OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Swedish/Lesson 4
## Family Values
### Immediate Family
#### Parents:

Collectively, parents are known as "föräldrar".
Just like in English, the Swedish language has several words for mother and father, ranging from formal to casual. Starting with the words for mother, we have:
* Moder (arch. mother)
* Mor (mother)
* Mamma (mom)
* Morsa (mom, casual)
The most common words for father are:
* Fader (arch. father)
* Far (father)
* Pappa (dad)
* Farsa (dad, casual)
* Farsgubben (old man)
Note that when addressing your folks with the casual terms, you use the definite forms farsan and morsan.

#### Siblings

The words for syskon (siblings) are for brother:
* Broder (arch. brother)
* Bror (brother)
* Brorsa (bro)
and for sister:
* Syster (sister)
* Syrra (sis)
The same goes here. You address them brorsan and syrran.
The word syskon itself is more commonly used (for people) in Swedish than the English word siblings. You would always translate "My brothers and sisters" with "Mina syskon", never with "Mina bröder och systrar", unless possibly if you want to make a special point about the differenses between them.

#### Children

Children in general are referred to as "barn", in both singular and plural.
A male child is called
* Son (son)
* Pojke (boy)
* Gosse (young boy)
* Kille (casual form of boy; also guy for adults)
A female child is
* Dotter (daughter)
* Flicka (girl)
* Tjej (casual form of girl; also girl/chick for adults)

### "Grandfamily"
#### Maternal Grandparents

Collectively, your maternal grandparents are "morföräldrar"
* Mormor (maternal grandmother)
* Morfar (maternal grandfather)

#### Paternal Grandparents

Collectively, your paternal grandparents are "farföräldrar".
* Farmor (paternal grandmother)
* Farfar (paternal grandfather)

#### Great Grandparents

* Mormors mor (maternal grandmother's mother - mother's mother's mother)
* Farfars far (paternal grandfather's father - father's father's father)
* Farmors farfars mor (paternal grandmothers paternal grandfathers mother - father's mother's father's father's mother)
To build further, just add an s after every other generation

#### Grandchildren

The formation of words for grandchildren follows the same pattern as for grandparents:
* Dotterson (daughter's son)
* Dotterdotter (daughter's daughter)
* Sondotter (son's daughter)
* Sonson (son's son)
To generically describe grandchildren, use:
* Barnbarn (children's children)
(someone please add phonetics)

### A Little More Extended Family

* Faster † (father's sister, or aunt)
* Moster † (mother's sister, or aunt)
* Morbror (mother's brother, or uncle)
* Farbror ‡ (father's brother, or uncle)
* Kusin (cousin, child of a parent's brother or sister)
† Sometimes also called "tant", which is also used as a common name for elder ladies. It's also possible to refer to an uncle with the less common word "onkel".
‡ "Farbror" is also used as a common name for old men.
# Swedish/Adverbs

Adverbs are generally made by putting an ending -t to an adjective. If the adjective ends with a d, then the d is changed to a t, except when the vowel has a shorter length, then it becomes -tt. Historically, it would have become -dt no matter what, this is still the case in Danish. If the adjective ends with a t, one adds a new t and shorten the length of the vowel. If the ending is -n, then the n is changed into a t.
Note however, that also adjectives acquires the same ending if the noun is neuter instead of uter. The comparative and superlative forms are the same as for an adjective.

### Examples

| Svenska Skyskrapan är hög. Jag hoppar högt. Bilen är snabb. Jag springer snabbt. Sångerskan är sorgsen, därför sjunger hon sorgset. Blommorna är vackra. I gryningen är de särskilt vackra. Tack, det var snällt. Det vill säga, det var snällt sagt. | English The skyscraper is high. I jump high. The car is fast. I run fast. The (female) singer is sorrowful, therefore she sings sorrowfully. The flowers are beautiful. At dawn they are especially beautiful. Thank you, that was kind. That is (to say), it was kindly said. |
Note that därför is not a formal word in Swedish, and would probably be translated as "that's why" in the sentence above.
# Swedish/Lesson 3

Welcome to the third lesson teaching you the Swedish language!

## Dialogue

Fredrik - Swedish teenager
John - American visitor
Fredrik: Fråga mig om någonting.
English: Ask me about something.
John: Vilka är dina intressen?
English: What are your interests?
Fredrik: Jag gillar att spela fotboll och ishockey på min fritid.
English: I like to play football and ice hockey in my spare time.

## Fraser - Phrases

Vad är din hobby? -- What is your hobby? Vad gillar du att göra? -- What do you like to do? Jag gillar schack -- I like chess Jag föredrar datorspel -- I prefer computer games Min hobby är fotboll -- Football is my hobby Matematik är roligt -- Maths is fun

## Ordlista - Vocabulary

Roligt -- Fun Intresse -- Interest Att dansa -- to Dance Att sjunga -- to Sing Att gilla -- to Like Att tycka om -- to Like ("Gilla" is colloquial, that is, somewhat more informal than "tycka om". In the constructions with "tycka om", the particle "om" is stressed.)
# Swedish/Färger

| Svenska (neuter & adverbial form) Blå (blått) Grön (grönt) Gul (gult) Röd (rött) Svart Vit (vitt) Grå (grått) Brun (brunt) Lila Purpur* Scharlakan* Violett Rosa or skär (skärt) Turkos (turkost) Orange ("oransch" ("oranscht")) or brandgul (-t) Beige ("besch" ("bescht")) Cyan* Magenta* | English Blue Green Yellow Red Black White Grey Brown Purple (not lilac) Crimson (not purple) Scarlet Violet Pink Turquoise Orange Beige Cyan Magenta |
(*) These are nouns but not adjectives, one commonly add -färgad or -färgat to make an adjective/adverb out of them.
Adding ljus- or mörk- to the color means "light" and "dark", respectively, e.g. ljusgrön (light green) or mörkblå (dark blue). It is common to combine colors, e.g. rödbrun or gröngul. The first color is commonly the one thought to be most dominant. The same system is used to make colors similar to that of some well known element, e.g. sandgul (sand yellow) or havsblå (ocean blue or navy blue).
# Swedish/Idrott

| Svenska | English |
| Fotboll | Football |
| Badminton | Badminton |
| Innebandy | Floorball (type of hockey) |
| Skridskor | Skates |
| Arenan | Stadium |
| Regler | Rules |
| Lagsport | Team sport |
| Mästerskap | Championship |
| Friidrott | Athletics |
| Spel | Game |
| Boule | Boules/Patanque |
| Krocket | Croquet |
# Swedish/Interjections
## A

* Aj -- Ouch
* Adjö -- Adieu, Farewell
* Ah -- Aaah!
* Akta! -- Watch out!

## B

* Blablabla -- Blah blah blah
* Blä -- Bleh
* Bravo -- Bravo
* Bä -- [what the sheep says]

## E

* Eh -- Eh

## F

* Fan (Faan) -- Dammit! (Roughly translated as "fuck")
* Farväl -- Farewell
* Fy -- Yuck
* Förlåt -- Sorry (also forgive)

## H

* Haha -- Hah hah
* Halt -- Halt (also limp)
* Hehe -- Heh Heh
* Hej -- Hi
* Heja -- Go!
* Hejdå -- Goodbye
* Hihi -- Hee hee
* Hmm -- Hmmm
* Hohoho -- Ho ho ho
* Hu --
* Huga --
* Hurra -- Hurray
* Hördu -- Hey, you
* Hörru -- Hey, you!

## I

* Ih -- Eeeh!

## J

* Ja -- Yes
* Jaha -- (oh) Well, Uh huh
* Jajamensan -- Yep
* Jaså -- oh (really)
* Jo -- Yes (in response to a negative question)

## K

* Kvitt -- Tweet

## M

* Men! -- Aw! (lit. but, very common)
* Mjau -- Meow
* Mu -- Moo
* Mums -- Yummy

## N

* Nej -- No
* Nix -- Nope
* Nja -- Weeell
* Nä -- Naw
* Nöff -- Oink

## O

* O -- Oh
* Oj -- Oops
* Ojdå -- Oops

## P

* Pang -- Bang
* Pip -- Beep, squeak
* Ptro -- [what the rider says to make the horse stop]

## S

* Skit -- Stronger than "crap," weaker than "shit."
* Skål -- Cheers
* Stopp -- Stop

## T

* Tack -- Thank you
* Tackar -- Thanks
* Tut -- Honk

## U

* Ursäkta -- Excuse me
* Usch -- Eew

## V

* Vad -- What!?
* Varsågod -- There you are/go
* Varsågoda -- Please eat
* Vips -- Swish!
* Voff -- Woof

## Å

* Åh -- Ah, Oh
* Åhå -- Oh, Uh huh

## Ä

* Äh -- Eh, Aw; Um
* Ähum -- Um

## Ö

* Öh -- Uuh?
# Swedish/Kärlek

* flicka -- girl
* kram -- hug
* kärlek -- love
* pojke -- boy
* puss -- brief kiss
* kyss -- lengthy (passionate) kiss
* säng -- bed
* älska (jag älskar dig) -- love (I love You)
* pojkvän -- boyfriend
* flickvän -- girlfriend
* dejt -- date
# World Stamp Catalogue/United States/1894
## 1894 Issue

Perforated 12. Printed by the Bureau of Engraving and Printing
* Benjamin Franklin, 1¢, ultramarine
* George Washington, 2¢, type III, pink
* George Washington, 2¢, type III, carmine
* Andrew Jackson, 3¢
* James Garfield, 6¢
* William T. Sherman, 8¢
* Daniel Webster, 10¢
# World Stamp Catalogue/United States/1895
## 1895 Issue

Perforated 12 with double-line "USPS" watermarks. Printed by the Bureau of Engraving and Printing.
| Benjamin Franklin 1¢, blue | George Washington 2¢ | William T. Sherman 5¢ |
# World Stamp Catalogue/United States/1898
## 1898 Issue

Perforated 12 with double-line watermark. Printed by the Bureau of Engraving and Printing.
| Benjamin Franklin 1¢, green | Abraham Lincoln 4¢ | Ulysses S. Grant 5¢ |

## 1898 Trans-Mississippi Exposition Commemoratives

| Father Jacques Marquette on the Mississippi, 1¢ | Father Jacques Marquette on the Mississippi, 1¢ | Farming in the West, 2¢ |
| Fremont on the Rocky Mountains, 5¢ | Troops Guarding Train, 8¢ | Hardships of Emigration, 10¢ |
| Western Cattle in Storm, $1.00 "Black Bull" | Flag cancellation mark on 2¢ stamp | Flag cancellation mark on 2¢ stamp |
# World Stamp Catalogue/United States/1887
## 1887 Issue

Perforated 12. Printed by the American Bank Note Company.
* Benjamin Franklin, 1¢
* George Washington, 2¢
# World Stamp Catalogue/United States/1890-93
## 1890-93 Issue

Perforated 12. Printed by the American Bank Note Company.
* Benjamin Franklin, 1¢
* George Washington, 2¢
* George Washington, 2¢
* George Washington, 2¢
* Ulysses S. Grant, 5¢
* Daniel Webster, 10¢
# World Stamp Catalogue/United States/1893
## 1893 Columbian Exposition Commemoratives

World's Columbian Exposition, Chicago, Illinois
| Columbus in Sight of Land 1¢ | Landing of Columbus 2¢ | Flagship Santa Maria 3¢ | Fleet of Columbus 4¢ |
| Fleet of Columbus 5¢ | Columbus Welcomed at Barcelona 6¢ | Columbus Restored to Favor 8¢ | Columbus Presenting Natives 10¢ |
| Columbus Announcing His Discovery 15¢ | Columbus at La Rabida 30¢ | Recall of Columbus 50¢ | Queen Isabella Pledging Her Jewels $1 |
| Columbus in Chains $2 | Columbus Describing Third Voyage $3 | Columbus and Queen Isabella $4 | Columbus $5 |
# World Stamp Catalogue/United States/1902
## 1902-03 Issue

| 300 \x{2014} 1¢ Benjamin Franklin 02/1903 | 301 \x{2014} 2¢ George Washington 01/1903 | 302 \x{2014} 3¢ Andrew Jackson 02/1903 | 303 \x{2014} 4¢ Ulysses S. Grant 02/1903 | 304 \x{2014} 5¢ Abraham Lincoln 01/1903 |
| 307 \x{2014} 10¢ Daniel Webster 02/1903 | 308 \x{2014} 13¢ William Henry Harrison 11/1902 | 309 \x{2014} 15¢ Henry Clay 05/1903 | 311 \x{2014} $1.00 David Glasgow Farragut 11/1903 |
# World Stamp Catalogue/United States/1901
## 1901 Pan-American Exposition Commemoratives

| 294. Fast Lake Navigation 1¢ (postcard rate) | 295. Fast Express 2¢ (domestic letter rate) | 296. Automobile 4¢ |
| 297. Bridge at Niagara Falls 5¢ (foreign rate) | 298. Canal Locks at Sault de Ste Marie 8¢ (registry fee) | 299. Fast Ocean Navigation 10¢ |
# Supplementary mathematics/Prism

In spatial geometry, a prism (which is derived from the Greek word πρίσμα, which means prisma) is a completely three-dimensional shape, and it is said to be a member of the polyhedron, which is made of two bases and faces. Prisms are known based on their bases. As a prism with a fourteen-sided base, it is called a fourteen-sided prism.
The prism was described for the first time by Euclid and in the 11th book of his geometry he described it like this (solid shapes formed by two opposite, equal and parallel planes are called prisms)
Of course, the definition of this type of theorem is extremely complicated to describe the prism, which has become the subject of confusion and controversy among geometers and subsequent geometers due to the lack of a rule definition.
# Supplementary mathematics/Law of total probability

The law of total probability, which is also known as Bayes' law of probability, is a rule of law in the field of statistics and probability that divides probability calculations into a separate, detailed and advanced part, that is, for example, you have no relative knowledge of the probability of the occurrence of an expression B, and for Finding the probability of an event B that we know, we can use to find the probability of the event B.

## Multivariate Law of Total Probability

According to this pattern B1,..., Bn and an event called set A, the probability of event A can be calculated as a quantitative or weighted average in which the pattern B1,..., Bn plays a role to find the calculation of its occurrence. According to each occurrence in the partition pattern with the probability of the occurrence of partitioning in terms of quantity, this formula can be used:
$\mathrm {P} (\mathrm {A} )=\mathrm {P} (\mathrm {A} |\mathrm {B} _{1})\mathrm {P} (\mathrm {B} _{1})+.....+\mathrm {P} (\mathrm {A} |\mathrm {B} _{n})\mathrm {P} (\mathrm {B} _{n})$
The same idea can be applied and calculated for random vectors. In this way, it is possible to obtain a
For the marginal distribution, we pooled other variables from the joint distribution:
$f(\mathrm {X} )\mathrm {X} _{1}=\int \limits _{x_{2}}^...\int f\mathrm {X} _{1}\mathrm {X} _{2}(x_{1},x_{2})dx_{2}$
The law of total probability is both an independent event and the probability of evil, and it is a general law for these two topics. From the definition of conditional probability, we know that

## References

* https://pages.uoregon.edu › Law of Total Probability Given a sequence of mutually exclusive ...
* http://web.mit.edu ›Handout on multivariate law of total probability and BayesXRule
* https://www.stat.auckland.ac.nz › ...PDF Chapter 2: Probability
# Supplementary mathematics/Mathematics analysis

Analysis is a branch of mathematics . Analysis has existed as an independent branch of mathematics since Leonhard Euler (18th century). Since then it has been the mathematics of natural and engineering sciences .
Its basics were developed independently in the 17th century by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz and Isaac Newton as infinitesimal calculus . Calculus is the mathematical study of continuous change, just as geometry is the study of form and algebra is the study of the generalization of arithmetic operations.
Central concepts of analysis are those of the limit value , the sequence , the series and, in particular, the concept of the function . The investigation of real and complex functions with regard to continuity , differentiability and integrability is one of the main subjects of analysis. The two bodies are fundamental to the entire analysis (the field of real numbers ) and(the field of complex numbers ) together with their geometric, arithmetic , algebraic and topological properties.
# Supplementary mathematics/Mathematics Olympiad

The International Mathematical Olympiad (IMO) is a test of the Mathematical Olympiad for pre-university students.
Content ranges from very difficult problems in algebra and pre-calculus to problems in branches of mathematics not typically covered in middle school or high school and often not at the college level, such as pictorial and complex geometry, functional equations, combinations, and ... is somewhat well-contextualized. Number theory, which requires extensive knowledge of theorems, is well placed in this context. Calculus, although allowed in the solutions, is never required because the principle exists that anyone with a basic understanding of mathematics should understand the problems, even if the solutions require much more knowledge. to be Proponents of this principle claim that this allows for greater globalization and creates an incentive to find solutions to seemingly simple but enticing problems that nevertheless require a certain level of ingenuity, often a great deal of ingenuity, to solve. Getting all points for a given problem IMO.
The selection process varies by country, but often involves a series of tests that admit fewer students in each progressing test. Prizes will be awarded to approximately 50% of the top scoring participants. Teams are not officially recognized - all points are awarded to individual participants only, but team scores are unofficially compared to individual scores. Participants must be under 20 years of age and must not be in No higher institution to register. According to these conditions, a person can participate in IMO any number of times.
# Supplementary mathematics/Number Theory

Number theory is one of the branches of pure mathematics, which is mainly devoted to the investigation and study of functions of integers, arithmetic functions, and functions of natural numbers. German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss (1855-1777) said: "Mathematics is the queen of sciences, and number theory is the queen of mathematics."
Students of number theory, prime numbers, as well as the characteristics of numbers from numbers such as integers (such as rational numbers), or defining it as generalizing one number to another number to use for some aspects of numbers as convenient working and completion with it For example, they study integers to use coordinates and algebraic integers, etc.
First of all, integers are used in other places where it is necessary to calculate area and volume, use as calculation of integration and Fourier series expansions, etc. and it can be said that it is used by everyone and cannot be seen anywhere without its application. Secondly, he considered integers as a solution for equations, for example Diophantine geometry equations. Questions in number theory are often studied through the study of analytic objects and complex states (for example, Riemannian zeta functions) in which the properties of natural numbers and Arithmetic and integers and prime numbers are coded (analytical number theory) in the best way for Bai to understand. He also used real numbers as a study about rational numbers, for example Diophantine's approximation.
# Supplementary mathematics/Philosophy of mathematics

The philosophy of mathematics is the branch of philosophy that studies the assumptions, foundations, and implications of mathematics. It aims to understand the nature and methods of mathematics, and find out the place of mathematics in people's lives. The logical and structural nature of mathematics makes this branch of philosophy broad and unique.
Questions about:
* the mode of being of the mathematical objects: do they exist "really" and independently of a concrete use, and if so, in what sense? What does it even mean to refer to a mathematical object? What is the character of mathematical propositions? What are the relationships between logic and mathematics? – These are ontological questions .
* the origin of mathematical knowledge : what is the source and essence of mathematical truth ? What are the conditions of mathematical science? What are your basic research methods? What role does human nature play in this? – These are epistemological questions .
* the relationship between mathematics and reality : What is the relationship between the abstract world of mathematics and the material universe? Is mathematics anchored in experience , and if so, how? How is it that mathematics “fits the objects of reality so perfectly” ( Albert Einstein ) ? In what way do concepts like number , point , infinity gain their meaning beyond the inner-mathematical realm?
The starting point is almost always the view that mathematical propositions are apodictically certain, timeless and exact and that their correctness depends neither on empirical results nor on personal opinions. The task is to determine the conditions for the possibility of such knowledge, as well as to question this starting point.
# The Internationale
## Contents

* Introduction
* Timeline
* Authors and works
* Performing and respecting copyright
# The Information Commons/Definition
## INFORMATION COMMONS

Information Commons: "a complex ecosystem, a resource shared by a group of people that is subject to social dilemmas" (Hess/Ostrom).
An Information Commons is an information system, such as a physical library or online community, that exists to produce, conserve, and preserve information for current and future generations.
Examples of Information Commons (aka "Knowledge Commons"): Libraries, the Internet, "all intelligible ideas, information, and data in whatever form in which it is expressed or obtained" (Hess/Ostrom).
    "The traditional study of knowledge is subdivided into epistemic areas of interests. Law professors argue the legal aspects of knolwedge in regard to intellectual property rights. Economists consider efficiency and transaction costs of information. Philosophers grapple with epistemology. Librarians and information scientists deal with the collection, classification, organization, and enduring access of published information. Sociologists examine behaviors of virtual communities. Physical scients study natural laws. Every discipline, of course, has a claim on knowledge; this is the common output of all academic endeavors" (Hess/Ostrom). "Further, knowledge is cumulative" (Hess/Ostrum). "Acquiring and discovering knowledge is both a social process and a deeply personal process" (Hess/Ostrom).

## References

* 1 2 3 Understanding Knowledge as a Commons: From Theory to Practice. ed. Charlotte Hess, Elinor Ostrom. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2007. Kindle Ebook.
# The Information Commons/Future

Universities have a mission to create, preserve and disseminate knowledge. In addressing that mission, academicians should take care to preserve and strengthen the information commons, that shared wellspring of ideas and innovation from which all may freely draw.
Today, the information commons and the university community that relies on it are confronting stresses from both inside and outside the university, such as squabbles over who owns academic work, technologies for restricting the dissemination of knowledge and the impact of increasingly stringent and far-reaching intellectual property laws. Lecture March 24, 2005 by Hal Abelson professor of computer science and engineering at MIT.
New technologies offer unprecedented possibilities for human creativity, global communication, and access to information. Yet digital technology also invites new forms of information enclosure. In the last decade, information providers have deployed new methods of control that undermine the public’s traditional rights to use, share, and reproduce information and ideas. At state in today’s debates about the future of information access is not only the availability and affordability of information, but also the very basis on which citizens’ and scholars’ information needs are met.
To counter enclosure of the commons, librarians, scholars and other public interest advocates have sought alternative ways to expand access to the wealth of resources over the internet, and have begin to build online communities, or “knowledge commons,” for producing and sharing information, creative works, and democratic discussion.
Because of the low cost of using information commons to both utilize as well as spread needed information, more colleges are now turning to this platform as a means of cutting tuition costs for their students.

## References

* 1 2 Nancy Kranich. Countering Enclosure. Reclaiming the Knowledge Commons. In: Understanding Knowledge as a Commons. From Theory to Practice. Eds. Charlotte Hess and Elinor Ostrom, MIT Press, December 2006, pbk edition 2011, pp. 85-122.
* ↑ Joanne Jacobs. Open-Source Textbooks Most Affordable for Community College Students. US News & World Report. http://news.yahoo.com/open-source-textbooks-most-affordable-community-college-students-181120039.html