OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# The Story of Rhodesia/Rozwi Empire
### Introduction

The Rozwi Empire (also spelled Rozvi) is a former empire in Southern Africa. It was probably founded by Changamire Dombo I, who conquered fertile and mineral-rich areas near the Zambezi. The Rozwi empire was located in areas that are currently parts of Zimbabwe, Botswana, and South Africa.

### Foundation

In 1693, Portugal tried to take control over gold trade in Sub-Saharan Africa. The Rozwi was formed of several Shona states that dominated present day Zimbabwe. They were able to stop any attacks by the Portuguese and maintain control over their gold mines.

### Economy

The Rozwi revived the tradition of building cities from stone and constructed impressive cities throughout the southwest. The economy of Rozwi was based on cattle and farming, with significant gold mining. They established trade with Arabs, in which gold, copper, and ivory were exchanged for luxury goods.

### Decline

The Rozvi empire crumbled in Zimbabwe in the early 19th century. The movement of the Rozvi from present-day Matabeleland predates the Mfecane period. The BaLobedu of South Africa seem to be the only remaining Rozvi Kingdom.

### References

* ↑ Rozwi Historical State Africa - Britannica archived from original https://www.britannica.com/place/Rozwi-historical-state-Africa
# The Sway Reference Manual
## Table of Chapters

* Introduction
* Starting Up
* Primitives
* Combining Primitives
* Precedence and Associativity
* Variables and Environments
* Assignment
* Functions
* Storing Code in Files
* More about Functions
* Debugging
* Conditionals
* Loops
* Recursion
* Input and Output
* Arrays and Lists
* Objects
* Inheritance
* Exceptions
* Lazy Evaluation
* Variadic Functions
* Reflections

## Further Reading

* The Science of Programming
# Source SDK: Mastering the Source/View Menu

The View Menu is a drop down box located on the Control Bar in the Hammer Editor. It contains adjustable settings for the four viewports, offering you a variety of ways to edit your map. The Map Menu is one of the more useful menus in the Control Bar, since it defines how you edit the map, something you'll want to customize for yourself.
# Source SDK: Mastering the Source/Map Menu

The Map Menu is a drop box located in the Control Bar of the Hammer Editor. It contains a variety of tools and buttons for configuring you map and how you edit it. It also supplies you with a number of applications that will help you in editing, running, and repairing your map.
# Source SDK: Mastering the Source/SDK Reference Docs

The Source SDK Reference Documents is a section located under the Documentation panel in the Application Browser. It is a link to the main directory page of the Valve Developer Community wiki, which houses complete tutorials on all aspects of the Source SDK and it's functions, and is the choice tutorial site sponsored by Valve Corporation itself.
This is the link to the Developer Community Directory, clicking the SDK Reference Docs tab in the Application Browser will take you directly to this same link.
https://developer.valvesoftware.com/wiki/SDK_Docs
# Source SDK: Mastering the Source/What is Hammer?

What is Hammer? A very important question, and one that will be covered thoroughly throughout this page.

# The Hammer World Editor

Hammer, or the Hammer World Editor is a free level editing and creation program supplied by the Source SDK. Hammer comes with a number of unique features other than standard level design programs, making it one of the most popular choices on the market. Hammer has been used to develop many games, both by major video game companies and independent developers, and always shows favorable results. The Hammer Editor is easy to learn with a few tutorials, but with the help of this book, you'll be able to master it and all it has to offer.

# How do I use it?

The Hammer Editor is known for it's easy to learn interface and variety of creation tools. You will literally find an endless array of tools and programs specifically designed to create the level of your choosing, if you can build it in your mind, you can build it in Hammer. Of course you have to learn it first, that's where this book comes in. With your devotion and cooperation with this book you be able to learn every flip, switch, and button in Hammer, and how to master every one.

# Improving your Skills

The goal of this book is to make sure you can understand and operate the Hammer Editor, if all goes correctly, you will notice your skills improve drastically as you move from chapter to chapter in Section 1. These pictures below will give you a clear indication of your soon to be progress through Hammer, and show you what you can expect to accomplish with the help of this book.
All right, now that we've covered just what the Hammer Editor is, it's time to learn how to use it.
# South American Animal Names

This book is a compilation of animal names in indigenous languages of South America, in particular lowland tropical South America. As an "ethnolinguistic field guide," this book is a hybrid between an etymological dictionary and a biological field guide, similar to Ross et al. (2011) and Chamberlain (2018).

## Table of contents
### Front matter

* Introduction
* Sources

### Chapter 1: Mammals

* Mammals
** Monkeys
** Armadillos
** Canids
** Felids
** Deer
** Pigs
** Rodents

### Chapter 2: Birds

* Birds
** Parrots
** Tinamous
** Raptors
** Piciformes
** Passerines

### Chapter 3: Reptiles and amphibians

* Amphibians
* Reptiles
** Crocodiles
** Turtles
** Lizards
** Snakes

### Chapter 4: Fish

* Fish
** Catfish
** Characins (piranha, pacu, and relatives)
** Cichlids

### Chapter 5: Invertebrates

* Invertebrates
** Coleoptera
** Hymenoptera
*** Ants
*** Bees
*** Wasps

## Further reading

* Matsés animal and plant names (Spanish Wikipedia), a good resource for checking Amazonian Spanish names of animals and plants.

## Related books

* South American Plant Names
* Field Guide
# Source SDK: Mastering the Source/NPCs

NPCs, or Non Player Characters are computer controlled characters in video games. In this case, they are placed throughout your map via entity place marker. Half-Life 2 features a variety of NPCs, both friendly and hostile.
* npc_alyx
* npc_antlion
* npc_antlion_template_maker
* npc_antlionguard
* npc_barnacle
* npc_barney
* npc_breen
* npc_citizen
* npc_combine_camera
* npc_combine_s
* npc_combinedropship
* npc_combinegunship
* npc_crabsynth
* npc_cranedriver
* npc_crow
* npc_cscanner
* npc_dog
* npc_eli
* npc_fastzombie
* npc_fisherman
* npc_gman
* npc_headcrab
* npc_headcrab_black
* npc_headcrab_fast
* npc_helicopter
* npc_ichthyosaur
* npc_kleiner
* npc_manhack
* npc_metropolice
* npc_monk
* npc_mortarsynth
* npc_mossman
* npc_pigeon
* npc_poisonzombie
* npc_rollermine
* npc_seagull
* npc_sniper
* npc_stalker
* npc_strider
* npc_turret_ceiling
* npc_turret_floor
* npc_turret_ground
* npc_vortigaunt
* npc_zombie
* npc_zombie_torso
# Source SDK: Mastering the Source/Photos

This a complete gallery of all the photos with material pertaining to this wikibook.
# Source SDK: Mastering the Source/The Control Bar

For this chapter we're going to be going over the very basics of the Hammer Editor. We're going to start off with the Control Bar, one of the most basic and most essential pieces of the Hammer Editor, and one you'll be using every time you use Hammer.
The Control Bar is located at the very top of the Hammer Editor and contains eight drop down boxes, File, Edit, Map, View, Tools, Instancing, Window, and Help. This bar contains the basic settings and configurations for the Hammer Editor. It is one of the most important aspects of the Hammer interface, and will be used to define the basics of how you edit your Hammer map.
# DESCRIPTION:

Converts spaces in a string to tabs. (tab size 4)
ENTAB is a native value.

# ARGUMENTS

* string -- (Type: any-string)

# REFINEMENTS

* /size -- Specifies the number of spaces per tab.
** number -- (Type: integer)
# DESCRIPTION:

Returns TRUE for error values.
ERROR? is an action value.

# ARGUMENTS

* value -- (Type: any-type)
# DESCRIPTION:

Returns TRUE for event values.
EVENT? is an action value.

# ARGUMENTS

* value -- (Type: any-type)
# Rebol Programming/exclamation.gif

EXCLAMATION.GIF is an image of value:
# DESCRIPTION:

Return the first set less the second set.
EXCLUDE is a native value.

# ARGUMENTS

* set1 -- First data set (Type: series bitset)
* set2 -- Second data set (Type: series bitset)

# REFINEMENTS

* /case -- Uses case-sensitive comparison.
* /skip -- Treat the series as records of fixed size
** size -- (Type: integer)
# DESCRIPTION:

Returns TRUE if the number is even.
EVEN? is an action value.

# ARGUMENTS

* number -- (Type: number char date money time)
# DESCRIPTION:

Checks if a file is in the disk cache. Returns: none, false (out of date), or file
EXISTS-THRU? is a function value.

# ARGUMENTS

* url -- (Type: url file)

# REFINEMENTS

* /check -- Checks version, checksum/secure, date, and/or size of cached file.
** info -- (Type: block tuple binary logic date none)
# DESCRIPTION:

Converts standard string terminators to current OS format, e.g. LF to CRLF. (Modifies)
ENLINE is a function value.

# ARGUMENTS

* series -- (Type: any-string block)

# REFINEMENTS

* /with -- Specifies alternate line termination.
** end-of-line -- (Type: char string)
# Rebol Programming/escape

ESCAPE is a char of value: #"^["
# DESCRIPTION:

Returns TRUE if the values are equal.
EQUAL? is an action value.

# ARGUMENTS

* value1 -- (Type: any)
* value2 -- (Type: any)
# Visual Basic/External Processes

It is often the case that a program already exists to do some job so rather than rewrite the program in Visual Basic it is more efficient to run the existing program from Visual Basic. This can work very well for command line programs or scripts written in any language.
The general scheme is to create a string containing the command line, call a function to run it and then wait for the command to complete. There are many refinements that can be made including all sorts of ways of sending data to the new process, reading results from it, pausing it, setting its priority and so on.

## The Shell Function

The simplest way of running an external program is to do something like this:
Shell is a built in Visual Basic function that executes a command line and returns a handle to that process. Shell takes an optional argument that controls the window style of the new process (maximized, normal, hidden, etc.).
Unfortunately running another program like this doesn't give you much control over what is happening. In particular, there is no obvious way to find out if the program has completed its work.
Luckily Shell actually does slightly more than launch the program. It also returns the process id. This is the number displayed by Task Managers and can be used to check the status of the process. Unfortunately, as is so often the case with Visual Basic and Windows, there is no built in function nor even a single API function that can use it directly. Therefore, we must write a little more code. First, we must declare a few API functions and constants:
Here is an example of a function that executes a command and waits for it to complete:
Call it like this:

## Exercises

* Modify the ShellWait example function so that the caller can distinguish between failure to launch the process and timeout.
* Suggest a reason why this might be a good idea.
| Previous: Windows_API | Contents | Next: Object Oriented Programming |
# Visual Basic/Date and Time

Date and time functions in Visual Basic are treated here. See also Visual Basic/VB6 Command Reference/ and Visual Basic/Snippets/.
Some functions:
* Now - date and time of the present moment
* Day - day of the month, from 0 to 31
* Year
* DateValue - Given a timestamp, returns that timestamp with the time part cleared. Given a string, returns a timestamp with its date portion specified by that string.
** DateNow = DateValue(Now)
* TimeValue - Given a timestamp, returns that timestamp with the date part cleared. Given a string, returns a timestamp with its time portion specified by that string.
** TimeNow = TimeValue(Now)
* Datepart
* Timepart
* Weekday - 1-7
** If Weekday(Now) = vbSaturday Then MsgBox "It is Saturday."
* WeekdayName
** Localized name of the week day.
** TodaysWeekdayName = WeekdayName(Weekday(Now, vbUseSystem))
*** Works even in non-U.S. locale.
* Month
* MonthName
* Hour
* Minute
* Second
* DateAdd
** Later = DateAdd("d", 31, Now) ' 31 days later
* DateDiff
* Format
** Formatted = Format(Now, "yyyy-MM-dd") ' e.g. 2016-09-17
* FormatDateTime
* Timer
* IsDate
Date and Time can be treated as a variables to be read from and written to. However, writing to them changes system date or time, which you usually do not want to do.
Some constants:
* vbSunday = 1, vbMonday, vbTuesday, vbWednesday, vbThursday, vbFriday, vbSaturday = 7
* vbGeneralDate = 0 , vbLongDate, vbShortDate, vbLongTime, vbShortTime = 4

## External links

* Date Time Functions In Visual Basic, vb6.us
* DateAdd Function - Visual Basic 6.0, chennaiiq.com
* Formating dates and times in VB6, vb6.us
* WeekdayName Function - Visual Basic 6.0, chennaiiq.com
* Finding the Beginning or End of a Week, msdn.microsoft.com
* DateDiff Function - Visual Basic 6.0, chennaiiq.com
# Visual Basic/Dictionaries

Dictionary class provides some functions beyond those provided by Collection class. A dictionary is a list of key, value pairs. Unlike Collection, Dictionary class is only available via Microsoft Scripting Runtime, a reference to which needs to be added to your project in order to use the class.
Creating a dictionary:
Adding a key and an item to a dictionary:
Accessing an item by key:
Accessing an item by index:
Iterating through the keys:
Iterating through the values:
Removing an item:
Removing all items or emptying:
Size or number of elements:
Testing for emptiness:
Changing the key of an item:
Changing the value of an item:
Testing for presence of a key:
Using dictionary as a set:
    Associate the dummy value 1 with each element of the set.
    When adding an item, test for existence.
# Visual Basic/Examples

This section includes a wide range of ready made code that can be easily adapted for use in your own programs. Some examples are just a few lines others are complete applications, most fall somewhere between.
Although the code is described as ready made it is not intended that you just drop it into your programs as component parts. The idea is that these examples should provide a quick start that you can build on and re-work.

## Snippets

    Short pieces of code that illustrate techniques and solve small problems.
| Previous: Optimizing Visual Basic | Contents | Next: Snippets |
# Visual Basic/Databases

Database management as a subject in its own right is far too big to be dealt with in this book and would distract from the principal subject which is programming in VB Classic. Nonetheless we can explain the basics of connecting to databases, retrieving information from them and so on.
The usual way to connect to a database from VB is to use ADO (ActiveX Data Objects).
Connecting to databases usually happens with a connection string. Here are some example connection strings to connect to some common database types
A
ACCESS
ODBC
Standard Security
Workgroup
Exclusive
Enable admin statements To enable certain programatically admin functions such as CREATE USER, CREATE GROUP, ADD USER, GRANT, REVOKE and DEFAULTS (when making CREATE TABLE statements) use this connection string.
Specifying locale identifier Use this to specify the locale identifier which can help with non-US formatted dates.
The above example uses the en-gb locale identifier (2057).

### OLE DB, OleDbConnection (.NET)

Standard security
With database password This is the connection string to use when you have an access database protected with a password using the Set Database Password function in Access.
Workgroup (system database)
Workgroup (system database) specifying username and password
DataDirectory functionality
ACCESS 2007 Standard security
With database password
Datadirectory functionality
E
Excel Files
Driver={Microsoft Excel Driver (*.xls)};DriverId=790;Dbq=C:\MyExcel.xls;DefaultDir=c:\mypath;
Remark:
OLEDB
Important note!
The quote " in the string needs to be escaped using your language specific escape syntax.
"HDR=Yes;" indicates that the first row contains columnnames, not data. "HDR=No;" indicates the opposite.
"IMEX=1;" tells the driver to always read "intermixed" (numbers, dates, strings etc) data columns as text. Note that this option might affect Excel worksheet write access negative.
Check out the [HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SOFTWARE\Microsoft\Jet\4.0\Engines\Excel] located registry REG_DWORD "TypeGuessRows". That's the key to not letting Excel use only the first 8 rows to guess the columns data type. Set this value to 0 to scan all rows. This might hurt performance.
If the Excel workbook is protected by a password, you cannot open it for data access, even by supplying the correct password with your connection string. If you try, you receive the following error message: "Could not decrypt file."
Excel 2007 Files
| Previous: Windows_Dialogs | Contents | Next: Windows_API |
# Visual Basic/Error Handling

Error handling in Visual Basic, an outline:
* On Error Goto <Label>
* On Error Goto 0
* On Error Resume Next
* If Err.Number = 0
* If Err.Number <> 0
* Resume
* Resume <Label>
* Resume Next
* Err.Description
* Err.Raise <Number>
Suppressing the error and detecting it using the non-zero error numberː
Creating an error handlerː
Creating an error handler that differentiates per error numberː
See also Visual Basic/Effective Programming and Visual Basic/Coding Standards.
# Structural Biochemistry/Synaptic Rearrangement
## Overview

Synaptic rearrangement during development characterizes the vertebrate nervous system and was thought to distinguish vertebrates from the invertebrates. However, the examination of the wind-sensitive cercal sensory system of the cricket demonstrated that some identified synaptic connections systematically decrease in strength as an animal matures. Other examinations show that increase in strength over the same period. Moreover, a single sensory neuron could increase the strength of its synaptic connection with one interneuron while decreasing the strength of its connection with another interneuron. Thus, rather than being a hallmark of the vertebrate nervous system, synaptic rearrangement probably characterizes the development of many if not all nervous systems.

## reference

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3363372
# Symmetry Operations

There are five symmetry elements

## Axis of Rotation, Cn

“An objection has n-fold rotational symmetry.” Order of rotation (n) = A rotation by 360 deg/n around some axis of rotation that renders the object unchanged. Example: A pentagon is said to have a 5-fold symmetry, meaning that if a pentagon is rotated by 72 degrees, the pentagon remains unchanged. A benzene ring is said to have a 6-fold symmetry, meaning that if a benzene ring is rotated by 60 degrees, the benzene ring remains unchanged. Also, an object or a molecule can have more than one rotational axes. Example: A benzene ring not only has a C6 rotation, it also has a C2 and a C3 rotational axes. However, the largest number of n is the principle rotational axes.

## Planes of Reflection, sigma

An object is said to have mirror planes when the object remains unchanged when reflected through the plane. For convention, the mirror plane perpendicular to the primary rotation axis is denoted “sigma h.” The mirror plane parallel to the primary rotation axis is denoted “sigma v.”

## Improper rotation axes, Sn

An improper rotation is a rotation by 360/(2n) degree followed by a reflection through a mirror plane perpendicular to that axis. In Figure II, the molecule has a C3 primary axis. First rotate the molecule by 60 degrees. Then reflect the molecule through the reflection plane. The final result returns the same molecule. Then, the molecule is said to have a S3 improper rotation.

## The inversion center, i

Inversion center is a reflection through the center of the molecule or object.
In Figure III, the triangle on the upper right corner is reflected at the origin. The triangle will end up at the same position as the triangle at the lower left corner. As the result, the figure is said to have an inversion center.
( Cn + sigma ) = Sn

## The identity, E

Identity is a rotation by 360 degrees about any arbitrary axis. The resulting object or molecule has the same configuration. All the elements and objects all have the identity.

## References

Miessler, Gary L., and Donald A. Tarr. Inorganic Chemistry. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2011. Print.
Figueroa, Joshua. "Intro to Symmetry and Symmetry Element." Inorganic Chemistry. University of California, San Diego, La Jolla. Oct. 2012. Lecture.
"Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR)." UC Davis Chem Wiki. N.p., n.d. Web. 8 Nov. 2012. <Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR)>.
"Symmetry Resources." Otterbein University. N.p., n.d. Web. 20 Nov. 2012. <http://symmetry.otterbein.edu/>.
# Structural Biochemistry/Synaptogenesis
## Overview

Synaptogenesis is the formation of synapses between neurons and the final step in the development of the central nervous system (CNS). This occurs through two steps. The first step is the contact of an axonal growth cone, an extension of a developing axon, to its partner cell. The second step are the axonal and dendritic protein components coming to the site of contact and ultimately forming a functional synapse.

## Neuromuscular Junction

NMJ forms in a series of steps that involve the exchange of signals among its three cellular components nerve terminal, muscle fiber, and Schwann cell. The neuromuscular junction (NMJ) is the most well-characterized synapse in that it provides a simple and accessible structure that allows for easy manipulation and observation. The synapse itself is composed of three cells: the Motor neuron, the myofiber, and the Schwann cell. In a normally functioning synapse, when a signal causes the motoneuron to depolarize, the motoneuron releases the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh). Acetylcholine travels across the synaptic cleft where it reaches acetylcholine receptors (AChR) on the plasma membrane of the myofiber, the Sarcolemma. As the AChRs open ion channels, the membrane depolarizes, causing muscle contraction. The entire synapse is sheathed within a myelin cover provided by the Schwann cell to insulate and encapsulate the junction. The NMJ is functional at birth but undergoes numerous alterations postnatally. One step in maturation is the elimination of excess inputs, a competitive process in which the muscle is an intermediary. Once elimination is complete, the NMJ is maintained stably in a dynamic equilibrium that can be perturbed to initiate remodeling.

## Factors that Regulate Synaptogenesis

In recent studies, TGF-β and Glia are directly related in the regulation of synaptogenesis. For example, the absence of TGF-β ligands or glia results in fewer synapses with other neurons. This was determined when the TGF-β ligands were removed from the NMJ(neuromuscular Junction) of Drosophila melanogaster and the resulting data showed a dramatic decrease in the number of synapses. The removal of glia cells decreased the amount of TGF-β activation therefore, the number of synapses decreased. These are the few factors that effect synaptogenesis.

## References

Brose, Nils. "Synaptogenesis, Neuroligins, and Autism." Max-Planck-Institut fur Experimentelle Medizin. N.p., 2006. Web. 16 Nov. 2012. <http://www.em.mpg.de/index.php?id=106&L=1>.
Bialas, A.R. ; Stevens, B Glia: Regulating Synaptogenesis from Multiple Directions. Curr Biol. 2002, 833-835