OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Guide to Unix/BSD/Historical

| $_ | Wikibooks Guide to Unix Computing | Edit template |
   General: Introduction | Explanations | Why Unix-like Platforms: Linux | BSD Quick Reference: Commands | Environment Variables | Files | License
   General: Introduction | External Links Distributions: FreeBSD | Mac OS X | NetBSD | OpenBSD | Historical
This is a list of projects that have been either unmaintained or completely abandoned.

## Quasijarus

Quasijarus is a fork of 4.3BSD-Tahoe. In turn, 4.3BSD-Tahoe was one of the releases by the Computer Systems Research Group at Berkeley. This fork from a version of BSD earlier than 4.4 is possible because Caldera had freely licensed the original Unix code in BSD (originally requiring a license from AT&T).
The "International Free Computing Task Force", which develops Quasijarus, describes it at their home page:
There is a guide to installing and running 4.3BSD-Quasijarus on the retrocompupting wiki

## External links
### Quasijarus

* IFCTF Quasijarus Project
* Triangle Area BSD Users Group: Historical BSD Releases
* IT Security Geek: Download 4.3BSD-Quasijarus0c
This page or section of Guide to Unix is a stub. You can help by expanding it.
# Guide to Unix

This is the Guide to Unix Computing, or for short, Guide to Unix. It describes Unix and Unix-like systems for users and system administrators. It includes guide to Unix commands.

## Brief contents

* Introduction
* Why Unix-like

### Explanations of topics

* Command Line
* Common Programs
* Administration
* Storage
* Networking
* Electronic Mail
* Security
* Beyond This Book

### Quick reference

* Commands - commands listed conveniently in categories (November 19, 2008)
* Environment Variables - USER, EDITOR, PATH... (November 19, 2008)
* Files - configuration and device files of /etc/ and /dev (November 19, 2008)

### Varieties

* Variants
* Linux - the basic traits of Linux systems (November 19, 2008)
* BSD - the basic traits of *BSD systems (November 19, 2008)

### Appendices

* Index
* Links

## Other Wikibooks

* A Neutral Look at Operating Systems
* UNIX Computing Security
* Unix utilities: Bourne Shell Scripting, Learning the vi Editor
* The windows managers: Guide to X11, Using GNOME, Using KDE
* Programming: C, C++, Serial Programming/Serial Linux
# Guide to Unix/BSD

| $_ | Wikibooks Guide to Unix Computing | Edit template |
   General: Introduction | Explanations | Why Unix-like Platforms: Linux | BSD Quick Reference: Commands | Environment Variables | Files | License
   General: Introduction | External Links Distributions: FreeBSD | Mac OS X | NetBSD | OpenBSD | Historical
Berkeley Software Distribution or BSD is a flavor of UNIX that was developed at the University of California, Berkeley. Today, the BSD or *BSD systems are free Unix-like operating systems based on the university's distribution. To honor this, these systems put BSD at the end of their names. The *BSD systems are DragonFly BSD, FreeBSD, NetBSD, and OpenBSD.

## Contents

* Introduction how *BSD compares with other Unix-likes
* External Links learn more about *BSD

## Distributions

* FreeBSD: focuses on speed and performance.
* Mac OS X: Darwin and BSD
* NetBSD: focuses on portability
* OpenBSD: focuses on code correctness (and thus security) and easy to security
* Historical: BSD operating systems that have been unmaintained or abandoned.

## Other Wikibooks

* A Neutral Look at Operating Systems has a comparison of the *BSD systems.
* Mac OS X Tiger
# Horticulture/What Is a Lawn?

The definition of a lawn is often in the eye of the beholder. The most common definition is an area of mowed grasses, though lawns often contain broadleaf plants as well either as weeds or as desirable components. The common element is that lawns are maintained by regular mowing, as opposed to meadows or fields which are mown less frequently.
# Horticulture/Weeding Tools

There are many tools available for weeding.
* Hand cultivators
* Hoes
* Tillers
* Mechanical weeders
* Dandelion pullers
* Flame weeders
* String trimmers
# Horticulture/Weeds

Weeds are among the most frustrating elements of a gardener's life. Often defined simply as "a plant that's growing where you don't want it", weeds cause problems for gardens by demanding nutrients and water, and blocking out light for wanted plants.

## Techniques

* Mowing for Weed Control
* Pulling Weeds
* Maintenance Cultivation
* Mulching
* Herbicides
* Organic Weed Management

## Management of particular weeds

See Category:Book:Horticulture/Weeds for pages about particular weeds.

## Terms

* Cultivation
* Pre-emergent
* Mulch
* Seed Banking
* Barriers
* Control
* Management
* Green Mulch
* Ground Cover
# Horticulture/Weevils

Weevils :
| Type: | Insects |
| Order: | Coleoptera |
| Metamorphosis: | Complete |
| Damaging stages: | Grub and adult |
Weevils are Beetles which have elongated snouts. Several species are serious garden and farm pests.

## Description

Aside from the long snout they are otherwise just beetles. Some species have fused wing covers and so are unable to fly.

## Specific Weevils

* Black Vine Weevil: (Otiorhynchus sulcatus)
# Horticulture/Wilts

Wilting refers to the loss of rigidity of non-woody parts of plants. This occurs when the turgor pressure in non-woody plant cells falls towards zero, as a result of diminished water in the cells. Lower water availability may result from:
* drought conditions, where the soil moisture drops below conditions most favorable for plant functioning;
* high salinity, which causes water to diffuse from the plant cells and induce shrinkage;
* saturated soil conditions, where roots are unable to obtain sufficient oxygen for cellular respiration, and so are unable to transport water into the plant; or
* bacteria, fungi, or other microorganisms that clog the plant's vascular system.
Wilting diminishes the plant's ability to transpire and grow. Permanent wilting leads to plant death. Symptoms of wilting and blights resemble one another.
In woody plants, reduced water availability leads to cavitation of the xylem.
# Horticulture/Wisteria sinensis

Chinese Wisteria :
| Binomial: | Wisteria sinensis |
| Family: | Fabaceae |
Wisteria sinensis (Chinese Wisteria) is a woody, deciduous, perennial climbing vine, native to China in the provinces of Guangxi, Guizhou, Hebei, Henan, Hubei, Shaanxi, and Yunnan. While this plant is a climbing vine, it can be trained into a tree-like shape, usually with a wavy trunk and a flattened top. It was introduced from China to Europe and North America in 1816 and has secured a place as one of the most popular flowering vines for home gardens due to its flowering habit. It has however become an invasive species in some areas of the eastern United States where the climate closely matches that of China.
All parts of the plant contain a glycoside called wisterin which is toxic and if ingested and may cause nausea, vomiting, stomach pains, and diarrhea. Wisterias have caused poisoning in children of many countries, producing mild to severe gastroenteritis.

## Description

It can grow 20-30 m long over supporting trees by counter-clockwise-twining stems. The leaves are shiny, green, pinnately compound, 10-30 cm in length, with 9-13 oblong leaflets that are each 2-6 cm long. The flowers are white, violet, or blue, produced on 15-20 cm racemes in spring, usually reaching their peak in mid-May. The flowers on each raceme open simultaneously before the foliage has expanded, and have a distinctive fragrance similar to that of grapes. Though it has shorter racemes than Wisteria floribunda (Japanese Wisteria), it often has a higher quantity of racemes. The fruit is a flattened, brown, velvety, bean-like pod 5-10 cm long with thick disk-like seeds around 1 cm in diameter spaced evenly inside; they mature in summer and crack and twist open to release the seeds; the empty pods often persist until winter. However seed production is often low, and most regenerative growth occurs through layering and suckering.

## Growing Conditions

It is hardy in USDA plant hardiness zones 5-9, and prefers moist soils. It is considered shade tolerant, but will flower only when exposed to partial or full sun. It will also flower only after passing from juvenile to adult stage, a transition that may take many years. It can live for over 100 years.

## Propagation

Generally Wisterias are propagated with cuttings (hardwood). But it can be possible to make use of their seeds(in their flowers) but takes more time to have a real tree! In some articles the softwood cutting is also recommended but I checked it doesen't work well. Because the herbaceous (soft)stem will rot (within a few days) before rooting!
# Horticulture/Weed Profiles

The Weed Profiles in Horticulture provide detailed information about the life cycle and control of plants that often occur as garden weeds. Many plants are listed both as garden weeds and garden plants, since many weedy plants also happen to have good qualities as garden plants (it's really just a matter of personal preference).
* Agrimony: Agrimonia
* Boxelder: Acer negundo
* Chinese Bittersweet: Celastrus orbiculatus
* Crabgrass: Digitaria
* Creeping woodsorrel: Oxalis corniculata
* Devil's Beggartick: Bidens frondosa
* Garlic Mustard: Alliaria petiolata
* Hairy Bittercress: Cardamine hirsuta
* Mugwort: Artemisia vulgaris
* Tree of Heaven: Ailanthus altissima
* Mouse-ear Chickweed Cerastium vulgatum
* Corn Speedwell Veronica arvensis
# Horticulture/Wood Mulches

Wood Mulches are the most commonly used mulch in many regions, since wood tends to be in plentiful supply. There are a number of different kinds of wood mulches, but all are essentially from the same source: waste materials from either the lumber industry or the landscaping industry.

## Wood Chips

Wood chips are the product of chippers, which are used to process waste wood after pruning or clearing.

### Advantages

* The big advantage with wood chips is that they are generally free (or at least inexpensive), since they receive no processing aside from the chipping on site.

### Disadvantages

* Fresh wood chips are "hot", and need to be seasoned for several months before they are safe to use in garden beds (though they are fine for pathways)
* Wood chips have an inconsistent texture.
* Wood chips may contain thorns, coniferous needles, poison ivy, diseased materials, herbicides and pesticides, trash, etc.

## Shredded Wood

Shredded wood is made from either wood chips or larger pieces of wood using a drum grinder or similar industrial-scale machine.

### Advantages

* Consistent texture
* Readily available in many regions

### Disadvantages

* Can sometimes be hot or sour
* Can contain disease spores if not seasoned

## Dyed Shredded Wood

Dyed wood mulches are derived from a number of sources, including chips, larger wood, and waste lumber such as pallettes.

### Advantages

* Consistent texture and color

### Disadvantages

* Dyes stain hands and clothing.
* Does not biodegrade as quickly

## Bark Mulch

Bark mulch is derived from forest products, when trees are debarked at the mill.

### Advantages

* Attractive and long-lasting

### Disadvantages

* Expensive
# French/Grammar/Verbs/Past participle

Lessons · Vocabulary · Grammar · Appendices · Texts

## Usage

This is added after an auxiliary verb for all the composed tenses:
* Indicatif passé composé
* Indicatif plus-que-parfait
* Indicatif passé antérieur
* Indicatif futur antérieur
* Subjonctif passé
* Subjonctif plus-que-parfait
* Conditionnel passé

## Formation

* For a regular -er verb, the past participle is determined by replacing the -er with é.
* For a regular -ir verb, the past participle is determined by removing the final r.
* For a regular -re verb, the past participle is determined by replacing the -re with u.
* Irregular verbs have irregular past participles, as shown by the table.
* For verbs with the auxiliary verb être, the past participle must agree with the subject. For verbs with the auxiliary avoir, the participle never agree with the subject, but with a possible direct complement, if it is written before the verb. For example, in the sentence elles sont arrivées au café, since the subject is both feminine and plural, the participle arrive has an "e" and an "s" to agree with the subject elles, because it's written before the verb, but in the sentence elle a bu le café, the participle bu does not agree with elle.
The table below shows additions to the normal past participle that must be made based on the gender and number of the subject.
Irregular past participles :
| Verb | Past participle |
| atteindre | atteint |
| avoir | eu |
| boire | bu |
| conduire | conduit |
| connaître | connu |
| construire | construit |
| courir | couru |
| couvrir | couvert |
| craindre | craint |
| croire | cru |
| devoir | dû |
| dire | dit |
| écrire | écrit |
| être | été |
| faire | fait |
| falloir | fallu |
| instruire | instruit |
| joindre | joint |
| lire | lu |
| mettre | mis |
| mourir | mort |
| offrir | offert |
| ouvrir | ouvert |
| naître | né |
| paraître | paru |
| peindre | peint |
| pleuvoir | plu |
| pouvoir | pu |
| prendre | pris |
| produire | produit |
| recevoir | reçu |
| savoir | su |
| souffrir | souffert |
| suivre | suivi |
| tenir | tenu |
| venir | venu |
| vivre | vécu |
| voir | vu |
| vouloir | voulu |
Past participle agreement :
| Gender | Number | Add |
| masculine | singular | - |
| masculine | plural | -s |
| feminine | singular | -e |
| feminine | plural | -es |
French :
Lessons · Vocabulary · Grammar · Appendices · Texts
# French/Lessons/Agreement of past participles with avoir

* Slavery under Napoleon
* Algerian War of Independence
* Candide, (ou l'Optimisme)
* Rêveries du promeneur solitaire
* Boule de Suif
* Les Fleurs du Mal
* Demain, dès l'aube
* Agreement of past participles with avoir
Lessons · Vocabulary · Grammar · Appendices · Texts

## Règle de grammaire

Past participles that take the auxiliary verb avoir sometimes agree (in gender and number) with the direct object of the verb, depending where the latter is put:
* If the direct object comes BEFORE the past participle, then the latter must AGREE with the object.
* If the direct object comes AFTER the past participle, then the latter DOESN'T AGREE with the object.
* J'ai tué la vache que l'on m'a donnée
    (the object, vache, comes before the verb a donné and therefore the past participle takes an extra -e to agree with the feminine vache)
* On m'a donné la vache.
* Nous avons vu de belles filles
* Les filles que nous avons vues étaient belles.

## Rappel: les pronoms directs et indirects

* Le, la and les are all direct object pronouns, as well as me, te, vous and nous when these are used DIRECTLY (ex. Je l'ai mangé, tu m'as aimé - because these mean J'ai mangé lui, tu as aimé moi - no prepositions.)
* However, lui and leur are always indirect, as well as me, te, nous and vous used INDIRECTLY - with a preposition, 'with you', 'to me' etc. (ex. Tu lui as parlé, on m'a donné le pain - because here what is meant is Tu as parlé à lui, on a donné le pain à moi - they are not direct as they are preceded by à)
* NOTE: For verbs like mis and appris that already end in -s, there is no need to add another ending when making them masculine plural. Therefore we say Le fait qu'il a appris, les faits qu'il a appris BUT La chose qu'il a apprise & Les choses qu'il a apprises.
Traduire les phrases suivantes:
* Look at the clothes that Pierre bought for Christmas, she wrapped them up. (wrap up = emballer)
* Kevin wrote a letter - he wrote it last week.
* The friends that Jack made yesterday don't like him anymore.
Corriger les fautes d'accord dans les phrases ci-dessous
* Les magasins que j'ai visité pour acheter des fringues n'en avaient pas.
* La note qu'il a eu n'était pas bonne, il pensait qu'il a obtenue une note de vingt sur vingt.
* Les chaussures que j'ai acheté sont trop petites. On m'a donnés des chaussures européenes.
← Demain, dès l'aube ·  Level four lessons
Slavery under Napoleon · Algerian War of Independence · Candide, (ou l'Optimisme) · Rêveries du promeneur solitaire · Boule de Suif · Les Fleurs du Mal · Demain, dès l'aube · Agreement of past participles with avoir
Lessons :
Introductory · Level one · Level two · Level three · Level four
French :
Lessons · Vocabulary · Grammar · Appendices · Texts
# French/Grammar/Verbs/Present participle

Lessons · Vocabulary · Grammar · Appendices · Texts

## Formation

Replace the -ons ending of a verb conjugated in the first person plural in the present indicative with -ant. There are three verbs with the present participle forming irregularly: avoir, être, and savoir.

## Forms and Usage Summary

* NOTE: The present progressive tense does not exist in French. The present indicative is used instead.
** To say I am going., you would say Je vais. You would NOT say Je suis allant.

## Simple Present Participle Usage

The present participle is used to express the reason why something has occurred.
* La table étant trop lourde, ils ne pouvaient pas la soulever. - The table being too heavy, they were not able to lift it.

## Composed Present Participle
### Formation

To form the composed present participle, conjugate être or avoir in the present participle (étant and ayant) and add the past participle.
* ayant parlé - having spoken
* étant allé(e)(s) - having gone.
Note that both avoir and être translate to having in English. This is the same in all composed tenses.
The past participle may have an -e or -s added in order to agree with other parts of the sentence. All standard agreement rules that composed tenses follow apply to the composed present participle as well.

### Usage

The composed present participle is used to express that one action occurred before the action of the main verb
* Ayant fini, je suis parti(e). - Having finished, I left.
* Je suis parti(e) ayant entendu la fille. - I left having heard the girl.
The composed present participle is not used after a preposition. To express a similar idea using a preposition, the past infinitive is used.
* Je suis parti(e) sans avoir entendu la fille. - I left without having heard the girl.
* Je suis parti(e) après avoir entendu la fille. - I left after having heard the girl.

## Le gérondif
### Formation

en + present participle
* en chantant - (while) singing
* en courant - (while) running

### Usage

Le gérondif is used to express that one action is occurring at the same time as a second.
* Ils se sont promenés en chantant. - They walked while singing.
* Elle est arrivée en courant. - She arrived running.
French :
Lessons · Vocabulary · Grammar · Appendices · Texts
# French/Lessons/Art

* People and things
* To be
* Description
* Family
* Recreation
* The house
* Weather
* Travel
* Art
* Science
Lessons · Vocabulary · Grammar · Appendices · Texts

## Culture · Art in France

* Musée du Louvre
* Musée des Beaux-Arts de Dole
* Musée des arts et métiers
* Musée des beaux arts du Canada

## Grammar · Regular -re verbs · Les verbes en -re

The third category of regular verbs is made up of -re verbs. Relative to -er verbs, -re verbs are not very common. Many common verbs ending in -re , such as prendre , mettre , and connaître , have irregular conjugations.

### Formation

To conjugate, drop the -re to find the "stem" or "root". Add endings to the root based on the subject and tense, as demonstrated below for the present tense.

### Supplementary vocabulary · Example -re verbs
## Usage notes · Visiter and rendre

Visiter /vizite/, meaning to visit, is used for places (and not for people) :
    Tu dois visiter Paris un jour.$^{YoumustvisitParisoneday.}$
    Je vais visiter mon frère. is not a correct sentence in french. It's a common (but understanble) mistake made by foreign people.
Rendre /ʁɑ̃dʁ/ or rendre visite (à) /ʁɑ̃dʁ vi.zit/, meaning to pay a visit (to), is used for people:
    Je rends visite à mon père à Paris.$^{I'mvisitingmyfatherinParis.}$
    Amour viens rendre à mon âme.$^{Lovecomestopayavisittomysoul.}$
Rendre has other meanings, such as to produce, to express, to make, and to give back:
    Tu me rends malade.$^{Youmakemeill.}$

## Grammar · Beautiful, new, and old · Beau, nouveau, et vieux
### Sentences placement

Most adjectives come after the noun they modify in French:
    un homme intelligent$^{anintelligentman}$
    des hommes intelligents$^{intelligentmen}$
Beau, nouveau, and vieux, as well as some other common French adjectives, precede the noun:
    une jolie voiture$^{aprettycar}$
Des is replaced with de when an adjective comes before the noun:
    de jolies voitures$^{prettycars}$
In informal speech, des is often used in place of de.

## Exercises

← Travel ·  Level one lessons  · Science →
People and things · To be · Description · Family · Recreation · The house · Weather · Travel · Art · Science
Lessons :
Introductory · Level one · Level two · Level three · Level four
French :
Lessons · Vocabulary · Grammar · Appendices · Texts
# General Engineering Introduction/ASEE Paper/What's Next?

Whats Next?
Help edit the book "General Engineering Introduction" in wikibooks. Assess general engineering projects in wikiversity.

### Fear Content

Content may no longer be the control point. Students can find answers before the question is finished. Calculator-only tests are cruel. When students cannot find an answer to any question, a project is born. How does one prove there is no answer on the Internet? How does one prove the question is badly formed? These are the more important issues.
Respect now starts with creativity rather than content expertise. Projects are the starting point. Every engineering course should be evolving into an open ended project course. Imagine projects dictating content. Instructors advise. Students choose courses based upon the projects they tackle rather than arbitrary content. Projects can exist outside the educational institution boundaries of grades, semesters, and budgets. Instructors need to turn into invisible program managers. Projects need to dominate over content.
Pushing statics down into the high schools will not solve the content volume problem. In summary, encyclopedia like courses can not compete with open ended projects.

### DIY, Hackerspaces

DIY and Hacker spaces are a modern church. Members pay dues and are always trying to dream up cool (open ended) projects that will attract new members. One hacker space is hacking the Bible. They will replace traditional engineering practice if nothing changes.

### Feeding Birds

A hackerspace decided to celebrate the 60th anniversary of Richard Hamming's original paper. Six people sat facing each other over a narrow table with a power strip down the middle. Each had a netbook. They were reading the paper on line. They started off talking about how far they got in the paper, where they got stuck, what was confusing.
The older engineer tried to clear up some confusion. The hacker space members glanced at him and then started chattering with each other across the table, typing madly at their computers. Then there was a collective silence and all of them looked at the older engineer. The older engineer talked again. The cycle repeated itself until no one had anything to say.
The older engineer left feeling like he had just fed some birds. Some understood little, some a lot. They trusted the information they found on the net. They trusted that the collective mind in that room could figure anything out. They didn't feel obligated to understand everything. They had boundaries that the older engineer did not have. The older engineer felt obligated to absorb any information in the article or book. What set the boundary of the younger people?
The next generation's context is evolving on the web, not in text books or articles. What web sites are popular? What are their names? What has a wikia page? The boundaries of younger people seem to be set personally. Brains are being structured to hold searchable keywords (artifacts or archetypes like thingiverse or instructables), not content. Do we really want to answer the boundary question? .. yes it is “open ended projects”.