OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Mac OS X Tiger/A Quick Look Under the Hood

Underneath the pretty desktop background, candy-like graphics, and slick effects on the surface of Mac OS X is a UNIX foundation. UNIX handles all of the under-the-hood tasks of managing accounts, files, networking, performance, etc. While Apple's interface is very pretty and easy-to-learn, power users may wish to try out interacting with their Mac through UNIX's more traditional interface: the command line.
Please note that this chapter covers only the very basics of using the command line, and assumes you have no experience with command lines, programming, etc. If you want a more advanced look at UNIX, please view the Advanced Concepts chapter.
As with all versions of Unix, OSX consists of a kernel (as described in history) and some core utils that are available through the bash shell. The kernel and the core utils are open-source, but not the additional pieces of osx such as finder and the various components that make OSX what it is. The UNIX theory consists in providing only basic functionalities (for example, the cp program can only copy files from one location to another) and so this model is fast, bug free, and secure because it's easily maintainable (taken from a Linux kernel programming book); everything is split into small parts for this reason.

## Getting to the Command Line

To access the command line, you'll use the Terminal Utility. It's in the Applications > Utilities folder.

## bash: The UNIX Finder

* ls
* cp
* rm
* rmdir
* tar
* mkdir
* more
* ps
* ssh
* scp
* man

## compiler version

http://www.voxgratia.org/docs/compilers.html

## Unix environment and programs

As in all Unix systems, you can install and run UNIX software (for example X11, .KDe, etc.) on Mac OS X. There is even the Gentoo (Linux distribution) package system that runs under OSX (portage)
The Fink project ( http://fink.sourceforge.net ) maintains a collection of packages that have been ported to OSX and makes them available for download as a coherent distribution. Fink uses Debian tools like dpkg and apt-get to provide powerful binary package management. You can choose whether you want to download precompiled binary packages or build everything from source.
The only caveat is that the fink tools install their own libraries, and development tools, which if not handled carefully, can interfere with normal operation of your osx system.

## Limitations

the file-system is not case sensitive by default, but this is configurable at install time. Also, unlike other unix variants such as linux, command-line parameters can come only before the main arguments, instead of before or after.

### Navigation

Previous Page : The Desktop Next Page : The Mac Interface
# Pinyin/Treasury

See also
# Pinyin/Tree
## Noun

* a tree: a very tall plant that has deep roots, a thick stem made of wood, and many branches
** 1-ke shuh: heen gao d zhirwuh, yoou shen d shuhgen, cu d shuhgahn, heenduo shuhzhi
# Pinyin/Transportation

See also
Transportation, is the main body of transportation (humans or goods) through means of transportation (vehicles and transportation routes), from place A moving to place B, behavior that fulfil an economic purpose. So transportation is a kind of derived economic behavior. Transportation is mostly to fulfil some economical behaviors, such as the needs to proceed with shopping, going to offices, going to schools, visiting friends, etc.
Yùnshū, shì yùnshū zhǔtǐ (rén huò huòwù) tòuguò yùnshū gōngjù (jiāotōng gōngjù hé yùnshū lùjìng), yóu jiǎdì yídòng zhì yǐdì, wánchéng mǒugè jīngjì mùdì de xíngwéi. Yīncǐ, yùnshū shì yīzhǒng 'yǎnshēng de jīngjì xíngwéi', yùnshū duōbàn shì wèile wánchéng mǒuxiē jīngjì xíngwéi, lìrú gòuwù, shàngbān, shàngxué, fǎngyǒu děng xūqiú ér jìnxíng.
# Pinyin/Trapped

See also
# Pinyin/Travel

Search Pinyin travel
# Pinyin/Treat

See also
# Pinyin/Treatment

See also
# Public International Law/Human Rights Law/Human Rights Protection/ Other Human Rights Systems

Author: Jane Doe
   Required knowledge: Link
   Learning objectives: Understanding XY.
This is where the text begins. This template follows our style guide. Please take into account our guidelines for didactics. If you're wondering how to create text in Wikibooks, feel free to check out our guide on how to write in Wikibooks.
This is your advanced content. You can create this text box using our template "Advanced". How to do this is described here.
   Example for to example topic: This is your example.
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## Further Readings

* Source I
* Source II

## Conclusion

* Summary I
* Summary II

## Table of Contents

Back to home page
Part I - History, Theory, and Methods
* § 1 History of International Law
** § 1.1 Founding Myths
** § 1.2 Nineteenth Century
** § 1.3 Decolonization
* § 2 Nature and Purpose of International Law
** § 2.1 International Law and Violence
** § 2.2 Consent
** § 2.3 Enforcement
* § 3 Methodology
** § 3.1 Case Analysis
** § 3.2 Interdisciplinarity
* § 4 Approaches to International Law
** § 4.1 Positivism
** § 4.2 TWAIL
** § 4.3 Feminism & Queer Theory
** § 4.4 Marxism
* § 5 Interaction
** § 5.1 Interaction within International Law
** § 5.2 International Law and Domestic Law
Part II - General International Law
* § 6 Sources of International Law
** § 6.1 Treaty Law
** § 6.2 Customary Law
** § 6.3 General Principles
** § 6.4 Other Sources
* § 7 Subjects and Actors in International Law
** § 7.1 States
** § 7.2 Indigenous Peoples
** § 7.3 International Organizations
** § 7.4 Individuals
** § 7.5 Women in International Law
** § 7.6 Non-governmental Organization
** § 7.7 Corporations
** § 7.8 Animals
** § 7.9 Cities
* § 8 Jurisdiction
* § 9 State Responsibility
* § 10 Diplomatic Relations
* § 11 Immunities
* § 12 Peaceful Settlement of Disputes
** § 12.1 Evidence
* § 13 Use of Force
Part III - Specialized Fields
* § 14 Law of Armed Conflict
* § 15 Law of the Sea
* § 16 International Environmental Law
* § 17 International Climate Change Law
* § 18 International Migration Law
* § 19 International Law in Cyberspace
* § 20 Space Law
* § 21 Human Rights Law
** § 21.1 Recurring Themes in Human Rights Doctrine
** § 21.2 Institutional Human Rights Protection
*** § 21.2.1 United Nations Human Rights System
*** § 21.2.2 African Human Rights System
*** § 21.2.3 European Human Rights System
*** § 21.2.4 Inter-American Human Rights System
*** § 21.2.5 Arab and Islamic Human Rights System
*** § 21.2.6 Asian Human Rights System
** § 21.3 Critique of Human Rights
* § 22 International Criminal Law
** § 22.1 International Crimes
** § 22.2 International Criminal Courts and Tribunals
** § 22.3 Domestic Prosecution of International Crimes
* § 23 International Economic Law
** § 23.1 Investment Law
** § 23.2 Trade Law
** § 23.3 Monetary Law

## Footnotes

* ↑ The first footnote. Please adhere to OSCOLA when formating citations. Whenever possible, provide a link with the citation, ideally to an open-access source.
# Public International Law/Human Rights Law/Human Rights Protection

Author: Jane Doe
   Required knowledge: Link
   Learning objectives: Understanding XY.
This is where the text begins. This template follows our style guide. Please take into account our guidelines for didactics. If you're wondering how to create text in Wikibooks, feel free to check out our guide on how to write in Wikibooks.
This is your advanced content. You can create this text box using our template "Advanced". How to do this is described here.
   Example for to example topic: This is your example.
Just replace the content above and below with your content.

## Further Readings

* Source I
* Source II

## Conclusion

* Summary I
* Summary II

## Table of Contents

Back to home page
Part I - History, Theory, and Methods
* § 1 History of International Law
** § 1.1 Founding Myths
** § 1.2 Nineteenth Century
** § 1.3 Decolonization
* § 2 Nature and Purpose of International Law
** § 2.1 International Law and Violence
** § 2.2 Consent
** § 2.3 Enforcement
* § 3 Methodology
** § 3.1 Case Analysis
** § 3.2 Interdisciplinarity
* § 4 Approaches to International Law
** § 4.1 Positivism
** § 4.2 TWAIL
** § 4.3 Feminism & Queer Theory
** § 4.4 Marxism
* § 5 Interaction
** § 5.1 Interaction within International Law
** § 5.2 International Law and Domestic Law
Part II - General International Law
* § 6 Sources of International Law
** § 6.1 Treaty Law
** § 6.2 Customary Law
** § 6.3 General Principles
** § 6.4 Other Sources
* § 7 Subjects and Actors in International Law
** § 7.1 States
** § 7.2 Indigenous Peoples
** § 7.3 International Organizations
** § 7.4 Individuals
** § 7.5 Women in International Law
** § 7.6 Non-governmental Organization
** § 7.7 Corporations
** § 7.8 Animals
** § 7.9 Cities
* § 8 Jurisdiction
* § 9 State Responsibility
* § 10 Diplomatic Relations
* § 11 Immunities
* § 12 Peaceful Settlement of Disputes
** § 12.1 Evidence
* § 13 Use of Force
Part III - Specialized Fields
* § 14 Law of Armed Conflict
* § 15 Law of the Sea
* § 16 International Environmental Law
* § 17 International Climate Change Law
* § 18 International Migration Law
* § 19 International Law in Cyberspace
* § 20 Space Law
* § 21 Human Rights Law
** § 21.1 Recurring Themes in Human Rights Doctrine
** § 21.2 Institutional Human Rights Protection
*** § 21.2.1 United Nations Human Rights System
*** § 21.2.2 African Human Rights System
*** § 21.2.3 European Human Rights System
*** § 21.2.4 Inter-American Human Rights System
*** § 21.2.5 Arab and Islamic Human Rights System
*** § 21.2.6 Asian Human Rights System
** § 21.3 Critique of Human Rights
* § 22 International Criminal Law
** § 22.1 International Crimes
** § 22.2 International Criminal Courts and Tribunals
** § 22.3 Domestic Prosecution of International Crimes
* § 23 International Economic Law
** § 23.1 Investment Law
** § 23.2 Trade Law
** § 23.3 Monetary Law

## Footnotes

* ↑ The first footnote. Please adhere to OSCOLA when formating citations. Whenever possible, provide a link with the citation, ideally to an open-access source.
# Public International Law/Immunities
## Table of Contents

Back to home page
Part I - History, Theory, and Methods
* § 1 History of International Law
** § 1.1 Founding Myths
** § 1.2 Nineteenth Century
** § 1.3 Decolonization
* § 2 Nature and Purpose of International Law
** § 2.1 International Law and Violence
** § 2.2 Consent
** § 2.3 Enforcement
* § 3 Methodology
** § 3.1 Case Analysis
** § 3.2 Interdisciplinarity
* § 4 Approaches to International Law
** § 4.1 Positivism
** § 4.2 TWAIL
** § 4.3 Feminism & Queer Theory
** § 4.4 Marxism
* § 5 Interaction
** § 5.1 Interaction within International Law
** § 5.2 International Law and Domestic Law
Part II - General International Law
* § 6 Sources of International Law
** § 6.1 Treaty Law
** § 6.2 Customary Law
** § 6.3 General Principles
** § 6.4 Other Sources
* § 7 Subjects and Actors in International Law
** § 7.1 States
** § 7.2 Indigenous Peoples
** § 7.3 International Organizations
** § 7.4 Individuals
** § 7.5 Women in International Law
** § 7.6 Non-governmental Organization
** § 7.7 Corporations
** § 7.8 Animals
** § 7.9 Cities
* § 8 Jurisdiction
* § 9 State Responsibility
* § 10 Diplomatic Relations
* § 11 Immunities
* § 12 Peaceful Settlement of Disputes
** § 12.1 Evidence
* § 13 Use of Force
Part III - Specialized Fields
* § 14 Law of Armed Conflict
* § 15 Law of the Sea
* § 16 International Environmental Law
* § 17 International Climate Change Law
* § 18 International Migration Law
* § 19 International Law in Cyberspace
* § 20 Space Law
* § 21 Human Rights Law
** § 21.1 Recurring Themes in Human Rights Doctrine
** § 21.2 Institutional Human Rights Protection
*** § 21.2.1 United Nations Human Rights System
*** § 21.2.2 African Human Rights System
*** § 21.2.3 European Human Rights System
*** § 21.2.4 Inter-American Human Rights System
*** § 21.2.5 Arab and Islamic Human Rights System
*** § 21.2.6 Asian Human Rights System
** § 21.3 Critique of Human Rights
* § 22 International Criminal Law
** § 22.1 International Crimes
** § 22.2 International Criminal Courts and Tribunals
** § 22.3 Domestic Prosecution of International Crimes
* § 23 International Economic Law
** § 23.1 Investment Law
** § 23.2 Trade Law
** § 23.3 Monetary Law
# Puzzles/Logic puzzles/Parachuted Robots/Solution

Puzzles | Logic puzzles | Parachuted Robots | Solution
One possible algorithm is the following, which is executed simultaneously by both robots:
The idea is that both robots go slowly (10, 20, 30) until one of them hits a parachute, accelerating to catch up with the other robot.
# Puzzles/Logic puzzles/Scales and Weights

In front of you is a balance. Your task is to devise a system, using 4 weights, so that any whole number of kilograms can be weighed up to n kg, where n should be the largest possible.
Example: Suppose you use these weights: 1 kg, 2 kg, 4 kg, 8 kg. This way you can weigh any weight up to n=15 kg by combining these weights.
1 kg = 1 kg 2 kg = 2 kg 3 kg = 2 kg + 1 kg ... 14 kg = 8 kg + 4kg + 2 kg 15 kg = 8 kg + 4 kg + 2 kg + 1 kg
Solutions: Up to 40 kg | Up to 80kg
# Puzzles/Logic puzzles/Sudoku

Sudoku are logic puzzles in which an array of boxes, each an array of numbers or other unique symbols, has been designed, so that each row and column in the overall array contains the complete list of allowed symbols, and each box also contains that same complete list.
The original and most common Sudoku consists of a 9 x 9 grid of cells, divided into nine 3 x 3 boxes, and the unique symbols are the numbers from one to nine. However, this is not a mathematical puzzle, and letters or other symbols could be used.
In the puzzle as presented, symbols are missing, and the object of the game is to find the unique pattern of symbols that satisfies the conditions, using logic. A presented puzzle with more than one possible solution would usually be considered defective.
* 4 by 4 (4 boxes of 4 cells, 2 x 2 each)
* 6 by 6 (6 boxes of 6 cells, 2 x 3 each)
* 9 by 9 (9 boxes of 9 cells, 3 x 3 each)
* Sudoku X
# Puzzles/Logic puzzles/Pizzas

Puzzles | Logic puzzles | Pizzas
Aaron, Betty, Charlie, Debbie, and Eric each ordered a pizza with three of the following five toppings:
green pepper, mushrooms, onions, pepperoni, and sausage. The only topping that Aaron and Charlie had in common was sausage. The only topping Debbie and Eric had in common was pepperoni. The only topping Charlie and Betty had in common was mushrooms. The only topping Debbie and Betty had in common was green pepper.
Which toppings did each of them have on their pizza?
Solution
# Puzzles/Logic puzzles/Parachuted Robots

Puzzles | Logic puzzles | Parachuted Robots
Two robots are dropped from an airplane and land on a single line (with discrete positions) using a parachute which is left at the landing point. The robots are both facing north, they are an unknown distance apart, and one has landed directly east of the other.
The robots are now to be programmed such that they meet each other. They can be instructed to move left or right to a neighboring position and to check whether a parachute is present at the current location. If the other robot is met both robots stop there and live happily ever after.
The parachute check might conditionally execute any number of instructions and any block of instructions may be repeated unconditionally. Write down a program that both robots can follow simultaneously and which guarantees that they meet.
Solution
# Puzzles/Logic puzzles/Pizzas/Solution

Puzzles | Logic puzzles | Pizzas | Solution
Aaron - green pepper, onions and sausage Betty - green pepper, mushrooms and onions Charlie - mushrooms, pepperoni and sausage Debbie - green pepper, pepperoni and sausage Eric - mushrooms, onions and pepperoni

## Reasoning

We are informed that B and D had green pepper, B and C had mushrooms, D and E had pepperoni and A and C had sausage, all marked with a Y.
We are also informed that the pairs B and D, B and C, D and E, and A and C, didn't share anything, except what is already marked with a Y. This eliminates the possibilities marked with an N.
Knowing everyone had 3 toppings allows us to place another Y.
And we know B didn't share with C or D.
Allowing us to place 2 more Ys.
D didn't share with E, A didn't share with C.
This allows us to place the remaining 4 Ys.
Surprisingly, no one chose green pepper, onions and pepperoni.
# Puzzles/Logic puzzles/Scales and Weights/Solution 1

Puzzles | Logic puzzles | Scales and Weights | Solution 1
Weights are: 1, 3, 9, 27

## Explanation

You can put the weights on the other side of the balance, therefore subtracting some of the weight from the other side. Using this system the objects can be weighed thus:
1kg = 1kg
2kg = 3kg - 1kg
3kg = 3kg
39kg = 27kg + 9kg + 3kg
40kg = 27kg + 9kg + 3kg + 1kg
# Puzzles/Logic puzzles/Sudoku/9 by 9

Books of Sudoku puzzles are very common, and typically categorize the Sudoku into Easy, Difficult, and Very Difficult. There is no clear standard for classification, and the Very Difficult puzzles of some books can be solved by relatively elementary techniques. However, all Sudoku require that the solver make no mistakes, or the puzzle becomes a mess and can be difficult to clean up.
The instructions found in these books all point out that one should never simply guess, except with very difficult Sudoku where one may choose one of two options, to solve by some variation of Ariadne's thread.
One approach to solving Sudoku is given at Approach to solutions.
The following is an example of a relatively easy or moderate 9 x 9 Sudoku.
| 7 | |
| 4 | 9 |
| 9 | |
| 5 | |
| | 8 |
| 6 | | 8 |
| | | 3 |
| 7 | 5 | |
| | 6 | 5 |
| | | 2 |
| 4 | | |
| | | 3 |
| 8 | 4 | 6 |
| 1 | | |
| | | 4 |
| 5 | | |
| 3 | 6 | |
| | 5 | 4 |
| 7 | | |
| 8 | | 6 |
| 2 | |
| | 5 |
| | 1 |
| 9 | 1 |
| | 4 |
# Rebol Programming/true

TRUE is a logic of value: true
# DESCRIPTION:

Returns TRUE for tuple values.
TUPLE? is an action value.

# ARGUMENTS

* value -- (Type: any-type)
# Rebol Programming/type

TYPE is a word of value: unset!
# DESCRIPTION:

Enables and disables evaluation tracing.
TRACE is a native value.

# ARGUMENTS

* mode -- (Type: logic)

# REFINEMENTS

* /net -- Enable/disable network tracing.
* /function -- Enable/disable function call tracing.
# DESCRIPTION:

Tries to DO a block and returns its value or an error.
TRY is a native value.

# ARGUMENTS

* block -- (Type: block)
# DESCRIPTION:

Converts to typeset! value.
TO-TYPESET is a function value.

# ARGUMENTS

* value -- (Type: any)

# (SPECIAL ATTRIBUTES)

* catch
# DESCRIPTION:

(undocumented)
TO-URL is a function value.

# ARGUMENTS

* value -- (Type: any)
# DESCRIPTION:

Removes whitespace from a string. Default removes from head and tail.
TRIM is an action value.

# ARGUMENTS

* series -- (Type: series port)

# REFINEMENTS

* /head -- Removes only from the head.
* /tail -- Removes only from the tail.
* /auto -- Auto indents lines relative to first line.
* /lines -- Removes all line breaks and extra spaces.
* /all -- Removes all whitespace.
* /with
** str -- Same as /all, but removes characters in 'str'. (Type: char string)
# DESCRIPTION:

(undocumented)
TO-WORD is a function value.

# ARGUMENTS

* value -- (Type: any)
# DESCRIPTION:

Returns true if an expression can be used as true.
TRUE? is a function value.

# ARGUMENTS

* val -- (Type: any)
# PostgreSQL/Managing the Instance

The PostgreSQL instance consists of several processes that run continuously on the server. They work together in a coordinated manner using common configuration files and RAM. Thus all are running or none of them.
The process postmaster is one of them. It starts, stops, and controls the other processes. postmaster himself can be started directly or with the help of the wrapper program pg_ctl. Its simplified syntax is:
The instance must be run by the operating system user postgres and not by root.

## status

When pg_ctl runs in the status mode, it lists the actual status of the instance.
You can observe whether the instance is running or not, and the process id (PID) of the postmaster process.

## start

When pg_ctl runs in the start mode, it tries to start the instance.
When you see the above message, everything works fine.

## stop

When pg_ctl runs in the stop mode, it tries to stop the instance.
When you see the above message, the instance is shut down, all connections to client applications are closed and no new applications can reach the database. The stop mode knows three different sub-modes for shutting down the instance:
* Smart mode waits for all active clients to disconnect.
* Fast mode (the default) does not wait for clients to disconnect. All active transactions are rolled back and clients are forcibly disconnected.
* Immediate mode aborts all server processes immediately, without a clean shutdown.
Syntax: pg_ctl stop [-m s[mart] | f[ast] | i[mmediate] ]

## restart

When pg_ctl runs in the restart mode, it performs the same actions as in a sequence of stop and start.

## reload

In the reload mode the instance reads and reloads its configuration file.

## init

In the init mode the instance creates a complete new cluster with the 3 databases template0, template1, and postgres. This command needs the additional parameter -D datadir to know at which place in the file system it shall create the new cluster.

## Automated start at boot time

In most cases, it is desired that PostgreSQL starts immediately after the server boots. Whether this happens - or not - may be configured in the file start.conf. Depending on the operation system, the file is located in different directories.
There is only one entry and its allowed values are:
* auto: automatically start/stop at server boot/shutdown time
* manual: do not start/stop automatically, but allow manually managing as described above
* disabled: do not allow manual startup with pg_ctlcluster (this can be easily circumvented and is only meant to be a small protection for accidents)
# PostgreSQL/Partitioning

If you have a table with a very huge amount of data, it may be helpful to scatter the data to different physical tables which share a common data structure. In such use cases, where DML statements concern only one of those physical tables, you can get great performance benefits from partitioning. Typically this is the case, if there is any timeline or a geographical distribution of the values of a column.

## Declarative-partitioning-syntax: since version 10

Postgres 10 introduced a declarative partition-defining-syntax in addition to the previous table-inheritance-syntax. With this syntax the necessity to define an additional trigger disappears, but in comparision to the previous solution the functionality stays unchanged.
First, you define a master table containing a partitioning methode which is PARTITION BY RANGE (column_name) in this example:
Next, you create partitions with the same structure as the master and ensure, that only rows within the expected data range can be stored there. Those partitions are conventional, physical tables.

## Table-inheritance-syntax

First, you define a master table, which is a conventional table.
Next, you create partitions with the same structure as the master table by using the table-inheritance mechanism INHERITS (table_name). Additionally you must ensure that only rows within the expected data range can be stored in the derived tables.
You need a function, which transfers rows into the appropriate partition.
The function is called by a trigger.

## Further Steps

It's a good idea to create an index.
Many DML statements like SELECT * FROM log WHERE logdate = '2015-01-15'; act only on one partition and can ignore all the others. This is very helpfull especially in such cases where a full table scan becomes necessary. The query optimizer has the chance to generate execution plans which avoid scanning unnecessary partitions.
In the shown example new rows will mainly go to the newest partition. After some years you can drop old partitions as a whole. This shall be done with the command DROP TABLE - not with a DELETE command. The DROP TABLE command is much faster than the DELETE command as it removes the complete partition in one single step instead of touching every single row.