OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Chemical Sciences: A Manual for CSIR-UGC National Eligibility Test for Lectureship and JRF/Fluorescence cross-correlation spectroscopy

Fluorescence cross-correlation spectroscopy (FCCS) was introduced by Eigen and Rigler in 1994 and experimentally realized by Schwille in 1997. It extends the fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS) procedure by introducing high sensitivity for distinguishing fluorescent particles which have a similar diffusion coefficient. FCCS uses two species which are independently labelled with two spectrally separated fluorescent probes. These fluorescent probes are excited and detected by two different laser light sources and detectors commonly known as green and red respectively. Both laser light beams are focused into the sample and tuned so that they overlap to form a superimposed confocal observation volume.
The normalized cross-correlation function is defined for two fluorescent species $\ G$ and $\ R$ which are independent green, G and red, R channels as follows:
$\ G_{GR}(\tau )=1+{\frac {<\delta I_{G}(t)\delta I_{R}(t+\tau )>}{<I_{G}(t)><I_{R}(t)>}}={\frac {<I_{G}(t)I_{R}(t+\tau )>}{<I_{G}(t)><I_{R}(t)>}}$
where differential fluorescent signals $\ \delta I_{G}$ at a specific time, $\ t$ and $\ \delta I_{R}$ at a delay time, $\ \tau$ later is correlated with each other.

## Modeling

Cross-correlation curves are modeled according to a slightly more complicated mathematical function than applied in FCS. First of all, the effective superimposed observation volume in which the G and R channels form a single observation volume, $\ V_{eff,RG}$ in the solution:
$\ V_{eff,RG}=\pi ^{3/2}(\omega _{xy,G}^{2}+\omega _{xy,R}^{2})(\omega _{z,G}^{2}+\omega _{z,R}^{2})^{1/2}/2^{3/2}$
where $\ \omega _{xy,G}^{2}$ and$\ \omega _{xy,R}^{2}$ are radial parameters and $\ \omega _{z,G}$ and$\ \omega _{z,R}$ are the axial parameters for the G and R channels respectively.
The diffusion time, $\ \tau _{D,GR}$ for a doubly (G and R) fluorescent species is therefore described as follows:
$\ \tau _{D,GR}={\frac {\omega _{xy,G}^{2}+\omega _{xy,R}^{2}}{8D_{GR}}}$
where $\ D_{GR}$ is the diffusion coefficient of the doubly fluorescent particle.
The cross-correlation curve generated from diffusing doubly labelled fluorescent particles can be modelled in separate channels as follows:
$\ G_{G}(\tau )=1+{\frac {(<C_{G}>Diff_{k}(\tau )+<C_{GR}>Diff_{k}(\tau ))}{V_{eff,GR}(<C_{G}>+<C_{GR}>)^{2}}}$
$\ G_{R}(\tau )=1+{\frac {(<C_{R}>Diff_{k}(\tau )+<C_{GR}>Diff_{k}(\tau ))}{V_{eff,GR}(<C_{R}>+<C_{GR}>)^{2}}}$
In the ideal case, the cross-correlation function is proportional to the concentration of the doubly labeled fluorescent complex:
$\ G_{GR}(\tau )=1+{\frac {<C_{GR}>Diff_{GR}(\tau )}{V_{eff}(<C_{G}>+<C_{GR}>)(<C_{R}>+<C_{GR}>)}}$
with $\ Diff_{k}(\tau )={\frac {1}{(1+{\frac {\tau }{\tau _{D,i}}})(1+a^{-2}({\frac {\tau }{\tau _{D,i}}})^{1/2}}}$
Contrary to FCS, the intercept of the cross-correlation curve does not yield information about the doubly labelled fluorescent particles in solution.
# Chemical Sciences: A Manual for CSIR-UGC National Eligibility Test for Lectureship and JRF/Fermi resonance

A Fermi resonance is the shifting of the energies and intensities of absorption bands in an infrared or Raman spectrum. It is a consequence of quantum mechanical mixing. The phenomenon was explained by the Italian-American physicist Enrico Fermi.

## Selection rules and occurrence

Two conditions must be satisfied for the occurrence of Fermi Resonance:
* the two vibrational states of a molecule transform according to the same irreducible representation of the molecular point group.
* The energies of the transitions (accidentally) have almost the same energy.
Since the normal modes of a molecule are generally of disparate energies, they do not mix. Thus, Fermi resonance most often occurs between normal and overtone modes, which are often nearly coincidental in energy.
Fermi resonance leads to two effects. First, the high energy mode shifts to higher energy and the low energy mode shifts to still lower energy. Second, the weaker mode gains intensity (becomes more allowed) and the more intense band decreases in intensity. The two transitions are describable as a linear combination of the parent modes. Fermi resonance does not really lead to additional bands in the spectrum.

## Examples
### Ketones

High resolution IR spectra of most ketones reveal that the "carbonyl band" is split into a doublet. The peak separation is usually only a few wavenumbers. This splitting arises from the mixing of ν$_{CO}$ and the overtone of HCH bending modes.

### CO$_2$

In CO$_2$, the bending vibration ν$_2$ (667 cm$^{−1}$) has symmetry Π$_u$. The first excited state of ν$_2$ is denoted 01$^1$0 (no excitation in ν$_1$, one quantum of excitation in ν$_2$ with angular momentum about the molecular axis equal to ±1, no excitation in ν$_3$) and clearly transforms according to the irreducible representation Π$_u$. Putting two quanta into ν$_2$ leads to a state with components of symmetry (Π$_u$ × Π$_u$)+ = Σ$^+$$_g$ + Δ $_g$. These are called 02$^0$0 and 02$^2$0, respectively. 02$^0$0 has the same symmetry (Σ$^+$$_g$) as, and a very similar energy to, state 100 (a single excitation in the ν$_1$ symmetric stretch (calculated unperturbed frequency 1337 cm$^{−1}$), no excitation in ν$_2$, no excitation in ν$_3$). The similarity in energy may be thought of as an accidental near-degeneracy. The states 02$^0$0 and 100 can therefore mix together, producing a splitting and also a significant increase in the intensity of the 02$^0$0 transition, so that both the 02$^0$0 and 100 transitions have similar intensities.

## References

* ↑ Kazuo Nakamoto “Infrared and Raman Spectra of Inorganic and Coordination Compounds: Theory and Applications in Inorganic Chemistry (Volume A)” John Wiley, 1997. ISBN 0-471-16394-5
* ↑ Robert M. Silverstein, Francis X. Webster, David Kiemle “Spectrometric Identification of Organic Compounds”Edition: 7th ed., John Wiley & Sons, 2005. ISBN 0471393622.
# Chemical Sciences: A Manual for CSIR-UGC National Eligibility Test for Lectureship and JRF/Ferromagnetic resonance

Ferromagnetic resonance, or FMR, is a spectroscopic technique to probe the magnetization of ferromagnetic materials. It is a standard tool for probing spin waves and spin dynamics. It was unknowingly discovered by V. K. Arkad'yev when he observed the absorption of UHF radiation by ferromagnetic materials in 1911. A qualitative explanation of FMR along with an explanation of the results from Arkad'yev was offered up by Ya. G. Dorfman in 1923 when he suggested that the optical transitions due to Zeeman splitting could provide a way to study ferromagnetic structure. FMR is very broadly similar to EPR, and also somewhat similar to nuclear magnetic resonance except that FMR probes the sample magnetization resulting from the magnetic moments of dipolar-coupled but unpaired electrons whereas NMR probes the magnetic moment of atomic nuclei screened by the atomic or molecular orbitals surrounding such nuclei of non-zero nuclear spin.
FMR arises from the precessional motion of the (usually quite large) magnetization ${\vec {B}}$ of a ferromagnetic material in an external magnetic field H$_0$. The magnetic field exerts a torque on the sample magnetization which causes the magnetic moments in the sample to precess. The precession frequency of the magnetization depends on the orientation of the material, the strength of the magnetic field, as well as the macroscopic magnetization of the sample; the effective precession frequency of the ferromagnet is much lower in value from the precession frequency observed for free electrons in ESR or EPR. Moreover, linewidths of absorption peaks can be greatly affected both by dipolar-narrowing and exchange-broadening (quantum) effects. Furthermore, not all absorption peaks observed in FMR are caused by the precession of the magnetic moments of electrons in the ferromagnet. Thus, the theoretical analysis of FMR spectra is far more complex than that of ESR or NMR spectra.
The basic setup for an FMR experiment is a microwave resonant cavity with an electromagnet. The resonant cavity is fixed at a frequency in the super high frequency band. A detector is placed at the end of the cavity to detect the microwaves. The magnetic sample is placed between the poles of the electromagnet and the magnetic field is swept while the resonant absorption intensity of the microwaves is detected. When the magnetization precession frequency and the resonant cavity frequency are the same, absorption increases sharply which is indicated by a decrease in the intensity at the detector.

## References

* S. V. Vonsovskii, Ferromagnetic Resonance (Pergamon: Oxford, 1966).
* S. Chikazumi, Physics of Ferromagnetism (Oxford: New York, 1996).
# Chemical Sciences: A Manual for CSIR-UGC National Eligibility Test for Lectureship and JRF/Fluorescence loss in photobleaching

Fluorescence Loss in Photobleaching, or FLIP, is a technique in fluorescence microscopy which can be used to examine the movement or diffusion of molecules inside cells or membranes. Typically a cell membrane is labelled with a fluorescent dye, and a specific area of the labeled membrane is bleached using the beam from a confocal laser scanning microscope. The fluorescence intensity from that region of the membrane is measured over time. Motion of fluorescent molecules into and along the membrane slowly restores the fluorescence in the bleached region, while depleting the fluorescence in other regions (by exchange of bleached for unbleached fluorophores).
Measurement of the rate of this recovery provides an estimate of the lateral membrane fluidity. Changes in the size and shape of the bleached region can also indicate directional flow along the cell membrane.
FLIP is also useful in verifying the continuity of membranous organelles (e.g., the Golgi apparatus). A small circumscribed region of the organelle is continuously bleached. As fluorophores diffuse along the membrane into the illuminated spot, they are bleached; eventually, the fluorescence of the entire organelle is depleted.
It is closely related to another technique, Fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP). The difference between FLIP and FRAP is that FLIP follows the path of the bleached fluorophores, while FRAP follows the recovery of the bleached region.

## References

* ↑ Lippincott-Schwartzl, Jennifer; Snappl, Erik; Kenworthy, Anne (June 2001). "Studying protein dynamics in living cells". Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology. 2: 444–456. doi:10.1038/35073068. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
# Chemical Sciences: A Manual for CSIR-UGC National Eligibility Test for Lectureship and JRF/Faraday cup

A Faraday cup is a metal (conductive) cup designed to catch charged particles in vacuum. The resulting current can be measured and used to determine the number of ions or electrons hitting the cup. The Faraday cup is named after Michael Faraday who first theorized ions around 1830.

## How it works

When a beam or packet of Ions hits the metal it gains a small net charge while the ions are neutralized. The metal can then be discharged to measure a small current equivalent to the number of impinging ions. Essentially the faraday cup is part of a circuit where ions are the charge carriers in vacuum and the faraday cup is the interface to the solid metal where electrons act as the charge carriers (as in most circuits). By measuring the electrical current (the number of electrons flowing through the circuit per second) in the metal part of the circuit the number of charges being carried by the ions in the vacuum part of the circuit can be determined. For a continuous ion beam of ions (each with a single charge)
    ${\frac {N}{t}}={\frac {I}{e}}$
where N is the number of ions observed in a time t (in seconds), I is the measured current (in amperes) and e is the elementary charge (about 1.60 × 10$^{−19}$ C). Thus, a measured current of one nanoamp (10$^{−9}$ A) corresponds to about 6 billion ions striking the faraday cup each second.
Similarly, a Faraday cup can act as a collector for electrons in a vacuum (for instance from an electron beam). In this case electrons simply hit the metal plate/cup and a current is produced. Faraday cups are not as sensitive as electron multiplier detectors, but are highly regarded for accuracy because of the direct relation between the measured current and number of ions.

## Error sources

The counting of charges collected per unit time is impacted by two error sources: 1) the emission of low-energy secondary electrons from the surface struck by the incident charge and 2) backscattering (~180 degree scattering) of the incident particle, which causes it to leave the collecting surface, at least temporarily. Especially with electrons, it is fundamentally impossible to distinguish between a fresh new incident electron and one that has been backscattered or even a fast secondary electron.

## References

* ↑ Brown, K. L. (September 1956). "Faraday-Cup Monitors for High-Energy Electron Beams" (PDF). Review of Scientific Instruments. 27 (9): 696–702. doi:10.1063/1.1715674. Retrieved 2007-09-13. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
# Common JavaScript Manual/While and For loops
## While

While expression looks so:
Here, if the condition is true then the code inside the loop and then the process goes first but if the condition is true then execution continues after the loop. Let's see example.

## For

"For" cycle is a short form of while.
Let's rewrite our code.
← Conditional statements · Do .. While and For .. in loops →
# Common Lisp/Advanced topics

* Numbers - Common Lisp mathematics
** Example 1: find a single root of some function in the given area by calculating complex path integrals.
* Strings all you ever wanted to know about string manipulation
* Hash tables which programmer can do without their comfort?
* Dates and Times date and time data processing of all sorts
* Files and Directories all kinds of file processing and related I/O tasks
** Lisp manipulation of C structures
* Packages - Using packages
* Advanced Lists - advanced list processing
* Sequences - arrays
* Loop macro - Iteration constructs in Common Lisp
* CLOS - Common Lisp Object System
** Example 1: edit a file with subtitles to a movie, so that subtitles are delayed by a specified time. Using CLOS and CL-PPCRE.
* Condition System - Exception handling
* Input and Output - Interaction with the user
** Simple Printing - PRINT, FORMAT and streams
** The Printer - How Common Lisp prints output
** The Reader - How Common Lisp reads your input
* Advanced Functions and Macros - Revisiting an important topic
** Functional - Functions as first class objects (functions that return functions, currying functions, closures, multiple values...)
# Common JavaScript Manual/Logic and Comparison operators
## Logic operators

There are three logical operators in JavaScript. It are "not","and","or". Let's see example.
| Operator | Action |
| || | or |
| && | and |
| ! | not |

## Comparison operators

In parts of the previous file you've already seen some of these operators, and certainly understand their meaning but in anyway. There are 8 comparison operators in JavaScript.
| Operator | Condition |
| == | Equal |
| != | Not equal |
| === | Equal value and type |
| !== | Not equal value or type |
| > | More |
| < | Less |
| <= | Less or equal |
| >= | More or equal |
And for example:

## XOR Hack

In JavaScript there is no operator XOR (also named Exclusive OR). But we can write function that use bitwise XOR and return booleadn XOR of two arguments.
And let's use it.
← Break, continue, labels · Condition operator →
# Common JavaScript Manual/Data types - Numbers
## Numbers

For example, let's set the value for the variable 'a'
And for the variable 'b'

### Arithmetic operations

Let's output results of arithmetic operations with these variables.

### Increment, Decrement, Unary operators

For enlarging or reducing some variable by one we can use increment and decrement operator. And we can change char of number by unary operator. Decrement and increment have two types of recording - postfix and prefix. Prefix - first the value is changed then the new value is returned. Postfix - first the value is returned then value is changed.

### Standart library functions

Also we can apply some functions to numbers. We will consider only most important.

### Standart library constants

Standart library include some math constants. We will consider only the most important.

### Special values

Numbers in JavaScript also include two special values are Infinity and NaN(Not a Number)
Data types - Arrays →
# Common JavaScript Manual/Data types - Strings
## Strings

Let's make a variable with a string as value; we will use string literal. Strings can be enclosed in double and single quotes (though in most languages strings are enclosed in double quotes and chars in single quotes).

### Concatenation

We can concatenate strings using '+' operator. Let's add to string in variable 'a' string "world".

### Length of string

Any string has a 'length' property that contains the number of chars in the string.

### Split

String.split([separator]) - returns array of substrings that was obtained by separating String by separator. If separator is not defined then separator = ","

### Getting substrings and char

We can get a substring from a string using the substr(index,len) and substring(indexA,indexB) methods. First returns the substring from 'index' with length equal to len. Second returns the substring from indexA to indexB.
We can also get a char at some position using charAt function.

### Position of substring

We can also get a position of some substring in a string using the indexOf and lastIndexOf methods. Both functions have two arguments but only the first is required: the string to be searched and the position from that the string is searched. indexOf returns the first position of the substring and lastIndexOf returns the last position of the substring. If the substring is not found both functions return -1.
← Data types - Arrays · Data types - Objects →
# Common JavaScript Manual/Do .. While and For .. in loops
## Do .. While

In this cycle, executing the code in it and then check the condition and if it is true then the loop is executed again, otherwise terminate the loop. Let's see example.
Do .. while loop can be used if code inside a loop set some values and in condition you call some function.

## For .. in

For .. in loop using if need iterate over all properties of object. For example.
In this code on every iteration to variable 'i' set value with key of property.
← While and For loops · Break, continue, labels →
# Common JavaScript Manual/How read this book
## Optional arguments

Optinal variables enclosed in square brackets. For example Array.join([separator])

## Variable in description

In function description variables are bolded. For example Math.sqrt(num) - square root of num

## Undefined number of arguments

Undefined number of arguments in function written as name... and function description name are all these variables in general, and name[n] either name. For example Array.concat(elements...) - returns array that containg elements from Array and elements if elements[n] is array then to the array that returns are added all elements from elements[n].
# Common Lisp

Common Lisp (CL) is a modern, multi-paradigm, high-performance, compiled, ANSI-standardized, prominent descendant of the long-running family of Lisp programming languages.
The CL Hello World program reads as follows:
Which outputs:

## Table of Contents

* First steps — installation and introductory tutorials
* Basic topics — lists, functions and macros
* Advanced topics
* Beyond ANSI Common Lisp — Non-official standards
* External libraries — A sampling of the multitude of Common Lisp libraries
* Implementation Issues — Using Common Lisp programs in your every day work
* Case Studies in CL — A collection of involved examples
* Reference - The language's reference
# Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Nf3/2...c5/3. Nxe5/3...Qe7
## 3...Qe7

Black tries to do the best in the position. Black develops the queen and attacks the knight, but it also blocks in the dark squared bishop. For this reason, after the white knight moves, black's move might be something like 4...g6.
1. e4 e5 2. Nf3 c5? 3. Nxe5! Qe7
# Petrov's Defence

Now, Black has to choose between the two pawns which to capture : 3...exd4 or 3...Nxe4. Unless they want to keep on playing a symmetrical game with 3...d5.
A transposition to Philidor's Defence is possible by the mean of 3...d6.

# Theory table

For explanation of theory tables, see theory table and for notation, see algebraic notation. .
1. e4 e5 2. Nf3 Nf6 3. d4
| 3 |
| ... exd4 | = |
| ... Nxe4 | = |
| ... d5 | = |
When contributing to this Wikibook, please follow the Conventions for organization.
# Gunderam Defence

Also known as the Brazilian Defense or the Câmara Defense. This move attempts to defend Black's e-pawn, but in doing so it shuts the king's bishop in.

### 2... Qe7

The idea for Black is to transpose into a King's Indian Defence [source needed], but with forceful play this option is not entirely possible.
Black could also play 3...c6,4...d6,5...Bg4 or 5...h6 and develop slowly but surely.

## Theory table

For explanation of theory tables, see theory table and for notation, see algebraic notation. .
1. e4 e5 2. Nf3 Qe7
| 3 | 4 |
| Bc4 c6 | O-O d6 | += |
When contributing to this Wikibook, please follow the Conventions for organization.

## References

* Kasparov, Garry, & Keene, Raymond 1989 Batsford chess openings 2. ISBN 0-8050-3409-9.
* This Chess related article is a stub. Please assist Wikibooks by expanding it.
# Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Nf3/2...Qe7/3. d4/3...d6

After 3...d6, Black may get a semi-decent position if they play accurately. They might also consider moves like 4...Nc6 or 4...Nf6.
1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Qe7 3.d4 d6
# Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Nf3/2...Qe7/3. Nxe5

3.Nxe5?? sacrifices a knight for a pawn for completely no reason. Yes, this move is completely useless and is only used in some bullet games to confuse the opponent.
1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Qe7 3.Nxe5??
# Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Nf3/2...Nf6/3. d4/3...Nxe4
## Petrov Defence, Steinitz variation

Less common than 3...exd4, Black's knight threatens White's weak f2 pawn

## Theory table

For explanation of theory tables, see theory table and for notation, see algebraic notation.
1. e4 e5 2. Nf3 Nf6 3. d4 Nxe4
| | 4 | 5 | 6 |
| | Bd3 d5 | Nxe5 Bd6 | O-O O-O | = |
| Trifunovic Variation | Bd3 d5 | Nxe5 Bd6 | O-O O-O | c4 Bxe5 | dxe5 Nc5?! | Bc2 d4 | e6 fxe6 | Bxh7+ Kxh7 | Qh5+ Kg8 | += |
| | Nxe5 d5 | Bd3 Nd7 | Nxd7 Bxd7 | = |
When contributing to this Wikibook, please follow the Conventions for organization.
# Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Nf3/2...c5
## 2...c5? - Jalalabad Gambit

The Jalalabad Gambit is a variation of the King's Knight Opening that begins with the moves 1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 c5¹³. In this opening, black sacrifices the e5 pawn for no apparent reason, which is considered a blunder¹³.
The move 2...c5 is indeed unusual in this position. It doesn't contribute to controlling the center, it doesn't help with the development of black's pieces, and it leaves the e5 pawn undefended¹³.
After 2...c5, white can simply capture the e5 pawn with 3.Nxe5, gaining a pawn advantage early in the game¹³. This is why 2...c5 is considered a blunder¹³.
Despite this, the Jalalabad Gambit can lead to complex and interesting positions if both players are not careful. It's a risky strategy that requires precise play from both sides¹³.
Remember, chess is a game of strategy and every move has potential consequences. It's up to the player's judgment to decide whether a move aligns with their overall game strategy¹³.
1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 c5? 3. Nxe5