OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# General Astronomy/Asteroids

Asteroids are rocky or metallic solar system objects smaller than planets, whose orbits usually lie between Mars and Jupiter, although some venture close to the Sun and even pass dangerously close to Earth. They range in size from a maximum of several hundred kilometers, to an undetermined small size that merges into the category of meteoroids. Some meteoroids are unquestionably of the same composition, origin and structure as asteroids, just smaller. The age of asteroids is derived from that of meteorites, are thought to date from the very early periods of the Solar System, and to have been little changed since then.
There are tens of thousands of asteroids large enough to track, and perhaps hundreds of thousands of smaller size that range into the meteoroids. More than 1000 asteroids of 100 meters or larger (about the length of a city block) that pass close enough to the Earth to be of concern are being tracked.
In October, 2008, a small asteroid roughly the size of an SUV was discovered on a collision course with Earth, only about 20 hours before it impacted the upper atmosphere. The impact produced a fireball explosion approximately one kiloton of TNT in strength, or about one twentieth of the strength of the WWII atomic bombs dropped on Japan. However, this produced no dangerous radiation and occurred harmlessly far above the Earth's surface. Fragments survived and fell over Africa, about 5 kg of which were recovered in the Nubian Desert of Sudan, making this the first time an object had been tracked before impacting Earth, and fragments later recovered. Preliminary investigations are confirming the nature of the asteroidal/meteoroidal connection.
The first asteroid was discovered on the first day of 1800, by Italian astronomer Giuseppe Piazzi, who was part of a larger group of astronomers informally known as the "Celestial Police." The group had been convinced of the existence of a previously unknown planet between Mars and Jupiter, as apparently predicted by a mathematical relationship called Bode's Law (or the Titus-Bode Law). Soon after Piazzi's discovery, which he named Ceres for the Roman Goddess of Grain, others were discovered and their relatively small size deduced. Too small for full planets, they became known as asteroids, or "starlike bodies," or somewhat more appropriately, "minor planets." Ceres, was not only the first but the largest, at 950 km in diameter. It is so large that recently it has been designated as "dwarf planet" rather than an asteroid.
The asteroids are thought to have been small bodies left over at the formation of the Solar System, which were prevented from forming into a larger planet by the overpowering gravitational influence of "nearby" Jupiter. It is likely that some of the original asteroidal bodies collided and broke apart, resulting in the many fragments found today.
# General Astronomy/Atomic Emission and Absorption

Most of the information about stars is obtained from studying electromagnetic radiation. Interstellar dust can be observed to get information, as well.
Electromagnetic radiation includes UV (ultraviolet), radio waves, and X-rays. There are two kinds of waves: longitudinal (such as the way sound travels), and transverse (the way light and other electromagnetic radiation travels). Transverse waves are measured by their wavelength and frequency. Wavelength is represented by the Greek letter $\lambda$ (lambda). Longer wavelengths make shorter frequency.
The formula for frequency is
$f={\frac {c}{\lambda }}$
where $c$ is the speed of EM radiation, $3*10^{8}$ meters per second.
Astronomers can learn a lot about distant objects by analyzing spectra. The 3 types of spectra are continuous, emission, and absorption. A continuous spectrum comes from a high pressure blackbody, or thermal source (such as a light bulb). An emission spectrum has bright lines. It is caused by cool, low-pressure gas. An absorption spectrum has dark lines it. It appears when a blackbody's light passes through a cool, low-pressure gas. For example, our sun's surface emits a continuous spectrum, but it becomes an absorption spectrum once it reaches us, because it has passed through the sun's atmosphere. Because of this, all normal stars have absorption spectra.
Since each element has a unique spectrum, astronomers can determine the chemical composition of stars by analyzing their spectra. They can also determine the pressure of the object by the type of spectrum: continuous (high pressure), or emission (low pressure).
# Horticulture/Galium aparine

Goosegrass :
| Binomial: | Galium aparine |
| Type: | Annual |
| Seed Dispersal: | Sticky seeds |
| Vegetative Spread: | Rambling, but rarely rooting |
Galium aparine is a herbaceous annual plant of the family Rubiaceae. It is native to North America and Eurasia. It has several common names, including Cleavers, Goosegrass, Stickywilly, Catchweed, and Coachweed.

## Description

The long stems of this climbing plant sprawl over the ground and other plants, reaching heights of 1-1.5 m, occasionally 2 m. The leaves are simple and borne in whorls of six to eight. Both leaves and stem have fine hairs tipped with tiny hooks. This makes them cling to clothes and fur much like velcro. The white to greenish flowers are small at 2–3 mm across, having four petals each.
It flowers in early spring to summer, with the flowers occurring in most of the leaf nodes. The fruits are burrs, produced in clusters 1-3 seeds; each seed is 4–6 mm diameter and covered with hooked hairs which cling to animal fur and clothing, aiding in seed dispersal.

## Ecology

It is abundant in hedges and other low shrubby vegetation, and is also a common weed in arable fields and gardens. As they grow quite rampantly and thickly, they end out shading out any small plants that they overrun.
The seeds are similar size to cereal grains, and thus are one of the most common contaminants in cereals since they are difficult to filter out. Their presence in cereals is not considered a serious problem as they are not toxic.

## Uses

When dried and roasted, the fruits of this plant can be used to make a coffee-like drink.

## Pests and Diseases

See Galium for a list of pests and diseases.

## Control

* Cultivation: Effective on young plants
* Pulling: Effective, but can be a mess as the seeds are plentiful and stick to the gardener.
* Pre-emergents (organic): Corn Gluten Meal

## References

* Image Archive of Central Texas Plants
* Missouriplants.com - a site with additional information and excellent pictures.
# Horticulture/Galium odoratum

Sweet Woodruff :
| Binomial: | Galium odoratum |
| Family: | Rubiaceae |

## References

Woodruff (Galium odoratum) is a herbaceous perennial plant in the family Rubiaceae, native to Europe, western Asia and north Africa. It grows to 30–50 cm long, often lying flat on the ground or supported by other plants. The plant is also known in English as Sweet Woodruff or Wild Baby's Breath. "Master of the woods" is probably a translation of the German name Waldmeister. Names like "Sweetscented bedstraw", "Cudweed" and "Ladies' Bedstraw" should be avoided; the former two properly refer to Galium triflorum, the latter to Galium verum.
The leaves are simple, lanceolate, glabrous, 2–5 cm long, and borne in whorls of 6-9. The small (4–7 mm diameter) flowers are produced in cymes, each white with four petals joined together at the base. The seeds are 2–4 mm diameter, produced singly, and each seed is covered in tiny hooked bristles which help disperse the seed by sticking temporarily to clothing and animal fur.
This plant prefers partial to full shade in moist, rich soils. In dry summers it needs frequent irrigation. Propagation is by crown division, separation of the rooted stems, or digging up of the barely submerged perimeter stolons.

## Uses

Galium odoratum is a strongly scented plant, the sweet scent being derived from coumarin. This scent increases on wilting and then persists on drying, and woodruff is used in pot-pourri and as a moth deterrent. It is also used, mainly in Germany, to flavour May wine (called "Maiwein" or "Maibowle" in German), beer (Berliner Weisse), brandy, sausages, jelly, jam, a soft drink (Tarchun), and a herbal tea with gentle sedative properties.
High doses can cause headaches, and very high doses (far beyond those found in the aforementioned drinks) can even have mind-altering properties, as well as causing vertigo, somnolence or even central paralysis and apnoea while in a coma; so, some common sense should be applied when consuming woodruff. Since the 1980s, woodruff may no longer be used as an ingredient of industrially produced drinks and foodstuffs in Germany; it has been replaced by artificial aromas and colorings. However, the plant itself remains on sale and is also widely collected from the wild for private use. Using up to three grams of woodruff per litre of May wine is considered safe, as long as the drink is consumed no more than a few weeks per year.
# Horticulture/Garden Tools

Tools and equipment used by gardeners.

## Hand tools
### Digging

* Spades
* Shovels
* Mattocks
* Digging bars

### Cultivation

* Stirrup Hoes
* Hand Cultivators

### Pruning

* Garden scissors
* Horticulture/Pruners
* Bypass pruners
* Shears
* Loppers
* Bypass loppers
* Saws
* Pole-clips
* Pole-saws

### Chemical delivery

* Sprayers
* Dusters
* Spreaders
* Needles

### Moving things around

* Wheelbarrows
* Dolly-carts

## Containers
### Pots

* Plastic pots
* Ceramic pots
* Peat/Coir Pots

### Cells

* CP-72
* CP-36
* CP-24

### Flats
## Power tools

* Chainsaws
* Blowers
* Lawn mowers
* Tractors
* Chippers
* Power sprayers
* Tillers
* Root grinders
# Horticulture/Fungi and Lichen

Fungi and lichen are rarely thought of as being part of a garden – being considered weeds if at all, though lichen especially can play a role, notably in weathering or conveying age, particularly on stone surfaces (walls and borders) and in rock gardens.
Below we address both how to grow them and how to inhibit their growth.
* Fungi
* Lichen
# Horticulture/Galium

Galium is a large genus of annual and perennial herbaceous plants in the family Rubiaceae, with about 400 species occurring in the temperate zones of both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. The species are variously known as bedstraw (most species), goosegrass (G. aparine), cleavers (G. tricornutum, G. aparine) and woodruff (G. odoratum).

## Species

* Galium aetnicum
* Galium album - Upright Bedstraw
* Galium aparine - Goosegrass, Cleavers, or Stickywilly
* Galium arenarium - Sand Bedstraw
* Galium aristatum - False Baby's Breath
* Galium baldense
* Galium boreale - Northern Bedstraw
* Galium corrudaefolium
* Galium debile - Slender Marsh Bedstraw
* Galium elongatum - Great Marsh Bedstraw
* Galium firmum
* Galium fleurotii
* Galium glaucum - Glaucous Bedstraw
* Galium humifusum
* Galium hypocarpium
* Galium longifolium
* Galium lucidum
* Galium mollugo - Hedge Bedstraw
* Galium nigroramosum
* Galium normanii
* Galium obliquum
* Galium odoratum - Woodruff
* Galium oelandicum
* Galium olympicum
* Galium palustre - Common Marsh Bedstraw
* Galium parisiense - Wall Bedstraw
* Galium pumilum - Slender Bedstraw
* Galium rotundifolium
* Galium rubrum
* Galium saxatile - Heath Bedstraw
* Galium schultesii
* Galium spurium - False Cleavers
* Galium sterneri - Limestone Bedstraw
* Galium suecicum - Swedish Bedstraw
* Galium sylvaticum - Wood Bedstraw
* Galium tricornutum - Corn Cleavers
* Galium trifidum
* Galium triflorum - Conifer Bedstraw
* Galium uliginosum - Fen Bedstraw
* Galium valdepilosum
* Galium verum - Lady's Bedstraw

## Pests and diseases

* w:List of Lepidoptera which feed on Galium.
# Horticulture/Garden Bed Cleanup

Cleaning up a garden bed can be a joy, but can also be daunting if the bed hasn't been maintained on a regular basis. By organizing the cleanup into separate tasks, the gardener can concentrate on getting one thing done at a time, perhaps breaking up the chores over different days, or having one gardener start with the first step, and another gardener working on the next.
The most important thing is to keep cleaned up as the work progresses, meaning that the gardener shouldn't start the next step before cleaning up after the previous one. Cleaning up is often more time consuming and physically arduous than doing the actual chores,so it should not be left for the end of the day.
Garden bed cleanup:
* Initial run-through
** The initial run-through is the time for taking care of the big problems such as large weeds, dead plants, debris, etc. This should always be done first because if the gardener is called away to other tasks, at least the major eyesores will be taken care of. This stage of the cleanup doesn't require tools, just eyes and hands. If something requires tools, just wait for a later step, since there's only so much room on a tool belt and while you're removing the big stuff it's best to have both hands free.
** Pull big, easy weeds
** Leave small weeds in areas that can be cultivated using a hoe
** If transplanting or potting up volunteers, do this during the initial run through and pot them up or heel them right away (see Plant Rescues)
* Edge, if necessary.
* Go through with weeding tool and pruners or loppers.
** Cut down or dig out large weeds that can't be pulled.
** Get weeds that can’t be gotten by root with hand-pulling
** Cut any tree saplings too large for the weeder
* Cultivate in any open areas using a hoe or other cultivator
* Prune if appropriate, and divide any large plants (depending on season).
* Detail around plant crowns (areas not able to be cultivated), and take care of any dead stems or foliage.
* Clean up thoroughly
* Pick up any piles of rocks or other debris present.
* Add plants, if desired
* Irrigate well
* Add mulch or pre-emergents, if desired
# Horticulture/Fruits and Vegetables by Botanical Name

* Allium Sativum - Garlic
* Cucumis sativus - Cucumber
* Cucurbita pepo - Summer Squash
* Cucurbita spp. - Winter Squash
# Horticulture/Galanthus nivalis

The common snowdrop (Galanthus nivalis) is the best-known representative of a small genus of about 20 species in the family Amaryllidaceae that are among the first bulbs to bloom in spring.

## Varieties
### Single flowered

* Galanthus nivalis Poculiformis Group - inner segments are almost same length and shape as outer ones, usually unmarked and without a "sinus" (notch); includes such cultivars as 'Sandhill Gate'
* Galanthus nivalis Sandersii Group - marks on inner segments are yellow instead of green; includes 'Sandersii' and 'Lutescens'
* G. nivalis Scharlockii Group - "donkey's ears snowdrop" with elongated spathe split down center, resembling upright ears

### Double-flowered

* G. nivalis f. pleniflorus 'Blewbury Tart' - upward- or outward-facing flowers with dark green markings in the center
* G. nivalis f. pleniflorus 'Flore Pleno' - doubles, usually quite untidy rosettes of extra segments of uneven length
* G. nivalis f. pleniflorus 'Lady Elphinstone' - a version of 'Flore Pleno' with yellowish coloring inside the flowers instead of green; may revert or vary from year to year
* G. nivalis f. pleniflorus 'Pusey Green Tip' - with small green tips to the outer segments
Double-flowered forms such as Galanthus nivalis f. pleniflorus 'Flore Pleno' may be less attractive to the eye of the purist. There are numerous cultivars (cultivated varieties), single and double, differing particularly in the size and markings of the flower, the period of flowering, and other characteristics of interest to keen (even fanatical) collectors known as "galanthophiles".
Other notable species:
* Crimean snowdrop, Galanthus plicatus, 30 cm tall, flowering January/March, white flowers, with broad leaves folded back at the edges
* Giant snowdrop, Galanthus elwesii, a native of the Levant, 23 cm tall, flowering January/February, with large flowers, the three inner segments of which often have a much larger and more conspicuous green blotch (or blotches) than the more common kinds.

## Propagation

Propagation is by offsets removed when the plants are at rest, immediately after the leaves have withered; or by seeds sown either when ripe, or in spring. Professional growers and keen amateurs also use such methods as "twin-scaling" to increase the stock of choice varieties quickly.
# French/Grammar/Moods/Conditional

Lessons · Vocabulary · Grammar · Appendices · Texts

## Usage of the Conditional Mood

| Use | Example | English |
| Events dependent on conditions | Si elle avait faim, elle mangerait. | If she were hungry, she would eat. |
| Polite use of vouloir | Je voudrais aller au musée. | I would like to go to the museum. |
French :
Lessons · Vocabulary · Grammar · Appendices · Texts
# French/Grammar/Moods/Imperative

Lessons · Vocabulary · Grammar · Appendices · Texts

## Formation

French :
Lessons · Vocabulary · Grammar · Appendices · Texts
# French/Grammar

Lessons · Vocabulary · Grammar · Appendices · Texts

## Contents

Adjectives · Adverbs · Articles · Nouns · Prepositions · Pronouns · Sentences · Verbs
(Tenses and moods · Conjugations)
# French/Grammar/Moods

* Adjectives
* Adverbs
* Articles
* Nouns
* Prepositions
* Pronouns
* Sentences
* Verbs
** Tenses and moods
** Conjugations
Lessons · Vocabulary · Grammar · Appendices · Texts

## List of Moods

* L'Indicatif (The Indicative Mood)
* L'Impératif (The Imperative Mood)
* Le Conditionnel (The Conditional Mood)
* Le Subjonctif (The Subjunctive Mood)
Adjectives · Adverbs · Articles · Nouns · Prepositions · Pronouns · Sentences · Verbs
(Tenses and moods · Conjugations)
French :
Lessons · Vocabulary · Grammar · Appendices · Texts
# French/Grammar/Moods/Subjunctive

Lessons · Vocabulary · Grammar · Appendices · Texts

## Usage of the Subjunctive Mood

The subjunctive mood is used to express subjectivity, as opposed to objectivity.
| Use | Example | English |
| Wills, wishes, or advice | Il faut que nous parlions. | It is necessary that we speak. |
| Emotions regarding something | Nous sommes tristes que vous ne reussissiez à l'examen. | We are sad that you did not pass the test. |
| Doubts, opinions, or probabilities | Il est impossible que je sois incorrect. | It is impossible that I am wrong. |
| Commands or wishes in the third person | Que Dieu nous bénisse. | May God bless us. |
The subjunctive usually appears with que, which means that.
French :
Lessons · Vocabulary · Grammar · Appendices · Texts
# French/Grammar/Nouns

* Adjectives
* Adverbs
* Articles
* Nouns
* Prepositions
* Pronouns
* Sentences
* Verbs
** Tenses and moods
** Conjugations
Lessons · Vocabulary · Grammar · Appendices · Texts

## Gender of nouns · Genre des noms

In French, all nouns have a grammatical gender; that is, they are either masculin (m) or feminin (f).
Most nouns that express people or animals have both a masculine and a feminine form. For example, the two words for "the actor" in French are l'acteur (m) and l'actrice (f). The two words for "the cat" are le chat (m) and la chatte (f).
However, there are some nouns that talk about people or animals whose gender are fixed, regardless of the actual gender of the person or animal. For example, la personne (f) (the person) is always feminine, even when it's talking about your uncle! Le professeur (m) (the professor) is always masculine, even when it's talking about your female professor/teacher!
The nouns that express things without an obvious gender (e.g., objects and abstract concepts) have only one form. This form can be masculine or feminine. For example, la voiture (the car) can only be feminine; le stylo (the pen) can only be masculine.

### Irregularities and exceptions

There are three nouns in French where gender is altered when put in the plural form:
    amour (un amour passionné → des amours passionnées)
    orgue
    délice
There are many exceptions to gender rules in French which can only be learned. There are even words that are spelled the same, but have a different meaning when masculine or feminine; for example, le livre (m) means the book, but la livre (f) means the pound. Some words that appear to be masculine (like le photo, which is actually short for la photographie) are in fact feminine, and vice versa. Then there are some that just don't make sense; la foi is feminine and means a belief, whereas le foie means liver.

## Plurals
### Irregular plurals

Adjectives · Adverbs · Articles · Nouns · Prepositions · Pronouns · Sentences · Verbs
(Tenses and moods · Conjugations)
French :
Lessons · Vocabulary · Grammar · Appendices · Texts
# French/Grammar/Moods/Indicative

Lessons · Vocabulary · Grammar · Appendices · Texts
| Use | Example | English |
| Actions (see note) | Il fait du shopping. | He does the shopping. |
Note: The indicative indicates certainty about an action. The subjunctive indicates a doubt or subjectivity. The conditional indicates that an action will occur or occurred based on the fulfillment of certain conditions.
French :
Lessons · Vocabulary · Grammar · Appendices · Texts
# Ecclesiastical Latin/Extra

These letters are used in the Latin alphabet but are not used to write native Latin words. They instead are used to write borrowed words, usually from Greek.
K equals C, but does not change sound. Ch also equals C and also does not change sound. Th equals T and was used to mark a word with a Greek Theta. Ph equals F. Y equals I. Z makes the same sound it does in English. ZG makes the same sound as the S in the English word Treasure. This sound is only found in Slavic names written in Latin and is thus rare.
# Easy Ido/Lesson six

Lesson five | Lesson seven

## Prefixes

These are small words you put on the front of other words to change the meaning, like the "im" in "impossible". You can use these to make all new words of your own if you know how they work.
* des makes things opposite. facila (easy), desfacila (hard).
* ex is the same as in English. ex-prezidanto (ex-president).
* mi gives the meaning of half. mi-cirklo (semicircle).
* mis is when something is done wrong. mis-uzar (to misuse).
* ne makes something negative. ne-posibla (impossible).
* par goes on a verb to show that it was done well, or completely. par-lektar (to read thoroughly).
* pre means "before". pre-nomo (first name).
* pseudo is the same as in English. pseudo-religioza (pseudo-religious).
* retro gives the meaning of "backward". retro-irar (to go back).
* ri is like the English "re", meaning to do again. ri-facar (to do over again).
* sen gives the meaning of "without". sen-denta (toothless).

## Suffixes part one

These are the same as prefixes except that they go on the end. Remember to take the last -o, -a, or other ending off the word before you put a suffix on.
* Use -ach- when you don't like something or when you look down on it. infanto (child), infantacho (brat).
* Use -ad- after taking the -ar off of a verb to show repeated action. Parolar (to talk), parolado (a speech).
* Use -aj- to show something that is made out of that word. bela (beautiful), belajo (something beautiful), manjar (to eat), manjajo (food).
* Use -an- when you are talking about someone that belongs to a certain group. klubo (club), klubano (club member), Kristo (Christ), Kristano (Christian). You also use this as an adjective for talking about people from different lands. Japonia (Japan), japoniana (Japanese).
* Use -ar- when you want to talk about a large collection of the first word. Homo (person), homaro (humanity). Libro (book), libraro (library).
* Use -atr- when you want to say that something is similar to, or has similar qualities to the root. sponjo (sponge), sponjatra (spongy)
Lesson five | Top | Lesson seven