OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Italian/Grammar/Prepositions
## Prepositions / Preposizioni

The "standard" prepositions that are taught at school are
* di ('of', 'belonging to'; used in place of the English genitive)
* a ('to')
* da ('from', 'by')
* in ('in', 'on' with abstract nouns)
* con ('with')
* su ('on')
* per ('for', 'in order to')
* tra ('among', 'between')
* fra ('among', 'between')
Remember that the above translations into English are only approximate. bravo in matematica obviously translates into English as good at mathematics and not good in mathematics.
When prepositions are used together with definite articles, the preposition and the article are sometimes condensed into a single word. For example, "of the student" becomes "dello studente" and not "di lo studente".
More specifically, the following table lists all the possible combinations (except those not in common use today).
| | il | lo | la | i | gli | le |
| di | del | dello | della | dei | degli | delle |
| a | al | allo | alla | ai | agli | alle |
| da | dal | dallo | dalla | dai | dagli | dalle |
| in | nel | nello | nella | nei | negli | nelle |
| su | sul | sullo | sulla | sui | sugli | sulle |
| con | col | collo | colla | coi | cogli | colle |
Please note that using these combinations (except those with con) is mandatory: you cannot choose to use plain preposition + article instead. With con, it's possible to use both the combination or the separated words: col or con il and so on. Per, tra/fra and all other prepositions don't have contracted forms, they simply use preposition + article. Originally con and per also had contracted forms (col, collo, etc. and pel, pella, etc.) but these are never used anymore (with the exceptions col (= con + il) and coi (= con + i) which are still occasionally found).
With indefinite articles, there is no condensed form, hence in un, and so on.
The prepositions di and da may take an apostrophe and become d' before a vowel. Examples where this is the rule, and not simply a matter of personal preference, are
* d'altra parte, lit. "from other side", meaning "on the other hand"
* d'altro canto, lit. "from other place", as above
* d'altri, "of others" (but di altri is acceptable)
* d'oro, "made of gold", "golden"
* d'argento, "made of silver"
* d'oltreoceano, d'oltralpe, etc.
* the name of a country: d'Italia
For euphonic reasons, the proposition a can become ad before a vowel, though this is not mandatory. When the vowel following the preposition is another 'a', using ad can probably be considered mandatory. Examples: ad altri (to others), ad essere or a essere (to be), ad oltranza or a oltranza (ad libitum).
Historically, per has been a combinable preposition (with combined forms pel, pello, pella, pei, pegli, pelle), but this usage is never encountered in contemporary prose, even though it is still present in the dialects of Tuscany.
# Reunion

* This island in the Indian Ocean is an overseas department or region of France with full political integration into the mother country.
* The first meter stamps appeared in 1952 and were identical to French stamps of the time except for the inclusion of “C F A” (Colonie Francaise Afrique) in the frank. In the 1970s stamps without “C F A” began to be used. These stamps are identical to those of continental France and differ only in the contents of the town mark.
* Listed below are stamps with C F A or C.F.A. in the frank. For stamps without C F A see FRANCE/Annex.
1. Satas “C” (MV), 1952. [$35]
    As France Type AA6 but with wide C F A above the meter number at bottom.
    “POSTES” on same line as meter number.
    M# with “SC” prefix.
    Month in date is Roman numeral.
    TM: SL
    V/F: 000F
                                                                            a. Month in date is 3-letter abbreviation.
2. Satas “R” (MV), 1961.
    As Type 1 but with circular town mark (France type AB2K).
    M# with “SR” or “SRW” prefix.
    Date figures short.
                                                 A. Wide C F A, 15 mm wide [$25]
                                                 B. Medium C F A, 11-12 mm wide [$15]
                                                 C. Medium C.F.A. with stops, 11-12 mm wide [$25]
                                                 D. Small C.F.A., 10½-11 mm wide [$10]
    V/F: 000
                                                 a. M# with "SRW” prefix [Add $10]
                                                 b. As B, town mark inverted (SR 2104) [$35]
3. Satas “J” (MV), 1972. [Appears to be scarce; value unknown]
    As Type 2 but M# with “SJ” prefix (France type AB2E).
    Small C F A 10 mm wide.
    Date figures tall
    TM: SC
    V/F: 00
# Ruanda-Urundi

* The earliest meter seen from this African colony of Belgium is dated 1951.
* Only five postage meters (three types) are known to have been used in the territory.
* All stamps are inscribed “RUANDA-URUNDI”.
* In 1962 Ruanda-Urundi gained its independence and split into two countries, RWANDA and BURUNDI. See these countries for issues since 1962.
* One meter, type 2, meter F9, was used with unaltered Ruanda-Urundi inscription into 1973.
1. Hasler “F88” (MV), 1951.
    Upright frank with crown at top above scroll containing territory name.
    M# with “B” prefix below frank.
    Two meters known, B11 and B12.
    Used without town mark
                                     A: M# B11 [$15]
                                     B: M# B12 [$50]
    V/F: 0oo (B11) 00oo (B12)
2. Francotyp “Cc” (MV).
    Upright frank with simulated perforation outer border and straight line inner border.
    Country name curved at top, two lions in lower corners flanking boxed M# with “F –“ prefix.
    M# Three meters known, F-8, F-9, F-27.
                                                       A. M# F-8 or F-9 [$20]
                                                       B. M# F-27 [extremely rare, value uncertain]
    TM: SC
    V/F: ◆0.00 (F-8) ◆00.00 (F-9, F-27)
3. Universal “Multi-Value” (MV). [$20]
    Smaller frank with border as with Type 2.
    Country name straight at top, “Fr | Ct” below value figures.
    M# U45 known.
    TM: DC
    V/F: 000oo
4. Francotyp, either "Cc" or "Cm 7000/10000” (MV). [Extremely rare. Value unknown]
    Frank wider than tall with crown between horizontal lines at top.
    "RUANDA / URUNDI" above meter number at bottom.
    Lions in the lower corners.
    M# F99 seen
    TM: SC
    V/F: ◆00.00
NOTE: The stamp is dated 15 May 1982, two decades after Ruanda-Urundi ceased to exist and became the separate countries of Rwanda and Burundi. It is possible this stamp is misdated and it is also possible the meter continued to be used unchanged or was returned to service provisionally in Burundi where Bujumbura (nee Usumbura) is located.
# Saint Helena

* Saint Helena is part of the British overseas territory of Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha. Although it does issue traditional postage stamps, no postage meters are known used on this South Atlantic island.
# Saint Kitts and Nevis

* The British Federation of Saint Christopher, Nevis and Anguilla achieved full autonomy in 1967. In the same year Anguilla seceded and became a separate dependency under British control.
* The franks are inscribed “ST. KITTS” (or “ST. CHRISTOPHER”) and “NEVIS” with or without “ANGUILLA”. Stamps inscribed with all three island names remained in use possibly until 1980 when the secession of Anguilla was formally recognized.
* See also “ANGUILLA”.
* The stamps are grouped according to country inscription:
       A - Prior to formal recognition of the secession of Anguilla, inscribed “ST. KITTS (or “ST. CHRISTOPHER”), NEVIS and ANGUILLA”
       B - Post secession, inscribed “ST. KITTS-NEVIS”

## GROUP A: Franks inscribed ST. KITTS (or ST. CHRISTOPHER), NEVIS, ANGUILLA

A1. Neopost “205” (MV). [$25]
    Square frank with simulated perforation outer border.
    Inscribed “ST. KITTS NEVIS ANGUILLA” across top and sides.
    M# with “RN” prefix flank crown at bottom center.
    M# RN 001 seen.
    TM: BIC
    V/F: 0·00
A2. Neopost “305” (MV). [$50]
    Upright frank, larger than Type A1, inscribed “ST. CHRISTOPHER NEVIS ANGUILLA” across sides and top.
    M# with “RN” prefix flank crown at bottom center.
    M# RN 004 seen.
    TM: DC
    V/F: 0·00

## GROUP B: Franks inscribed ST. KITTS-NEVIS

B1. Pitney Bowes-GB “5000” (MV).
    Horizontal frank open at the sides.
    Crown at top right.
    Date figures raised in relation to value figures.
    M# with “P.B.” prefix breaks bottom frame line.
    TM: DC
    V/F: ≋0.00
B2. Pitney Bowes-GB “6300” (MV).
    Similar to Type B1 but smaller.
    Date and value figures on same level.
    M# above bottom frame line.
    TM: DC
    V/F: 0.00
B3. Pitney Bowes "DM" series (digital).
    Frank without crown.
    With straight line border at top and bottom and column of hash marks at right.
    Square town mark with two columns of numbers and letters at left.
    TM: SL
    V/F: 000.00
NOTE: The stamp below which resembles a meter stamp is a preprinted “permit” with date applied at time of mailing.
# Portuguese India (Goa)

* The earliest meter stamp seen is from 1959.
* Meter stamps were used for only a short period of time until the colony was returned to India in 1962.
* The stamps are inscribed “CORREIOS DO ESTADO DA INDIA”.
* Although properly postally used examples of these stamps must exist, we have never seen one. The illustrations are from proofs.
1. Francotyp “Cc” (MV), 1959. [Extremely rare]
    Circular frank with inscription around the circumference.
                                                                                  A. Wide spacing between TM and frank. M# "L-010", "MORMUGÃO" at bottom of TM
                                                                                  B. Medium spacing between TM and frank. M# "I-001", "GOA" at bottom of TM
    TM: DC with "C.T.T." at top
    V/F: 00$00
2. Postalia “D3” (MV). [Extremely rare]
    As Type 1 but with "II -" and solid block at bottom.
    Value figures are narrow.
    TM: DC with "C.T.T." at top, "GOA" at bottom
    V/F: 00$00
# Rwanda

* In 1962 half of the Belgian territory of Ruanda-Urundi became the nation of Rwanda, the other half becoming the Republic of Burundi.
* Despite the country’s founding in 1962, the earliest meter seen inscribed “RWANDAISE” is from 1972.
* For earlier issues, see “RUANDA-URUNDI”.
1. Hasler “F88” (MV). [Rare]
    Upright frank with single-line border and inner box for the value figures.
    Meter number without prefix centered below the frank.
    Two meter numbers known: 3 (printed in black) and 6 (printed in red).
    TM: DC
    V/F: ✳00 ✳00(½) ✳00oo
NOTE: The illustration does not show the meter number.
2. Hasler “Mailmaster” (MV).
    Similar to Type 1 but the frank is horizontal and is without an inner box around the value figures.
    M# with “H” prefix.
    TM: DC
    V/F: 0000 0.000
3. Secap (MV). [Rare]
    Relatively small upright frank with simulated perforation outer border and straight line inner border.
    Inscribed in English "REPUBLIC OF RWANDA" at top and "NATIONAL POST OFFICE" at bottom.
    This is a Post Office stamp.
    TM: SC with town name KACYIRU
    V/F: 0·00
4. Frama "M/E3/4" (MV). [Rare]
    Very similar to Type 1 but the frank is smaller and with thick value figures.
    Meter number outside frank at bottom center. (Meter number 12 seen.)
    V/F: 000
5. Francotyp "CC" (MV). [Rare]
    Nearly square frank with simulated perforation outer frame line and straight inner frame line.
    Inscribed "REPUBLIQUE / RWANDAISE" at top and POSTES" at bottom.
    Meter number with "F" prefix in small squares in the lower corners. Meter number F8 seen.
    V/F: 00.00
# GCC Debugging/g++
## g++ trouble messages index

* Warnings
* Errors
* Other
# GCC Debugging/g++/Errors/variable cannot appear in a constant-expression
## Causes
### Using a variable for a switch case statement

While a switch statement often use a variable for an argument, their case statements cannot use variables as arguments.
Solution: Make the case statement's argument a constant

## Notes

* Message found in GCC version 4.5.1
* In GCC version 3.2.3, reported as: case label does not reduce to an integer constant
* This message can come up about strings- however, you cannot make a string constant
# GBA Development/Resources

* Tonc, a tutorial on GBA programming by Jasper Vijn
* Damian Yerrick. Pin Eight: "Game Boy Advance Software Development".
Other Wikibooks on console platform development:
* PSP Programming
* Nintendo Wii Programming (coming someday)
* N64 Programming
* Xbox 360
* Game Creation with XNA for the Xbox 360
Other Wikibooks:
Other Wiki resources:
* "the Gameboy Development Wiki".
* "GameBoy Advance Barebones" on the OS Dev wiki.
* "Pascal on the Game Boy Advance" on the Free Pascal wiki.
Other resources:
* "Gameboy Development on Mac OS X".
* Amit Singh. "UNIX on the Game Boy Advance".
* Loirak. "Gameboy Programming and Gameboy Advance Development"
* "GameBoy Developers Kit" (GBDK)
* Stack Overflow questions tagged 'gameboy'
* "Duo's GameBoy ASMSchool"
* "Making Gameboy games: installing the GBDK compiler in Ubuntu Linux".
* Chris Antonellis. "Gameboy Programming Resources".
* Howard Wen. "GBA Programming with DevKit Advance".
* "CowBite Virtual Hardware Specifications" describes low-level details of the hardware emulated by one GBA emulator, which in theory should work the same as the actual physical hardware of the GBA.
* "GameBoy Dev'rs".
* Patrick Meade. "Homebrew Engineer's Notebook: Game Boy Advance Development".
* "GBAGuy's Lair" includes some GBA ASM Tutorials.
* Doug Lanford. "Game Boy Development".
* "Gambatte". "an accuracy-focused, open-source, cross-platform Game Boy Color emulator".
* "DMGBoy (Dot Matrix Game Boy)". a Game Boy / Game Boy Color emulator.
* "GBA dev".
* "Gameboy Advance Development in Linux"
* "Porting Nut/OS for the GameBoy Advance"
* "Towers of Hanoi implemented for Nintendo's Gameboy Advance hand-held system."
# GCC Debugging

This is intended to be a reference/guidebook for those learning to debug code used with the GCC (GNU Compiler Collection).
GCC Debugging/Draft

## Tools

* g++ (C++ compiler frontend)
* gdb (GNU Project Debugger)

## Errors and Warnings

Making sense of error and warning messages.
Errors
* these will keep your code from compiling
Warnings
* these indicate areas of code that may cause problems, but won't necessarily break your program

## Websites

* Official GCC Site
Windows Versions
* MinGW
* MinGW 64
* TDM
# GCC Debugging/g++/Other
## Runtime Errors
### *** glibc detected *** ./PROGRAM_NAME: free: invalid pointer: ADDRESS ***

* produced with GCC 4.4.3?
* May also produce a "segmentation fault" error
* May cause program execution to break well before the true faulty area of code
* Check for function declarations and definitions that do not match
* Check for missing or invalid return types in function definitions
# GCC Debugging/Draft

New content \ idea test page

## Posssible Book Guidelines

About the book \ What is "GCC Debugging"
* Goals:
   * verbose, easy to understand, manual
   * cover troubleshooting with GCC
   * make removing bugs a less painful \ time consuming process
* Intended audience:
   * new gcc users with some experience in programming language being used
* Style:
   * common language (not overly technical)
* Book Scope:
   * gcc
   * g++
   * gdb
   * other compilers?
Error and Warning pages should include:
* Verbose explanation of error message
* GCC Version(s) found in
* Earlier Versions of messages?
* Sample code that would cause the message to be displayed
* Fixes to get rid of trouble message (depending on cause)

## Error Page Layout 1

Notes on bottom, error causes are level 3 headings under level 2, "causes"
example:
Page Title...

## Causes
### Arguments in a function call do not match those in any function declaration

For example, a function, "foo", is called from inside main with an argument that is not a perfect match for any of the currently existing implementations of "foo".
Solutions
Cast the argument to match a declaration
Create a new, overloaded version of the called function to match the arguments

### The same function is defined more then once

* Look for a misspelled or duplicate function definition/declaration

## Notes

* Message found in gcc version 4.5.1

## Error Page Layout 2

Notes on top, causes are level 2 headings instead of 3
example:
Page Title...
    Found in: gcc versions x.x.x to 4.5.1
    Causes:

## Arguments in a function call do not match those in any function declaration

For example, a function, "foo", is called from inside main with an argument that is not a perfect match for any of the currently existing implementations of "foo".
Solutions
Cast the argument to match a declaration
Create a new, overloaded version of the called function to match the arguments

## The same function is defined more then once

* Look for a misspelled or duplicate function definition/declaration
# GCC Debugging/g++/Errors/call of overloaded function is ambiguous
## Causes
### Arguments in a function call do not match those in any function declaration

For example, a function, "foo", is called from inside main with an argument that is not a perfect match for any of the currently existing implementations of "foo".
Solution 1: Cast the argument to match a declaration
Solution 2: Create a new, overloaded version of the called function to match the arguments

### The same function is defined more than once

Solution 1: Look for a misspelled or duplicate function definition/declaration
Solution 2: Make sure you're not using a function name defined in the standard library

## Notes

* Message found in GCC versions 3.2.3, 4.5.1
# HKDSE Geography/M3/China's Iron and Steel Industry 1980s-2000s

The general trend was returning to the coastal regions, with developments in major cities such as Beijing, Tianjin and Shanghai.

## Technological Development

Thanks to technological development, electrical furnaces were developed. They can accept scrap iron and steel, so there is no need to use blast furnaces to make pig iron any more. More energy is saved.
Also, technological advancements in transport has contributed to the coastal shift in the 1980s. Use of bulk carriers and advancements in rail transport reduced transport costs of heavy and bulky materials. Consequently, the iron and steel industry became less bound by raw material and power oriented sites.

## Locational Factors

* Land: The coastal regions can provide sufficient coastal flat land for expansion of the iron and steel industry.
* Labour: The coastal regions can provide sufficient labour for the expansion of the iron and steel industry as they are near to large urban centres.
* Capital: The coastal regions can provide sufficient foreign investment for the expansion of the iron and steel industry thanks to government policy.
* Market: The coastal regions have important steel-consuming industries like car manufacturing and construction, which demand a huge amount of steel. They are also an important source of scrap iron and steel. Moreover the rapid growth in population and economic activities in coastal regions have created a greater demand for iron and steel products including construction materials, electrical appliances and private cars. This forms a large market for iron and steel products.
* Government: The Chinese government, after the Open Door Policy in 1978, is actively developing coastal cities as industrial centres, and is planning to expand, regroup and modernise the steel companies. The adoption of the policy of "having some regions developed first" also fostered industrial development in coastal regions since coastal regions with a more advanced economy were chosen to be developed first.
* Transport: Ports along the coast facilitate the import of raw materials and export of final products.
# HKDSE Geography/M3/Industrial Agglomeration, Industrial Inertia and Footloose Industries
## The Least Cost Theory

The Least Cost Theory states that a firm will locate in an area where the labour and raw materials are cheapest. However, it makes many assumptions. In particular:
* Firms have no perfect knowledge about costs.
* Firms are affected by personal preferences, especially small, new and family-run firms. For example, a family-run firm is more likely to operate in the family's hometown, even if it is not the most profitable there.
A maximiser has perfect knowledge about costs, and will located in the least-cost area. A satisficer, by contrast, is satisfied with the profits made even if it is below the maximum.

## Industrial Agglomeration

Industrial agglomeration refers to the clustering of a large number of firms in a related area.

### Agglomeration economies

Agglomeration economies are the economic benefits brought by agglomeration:
* Infrastructure is better developed.
* Skilled labour of that particular industry is attracted to the area.
* It encourages more investment in that area.
* Firms can purchase similar inputs in bulk, and have a closer relationship with suppliers and buyers.
* Information can be exchanged between firms.
* The possiblity of joint ventures is higher.
* They can share sources of innovation.
All of the above can cut production costs and increase productivity.

### Agglomeration diseconomies

However, there are also disadvantages:
* Traffic congestion
* Pollution
* ↑ Wages and land rent
* Existing facilities may become inadequate

## Industrial Inertia

Sometimes, even though the original locational advantage of locating a plant in an area is gone, the plant still decides to stay in that area.
There are many reasons to explain this:
Pull factors of the old site:
* Existence of large markets
* Existence of a pool of specialised labour
* Existing infrastructure is good
* Good transport network
* Agglomeration - linkages with related firms
Push factors of the new site:
* Moving incurs high costs, especially for fixed capital like machines
The personal preference of the owner is also significant, especially for small-scale firms employing single-point production. Sometimes, government policy also discourages moving away as this will lead to unemployment.

## Footloose Industries

A footloose industry is one that can be located in most places because locational factors are not very important.
# HKDSE Geography/M3/Recent Developments in China's Iron and Steel Industry
## government policies

Government control on industrial policies and planning has been reduced in recent years. The influence of market force is increasing.