OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Structural Biochemistry/Maria Manasseina
## Introduction

Maria Mikhailovna Manasseina-Korkunova (1843–1903), also known as Marie von Manassein and Marie de Manacéine, was one of the pioneer in physiological chemistry and experimental somnology at the beginning of 20th century.

## Personal life and Career

Maria M. Manasseina was a daughter of Professor Mikhail Andreevich Korkunov (1806–1858, a famous Russian historian and archeologist. With excellent education received from her father, Maria Manasseina became one of the first women in Russia to obtain a degree of Doctor of Medicine. Her first marriage was with Poniatovsky, who was arrested and died in a political exile. In 1865, she married her second husband, Vyacheslav Avksentievich Manassein (1841–1901), who was a professor at the Medical Military Academy and a publisher of the first Russian medical magazine.
In 1870–1871, Maria Manasseina started to study the process of alcoholic fermentation in the laboratory of Julius Wiesner (1838–1916) at the Polytechnical Institute in Vienna. While there, she made a discovery of paramount importance thus becoming a founder of the new science of physiological chemistry (now biochemistry). She stated that the process of fermentation is due to specific substances (unorganized enzymes) that could be isolated from yeast cells, but not the living yeast itself. These experiments contradicted with Louis Pasteur’s physiological theory of fermentation and confirmed the chemical nature of fermentation.
Two decades later, an influential German chemist, Eduard Buchner (1860–1917), announced the same experimental results. Even though he was aware of Manasseina’s work, Buchner failed to make any reference to it. Manasseina attempted to stand up for her scientific priority but failed. She was not recognized as a pioneer of the chemical nature of fermentation while Buchner received the Nobel Prize in 1907, four years after her death, for the discovery of the chemical nature of fermentation.
After the publication of her paper on fermentation, Manasseina was invited to work in the Giessen laboratory of the great German chemist Justus Liebig (1803–1873), where she was able to pursue her career as a biochemist. However, due to family reasons, she could not accept Liebig’s invitation and had to return to St. Petersburg. After coming home, Maria Manasseina turned into a physiologist specialized in sleep science and began to work in the laboratory of professor Ivan Romanovich Tarkhanov, a friend of her husband Vyacheslav A. Manassein. In the late 1870s, due to their marital problems, Maria Manasseina left her husband for his friend Ivan Tarkhanov. However, their relationship did not last very long since the biographers of Tarkhanov wrote nothing about his scientific and personal relations with Manasseina.
Manasseina was an extremely diligent research all her life. She conducted various experiments humans and animals as well as wrote scientific papers, books, and a lot of abstracts for Russian medical journals.

## References

M. Kovalzo, Vladimir. "Journal of the History of the Neurosciences." Journal of the History of the Neurosciences. 18.3 (2009): 312-19. Print.
# Structural Biochemistry/MAOIs

MAOIs stands for monoamine oxidase inhibitors. They are antidepressant drugs that work by preventing the enzyme monoamine oxidase from metabolizing neurotransmitters. These neurotransmitters include serotonin, norepenephrine, and dopamine. Because these neurotransmitters are not metabolized, they remain in the brain and this helps elevate mood. It is also thought that the drug supports nerve cells within the brain from glutamate sensitivity. This prevents glutamate from stimulating areas of the brain that are responsible for depression and anxiety.

## References

http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/maois/MH00072
# Structural Biochemistry/Making RISC's
## Making RISC’s

MicroRNA's, Piwii-interacting RNA's, and small interfering RNA's are unique in the world of RNA catalysts because they cannot perform any designated functions on their own. In order for small RNA's to function, they must first make RISC's. RISC stands for RNA-induced Silencing Complex. RISC's play an important role in regulating a multitude of biological processes by interfering with gene expression. Analyzing the assembly of these effector complexes can help us gain a better understanding of how small RNA's such as siRNA silence specific sequences. The assembly of RISC's has puzzled the scientific community because the final product contains single stranded RNA, while its precursors contain double-stranded RNA.

### Argonaute

The central protein of an RISC is the Argonaute, abbreviated Ago. The term Argonaute encompasses a family of proteins that act as catalyst in RISC's. The specific function that the small non-coding RNA will perform is determined, in part, by which Ago protein it is associated with. There are two primary classes of Ago proteins. One class binds to miRNA's and siRNA's while the other primarily binds to PiRNA's. Argonaute proteins share the ability to prevent translation. However, they differ in how they interfere with the production of polypeptides. For example, in humans, the AGO2 protein uses a cleaver to create RNAi. Whereas in flies, the AGO1 protein works with miRNA to regulate gene expression.

### The Assembly of RISC’s

Although Ago proteins are central to the formation of RISC's, the mere binding of a small noncoding RNA to its complementary protein will not result in a complete RISC. Research has shown that RISC assembly is the result of a highly regulated mechanism. This mechanistic pathway results in the processing of small RNA until the desired RISC is produced. The assembly of an RISC can be broken down into two primary steps, loading and unwinding. In the first step, the noncoding RNA is “loaded” onto its corresponding Ago protein. In the second step, the double stranded small RNA is separated inside of the Ago protein. This is the “unwinding” step which results in a single stranded RISC molecule.

### ATP Powers RISC Assembly

Researchers have found that ATP is needed to load miRNA onto the Ago protein but it is not required to unwind the complex within the protein. These results have been confirmed for both drosophila and humans. Upon closer examination of Ago protein complexes, it was found that these proteins lack any domains that could be used to bind ATP. Scientists hypothesize that the ATP is consumed by machinery in the process of non-coding RNA loading.

## References

* ↑ Kawamata, Tomoko, and Yukihide Tomari. "Making RISC." Trends in Biochemical Sciences 35.7 (2010): 368
* ↑ Kawamata, Tomoko, and Yukihide Tomari. "Making RISC." Trends in Biochemical Sciences 35.7 (2010): 368
* ↑ Kawamata, Tomoko, and Yukihide Tomari. "Making RISC." Trends in Biochemical Sciences 35.7 (2010): 368-369
* ↑ Kawamata, Tomoko, and Yukihide Tomari. "Making RISC." Trends in Biochemical Sciences 35.7 (2010): 373-374
# Structural Biochemistry/Material Equilibrium
## Introduction

The definition of Material Equilibrium is that in each phase of the closed system, the numbers of moles of each substance in that phase remains constant in time. Material equilibrium can be subdivided into Reaction equilibrium and Phase Equilibrium. Reaction Equilibrium is the equilibrium where the conversion of quantity stops between two sets of chemicals. Phase Equilibrium is where the transport of matter reaches a balance point without conversion of one species to another.

## Entropy and Equilibrium

In an isolated system which is not at material equilibrium. The spontaneous chemical reactions occur between difference phases in this system are irreversible processes that increase the entropy.Stot>0
# The Organ Systems/endocrine

The Endocrine System
Function of System:
The Endocrine System is made up of glands that produce and secrete hormones, chemical substances produced in the body that regulate the activity of cells or organs.
How it aids in homeostasis:
These hormones regulate the body's growth, metabolism, and sexual development and function.
Image of system:
Name and function of Major Organs:
The major glands of the endocrine system are the hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, parathyroids, adrenals, pineal body, and the reproductive organs (ovaries and testes). The pancreas is also a part of this system; it has a role in hormone production as well as in digestion.
Comparative anatomy:
The insect endocrine system produces neurohormones as well as hormones that control molting, diapause, reproduction, osmoregulation, metabolism, and muscle contraction.
Among the crustaceans, the major neuroendocrine system consists of the neurosecretory X-organ and its associated neurohemal organ, the sinus gland.Three neurosecretory centres have been identified in the simple nemertine brain; one centre controls the maturation of the gonads, and all three appear to be involved in osmotic regulation.
Three neurosecretory centres in Phylum Nemertea have been identified in the simple nemertine brain; one centre controls the maturation of the gonads, and all three appear to be involved in osmotic regulation.
Reference sources (APA):
Endocrine System Anatomy: Facts on Glands and Functions. (n.d.). Retrieved April 12, 2017, from http://www.emedicinehealth.com/anatomy_of_the_endocrine_system/article_em.htm
Endocrine system. (n.d.). Retrieved April 12, 2017, from https://www.britannica.com/science/endocrine-system#toc45484
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# The Organ Systems/integumentary

The Integumentary System
Function of System:
To protect and cover the body, retain fluids, regulate body temperature, eliminate waste, and protect against disease.
How it aids in homeostasis:
Regulates body temperature and prevents the body from receiving diseases also keeps essential fluids within the body
Image of system:
Name and function of Major Organs:
Skin, hair, nails, and exocrine glands.
Comparative anatomy:
Unlike humans, frogs have the ability to absorb water through their skin to drink it and this is done through their Cutaneous Membrane. They also have the ability to camouflage due to the Chromatophores which are the black spots on their backs. They then have the Nicitating Membrane, which covers their eyes from water and debris, and the Tympanic Membrane which allows them to sense vibrations.
Fish have scales to protect their bodies where humans have skin. Fish also are covered in a layer of mucus just as we are covered in hair. The scales are produced from the mesoderm and dermis and are made from the same cells that produce hair, skin, and nails. Their skin also focuses on keeping their body warm since the fish is cold-blooded.
The Blue Whale's skin acts very similar to a humans skin but it is much thicker and covered a much larger surface. They are mammals but swim in cold waters so their skin is thick to aid in temperature control.
Disease of the Integumentary System
A disease of the integumentary system in Acne.
Acne is blocked skin follicles that lead to oil , bacteria , and dead skin buildup in your pores. Your pores then swell and create what is commonly known as a whitehead. Common acne can be caused by dirt and debris on your face not getting washed off properly, or other factors like hormones. Your genetics can lead you to have acne like cystic acne .
in Animals Some lizards, like bearded dragons, will get shed skin and oil stuck in their pores. Hairless cats may also have acne.
Reference sources (APA):
Integumentary System. (n.d.). Retrieved April 12, 2017 from http://www.innerbody.com/anatomy/integumentary
Integumentary System.(n.d.). Retrieved April 12, 2017 from http
    //www.sciencelinks.com/student-teacher-sheets/integumentary-system
Starr, C., Evers, C. A., & Starr, L. (2015). Biology: concepts and applications. Belmont, CA: Thompson, Brooks/Cole.
Integumentary System. (n.d.). Retrieved April 18, 2017, from http://froggylab.weebly.com/integumentary-system.html
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# The Organ Systems/muscular

The Muscular System
Function of System:
The main function of the muscular system is movement. Muscles are the only tissue in the body that has the ability to contract and therefore move the other parts of the body. Related to the function of movement is the muscular system's second function: the maintenance of posture and body position.
How it aids in homeostasis:
The muscular system works with the body's other systems to regulate body temperature.
Image of system:
Name and function of Major Organs: Visceral Muscle. Visceral muscle is found inside of organs like the stomach, intestines, and blood vessels. There's also the Cardiac Muscle. Found only in the heart, cardiac muscle is responsible for pumping blood throughout the body. Cardiac muscle tissue cannot be controlled consciously, so it is an involuntary muscle.
Reference sources (APA):
“SEER Training:Introduction to the Muscular System.” SEER Training:Introduction to the Muscular System, training.seer.cancer.gov/anatomy/muscular/. Accessed 12 Apr. 2017.
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# The Organ Systems/circulatory

The Circulatory System
Function of System:
Circulates blood, nutrients, hormones, oxygen, and other substances throughout the body.
How it aids in homeostasis:
Helps to fight diseases, maintains internal body temperature, and maintains proper pH.
Image of system:
Major Organs:
Human Heart: Four chambers
Comparative Anatomy:
Human hearts have four chambers. Frogs have three chambers. The fish heart only has an atrium and a ventricle. Blood is transported from the heart to the Arteries through Arterioles and then to the capillaries, it comes back to the heart through venules and then to veins. All three organisms have closed circulatory systems.
Fish: Two chamber heart
Frog: Three chamber heart
Diseases of the Circulatory System:
Cardiomyopathy is a disease of the circulatory system. The name cardiomyopathy when broken down means diseased heart muscle; cardio (heart), myo (muscle), and pathy (disease). Disease happens when one or both of those chamber and pump systems are not functioning properly. There are three main ways the chambers can be damaged and that cause cardiomyopathy. The three areas are a "power failure, small pump, and a blocked pump" (McPheeters, 2014).
In dilated cardiomyopathy the picture shows how the chamber swells up affecting the flow of blood leaving the heart. In the hypertrophic heart it shows the chamber that shrank which results in less blood flowing through.
Cardiomyopathy disrupts homeostasis in the body through blood pressure abnormalities. This disease affects the heart's abilities to pump blood efficiently in the body, with that disruption blood is pumped slower which affects the patients blood pressure levels. The blood pressure levels decline, homeostasis in the body tries to regulate the drop in blood pressure. Homeostasis in the body is effected by red blood cell imbalance, vessel dysfunction and vasoconstrictors.
In Animals
Dilated Cardiomyopathy affects dogs in particular as far as comparative anatomy. It is a genetic disease so it is passed on through the parents. The disease affects larger breeds of dogs and rarely affects smaller breeds. Cardiomyopathy is a treatable disease and the earlier a dog is diagnosed with any form of heart disease the prognosis is better (Llera & Ward, n.d.).
Reference sources (APA):
Esi.stanford.edu. N.p., n.d. Web. 12 Apr. 2017. " Ribbiting Facts on the Human and Frog Circulatory and Respiratory Systems." Emaze Presentations. N.p., n.d. Web. 12 Apr. 2017.
Llera R., & Ward E. (n.d.). Dilated Cardiomyopathy in Dogs. VCA Animal Hospitals. Retrieved April 12, 2023 from http://vcahospitals.com/know-your-pet/dilated-cardiomyopathy-dcm-in-dogs--indepth
McPheeters, M. (2014, September 12). Cardiomyopathy signs and symptoms. Circulatory System and Disease. NCLEX-RN. Khan Academy. YouTube. Retrieved April 12, 2023, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iL6aM2xFixU
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# The Organ Systems/digestive

The Digestive System
Function of system:
The function of the digestive system is to breakdown the food into small molecules, which are then absorbed into the body.
How it aids in homeostasis:
It maintains the balance by providing the energy necessary to keep functioning, as well as providing raw materials for growth.
Image of system:
Major organs:
Food enters through the mouth and is broken down physically by the teeth and tongue. Saliva secreted by the salivary glands contain the enzyme Amylase which breaks down starches.
The esophagus has a upper esophageal sphincter(UES) which is a group of muscle at the top of the esophagus. It controls eating, breathing, belching and vomiting. The UES also makes sure food doesn't go down the windpipe by way of the epiglottis, a flap that covers the opening to the trachea (windpipe) when food is being eaten.The second part of the esophagus is called the lower esophageal sphincter and its a ground of muscles at the bottom end of the esophagus. The lower esophageal sphincter prevents acid and the contents of the stomach from traveling up it.
The stomach is a cavity with strong muscles. It is where much of the physical breakdown of food takes place. The stomach secretes stomach acids and the enzyme pepsin which chemically breaks down proteins.
The Pancreas makes digestive enzymes that coat the food as it emerges from the stomach through the Pyloric sphincter. The enzymes chemically break down food into smaller molecules that can more easily be absorbed into the body.
The Gall Bladder stores bile which breaks apart fats making them easier to digest. The bile is made by the liver.
Partially digested food goes from the stomach into the small intestine. In the first part of the small intestine, the duodenum, food is combined with bile that comes from the gallbladder and enzymes from the pancreas. Food is moved through the intestines by muscles where it is absorbed into the blood stream after passing through the thin largely wrinkled inner surface or mucosa.
The large intestine absorbs water and salts and prepares waste material for excretion via the rectum and anus. It also houses a large number of microorganisms which aid in digestion and produce vitamin K.
The intestines are contained within a membranous sack called the Mesentery which attaches them to the abdominal wall and includes the blood vessels that feed them.
Comparative anatomy with three other phyla in kingdom:
All chordates a stomach and mouth and intestines for digestion.
Sources:
"Chordata Digestive System." Study.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 11 Apr. 2017.
"What Are the Main Organs of the Digestive System?" Reference. N.p., n.d. Web. 11 Apr.  2017.
"Function of the Digestive System." Function of the Digestive System. N.p., n.d. Web. 11  Apr. 2017.
"www.sciencealert.com/it-s-official-a-brand-new-human-organ-has-been-classified May 2017.
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# The Organ Systems/editing help

For consistency, each organ system page will include the following:
Name of System:
Function of System:
How it aids in homeostasis:
Image of system (free licenced):
Name and function of Major Organs:
Comparative anatomy with three other phyla in kingdom Animalia including images.
Reference sources (APA):
TO EDIT A PAGE
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To prevent paragraphs from running together, insert a new line between them.
TO ADD IMAGE
The format for adding an image is as follows:
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# The Organ Systems/Table of Contents

COVER
Acknowledgements
Thank you to the Hill College Biol 1409 students for all of your help in writing this book. I hope you continue to write in the future. - RH
Foreword
THE 11 ORGAN SYSTEMS
1. The Circulatory (Cardiovascular) System
2. The Digestive System
3. The Endocrine System
4. The Integumentary System
5. The Lymphatics / Immune System
6. The Muscular System
7. The Nervous System
8. The Reproductive System
9. The Respiratory System
10. The Skeletal System
11. The Urinary (Excretory) System
For student editing help click here
# The Organ Systems/foreword

Organ systems
This book is about the organ systems in the human body with some comparative anatomy.
This book is a project begun by the students in the Hill College Spring 2017 Biology 1409 course. Our hope is that this book will give an introduction to the human organ systems for the student of introductory biology and zoology. Some comparative analysis will be included.
We encourage the community to add to and correct our work while still keeping the language at a level that will not discourage beginning learners. I hope that this will be a useful start for students of all ages who would like to know a bit more about the human body.
Rosalyn Hunter
Biology Instructor
July 20, 2017
Addendum
In Spring 2023 the students of the Hill College Biology 1409 course added information diseases of these systems. I would like to acknowledge them and thank them for the work they did to expand this work for the benefit of the public commons. Thank you.
Special thanks to these students for updates to this book: Katie Denny (urinary), Bailee, Brooklin Burgess (integumentary), Thomas Dillard, Jadyn Groves, L.E.I, Christie Kellam (circulatory), Caleb Larue, Cloe May, and Abbie Pruisner (skeletal).
To the Table of Contents
# The Organ Systems/nervous

Nervous System
Function of System:
The Nervous System allows us to sense and respond to the world around us. Our responses sometimes come out in the form of impulsive reactions to activity outside our body.
How it aids in homeostasis:
The Nervous System maintains homeostasis by sending nerve impulses through out the body to keep the flow of blood going as well as undisturbed. These nerve impulses can be sent so quickly throughout the body which helps keep the body safe from any potential threat.
Image of system:
Comparative Anatomy:
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