OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Climatology/Precipitation

Precipitation is the falling of water from the sky in different forms. They all form from the clouds which are located about 8 to 16 kilometers above the ground in the earth’s troposphere. The process of precipitation represents falling down of this condensed material in the form of rain, snow, hail, sleet or some other forms.

## Forms of Precipitation

Precipitation occurs in many forms or phases such as :-
* Liquid precipitation (Drizzle and rain),
* Freezing precipitation (freezing drizzle, freezing rain and sleet) and
* Frozen precipitation (snow, ice pellets and hail etc.).

### Rain

Rain is any liquid that drops from the clouds in the sky, in the form of liquid.There size described as water droplets of 0.5 mm or more than 0.5mm.Rainfall rates vary from time to time.tropical areas, cumulus clouds rain is the result ofcollision and coalescence process. In temperate areas, most rainfall is produced by nimbostratus clouds. The vertical clouds, cumulonimbus produce heavy rainfall with lightning and thunder.

### Drizzle

Drizzle represents light liquid precipitation in the form of uniform water droplets of diameter less than 0.5 mm.It associated with stratus, nimbostratus and stratocumulus clouds.Precipitation in the form of drizzle continues for several hours or occasionally for days.It is the most frequent form of precipitation over subtropical Oceans.

### Snow

Snow represents precipitation in the solid form of water.It is precipitation in the form of virga or flakes of ice water falling from the clouds.Snow is normally seen together with high, thin and weak cirrus clouds.Snow has fluffy, white and soft structure and its formation is in different shapes.

### Sleet (Ice Pellets)

when snow falls into a warm layer then melts into rain and then the rain droplets falls into a freezing layer of air that is cold enough to refreeze the raindrops into ice pellets.sleet is defined as a form of precipitation composed of small and semitransparent balls of ice.

### Freezing Rain

Freezing rain occurs when raindrops pass through the subfreezing air near the surface, the raindrops become supercooled and freeze when they strike on surface features.

### Snow Pellets

It consist of small, white and opaque compact grains of ice. The grains are mostly spherical and have a diameter of 2–5 mm. Snow pellets are also known as soft hail. the grains are brittle and bounce and break after striking surface.

### Hail

Hailstones are big balls and irregular lumps of ice that fall from large thunderstorms.mostly diameter between 1 cm and 5 cm. Its size depends on the content of ice and snow it acquires while falling down. Hailstones are common in violent summer thunderstorms.hailstones are formed from super-cooled droplets that slowly freeze and results in sheet of clear ice.
# Climbing:Portugal/Azoia

| Rock Type | GPS Location for main access | GPS Location for main access |
| Limestone | Condomínio Fechado: | 38.428985, -9.177525 (38°25'44.4"N 9°10'39.1"W) |
| Limestone | Cova Mijona: | 38.425625, -9.182952 (38°25'32.2"N 9°10'58.6"W) |

## Restrictions

Condomínio Fechado should be avoided from December to April (inclusive) because of bird nidification of the Eurasian eagle-owl.

## How to get there

The best way to get there is to follow directions towards "Azóia, Sesimbra" and when entering the village of Azóia, then follow the directions for the football field of Azóia. The GPS exact coordinates for the access road are described above. For the Cova Mijona and Varandas sectors you can park the car near the football field. For Condomínio Fechado, please park opposite to the house at the main access.

## Climbing Sectors

Azóia has two main climbing sectors, Cova Mijona and Condomínio Fechado. Cova Mijona loosely translated reads the Pissing Cave as the main feature is a small cave where the hard overhanging routes starts. Condomínio Fechado is characterized by an abandoned set of house with a small wall around that give the sector its name, "Gated Community".

## External Links

* Official Topo by a climbing association that raises funds to bolt new line or rebolt old ones: Sociedade Equipadores Anónimos
# Climbing:Portugal
### Book Contents

This book will focus on the climbing locations in Portugal for sports climbing, boulder and traditional climbing, and the routes in those locations.

### General Information

* Climb with a party of experienced mountaineers
* Use of the helmet is recommended in any climbing school combined with the common sense of the sport practice in question
* Take the garbage to places where it can be collected.
* If there are some irregularity with the equipment, passage or other please contact the local tourism office or climbing association

#### Emergency Contacts

* Emergency number: 112
* SOS Forest: 112

#### Do not

* Do not climb in no-go areas: local fauna thanks you!
** Some sectors may be interdict during nesting periods, please consult local information about the open sectors
* Do not make fire
* Do not leave your garbage
* Do not camp in the area

#### Ethics in Portugal

Follow the ethics of climbing, most of them are common in every country.
* Always use two quick-draws at the anchors on the top of the route if you are top-roping, it is viewed as a bad practice to use the installed equipment directly as it can get worn down with use.

## Contents
### North Region

| Sport | Traditional | Boulder | Name | Region |

### Center Region

| Sport | Traditional | Name | Region |
| x | x | Crista do Zebro | Oleiros |
| x | | Montejunto | Montejunto |
| x | | Azóia | Sesimbra |
| x | | Sesimbra | Sesimbra |

### South Region

| Sport | Traditional | Boulder | Name | Region |
| x | x | x | Rocha da Pena | Algarve |
# Concepts of Computer Graphics/Output Space/Vectors/STEP

STEP or Standardized Exchange of Product is a CAD/CAM standard used to write out information for interchange by many modeler program like CATIA, PTC's Pro/Engineer, SolidEdge, and SolidWorks.
* 2D used in draft represent a vector layout
* 3D Boundary representations (BREP), have 4 major types:
* * IV) Advanced boundary representation .
[http://wheger.tripod.com/step/csg.stp CSG
Constructive Solid Geometry]
In addition to representing geometry and topology, the format allows for representing additional engineering processes (e.g. stage of the model and annotations).
Furthermore, one can write a feature history and associate to the CSG representation, the BREP.
# Concepts of Computer Graphics/Photorealism/The Idea Of Raytracing

As we saw in the previous chapter, it is impossible, practically speaking, to model the photons coming from light sources directly. There are simply too many photons necessary to generate all of the visual information we see, and most of the photons that leave a given light source probably do not even reach our eyes. When you add in the complexities of multiple light sources necessary to create a scene true to our experience, tracing each individual photon from the light source until it (potentially) reaches our virtual camera is simply not possible.
The approach we use instead is called raytracing. Raytracing is actually very simple conceptually, and makes our problem tractable. Here is the basic idea.
Our digital image is made up of a finite number of pixels. Since the pixels are the atomic element of the image, we are only concerned with what color each pixel should be. The idea of raytracing is to work backwards from the pixels of our virtual camera, going through each individual pixel and tracing an imaginary "ray" straight away from that pixel until we encounter an object (specifically, a particular point on that object).
Once we find the intersection point in space that the ray hit, we reason that the light that would have hit this pixel contains all of the information about the light that was striking the object at this point, plus the interaction with that object. Thus, we can start a new ray on this location of the object, and trace it backwards until we hit another object, and so on. Eventually, the ray must strike a light source. Once we have found this light source, we then know the color of the light that left this light source, and struck one object, bounced off, struck another, and so on all the way back to our camera's pixel. Thus, we now know what color to put in that pixel.
# Concurrent Clean/AnswersCH1

2. Write a function that takes two arguments, say n and x, and computes their power, xn. Use this to construct a function that squares its argument. Write a program that computes the square of 128.
Answers:
module exercicio02 import StdEnv
quadrado n x = n ^ x
Start = quadrado 2 7
3. Define the function isum :: Int -> Int which adds the digits of its argument. So, isum 1234 = 10 isum 0 = 0 isum 1001 = 2 You may assume that isum is applied to an argument which is not negative.
Answers:
module exercicio04 import StdEnv
isum :: Int -> int isum 1234 = 10 isum 0 = 0 isum 1001 = 2
Start = isum 0
4. Use the function isum to check whether a number can be divided by 9.
5. Define a function Max with two arguments that delivers the maximum of the two.
6. Define a function Min that has two arguments that delivers the minimum of the two.
7. Define a function MaxOfList that calculates the largest element of a list.
8. Define a function MinOfList that calculates the smallest element of a list.
9. Define a function Last that returns the last element of a list.
10. Define a function LastTwo that returns the last two elements of a list.
11. Define a function Reverse that reverses the elements in a list.
12. Define a function Palindrome which checks whether a list of characters is a palindrome, i.e. when you reverse the characters you should get the same list as the original.
# Concurrent Engineering/Additional Resources

European Space Agency Concurrent Design Facility or CDF,submitted by Peter Burke.
* This is a fine example of a dozen engineers simultaneously working on the same computer model of a space hardware systems.
* http://esamultimedia.esa.int/docs/CDF%20INFOPACK%20PRESENTATION%202008.pdf
Comments on how experts think differently from non-experts, submitted by Peter Burke.
* This is relevant to concurrent engineering teams consisting of different kinds of experts who may not realize that their own intuitive thought processes are not understood by other team members.
* http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Seeing+through+expert+eyes%3a+ace+decision+makers+may+perceive...-a021003401
"Managing Your Team",submitted by Joseph Lutnesky
* This is a good report on how to manage a team in industry today. There are many good points that were brought up in making a team successful.
* http://www.informit.com/content/images/9780131870369/samplechapter/013187036X_Sample.pdf
"Team Building and Teamwork", submitted by Joseph Lutnesky
* I found this website to have very good information on team building and teamwork. There were many good points and I thought it would be a great source to contribute to our book.
* http://www.1000ventures.com/business_guide/crosscuttings/team_main.html
Anderson, David, "Design for Manufacturability & Concurrent Engineering", ISBN 1878072234
Moore, Geoffrey A., "Crossing the Chasm" submitted by Peter Burke
MEEP - Concurrent engineering course materials from "The Manufacturing Engineering Education Partnership" Penn State, U. Puerto Rico, U. Washington, and Sandia
Kepner-Tregoe - Charles. H. Kepner & Benjamin B. Tregoe "The New Rational Manager" Princeton Research Press, Princeton, New Jersey, submitted by Peter Burke
* http://www.kepner-tregoe.com/
* Kepner-Tregoe, Inc. is a 50-year old company specializing in consulting and training directed toward solving a wide variety of problems, using a rational, analytical approach. Their book is a useful tutorial, dividing thought processes into four basic questions and presenting tools to help answer each question.
** What is going on? (Situation Analysis, page 169)
** Why did this happen? (Problem Analysis, page 26)
** What course of action should we take? (Decision Analysis, page 85)
** What lies ahead? (Potential Problem (Opportunity) Analysis, page 165)
* I went through a KT training session years ago and two concepts, IS/IS NOT and MUST/WANT, are permanently and usefully embedded in my thinking:
** IS/IS NOT – Look at both sides of a situation. Think about what is not going wrong as well as what is.
** MUST/WANT – prioritize the desired outcomes of a decision or program into those you must have and those you want but can probably do without.
* If you like trouble-shooting and travel, KT might be a good outfit to work for.
# Concurrent Clean

Concurrent Clean is a general-purpose purely functional programming language. This Wikibook is meant to be a companion Part I of Functional Programming in Clean. "Concurrent" refers to Clean's ability to run the same process on several computers, similar to Ada. The language is often just referred to as Clean.
About Clean
1.1 The Language Reference Manual
The language manual can be found at the Documentation page of the Clean website.
Programming in Clean
2.1 Getting Started
The Clean compiler can be found here . Please register, as requested, though it is not necessary (you can click on "Download clean" on the left.) The .7z package is the quickest to download for Windows programming, if you have 7-zip. Then, get Part I of Functional Programming in Clean; get the 1-up PDF version if you plan to study from the computer.
Unzip the package in the directory of choice, and start the Clean IDE. It will ask to integrate into your operating system (basically, being put into the registry so Windows recognizes it exists); click "Yes." To make a "hello world" program, select File->New File and select your file name, in this case "hello.icl". The file name MUST be the same as the module name. Then, type:
module hello
import StdEnv
Start = "Hello, world!"
The name after "module" must even be the same case as the name hello.icl; Clean is case sensitive, i.e. "start =" doesn't work, "while Start =" does. "import StdEnv" loads the standard library, and is required in every Clean program; other libraries can be loaded as well. Both top lines are implied in Clean source code seemingly lacking them. "Start =" defines what is actually executed.
Now a project must be made. Select File->New Project, and name your project hello.prj, only that will work. After that, click on the hello.icl window so that it is active, and select Project->Set Main Module. Now, on the toolbar, select the Update and Run icon (it looks like a window flying to the right.) It will create a DOS terminal with "Hello, world!" displayed. Press any key to exit.
2.2 Answers to Examples in Functional Programming in Clean, Part I
* Chapter 1
* Chapter 2
* Chapter 3
* Chapter 4
* Chapter 5
* Chapter 6
# Concurrent Engineering

This wikibook was developed by the ME518 class at Oregon State University taught by Professor Peter Burke Burkep (talk) Winter 2009.
NOTE: Please add content to the appropriate section by clicking the link below (i.e. Team Building) and editing that section.

## Table of Contents
### Design Process

* Processes and tools for designing concurrently

### Additional Resources

* Books, journals, websites, etc.
# King's Indian, Orthodox
### 3...d6
## Theory table

For explanation of theory tables, see theory table and for notation, see algebraic notation.
1. d4 Nf6 2. c4 g6 3. Nf3 d6
| 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
| Nc3 Bg7 | = |
| g3 Bg7 | = |
When contributing to this Wikibook, please follow the Conventions for organization.
* Kasparov, Garry, & Keene, Raymond 1989 Batsford chess openings 2. ISBN 0-8050-3409-9.
# Chess Opening Theory/1. d4/1...Nf6/2. f3
## 2. f3!? - Paleface Attack

This move breaks the opening principle of not pushing f3 early. This move weakens white's kingside and takes away the natural development square of the g1 knight. However, this move does prepare to push e4. However, this can be stopped by playing 2...d5. If d5 is played, this move proves to be a weakening move and a waste of time.
1.d4 Nf6 2.f3!?
* ↑ "Paleface Attack". lichess.org. Retrieved 2023-11-09.
# Old Benoni Defence
### 2. d5
## Theory table

For explanation of theory tables, see theory table and for notation, see algebraic notation. .
1. d4 c5 2. d5
| 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
| d5 e5 | e4 d6 | Nc3 Be7 | Nf3 Bg4 | h3 Bxf3 | +/= |
| ... Nf6 | Nc3 d6 | e4 g6 | Nf3 Bg7 | += |
| ... d6 | c4 g6 | e4 Bg7 | Bd3 b5 | += |
| ... g6 | c4 Bg7 | += |
When contributing to this Wikibook, please follow the Conventions for organization.

## References

* Nunn's Chess Openings. 1999. John Nunn (Editor), Graham Burgess, John Emms, Joe Gallagher. ISBN 1-8574-4221-0.
* Modern Chess Openings: MCO-14. 1999. Nick de Firmian, Walter Korn. ISBN 0-8129-3084-3.
* Kasparov, Garry, & Keene, Raymond 1989 Batsford chess openings 2. ISBN 0-8050-3409-9.
* This Chess related article is a stub. Please assist Wikibooks by expanding it.
# Old Benoni Defence
### 2...e5

Commonly played here is either 3.e4 or 3.c4, reinforcing the center. It would be ill-advised for White to capture en passant.

## Theory table

For explanation of theory tables, see theory table and for notation, see algebraic notation. .
1. d4 c5 2. d5 e5
| 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
| e4 d6 | Nc3 Be7 | Nf3 Bg4 | h3 Bxf3 | +/= |
When contributing to this Wikibook, please follow the Conventions for organization.

## References

* Nunn's Chess Openings. 1999. John Nunn (Editor), Graham Burgess, John Emms, Joe Gallagher. ISBN 1-8574-4221-0.
* Modern Chess Openings: MCO-14. 1999. Nick de Firmian, Walter Korn. ISBN 0-8129-3084-3.
* Kasparov, Garry, & Keene, Raymond 1989 Batsford chess openings 2. ISBN 0-8050-3409-9.
* This Chess related article is a stub. Please assist Wikibooks by expanding it.
# Queen's Pawn 1...c6

1....c6 this move is playable but has no destination as an opening as it transposes into something else. Often played to see if White will play 2. e4 and transpose into a Caro-Kann.
Likely possible responses
   * 2. c4 or 2. Nf3 Most likely to transpose into a Slav Defence or Semi Slav Defence
   * 2. e4 This move order arrives at a Caro Kann Defence

## Theory table

For explanation of theory tables, see theory table and for notation, see algebraic notation.
1. d4 c6
| | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
| Slav Defence | c4 d5 | Nf3 Nf6 | Nc3 dxc4 | a4 Bf5 | e3 e6 | Bxc4 Bb4 | = |
| Caro-Kann Defence | e4 d5 | Nc3 dxe4 | Nxe4 Bf5 | Ng3 Bg6 | Nf3 Nd7 | h4 h6 | = |
When contributing to this Wikibook, please follow the Conventions for organization.

## References

* Kasparov, Garry, & Keene, Raymond 1989 Batsford chess openings 2. ISBN 0-8050-3409-9.
* Nunn's Chess Openings. 1999. John Nunn (Editor), Graham Burgess, John Emms, Joe Gallagher. ISBN 1-8574-4221-0.
# Polish Defence
### 1...b5

With this move, black prevents white from playing c4 and prepares his queen's bishop to be fianchettoed . However, white can just play e4 and still occupy the center with pawns.
When contributing to this Wikibook, please follow the Conventions for organization.

## Theory table

For explanation of theory tables, see theory table and for notation, see algebraic notation. .
1.d4 b5
| 2 |
When contributing to this Wikibook, please follow the Conventions for organization.

## References

* Nunn's Chess Openings. 1999. John Nunn (Editor), Graham Burgess, John Emms, Joe Gallagher. ISBN 1-8574-4221-0.
* Modern Chess Openings: MCO-14. 1999. Nick de Firmian, Walter Korn. ISBN 0-8129-3084-3.
* Kasparov, Garry, & Keene, Raymond 1989 Batsford chess openings 2. ISBN 0-8050-3409-9.
# Chess Opening Theory/1. d4/1...Nf6/2. c4/2...g6/3. f3

3.f3!? is an Anti-Grunfeld move that was popularized by Alekhine. It is a dangerous line. White can quickly gain a space advantage and intiative if Black does not respond well.
# Chess Opening Theory/1. d4/1...Nf6/2. e4
## 2. e4 - Omega Gambit

After playing d4 and developing their queen pawn, White aims to take control of a central square with the move e4. This pawn thrust creates a strong pawn chain in the center of the board and can potentially gain space and initiative. By making this move, White is also looking to open lines of play for their pieces and gain more control of the board. In sum, e4 is a powerful move that seeks to assert White's dominance in the center of the board. However, Black can take the free pawn with 2...Nxe4!. Omega Gambit is best played as an aggressive and attacking opening. White sacrifices the pawn on e4, gaining control of the center. Black has two options: accepting the pawn or declining it. If Black takes the pawn, the game will be wild and tactical, with opportunities for both sides. If they decline, White can still develop their pieces aggressively, while Black will have a more cramped position. The key to playing this opening well is accurate calculation and precise play. Omega Gambit can be a tricky opening to face if unprepared. Black can counter it by declining the gambit with 2...d5, freeing their position and declining any risk. Alternatively, they can accept the pawn with 2...Nxe4, but must be careful not to overextend and leave their king vulnerable. If played accurately, Black can gain a solid position with chances to win. It is important to remain calm and not be intimidated by the nature of the Omega Gambit. Accurate calculation and precise play will be essential to counter this opening effectively.
1.d4 Nf6 2.e4
# Economic Development/Author resources

Wikipedia articles relevant to this topic include: Economic development , Development economics, Dependency theory, World systems theory, Aid
# Econometric Theory/t-Test

A t-test involves the computation of a t-statistic, which is then compared to the critical values of a t-distribution for a given significance level.
A t-test is essentially the Z-statistic of a variable divided by the square root of an independent chi-square distribution divided by its own degrees-of-freedom. The resulting value is the t-statistic with the same degrees-of-freedom as the chi-squared distribution.
$t={\frac {Z}{\sqrt {V/m}}}\sim t[m]$
Therefore, the t-statistic of $\beta _{1}$ would be:
$Z({\hat {\beta _{1}}})={\frac {{\hat {\beta _{1}}}-\beta _{1}}{se({\hat {\beta _{1}}})}}={\frac {({\hat {\beta _{1}}}-\beta _{1})(\sum X_{i}^{2})^{1}/2}{\sigma }}$
We know (as an implication of the last assumption of the CLRM) that ${\frac {(N-2){\hat {\sigma ^{2}}}}{\sigma ^{2}}}\sim \chi ^{2}[N-2]$
Therefore, ${\frac {\hat {\sigma ^{2}}}{\sigma ^{2}}}\sim {\frac {\chi ^{2}[N-2]}{[N-2]}}\Rightarrow {\sqrt {\frac {\chi ^{2}[N-2}{[N-2]}}}\sim {\frac {\hat {\sigma }}{\sigma }}$
Therefore, putting it all together we get,
$t({\hat {\beta _{1}}})={\frac {Z({\hat {\beta _{1}}})}{{\hat {\sigma }}/\sigma }}={\frac {({\hat {\beta _{1}-\beta _{1}}})(\sum X_{i}^{2})^{1/2}/\sigma }{\sigma ^{2}/\sigma }}={\frac {{\hat {\beta _{1}}}-\beta _{1}}{{\hat {\sigma }}/(\sum X_{i}^{2})^{1/2}}}={\frac {{\hat {\beta _{1}}}-\beta _{1}}{{\hat {se}}({\hat {\beta _{1}}})}}\sim t[N-2]$

## Notes

* $se({\hat {\beta _{1}}})={\frac {\sigma }{(\sum X_{i}^{2})^{1/2}}}$
* ${\hat {se}}({\hat {\beta _{1}}})={\frac {\hat {\sigma }}{(\sum X_{i}^{2})^{1/2}}}$
# Econometric Theory/Types of Econometrics

There are two branches of econometrics: theoretical econometrics and applied econometrics.
The former is concerned with methods, both their properties and developing new ones. It is closely related to mathematical statistics, and it states assumptions of a particular method, its properties. It is particularly important to know when they are not fulfilled.
Applied econometrics does what it says: it applies econometric theory to branches within economics, such as unemployment figures, portfolio theory, demand and supply functions, et.c.