OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Lojban/Simple sentences with pronouns

Pronouns are the simplest kind of word you can put in a “place” of a place structure. Here is some vocabulary to get you started:
| Lojban | English |
| mi | I, me |
| do | you |
| ti | this |
So how do we say “I give you this” in Lojban? Easy!
bridi :
| mi | dunda | ti | do |
| x$_1$ | | x$_2$ | x$_3$ |
| sumti | selbri | sumti | sumti |
Slicing up the grammar
Remember that the Lojban word dunda differs in order from English “give” and the above is more like “I give this to you”. However, Lojban has words for saying which place the following word goes into. Time for some vocabulary again!
| Lojban | Following word goes in place... |
| fa | first |
| fe | second |
| fi | third |
| fo | fourth |
| fu | fifth |
You might notice there is a pattern to these words. They obviously all start with an “f”, but also, the ending vowels are in alphabetical order.
Now we can say the sentence with the same order as in English.
This might seem a little clumsy, and these words are rarely used in this way. They are usually used to skip places, leaving some information up to guessing from context. We could say “I give you something”:
Lojbanists call these words “place tags” as they “tag” a place.
# Lojban/Phonetic spelling

All letters used in Lojban, including the apparent punctuation marks, have sounds assigned to them. In the cases where two vowels are placed side by side, they form a diphthong – a blending of the two vowel sounds into a single combined sound. In the cases of some consonant combinations, the pronouncing of the two letters together produces a sound that might sound like it should be a single letter rather than two letters (e.g. <tc> creates the same sound as the combination "ch" would in English), but in these cases this results from that actual blending of the two letters' unique sounds.
In Lojban a letter does not have more than one sound, and no two letters make the same sound. In Lojban the letter C always makes the sound that in English is normally spelled "sh", while the letter S always makes the sound normally associated with that letter in English, and the letter K always makes the so-called 'hard C' sound.
Because every letter in Lojban has a unique sound, spelling and reading are dramatically easier than they would be in another language. Words have only one possible pronunciation, and there are no silent letters to catch the unwary.
# Lojban/Place structure

As stated before, Lojban is based on "predicate logic." What this means is that in Lojban, like in math, sentences (and functions) have "arguments," or places that you stick information. Lojban makes sense of these different arguments by their position in the sentence, called "Place Structure."

## What’s in a sentence?

Take this sentence:
What makes up this sentence? How does it convey information? The core of the sentence is "give", a word describing the relationship of how the other words are involved with each other, how they connect and relate. Those involved words, representing objects, are "I", "you" and "this". These could be said to be variable — they are not fixed with the relation "give". Rather than giving you "this" I could give you "that" instead. Or maybe it is you who gives me something, but whatever the related items, we would still be describing a relationship of giving. We could say that the relation "give" has three variable places that we can fill with different things. Thus we can define "give" as such:
We could label the variable places more clearly, numbering them and using "x" which is commonly used to describe something unknown or unspecified:
or more simply:
This says that we have a variable ("x") place 1 that is a donor, a place 2 that is a receiver and a place 3 that is a gift. They share the relation "give".
The Lojban word for "give" is dunda. It has this definition:
We can simplify this:
You might notice that the gift and receiver switched places here, which we represented in English by adding the preposition "to".
We call definitions like these "place structures", because they show the structure of the variable places we can fill. In Lojban, we call the relation a selbri and the variables sumti. We call the whole sentence a bridi. Linguists and logicians call the sentences "predicate relationships", the variables "arguments" and the relations "predicates" or "predicate relations".
# Minesweeper/Playing Levels

Minesweeper on Windows PC's comes with three configured playing levels and one free form level that present various degrees of difficulty to complete.
* Beginner - The player is presented with a 9x9 grid in which 10 mines are concealed. On any turn after the first turn, if you pick a random square, there is a 1 in 8.1 (10 mines/81 squares) chance that you will hit a mine and lose.
* Intermediate - The player is presented with a 16x16 grid in which 40 mines are concealed. On any turn after the first turn, if you pick a random square, there is a 1 in 6.4 (40 mines/256 squares) chance that you will hit a mine and lose.
* Expert - The player is presented with a 16x30 grid in which 99 mines are concealed. On any turn after the first turn, if you pick a random square, there is a 1 in 4.8 (99 mines/480 squares) chance that you will hit a mine and lose.
* Custom - Minesweeper displays a dialog box which allows the player to set grid size and number of mines. You can set your own odds from impossible-to-lose to impossible-to-win.
# Minimizing Hard Disk Drive Failure and Data Loss/Data Reduction

Reducing the amount of data one has can reduce the number of hard disk drives needed to store that data and its backups. This consequently decreases the probability of failure of any one drive in a given period of time. Having a lesser amount of data also makes it easier to safeguard it using redundancy methods.

## Routine cleanup

Routinely going through one's files and deleting those which are no longer useful is a basic way of reducing one's data. Having a reduced number of files can also make it easier to find those for which there may be a need. The same applies to uninstalling applications which are no longer required. This can perhaps be done once every three months.

## Data compression

Data compression software can be used to compress files or sets of files so they occupy less space. One such utility is 7-Zip. This applies particularly to files that do not get modified and are likely to benefit from compression, e.g. archived sets of documents and spreadsheets. In contrast, depending upon the specific format, digital media files are often highly compressed as it is, and are not likely to be compressed much further.
Besides the space savings, an additional benefit of keeping files compressed is that they will back up faster than if they were uncompressed. This does not apply to NTFS compression, which actually slows backups.
# Minimizing Hard Disk Drive Failure and Data Loss/Additional Measures
### Antivirus protection

A particularly malicious or buggy virus can cause data loss, typically without any resultant physical damage to the underlying drive. Additionally, in theory, a virus can stress a particular portion of a drive to the point that the drive has an error. Antivirus software and other measures exist to combat these and other threats posed by viruses.

### Revision control

Revision control is an essential technique for avoiding data loss. In particular, it guards against data loss caused by a user.
It is useful only for files that may be modified, such as documents, spreadsheets, logos, and source code. As such, revision control contrasts with parchives, which applies to files that do not get modified.
Having a backup does not obviate revision control. This is because revision control by and large ensures that a file can be reverted to any of its older versions, whereas a backup does not offer this guarantee.
# Minimizing Hard Disk Drive Failure and Data Loss/Case Study
## Backup — there is an easier way

Many people and small organisations skip the essential task of backing up the data files on their computers; often because the professionals describe this as a large, complex and difficult task. Well, it does not have to be.
Windows' own built-in backup program is not very good, but there are free and better alternatives; for instance Cobian BackUp.
At TransLogic we have a simple routine for backup copying. It is quick, efficient, inexpensive and safe, and you can do it every day without problems.
At about 12:00 noon (lunchtime) and again about 17:00 (end of day), we take an incremental backup (meaning a backup of all the files that have been changed since the previous total backup).
Once a week (typically on Friday afternoon), we take a total backup.
We copy these files onto a DVD (you can use a CD if you have a minor amount of data to be stored). You get 2–3 DVDs for one dollar, and we have space for 3–5 backups per disc (1 for a total backup). This means that each backup costs us less than 25 cents and takes us two–three minutes (we start the backup process when we leave for lunch and it is completed when we return to work). You can, of course, use a memory stick, or external hard disk instead of optical discs.
Once a month we put the total backup in the safety deposit box in the local bank.
This simple routine will give peace of mind, and you will never have to use the excuse that the files were lost because the computer failed or was stolen.
# Minimizing Hard Disk Drive Failure and Data Loss/Data Redundancy
## RAID

While RAID can be used to reduce the risk of data loss due to drive failure, it costs more to have the same amount of storage capacity available this way, and requires some amount of technical planning and expertise.
RAID 0 should not be used for the operating system because it does not provide any data redundancy and it has a greatly increased probability of failure resulting in data loss. RAID 6 is recommend over RAID 5 for increased redundancy.

## Backups

Having a backup is an obvious way to reduce the risk of data loss due to drive failure. For many users, however, having a backup of all their data can be entirely impractical when they have large and increasing amounts of data. Nonetheless, it is critical to backup at least the data that is most important, such as the home directory.
As is obvious, a backup of the files on a hard disk should not be on the same disk, but on a different disk or other location instead.

## Parchives

A parchive can be created and stored for sets of important files. This will allow those important files to be recovered if they later become corrupted. A parchive applies particularly to files that do not get modified, e.g. digital media. If any file in the set of source files is modified, the parchive will have to be regenerated.
A parchive can also be integrated with a backup to ensure a robust backup.
Alternatively, file verification using a checksum can be used for verifying the integrity of files. SFV is an adequate file format for this purpose. In contrast with a parchive, file verification only allows file corruption to be detected — it does not allow a corrupted file to be repaired.

## Sharing

Sharing is the ultimate means of preventing data loss. Everything that may be of common interest to others can be shared. This includes the burgeoning data individual users acquire from Usenet and file sharing networks. The philosophy behind sharing is that the shared content will be available for download from others when it is needed back in the event of data loss.
On Usenet, sharing implies posting files and also filling requests when possible. In file sharing networks it means uploading as much as possible of what is downloaded. On university campuses, much can be shared on fast networks such as Direct Connect. To encourage users to download files in such a network, it helps to have files named correctly and categorized in a suitable directory structure. Large amounts of data can also be shared with trusted friends using a designated external hard disk drive.
Continuous sharing puts a continuous strain on the drives containing the shared data. While there is a chance that this can reduce the life of the drive, a risk-benefit analysis is not clear-cut.
# Lombard/How to ask and express the time

* The reference orthography for this page of Lombard course is New Lombard orthography

## How to ask the time

    or
    or
       Examples:
       Che ore a inn? (MI )
       Che ora l'è? (MI )
       Quant'inn i ore? (MI )

### How to ask someone for the time based on his watch

    Che ora el fà el tò orelogg? (MI )
    Che ora fal el tò orelogg? (MI)
    Che ora te feet al tò orelogg? (MI )
    Che ora feet al to orelogg? (MI)
       Note:
* ↑ archaic in western Lombard
* ↑ archaic in western Lombard

## How to express the time

    * except for 0:00, 1:00, 12:00, 13:00 → 3rd singular in this case
       Examples: (in milanese dialect)
      * L'è mezanot
      * L'è la voeuna de not
      * A inn i dò de not
      * A inn i trè de not
* 0:00 = mezanot /mezanocc)
* 1:00 = la vuna / la voeuna (de/da nocc / not)
* 2:00 = i do ore (de not)
* 3:00 = i tree ore (de not)
* 4:00 = i quatr'ore (de not)
* 5:00 = i cinch ore (de not / de la matina)
* 6:00 = i ses ore (de la matina)
* 6:05 = i ses e cinch, più comune. i ses ore passade
* 6:10 = i ses e des, più comune nan'mò/quasi i ses e on quart
* 6:15 = i ses e on quart
* 6:20 = i ses e vint, più comune i ses e on quart passade
* 6:25 = i ses e vintcinch, più comune nan'mò/quasi i ses e mezza
* 6:30 = i ses e mezza
* 6:35 = i ses e trentracinch, più comune i ses e mezza passade
* 6:40 = vint ai set, i sett men vint
* 6:45 = on quart ai set, i set men quart, i ses e trii quart
* 6:50 = des ai set, i set men quart passade
* 6:55 = cinch ai set, i set men cinch
* 7:00 = i set ore (de la mattina)
* 8:00 = i vot ore (del dì / de la matina / matena)
* 9:00 = i noeuv ore (del dì / de la matina)
* 10:00 = i des ore (del dì / de la matina)
* 11:00 = i vundes ore (del dì / de la matina)
* 12:00 = mezdì, mez dì (/me'zdi/)
* 12:30 = la meza, mez dì e mezza
* 13:00 = la vuna (del dì / dopomezdì)
* 14:00 = i dò ore (del dì / dopomesdì)
* 15:00 = i tré ore (del dì / dopomesdì)
* 16:00 = i quatr'ore (del dì / dopomezdì / de la bassa)
* 17:00 = i cinch ore (del dì / de la bassa)
* 18:00 = i ses ore (de la bassa / de sira/sera)
* 19:00 = i set ore (de sira)
* 20:00 = i vot ore (de sira)
* 21:00 = i noeuv ore (de sira)
* 22:00 = i des ore (de sira / de not)
* 23:00 = i vundes ore (de not)
Warning: the twelve-hour system is used and a distinction is made between day and night, or through other time intervals, for example these:
* 5:30 - 12:00 = matina
** early in the morning = de bon'ora
* 12:00 - 16:30 = dopomezdì
* 16:30 - 19:00 = bassa/bass
* 19:00 - 22:00 = sera /sira
** early in the evening= siretta
* 22:00 - 5:30 = not/nocc

### References

* Claudio Beretta, A lezione di grammatica milanese, Circolo Filologico Milanese, pag.82 ( MI )
* Circolo Filologico Milanese (2018). dizionario Milanese. Antonio Vallardi, pag. 106. ISBN 978-88-6987-846-6. ( MI )
# Lombard/Imperfect Subjunctive

* The reference orthography for this page of Lombard course is New Lombard orthography
Here are the endings to be added to verbs to conjugate the regular verbs. As an example, the verb "vardà" for the first conjugation, "creder" for the third conjugation (in the present indicative the third conjugation is like the second one) "finì" for the fourth incoative conjugation, "dormì" for the forth non-incoative conjugation are shown.

## Milanese dialects

| | I conjugation | II e III conjugation | IV incoative conjugation | IV non-incoative conjugation |
| Mi | vardassi | credessi | finissi | dormissi |
| Ti | vardasset | credesset | finisset | dormisset |
| Lù el Lee la | vardass | credess | finissa | dormiss |
| Num | vardassom | credessom | finissom | dormissom |
| Vialter | vardassov | credessov | finissov | dormissov |
| Lor (i) Lore (i) | vardassen | credessen | finissen | dormissen |

## Other dialects

See the appendices to the wiktionary in Lombardy:

### Western Lombard

→First conjugation →Seconda conjugation →Third conjugation →Forth conjugation non incoativa →Quarta conjugation incoativa

### Eastern Lombard

→First conjugation →Third conjugation →Forth conjugation
# Lombard/How to ask and express the day

* The reference orthography for this page of Lombard course is New Lombard orthography

## How to ask and express the day

       Example:
       Question: Che dì l' è incoeu? ( MI )
          (in English: What day is it today? / What date is it today?) )
       Answer: (Incoeu) l'è el cinch de dicember ( MI )
          (in English: Today is December the fifth)
To ask just for the number of the day of the month:
       Example:
       Question: Cossa ghe n'hem (del mes) incoeu? ( MI )
       Answer: Incoeu ghe n'hem ... ( MI )
       Note
* ↑ voice of the verbal locution “havéghen (del mes)”
* jer l'alter /l'alter jer = the day defore yesterday
* jer = yesterday
* incoeu = today
* doman = tomorrow
# Lombard/Imperfect Indicative

* The reference orthography for this page of Lombard course is New Lombard orthography
Here are the endings to be added to verbs to conjugate the 'regular verbs'. The verb "vardà" for the first conjugation, "creder" for the second one (the third conjugation is like the second one, in the imperfect indicative) and "finì" for the fourth one are shown as examples.

## Milanese dialect

| | I conjugation | II e III conjugation | IV conjugation |
| Mi | vardavi | credevi | finivi |
| Ti | vardavet | credevet | finivet |
| Lu el Lee la | vardava | credeva | finiva |
| Num | vardavom | credevom | finivom |
| Vialter | vardii/vardavov | credevov | finivov |
| Lor (i) Lore (i) | vardaven | credeven | finiven |

## Other dialects

See the appendices to the wiktionary in Lombardy:

### Western Lombard

→First conjugation →Second conjugation →Third conjugation →Non-incoative forth conjugation
→Incoative forth conjugation

### Eastern Lombard

→First conjugation →Third conjugation →Forth conjugation
# Lombard/Indefinite pronouns

* The reference orthography for this page of Lombard course is New Lombard orthography
The table below shows the masculine of indefinite pronouns, for the feminine go to see the Wiktionary in Lombardy.
| Pronouns | Dialect | Translation into English |
| un alter (1) un oltro (2) | (1) MI (2) Lagh | another one |
| altertant (1) | (1) MI | the same |
| ciaschedun (1) ognidun (2) agnavun (3) | (1-2) MI (3) MI (arch.) | each one |
| nissun (1) nissoeun (2) nigun (3) insun (3) | (1) MI (2) Lagh (3) Vtel (4) NO | noone, nobody anybody, anyone (in negative sentence) |
| tuscoss (1) tucoss (2) | (1) MI (2) Lagh | everything |
| quaicoss (1) quaicossa (2) vergot (3) | (1-2) MI (3) BG | something |
| on quaivun (1) on quaidun (2) on quaivoeun (3) vergun (4) | (1-2) MI (3) Lagh (4) BG | someone, somebody anybody, anyone (in if-clauses) |
| tant (1) | (1) MI | a lot |
| tut (1) tucc (2) toeucc (3) | (1) MI (2) MI (3) BG | everyone, everybody |
| trop (1) | (1) MI | too much |
| nagot (1) negot (2) nigot (3) nagota (4) negota (5) nigota (6) | (1) MI BG (2) BG (3) ? (4) MI (5) BG (6) BG | nothing anything(in negative sentence) |
| nisba (1) | (1) MI BG | nothing (Slang use limited to some statements in which it is meant that nothing of what one desired has been obtained.) |
| vun (1) | (1) MI | one |
# Lombard/Hypothetical construction
## The hypothetical construction: comparison between English and Lombard

In Lombard, as in English there is the hypothetical period, the correspondence between the verb tenses used in Lombard and in English is shown in the table below.
Correspondence between the verbs used in the hypothetical construction in English and in Lombard :
| Type | | in English | in Lombard |
| 0 | verb used in the if-clause | Present Simple | Present Indicative |
| 0 | verb used in the main clause | Present Simple | Present Indicative |
| 1 | verb used in the if-clause | Present Simple | Present Indicative or Simple Future Indicative |
| 1 | verb used in the main clause | Future Simple | Simple Future Indicative |
| 2 | verb used in the if-clause | Past Simple | Imperfect Subjunctive |
| 2 | verb used in the main clause | Present Conditional | Present Conditional |
| 3 | verb used in the if-clause | Past Perfect | Past Perfect Subjunctive or Imperfect Indicative (sometimes in colloquial form) |
| 3 | verb used in the main clause | Past Conditional | Past Conditional or Imperfect Indicative (sometimes in colloquial form) |
       Note
* ↑ There is also the use of the Past Conditional instead fo the past perfect subjunctive.

### Other forms for the second type hypothetical construction

Instead of Imperfect Subjunctive in de if-clause you can also use constructions like:
    (1) Imperfect Subjunctive of the verb "vesser" + de + verb in the infinitive form
or
    (2) Imperfect Subjunctive of the verb "havégh" + de + verb in the infinitive form
       Note
* 1 2 prepositions, or "da"dependig on the dialect
    Examples (in Milanese dialect):
    (1) se fussi de trovàll, ghe parlaria mi
       (If I were to find him I would talk to him)
    (2)se gh'havessi de trovàll, ghe parlaria mi
       (If I were to find him I would talk to him)
Eventually the hypothetical period can be realized without if by using instead al (or its dialectal variants) + infinitive. This construction is confined to cases where the hypothesis concerns something that could happen and not something that could be in a certain way and when the subject (implied) of the hypothetical clause coincides with that of the main one.
    Example (in Milanese dialect):
    (3) al trovàll, ghe parlaria. (If I happened to find him, I would talk to him / When I find him, I 'll talk to him.)
    in which "al + verb in the infinitive form" is equivalent to saying "the moment the subject of the main sentence happened to + verb in the infinitive form'".
# Lombard/Infinitive

* The reference orthography for this page of Lombard course is New Lombard orthography
The infinitive in Lombard has two tenses: present and past, the past is obtained as a compound tense of the present. The present tense has four endings:
* I conjugation: -à, derived from the Latin -ĀRE.
* II conjugation: -é, derived from the Latin -ĒRE.
* III conjugation: -(er), derived from the Latin -ĔRE.
* IV conjugation: -ì, derived from the Latin -ĪRE.
The Lombard infinitive can be substantiated.