan surgeries, and monitor the progress of treatments and rehabilitation. Radiologists, orthopedic surgeons, rheumatologists, sports medicine specialists, and other healthcare providers use these imaging techniques to provide optimal care for their patients.

## Musculoskeletal Radiology

* Aspects of Basic Science Related to Bone
* Techniques Relevant to Musculoskeletal Radiology
* Normal Features and Variants
* Congenital and Developmental Abnormalities of the Spine
* Congenital Anomalies and Dysplasias (Basic)
* Congenital Anomalies and Dysplasias (Advanced)
* Infection
* Tumors and Tumor-Like Lesions (Basic)
* Tumors and Tumor-Like Lesions (Advanced)
* Soft Tissue Lesions
* Trauma
* Metabolic, Systemic, and Hematologic Disorders (Basic)
* Metabolic, Systemic, and Hematologic Disorders (Advanced)
* Joint Disorders
These broad categories are adapted from those developed by the Education Committee of the American Society of Musculoskeletal Radiology, 1997-1998.

# Chest Imaging

Chest imaging is a medical imaging technique that focuses on visualizing the structures within the chest, including the heart, lungs, blood vessels, and surrounding tissues. It is essential for diagnosing and monitoring a wide range of chest-related conditions and diseases. Several imaging modalities are commonly used in chest imaging:
* Chest X-ray (CXR):
** Description: A chest X-ray is one of the most common imaging studies used to examine the chest. It provides a two-dimensional image of the chest, including the heart, lungs, ribs, and major blood vessels.
** Applications: Chest X-rays are used to detect and assess various conditions, such as pneumonia, lung cancer, rib fractures, and heart abnormalities. They are also used for preoperative assessments and monitoring medical conditions.
* Computed Tomography (CT) of the Chest:
** Description: Chest CT involves the use of X-rays to create detailed cross-sectional images of the chest. It can provide high-resolution images with multiple viewing angles.
** Applications: CT scans of the chest are used to diagnose and evaluate a wide range of conditions, including lung cancer, pulmonary embolism, infections, trauma, and chest wall abnormalities. They are also valuable for assessing complex lung and mediastinal lesions.
* Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) of the Chest:
** Description: Chest MRI uses powerful magnets and radio waves to create detailed images of the chest's soft tissues, including the heart and blood vessels.
** Applications: MRI is particularly useful for assessing the heart and vascular structures. It is used to evaluate congenital heart diseases, aortic diseases, cardiac tumors, and soft tissue chest abnormalities.
* Positron Emission Tomography-Computed Tomography (PET-CT):
** Description: PET-CT combines functional and anatomical imaging. It involves injecting a small amount of radioactive material (tracer) into the body, which accumulates in areas with increased metabolic activity.
** Applications: PET-CT is commonly used for staging and monitoring cancer, particularly lung cancer and lymphomas. It can identify areas of abnormal metabolic activity, helping determine the extent of disease.
* Ultrasound of the Chest:
** Description: Chest ultrasound uses high-frequency sound waves to create images of the chest's internal structures, such as the heart and pleura (lining of the chest cavity).
** Applications: It is often used in pediatric medicine to assess congenital heart abnormalities and in critical care settings to evaluate pleural effusions and pneumothorax.
* Fluoroscopy:
** Description: Fluoroscopy is a real-time imaging technique that uses X-rays to visualize dynamic processes in the chest, such as swallowing or the movement of the diaphragm during breathing.
** Applications: It is used for various diagnostic and interventional procedures, including barium swallow studies, assessment of swallowing disorders, and guided interventions like bronchoscopy.
Chest imaging is essential for diagnosing and monitoring conditions such as lung diseases, heart diseases, trauma, infections, tumors, and vascular disorders. Radiologists, pulmonologists, cardiologists, and other healthcare professionals rely on these imaging techniques to provide accurate diagnoses and guide treatment decisions in chest-related medical cases.

## Chest Radiology

* Signs in Chest Radiology
* Specific Indications of Chest Radiology
* Interstitial Lung Disease
* Alveolar Lung Disease
* Atelectasis, Airways and Obstructive Lung Disease
* Mediastinal Masses and Mediastinal/Hilar Lymph Node Enlargement
* Solitary and Multiple Pulmonary Nodules
* Benign and Malignant Neoplasms of the Lung
* Chest Trauma
* Chest Wall, Pleura and Diaphragm
* Infection (Immunocompetent, Immunocompromised and Post-transplant Patients
* Unilaterla Hyperlucent Lung (or hemthorax)
* Congenital Lung Disease
* Pulmonary Vascular
* Thoracic Aorta and Great Vessels
* Ischemic Heart Disease
* Myocardial Disease
* Cardiac Valvular Disease
* Pericardial Disease
* Congenital Heart Disease in the Adult
* Monitoring and support devices -- "tubes and lines"
* Postoperative Chest

# Neuroradiological Imaging

Neuroradiological imaging is a subspecialty of medical imaging that focuses on visualizing and evaluating the structures of the central nervous system (CNS), which includes the brain and spinal cord. Neuroradiological imaging is crucial for diagnosing and monitoring various neurological disorders, brain and spinal cord injuries, and vascular conditions affecting the CNS. Here are the primary imaging modalities used in neuroradiological imaging:
* Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI):
** Description: MRI uses strong magnets and radio waves to create detailed images of the brain and spinal cord's soft tissues. It is a versatile imaging modality that can provide multi-planar and high-resolution images.
** Applications: MRI is used to diagnose a wide range of neurological conditions, including brain tumors, stroke, multiple sclerosis, vascular abnormalities, epilepsy, and spinal cord injuries. Functional MRI (fMRI) can map brain activity.
* Computed Tomography (CT) of the Brain and Spine:
** Description: CT scanning uses X-rays to create cross-sectional images of the brain and spinal cord. It is particularly useful for assessing bony structures.
** Applications: CT is commonly used to diagnose and assess conditions such as head trauma, skull fractures, hemorrhages, and brain lesions. It is also valuable for emergency situations, such as acute strokes and traumatic injuries.
* Cerebral Angiography:
** Description: Cerebral angiography involves injecting a contrast dye into the blood vessels of the brain and spinal cord and capturing X-ray images in real-time.
** Applications: This invasive procedure is used to diagnose and treat vascular conditions, including aneurysms, arteriovenous malformations (AVMs), and narrowing or blockages in the cerebral blood vessels.
* Positron Emission Tomography (PET) and Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT):
** Description: PET and SPECT scans use radioactive tracers to assess metabolic and functional activity in the brain.
** Applications: These techniques are used to evaluate brain function and metabolism, diagnose neurological conditions like Alzheimer's disease, and locate brain tumors.
* Doppler Ultrasound:
** Description: Doppler ultrasound uses sound waves to assess blood flow within the blood vessels of the neck and brain.
** Applications: It is used to diagnose conditions like carotid artery stenosis, which can increase the risk of stroke.
* Myelography:
** Description: Myelography involves injecting a contrast dye into the spinal canal and performing X-rays or CT scans to visualize the spinal cord and nerve roots.
** Applications: Myelography is used to diagnose conditions affecting the spinal cord and nerve roots, such as herniated discs and spinal stenosis.
* Functional Imaging Techniques:
** Functional MRI (fMRI): fMRI measures changes in blood flow and oxygenation in the brain, providing insights into brain activity related to tasks and behaviors.
** Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI): DTI is a type of MRI that measures the diffusion of water molecules in neural tissue, allowing visualization of white matter tracts and helping assess brain connectivity.
Neuroradiological imaging is essential for neurologists, neurosurgeons, neuroradiologists, and other healthcare professionals involved in the diagnosis and treatment of neurological disorders. These imaging modalities provide crucial information about brain and spinal cord health and help guide treatment decisions.

## Neuroradiology

* Basic and Advanced Instrumentation
* Congenital CNS Lesions
* CNS Infections
* Neoplasms and Other Masses
* Trauma
* White Matter Disease
* Cerebrovascular Disease
* Metabolic Disease
* General Systemic Disorders
* Hydrocephalus
* Cognitive Imaging

# Musculoskeletal Diagnosis

Musculoskeletal diagnosis involves the assessment and identification of various conditions and disorders affecting the musculoskeletal system, which includes bones, joints, muscles, tendons, ligaments, and other connective tissues. Accurate diagnosis is crucial for planning appropriate treatment and rehabilitation strategies. Here are some key steps and methods used in musculoskeletal diagnosis:
* Clinical Evaluation:
** Medical History: Gathering a detailed medical history, including information about the patient's symptoms, the onset of pain or discomfort, previous injuries, and any relevant medical conditions.
** Physical Examination: A thorough physical examination is conducted to assess the musculoskeletal system. This includes evaluating range of motion, strength, joint stability, and palpating for tenderness or swelling.
* Imaging Studies:
** X-rays: X-rays provide detailed images of bones and can help diagnose fractures, joint dislocations, and degenerative conditions like osteoarthritis.
** Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): MRI is particularly valuable for assessing soft tissues, including muscles, tendons, ligaments, and cartilage. It is used to diagnose conditions like ligament tears, tendon injuries, and joint disorders.
** Computed Tomography (CT): CT scans can provide detailed images of bones and are useful for evaluating complex fractures, bone tumors, and spinal conditions.
** Ultrasound (Sonography): Ultrasound is often used to evaluate soft tissues, especially tendons and muscles. It can aid in diagnosing conditions like rotator cuff tears and muscle strains.
* Laboratory Tests:
** Blood Tests: Blood tests may be conducted to assess markers of inflammation, infection, or autoimmune diseases that could be affecting the musculoskeletal system.
** Synovial Fluid Analysis: In cases of joint pain or swelling, synovial fluid analysis may be performed to evaluate the composition of fluid within the joint and identify any underlying conditions like arthritis or infection.
* Electromyography (EMG) and Nerve Conduction Studies (NCS):
** EMG: Electromyography assesses the electrical activity of muscles and helps diagnose conditions affecting nerve-muscle interactions, such as peripheral neuropathy or muscle disorders.
** NCS: Nerve conduction studies evaluate how well nerves are transmitting electrical signals and can be used to diagnose conditions like carpal tunnel syndrome or radiculopathy.
* Bone Scans and Nuclear Medicine Studies:
** Bone Scans: Bone scans can detect areas of increased bone turnover, such as those caused by fractures, infections, or bone tumors.
** Positron Emission Tomography (PET) Scans: PET scans are used to assess metabolic activity within tissues and are valuable for identifying cancerous lesions in bones and soft tissues.
* Biopsy:
** Tissue Biopsy: In some cases, a tissue biopsy may be necessary to obtain a sample of abnormal tissue for microscopic examination. This can help diagnose conditions such as bone tumors or inflammatory disorders.
* Functional Assessment:
** Functional Testing: Functional assessments, such as gait analysis, strength testing, and range of motion measurements, can provide valuable information about how a musculoskeletal condition is impacting a person's function and mobility.
* Specialist Consultations:
** Consulting Specialists: Depending on the suspected condition, patients may be referred to specialists such as orthopedic surgeons, rheumatologists, physical therapists, or sports medicine physicians for further evaluation and management.
An accurate musculoskeletal diagnosis is essential for developing a tailored treatment plan that may include physical therapy, medications, injections, surgical intervention, or other therapies. The choice of diagnostic methods depends on the patient's symptoms, medical history, and the suspected condition, and it often involves a multidisciplinary approach to provide comprehensive care.

## Musculoskeletal Radiology

* Arthritis
* Lucent Lesions of Bone
* Sclerotic Lesions of Bone
* Periosteal Reaction
* Soft Tissue Calcification
* Fractures Without Significant Trauma
* Painful Joint Prosthesis
* Orthopedic Hardware
* Scoliosis
* Osteopenia

# Chest Diagnosis

Chest diagnosis refers to the process of identifying and evaluating medical conditions and diseases affecting the chest, including the heart, lungs, blood vessels, and surrounding structures. Accurate chest diagnosis is essential for managing a wide range of respiratory, cardiovascular, and thoracic disorders. Here are key steps and methods involved in chest diagnosis:
* Clinical Evaluation:
** Medical History: Gathering a comprehensive medical history, including information about symptoms, their onset, duration, and associated factors such as smoking history, occupational exposure, and family history.
** Physical Examination: A thorough physical examination involves assessing the chest, heart, and lungs. It includes listening to lung sounds, measuring vital signs (e.g., blood pressure, heart rate, respiratory rate), and examining the chest for deformities or masses.
* Imaging Studies:
** Chest X-ray: X-rays are used to visualize the chest, including the lungs, heart, ribs, and diaphragm. They are essential for diagnosing lung infections, lung cancer, heart conditions, and fractures.
** Computed Tomography (CT): CT scans provide detailed cross-sectional images of the chest and are used to evaluate lung nodules, pulmonary embolisms, mediastinal masses, and thoracic anatomy.
** Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): Chest MRI can be used for detailed evaluation of the heart, blood vessels, and soft tissues within the chest. It is especially valuable for assessing cardiac and vascular conditions.
* Cardiac Evaluation:
** Electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG): ECG records the electrical activity of the heart, helping diagnose arrhythmias, ischemia, myocardial infarctions, and other cardiac conditions.
** Echocardiography: Echocardiography uses ultrasound to create images of the heart's structures and assess cardiac function. It is essential for diagnosing heart valve disorders, cardiomyopathies, and congenital heart defects.
* Pulmonary Function Tests:
** Spirometry: Spirometry measures lung function, including lung volumes and airflow, to assess conditions like asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and restrictive lung diseases.
* Blood Tests:
** Complete Blood Count (CBC): CBC can reveal signs of infection, anemia, or other hematological abnormalities that may affect chest health.
** Cardiac Biomarkers: Blood tests can measure cardiac biomarkers such as troponin and creatine kinase (CK-MB) to assess heart damage or myocardial infarction.
** Arterial Blood Gas (ABG) Analysis: ABG analysis provides information about oxygen and carbon dioxide levels in the blood, helping diagnose respiratory and metabolic disorders.
* Bronchoscopy and Pulmonary Biopsy:
** Bronchoscopy: A bronchoscope is used to visualize the airways and obtain samples for biopsy. It is essential for diagnosing lung infections, tumors, and other airway abnormalities.
* Other Tests and Procedures:
** Nuclear Medicine Imaging: Techniques like lung perfusion scans and ventilation scans can assess lung function and detect pulmonary embolisms.
** Vascular Studies: Doppler ultrasound and angiography are used to evaluate blood vessels in the chest and diagnose conditions like deep vein thrombosis (DVT) or aortic aneurysms.
* Specialist Consultations:
** Consulting Specialists: Depending on the suspected condition, patients may be referred to specialists such as pulmonologists, cardiologists, cardiothoracic surgeons, or interventional radiologists for further evaluation and management.
Accurate chest diagnosis is essential for guiding appropriate treatment plans, whether they involve medication, surgery, lifestyle changes, or other interventions. The choice of diagnostic methods depends on the patient's symptoms, medical history, and the suspected condition, often requiring a multidisciplinary approach to provide comprehensive care.

## Chest Wall, Mediastinum and Pleura

* Chest Wall Lesions
* Pleural Masses
* Pleural Effusions
* Pleural Thickening and Pleural Calcification
* Elevated Hemidiaphragm
* Mediastinal Shift
* Anterior Mediastinal Mass
* Middle Mediastnal Mass
* Posterior Mediastinal Mass
* Hilar Mass

## Increased Pulmonary Opacities

* Atelectasis
* Segmental and Lobar Opacities
* Diffuse Coalescent Opacities
* Fine Reticular Opacities
* Coarse Reticular Opacities
* Diffuse Fine Nodular Disease
* Multifocal Ill-defined Opacities
* Multiple Nodules and Masses
* Solitary Pulmonary Nodule

## Loss of Pulmonary Opacity

* Hyperlucent Lungs
* Solitary Localized Lucent Defect
* Multiple Lucent Lesions

# Pediatric Radiology Regions
## External links

* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- Head: Brain and brain nerves
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- Head: Eye and orbita
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- Head: Nose
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- Head: Nasal sinuses
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- Head: Oral cavity
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- Head: Vessels
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- Head: Lymphatic tissue
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- Head: Muscular system / Connective tissue / Skin
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- Head: Bones
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- Head: Other or unknown
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- Neck: Pharynx
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- Neck: Larynx
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- Neck: Thyroid
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- Neck: Parathyroids
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- Neck: Vessels
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- Neck: Lymphatic tissue
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- Neck: Muscular system / Connective tissue / Skin
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- Neck: Bones
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- Neck: Other and unknown
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- Thorax: Thymus
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- Thorax: Heart
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- Thorax: Esophagus
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- Thorax: Trachea
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- Thorax: Bronchus
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- Thorax: Hilus region
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- Thorax: Lung
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- Thorax: Vessels
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- Thorax: Lymphatic tissue
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- Thorax: Muscular system / Connective tissue / Skin
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- Thorax: Bones
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- Thorax: Other and unknown
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- Abdomen: Liver
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- Abdomen: Pancreas
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- Abdomen: Spleen
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- Abdomen: Adrenals
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- Abdomen: Renals
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- Abdomen: Vessels
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- Abdomen: Lymphatic tissue
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- Abdomen: Muscular system / Connective tissue / Skin
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- Abdomen: Bones
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- Abdomen: Other and unknown
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- GI: Oral cavity
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- GI: Esophagus
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- GI: Stomach
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- GI: Duodenum
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- GI: Small intestine
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- GI: Large intestine
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- GI: Rectum
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- GI: Vessels
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- GI: Lymphatic tissue
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- GI: Connective tissue
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- GI: Other and unknown
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- Pelvis: Ureter
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- Pelvis: Urinary bladder
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- Pelvis: Prostata
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- Pelvis: Urethra
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- Pelvis: Uterus
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- Pelvis: Ovars
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- Pelvis: Testis
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- Pelvis: Vessels
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- Pelvis: Lymphatic tissue
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- Pelvis: Muscular system / Connective tissue / Skin
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- Pelvis: Bones
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- Pelvis: Other and unknown
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- Arm: Vessels
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- Arm: Muscular system / Connective tissue / Skin
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- Arm: Bones
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- Arm: Other and unknown
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- Leg: Vessels
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- Leg: Muscular system / Connective tissue / Skin
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- Leg: Bones
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- Leg: Other and unknown
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- Spinal canal / Myelon
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- Syndromes
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- Generalized diseases
* Childhood disorders in Radiology sorted by region -- Other

# Pediatric Radiology Etiology
## External links

* Congenital childhood disorders in Radiology—Pediatric Radiology cases covering congenital disorders.
* Neoplastic cildhood disorders in Radiology—Pediatric Radiology cases covering neoplastic disorders.
* Circulatory childhood disorders in Radiology—Pediatric Radiology cases covering circulatory disorders.
* Physical childhood disorders in Radiology—Pediatric Radiology cases covering physical disorders.
* Metabolic childhood disorders in Radiology—Pediatric Radiology cases covering metabolic disorders.
* Allergic childhood disorders in Radiology—Pediatric Radiology cases covering allergic disorders.
* Inflammatory or infectious childhood disorders in Radiology—Pediatric Radiology cases covering inflammatory or infectious disorders.
* Other childhood disorders in Radiology—Pediatric Radiology cases covering other disorders.
* Unknown childhood disorders in Radiology—Pediatric Radiology cases of unknown etiology.