OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# C Programming/stdlib.h/atof

atof is a function in the C programming language that converts a string into a floating point numerical representation. atof stands for ASCII to float. It is included in the C standard library header file stdlib.h. Its prototype is as follows:
The str argument points to a string, represented by an array of characters, containing the character representation of a floating point value. If the string is not a valid textual representation of a double, atof will silently fail, returning zero (0.0) in that case.
Note that while atoi and atol return variable types corresponding with their name ("atoi" returns an integer and "atol" returns a long integer), atof however, does not return a float, it returns a double.
A related function is sscanf. This function extracts values from strings and its return argument is the number of valid values it managed to extract (so, unlike atof, sscanf can be used to test if a string starts with a valid number).

## References

* ↑ ISO/IEC 9899:1999 specification, p. 307, § 7.20.1.1

## External links

* C++ reference for std::atof
# C Programming/stdlib.h/strtod

strtod (string to double) converts a character string to a double precision floating-point value. It is defined as:
    double strtod ( const char * str, char ** endptr );

## Overview

The strtod function parses the C string str interpreting its content as a floating point number and returns its value as a double. If endptr is not a null pointer, the function also sets the value pointed by endptr to point to the first character after the number.
The function first discards as many whitespace characters as necessary until the first non-whitespace character is found. Then, starting from this character, takes as many characters as possible that are valid following a syntax resembling that of floating point literals, and interprets them as a numerical value. A pointer to the rest of the string after the last valid character is stored in the object pointed by endptr.
A valid floating point number for strtod is formed by a succession of:
* An optional plus or minus sign
* A sequence of digits, optionally containing a decimal-point character
* An optional exponent part, which itself consists on an 'e' or 'E' character followed by an optional sign and a sequence of digits.
If the first sequence of non-whitespace characters in str does not form a valid floating-point number as just defined, or if no such sequence exists because either str is empty or contains only whitespace characters, no conversion is performed.

## Parameters

str
* C string beginning with the representation of a floating-point number.
endptr
* Reference to an already allocated object of type char*, whose value is set by the function to the next character in str after the numerical value. This parameter can also be a null pointer, in which case it is not used.

## Return value

On success, the function returns the converted floating point number as a double value. If no valid conversion could be performed, a zero value (0.0) is returned. If the correct value is out of the range of representable values, a positive or negative HUGE_VAL is returned, and the global variable errno is set to ERANGE. If the correct value would cause underflow, zero is returned and errno is set to ERANGE.
The strtod function is included in stdlib.h.

## References

* ↑ ISO/IEC 9899:1999 specification (PDF). p. 308, § 7.20.1.3.

## External links

* C++ reference for std::strtod
# C Programming/stdlib.h/bsearch

In the C standard library, bsearch is a function used to search for an object in a sorted array using the binary search algorithm.
bsearch is a generic function that can search in sorted arrays of any size, containing any kind of object, or pointer to object, and using any kind of comparison predicate. The genericity, however, comes at the expense of type-safety, since bsearch operates on void pointers; and is also expensive in the number of function calls (since each comparison requires a call to the comparison predicate), which have a large overhead.

## Behaviour

The bsearch function returns a pointer to a matching member of the array, or NULL if no match is found. If the array has multiple matching elements the return value will be a pointer to one of those elements. Which particular element is unspecified.

## References

* ↑ ISO/IEC 9899:1999 specification (PDF). p. 318, § 7.20.5.1.
* ↑ UNIX man pages:man 3 bsearch

## External links

* C++ reference for std::bsearch
# C Programming/stdlib.h/div

div is a function in C programming language that takes two integers as parameters and returns the result of a division between them. It is specified in ANSI-C, and is included from the stdlib.h header when used.
div always rounds towards 0, unlike ordinary integer division in C, where rounding for negative numbers is implementation-dependent.
div has a prototype as follows:
    div_t div (int numerator, int denominator)
The return value, div_t is a special datatype which is specifically used in storing the results of this function. It is defined as follows:
Where quot stores the quotient and rem stores the remainder.
ldiv and lldiv are similar functions that divide integers of type long and long long, respectively; and return a structure of type ldiv_t and lldiv_t, respectively.

## See also

* stdlib.h
* stdio.h

## References

* ↑ http://www.open-std.org/JTC1/SC22/wg14/www/docs/n1124.pdf chapter 7.20.6.2

## External links

* C++ reference for std::div
# C Programming/stdlib.h/qsort

qsort is a function used to sort elements in an array. It is named after the quicksort algorithm, although the C standard does not require it to be implemented using any specific algorithm.
qsort is a generic function that can sort arrays of any size, containing any kind of object (although, if the objects are not the same in size, pointers have to be used) and using any kind of comparison predicate. The genericity, however, comes at the expense of type-safety, since qsort operates on void pointers.

## Behaviour

The contents of the array are sorted in order according to a comparison function pointed to by compare. When items compare equal, their order in resulting array is unspecified, meaning qsort is not required to be a stable sort.

## References

* ↑ ISO/IEC 9899:1999 specification (PDF). p. 319, § 7.20.5.2.

## External links

* C++ reference for std::qsort
# A-level Computing 2009/AQA/Problem Solving, Programming, Data Representation and Practical Exercise/Problem Solving/Algorithm design

Express the solution to a simple problem as an algorithm using flowcharts, pseudo-code or structured English and the standard constructs:

## Sequence

performing or operating each step consecutively in the order they arise

## Assignment

Assigning a value to a variable

## Selection

Selection is choosing a step

### Repetition

A sequence of steps that loop until a requirement is met
# A-level Computing 2009/AQA/Problem Solving, Programming, Data Representation and Practical Exercise/Fundamentals of Programming/questions
## Variables

Using the source code below, answer the following questions:
* Name an identifier of a global variable
* Copy down an assignment statement
* For the following, add declaration statements including datatypes
** The name of a person
** The gender of a person
** The DateOfBirth of a person
** Whether a person is a teacher or not
* Name the identifier of a local variable
* Why wouldn't you use an integer to store a person's height in metres? What would you use instead?
* Give an example of when you would use a Constant variable
* Why would the following statement be unwise for a 100m race: dim winningTime as integer
* What are the benefits of using a record?
* What is the output of the above code?
* Coded question...

## Data Structures

Using the following code answer the questions below:
* How many dimensions does the array in the above code have?
* Construct a trace table for the above code.
* What does the code do?
* Declare an empty data structure to store a chess board of 64 squares, allowing for the recording the colour of each square.
* Why is it important to write files?
* Write down the CSV code for the following data:
| Type | Colour |
| Cat | Brown |
| Dog | Purple, with red bits |
3 Validation 3.1 Constant Declarations 3.2 Selection 3.2.1 IF Statement 3.2.1.1 Nested Ifs 3.2.2 Case Statement 3.3 Iteration 3.4 Procedures and Functions 3.4.1 Declarations 3.4.2 Calls 3.4.3 Parameters 3.4.3.1 ByRef 3.4.3.2 ByVal
answers
4 Fundamentals of Structured Programming 4.1 structure tables 4.2 structure charts 4.3 hierarchy charts 4.4 Good Coding Practice 4.4.1 Use procedures that execute a single task 4.4.2 Use procedures/functions with interfaces 4.4.3 Use sensible variable datatypes 4.4.4 Meaningful identifier names 4.4.4.1 Use sensible variable names 4.4.4.2 Use sensible Function/Procedure names 4.4.5 Try to stick to one naming convention 4.4.6 Don't make your names too long 4.4.7 Indent your work 4.4.8 Use comments where necessary 4.5 The advantages of the structured approach

## Data Structures

2.1 One-Dimensional Arrays 2.2 Two-Dimensional Arrays 2.3 Fields 2.4 Records 2.5 Files 3 Validation 4 Fundamentals of Structured Programming 4.1 Constant Declarations 4.2 Selection 4.2.1 IF Statement 4.2.1.1 Nested Ifs 4.2.2 Case Statement 4.3 Iteration 4.4 Procedures and Functions 4.4.1 Declarations 4.4.2 Calls 4.4.3 Parameters 4.4.3.1 ByRef 4.4.3.2 ByVal 5 Good Coding Practice 5.1 Use sensible variable datatypes 5.2 Use sensible variable names 5.3 Use sensible Function/Procedure names 5.4 Try to stick to one naming convention 5.5 Don't make your names too long 5.6 Indent your work 5.7 Use comments where necessary
# A-level Computing 2009/AQA/Problem Solving, Programming, Data Representation and Practical Exercise/Problem Solving

* From the Specification : Introduction to Principles of Computation
* Focus on studying the processes of computation and understanding why and where they are important in Computing.
* (See the Teacher Resource Bank for examples.)
* From the Specification : Stages of Problem Solving
* Understand the problem
* Define the problem
* given(s), goal, ownership, resources and constraints
* Given(s) = the initial situation
* Goal = Desired target situation
* Ownership = who does what
* Resources and constraints = tools, knowledge, skills, materials and rules, regulations, guidelines, boundaries, timings
* Define boundaries
* Plan solution.
* Check solution
* From the Specification : Top-down Design / Step-wise Refinement
* Consider sub-problems and the use of modules.
* From the Specification : Decision tables
* Determine logical conditions and consequential actions
* Finite state machines with outputs - Mealy machine
* Finite state machines without outputs - Finite State Automation
* state transition diagrams - Draw and interpret simple state transition diagrams, transition tables.
* state transition tables
* Decision tables
* Finite state machines
* From the Specification : Algorithm Design
* Understand the term algorithm.
* Express the solution to a simple problem as an algorithm using flowcharts, pseudo-code or structured English and the standard constructs:
* sequence
* assignment
* selection
* repetition
* Hand trace simple algorithms.
* Convert a simple algorithm from
* structured English into pseudo-code,
* pseudo-code into high level program code.
* Understand the standard algorithms: Bubble Sort, Linear Search
* Algorithm design
* Trace tables
* Pseudo code
* Searching and sorting
# A-level Computing 2009/AQA/Problem Solving, Programming, Data Representation and Practical Exercise/Fundamentals of Programming/answers
## Variables

* number1
** dim name as string
** dim gender as char or ENUM
** dim DoB as date
** dim teacher as boolean
* number1
* A person's height in metres is a decimal number, an integer only stores whole numbers. You should use a double or a single instead.
# A-level Computing 2009/AQA/Problem Solving, Programming, Data Representation and Practical Exercise/Problem Solving/Decision tables

Decision tables are compact and precise ways of modelling complicated logic, such as that which you might use in a computer program. They do this by mapping the different states of a program to an action that a program should perform. Decision tables take on the following format:
The four quadrants :
| Conditions | Condition alternatives |
| Actions | Action entries |
The limited-entry decision table is the simplest to describe. The condition alternatives are simple Boolean values, and the action entries are check-marks, representing which of the actions in a given column are to be performed.
A technical support company writes a decision table to diagnose printer problems based upon symptoms described to them over the phone from their clients. They type the following data into the advice program:
* Printer does print
* Red light is flashing
* Printer is recognised
The program then uses the decision table to find the correct actions to perform, namely that of Check / Replace ink.
Printer troubleshooter :
| | | Rules | Rules | Rules | Rules | Rules | Rules | Rules | Rules |
| Conditions | Printer does not print | Y | Y | Y | Y | N | N | N | N |
| Conditions | A red light is flashing | Y | Y | N | N | Y | Y | N | N |
| Conditions | Printer is unrecognised | Y | N | Y | N | Y | N | Y | N |
| Actions | Check the power cable | | | X | | | | | |
| Actions | Check the printer-computer cable | X | | X | | | | | |
| Actions | Ensure printer software is installed | X | | X | | X | | X | |
| Actions | Check/replace ink | X | X | | | X | X | | |
| Actions | Check for paper jam | | X | | X | | | | |
Example: Decision Tables
Let's take a look at a computer game example, for a football simulation the following rules are set up.
Rules
Conditions90 minutesYYY
Team A WinningY
Team B WinningYY
DrawY
ActionsGame OverXX
Team A WinsX
Team B WinsX
Extra TimeX
Keep PlayingXX
What happens when:
90 minutes up
the game is a draw
Answer: Keep Playing and give them some extra time :
Exercise: Decision Tables
Create a decision table for the following program in an office email system
Send email when Recipient address present, subject present, before 5:30pm
If after 5:30pm then put in pending folder
If Recipient address missing or subject message, give warning message
Answer:
This question is open to interpretation, but you should have something resembling this:
Rules
ConditionsAddress PresentYYY
Subject PresentYYY
Before 5:30YYY
ActionsSend MailX
Error MessageXX
Make pendingX
Describe the use of Decision Tables
Answer:
Determine logical conditions and consequential actions. :
# Biomedical Engineering Theory And Practice/Licensing
## License

The text of this book is released under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 and GNU Free Documentation License. The particular version of that license that is being used can be found at:
    Wikibooks:Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License
    Wikibooks:GNU Free Documentation License
The text of that license will also be appended to the end of the printable version of this book.
Images used in this document are available under various licenses. Clicking on the image will take you to a description page where the licensing information is displayed.

## Authors List

* Hanjin Deviasse
** First Authorship:
** Contribution:
* Islam S. Badreldin
** First Authorship: February, 2008
** Contribution: 4 edits, 1page
* Muhammad A. Hilal
** First Authorship:
** Contribution:
* Brandon Howard
** First Authorship:July, 2011
** Contribution:
# Biomedical Engineering Theory And Practice/Medical Imaging & Analysis

Over the past century, many physicists and physicians have been trying to deliver an enhanced healthcare services. The main obstacle was understanding the structure and the functionality of the human system!!.

## Table Of Contents

* Radiography
* Spectroscopy
* Nuclear Imaging
* Fluoroscopy
* Ultrasound
* Magnetic Resonance Imaging
* Computed Tomography
* Electrocardiography

## References

* Basic Physics of Digital Radiography
# Biomedical Engineering Theory And Practice/Local manuals of style

This as where the local manual of style goes. Help:Local manuals of style
# Chemical Sciences: A Manual for CSIR-UGC National Eligibility Test for Lectureship and JRF/Nuclear orientation

Nuclear orientation, in nuclear physics, is the directional ordering of an assembly of nuclear spins with respect to some axis in space.
A nuclear level with spin in a magnetic field will divide into magnetic sub-levels with an energy spacing. The populations of these levels are determined by the Boltzmann distribution at a steady temperature and will essentially be equal. The exponential in the Boltzmann distribution should not be equal to 1 to obtain unequal populations. To achieve this, cooling to a temperature of around 10 milli-Kelvin is needed. Typically, this is achieved by implanting the nuclei of interest into ferromagnetic hosts.
In the mid 1940s, Yevgeny Zavoisky developed electron paramagnetic resonance, eventually leading to the concept of nuclear orientation. In the early 1950s, Neville Robinson, Jim Daniels, and Michael Grace produced an example of nuclear orientation for the first time at the Clarendon Laboratory, University of Oxford. There is now a Nuclear Orientation Group at Oxford.

## Bibliography

* K. S. Krane, Nuclear orientation and nuclear structure. Hyperfine Interactions, Volume 43, Numbers 1–4, pages 3–14, December, 1988. doi:10.1007/BF02398283
* B. Bleaney, Cross-relaxation and nuclear orientation in ytterbium vanadate. Proceedings: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences, Volume 455, Number 1988, pages 2835–2839, 8 August 1999. Published by The Royal Society.
* B. Bleaney, Dynamic nuclear polarization and nuclear orientation in terbium vanadate. Applied Magnetic Resonance, Volume 21, Number 1, pages 35–38, December, 1988. doi:10.1007/BF03162437

## References

* ↑ Nuclear orientation, The Free Dictionary.
* ↑ Nuclear orientation, AccessScience.
* 1 2 General Idea of Nuclear Orientation, Nuclear Orientation Group, University of Oxford, UK.
* ↑ B. Bleaney and O. V. Lounasmaa, Nuclear Orientation and Nuclear Cooling Experiments in Oxford and Helsinki. Part 2. Progress from 1945 to 1970. Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London, Volume 57, Number 3, pages 323–330, September 2003. Published by The Royal Society.
* ↑ Nicholas Kurti, Obituary: Neville Robinson. The Independent, 27 November 1996.
# Chemical Sciences: A Manual for CSIR-UGC National Eligibility Test for Lectureship and JRF/Optode

An optode or optrode is an optical sensor device that optically measures a specific substance usually with the aid of a chemical transducer.

## Construction

An optode requires three components to function: a chemical that responds to an analyte, a polymer to immobilise the chemical transducer and instrumentation (optical fibre, light source, detector and other electronics). Optodes usually have the polymer matrix coated onto the tip of an optical fibre, but in the case of evanescent wave optodes the polymer is coated on a section of fibre that has been unsheathed.

## Operation

Optodes can apply various optical measurement schemes such as reflection, absorption, evanescent wave, luminescence (fluorescence and phosphorescences), chemiluminescence, surface plasmon resonance. By far the most popular methodology is luminescence.
Luminescence in solution obeys the linear Stern-Volmer relationship. Fluorescence of a molecule is quenched by specific analytes, e.g. ruthenium complexes are quenched by oxygen. When a fluorophore is immobilised within a polymer matrix a myriad of micro-environments are created. The micro-environments reflect varying diffusion co-efficients for the analyte. This leads to a non-linear relationship between the fluorescence and the quencher (analyte). This relationship is modelled in various ways, the most popular model is the two site model created by James Demas (University of Virginia).
The signal (fluorescence) to oxygen ratio is not linear, and an optode is most sensitive at low oxygen concentration, i.e. the sensitivity decreases as oxygen concentration increases. The optode sensors can however work in the whole region 0–100% oxygen saturation in water, and the calibration is done the same way as with the Clark type sensor. No oxygen is consumed and hence the sensor is stirring insensitive, but the signal will stabilize more quickly if the sensor is stirred after being put into the sample.

## Popularity

Optical sensors are growing in popularity due to the low-cost, low power requirements and long term stability. They provide viable alternatives to electrode-based sensors or more complicated analytical instrumentation.
Major international conferences are devoted to their development e.g. Europtrode VIII Tübingen 2006, OFS 18, Cancun 2006.
# Chemical Sciences: A Manual for CSIR-UGC National Eligibility Test for Lectureship and JRF/Pake doublet

A Pake Doublet is a characteristic line shape seen in solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance. It was first described by George Pake.
It arises from dipolar coupling between two spin half nuclei, or from transitions in quadrupolar nuclei such as deuterium. Pake extracted the proton-proton distance from his experiments on a single crystal and powdered hydrates of gypsum (CaSO$_4$.2H$_2$O).

## References

* ↑ Nuclear Resonance Absorption in Hydrated Crystals: Fine Structure of the Proton Line,G. E. Pake, J. Chem. Phys. 16, 327 (1948); doi:10.1063/1.1746878; http://link.aip.org/link/JCPSA6/v16/i4/p327/s1