OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# GCSE Science

This General Science book is aimed at GCSE students rather than university students.

## Contents by Topic

Introduction

### Biology

* Cells
* Plants
* Photosynthesis and Plant Respiration
* Digestion
* Breathing and Respiration
* The heart and circulation
* Hormones & The menstrual cycle
* Disease
* DNA, Inheritance, Selection, Evolution and Competition
* Environment
* Plant Sensitivity and Transport
* The Nervous System
* Ecology
* Genetics
* Homeostasis

### Chemistry

* Equations and Formulae
* Atoms and Bonding
* The Periodic Table
* Ionic Compounds
* Simple Molecular Substances
* Giant Covalent Substances
* Metals and Non-Metals
* States of Matter
* Separation and Purification
* Acids & Bases, Salts and Electrolysis
* Transition Metals
* Periodic Table Groups
* Rates of Reaction
* Fuels
* Earth Science
* Chemistry Calculations
* Organic Chemistry

### Physics

* Electricity
* Forces and Motion
* Waves
* Radioactivity
* Energy
* Light and the Electromagnetic Spectrum
* Astronomy
* Magnetism and Motor Effect
* Electromagnetic Induction
* Particle Model

## Contents by Modules

The GCSE exam can be modular or combined. It is sensible however to divide the subject into modules despite the exam system used. Although this page is set out using the English system, students from other nations will still find much of the material relevant.

### Modules usually studied in year 10
#### AQA

* Humans as Organisms
* Maintenance of Life
* Metals
* Earth Materials
* Energy
* Electricity

#### OCR

* BD1 Supplying the cell
* BD2 Control in Animals and Plants
* BD3 Ecology
* CD1 Rates of Reactions
* CD2 Energy in Chemistry
* CD3 Rocks and Metals
* PD1 Waves in Action
* PD2 Energy in the Home
* PD3 Forces and Motion

#### Edexcel
### Modules usually studied in year 11
#### AQA

* Environment
* Inheritance and selection
* Waves and Radiation
* Structures and Bonding
* Forces
* Patterns of chemical change

#### Edexcel
### Coursework

* GCSE Science/Coursework marking system
* GCSE Science/Coursework advice

#### Common coursework experiments

* GCSE Science/Osmosis in potato slices coursework
* GCSE Science/Temperature dependence of enzymes coursework
* GCSE Science/Stretch of an elastic band coursework
* GCSE Science/Voltage/current characteristics of a bulb coursework
* GCSE Science/Rates of reaction coursework
* Carbon dioxide production of yeast as affected by temperature
# GCSE Science/Analogue and digital signals

Signals can be transmitted as either analogue or digital signals.

## Digital signals

Digital signals are now being increasingly used. They can take only two values:
* On (1) ___---___
* Off (0)_________
For instance when a CD is "burned", The information is quite literally burned into it with small holes representing ones and the spaces in between representing zeros (underscores or dashes)

## Advantages of digital signals

* There is less interference because noise is not recognised and amplified during transmission.
* Multiple independent signals can easily be transferred over the same physical channel without crosstalk due to multiplexing.

### Multiplexing

In multiplexing, data from multiple signals is split into small sections, optionally compressed, and then sent down a data line. The system cycles though each signal in turn, allowing data from all signals to be transferred over a single data path.
# GCSE Modern History/The Treaty of Versailles

The Treaty of Versailles dealt with and imposed sanctions on the defeated Germany.

## Who was Involved

The Big three all attended. Germany was also allowed to be present but not to speak. The three leaders were David Lloyd George (Britain), Woodrow Wilson (America) and Georges Clemenceau (France).

### Britain

Lloyd George wanted a fair settlement that would create a lasting peace. However, the people of Britain wanted to punish Germany hard so Lloyd George has to take a middle ground between Wilson and Clemenceau. Lloyd George also wanted to secure many of Germany's overseas territories for Britain. this completed Britain's control of East Africa, allowing them to build a railway from the North to South.

### France

France wanted to punish Germany hard for what they had done, twice now. Clemenceau and the people of France wanted to charge large reparations and to split Germany up into many smaller states. However, many of his demands were not met as the other two leaders felt that they were unreasonable and would create another war.

### America

As America had the least involvement, they took a more forgiving approach. Wilson wanted to create a just lasting peace that was fair for Germany. He also wanted a League of Nations to be set up. This would be a place where countries could talk over disagreements and eventually work towards disarmament.

## The Terms

These are the terms that were set out in the Treaty of Versailles.

### War guilt

Germany had to agree that is was solely responsible for starting the war, and had to announce this publicly.

### Reparations

It was agreed that Germany would have to pay reparations to pay back for the damage they had done to the Allies.
* The exact amount of reparations, £6600 million, was agreed in 1921.
* This was reduced by the Young Plan in 1929. If it was no they would not have finished paying until 1984.

### Territories

The part of the treaty that dealt with territories was a complex one. The main points that were agreed were:
* They lost large parts of land in Europe.
* Their overseas colonies became mandates controlled by League of Nations. This meant that they were effectively controlled by Britain and France.
* They could not unite with their former ally, Austria.

### Armed forces

The following things were agreed:
* The German army would be limited 100 000 men.
* Conscription would be banned - all soldiers would have to be volunteers.
* The army would have no tanks, submarines or aircraft
* Their navy would be limited to 6 battleships.
* No armed forces would be stationed in the Rhineland

### League of Nations

The League of Nations would be set up amongst the allied countries to help maintain world peace. Germany, which was not considered a peaceful country at the time, would not be invited to join the League. This was Woodrow Wilson's main aim at negotiations; except from creating a 'just and lasting peace'.
# GCSE Modern History/The USA in the 1920s

This chapter is split into three sections:
* The Boom
* Society in the 1920s
* Prohibition
# GCSE Modern History/Yalta and Potsdam
## The Yalta Conference

The Yalta Conference, in February 1945, was fairly successful. Churchill, Roosevelt, and Stalin agreed on a number of things:
* They would join the United Nations Organization.
* Stalin would join the war against Japan.
* Germany, and Berlin, would be divided into four zones (American, British, French, and Soviet).
* They would hunt down war criminals.
* Eastern Europe would be seen as 'a Soviet sphere of influence.'
* All countries liberated from Germany would be allowed to hold free elections.
* The Big Three had to compromise about Poland. Stalin wanted to take Polish territory and allow Poland to take German territory. The other two let him have his way with Poland, but he had to agree to not interfere in Greece, where a civil war between monarchists and Communists was brewing.

## The Potsdam Conference

The Potsdam conference was after the Yalta conference. The Potsdam was held in August 1945.

### Break-down of the Alliance

By the Potsdam conference the war-time alliance between the USA and the USSR had broken down. There were a number of reasons for this:
* Stalin's armies occupied eastern Europe.
* America had a new president, Truman, who was more anti-Communist than Roosevelt.
* America had successfully tested an atomic bomb on July 16th 1945 one day before the conference had began but the USSR were aware of this due to embedded spies.

### Disagreements

Very little was agreed at Potsdam. The three leaders at that time had many disagreements:
* They disagreed over what to do about Germany.
* They disagreed over Soviet policy in eastern Europe. Truman was unhappy of Russian intentions.
* Stalin wanted to cripple Germany, Truman did not want to repeat the mistakes of Versailles.
* They disagreed over reparations. Once again Stalin wanted to cripple Germany, and Truman wanted to avoid another war.
* Truman was angry because Stalin had arrested non-communist leaders in Poland.
* Truman dropped the atomic bomb so that Japan would surrender before Russian troops could go into Japan. America had the bomb in July 1945, but Truman did not tell Stalin about it. There was little surprise from Stalin however as records now show that Stalin was aware of the atomic bomb whilst it was being created by America due to his extensive spy network.
# GCSE Science/Acceleration

Acceleration is defined as change in the velocity of an object. Thus, any object which has been set in motion from rest, or stopped from moving, or which has changed direction of motion from a straight line, has undergone some acceleration.
The mathematical dimensions of acceleration are dV/dt, or in other words, change of velocity with respect to time. This is equivalent to (dx/dt)/dt or dx/dt² and so acceleration involves itself, only distance and time.
The acceleration of any isolated object is evidence that some external force has acted upon it (as expounded in the physical laws of Isaac Newton). This accelerating force can be described mathematically by the equation F = mA (force = mass x acceleration), which can be rearranged to A = F/m. Therefore, acceleration is directly proportional to the force acting on an object, and inversely proportional to the objects mass, which correlates with everyday experience; the greater the push, the faster an object is accelerated, and the heavier the object, the more difficult it is to accelerate.
The observation of accelerations is of fundamental importance in experimental physics. It is through these observations that otherwise invisible forces can be detected and quantified. For example, it was through the observation of the acceleration of an apple downward from a tree that Sir Isaac Newton was led to the hypothesis of universal gravitation. And, it is possible through such observations to quantify not only the force involved, but also the mass of an object (if the force is known) - this is how the mass of subatomic particles can be measured, for example.
As the relative velocity of an object approaches the speed of light, the mathematical description involved in acceleration becomes more complicated; more and more of the kinetic energy of an object becomes manifested as an increase in its mass, making acceleration progressively more difficult. This is of no consequence in observations made under 'ordinary' conditions, however.
MD
# GCSE Science/Answers-Static Electricity

Back to GCSE Science/Static Electricity
Q1) 3 --- all atoms have the same number of protons as electrons
Q2) Negative --- electrons have been added to the balloon.
Q3 left hand pair) Negative--- The balloons are repelled
Q3 right hand pair)Positive --- The balloons are attracted. Remember '"like charges repel, unlike charges attract
Q4) The purpose of the washing up bowl is to insulate the girl from the ground. People are reasonable conductors of electricity. If the girl just stood on the floor electricity would run through her body and leak away. She would act as an earth wire for the Van de Graaf.
Q5) The girl's hairs all pick up static electricity from the Van de Graaf machine. Remember like charges repel, so each hair tries to get as far away from the other hairs as possible. That is why her hair stands on end.
# French/Lessons/Historical France

* Vacations
* Work
* Health
* Money
* Youth
* Adolescence
* Historical France
* Revolutionary France
* Modern France
* Current events
Lessons · Vocabulary · Grammar · Appendices · Texts

## Grammar · Simple past of regular verbs

Unlike in English, there is a literary past tense in French, used when writing formally. This past tense is the passé simple . It is relatively simple to predict when to use this tense: for every occurrence of the passé composé in conversational French, one simply uses the passé simple in literary French. Note that the passé simple is not a composed tense, and therefore does not have an auxiliary verb.

### Formation

To conjugate in this tense, find the stem and appends the appropriate ending.

### Regular stems

The following verbs are irregular in the present indicative, but are regular in their passé simple stems.

## Exercises

    Complétez les phrases suivantes en conjuguant les verbes au passé simple:
* J'_____ (entrer) dans le tour.
* Tout d'un coup, mon ami ____ (tomber).
* Nous _________ (monter) l'éscalier.
* Je _____ (dire) aux professeurs qu'il _______ (regarder) la télé.
* Ils t'_______ (offrir) le plat, et tu le _______ (laisser) tomber.
← Adolescence ·  Level three lessons  · Revolutionary France →
Vacations · Work · Health · Money · Youth · Adolescence · Historical France · Revolutionary France · Modern France · Current events
Lessons :
Introductory · Level one · Level two · Level three · Level four
French :
Lessons · Vocabulary · Grammar · Appendices · Texts
# French/Lessons/Introductory/Test

* Introduction
* The alphabet
* Greetings
* Formal speech
* Numbers
* Dates
* Telling time
Lessons · Vocabulary · Grammar · Appendices · Texts
Test answers
The following test will confirm your progress in the French introduction. Try to answer the questions to the best of your ability without turning to the previous chapters or consulting the test answers.

## Grammar
### Verb forms

Name the verb forms for the subject and infinitive specified. (1 point each)

## Translating
### English to French

Translate the following phrases and sentences into French. (2 points each)
* What day is today?
* How are you?
* What is your name?

### French to English

Translate this dialogue between Henri and Jacques into English. Each phrase is worth 1 points. (11 points total)
* Bonjour! Quel est ton nom?
* Je m'appelle Jacques. Comment vous-appelez vous?
* Je m'appelle Henri. Comment ça va?
* Pas mal. Et toi, comment ça va?
* Trés bien, merci. À demain Jacques!
* À demain Henri.

## Reading comprehension
### Fill in the blank

Fill in the blanks in these conversations. Note: Every blank is one word. (1 point each)

## Vocabulary
### Matching

Match the French words with their English definitions. (1 point each)
Introductory lessons
Introduction · The alphabet · Greetings · Formal speech · Numbers · Dates · Telling time
Lessons :
Introductory · Level one · Level two · Level three · Level four
French :
Lessons · Vocabulary · Grammar · Appendices · Texts
# French/Lessons/Introductory

Lessons · Vocabulary · Grammar · Appendices · Texts

## Contents
### Introduction · Introduction

    History, extent of the language, advice on studying French

### Alphabet · L'alphabet

    Grammar · Letters and examples, final consonants, dental consonants, b and p, aspirated vs. non-aspirated h, diacritics (accents)
    Vocabulary · Punctuation

### Greetings · Les salutations

    Vocabulary · Greetings, good-byes, How are you?, names

### Formal speech · Le discours formel

    Grammar · Vous vs. tu
    Vocabulary · Courtesy, titles, asking for one's name

### Numbers · Les nombres

    Vocabulary · Cardinal numbers, mathematics, How much?, ordinal numbers

### Dates · Les dates

    Vocabulary · Days, months, seasons, age

### Telling time · L'heure

    Vocabulary · Time, time of day

### Review · Exercises · Test

Introductory · Level one · Level two · Level three · Level four
French :
Lessons · Vocabulary · Grammar · Appendices · Texts
# French/Lessons/Introductory/Exercises

* Introduction
* The alphabet
* Greetings
* Formal speech
* Numbers
* Dates
* Telling time
Lessons · Vocabulary · Grammar · Appendices · Texts

## Vocabulary

Your friend François sees you and starts a conversation. How might you respond?
* François: Salut. Comment vas-tu ?
    You: _________
* François: Quoi de neuf ?
    You: _________
* François: À la prochaine.
    You: _________
There are many possible responses.
* You: ça va bien merci.
* You: rien.
* You: au revoir.

## Grammar

Qu'est-ce que c'est ? (What is it?) Respond with C'est ____ (It is ____)
* C'est le point virgule.
* C'est l'asterisque.
* C'est le point d'exclamation.
* C'est l'arobase.
* C'est le dièse.
* C'est le point.
Introductory lessons
Introduction · The alphabet · Greetings · Formal speech · Numbers · Dates · Telling time
Lessons :
Introductory · Level one · Level two · Level three · Level four
French :
Lessons · Vocabulary · Grammar · Appendices · Texts
# French/Lessons/Introductory/Review

* Introduction
* The alphabet
* Greetings
* Formal speech
* Numbers
* Dates
* Telling time
Lessons · Vocabulary · Grammar · Appendices · Texts

## G: The French alphabet

In addition, French uses several accents which are worth understanding. These are: à, è, ù, (grave accents) and é (acute accent). A circumflex applies to all vowels: â, ê, î, ô, û. A tréma (French for dieresis) is also applied: ä, ë, ï, ö, ü, ÿ. Two combined letters are used: æ and œ, and a cedilla is used on the c to make it sound like an English s: ç.

## V: Numbers
#### Things of note about numbers

* For 70-79, it builds upon "soixante" but past that it builds upon a combination of terms for 80-99
* Only the first (21,31,41,51,61 and 71, but not 81 nor 91) have "et un" without a hyphen; but past this it is simply both words consecutively (vingt-six, trente-trois, etc.) with a hyphen in between.
* For 100-199, it looks much like this list already save that "cent" is added before the rest of the number; this continues up to 1000 and onward.

## V: Time

In French, “il est” is used to express the time; though it would literally translate as “he is”, it is actually, in this case, equivalent to “it is” (unpersonal "il"). Unlike in English, it is always important to use “heures” (“hours”) when referring to the time. In English, it is OK to say, “It’s nine,” but this wouldn’t make sense in French. The French time system traditionally uses a 24-hour scale. Shorthand for writing times in French follows the format "17h30", which would represent 5:30PM in English.

## V: The days of the week.

* The days of the week are not capitalized in French.
* For phrases relating to the day of the week, see the phrasebook.
Notes:
* What day is it today? is equivalent to Quel jour sommes-nous ?.
* Quel jour sommes-nous ? can be answered with Nous sommes..., C'est... or On est... (last two are less formal).
* Nous sommes... is not used with hier, aujourd’hui, or demain. C'était (past) or C'est (present/future) must be used accordingly.

## Dialogue · A conversation between friends · Une conversation entre amis

^1 Bien... is an adverb meaning well. Its adjective equivalent is bon(ne), which means good. Since je vais, meaning I go, uses an action verb, the adverb bien is used. In English, I'm good, which uses the linking verb am, is followed by an adjective rather than an adverb.
^2 Est-ce que... doesn't mean anything (like the Spanish upside down question mark) and is used to start a question. This can be used in a similar manner to do in English. Instead of You want it?, one can say Do you want it?
^3 chez... is a preposition meaning at the house of.... Chez moi is used to say at my place. Chez [name] is used to say at [name's] place.
^4 on... can mean we or one.
Introductory lessons
Introduction · The alphabet · Greetings · Formal speech · Numbers · Dates · Telling time
Lessons :
Introductory · Level one · Level two · Level three · Level four
French :
Lessons · Vocabulary · Grammar · Appendices · Texts
# How to Pass a Course
## Preface

Many students have constant problems with different courses, despite the effort put in. This short guide will show some basic steps on how to pass a course.
This is not meant to be a full treatise on study methods, but rather a practical guide of various techniques.
The effectiveness of various study techniques varies from person to person. This wikibook is concentrating mostly on the techniques that commonly work well. Some people who will find that a personal technique, sometimes unconventional, works better.

## Contents

* Introduction
* Going to classes
* Assignments
* Studying
* Taking notes
* If you must cram
* Exams
* Practice
* Resources

## Related books

* College Survival Guide
# How to Mod Civ 4/What is a mod?

To mod Civilization 4, you have 3 choices of where to mod: XML, Python, and DLL. Some are harder than others, and some things can only be done in one of them. Depending on what you're trying to make, you might need any combination of the three. However, there are some things you need to know about how mods work in Civ 4 first.

### What is a mod?

A mod, put simply, is something that changes the base game to improve or alter it to suit a particular purpose. For Civ, we have a range of mods going from "total conversions" like Fall From Heaven 2 which change almost everything about the game, and also mods like Varietas Delectat, which just adds some nicer graphics.
# How to Pass a Course/Introduction
## Introduction

Welcome to How to Pass a Course, a wikibook made for students. It covers subjects such as classroom seating, note taking, assignment completion, study techniques, to cramming techniques. It is our hope that students in both college and high school will be able to use this text throughout their years of education.
# How to Make a Paper Airplane/World Record Paper Airplanes (School Project)

For years, thousands of people have tried to set the Guinness World Record for the farthest flight by a paper airplane. Many have come close, but the record belongs to Dillon Rubble, Nathaniel Erickson, and Garret Jenson. These three studied aerospace engineering together at Missouri SandT which lead to the group finalizing their design. They based the plane on hypersonic aerospace vehicles. On December 2, 2022, in Crown Point, Indiana, the paper airplane flew 88.31 meters (289ft 9in) Another impressive Guinness World Record that contains paper airplanes is the "longest flying paper aircraft duration." This record was set on December 19, 2010, in Fukuyama, Japan. Takuo Toda threw a paper airplane which managed to stay in the air for 29.2 seconds.
# How to Mod Civ 4

This book is a compilation of tutorials about how to mod the massively popular Civilization 4 by Firaxis Games, and its expansion packs: Warlords and Beyond the Sword. Hopefully, when complete, this will be an almost concise storage of all of the modding techniques that have been developed, adapted or ingeniously created by the modding communities of CivFanatics and Apolyton.

## Contents

Wikibook Development Stages :
| Under Construction | Sparse text | Developing text | Maturing text | Developed text | Comprehensive text: |

### Beginners

* What is a mod?
* So many files! Where do I start?

### Designing a mod

* Planning ahead
* Things to remember
* The pitfalls of modding

### Arting it up

* Making a new unit
* Creating a 3D LH
# How to Make a Paper Airplane/World Record Paper Airplanes

For years, thousands of people have tried to set the Guinness World Record for the farthest flight by a paper airplane. Many have come close, but the record belongs to Dillon Rubble, Nathaniel Erickson, and Garret Jenson. These three studied aerospace engineering together at Missouri SandT which lead to the group finalizing their design. They based the plane on hypersonic aerospace vehicles. On December 2, 2022, in Crown Point, Indiana, the paper airplane flew 88.31 meters (289ft 9in)
Another impressive Guinness World Record that contains paper airplanes is the "longest flying paper aircraft duration." This record was set on December 19, 2010, in Fukuyama, Japan. Takuo Toda threw a paper airplane which managed to stay in the air for 29.2 seconds.