OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Chemical Sciences: A Manual for CSIR-UGC National Eligibility Test for Lectureship and JRF/Named Reactions/Wagner-Meerwein Rearrangement

A Wagner-Meerwein rearrangement is a class of carbocation 1,2-rearrangement reactions in which a hydrogen, alkyl or aryl group migrates from one carbon to a neighboring carbon.
Several reviews have been published.
The rearrangement was first discovered in bicyclic terpenes for example the conversion of isoborneol to camphene:
The story of the rearrangement reveals that many scientists were puzzled with this and related reactions and its close relationship to the discovery of carbocations as intermediates.
The related Nametkin rearrangement named after Sergey Namyotkin involves the rearrangement of methyl groups in certain terpenes. In some cases the reaction type is also called a retropinacol rearrangement (see Pinacol rearrangement).

## References

* ↑ Wagner, G. J. Russ. Phys. Chem. Soc. 1899, 31, 690.
* ↑ Hans Meerwein (1914). "Über den Reaktionsmechanismus der Umwandlung von Borneol in Camphen; [Dritte Mitteilung über Pinakolinumlagerungen.]". Justus Liebig's Annalen der Chemie. 405: 129–175. doi:10.1002/jlac.19144050202.
* ↑ Popp, F. D.; McEwen, W. E. Chem. Rev. 1958, 58, 375. (Review)
* ↑ Cargill, R. L. et al. Accts. Chem. Res. 1974, 7, 106-113. (Review)
* ↑ Olah, G. A. Accts. Chem. Res. 1976, 9, 41. (Review)
* ↑ Hogeveen, H.; Van Krutchten, E. M. G. A. Top. Curr. Chem. 1979, 80, 89-124. (Review)
* ↑ Hanson, J. R. Comp. Org. Syn. 1991, 3, 705-719. (Review)
* ↑ Birladeanu, L. J. Chem. Ed. 2000, 77, 858-863.
# Configuring Sound on Linux/Pulse Audio/Pulse apps

A typical PulseAudio distribution comes with numerous different programs. Refer to the man pages for more information. All official PulseAudio applications are prefixed with pa.

## paplay

    Plays wavs and select other audio files. This is not an mp3 player.

## pacat

    Plays and records streams
    PulseAudio alternative to aplay

## pasuspender

    Permits another device to access the sound device directly. Typically this is used for applications that can not plug into pulseaudio.

## pactl

    Controls the running pulseaudio server/daemon.

## padsp

    Creates a dsp and other devices for a transparent abstraction of a non-existent device.

## pacmd

    PulseAudio shell into pactl
# Configuring Sound on Linux/Pulse Audio/Testing

To test a PulseAudio installation use pacat which is equivalent to ALSA's aplay utility. Warning: the output from this command may be _very_ loud.

## Using pacmd

Firstly run pacmd.
Next run the command list-sinks.
Now you know the name of your sink and your index. In this example the name is alsa_output.pci_8086_27d8_sound_card_0_alsa_playback_0, and the index is 0. Now you will want a list of samples, use list-samples to accomplish this.
Now you can use the command play-sample followed by the name of the sample, and the index or the sink-name to test your PulseAudio configuration.
# Configuring Sound on Linux/Pulse Audio/Troubleshooting

This document entails issues you might encounter with PulseAudio.

## Verbose error capturing

Wanto to figure out what PulseAudio is doing? Try the following.

## Errors and solutions
### Wrong Sample Freq
#### Symptom

If you have the sample frequence set wrong you might encounter an error like this when you startup PulseAudio

#### Solution

Explicitly set the rate for the PulseAudio module in /etc/pulse/default.pa.

### Sound Stops Working
#### Symptom

You suddenly have no sound afer you wake up your computer or when you plug headphones, but alsamixer show that sound is enabled and volume can be hight.

#### Solution

Check pacmd command if your sound is not mute:
Second sink is mute so we need to unmute it
Additionaly restarting pulseaudio may be needed
NOTE: If you play video using flash in Browser (like YouTube) you can enable sound but when you exit from pacmd the sound stop and when you try to enter pacmd again to show that pulseaudio is not running in the session, in this case refreshing the page with the video solve the issue.
# Configuring Sound on Linux/ALSA/Troubleshooting
## Errors and Solutions
### Kernel lacks appropriate modules
#### Symptom

Indicated by:
* The virtual directory /proc/asound is not present
* The command aplay -l returns no sound cards present
* The sound card shows up under some hardware detection mechanism, i.e., lspci
Sometimes the cause of this is selectively pulling out modules suggested by a dist-upgrade, such as the kernel, without the kernel modules.

#### Solution

Add the appropriate modules to your kernel. In Ubuntu you can upgrade to the newest kernel and modules by issuing the following command:

### Invalid card specified
#### Symptom

If you encounter the following error it simply means you are targeting a non-existent or erroneous device:

#### Solution

This can often be remedied by simply specifying the device explicitly.

### Bad sample
#### Symptom

This is a rather complex option . Essentially, hardware expects a certain datatype for the sound sample, and you're providing the wrong one.

#### Solution

Specify the sample format, or amend the rate in the ALSA conf file.

### No channel count
#### Symptom

If you do not provide to ALSA the amount of channels you wish to output to, you'll get the following error:

#### Solution

Specify the amount of channels you wish to output too. Two is considered safe for the purpose of troubleshooting.
# Configuring Sound on Linux/HW Address

This document will teach you how to find an address and confirm it is working.

## Find the hardware address
### Using aplay

The stock ALSA utility aplay can tell you the hardware addresses of the devices it is ready to use. Simply supply to aplay the --list-devices argument.
Note, for this card the notation for the physical address would be hw:0,3. While the device name, is HDMI

### Using /proc

Here we will use proc to query our kernel for information.
By viewing the virtual file /proc/asound/cards your kernel will show you the device names for the cards it is has ready for use. If your card isn't listed here then your kernel does not support it. The device names can be found in the brackets.
An example of the output for device HDMI might be:
The kernel should have created a virtual directory for each card in /proc/asound. The directories associated with the card will be prefixed by 'card' and suffixed by the number of the card, ex., card0, card1, etc.; i.e., '0' in our example.
Inside of these directories you will find a simple list of files.
The most important file is the pcm3p/info, by examining this file we can finish our search for the hardware coordinates of the sound devices.

## Writing the hardware address

Now you know the basics about your card! Specifically, you'll need the card number, and the device number. These two are often seen in ALSA hardware notation as hw:CARD,DEVICE, which is totally dependent on the order the kernel detects them.

## Test the address

Firstly, make sure your device in question is un-muted! You can test the functionality of you default card at any time by using the following command:
This will bombard your card with random and totally irrelevant data. Your card will present this data to you in the form of sound à la modem noise. To stop that noise ^D (hold Control and press D). Alternatively, you can use the dd command to flash-test.
Presumably, if you're reading this tutorial your sound isn't working. You might want to explicitly test a sound device, or you might be having problems with the default and want to try out another device. Whatever have you, the -D argument to aplay does just that.
If you hear sound, enjoy—your card works and is fully compatible with your operating system.
# Configuring Sound on Linux/Pulse Audio/Remote server
## RTP

RTP streams use multicast IP adresses like 224.0.0.56 (default) and UDP datagrams for transport. Multicasts are generally not allowed in Internet (blocked by ISPs). RTP is designed for low latency.

### Client
## TCP

Only uncompressed audio is supported.

### Configuring the Server

This process is rather simple. You will need to load module-native-protocol-tcp. You can optionally specify an auth-ip-acl to permit/blacklist anonymous connections from specific ips or IP ranges (to list more than one, separate by semicolon).

### Configuring the Client

Simply set the environmental variable PULSE_SERVER to the destination and PulseAudio will redirect the stream over tcp to the provided destination.
# Beekeeping/Chalkbrood

Chalk brood is a disease which affects honey bee larvae, caused by the fungus Acosphaera Apis. It is regarded as endemic, meaning that low levels of chalk brood are probably present in every colony, but not all colonies are badly affected by it. The dead larvae sometimes appear like small chips of chalk, hence the name chalk brood. Chalk brood is spread via fungal spores which are ingested by the larvae. The spores form hyphae inside the body of the larva which initially give it a slightly swollen appearance and a spongy consistency. The larva normally dies after being capped over, and ends up as a shrivelled "mummy" with a dark head. The body of the mummy may be white or black; the black colour is caused by the fruiting bodies of the fungus which release new spores. There are two main ways to combat chalk brood. The first is to reduce stress on the colony by keeping it warm, dry, well fed and free of other diseases. The second is selective breeding, as resistance to chalk brood can be genetically inherited.
# Beekeeping/Cosmetic Formulas

Lip Balm
* 1 ounce (28g) beeswax
* 5 ounces (140g) extra-virgin olive oil
* 5 drops of honey
* 2-3 drops essential oil (e.g. lemon, strawberry)
# Beekeeping/Contributors

Beekeeping could not be made possible if not for the help of its contributors. The following is a list of all of this projects authors. If you have added or modified Beekeeping please take pride in your submission and add your name.

## Other organizations

* US Department of Agriculture - Public domain articles about honey and food products.
* Wikipedia - GFDL articles about bees and photographs in relation to the subject.
* National Honey Board – Statistics and information regarding the usage of honey.

## Individuals

In order of first Submission
* Robert Engelhardt (Artic) – Began the project, and hopes to see it through to its success. Robert is a first year beekeeper, and many year bee admire.
* EuropracBHIT is half-frightened, half-fascinated with the sociality of bees, which is why she contributed to the Phobias section of Beekeeping. She also knows something of the medical use of bees and honey, and is fascinated with beekeeping books especially for children and young teenagers.
* Cosmo Prindle - Inspired by his own Spring Management homework, he contributed!
* Matthew Richardson - Beekeeper in Central Scotland, keeping bees for 5 years, with some academic involvement (research and teaching).
* Wyoham - A long dormant hobbyist with a legacy in moderately sized commercial beekeeping. Located in central Wyoming. Bit of a geek.

## End Note

The information within this book comes from many sources. If you have become aware that a source was used but is for some reason missing from our list please add it.
# Beekeeping/Brood Nest

The brood nest is contained in the hive body. The "hive body" is the boxes containing the brood area and main food storage of the colony. The internal dimensions of the hive body and supers are critical to maintain proper bee space.
One option in the brood nest is the HSC fullydrawn smallcell brood frame. It uses the 4.9mm cell size that restricts drone production and shortens time to capping and emergence. It is an excellent option for those that are starting packages and do not have drawn comb. Additionally the small cell is reported to have significant longterm effects on hive health.
# Beekeeping/Comb Honey

Honey Comb, also known as Cut Comb Honey, or Combed Honey, is honey in its most natural state. This honey is encapsulated in its original bee made hexagonal wax container. Once the default method of availability, honey comb has more recently been dismissed with a preference towards Extracted Honey.
As of recently Chunk Honey, which is essentially smaller pieces of comb honey suspended in extracted honey, has been picking up popularity.

## Producing Honey Comb

In general combed honey is more difficult to produce successfully than extracted honey. The major reason being that to produce attractive comb honey, bees must be kept in conditions that will likely lead to swarming, and the local honey flow must be long term.

### Production Tips

One option for producing honey comb on a small scale, is to consider keeping bees in a top bar hive where all honey produced is by default in comb form. Unlike standard Langstroth hives, top bar hives don’t use foundation which leads to poor production of comb honey.

### Common Problems
## How To Eat

When faced with comb honey, many consumers unfamiliar with the food are unsure how to eat it. While it is probably not the best honey product for use in tea, comb honey is often used spread over bread, or with anything that may benefit from extra texture. Some connoisseur even choose to eat by the spoonful. Although the wax can be consumed alongside the honey, it is not a good source of nutrients, and will more than likely simply pass through.
# Beekeeping/Bumblebees
## Bumblebee

Bumblebee, (tribe Bombini), also spelled bumble bee, also called humble-bee, common name for any member of the insect tribe Bombini (family Apidae, order Hymenoptera). These bees occur over much of the world but are most common in temperate climates. They are absent from most of Africa and the lowlands of India and have been introduced to Australia and New Zealand to aid in the pollination of various flowering plants. Most authorities recognize two genera: Bombus, the nest-building bumblebees, and Psithyrus, the parasitic bumblebees. Certain species are sometimes assigned to a third genus, Bombias. About 19 species of Bombus and 6 species of Psithyrus occur in Great Britain. About 50 species of Bombus, as well as some Psithyrus species, are found in North America. Bumblebees are robust and hairy, average about 1.5 to 2.5 cm (about 0.6 to 1 inch) in length, and are usually black with broad yellow or orange bands. They often nest in the ground, commonly in deserted bird or mouse nests. Bombus species are social bees; i.e., they live in organized groups. Each nest has a queen, drones (males), and workers. Psithyrus species, having no worker caste, enter Bombus nests to lay their eggs, which are then cared for by Bombus workers. The resemblance between a Psithyrus species and the Bombus species it parasitizes is often remarkable. The British species P. vestalis sometimes stings the Bombus queen to death. There are then no Bombus larvae produced to compete with the parasitic Psithyrus larvae for the attention of the workers. The Bombus queen lays her eggs in the nest after spending the winter in hibernation. The first brood generally develops into four to eight worker bees. Shortly after emerging as adults these workers take over from the queen the duties of collecting pollen and caring for the hive. The queen then retires to a life of egg laying. For a while only worker progeny are produced, and the colony grows until it contains 50 to 600 bees. In late summer, with the large population of workers bringing in abundant food, males and new queens are produced. Although some males develop from unfertilized eggs laid by the queen, most hatch from eggs laid by workers. In early fall the queen stops laying eggs, and the colony, including the queen, gradually dies out. During this period the larvae of certain moths and beetles prey on the remaining eggs and larvae in the nest. The next season’s queens have developed from eggs laid late in the season. The future queens, when fully grown, leave the nest, mate, and find a sheltered place in which to hibernate for the winter. The lone queens then start new nests in the following spring.
# Dark and Light/Classes/Ranger
## Ranger

* Ranger Skills
* Hunter Skills
* Citizen Skills
# Dark and Light/Classes/Rogue
## Rogue

* Rogue Skills
* Hunter Skills
* Citizen Skills
# Dark and Light/Classes/Necromancer
## Necromancer

* Necromancer Skills
* Mage Skills
* Citizen Skills

### Stat Costs

Becoming a Necromancer will decrease and increase some of your stat raising costs:
* WIS -1
* QUI +1

### Tactics

To level fast with Necromancer the best way is to grind up levels until you are able to call Great Skeletons, from this point on find an area of low level mobs, and attack them, keep doing this until you standing with them drops so low that they will attack you on site, the mobs you are attacking are low level so your pets will have no trouble killing them, although XP gain isn't great its possible to afk level this way. note: if it is currently impossible to lower your standing try low level skeletons as they attack you anyway. doing this it is possible to level to 35 within 24hrs IF the server stays up that long... Hope this little guide helps you budding Necro's :)
As of latest patch, this will no longer work.
# Dark and Light/Classes/Warrior
## Warrior

* Warrior Skills
* Fighter Skills
* Citizen Skills
# Dark and Light/Errors
## Errors & Configuration Problems

Here we will list all current known errors, bugs, and exploits, official communications on them, and how to work-around or fix them. When a new version of the DnL client arrives, we will keep the error information for historical purposes. The current version is SOG Errors (Build 0.88.92).
A guide to the dnl.ini file and tweaking the settings for better performance: http://www.darkandlight.net/forums/showthread.php?t=41440

### IRC Help

If you have an IRC client, you can get help from one of the many volunteer DnL Support Helpers (DSH) on irc channel #dnl-help (server : irc.ircube.org)
Help on getting connected to IRC can be attained by visiting the official IRC Server Thread on the DnL Forums: http://www.darkandlight.net/forums/showthread.php?t=25581 (note: this thread is currently stickied by the moderation staff at the forums)

### SOG Errors (Build 0.88.92)

Here's a (semi) complete list of all known errors with the current release of Dark and Light, Settlers of Ganareth build version 0.88.92.
# Dark and Light/Classes/Paladin
## Paladin

* Paladin Skills
* Fighter Skills
* Citizen Skills

### Stat Costs

Becoming a Paladin will decrease and increase some of your stat raising costs:
* DEX +1
* WIS -1

### Tactics

The Paladin is a very defensive class with many advantages to grouping. There is an aura skill tree that gives many bonuses to hp, stamina, mana, and regeneration, plus the ability to resurrect a fallen comrade. The combat skill tree has a variety of attacks including stun, speed debuff, confuse, etc... while the paladin may not be suited for 1v1 combat they are a great addition to group leveling, events, and fortress sieging. They also make very good tanks with the right attributes.

### Hints and Bugs

As of now (Dark and Light is not out yet) the regeneration aura for the paladin only works for 5 seconds instead of 30. The healing ability has a 900 minute cooldown rate so I would suggest saving it for yourself when u need it.
# Dark and Light/Classes/Shaman
## Shaman

This is some sort of Epic Class. It is rumored you will need to complete an epic quest to unlock the Shaman Class for an Alt.
* Shaman Skills
* Healer Skills
* Citizen Skills
# Dark and Light/Classes/Wizard
## Wizard

* Wizard Skills
* Mage Skills
* Citizen Skills
# Data Mining Algorithms In R/Packages/RWeka/WOW
## Description

Give on-line information about available control options for Weka learners or filters and their R interfaces.

## Usage

WOW(x)

## Arguments

x, a character string giving either the fully qualified name of aWeka learner or filter class in JNI notation, or the name of an available R interface, or an object obtained from applying these interfaces to build an associator, classifier, clusterer, or filter.
# Data Mining Algorithms In R/Packages/RWeka/Weka classifier lazy
## Description

R interfaces to Weka lazy learners.

## Usage

IBk(formula, data, subset, na.action, control = Weka_control, options = NULL)
LBR(formula, data, subset, na.action, control = Weka_control, options = NULL)

## Arguments

formula, a symbolic description of the model to be fit.
data, an optional data frame containing the variables in the model.
subset, an optional vector specifying a subset of observations to be used in the fitting process.
na.action, a function which indicates what should happen when the data contain NAs.
control, an object of class Weka_control giving options to be passed to the Weka learner.
options, a named list of further options, or NULL (default).

## Details

There are a predict method for predicting from the fitted models, and a summary method based on evaluate_Weka_classifier. IBk provides a k-nearest neighbors classifier.
LBR (“Lazy Bayesian Rules”) implements a lazy learning approach to lessening the attributeindependence assumption of naive Bayes. The model formulae should only use the ‘+’ and ‘-’ operators to indicate the variables to be included or not used, respectively.
Argument options allows further customization. Currently, options model and instances (or partial matches for these) are used: if set to TRUE, the model frame or the corresponding Weka instances, respectively, are included in the fitted model object, possibly speeding up subsequent computations on the object. By default, neither is included.

## Value

A list inheriting from classes Weka_lazy and Weka_classifiers with components including:
classifier, a reference (of class jobjRef) to a Java object obtained by applying the Weka
buildClassifier, method to build the specified model using the given control options.
predictions, a numeric vector or factor with the model predictions for the training instances (the results of calling the Weka classifyInstance method for the built classifier and each instance).
call, the matched call.
# Data Mining Algorithms In R/Packages/RWeka/Predict Weka Clusterer
## Description

Predict class ids or memberships based on fitted Weka clusterers.

## Usage

predict(object, newdata = NULL, type = c("class_ids", "memberships"), ...)

## Arguments

object, an object of class inheriting from Weka_clusterer.
newdata, an optional data set for predictions are sought. This must be given for predicting class memberships. If omitted or NULL, the training instances are used for predicting class ids.
type, a character string indicating whether class ids or memberships should be returned.
Further arguments passed to or from other methods.

## Details

It is only possible to predict class memberships if theWeka clusterer provides a distributionForInstance method.
# Data Mining Algorithms In R/Packages/RWeka/Read.arff
## Description

Reads data from Weka Attribute-Relation File Format (ARFF) files.

## Usage

read.arff(file)

## Arguments

file, a character string with the name of the ARFF file to read from, or a connection which will be opened if necessary, and if so closed at the end of the function call.

## Value

A data frame containing the data from the ARFF file.