OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Polish/Cześć! Jak się masz?

Study this simple situation.
Łukasz and Jan are friends. Jan: Cześć Łukasz, jak się masz? Łukasz: W porządku, a co u ciebie? Jan: U mnie też jest w porządku. Cześć. Łukasz: Cześć.

#### Vocabulary

cześć - hello (or bye bye)
Jak się masz? - How do you do? jak - here: how mieć - to have W porządku. - (I'm) fine. A co u ciebie - And you? i - and co - what tu - here
w - in
na - on
ciebie - you mnie - me też - here: also, too w porządku - OK
# Polish/Conversation in Polish

< Usage of the Infinitive < ^ Polish ^ > Vocabulary Topics >
When you're not confident with pronunciation or you have only a limited knowledge of the grammar and vocabulary, maintaining a conversation can be a major challenge. The key to attempting effective communication is to be a good listener and make use of the vocabulary and grammar used in the question to help phrase your answer. Knowing what might be said in such a conversation will also help you prepare what you're going to say. Think about conversations you have regularly in English and think about how you might do similar in Polish.
This page will help you with questions and answers to everyday conversations.
-Dzień dobry (Good morning) -Dzień dobry, chcesz coś zjeść? (Good morning. Do you want something to eat?) -Tak, poproszę dwa jajka (Yes, I'll have two eggs, please - "proszę" is the Polish equivalent of "please", as used in this sentence, and a very useful word) -Może chcesz się czegoś napić? (Maybe you want to drink something?) -Tak, poproszę herbatę z mlekiem. (Yes, I'll have tea with milk, please)
-Cześć! Jak się masz? (Hello, how are you?) -Dzięki, w porządku. (Thanks, O.K.)
# Polish/Exercises - Introductory conjugation

There are many irregular and semi-irregular Polish verbs, but among the others, we can find some regularities - and we can divide them into four categories.
Verb "być" is irregular, it doesn't fit in any of these groups.
NOTE: The first example in each table is a perfective verb (when the action is complete), while the second one is an imperfective one (the action is in progress); the endings are the same, but the imperfective verbs have an extra syllable added between the verb root and the conjugated verb ending, as shown below.
Ist group: -ę, -esz
| Pronoun (optional) | Ending | PISAĆ - to write | WSKAZYWAĆ - to point |
| ja | -ę | piszę | wskazuję |
| ty | -esz | piszesz | wskazujesz |
| on / ona / ono | -e | pisze | wskazuje |
| my | -emy | piszemy | wskazujemy |
| wy | -ecie | piszecie | wskazujecie |
| oni / one | -ą | piszą | wskazują |
IInd group: -ę, -isz (-ysz)
| Pronoun (optional) | Ending | MYŚLEĆ - to think | WIERZYĆ - to believe |
| ja | -ę | myślę | wierzę |
| ty | -(i/y)sz | myślisz | wierzysz |
| on / ona / ono | -(i/y) | myśli | wierzy |
| my | -(i/y)my | myślimy | wierzymy |
| wy | -(i/y)cie | myślicie | wierzycie |
| oni / one | -ą | myślą | wierzą |
IIIrd group: -am, -asz
| Pronoun (optional) | Ending | CZYTAĆ - to read | KOCHAĆ - to love |
| ja | -am | czytam | kocham |
| ty | -asz | czytasz | kochasz |
| on / ona / ono | -a | czyta | kocha |
| my | -amy | czytamy | kochamy |
| wy | -acie | czytacie | kochacie |
| oni / one | -ają | czytają | kochają |
IVth group: -em, -esz
| Pronoun (optional) | Ending | ROZUMIEĆ - to understand | UMIEĆ - to be able to |
| ja | -em | rozumiem | umiem |
| ty | -esz | rozumiesz | umiesz |
| on / ona / ono | -e | rozumie | umie |
| my | -emy | rozumiemy | umiemy |
| wy | -ecie | rozumiecie | umiecie |
| oni / one | -eją | rozumieją | umieją |

## See also

See Polish/Conjugations of common verbs for more examples.
# Polish/Hard and soft consonants

< Noun cases < ^ Polish ^ > Feminine noun declension >
Before delving into the study of declension patterns in the Polish language, it's beneficial to familiarize yourself with the concept of hard and soft consonants.

## Hard and Soft Consonants in Polish

In Polish, consonants can be categorized into two groups: hard and soft. Here's a chart that illustrates this:
Hard and Soft Consonants :
| Hard | Soft |
| m | mi |
| b | bi |
| p | pi |
| w | wi |
| f | fi |
| n | ń/ni |
| d | dź/dzi |
| t | ć/ci |
| z | ź/zi |
| s | ś/si |
| ł | l |
| r | rz |
| g/gi | dz |
| k/ki | c |
| h/hi | ż |
| ch/chi | sz |
| | dż |
| | cz |
| | j |
Hard consonants in Polish can transform into their soft counterparts according to the above table.

## Examples of Hard and Soft Consonants in Use

To illustrate this concept, here are some examples of words in their nominative and locative forms:
    'sky' — Nominative: niebo, Locative: w niebie
    'brother' — Nominative: brat, Locative: o bracie
    'river' — Nominative: rzeka, Locative: o rzece
    'leg' — Nominative: noga, Locative: na nodze
    'bicycle' — Nominative: rower, Locative: na rowerze
    'hell' — Nominative: piekło, Locative: w piekle
    'Warsaw' — Nominative: Warszawa, Locative: w Warszawie

## See also

International Phonetic Alphabet
< Noun cases < ^ Polish ^ > Feminine noun declension >
# Polish/Instrumental case
## Narzędnik (Instrumental)

The instrumental case in Polish is used in the following situations:
* Indicates the object of a sentence when it is used with certain verbs, prepositions, or phrases.
** Idę z Piotrem. - I'm going with Piotr. (Piotrem is in the instrumental case)
* Used for sentences of the type "to jest …" when the subject is not a pronoun.
** To jest moim domem. - This is my house. (moim domem is in the instrumental case)
* Indicates the means or way something is done.
** Piszę długopisem. - I'm writing with a pen. (długopisem is in the instrumental case)
The instrumental case answers the questions with who? (z kim?) and with what? (z czym?).

### Singular

The singular form of the instrumental case is formed by adding specific endings to the nominative form.

#### Noun Declension

See Polish/Hard and soft consonants
| Gender | Ending | Examples |
| Masculine | -em (after a hard consonant), -iem (after a soft consonant) | chłopakiem, kotem, psem, komputerem, stołem |
| Neuter | -em (after a hard consonant), -iem (after a soft consonant) | dzieckiem, piwem, spotkaniem, imieniem, muzeum |
| Feminine | -ą (after a hard consonant), -ią (after a soft consonant) | dziewczyną, kawą, mrówką, panią, miłością, myszą |

#### Adjective Declension

| Gender | Ending | Examples |
| Masculine/Neuter | -ym (after a hard consonant), -im (after a soft consonant) | dużym, małym, dobrym, wysokim, długim, drogim |
| Feminine | -ą (after a hard consonant), -ią (after a soft consonant) | dużą, małą, dobrą, wysoką, długą, drogą |

### Plural

In the plural form, nouns in Polish are declined based on gender, either as virile (masculine personal) or nonvirile (masculine animate, masculine inanimate, feminine, and neuter).

#### Noun Declension

| Gender | Ending | Examples |
| Virile | -ami | chłopakami, kotami, psami, komputerami, stołami |
| Nonvirile | -ami | dziewczynami, kawami, mrówkami, paniąmi, miłościami, myszami |

#### Adjective Declension

| Gender | Ending | Examples |
| Virile | -ymi | dużymi, małymi, dobrymi, wysokimi, długimi, drogimi |
| Nonvirile | -ymi | dużymi, małymi, dobrymi, wysokimi, długimi, drogimi |

### Personal Pronouns

| English | Instrumental |
| I | mną |
| you (singular) | tobą |
| he | nim |
| she | nią |
| it | nim |
| we | nami |
| you (plural) | wami |
| they (masculine or mixed gender) | nimi |
| they (feminine) | nimi |

### Possessive Pronouns

| | Gender | my, mine | your, yours (singular) | your, yours (plural) | our, ours |
| Singular | Masculine | moim | twoim | waszym | naszym |
| Singular | Neuter | moim | twoim | waszym | naszym |
| Singular | Feminine | moją | twoją | waszą | naszą |
| Plural | Virile | moimi | twoimi | waszymi | naszymi |
| Plural | Nonvirile | moimi | twoimi | waszymi | naszymi |
# Polish/Exercises - Introductory declension
## accusative case

* On kocha swojego ---- (psa) He loves his dog.
* Dziewczyna znalazła dwa ---- na ulicy. (koty) The girl found two cats on the street.
* Nauczycielka czeka na swoich ----- . (studentów) The teacher waits for her students.
* On robi ----- (ćwiczenia) He is doing an exercise.

## genitive case

* Moja siostra nie lubi mleka. My sister doesn't like milk.
* Potrzebuję szklankę wody. I need a glass of water.
locative case He is at home on jest w domu.

## instrumentalis

* Ty umiesz jeździć na koniu. You can ride a horse.
* Oglądasz telewizję wieczorem? Do you watch tv in the evening?

## new words

* wieczorem: in the evening
* ćwiczenia: exercise
* szklanka: a glass
* ulica: street
* dziewczyna: girl
* nauczycielka: female teacher
* czekać (- am, asz): to wait
# Principles of Microeconomics/Perfect Competition
## A Dime a Dozen

When you were younger did you babysit, deliver papers, or mow the lawn for money? If so, you faced stiff competition from a lot of other competitors who offered identical services. There was nothing to stop others from offering their services too.
All of you charged the “going rate.” If you tried to charge more, your customers would simply buy from someone else. These conditions are very similar to the conditions agricultural growers face.
Growing a crop may be more difficult to start than a babysitting or lawn mowing service, but growers face the same fierce competition. In the grand scale of world agriculture, farmers face competition from thousands of others because they sell an identical product. After all, winter wheat is winter wheat. But it is relatively easy for farmers to leave the marketplace for another crop. In this case, they do not sell the family farm, they switch crops.
Take the case of the upper Midwest region of the United States—for many generations the area was called “King Wheat.” According to the United States Department of Agriculture National Agricultural Statistics Service, statistics by state, in 1997, 11.6 million acres of wheat and 780,000 acres of corn were planted in North Dakota. In the intervening 15 or so years has the mix of crops changed? Since it is relatively easy to switch crops, did farmers change what was planted as the relative crop prices changed? We will find out at chapter’s end.
In the meantime, let's consider the topic of this chapter—the perfectly competitive market. This is a market in which entry and exit are relatively easy and competitors are “a dime a dozen.”

## Introduction to Perfect Competition

In this chapter, you will learn about:
* Perfect Competition and Why It Matters
* How Perfectly Competitive Firms Make Output Decisions
* Entry and Exit Decisions in the Long Run
* Efficiency in Perfectly Competitive Markets
All businesses face two realities: no one is required to buy their products, and even customers who might want those products may buy from other businesses instead. Firms that operate in perfectly competitive markets face this reality. In this chapter, you will learn how such firms make decisions about how much to produce, how much profit they make, whether to stay in business or not, and many others. Industries differ from one another in terms of how many sellers there are in a specific market, how easy or difficult it is for a new firm to enter, and the type of products that are sold. This is referred to as the market structure of the industry. In this chapter, we focus on perfect competition. However, in other chapters we will examine other industry types: Monopoly and Monopolistic Competition and Oligopoly.
# Structural Biochemistry/NMP Kinase

A specific enzyme called Nucleoside Monophosphate kinase (NMP kinase) catalyzes the transfer of a terminal phosphate group (ATP in most cases) to the phosphate group on the Nucleoside Monophosphate (NMP). Oftentimes, the transfer of NTP to NMP competes with a hydrolysis reaction in which the phosphate group from NTP transfers to a molecule of water instead. However, the use of the induced fit model allows the enzyme to wrap around the substrate and change the overall conformation of the enzyme-substrate complex in order to solve this problem. The phosphorylation reaction takes on the general form:
    ATP + NMP <=====> ADP + NDP
In this reaction, the enzyme NMP binds to the substrate ATP (by induced fit). NMP gains one phosphate group and becomes NDP, whereas the ATP substrate loses one phosphate group and thus becomes ADP.

## P-Loop Structures

Through X-ray crystallography, scientists and researchers discovered the structure of many different NMP kinases. Analyzing the three-dimensional structures revealed that these kinases are homologous proteins. Moreover, crystallographic data suggested that the NTP-binding domain was strictly conserved. This domain consists of two alpha helices wrapped around a beta sheet. One distinct feature of this domain is the formation of a loop between the beta strand and the alpha helix (P-Loop). These loops tend to wrap or "loop" around substrates, therefore enclosing them. The P-Loop is unique in the sense that it interacts with phosphate groups on bounded nucleotides.

## Magnesium and Manganese Complexes

Studies of NMP kinases and ATP substrates reveal that these kinases are only active in the presence of divalent metal ions such as magnesium or manganese. In this case, the ATP substrate binds to the divalent ion, forming a metal ion-nucleotide complex. This complex is ultimately the true substrate for enzymes like NMP kinase.
Binding of divalent ions like magnesium or manganese increases the enzyme specificity. These ions help stabilize negative charges on phosphate groups. The interactions between the divalent ion and the oxygen atoms in the phosphate group changes the conformation such that it can bind specifically to the enzyme. These divalent ions also produce an interaction between the true substrate complex and the enzyme, therefore increasing the binding energy.

## Conformational Changes

By understanding the tertiary structure of adenylate kinase, scientists and researchers discovered that a large conformational change occurs when adenylate kinase binds to an ATP analog. The P-Loop wraps around the phosphate chain, reacting mostly with the beta phosphate group. This allows the domain of the enzyme to shift downward such that a lid forms over the bounded nucleotide. As a result, the gamma phosphate group is positioned directly next to the NMP binding site. This binding induces yet another conformational change.

## References

* ↑ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK22514/
# Structural Biochemistry/Natural Products
## Overview

Natural products are chemical compounds or substances produced by a living organism that are found in nature and usually has a pharmacological or biological activity for use in pharmaceutical drug discovery and drug design. A natural product can be considered even if it can be prepared by total synthesis. The natural products provide the source or inspiration for the majority of FDA-approved agents and continue to be one of the major sources of inspiration for drug discovery. In particular, these compounds are important in the treatment of life-threatening conditions.

## Sources

Natural products may be extracted from tissues of terrestrial plants, marine organisms or microorganism fermentation broths. A raw (untreated) extract from any one of these sources typically contains new and structurally diverse chemical compounds which the natural environment is a rich source of. Chemical diversity in nature is based on biological and geographical diversity, so researchers travel around the world obtaining samples to analyze and evaluate in drug discovery screens or bioassays. This effort to search for natural products is known as bioprospecting.

## Problems with total synthesis

Not all natural products can be fully synthesized and many natural products have extremely complex structures that are way too difficult and expensive to synthesize on an industrial scale. These include drugs such as penicillin, morphine, and paclitaxel (Taxol). Such compounds can only be harvested from their natural source - a process which can be tedious, time consuming, and expensive, as well as being wasteful on the natural resource. For example, one yew tree would have to be cut down to extract enough paclitaxel from its bark for a single dose. Furthermore, the number of structural analogues that can be obtained from harvesting is severely limited.

## Reference

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_product
# Structural Biochemistry/Neural Induction
## Neural Induction

Neural Induction refers to the process that induces a region of embryonic ectoderm to form the neural plate on the dorsal surface of the embryo. Neural induction goes through several stages such as neurulation and neural patterning.
During the early stages of the embryonic development, newly formed neural plate forms the neural groove, which then forms the neural tube that eventually develops in to the central nervous system. There are numerous enzymes, hormones and proteins that initiates this formation of neural tissue. But the main protein that contributes the most is the Spemmann's organizer. The ectoderm cells are naturally predisposed to become neural tissues. But the ectoderm cells produces BMPS (TGF-β family protein), which causes it to become epidermal (nonneural). However once the Spemann's Organizer molecules produces neural inducers such as follistatin, noggin, and chordin to block the effects of BMPs, ectoderm can be induced to become the neural tissue. Missing such inducers cause many birth defects during the early pregnancy such as spinal bifida and anencephaly. *BMPs are bone morphogenic protens that are members of polypeptide growth factor and transforming growth factor familes.
* Caption1
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## Reference

Purves, Dale, "Principles of Cognitive Neuroscience", Sinauer Associates, Inc., 2008
# Structural Biochemistry/Multiple Sclerosis
## Overview

Multiple Sclerosis is a disease that results from demyelination and inflammation along axons. In some cases destruction of axons can also be seen. While the specific cause is unknown, there are several theories. One being that an antigen enters the body with structural similarity to myelin, and as the body launches an immune response, resulting in demyelination. The other hypothesis is that it is caused by a virus, which as the immune system tries to rid of, it consequentially damages myelin.
Symptoms of MS result from lesions to various nerve sites. Some examples being blindness (lesions of optic nerve), motor paralysis (due to lesions of the corticospinal tracts), abnormal somatic sensations (lesions of somatic sensory pathways.
Most of these symptoms are probably due to the fact that demyelination leads to compromises in action potential firing. More severe cases of MS have also shown the destruction of axons as a whole, leading to the functional deficits characteristic of MS.

## Reference

Purves, Dave, et all. Neuroscience, Fourth Edition. Sunderland, MA: C. 2008, Sinauer Associates, Inc. Text.
# Question Writer Manual/Quiz Options/Advanced Settings/Theme Images
## Theme Images
### Override Background

* If you have the Professional Version of Question Writer you can add your own background image or piece of Flash in place of the one from the theme. See also Background Image.

### Override Loader Image

* You can also use your own loader image - this is the image or Flash the quiz taker will see while the quiz is loading. See also Loader Image.

### Jpeg Image Quality

* Use this option to adjust the quality of any jpg images used. Set the size/image quality balance to suit your own quizzes. If your quiz is designed for use on a CDROM - usually you'll want to have high quality images and a large file size. If the quiz is to be available over the internet you'll often want a lower quality image and a smaller file size to minimize quiz download times.

### Flash Version

You can choose which version of Flash your images will be saved and published as - by selecting from the drop down box. The higher the version number that you select, the better the image quality will be.
# Question Writer Manual/Quiz Options/Appearance Settings/Override Feedback Images
### Override Feedback Images

* If you have the Professional version of Question Writer you can change the images that appear to indicate a correct or incorrect answer in the feedback.
# Question Writer Manual/Quiz Options/Advanced Settings/Report Options
## Report Options

A series of tick boxes allow you customize the appearance of the results screen, with the option to add your own message for quiz takers who have passed or failed. You can also choose not to show the results at all. The results screen will be shown at the end of the quiz along with any feedback that you have chosen when setting up the Feedback Method in Quiz Details.
# Question Writer Manual/Quiz Options/Appearance Settings
## Appearance Settings

* Jpeg Image Quality
* Publish as Flash Version
* Audio
* Override Background Images
* Override Feedback Images
# Question Writer Manual/Quiz Options/Appearance Settings/Jpeg Image Quality
## Jpeg Image Quality

* Quiz authors using the Professional version can use this option to adjust the quality of any jpg images used. Set the size/image quality balance to suit your own quizzes. If your quiz is designed for use on a CDROM - you won't mind having a large file size and usually you'll want to have high quality images. If the quiz is to be available over the internet you'll often want a smaller file size to minimize quiz download times and so might choose to have a lower quality image.