OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Polish/Prepositions as hints to declensions
## Prepositions as hints to declensions

Prepositions, which generally show some sort of literal or figurative relationship between events, very rarely overlap exactly between different languages, both in literal and figurative usages. For example, to a non-native English speaker, it is not obvious why we talk about something, rather than talk on, at, or in something.
The correspondence shown below between some key Polish and English prepositions should not be taken as a relation in terms of meaning (semantics); it is only a rough approximation.
However, in Polish, both the choice of verb and the preposition (the Polish preposition, of course) are constrained by the declension. Once you develop some intuition as to which preposition you should use, or which declension, the relation between these can be used to guess the declension from the preposition or vice versa. Common links are as follows.
Note that some prepositions, these regarding to place, can be used with two possible cases. Usually, a locative or instrumental are used when the acting takes place in this place and accusative when it is going towards the place. Compare:
    Kot siedzi na stole. - The cat sits on the table. (table - locative)
    Kot wskakuje na stół. - The cat jumps onto the table. (table - accusative)
    Kot nie wskakuje na stół. - The cat doesn't jump onto the table. (table still in accusative, not genitive, because it is not an object here!)
* siedzi - 3rd person sing. present tense from "siedzieć" - sit
* stół - table (gen. stołu, loc. stole, pl.nom. stoły)
* wskakuje - 3rd person sing. present tense from "wskakiwać" - jump on
| | declension | declension | declension | declension | declension |
| similar English preposition | genitive (dopełniacz, D.) | dative (celownik, C.) | accusative (biernik, B.) | instrumental (narzędnik, N.) | locative (miejscownik, Ms.) |
| to, from, for | do, od, dla | | | | |
| at (place) | u | | | | |
| during | podczas | | | | |
| among, amid | wśród, pośród | | | | |
| next to, beside | koło, obok | | | | |
| near, close to | blisko, nieopodal | | | | |
| opposite, across | naprzeciw, naprzeciwko | | | | |
| without, except | bez, oprócz | | | | |
| with, from | z, ze | | | z, ze | |
| towards | | ku | | | |
| thanks to | | dzięki | | | |
| against | | wbrew, przeciwko | | | |
| by, through | | | przez | | |
| at, about; on; after | | | o, na, po | | o, na, po |
| behind, under | | | za, pod | za, pod | |
| in | | | w, we | | w, we |
| by, next to | | | | | przy |
| through, among/between, on (spatial) | | | przed, między, nad | przed, między, nad | |
# Polish/Nouns - Gender
## Dialogue

Łukasz and Beata are friends who meet on the street and exchange a few quick words.
| | Polish | English |
| Beata | Cześć Łukasz. Jak się masz? | Hi Łukasz. How are you? |
| Łukasz | Dobrze. A ty? | Well. And you? |
| Beata | Nieźle. | Not bad. |
| Łukasz | Miło Cię zobaczyć ale muszę wracać do domu. Porozmawiamy później. | Nice to see you but I must return home. We will talk later. |
| Beata | Dobrze. Cześć. | Okay. Bye. |
Dialogue Notes
* The word cześć means both hi and bye, similar to ciao in Italian.
* The word dobrze is an adverb and can mean fine, well, or okay.
* Cię, meaning you, is capitalized out of respect. Oftentimes, when writing to someone, the pronoun you and your will be capitalized.
* The verb porozmawiamy is not preceded by the pronoun we. Pronouns in Polish are implicit in the verb form and may be dropped just like in Spanish.

## Grammar I: Greetings and Farewells

Different greeting and farewells are used depending on the time of day:
* dzień dobry
** greeting used for good morning, good afternoon, and good day
* dobry wieczór
** greeting used for good evening
* dobranoc
** farewell used for good night
The words dobry and dobra mean good and are used for masculine and feminine nouns, respectively. Notice that while dzień dobry and dobry wieczór are written separately, dobranoc is written together.
Other farewells include:
* cześć
** means both hi and bye
** very informal; used between friends
* do widzenia
** standard way to say goodbye
** lit. means until seeing
* do zobaczenia
** slightly more cordial and warm than do widzenia
** lit. means until seeing
* do usłyszenia
** used when one expects to hear from the other person but not necessarily see them
** lit. means until hearing
* żegnaj
** used when saying goodbye forever or a very long time
On the phone:
* halo - hello
* słucham
** standard way of answering the phone
** lit. means I am listening
** the two can be combined into halo słucham

### Exercises

Determine the appropriate greeting or farewell in the following cases (Click "▼" to check your answer):

## Grammar II: Introduction to Nouns

Polish nouns can generally be classified into three genders:
* masculine (m) - męski
* feminine (f) - żeński
* neuter (n) - nijaki
The gender of a noun can be usually determined by its ending.
If the noun ends in -a, it is usually feminine.
* ulica - street
Notable exceptions include the word for man and male occupations
* mężczyzna (m) – man
* okulista (m) – eye doctor
* poeta (m) – poet
* kierowca (m) – driver
If the noun ends in -o, -e, -ę, and -um (of Latin origin), it is usually neuter.
* okno - window
* pole - field
* imię - name
* muzeum - museum
If the noun ends in a consonant, it is usually masculine.
* kot - cat
Notable exceptions include Latin-derived words ending in -um which are neuter, words ending in -ść which are feminine, and a few others.
* akwarium (n) - aquarium
* miłość (f) – love
* krew (f) - blood
* noc (f) - night

### Exercises

Determine the gender of the following nouns (Click "▼" to check your answer):
# Polish/Nouns - Number

Polish nouns are classified as singular (name for one thing) or plural (name for more than one thing)
To make singular feminine nouns plural, look at the penultimate letter to decide what to change the -a to:
| Singular | Plural | Example |
| -ka, -ga | -ki, -gi | noga – nogi (leg – legs) |
| -ca, -ea, -ia, -ja, -la, -ża (-rza) | -ce, -ee, -ie, -je, -le, -że (-rze) | róża – róże (rose – roses) |
| -[everything else] + a | -[everything else] + y | torba – torby (bag – bags) |
Remember that rz also sounds like ż
To make neuter nouns plural, change the -o, -e, or -um to -a
* okno – okna
* muzeum – muzea
The plurals of nouns ending in -ę are irregular and will not be covered at this time.
To make masculine nouns plural, look at the last letter. They follow similar rules to feminine nouns.
| Singular | Plural | Example |
| -k, -g | -ki, -gi | bok – boki (side – sides) |
| -c, -j, -l, -ż (-rz) | -ce, -je, -le, -że (-rze) | garaż – garaże (garage – garages) |
| -ć, -ń, -ś, -ź | -cie, -nie, -sie, -zie | koń – konie (horse – horses) |
| -[everything else] | -[everything else] + y | las – lasy (forest – forests) |

### Exercises

Given the plural noun and its gender below, make it singular (Click "▼" to check your answer):
# Polish/Possessive Adjectives

< Polish Adjectives < ^ Polish ^ > Comparative & Superlative Cases >
As with nouns and adjectives, possessive adjectives must agree in Polish

## Rules

Possessive adjectives in English are my, your, his, her, its, our and their.
As possessive adjectives are adjectives this means that their form will differ if they are used with nouns in the nominative, genitive, datic, accusative, instrumental, locative or genitive cases. There are also some differences for feminine nouns.
The table below illustrates the use of my and your with masculine/neuter and feminine singular nouns. Nasz (our) and wasz (your, where you is a group of people) are declined the same way.
My and Your (Masculine and Neuter) :
| | My | Your |
| Nominative | Mój/Moje | Twój/Twoje |
| Genitive | Mojego | Twojego |
| Dative | Mojemu | Twojemu |
| Accusative | Mój | Twój |
| Instrumentative | Moim | Twoim |
| Locative | Moim | Twoim |
| My and Your (feminine) |||
| | My | Your |
| Nominative | Moja | Twoja |
| Genitive | Mojej | Twojej |
| Dative | Mojej | Twojej |
| Accusative | Moją | Twoją |
| Instrumentative | Moją | Twoją |
| Locative | Mojej | Twojej |
# Principles of Finance/Section 1/Chapter 6/Corp/PVGO

When valuing a company's stock, there is an important distinction which must be made between that and an ordinary perpetuity. A company has the capacity to grow, which must be reflected in the current price.
If a stock price were to valued using a standard annuity formula, it would look something like this:
$P_{0}={\frac {D_{1}}{r}}$ (*edit* it should be $P_{0}={\frac {D_{1}}{r-g}}$)
Where P$_0$, is the price at time 0, D$_1$ is the dividend at time 1, and r is the required rate of return. However, this clearly does not reflect the level at which a company is expected to grow. This is especially pertinent to start up companies, who may not pay any dividends for a long time, but are expected to become highly profitable in the future. A formula which takes this into consideration is as follows:
$P_{0}={\frac {D_{1}}{r}}+PVGO$ (*edit* it should be $P_{0}={\frac {EPS_{1}}{r}}+PVGO$)
$g=plowback*ROE$
# Principles of Finance/Section 1/Chapter 6/Corp/WACC

When valuing a new venture by a company, it is necessary to use an appropriate discount rate. However, since corporations can be structured very differently, it is important to reflect that in the respective costs of capital. Let's say there are two similar companies in the same industry. Company A is financed 90% by equity (that is, stock) and 10% by debt (long term corporate bonds). Company B is financed by 25% equity, and 75% debt. These two companies would have to be valued according to their respective risk levels and required returns.
One common way to determine the cost of capital is to use the Weighted Average Cost of Capital, or WACC.
$WACC=r_{D}(1-T){\frac {D}{V}}+r_{E}{\frac {E}{V}}$
In this formula, V is equal to the value of the firm, or Debt (D) plus Equity (E) Example:
AKL corporation is currently financed with $1,000,000 of 7% bonds, and $2,000,000 of common stock. The stock has a beta of 1.5, and the risk free rate is 4%, and the market risk premium is 3.5%. The marginal tax rate for a corporation of AKL's size is 35%. What is AKL's WACC?
The first thing we must do in this problem is determine the required rate on equity (R$_e$) for AKL. We can plug the Beta given and the risk free rate into the CAPM as follows:
$E(R_{i})=R_{f}+\beta _{im}(E(R_{m})-R_{f}).\,$
where:
$E(R_{i})=4.5+1.5(3.5).\,=9.75\%$
Now, we have all of the necessary information to solve for WACC:
$WACC=.07(1-.35){\frac {1,000,000}{3,000,000}}+.0975{\frac {2,000,000}{3,000,000}}=8\%$
# Principles of Finance/Section 1/Chapter 5/Risk/Risk
## Systematic Risk

Systematic risk refers to the portion of risk in a stock that is impossible to avoid, it is also called the market risk, or undiversifiable risk. In the Capital Asset Pricing Model, systematic risk is represented by beta.
$E(R_{i})=R_{f}+\beta _{im}(E(R_{m})-R_{f}).\,$
Systematic risk is called undiversifiable risk because no matter how many securities are in a portfolio, there will always be some element of risk. This is due to the possibility of macroeconomic factors causing the entire market to decrease in value. Beta is a measure of how sensitive a particular security is to these market conditions. A stock with a high beta is more sensitive to market conditions; and, conversely, a stock with a low beta is less sensitive.

## Unsystematic Risk

Unsystematic risk is also called idiosyncratic risk, or diversifiable risk. It represents the risk of a security that is unrelated to the market in general. Unsystematic risk can be reduced by holding a diversified portfolio. A diversified portfolio eliminates the likelihood of one isolated event causing a large decrease in portfolio value.
As you can see from the above image, as the number of stocks in a portfolio increase, the amount of unsystematic risk approaches zero. However, it is impossible to remove systematic risk, as it concerns the economy in general.
# Principles of Finance/Section 1/Chapter 6/Corp/Beta

A corporations Beta is a measurement of its volatility. A high beta has high volatility in response to the market. A low beta company has low volatility, such as utilities companies.

## Asset Beta and Equity Beta

Since companies are structured differently, it becomes necessary to distinguish between Asset, or Unlevered Beta, and Equity, or Levered Beta. The Equity beta is what is commonly reported on financial websites, such as finance.yahoo.com. However, to perform certain financial functions, such as valuing a company, the use of the Unlevered, or Asset Beta is necessary. This is the company's beta if one were to assume it were financed entirely by equity.
$\beta _{L}=\beta _{U}\left[1+(1-T){\frac {D}{E}}\right]$
# Principles of Finance/Section 1/Chapter 6/Corp/ROE
## Return On Equity

Return on Equity is an important financial ratio used to compare companies. It is also commonly used as a target for executive compensation. For example, a CEO might have to earn a 15% ROE for the year in order to get his bonus. Targets like these are designed to help shareholders by giving management an incentive to perform better.
ROE is defined as Net Income divided by Shareholder's Equity. However, there are other ways to calculate it. One common way is by using Return on Assets (ROA = Net Income/Assets), which may be easier to calculate, and the debt to equity ratio, in addition to information about tax and interest rates.
$ROE=(1-T)\left[ROA+(ROA-I){\frac {D}{E}}\right]$

## DuPont Identity

The DuPont Identity is a financial tool that can be used to see how three main factors affect ROE:
* Profit Margin - Net Profit/Sales
* Asset Turnover - Sales/Assets
* Leverage Ratio - Assets/Equity
$ROE={\frac {NetProfits}{Sales}}*{\frac {Sales}{Assets}}*{\frac {Assets}{Equity}}$
Suppose XYZ Corp. has a profit margin of 20%, asset turnover of 300%, and a leverage ratio of 50%. What would their return on equity be?
We can see that this relatively simple calculation is:
$ROE=.2*3*.5=30\%$
The DuPont Identity allows us to see that ROE is a complex measure. A company with a low profit margin may have a strong ROE if it is not levered up very much. The equation can be rearranged to solve for missing values, as in the following example:
Suppose ABC Corp. has a 10% profit margin, an ROE of 30%, sales of $2000, and equity of $1000. What is the value of its assets?
By plugging in the values given, we can solve for assets = $500
$.3=.15*{\frac {2000}{x}}*{\frac {x}{1000}}$
$x=500$
# Principles of Finance/Section 1/Chapter 4/Bonds/YTM

Yield to Market refers to the following calculation:
$CurrentYield={\frac {AnnualInterestPayment}{CurrentPrice}}$
Yield to market is also called Current Yield.
So, for example, if you had a bond that payed $40 semiannually, and the current price of the bond was $940, the Yield to Market would be 8.51%.
Yield to Maturity is not a very good measure of a bond's value. It does not take into consideration the price paid for the bond, nor the prevailing interest rates, nor the credit rating of the bond.
# Principles of Finance/Section 1/Chapter 6/Corp/Computation
### IRR , computation , Newton's Method

Project valuation may require finding the Internal Rate of Return, or the discount rate at which a project's present value of future cash flows equals to zero. This is the maximum rate of return achievable, and should be greater than the inflation rate. a simple converging guessing method has been illustrated under the Project Valuation chapter. The use of Newton's method was left as an exercise, and a possible solution is shown below. Newton's method finds the x-axis intersection of the gradient line found at an approximate IRR, which will give a better rate to try for IRR, and iterations will find an acceptable IRR where the NPV is small enough to be equal to zero.
background for derivative function of npv:
# Straw Bale Construction/Characteristics/Thermal mass
## Thermal mass

The interior plaster on a straw bale wall works as an excellent thermal mass on a diurnal cycle.
Thermal mass reduces temperature swings due to daytime warming and night time cooling, by absorbing and then gradually releasing heat. This can result in a direct reduction in the need for fuel or electricity to regulate temperature, and indirectly in savings through lifestyle adjustments: occupants of a moderate environment, with only gradual temperature swings, are less likely to use artificial heating and cooling. This is most easily achieved at high desert altitudes where a clear sky contributes to both warm days (solar gain) and cool nights (nighttime cooling), but the principle still works in other climates as well.
# Straw Bale Construction/Characteristics/Resistance to pests
## Resistance to pests

Straw bales are thick and dense enough to keep out many kinds of pests. As well, the outer layer of plaster makes them unattractive or impenetrable to animals and insects. Finally, because straw contains little nutrient value to most animals and insects, it does not attract pests.
Termites like moist damp conditions. While a wall is kept dry, there is little danger termites would have any interest. When termites do manage to enter a wall, they tend to bypass the straw and attack any wooden studs.
In North America, termites attacked straw bale houses only very rarely.
# Straw Bale Construction/Characteristics/Design and construction challenges
## Design and construction challenges

Straw-bale construction is still considered experimental in many jurisdictions. Building codes may not include it, local authorities may not recognise it, and most contractors will probably not be experienced in its use.
Straw-bale buildings must be carefully designed to eliminate the possibility of moisture entering the walls, especially from above. Successful designs often incorporate roof overhangs that are wider than normal and roof shapes and detailing that minimise the risk of water splashing against walls.
Because straw-bale walls are much thicker than normal walls, there is sometimes a compromise between the size of the building's footprint and the amount of living space.
# Straw Bale Construction/Characteristics/Resistance to fire
## Resistance to fire

Although loose straw is quite flammable, once packed into a bale it is too dense to allow enough air for combustion. By analogy, it is easy to light a single piece of paper on fire, but difficult and time consuming to burn an entire phone book. In construction it is critical to have, at a minimum, a parge coat of plaster on all surfaces of the wall. Parge coating the wall involves troweling on a thin coating of mortar and brushing it smooth.
Typical failure of straw-bale homes involves frame walls set against straw-bale walls without a parge coat. A spark from an electrical short or an error by a plumber ignites the hair-like fuzz on the exposed bale. The flame spreads upward and sets the wood framing on fire causing the wood framing to burn. The typical fire results in little fire damage to bales, but extensive water damage due to the fire suppression activities.
The ASTM E-119 fire resistance test for plastered straw-bale wall assemblies in 1993 passed for a 2 hour fire-wall assembly. In this test a gas flame blows on one side of the wall at approximately 2000 degree Fahrenheit (1100 degrees Celsius) while the temperature of the other side of the wall is continuously measured. The results of this test had no burn-through and a maximum temperature rise of 60 degrees Fahrenheit (33.3 degrees Celsius).
# Straw Bale Construction/Characteristics/Availability types and cost
## Availability, types and cost
### Availability

Straw is an agricultural waste product, a by-product of grain harvesting. Many different kinds of straw are baled and can be used for construction. Straw is widely available, and is generally an abundant, renewable resource. Relatively little energy is consumed in harvesting, baling and transporting bales to a building site. In bulk, straw bales are generally sold for close to the cost of baling and transport. Farmers will sometimes sell bales for under cost in order to clear storage sheds prior to a harvest.
In most regions, straw is baled only once each year, and so must kept dry and stored for use at other times of the year. Straw production and demand is relatively constant, however high demand for bales used for erosion control following forest fires can create a temporary shortage of bales.

### Types

Bales are rectangular compressed blocks of straw, bound by strings or wires. Straw bales come in all shapes and sizes. Rectangular bales are the only bales suitable for building. The round bales that are now becoming popular require re-bailing before use but this is not recommended. Three string bales (585x405x1070 mm) common in western USA have an average weight of 29 kg. The two string bales (460x350-450x960 mm) which are common in the rest of USA and most of the world are easier to handle and have a weight ranging from 15 to 19 kg.
Besides these traditionally sized bales, big jumbo bales are also becoming popular. There are basically two sizes in use. The real jumbo is 1200x760x2400 mm and the mini-jumbo is 800mm wide and available in various lengths and heights depending on the bailing machine used. The jumbo bales are appropriate for bigger industrial buildings where they show definite advantages due to their high load carrying capacity of up to 300 KG/bale for the 1200mm wide variety. Only machine handling is possible due to their weight. Greater stability and the bigger size of Jumbo bales compared to the conventional bales favors rapid and easy construction.

### Cost

Small bales range in price from 1.50 USD per bale to 6USD per bale. Prices go up rapidly when you take into account transportation. Jumbo bales, including transportation, range in cost from 15USD to 30USD per bale. This depends upon when you purchase the bales, how far they need to be transported, and type of bale - whether it's wheat straw, flax straw, or rice straw. Different "waste" products have different values for farmers and some are less usable than others for agricultural purposes.
The best way to get an idea of prices in your area is to look in the Worldwide organisations and contacts section of this book. Of course if you find some useful information, come back and add it to this page.
# Programming Mac OS X with Cocoa for Beginners 2nd Edition/What Cocoa Is

Next Page: Installing the developer tools
Cocoa Cocoa is a modern, object-oriented framework Cocoa contains the class definitions for classes that are generally useful to produce a graphical user interface (GUI) for applications to be run under Mac OS X. Cocoa also provides an object-oriented interface to the operating system (OS). Cocoa is what Apple itself uses to develop Mac apps for Mac OS X. You are able to harness the full power of a Macintosh by using Cocoa.
Programming using Cocoa involves both using a graphical user interface (GUI -- pronounced "gooey") tool to build your user interfaces, and an integrated development environment (IDE). Cocoa consists of literally hundreds of ready-built classes, functions and constants, which are pre-programmed modules of reusable code, that you can simply include in your own work and build upon. Since these classes are well designed, powerful and fully debugged, using them saves you literally hundreds of hours in building in complex functionality.
Cocoa is the name given to the complete set of classes, functions and constants, grouped together into an Application Programming Interface, or API. For building Mac applications Cocoa is the only API that is really used anymore. (The other APIs that used to be provided by Apple, the Classic API and the Carbon API which have both been deprecated.)
Above all, this text aims to get you started in the smoothest way possible, so that you can begin to see not just how powerful Cocoa can be, but also how rewarding it is to work with.
Next Page: Installing the developer tools