OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Macroeconomics/Types and Causes of Unemployment

Although most people usually refers to a certain level of unemployment in an economy, it is important to understand the different types of unemployment and their implication to the economy.

# Cyclical unemployment

Cyclical unemployment is caused by a downturn in the business cycle. When aggregate demand falls in the economy, the demand for labor resources (a derived demand) also decreases as people are less inclined to purchase goods and services. Firms would be forced to lay off workers in order to maintain an acceptable profit margin.
On the other hand, should aggregate demand rises in an economy, the demand for labor resources would increase, accommodating for the increased demand for goods and services.

# Structural unemployment

Structural unemployment occurs because of skill mismatch between those demanded by employers and those processed by employees. Economies in transition such as when Australia transition from the mining boom to a service based economy, would usually increase the level of structural unemployment. Workers skilled at industries that are declining would find their particular skill sets are no longer appropriate in newer industries where the type of skills required may be different. So even if the unemployed person wants to work, and the firms in the new industry require more labour, the mismatch of skills means that the structurally unemployed cannot find work.

# Frictional unemployment

When there is a lack of unemployment due to lack of sufficient knowledge concerning how to find or apply for a job on the job seeker’s part or due to a lack of sufficient knowledge of where to find qualified employees on the employer’s part.

# Seasonal unemployment

Where there is a lack of demand for employment in an industry due to seasonal changes. This often occurs for short periods of time, and as demand restores, this form of unemployment will also decrease. Eg. Ski resort workers may experience this type of unemployment in the off season.
# Magar

The Magar, also spelled as Mangar, and Mongar, are the third largest ethnolinguistic groups of Nepal representing 7.1% of Nepal's total population according to the Nepal census of 2011.
The original home of the Magar people was to the west of Gandaki river, and roughly speaking, consisted of that portion of Nepal which lies between and around about Gulmi, Arghakhanchi, and Palpa. This bit of country was divided into twelve districts known as "Bahra Magarat" (Confederation of Twelve Magar Kingdoms), which included the following regions of that period: Argha, Khanchi, Bhirkot, Dhor, Garhung, Ghiring, Gulmi, Isma, Musikot, Pyung, Rising, Satung, and Pyung. During the medieval period, the whole area from Palpa to Rukum Rolpa was called the "Magarat", a place settled and inhabited by Magars. Another Confederation of Eighteen Magar Kingdoms known as "Athara Magarat" also existed, and was primarily inhabited by Kham Magars.

## Magar Language

Magar Dhut'|मगर ढुट| Language, is a Sino-Tibetan Language spoken mainly in Nepal, Southern Bhutan, and in Darjeeling, Sikkim and Assam(India) by the Magar people. It is divided into two groups (Eastern and Western) dialects. Magar Language are written in Akkha Script in Nepal & Sikkim.
* Conversation I
* Conversation II

## Preface

This book is created from the perspective of learning Magar language.
[राहनीस, मगर ढूट पाहीङ र पाहाक्कीङ ]
    -आउनुहोस्, मगर भाषा सिकौँ र सिकाओं।

## Grammar

* Basic Magar Words
* Nouns
* Pronouns
* Verbs
* Adverbs
* Adjectives
* Prepositions
* Conjuction
* Counting
* Names
* Animals
* Colours
* Simple sentences
# Macroeconomics/Sustainable Economic Growth

What's the difference between macroeconomics and microeconomics?
Macro- and microeconomics, and their wide array of underlying concepts, have been the subject of a great deal of writings. The field of study is vast; here is a brief summary of what each covers:
Microeconomics is the study of decisions that people and businesses make regarding the allocation of resources and prices of goods and services. This means also taking into account taxes and regulations created by governments. Microeconomics focuses on supply and demand and other forces that determine price levels for specific companies in specific industry sectors. For example, microeconomics would look at how a specific company could maximize it's production and capacity so it could lower prices and better compete in its industry.
Macroeconomics, on the other hand, is the field of economics that studies the behavior of the economy as a whole and not just on specific companies, but entire industries and economies. This looks at economy-wide phenomena such as Gross National Product (GDP) and how it is affected by changes in unemployment, national income, rate of growth, and price levels. For example, macroeconomics would look at how an increase/decrease in net exports would affect a nation's capital account or how GDP would be affected by unemployment rate.
While these two studies of economics appear to be different, they are actually interdependent and complement one another since there are many overlapping issues between the two fields. For example, increased inflation (macro effect) would cause the price of raw materials to increase for companies and in turn affect the end product's price charged to the public.
The bottom line is that microeconomics takes a bottoms-up approach to analyzing the economy while macroeconomics takes a top-down approach. Regardless, both micro- and macroeconomics provide fundamental tools for any finance professional and should be studied together in order to fully understand how companies operate and earn revenues and thus, how an entire economy is managed and sustained.
# Magar/Adjectives

Adjective:- An adjective is a word that defines a noun or pronoun.
Examples:-
* Good - Sehecha [सेहेच]
* Bad - Māsehecha [मासेहेच]
* Some - Adijā [अडीजा]
* Many - Dhaling [ढलीङ]
* long - Lhotcha [ल्होट्च]
* Far - Losh [लोस]
* Near - Kherep [खेरेप]
* Tall (अग्लो) - Ghāngcha[घाङ्च]
* Short(होचो)- Tyāmcha[ट्याम्च]
* Big - Karāngcha[कराङ्चा]
* Small- Mārcha [मार्च]
* Sweet - Jāpcha [जाप्च]
* Bitter - Khācha[खाच]
* Sour - Bircha [बीर्च]
* Spicy - Thukcha[ठूक्च]
* Salty - Chhescha [छेस्च]
# Pinyin/Ballistic

See also
# Pinyin/Back

The back is the part of something that is farthest from the front.
houhbuh shih moouwuh zuih houhmiah d buhfehn.
# Pinyin/Bacillus

See also
# Pinyin/Baby

A baby is a very young child or animal.
ying`err shih niarnyouh d errtorng huoh dohngwuh.
# OpenSCAD User Manual/Modifier Characters

Modifier characters are used to change the appearance or behaviors of child nodes. They are particularly useful in debugging where they can be used to highlight specific objects, or include or exclude them from rendering.

## Advanced concept

OpenSCAD uses different libraries to implement capabilities, and this can introduce some inconsistencies to the F5 preview behavior of transformations. Traditional transforms (translate, rotate, scale, mirror & multimatrix) are performed using OpenGL in preview, while other more advanced transforms, such as resize, perform a CGAL operation, behaving like a CSG operation affecting the underlying object, not just transforming it. In particular this can affect the display of modifier characters, specifically "#" and "%", where the highlight may not display intuitively, such as highlighting the pre-resized object, but highlighting the post-scaled object.
Note: The color changes triggered by character modifiers appear only in "Compile" mode, not "Compile and Render (CGAL)" mode. (As per the color section.)

## Background modifier

Ignore this subtree for the normal rendering process and draw it in transparent gray (all transformations are still applied to the nodes in this tree).
Because the marked subtree is completely ignored, it might have unexpected effects in case it's used, for example, with the first object in a difference. In that case this object is rendered in transparent gray, but it is not used as the base for the difference!
Usage
Example
Example output

## Debug modifier

Use this subtree as usual in the rendering process but also draw it unmodified in transparent pink.
Usage
Example
Example output

## Root modifier

Ignore the rest of the design and use this subtree as design root.
Usage
Example
Example output
As shown in the example output with the root modifier active, the rotate is executed as it's part of the subtree marked with the root modifier, but the translate has no effect.

## Disable modifier

Simply ignore this entire subtree.
Usage
Example
Example output
The disable modifier allows you to comment out one or multiple subtrees. Compared to using the usual line or multi-line comments, it's aware of the hierarchical structure, which makes it easier to disable even larger trees without the need to search for the end of the subtree.

## Echo statements

    See also: OpenSCAD User Manual/Other Language Features#Echo function
This function prints the contents to the compilation window (aka Console). Useful for debugging code. Also see the String function str.
Numeric values are rounded to 5 significant digits.
It can be handy to use 'variable=variable' as the expression to easily label the variables, see the example below.
Usage examples:
Shows in the Console as
# OpenSCAD User Manual/Other 2D formats

Currently, OpenSCAD supports DXF only as a graphics format for 2D graphics. Other common formats are PS/EPS, SVG and AI.

### PS/EPS

The pstoedit program can convert between various vector graphics formats. OpenSCAD needs the -polyaslines option passed to the dxf output plugin to understand the file. The -mm option sets one mm to be one unit in the dxf; include this if you use one unit in OpenSCAD as equal to one millimeter. The -dt options instructs pstoedit to render texts, which is usually what you want if you include text. (If the rendered text's resolution in terms of polygon count is too low, the easiest solution is to scale up the eps before converting; if you know a more elegant solution, please add it to the example.)

### SVG

Inkscape can convert SVG to EPS. Then pstoedit can convert the EPS to DXF.

### Makefile automation

The conversion can be automated using the make system; put the following lines in your Makefile:
The first line specifies which dxf files are to be generated when make is called in the current directory. The second paragraph specifies how to convert a file ending in .svg to a file ending in .eps, and the third from .eps to .dxf.
A more complete makefile could autogenerate dxf files from the any svg in the folder. In which case, put the following lines into your Makefile:
It's still possible to call make filename.dxf to build a particular file, but this code also allows for (re)building of all dxf files in a folder just by calling make or make all.
This code is also universal enough that it's possible to put the code in a single file and symlink every makefile in any directory that has svg files for dxf conversion by running:
in each respective directory.

### AI (Adobe Illustrator)

Although Adobe Illustrator CC/CC.2014 allows you to export illustrations as DXF (and select DXF format versions as early as 12), it uses DXF entities that are not supported by OpenSCAD, such as POLYLINE and SPLINE.
Since pstoedit does not natively support Adobe Illustrator files, one alternative is to use EXDXF, which is an Adobe Illustrator plug-in (30 free trial exports and then you have to pay $90 to register the plugin).
Before exporting, it is recommended that you ensure that your Artboard is the same dimensions as the component you are exporting. Although EXDXF provides you with numerous options when exporting to DXF the most important option for OpenSCAD compliance is to set Line Conversion to Line and Arc.
OpenSCAD doesn't always provide information about the issues it encountered with a DXF import. If this happens, select Design | Flush Caches and then Design | Reload and Compile.

## Previous

DXF Extrusion

## Next

Short and Commented Example Projects
# Programming for Palm OS/C/Fonts
## defining and using fonts

Make a font available to your application with:
..where TinyFont is the resource ID of the font to be made available.
To set the current font (honoured by explicit drawing functions but not automatically used by all controls, which hold an independent reference to the font they should use):

## calculating position based on font size

* FntCharsWidth works out the width in pixels of the text given to it
* FntCharHeight provides the height of the font, which is the sum of the ascent and descent and does not include any space you might wish between lines of text
* FntAverageCharWidth provides the width in pixels of the widest character, despite its name.

## working example

This snippet depends upon font resources.
See Programming for Palm OS/Small fonts for fonts that might be useful to Palm programmers.
# Programming for Palm OS/POSE

The PalmOS Emulator is a virtual Palm pilot on the desktop that makes it quicker to test programs written for PalmOS.

## problems

Version 3.5-9.1 with a PalmOS 4.0 ROM reports SysTicksPerSecond as 100 when it should be 10,000. Programs need to adjust accordingly for timing (such as with EvtGetEvent) to work as expected.
# Programming for Palm OS/PrcTools

PRC-Tools can be used to cross compile Palm OS software on UN*X compatible systems such as Linux, BSD and Cygwin.

## installation
### installing Palm OS SDKs (development material) on Linux

Source a Palm OS SDK and place it in /tmp, then:

### installing PRC-Tools on Debian Lenny

Should you find that prc-tools is not packaged for Lenny:

### testing PRC-Tools with Hello World

Create a file called HelloWorld.c, then:
Although a Makefile makes for less typing.

## debugging with GDB

* build with the -g and -O0 options
* m68k-palmos-gdb App (where App is the object code fed into build-prc)
* target pilot localhost:6414
* start the app on POSE
# Programming for Palm OS/C/Off-screen windows

Be sure to focus on your offscreen window after all the events have been delivered for the start-up of your application.

## to create an offscreen window

(and to remember the original window that your application started with)

## to focus on an offscreen window

After this invocation, functions such as WinEraseRectangle, WinDrawLine and so on will draw to the offscreen window.
# Programming for Palm OS/C/Serial

Open the serial port:
To send data:
To receive data is more involved:
Quite a lot of API functions (if they are invoked within the received data handler) will cause fatal exceptions once the event manager wakes up, even functions that appear unrelated to events.
Where the application handles the special key code that indicates data has been received:
# Programming for Palm OS/C/Menus
## files

With all of these files in the working directory, invoke:
..which will create Menus.prc in the working directory ready for installation on a Palm.

### Menus.h

This file defines in one place constants that are referred to by both Menus.rcp and Menus.c.
# Programming for Palm OS/PilRC

PilRC (the PILot Resource Compiler) takes human-readable definitions of User Interface features (example) and turns them into a machine-readable form suitable for feeding to tools such as build-prc.

## usage

PilRC reads a .rcp file and produces one or more .bin files. To find out what can be put into a .rcp file:
Then invoke PilRC like this:
..and it will produce files named things like:
..which are fed to build-prc like this:

## examples
### fonts

In YourProject.h (so that resource IDs can be kept in sync between the source code and YourProject.rcp):
..then in YourProject.rcp:
128 is fntAppCustomBase and should be in the range 128-255. 6pt-sans-font.txt refers to a file that describes the font. This file looks like this:
..although your fonts should define more than only two glyphs.
The following Ruby can be used to create a blank font file suitable for consumption by PilRC:
# Practical Electronics/π Network
## Intro

A network consist of three resistors connected like a π

## Analysis

    $I_{1}={\frac {V_{i}}{R_{1}}}$
    $I_{3}={\frac {V_{o}}{R_{3}}}$
    $I_{2}={\frac {V_{i}-V_{o}}{R_{2}}}$
    $I_{1}=I_{2}+I_{3}$
    ${\frac {V_{i}}{R_{1}}}={\frac {V_{o}}{R_{3}}}+{\frac {V_{i}-V_{o}}{R_{2}}}$
    ${\frac {V_{o}}{V_{i}}}={\frac {R_{3}-R_{2}}{R_{1}-R_{2}}}$

## Formula

    $V_{o}=V_{i}{\frac {R_{3}+R_{2}}{R_{1}+R_{2}}}$

## Choosing Resistance's Value

* R$_2$ = 0
       The fomula above now becomes
       $V_{o}=V_{i}{\frac {R_{3}}{R_{1}}}$
       R$_3$ > R$_1$ , V$_o$ > V$_1$ . This network acts as Voltage Amplifier
       R$_3$ = R$_1$ , V$_o$ = V$_1$ . This network acts as Voltage Follower
       R$_3$ < R$_1$ , V$_o$ < V$_1$ . This network acts as Voltage Attenuator
* R$_3$ = 0
       The fomula above now becomes
       $V_{o}=V_{i}{\frac {R_{2}}{R_{2}+R_{1}}}$
       This network acts as Voltage Attenuator
* R$_1$ = 0
       The fomula above now becomes
       $V_{o}=V_{i}{\frac {R_{3}+R_{2}}{R_{2}}}$
       This network acts as Voltage Amplifier 1 + ${\frac {R_{3}}{R_{2}}}$

## Summary

This network can be used as Voltage Amplifier, Voltage Follower, Voltage Attenuator by choosing the right value for the resistors
# Practical Electronics/Voltage Divider
## Intro

A network of two resistors connected as shown

## Analysis

    V$_o$ = I R$_2$
    $I={\frac {V_{i}}{R_{1}+R_{2}}}$
    $V_{o}=IR_{2}={\frac {R_{2}}{R_{1}+R_{2}}}V_{i}$

## Formula
   ### $V_{o}={\frac {R_{2}}{R_{1}+R_{2}}}V_{i}$
## Choosing Value for R

* R$_2$

      ### R$_2$ = 0 , V$_o$ = 0
      ### R$_2$ >> R$_1$ , V$_o$ = V$_i$

* R$_1$

      ### R$_1$ = 0 , V$_o$ = V$_i$
      ### R$_1$ >> R$_2$ , V$_o$ = 0

* R$_1$ = R$_2$

      ### V$_o$ = ½ V$_i$

       When R$_1$ = R$_2$ , the output voltage is exactly halved of the input voltage

## Summary

There is no gain for this network, since V$_o$ never greater than V$_i$ .
This network can be used as Voltage Attenuator, Voltage Follower, Voltage Halved, or Voltage Ground
* When the value of R$_2$ > R$_1$, this network acts as Voltage Attenuator
* When the value of R$_2$ = 0 or R$_1$ >> R$_2$, this network acts as Voltage Ground
* When the value of R$_1$ = 0 or R$_1$ << R$_2$, this network acts as Voltage Follower
* When the value of R$_2$ = R$_1$ = R then this network acts as Voltage Halved
# Practical Electronics/WheatStone Network
## Intro

A network consist of four resistors connected as shown
The equivalent circuit of the network above

## Analysis

    $V_{1}={\frac {R_{2}}{R_{2}+R_{1}}}$
    $V_{2}={\frac {R_{4}}{R_{4}+R_{3}}}$
* $V_{1}=V_{2}$
       ${\frac {R_{2}}{R_{2}+R_{1}}}={\frac {R_{4}}{R_{4}+R_{3}}}$
       There is no current flow from V$_1$ to V$_2$ or from V$_2$ to V$_1$
* $V_{1}>V_{2}$
       ${\frac {R_{2}}{R_{2}+R_{1}}}>{\frac {R_{4}}{R_{4}+R_{3}}}$
       There is current flow from V$_1$ to V$_2$
* $V_{1}<V_{2}$
       ${\frac {R_{2}}{R_{2}+R_{1}}}<{\frac {R_{4}}{R_{4}+R_{3}}}$
       There is current flow from V$_2$ to V$_1$
This network can be used as Controlled Current Voltage Comparator .
* When the two voltage are the same no current flow .
* When there is difference between the two voltages current is non zero and flow in the direction of high voltage to low voltage
This network can be used as Adjust Voltage Zero Current
    From V$_1$ = V$_2$, I = 0
    ${\frac {R_{2}}{R_{2}+R_{1}}}={\frac {R_{4}}{R_{4}+R_{3}}}$
    R$_2$ = R$_4$ provided R$_1$ + R$_2$ = R$_3$ + R$_4$
This network can be used to turn current to zero by adjusting the value of R$_2$ equal to the value of R$_4$ provided that R$_1$ + R$_2$ = R$_3$ + R$_4$
This network can be used as Resistance Indicator
    From ${\frac {R_{2}}{R_{2}+R_{1}}}={\frac {R_{4}}{R_{4}+R_{3}}}$
    Hence, $R_{2}=R_{4}{\frac {R_{2}+R_{1}}{R_{4}+R_{3}}}$

## Summary

This network can be used as Controlled Current Voltage Comparator , Adjust Voltage Zero Current , Resistance Indicator
# Practice Problems in LOLGraphics

This book is intended for readers who have finished reading Programming in LOLGraphics 3.4, and would like to practice their skills. In every chapter, the reader will be faced with a problem that needs to be solved in LOLGraphics, and then he will see the solution with detailed explanations on how the code works an which parts of it can be written differently. The book assumes that you are already familiar with how the language works. If you are not, please read “Programming in LOLGraphics 3.4”.
The book will focus on the journey of Namer the cat to the Kingdom of Cats. At every state of the journey he will be presented with a challenge which he has to solve using the LOLGraphics 3.4 programming language.
IMPORTANT: Just because your solution for one of the problems is different from the one presented in the book doesn’t mean that it’s wrong. There are multiple ways to solve every problem in the book which is why after every solution there’s also a list of alternative ways.

## Table of Contents

* Preface
* Problem I - Calculator
* Solution to Problem I
* Problem II - Greek Numerals
* Solution to Problem II
* Problem III - Byzantine Calendar
* Solution to Problem III
* Problem IV - Christmas Tree
* Solution to Problem IV
* Postface
* Authors & Contributors
# Practice Problems in LOLGraphics/Authors & Contributors

This list is updated automatically by AuthorsAndContributorsBot. Please do not update it manually.
* Gifnk dlm 2020 (discuss · contribs · count · logs · block log · rfps · rights [change])
* L10nM4st3r (discuss · contribs · count · logs · block log · rfp · rights [change])
* Slava Ukraini Heroyam Slava 123 (discuss · contribs · count · logs · block log · rfp · rights [change])
# Practical Electronics/Tuned Resonance Selected Band-reject
## R - LC
### Characteristics

    ${\frac {V_{o}}{V_{i}}}={\frac {j\omega L+{\frac {1}{j\omega C}}}{R+j\omega L+{\frac {1}{j\omega C}}}}$
    $T=RC$
    $\omega _{o}={\frac {1}{T}}={\frac {1}{RC}}$

## R - LC//
### Characteristics

    ${\frac {V_{o}}{V_{i}}}={\frac {j\omega C+{\frac {1}{j\omega L}}}{R+j\omega C+{\frac {1}{j\omega L}}}}$

## Summary

The two configurations above can be used for Tuned Resonance Selected Band Reject Filter
# Introductory Linear Algebra

This book is part of a series on Algebra:
Basic Algebra Algebra Intermediate Algebra Vectors Introductory Linear Algebra Linear Algebra Abstract Algebra Intro to Rings and Algebras Associative Composition Algebra
This book serves as a mild introduction to linear algebra, and is not too proof-heavy and proof-based. Most topics covered are useful for applications in disciplines other than mathematics. Thus, this book is probably more suitable for non-math majors. For math majors and people who want to study proof-based linear algebra, see Linear Algebra wikibook. This book should not be a prerequisite of the Linear Algebra wikibook (but may help understanding it), despite similar topics are covered, since the topics are discussed in quite a different way, and some definitions may differ.

## Table of Contents

* Matrices
* System of linear equations
* Matrix inverses and determinants
* Vectors and subspaces
* Eigenvalues and eigenvectors
# Introductory Neutronics

This text is intended to cover basic neutronics roughly equivalent to a first semester graduate level course in reactor theory. As of the time of this writing, this should include introduction and discussion of the Boltzmann transport equation with the associated diffusion approximation up to the three spatial dimension (energy dependent) case, perturbation approximation of theoretical reactor configurations, cross section analysis, and discussion of computer programs associated with nuclear studies.
The reader is expected to be competent in undergraduate level physics/nuclear engineering and to be acquainted with mathematical techniques including multi-dimensional vector calculus and differential equations.
This text is not intended to provide information useful for the design or construction of nuclear weapons and should not contain any material that is restricted by international agreement.
* Introduction
* Nuclear Processes

## Further reading

* Mathematical methods of Physics