OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Chemical Sciences: A Manual for CSIR-UGC National Eligibility Test for Lectureship and JRF/Nuclear quadrupole resonance

Nuclear quadrupole resonance spectroscopy or NQR is a chemical analysis technique related to nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR).

## Principle

In NMR, nuclei with spin ≥ 1/2 have a magnetic dipole moment so that their energies are split by a magnetic field, allowing resonance absorption of energy related to the difference between the ground state energy and the excited state. In NQR, on the other hand, nuclei with spin ≥ 1 , such as $^{14}$N, $^{35}$Cl and $^{63}$Cu, also have an electric quadrupole moment so that their energies are split by an electric field gradient, created by the electronic bonds in the local environment. Since unlike NMR, NQR is done in an environment without a static (or DC) magnetic field, it is sometimes called "zero field NMR". Many NQR transition frequencies depend strongly upon temperature.
Any nucleus with more than one unpaired nuclear particle (protons or neutrons) will have a charge distribution which results in an electric quadrupole moment. Allowed nuclear energy levels are shifted unequally due to the interaction of the nuclear charge with an electric field gradient supplied by the non-uniform distribution electron density (e.g. from bonding electrons) and/or surrounding ions. The NQR effect results when transitions are induced between these nuclear levels by an externally applied radio frequency (RF) magnetic field.
The technique is very sensitive to the nature and symmetry of the bonding around the nucleus. The energy level shifts are much larger than the chemical shifts measured in NMR. Due to symmetry, the shifts become averaged to zero in the liquid phase, so NQR spectra can only be measured for solids.

## Applications

There are several research groups around the world currently working on ways to use NQR to detect explosives. Units designed to detect landmines and explosives concealed in luggage have been tested. A detection system consists of a radio frequency (RF) power source, a coil to produce the magnetic excitation field and a detector circuit which monitors for a RF NQR response coming from the explosive component of the object.
Another practical use for NQR is measuring the water/gas/oil coming out of an oil well in realtime. This particular technique allows local or remote monitoring of the extraction process, calculation of the well's remaining capacity and the water/detergents ratio the input pump must send to efficiently extract oil.

## References

* ↑ Appendix K: Nuclear quadrupole resonance, by Allen N. Garroway, Naval Research Laboratory. In Jacqueline MacDonald, J. R. Lockwood: Alternatives for Landmine Detection. Report MR-1608, Rand Corporation, 2003.
# Chemical Sciences: A Manual for CSIR-UGC National Eligibility Test for Lectureship and JRF/On-Line Isotope Mass Separator

The On-Line Isotope Mass Separator, also known as the ISOLDE Radioactive Ion Beam Facility, is a facility located at CERN on the PS Booster. It started operating in 1967 and was rebuilt twice with major upgrades in 1974 and 1992.
ISOLDE is dedicated to producing radioactive nuclei for a number of applications covering nuclear, atomic, molecular and solid-state physics, but also biophysics and astrophysics. The large variety of available species allows the systematic study of atomic and nuclear properties and exotic decays far from the line of stability. As of 2006, more than 60 physics experiments are active there.
The facility is operated by the ISOLDE Collaboration comprising CERN and 9 European countries.
One of the major experiments in ISOLDE is the MINIBALL-setup.
# Chemical Sciences: A Manual for CSIR-UGC National Eligibility Test for Lectureship and JRF/OpenMS

OpenMS is an open-source C++ library for LC/MS data management and analyses. It offers an infrastructure for the development of mass spectrometry related software. OpenMS is free software available under the LGPL. OpenMS is intended to offer a rich functionality while keeping in mind the design goals of ease-of-use, robustness, extensibility and portability.
OpenMS covers a wide range of functionalities needed to develop software for the analysis of high throughput protein separation and mass spectrometry related data. Among others algorithms for signal processing, feature finding, visualization, map mapping and peptide identification.
OpenMS will be compatible with the upcoming Proteomics Standard Initiative (PSI) formats for MS data.
OpenMS is developed in the groups of Prof. Knut Reinert at the Free University of Berlin and in the group of Prof. Kohlbacher at the University of Tübingen.
Please see the OpenMS website for the most up-to-date information, including download information.
OpenMS has been successfully used for the implementation of The OpenMS Proteomics Pipeline(TOPP). TOPP is a set of computational tools that can be chained together to tailor problem-specific analysis pipelines for HPLC-MS data. It transforms most of the OpenMS functionality into small command line tools that are the building blocks for more complex analysis pipelines.

## References

* Sturm M, Bertsch A, Groepl C, Hildebrandt A, Hussong R, Lange E, Pfeifer N, Schulz-Trieglaff O, Zerck A, Reinert K, Kohlbacher O: OpenMS – An open-source software framework for mass spectrometry. BMC Bioinformatics 2008, 9:163.(fulltext)
* Kohlbacher O, Reinert K, Gröpl C, Lange E, Pfeifer N, Schulz-Trieglaff O, Sturm M: TOPP - the OpenMS proteomics pipeline. Bioinformatics 2007, 23(2):e191-7. (fulltext)
# London System Main Line with Black ...e6 and ...c5

In essence, after 1. d4 d5 2. Bf4 Nf6 3. e3 e6 4. Nd2 c5 5. c3 Nc6 6. Nf3, White's strategy revolves around leveraging the solid pyramidal pawn structure, maximizing piece activity, particularly with the knight on e5, and creating scenarios where Black might inadvertently weaken their own king's safety. White has several strategic goals:
* Pyramidal Pawn Structure: The pawns on c3, d4, and e3 form a sturdy pyramid structure. This structure provides a strong central presence and serves as a foundation for White's piece activity. It not only bolsters the center but also supports the plans of advancing the central or kingside pawns.
* Knight to e5: With the knight developed to f3, White often aims to plant it on the e5 square, a key central outpost. The move Nf3 supports this idea, and the pyramidal structure aids in maintaining the knight's dominance on e5.
* Bishop Considerations: White's dark-squared bishop on f4 is a crucial piece. The option of capturing on d6, while tactically possible, often helps Black to harmonize development after ...Qxd6 or ...exd6. As a strategic alternative, retreating the bishop to g3 keeps the tension and presents Black with the dilemma of opening the h-file if they decide to capture on g3.
* Supporting the e5 Knight: In scenarios where the bishop is retreated to g3, White has the added benefit of supporting the knight on e5 with the pawn move f4. This enhances the stability of the knight on e5, making it a central bulwark.
* Central Pawn Wedge: If Black decides to challenge the knight on e5 prematurely and captures, White can recapture with the d-pawn. This results in a powerful central pawn wedge with pawns on e5 and e4, giving White more space and control in the center.
* Proactive Play Against the Black King: By maintaining tension and giving Black the option to open files, especially the h-file, White employs a strategy where Black might inadvertently expose their king. Creating potential vulnerabilities around the opponent's monarch can lead to tactical opportunities.

## References
### Bibliography

* Sedice, Shaun (2022). The London System – Play the Opening as White & Black. chessable.com.
* chess.com - Indian Game: London System - Chess Openings
* 365chess.com - London System Opening Complete Guide - 365Chess
* stackexchange.com - opening - Battling the London System - Chess Stack
* Chess Opening Crash Course: The London System
* Win with the London System. 2005. Sverre Johnsen, Vlatko Kovačević. ISBN 1-9046-0035-2.
# Trompowsky Attack

Bf4 is the normal retreat that we normally see.

## Common Moves

* g5 Be5
* c5 dxc5
# Trompowsky Attack

g5 is a dubious one move attack of the bishop that weakens the kingside and allows the Bf4 to sit on a strong outpost on e5.

## Common Moves

* Be5 Rg8
# Trompowsky Attack

Bc1 is a rarely seen retreat that undevelops the bishop and allows black to get easy play.
# Chess Opening Theory/1. d4/1...Nf6/2. Nc3/2...d5
### 2...d5

2...d5 commonly transposes to the Richter-Veresov Attack after 3. Bg5 or the Jobava London after 3. Bf4.

## Theory table

For explanation of theory tables, see theory table and for notation, see algebraic notation.
    1.d4 Nf6 2.Nc3 d5
| | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
| Richter-Veresov Attack | Bg5 Nbd7 | |
| Jobava London | Bf4 | |
| Hübsch Gambit | e4 Nxe4 | |
| Queen's Pawn opening, Chigorin Variation | Nf3 a6 | e3 c5 | Bd3 Bg4 | Be2 c4 | Ne5 Bxe2 | Nxe2 e6 | Nf4 Bb4+ | c3 Bd6 | 0-0 Nbd7 | =+ |
| | Nf3 g6 | Bf4 Bg7 | e3 Nh5 | Bg3 Nxg3 | hxg3 Nc6 | Bd3 Bg4 | Qd2 Qd7 | 0-0-0 a6 | Rde1 b5 | =+ |
/3._Bh6
When contributing to this Wikibook, please follow the Conventions for organization.

## References

* Nunn's Chess Openings. 1999. John Nunn (Editor), Graham Burgess, John Emms, Joe Gallagher. ISBN 1-8574-4221-0.
* Modern Chess Openings: MCO-14. 1999. Nick de Firmian, Walter Korn. ISBN 0-8129-3084-3.
* Kasparov, Garry, & Keene, Raymond 1989 Batsford chess openings 2. ISBN 0-8050-3409-9.
* This Chess related article is a stub. Please assist Wikibooks by expanding it.
# Chess Opening Theory/1. d4/1...Nf6/2. Nc3
### 2.Nc3

White develops his Queen's Knight to support 3.e4, sometimes called the Veresov Opening. After Black's usual reply 2...d5, White may respond with 3.Bg5, leading to the Richter-Veresov Attack. Often transposes into the Chigorin Defence, the French Defence, or less commonly the Pirc Defence.
This position may also be reached via the move order 1.Nc3 Nf6 2.d4

## Theory table

For explanation of theory tables, see theory table and for notation, see algebraic notation. .
1. d4 Nf6 2. Nc3
| 2 |
| ... d5 | Bg5 | = |
| ... g6 | Nf3 | = |
| ... e6 | = |
| ... c5 | d5 | = |
| ... d6 | = |
When contributing to this Wikibook, please follow the Conventions for organization.

## References

* Kasparov, Garry, & Keene, Raymond 1989 Batsford chess openings 2. ISBN 0-8050-3409-9.
# Trompowsky Attack

The Trompowsky Attack is a new offbeat opening with less theory which involves White immediately putting the bishop on g5 attacking the knight. Usually in most variations (2...Ne4 or 2...e6) Black avoids doubled pawns, but sometimes accepts them (2...c5 or 2...d5). The latter of each pair (2...e6 or 2...d5) just mentioned can transpose into the Torre Attack after 3. Nf3; however the Trompowsky Main Line (2...Ne4) typically doesn't transpose after it's played.
In the Trompowsky Main Line, both sides move their developed minor piece twice: Black's knight from g8 to f6 to e4 and White's Bishop from c1 to g5 to f4. Afterward Black has many options to develop unlike many other openings. Some possible developing moves include c5, d5, d6, or e6.
A less common but also popular line involves 2...e6 (Classical Defense) when it is best not to trade pieces and instead develop naturally. This line can transpose into the Torre Attack with 3. Nf3 or continue with 3. e4 in the Trompowsky (Big Center Variation, which fits the position perfectly) and Black usually avoids the trade of minor pieces because of the pin (h6 and e5) and instead trades pieces directly with 4. Bxf6.
Even less common but transposable is the move 2...d5 which asks for a transposition into the Torre Attack (3. Nf3) or the Richter-Veresov (3. Nc3) but White can take advantage of the move and stay in the Trompowsky with 3. Bxf6, doubling Black's pawns.
Less common again is the 2...c5 line attacking the pawn. White can choose to push the pawn or trade pieces (3. d5 or 3. Bxf6). The former variation involves a "Poisoned Pawn Variation" which involves one side giving away a pawn for a opposing misplaced queen and a development lead. The variation goes 2...c5 3. d5 Qb6 4. Nc3 Qxb2.
There is also the move 2...c6!?, which is less commonly played, but nonetheless quite sound. This could lead to similar positions as the 2... c5 line, related to the poisoned pawn variation, or this can lead to 1. d4 openings, such as the Richter-Veresov Attack or even the QGD/Slav Defenses. This line also contains a trap: white must be careful and avoid 3. e3??, where 3...Qa5+ loses the bishop on g5 to a fork.

## Theory table

For explanation of theory tables, see theory table and for notation, see algebraic notation.
    1.d4 Nf6 2.Bg5
| 2 | 3 | 4 |
| ... Ne4 | Bf4 c5 | f3 Qa5+ | ∞ |
| ... e6 | e4 h6 | Bxf6 Qxf6 | = |
| ... c5 | Bxf6 gxf6 | d5 Qb6 | ∞ |
| ... d5 | Bxf6 exf6 | e3 Be6 | = |
When contributing to this Wikibook, please follow the Conventions for organization.

## References

* Nunn's Chess Openings. 1999. John Nunn (Editor), Graham Burgess, John Emms, Joe Gallagher. ISBN 1-8574-4221-0.
* Modern Chess Openings: MCO-14. 1999. Nick de Firmian, Walter Korn. ISBN 0-8129-3084-3.
* Kasparov, Garry, & Keene, Raymond 1989 Batsford chess openings 2. ISBN 0-8050-3409-9.
* This Chess related article is a stub. Please assist Wikibooks by expanding it.
# Trompowsky Attack
## Theory table

For explanation of theory tables, see theory table and for notation, see algebraic notation.
    1.d4 Nf6 2.Bg5 d5
| | 3 |
| Richter-Veresov Attack | Nc3 Nbd7 | to 2.Nc3 d5 3.Bg5 |
| Queen's Pawn Game | Nf3 e6 | to 2.Nf3 d5 3.Bg5 |
When contributing to this Wikibook, please follow the Conventions for organization.

## References

* Nunn's Chess Openings. 1999. John Nunn (Editor), Graham Burgess, John Emms, Joe Gallagher. ISBN 1-8574-4221-0.
* Modern Chess Openings: MCO-14. 1999. Nick de Firmian, Walter Korn. ISBN 0-8129-3084-3.
* Kasparov, Garry, & Keene, Raymond 1989 Batsford chess openings 2. ISBN 0-8050-3409-9.
* This Chess related article is a stub. Please assist Wikibooks by expanding it.
# Queen's Pawn Game
## 2...e6
## Theory table

For explanation of theory tables, see theory table and for notation, see algebraic notation. .
    1.d4 Nf6 2.Bg5 e6
| | 3 |
| Queen's Pawn Game | Nf3 c5 | to 2.Nf3 e6 3.Bg5 |
| Queen's Pawn Game | e4 h6 | |
When contributing to this Wikibook, please follow the Conventions for organization.
* Nunn's Chess Openings. 1999. John Nunn (Editor), Graham Burgess, John Emms, Joe Gallagher. ISBN 1-8574-4221-0.
* Modern Chess Openings: MCO-14. 1999. Nick de Firmian, Walter Korn. ISBN 0-8129-3084-3.
* Kasparov, Garry, & Keene, Raymond 1989 Batsford chess openings 2. ISBN 0-8050-3409-9.
# Ada Programming/Libraries/Ada.Strings.Unbounded.Hash

This language feature is only available from Ada 2005 on.
Ada.Strings.Unbounded.Hash is a unit of the Predefined Language Environment since Ada 2005.

## See also
### Wikibook

* Ada Programming/Libraries/Ada

### External examples

* Search for examples of Ada.Strings.Unbounded.Hash in: Rosetta Code, GitHub (gists), any Alire crate or this Wikibook.
* Search for posts related to Ada.Strings.Unbounded.Hash in: Stack Overflow, comp.lang.ada or any Ada related page.

### Ada Reference Manual
#### Ada 2005

* A.4.9: String Hashing

#### Ada 2012

* A.4.9: String Hashing
# Ada Programming/Libraries/Ada.Strings.Unbounded.Hash Case Insensitive

This language feature has been introduced in Ada 2012.
Ada.Strings.Unbounded.Hash_Case_Insensitive is a unit of the Predefined Language Environment since Ada 2012.

## See also
### Wikibook

* Ada Programming/Libraries/Ada
* Ada Programming/Libraries/Ada.Strings
* Ada Programming/Libraries/Ada.Strings.Unbounded

### External examples

* Search for examples of Ada.Strings.Unbounded.Hash_Case_Insensitive in: Rosetta Code, GitHub (gists), any Alire crate or this Wikibook.
* Search for posts related to Ada.Strings.Unbounded.Hash_Case_Insensitive in: Stack Overflow, comp.lang.ada or any Ada related page.

### Ada Reference Manual
#### Ada 2012

* A.4.9: String Hashing
# Ada Programming/Libraries/Ada.Strings.Unbounded.Less Case Insensitive

This language feature has been introduced in Ada 2012.
Ada.Strings.Unbounded.Less_Case_Insensitive is a unit of the Predefined Language Environment since Ada 2012.

## See also
### Wikibook

* Ada Programming/Libraries/Ada
* Ada Programming/Libraries/Ada.Strings
* Ada Programming/Libraries/Ada.Strings.Unbounded

### External examples

* Search for examples of Ada.Strings.Unbounded.Less_Case_Insensitive in: Rosetta Code, GitHub (gists), any Alire crate or this Wikibook.
* Search for posts related to Ada.Strings.Unbounded.Less_Case_Insensitive in: Stack Overflow, comp.lang.ada or any Ada related page.

### Ada Reference Manual
#### Ada 2012

* A.4.10: String Comparison
# Ada Programming/Libraries/Ada.Strings.Unbounded

This language feature is available from Ada 95 on.
Ada.Strings.Unbounded is a unit of the Predefined Language Environment since Ada 95.
This package defines the operations for unbounded string handling.

## Usage

Ada.Strings.Unbounded is used in several places. Here some relevant extracts. As always you can follow the download links to see the full examples.
Conversion between unbounded and bounded strings:
Another example:

## See also
### Wikibook

* Ada Programming
* Ada Programming/Libraries
* Ada Programming/Strings#Unbounded-length string handling

### Ada Reference Manual
#### Ada 95

* A.4.5: Unbounded-Length String Handling

#### Ada 2005

* A.4.5: Unbounded-Length String Handling

#### Ada 2012

* A.4.5: Unbounded-Length String Handling

### Open-Source Implementations

FSF GNAT
* Specification: a-strunb.ads
* Body: a-strunb.adb
drake
* Specification: strings/a-strunb.ads
# Ada Programming/Libraries/Ada.Strings.Unbounded.Equal Case Insensitive

This language feature has been introduced in Ada 2012.
Ada.Strings.Unbounded.Equal_Case_Insensitive is a unit of the Predefined Language Environment since Ada 2012.

## See also
### Wikibook

* Ada Programming/Libraries/Ada
* Ada Programming/Libraries/Ada.Strings
* Ada Programming/Libraries/Ada.Strings.Unbounded

### External examples

* Search for examples of Ada.Strings.Unbounded.Equal_Case_Insensitive in: Rosetta Code, GitHub (gists), any Alire crate or this Wikibook.
* Search for posts related to Ada.Strings.Unbounded.Equal_Case_Insensitive in: Stack Overflow, comp.lang.ada or any Ada related page.

### Ada Reference Manual
#### Ada 2012

* A.4.10: String Comparison
# Ada Programming/Libraries/Ada.Strings.Wide Fixed

This language feature is available from Ada 95 on.
Ada.Strings.Wide_Fixed is a unit of the Predefined Language Environment since Ada 95.

## See also
### Wikibook

* Ada Programming/Libraries/Ada

### External examples

* Search for examples of Ada.Strings.Wide_Fixed in: Rosetta Code, GitHub (gists), any Alire crate or this Wikibook.
* Search for posts related to Ada.Strings.Wide_Fixed in: Stack Overflow, comp.lang.ada or any Ada related page.

### Ada Reference Manual
#### Ada 95

* A.4.7: Wide_String Handling

#### Ada 2005

* A.4.7: Wide_String Handling

#### Ada 2012

* A.4.7: Wide_String Handling

### Open-Source Implementations

FSF GNAT
* Specification: a-stwifi.ads
* Body: a-stwifi.adb
drake
* Specification: strings/a-stwifi.ads
# Ada Programming/Libraries/Ada.Strings.Wide Bounded

This language feature is available from Ada 95 on.
Ada.Strings.Wide_Bounded is a unit of the Predefined Language Environment since Ada 95.

## See also
### Wikibook

* Ada Programming/Libraries/Ada

### External examples

* Search for examples of Ada.Strings.Wide_Bounded in: Rosetta Code, GitHub (gists), any Alire crate or this Wikibook.
* Search for posts related to Ada.Strings.Wide_Bounded in: Stack Overflow, comp.lang.ada or any Ada related page.

### Ada Reference Manual
#### Ada 95

* A.4.7: Wide_String Handling

#### Ada 2005

* A.4.7: Wide_String Handling

#### Ada 2012

* A.4.7: Wide_String Handling

### Open-Source Implementations

FSF GNAT
* Specification: a-stwibo.ads
* Body: a-stwibo.adb
drake
* Specification: strings/a-stwibo.ads
# Ada Programming/Libraries/Ada.Strings.Wide Fixed.Wide Hash

This language feature is only available from Ada 2005 on.
Ada.Strings.Wide_Fixed.Wide_Hash is a unit of the Predefined Language Environment since Ada 2005.

## See also
### Wikibook

* Ada Programming/Libraries/Ada

### External examples

* Search for examples of Ada.Strings.Wide_Fixed.Wide_Hash in: Rosetta Code, GitHub (gists), any Alire crate or this Wikibook.
* Search for posts related to Ada.Strings.Wide_Fixed.Wide_Hash in: Stack Overflow, comp.lang.ada or any Ada related page.

### Ada Reference Manual
#### Ada 2005

* A.4.7: Wide_String Handling

#### Ada 2012

* A.4.7: Wide_String Handling
# Ada Programming/Libraries/Ada.Strings.Unbounded.Text IO

Ada.Strings.Unbounded.Text_IO is a GNAT implementation-defined package that offers Get_Line and Put_Line functions which work directly on unbounded strings. They are more efficient and easier to use than the standard Ada.Text_IO functions.
Reads up to the end of the current line, returning the result as an unbounded string of appropriate length. If no File parameter is present, input is from Current_Input.
These are equivalent to the standard Text_IO routines passed the value To_String (U), but operate more efficiently, because the extra copy of the argument is avoided.
In Ada 2005 the standard equivalent to this package is Ada.Text_IO.Unbounded_IO.

## See also
### Wikibook

* Ada Programming
* Ada Programming/Libraries
* Ada Programming/Libraries/Ada
* Ada Programming/Libraries/Ada.Strings
* Ada Programming/Libraries/Ada.Strings.Unbounded
* Ada Programming/Libraries/Ada.Text_IO
* Ada Programming/Libraries/Ada.Text_IO.Unbounded_IO
* Ada Programming/Input Output

### External examples

* Search for examples of Ada.Strings.Unbounded.Text_IO in: Rosetta Code, GitHub (gists), any Alire crate or this Wikibook.
* Search for posts related to Ada.Strings.Unbounded.Text_IO in: Stack Overflow, comp.lang.ada or any Ada related page.

### Ada Reference Manual

* A.10.1 The Package Text_IO (Annotated)
* A.4.5 Unbounded-Length String Handling (Annotated)
# Ada Programming/Libraries/Ada.Strings.Wide Bounded.Wide Hash

This language feature is only available from Ada 2005 on.
Ada.Strings.Wide_Bounded.Wide_Hash is a unit of the Predefined Language Environment since Ada 2005.

## See also
### Wikibook

* Ada Programming/Libraries/Ada

### External examples

* Search for examples of Ada.Strings.Wide_Bounded.Wide_Hash in: Rosetta Code, GitHub (gists), any Alire crate or this Wikibook.
* Search for posts related to Ada.Strings.Wide_Bounded.Wide_Hash in: Stack Overflow, comp.lang.ada or any Ada related page.

### Ada Reference Manual
#### Ada 2005

* A.4.7: Wide_String Handling

#### Ada 2012

* A.4.7: Wide_String Handling

### Open-Source Implementations

FSF GNAT
* Specification: a-swbwha.ads
drake
* Specification: hash/a-swbwha.ads