OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# English as an Additional Language/Plural forms of nouns

Generally, making plurals (more than 1 of something) is very easy in English.

## Plural Formation

For almost all nouns we form the plural by adding s.
* I have an apple
* I have 5 apples.
For nouns which end with the letter y we form the plural by removing the y and adding ies.
* I have a fly
* I have 5 flies.
For nouns which end with the letter s (dress), ch (beach), x (box), sh (bush) or z (quiz), we form the plural by adding es.
* I have a bus.
* I have 5 buses.

## Irregular Noun Plural Formation

There are also a small number of nouns which are irregular. The first word in the following list is the singular form and the second word is the plural form:
* child - children
* man - men
* woman - women
* foot - feet
* tooth - teeth
* goose - geese
* mouse - mice
* fish - fish
* sheep - sheep
* deer - deer
* advice - advice
* information - information
* data - data
As you can see, with some words there is no change to form the plural. The plural form and the singular form are exactly the same.
# English as an Additional Language/Overview

There are two basic forms of English as an additional language: English to use in an English-speaking region (e.g. by refugees and immigrants) and English to use in a non-English-speaking region (e.g. by international business people).
This textbook offers resources for English teachers working in both contexts. When appropriate we will mark information that is specific to one discipline or the other. Included are language reference information, teaching techniques and tips, historical information about the English language, and activities to be used in your classes.

## Terminology

English as a Foreign Language (EFL) refers to English for use in the second of these situations, in a non-English-speaking region. Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) is a common abbreviation for the teaching aspect (education, career and methods).
In North America, in the first situation, English for use in an English-speaking region, is known as English as a Second Language (ESL). In Britain this is called English for Speaker of Other Languages (ESOL) in recognition of the fact that many of the learners already speak more than one language. Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL) is a common abbreviation for the teaching aspect.
# English as an Additional Language/Personal pronouns

English has 6 personal pronouns.

# Subject Personal Pronouns

Subject Pronouns are words that replace subject nouns or subject noun phrases.
I - first person singular (yo, eu, je, ich, أنا)
You - second person singular (tú (usted)*, tu (você)*, tu, du, أنت)
He/She/It - third person singular (el/ella, ele/ela, il/elle, er/sie/es, هى/هو)
We - first person plural (nosotros, nós, nous, wir, نحن)
You - second person plural - rarely used (vosotros (ustedes)*, vós (vocês)*, vous, ihr/Sie, انتم\انتن)
They - third person plural (ellos/ellas, eles/elas, ils/elles, sie, هم\هن)
(*) formal
| Subject Pronouns | Singular (Number) | Plural (Number) |
| First Person | I | We |
| Second Person | You | You |
| Third Person | Masculine (Gender): He Feminine (Gender): She Neuter (No Gender): It | They |

## Subject Pronouns replace subject nouns.

Consider these two sentences:
Charles is a noun. Charlie is also the subject of the sentence. Therefore, Charles is a subject noun. Because Charles is a male personal name, the subject of the sentence is male in gender.
'He is a subject pronoun, describing male nouns. He replaces Charles.

## Subject Pronouns replace subject noun phrases.

Consider these two sentences:
BIRDS FROM CANADA is a noun phrase. BIRDS FROM CANADA is also the subject.
Therefore, BIRDS FROM CANADA is a subject noun phrase.
THEY is a subject pronoun. THEY replaces BIRDS FROM CANADA.

## Subject pronouns agree with the PERSON and NUMBER of subject nouns

Pronouns are either FIRST person, SECOND person, or THIRD person.
Pronouns have NUMBER. This means pronouns are either SINGULAR or PLURAL.
Consider these two sentences:
JOHN AND I is the subject. JOHN AND I is FIRST PERSON. JOHN AND I is also PLURAL.
WE is the FIRST PERSON, PLURAL subject pronoun. WE replaces JOHN AND I.

## Subjects which are third person and singular must agree with the GENDER of the noun as well.

Third Person, SINGULAR Pronouns replace People or Things.
People can be men or women. Men have a MASCULINE GENDER. Women have a FEMININE GENDER. Things are not people. In English, things usually have NO GENDER (neuter).
Note: ALL third person, PLURAL Pronouns are the same (THEY).
Consider these sentences:
CINDY is a woman. A woman has a FEMININE GENDER. Therefore, CINDY is THIRD PERSON, SINGLE, and FEMININE.
SHE is the THIRD PERSON, SINGLE, FEMININE Subject Pronoun. SHE replaces CINDY.
Consider these sentences:
BOB is a man. A man has a MASCULINE GENDER. Therefore, BOB is THIRD PERSON, SINGLE, and MASCULINE.
HE is the THIRD PERSON, SINGLE, MASCULINE Subject Pronoun. HE replaces BOB.
The third person, single pronoun for most non-human (things) nouns or noun phrases is IT.
THE CAR is a thing. Things have NO Gender. Therefore, THE CAR is THIRD PERSON, SINGLE, but NO GENDER.
IT is the THIRD PERSON, SINGLE Subject Pronoun for things with NO GENDER. IT replaces THE CAR.
Never use IT to refer to a person! Use HE if the person is a man. Use SHE if the person is a woman.
If the gender of the person being referred to is unknown or if one wants to refer generically to people, they is often used.
# English as an Additional Language/Introducing prepositions

Prepositions are words which add meaning to a sentence. A preposition can tell you where or when something happens.

## Prepositions of place

On, under, above, below, behind, in front of, near, next to, opposite...

## Prepositions of time

On, At, In
* I'll meet you at 18.30
* My birthday is in March
* My birthday is on the 2nd of March

## Adjective / Verbs with prepositions (dependent prepositions)

Listen to, believe in, worried about, dream of...
# English as an Additional Language/Numbers and Time
## Numbers

This page lists numbers used in English and provides phonetic transcriptions to help you pronounce them.
1 - one /wʌn/ 2 - two /tu/ 3 - three /θɹi/ 4 - four /fɔɹ/ 5 - five /faiv/ 6 - six /sɪks/ 7 - seven /ˈsɛvən/ 8 - eight /eit/ 9 - nine /nain/ 10 - ten /tɛn/ 11 - eleven /əˈlɛvən/ 12 - twelve /twɛlv/ 13 - thirteen /θɚˈtin/ 14 - fourteen /fɔɹˈtin/ 15 - fifteen /fɪfˈtin/ 16 - sixteen /sɪksˈtin/ 17 - seventeen /sɛvənˈtin/ 18 - eighteen /eiˈtin/ 19 - nineteen /nainˈtin/ 20 - twenty /ˈtwɛnti/ 21 - twenty-one /twɛntiˈwʌn/ 30 - thirty /ˈθɚti/ 31 - thirty-one /θɚtiˈwʌn/ 40 - forty /ˈfɔɹti/ 50 - fifty /ˈfɪfti/ 60 - sixty /ˈsɪksti/ 70 - seventy /ˈsɛvənti/ 80 - eighty /ˈeiti/ 90 - ninety /ˈnainti/ 100 - one hundred /wʌn ˈhʌndrəd/

## Time

What time is it? What is the time? Do you have the time?
# English as an Additional Language/Introduction

Welcome!
This book attempts to introduce prospective students to the English language. We hope to create a solid and well-done course to those who wish to learn how to speak, read, and write English. The benefits of learning this language are manifold: English is spoken in more countries than any other language, and is considered the "lingua franca," or international language of the world. It is the primary or major secondary language in the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, India, South Africa, and many other countries, and is used by businesspeople, travelers, etc. across the world.
This book is intended for both non-native speakers learning English, and teachers trying to teach the English language. While it does not talk about the aspects of teaching, it contains content that should be useful.
Check back often for more content!
# English as an Additional Language/Links
## Other Wikimedia Projects

* List of idioms in the English language on Wikipedia.
* Wikiversity Courses
** English as a second language course on Wikiversity.
** ESL for Primary School course on Wikiversity.
** TESOL Materials page on Wikiversity. (For teachers)

## External links

* US State Department website discussing options for studying English as a second language.
* Maryville University blogpost on ESL language resources for students.
# Category Theory/Definition, examples

Definition (category):
A category ${\mathcal {C}}$ is a class of objects, together with a class of so-called morphisms, each of which have a domain and a target, and a composition of morphisms, such that the following set of axioms hold, if for any two objects $A$ and $B$ of ${\mathcal {C}}$ the subclass of morphisms with domain $A$ and target $B$ is denoted $\operatorname {Hom} (A,B)$:
* Whenever either $A\neq A'$ or $B\neq B'$, $\operatorname {Hom} (A,B)$ and $\operatorname {Hom} (A',B')$ are disjoint
* For any objects $A,B,C$ of ${\mathcal {C}}$ and any morphisms $f:A\to B$ and $g:B\to C$, there exists a morphism $h=g\circ f\in \operatorname {Hom} (A,C)$, called the composition of $f$ and $g$
* Composition is associative, ie. $f\circ (g\circ h)=(f\circ g)\circ h$
* Whenever $A$ is an object of ${\mathcal {C}}$, then there exists a unique morphism $1_{A}\in \operatorname {Hom} (A,A)$ that acts as an identity both on the left and on the right for the composition of morphisms.

## Exercises

* If both $f$ and $g$ are set mappings such that $f\circ g$ is injective, prove that $g$ is injective.
# Cataloging and Classification/What is descriptive cataloging?

Descriptive cataloging is the process of identifying and describing the bibliographic and physical form of an item, determining the name(s) and title(s) that will be used as access points, and recording these data in a bibliographic record. In the United States, AACR2 and RDA are the codes used for descriptive cataloging.

## Other forms of description

Catalogers do more than transcribe what they see. Catalogers may supplement a descriptive record with additional access points, may correct any publishers' errors,

## Descriptive cataloging vs. subject cataloging

Descriptive cataloging describes what an object is, rather than what it is about. While the title proper of a book may hold clues about a book's contents, it may also be vague, intentionally misleading, or in a language unknown to many users of the catalog. A purely descriptive catalog record is often enhanced by adding subject headings, which convey what the book is actually about, before it is added to a library's catalog.
# Category Theory/(Co-)cones and (co-)limits

Definition (cone):
Let ${\mathcal {C}}$ be a category and let $G=(V,A)$ be a diagram in ${\mathcal {C}}$. A cone over $G$ is an object $a$ of ${\mathcal {C}}$, together with morphisms $\phi _{a,b}:a\to b$ for each $b\in V$, so that for each $\psi :b\to b'\in A$ (so that $b,b'\in V$) we have
    $\phi _{a,b'}=\psi \circ \phi _{a,b}$.
Definition (limit):
Let ${\mathcal {C}}$ be a category, let $G=(V,A)$ be a diagram in ${\mathcal {C}}$ and let
Definition (diagonal):
Let ${\mathcal {C}}$ be a category, and let $X$ be an object of ${\mathcal {C}}$. Further, suppose that the object $X\times X$ and the morphisms $\pi _{1}:X\times X\to X$ and $\pi _{2}:X\times X\to X$ constitute a product of $X$ with itself in ${\mathcal {C}}$. Then the diagonal (also called "diagonal morphism") is the unique morphism
    $\Delta :X\to X\times X$
such that $\pi _{1}\circ \Delta =\pi _{2}\circ \Delta =\operatorname {Id} _{X}$.
Definition (anti-diagonal):
Let ${\mathcal {C}}$ be a category, and let $X$ be an object of ${\mathcal {C}}$. Further, suppose that the object $X\sqcup X$ and the morphisms $\iota _{1}:X\to X\sqcup X$ and $\iota _{2}:X\to X\sqcup X$ constitute a coproduct of $X$ with itself in ${\mathcal {C}}$. Then the anti-diagonal (also called "anti-diagonal morphism") is the unique morphism
    $\nabla :X\sqcup X\to X$
such that $\nabla \circ \iota _{1}=\nabla \circ \iota _{2}=\operatorname {Id} _{X}$.

## Exercises

** Let ${\mathcal {D}}$ be a category such that every two objects of ${\mathcal {D}}$ have a product. Suppose further that ${\mathcal {C}}$ is another category, and that $T:{\mathcal {C}}\to {\mathcal {D}}$ is a functor. Let $Y$ be an object of ${\mathcal {D}}$. Use the universal property of the product in order to show that there exists a functor $S_{Y}:{\mathcal {C}}\to {\mathcal {D}}$ that sends an object $X$ of ${\mathcal {C}}$ to the object $T(X)\times Y$ of ${\mathcal {D}}$.
** Prove that any morphism $g:Y\to Z$ in ${\mathcal {D}}$ gives rise to a natural transformation $S_{Y}\to S_{Z}$.
** Can we weaken the assumption that every two objects of ${\mathcal {D}}$ have a product? (Hint: Consider the image of the class function on objects associated to the functor $T$.)
# Category Theory/Abelian categories

Proposition (object in abelian category is decomposed into sum by subobject):
Let ${\mathcal {C}}$ be an abelian category, and let $X\in {\mathcal {C}}$ be an object. Let $f:Y\to X$ be a subobject, and let $Z=\operatorname {Coker} f$ be the corresponding quotient object. Moreover, denote $g=\operatorname {coker} f$. Then there exists a unique isomorphism $\theta :X\to Y\oplus Z$ such that
    $\pi _{Z}\circ \theta =g$ and $\theta ^{-1}\circ \iota _{Y}=f$.
Proof: $Y\oplus Z$ is a biproduct. First we apply the universal property of a product in order to obtain a morphism
    $\phi :X\to Y\oplus Z$ such that $\pi _{Z}\circ \phi =g$ and $\pi _{Y}\circ \phi =0$.
Then we apply the universal property of a coproduct in order to obtain a morphism
    $\chi :Y\oplus Z\to X$ such that $\chi \circ \iota _{Y}=f$ and $\chi \circ \iota _{Y}=0$.
Moreover, we get a morphism $Y\otimes X\to Y\otimes 0$ from the projection to $Y$, and a morphism $0\otimes Z\to Y\oplus Z$ from the inclusion of $Z$. The latter morphism is the kernel of ${\tilde {f}}:Y\oplus Z\to X$, and the cokernel of that kernel is $\Box$
# Category Theory/Additive categories

Definition (biproduct):
Let ${\mathcal {C}}$ be a category, and let $(X_{\alpha })_{\alpha \in A}$ be a family of objects in ${\mathcal {C}}$. A biproduct of $(X_{\alpha })_{\alpha \in A}$ is an object of ${\mathcal {C}}$ that is usually denoted as
    $\bigoplus _{\alpha \in A}X_{\alpha }$
and for which there exist arrows
    $\iota _{\alpha }:X_{\alpha }\to \bigoplus _{\alpha \in A}X_{\alpha }$ and $\pi _{\alpha }:\bigoplus _{\alpha \in A}X_{\alpha }\to X_{\alpha }$
for all $\alpha \in A$ that have the following properties:
* $\alpha \neq \beta \Rightarrow \pi _{\alpha }\circ \iota _{\beta }=0$ and $\forall \alpha \in A:\pi _{\alpha }\circ \iota _{\alpha }=\operatorname {Id} _{X_{\alpha }}$
* $\bigoplus _{\alpha \in A}X_{\alpha }$, together with the morphisms $(\iota _{\alpha })_{\alpha \in A}$, constitutes a coproduct in the category ${\mathcal {C}}$
* $\bigoplus _{\alpha \in A}X_{\alpha }$, together with the morphisms $(\pi _{\alpha })_{\alpha \in A}$, constitutes a product in the category ${\mathcal {C}}$
Definition (additive category):
An additive category is a category ${\mathcal {C}}$ that satisfies each of the following requirements:
* Every morphism in ${\mathcal {C}}$ has a kernel and a cokernel
* For every two objects $X,Y$ of ${\mathcal {C}}$, there exists a biproduct $X\oplus Y$
* For every two objects $X,Y$ of ${\mathcal {C}}$, the assignment $(f,g)\mapsto h$, where $h:X\to Y$ is the morphism that arises from postcomposing the morphism $X{\overset {\Delta }{\to }}X\oplus X{\overset {f\times g}{\to }}Y\oplus Y$ (where $\Delta$ shall denote the diagonal) with the anti-diagonal $\nabla :Y\oplus Y\to Y$, turns $\operatorname {Hom} (X,Y)$ into an abelian group
# Cataloging and Classification/Rights
## Rights and Bibliographic Data

Defining rights to bibliographic data is a complicated matter. The rights to a particular record vary according to the originating institution, their description level, and other factors. Records created by employees of the Library of Congress as part of their official duties, for instance, are in the public domain. Other libraries, however, retain rights to certain bibliographic data. Several libraries, including a number of national European libraries, have opted to explicitly waive their rights to catalog data using the Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication (CC0). These libraries include the British Library (2011), Deutsche Nationalbibliothek (2012), and the National Library of Spain (2012); as well as Harvard University (2012), the University of Florida George A. Smathers Libraries, and CERN European Organization for Nuclear Research Library (both 2011).
At the core of any bibliographic record is purely descriptive metadata: a document's title, author, place of publication, physical dimensions, etc. In 1991, the U.S. Supreme Court established that information alone, without some minimum of original creativity, cannot be protected by copyright (Feist Publications, Inc. v. Rural Telephone Service Co., 499 U.S. 340). Therefore, purely descriptive catalog records, like minimal vendor records and many fiction records, are likely not protected by copyright, no matter what which institution created them. Bibliographic records denoting the aboutness of a particular document -- those including subject headings, notes, and the like -- are eligible for copyright, but few libraries opt to explicitly claim copyright. Finally, as more OPACs are allowing library users to add tags, reviews, and other metadata to catalog records, things get even trickier. While Web 2.0 social cataloging websites, such as LibraryThing and Goodreads, have clearly defined terms and guidelines explaining the rights of both parties to user-submitted bibliographic data, most library catalogs have not explicitly identified such rights.

## Further Reading

Proposed 2008 OCLC Policy
* OCLC Policy Change - a collection of documents and links from code4lib about the 2008 proposed Policy for Use and Transfer of WorldCat® Records
* Consideration of OCLC Records Use Policy
2012 OCLC ODC-BY Recommendation
* WorldCat May Become Available as Library Linked Data under ODC-BY
* Library catalog metadata: Open licensing or public domain? - a post from the Creative Commons blog about OCLC's 2012 recommendation that member libraries release their catalogs under the Open Data Commons Attribution License
Open licenses
* Open Data Commons Attribution License (ODC-BY)
* Creative Commons CC0
# Category Theory/Adjoint functors

Definition (adjoint functors):
Let ${\mathcal {A}},{\mathcal {B}}$ be categories. A pair of adjoint functors consists of two functors $L:{\mathcal {A}}\to {\mathcal {B}}$ and $R:{\mathcal {B}}\to {\mathcal {A}}$ (where $L$ is the left adjoint and $R$ is the right adjoint) such that the two bifunctors
    $\operatorname {Hom} _{\mathcal {B}}(L\cdot ,\cdot )$ and $\operatorname {Hom} _{\mathcal {A}}(\cdot ,R\cdot )$
from $({\mathcal {A}},{\mathcal {B}})$ to $\operatorname {Set}$ are naturally isomorphic to each other.
Proposition (left adjoint functors preserve epimorphisms):
Let ${\mathcal {A}},{\mathcal {B}}$ be categories, and let $L:{\mathcal {A}}\to {\mathcal {B}}$ and $R:{\mathcal {B}}\to {\mathcal {A}}$ be an adjoint pair of functors. Suppose that $x,y\in A$ and $f\in \operatorname {Hom} _{\mathcal {A}}(X,Y)$ is an epimorphism. Then $Lf:LX\to LY$ is also an epimorphism.
Proof: Let $g,h:LY\to Z$ be arrows in ${\mathcal {B}}$ so that $g\circ Lf=h\circ Lf$. $\Box$
Proposition (right adjoint functors preserve monomorphisms):
# Exercise as it relates to Disease/Exercise in extreme cold and asthma
## Background:

Cold is an environment which provides many challenges for humans, not least obvious cold injuries such as frostbite and hypothermia. However there is another issue that arises from long-term cold exposure that seems to be exacerbated by exercise in cold environments: exercise-induced asthma (EIA). This is particularly prevalent in elite winter sports athletes who spend long periods of time training and competing in cold environments. This may lead to many complications regarding both present and future health if not treated carefully. EIA can be diagnosed through a drop in Forced Expiratory Volume in 1 second (FEV1) of greater than 10%. It is caused by an inflammatory response to the environment resulting in the narrowing of the bronchioles from a reaction to cold air and exercise, thus leading to decreased FEV1 and resulting in coughing, difficulty breathing and hypoxia.

## When is the greatest risk?

The greatest risk of triggering or developing EIA is during periods of exercise in very cold, dry environmental conditions.
The most crucial factor is a very low humidity, which normally accompanies extremely cold temperatures in cold climates.
If the person is identified as being at risk of developing EIA during exercise in cold environments through a Eucapnic Voluntary Hyperventilation test.

## Prevention and Treatment

An EIA episode can be prevented or treated through use of standard asthma preventers and inhalers (Beta-2 Angonists).
Use of a humidifying mask or covering of the mouth and nose to create a moisture trapping layer is recommended when training in cold, dry temperatures so as to prevent development of symptoms.
Studies have shown that maintaining skin temperature, especially on the face and neck can help to prevent an EIA attack.

## References

* 1 2 3 Castellani, J. et. al (2006). Prevention of Cold Injuries during Exercise. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise. pg. 2012-2029
* ↑ Togias, A. et. al (1985). Nasal Challenge with Cold, Dry Air Results in Release of Inflammatory Mediators. Journal of Clinical Investigation. pg. 1375 - 1381.
* ↑ Strauss, R. et. al (1978). Influence of Heat and Humidity on the Airway Obstruction Induced by Exercise in Asthma. The Journal of Clinical Investigation. 61(1): 433-440.
* ↑ Carlsen, K-H. et. al (1998). Cold air inhalation and exercise-induced bronchoconstriction in relationship to metacholine bronchial reponsiveness: different patterns in asthmatic children and children with chronic lung diseases. Respiratory Medicine. 92: 308-315
* 1 2 Rundell, K. et al. (2004) Field Exercise vs Laboratory Eucapnic Voluntary Hyperventilation To Identify Hyperresponsiveness in Elite Cold Weather Athletes. CHEST. 125 (3): 909-915.
* ↑ Beuther, D. & Martin, R. (2006) Efficacy of a Heat Exchanger Mask in Cold Exercise-Induced Asthma. CHEST. 129 (5): 1188-1193.
* ↑ Karjalainen, E. et. al (2000). Evidence of airway inflammation and remodelling in ski athletes with and without bronchial hyper responsiveness to metacholine. American Journal of Respiratory Critical Care in Medicine. 161: 2086-2091.
# Final Fantasy/Items/Cabin

| Price | 250 G |
| Battle Use | No |
| Field Use | Yes |
Cabins are restorative items much like Tents and Houses. They are a form of shelter which allows heroes to regain a large amount of health and to save the game. However, no magic powers are restored through the use of the Cabin. The Cabin is more effective than a Tent, but less so than a House.
Cabins may be found in:
Cabins may be bought in the following cities:
* Pravoka
* Elfland
Final Fantasy Origins: Tent
# Final Fantasy/Items/Tent

| Price | 75 G |
| Battle Use | No |
| Field Use | Yes |
Tents are a form of shelter that can be used to rest for a short period when away from civilization. They restore a small amount of health to all wounded heroes, thus performing one of the important functions of Inns. However, they are not as effective as Cabins nor do they restore any magic power, as Houses do.
Tents may be bought in the following cities:
* Coneria
* Pravoka
Tent is also the name for a Cabin in Final Fantasy Origins.
Final Fantasy Origins: Sleeping Bag
# Final Fantasy/Key Items

Key Items are items that are essential to moving the storyline forward. Occasionally, the quest items must be used, similar to regular items, but more often it is only necessary for the Light Warriors to possess the quest item.
* Ship
* Crown
* Crystal
* Herb
* Key
* TNT
* Rod
* Lute
* Canoe
* Floater (Levistone)
* Tail
* Bottle
* Oxyale
* Slab
* Chime
* Cube
* Adamant (Adamantium)