OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Java Programming/Stack trace

* Navigate Exceptions topic:( v • d • e )
* Throwing and catching exceptions
* Checked exceptions
* Unchecked exceptions
* Preventing NullPointerException
* Stack trace
* Nesting exceptions (chained exceptions)
A Stack Trace is a list of method calls from the point when the application was started to the current location of execution within the program. A Stack Trace is produced automatically by the Java Virtual Machine when an exception is thrown to indicate the location and progression of the program up to the point of the exception. The most recent method calls are at the top of the list.
* Code listing 6.3: StackTraceExample.java
* public class StackTraceExample {
* public static void main(String args) {
* method1;
* public static void method1 {
* method11;
* public static void method11 {
* method111;
* public static void method111 {
* throw new NullPointerException("Fictitious NullPointerException");
* Output for Code listing 6.3
* Exception in thread "main" java.lang.NullPointerException: Fictitious NullPointerException
* at StackTraceExample.method111(StackTraceExample.java:15)
* at StackTraceExample.method11(StackTraceExample.java:11)
* at StackTraceExample.method1(StackTraceExample.java:7)
* at StackTraceExample.main(StackTraceExample.java:3)
The stack trace can be printed to the standard error by calling the public void printStackTrace method of an exception.
From Java 1.4, the stack trace is encapsulated into an array of a java class called java.lang.StackTraceElement. The stack trace element array returned by Throwable.getStackTrace method. Each element represents a single stack frame. All stack frames except for the one at the top of the stack represent a method invocation. The frame at the top of the stack represents the execution point at which the stack trace was generated. Typically, this is the point at which the throwable corresponding to the stack trace was created.
A stack frame represents the following information:
* Code section 6.24: Stack frame.
* public StackTraceElement(String declaringClass,
* String methodName,
* String fileName,
* int lineNumber);
Creates a stack trace element representing the specified execution point.

## Converting the stack trace into string

Many times for debugging purposes, we'd like to convert the stack trace to a String so we can log it to our log file.
The following code shows how to do that:
* Code section 6.25: Save the stack trace.
* import java.io.StringWriter;
* import java.io.PrintWriter;
* Exception e = new NullPointerException;
* StringWriter outError = new StringWriter;
* e.printStackTrace(new PrintWriter(outError));
* String errorString = outError.toString;
* // Do whatever you want with the errorString
# Java Programming/Statements/if

The if ... else statement is used to conditionally execute one of two statements, depending on the result of a boolean condition.
Example:
An if statement has two forms:
and
Use the second form if you have different statements to execute if the boolean-condition is true or if it is false. Use the first if you only wish to execute statement$_1$ if the condition is true and you do not wish to execute alternate statements if the condition is false.
The following example calls two int methods, f and f, stores the results, then uses an if statement to test if x is less than y and if it is, the statement$_1$ body will swap the values. The end result is x always contains the larger result and y always contains the smaller result.
# Java Programming/Reflection/Dynamic Invocation

* Navigate Reflection topic: ( v • d • e )
* Reflection Overview
* Dynamic Class Loading
* Dynamic Method Invocation
* Accessing Private Features with Reflection
We start with basic transfer object:
* Code listing 10.1: DummyTo.java
* package com.test;
* public class DummyTo {
* private String name;
* private String address;
* public String getName {
* return name;
* public void setName(String name) {
* this.name = name;
* public String getAddress {
* return address;
* public void setAddress(String address) {
* this.address = address;
* public DummyTo(String name, String address) {
* this.name = name;
* this.address = address;
* public DummyTo {
* this.name = new String;
* this.address = new String;
* public String toString(String appendBefore) {
* return appendBefore + " " + name + ", " + address;
Following is the example for invoking method from the above mentioned to dynamically. Code is self explanatory.
* Code listing 10.2: ReflectTest.java
* package com.test;
* import java.lang.reflect.Constructor;
* import java.lang.reflect.InvocationTargetException;
* import java.lang.reflect.Method;
* public class ReflectTest {
* public static void main(String args) {
* try {
* Class<?> dummyClass = Class.forName("com.test.DummyTo");
* // parameter types for methods
* Class<?> partypes = new Class{String.class};
* // Create method object. methodname and parameter types
* Method meth = dummyClass.getMethod("toString", partypes);
* // parameter types for constructor
* Class<?> constrpartypes = new Class{String.class, String.class};
* //Create constructor object. parameter types
* Constructor<?> constr = dummyClass.getConstructor(constrpartypes);
* // create instance
* Object dummyto = constr.newInstance(new Object{"Java Programmer", "India"});
* // Arguments to be passed into method
* Object arglist = new Object{"I am"};
* // invoke method!!
* String output = (String) meth.invoke(dummyto, arglist);
* System.out.println(output);
* } catch (ClassNotFoundException e) {
* e.printStackTrace;
* } catch (SecurityException e) {
* e.printStackTrace;
* } catch (NoSuchMethodException e) {
* e.printStackTrace;
* } catch (IllegalArgumentException e) {
* e.printStackTrace;
* } catch (IllegalAccessException e) {
* e.printStackTrace;
* } catch (InvocationTargetException e) {
* e.printStackTrace;
* } catch (InstantiationException e) {
* e.printStackTrace;
* Console for Code listing 10.2
* I am Java Programmer, India
Conclusion: Above examples demonstrate the invocation of method dynamically using reflection.
# Java Programming/Statements/assert

Assertion is just simply a check point to validate the conditional statement. For Example : if you want to check a age validation which can not be exceed 18 year then we can write this statement - > Assert age >= 18:Eligible to vote;
# Inorganic Chemistry/From Big Bang to Atoms
## From Big Bang to Atoms

Big Bang, a great explosion that happened around 13.75 ± 0.11 billion years ago, is thought to create our universe. The idea is based on the observation that our universe is expanding, so it was probably a single point at some time in the past if we trace back.
At about 10$^{−6}$ seconds after the explosion, quarks and gluons combined to form baryons such as protons and neutrons, while anti-quarks and anti-gluons formed anti-protons and anti-neutrons. A small excess of quarks and gluons over their anti-particles led to a small excess of baryons over anti-baryons. Latter, the universe cooled to a level that it could not produce gluons, quarks, anti-gluons and anti-quarks. This led to a dramatic decrease in the universe mass: matter and anti-matter 'eats' each other, left only 1 of 10$^{10}$ protons and neutrons survive and none of their anti-particles. That's why the universe now is a matter environment, not an anti-matter one :)
At one second after the explosion, same thing happened to electrons and positrons (positrons are anti-electrons)
A few minutes after the explosion, the temperature was about 10$^9$ K. The energy was still so high. Protons and neutrons didn't combine yet. When the universe got cooler, the strong force (a powerful but short-range force) got advantage, combined protons and neutrons together, formed nuclei. After 379,000 years, electromagnetic force (a weak but long-range force) got advantage, making electrons first attached to nuclei. The first atom was born, consisting of a nuclei (protons, neutrons) and one or more electrons.
* ↑ , Seven-Year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP1) Observations: Sky Maps, Systematic Errors, and Basic Results, page39.
# Inorganic Chemistry/Group 1 metals
## Group 1A - ALKALI METALS

These consist of: Li Lithium [He] 2s$^1$ Na Sodium [Ne] 3s$^1$ K Potassium [Ar] 4s$^1$ Rb Rubidium [Kr] 5s$^1$ Cs Cesium [Xe] 6s$^1$ Fr Francium [Ra] 7s$^1$
Fr is radioactive (half-life 21 min.) hence very little is known about it

### Physical Properties

1) Silvery white soft solid, can be cut with a knife except Li 2) Highly malleable and ductile 3) Silver lustre is due to the presence of highly mobile electrons of the metallic lattice 4) Large size in their respective periods; size increases down the group 5) IE (ionisation enthalpy) decreases down the group 6) They show +1 oxidation state 7) Reducing character increases from Na to Cs, however Li is strongest reducing of them all 8) They have very low melting points due to weak metallic bonds 9) Density increases from Li to Cs (except K being lighter than Na) 10) Ionic character increases from Li to Cs 11) They are good conductors of heat and electricity

### Chemical Properties

1. Reaction with oxygen: Alkali metals tarnish in air due to formation of oxide or hydroxide on their surface. When heated in excess of air Li forms normal oxide, Na forms peroxide and others form superoxide K can form all the three types of oxides (also it forms KO$_3$ and K$_2$O$_3$) 4Li + O$_2$ → 2Li$_2$O 2Na + O$_2$ → Na$_2$O$_2$ K + O$_2$ → KO$_2$
2. Reaction with water: 2Na + 2H$_2$O → 2NaOH + H$_2$
3. Reaction with liquid ammonia: 2Na + 2NH$_3$ → 2NaNH$_2$ + H$_2$

## Group 1B - TRANSITION METALS

These consist of: Cu Copper Ag Silver AU Gold
# Inorganic Chemistry/How to edit this book
## How to edit this book

In this book I use some denotations that are different from the conventional ones: Introduction to Elements. Of course it may not be convenient with somebody. If you want to add more denotations, please do not remove the previous ones since they may be suitable for other people. You can add other headers below it, copy the context and change whatever you like. You can also make another version of this book, which uses other denotations. I appreciate that very much and I hope to see you help this book get better :)
# Inorganic Chemistry/Coordination Chemistry

Coordination chemistry is an aspect of inorganic chemistry that deals solely with transition elements, or as they are more commomly called, the transition metals.
# Inorganic Chemistry/Cover

| Go to contents >> | Eventually this free online text is intended to become a replacement for your printed book. |

## Contributing

This is a wiki textbook -- feel free to edit it, update it, correct it, and otherwise increase its teaching potential. To find out more about wikis, see the Wikipedia main page.
# Inorganic Chemistry/First Glance At Subatomic Particles
## First Glance At Subatomic Particles

This lesson provides very basic information about protons, neutrons and electrons. If you think you are familiar with the concepts, move to the next lesson, From Big Bang to Atoms.
Every substance around us is made from very small particles, called molecules. Each molecule contains several atoms. You can think atoms as balls. Many balls attached to each other make a molecule.
Inside an atom, there are even smaller 'balls', called protons, neutrons and electrons. Protons and neutrons are attached to each other, making the nucleus of the atom. This nucleus oscillates very fast. Orbiting this nucleus are one or more electrons. Electrons are much smaller and lighter than protons and neutrons. The charge of an electron is -1.602 x 10$^{-12}$ C. The charge of a proton is 1.602 x 10$^{12}$. That is why electrons are often depicted as rotating around the nucleus. Neutrons have no charge.
Some information
| Subatomic Particles | Symbol | mass / m$_u$ | Charge / e |
| Proton | p | 1.0073 | +1 |
| Neutron | n | 1.0087 | 0 |
| Electron | e$^-$ | 5.486 x 10$^{-4}$ | -1 |
e is the elementary charge, equals 1.602176565(35)×10$^{-19}$ C . A proton having a charge of one means its charge is one time the elementary charge.
m$_u$ is the atomic mass constant, equals 1.660 538 782(83)×10$^{-27}$ kg. An electron having a mass of 5.486 x 10$^{-4}$ means its mass is 5.486 x 10$^{-4}$ times the atomic mass constant.
* ↑ CODATA Value: elementary charge
# Inorganic Chemistry/Foreword

Inorganic Chemistry | Transition Metals | Catalysis

## Purpose and mission

This book should become the gold standard of inorganic chemistry texts in the areas of accuracy, usability, flexibility, and connection with its audience. As this text is developed it will always be available online, be printable, and freely distributable. This text should eliminate all or much of the cost for owning an up-to-the-minute, top-quality college-level inorganic chemistry text, as it and all its derivative works will remain free: free as in speech as well as free as in beer. Although you could pay for a printed version if you wanted to.

## Content and Contributions

This is, to the best of our knowledge, the world's first and only open content inorganic chemistry textbook. Its users will tweak and refine this book until there is no better book. We are confident that this will happen because the process has already been seen to work many times on the Wikipedia site.
All content contained herein is available under licences that allow free distribution. You can copy it, print it, sell it, and create derivative works from it.
Our restriction: if you create derivative works, make them available to others in a way that they can easily copy and distribute them, as we have done for you.
We link to some pages outside our server. Any of this content not found under the Wikipedia site and subsites is not ensured to be under the same license, it in fact is most likely not.

## Authors

The initiator of this project is JaF893. At the time of writing (3/9/03) I have been the sole contributor but as time goes on it will become a group project "of the people" as many contribute and improve it by bits and pieces. EDIT (3/10/03) - Karl Wick has edited some of the pages and created an automatic table of contents.

## Licensing

All work in this book is released at the moment only under the GNU FDL license. However this is only one of many similar open content licenses, and may not be the license of choice for everyone. To take content written by JaF893 from this book for release under other licenses please contact the author through this page's associated talk page.
# Inorganic Chemistry/Qualitative Analysis

* Tests for anions
* Tests for cations
* Systematic Inorganic Analysis
# Internet Technologies/Wireless connectivity

Wireless is a generic term that refers to the transfer of data between sendeer and receiver via radio (or optical) waves of different frequencies. Wireless is a group of related technologies that are different from each other in their speed, range, power, and compatibility. Two of the most popular technologies include Wi-Fi, Bluetooth.
Wi-Fi is the most popular form of wireless connection. It belongs to the 802.11 protocol family. Wi-Fi is a radio-based wireless internet that is high powered. It can handle large amounts of data of long distances.
Bluetooth is a low-powered alternative that transmits data slowly over short distances. It uses a very secure digital radio communication that is not tied to any particular radio frequency. The name Bluetooth comes from a tenth-century Viking king who unified Norway and Denmark.
Source: Siegel, Carolyn. Internet Marketing Fundation and Applications. 2. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2006.
# Internet and Society/Dangers/Botnets and Honeynets
## Botnet

A botnet is a jargon term for a network of computers under a central control point, often called a 'herder' (recently implementations of botnets are evolving toward a distributed control system). All the bots in the network are expected to work together over the Internet toward a single goal or task. Coordination is often established by using IRC or similar anonymous and high tragic systems (hence hampering detection). The word usually possesses negative connotations, but there are distributed online computing projects which are not necessarily malicious that can also fit the definition. Individual machines which are part of a botnet, or the scripts that are running on those machines are often referred to as 'zombies'. Botnets are capable of distributing large amounts of spam or denial of service attacks and are difficult to track down because they are not centralized, however most botnets are not redundant and if one machine is discovered the entire net can usually be shut down. Wikipedia: Botnet
Some botnets are very large in scale and some experts believe that they will begin to cause large scale problems if they are not combated.
BBC article: "Criminals 'may overwhelm the web'" by Tim Weber

## Honeynet

The individual machines that make up a honeynet are known as honeypots. Honeynets are groups of machines that are set up with the intention of attracting traffic from malicious or illegitimate activity. They are networks or individual computers set up only with apparent informational or production value, (basically a regular, benign user would have no reason or even ability to gain access to them, but would be easily accessible or attractive to malignity) and thusly it is assumed that all traffic they receive is not from benign sources. By setting up these honeynets as attractive targets for attack, such as weakly protected networks or spam traps, but actually firewalling or otherwise isolating them from real targets, and monitoring activity of connections, it is possible to gain information about botnets and other malicious activity. Wikipedia: Honeypot
# Internet and Society/Dangers/Networking Sites

Networking sites such as Facebook, Myspace, and Twitter are a great way to connect and keep in touch with your friends, but it can also be a very easy way to leak unwanted information to a lot of people quickly. A waitor was recently fired from a high-end restaurant because he tweeted about a celebrity and his bosses learned of the tweet and immediately dismissed him. Facebook and Myspace are a little more intrusive with the feature of pictures. Friends can tag you in pictures and these pictures can go up and stay up with an employer immediately seeing it before you can un-tag them.
# Internet and Society/Dangers/Online Predators

Online predators are one of the biggest digital dangers. They stalk and target users online hoping to take advantage of them in some way. They usually work alone and engage in illegal activities. The worst part about an online predator is you never know who it is. It could be your next door neighbor or your teacher. Many measures have been made trying to prevent these predators from being able to access everyday users. Encrypted pages and passwords help deter predators from accessing accounts and personal information. But as far as kids meeting these predators in chat rooms, facebook, etc., it is up to parents to monitor their kids computer use and to talk to them about these type of people so they can alert their parents immediately if something comes up.
# Internet and Society

This book provides a multidisciplinary view of the Internet and its interaction with society.
The principal perspectives that will be covered are:
* technology (the basic infrastructure of the web, its architecture and statistics)
* economics (the role that the Internet is playing and has played in economies)
* legal (legal issues, especially copyright, patent, trademark, but also libel, censorship, etc.)
* culture (online communities, cultural production)

## Table of Contents

* Introduction
* Technological Infrastructure
* Demographics
* Dangers
* Economics and the Internet
* The Internet and the Law
# Internet and Society/Dangers

* Emails
* Web Browsing
* Networking Sites
* Advertisements
* Personal Information
* Online Predators
* Scams
* Botnets and Honeynets
* Viruses
# Internet and Society/Dangers/Personal Information

Perhaps the most terrifying digital danger is that of someone obtaining your personal information. In a day and age where it seems the internet can offer any information possible, it is almost easy to have your identity stolen. Personal information such as credit card and social security numbers are almost considered a common threat in the digital world. Another major concern is that of online predators. They are seemingly everywhere and anywhere they can possibly target underage children. They lie about their age and identity in an effort to gain trust from children and then try to meet them and take advantage of them. In this world of being so networked and everyone is so accessible, it is scary to think that there are a lot of people who you would never like to come in contact with.
# Internet Technologies/Web advertising

Web Advertising uses static images, animated GIFs, and Flash Animation to display a product or service. Advertising on the Web displays in many different ways such as banners or buttons, Pop-up and Pop-under, and intro pages to websites.
A banner or a button can be an image, animated gif, flash video or plain text
A Pop-up or Pop-under causes a new browser window to open and displays a webpage that can contain text, images and flash.
Intro Pages to websites usually have a flash or gif animation to introduce a company, their services or Products.
Internet advertising is delivered by ad servers. The most common type of ad server in use today is the Central ad server.
Standard Sizes for Banner Style Advertisements are as follows:
Rectangles -
300x250 250x250 240x400 336x280 180x150
Banners -
468x60 234x60 88x31 120x90 120x240 125x125 728x90
Skyscrapers -
160x600 120x600 300x600
# Internet and Society/Dangers/Emails

In a professional setting, computers in this day and age record and keep track of everything. Mostly in larger companies, when audits are performed, they are able to see what e-mails you have sent other co-workers or any other person through your business e-mail. Because of this, privacy is non-existent on what can't be seen by many others. If you are sending out e-mails that may be inappropriate, whether they are humourous, romantic, or personal, it may best be left to your personal PC. Companies can and will fire people over e-mails that have been sent out. Emails also can be used against you if you are untruthful about business and put it in writing in emails, it can be discovered and come back to frame you.
# Magar/Adverbs

Adverb[मीजाटक]:- An adverb is a word which is used to modify a verb, an adjective or another adverb.
Examples:-
* When- Sen [ सेन ]
* Now- Chāhāt/ Innāng [ चाहाट् /(चाहाँ) / इन्नाङ]
* Here- ilāng [ इलाङ ]
* There- Holāng [ होलाङ ]
* What- Hi [ ही ]
* Why- Hike [ हीके ]
* How- Kuta [ कूट ]
# Magar/Basic Magar Words

'Magar Basic Words That Are Used In Daily Life'
* Hello - Jhorle/Mejhor [झोर्ले/मिझोर]
* How are you?- Nāko kunchà le? [नाको कुन्च ले?]
* I'm fine- Ngā Jherma/Gepma na le. [ङा झेर्‌म/(गेप्म) न ले।]
* Name - Ārmin [आर्मिन]
* What - Hē [हि]
* Why - Hiké [हिके]
* Where - Kulāk [कूलाक]
* Over Here - Ilāk [इलाक]
* Over There - Holāk [होलाक]
* I - Ngā [ङा]
* You - Nāko [नाको]
* With - Khāta/Kathā [खाट/कठा]
* We - Kān [हामी]
* Do - Jātke [जाट्के]
* Eat - Jyāke [ज्याके]
* Drink - Gāke [गाके]
* Go - Nungke [नुङके]
* Walk - Whāke [व्हाके]
* Meet - Dupke [डूप्के]
* Just Now - Chamcham [चमचम]
* Fine - Gepma/Jhermana [गेप्मन/झेर्‌मन]
* Nothing More - Hira māle [हीर माले]
* New - Minām [मीनाम]
* Good - Sehecha [सेहेच]
* Bad - Māsehecha [मासेहेच]
* Good Wish - Seginyā [सेगिन्या]
* Welcome - Manitā [मनीटा]
* Thanks - Jilau [जिल‌उ]
©Nangkhan Thāpā Magar[नङखन थापामगर]/ Editor™
# Magar/Conversation

* Conversation I
* Conversation II
# Magar/Conjuction

Conjuction :- A conjunction is a word which is used to join words or sentences.
Examples :-
* And - Ra/Da/Hatā [ र/ड/ हटा ]
* But - Tara [ टर ]
* After(पछाडी)- Nhunlāk [न्हुनलाक ]
* Because(किनकी)/- Hikedyā [हिकेड्या ]
(किनभने)
* When(जहिले) - Sen/Se-Sen [ सेन/ से - सेन ]
# Magar/Conversation II

Son: Hello!!!/ Good Morning Mom [Greetings]
    Bāujá: Mòi Jhorle/Mejhor!!! [मोई झोर्ले/ मीझोर ]