OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# The Information Commons/Governance

Any group that attempts to manage a common resource (e.g., aquifers, judicial systems, pastures) for optimal sustainable production must solve a set of problems in order to create institutions for collective action; there is some evidence that following a small set of design principles in creating these institutions can overcome these problems.
The actual method of governance for a respective information commons may vary depending on the intended goal. In the form of websites, informations commons will usually adjust their approach based on the level of user involvement versus control by those who own the commons in question. Some prominent examples include:
* Wikipedia - The governance on this site typically involves a hierarchy of editors with varying degrees of privileges on how much control they have over edits.
* Internet Archive - Although this information commons contains little content that is originally produced by the site owners, there is little governance on this site beyond how the administrators operate the site's web crawlers for archiving.

## References

* ↑ Governing The Commons: The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action. Ostrom, Elinor. 1990. Cambridge University Press
* ↑ Wikipedia: Citing Sources. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources
* ↑ Internet Archive. http://archive.org/about/faqs.php
# The Information Commons/Problems and Legal Issues

The concept of an information commons has become more pertinent in an era where more information is delivered and created digitally. New methods of information creation, distribution and retrieval have raised questions about who should have access to information, in what manner, at what cost. Four issues have arisen from the implementation of information commons – access, legislation, licensing and cost.
As far back as the 1920’s, librarians opposed federal attempts to prohibit the importation of materials deemed subversive or obscene. Ever since, the American Library Association (ALA) has provided librarians opportunities to voice their collective concerns about the future of library and information policy in the United States. Sometimes, the ALA speaks out to protest actions by the federal government to stifle free expression, such as the Patriot Act's effects on library users and communities.
In 1976 and 1988, there were changes in the copyright law that now automatically stipulate that creative works are copyrighted. Because of this, fewer works could be considered a part of the Information Commons because they are not considered a part of the Public Domain i.e., free to be used by the public. This caused a dilemma. How do you guarantee a work a copyright to increase its commercial value and provide incentive for its creation while providing the community with the free exchange of information in the Information Commons? One solution has been provided by Creative Commons. They “believe that many people would not choose this "copyright by default" if they had an easy mechanism for turning their work over to the public...It is Creative Commons' goal to help create such a mechanism.” Creative Commons provides several licensing options that do not make a copyright owner give up their rights, but allows others to use the work under certain specified conditions.

## References

* ↑ Fiona Bradley. (2004). Challenging ieas: Enabling the information commons.
* ↑ Nancy Kranich. Countering Enclosure. Reclaiming the Knowledge Commons. In: Understanding Knowledge as a Commons. From Theory to Practice. Eds. Charlotte Hess and Elinor Ostrom, MIT Press, December 2006, pbk edition 2011, pp. 85-122.
* ↑ http://liswiki.org/wiki/Information_commons
# The Internationale/Introduction

The Internationale is a widely recognized song. It is originally in French language with dozens of translated versions. Its singers include socialists, democrats, social democrats, communists, and anarchists. Raising a hand in a clenched fist salute is a traditional gesture.
# The Information Commons/History

The term commons typically refers to the land (or common grounds) that villagers shared for grazing purposes in simpler times. A commons can also be any other shared resource.
The concept of the Information Commons is relatively new. Currently defined, the information commons comprises two halves – the physical of information commons as space, and the virtual, of resources and values as a platform for access to and advocacy for ideas. Information commons are not just about resources, but about relationships and community between the creators and users of information.
While the terms Information Commons and Learning Commons are frequently used interchangeably, it is important to recognize where the two differ. The Information Commons, “a cluster of network access points and associated IT tools situated in the context of physical, digital, human, and social resources organized in support of learning.” The Learning Commons is an evolution of the Information Commons in which the basic tenets of the Information Commons are enhanced and expanded upon in order to create an environment more centered on the creation of knowledge and self-directed learning.
Until 1995, people did not view the internet as a commons. During the mid-90s, internet user begin to see connections between the way people behave on the internet and they way people behave in other types of commons. The internet started to be viewed as a "shared resource." The internet brought the Information Commons into a whole new arena by allowing anyone to become a creator or distributor of information.
Although the academic library is the location in which the Information/Learning Commons has perhaps the greatest potential for achieving the full degree of implementation and success, the information commons model can also be employed in either a school library/media center or in a public library.
While the traditional library offered row upon row of books and bound journals, the new Information/Learning Commons has a limited number of print journals, frequently limited to a limited number of regular shelves or compact shelving. Increasingly, serials are available only online. More and more frequently, libraries are deciding to purchase electronic books instead of print copies. Other resources are increasingly available only electronically, which can make things difficult for patrons without home computers or high speed Internet access.

## References

* ↑ Kranich, N (2003) Libraries and the information commons: A discussion paper prepared for the ALA Office of Information Technology Policy.
* ↑ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_commons
* ↑ Understanding Knowledge as a Commons: From Theory to Practice by Charlotte Hess and Elinor Ostrom
* ↑ Heitsch, E. & Holley, R. (2011). The information and learning commons: Some reflections. New Review of Academic Librarianship, 17:64-77. doi:10:1080.
* ↑ Heitsch, Elizabeth K. and Holley, Robert P., "The information and learning commons: some reflections" (2011). School of Library and Information Science Faculty Research Publications. Paper 76. DOI: 10.1080/13614533.2011.547416
# Transportation Deployment Casebook/2018/Another Type of Technology Here
## Quantitative

Where:
· S(t) is the status measure (mileage for each year)
· t is time in year
· t$_0$ is the inflection time (year in which ½ k is achieved)
· K is the saturation status level
· b is a coefficient
K and b are to be estimated through the regression analysis
In addition, the equation 1 is derived into a linear form to estimate the value K, b and t$_0$. The equations are shown are follow.
y = bX + c (2)
$y=LN\left({\frac {Passenger}{K-Passengers}}\right)$
# Transportation Deployment Casebook/2018

Cases Prepared by Students in CIVL 3703/9703 at the University of Sydney should be uploaded here

## Technology

* Beijing Private Cars
* Life-Cycle Of Australia Civil Avitaion(1925-2017)
* The two-wheel-miracle: an analysis of the life-cycle of Electric Bicycle in China
* Fixed Telephone Subscription in China
* Electric Cars in China
* Nanjing Metro
* EU High Speed Rail (HSR)
* Civil Aviation in Australia
* Electronic Toll Collection System
* Beijing-Shanghai High-speed Railway
* The Life-Cycle of the Automobile
* Sydney and Intercity Rail
* Airplanes in USA
* Helmet Usage in Australia (2000 - 2017)
* The Uber Life-Cycle
* A History of Aeroplanes?
* Motor Vehicles USA
* Sydney Light Rail Systems
* Sydney Trains
* Express Delivery in China
* Maglev train system (1922-2016)
* Nanjing Metro (2005-2017)
* Private cars in Beijing (1949-2015)
* China Mobile phone (1987-2016)
* Chinese High-Speed Railway
* Taipei Metro (1996-2018)
* Telegraph (1870-1970)
* Civil Aviation in China (1980-2017)
* Bike Sharing
* Global commercial aviation
* Hybrid Electric Vehicles
* High Speed Rail Systems (Japan)
* Natural Gas Vehicle
* Container Shipping
* Automobiles in the United States (1900-2016)
* Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles in the US
* The Growth of the Automobile - The United States from 1900-1995
* Stationless bike-sharing in China
* Australian Car Registrations
* Air Transport Mode
* Hong Kong MTR
* Australian Domestic Air Travel
* US Hybrid Electric Vehicles
* Guangzhou–Shenzhen–Hong Kong Express Rail
* Rail Transport
* Natural Gas Pipeline in the US
* Intermodal Shipping Container
* Beijing subway
* Dockless Bike Sharing
* The Internet
# The History of the Native Peoples of the Americas/Mesoamerican Cultures/Appendix F
## Further Reading

* Nahuatl (Language of the Aztecs)
# The History of the Native Peoples of the Americas/Californian Cultures
## Cultures

* Kumeyaay
* Chumash
* Mojave
* Pomo
* Yurok
# Taxation in the United Kingdom
## Contents

* Introduction
* Income tax
* Capital gains tax
* Corporation tax
* Value Added Tax
* National insurance
* Stamp taxes
* Council tax
* Inheritance tax
* Business rates
* Indirect tax

## Appendices

* Definitions
* Legislation
# Vala Programming/Concepts/Basic

Vala Programming

## Source files

valac is the Vala compiler, but it does not only accept Vala: it also accepts Genie (with python-like syntax, extension: .gs), C, and .vapi (Vala API) files. You can declare a low-level function in C, create an object with this function as method in Vala, and use both in a Genie file: you will get a ready-to-run executable.

### How does the Vala Compiler work

The main function of Vala was to be a modern object-oriented programming language for GNOME. Both Vala and Genie sources are processed into C code, which is compiled.
i.e., in this example:
Valac generates obj.vala.c from obj.vala and prog.gs.c from prog.gs. Then, Valac runs GCC (with many -I arguments, automatically generated) to compile all files to object code, and finally ld is called by gcc: we will get a native executable, "program", from a mix of C, Vala and Genie source code.

### Arguments

Of course, the typical arguments, like --version and --help work with Valac. It also inherits the -c (compile to .o, no linking) argument from GCC.
Other useful arguments:
* -C: convert to C code
* --cc=COMMAND: use COMMAND as C compiler
* -Xopt: pass -opt as argument to the C compiler (ex: -Xcc=O3 sets GCC's optimizer to level 3)
* --pkg PNAME: add packages from pkg-config (like -pkg:PNAME in Mono mcs or `pkg-config PNAME --cflags --libs` in gcc)
A complete example (program using GTK2 & goocanvas, some threading, etc.):
* valac --pkg gtk+-2.0 --pkg goocanvas --pkg glib-2.0 --thread --pkg gee-1.0 --debug --Xcc=-O3 gtk_goocanvas.vala

## Namespaces

TODO Explain how to structure a project of a program or library written in Vala.
# Vala Programming/Introduction
## Language Features

The syntax of Vala is similar to C#, modified to better fit the GObject type system. Vala supports modern language features as the following:
* Interfaces
* Properties
* Signals
* Foreach
* Lambda expressions
* Type inference for local variables
* Generics
* Non-null types
* Assisted memory management
* Exception handling
* Type modules (Plugins)
Vala is designed to allow access to existing C libraries, especially GObject-based libraries, without the need for runtime bindings. All that is needed to use a library with Vala is an API file, containing the class and method declarations in Vala syntax. Vala currently comes with experimental bindings for GLib and GTK+. It's planned to provide generated bindings for the full GNOME Platform at a later stage.
Using classes and methods written in Vala from an application written in C is not difficult. The Vala library only has to install the generated header files and C applications may then access the GObject-based API of the Vala library as usual. It should also be easily possible to write a bindings generator for access to Vala libraries from applications written in e.g. C# as the Vala parser is written as a library, so that all compile-time information is available when generating a binding.

## Why Vala?

Many developers want to write GNOME applications and libraries in high-level programming languages but can't or don't want to use C# or Java for various reasons, so they are stuck with C without syntax support for the GObject type system. The Vala compiler allows developers to write complex object-oriented code rapidly while maintaining a standard C API and ABI and keeping the memory requirements low.
C# and Java libraries can't be used the same way as native GObject libraries from C and other languages and can't be accepted as part of the GNOME Platform. Managed applications also suffer from usually higher memory requirements which is not acceptable in some situations.
valac produces C source and header files from Vala source files as if you've written your library or application directly in C. Using a Vala library from a C application won't look different than using any other GObject-based library. There won't be a vala runtime library and applications can distribute the generated C code with their tarballs, so there are no additional run- or build-time dependencies for users.
# Vala Programming/Concepts/Objects

Vala Programming

## Object Oriented Programming

The Vala OO System is very similar to, and is somewhat based on languages like C# and Java. Please note that unlike these languages, Vala does not force you to adopt and Object Oriented Paradigm, but it is highly recommended for maximum productivity; and because most third-party libraries and bindings use Object-Orientation, it will ultimately have to be adopted by you.

#### Classes

Generally Classes in Vala are declared like this:
Note that if you declare a base class, it is recommended to derive it from the GLib.Object, otherwise you will not be able to access some of its features.

### Polymorphism
#### Inheritance

Inheritance in Vala is very similar to C#. Vala supports single inheritance only, i.e you cannot inherit an object from more than one base class. The general format is:
# Vala Programming/Intro

Vala Programming

## Introduction

History
History. Language Features. Why Vala? Caveats
Programming Style
Coding conventions.
Getting Started
Getting Vala. First app (helloworld.vala). Explanation. Running the Code.
# Vala Programming/Intro/Programming Style
## Explanation

A using line informs the compiler that this file is going to be referring to things in the namespace given, and therefore allows them to be used without giving their fully qualified name. The GLib namespace is imported by default, so this line is optional.
This line identifies the beginning of a class definition. Classes in Vala are very similar in concept to other languages. A class is basically a type of object, of which instances can be created, all having the same properties. The implementation of classed types is taken care of by the gobject library, but details of this are not important for general usage.
What is important to note is that this class is specifically described as being a subclass of GLib.Object. This is because Vala allows other types of class, but in most cases, this is the sort that you want. In fact, some language features of Vala are only allowed if your class is descended from GLib's Object.
Other parts of this line show namespacing and fully qualified names, although these will be explained later.
This is the start of a method definition. A method is a function related to a type of object that can be executed on an object of that type. The static method means that the method can be called without possessing a particular instance of the type. The fact that this method is called main and has the signature it does means that Vala will recognise it as the entry point for the program.
stdout is an object in the GLib namespace that Vala ensure you have access to whenever required. This line instructs Vala to execute the method called printf of the stdout object, with the hello string as an argument. In Vala, this is always the syntax you use to execute a method on an object, or to access an object's data.
The last lines simply end the definitions of the method and class.

### To Run

Assuming you have Vala installed, then all it takes to compile and execute this program is:
valac is the Vala compiler, which will convert your Vala code into C. It can also automate the whole process of compiling the C into machine code, which is what supplying the -o switch requests. The resulting binary can then be directly executed on the machine. You can probably guess the output.
If you give valac the -C switch, it will also create two files called hello.h and hello.c. If you look at the content of these files you can see that programming a class in Vala is equivalent to the same task in C, but a whole lot more succinct. You will also notice that this class is defined dynamically in the running system. This is a good example of the power of the GNOME platform, but as I've said before, you do not need to know much about this to use Vala.
# Vala Programming/Discussion Page

Welcome to the Discussion Page. Contributors to this book are invited to watch this page.

## What is this page for?

Here you can make a proposal. E.g. you can propose to adopt a certain pattern in all the chapters of the book.
By writing your proposal here, you have a chance to be heard by all contributors. Thus, if one or more chapters/sections of the book is authored mainly by a person, that author may take care of reviewing his part with your proposal in mind.
Place your proposal at the bottom of the section Proposals.
Otherwise, you can use this page to ask something to the authors/contributors of the book.
Place your questions at the bottom of the section Questions.
Either way, remember to separate your proposal/question from others by inserting a header with four equal-sign (====) and to sign it by placing four tildes (~~~~) at the end of the sentence.

## Proposals
#### Example of a proposal

Let's do this and that. Lucadionisi (talk) 21:54, 23 January 2009 (UTC)
    I agree. Lucadionisi (talk) 21:54, 23 January 2009 (UTC)
    Me too. Lucadionisi (talk) 21:54, 23 January 2009 (UTC)
    I'm not sure. Lucadionisi (talk) 21:54, 23 January 2009 (UTC)
       What's your point? Lucadionisi (talk) 21:54, 23 January 2009 (UTC)
          Sort of an issue.... Lucadionisi (talk) 21:54, 23 January 2009 (UTC)

## Questions
#### Example of a question

What are you talking about, Willis? Lucadionisi (talk) 21:54, 23 January 2009 (UTC)
# Vala Programming/Intro/Getting Started

Vala Programming

## Getting Vala

As I write this, Vala is still under heavy development, and the most recent version of the vala compiler "valac" may be downloaded from the vala homepage, and will have to be compiled manually.
It may also be downloaded from your distribution's repositories. On a Debian based distribution (eg: Ubuntu), it may be installed by using the command:

## Hello World

We will begin with the standard Hello World program:

## Explanation

This is the start of a function definition. Vala looks for a function or a method called "main", which will be run when the program starts.
This line instructs Vala to execute the function "print", with a single string argument, "Hello, world!\n". In Vala, this is always the syntax you use to call functions.
The last line simply ends the definition of the main method.

### To Run

Save this file as hello.vala. Assuming you have Vala installed, then all it takes to compile and execute this program is:
valac is the Vala compiler, which will convert your Vala code into C. It can also automate the whole process of compiling the C into machine code. The resulting binary can then be directly executed on the machine.
If you give valac the -C switch, it will also create two files called hello.h and hello.c. If you look at the content of these files you can see that programming a class in Vala is equivalent to the same task in C, but a whole lot more succinct. You will also notice that this class is defined dynamically in the running system. This is a good example of the power of the GNOME platform, but as I've said before, you do not need to know much about this to use Vala.

## A More Complex Example

We may write a more complex example showing some of Vala's object oriented features:

### Explanation

The line
Informs the compiler that the program will be using the GLib namespace. This namespace is usually imported by default, so it is optional to import it explicitly.
The next line
identifies the beginning of a class definition, defining a class called Sample which is a subclass of the Object Class from the Glib namespace.
The line
is the definition of a public (visible outside the class) static (may be called without possessing an instance of the class) function that will return an integer value. It is the main entry point of the program (first function called when running the program).
Prints out the characters "Hello, World", and
returns the value zero to the caller, signalling that the function terminated successfully. In case of an error, the main function usually returns 1.