OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# The Descent of Man/Chapter III

Darwin states that the object of this chapter is to show that "there is no fundamental difference between man and the higher mammals in their mental faculty."
First of all he discusses the instincts of man and apes. He even suggests that apes in the wild may learn things like which plants are poisonous from other apes. He also mentions how birds on deserted islands appear to inherit a fear of man while the sterile worker bees and ants appear to acquire their instincts spontaneously.
Darwin states that people "underrate the mental powers of the higher animals, and especially of man." He stresses the development of "the mental organs" through "variability" and natural selection. He quotes Wallace on the difference between how people learn to make things and how animals learn to make their homes. He comments on animal behavior that show they feel "pleasure and pain, happiness and misery" as well as terror, "courage", and "suspicion". Darwin also relates anecdotes about maternal behavior of female animals especially monkeys, and shame and playfulness in dogs.
In discussing the higher mental faculties, Darwin describes animal curiosity, the need for stimulation, and the abilities to imitate and focus attention. He also makes some questionable statements regarding animal imagination and memory,i.e., that animals can "judge of the intervals of time between recurrent events" and that some dogs' howling is the result of "fantastic images" from their own minds. In discussing examples of reason in animals, Darwin mentions anecdotes reported by others of eskimo dogs, elephants, bears, fish and monkeys and related them to his observations of his own children's behavior as infants. He also describes animal toolmaking as reported by many other sources. He speculates that higher reasoning like self-awareness evolved from simpler reasoning. And he also comments on animal communication and their ability to understand human languages. In showing the relationship between the development of language and the brain, Darwin refers to the writings of contemporaries. He even relates natural selection to the changes in languages. He also says that the use of bright plumage and musical calls in male birds show that "a sense of beauty" is not unique to man.
In the final section on religion, Darwin remarks that "numerous races have existed, and still exist, who have no idea of one or more gods, and who have no words in their languages to express such an idea." He hastens to add that this has nothing to do with whether a Creator exists which question had been answered positively by " some of the highest intellects that ever existed."Darwin goes on to talk about many cultures' beliefs in spirits and refers to a number of academic articles on the development of religion.
He mentions "strange superstitions" like human sacrifice and trials by ordeal and says that humanity owes a debt of gratitude to "science and our accumulated knowledge" for improving human reason.
# The Computer Revolution/What Is Phishing

Phishing is sending an e-mail that legitimately to be from an organization or (bank, PayPal, eBay…) but is indeed from a fake a phisher. This e-mail activity is to try to receive private personnel information such as log in passwords bank account information and so on. These e-mails will sometimes have links in them to click on and bring you to a seemingly legitimate web site. Instead of an official web site you are actually being brought to the phishers web site. This is referred to as web site spoofing. To get the victim to click on the link is usually done by saying something to the effect of their accounts needs to be updated. Many individuals can become prey to this type of e-mail. To stay protected from this type of activity it is important to be aware of any e-mail stating that they are from a certain company. It’s best to be safe and check with the company by phone rather than click through a web site link in an e-mail. It’s also important to find the phone number of the company in a different place other than the e-mail you just received. These are just a few tips to help keep your information safe.
# The Descent of Man/Chapter I

Darwin first states that the similarity between the human skeleton and the skeletons of other animals was "notorious". Scientists had even seen a similarity between the human brain and that of an orangutan. He mentions the diseases humans can catch from other animals and human illnesses which monkeys also suffer from including "apoplexy, inflammation of the bowels, and cataract in the eye." He also mentions that monkeys can develop a liking for "tea, coffee, and spiritous liquors" and that he has seen monkeys "smoke tobacco with pleasure." Other similarities between man and monkeys include:
* Manner of reproduction, including prenatal development.
* Helplessness of infants.
* Difference in size and strength between male and female.
* Tissue structure.
* Male nipples.
Other animal features which man has to a lesser extent include:
* Muscles that move the scalp and ears.
* The connection of the sense of smell with memory.
* Body hair, including eyebrows.
* "Lanugo," or wool-like hair on fetuses.
* Wisdom teeth.
* Vermiform appendix.
* A fissure in the upper arm bone.
* A tail bone or coccyx.
He even includes illustrations and photographs from other sources.
In the final paragraph, Darwin emphasizes the "community of descent' among all vertebrates and that only prejudice and arrogance keep people from seeing this.
# The Descent of Man/Chapter II

Darwin begins by discussing how individual humans differ from each other in height, skull shape, teeth, artery courses, musculature, and internal organs. He also mentions that humans and monkeys alike differ in intelligence, and he touches on the work of Galton and the inheritance of genius.
He then discusses work that has been done to explain the causes for these differences within species. In the paragraphs on changed conditions, Darwin quotes an ancient Greek poem decrying the fact that human marriage arrangements were not made with the same concern for the offspring that farmers had for the breeding of their livestock. He can think of only two historic instances of selective human breeding, the Prussian grenadiers and the Spartans.
External conditions like climate and terrain had inconclusive results except for diet. He says that even though diet obviously plays some part in determining the height or weight of an individual, that is not the whole story.
The paragraphs on the use and disuse of body parts as a reason for differences in arm lengths, hand size, etc. include some ideas modern people would see as strange. He describes microcephalics and attributes the cause of this condition to arrests of development.
Another paragraph discusses cases of women with additional mammaries and double uteruses which Darwin attributes to reversion, inheriting traits from lower animals. He relates anecdotes of people with extra fingers and toes and mentions some sources, but finally concludes that this is not due to reversion. He then goes on to discuss various scientists who had noticed the similarity between human canine teeth and those of apes. He concludes that the connection is clear no matter how much some men might object even as they "retract...'snarling muscles'...so as to expose them [canines] ready for action, like a dog prepared to fight." Darwin cites cases published by other scientists showing humans with muscles similar to apes and concludes there is a "genetic connection" between the species (although he didnt use the word genetic because the term 'genetic' was coined by William Bateson in 1905.
Under variations Darwin discusses questions about whether one feature like arm muscles is affected by another feature like leg muscles. He calls this correlated variation and mentions other possible examples like sight related to hearing. He also mentions spontaneous variation.
The events that affect a population's rate of increase like space, food, and disease are also mentioned as reasons for differences between species. He proposes that increase in fertility may be inherited and discusses Malthus's description of the "checks" to the "savage" populations.
Again this chapter is heavily footnoted showing that Darwin was well-aware of the science of his day.
# The Confucian Analects

The Confucian Analects (论语)
| Book I Xuer | 学而第一 |
| 1. The Master said: "Is it not pleasant to learn with a constant perseverance and application? | 1. 子曰:学而时习之、不亦说乎? |
| Is it not delightful to have friends coming from distant quarters? | 有朋自远方来、不亦乐乎? |
| Is he not a man of complete virtue, who feels no discomposure though men may take no note of him?" | 人不知而不愠、不亦君子乎? |
| 2. The philosopher Yu said: "They are few who, being filial and fraternal, are fond of offending against their superiors. | 2. 有子曰:其为人也孝弟而好犯上者鲜矣。 |
| There have been none, who, not liking to offend against their superiors, have been fond of stirring up confusion. | 不好犯上而好作乱者未之有也。 |
| The superior man bends his attention to what is radical. That being established, all practical courses naturally grow up. | 君子务本本立而道生。 |
| Filial piety and fraternal submission!— are they not the root of all benevolent actions? | 孝弟也者其为仁之本与。 |
| 3. The Master said: "Fine words and an insinuating appearance are seldom associated with true virtue." | 3. 子曰: 巧言令色鲜矣仁。 |
| 4. The philosopher Tsang said: "I daily examine myself on three points: | 4. 曾子曰:吾曰三省吾身、 |
| whether, in transacting business for others, I may have been not faithful; | 为人谋而不忠乎、 |
| whether, in intercourse with friends, I may have been not sincere; | 与朋友交而不信乎、 |
| whether I may have not mastered and practiced the instructions of my teacher." | 传不习乎。 |
# Themes in Literature/Belonging and Exile

Post-Colonial Investigations: J.M. Coetzee and Others
    Preface
    About the authors whose works are discussed in this volume
    Keys to the Labyrinth
    Sights for Sore Eyes
    The Barbarian in a Civilized Society
    Loss Grants Freedom
    Waiting for the Barbarians A Guide to Understanding Barbarians
    Edwidge Danticat’s “1937”
# Themes in Literature/Belonging and Exile/Preface

Welcome to the labyrinth for our post-colonial literature class at LaGuardia Community College, Fall 2022.
We are calling this volume: Post-Colonial Investigations: J.M. Coetzee and Others. In this course we read and discussed the works of ten different post-colonial writers.
       "I wanted to live outside the history that Empire imposes on its subjects, even its lost subjects. I never wished it for the barbarians that they should have the history of Empire laid upon them. How can I believe that this is cause for shame?"
We began in Australia with an important film about the treatment of Aborigine half-caste children in the early years of the twentieth century, Rabbit-Proof Fence. Then we traveled to Haiti to discuss the work of Edwidge Danticat and we learned a great deal about Haitian history (and its current situation) from a series of New York Times articles published in 2022. South Africa was our next destination, for a deep dive into the experience of apartheid (1947-1994). To understand the racial divide, we read a selection from Trevor Noah's Born a Crime. Then we began an in-depth study of J.M. Coetzee’s powerful novel, Waiting for the Barbarians, in which ethical dilemmas of individuals in positions of power are exposed and dissected. Coetzee tells us that the novel is about “the impact of the torture chamber on the life of a man of conscience” (“Into the Dark Chamber”). For our final unit, we reflected on ways a kind of “apartheid” persists in the context of gender and social class. We focused on female short story writers including Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie, Bessie Head, Jhumpa Lahiri, Alice Munro and Alice Walker. These selections offered intriguing examples of the ways gender codes are their own form of “colonization.” The noted Coetzee scholar, David Attwell, explains this connection: “The desired, female colonized is well known as a trope of colonial discourse, whether she represents the interior and its material riches, the landscape, or the purely psychic abundance of the unknown.”
The essays in this Wikibook are the results of student research on these authors. Welcome to our page and feel free to interact with us.
Phyllis van Slyck, Professor, Department of English, La Guardia Community College (City University of New York)
Our readings:
* "Children of the Sea" and "1937" by Edwidge Danticat from her short-story collection Krik? Krak!
* Born a Crime by Trevor Noah
* Waiting for the Barbarians by J.M. Coetzee
* "Life" by Bessie Head from her short-story collection The Collector of Treasures
* "The Thing Around Your Neck" by Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie from her short-story collection The Thing Around Your Neck
* "Interpreter of Maladies" by Jhumpa Lahiri from her short story collection Interpreter of Maladies
* "Boys and Girls" by Alice Munro from her short story collection Dance of the Happy Shades and Other Stories
* "Everyday Use" by Alice Walker

## References

* ↑ Coetzee, J.M. Waiting for the Barbarians, Penguin, 1980.
* ↑ Attwell, David. J. M. Coetzee: South Africa and the Politics of Writing, University of California Press, 1993.
# Theatre and Acting/Theatre of Cruelty

The Theatre of Cruelty was founded by Antonin Artaud in 1935. It was his next step after his “Théâtre Alfred Jarry” which he had had joint management of. It took some of it’s inspiration from the surrealist movement. The idea of cruelty refers to the emotional shock and strain of the audience during the performance. Effects such as light and sound are intensified and exaggerated to create a feeling of exhaustion of emotion. The Theatre of cruelty has had a great impact on modern horror movies. It also uses ideas like unexplainable phenomenon and mystical forces in its plays. Fear is a vital part of the idea, the types of plot are generally about the unknown, and bloodshed etc. is frequent. Often there is a lack of dialogue and concrete storyline to heighten the idea of confusion. It differs from older drama by its focus on effects and not language. The theatre of Cruelty was in France.
# Theatre and Acting/Vocal Warmups

Vocal Warm Ups can include experiments where you stress the consonants on words or try rising/ lowering your voice.
You Know New York...
Saying the following can help when warming up. Be sure to stress the consonants and try not to get your tongue twisted.
You know New York, You need New York, You know you need unique New York.
# Theatre and Acting/Samuel Beckett

Samuel Beckett lived from 1906 – 1989 and wrote from 1931 until his death. His work focuses on the absurdity of existence, humanity’s search for meaning in life, and our nature. He wrote in both English and French, often translating his own work. He started his career by writing in a very rambling style. He also put sections of his own life and experiences into his work, often only subtly changed, which caused tension among his friends and family. After about 1950, his style of writing changed and he began to write in a more minimalist way, sometimes writing plays that were only a few pages long. His works often took on imaginative and yet strange and sometimes depressing tones, notably his idea of each person living entrapped in a container of some sort, unable to get out.
# Sewing/Sewing utensils
## Sewing Tools
### Sewing needle

A sewing needle is essential for all sewing. There are many types of sewing needle, they vary depending on the project. Thicker needles are used for tough materials such as denim and leather, thinner for more delicate materials such as silk. Miller needles are a types of needle we're the eye as the same thickness as the rest of the needle and are useful for embroidery. For most sewing needles however the eye is slightly thicker than the shaft of the needle to make it easier to thread.

#### Thimble

Thimbles are a tool used for hand sewing. They are unnecessary if using a sewing machine. Thimbles worn on the middle of forefinger to protect the finger as it pushes the needle through fabric. They can be made of metal or leather. Some sewers use thimbles for all projects, while others avoid them unless absolutely necessary. They are most useful when dealing with thick fabric that is difficult to sew through.

#### Pins

Pins hold fabric in place while it is being sewn. They also are used in fitting garments.
# Sewing/Seams

The Longstitch: The first thing to be learnt, after the washing and pressing of fabric, is the basic hand-wrought longstitch. This is a simple, fairly easy, and very strong stitch that is used primarily for seams. Its form is basically a series of loops of thread through two or more layers of fabric, each overlapping the previous by half its length.
To learn to sew a neat, straight, longstitch, procure some cheap cotton or other natural-fibre fabric, some thread of the same stuff, and a medium sharp needle.
Seams are a way of joining bits of fabric together with stitches. There are a variety of seams they have different uses.

## Plain

A plain seam is the simplest method.
To create a plain seam lay the pieces of fabric with their right sides facing each other At the edge you want to join sew a line of stitches through both pieces of fabric.

## Flat-fell

Encloses the raw edges to prevent fraying.
Start off with a plain seam. Cut one of the seam allowances shorter. Tuck the longer allowance under the shorter on and stitch through all layers to hold in place.
The seam may be secured with either a whipstitch or a running stitch.
# Sewing/Fabric
## Terms
### Face

    the right side of the fabric

### Selvage

    finished edges

### Raw edge

    unfinished edges

### Grain

    the direction of the nap

### Bolt
## Preparing Fabric

Always wash and press all fabric before sewing with it. New fabric will usually shrink a certain amount. Marking of patterns must be done on quite flat (well-pressed) fabric, as creases will distort the shape of the chalked pattern.

## Types of Fabric

There are two groups of fabric, natural and synthetic. Synthetic fabrics are man made, while natural fabrics are either from a animal protein, like silk or wool, or a plant fiber, like cotton or linen. Fabrics can either be knit, or woven.

### Natural fibers

Natural fibers are known to be more expensive than synthetic, but can drape beautifully and keep one cool in a way that synthetic fabrics often cannot.

##### Cotton Muslin

It is recommended that beginner in sewing get started with a cheap natural fiber such as cotton muslin. This is un-dyed unbleached cotton that is useful for making mock-ups and undergarments. It is a woven fabric so it has little stretch.

##### Cotton Jersey

Cotton jersey is a knit fabric. It is stretchy, soft, and does not wrinkle or pucker. It is another good beginner fabric, however it can be pricy. Its often used for activewear.

##### Cotton Flannel

Cotton Flannel is a warm, soft, medium weight fabric. Its weave is loosely spun. It's good for cold weather clothing.

##### Linen

A type of woven fabric made out of the flax plant. Very good for keeping cool in summer.

##### Wool

Wool is a protein fabric made from the hair/fleece of camels, goats, alpacas and other animals. It's very good for cold weather.
# Sewing/Hand sewing

For big projects such as sheets or clothing, sewing the fabric is done with a sewing machine, but for smaller/more precise projects, and parts that go on bigger projects, hand sewing is more practical, and finer details can be done. Examples of situations where hand sewing is a better option is for mending and closing seams, and doing decorative stitches, and when using very thin or thick fabric that a sewing machine needle can't go through.
Common utensils for hand sewing:
* Needles
* Pins
* Sewing thread
* Thimbles
* Thread scissors
* Measuring tape
Additional utensils
* Thread ripper
* Needle threading tool
* Scissors
* Pincushion/ Box for pins (for holding pins and needles)
* Chalk/Pencil (for marking up fabric, usually washes off with water)
* Embroidery thread
A new hand sewing project begins by the maker deciding what they want to make, using the materials they have. Common items sewn by hand are small bags, coasters, and decorative bows.
Patterns are commonly used in hand sewing. Patterns are like a 2D net that when sewn together at the right places, turn 3D and can be used. Patterns have markings to show where to cut, where to sew, where to fold, and where to pin the fabric together. Patterns can be found online and some are free and others are paid. Be careful when buying the paid ones online because they could be scams. Patterns can be downloaded and printed onto paper, cut out and placed onto fabric, and traced. Now you have the pattern on fabric.
# Sewing
## Table of Contents

* Introduction
* Fabric
* Hand sewing
* Sewing utensils
* Seams
* Stitches
* Embroidery

## See also

Short introduction to the use of sewing machines
# Topology/Exact Sequences

An exact sequence is a tool used in Algebraic Topology used to extract information from a sequence of chain groups.

## Definition

Given a sequence of groups $G_{1},G_{2},\dots ,G_{n}$ and homomorphisms
    $G_{1}{\xrightarrow {h_{1}}}G_{2}{\xrightarrow {h_{2}}}\cdots {\xrightarrow {h_{n-1}}}G_{n}$
is an exact sequence if $im(h_{k})=ker(h_{k+1})$ for all $1\leq k<n$, the sequence can be infinite.
Given an exact sequence of chain groups, with this indexing
    $\cdots {\xrightarrow {\partial _{2}}}C_{2}{\xrightarrow {\partial _{1}}}C_{1}{\xrightarrow {\partial _{0}}}C_{0}$
we have a chain complex.

## Short Exact Sequence

Given the special case where we have 3 groups with the following homomorphisms
    $G_{1}{\xrightarrow {h_{1}}}G_{2}{\xrightarrow {h_{2}}}G_{3}$
where $h_{1}$ is a one-one homomorphism and $h_{2}$ is an onto homomorphism, we have a short exact sequence. Short exact sequences have the property $G_{3}\cong G_{2}/h_{1}(G_{1})$.

## Exercises

(under construction)
# Topology/Deformation Retract
## Definition

A retraction is a continuous function to subspace A of X
1. $r:X\to A$
such that there exists an embedding
2. $\iota :A\hookrightarrow X$
satisfying $r\circ \iota =id_{A}$.
The purpose of this construction is to shrink down some of the topologically irrelevant wiggles of a space, or otherwise simplify to help find basic properties.
A deformation retraction is a stronger property where a homotopy exists that takes the identity to a retraction.
For example there is a deformation retraction of an open ended cylinder to a circle, despite the fact that they are not homeomorphic. There are some topological properties preserved in this way and they are of interest in algebraic topology.

## Examples

The disc has a deformation retraction to a point, where $r$ maps everything to that point and the embedding $\iota$ just fixes that point. Any space that deformation retracts to a point is called contractable.
As just mentioned, $S^{1}$ is a deformation retract of $[0,1]\times S^{1}$. Note that this is a one way statement, since $[0,1]\times S^{1}\not \subset S^{1}$. More generally we can say that we can `divide out' by terms that are contractable in a Cartesian product. So the unit n-cube is always contractable.

## Exercises

1. Find, explicitly, a deformation retraction from the unit n-cube to the point.
2. Although deformation retractions are not reflexive, show that they are transitive.
# Topology/Homology Groups

A homology group is a group derived from a space's chain complex.

## Definition

Given a chain complex
    $\cdots {\xrightarrow {\partial _{2}}}C_{2}{\xrightarrow {\partial _{1}}}C_{1}{\xrightarrow {\partial _{0}}}C_{0}$
the n-th homology group is
    $H_{n}=Ker(\partial _{n})/Im(\partial _{n+1})$. We have a similar situation to the fundamental group.

### Theorem

A continuous function on topological spaces $f:X\to Y$ always induces homomorphisms $f_{*}:H_{n}(X)\to H_{n}(Y)$. If $f$ is a homeomorphism, $f_{*}$ is an isomorphism.

## Examples

(under construction)

## Exercises

(under construction)