OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Prefetching and Spiders

GET requests are not supposed/expected to trigger actions/changes and are happily followed by various browser mechanisms like Prefetching or Session Restore and by crawlers. This can cause unwanted actions to be triggered completely without user interaction and without the need for an attack.

## To prevent this

* Use POST requests instead of GETs for anything that triggers an action

## Rationale

GET requests can be automatically and unintentionally triggered, for example by crawlers. For example in cases of “delete” buttons, this can cause a single user with aggressive Prefetching to accidentally delete everything just by opening a listing page. POST requests are expected to trigger actions and are handled accordingly by browsers.
# A-level Mathematics/MEI/FP1/Complex Numbers/argand diagram answers

1.
    $z=20+0j$
    wanted form = $z=r(cos\theta +jsin\theta )$
    $r={\sqrt {20^{2}+0^{2}}}=20$
    $tan({0 \over 20})=0$
    $z=20(cos(0)+jsin(0))$
2.
    $z=0+12j$
    wanted form = $z=r(cos\theta +jsin\theta )$
    $r={\sqrt {}{0^{2}+12^{2}})=12$
    $tan({12em \over 0})=\infty$
    $tan^{-1}(\infty )={\pi \over 2}$ - You need to look at the graph to get this really. Using Sine or Cosine may be advisable in this situation.
    $z=12(cos({\pi \over 2})+jsin({\pi \over 2}))$
# A-level Mathematics/MEI/FP1/Complex Numbers/solutions to powers of j questions

1.
    $j^{9}=(j^{5})(j^{4})=(j)(1)=j$
2.
    $j^{22}=(j^{4})(j^{4})(j^{4})(j^{4})(j^{4})(j^{2})=(1)(1)(1)(1)(1)(j^{2})=j^{2}=-1$
Any questions?, FAQs will be posted here.
Return
# A-level Mathematics/MEI/DE/Introduction to Differential Equations
## Introduction to Differential Equations

This chapter focuses on getting you to grips with some techniques to solve first order differential equations, as well as how to use differential equations to model situations; like newtons law of cooling, or motion

### Sections

* Using Differential Equations in Modelling
* Separation of variables
* Integrating Factors
# A-level Mathematics/MEI/FP2

This chapter deals with the Further Pure 2 Module of the MEI AS/A2 mathematics GCE. It is assumed that readers are familiar with C1, C2, C3, C4 and FP1.

## Examination Structure

The exam consists of 4 questions. There are 72 marks available on the paper, with 18 marks for each question. It is split into two sections, Section A and Section B. Section A consists of three questions. Section B contains 1 question on hyperbolic functions The time allowed for the paper is 1 hour 30 minutes. The Investigation of Curves chapter is included in the textbook but there is no longer an option to choose to answer a question on this topic and so section B is just one question on hyperbolic functions.

## Contents

* Advanced Calculus
* Polar Co-ordinates
* Complex Numbers
* Power Series
* Matrices
* Hyperbolic Functions
* Investigation of curves
# A-level Mathematics/MEI/FP1

* Matrices
* Complex Numbers
* Graphs and Inequalities
* Algebraic Identities and Roots of Equations
* Induction and Series
# A-level Mathematics/MEI/FP1/Complex Numbers

A complex number is something that has both real and imaginary parts. So what is an imaginary number? an imaginary number is represented as j. j$^2$ = -1 so -1$^{0.5}$ = j. Using j all quadratics can be solved. this makes j a very powerful and usable idea. j is not a prime.
We often give complex numbers in Cartesian form $z=a+bj$
Note: The letter j is generally used by engineers and i by mathematicians. j is used throughout this course.

## Proof

how do you solve this: $x^{2}+1=0$ ?
You can rearrange into:
* $x^{2}=-1$
* $x={\sqrt {-1}}$
However how do we then deal with the ${\sqrt {-1}}$? We do it by substituting it for a letter, j. This works because: $({\sqrt {-1}})^{2}+1=0$ is true which was our original equation. Therefore j is a root of this equation.

## Operations
### Powers of j

powers of j are very interesting and show a looping pattern.
$j^{2}=-1$,
$j^{3}=-j$,
$j^{4}=1$,
$j^{5}=j$,
This fact can be used to simplify complex numbers.

#### Questions

Simplify
   * $j^{9}$
   * $j^{22}$
worked solutions

### Basic Operations

These can all be easily calculated by yourself, I've just included them to show that j follows all of the rules of algebra.
Addition: $(a+bj)+(c+dj)=(a+c)+(b+d)j$
subtraction: $(a+bj)-(c+dj)=(a-c)+(b-d)j$
Multiplication: $(a+bj)(c+dj)=ac+adj+bcj+bdj^{2}=ac-bd+(ad+bc)j$
Division: $(a+bj)\div (c+dj)=a\div (c+dj)+bj\div (c+dj)$. Essentially the same but there is no real simplification.

#### Question

Evaluate
* $5j+3j$
* $7(3j)$
* $(9+2j)(1-j)+3-2j$
* $(21+7j)\div 7$
worked solutions

## Argand diagrams

Complex numbers can be plotted on an Argand diagram, with the x axis being used to represent real numbers and the y axis being used to represent the imaginary part of an equation.
Knowledge of Radians is recommended for the next section.
We can therefore give complex numbers in a different form, using their modulus (distance from origin) and angle (in radians). This is called polar form. $z=r(cos\theta +jsin\theta )$.
These equations can be calculated using simple trigonometry and Pythagoras.
$r=|{\sqrt {a^{2}+b^{2}}}|$
$\theta =tan^{-1}({b \over a})$
With θ in radians and -π < θ ≤ π
You may wonder what the value of polar form is, and that's fine as it is not readily apparent. When the solutions of an equation are plotted on an Argand diagram they form a circle (and finding the equation of the circle is a common question) The equation of a circle in this form is: $z=|r(a,b)j|$

#### Questions

Find the polar form
   * $20$
   * $12j$
   * $4+3j$
   * $12+5j$
worked answers
# A-level Mathematics/MEI/FP1/Complex Numbers/basic operations solutions

1.
    $5j+3j=(5+3)j=8(j)=8j$
2.
    $7(3j)=(7)(3)(j)=21(j)=21j$
3.
    $(9+2j)(1-j)+3-2j=9-2j^{2}-2j-9j+3-2j=9-11j-(2)(-1)+3-2j=9+2+3-11j-2j=14-13j$
4.
    $(21+7j)\div 7=21\div 7+7j\div 7=3+j$
Any questions?, FAQs will be posted here.
return
# A-level Mathematics/MEI/FP2/Advanced Calculus
## Required Techniques

This chapter assumes you have a good knowledge of several techniques you should have learned in Core Mathematics, notably the product, quotient and chain rules for differentiation, integration by substitution and parts and an awareness of trigonometric identities including double angle formulas.

## Inverse Trigonometric Functions

You are given the following standard results in the MEI formula booklet:

#### Differentiation

| $f(x)$ | $f'(x)$ |
| $y=\arcsin x$ | ${\frac {1}{\sqrt {1-x^{2}}}}$ |
| $y=\arccos x$ | ${\frac {-1}{\sqrt {1-x^{2}}}}$ |
| $y=\arctan x$ | ${\frac {1}{1+x^{2}}}$ |

#### Integration

| $f(x)$ | $\int f(x)dx$ (+ a constant) |
| ${\frac {1}{\sqrt {a^{2}-x^{2}}}}$ | $\arcsin \left({\frac {x}{a}}\right)$ |
| ${\frac {1}{a^{2}+x^{2}}}$ | ${\frac {1}{a}}\arctan \left({\frac {x}{a}}\right)$ |
The best way to show how to use these is with a few examples:
# 19th Century Literature

Welcome to the guide to 19th Century Literature. This book will present the major authors of the 19th century by giving brief extracts from their major works, coupled with notes on both the extract as well as the author's life and oeuvre. In doing so, it is hoped that this book will present not only an introduction to the literature of the nineteenth century, but also to the analytical skills needed to fully enjoy a literary work. Please help us write this book by adding any knowledge or expertise you may have on 19th Century Literature!

## Contents
### General Introduction to 19th Century Literature

    This chapter is designed to give you a brief overview of the major authors, schools and tendencies of 19th century literature, whilst introducing you to the social, political, cultural and economic situation of the times.

### Bartleby the Scrivener by Herman Melville

    Melville's classic short story Bartleby the Scrivener is a tale of the alienation of an office worker. It is also, some have argued, a precursor to absurdist writing in the 20th Century.

### The Scarlet Letter by Nathaniel Hawthorne

    This novel by Hawthorne is the story of Hester Prynne, whose adultery leads to her punishment by wearing the 'scarlet letter' her child.

### Frankenstein by Mary Shelley

    The infamous tale of a scientist whose experiments to create life after death went horribly wrong.

### Jane Eyre by Charlotte Brontë

    This novel follows Jane's life of hardship and her hope of finding someone to love.

### Tess of the d'Urbervilles by Thomas Hardy

    Written to highlight the difficulties of life for contemporary rural people.

### Sense and Sensibility by Jane Austen

    A spirited tale of two very different sisters, both in need of a husband.

### Washington Square by Henry James

    James's story of Catherine Sloper and her witty but manipulative father is recognized as one of the classics of American literature.

### Dracula by Bram Stoker

    Having seen the movies it may surprise you to find the original novel was written in the form of various characters' personal diaries.
# 19th Century Literature/Bartleby the Scrivener
## Herman Melville - an introduction

Herman Melville (1819–1891) was an American writer of essays, short stories and novels. While his early novels enjoyed some success, his later efforts, including the classic Moby Dick and the novel Pierre were poorly received. It is only later on that his work has been rediscovered and celebrated.
* Bartleby the Scrivener
* It was on the third day, I think, of his being with me, and before any necessity had arisen for having his own writing examined, that, being much hurried to complete a small affair I had in hand, I abruptly called to Bartleby. In my haste and natural expectancy of instant compliance, I sat with my head bent over the original on my desk, and my right hand sideways, and somewhat nervously extended with the copy, so that immediately upon emerging from his retreat, Bartleby might snatch it and proceed to business without the least delay.
* In this very attitude did I sit when I called to him, rapidly stating what it was I wanted him to do—namely, to examine a small paper with me. Imagine my surprise, nay, my consternation, when without moving from his privacy, Bartleby in a singularly mild, firm voice, replied, “I would prefer not to.”
* I sat awhile in perfect silence, rallying my stunned faculties. Immediately it occurred to me that my ears had deceived me, or Bartleby had entirely misunderstood my meaning. I repeated my request in the clearest tone I could assume. But in quite as clear a one came the previous reply, “I would prefer not to.”
* “Prefer not to,” echoed I, rising in high excitement, and crossing the room with a stride. “What do you mean? Are you moon-struck? I want you to help me compare this sheet here—take it,” and I thrust it towards him.
* “I would prefer not to,” said he.
* I looked at him steadfastly. His face was leanly composed; his gray eye dimly calm. Not a wrinkle of agitation rippled him. Had there been the least uneasiness, anger, impatience or impertinence in his manner; in other words, had there been any thing ordinarily human about him, doubtless I should have violently dismissed him from the premises. But as it was, I should have as soon thought of turning my pale plaster-of-paris bust of Cicero out of doors. I stood gazing at him awhile, as he went on with his own writing, and then reseated myself at my desk. This is very strange, thought I. What had one best do? But my business hurried me. I concluded to forget the matter for the present, reserving it for my future leisure. So calling Nippers from the other room, the paper was speedily examined.

### Preliminary Questions to Consider

* What type of narrator does Melville use? What is the effect of this in the last paragraph?
* Why does Bartleby continue to reply: 'I would prefer not to.'?
* What does the narrator mean by 'natural expectancy of instant compliance' and how is this challenged?
# A Guide to Sylheti Wikinews
## Table of Contents

Administrative:
* Contributing to this book
Chapters:
# A Guide to Sylheti Wikinews/Contributing to this book
## Communicate

Collaborate with other contributors by discussing changes on article talk pages and respecting consensus.

## Respect Copyright

When adding multimedia content, ensure that you have the necessary permissions and adhere to copyright policies.
# A Guide to Sylheti Wikinews/Creating an Account

To begin contributing to Sylheti Wikinews, you'll need to create a Wikimedia Incubator account if you don't already have one. Here's how:
1. Visit Wikimedia Incubator: Go to the Wikimedia Incubator website (https://incubator.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CreateAccount) using your web browser.
2. Click on "Create Account": Look for the "Create account" link at the top right corner of the page and click on it.
3. Fill in Details: You'll be prompted to fill in a username, password, and an email address. Make sure your username adheres to Wikimedia's username policy.
4. Verify Captcha: Complete any captcha or security check if prompted.
5. Submit: Click the "Create your account" button to finalize your registration.
6. Verify Email (Optional): While not mandatory, verifying your email address can help with account recovery and notifications.
# A Guide to Sylheti Wikinews/Language Preferences and Settings

You can set your language preferences to best suit your needs:
1. Language Preferences: You can change your language preferences in your user settings. Select "Preferences" from the top-right corner and navigate to the "Appearance" tab. Here, you can choose Sylheti (ꠍꠤꠟꠐꠤ) as your language interface.
2. Sylheti Language: If you plan to write or edit articles in Sylheti, ensure that you have the Sylheti script installed on your device. This will enable you to contribute effectively in Sylheti.
Now that you've created an account and understand how to navigate the Sylheti Wikinews, you're ready to dive into writing news articles and contributing to our vibrant community. Before you begin, it's a good idea to familiarize yourself with the writing style and guidelines specific to Sylheti Wikinews, which we'll cover in the next section.
Happy editing, and thank you for being part of the journey!
# A Guide to Sylheti Wikipedia
## Table of Contents

* Introduction
* Movement
* Getting Started
* Contributing
* Advanced Editing
* Community and Collaboration
* No Significance Beyond the Community
* Challenges and Future Prospects
* Promotion and Outreach
* Appendices
** Useful external links
** Glossary
** Recommended reading
# A Guide to Sylheti Wikinews/Getting Started

Welcome to Sylheti Wikinews! This section will guide you through the initial steps to get started with contributing to Sylheti Wikinews. Whether you're a seasoned journalist or just passionate about sharing news in the Sylheti language, we're thrilled to have you as part of our community.
# A Guide to Sylheti Wikinews/Navigating the Sylheti Wikinews

Once you have your Wikimedia Incubator account, it's essential to become familiar with the Sylheti Wikinews project's layout and navigation:
1. Main Page: The main page is where you'll find featured news articles, community announcements, and links to various sections.
2. Navigation Menu: The navigation menu on the left-hand side provides quick access to important sections like "Recent Changes" (for tracking edits), "Current Events," and "Community Portal."
3. Search Bar: Use the search bar at the top of the page to find specific articles or topics you're interested in.
4. Tabs: Explore the tabs at the top of the page, including "Newsroom," "Recent Changes," and "Random Article" to discover content and contributors.
5. Prefixes: Wikinews (Wn) and Language code (syl) is used as prefixes to distinguish it from other language editions. Example: Wn/syl/page name.
# AQA A-Level Physics/Alpha, Beta and Gamma radiation
## Exam note

For this topic, you to learn a lot of qualitative information, meaning that the questions in the exam will not only be testing your knowledge on how to do various calculations, but they will also ask you to explain and describe the underlying processes, so make sure you know it well.
Overall, you need to learn the three main types of radiation, what kind of material is sufficient to stop them, the risks and applications associated with radiation, the inverse square law for gamma radiation, and its investigation in required practical 12. See the official specification for more details.

## Alpha (α) Radiation

* Nature- 2 protons + 2 neutrons, equivalent to a helium nucleus
* Range in air- Up to 100mm in air
* Deflection in a magnetic field- Easily deflected
* Absorption- Stopped by thin foil and paper
* Ionisation- Strongly ionising
* Energy of each particle- Constant for a given source

## Beta (β) Radiation

* Nature- β- = electron; β+ = positron
* Range in air- Up to 1 metre
* Deflection in a magnetic field- Opposite direction to α particles, more deflection.
* Absorption- Stopped by approximately 5mm of aluminium
* Ionisation- Less ionising than α
* Energy of each particle- Varies up to a maximum

## Gamma (γ) Radiation

* Nature- Photon of energy
* Range in air- Follows inverse square law
* Deflection in a magnetic field- Not deflected
* Absorption- Stopped by several centimetres of lead
* Ionisation- Very weakly ionising
* Energy of each particle- Constant for a given source

## References

* ↑ "AS and A-Level Physics Specification" (PDF). AQA. June 2015. Retrieved 4 June 2022.
# AQA A-Level Physics/Capacitance

Capacitance- The capacitance of a capacitor is measured in farads (F). One farad is one coulomb of charge per volt.
C = capacitance measured in farads
Q = charge measured in coulombs
V = potential difference measured in volts
A capacitor is a charge storing device. Charges (Q) are measured in coulombs. A single electron carries a charge of 1.6x10^-19 C. A capacitor is two metal plates separated by an insulator (or dielectric).
1 farad is a very large capacitance. Typically capacitors have a capacitance around the micro-farad, nano-farad and pico-farad sizes.
Energy Stored by a Capacitor: The charge stored by a capacitor is directly proportional to the potential difference across the plates of the capacitor.
The area underneath the line on the graph is equal to the energy stored by the capacitor measured in Joules.
E=energy stored by the capacitor measured in Joules
Q=charge within the capacitor measured in coulombs
V=potential difference measured in volts
C=the capacitance of the capacitor in farads
Capacitor discharge: As the capacitor discharges the electrons from the negative plate flow to the positive plate of the capacitor and a current flows in the circuit. The graph below shows the exponential decay curve when the charge is plotted against time for a discharging capacitor.
Q=the charge of the capacitor at time t measured in coulombs
Q0=the charge of the capacitor when t=0 seconds measured in coulombs
t=the time the capacitor has been discharging measured in seconds
C= the capacitance of the capacitor measured in coulombs
R= the resistance in the discharging circuit measured in ohms
RC time constant: The RC time constant gives us an idea of how quickly the capacitor will discharge. If the RC time constant is large, the capacitor will take a greater time to discharge than if the RC time constant is small. RC time constant is worked out by multiplying the resistance of the circuit and the capacitance of the capacitor.
The time constant is equal to the time it takes for the charge on a capacitor to reach 1/e (37%) of its initial value. We can find the RC time constant from the graph.
Because RC =37% of the charge, to find an estimate for the time taken for the capacitor to be empty, we multiply the RC time constant by 5.
# AQA A-Level Physics/Binding Energy
## Key Ideas

If one were to separate a nucleus into its individual nucleons, work must be done to overcome the strong force holding the nucleons together. The binding energy of a nucleus is the work that must be done to separate a nucleus into its constituent neutrons and protons.
When a nucleus forms from nucleons, energy is released as the strong force does work by pulling the nucleons together. When nucleons are separated from a nucleus, energy is used to break the strong force.
However, because Albert Einstein proved that the mass of an object increases when it gains energy and decreases when it loses energy, the mass of a nucleus is less than the mass of the separated nucleons. This is because energy is released when the nucleons form the nucleus, so the mass decreases. This difference between the mass of the separated nucleons and the mass of the nucleus is called the mass defect.
You can use mass defect to calculate the energy released when the nucleus formed from the separate nucleons i.e. its binding energy.
Binding energy of a nucleus = (△m)(c²)

## Calculation of mass defect

When calculating mass defect (△m), you are subtracting the mass of the nucleus from the combined mass of the nucleons.
To calculate the mass defect, you need the mass of the nucleus (M$_{NUC}$), the mass of a proton (m$_p$) the mass of a neutron (m$_n$) and the number of protons (Z) and neutrons (A-Z, where A represents atomic number i.e. all nucleons). (Remember, electrons are not involved at any point in this calculation as we are only referring to the nucleus of the atom.)
m$_p$ = 1.67(3)x10$^{-27}$ kg
m$_n$ = 1.67(5)x10$^{-27}$ kg
Therefore, a generic formula for mass defect is:
mass defect, △m = Z(m$_p$) + (A - Z)(m$_n$) - M$_{NUC}$
# AP United States History

Welcome to the US History AP book. The main goal of this book is to function as a study guide for the 2012 Advanced Placement exam.

## Table of Contents
### European Exploration and New World Colonization

* New World Beginnings (33,000 BC - 1769 AD)
* The Planting of English America (1500–1733)
* Settling the Northern Colonies (1619–1700)
* American Life in the Seventeenth Century (1607–1692)

### The Revolutionary War

* Colonial Society on the Eve of Revolution (1700–1775)
* The Duel for North America (1608–1763)
* The Road to Revolution (1763–1775)
* America Secedes from the Empire (1775–1783)

### Unit 3

* The Confederation and the Constitution (1776–1790)
* Launching the New Ship of State (1789–1800)
* The Triumphs and Travails of the Jeffersonian Republic (1800–1812)

### Unit 4

* The Second War for Independence and the Upsurge of Nationalism (1812–1824)
* The Rise of a Mass Democracy (1824–1840)
* Forging the National Economy (1790–1860)
* The Ferment of Reform and Culture (1790–1860)

### Unit 5

* The South and the Slavery Controversy (1793–1860)
* Manifest Destiny and Its Legacy (1841–1848)
* Renewing the Sectional Struggle (1848–1854)

### The Civil War

* Drifting Toward Disunion (1854–1861)
* Girding for War: The North and the South (1861–1865)
* The Furnace of Civil War (1861–1865)
* The Ordeal of Reconstruction (1865–1877)

### Unit 7

* Political Paralysis in the Gilded Age (1869–1896)
* Industry Comes of Age (1865–1900)
* America Moves to the City (1865–1900)
* The Great West and the Agricultural Revolution (1865–1890)

### Unit 8

* The Path of Empire (1890–1899)
* America on the World Stage (1899–1909)
* Progressivism and the Republican Roosevelt (1901–1912)
* Wilsonian Progressivism at Home and Abroad (1912–1916)

### Unit 9

* The War to End War (1917–1918)
* American Life in the "Roaring Twenties" (1919–1929)
* The Politics of Boom and Bust (1920–1932)
* The Great Depression and the New Deal (1933–1939)
# AQA A-Level Physics/Charge Coupled Devices (CCD)
## Charge Coupled Device

- A CCD is a silicon chip divided into picture elements (pixels)
- Incident photons cause electrons to be released
- The number of electrons liberated is proportional to the intensity of light
- These electrons are trapped in 'potential well' in the CCD
- An electron pattern is built up which is identical to the image formed on the CCD
- When exposure is complete, the charge is processed to give an image
- Quantum efficiency of a pixel is greater than 70%