OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Citizen Science

Citizen Science is the study of science (whether that be geology, biology, chemistry, or any other field of study), outside of normal patterns, credentials, and institutions. This term more generally is used to describe people conducting scientific research outside of conventional research organizations. Citizen science is also used to describe public participation in various kinds of science research.

## Table of Contents

* Introduction
* Communicating Citizen Science
* Research Project Index
* List of Data Sources
* Resources
* Funding

## About this Book

At Science Hack Day San Francisco 2013, some of us remarked that many people who do citizen science have trouble disseminating their work to peers and the general populace. Citizen scientists often find that conventional science journals are inconvenient places to publish their work; journals can have undesirable licensing, they can be slow to publish, and they can be expensive. There are many other places where people may choose to disseminate their discoveries, but many people are not aware of these places. This is why we are writing this book about how to communicate to the external world the discoveries and experiments conducted by citizen scientists.
We consider it imperative that scientific research, of all kinds, be easily accessible by professionals and laymen alike. As well, that there be some sort of portal for these people to communicate their ideas to one another. Scientific research and inquiry no longer must be limited to the privileged few, but can be made freely available and accessible to most people.
While the book started at Science Hack Day San Francisco 2013, if is an ongoing process. Add to it, keep it updated, take it for yours.
# Citizen Science/Data
## Data Sources

Here's a list of open data sources. There are many more. Add any you know of!

### Environmental Data

* A bunch of data sources
* Marine Geoscience Data System (MGDS) - A data portal, hosted at the Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory (Columbia University), for a number of NSF-supported marine research programs
* National Climatic Data Center (NCDC) - Meteorology and paleoclimatology
* National Oceanographic Data Center (NODC)- World-wide marine environmental and ecosystem data
* GEON- Portal for datasets and visualization tools
* National Snow and Ice Data Center (NSIDC) - Cryospheric datasets from ground field research and satellites (Source: http://library.uoregon.edu/datamanagement/repositories.html )
* British Atmospheric Data Centre (BADC)
* Data Observation Network for Earth (DataONE)

### Domain Data Collection Projects

* http://mushroomobserver.org
* http://projectnoah.org
* http://www.galaxyzoo.org/
* http://www.inaturalist.org/
* iNaturalist.org API for plant and wildlife sightings

### Open Data and APIs

* http://healthdata.gov - health data
* http://figshare.com/ - site for sharing all kinds of data
* http://zenodo.org/ - site for sharing all kinds of data and papers in a citable format
* http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK25500/ - api for entrez (pubmed)
* http://www.wikidata.org/ - aggregating (and correcting) open data
# Citizen Science/Research Projects

Below is a list of Citizen Science Projects. Inactive projects are listed for posterity.

## Active Projects

* Wikipedia's List of active citizen science projects
* BOINC - Open-source software for volunteer computing and grid computing.
* Fold.it

## Tools useful when doing open science

http://ropensci.org/ http://ipython.org/ http://www.rstudio.com/

## Distributed problem-solving

* http://folding.stanford.edu/
* http://setiathome.ssl.berkeley.edu/
* http://boinc.berkeley.edu/
* http://www.crystallography.net/ 3d structures of molecules
* http://www.climateprediction.net/

## Protocols for data flow (streams, sync)

https://github.com/maxogden/dat
# Circuit Theory/Y Δ

The bridge circuit example was solved with source injection, but could have been solved with a Y Δ transformation.
The 5,2 and 3 ohm resistors form a Δ that could be transformed into a Y.
The equations are:
    $R_{1}={\frac {R_{b}R_{c}}{R_{a}+R_{b}+R_{c}}},R_{2}={\frac {R_{a}R_{c}}{R_{a}+R_{b}+R_{c}}},R_{3}={\frac {R_{a}R_{b}}{R_{a}+R_{b}+R_{c}}}$
    $R_{1}={\frac {5*2}{3+5+2}}=1,R_{2}={\frac {3*2}{3+5+2}}=0.6,R_{3}={\frac {3*5}{3+5+2}}=1.5$
Now Thevenin's resistance can be solved by parallel and serial combinations:
    $R_{th}={\frac {1}{{\frac {1}{8}}+{\frac {1}{10.6}}}}+1.5=6.0591$
Which is the same value found through source injection.
# Citizenship and Nationality

Citizenship is the status of a person recognized under the custom or law as being a legal member of a sovereign state. A person may have multiple citizenships and a person who does not have citizenship of any state is said to be stateless.
Nationality is often used as a synonym for citizenship in English – notably in international law. Some but not all countries differentiate citizenship and nationality.
This book uses both terms and is mostly based on File:US OPM Citizenship Laws of the World 2001.pdf by the Office of Personnel Management and Defense Security Service as the United States Government works. This book does not give legal advice.

## Countries

* Afghanistan
* Albania
* Algeria
* Andorra
* Angola
* Antigua and Barbuda
* Argentina
* Armenia
* Australia
* Austria
* Azerbaijan
* Bahamas
* Bahrain
* Bangladesh
* Barbados
* Belarus
* Belgium
* Belize
* Benin
* Bhutan
* Bolivia
* Bosnia & Herzegovina
* Botswana
* Brazil
* Brunei
* Bulgaria
* Burkina Faso
* Burundi
* Cambodia
* Cameroon
* Canada
* Cape Verde
* Central African Republic
* Chad
* Chile
* China
* Colombia
* Comoros
* Congo
* Costa Rica
* Cote D'Ivoire
* Cuba
* Croatia
* Cyprus
* Czech Republic
* Democratic Republic of Congo
* Denmark
* Djibouti
* Dominican Republic
* East Timor
* Ecuador
* Egypt
* El Salvador
* Equatorial Guinea
* Eritrea
* Estonia
* Ethiopia
* Fiji
* Finland
* France
* Gabon
* Gambia
* Georgia
* Germany
* Ghana
* Greece
* Grenada
* Guatemala
* Guinea
* Guinea-Bissau
* Guyana
* Haiti
* Honduras
* Hungary
* Iceland
* India
* Indonesia
* Iran
* Iraq
* Ireland
* Israel
* Italy
* Jamaica
* Japan
* Jordan
* Kazakhstan
* Kenya
* Kiribati
* North Korea
* South Korea
* Kuwait
* Kyrgyz Republic
* Laos
* Latvia
* Lebanon
* Lesotho
* Liberia
* Libya
* Lithuania
* Luxembourg
* Madagascar
* Malawi
* Malaysia
* Maldives
* Mali
* Malta
* Marshall Islands
* Mauritania
* Mauritius
* Mexico
* Micronesia
* Moldova
* Monaco
* Mongolia
* Montenegro
* Morocco
* Mozambique
* Myanmar
* Namibia
* Nauru
* Nepal
* Netherlands
* New Zealand
* Nicaragua
* Niger
* Nigeria
* Norway
* Oman
* Pakistan
* Palau
* Palestine
* Panama
* Papua New Guinea
* Paraguay
* Peru
* Philippines
* Poland
* Portugal
* Qatar
* Romania
* Russia
* Rwanda
* Samoa
* Sao Tome and Principe
* Saudi Arabia
* Senegal
* Serbia
* Seychelles
* Sierra Leone
* Singapore
* Slovak Republic
* Slovenia
* Solomon Islands
* South Africa
* Spain
* Sri Lanka
* Saint Kitts and Nevis
* Saint Lucia
* Saint Vincent and Grenadines
* South Sudan
* Sudan
* Suriname
* Swaziland
* Sweden
* Switzerland
* Syria
* Taiwan
* Tajikistan
* Tanzania
* Thailand
* Togo
* Tonga
* Trinidad and Tobago
* Tunisia
* Turkey
* Turkmenistan
* Tuvalu
* Uganda
* Ukraine
* United Arab Emirates
* United Kingdom
* United States
* Uruguay
* Uzbekistan
* Vanuatu
* Venezuela
* Vietnam
* Western Sahara
* Yemen
* Zaire
* Zambia
* Zimbabwe
# Citizen Science/Introduction

Citizen science (also known as crowd science, crowd-sourced science, or networked science) is scientific research conducted, in whole or in part, by amateur or nonprofessional scientists, often by crowdsourcing and crowdfunding. Formally, citizen science has been defined as "the systematic collection and analysis of data; development of technology; testing of natural phenomena; and the dissemination of these activities by researchers on a primarily avocational basis". Citizen science is sometimes called "public participation in scientific research.
# Ecology/Introduction to the Guide

This is a study guide to basic ecology, a textbook at Wikibooks filed under environmental sciences, and intended to establish a course of study in the subject of Basic Ecology, utilizing articles provided in Wikipedia, with links to other relevant web sites and other Wikibooks as appropriate. In some cases, portions of the text from Wikipedia articles have been used to materially develop introductory text within the book.
For the new user, it need be pointed out that Wikipedia differs from a standard encyclopedia in two important respects: 1) it is a hypertext document, and 2) it is open and editable, and therefore constantly changing. For the student following this or any guide through Wikipedia to cover a specific subject, it is recommended that each article (page) be read first in its entirety, before any hyperlinks are followed to other topics or explanations. It is too easy, otherwise, to simply become lost in a maze of links, and miss the main thrust of an article presented as an assignment from the Guide. Because Wikipedia is constantly changing (and, it is believed, improving) the quality of each article encountered will be variable. Some articles are well written and go to adequate depth, whereas others, lacking a proponent, may be are shallow and incomplete. Short or sloppy looking articles may contain questionable facts. These short-comings should diminish with time, but can be a problem for the student.
One clear advantage to using this Guide linked to a hypertext like Wikipedia is a circular redundancy with serendipity factor that arises when an article is read and its hyperlinks followed; this factor can be a powerful learning tool. The persistent reader is subjected to a fairly high degree of repetitive reading, often presenting slightly differing perspectives on the same general topic, with the result that learning comes from redundancy and seeing difficult concepts presented in more than one way. At the same time, some hyperlinks lead down less relevant paths, bringing new and unanticipated knowledge. If, as a student, you are truly interested in mastering the subject of basic ecology, you must be prepared to read beyond the basic assignments; in some cases, beyond Wikipedia to explore other, "outside" web sites.
It seems likely that the typical user of Ecology is not necessarily an active student taking a course in biology or ecology at the high school (AP) or college level, but a person with a strong interest in environmental sciences—an amateur naturalist or an environmentalist. Therefore the guide will attempt to cover all of the basic principles of ecology in a logically organized manner with the ultimate intent of providing a solid foundation in the subject matter. It is assumed that the student has already a background in—or certainly at least a good knowledge of—biology. Because "ecology" is a large and diverse subject, organization of the material becomes the key to a successful "guide" textbook.
How to use this book >>
# Ecology/How to use

The purpose of the A Study Guide to Basic Ecology is to weave—out of the information on Life Science contained in Wikipedia—a course of study for the student or layman. It is anticipated that this course will be either supplemental to instruction being received at a school or college, or will be self-directed. We hope to include, within each chapter, sufficient text to make clear the concepts important to understanding life on earth from an ecological perspective. However, acquiring this knowledge will require a careful reading of assigned articles in Wikipedia. Thus, each module presents one or more "reading assignments" of the form:
   * Read Ecology (Links need not be pursued at this time)
Following (that is clicking on) the link (to Wikipedia "Ecology" article in this case) will open the article intended to provide the details of the Chapter subsection. Recommended articles should be read from top to bottom, and then re-read following some or all of the links embedded in the article to other articles for expanded elucidation or to clarify terms; that is, in most cases, completion of an "assignment" (recommended article) includes at least some or all articles linked to the first. Obviously, it cannot be the case that all links are followed to articles, whose links are then followed to articles, and so on until no new material is encountered. It is likely there would be no quick end to such a pursuit. The amount of time spent wandering beyond the original article is partly a personal matter of how much the reader is getting out of the foray than anything else. Realize it is certainly possible to wander well off the subject at hand. As in the example above, notes are provided with assignments giving some direction for pursuing links. An instruction NOT to pursue links simply means the additional material will likely be encountered later in the course of instruction, and going beyond the assigned article may provide too much detail for a course in "basic" ecology. The following example:
   * Read Science (The following links are included:)
   ** Scientific Method
   ** Philosophy of Science
specifies that two other links ARE part of the assignment. Other links encountered may be followed to expand your knowledge or, as always, to aid in understanding of technical terms encountered. Occasional hyperlinks included within the text in the Guide (that is, separate from the assignments) are there simply for convenience, usually to topics somewhat peripheral to the main one or to terms you should be familiar with but may not be. In all cases, finding your way back to the Guide may be tricky, but we must leave this up to you to establish, beyond pointing out that your browser's Back button is intended for this purpose.
Note that at the beginning of each module, links are provided to both the previous chapter and the succeeding chapter, as well as to the main Table of Contents.

## Final Note

As a final note, read the next Section and consider how you might even make a contribution to the Guide.
# Education in Uzbekistan
## Table of Contents

* Preface
* Introduction
* Pre-School Education
* Primary Education
* Secondary Education
* Higher Education
* Informal Education
* Vocational Education
* Educational Policy and Law
* The Future of Education
* Modern Educational Technologies
# Calculus/Euler's Method

Euler's Method is a method for estimating the value of a function based upon the values of that function's first derivative.
The general algorithm for finding a value of $y(x)$ is:
    $y_{n+1}=y_{n}+\Delta x_{\rm {step}}\cdot f(x_{n},y_{n}),$
where f is $y'(x)$ . In other words, the new value, $y_{n+1}$ , is the sum of the old value $y_{n}$ and the step size $\Delta x_{\rm {step}}$ times the change, $f(x_{n},y_{n})$ .
You can think of the algorithm as a person traveling with a map: Now I am standing here and based on these surroundings I go that way 1 km. Then, I check the map again and determine my direction again and go 1 km that way. I repeat this until I have finished my trip.
The Euler method is mostly used to solve differential equations of the form
    $y'=f(x,y),y(x_{0})=y_{0}$

## Examples

A simple example is to solve the equation:
    $y'=x+y,y(0)=1.$
This yields $f=y'=x+y$ and hence, the updating rule is:
    $y_{n+1}=y_{n}+0.1(x_{n}+y_{n})$
Step size $\Delta x_{\rm {step}}=0.1$ is used here.
The easiest way to keep track of the successive values generated by the algorithm is to draw a table with columns for $n,x_{n},y_{n},y_{n+1}$ .
The above equation can be e.g. a population model, where y is the population size and x is time.
Navigation:
Main Page · Precalculus · Limits · Differentiation · Integration · Parametric and Polar Equations · Sequences and Series · Multivariable Calculus · Extensions · References
This page or section of Calculus is a stub. You can help Wikibooks by expanding it.
# Calculus/Extensions
### Advanced Integration Techniques

9.1 Complexifying

### Further Analysis

9.2 Systems of Ordinary Differential Equations

### Formal Theory of Calculus

9.3 Real Numbers
9.4 Complex Numbers
9.5 Hyperbolic Angle
Navigation:
Main Page · Precalculus · Limits · Differentiation · Integration · Parametric and Polar Equations · Sequences and Series · Multivariable Calculus · Extensions · References
# Calculus/Finite Limits
## Informal Finite Limits

Now, we will try to more carefully restate the ideas of the last chapter. We said then that the equation $\lim _{x\to 2}f(x)=4$ meant that, when $x$ gets close to 2, $f(x)$ gets close to 4. What exactly does this mean? How close is "close"? The first way we can approach the problem is to say that, at $x=1.99\ ,\ f(x)=3.9601$ , which is pretty close to 4.
Sometimes however, the function might do something completely different. For instance, suppose $f(x)=x^{4}-2x^{2}-3.77$ , so $f(1.99)=3.99219201$ . Next, if you take a value even closer to 2, $f(1.999)=4.20602$ , in this case you actually move further from 4. The reason for this is that substitution gives us 4.23 as $x$ approaches 2.
The solution is to find out what happens arbitrarily close to the point. In particular, we want to say that, no matter how close we want the function to get to 4, if we make $x$ close enough to 2 then it will get there. In this case, we will write
    $\lim _{x\to 2}f(x)=4$
and say "The limit of $f(x)$ , as $x$ approaches 2, equals 4" or "As $x$ approaches 2, $f(x)$ approaches 4." In general:
We call $L$ the limit of $f(x)$ as $x$ approaches $c$ if $f(x)$ becomes arbitrarily close to $L$ whenever $x$ is sufficiently close (and not equal) to $c$ .
When this holds we write
    $\lim _{x\to c}f(x)=L$
or
    $f(x)\to L\quad {\mbox{as}}\quad x\to c$

## One-Sided Limits

Sometimes, it is necessary to consider what happens when we approach an $x$ value from one particular direction. To account for this, we have one-sided limits. In a left-handed limit, $x$ approaches $a$ from the left-hand side. Likewise, in a right-handed limit, $x$ approaches $a$ from the right-hand side.
For example, if we consider $\lim _{x\to 2}{\sqrt {x-2}}$ , there is a problem because there is no way for $x$ to approach 2 from the left hand side (the function is undefined here). But, if $x$ approaches 2 only from the right-hand side, we want to say that ${\sqrt {x-2}}$ approaches 0.
We call $L$ the limit of $f(x)$ as $x$ approaches $c$ from the right if $f(x)$ becomes arbitrarily close to $L$ whenever $x$ is sufficiently close to and greater than $c$ .
When this holds we write
    $\lim _{x\to c^{+}}f(x)=L$
Similarly, we call $L$ the limit of $f(x)$ as $x$ approaches $c$ from the left if $f(x)$ becomes arbitrarily close to $L$ whenever $x$ is sufficiently close to and less than $c$ .
When this holds we write
    $\lim _{x\to c^{-}}f(x)=L$
In our example, the left-handed limit $\lim _{x\to 2^{-}}{\sqrt {x-2}}$ does not exist.
The right-handed limit, however, $\lim _{x\to 2^{+}}{\sqrt {x-2}}=0$ .
It is a fact that $\lim _{x\to c}f(x)$ exists if and only if $\lim _{x\to c^{+}}f(x)$ and $\lim _{x\to c^{-}}f(x)$ exist and are equal to each other. In this case, $\lim _{x\to c}f(x)$ will be equal to the same number.
In our example, one limit does not even exist. Thus $\lim _{x\to 2}{\sqrt {x-2}}$ does not exist either.
Navigation:
Main Page · Precalculus · Limits · Differentiation · Integration · Parametric and Polar Equations · Sequences and Series · Multivariable Calculus · Extensions · References
# English-Hanzi/Programming language

A programming language is a language used to express a program.
编程语言 是 用于 表达 程序 的 语言。
# English-Hanzi/Province

A province is an administrative region of a country.
一个 省 是 一个 国家 的 行政 区域。
# English-Hanzi/Protist

Protists are single-celled eukaryotes which are organisms with a nucleus. The term Protista was first used by Ernst Haeckel in 1866.
原生生物 是 具有 细胞核 的 生物体 的 单细胞 真核生物。 1866年，Ernst Haeckel 首先 使用了 Protista 这个 术语。
# English-Hanzi/Problem

A problem is something that causes difficulty.
一个 问题 是 导致 困难 的 某事物。
# English-Hanzi/Program

A program is a series of instructions that tell the computer how to perform a task.
程序 是 一系列 指令，告诉 计算机 如何 执行 任务。
# English-Hanzi/Prostate

Prostate is a gland between the bladder and the penis. It produces a liquid to carry sperm.
前列腺 是 膀胱 ​​和 阴茎 之间 的 腺体。它产生一种液体运载精子。
# English-Hanzi/Process

A process is a series of things that happen.
一个 过程 是 一系列 发生 的 事情。
# English-Hanzi/Pudding

Special:search/pudding prefix:English-Hanzi/
Pudding is a kind of dessert. It looks like thick cream. It is usually made with flour, fat, egg, jam, fruit, or chocolate.
pudding 是 一种 甜点。它 看起来 像 很 浓 的 奶油。它 通常 用 面粉，油，鸡蛋，果酱，水果，或 巧克力 制成。
# English-Hanzi/Product

A product is a thing that is produced, grown, or obtained. It is usually for sale, including goods and services.
产品 是 生产，种植，或者 获得 的 东西。它 通常 用于 出售，包括 货物 和 服务。
# English-Hanzi/Protein

Proteins are long-chain molecules built from small units known as amino acids. They are joined together with peptide bonds.
蛋白质 是 由 称为 氨基酸 的 小单位 构建 的 长链 分子。它们 通过 肽键 连接 在一起。
# Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Nf3/2...Nc6/3. Bc4/3...Bc5/4. Bxf7/4...Kxf7/5. Nxe5/5...Nxe5/6. Qh5
## 6.Qh5+

After this, Black has various good replies. 6...g6 and 6...Kf8 are enough to win, but the greedy and probably best 6...Ke6!? shows the unsoundness of White's attack. He simply is not developed enough despite the centralized Black king. He will just be down a piece for a pawn. Lines to avoid are: 6... Kf6?? 7.Qf5+ followed by Qxe5+ and Qxc5 with 2 extra pawns for White, or 6... Ke7?? 7.Qxe5+ with Qxc5 coming next, once again with two extra pawns for White.

## Theory Table

| g6 Qxe5 | | | -/+ |
| Ke6!? f4 | d6 fxe5 | dxe5 | -/+ |
| Ke8 Qxe5 | | | -/+ |
| Kf8 Qxe5 | | | -/+ |
| Ke8 Qxe5+ | Be7 | | -/+ |
# Giuoco Piano
## 5... O-O
## Theory table

For explanation of theory tables, see theory table and for notation, see algebraic notation. .
1. e4 e5 2. Nf3 Nc6 3. Bc4 Bc5 4. O-O Nf6 5.c3
| 6 | 7 |
| d4! exd4 | cxd4 | = |
| Re1 d6 | d4! | = |
When contributing to this Wikibook, please follow the Conventions for organization.
# Jerome Gambit
## 4. Bxf7+?

White's plan is to lure black's King into the open. This gambit is relatively weak because black can deflect any attack while maintaining a significant material advantage. The obvious response is Kxf7.

## Theory table

For explanation of theory tables, see theory table and for notation, see algebraic notation. .
1. e4 e5 2. Nf3 Nc6 3. Bc4 Bc5 4. Bxf7
| | 4 | 5 |
| Jerome Gambit | Kxf7 | Nxe5+ Nxe5 | =+ |
When contributing to this Wikibook, please follow the Conventions for organization.
# Giuoco Piano
## 4. O-O

White chooses a quiet path, that tends to transpose to the Giuoco Pianissimo after white plays 5. d3.

## Theory table

For explanation of theory tables, see theory table and for notation, see algebraic notation.
1. e4 e5 2. Nf3 Nc6 3. Bc4 Bc5 4. O-O
| 4 | 5 |
| ... Nf6 | d3 | = |
| ... d6 | c3 | = |
| ... d6 | d4 Nxd4 | Nxd4 Bxd4 | c3 Bb6 | Qf3 Qf6 | Qxf6 Nxf6 | Bd3 Be6 | Bg5 h6 | Bxf6 gxf6 | =/+= |
| ... Bb6 | d3 | = |
When contributing to this Wikibook, please follow the Conventions for organization.
# Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Nf3/2...Nc6/3. Bc4/3...Bc5
## 3...Bc5 – Giuoco Piano

White's main plan is to take control of the center with a d4 push. They must choose whether to do it right then (4. d4 to get a lead in development (despite the loss of the pawn)), or to prepare it with moves like 4. c3 or 4. b4. This move also attacks White's weak f2-pawn.
White may also forget about the d4-push, and play a quieter line, by supporting the center with 4. d3, for example.

## Theory table

For explanation of theory tables, see theory table and for notation, see algebraic notation.
1. e4 e5 2. Nf3 Nc6 3. Bc4 Bc5
| | 4 |
| Giuoco Piano Main Line | c3 Nf6 | = |
| Giuoco Pianissimo | d3 d6 | = |
| Evans Gambit | b4 Bxb4 | = |
| | O-O Nf6 | = |
| Italian Gambit | d4 Bxd4 | = |
| Jerome Gambit | Bxf7+? Kxf7 | =+ |
When contributing to this Wikibook, please follow the Conventions for organization.

## References

* Kasparov, Garry, & Keene, Raymond 1989 Batsford chess openings 2. ISBN 0-8050-3409-9.