OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Bonsai/What is bonsai?

Bonsai (盆栽 Japanese) (lit. tray cultivation) is the art of growing trees, or woody plants shaped as trees, in containers. Bonsai does not require genetically dwarfed trees, but rather depends on growing small trees from regular stock and seeds. Bonsai uses cultivation techniques like pruning, root reduction, potting, defoliation, and grafting to produce small trees that mimic the shape and style of mature, full-sized trees. The purposes of bonsai are primarily contemplation (for the viewer) and the pleasant exercise of effort and ingenuity (for the grower). By contrast with other plant cultivation practices, bonsai is not intended for production of food, for medicine, or for creating yard-sized or park-sized landscapes. Instead, bonsai practice focuses on long-term cultivation and shaping of one or more small trees in a single container. 'Bonsai' is a Japanese pronunciation of the earlier Chinese term penzai (盆栽). A 'bon' is a tray-like pot typically used in bonsai culture. The word bonsai is sometimes used as an umbrella term for all miniature trees in containers or pots, but this article focuses primarily on bonsai as defined in the Japanese tradition. Similar practices in other cultures include the Chinese tradition of penjing and the miniature living landscapes of Vietnamese hòn non bộ.

## Notes

* ↑ Bonsai. In Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Retrieved August 15, 2010, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonsai
# Bonsai/Related gardening

Chinese Penjing, Japanese Saikei, and Vietnamese Hòn Non Bộ are miniature garden methods, but they are not always used with trees. This page only focuses on the arboriculture aspect of miniature gardening styles.
# Book of Magic/Card Magic/Card Cuts
## Basic Card Cuts

The standard cut is accomplished via the following method:
* Square up the packet of cards and place it on the table directly in front of you.
* Next "cut"or divide the deck using either hand To divide it into two parts the top part and the bottom part.
* Finally place the bottom Part on top of he the original top part which now becomes the bottom part.
* So A cut divides the pack into two parts and also changes or reverses the two cut parts of the deck.
# Ancient History/Americas
## The Americas

* (wp) Olmecs
* (wp) Chavin cult
* (wp) Teotihuacan
* (wp) Mayan empire
** (wp) Origins
** (wp) Decline of the Maya
** (wp) Spanish conquest of the Mayas
* (wp) Mochica
* (wp) Ancient Cuba
* (wp) Aztec Empire
** (wp) Origins of the Aztec
** (wp) The Aztecs arrive in the Valley of Mexico
** (wp) Rise of the Aztecs
** (wp) Aztec Triple Alliance
** (wp) Tlacaelel and Moctezuma I
** (wp) Tlacaelel
** (wp) Reform of the Aztec religion
** (wp) The height of the Empire
** (wp) Fall of the Aztec Empire
** (wp) The Conquest of Mesoamerica
** (wp) The fate of the Aztec empire under Spanish rule
** (wp) The impact of epidemics on the Aztec Empire
** (wp) Great leaders
* (wp) Incan Empire
** (wp) Inca mythology
** (wp) Emergence and expansion
** (wp) Spanish conquest and Vilcabamba
** (wp) After the Spanish conquest
* (wp) Toltec Empire
** (wp) Sacking of Teotihuacan (ca. 750).
** (wp) The Cult of Quetzalcoatl
Also be sure to read The History of the Native Peoples of the Americas.
# Ancient Greek/Dialects

A single language can comprise several different dialects, which are often dictated by geography. Consider the word aunt. In the Northeast of the United States, the word is often pronounced "ɔnt"; in the South, however, one often hears it pronounced "aint"; in the Midwest, it is pronounced "ant".
So it was with Ancient Greek. Unlike American English, however, differences in Greek dialects led to differences not only in pronunciation, but in spelling, as well. Thus, in the Attic dialect the word for "sea" is θάλαττα, with a "t" sound. In the Ionic and Doric dialects, however, the word is spelled θάλασσα, with an "s" sound. Sometimes vowel sounds shift between dialects. For example, the Attic word μήτηρ ("mother") in Doric becomes μάτηρ. Ancient Greek has a number of dialects, chief among them being Attic, Ionic, Doric and Aeolic. Due to its prevalence in ancient Greek literature, Attic Greek is considered the "standard" form of the language, and is the dialect studied in most Greek language textbooks.
Just as in English, the main feature distinguishing Attic from other contemporary dialects is the vowels. Unless it came after an ι, ε, or ρ, what was originally an ἄλφα usually shifted to an ἦτα (whence Attic "μήτηρ"). Another feature distinguishing Attic was a process called "contraction." What this means is that when two vowels encounter each other during morphological change they often contract to form one vowel or diphthong in order to be pronounced more easily. The student needn't worry about this much to begin with, but it will become relevant later on. For now, note that Attic was just one of many dialects in a diverse region that would eventually become Greece, and that these features distinguish the way the Athenians spoke.
# Ancient History/Africa
## Africa

* (wp) Nubia
** (wp) Kush
* (wp) Ethiopia
** (wp) Aksum
* (wp) Bantu
* (wp) Carthage
# Ancient History/Americas/Aztec Empire/Origins of the Aztec

The Aztecs were from a place called atzlan which is where the term Aztec derives form, ironically enough they swore they would never be called by this name again upon leaving and preferred the term Mexica which is where the name of the country Mexico derives from

## Aztlan

Atzlan is Nahuatl for place of the heron which was an island whose location is disputed due to the fact that only the aztecs lived there and hadn't for 100's of years when the first Europeans arrived. They got to that island through 7 caves which the culture of the island had been living in supposedly since humanity began, which is either off the coast of northwestern Mexico or somewhere else. Some people have said it's as far as Wisconsin while others claim it was a town now called Aztlan, and others say it's a mythical place and the whole story is made up.

## The 7 Tribes

The 7 Tribes each originating from 1 of the caves agreed to leave atzlan in hopes of building a new city that they could live in. It would be called Tenochtitlan which is aztec for Cactus Rock. Their god had told them to look for it as "A place where there is a cactus growing from a rock with an eagle perched on it with a snake in it's mouth". He had said to settle in the place where they found it when they began their journey South or possibly Southwest to what today is Central Mexico.

## Their Journey

The Aztecs went south through Mexico toward Tenochtitlan. Not yet knowing where that was they went south looking for the sign their god had told them about. The people of Mexico called the Toltecs, who had been around for a very long time and were similar to the Maya, these peoples land was now being entered by stray tribes such as the Aztecs but by the time they got there, most of the land in the area had already been taken They were influenced by Toltec Culture and added some of their gods to their religion (later a fatal mistake). They were accepted into one society who they angered when they sacrificed a woman they gave them, who they expected their ruler to marry. Then they banished the Aztec into the lake. They went through lake Texcoco and found the sign, there they settled.
# Ancient History/Americas/Aztec Empire

* Origins of the Aztec
* The Aztecs arrive in the Valley of Mexico
* Rise of the Aztecs
* Aztec Triple Alliance
* Tlacaelel and Moctezuma I
* Tlacaelel
* Reform of the Aztec religion
* The height of the Empire
* Fall of the Aztec Empire
* The Conquest of Mesoamerica
* The fate of the Aztec empire under Spanish rule
* The impact of epidemics on the Aztec Empire
* Great leaders
# Anatomy and Physiology of Animals/Cardiovascular System

This chapter on the Cardiovascular system is divided into 3 sections. These are:
* Blood
* The Heart
* Blood circulation
# Anatomy and Physiology of Animals/Cardiovascular System/Blood/Test Yourself Answers

1. The liquid part of blood is known as plasma
2. There are two main types of cells in blood. They are:
    a) red blood cells
    b) white blood cells.
3. The most numerous cells in blood are red blood cells
4. The main function of the red blood cells is to transport oxygen.
5. How would you tell a white cell from a red cell when looking at them through a microscope? (Give at least 2 differences)
    You would tell a white cell from a red cell when looking at them through a microscope by the red (pink) colour and no nucleus of red blood cells compared to the white cells which have a colourless cytoplasm and a purple stained nucleus.
6. How does the blood help fight invasion by bacteria and viruses?
    White cells in the blood help fight invasion by bacteria and viruses by engulfing them (neutrophils and monocytes) or producing chemicals (antibodies) that kill them (lymphocytes).
7. What would happen to blood if there were no platelets?
    If there were no platelets in the blood it would not clot to stop bleeding.
# Anatomy and Physiology of Animals/Acknowledgements

Many thanks to Terry Marler (B.V.S.C.) for his guiding vision, wisdom, experience and patience. His advice throughout the writing of this WikiBook has been invaluable. I would also like to thank Bronwyn Hegarty, for gently shepherding the project through the many hurdles encountered and Leigh Blackall, also in the Education Development Unit at the Otago Polytechnic, for helpful discussions and advice. Many, many thanks also to Sunshine Blackall for her skills in formatting the diagrams and designing the artwork accompanying each chapter. The high quality of this work would not have been possible without the financial assistance of the Otago Polytechnic CAPEX fund. Thanks are also due to Jeanette O'Fee, my Head of School, for encouragement throughout the project and to Keith Allnatt and Jan Bedford for proofreading and reviewing. Finally I would like thank Peter and Kate who have patiently suffered my "unavailability" as I tapped my evenings and weekends away on the computer. Ruth Lawson
# Anatomy and Physiology of Animals/Body Organisation/Test Yourself Answers

1. Living organisms can be distinguished from non-living matter because they usually move and grow. They also excrete, respire, are sensitive to the environment, reproduce and feed.
2. What tissue types would you find:
    a) Columnar epithelial tissue lines the intestine.
    b) Keratinised stratified squamous epithelium covers the body.
    c) Skeletal muscle moves bones.
    d) Blood (a type of connective tissue) flows through blood vessels.
    e) Nerves link the eye to the brain
    f) Transitional epithelium lines the bladder
3. Name the body cavity in which the following organs are found:
    a) The heart is located in the pericardial cavity (situated in the thoracic cavity).
    b) The bladder is situated in the pelvic cavity
    c) The stomach is situated in the abdominal cavity
    d) The lungs are situated in the pleural cavity (also situated in the thoracic cavity).
4. Body systems
    a) The skeletal system includes the bones and joints
    b) The reproductive system includes the ovaries and testes
    c) The endocrine system produces hormones.
    d) The circulatory system includes the heart, blood vessels and blood.
5. Homeostasis is the maintenance of constant conditions in an animal’s body.
6. Circle which is correct:
    a) The head is cranial to the neck
    b) The heart is medial to the ribs
    c) The elbow is proximal to the fingers
    d) The spine is dorsal to the heart
7. Indicate whether or not these statements are true.
    a) The stomach is cranial to the diaphragm - false. It is caudal to the diaphragm.
    b) The heart lies in the pelvic cavity - false. It lies in the thoracic cavity or to be more precise in the pleural cavity.
    c) The spleen is roughly the same size as the stomach and lies near it - true
    d) The small intestine is proximal to the kidneys - false (remember the term proximal is only used when describing the relationship of parts of the limbs to each other). Perhaps it would be better to say that the small intestine is ventral to the kidneys.
    e) The bladder is medial to the hips - true
    f) The liver is cranial to the heart - false. The liver is caudal to the heart.
# Anarchist Theories and Practices/Local Manual of Style

This is the local manual of style for Anarchist Theories and Practices. Please also stick to the Wikibooks Manual of Style.

## Language & Numbers

Dialectally, the book should prefer Standard American English, though use of other dialectal grammatical structures is more than acceptable. Spelling should be American standard, with minimal variation within that space. If there is disagreement over wording, please communicate and attempt to find a middle ground or settle on a phrasing that none object to.
Numbers should be written as Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 0), unless in a quotation from a written source that uses a different format.
Dates should be formatted as YYYY-MM-DD, DD-MM-YYYY, or Day Month Year

## Basic Structure & Naming Conventions

This book will use flat structure (Book/Chapter/), as that will allow easier linking between and within chapters.
Chapters will be named with all words except prepositions capitalized, the standard for most published books.

## Links

Though links to other WikiProjects are of course permitted, it is preferred to link to a glossary entry.

## Navigation

The template that should be used on each page for navigation is listed under the name "Navigation".

## Images

Commons images and fair use images are both acceptable, but try to stick to Commons, as it simplifies translation and has its own organization system.

## Categories

A single category will be used for the book.

## Print Version

A print version is automatically updated via template.

## Making Decisions About This Book

Though not strictly style, I will include this section here.
If anyone wishes to alter the structure of the book, or the style guide, they should put their proposal forward on the talk page of the main page or of the local style guide, depending on which page they wish to alter. Others can assent or dissent in responses, and have polite discussion. Voting lasts 5 days, after which the same change cannot be proposed for 9. On receiving 10 votes in the affirmative, the change will go through, unless there are five or more dissenting votes, in which case voting will continue until there is a 60% or greater majority or time runs out.
# A-level Applied Science/Choosing and Using Materials/Structure and properties
## Relating the physical properties of materials to their structure

Materials behave as they do because of their structure; the way their atoms and molecules fit together. Materials scientists consider how materials behave at the atomic level in order to assess the suitability of a material for a specific project.
You should understand how physical properties relate to:
* the microscopic structure of crystalline, polymeric and amorphous materials;
* the structure of composite materials;
* strong bonding between particles (ionic, covalent and metallic);
* weak bonding between particles.

### Strong bonding between particles
#### Ionic – directional

    Although all cations attract all anions, each cation is surrounded by anions and vice-versa. Moving one part of the ionic lattice will cause anion-anion and cation-cation repulsions.

#### Covalent – directional

    : Covalent bonds are between specific atoms and distorting the positions of the atoms will break the bonds.

#### Metallic - non-directional.

    The fluid ‘sea’ of electrons can accommodate changes in the crystal structure, so the shape of the sample can change without breaking the bonds.
    Compounds which are purely ionic or covalent have low ductility. Metals are much more ductile.
Weak bonding between particles.
    The strong bonding of metals, ionic crystals and giant covalent molecules extends throughout the material.

### Intermolecular bonding

Small covalent molecules, polymers, graphite etc. are not composed of a single molecule. What holds one molecule to another molecule? The answer is intermolecular bonding.
There are three types of intermolecular bond:

#### Van der Waals’ forces

    Every molecule and atom will be very weakly attracted to any other molecule or atom. This is because the electrons on one particle will be attracted to the nuclei of the other, and vice-versa.
    This type of bonding is very weak. Small molecules which bond in this way will be gases. Very large molecules can accumulate enough van der Waals’ force to form solids (e.g. polymers, graphite) but they are mechanically weak unless stressed along/across their covalent bonds.

#### Dipole-dipole interactions

    Polar molecules (molecules containing atoms such as oxygen, nitrogen, fluorine, chlorine) have permanent areas of positive and negative charge. These molecules can stick together like pairs of magnets.
    This bonding is stronger than van der Waals’ bonding and quite like ionic bonding. Molecules that bond in this way tend to be less volatile than pure van der Waals’ substances. Polymers with dipole-dipole bonding tend to be stiffer than hydrocarbon polymers e.g PVC.

#### Hydrogen bonding

    If hydrogen is bound to an oxygen or nitrogen, it can bind to the oxygen or nitrogen of a second molecule. This is the strongest intermolecular bond and is akin to covalent bonding.
    Molecules that hydrogen bond are the least volatile molecules. Simple molecules will be they are brittle. E.g. sugar but polymers tend to be stiff and brittle, e.g cellulose, perspex.
# A-level Applied Science/Choosing and Using Materials
## About this Unit

From the AQA Specification:
   In this unit you will learn about:
   * the different properties of materials such as metals, polymers and ceramics;
   * how scientists define the properties of a material and compare values for different materials;
   * how to measure some of the properties of a material and investigate how they allow the material to be put to a particular use;
   * why different materials behave in different ways;
   * how the internal structure of a material influences the way it behaves;
   * ways in which properties of a material can be modified by altering the structure of the material.

## How you will be assessed

In this unit you will be required to complete an external examination of 1½ hours duration. The examination will consist of a series of compulsory short answer questions and will be marked out of 80. The examination may also contain a comprehension exercise.
You will be assessed on your knowledge, understanding and skills relating to choosing and using materials.

## What you need to know

Properties of materials
Relating the physical properties of materials to their structure
Microscopic structure
The different classes of materials
# A-level Applied Science/Choosing and Using Materials/Microscopic structure
## Microscopic structure

We need to consider crystalline, polymeric and amorphous materials;

### Crystalline materials

    may be ionic, metallic or giant covalent.
    The atoms are packed in a regular pattern. This gives great strength, but in the case of ionic and covalent crystals, and molecules held by dipole-dipole or hydrogen bonds, the crystal structure fractures if placed under strain.

### Polymeric materials

    are either long covalent molecules, held together by intermolecular bonds; or a giant molecule. The latter are the thermoset polymers which behave like crystalline materials.
    Thermoplastic polymers become ductile when heated and can be moulded into shape. Cold-drawing the polymer (imposing plastic strain while the material is at room temperature) will line-up the polymers chains. Cold-drawn polymer is very strong in the direction it was strained, because its strength comes from the covalent bonds of it molecules, not the intermolecular bonds.

### Amorphous materials

    include glass and polymers. Amorphous polymers are discussed above, but note that if the intermolecular bonds are strong and directional (e.g. Perspex, polystyrene) then the polymers becomes brittle. Glass is also brittle, and for the same reason – straining the material breaks the bonds that hold it together. In the case of glass these are covalent bonds.

### The structure of composite materials.

Composite materials combine the properties of two or more simple materials. For example, glass fibre combines a tough flexible resin with strong fibres of glass.
The interaction between the two materials is also important. Cracks may be stopped from opening because they form in one material but cannot pass through the other one.
# A-level Applied Science/Colour Chemistry
## About this Unit

From the AQA Specification:
   You will need to produce a portfolio of evidence detailing the extraction and application of a natural (plant) dye and the preparation and application of a synthetic dye. You should also include evidence detailing the use of organic pigments in an oil-based paint.
Comment: Although most natural dyes are plant dyes, some are derived from animals or minerals. This is of little consequence to the work, however.
The pigments in oil-based paints are usually inorganic. I have assumed that inorganic pigments for paints are valid. AQA do not give any organic pigments as examples; they suggest hydrated iron (III) oxide, zinc potassium chromate (VI), chromium (III) oxide or iron (III) hexacyanoferrate (II) (Prussian Blue).

## How you will be assessed

This unit is assessed through the work you complete for your portfolio.
The marking criteria are found in the AQA specification.

## What you need to know

| Colour | Dyes | Fibres | Paint | Experiments |
# Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses/Ithaca/651
## Annotations

secreto (Latin) privately; quietly. In the Latin Tridentine Mass, some prayers and texts are to be chanted or spoken by the celebrant in a low voice so that the congregation cannot hear.
The 113 th Psalms 113 in the Latin Vulgate translation of the Bible (Psalms 114 in the King James Bible).
modus peregrinus (Latin) wandering mode. When passages of the Latin Tridentine Mass are to be intoned rather than sung, the celebrant improvises a chant based on one of several traditional reciting tones. These include eight psalm tones and the tonus peregrinus or wandering tone. The eight psalm tones were associated with the eight church modes; in the Middle Ages the tonus peregrinus came to be associated with the ninth mode, the Aeolian.
In exitu Israël de Egypto : domus Jacob de populo barbaro (Latin) When Israel went out of Egypt : the house of Jacob from a people of strange language. According to the Missale Romanum of the Latin Tridentine Mass, Psalms 113:1 (Psalms 114:1 in the King James Bible) is to be sung as part of the Alleluia, which follows the Graduale, on the 21st Sunday after Pentecost. The Gradual is sung after the Epistle; it is followed by the Alleluia and the Gospel. In Eastertide, the Gradual is usually omitted and an Alleluia is sung in its place; in the Missa ad Postulandum Gratiam bene Moriendi (Mass to ask for a Good Death), this Alleluia is based on In exitu. Nowhere in the Missal is the celebrant directed to sing the Psalm verses of the Alleluia secreto.
In Dante's Purgatorio 2:46 ff. this Psalm is sung by the souls of the dead as they are being ferried to the foot of Mount Purgatory. In his Letter to Can Grande della Scala, Dante quotes this verse and uses it to illustrate his method of interpreting sacred scripture's four levels of meaning (literal, allegorical, moral and anagogical).

## References

* ↑ Gifford (1988) 581.
* ↑ Psalms 114.
* ↑ Lundberg, Mattias (2011). Tonus Peregrinus: The History of a Psalm-Tone and Its Use in Polyphonic Music. Farnham: Ashgate Publishing Ltd. ISBN 9781409407867.
* ↑ Gifford (1988) 581. Thornton (1968) 471. Psalms 114. The Vulgate has Cum egrederetur in place of In exitu.
* ↑ Missale Romanum 465.
* ↑ Missale Romanum 41 (X:3) and 1073.
* ↑ Epistle to Can Grande.