OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# OpenGL Programming/Intermediate/Mipmaps

Mipmaps are precomputed, optimized versions of a texture at different levels of detail. They are used in OpenGL to improve performance and reduce aliasing artefacts when rendering textures at different distances or scales. Mipmaps work by creating a series of successively smaller versions of a texture, with each level of detail being half the size of the previous level. This allows for faster rendering of textures at smaller sizes, as well as reducing the amount of aliasing or shimmering that can occur when textures are rendered at different scales or distances.
To use mipmaps in OpenGL, you can create a texture object using the glGenTextures function and then load your texture data into the texture using glTexImage2D. Once your texture has been loaded, you can generate mipmaps for the texture using glGenerateMipmap. This will create the series of smaller versions of the texture at different levels of detail.
Here's an example of how to use mipmaps in OpenGL:
In this example, the glGenerateMipmap function is used to generate mipmaps for the texture after it has been loaded. The texture filtering options are then set using glTexParameteri, with GL_LINEAR_MIPMAP_LINEAR being used for the GL_TEXTURE_MIN_FILTER option. This tells OpenGL to use trilinear filtering, which blends between mipmaps for smoother texture rendering at different distances.
Using mipmaps can provide several benefits, including reducing the amount of texture memory required, improving rendering performance, and reducing aliasing artefacts when rendering textures at different scales or distances. However, mipmapping may not be necessary for all textures, and it can add some additional overhead to texture loading and rendering.
# OpenGL Programming/Intermediate/Materials

In OpenGL, materials can be defined using lighting parameters that affect the way a surface appears when lit. The lighting parameters include the ambient, diffuse, specular and emission components, which define how the material responds to different types of light.
Here's an example of how to set up a simple material in OpenGL using C++:
In OpenGL, materials can be defined using lighting parameters that affect the way a surface appears when lit. The lighting parameters include the ambient, diffuse, specular and emission components, which define how the material responds to different types of light.
Here's an example of how to set up a simple material in OpenGL using C++:
In this example, mat_ambient, mat_diffuse, mat_specular, mat_emission, and mat_shininess are all material properties that can be set for a surface.
The glMaterialfv function is used to set each of the material components, which are specified as an array of four floats. The first three components specify the RGB values of the material, and the fourth component specifies the alpha value.
Finally, the glMaterialf function is used to set the shininess of the material, which affects the size and brightness of the specular highlight.
Once the material properties have been set, you can render your geometry using lighting. You'll need to set up lighting sources and enable lighting in your OpenGL context, as well as set the position and direction of your light sources.
Here's an example of how to set up lighting and render your geometry with the material properties you've defined:
In this example, `GL_LIGHT0` is used to define the first light source, and its ambient, diffuse, and specular components are set using `glLightfv`. The `glEnable` function is used to enable lighting and enable the light source.
To render your geometry with the material properties you've defined, you'll need to specify the normal for each face of your geometry using the `glNormal3f` function, and then define each vertex of your geometry using `glVertex3f`. When you render your geometry, OpenGL will use the lighting parameters you've defined to shade your geometry based on the position and direction of your light sources.
This is just a basic example of how to use materials in OpenGL using C++. There are many more material parameters you can set, as well as more advanced lighting techniques you can use to create realistic lighting effects.
# OpenGL Programming/Intermediate/Normals

You can specify normals for faces you create. This is a vector that's perpendicular to the face. Specifying normals is important if you plan to use lighting. They tell OpenGL how the light is to be reflected. Although OpenGL is not a raytracer, it still influences how bright you see the face. OpenGL will not calculate the normals itself, you have to do it manually.

## Specifying Normals

Normals are specified using the function glNormal3f and used before you make the vertices that belong to the face. Example:

## Calculating Normals

There is a quite simple approach for calculating the normal vector for a triangle. Given p1, p2 and p3, the normal vector can be expressed as the cross product of (p2 - p1) and (p3 - p1), divided by the length of the result. In C code, using a struct type for the vectors:
# Molecular Cloning/Plasmid

Plasmids are considered extrachromosomal DNA which are capable of self replication within a suitable host. Plasmids can be found in all three major organism, Archea, Bacteria and Eukaryote. A plasmid is a DNA molecule that is separate from, and can replicate independently of, the chromosomal DNA. They are double stranded and, in many cases, circular. Plasmids usually occur naturally in bacteria, but are sometimes found in eukaryotic organisms (e.g., the 2-micrometre-ring in Saccharomyces cerevisiae). Plasmid size varies from 1 to over 1,000 kilobase pairs (kbp). The number of identical plasmids within a single cell can range anywhere from one to even thousands under some circumstances. Plasmids can be considered to be part of the mobilome, since they are often associated with conjugation, a mechanism of horizontal gene transfer. The term plasmid was first introduced by the American molecular biologist Joshua Lederberg in 1952.
Similar to viruses, plasmids are not considered a form of "life" as it is currently defined. Unlike viruses, plasmids are "naked" DNA and do not encode genes necessary to encase the genetic material for transfer to a new host, though some classes of plasmids encode the sex pilus necessary for their own transfer. Plasmid host-to-host transfer requires direct, mechanical transfer by conjugation or changes in host gene expression allowing the intentional uptake of the genetic element by transformation. Microbial transformation with plasmid DNA is neither parasitic nor symbiotic in nature, since each implies the presence of an independent species living in a commensal or detrimental state with the host organism. Rather, plasmids provide a mechanism for horizontal gene transfer within a population of microbes and typically provide a selective advantage under a given environmental state. Plasmids may carry genes that provide resistance to naturally occurring antibiotics in a competitive environmental niche, or alternatively the proteins produced may act as toxins under similar circumstances. Plasmids also can provide bacteria with an ability to fix elemental nitrogen or to degrade recalcitrant organic compounds which provide an advantage under conditions of nutrient deprivation.
# Molecular Cloning/Extraction of DNA
## Extraction of Genomic DNA from Eukaryotic cells

Large scale isolation of genomic DNA from cells grown as monolayers in tissue culture flasks or tissue samples (e.g. liver) from sacrificed animals. Briefly, to 10 ml of extraction buffer (10 mM Tris.Cl pH 8.0, 0.1M EDTA pH 8.0, 20 g/ml pancreatic RNase, 0.5% SDS) in a polypropylene tube 2.5 x 107 PCC4 cells (trypsinised and suspended in TE pH 8.0) or 100 mg tissue (frozen in liquid nitrogen and powdered by crushing) was added. The contents were mixed completely by inversion and incubated for 1 hr at 37C. To the lysed cells 1 mg of proteinase K was added at a final concentration of 100 g/ml (from a 20 mg/ml stock) mixed gently by inversion and incubated at 37C for 3-5 hr or overnight with frequent mixing during incubations. After proteinase K digestion, a viscous solution completely free of debris was observed. The solution was cooled, an equal volume of Tris-saturated phenol was added, mixed on a roto-torque to mix the two phases and then centrifuged at 10,000g for 5 min at room temperature. The upper clear aqueous viscous phase was transferred using a 5 ml pipette with a cut tip. The aqueous phase was further subjected to two rounds of phenol-chloroform and one round of chloroform extraction. The aqueous phase was then transferred to a clean polypropylene tube, 0.1 volume of 3 M sodium acetate (pH 4.2) and 2 volumes of absolute ethanol were added at room temperature and the contents mixed. The genomic DNA precipitate was spooled using a 1 ml pipette tip and transferred to 1.5 ml eppendorf tube containing 70% ethanol and centrifuged briefly. The resultant pellet was washed further with two more rounds of 70% ethanol, briefly air-dried, 1 ml of fresh autoclaved water was added and the samples were stored at 4C overnight for the genomic DNA to dissolve. DNA was checked on a 0.7% agarose gel and the total yield was determined to be 100 g each for both PCC4 cells and tissue.
Extraction buffer
10 mM Tris.Cl pH 8.0,
0.1M EDTA pH 8.0,
20 g/ml pancreatic RNase,
0.5% SDS
# Molecular Simulation

This is a book on computer simulation of matter. In particular, it focuses on condensed matter (e.g., liquids). The book is built on the framework of statistical thermodynamics. It is intended to serve as the textbook for an advanced undergraduate / graduate physical chemistry course in molecular simulation.

## Table of Contents

* Molecular forces
** Charge-Charge Interactions
** Charge-Dipole Interactions
** Dipole-Dipole Interactions
** Quadrupole-Quadrupole Interactions
** Induced Polarization
** Repulsive Interactions
** Hydrogen Bonds
** Rotational Averaging
** The Lennard-Jones Potential
** Intramolecular Forces
** Molecular Mechanical Force Fields
** Calculation of molecular forces using quantum chemistry
* Classical Statistical Thermodynamics
** Statistical properties
** Thermodynamic ensembles
** Phase space
** Dilute gases
** Potential of mean force
** Langevin dynamics
* Simulation Methods
** Periodic Boundary Conditions
** Treatment of Long Range Forces
** Monte Carlo Methods
** Molecular Dynamics
** Molecular Dynamics of the Canonical and Isothermal-Isobaric Ensembles
** Umbrella Sampling
** Free Energy Methods
** Replica Exchange Molecular Dynamics
** Coarse grain models
** Polarizable force fields
* Liquid Properties
** Radial Distribution Functions
** Dielectric constants
** Diffusion Coefficients
** Interfacial properties
** Transport properties
* Solid Properties
** Solids
* Understanding Chemistry Through Molecular Simulation
** Hydrophobic Solvation
** Membrane permeability
** Protein folding
* Appendices
** Definition of variables
** Molecular Dynamics Simulations Using NAMD
* Example Problems
** Example Problem 1: Coulombic interactions
** Example Problem 2: Charge-dipole interactions
** Example Problem 3: Dipole-dipole interactions
** Example Problem 4: Quadrupole-quadrupole interactions
** Example Problem 5: The Lennard-Jones potential
** Example Problem 6: Orientationally-averaged interactions
# Molecular Simulation/Calculation of molecular forces using quantum chemistry
## Intermolecular Interactions

Intermolecular interactions can be calculated using quantum chemical programs.
    $\Delta E_{interaction}=E_{complex}-\sum _{i}E_{fragment,i}$
The fragments are the atoms or molecules that comprise the complex.

### Basis Set Superposition Error

Many quantum chemical programs use atom centered basis functions to represent the atomic orbitals. For a given calculation, the number of basis functions used is fixed and finite. Inevitably, the description of the orbitals will be incomplete, in that a more accurate answer could be obtained if more basis functions were added.
When calculating intermolecular interactions, the calculation of the $\Delta E_{interaction}$ will have the basis functions from all the fragments. At close intermolecular contacts, the tails of these orbitals will extend close to the space of atoms in other fragments. In this way, the fragments will be stabilized by the presence of these additional basis functions, so the energy of the complex includes both the stabilization due to the intermolecular interaction and this "basis set superposition error."
# Paleontology/Vertebrate Fossils

Nearly all vertebrate fossils are represented by the bones of the deceased specimen. These can be in the form of partial or complete skeletal remains, but for many species individual bones are all that has been found. This partial evidence of a species may lead to disputes as to its classification and many are classed as Nomen dubium, indicaring that their relationship with other species is not known. Sometimes direct impressions such as skin, feathers or scales are left behind, usually because the sediment is fine and the fossil hasn't undergone any major changes such as compression. Other times trace fossils are left, in the form of coprolite (feces), footprints, burrows and the like.
# Palliative/Pharmacotherapy/Introductory Information/Useful Resources for the Palliative Care Pharmacist/Websites, Blogs, & Online Calculators
## Online Calculators

Helpful Online Calculators :
| Website Link | Website Description |
| Global RPh | "Medical calculators for the clinician, comprehensive guide to drug therapy, intravenous IV drug dilution, dosing calculators, nutrition and diet calculators." |
| MDCalc | Popular choice for online medical calculators; clean and simple. |
| ClinCalc | "Evidence-based clinical decision support tools and calculators for medical professionals. Includes mobile applications, advanced pharmacokinetic utilities, and a wealth of evidence-based medicine." |

## Websites

Helpful Websites :
| Website Link | Website Description |
| The Calgary Guide | "The Calgary Guide is a compendium of flow-charts that link disease pathophysiology and disease manifestation. It is not a collection of summary notes, not a compiled list of answers to exam questions, and it contains no paragraphs or pages of text. Instead, the diagrams in The Calgary Guide connect the pathophysiology of diseases with their clinical findings and complications, explaining concisely and coherently the links in between." |
| EMCrit Project | "[...] we bring the best evidence-based information from the fields of critical care, resuscitation, and trauma and translate it for bedside use in the Emergency Department (ED) and the Intensive Care Unit (ICU)." |
| Hematology / Oncology Wiki | "HemOnc.org is the largest freely available medical wiki of interventions, regimens, and general information relevant to the fields of hematology and oncology." |
| University of Pennsylvania Health Care System Comfort Care Guidelines | Comfort care guidelines for inpatients from University of Pennsylvania Health Care System. |
| Palliative Care Network of Wisconsin Fast Facts | Palliative care "Fast Facts" relied upon by many to guide patient care in palliative care and hospice. |
| Geriatric Pain | "The Geriatric Pain website was initially created to provide nurses and other staff working in long-term care environments and informal caregivers with access to free evidence-based pain assessment tools, pain management strategies, and resources to help identify and manage pain in older adults, including quality improvement processes focused on pain management. However, the site is applicable to other geriatric care settings and use by the interdisciplinary team." |
| iForumRx | "iForumRx.org is an interactive web-based community of practice designed to inform pharmacy specialists, residents, and students about high-quality, practice-changing evidence." |
# Paleontology

Paleontology is the study of prehistoric life. The primary way paleontologists collect new information is through the fossils of organisms.

## Table of Contents

What is Paleontology
Geologic Time
Fossilisation
Plant Fossils
Invertebrate Fossils
Vertebrate Fossils
Paleoecology
Taphonomy
Field Techniques
Careers in Paleontology
Glossary
References and Further Reading
# Palliative/Pharmacotherapy/Introductory Information/Useful Resources for the Palliative Care Pharmacist/Must-Reads
## Books

* McPherson ML. Demystifying Opioid Conversion Calculations: A Guide for Effective Dosing. 2nd ed. American Society of Health-System Pharmacists, Inc.; 2019.

## Online Education / Websites

* Fast Facts by Palliative Care Network of Wisconsin (PCNOW)
# Paleontology/Paleoecology

Paleoecology uses fossils and sub fossils to recreate the ecosystems and environments in the past. It involves the study of prehistoric fossils of organisms and remains that have been fossilized. The goal is to be able to recreate the fossils paleoenvironments, life cycle, living interactions, and the death and burial of the fossil. It is then that scientists will be able to see the ecosystems of prehistoric organisms and their environs.
# Paleontology/What is Paleontology

Paleontology is the study of past life. It is considered to include all the history of life on Earth from about 3.5 billion years ago to nearly the present. The study of past human civilizations and their immediate precursors, which are covered by the related science of archaeology.
The study of Palaeontology includes the study of fossils, the places they occur, how things become fossils, the relationship of one fossil with other fossils and living species, and the environment they lived in. It also involves the piecing together past organisms from their remains as living organisms.
Most paleontologists need to have some knowledge of geology, anatomy, ecology, and other fields of science depending on their specialty.
Paleontology is usually classed as a branch of geology, but because it studies past life, it is heavily reliant on the biological sciences as well. In universities and museums paleontologists, and some paleontology programs, are included as part of biology departments instead of or in addition to their relationships with geology departments.
Among the sub disciplines of paleontology are the following:
* Invertebrate paleontology - the study of fossil invertebrates.
* Molecular Paleontology - the recovery of DNA from ancient remains.
* Paleoanthropology - the study of human evolution (this comes closest to archaeology).
* Paleoautecology - the study of an individual fossil in relation to the ancient habitat where it occurred.
* Paleobotany - the study of fossil plants.
* Paleoecology - the study of ancient ecosystems as a whole, not just the individual species that occurred.
* Paleosynecology - the study of fossil assemblages.
* Paleornithology - the study of fossil birds.
* Ichnology - the study of tracks, burrows etc. considered to be trace fossils.
* Taphonomy - the study of process of dying and the processes that occur after an organisms death).
* Vertebrate paleontology - the study of fossil vertebrates.
* Micropaleontology - the study of microscopic fossils.
* Palynology - the study of fossil pollen.
# Paleontology/Careers in Paleontology

After doing specialization work in paleontology, you work in university, museum, oil and gas industry, nuclear power, scientific magazines and TV production companies.
# Mujje Tulye
## Mujje Tulye – Celebrating local cuisine on a global platform

This WikiBook belongs to the Come and Eat collection, featuring Mujje Tulye from Uganda and Cote d'Ivoire. These two Mujje Tulye WikiBooks are the beginning of what we hope will be a series of similar WikiBooks that celebrates and provides recipes for local cuisine from different countries and cultures in Africa in a global format that is accessible to all.
The project started as a facet of WikiAfrica's Kumusha Takes Wiki project and was given impetus through the events that surrounded the Wiki Loves Africa 2014 competition. Wiki Loves Africa 2014 encouraged the donation of photos and media that illustrated all aspects of Cuisine from Africa including, but not limited to, production, procurement, processing, preparation, sales, and eating. During the competition volunteer groups in several countries, including Uganda and Cote d'Ivoire, held events such as cook-offs, cooking demonstrations, photo hunts, edit-a-thons and Wikipedia introduction sessions. The photos that you see illustrating these WikiBooks were drawn from entries to the competition and from the work of the Wikipedians in Community in Uganda and Cote d'Ivoire who have gathered images from agrarian-based communities in their countries.
As with all Wikimedia projects, these WikiBooks are designed as a starting point. Please feel free to add your own recipe, a photo or photographs, or videos to illustrate an aspect of the book (a cooking method), or a whole new section. Please also feel free to start a Mujje Tulye book on the cuisine/s that are part of your country or represent your culture.

## Links to the Mujje Tulye books

* In French, Mujje Tulye en Côte d'Ivoire
* In English, Mujje Tulye from Uganda

## Credits

People who are currently involved in these Mujje Tulye project are:
* Florence - (Anthere) - France
* Erina - (Erinamukuta) - Uganda
* Samuel - (African Hope) - Côte d'Ivoire
* Isla - (Islahaddow) - South Africa
* Ivan - User:Faintsmoke - Uganda
# Mujje Tulye from Uganda

This wikibook belongs to the Come and Eat collection, featuring Mujje Tulye (Come and Eat) from Uganda and Cote d'Ivoire. These two Mujje Tulye wikibooks are the beginning of what we hope will be a series of similar wikibooks that celebrates and provides recipes for local cuisine from different countries and cultures in Africa in a global format that is accessible to all.
The project started as a facet of WikiAfrica's Kumusha Takes Wiki project and was given impetus through the events that surrounded the Wiki Loves Africa 2014 competition. Wiki Loves Africa 2014 encouraged the donation of photos and media that illustrated all aspects of Cuisine from Africa including, but not limited to, production, procurement, processing, preparation, sales, and eating. During the competition volunteer groups in several countries, including Uganda and Cote d'Ivoire, held events such as cook-offs, cooking demonstrations, photo hunts, edit-a-thons and Wikipedia introduction sessions. The photos that you see illustrating this wikibook were drawn from entries to the competition and from the work of the Wikipedians in Community in Uganda and Cote d'Ivoire who have gathered images from agrarian-based communities in their countries.

## Tables of content

* The Mujje Tulye collection
* Context
* Introduction to Uganda
* A trip to Ggaba landing site, a centre of fish trade
* Growing coffee in Mbale
* A tour of Kampala markets
* Cooking methods in Uganda
* Cassava Cuisine in Uganda
* Preparation: a Bugisu tribe recipe: the malewa
* A special dish of the Busoga tribe: sweet potatoes with groundnut sauce
* A special dish of the Ankole tribe: the karo
* A West Nile recipe: Dek Ngoo
* Lugbara Cuisine
* Food in contemporary Uganda
* Finishing touches

## End Notes

* Mujje Tulye/Authors
* Mujje Tulye/Print version
* Mujje Tulye/PDF version
# Pinyin/Do

See also

## Verb

* to do: to perform an action;
** quh gahn: zhirxirng 1'g xirngdohng
# Pinyin/Dog

See also
# Pinyin/Donate

See also
# Pinyin/Donkey

Search donkey
A donkey is an animal of the horse family, with short legs and long ears. People ride donkeys or use them to carry heavy things.
Lǘzi shì mǎ de jiāzú de dòngwù, yǒu duǎn tuǐ hé cháng ěrduo. Rénmen qí lǘzi huò yònglái yùnzài zhòng de dōngxi.
# Pinyin/Division

A division is a part of a whole thing.
1'g huahfehn shih 1'g zheengtii d yibuhfehn.
# Pinyin/Dongbei

See also