OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Models and Theories in Human-Computer Interaction/Using different lens, GOMS on 8pen, a gesture-based key interface

My previous discussion regarding the limitation of Fitts’ law on mobile device introduced an attempt to solve the motion-behavioral problem, a finger gesture-based keyboard design. The solution is named “8pen”, illustrating that the most natural finger gesture on a touch panel is circling, and drawing continuous “8”s on the screen. I previously mentioned 8pen in positive manner, an alternative suggesting innovative way to type letters with ease. However, at this point, I’d like to see this application with other theories, GOMS, TAM and Diffusion theory, and discuss its limitation.
With a lens of Fitts’s law, 8pen seems innovative, providing physical ease of use within the reach of fingers. However, it has been developed for several years with big applause.
\footnote{http://bits.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/11/01/8pen-hopes-to-reinvent-the-mobile-phone-keyboard/?_r=0} \footnote{ http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/01/05/8pen-android-typing-app_n_804782.html} \footnote{http://www.wired.co.uk/news/archive/2010-11/01/the-8pen-text-input-android-touchscreens}
* ↑ Even though it touches other theories, majority of discussion will be focused on GOMS. Thus, I place the posting under chapter2.}
* ↑ http://bits.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/11/01/8pen-hopes-to-reinvent-the-mobile-phone-keyboard/?_r=0
# What is Mental Models? (CheeKang Tan)

Mental model represent people's though of process about the logic to interact with real world in life. It refer to each individual's unique life experience, perception, and their view of world. We study mental model to conclude theory that can be used to analyze, make conclusion, systematize base on individual behaviors. This will help human develop mechanisms more advance and improve in management and natural resources.
Our mental models allows us to make assumption about how things works, and the thinking help us make instantaneous decision and behavior. In computer, we understand how the application or system works through learning and using it. By time, we think of what will be the expected situation and get familiar with the system or application from interacting with the computer. It also help us develop a better system conceptual model, that increase motivation, simpler complexity, better performance in accuracy, efficiency and problem solving skill. A mental models is what the user belief, each individual users have their own mental model, different user have their own unique mental models of the same user interface. Therefore, it is important for a developer or designer to make a user interface basic nature enough to communicate with users that form an accurate metal model.
# Models and Theories in Human-Computer Interaction/Understanding Kurzweil's Singularity

The most significant theory within "singularity" has been theorized by Vinge and Kurzweils. In 1950's the term "singularity" itself was defined by Von Neumann as a normal human progress and the term "singularity" as a technological aspect was coined by Vernor Vinge, a Math professor from San Diego State University in 1993. He augmented Neumann's theory of singularity as the existence of "superhumanity" created technology and without it, technology wouldn't have properly emerged.
Kurzweils' theory of "singularity" is the pace of irreversible technological change in humanity to the point that there will be no distinction between human and machine or between physical and virtual reality, he then created "law of accelerating returns (the inherent acceleration of the rate of evolution, with technological evolution as a continuation of biological evolution)."
Both Vinge and Kurzweils believe that the existence of the future that humanity and technology will become indistinctable with an accelerated speed of growth, irreversible and inevitable. These technological growth may be bad as it can backfire and turn on humanity, exploitation and it may also be good as it can be streamlined, immortality rate of humanity and beneficial in medical advancement.
According to Anders Sandberg from the Future of Humanity Institute of Oxford University who studied the meaning of "technological singularity," to disambiguate the meaning of the word that there are growth of technological and cognitive aspect that's important to the process of "singularity." These processes are:
* Accelerating change
* Self-improving technology
* Intelligence explosions
* Complexity disaster
As I understand it "singularity" isn't only fear in democratization of knowledge and information, but what humanity can do with the power of these information. These theorizers has recognized that information can both be good and bad, that we don't know where it would take the next generation of humanity. For what we all know is that the next generation of Kurzweil's theory of unifying technology and humanity had already started since Bioinformatics were referred to in 1970 and popularized in the 80's. Will it overcome us? I don't think so. I do believe that it will become a crutch to humanity, therefore it will be harder for humanity to unlearn something that they have discovered. It's like un-learning to learn how to ride a bicycle. Sandberg's fourth process of singularity might be complexified by the waste products resulted from the past technological advances and/or the existence of patents that might repress intelligence explosion or self-improving technology and will therefore slowdown the accelerating change.
Cited
Kurzweil, R. (2005). The singularity is near: When humans transcend biology. New York: Viking.
Sandberg, A. (n.d.). An overview of models of technological singularity. Future of Humanity Institute, Oxford University.
Vinge, V. (1993). The coming technological singularity: How to survive in the post-human era.
# Models and Theories in Human-Computer Interaction/We Are Not Only Users

We Are Not Only Users.
WikiBook is a social and group platform motivation the interaction among the end users, since we are not only adapting this tool, but also changing and redesign it. WikiBook is a computer-mediated tool that goes beyond the pure meaning of using interface, it has been a platform that users can redesign and reorganize it at the same time when they use it as a tool. In another word, we can be a designer and user at the same time.
WikiBook is a typical example right on the point of activity theory. When users practice on this interface, they would understand more about how this platform or this interface shaped, how to take advantage of it. For example, by using this kind of computer-mediated interface, instead of only focus on how to use a tool, what to do with this tool; users can focus more on and pay more attention on what can I do for this tool, how can I change it and what would I design it to be. At this point, this interface could be regarded as a transparent tool. For me, transparent tool is more like a combination of computer and human, humans can get more feedback from the system, because these interfaces are not ready for only on direction practice, instead, they are open-ended, users can practice to any directions they want and need. As a result, transparent tools could be more user-friendly, practical and flexible.
# Models and Theories in Human-Computer Interaction/The master model (or mind)?
### The Master (Mind) (Sivabalan Umapathy)

Interaction design gets applied to various contexts. Tangible products, User operated devices, Display enabled applications are few samples of this breadth. Even within a specific breadth, numerous variations exists that calls for subtle to large variations. Display design for web vs. mobile, Industrial vs. ecommerce expect different problems to be solved. ANT provides a generic framework to start on such a design process.
ANT requires a designer to be a systems person. A good ethnographer should be able to perform an ANT model for the problem space as well. However once an ANT model is formed, it becomes easier for any other players in the design space to work on top of it. Not all ANT model will translate into design. But carefully modeled ANT will make sure that no part of the system is left. This of course will lead into clutter. Then it becomes the responsibility of the interaction designer and architect to define the subset of the ANT ( i.e. sub network of interest ) to select. ANT holds another hidden power. For instance, it enables a proponent to plan "diffusion".
ANT will provide a "beyond normal vision" approach to designers. It will help to look beyond the obvious things and look into the future changes as well. ANT would also help to eliminate guess works.
A small screen application prototype was developed using "corporate color schemes". The prototype passed the acceptance by all parties involved ( including the actual operators ). However when the application went production, operators felt that the readability was poor. The reason was the industrial situation that application was used.
Since ANT allows everything to be an actant the specific environment and the screen itself would have been actant. A well done design process would have caught such things in the early stages.
Reference : Reducing Uncertainty In Human centered Design Approach : Using Actor-Network Theory Analysis To Establish Fluid Design Guidelines, Ryan Kirk & Anna Priscari, ISU
# Models and Theories in Human-Computer Interaction/WiKi book increasing group motivation and nudge social Loafing

Wikibook is a great platform where users from anywhere in the world can collaborate their knowledge and thoughts. It is basically a collection of open content textbooks and can be very productive to create content eliminating the barrier of distant location. In group work motivation increases and performance at the same time.
“Activity theory understands human beings as dialectically recreating their own environment. Subjects are not merely choosing from possibilities from the environment, but they are also actively creating the environment through activity (Carroll, 2003)”. The collaborative work at wiki book can be a great example of activity theory, where the user can write, edit and publish their thought.
Carroll also mentioned in his book the term social loafing, which explains people may not use their full potential while working in a group, which exhibits variation in performance level. Explains group work may not be the only solution to solve a problem.
References: 1. Carroll, J. M. (2003). HCI Models, Theories, and Frameworks. San Francisco: Morgan Kaufmann Publishers.
# Linux Applications Debugging Techniques
## Preamble

A collection of notes about debugging applications under Linux and related topics. Probably useful for debugging dogs. Partly applicable to other Unices. Work in progress, code is now on github.

## Authors

Aurelian Melinte

## Table of Contents

* The debugger
* The dynamic linker
* Core files
* The call stack
* The interposition library
* Memory issues
** Leaks
** Heap corruption
** Stack corruption
* Signals
* Deadlocks
* Race conditions
* Resource leaks
* Transactional memory
* The compiler
* Aiming for and measuring performance
* Hardware emulators
* Building the toolkit
* Appendices
* References and further reading
# Ethiopia

    The first meter was installed in 1933. All stamps are inscribed “ETHIOPIA” or “ETHIOPIE”.
* 1. Neopost (LV-6), 1933.      [Rare]
* Upright frank with simulated perforation outer border and straight line inner border.
* Six-pointed star at center with value figure at bottom center.
* One machine only, N1, used by the Bank of Ethiopia.
* TM: BIC
* Values:      1, 2, 3, 4, 10, 13
* 2. Pitney Bowes “5000” (MV).      [Scarce]
* Horizontal frank with simulated perforation border at top, bottom and right side.
* “POST/ PAID” below crown at center.
* Date figures raised in relation to value figures.
* M# with “P.B.” prefix at bottom center.
* TM: DC
* V/F:      ≋0.00
* 3. Pitney Bowes “5000” (MV).
* Similar to Type 2 but “BIRR/ POSTPAID” below circular logo at center.
* M# with “P.B.” prefix breaks bottom frame line.
* TM: DC
* V/F:      ≋0.00
* a. Date present without town mark
* 4. Pitney Bowes “6300” (MV).
* Horizontal frank with simulated perforation border along all four sides
* although with large stretch of straight line across bottom.
* Date and value figures on same level.
* M# with “PB” prefix.
* TM: DC
* V/F:      ≋0.00
* 5. Pitney Bowes-GB “A900” series (MV).
* Similar to Type 4 but “ETHIOPIA” at top and “POST PAID” at bottom.
* M# with “EPS1” prefix at lower left.
* TM: DC
* V/F:      ≋00.00
* 6. Neopost (MV).
* Horizontal frank, not as wide as Type 4, with simulated perforation border.
* Country name at top. Circular logo at top left.
* M# with “NE” prefix at bottom left.
* TM: DC
* V/F:      00.00
# Eritrea

The country became an independent nation in 1993. Postage meters may be in use but no stamps have been reported to or seen by us.
# French Equatorial Africa

* Meters were first introduced in 1949. All franks are inscribed either “AFRIQUE EQUATORIALE FRANCAISE” or “A.E.F.”
* The region was an administrative unit that included the four French colonies of Ubangi-Shari, Chad, Middle Congo and Gabon. These colonies gained their independence in 1959, and French Equatorial Africa ceased to exist. Some meters remained in use for several years afterward with the name unchanged.
* For issues after 1959 see CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC, CHAD, CONGO (People’s Republic), and GABON.
1. Universal “Multi-Value” (MV), 1949. [$15]
    Post Office stamp.
    Frank nearly square inscribed “AFRIQUE/ EQUATORIALE/ FRANCAISE” at top, "POSTES" at bottom.
    M# with “U” prefix in small boxes in lower corners.
                                                          A. Spacing between TM and frank ~20 mm
                                                          B. Very wide spacing, ~63 mm
    TM: DC
                                                    V/F: 00 FRS
                                                          a. As B, with large “R” (for registration) between TM and frank [$20]
2. Hasler “F22” (MV), 1952. [$15]
    Post Office stamp.
    Frank similar to Type 1 but narrower and with M# below and outside the frame.
    M# between dashes and without prefix.
    TM: SC raised with impression counter number number below
    V/F: 0000 Fr.
                                                    a. With “R” (for registration) below TM and with frame around number [$25]
3. Satas “D” (MV), 1953.
    Small frank with simulated perforation border broken at the centers of the sides, “A.E.F.” at top, "POSTES" curved at bottom with meter number below.
       A. M# with “SD” prefix [$10]
       B. M# with “SDW” prefix (relief machine) [$15]
    TM: SL
    V/F: 000F
       a. TM line with date only, town name above in slogan area (SD 3152)
# Introduction to Linguistics/Structural Grammar

Template:Structural Grammar
Derivation is common in the modern languages of the world. For example, many of them have productive ways of relating adjectives to change-of-state verbs. In English the verb is derived from the adjective by adding the suffix -en to the adjective. Examples are weaken, shorten, lighten, blacken, sharpen, soften, and loosen. Notice that this process is only somewhat productive; it doesn't apply to long (verb: lengthen), big (verb: grow), or thin (verb: thin). If we learned a new adjective, say, zub, we might not feel completely confident in making into a verb zubben. In some other languages, such as Amharic, it is usually the adjective that is derived from the verb. For example from the verb root drk' meaning 'get dry', the adjective dIrk' 'dry' is derived.
Another possibility, common in English, is for the two forms to be identical. For example, as we have seen, widen can describe a change in the width of something or a causing of such a change. In the last chapter, we treated these two meanings as two different syntax-semantics mappings. In any case, we have no basis for seeing one of them as derived from the other. Another example is provided by the relatively productive pattern in English by which a noun for an instrument can also be used as a verb designating the use of such an instrument. Examples are hammer, saw, chisel, pin, and nail. Though historically the nouns came first, again we can treat the nouns and verbs simply as related meanings of a single word.
When there is derivational morphology, a Speaker or Hearer of the language must know not only what the grammatical morpheme is and how it combines with the lexical morpheme but also the grammatical convention for how the meaning of the more complex word is derived from the meanings of the two components. Let's consider another English example, the addition of -er to a verb to produce an noun.
The compositional convention would say something like this: the meaning of the complex word is a person who acts (routinely or one occasion) as the agent of the category of event (action) which the verb designates. Thus a teacher is a person who acts as the agent of a teaching event. The diagram below illustrates the relationships. Like the derivation of verbs from adjectives (or adjectives from verbs) the agent noun derivation of one sort or another is quite common in the world's languages.
In a sense these languages are making generalization that are not made in other languages, which must rely on separate, unrelated words or whole phrases to convey the different meanings. In the next I'll describe some of the possibilities for derivational morphology on Lingala verbs Like other languages in the Bantu family, Lingala allows a number of different verbs to be derived from a single verb root.
# Introduction to Mass Media

INTRODUCTION TO MASS MEDIA
A Short Survey of Mass Media
An Undergraduate Open Textbook
Created by William Hart, Ph.D.
and his graduate students in MCM510
at Norfolk State University
This is currently a first draft and will continue to be edited.
Table of Contents
Chapter 1 - Introduction
Chapter 2 - Theory
Chapter 3 - Radio
Chapter 4 - Film
Chapter 5 - Television
Chapter 6 - Internet
Chapter 7 - Social Media
Chapter 8 - Journalism
Chapter 9 - Public Relations
Chapter 10 - Advertising
Chapter 11 - Media Law and Ethics
Chapter 12 - International Media
References/Notes:
* ↑ WilliamHartPhD.com, professional website.
* ↑ MCM510, course website. The names of the student authors may be indicated at the beginning of each chapter.
# Introduction to Linguistics/Introduction

Introduction to Linguistics

## Chapter 1 Introduction
### Defining language

To a common man, language is "the expression of what we have in our mind" and they know that this expression can be in form of written symbols, spoken sounds or body gestures. But to the linguists or other language researchers, it is "a contextualized system of finite arbitrary symbols, sounds and gestures combined according to rules of grammar for the purpose of communication” and it is “an infinitely extensible and modifiable system of communication based on pure arbitrary convention." Language is more than just a means of communication. It influences our culture and even our thought processes. Language is a social phenomenon. Language only exists in society. It is a means of nourishing and developing culture and establishing human relations.
‘Language’ is a human’s innate ability to talk or in more technical terms, an abstract faculty of speech which facilitates him or her to learn and use a language in order to communicate with other humans. This faculty is held by all human beings in common and does not vary from one region to another as human psychology is universally the same. On the other hand, ‘a language’ is that particular set of codes which ‘language faculty’ facilitates us to learn and use. ‘A language’ is a set of conventions operated through the faculty of ‘language.’ These sets vary in terms of codes as different humans learn and use different codes and thus each group of humans uses a different language and the set of codes, which they name as some particular language, is not held by all human beings in common.

### Language as a system of systems

Language is symbolic, yet its symbols are arranged in a particular system. Almost all languages of the world have their own well-organized and highly developed systems of arranging these symbols. Though symbols in each human language are finite; they can be arranged infinitely, that is to say, we can produce an infinite set of sentences by a finite set of symbols. Every language is a system of systems. All languages have phonological and grammatical systems, and within a system there are also several sub-systems. For example, within grammatical system, we have morphological and syntactic systems, and within these two sub-systems, we have still other sub-systems such as those of number, of mood, of tense, of class etc.
# Introduction to Radioisotope Geochronology/Acknowledgements

This Wikibook is an outgrowth of the EARTHTIME Initiative. EARTHTIME is supported by:
* US National Science Foundation (NSF)
* European Science Foundation
* European Union Seventh Framework Programme (Marie Curie People Action)
* UK Natural Environment Research Council
# Introduction to Radioisotope Geochronology/Part 4 - Sample selection and Characterization

This section deals with the start of the process through to the start of the analytical part of geochronology. Sample selection, characterization and processing are some of the most important stages in the process of 'dating a rock', for the derived dates to be meaningful the samples themselves need to be understood...

## Sample selection

Get informed - what is possible given current knowledge about techniques and useful minerals. Talk to us about our experiences and what we’d suggest. Maximize on-outcrop documentation at sampling site. Collect samples responsibly. Take measures to ensure cross-contamination is reduced to nil. Sample at a scale appropriate for the job. Use your geological imagination.
Consider lithological context, use everything in your geological toolbox. Igneous? Single vs multiphase - paragenetic sequence, crosscutting and contact relationships, alteration state? Major element chemistry: peraluminous vs. calc-alkaline = zircon - monazite - xenotime vs. zircon - titanite - allanite? Tectonic setting? Carbonatites?? Highly alkaline rocks?? Pegmatites??? Issues with high U??? Mafic? - Baddeleyite/zircon - late mafic pegmatite phases, melt pods. Contacts - incorporation of country rocks, xenocrysts, beneficial reactions at contacts e.g. titanite? Volcanic? - magma mixing, zircon saturation issues, proximal vs distal facies, crystal lithic tuffs vs. air-fall tuffs, alteration/clays?
Metamorphic? Grade and implications on minerals - reaction rims, primary vs metamorphic minerals, internal zonation, recrystallisation. Para- vs. orthogneisses, or indeterminate? What about melt pods and leucosomes, e.g. Himalayan leucogranites. Sedimentary? Heavy mineral bands, representative (or not) sampling of source regions, geochron +/- tracers? Ore deposits: typical minerals +/- opportunities provided by unusual mineralogy? Structures: Primary vs deformation-related minerals, effects of fluid flow on minerals, etc, cross-cut lithologies, melt rocks.

## Sample Characterization

Assessing scale of heterogeneity Thin sections Mineral imaging