OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Semiconductors/Introduction
## Introduction of semiconductor

Nearly everything that we use contains semiconductors. From old relics such as "Transistor Radios", to computers, and everything in between, semiconductors make modern human technology operate. Before this book, wikibooks had a number of sources on semiconductors, scattered as stub pages and individual chapters in other books. However, this book is an attempt to bring all that information together into a single resource, and therefore become more valuable to the wikibooks community at large. Now, other books that used to provide their own mini discussions of semiconductors can instead link to this book in an effort to save time and space.

## What Semiconductors Are

Semiconductors are special materials (frequently silicon-based) that conduct differently under different conditions. This is, of course, only a partial definition, but it is certainly an important part. Semiconductors can be used to control the flow of electricity in a circuit, they can be used to amplify a signal, or they can be used to switch current flow on or off. In fact, this is only a small subset of the things that semiconductors can do. This book will explain what semiconductors are, and how they are used.

## What This Book Will Cover

It is the intent of this book to become a thorough and complete reference resource on semiconductors. The first section will discuss what semiconductors are, and how they are constructed physically. The second section will begin to discuss transistors, first through the use of specific models (Transistors as a switch, and Transistors as an amplifier). Section 3 will talk about Field Effect Transistors (FET), how they operate, and how they are made. Section 4 will talk further about the use of transistors as amplifiers, and will discuss Op-Amp circuits in detail. Section 5 will discuss rectifier circuits and regulator circuits. Section 6 will talk more in depth about using transistors as switches, and will discuss the popular CMOS and TTL design methodologies. Finally, section 7 will discuss the use of light with semiconductors, including phototransistors, photodiodes, and LEDs. In the future, additional topics may be covered.

## Who This Book Is For

This book is designed to be a complete resource on semiconductors, from manufacture to theory, and finally through the use of semiconductors in complex circuits. As such, this book is squarely designed for all readers who are looking to increase their understanding of any of these subjects (or all of them). University-level students, especially those in physics, engineering, chemistry, and mathematics will find this book most helpful.
# Semiconductors/Introduction to Transistors

Transistor is a device that is extension of a semiconductor diode. These devices have brought an end to power hungry vacuum tube amplification and further amplification. On the day of 23rd December 1947, William Shockley introduced this device at the Bell Laboratories. Transistors are a combination of two similar types and one different type of semiconductor. Suppose this combination is npn (the other being pnp). The two n types are conventionally called emitter and collector. The remaining type being the base.
# Semiconductors/Op-Amps
## Op-Amps Intro

Op-Amps stands for Operational Amplifier, a device usually manufactured as an Integrated Circuit (IC) . User don't need to know about the Itegrated Circuit inside in order to work with Op-Amps . All you need to know is that Op-Amps acts as an amplifier, it amplifies the difference of the 2 different voltages at input by a gain or amplification factor A
Output of an operational amplifier:
    $V_{O}=A(V^{+}-V^{-})$
Ideally $A$ is assumed to be equal to infinity. However, in practical op-amps, it has a high value. Furthermore, the gain $A$ is a function of frequency.
Below is the most commonly used configuration of Op-Amps

## Negative Amplifier

    $V_{\mathrm {out} }=-V_{\mathrm {in} }{\frac {R_{f}}{R_{\mathrm {in} }}}$
* The output voltage is a negative voltage equal to the input voltage amplified by a factor ${\frac {R_{f}}{R_{\mathrm {in} }}}$

## Positive Amplifier

    $V_{\mathrm {out} }=V_{\mathrm {in} }\left(1+{R_{2} \over R_{1}}\right)$
* The output voltage is a positive voltage equal to the input voltage amplified by a factor $\left(1+{R_{2} \over R_{1}}\right)$

## Positive Buffer

    $V_{\mathrm {out} }=V_{\mathrm {in} }\!\$
* From the circuit of Positive Amplifier, If R$_2$ = 0 thì V$_o$ = V$_i$

## Negative Buffer

* From the circuit of Negative Amplifier, If R$_f$/R$_i$ = 1 then V$_o$ = - V$_i$

## Further reading

* Electronics/Op-Amps
# Semiconductors/Resources
## Wikimedia Resources

* Microtechnology - handbook of microtechnology
* Digital Circuits
* Circuit Theory
* Communication Systems
* Embedded Systems
* Electronics
* LearnElectronics
* Analog and Digital Conversion
* Chip Design Made Easy
* Practical Electronics
* Nanotechnology
* Semiconductor Electronics

## Books

* Paul R. Gray, Paul J. Hurst, Stephen H. Lewis, Robert G. Meyer, Analysis and Design of Analog Integrated Circuits (4th Edition).ISBN 0471321680 / ISBN 978-0471321682
* David Johns, Ken Martin, Analog Integrated Circuit Design, ISBN 0471144487 / ISBN 978-0471144489
* Horowitz and Hill, The Art of Electronics, Second Edition, Cambridge University Press, 1989. ISBN 0521370957
* US Navy, Basic Electricity, Dover, 1970. ISBN 0486209733
* US Navy, Basic Electronics, Dover, 1973. ISBN 0486210766
* BJT Information
* J.R. Hook & H.E. Hall "Solid State Physics: Second Edition". 1991
# Semiconductors/Photodiode

Photo diode is a p-n junction diode fabricated with a transparent window to allow light and is operated under reverse bias. When light with energy hν>Eg of the semiconductor fall on the diode electron-hole pair are generated. Electrons are collected on n side and holes on p side, increasing the reverse current through the diode.
# Public International Law/Nature and Purpose of International Law

Author: Jane Doe
   Required knowledge: Link
   Learning objectives: Understanding XY.
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## Further Readings

* Source I
* Source II

## Conclusion

* Summary I
* Summary II

## Table of Contents

Back to home page
Part I - History, Theory, and Methods
* § 1 History of International Law
** § 1.1 Founding Myths
** § 1.2 Nineteenth Century
** § 1.3 Decolonization
* § 2 Nature and Purpose of International Law
** § 2.1 International Law and Violence
** § 2.2 Consent
** § 2.3 Enforcement
* § 3 Methodology
** § 3.1 Case Analysis
** § 3.2 Interdisciplinarity
* § 4 Approaches to International Law
** § 4.1 Positivism
** § 4.2 TWAIL
** § 4.3 Feminism & Queer Theory
** § 4.4 Marxism
* § 5 Interaction
** § 5.1 Interaction within International Law
** § 5.2 International Law and Domestic Law
Part II - General International Law
* § 6 Sources of International Law
** § 6.1 Treaty Law
** § 6.2 Customary Law
** § 6.3 General Principles
** § 6.4 Other Sources
* § 7 Subjects and Actors in International Law
** § 7.1 States
** § 7.2 Indigenous Peoples
** § 7.3 International Organizations
** § 7.4 Individuals
** § 7.5 Women in International Law
** § 7.6 Non-governmental Organization
** § 7.7 Corporations
** § 7.8 Animals
** § 7.9 Cities
* § 8 Jurisdiction
* § 9 State Responsibility
* § 10 Diplomatic Relations
* § 11 Immunities
* § 12 Peaceful Settlement of Disputes
** § 12.1 Evidence
* § 13 Use of Force
Part III - Specialized Fields
* § 14 Law of Armed Conflict
* § 15 Law of the Sea
* § 16 International Environmental Law
* § 17 International Climate Change Law
* § 18 International Migration Law
* § 19 International Law in Cyberspace
* § 20 Space Law
* § 21 Human Rights Law
** § 21.1 Recurring Themes in Human Rights Doctrine
** § 21.2 Institutional Human Rights Protection
*** § 21.2.1 United Nations Human Rights System
*** § 21.2.2 African Human Rights System
*** § 21.2.3 European Human Rights System
*** § 21.2.4 Inter-American Human Rights System
*** § 21.2.5 Arab and Islamic Human Rights System
*** § 21.2.6 Asian Human Rights System
** § 21.3 Critique of Human Rights
* § 22 International Criminal Law
** § 22.1 International Crimes
** § 22.2 International Criminal Courts and Tribunals
** § 22.3 Domestic Prosecution of International Crimes
* § 23 International Economic Law
** § 23.1 Investment Law
** § 23.2 Trade Law
** § 23.3 Monetary Law

## Footnotes

* ↑ The first footnote. Please adhere to OSCOLA when formating citations. Whenever possible, provide a link with the citation, ideally to an open-access source.
# Public International Law/Nature and Purpose of International Law/Self-determination

Author: Jane Doe
   Required knowledge: Link
   Learning objectives: Understanding XY.
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## Further Readings

* Source I
* Source II

## Conclusion

* Summary I
* Summary II

## Table of Contents

Back to home page
Part I - History, Theory, and Methods
* § 1 History of International Law
** § 1.1 Founding Myths
** § 1.2 Nineteenth Century
** § 1.3 Decolonization
* § 2 Nature and Purpose of International Law
** § 2.1 International Law and Violence
** § 2.2 Consent
** § 2.3 Enforcement
* § 3 Methodology
** § 3.1 Case Analysis
** § 3.2 Interdisciplinarity
* § 4 Approaches to International Law
** § 4.1 Positivism
** § 4.2 TWAIL
** § 4.3 Feminism & Queer Theory
** § 4.4 Marxism
* § 5 Interaction
** § 5.1 Interaction within International Law
** § 5.2 International Law and Domestic Law
Part II - General International Law
* § 6 Sources of International Law
** § 6.1 Treaty Law
** § 6.2 Customary Law
** § 6.3 General Principles
** § 6.4 Other Sources
* § 7 Subjects and Actors in International Law
** § 7.1 States
** § 7.2 Indigenous Peoples
** § 7.3 International Organizations
** § 7.4 Individuals
** § 7.5 Women in International Law
** § 7.6 Non-governmental Organization
** § 7.7 Corporations
** § 7.8 Animals
** § 7.9 Cities
* § 8 Jurisdiction
* § 9 State Responsibility
* § 10 Diplomatic Relations
* § 11 Immunities
* § 12 Peaceful Settlement of Disputes
** § 12.1 Evidence
* § 13 Use of Force
Part III - Specialized Fields
* § 14 Law of Armed Conflict
* § 15 Law of the Sea
* § 16 International Environmental Law
* § 17 International Climate Change Law
* § 18 International Migration Law
* § 19 International Law in Cyberspace
* § 20 Space Law
* § 21 Human Rights Law
** § 21.1 Recurring Themes in Human Rights Doctrine
** § 21.2 Institutional Human Rights Protection
*** § 21.2.1 United Nations Human Rights System
*** § 21.2.2 African Human Rights System
*** § 21.2.3 European Human Rights System
*** § 21.2.4 Inter-American Human Rights System
*** § 21.2.5 Arab and Islamic Human Rights System
*** § 21.2.6 Asian Human Rights System
** § 21.3 Critique of Human Rights
* § 22 International Criminal Law
** § 22.1 International Crimes
** § 22.2 International Criminal Courts and Tribunals
** § 22.3 Domestic Prosecution of International Crimes
* § 23 International Economic Law
** § 23.1 Investment Law
** § 23.2 Trade Law
** § 23.3 Monetary Law

## Footnotes

* ↑ The first footnote. Please adhere to OSCOLA when formating citations. Whenever possible, provide a link with the citation, ideally to an open-access source.
# Public International Law/Peaceful Settlement of Disputes

Author:
   Required knowledge: Link
   Learning objectives: Understanding XY.
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## Conclusion

* Summary I
* Summary II

## Table of Contents

Back to home page
Part I - History, Theory, and Methods
* § 1 History of International Law
** § 1.1 Founding Myths
** § 1.2 Nineteenth Century
** § 1.3 Decolonization
* § 2 Nature and Purpose of International Law
** § 2.1 International Law and Violence
** § 2.2 Consent
** § 2.3 Enforcement
* § 3 Methodology
** § 3.1 Case Analysis
** § 3.2 Interdisciplinarity
* § 4 Approaches to International Law
** § 4.1 Positivism
** § 4.2 TWAIL
** § 4.3 Feminism & Queer Theory
** § 4.4 Marxism
* § 5 Interaction
** § 5.1 Interaction within International Law
** § 5.2 International Law and Domestic Law
Part II - General International Law
* § 6 Sources of International Law
** § 6.1 Treaty Law
** § 6.2 Customary Law
** § 6.3 General Principles
** § 6.4 Other Sources
* § 7 Subjects and Actors in International Law
** § 7.1 States
** § 7.2 Indigenous Peoples
** § 7.3 International Organizations
** § 7.4 Individuals
** § 7.5 Women in International Law
** § 7.6 Non-governmental Organization
** § 7.7 Corporations
** § 7.8 Animals
** § 7.9 Cities
* § 8 Jurisdiction
* § 9 State Responsibility
* § 10 Diplomatic Relations
* § 11 Immunities
* § 12 Peaceful Settlement of Disputes
** § 12.1 Evidence
* § 13 Use of Force
Part III - Specialized Fields
* § 14 Law of Armed Conflict
* § 15 Law of the Sea
* § 16 International Environmental Law
* § 17 International Climate Change Law
* § 18 International Migration Law
* § 19 International Law in Cyberspace
* § 20 Space Law
* § 21 Human Rights Law
** § 21.1 Recurring Themes in Human Rights Doctrine
** § 21.2 Institutional Human Rights Protection
*** § 21.2.1 United Nations Human Rights System
*** § 21.2.2 African Human Rights System
*** § 21.2.3 European Human Rights System
*** § 21.2.4 Inter-American Human Rights System
*** § 21.2.5 Arab and Islamic Human Rights System
*** § 21.2.6 Asian Human Rights System
** § 21.3 Critique of Human Rights
* § 22 International Criminal Law
** § 22.1 International Crimes
** § 22.2 International Criminal Courts and Tribunals
** § 22.3 Domestic Prosecution of International Crimes
* § 23 International Economic Law
** § 23.1 Investment Law
** § 23.2 Trade Law
** § 23.3 Monetary Law

## Footnotes

* ↑ The first footnote. Please adhere to OSCOLA when formating citations. Whenever possible, provide a link with the citation, ideally to an open-access source.
# Public International Law/Peaceful Settlement of Disputes/Evidence

Author: Jane Doe
   Required knowledge: Link
   Learning objectives: Understanding XY.
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## Further Readings

* Source I
* Source II

## Conclusion

* Summary I
* Summary II

## Table of Contents

Back to home page
Part I - History, Theory, and Methods
* § 1 History of International Law
** § 1.1 Founding Myths
** § 1.2 Nineteenth Century
** § 1.3 Decolonization
* § 2 Nature and Purpose of International Law
** § 2.1 International Law and Violence
** § 2.2 Consent
** § 2.3 Enforcement
* § 3 Methodology
** § 3.1 Case Analysis
** § 3.2 Interdisciplinarity
* § 4 Approaches to International Law
** § 4.1 Positivism
** § 4.2 TWAIL
** § 4.3 Feminism & Queer Theory
** § 4.4 Marxism
* § 5 Interaction
** § 5.1 Interaction within International Law
** § 5.2 International Law and Domestic Law
Part II - General International Law
* § 6 Sources of International Law
** § 6.1 Treaty Law
** § 6.2 Customary Law
** § 6.3 General Principles
** § 6.4 Other Sources
* § 7 Subjects and Actors in International Law
** § 7.1 States
** § 7.2 Indigenous Peoples
** § 7.3 International Organizations
** § 7.4 Individuals
** § 7.5 Women in International Law
** § 7.6 Non-governmental Organization
** § 7.7 Corporations
** § 7.8 Animals
** § 7.9 Cities
* § 8 Jurisdiction
* § 9 State Responsibility
* § 10 Diplomatic Relations
* § 11 Immunities
* § 12 Peaceful Settlement of Disputes
** § 12.1 Evidence
* § 13 Use of Force
Part III - Specialized Fields
* § 14 Law of Armed Conflict
* § 15 Law of the Sea
* § 16 International Environmental Law
* § 17 International Climate Change Law
* § 18 International Migration Law
* § 19 International Law in Cyberspace
* § 20 Space Law
* § 21 Human Rights Law
** § 21.1 Recurring Themes in Human Rights Doctrine
** § 21.2 Institutional Human Rights Protection
*** § 21.2.1 United Nations Human Rights System
*** § 21.2.2 African Human Rights System
*** § 21.2.3 European Human Rights System
*** § 21.2.4 Inter-American Human Rights System
*** § 21.2.5 Arab and Islamic Human Rights System
*** § 21.2.6 Asian Human Rights System
** § 21.3 Critique of Human Rights
* § 22 International Criminal Law
** § 22.1 International Crimes
** § 22.2 International Criminal Courts and Tribunals
** § 22.3 Domestic Prosecution of International Crimes
* § 23 International Economic Law
** § 23.1 Investment Law
** § 23.2 Trade Law
** § 23.3 Monetary Law

## Footnotes

* ↑ The first footnote. Please adhere to OSCOLA when formating citations. Whenever possible, provide a link with the citation, ideally to an open-access source.
# Signals and Systems

This book is about the study of engineering signals and systems, from a discipline-neutral approach. It is a fundamental starting point in the field of engineering, and serves as the basic material that other advanced books in the engineering subject area are based. This book looks at the concepts of systems, serving as an introduction to systems theory. Also, this book examines signals, and the way that signals interact with physical systems.
While this book strives to be discipline-neutral, it currently is focused strongly on electrical engineering concepts. It is hoped that this book will be expanded to include information from other disciplines as well.

## Table of Contents

* Introduction
* MATLAB

### Signal and System Basics

* Definition of Signals and Systems
* Engineering Functions
* Time Domain Analysis
* Noise
* Periodic Signals

### Frequency Representation of Signals

* Fourier Series
* Fourier Series Analysis
* Fourier Transform

### Frequency Analysis of Systems

* Frequency Response
* Bode Plots
* Laplace Transform

### Random Signals

* Probability Basics
* Probability Operations
* Common Distributions
* Frequency Domain Analysis

### Analog Filters

* Filter Terminology
* Filter Functions
* Filter Transforms
* The Second Order Transfer Function
* Analog Filter Design

### Digital Signals

* Z-Transform
* Random Digital Signals (Poisson, Markov)
* Digital Filter Design

### Appendices

* Table of Fourier Transforms
* Table of Laplace Transforms
* Table of Trigonometric Identities

## Resources and Licensing

* Resources
# Signal Processing/Resources
## Books

* Haykin, Simon, Adaptive Filter Theory, Fourth Edition, Prentice Hall, 2002. ISBN 0130901261

## External Resources

* Lloyd R. Welch, Weiner Filter Theory

## Wikibooks

* Signals and Systems
* Digital Signal Processing
* Control Systems
# Signal Processing/Steepest Descent Algorithm
## Steepest Descent

The steepest descent algorithm is an old mathematical tool for numerically finding the minimum value of a function, based on the gradient of that function. Steepest descent uses the gradient function (or the scalar derivative, if the function is single-valued) to determine the direction in which a function is increasing or decreasing most rapidly. Each successive iteration of the algorithm moves along this direction for a specified step size, and the recomputes the gradient to determine the new direction to travel.
The method of steepest descent is a useful tool for signal processing because it can be applied iteratively.
We can apply the steepest descent algorithm to the Wiener filter in such a way that at each new step we can calculate a new set of filter coefficients. Using the steepest descent method, we can approach a minimum error value in relatively few iterations, and we can track a signal that changes in time to apply new minimum coefficients to each new version of the signal. It is important to use a steepest descent, or other fast minimization algorithm so that the filter coefficients can be updated more quickly then the next input sample is received.

## Steepest Descent Algorithm

The steepest descent algorithm can be formulated as follows:
[Steepest Descent Algorithm]
    $\mathbf {a} (n+1)=\mathbf {a} (n)+\mu ;[\nabla J(\mathbf {a} )]$
For mathematical convenience, it is often useful to add in an additional 1/2 term:
    $\mathbf {a} (n+1)=\mathbf {a} (n)+{\frac {1}{2}}\mu ;[\nabla J(\mathbf {a} )]$

## Steepest Descent Wiener Filter

We can apply the steepest descent algorithm to the Wiener filter so that at each iteration the tap-weight vector a will approach the optimum Wiener tap weight vector a$_o$. If p is the cross-correlation vector between the filter input x(n) and the desired response d(n), and if R is the cross-correlation matrix of the filter input u(n), then applying the steepest descent algorithm we obtain:
    $\mathbf {a} (n+1)=\mathbf {a} (n)+\mu [\mathbf {p} -\mathbf {R} \mathbf {a} (n)]$
This update algorithm is especially convenient since it is possible to parallelize large portions of the correlation calculations.

### Stability

The steepest descent algorithm has the potential to diverge or become unstable unless:
    $0\leq \mu$
and
    $-1<1-\mu \lambda _{k}<1$
Where λ$_k$ are the eigenvalues of R. If these two conditions are satisfied, the algorithm should converge towards an optimal value.

### Performance

A higher value of μ will cause the algorithm to converge more quickly.