OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Rhetoric and Composition/Missing or misplaced apostrophe

For such a little piece of punctuation, the apostrophe is really noticeable when it’s used incorrectly. And, there seems to be a lot of confusion about how it’s used: a casual look at ads, signs, and other everyday writing reveals a wildly exotic sprinkling of apostrophes in all kinds of places. That’s why mastering the apostrophe's uses can really bolster your credibility in writing: so many people get it wrong!
The main thing to know is that apostrophes’ primary jobs are to form possessives and to stand in for missing letters in a contraction. Apostrophes are only very rarely used to form plurals.
Use possessive forms when you want to indicate ownership, or “belonging to.” Possessives are almost always formed by adding an apostrophe and an “s” to the end of a noun (a person, place, or thing). In contrast, plurals are usually formed by adding an “s” or “es” to the end of a noun without an apostrophe.
EXAMPLES
Possessives use apostrophes.
The amendment’s language clarifies the terms left undefined in the original law. “language” belongs to “amendment”; “terms” is plural
A review of the month’s headlines reveals nine front-page pieces about the local school board election. “headlines” belongs to “month”; “headlines” and “pieces” are plural
Sara Jones’ study of language use and class is considered a classic in the field. “study” belongs to “Jones”; the apostrophe moves to the end because the noun ends in “s”
Plurals do not take apostrophes.
Three key ideas emerged in the introduction.
The organization was restructured after decades of poor performance.
All animals have an innate evolutionary drive to pass along genes to offspring.
But plurals that are also possessive do use apostrophes. Notice how the position of the apostrophe moves depending on whether the plural ends with “s” or not.
The book traces the Kennedys’ influence on national politics.
The library science degree offers a special emphasis in children’s literature.
The board changes the policy after the stakeholders’ objections.
Apostrophes are also used to stand in for missing letters in a contraction.
EXAMPLES
The conclusion doesn’t [does not] follow from the evidence.
Remove the test tubes from the sterilizer when the cycle’s [cycle is] finished.
This committee will file a final report when we’re [we are] done with the applications.
Do not use an apostrophe to form the plurals of numbers or acronyms.
EXAMPLES
1980s
eights
three CEOs
these JPEGs
# Rhetoric and Composition/Missing comma after introductory element

When you begin a sentence with a word or group of words that provides some background, introductory, or otherwise preliminary information, put a comma between this word or phrase and the rest of your sentence. The comma here tells your reader to pause, take the background information into consideration, and get ready to move on to the main part of the sentence.
To help you recognize places in your sentences where you are missing commas after introductory clauses, read your writing out loud. Chances are good you'll naturally pause after introductory phrases. You can also check the beginning of each sentence to look for words or phrases that add information about time, place, or manner or for words that serve as transitions; these are all common introductory elements.
EXAMPLES
Incorrect: Before the budget passed several lawmakers filibustered to stop it.
Correct: Before the budget passed, several lawmakers filibustered to stop it.
Incorrect: However supporters saw the legislation through.
Correct: However, supporters saw the legislation through.
Learn more under "Commas after introductory elements" here.
# Rhetoric and Composition/Missing comma with compound sentences
## What is a missing comma with compound sentence error?

A compound sentence is a sentence with at least two independent clauses, or parts that can stand alone as separate sentences. For example, "A dog barks, but a cat meows." Note that independent clauses in compound sentences are joined with coordinating conjunctions, or FANBOYS (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so). The rule is that you must place a comma before this conjunction. If you do not include one, you have written a fused or run-on sentence.

## Examples of missing commas with compound sentences

* A dog barks but a cat meows.
* The mayor's office is downtown and the police department is next to it.
* Punctuation can be tricky yet it is worth the effort to learn it.

## Fixing run-on sentences

Fixing this error is simple--just put a comma in front of the conjunction.

## Examples of fixed run-on sentences

Notice how the sentences above have been punctuated in the following examples.
* A dog barks, but a cat meows.
* The mayor's office is downtown, and the police department is next to it.
* Punctuation can be tricky, yet it is worth the effort to learn it.
Learn more under "commas with two independent clauses" here.
# RAC Attack - Oracle Cluster Database at Home/Prep for OS Installation

Prev: Hardware and Windows Preparation
* Create VM
* Prep for OS Installation
* OS Installation
* Wrap-up OS Installation
* Create RAC Attack DVD
* Prep for Oracle
Next: Create Cluster
VIRTUAL DVD CONFIGURATION:
| Virtual Device Node (Adapter/Device) | Path (Datastore/Directory/Filename) |
| IDE 0:0 | [RAC11g-iso] Enterprise-R5-U6-Server-i386-dvd.iso |
| IDE 0:1*** | [RAC11g-iso] RAC11gR2.iso*** |
***INSTRUCTOR-LED CLASS ONLY
* In the Inventory tab at the left, select collabn1 (the virtual machine we just created).
* From the Commands box, click Add Hardware. In the window that appears, click CD/DVD Drive.
* Choose to Use an ISO Image.
* Click Browse and locate the file [RAC11g-iso] Enterprise-R5-U6-Server-i386-dvd.iso.
* Open the section called Virtual Device Node and choose IDE 0:0. Then click Next. Carefully follow this step because it's easy to miss.
* Click Finish to add the device. Don't power on the virtual machine yet.
* If you are in a class, then the instructor may have provided a second virtual DVD named RAC11gR2.iso to save some class time. It contains all additional software downloads. If you are not in a class, then you will later download all needed software and build the second DVD yourself.
** Repeat all previous steps from this lab to add the second DVD using RAC11gR2.iso image and choosing IDE 0:1.
** Continue below.
* Scroll down to the Hardware box and confirm the Virtual Machine settings. They should match this picture (except that you should only see the second DVD if you are in a class and it was provided by the instructor):
# RAC Attack - Oracle Cluster Database at Home/Planning Your Time

For the most benefit, you must plan your time carefully. There will not be enough time to complete all of the labs - so choose the ones which most interest you.

## Time

These times were gathered with a laptop just meeting the recommended minimum requirements. In addition to the wait times listed below, we suggest that you reserve about 40 minutes of work time to complete any given lab.
| Jumpstart | Size | Next Lab | Jumpstart Time | Wait Times in the Lab | Build Time |
| | | Hardware and Windows Preparation | | Download: VMware Server (500MB) Download: OEL (3GB) | |
| 0 | | Create VM | | 15 min: Linux Install Download: Oracle Cluster & Database (4.5GB) | |
| 1 | 3 GB | Create Cluster | 4 min: jumpstart | 5 min: Copy VM 3 min: startup collabn1 3 min: startup collabn2 | 6 min |
| 2 | 13 GB | Grid Install (ASM or Shared FS) | 11 min: jumpstart 3 min: startup nodes | 25 min: GI Install 10 min: root.sh collabn1 8 min: root.sh collabn2 | 17 min |
| 3 | 20 GB | RAC Install | 18 min: jumpstart 4 min: startup collabn1 4 min: startup collabn2 | 42 min: DB Install | 30 min |
| 4 | 27 GB | Create Database | 25 min: jumpstart 4 min: startup collabn1 4 min: startup collabn2 | 22 min: DB Create | 45 min |
| 5 | 28 GB | Rolling Patches Part II: Exploring RAC (w/o PSU) | 25 min: jumpstart 6 min: startup collabn1 6 min: startup collabn2 | 22 min: GI Patch collabn1 20 min: DB Patch collabn1 22 min: GI Patch collabn2 20 min: DB Patch collabn2 5 min: catbundle | 45 min |
| 6 | 37 GB | Part II: Exploring RAC (w/PSU) | 35 min: jumpstart 6 min: startup collabn1 6 min: startup collabn2 | | 60 min |
# RAC Attack - Oracle Cluster Database at Home/RAC Attack 12c/ASM Configuration

Prev: Create Cluster
* Prepare for GI install
* Install Grid Infrastructure
* Check Cluster Status After GI Install
* ASM Configuration
Next: Install Database Software
* From a VNC session, run the ASM Configuration Assistant:
* The asmca opens on the Disk Groups tab, showing the DATA diskgroup created by the installer. Click on Create.
* Enter FRA as the disk group name.
* The diskgroup is being created.
* The diskgroup is created.
* Click on the Volumes tab, then on Create.
* The volume is created.
* Select the ASM Cluster File Systems tab.
* Select Cluster File System.
* To complete the filesystem creation, run this script as root.
* Finally, the filesystem is mounted on both nodes.
# RAC Attack - Oracle Cluster Database at Home/RAC Attack 12c/Check Cluster Status After GI Install

Prev: Create Cluster
* Prepare for GI install
* Install Grid Infrastructure
* Check Cluster Status After GI Install
* ASM Configuration
Next: Install Database Software
* Once your Grid Infrastructure installation is finished, you can get the status of the cluster components:
* Optional step: in order to increase the resistance of your nodes to the huge latency of a Virtualbox environment, you can increase the timeout of CRS before it causes a fencing (restart) of the node.
# Numerical Methods Qualification Exam Problems and Solutions (University of Maryland)/January 2009
## Problem 3

* Let $A\in R^{n\times m}\!\,$ with $n\geq m\!\,$. Assume $rank(A)=m\!\,$

## Problem 3a

* It is known that the symmetric matrix $A^{T}A\!\,$ can be factored as
* $A^{T}A=V\Lambda V^{T}\!\,$
* where the columns of $V\!\,$ are orthonormal eigenvectors of $A^{T}A\!\,$ and $\Lambda \!\,$ is the diagonal matrix containing the corresponding eigenvalues. Using this as a starting point, derive the singular value decomposition of $A\!\,$. That is show that there is a real orthogonal matrix $U\!\,$ and a matrix $\Sigma \in R^{n\times m}\!\,$ which is zero except for its diagonal entries $\sigma _{1}\geq \sigma _{2}\geq \ldots \geq \sigma _{m}>0\!\,$ such that $A=U\Sigma V^{T}\!\,$

## Solution 3a

We want to show
$A=U\Sigma V^{T}\!\,$
which is equivalent to
$AV=U\Sigma \!\,$

### Decompose Lambda

Decompose $\Lambda \!\,$ into $\Sigma ^{T}\Sigma \!\,$ i.e.
$\underbrace {\begin{bmatrix}\sigma _{1}&&&\\&\sigma _{2}&&\\&&\ddots &\\&&&\sigma _{m}\end{bmatrix}} _{\Lambda \in R^{m\times m}}=\underbrace {\begin{bmatrix}{\sqrt {\sigma _{1}}}&&&&0&\cdots &0\\&{\sqrt {\sigma _{2}}}&&&0&&\\&&\ddots &&\vdots &&\\&&&{\sqrt {\sigma _{m}}}&0&\cdots &0\end{bmatrix}} _{\Sigma ^{T}\in R^{m\times n}}\underbrace {\begin{bmatrix}{\sqrt {\sigma _{1}}}&&&\\&{\sqrt {\sigma _{2}}}&&\\&&\ddots &\\&&&{\sqrt {\sigma _{m}}}\\0&\cdots &&0\\\vdots &\vdots &&\vdots \\0&\cdots &0&0\end{bmatrix}} _{\Sigma \in R^{n\times m}}\!\,$
We can assume $\sigma _{1}\geq \sigma _{2}\geq \ldots \geq \sigma _{n}>0\!\,$ since otherwise we could just rearrange the columns of $V\!\,$.

### Define U

Let $U=AV\Sigma ^{-1}\!\,$ where
$\Sigma ^{-1}=\left({\begin{array}{ccccccc}{\frac {1}{\sqrt {\sigma _{1}}}}&&&&0&\cdots &0\\&{\frac {1}{\sqrt {\sigma _{2}}}}&&&0&&\\&&\ddots &&\vdots &&\\&&&{\frac {1}{\sqrt {\sigma _{m}}}}&0&\cdots &0\end{array}}\right),$

### Verify U orthogonal

${\begin{aligned}UU^{T}&=AV\Sigma ^{-1}\Sigma ^{-T}V^{T}A^{T}\\&=AV\Lambda ^{-1}V^{T}A^{T}\\&=AA^{-1}A^{-T}A^{T}\\&=I\\\\U^{T}U&=\Sigma ^{-T}V^{T}A^{T}AV\Sigma ^{-1}\\&=\Sigma ^{-T}V^{T}V\Lambda V^{T}V\Sigma ^{-1}\\&=I\end{aligned}}\!\,$
# Numerical Methods Qualification Exam Problems and Solutions (University of Maryland)/Practice Problems and Solutions
## Introduction

This is a compilation of problems and solutions from past numerical methods qualifying exams at the University of Maryland.

## August 2008
### Problem 1

Consider the system $\displaystyle Ax=b$. The GMRES method starts with a point $\displaystyle x_{0}$ and normalizes the residual $\displaystyle r_{0}=b-Ax_{0}$ so that $\textstyle v_{1}={\frac {r_{0}}{\nu }}$ has 2-norm one. It then constructs orthonormal Krylov bases $\scriptstyle V_{k}=(v_{1}\,v_{2}\,\cdots v_{m})$ satisfying
    $\displaystyle AV_{k}=V_{k+1}H_{k}$
where $\displaystyle H_{k}$ is a $\textstyle (k+1)\times k$ upper Hessenberg matrix. One then looks for an approximation to $\displaystyle x$ of the form
    $\displaystyle x(c)=x_{0}+V_{k}c$
choosing $\displaystyle c_{k}$ so that $\textstyle \|r(c)\|=\|b-Ax(c)\|$ is minimized, where $\textstyle \|\cdot \|$ is the usual Euclidean norm.

#### Part 1a

Show that $\displaystyle c_{k}$ minimizes $\|\nu e_{1}-H_{k}c\|$.

#### Solution 1a

We wish to show that
    $\displaystyle \|b-Ax(c)\|=\|\nu e_{1}-H_{k}c\|$
${\begin{aligned}\|b-Ax(c)\|&=\|b-A(x_{0}+V_{k}c)\|\\&=\|b-Ax_{0}-AV_{k}c\|\\&=\|r_{0}-AV_{k}c\|\\&=\|r_{0}-V_{k+1}H_{k}c\|\\&=\|\nu v_{1}-V_{k+1}H_{k}c\|\\&=\|V_{k+1}\underbrace {(\nu e_{1}-H_{k}c)} _{h_{c}}\|\\&=(V_{k+1}h_{c},V_{k+1}h_{c})^{\frac {1}{2}}\\&=((V_{k+1}h_{c})^{T}V_{k+1}h_{c})^{\frac {1}{2}}\\&=(h_{c}^{T}V_{k+1}^{T}V_{k+1}h_{c})^{\frac {1}{2}}\\&=(h_{c}^{T}h_{c})^{\frac {1}{2}}\\&=\|h_{c}\|\\&=\|\nu e_{1}-H_{k}c\|\end{aligned}}$
# Open Culture/Politics

Many different websites and groups are promoting discussions about national or international politics, these are strong actors in the open culture movement, because they want to have everyone contribute to the different subjects to advance the general knowledge. Though this has been said to be a manifestation of left wing politics.
However, politically-oriented websites tend to attract politically opinionated individuals, and, as a result, Open Culture has not been as successful in such venues as might have been anticipated. For instance, Indymedia, regarded by some as Open, is regarded by many as a failure in that deletions and IP banning is performed by a closed group, and the Open publishing is exploited by parties who might better be deleted, but are not deleted, because the deletion powers vest in the closed groups.
# Open Education Handbook/Acknowledgements

The Open Education Handbook is a community project of the Open Education Working Group. It is supported by Creative Commons, Wikimedia Deutschland and the LinkedUp Project.
We would like to express our gratitude to all those who have made a contribution to this handbook.

## Attendees at initial booksprint (London)

* Brian Kelly, Web Focus
* Chris Follows, UAL
* Kevin Mears, University of South Wales
* Leo Havemann, Birkbeck, University of London
* Madi Solomon, Pearson
* Marieke Guy, Open Knowledge Foundation
* Mathieu d'Aquin, Open University
* Michelle Brook, Open Knowledge Foundation
* Pat Lockley, University of London
* Phil Barker, Cetis & Heriot-Watt University
* Simon Kear, Goldsmiths College, University of London
* Simon Mahony, University College London
* Suzanne Hardy, Newcastle University
* Tony Hall
* Ulrich Tiedau, University College London
* William Hammonds, Universities UK
* Wolfgang Greller, Open University Netherlands

## Attendees of the 2nd Booksprint (Berlin)

* Alek Tarkowski, Creative Commons Poland
* Alessandro Adamou, Open University, UK
* Anna Wertlen, VillageScribe
* Balaji Venkataraman, Commonwealth of Learning
* Davide Tailbi, Istituto per le Tecnologie Didattiche (ITD)
* Elly Koepf, Wikimedia Deutschland
* Frank Wittmann, Universität Potsdam
* Ivana Marenzi, L3S Research Center, Leibniz Universität Hannover
* Jake Berger, BBC
* Jan Neumann, HBZ
* Johanna Santos
* John Weitzmann, Creative Commons
* Kamil Śliwowski, Creative Commons Poland
* Lucile Needen, SourceFabric
* Marieke Guy, Open Knowledge Foundation
* Martin Mehlberg, Leibniz Universität Hannover
* Robert Lehmann
* Sander van der Waal, Open Knowledge Foundation
* Sebastian Horndasch, Wikimedia Deutschland
* Sebastian Seitz, TSB Technologiestiftung Berlin
* Sophie Bloemen, Common Causes Policy
* Stefania Druga
* Vera Klauer
* Elhana Lernpaten
* Wissam Tawileh, Technische Universität Dresden

## Other contributors

* Bekka Kahn, P2PU University
* Cable Green, Director of Global Learning, Creative Commons
* Fabian Tompsett, Wikipedia
* Jacky Hood, Open Doors Project
* Jade Forester, Global Coordinator + Liaison, Mozilla Foundation
* Jane Park, Project Manager, Creative Commons
* Michael Chesterman, FLOSS Manuals
* Raniere Silva, Open Knowledge Foundation
* Brazil Stefan Dietze, L3S Research Center,Leibniz Universität Hannover
* Terry McAndrew, Jisc TechDis
The first draft of the Open Education Handbook was edited by Rob Farrow in September-October 2014.
The Wikibooks version was created by Martin Poulter in December 2014.
# Open Education Handbook/Access, participation, collaboration

It is possible to regard openness in different ways. One approach is to contrast 'open access' with 'open participation' or 'open contribution'. Open Education has in the past tended to focus on access, but an argument can be made that open participation and contribution is a more important indicator of openness than access to resources.
P2PU offers a course in Designing Collaborative Workshops that explores ideas around open participation.
Within the course it defines the following terms:
* Participatory - Trying to break down the barriers between the student and the teacher.
* Collaborative - Collaborative processes help us move away from the dominant theory of single author works, or ownership by one organisation/individual of what is created or the tools used to create it.
Open participation goes beyond the student-teacher relationship; it arguably can embody the student-student relationship, the student-course relationship and possibly more relaltionships. Open participation can involve many different communities, from established education institutions with a wealth of experience, to commercial companies, and individuals who are new to open practices.
The Heartbleed Bug offers a cautionary tale for the Open Education community. It occurred because everyone was using OpenSSL code, but no one was checking the work. Participation is an important part of an open process.
The challenge is for Open Education Practitioners and communities to bring in those from outside. Once people recognized that open knowledge can be enriched by individual academic experience they will feel more motivated to know and participate, not just as an audience member but as a protagonist.
If Open Education is primarily about access to (open) resources then to some extent the burden and responsibility is placed on those with the technical ability to create resources and share them. The balance of power is uneven, resources continue to be designed from a particular perspective and one could argue that to some extent Open Education becomes a form of socio-cultural colonialism. For example, there are still relatively few people currently taking on the dual role of consumer and developer of open education resources (this is often more pronounced in developing countries).

### Further resources

* Open as in oer and open as in MOOC by Pat Lockley
# Open Culture/Introduction

You might have heard of Open Source, and perhaps you have heard about Mozilla Firefox, a web browser, or of Linux, an operating system that rivals Windows; both attempt to challenge the mainstream software provided by many big tech corporations, much of which is locked behind a paywall, and/or spies on their own users. Open Source Software is not explicitly political - it has adherents across the political spectrum - but the method of development has led a number of theorists to suggest it is applicable to other areas of life. Moreover, it has the potential to change the way we work, govern ourselves and access the media.
This is a new area of study with an unstable lexicon, however, Lawrence Lessig - a professor at Stanford Law School, has dubbed the movement 'Free Culture', a term he borrowed from Richard Stallman's Free Software. Cooperation, Sharing, Global and Knowledge are its key concepts. In its most extreme (and idealistic) form, it is a system where everyone has a equal access to knowledge and information, where society would be free to live in a world of peace, discussion, tolerance, happiness, and understanding. Yes, this is the most idealistic view and we think that it is a goal that society should have. Even many of us claim that it is not possible, but we should strive for it.
# Open Culture/Preface

Many articles and books speak about the Open Source movement, but very few or none speak about the broader movement, the Open culture movement, so here is a text trying to explain the broader movement.
# Open Culture/Media

Media, another area of Open Culture, includes content-sharing such as BitTorrent, and other P2P networks. It is very recent, mainly having come with the development of the Internet. These networks allow everyone to share their photos, music and videos so that everyone has access to all the media he would like and gives his own production to everyone.
What are the incentives to produce new media if one can't get any money out of it? Some incentives include communicating one's thoughts, beliefs and knowledge. And to be sure that one's work will at least have a reference to the author, one can use licenses like the ones that Creative Commons proposes.
People increasingly are influenced by media. This is called the "media imperative".
# Open Culture/Technology

Technology, the most visible part of the Open Culture movement can be most easily illustrated in the field of both computer software and hardware.
A branch of the Free Software movement known as Open Source software is a commonly-cited example. As in all cases of "free" culture the free software and open source movements are founded on a premise whereby the user is not restricted in the use of the software. The user is encouraged to build upon what has gone before without any fear of being restricted by legal or ethical constraints.
Many users of free software from around the world are able to contribute to the development of applications that are useful, so it is in effect not a single company that creates software for the customers but customers that contribute to making useful and efficient software for themselves as part of a community and society.

## Examples

Common examples of this technology include the GNU/Linux Operating System, the Mozilla Firefox web browser, and the LibreOffice office suite. Other examples of this include WordPress, Apache, VLC, Blender, and others. Each of those applications have very significant shares in their respective markets and may pose a threat to their traditional, proprietary competitors.