OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Field Guide/Birds/Blue Tit

Cyanistes caeruleus (Blue Tit) :
| Blue Tit | Range |
| Description ||
| The Blue Tit (Cyanistes caeruleus or Parus caeruleus) is a small passerine bird in the tit family Paridae. The bird is easily recognisable by its blue and yellow plumage. Blue tits, usually resident and non-migratory birds, are widespread and a common resident breeder throughout temperate and subarctic Europe and western Asia in deciduous or mixed woodlands with a high proportion of oak. They usually nest in tree holes, although they easily adapt to nest boxes where necessary. The main rival for nests and search for food is the much larger Great Tit. The blue tit prefers insects and spiders for their diet. Outside the breeding season, they also eat seeds and other vegetable-based foods. Blue tits are famed for their skill, as they can cling to the outermost branches and hang upside down when looking for food. The Blue Tit is classified as a Least Concern species on the IUCN Red List (version 3.1), and as a Green Status species, since 1996, by the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds in the United Kingdom. ||
# Field Guide/Birds/Bonasa umbellus

Bonasa umbellus (Ruffed Grouse) :
* Ruffed Grouse
* Description |
* The Ruffed Grouse, Bonasa umbellus, is a medium-sized grouse occurring in forests across Canada and the Appalachian and northern United States including Alaska. They are non-migratory.
* Ruffed Grouse have two distinct color phases, grey and red. In the grey phase, adults have a long square brownish tail with barring and a black subterminal band near the end. The head, neck and back are grey-brown; they have a light breast with barring. The ruffs are located on the sides of the neck. These birds also have a "crest" on top of their head, which sometimes lays flat. Both sexes are similarly marked and sized, making them difficult to tell apart, even in hand. The female often has a broken subterminal tail band, while males often have unbroken tail bands. Another fairly accurate method for sexing ruffed grouse involves inspection of the rump feathers. Feathers with a single white dot indicate a female, feathers with more than one white dot indicate that the bird is a male.
* Ruffed Grouse have never been successfully bred in captivity.
* These birds forage on the ground or in trees. They are omnivores, eating buds, leaves, berries, seeds, and insects.
* The male is often heard drumming on a fallen log in spring to attract females for mating. Females nest on the ground, typically laying 6-8 eggs. Grouse spend most of their time on the ground, and when surprised, may explode into flight, beating their wings very loudly. |
# Field Guide/Birds/Caprimulgus vociferus

Caprimulgus vociferus (Whip-poor-will) :
* Whip-poor-will
* Description |
* The Whip-poor-will or whippoorwill, Caprimulgus vociferus, is a medium-sized (22-27 cm) nightjar, a type of nocturnal bird. The Whip-poor-will is commonly heard within its range, but less often seen. It is named after its call.
* Adults have mottled plumage: the upperparts are grey, black and brown; the lower parts are grey and black. They have a very short bill and a black throat. Males have a white patch below the throat and white tips on the outer tail feathers; in the female, these parts are light brown.
* The Whip-poor-will's breeding habitat is deciduous or mixed woods across southeastern Canada, eastern and southwestern United States, and Central America. They nest on the ground, in shaded locations, among dead leaves, and usually lay two creamy eggs. This bird does not normally flush from the nest unless it is underfoot.
* Northern birds migrate to the southeastern United States and south to Central America. Central American races are largely resident.
* These birds forage at night, catching insects in flight. They normally sleep during the day. |
# Field Guide/Birds/Australia
## STRUTHIONIFORMES: Struthionidae

1. Ostrich Struthio camelus Introduced species

## CASUARIIFORMES: Casuariidae

2. Southern Cassowary Casuarius casuarius Vulnerable 3. Emu Dromaius novaehollandiae Endemic

## GALLIFORMES: Megapodiidae

4. Australian Brush-turkey Alectura lathami Endemic 5. Orange-footed Scrubfowl Megapodius reinwardt 6. Malleefowl Leipoa ocellata Endemic Vulnerable

## GALLIFORMES: Phasianidae

7. Chukar Alectoris chukar Introduced species 8. Stubble Quail Coturnix pectoralis Endemic 9. Swamp Quail Coturnix ypsilophora 10. Blue-breasted Quail Coturnix chinensis 11. Red Junglefowl Gallus gallus Introduced species 12. Common Pheasant Phasianus colchicus Introduced species 13. Blue Peafowl Pavo cristatus Introduced species

## GALLIFORMES: Numididae

14. Helmeted Guineafowl Numida meleagris Introduced species

## GALLIFORMES: Odontophoridae

15. California Quail Callipepla californica Introduced species
# Field Guide/Birds/British Isles/Passeriformes Thumbnails
## Phoebes and Larks

* Eastern Phoebe
* Calandra Lark
* Greater Short-toed Lark
* Lesser Short-toed Lark
* Crested Lark
* Wood Lark
* Skylark
* Shore Lark

## Swallows and Martins

* Tree Swallow (male)
* Sand Martin
* Crag Martin
* Barn Swallow
* Red-rumped Swallow
* Cliff Swallow
* House Martin

## Wagtails and Pipits

* Citrine Wagtail (breeding male)
* Citrine Wagtail
* White Wagtail
* White Wagtail (female)
* Pied Wagtail
* Grey Wagtail
* Blue-headed Wagtail
* Yellow WagtailYellow Wagtail
* Richard's Pipit
* Tawny Pipit
* Tree Pipit
* Olive-backed Pipit
* Pechora Pipit
* Meadow Pipit
* Red-throated Pipit
* Water Pipit
* Rock Pipit
* Buff-bellied Pipit

## Waxwings, Dippers and Wrens

* Bohemian Waxwing
* Cedar Waxwing
* European Dipper (White-bellied Dipper)
* Wren

## Mockingbirds and Accentors

* Northern Mockingbird
* Brown Thrasher
* Dunnock
* Alpine Accentor

## Thrushes and Chats

* Blackbird (male)
* Blackbird (female)
# Field Guide/Birds/Baeolophus bicolor

Baeolophus bicolor (Tufted Titmouse) :
| Tufted Titmouse | Range |
| Description ||
| Bird callThese birds have grey upperparts and white underparts with a white face, a grey crest, a dark forehead and a short stout bill; they have rust-colored flanks. The male and female have identical plumage. ||
# Field Guide/Birds/Calidris pusilla

Calidris pusilla (Semipalmated Sandpiper) :
| Semipalmated sandpiper on St Lucia | |
| Semipalmated Sandpiper | Semipalmated sandpiper on Barbados |
| Description ||
| The Semipalmated Sandpiper, Calidris or Erolia pusilla, is a very small shorebird. Adults have black legs and a short stout straight dark bill. The body is dark grey-brown on top and white underneath. The head and neck are tinged light grey-brown. This bird can be difficult to distinguish from other similar tiny shorebirds, in particular the Western Sandpiper; these are known collectively as "peeps" or "stints". Their breeding habitat is the southern tundra in Canada and Alaska near water. They nest on the ground. The male makes several shallow scrapes, the female chooses one and adds grass and other material to line the nest. The female lays 4 eggs; the male assists in incubation. After a few days, the female leaves the young with the male; the young feed themselves. They are long distance migrants and winter in coastal South America with some going to the southern United States. They migrate in flocks which can number in the hundreds of thousands, particularly in favored feeding locations such as the Bay of Fundy and Delaware Bay. This species is a rare but regular vagrant to western Europe. These birds forage on mudflats, picking up food by sight and feel (bill). They mainly eat aquatic insects and crustaceans. Although very numerous, these birds are highly dependent on a few key stopover habitats during their migration, notably, Shepody Bay, an arm of the Bay of Fundy. During the months of July and August you can go to one of two information centers run by the Nature Conservancy of Canada about the shorebirds in either Johnson's Mills or Mary's point. ||
# Fermat's Last Theorem/Bibliography
## Bibliography

The development of this short book is based principally on the book: Fermat’s last theorem by Simon Singh ISBN 88-17-11291-7.
The book is an explanatory text that, like this small volume, retraces the history of the theorem. The book studies in depth the history of the scientists who encountered Fermat’s theorem even in an indirect way and studies in depth in a clear manner the fundamental mathematical aspects without becoming excessively technical.
For the realization of this book pages from Wikipedia were also used as reference regarding Fermat’s Theorem, the bibliographies of the scientists listed in the book and the mathematical subjects discussed in the book. The appendix is based almost entirely on articles from Wikipedia. In particular the articles on Pythagoras Theorem, the Principle of Induction, the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic and the article on Modular Arithmetic were used to realize the chapters.
# Fermat's Last Theorem/Gabriel Lamé and Augustin Louis Cauchy
## Gabriel Lamé and Augustin Louis Cauchy

Sophie Germain’s results appeared to many to be the turning point, and that the definitive solution of the enigma was close. The French Academy of Science offered a series of prizes to whoever succeeded in proving Fermat’s last theorem. In that epoch the offer of prizes for the solution of mathematical enigmas was a common practice followed by many academies, given that one was thus able to direct the research of many scientists into specific areas of knowledge. These prizes were used whether for research into the solutions of practical problems or for the solution of theoretical problems such as Fermat’s theorem. The mathematicians Gabriel Lamé and Augustin Luis Cauchy announced being on the point of proving the theorem utilising similar techniques. These mathematicians set the Parisian salons on fire with statements and extracts of their respective proofs but without ever publishing the complete proofs. This situation dragged on for the whole of the month of April 1847 until the mathematician Joseph Liouville read to the academy of science a letter from the mathematician Ernst Eduard Kummer. Kummer analysing the few pieces of evidence on the proofs of Cauchy and Lamé had become aware that the proofs followed the same reasoning and that they contained a logical error that rendered them fallacious. Kummer had become aware that the two mathematicians had based their proof on a property known as unique factorisation. This stated in substance that every integer number could be broken down into a single series of prime numbers. Known since the times of Euclid (fourth century B.C.) it was used in very many proofs and is so important that the theorem that enunciated it is called the fundamental theorem of arithmetic. The problem was that the proof of Cauchy and Lamé utilised complex numbers and, in the field of complex numbers, this property is not necessarily true. The lack of unique factorisation could have been worked round with some techniques but however there remained some recalcitrant numbers. These numbers could in theory have been faced singly, but being infinite that would not have resolved the problem. Lamé became aware of the impossibility of finding a general solution, while Cauchy held his implementation not so dependent on factorisation and worked for several weeks on the subject before giving up. Finally, in 1856, seeing that no correct solution had been presented to the academy, it decided to withdraw the prize. It still in fact lacked 138 years to the final solution.
# Fermat's Last Theorem/Leonhard Euler
## Leonhard Euler

$\mathbb {T}$he publication of Fermat’s writings had generated opposing opinions among mathematicians. The majority of them recognised the usefulness but the fact that the greater part of the theorems were without proof or with incomplete proofs obviously reduced the immediate usefulness of them even if some mathematicians took the theorems as challenges to face and win. Many were faced and resolved but that which subsequently would be called the last theorem resisted all attempted assaults. Leonhard Euler obtained the first results a century after Fermat. Euler was a Swiss mathematician born in 1707 in Basel and died in 1783 in St. Petersburg. Initially Euler was to have become a theologian but Johann Bernoulli became aware of the extraordinary ability of the young man and convinced his father to let Leonhard become a mathematician. This was an enormous good fortune for mathematics given that Euler’s contributions range over so many areas of mathematics and are so profound as to render Euler one of the greatest mathematicians of the XVIII century if not rightly the greatest. Euler analysing the notes written by Fermat found an outline proof of the case n=4. Fermat had written this proof within another proof. In order to prove that case Fermat made use of a technique called infinite descent, Euler sought to utilise this technique for the other cases in such a way as to find a proof for all values of n. Initially he confronted the case n=3. He succeeded in resolving this case but had to make use of complex numbers, in reality other mathematicians had sought to adapt infinite descent to the case n=3 but it took a creative person such as Euler in order to understand that complex numbers were necessary in order to obtain a valid proof. Euler also sought to resolve n=5 but without results.
# Fermat's Last Theorem

    Cover
* The Theorem
* Pythagoras
* Pierre de Fermat
* Leonhard Euler
* Sophie Germain
* Gabriel Lamé and Augustin Louis Cauchy
* Paul Wolfskehl
* Andrew Wiles
* Appendix
* Bibliography
# Fermat's Last Theorem/Cover

This book will discuss one of the most famous theorems of mathematics. It will talk about that which is commonly called Fermat’s last theorem, the subject will be confronted from a principally historic point of view, the concepts and the theorems behind the proof being too complex even for the greater part of professional mathematicians. The book will follow a time based logic starting from the beginnings of mathematics up to arrival in our times, as a matter of fact having nevertheless been enunciated in 1637, the theorem has profound implications for many branches of mathematics and the premises that give birth to it begin right in the primordial days of mathematics.
Acknowledgment is given to the original version in Italian on Wikibooks of which this book is a translation.
# Field Guide/Birds/Caribbean

Hooded Oriole
Identification
18–20 cm (7–8 in) Breeding male
Female
Juvenile: similar to female; male may show black on throat Distribution
Breeds from central California, Nevada, central Arizona, southern New Mexico, and southern Texas southward through Mexico to Belize. Some of the Mexican breeders seems to have bred already in the same summer in the US before migrating to Mexico for their second round of nesting.
# Field Guide/Birds/China

The Ashy-throated Parrotbill, Paradoxornis alphonsianus, is a songbird. In old sources, it may be called Alphonse's Crow-tit; though superficially resembling a tit it is not a member of the Paridae. The native range of this species extends from south-west China to northern Vietnam, and it might have become naturalised in one area in Italy.
# Field Guide/Birds/Columba livia

Columba livia (Rock Pigeon) :
* Rock Pigeon near the shore in Connecticut
* Rock Pigeons in their natural habitat
* Description |
* The Rock Pigeon (Columba livia), is a member of the bird family Columbidae, doves and pigeons. The bird is also known by the names of feral pigeon or domestic pigeon. In common usage, this bird is often simply referred to as the "pigeon". The species was commonly known as Rock Dove until the British Ornithologists' Union and the American Ornithologists' Union changed the official English name of the bird in their regions to Rock Pigeon.
* The Rock Pigeon has a restricted natural resident range in western and southern Europe, North Africa, and into South Asia. Its habitat is natural cliffs, usually on coasts. Its domesticated form, the feral pigeon, has been widely introduced elsewhere, and is common, especially in cities, over much of the world. In Britain, Ireland, and much of its former range, the Rock Pigeon probably only occurs pure in the most remote areas. A Rock Pigeon's life span is anywhere from 3-5 years in the wild to 15 years in captivity, though longer-lived specimens have been reported.
* The Rock Pigeon is 30-35 cm long with a 62-68 cm wingspan. The white lower back of the pure Rock Pigeon is its best identification character, but the two black bars on its pale grey wings are also distinctive. The tail is margined with white. It is strong and quick on the wing, dashing out from sea caves, flying low over the water, its white rump showing well from above.
* The head and neck of the mature bird are a darker blue-grey than the back and wings; the lower back is white. The green and lilac or purple patch on the side of the neck is larger than that of the Stock Dove, and the tail is more distinctly banded. Young birds show little luster and are duller. Eye color of the pigeon is generally orange but a few pigeons may have white-grey eyes. The eyelids are orange and are encapsulated in a grey-white eye ring. Feet are red to pink.
* When circling overhead, the white under wing of the bird becomes conspicuous. In its flight, behavior, and voice, which is more of a dovecot coo than the phrase of the Wood Pigeon, it is a typical pigeon. Although it is a relatively strong flier, it also glides frequently, holding its wings in a very pronounced V shape as it does. Though fields are visited for grain and green food, it is nowhere so plentiful as to be a pest.
* The nest is usually on a ledge in a cave; it is a slight structure of grass, heather, or seaweed. Like most pigeons it lays two white eggs. The eggs are incubated by both parents for about 18 days.
* The nestling has pale yellow down and a flesh-coloured bill with a dark band. It is tended and fed on "crop milk" like other doves. The fledging period is 30 days. |
# Field Guide/Birds/Dryocopus pileatus

Dryocopus pileatus (Pileated Woodpecker) :
| Pileated Woodpecker | Range |
| Description ||
| The Pileated Woodpecker (Dryocopus pileatus) is a very large North American woodpecker. Adults (40-49 cm long, 250-350 g weight) are mainly black with a red crest and a white line down the sides of the throat. Adult males have a red line from the bill to the throat and red on the front of the crown. In adult females, these are black. They show white on the wings in flight. The only North American birds of similar plumage and size are the Ivory-billed Woodpecker of the Southeastern United States and Cuba, and the related Imperial Woodpecker of Mexico. Both of those species are extremely rare, if not extinct. Their breeding habitat is forested areas with large trees across Canada, the eastern United States and parts of the Pacific coast. They usually excavate large nests in the cavities of dead trees, and often excavates a new home each year, creating habitat for other large cavity nesters. This bird is usually a permanent resident. These birds mainly eat insects (especially beetle larvae and carpenter ants) as well as fruits, berries and nuts. They often chip out large and roughly rectangular holes in trees while searching out insects. The call is a wild laugh, similar to the Northern Flicker. Its drumming can be very loud, often sounding like someone striking a tree with a hammer. This bird favors mature forests, but has adapted to use second-growth stands and heavily wooded parks as well. The pileated woodpecker is also commonly known in the south as an "Indian Hen" The roost of a Pileated Woodpecker usually has multiple entrance holes. The sound that a Pileated Woodpecker makes when boring a hole in a tree is so loud that it can be heard over long distances. Pileated Woodpeckers make such large holes in dead trees that sometimes the holes can cause a small tree to break in half. Pileated Woodpeckers have been observed to move their eggs which have fallen off the nest to another site. This is a rare habit in other birds. ||
# Field Guide/Birds/Columba oenas

Columba oenas (Stock Pigeon) :
* Stock Pigeon
* Description |
* The Stock Pigeon (Columba oenas) (formerly Stock Dove) is a member of the family Columbidae, doves and pigeons.
* In the northern part of its European and western Asiatic range the Stock Pigeon is a migrant, elsewhere it is a well distributed and often plentiful resident.
* The three western European Columba pigeons, though superficially alike, have very distinctive characters; the Wood Pigeon may at once be told by the white on its neck and wing, but the Rock Pigeon and Stock Pigeons are more alike in size and plumage.
* The former, however, has a white rump, and two well-marked black bars on the wing, but the rump of the Stock is grey, and the bars are incomplete.
* The haunts of the Stock Pigeon are in more or less open country, for though it often nests in trees it prefers parklands to thick woods. It is common on coasts where the cliffs provide holes. Its flight is quick, performed by regular beats, with an occasional sharp flick of the wings, characteristic of pigeons in general.
* It perches well, and in nuptial display walks along a horizontal branch with swelled neck, lowered wings, and fanned tail. During the circling spring flight the wings are smartly cracked like a whiplash.
* The Stock Pigeon is sociable as well as gregarious, often consorting with Wood Pigeons, though doubtless it is the presence of food which brings them together.
* Most of its food is vegetable; young shoots and seedlings are favoured, and it will take grain.
* The short, deep, "grunting" Ooo-uu-ooh call is quite distinct from the modulated cooing notes of the Wood Pigeon; it is loud enough to be described, somewhat fancifully, as "roaring".
* The nest, though it is seldom that any nest material is used, is usually in a hole in a tree, a crack in a rock face, or in a rabbit burrow, but the bird also nests in ivy, or in the thick growth round the boles of linden trees. |
# Field Guide/Birds/Cyanocitta cristata

Cyanocitta cristata (Blue Jay) :
| Blue Jay | Range |
| Description ||
| Bird callThe Blue Jay is a bird with predominantly lavender-blue to mid-blue feathering from the top of the head to midway down the back. There is a pronounced crest on the head. The color changes to black, sky-blue and white barring on the wing primaries and the tail. The bird has an off-white underside, with a black collar around the neck and sides of the head and a white face. Its food is sought both on the ground and in trees and includes virtually all known types of plant and animal sources, such as acorns and beech mast, weed seeds, grain, fruits and other berries, peanuts, bread, meat, eggs and nestlings, small invertebrates of many types, scraps in town parks and bird-table food. ||
# Field Guide/Birds/Cardinalidae

Cardinalidae (Cardinal) :
| Male Cardinal | Range |
| Female Cardinal | Fledgling Cardinal |
| Description ||
| Bird callThese are robust, seed-eating birds, with strong bills. They are typically associated with open woodland. The sexes usually have distinctive appearances; the family is named for the red plumage (like that of a Catholic cardinal's vestments) of males of the type species, the Northern Cardinal. ||