OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Puzzles/Lateral puzzles/2

Puzzles | Lateral puzzles | Lateral puzzle 2
Anthony and Cleoptra are found lying dead on the floor of an Egyptian villa. They are surrounded by broken glass and water.
Explain...
Solution
# Puzzles/Lateral puzzles/5

Puzzles | Lateral puzzles | 5
A man is hanging from the ceiling, which is 5 metres above floor level. He has hanged himself however there is no chair and there is no other furniture that he could have used to push himself up. The walls are all smooth and there is no way he could have used them to climb up. However, the floor is flooded. How did he hang himself?
Solution
# Oberon/A2/Oberon.Out.Mod
## References

* https://github.com/Spirit-of-Oberon/ETH-Oberon-PlugIn-Win32/blob/master/Src/Out.Mod.txt
# Saylor.org's Early Globalizations: East Meets West (1200s-1600s)/Africa, Africans, and the Atlantic Slave Trade

While much of Africa followed its own trajectory of progress in the post-medieval period, the rise of European trade and influence still had a profound impact upon African societies. Perhaps the greatest—and most horrific—effect upon Africa was the Atlantic slave trade. The forced removal of Africans to the New World was first started by the Portuguese in what is now Sierra Leone in the 1400s. Soon after, English, Dutch, Portuguese, and French traders began to enslave and sell Africans to benefit New World plantation societies. The result was an incredibly profitable system of enslavement that transformed European empires, colonial societies, and the world economy.
In this unit, we will examine the impact of the many—and complex—facets of the Atlantic slave trade. We will examine how the trade came into being, who was involved, why it was so profitable and so deadly, how it affected Africa and Africans, and why it ended.
# Saylor.org's Early Globalizations: East Meets West (1200s-1600s)/China's Golden Age

After the fall of the Han dynasty in 589 C.E., China descended into political and cultural turmoil. The bureaucracy collapsed and a “foreign” religion—Buddhism— replaced Confucianism as the primary force in cultural life. Decline was evident in most aspects of Chinese society—including in technology, the economy, and urban areas. But beginning in the latter sixth century, two successive dynasties restored the Chinese bureaucracy and economy. As we will see in this unit, the Tang and the Song reinvigorated the Chinese political system and revived the Confucian order. In fact, these influential dynasties ushered in China’s “golden age.”
In this unit, we will begin by examining the downfall of the Sui dynasty and the subsequent emergence of the Tang and Song dynasties. We will then turn our attention to the changes and developments in government, society, the arts, and the economy during this “golden age.”
# Saylor.org's Early Globalizations: East Meets West (1200s-1600s)/A Changing World Balance

By 1400, a fundamental shift was occurring among the world’s civilizations. Chinese and Middle Eastern empires had been at the forefront of civilization for hundreds of years; sophisticated methods of governance, trade systems, and technology allowed them to exert near-global influence. But Mongol invaders from the East undermined the preeminent role of the Islamic and Chinese empires. For a time, the Ming dynasty of China attempted to fill the power vacuum that appeared when the Mongols conquered eastern Europe and Asia Minor. Meanwhile, internal and dynastic struggles continued to upset affairs in western Europe, where some states and kingdoms nevertheless experienced a rise in political and commercial power.
In this unit, we will examine world civilizations in a comparative light to see how and why western European society eclipsed other powerful civilizations in Asia. We will first examine the transition from an Asian-dominated world economy to a European-dominated one. We will then consider the two emerging European empires—Spain and Portugal—who spearheaded trade and conquest in the Middle East, Asia, Africa, and the New World. Finally, we will study the Age of Discovery and its impact on native peoples, Europe, and the balance of world trade.
# Saylor.org's Early Globalizations: East Meets West (1200s-1600s)/Chinggis Khan

The early years of Chinggis Khan's life (his father's death and the difficulties his mother had trying make a living) taught him that survival in Mongolia was quite difficult without a strong network of allies. One's anda (blood brother) pricked his finger and mixed blood with one to forge a blood brotherhood. Chinggis found many andas, and his blood brothers, realizing his superior abilities and his charisma, would often join under his banner. Early in his rise to power, Chinggis attempted immediately to break down the tribal groups that joined him, because he felt that loyalty in the tribal group would belong to the tribal leader rather than to himself. He wanted to eliminate any feeling of tribal identity and convert it to a Mongol identity — a unit that would be much larger, greater than that of the tribe, wherein the loyalty would remain with him, rather than with a tribal leader. Thus, when a tribe did join him, he quickly dispersed its members through the various units that he controlled.
# Radiation Oncology/Temporal Bone Tumor

* Rare tumor, accounting for fewer than 0.2% of all tumors of the head and neck
* Only 200 new cases of temporal bone cancer may be diagnosed each year across the United States
** Cancers arising from skin of the pinna that spread to the temporal bone
** Primary tumors of the external auditory canal (EAC), middle ear, mastoid, or petrous apex
** Metastatic lesions to the temporal bone
* Optimal surgery removes all of the cancer en bloc because positive margins are associated with poor survival rates
* In the most extreme cases in which contraindications to surgery are serious, palliative radiation and chemotherapy may be offered
* Literature supports a beneficial effect of postoperative radiation on survival:
** Temporal bone and neck treated with 50-60 Gy for tumors staged T3 and T4
** Radiation may also be indicated for smaller lesions
# Radiation Oncology/Testis/Staging

AJCC 7th Edition (2009)
Primary Tumor:
* T1 - limited to testis and epididymis without vascular/lymphatic invasion; may invade into the tunica albuginea but not the tunica vaginalis
* T2 - limited to testis and epididymis with vascular/lymphatic invasion; or tumor involving the tunica vaginalis
* T3 - invades the spermatic cord
* T4 - invades the scrotum
Regional Lymph Nodes:
    Regional nodes: para-aortic, interaortocaval, para/pre/retrocaval, pre/retroaortic LN
    Intrapelvic, external iliac, and inguinal LN are considered regional only after scrotal or inguinal surgery.
    Clinical:
* N1 - lymph node mass 2 cm or less in greatest dimension; or multiple lymph nodes, none more than 2 cm in greatest dimension
* N2 - lymph node mass 2 - 5 cm; or multiple lymph nodes, any one mass 2 - 5 cm
* N3 - lymph node mass > 5 cm
    Pathologic:
* N1 - lymph node mass 2 cm or less in greatest dimension, and <= 5 nodes positive, none more than 2 cm in greatest dimension
* N2 - lymph node mass 2 - 5 cm; or more than 5 nodes positive, none more than 5 cm; or evidence of extranodal extension
* N3 - lymph node mass > 5 cm
Distant Metastases:
* M1a - non-regional nodal or pulmonary mets
* M1b - other distant mets
Serum tumor markers (S):
* Note: (from the AJCC Staging Manual, 7th Edition) "Serum tumor markers should be measured prior to orchiectomy, but levels after orchiectomy are used for assignment of S category .... Stage grouping classification of Stage IS requires persistent elevation of serum tumor markers following orchiectomy." $^{(*correctedinerratum)}$
* S0 - serum markers within normal limits
* S1 - LDH < 1.5 * upper limit of normal, AND hCG < 5000 mIu/mL, AND AFP < 1000 ng/mL
* S2 - LDH 1.5 - 10 * normal range, OR hCG 5000-50,000, OR AFP 1000-10,000
* S3 - LDH > 10 * normal range, OR hCG >50,000, OR AFP > 10,000
Stage Grouping:
* IA - T1 N0 M0 S0
* IB - T2-4 N0 M0 S0
* IS - Any T N0 M0 S1-3
* IIA - Any T N1 M0 S0-1
* IIB - Any T N2 M0 S0-1
* IIC - Any T N3 M0 S0-1
* IIIA - Any T Any N M1a S0-1
* IIIB - S2 and either N1-3 or M1a
* IIIC - S3 and either N1-3 or M1a; or M1b
$^*$Erratum: AJCC 5th reprint corrected pages

### Older staging systems

AJCC 6th Edition (2002)
No changes compared to 7th Edition
# Radiation Oncology/Thorax

* Front Page: Radiation Oncology | RTOG Trials | Randomized Trials

## Thoracic Tumors

* Anatomy
* Non-small cell lung cancer
* Large cell neuroendocrine carcinoma
* Small cell lung cancer
* Carcinoid
* Mesothelioma
* Thymoma
* Tracheobronchial Amyloidosis
* Lung metastases
* Mediastinal mass
* Superior Vena Cava Syndrome
* Esophagus

## Tumors of the Heart, Pericardium, and Great Vessels

* Primary neoplasms
* Secondary metastases
* Direct tumor invasion into the structures
* Tumors of the Great Vessels
Treatment Techniques
* Cardiac Radiotherapy
# Radiation Oncology/Testis

* Front Page: Radiation Oncology | RTOG Trials | Randomized Trials
Testis
* Official Guidelines
* Overview
* Staging
* Seminoma
* Non-seminoma Germ Cell Tumors
* Radiation Tolerance
# Radiation Oncology/Testis/NSGCT/Randomized

* Front Page: Radiation Oncology | RTOG Trials | Randomized Trials
Randomized Evidence for Testis NSGCT

## Surveillance

* MRC Trial TE08 (1998-2003) -- 2 CT scans vs 5 CT scans
** Randomized. 414 patients, clinical Stage I NSGCT. Treated with orchiectomy. 10% high risk (LVI). Normal serum markers. Arm 1) 2 CT scans (3 and 12 months) vs. Arm 2) 5 CT scans (3, 6, 9, 12, and 24 months). CT was chest/abdomen; all other investigations (CXR, serum markers) were same between arms
** 2007 PMID 17416851 — "Randomized Trial of Two or Five Computed Tomography Scans in the Surveillance of Patients With Stage I Nonseminomatous Germ Cell Tumors of the Testis: Medical Research Council Trial TE08, ISRCTN56475197—The National Cancer Research Institute Testis Cancer Clinical Studies Group." (Rustin GJ et al. J Clin Oncol. 2007 Apr 10; 25(11):1310-1315.) Median F/U 3.3 years
*** Outcome: 2-year RFS 2-scan 79% vs. 5-scan 84% (NS). For pts with vascular invasion, relapse 63% to 67%. No pts relapsed with poor prognosis disease; intermediate prognosis relapse in 2 pts (5.6% of relapses) in 2 scan group and 1 pt (3%) in 5 scan group.
*** First indication of relapse: markers 39%, abd CT 39%. 9 relapses were picked up by the 12 month CT scan.
*** Conclusion: CT scans at 3 months and 12 months after orchiectomy reasonable options in low-risk patients. 12 month CT scan is necessary.

## Adjuvant Therapy

* AUO AH 01/94 (Germany)(1996-2005) -- RPLND vs. BEP 1 cycle
** Randomized. 382 patients, clinical Stage I NSGCT. Arm 1) retroperitoneal lymph node dissection vs. Arm 2) bleomycin, etoposide, cisplatin (BEP) x1 cycle
** 5-years; 2008 PMID 18458040 -- "Randomized phase III trial comparing retroperitoneal lymph node dissection with one course of bleomycin and etoposide plus cisplatin chemotherapy in the adjuvant treatment of clinical stage I Nonseminomatous testicular germ cell tumors: AUO trial AH 01/94 by the German Testicular Cancer Study Group." (Albers P, J Clin Oncol. 2008 Jun 20;26(18):2966-72. Epub 2008 May 5.). Median F/U 4.7 years
*** Outcome: 2-year RFS surgery 92% vs. BEP 99% (HR 7.9, SS)
*** Conclusion: One course of BEP is superior over RPLND in clinical Stage I disease
# R Programming/Sources

R Programming
* R Basics
** Introduction
** Sample Session
** Manage your workspace
** Settings and Installation
** Documentation
** Control Structures
** Working with functions
** Debugging
** Using C or Fortran
** Utilities
** Estimation utilities
** Packages
* Data Management
** Data types
** Working with data frames
** Importing and exporting data
** Text Processing
** Times and Dates
* Graphics
** Grammar of graphics
* Publication quality output
* Descriptive Statistics
* Mathematics
** Optimization
** Probability Distributions
** Random Number Generation
* Statistical Core Methods
** Maximum Likelihood
** Method of Moments
** Bayesian Methods
** Bootstrap
** Multiple Imputation
** Nonparametric Methods
* Regression Models
** Linear Models
** Quantile Regression
** Binomial Models
** Multinomial Models
** Tobit And Selection Models
** Count Data Models
** Duration Analysis
* Time Series
* Factor Analysis
* Classification
** Ordination
** Clustering
* Network Analysis
* High Performance Computing
** Profiling R code
** Parallel computing with R
* Appendix
** Sources
** Index
For the following resources, authors have explicitly given the permission to include their material on the R programming wikibook. Remember that even if they have given their permission, they should be correctly cited.

## Blogs

* R-statistics (the R category) (A link to a post which provides proper licence for approving this content for use).
* GETTING GENETICS DONE - R tag. The R content is available from here: http://gettinggeneticsdone.blogspot.com/search/label/R. The R code is copyrighted under The open source BSD license (as is described here: http://gettinggeneticsdone.blogspot.com/p/copyright.html). The content itself is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Share-Alike 3.0 Unported License (as is shown at the bottom of every post). Bottom line - the R code and written content can be used freely (with attribution).
* Struggling Through Problems: http://strugglingthroughproblems.blogspot.com/search/label/R
* Backsidesmack R-stuff category. Copyright information is in the footer and explicit permission is in this post
* Al3xandr3: http://al3xandr3.github.com/tags/r.html
* Cloudnumbers.com (the R category): Posts about high-performance computing and cloud computing with R. A link to a post which provides proper license for approving this content for use.
* The R Tutorial Series (http://rtutorialseries.blogspot.com) by John M. Quick provides a collection of user-friendly guides to researchers, students, and others who want to learn how to use R for their statistical analyses. Its content is available for use in the R Programming wikibook under a Creative Commons BY-SA License.
* Exploring Indian census data using R and useful scripts to download weather related data from websites. The content is available for use in the R wikibook under cc-sa license.
* Plain Data Analysis tips at www.danielmarcelino.com .Topics covered in the blog are related to social sciences, but there is a great variety of them.
* R Tutorial
* R Workshop
# R Programming/Sample Session

R Programming
* R Basics
** Introduction
** Sample Session
** Manage your workspace
** Settings and Installation
** Documentation
** Control Structures
** Working with functions
** Debugging
** Using C or Fortran
** Utilities
** Estimation utilities
** Packages
* Data Management
** Data types
** Working with data frames
** Importing and exporting data
** Text Processing
** Times and Dates
* Graphics
** Grammar of graphics
* Publication quality output
* Descriptive Statistics
* Mathematics
** Optimization
** Probability Distributions
** Random Number Generation
* Statistical Core Methods
** Maximum Likelihood
** Method of Moments
** Bayesian Methods
** Bootstrap
** Multiple Imputation
** Nonparametric Methods
* Regression Models
** Linear Models
** Quantile Regression
** Binomial Models
** Multinomial Models
** Tobit And Selection Models
** Count Data Models
** Duration Analysis
* Time Series
* Factor Analysis
* Classification
** Ordination
** Clustering
* Network Analysis
* High Performance Computing
** Profiling R code
** Parallel computing with R
* Appendix
** Sources
** Index
This page is an introduction to the R programming language. It shows how to perform very simple tasks using R. First you need to have R installed (see the Settings page). If you use Windows or Mac OS, the easiest solution is to use the R Graphical User Interface (click on its icon). If you use Linux, open a terminal and type R at the command prompt.
Usually when you open R, you see a message similar to the following in the console:
You can type your code after the angle bracket >.
R can be used as a simple calculator and we can perform any simple computation.
We can also store numeric or string objects using the assignment operator, <-.
We can also store vectors.
We can also describe the vector with length, mean and var.
We can also define a matrix.
We can plot the data using plot.
We can define a dataframe.
You can save an R session (all the objects in memory) and load the session.
We can define a working directory. Note for Windows users : R uses slash ("/") in the directory instead of backslash ("\").
There are some special characters in R
* NA : Not Available (i.e. missing values)
* NaN : Not a Number (e.g. 0/0)
* Inf: Infinity
* -Inf : Minus Infinity.
For instance 0 divided by 0 gives a NaN but 1 divided by 0 gives $+\infty$
We can exit R using q. The no argument specifies that the R session is not saved.
# Sinhala/1.8

    Hello! - හෙලෝ (helō)
    Good morning! - සුභ උදෑසනක් (subha udǣsanak)
    Good evening! - සුභ සන්ධ්‍යාවක් (subha sandhyāvak)
    Good night! - සුභ රාත්‍රියක් (subha rātriyak)
    Nice to meet you! - හමුවීම සතුටක් (hamuvīma satuṭak)
    How are you? - ඔබට කොහොමද? (obaṭa kohomada?)/කොහොමද සැප සනීප? (kohomada sæpa sanīpa?)
    Thank you - ස්තූතියි (stūtiyi)
    See you again - නැවත හමුවෙමු (nævata hamuvemu)
    Bye! - බායි! (bāyi)
Lets try to do some exercises.
Click "▼" to check your answers.

## Hello!

How would you respond to:
# Sinhala/2.5
## ර

ර is pronounced like r in run.

### Sounds that can be made with ර

    රා - sounds like ra in rather.
    රැ - sounds like ra in ram.
    රෑ - takes sound of රැ held long.
    රි - sounds like ri in risk.
    රී - sounds like ree in reek.
    රු - sounds like ru in rubella.
    රූ - sounds like ru in rule.
    රෙ - sounds like re in rest.
    රේ - takes the sound of රෙ held long.
    රො - sounds like ro in royal.
    රෝ - sounds like the word raw.
    රෞ - sounds like rou in round.

## ල

ල is pronounced like l in like.

### Sounds that can be made with ල

    ලා -
    ලැ -
    ලෑ -
    ලි -
    ලී -
    ලු -
    ලූ -
    ලෙ -
    ලේ -
    ලො -
    ලෝ -
    ලෞ -

## ව

ව is pronounced like w in white.

### Sounds that can be made with ව

    වා -
    වැ -
    වෑ -
    වි -
    වී -
    වු -
    වූ -
    වෙ -
    වේ -
    වො -
    වෝ -
    වෘ -
    වෞ -
# Word classes

This part will basically teach you that how the words are classified into classes in Sinhalese. Mainly, there are three word classes in Sinhalese. They are:
* Nouns (නාම පද; Nāmə padhə)
* Verbs (ක්‍රියා පද; Kriyā padhə)
* Indeclinable words (අව්‍යය පද; Awyə padhə)
      * Prepositions (නිපාත පද; Nipāthə padhə)
      * Prefixes (උපසර්ග; Upəsargə)

## Nouns ~ නාම පද

Nouns can be divided into these categories:
* Pronouns (සර්ව නාම; Sarwə nāmə)
* Abstract nouns (කේවල නාම; Kēwalə nāmə)
Pronounce were described in the previous lesson. So, Let's see how the abstract nouns are divided:
* ජාති නාම - Jāthi nāmə
    Nouns describing a group with similarities.
    eg: Sinhalese, English, Men, Women...
* ද්‍රව්‍ය නාම - Dhrawyə nāmə
    Nouns describing lifeless objects.
    eg: Stone, tree, book, pencil...
* ගුණ නාම - Gunə nāmə
    Nouns describing qualities of something.
    eg: Fat, tall, red, kind...
* ක්‍රියා නාම - Kriyā nāmə
    Nouns describing an incidences, activities and doers
    eg: Running, runner, playing, player...
* සංඥා නාම - Sagñā nāmə
    Nouns describing something separately from others. (Names of people and places)
    eg: John, London, Mary, Paris...

## Verbs ~ ක්‍රියා පද

Beside the basic verbs, there are few kinds of verbs. They are:
* පූර්ව ක්‍රියා
* මිශ්‍ර ක්‍රියා
* විධි ක්‍රියා
* ආශිර්වාද ක්‍රියා
* ප්‍රයෝජ්‍ය ක්‍රියා
* අසම්භාව්‍ය ක්‍රියා

## Indeclinable words ~ අව්‍යය පද

Indeclinable words can be divided into prepositions and prefixes. There are no suffixes in Sinhalese.

### Prepositions ~ නිපාත පද

Prepositions can be used in the beginning, middle, or end of a sentence. They are written as single words and there are a large number of prepositions in Sinhalese.

### අති දක්ශ ලෙස

Prefixes can be joined to a word at the beginning of the word. These are not considered as words, because they can not be written separately. There are only few prefixes in Sinhalese.
# Sinhala/2.2
## ඍ

The ninth letter in the alphabet. The sound of which is in Sanskrit = ṛi in English, which sound is retained in some Sanskrit words, naturalized in the Sinhalese language, while in others it is = ru. It is only used at the beginning of a word as well as all the other vowels. Let's see some example words begin with this letter. There aren't many words begin with this letter.
    ඍතුව (ṛtuva) - season
    ඍණ (ṛṇa) - negative
    ඍජු (ṛju) - straight
    ඍෂි (ṛṣi) - a saint or holy person (in Hindu mythology)

## එ

The 13th letter in the alphabet. It sounds as a in 'hay', e in 'men' or e in 'engage'. It is only used at the beginning of a word as well as all the other vowels. Let's see some example words begin with this letter.
    එක (eka) - one
    එකම (ekama) - only
    එන්න (enna) - come
    එල්ලනවා (ellanava) - hang
    එළුවා (eḷuvā) - goat
    එළදෙන (eḷadena) - cow
    එඬේරා (en̆ḍērā) - shepherd
    එලිය (eliya) - light
    එදා (edā) - that other day
    එකතුව (ekatuva) - sum

## ඒ

The 14th letter in the alphabet. It sounds as a in 'made'. It takes the sound of the vowel එ held long. It is only used at the beginning of a word as well as all the other vowels. Let's see some example words begin with this letter.
    ඒකාන්ත (ēkānta) - verily/truly
    ඒක (ēka) - that/alone/solitary/that thing
    ඒවා (ēvā) - those
    ඒනිසා (ēnisā) - therefor/so
    ඒකා (ēkā) - that fellow

## ඓ

The 15th letter of the alphabet. It is a diphthong. It sounds like i in 'while'. On other hand We can say it sounds like the name of the letter "I" in English. It is only used at the beginning of a word as well as all the other vowels. Let's see some example words begin with this letter. There aren't many words begin with this letter.
    ඓතිහාසික (aitihāsika) - historical
    ඓශ්වර්යය (aiśvaryaya) - splendor/omnipotence

## ඔ

The 16th letter of the alphabet. It has the sound of o in 'olive'. It is only used at the beginning of a word as well as all the other vowels. Let's see some example words begin with this letter.
    ඔටුන්න (oṭunna) - diadem/crown
    ඔටුවා (oṭuvā)- camel
    ඔත්තුකාරයා (ottukārayā) - spy
    ඔක්කොම (okkoma) - all/everyone
    ඔට්ටුව (oṭṭuva) - wager/bet/stake
    ඔතනවා (otanavā) - wrap
    ඔවුන් (ovun)- they
    ඔරුව (oruva) - canoe
    ඔරවනවා (oravanavā) - stare
    ඔලුව (oluva) - head

## ඕ

The 17th letter of the alphabet. It takes the sound of the vowel ඔ held long as o in 'stone'. This letter is also can be seen only at the beginning of a word. Let's see some example words begin with this letter.
    ඕපාදූප (ōpādūpa) - gossip/insinuation
    ඕලු (ōlu) - Lotus

## ඖ

The 18th letter and the last vowel in the alphabet. It sounds like ou in 'our'. This letter is also can be seen only at the beginning of a word. Let's see some example words begin with this letter. There isn't many words begin with this letter.
    ඖෂධ (auṣadha) - drugs/medicine