OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# French/Lessons/Work

* Vacations
* Work
* Health
* Money
* Youth
* Adolescence
* Historical France
* Revolutionary France
* Modern France
* Current events
Lessons · Vocabulary · Grammar · Appendices · Texts

## Grammar review · Present perfect
### Auxiliary verb formation

The auxiliary verb is always either avoir or être . When the auxiliary verb is conjugated in the passé composé the auxiliary verb is conjugated in the present indicative:
    J'ai fini.$^{Ihavefinished.}$

### Past participle formation

* -er verbs: replace -er with é
* -ir verbs: replace -ir with i
* -re verbs: replace -re with u

### Past participle agreement

The past participle must agree with the direct object of a clause in gender and plurality if the direct object goes before the verb.
If the direct object is masculine and singular, there is no change:
    J'ai fini le jeu.$^{Ihavefinishedthegame.}$
    Je l'ai fini.$^{Ihavefinishedit.}$
If the direct object is feminine and singular, add an e to the past participle:
    J'ai fini la tâche.$^{Ihavefinishedthetask.}$
    Je l'ai finie.$^{Ihavefinishedit.}$
If the direct object is masculine and plural, add an s to the past participle:
    J'ai fini les jeux.$^{Ihavefinishedthegames.}$
    Je les ai finis.$^{Ihavefinishedthem.}$
If the direct object is feminine and plural, add an es to the past participle:
    J'ai fini les tâches.$^{Ihavefinishedthetasks.}$
    Je les ai finies.$^{Ihavefinishedthem.}$

### Avoir or être ?

In most circumstances, the auxiliary verb is avoir . However, under certain situations, the auxiliary verb is être . This occurs when the verb is reflexive or is one of sixteen special verbs that take être (note that when a direct object is used with these verbs, avoir is used).

## Grammar review · Infinitives

The formation of a conjugated verb + infinitive is the same in French as it is in English: conjugate the first verb, then append the infinitive.

### Aimer

    J'aime jouer au tennis.$^{Iliketoplaytennis.}$
    J'aime lire le journal au lit.$^{Iliketoreadthenewspaperinbed.}$

### Vouloir

    Je veux aller au centre commercial.$^{Iwanttogotothemall.}$
However, when one uses vouloir to request something of someone else, one must use the subjunctive:
    Je veux que tu fasses la vaisselle.$^{Iwantyoutodothedishes.}$

### Faire causitif

    Je le fais réparer.$^{Ihaveitfixed.}$

### Futur proche

    Je vais aller.$^{I'mgoingtogo.}$

### Pronouns

Pronouns come before the verb they modify:
    Je vais le voir.$^{I'mgoingtoseeit.}$

### Negation

Either the conjugated verb or the infinitive can be negated, each with different meanings:
    Je n'aime pas marcher.$^{Idon'tliketowalk.}$
    J'aime ne pas marcher.$^{Iliketonotwalk.}$

## Exercises

← Vacations ·  Level three lessons  · Health →
Vacations · Work · Health · Money · Youth · Adolescence · Historical France · Revolutionary France · Modern France · Current events
Lessons :
Introductory · Level one · Level two · Level three · Level four
French :
Lessons · Vocabulary · Grammar · Appendices · Texts
# French/Print version

The current, editable version of this book is available online in the open-content textbooks collection, at
//en.wikibooks.org/wiki/French

# Attributions and Licenses

This wikibook was written by several Wikibooks contributors.
All images are available on WikiMedia Commons unless stated otherwise.

# Contents

* Lessons
* Grammar
* Appendices
* Texts

# Lessons

French/Lessons/Print version

# Grammar

French/Grammar/Print version

# French authors

French/Appendices/List of authors

# Pronunciation

French/Appendices/Pronunciation

# Slang

French/Appendices/Slang

# Typing characters

French/Appendices/Typing characters

# Web resources

French/Appendices/Web resources

# Texts

French/Texts/Print version
# French/Lessons/Travel

* People and things
* To be
* Description
* Family
* Recreation
* The house
* Weather
* Travel
* Art
* Science
Lessons · Vocabulary · Grammar · Appendices · Texts

## Grammar review · From · De

The preposition de /də/ means from:
    Il est de Paris.$^{HeisfromParis.}$
De becomes d' before a vowel, due to elision:
    Nous sommes d'Orléans.$^{WearefromOrléans.}$
The definite article is included with countries:
    Vous êtes de la Suisse ?$^{AreyoufromSwitzerland?}$
The contraction du /dy/ is used in place of de le:
    Elles sont du Luxembourg.$^{TheyarefromLuxembourg.}$
Likewise, the contraction des /dɛ/ is used in place of de les:
    Nous sommes des Pays-Bas.$^{WearefromtheNetherlands.}$
De also has other translations, which depend on context. For example, it is used to indicate an amount:
    5 kilos de pommes$^{5kilogramsofapples}$

## Grammar review · Possessive adjectives · Les adjectifs possessifs
### Usage

Possessive adjectives are used to express possession of an object:
    C'est mon passeport.$^{It'smypassport.}$
In English the possessive adjective agrees with the subject (his sister, her brother). But in French, possessive adjectives act like all other adjectives: they must agree with the noun they modify.
Whether son, sa and ses translate to his or her is indicated by context:
    Oui, elle a son billet.$^{Yes,shehasherticket.}$
Notre, votre, and leur modify singular nouns, regardless of gender; nos, vos, and leurs modify plural nouns:
    le chalet (m) : C'est notre chalet.$^{It'sourchalet.}$
    la caravane: C'est notre caravane.$^{It'sourcaravan.}$

### Examples
## Dialogue · vacations · vacances

Monuments, visited, travelled, eated...

## Grammar · Regular -ir verbs · Les verbes en -ir

The second category of regular French verbs is -ir verbs.

### Formation

To conjugate, drop the -ir to find the stem or root. Add endings to the root based on the subject and tense.

### Supplementary vocabulary · Example -ir verbs
## Grammar · To take · Prendre

Prendre is an irregular -re verb, and is conjugated differently. nous, vous and ils don't have the letter 'd' which you would otherwise expect in a normal -re verb. In ils the n is also doubled up.

### Formation

| prendre /pʁɑ̃dʁ/ (prah$^{(n)}$dr) | to take |
| je prends /pʁɑ̃/ (prah$^{(n)}$) | I take |
| tu prends /pʁɑ̃/ (prah$^{(n)}$) | you take |
| il prend /pʁɑ̃/ (prah$^{(n)}$) | he takes |
| nous prenons /pʁə.nɔ̃/ (pruh-noh$^{(n)}$) | we take |
| vous prenez /pʁǝ.ne/ (pruh-nay) | you take |
| ils prennent /pʁɛn/ (prehn) | they take |
| pris /pʁi/ | taken |

### Supplementary vocabulary · Related expressions
## Vocabulary · Directions

Sometimes when you go out, you may get lost, or come across someone who is lost. This should help you ask for and give directions.

## Exercises

← Weather ·  Level one lessons  · Art →
People and things · To be · Description · Family · Recreation · The house · Weather · Travel · Art · Science
Lessons :
Introductory · Level one · Level two · Level three · Level four
French :
Lessons · Vocabulary · Grammar · Appendices · Texts
# History of wireless telegraphy and broadcasting in Australia/Topical/Publications/Australian Radio History/On this day

On this day
# Flute
## Contents
### Introduction

* About the flute (introduction)
* Flute Maintenance

### Getting started

* Assembly of the instrument
* Embouchure and Producing Sound
* Breathing
* Staff and notes
* Tonguing

### Playing the flute

* Fingering Chart
* Playing the C Major Scale
* Playing the F Major Scale
* Eighth notes and rests, and dotted notes
* Playing the G Major Scale
* Introduction to Intervals and Scale building
* Playing the B♭, E♭ and A♭ Major scales
* Playing the D, A and E Major scales

### Building on skills

* Intervals, Major and Minor scales
* Dynamics
* Lower register
* Higher register
* Flute acoustics
* Sixteenth note, rests, and triplets
* Articulation
* Alternative fingerings
* Where to next?

### Appendices

* Links
* Learning a piece of music
# Flute/Breathing

Introduction Introduction • Maintenance
Getting started Lesson 2 • Lesson 3 • Lesson 4 • Lesson 5 • Lesson 6
Playing the flute Lesson 7 • Lesson 8 • Lesson 9 • Lesson 10 • Lesson 11 • Lesson 12 • Lesson 13 • Lesson 14
Building on skills Lesson 15 • Lesson 16 • Lesson 17 • Lesson 18 • Lesson 19 • Lesson 20 • Lesson 21 • Lesson 22 • Culmination
Appendicies Links • Learning a piece of music
Related books Saxophone • Music Theory • Baroque Flute Handbook • Western Music History
Breathing is extremely important in playing any wind instrument. One cannot hope to achieve a strong sound and proper phrasing without good breathing.

## Basic Breathing

First, stand or sit up straight. Think about a string attached to the top of your head like a marionette pulling you up. If your upper body is not straight, it will restrict your breathing. Posture is very important.
When most people think about taking a deep breath, they only think about filling up their chest. For good breathing, think about how a person breathes when they are sleeping. If you watch a person sleep, you will notice that their belly expands, rather than their chest. A proper deep breath involves expanding at the belly first, with the movement of the diaphragm, the main muscle used in breathing.
So, first you will inhale and expand your belly. At first this may not be very much, but after practice your capacity will increase. After expanding your belly, breathe in even further to expand your chest. Then exhale, allowing your chest and belly "deflate". That is the basis of breathing.
One way to experience this: Exhale all the air in your lungs, and then allow your lungs to inhale by themselves. You should feel your stomach take the breath.

## Practice Breathing

There are a number of ways you can practice your breathing:
* Get a balloon and practice inflating it over and over again.
* With your flute, play a single note and try to hold it out as long as possible while you time yourself. Stop timing when your flute stops making sound. Record how long you were able to hold the note. You will notice that the time gets longer as you regularly practice.
* Using your diaphragm, yell out "Ha!" repeatedly to practice the strength of your muscles. It is important to use your diaphragm to make the sound rather than your throat. With the same diaphragmatic push, you can also practice this on your flute.
Circular Breathing
Circular breathing is an additional technique which make a tone continuous without pause, accomplished by the use of the cheeks as a reservoir of air while breathing through the nose rather than the mouth.
# Flute/Fingering Chart

Introduction Introduction • Maintenance
Getting started Lesson 2 • Lesson 3 • Lesson 4 • Lesson 5 • Lesson 6
Playing the flute Lesson 7 • Lesson 8 • Lesson 9 • Lesson 10 • Lesson 11 • Lesson 12 • Lesson 13 • Lesson 14
Building on skills Lesson 15 • Lesson 16 • Lesson 17 • Lesson 18 • Lesson 19 • Lesson 20 • Lesson 21 • Lesson 22 • Culmination
Appendicies Links • Learning a piece of music
Related books Saxophone • Music Theory • Baroque Flute Handbook • Western Music History

## Fingering chart

Fingering charts use symbols to communicate which keys should be pressed in order to play the desired note. The blackened keys should be closed, while the white keys should be left open.
To learn more, watch this video on how to use a fingering chart.
Now that you know how to use a fingering chart, here are two quality charts:
* wfg.woodwind.org - fingering chart for your desktop computer
* fingercharts.com - fingering chart for your phone or tablet
For a printable chart, you can use the one below.
# Flute/Assembly of the instrument

Introduction Introduction • Maintenance
Getting started Lesson 2 • Lesson 3 • Lesson 4 • Lesson 5 • Lesson 6
Playing the flute Lesson 7 • Lesson 8 • Lesson 9 • Lesson 10 • Lesson 11 • Lesson 12 • Lesson 13 • Lesson 14
Building on skills Lesson 15 • Lesson 16 • Lesson 17 • Lesson 18 • Lesson 19 • Lesson 20 • Lesson 21 • Lesson 22 • Culmination
Appendicies Links • Learning a piece of music
Related books Saxophone • Music Theory • Baroque Flute Handbook • Western Music History
Most flutes are stored as three separate pieces in a case. These pieces are named (from left to right as shown in fig. 1) the headjoint, body and footjoint.
When assembling a flute, it is important that it is not grasped by any part of the mechanism, as this additional force may bend keys and rods. This will prevent the flute from working properly.

## Assembly

Take the headjoint and body from the case. Without grasping the keys, insert the open end of the headjoint into the wider end of the body (usually closest to the printed brandname of the instrument). The headjoint should be aligned correctly in order to obtain ideal playing posture. In order to do this, the embouchure hole must be aligned with the first key on the body. This refers to the key on which your left index finger belongs. Some flutes has small arrows to indicate correct alignment, in which case, align the arrows.
Next, take the footjoint from the case and connect it to the other end of the body, again, without grasping the mechanism. There is one main rod which is connected parallel to the footjoint. This should be aligned with the last key on the body, approximately in line with the middle of the key. The alignment of the footjoint can be adjusted for greater comfort, depending on the length of your right hand little finger.
# Horticulture/Hydrocotyle sibthorpioides

Lawn pennywort :
| Binomial: | Hydrocotyle sibthorpioides |
| Type: | Perennial |
| Conditions: | sun to light shade, prefers moist, humus-rich soils |
| Seed Dispersal: | tools, feet |
| Vegetative Spread: | creeping stolons |
The lawn pennywort (Hydrocotyle sibthorpioides), also called the lawn marshpennywort, is a creeping perennial plant often found as a weed of gardens, pathways and lawns, but occasionally planted for its attractive, glossy foliage.

## Description

This plant is a prostrate creeping herb 1 to 2 cm tall with an unlimited spread via the wiry, hollow, green stems that root freely at the nodes.
Leaves are alternate and/or in whorls at the nodes, compound, with 2 stipules, orbicular or nearly so. Palmate veination and lobes, lobes 7, quite variable, generally less than 1 cm wide. Glabrous and bright green.
Flowers are borne in simple or compound umbels held on a long peduncle above the foliage mat. Small, perianth 5-numerous, stamens 5. Green.

## Ecology

Native to Asia and Africa, but introduced elsewhere where it has escaped to become a serious weed that may become invasive in wet areas or along stream banks.

## Uses

A pretty ground cover, may also be used in pots as a green base for larger plants.

## Control

Control of this plant can be difficult, as it can regrow from very small stolon fragments, and can grow across the crowns of larger plants.
* Mowing: Ineffective
* Cultivation: Ineffective, as the plant can regrow from very small root fragments
* Mulching (for prevention): Effective only as a barrier to seed inoculation. The plant will germinate under mulches.
* Pulling: In garden beds, loosen the soil, and try to lift the whole plant, shaking the soil off afterward (the stems are fairly strong). Take care not to leave any stem parts, as the plant can easily regrow from fragments.
* Flame: Can kill the plant if burned deeply (the plant is not very drought tolerant)
* Barriers: Can be effective, but the edges must be monitored closely
* Disposal: Hot compost piles only

## References

* Britton, Nathaniel Lord (1913). An Illustrated Flora of the Northern United States and Canada, Volume 2 (second edition ed.). Dover Publications, inc. p. 650. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
* Ann Fowler Rhoads and Timothy A. Block (2000). The Plants of Pennsylvania: An Illustrated Manual. Anna Anisko, illustrator. Morris Arboretum, University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 142. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
* P. D. Strausbaugh and Earl L. Core (1977). Flora of West Virginia (Second ed.). Seneca Books, Grantsville, W. Virginia. p. 684. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
* Staff of the L. H. Bailey Hortorium (1976). Hortus Third: A Concise Dictionary of Plants Cultivated in the United States and Canada. Cornell University Press. p. 580. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
# Horticulture/Icerya purchasi

Cottony Cushion Scale :
| Type: | Insect |
| Binomial: | Icerya purchasi |
| Family: | Margarodidae |
| Order: | Hemiptera |
| Metamorphosis: | Simple |
Icerya purchasi, the cottony cushion scale) is a scale insect that feeds on several ornamental species, but is most notoriously known as a pest of Citrus crops.

## Description

White scales, found on woody growth.

## Symptoms and Signs

The presence of large numbers can weaken and even kill the host plant.

## Ecology

Originally from Australia, now present in many other regions.

## Host plants

* Acer
* Buxus
* Cedrus (Cedar)
* Citrus
* Hedera
* Helianthus
* Fagus
* Juglans
* Liquidumbar
* Magnolia
* Morus (Mulberry)
* Pinus
* Pittosporum
* Prunus
* Pseudosasa
* Robinia
* Salix
* Verbena
* Viburnum
* Weigela

## Control

* Organic pesticides: Horticultural Oil, Neem Oil
* Predators and parasites: The ladybeetle Rodolia cardinalis has been successfully introduced as a biocontrol in most areas where the scale is present. Chryptochaetum iceryae, a parasitic fly, is also used.

## References

* University of Florida
* UC Davis
# Horticulture/Ilex crenata

Japanese Holly :
| Binomial: | Ilex crenata |
| Family: | Aquifoliaceae |
Ilex crenata (Japanese Holly or Box-leaved Holly (Japanese: イヌツゲ inutsuge) is an evergreen shrub native to eastern China, Japan, Korea, Taiwan, and Sakhalin. Japanese Holly is grown as an ornamental plant for its dense evergreen foliage. It is superficially similar in appearance to box (Buxus), and is often used in similar situations; it can readily be distinguished from box by its alternate, not opposite, leaf arrangement.

## Description

It is an evergreen shrub or small tree growing to a height of 3–5 m (rarely 10 m) tall, with a trunk diameter up to 20 cm. The leaves are glossy dark green, small, 10–30 mm long and 10–17 mm broad, with a crenate margin, sometimes spiny. The flowers are dioecious, white, four-lobed. The fruit is a black drupe 5 mm diameter, containing four seeds. It grows well in acidic soil, between a pH of 3.7 and 6.0.

### Cultivation
## Growing Conditions

Grows best in part shade, but tolerates both deep shade (where it will have a looser habit) and full sun (though it can be susceptible to spider mites if in an exposed location). Like most hollies it prefers a deep, humus-rich, well-drained soil.

## Varieties

Numerous cultivars have been selected, including plants with the leaves variegated (e.g. 'Golden Gem', 'Shiro-Fukurin'), dark green (e.g. 'Green Lustre'), or greyish-green (e.g. 'Bad Zwischenahn'); with yellow fruit (e.g. 'Ivory Hall'); and with the habit erect (e.g. 'Chesapeake'), spreading (e.g. 'Green Island', 'Hetzii'), or dwarf (e.g. 'Mariesii', 'Stokes').

## Uses

Often grown as hedges or topiaries.

## Maintenance

Tolerates severe pruning and even coppicing.

## Propagation

Cultivars generally propagated through cuttings.

## Pests and Diseases

See Ilex for a list of pests and diseases affecting the genus.

## References

* ↑ Germplasm Resources Information Network: Ilex crenata
* ↑ Osaka hundred trees: Ilex crenata (in Japanese; google translation)
* ↑ Okayama Science University: Ilex crenata (in Japanese; google translation)
* 1 2 Huxley, A., ed. (1992). New RHS Dictionary of Gardening. Macmillan ISBN 0-333-47494-5.
# Horticulture/Hyacinthoides

Bluebells :
| Genus: | Hyacinthoides |
| Family: | Hyacinthaceae |
| Type: | Perennial bulbs |
| Pollination: | Insects |
Hyacinthoides is a genus of the Hyacinthaceae (formerly Liliaceae) family. Its contains three species. The genus is included within Scilla by some botanists.

## Species

* Hyacinthoides hispanica - Spanish Bluebell. Southwest Europe (central and western Spain, Portugal).
* Hyacinthoides italica - Italian Bluebell. South central Europe (northern Italy west to northeastern Spain).
* Hyacinthoides non-scripta - Common Bluebell. Northwest Europe (western and northern France, Belgium, Netherlands, Britain, Ireland).
* Hybrids between H. hispanica and H. non-scripta are named Hyacinthoides × massartiana.

## Pests and diseases

Rusts
* Uromyces muscari

## References

* Flora Europaea: Hyacinthoides
* University of Washington
# Horticulture/Hydrangea petiolaris

Climbing Hydrangea :
| Binomial: | Hydrangea petiolaris |
| Type: | Vine |
| Bloom season: | Spring, summer |
| Pollination: | Insects |
Hydrangea petiolaris is a species of hydrangea native to the woodlands of Japan, Korea and Sakhalin in easternmost Siberia.
It is sometimes treated as a subspecies of the closely related Hydrangea anomala from China, Myanmar, and the Himalaya; that species differs in being smaller (to 12 m) and having flower corymbs up to 15 cm diameter. The common name Climbing hydrangea is applied to both species.

## Description

It is a vigorous woody climbing plant, growing to 20 m height up trees or rock faces, climbing by means of small aerial roots on the stems. The leaves are deciduous, ovate, 4–11 cm long and 3–8 cm broad, with a heart-shaped base, coarsely serrated margin and acute apex. The flowers are, produced in flat corymbs 15–25 cm diameter in mid-summer; each corymb includes a small number of peripheral sterile white flowers 2.5-4.5 cm across, and numerous small, off-white fertile flowers 1–2 mm diameter. The fruit is a dry urn-shaped capsule 3–5 mm diameter containing several small winged seeds.

## Growing Conditions

Hydrangea petiolaris is grown as an ornamental plant in Europe and North America, where it is grown either on walls or on trellises or fences. Its clinging rootlets are not as strong as most other wall-climbing vines, and so is often anchored artificially.

## Uses

As a climber on walls and fences.

## Maintenance

May beed cabling, as the adhesive roots are weak.

## Propagation

Stem and root cuttings, seed.

## Pests and Diseases

See Hydrangea for a list of pests and diseases.
# Horticulture/Hydrangea quercifolia

Oakleaf Hydrangea :
| Binomial: | Hydrangea quericifolia |
| Type: | Shrub |
| Pollination: | Insects |
Hydrangea quercifolia (Oakleaf hydrangea) is a species of hydrangea native to the southeastern United States, from North Carolina west to Tennessee, and south to Florida and Louisiana.

## Description

It is a deciduous shrub growing to 2.5 m tall with an open crown. The leaves are lobed, somewhat resembling a Red oak leaf in shape, 8–20 cm long and 5–17 cm broad; they differ from oak leaves in being borne in opposite pairs (not alternately), and having a wrinkled surface. The flowers are produced in conical panicles 10–25 cm long; each panicle comprises a large number of small (3–5 mm) creamy-white fertile flowers, and a few larger, pure white sterile bract-like flowers 25–35 mm diameter.