OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Handbook of Management Scales/Competence-enhancing, competence-destroying innovation
## Competence-enhancing/destroying innovation (alpha = 0.83)
### Description

A comprehensive set of measures is developed to assess an innovation’s locus, type, and characteristics. The measure described on this page is one of these measures. It is found that the concepts of competence destroying and competence enhancing are composed of two distinct constructs that, although correlated, separately characterize an innovation: new competence acquisition and competence enhancement/destruction. Scales are developed to measure these constructs and show that new competence acquisition and competence enhancing/destroying are different from other innovation characteristics including core/peripheral and incremental/radical, as well as architectural and generational innovation types.
Following the typical process of scale construction, the empirical analysis is divided into four stages:
* content face validity analysis with expert judges.
* scale puriﬁcation through exploratory and conﬁrmatory factor analysis.
* assessment of discriminant and convergent validity through analysis of covariance structures.
* nomological validity through the analysis of the effect of innovation characteristics on time to introduction and commercial success.

### Definition

Competence-enhancing/destroying innovation concerns the degree to which the innovation builds on existing competences or the degree to which it makes them obsolete, these two notions being in opposite directions of the same competence-enhancing/destroying scale.

### Items

* INNOVATION built a great deal on BUSINESS UNIT’S prior technological skills.
* INNOVATION built heavily on BUSINESS UNIT’S existing experience base.
* INNOVATION rendered BUSINESS UNIT’S experience base obsolete. (Reversed)
* INNOVATION built heavily on BUSINESS UNIT’S existing technological knowledge.
* INNOVATION rendered obsolete the expertise that was required to master the older technology. (Reversed)
* Mastery of the old technology did not help BUSINESS UNIT master INNOVATION. (Reversed)

### Source

* Gatignon et al. (2002): A Structural Approach to Assessing Innovation: Construct Development of Innovation Locus, Type, and Characteristics. Management Science, Vol. 48, No. 9, pp. 1103–1122.
# Handbook of Management Scales/Communication
## Communication (alpha = 0.82, CR = 0.83)
### Description

Three relational competencies were identified: communication, cooperation and integration.

### Definition

Communication refers to the flow of explicit information (Modi/Mabert, 2007) and includes the formal as well as informal sharing of meaningful and timely information (Anderson/Narus, 1990).

### Items

To what extent do the statements apply to the relationship of your company with your suppliers and customers? (1 – strongly disagree; 7 – strongly agree):
* We provide each other with any information that might help us. (0.65)
* Exchange of information takes place frequently and in a timely manner. (0.83)
* We keep each other informed about events or changes that may affect the other party. (0.75)
* We give each other feedback about our performance. (0.70)

### Source

* Wieland/Wallenburg (2013): The Influence of Relational Competencies on Supply Chain Resilience: A Relational View. International Journal of Physical Distribution & Logistics Management, Vol. 42, No. 4, pp. 300-320. Adapted from Chen et al. (2004).

### Related Scales

* Cooperation
* Integration

## Communication (alpha = 0.86)
### Description

The authors identify key constructs related to supply chain management. Based on a systematic instrument develop process, they develop a set of reliable, valid, and unidimensional measurement scales.

### Items

* We share sensitive information (financial, production, design, research, and/or competition). (0.52)
* Suppliers are provided with any information that might help them. (0.68)
* Exchange of information takes place frequently, informally and/or in a timely manner. (0.74)
* We keep each other informed about events or changes that may affect the other party. (0.67)
* We have frequent face-to-face planning/communication. (0.56)

### Source

* Chen/Paulraj (2004): Towards a theory of supply chain management: the constructs and measurements. Journal of Operations Management, Vol. 22, No. 2, pp. 119–150
# Handbook of Management Scales/Comparative organizational performance
## Comparative organizational performance (alpha = 0.87)
### Items

* Our profits have been generally above the industry average.
* Our return on assets have been generally above industry average.
* Our inventory turnover ratio has been generally higher than industry average.

### Source

* Bardi et al. (1994): Logistics Information Systems: The Strategic Role of Top Management. Journal of Business Logistics, Vol. 15, No. 1, pp. 71-85.

### Comments

In general, particular attention needs to be paid to the measurement of performance. A review of the operationalization of organizational performance by Richard et al. (2009) highlights the limited effectiveness of commonly accepted measurement practices. Their article is strongly recommended for reading: Richard et al. (2009): Measuring Organizational Performance: Towards Methodological Best Practice. Journal of Management, Vol. 35, Nr. 5, pp. 718-804.

### Related Scales

* Cost performance, delivery performance, flexibility performance, and quality performance
* Firm's financial performance over the past 5 years
* Performance
* Organizational performance: liquidity, profitability, growth, stock market performance
# Handbook of Management Scales/Competence
## Competence (alpha = 0.83, 0.84)
### Description

Based on a thorough scale development and validation process, the author presents a multidimensional measure of psychological empowerment in the workplace. It consists of four dimensions: meaning, competence, self-determination, and impact.

### Definition

Empowerment is defined as increased intrinsic task motivation manifested in a set of four cognitions reflecting an individual's orientation to his or her work role: meaning, competence, self-determination, and impact (Thomas and Velthouse, 1990).
The competence (= self-efficacy) dimension of empowerment is defined as an individual's belief in his or her capability to perform activities with skill (Gist, 1987).

### Items

* I am confident about my ability to do my job.
* I am self-assured about my capabilities to perform my work activities.
* I have mastered the skills necessary for my job.

### Source

* Spreitzer (1995): Psychological Empowerment in the Workplace: Dimensions, Measurement, and Validation. Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 38, No. 5, pp. 1442–1465

### Comments

The mean values of all items were above five. Given that a 7-point scale was used, future researchers could slightly adapt the items in order to shift the mean values close to the center (e.g., by using terms like "very confident" instead of "confident").

### Related Scales

* Psychological empowerment in the workplace: meaning, competence, self-determination, impact
# Handbook of Management Scales/Competitive and market intelligence
## Competitive and market intelligence (alpha = 0.89)
### Description

Although certain items of some scales were developed specifically for the Japanese context, many were derived from existing validated scales. Respondents answered all questions using a Likert-type scale ranging from 0 to 10; field research suggested that an 11-point scale was appropriate for studying Japanese management practices because a 100 percent grading system is used in most Japanese schools.

### Definition

Competitive and market intelligence entails early assessments of market size, consumer behavior, price sensitivities, and competitor activities.

### Items

To what extent does each statement listed below correctly describe this selected successful project? (0 = strongly disagree, 10 = strongly agree)
* During the early stages of the development process, we met with potential customers frequently and knew how much the customers would pay for such a product—his/her price sensitivity. (0.87)
* During the early stages of the development process, we generated a lot of intelligence on potential competitors of this product and knew the competitors well—their products, pricing, strategies and strengths. (1.00)
* During the early stages of the development process, we reviewed the history of potential competitors and knew how our competitors would react to the introduction of this product. (0.97)
* During the early stages of the development process, we met with potential customers frequently to understand their purchase decision—the "who, what, when, where and how" of his purchase behavior for this potential product. (0.72)
* During the early stages of the development process, we generated preliminary market and industry intelligence and were able to predict the size and the trend of our potential market for this product. (0.64)

### Source

* Song/Montoya-Weiss (2001): The Effect of Perceived Technological Uncertainty on Japanese New Product Development. Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 44, No. 1, pp. 61-80.

### Comments

The items are quite long.

### Related Scales

* Marketing proficiency
* Technical proficiency
# Handbook of Management Scales/Competitive intensity
## Competitive intensity (alpha = 0.88/0.78)
### Description

The authors examined the validity of the measure in a two-step approach recommended by Anderson and Gerbing (1988).

### Items

* Few--many competitors
* Weak--strong competition
* Few--many competing products

### Source

* Atuahene-Gima/Li (2002): When does trust matter? Antecedents and contingent effects of supervisee trust on performance in selling new products in China and the United States. Journal of Marketing, Vol. 66, No. 3, pp. 61-81.
# Handbook of Management Scales/Competitive priorities
## Competitive priorities (alpha = 0.83)
### Description

The authors identify key constructs related to supply chain management. Based on a systematic instrument develop process, they develop a set of reliable, valid, and unidimensional measurement scales.

### Items

* Our strategy cannot be described as the one to offer products with the lowest price. (0.71)
* Our strategy is based on quality performance rather than price. (0.85)
* We place greater emphasis on innovation than price. (0.76)
* We place greater emphasis on customer service than price. (0.69)
* Our strategy places importance on delivering products with high performance. (0.65)

### Source

* Chen/Paulraj (2004): Towards a theory of supply chain management: the constructs and measurements. Journal of Operations Management, Vol. 22, No. 2, pp. 119–150
# Historical Rhetorics/Sophists Old and New/*Poulakos, John. "Toward a Sophistic Definition of Rhetoric." ''Contemporary Rhetorical Theory.''

Poulakos insists that rhetoric must be understood as an active, artistic enterprise, rather than reflected on as a conceptual science. Rhetoric, for Poulakos, is about actually doing the thing, not just talking about the thing in the abstract. Poulakos defines rhetoric as “the art which seeks to capture in opportune moments that which is appropriate and attempts to suggest that which is possible.” This is not the ability to see means of persuasion—it is the ability to identify the right moment for persuasion, and to use persuasion to make possibility become actuality. A rhetor’s goal is to present an audience a new way of understanding the world, thereby provoking a thoughtfully examination long-held assumptions. Done effectively, this provocation creates a space where possibilities can become realities. Poulakos uses the term kairos to describe the kind of rhetoric advanced by the sophists, and explains that it is the ability to seize an opportune moment in an appropriate way in order to create new possibilities.
According to Poulakos, it is the sophists, rather than Plato and Aristotle, who taught their students to be in tune with their audience, and learn to say the right thing at the right time. For example, he notes that Gorgias encouraged students to speak extemporaneously, and condemned written speeches for being fixed to a single hypothetical audience. This is a far cry from Aristotle, who preferred speech that was like writing and therefore “more exact,” or more focused on logic and truth. To Aristotle, delivery was mere ornamentation that turned a speech into entertainment and a speaker into a performer, thereby distracting from the truth and facts of a speech.
The sophists, however, intended for their speeches to force their audiences to reexamine previously held assumptions regarding truth, rather than to present a particular notion of truth. It is for this reason that sophists did not view delivery as ornamentation or distraction, but the very essence of the art of rhetoric. It is the way words are said, more than the words themselves, that engages an audience. A speech without engagement falls on deaf ears; a speech with engagement moves audiences to action. It is also for this reason that Poulakos views the sophists and their work as key to understanding how rhetoric actually works.
# Historical Rhetorics/Sophists Old and New/Poulakos, John. "Toward a Sophistic Definition of Rhetoric." ''Contemporary Rhetorical Theory.''

Poulakos insists that rhetoric must be understood as an active, artistic enterprise, rather than reflected on as a conceptual science. Rhetoric, for Poulakos, is about actually doing the thing, not just talking about the thing in the abstract. Poulakos defines rhetoric as “the art which seeks to capture in opportune moments that which is appropriate and attempts to suggest that which is possible.” This is not the ability to see means of persuasion—it is the ability to identify the right moment for persuasion, and to use persuasion to make possibility become actuality. A rhetor’s goal is to present an audience a new way of understanding the world, thereby provoking a thoughtfully examination long-held assumptions. Done effectively, this provocation creates a space where possibilities can become realities. Poulakos uses the term kairos to describe the kind of rhetoric advanced by the sophists, and explains that it is the ability to seize an opportune moment in an appropriate way in order to create new possibilities.
According to Poulakos, it is the sophists, rather than Plato and Aristotle, who taught their students to be in tune with their audience, and learn to say the right thing at the right time. For example, he notes that Gorgias encouraged students to speak extemporaneously, and condemned written speeches for being fixed to a single hypothetical audience. This is a far cry from Aristotle, who preferred speech that was like writing and therefore “more exact,” or more focused on logic and truth. To Aristotle, delivery was mere ornamentation that turned a speech into entertainment and a speaker into a performer, thereby distracting from the truth and facts of a speech.
The sophists, however, intended for their speeches to force their audiences to reexamine previously held assumptions regarding truth, rather than to present a particular notion of truth. It is for this reason that sophists did not view delivery as ornamentation or distraction, but the very essence of the art of rhetoric. It is the way words are said, more than the words themselves, that engages an audience. A speech without engagement falls on deaf ears; a speech with engagement moves audiences to action. It is also for this reason that Poulakos views the sophists and their work as key to understanding how rhetoric actually works.
# Historical Rhetorics/Should We Read Quintilian?/Waisanen, Don. "A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to Decorum: Quintilian's Reflections on Rhetorical Humor."

Waisanen, Don. "A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to Decorum: Quintilian's Reflections on Rhetorical Humor." Advances in the History of Rhetoric 18.1 (2015): 29-52. Supplemental Index. Web. 8 November 2015
Quintilian expands discussion of rhetorical humor from Cicero’s excursus on the subject, explaining that for humor to be persuasive, it should be urbane—conscious of the society it serves. In a historical overview, Waisanen posits that even in Quintilian’s time, Roman citizens still had some rights concerning free speech, though orators probably enjoyed these rights less than commoners. Critics of De Oratore argue that Cicero is too eager to defend humor’s purpose in rhetoric, but Waisanen chooses two points from De Oratore to explore in Quintilian: Cicero’s urbanitas, which Waisanen links to both kairos and epideixis, and the need to develop a pedagogy for rhetorical humor. Though Quintilian may have been limited in explaining the purpose of humor in rhetoric by social tensions, Institutio Oratoria’s book six discusses the need for humor to moderate and be moderate. Humor should not be too rustic, nor too cultured, and Waisanen finds this Goldilocks approach to be useful for contemporary critiques of humor and its place in society.
# Historical Rhetorics/Should We Read Quintilian?/Walzer, Arthur. "Moral Philosophy and Rhetoric in the Institutes: Quintilian on Honor and Expediency." ''Rhetoric Society Quarterly'' 36.3 (2006): 263. Print.

* Walzer introduces two themes within rhetoric studies that dominate presentations of Quintilian: 1) Quintilian as politically disengaged, “responding more to themes in the history of rhetoric than to the conditions of oratory in his own time”(263) and 2) Quintilian’s Institute, although a comprehensive presentation of rhetoric, is unoriginal and adds nothing to Ciceronian rhetoric (264).
* Walzer attempts to complicate these conventions by offering an alternative view where Quintilian is a political opportunist who took advantage of the Flavian Emperors’ disapproval of the dissenting and disruptive contemporary philosophers; Institutes presents a curriculum where rhetoric replaces, rather than compliments (Cicero), moral philosophy.
* Walzer makes distinctions between Quintilian and Cicero primarily in relation to their discussions of the separation of rhetoric and philosophy: 1) Cicero’s orator represents a man of broad, cultural knowledge which includes philosophy, while Quintilian, who affirmed Cicero’s “broad, humanistic training, nevertheless insists that what rhetoric lost when it separated from philosophy was a concern with ethics” (268); 2) Quintilian, unlike Cicero and other theorists, was more concerned with the formation of the character of the orator (269); and 3) Cicero’s De Oratore and Quintilian’s Institutes were obviously written for different purposes and within different genres (269).
* Walzer refers to the relationship between the moral or honorable, and the expedient or advantageous in the Institutes to show how moral philosophy is transformed when part of the rhetorical paideia and how oratory training compliments moral discernment; Walzer says, “Quintilian maintains that the meaning of the virtues and the relationship between them can be taught, not merely separately within a rhetorical curriculum, but also and specifically as part of the education in the technê of rhetoric” (270).
* To show how rhetoric as a technê can encompass/replace moral philosophy, Walzer uses two sections (Book 3 on the deliberative forum and Book 11 on style) to discuss two different Quintilian views of the relationship between the honorable and the expedient where the “situational context” in which the orator influences his moral decision-making. “The expedient and the moral both make legitimate claims. When giving advice, the orator weighs the expedient and the honorable in the context of the nature of the audience empowered to make the decision…But when acting in his own person and representing himself, the orator must never choose a course that compromises his personal honor. Preserving personal dignity trumps all other considerations” (277).
# Historical Rhetorics/Should We Read Quintilian?/Stewart, Donald C. "The Legacy of Quintilian." ''English Education'' 11.2 (1979): 103-17. Print

Stewart, Donald C. "The Legacy of Quintilian." English Education 11.2 (1979): 103-17. Print
Donald Stewart’s “The Legacy of Quintilian” highlights a current issue with English teaching practices, through an example of his daughter learning parts of speech, and he illustrates “the legacy” of Quintilian’s work on rhetoric and education in order to discuss the issue of the “back to basics movement” in teaching English. Stewart argues that Quintilian’s rhetoric and education influence current teaching practices in English Composition; he argues although these practices where useful in its time they are not useful now. Stewart explicates Quintilian practices through Hugh Blair and argues that this rhetorical theory is present when thinking/teaching composition and control “current-traditional thinking about rhetoric and composition” and although they have paved the way for this area the teaching models are outdated. Stewart argues that “composition is not a discipline whose features are reducible to a few simple propositions but that it is a discipline with a rich and complicated history…that is now experiencing an intellectual vigor” (116). Stewart believes that these teaching models will progress, with time, and in order to do so educators, specifically in English Composition, need to have a better understanding of the history of rhetoric.
# Historical Rhetorics/Sophists Old and New/Consigny, Scott. "Edward Schiappa's Reading of the Sophists."
## Consigny, Scott. "Edward Schiappa's Reading of the Sophists." Rhetoric Review 14.2 (Spring 1996): 253-269.

From Consigny's abstract:
    "I next examine Schiappa's critique of his adversaries and the nature of his own "foundationalist" reading, one he presents as a more accurate and objective historical account of the sophists. Aligning myself with his neosophistic opponents, I then critique Schiappa's approach, arguing that rather than offering a more objective reading, he instead presents a highly partisan interpretation that attempts to portray the sophists in his own foundationalist precursors [sic]" (253)
# Historical Rhetorics/Sophists Old and New/Leff, Michael

Leff, Michael. "Serious Comedy: The Strange Case History of Dr. Vitanza." Rhetoric Review 6.2 (1988): 237-245.
Leff’s article does not show much patience with Vitanza. In it, Leff recognizes the inherent value of comic purpose in rhetoric, but when he compares how it is used by Gorgias to Vitanza’s “comic relief” (237) he finds it sorely lacking. The article comes off pretty stuffy at first, as Leff really seems taken aback that Vitanza is willing to admit up-front that he will be ironic, and perhaps due to this irritation Leff does not hold back as he offers specific critical dissections of Vitanza’s “clear announcement of a ‘post-modernist’ project for the history of rhetoric” (238). Leff feels that Vitanza is restricted by his use of irony that “can function only so long as it operates against an all encompassing and palpable object of derision” (238). This trope creates a binary, a history that over-simplifies the history of rhetoric and philosophy by simply reducing it to an opposite of the standard. While Leff recognizes that brevity and genre may allow some minor glosses of events and people, he calls Vitanza’s result “bad history” that suggests “his antibody rhetoric is too much infected by the disease it would cure” (239).