OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Aros/Developer/SelfHostedCompile

The AROS Operating system is currently built using Linux and FreeBSD hosts. There has long been a significant amount interest in AROS being able to compile itself, therefore freeing the native version from Linux/FreeBSD.
In order for AROS to be able to recompile AROS, most likely the easiest path to take would be to port the existing FreeBSD/Linux build environment to AROS.
The purpose of this page is to keep track of the current state of the tools that need to be ported to AROS in order to realize the goal.

## Required Tools

Here is a list of what is required to build from within AROS, and its current port status for AROS:

### GNU GCC Compiler

GCC 3.3.1 Ported. No reported problems, yet has not undergone rigorous testing.

### GNU Binutils

Binutils 2.14 Ported. No known issues

### GNU Fileutils

Fileutils 4.1 Ported. No reported problems, yet has not undergone rigorous testing.

### GNU Textutils

Textutils 2.1 Ported. No reported problems, yet has not undergone rigorous testing.

### GNU Make Utility

GNU Make 3.80 08.21.2004 Success! With updated sources from the AOS4 port, and some hacking about, a *stable* make has been generated. The make in contrib/gnu/make is slated to be removed and this will be committed in its place :-D

### GNU Awk Utility

GNU Awk (GAWK) 3.1.3 Ported. No reported problems, yet has not undergone rigorous testing.

### GNU Bison Utility

GNU Bison (GAWK) 1.875 Ported. No reported problems, yet has not undergone rigorous testing.

### Python Script Parser

Python 2.2.1 Ported. It is hoped PyAROS will work.

### The NetPBM Graphics Conversion Package

NetPBM Ported. Initial tests indicate the portions of this that are needed by the AROS build system function properly.

### GNU pdksh

GNU Ksh Shell Ported. However, an issue relating a workaround of the fork function call is creating a stability problem.
# C Sharp Programming/Keywords/enum

The enum keyword identifies an enumeration.
C# Keywords :
| abstract | as | base | bool | break |
| byte | case | catch | char | checked |
| class | const | continue | decimal | default |
| delegate | do | double | else | enum |
| event | explicit | extern | false | finally |
| fixed | float | for | foreach | goto |
| if | implicit | in | int | interface |
| internal | is | lock | long | namespace |
| new | null | object | operator | out |
| override | params | private | protected | public |
| readonly | ref | return | sbyte | sealed |
| short | sizeof | stackalloc | static | string |
| struct | switch | this | throw | true |
| try | typeof | uint | ulong | unchecked |
| unsafe | ushort | using | var | virtual |
| void | volatile | while |
Special C# Identifiers (Contextual Keywords) :
| add | alias | async | await | dynamic |
| get | global | nameof | partial | remove |
| set | value | when | where | yield |
Contextual Keywords (Used in Queries) :
| ascending | by | descending | equals | from |
| group | in | into | join | let |
| on | orderby | select | where |
# C Sharp Programming/Keywords/equals

The join, in, on, equals, and sometimes into contextual keywords are used to relate items in two different data sources by a common attribute in a query. Specifically, the 'on this equals that' portion is used to identify the key from one data source that will be matched to the key in another data source.
C# Keywords :
| abstract | as | base | bool | break |
| byte | case | catch | char | checked |
| class | const | continue | decimal | default |
| delegate | do | double | else | enum |
| event | explicit | extern | false | finally |
| fixed | float | for | foreach | goto |
| if | implicit | in | int | interface |
| internal | is | lock | long | namespace |
| new | null | object | operator | out |
| override | params | private | protected | public |
| readonly | ref | return | sbyte | sealed |
| short | sizeof | stackalloc | static | string |
| struct | switch | this | throw | true |
| try | typeof | uint | ulong | unchecked |
| unsafe | ushort | using | var | virtual |
| void | volatile | while |
Special C# Identifiers (Contextual Keywords) :
| add | alias | async | await | dynamic |
| get | global | nameof | partial | remove |
| set | value | when | where | yield |
Contextual Keywords (Used in Queries) :
| ascending | by | descending | equals | from |
| group | in | into | join | let |
| on | orderby | select | where |
# C Sharp Programming/Keywords/event

The event keyword is used to declare an event.
C# Keywords :
| abstract | as | base | bool | break |
| byte | case | catch | char | checked |
| class | const | continue | decimal | default |
| delegate | do | double | else | enum |
| event | explicit | extern | false | finally |
| fixed | float | for | foreach | goto |
| if | implicit | in | int | interface |
| internal | is | lock | long | namespace |
| new | null | object | operator | out |
| override | params | private | protected | public |
| readonly | ref | return | sbyte | sealed |
| short | sizeof | stackalloc | static | string |
| struct | switch | this | throw | true |
| try | typeof | uint | ulong | unchecked |
| unsafe | ushort | using | var | virtual |
| void | volatile | while |
Special C# Identifiers (Contextual Keywords) :
| add | alias | async | await | dynamic |
| get | global | nameof | partial | remove |
| set | value | when | where | yield |
Contextual Keywords (Used in Queries) :
| ascending | by | descending | equals | from |
| group | in | into | join | let |
| on | orderby | select | where |
# C Sharp Programming/Keywords/explicit
### General

When values are cast implicitly, the runtime does not need any casting in code by the developer in order for the value to be converted to its new type.
Here is an example, where the developer is casting explicitly:
The developer has told the runtime, "I know what I'm doing, force this conversion."
Implicit casting means that runtime doesn't need any prompting in order to do the conversion. Here is an example of this.

### Keyword

Notice that no casting was necessary by the developer. What is special about implicit, is that the context that the type is converted to is totally lossless i.e. converting to this type loses no information, so it can be converted back without worry.
The explicit keyword is used to create type conversion operators that can only be used by specifying an explicit type cast.
This construct is useful to help software developers write more readable code. Having an explicit cast name makes it clear that a conversion is taking place.
C# Keywords :
| abstract | as | base | bool | break |
| byte | case | catch | char | checked |
| class | const | continue | decimal | default |
| delegate | do | double | else | enum |
| event | explicit | extern | false | finally |
| fixed | float | for | foreach | goto |
| if | implicit | in | int | interface |
| internal | is | lock | long | namespace |
| new | null | object | operator | out |
| override | params | private | protected | public |
| readonly | ref | return | sbyte | sealed |
| short | sizeof | stackalloc | static | string |
| struct | switch | this | throw | true |
| try | typeof | uint | ulong | unchecked |
| unsafe | ushort | using | var | virtual |
| void | volatile | while |
Special C# Identifiers (Contextual Keywords) :
| add | alias | async | await | dynamic |
| get | global | nameof | partial | remove |
| set | value | when | where | yield |
Contextual Keywords (Used in Queries) :
| ascending | by | descending | equals | from |
| group | in | into | join | let |
| on | orderby | select | where |
# C Sharp Programming/Keywords/extern

The keyword extern indicates that the method being called exists in a DLL.
A tool called tlbimp.exe can create a wrapper assembly that allows C# to interact with the DLL like it was a .NET assembly i.e. use constructors to instantiate it, call its methods.
Older DLLs will not work with this method. Instead, you have to explicitally tell the compiler what DLL to call, what method to call and what parameters to pass. Since parameter type is very important, you can also explicitly define what type the parameter should be passed to the method as.
Here is an example:
The [DllImport("user32.dll")] tells the compiler which DLL to reference. Windows searches for files as defined by the PATH environment variable, and therefore will search those paths before failing.
The method is also static because the DLL may not understand how to be "created", as DLLs can be created in different languages. This allows the method to be called directly, instead of being instantiated and then used.
C# Keywords :
| abstract | as | base | bool | break |
| byte | case | catch | char | checked |
| class | const | continue | decimal | default |
| delegate | do | double | else | enum |
| event | explicit | extern | false | finally |
| fixed | float | for | foreach | goto |
| if | implicit | in | int | interface |
| internal | is | lock | long | namespace |
| new | null | object | operator | out |
| override | params | private | protected | public |
| readonly | ref | return | sbyte | sealed |
| short | sizeof | stackalloc | static | string |
| struct | switch | this | throw | true |
| try | typeof | uint | ulong | unchecked |
| unsafe | ushort | using | var | virtual |
| void | volatile | while |
Special C# Identifiers (Contextual Keywords) :
| add | alias | async | await | dynamic |
| get | global | nameof | partial | remove |
| set | value | when | where | yield |
Contextual Keywords (Used in Queries) :
| ascending | by | descending | equals | from |
| group | in | into | join | let |
| on | orderby | select | where |
# C Sharp Programming/Keywords/false

The false keyword is a boolean constant value.
C# Keywords :
| abstract | as | base | bool | break |
| byte | case | catch | char | checked |
| class | const | continue | decimal | default |
| delegate | do | double | else | enum |
| event | explicit | extern | false | finally |
| fixed | float | for | foreach | goto |
| if | implicit | in | int | interface |
| internal | is | lock | long | namespace |
| new | null | object | operator | out |
| override | params | private | protected | public |
| readonly | ref | return | sbyte | sealed |
| short | sizeof | stackalloc | static | string |
| struct | switch | this | throw | true |
| try | typeof | uint | ulong | unchecked |
| unsafe | ushort | using | var | virtual |
| void | volatile | while |
Special C# Identifiers (Contextual Keywords) :
| add | alias | async | await | dynamic |
| get | global | nameof | partial | remove |
| set | value | when | where | yield |
Contextual Keywords (Used in Queries) :
| ascending | by | descending | equals | from |
| group | in | into | join | let |
| on | orderby | select | where |
# C Sharp Programming/Keywords/finally

The keyword finally is used to identify a statement or statement block after a try-catch block for execution regardless of whether the associated try block encountered an exception, and executes even after a return statement. The finally block is used to perform cleanup activities.
C# Keywords :
| abstract | as | base | bool | break |
| byte | case | catch | char | checked |
| class | const | continue | decimal | default |
| delegate | do | double | else | enum |
| event | explicit | extern | false | finally |
| fixed | float | for | foreach | goto |
| if | implicit | in | int | interface |
| internal | is | lock | long | namespace |
| new | null | object | operator | out |
| override | params | private | protected | public |
| readonly | ref | return | sbyte | sealed |
| short | sizeof | stackalloc | static | string |
| struct | switch | this | throw | true |
| try | typeof | uint | ulong | unchecked |
| unsafe | ushort | using | var | virtual |
| void | volatile | while |
Special C# Identifiers (Contextual Keywords) :
| add | alias | async | await | dynamic |
| get | global | nameof | partial | remove |
| set | value | when | where | yield |
Contextual Keywords (Used in Queries) :
| ascending | by | descending | equals | from |
| group | in | into | join | let |
| on | orderby | select | where |
# C Sharp Programming/Keywords/float

The float keyword is used in field, method, property, and variable declarations and in cast and typeof operations as an alias for the .NET Framework structure System.Single. That is, it represents a IEEE 754, 32-bit signed binary floating point number whose value is negative 0, positive 0, negative infinity, positive infinity, not a number, or a number ranging either from $-1.5\times 10^{-45}$ to $-3.4\times 10^{38}$ or from $1.5\times 10^{-45}$ to $3.4\times 10^{38}$.
C# Keywords :
| abstract | as | base | bool | break |
| byte | case | catch | char | checked |
| class | const | continue | decimal | default |
| delegate | do | double | else | enum |
| event | explicit | extern | false | finally |
| fixed | float | for | foreach | goto |
| if | implicit | in | int | interface |
| internal | is | lock | long | namespace |
| new | null | object | operator | out |
| override | params | private | protected | public |
| readonly | ref | return | sbyte | sealed |
| short | sizeof | stackalloc | static | string |
| struct | switch | this | throw | true |
| try | typeof | uint | ulong | unchecked |
| unsafe | ushort | using | var | virtual |
| void | volatile | while |
Special C# Identifiers (Contextual Keywords) :
| add | alias | async | await | dynamic |
| get | global | nameof | partial | remove |
| set | value | when | where | yield |
Contextual Keywords (Used in Queries) :
| ascending | by | descending | equals | from |
| group | in | into | join | let |
| on | orderby | select | where |
# C Sharp Programming/Keywords/fixed

The fixed keyword is used to prevent the garbage collector from relocating a variable. You may only use this in an unsafe context.
If you are using C# 2.0 or greater, the fixed may also be used to declare a fixed-size array. This is useful when creating code that works with a COM project or DLL.
Your array must be composed of one of the primitive types: bool, byte, char, double, float, int, long, sbyte, short, ulong, or ushort.
C# Keywords :
| abstract | as | base | bool | break |
| byte | case | catch | char | checked |
| class | const | continue | decimal | default |
| delegate | do | double | else | enum |
| event | explicit | extern | false | finally |
| fixed | float | for | foreach | goto |
| if | implicit | in | int | interface |
| internal | is | lock | long | namespace |
| new | null | object | operator | out |
| override | params | private | protected | public |
| readonly | ref | return | sbyte | sealed |
| short | sizeof | stackalloc | static | string |
| struct | switch | this | throw | true |
| try | typeof | uint | ulong | unchecked |
| unsafe | ushort | using | var | virtual |
| void | volatile | while |
Special C# Identifiers (Contextual Keywords) :
| add | alias | async | await | dynamic |
| get | global | nameof | partial | remove |
| set | value | when | where | yield |
Contextual Keywords (Used in Queries) :
| ascending | by | descending | equals | from |
| group | in | into | join | let |
| on | orderby | select | where |
# C Sharp Programming/Keywords/for

The for keyword identifies a for loop.
C# Keywords :
| abstract | as | base | bool | break |
| byte | case | catch | char | checked |
| class | const | continue | decimal | default |
| delegate | do | double | else | enum |
| event | explicit | extern | false | finally |
| fixed | float | for | foreach | goto |
| if | implicit | in | int | interface |
| internal | is | lock | long | namespace |
| new | null | object | operator | out |
| override | params | private | protected | public |
| readonly | ref | return | sbyte | sealed |
| short | sizeof | stackalloc | static | string |
| struct | switch | this | throw | true |
| try | typeof | uint | ulong | unchecked |
| unsafe | ushort | using | var | virtual |
| void | volatile | while |
Special C# Identifiers (Contextual Keywords) :
| add | alias | async | await | dynamic |
| get | global | nameof | partial | remove |
| set | value | when | where | yield |
Contextual Keywords (Used in Queries) :
| ascending | by | descending | equals | from |
| group | in | into | join | let |
| on | orderby | select | where |
# Chemical Sciences: A Manual for CSIR-UGC National Eligibility Test for Lectureship and JRF/Nuclear Overhauser effect

The Overhauser Effect is the transfer of spin polarization from one spin population to another via cross-relaxation in nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR-spectroscopy). It is named after American physicist Albert Overhauser who hypothesized it as a post doctoral scholar in the early 1950's. The phenomenon was demonstrated experimentally by C. P. Slichter and T. R. Carver in 1953. The original Overhauser effect was described in terms of polarization transfer between electron and nuclear spins, but is now mostly used for transfer between nuclear spins—the Nuclear Overhauser Effect (NOE or nOe). A very common application is NOESY (Nuclear Overhauser Effect Spectroscopy), an NMR technique for structure determination of macromolecular motifs (see also 2D-FT NMRI and Spectroscopy).
NOE differs from spin coupling in the respect that NOE is observed through space, not through bonds. Thus, all atoms that are in proximity to each other give a NOE, whereas spin coupling is observed only when the atoms are bonded to same or neighboring atoms. Furthermore, the distance can be derived from the observed NOEs, so that the precise, three-dimensional structure of the molecule can be reconstructed.
Other experimental techniques exploiting the NOE include and are not limited to:
* HOESY, Heteronuclear Overhauser Effect Spectroscopy
* ROESY, Rotational Frame Nuclear Overhauser Effect Spectroscopy
* TRNOE, Transferred Nuclear Overhauser Effect
* DPFGSE-NOE, Double Pulsed Field Gradient Spin Echo NOE experiment

## Notes

* ↑ Overhauser, Albert W. (1953-10-15). "Polarization of Nuclei in Metals" (PDF, fee required). Phys. Rev. 92 (2): 411–5. Bibcode:1953PhRv...92..411O. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.92.411. Retrieved 2009-01-20.
* ↑ Charles P. Slichter.1996. Principles of Magnetic Resonance. Springer: Berlin and New York, Third Edition., 651pp. ISBN 0-387-50157-6.

## References

Overhauser, Albert W. (1953-10-15). "Polarization of Nuclei in Metals" (PDF, fee required). Phys. Rev. 92 (2): 411–5. Bibcode:1953PhRv...92..411O. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.92.411. Retrieved 2009-01-20.
* Charles P. Slichter.1996. Principles of Magnetic Resonance. Springer: Berlin and New York, Third Edition., 651pp. ISBN 0-387-50157-6.
# Chemical Sciences: A Manual for CSIR-UGC National Eligibility Test for Lectureship and JRF/Named Reactions/Sharpless Epoxidation Reaction

The Sharpless epoxidation reaction is an enantioselective chemical reaction to prepare 2,3-epoxyalcohols from primary and secondary allylic alcohols. The stereochemistry of the resulting epoxide is determined by the diastereomer of diethyl tartrate employed in the reaction. This reaction gives good yields and diastereoselectivities over a broad range of substrates.
The oxidizing agent is tert-butyl hydroperoxide. Enantioselectivity is achieved by a catalyst formed from titanium tetra(isopropoxide) and diethyl tartrate. Only 5-10 mol% of the catalyst in the presence of 3Å molecular sieves (3Å MS) is necessary.
Several reviews have been published.
Epoxides can be easily converted into dialcohols, aminoalcohols or ethers, so formation of chiral epoxides is a very important step in the synthesis of natural products. K. Barry Sharpless shared the 2001 Nobel prize in Chemistry for his work on asymmetric oxidations. The prize was shared with William S. Knowles and Ryoji Noyori.

## Reaction mechanism

The Sharpless group has investigated both the reaction kinetics and the structure of the catalyst.

## References

* ↑ Katsuki, T.; Sharpless, K. B. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1980, 102, 5974. (doi:10.1021/ja00538a077)
* ↑ Hill, J. G.; Sharpless, K. B.; Exon, C. M.; Regenye, R. Org. Syn., Coll. Vol. 7, p.461 (1990); Vol. 63, p.66 (1985). (Article)
* ↑ Gao, Y.; Hanson, R. M.; Klunder, J. M.; Ko, S. Y.; Masamune, H.; Sharpless, K. B. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1987, 109, 5765-5780. (doi:10.1021/ja00253a032)
* ↑ Johnson, R. A.; Sharpless, K. B. Comp. Org. Syn. 1991, 7, 389-436. (Review)
* ↑ Hüft, E. Top. Curr. Chem. 1993, 164, 63-77. (Review)
* ↑ Katsuki, T.; Martin, V. S. Org. React. 1996, 48, 1-300. (Review)
* ↑ Pfenninger, A. Synthesis 1986, 89-116. (Review)
* ↑ Woodard, S. S.; Finn, M. G.; Sharpless J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1991, 113, 106-113. (doi:10.1021/ja00001a018)
* ↑ Finn, M. G.; Sharpless, K. B. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1991, 113, 113-126. (doi:10.1021/ja00001a019)
# Chemical Sciences: A Manual for CSIR-UGC National Eligibility Test for Lectureship and JRF/Named Reactions/Stork Enamine Reaction

Stork enamine alkylation, also known as the Stork-Enamine reaction, involves the addition of an enamine to an alpha, beta-unsaturated carbonyl acceptor in a process similar to the Michael reaction. The product is then hydrolyzed by an aqueous acid to produce a 1,5-dicarbonyl compound.
The process:
* formation of an enamine from a ketone
* addition of the enamine to and alpha, beta-unsaturated aldehyde or ketone
* hydrolysis of the enamine back to a ketone
When the electrophile is an acyl halide, a 1,3-diketone is formed (Stork acylation). The reaction is named after its inventor: Gilbert Stork.

## Variations

In a special case of this reaction type it is also possible to alkylate ketones or aldehydes with alkyl halides as less reactive electrophiles:
In this method a carbonyl compound is converted to an imine by alkylimino-de-oxo-bisubstitution with a primary amine. The imine is then reacted with an Grignard reagent to the corresponding magnesium salt to an intermediate capable of displacing a halide. Hydrolysis once again yields the alkylated ketone.

## References

* ↑ McMurry, John (2003-03-21). Organic Chemistry (Hardcover) (6th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson-Brooks/Cole. ISBN 0-534-38999-6. {{cite book}}: |format= requires |url= (help)
* ↑ A New Method for the Alkylation of Ketones and Aldehydes: the C-Alkylation of the Magnesium Salts of N-Substituted Imines Gilbert Stork and Susan R. Dowd J. Am. Chem. Soc.; 1963; 85(14) pp 2178 - 2180; doi:10.1021/ja00897a040
# Chemical Sciences: A Manual for CSIR-UGC National Eligibility Test for Lectureship and JRF/Nominal mass

The nominal mass is the integer mass of the most abundant naturally occurring stable isotope of an element. The nominal mass of a molecule is the sum of the nominal masses of the elements in its empirical formula.
H$_2$O = 18

## References

* ↑ Yergey, James (1983). "Isotopic distributions in mass spectra of large molecules" (PDF). Analytical Chemistry. 55: 353–356. doi:10.1021/ac00253a037. Retrieved 2007-09-04. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
# Chemical Sciences: A Manual for CSIR-UGC National Eligibility Test for Lectureship and JRF/Named Reactions/Sommelet-Hauser Rearrangement

The Sommelet-Hauser rearrangement is a rearrangement reaction of certain benzyl quaternary ammonium salts. The reagent is sodium amide or another alkali metal amide and the reaction product a N-dialkyl benzyl amine with a new alkyl group in the aromatic ortho position.
This reaction was named after M. Sommelet and Charles R. Hauser

## Mechanism

The benzylic methylene proton is acidic and deprotonation takes place to the ylide. The second step is a 2,3-sigmatropic rearrangement.

## References

* ↑ Organic Syntheses, Coll. Vol. 4, p.585 (1963); Vol. 34, p.61 (1954) Link.
* ↑ M. Sommelet, Compt. Rend. 205, 56 (1937).
* ↑ Rearrangements of Benzyltrimethylammonium Ion and Related Quaternary Ammonium Ions by Sodium Amide Involving Migration into the Ring Simon W. Kantor, Charles R. Hauser J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1951, 73 (9), pp 4122–4131 doi:10.1021/ja01153a022