# Object Oriented Programming/Objects
## What is an Object?

Loosely, the term object is used to conjure up connections with real world objects like a chair or a guitar. Except that for software, only some simplified abstraction is used, designed specifically for the task at hand. While a real chair is composed of atoms and molecules and reacts to its environment based on the laws of physics and its atomic composition, a "chair object" will vary wildly depending on whether you're writing a game or a Point-of-Sale system for a furniture store. Approaching your problem from the perspective of the chair will not be as productive as approaching the chair from the perspective of your problem.
In most of the languages used in this book, you will find that technically speaking (something akin to whistling 9600 baud, I understand), an object is "an instance of a class". Great, so what does that mean? Well, we can trace this idea all the way back to Plato and his Platonic Ideal. If you spent more time watching Bill and Ted's Excellent Adventure than reading Plato, the idea is that the concept of a chair is a separate entity from any particular chair. In other words, you can conceive of a chair in the abstract without thinking of any particular chair.
In most OOP languages, this abstracted idea of a chair is called a class (from classification) and is a prototype or blueprint for actually making chairs. The act of making something from the blueprint is often called instantiating, and the made thing is both an object and an instance of the class that served as a blueprint. As humans, we normally tend to do this in reverse —we categorize objects we encounter. We can easily identify chair-like things we run into as being chairs; this classification is where we got the term class in the first place.
It is easy to drift off into abstruse philosophical debates over objectness; in some areas like knowledge representation and computational ontology they are very relevant. However, for a computer programmer, it is only necessary to figure out what your application needs to know about and do with chairs. This can be a sufficiently difficult problem, it's usually not necessary to make it harder!
If you're still fuzzy on the whole idea, consider a more technical explanation. Structs (structures), records, tables, and other ways of organizing related information predated object oriented programming. You may be familiar with something like the following Pascal code:
This doesn't actually create a chair variable, but defines what a chair variable will look like when you create one. You could proceed to create arrays of chairs and so forth, and as we hope you've discovered for yourself, this kind of thing is quite indispensable for keeping your programs understandable. Object oriented programming wants to push this advantage and milk it for every ounce of understandability, correctness, and simplicity it can.
A fundamental problem solving technique is divide and conquer —you just have to figure out how to partition your problem into sub-problems. OOP innovators realized that we already had figured out ways to partition the problem, and it was reflected in the way we organized our data, like above. If you looked at an application that had that chair RECORD in it, you would surely find lots of code for doing things with chairs. Why else would you bother to define it? So, if you were to extract all of that code from all over the application and put it together with the chair definition, the reasoning goes, you should have an easier time ensuring that:
* all chair code is correct
* all chair code is consistent with each other
* there's no duplicated chair code
* overall, you have less spaghetti because chair code is no longer tangled up with sofa code etc
So you take that chair definition and that code extracted from all over the application, and call that a class. Take a chair variable and call it an object, and you're off to the races.
Since this is supposed to be a pragmatic book, let's look at our first example code, this time in Python code:
This doesn't look terribly different from the Pascal example. The only difference is that class Chair now contains a has_arms method. Methods are functions that live within a class, and are usually used to process certain class specific data. Hopefully the purpose is fairly clear, so let me point out the important part: has_arms is a calculated or inferred property—this information is not stored directly.
In Python, you would use this class like so:
Here, the "c" variable is an instance of the 'chair' Class, also known as a chair object. We initialize the properties like you would in Pascal (this will change later!) and do one thing if the chair has arms and something else if it doesn't. But we never initialized a "has_arms" property or anything of the like.
Since part of the goal is for you to become syntax agnostic, we present this same example again in C++:
Now, we would just like to mention that this is just the tip of the iceberg and this example is not representative of good style (in either language). There may seem like little purpose to making objects with so little functionality, and you could easily generate equivalent code that requires no new class:
The purpose of this section is to help you understand the terms; we will delve more into the benefits in the sections on encapsulation, polymorphism, inheritance, and on and on. However, let us say that while the "low-level" way might seem shorter and simpler, the object oriented benefits accrue with program size and complexity. This is not surprising, as that's what OOP was designed for, but it does make simple examples hard to come by. So bear with us.

### State Machines

If you are unfamiliar with state machines, we won't delve too deep into them, but we highly recommend you look into them more. It's good for your clarity of thought process. Pedantically speaking, state machines are somewhat complicated mathematical constructs, and there are many interesting results that can be derived using the mathematical notation. But that's not our interest. Our interest is two-fold:
* For one, state machines provide a clear graphical way to illustrate potentially complicated application logic. First, you identify what your possible states are. For example, a server might be IDLE, CONNECTED, BUSY, ERROR, etc. Then, you define all the possible inputs, i.e. messages that the client might send, and for each state diagram the server's response to each input. This helps promote thoroughness as you think about reactions to unanticipated messages in various states.
* Secondly, state machines are a standard tool with a relatively standard notation. There are tools and libraries that will automatically make code given some canonical state machine format as input. This is effectively what regular expression processors do.
In object oriented programming, "objects" are sometimes implementations of state machines. State machines are a better conceptual underpinning for behavioral entities —servers, regular expression processors, graphics engine, and virtual machines are all good examples of behavioral entities.
A basic distinction between simple objects and behavioral entities is that simple objects do not change their behavior based on their value. In fact, we tend to refer to their value rather than state. Simple objects tend to be kept in collections and searched through, passed to and returned from functions, and in general act like values. String and Rectangle are classic examples. Later on, we'll discuss message passing as an abstraction of method invocation, and it may seem a little strange in the context of simple objects.
If you are still having trouble with the concept of objects, download and play with BlueJ, Most people "get it" within hours of using that IDE.