OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Invertebrate Zoology/Insects

* Chapter 15 ~ The Arthropods Class Insecta
* Contents ~ Introduction ~ Protozoans ~ Metazoans ~ Sponges ~ Cnidaria Ctenophores ~ Flatworms ~ Nemerteans ~ Pseudocoelomates ~ Annelids ~ Mollusks Arthropods ~ Chelicerates ~ Crustaceans ~ Insects ~ Echinoderms
* The insects are a diverse group. Shown: moth larva, Marsh fly, and damselfly.
| Subphylum: | Hexapoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
Orders :
Subclass Apterygota
Symphypleona - globular springtails
Subclass Archaeognatha (jumping bristletails)
Subclass Dicondylia
Monura - extinct
Thysanura (common bristletails)
Subclass Pterygota
Diaphanopteroidea - extinct
Palaeodictyoptera - extinct
Megasecoptera - extinct
Archodonata - extinct
Ephemeroptera (mayflies)
Odonata (dragonflies and damselflies)
Infraclass Neoptera
Blattodea (cockroaches)
Mantodea (mantids)
Isoptera (termites)
Zoraptera
Grylloblattodea
Dermaptera (earwigs)
Plecoptera (stoneflies)
Orthoptera (grasshoppers, crickets, katydids)
Phasmatodea (walking sticks, timemas)
Embioptera (webspinners)
Mantophasmatodea (gladiators)
Superorder Hemipterodea
Psocoptera (booklice, barklice)
Phthiraptera (lice)
Hemiptera (true bugs)
Thysanoptera (thrips)
Superorder Endopterygota
Miomoptera - extinct
Megaloptera (alderflies)
Raphidioptera (snakeflies)
Neuroptera (net-veined insects)
Coleoptera (beetles)
Strepsiptera (twisted-winged parasites)
Mecoptera (scorpionflies, etc.)
Siphonaptera (fleas)
Protodiptera - extinct
Diptera (true flies)
Trichoptera (caddisflies)
Lepidoptera (butterflies, moths)
Hymenoptera (ants, bees, wasps, etc.) :

### Introduction to the Insects

In terms of number of species described, the Subphylum Hexapoda is the largest in the Phylum Arthropoda. Hexapods (meaning "six legs or feet") include the insects (Class Insecta), which dominate terrestrial environments on earth. The subphylum also includes several groups of wingless arthropods of uncertain placement; namely the orders: Diplura, Collembola, and Protura.
* Read Subphylum Hexapoda
** Read Order Diplura
** Read Order Collembola
** Read Order Protura
* Read Class Insecta (Follow links as necessary to understand the terminology; Also included are:)
# Invertebrate Zoology/Introduction

<< Contents Page | Chapter 1 | Chapter 2 >>|
Chapter 1. Introduction to Zoology

## Zoology as a Science

Zoology is the branch of biology concerned with the scientific study of animals. Invertebrate Zoology deals with only a specific, although very large, part of the Animal Kingdom as we shall learn further into this Chapter. Zoology is not usually a starting course in biology, so it must be assumed that the student or user of this Guide already has some background in biology. This should be sufficient; it is not necessarily the case that Biology is followed by ofGeneral Zoology is followed by Invertebrate Zoology. However, you may find much of the material difficult to comprehend if you have not first acquired basic knowledge in General Biology. Nonetheless, our first assigned read at Wikipedia will be a review of biology and zoology as sciences:
* Read Biology (Links need not be pursued at this time)
* Read Zoology (Links need not be pursued at this time)
    and note that other texts encompassing topics in biology are available (under development) at the Wikibooks biology bookshelf as sources of reference.
# Models and Theories in Human-Computer Interaction/Input-Process-Output Model and Distributed Group Work

Aggregation and synergy may be the keys to successful groups, and many products are doing more to improve these aspects of distributed teams. Kraut discusses the ideas of group work being more successful than individual work in which I agree. Having worked as both a team member and on my own I realize that I, myself, seem to work better in a team for the same reasons mentioned in this study. In a collocated group, I am able to learn from other team members, gain support, ideate early on in the design process and get feedback. This should be the same for distributed teams, after all, there are many tools out there that claim to solve the issues of being distributed and promote communication among a group. As a member of a distributed team, I tried many different tools to help bridge the gaps we faced by being far apart from each other, but none of them could solve the actual issues faced by being separated.
There are many web applications like Basecamp, Adobe CC, OneNote and more that try to improve collaboration and communication which are important for supporting group members, motivating, and establishing relationships; many of them even try to incorporate video options to view each other. These are great compared to the alternative of a phone call, but they still don't solve the issues. In-office relationships are important for successful group work and its nearly impossible to form these online, there are always connection issues or miscommunication. Without meeting members in person its hard to understand their personalities, and usually, when we meet online we are meeting because we have something specific to discuss so we lose that in-office chatting which is important for getting to understand each other. This is vital in ensuring synergy among a group, members will understand each other better and learn how to communicate effectively with each other. These online apps for distributed teams make it difficult to choose the right personnel, don't solve coordination issues, and make it difficult for members to motivate each other without constant interaction.
# Models and Theories in Human-Computer Interaction/GOMS and its unpredictability

While GOMS can provide several advantages, such as minimal effort, cost, and time to market, it is plagued by a strong weakness of user unpredictability. This is especially apparent when looking at complex multi-tier application development.
I would like to present an example that applies to my professional experience. Currently I am developing a new sales application for a mid-size trailer manufacturing company. This application needs to have both online and offline capabilities, and will be used in the field by sales representatives at potential clients place of business. Since there are a range of environments that the sales representative will be using the application, it is extremely difficult to assume every possible scenario that could apply. Therefore, when evaluating the application using the GOMS method, we cannot factor in the environmental factors. In example, can we predict a user being interrupted in the middle of an operation? How about user fatigue in the system? Also, since this is an online / offline application, what if another factor such as network connectivity comes into play? Could this disrupt the flow of the application and cause the user to need to use an alternate path / method?
The unpredictability of GOMS definitely puts this method at a severe disadvantage over alternate methods when applied to certain scenarios, as demonstrated above. While GOMS may be appropriate for a select few scenario where user unpredictability does not have as major of an impact, there are a significantly larger number of scenarios where GOMS would not have a place.
# Models and Theories in Human-Computer Interaction/Human Computer Interaction is Ubiquitous

Carroll starts out his first chapter with:“Human-computer interaction (HCI) lies at the intersection between the social and behavioral sciences on the one hand, and computer and information technology on the other”. That is a vast coverage of our daily lives.
Basic breakdown of how an average person interacts with a computer system on a daily basis:
* Making breakfast using interface of kitchen appliances
* Interacting with car’s interfaces for a drive to work (or using smartphone / tablets to read news if taking public transportation)
* Interacting with a computer or machinery with controlling interface at school or work
* Interacting with exercising machines after work
* Interacting with TV or gaming or music system
It is quite fascinating to me of how the field of HCI can influence and shape how we perform our tasks on a daily basis. Being a multidisciplinary science with professionals coming from all fronts like anthropology, psychology, sociology, engineering, graphic design and many others allows the field of HCI to dive deeply into how every one of us as human perceive the system we are tasked to complete so that we can achieve an explicit goal in an explicit context.
HCI is without a doubt ubiquitous but I don’t think with the current exponential growth of technology its importance is being stressed enough. There are still a lot bad interfaces out there and there are still a lot of machineries that frustrate users more than comforting. Therefore, as tech companies are continuing to expand their markets in every corner of life, the application of HCI must be much better focused to ensure their final products enhance users productivity in accomplishing their goals.
# Models and Theories in Human-Computer Interaction/Increasing Collaborative Transparency Through the Externalization of Discussion

A collaborative platform both motivates and deters interaction in a number of ways.
It motivates interaction through:
* Providing an open-ended timeframe by which someone can communicate with a group of people at their leisure
* Providing an asynchronous environment by which a conversation can develop
* Providing a sense of content and opinion ownership, where someone can fully express themselves without interruption
It deters interaction through:
* Hindering the editing of content (makes sense for the class structure, but not indicative of real-world application, like Wikipedia)
* Less opportunity of collaborative writing and shared groupthink, since the medium is primarily being used by individual contributors for this application
Activity theory understands that the users are re-creating their own environment, not just choosing from possibilities in the availability of tools but actively creating an environment through their activity. In the case of using WikiBooks as a collaborative platform for the course, we are collectively socially mediating our student group’s learning and analysis of HCI. The Wikibooks platform allows the students and professor to externalize and make transparent the learnings from our individual internalization of the information provided in the lectures and reading, and helps us as a group keep a pulse on how others are interpreting the same information. This helps us build a digital classroom by which discussions are prompted, whereas in a traditional classroom the conversation may be organic.
# Models and Theories in Human-Computer Interaction/GOMS may be useful, but is it practical?
### GOMS may be useful, but is it practical? (Cindy Marinak)

HCI Models, Theories, and Frameworks define GOMS (Goals, Operators, Methods, and Selection rules) as a predictive model used to analyze error-free task efficiency for expert users. The model describes a user’s tasks by: the user’s goals to accomplish the task; the available operators (actions); the methods, comprised of subgoals and operator sequences; selection rules if there are multiple methods to accomplish the same goal. (Carroll, 2003) While I understand the value of collecting performance metrics, GOMS analysis does not appear to be a common approach used by software project teams.
The variations of GOMS analysis do not seem practical for use in many software companies. In my experience, small to mid-sized software organizations often hire generalists. These practitioners possess diverse skills such as user experience (UX) design, high-level user interface (UI) development capabilities, and broad versus in-depth knowledge of research techniques. Generalists often have some experience with common research methods such as heuristic evaluations and usability tests; some may not be aware of GOMS and likely do not possess experience conducting the analysis and interpreting the results. Are practitioners in the human-computer interaction (HCI) field familiar enough with GOMS models to use the technique for project research? If there is not a researcher on staff to conduct GOMS analysis, is there a need or willingness to hire an expert for a particular study?
In my experience, incorporating research into the software development lifecycle (SDLC) is challenging. The research method(s) proposed for a given project are based on factors such as the project release cycle, product maturity, budget, available resources, and goals of the study. A benefit of GOMS analysis is that it does not require end user participation. A limitation is that the analysis focuses on efficiency of skilled users’ error-free task completion. (Carroll, 2003) Efficiency is only one aspect of usability. Research without considering novice and intermediate users seems contradictory to many organizations striving for usable interfaces for all users.
Perhaps awareness of the GOMS model; practitioners’ exposure to tools that facilitate performing GOMS analysis; educating stakeholders about the benefits of the model, will promote an industry trend toward incorporating GOMS into product research capabilities.
Work Cited
Carroll, J. M. (2003). HCI Models, Theories, and Frameworks. San Francisco: Morgan Kaufmann Publishers.
# Models and Theories in Human-Computer Interaction/Impact of Norman's Principles on Interface Design

In the first chapter “The Psychopathology of Everyday Things”, Norman elaborates on the 6 important principles of design including affordance, signifier, constraints, mapping, feedback (together making up discoverability principle) and conceptual model. As an interface designer, these six principles set up a consistent foundation for my design strategy across different products that I work on. I’d like to use the following examples that I found from my daily design tasks to reiterate the importance of these principles.
Affordance: Scrolling has been a very common practice for web pages. Just a small touch of covering the elements in the bottom of page provides a strong affordance to user that there is more content below and therefore it prompts user to scroll.
Signifier: As scrolling a page can be long and time-consuming task (infinite scrolling), having a small signifier like “Back to top” icon or button in the bottom of the page provides a quick way for user to move back up.
Constraints: Creating a UI kit provides good constraint for the design process of a product. It helps to avoid introducing new elements every time a new page/feature gets designed.
Mapping: In crowded interfaces such as a landing page or a dashboard, grouping together the elements that share a common theme/content/visual traits and arranging them in the hierarchy of importance provides a good natural mapping for users to digest through the information.
Feedback: The use of simple animation recently has been used more often in mobile applications as it provides instant feedback on every step user goes through to accomplish a task.
Conceptual model: As much as designers want to keep the design clean and simplified, having obvious spelled-out text for important tasks (versus using highly abstract icons) provides users immediate understanding of they are supposed to do.
# Models and Theories in Human-Computer Interaction/Input-Process-Output Model for Online Collaboration

The WikiBook as a collaborative platform has some benefits as well as drawbacks compared to face-to-face interaction. Chapter 12 of the textbook discusses the Input-Process-Output model which measures the functionality of a group. One of the measures of success of a group is the amount of production given. The WikiBook and online classes in general are a great platform for production as they are not limited by classroom space or number of students on campus so they can utilize many students to work together and accomplish much larger tasks. However, there is a lack of synergy within the group without the personal face-to face interaction. Individuals may ask other students questions to gain a better understanding a produce higher quality work, but the interactions are much less engaging and it is more difficult to develop a relationship in which students feel completely comfortable asking questions and working together with others. In a face-to-face setting, interactions are more personal and lead to stronger relationships and healthier collaboration efforts.
Another benefit to the online interface is personnel. The information in this class WikiBook is not limited to students in central Iowa who attend classes on campus. It can include the perspectives of students from across the globe. However, the collaboration effort between students is very high. The time gap between interactions can be very large due to differences in time zone or work schedule. This inconsistency is a deterrent for communication among students. Given its pros and cons, the online interface for student interaction is a great learning tool for students and can lead to functional group work for some students while others may prefer the traditional face-to-face interaction.
# Models and Theories in Human-Computer Interaction/HCI Fragmentation
### Real Costs of HCI Fragmentation (Richard Lee)

Carroll’s material on the scientific fragmentation of HCI in the 80’s, 90’s, and 00’s was informative, but it would be a mistake to view the trend in the past tense. The fragmentation has in no way diminished, and has instead become further institutionalized and must be met with ever more passionate evangelism.
The hard fact is that fervor without facts has little impact on the annual budget, yet the evidence one might present to justify the effort, time and expense of both HCI research and implementation of subsequent product improvements is itself time consuming and expensive to produce.
I would argue that modern advances in both real user monitoring and in behavioral metrics through both the gathering of applicable user-driven data and its analysis should be heavily leveraged in driving forward the justification for the continued application and evolution of HCI models and theories.
The argument is often made that ‘good enough’ is sufficient when bringing a product to market, yet regardless of the scope of use (not every example is a downed plane or a raging nuclear reactor) the improvement of the users’ experience via the human/computer interface is guaranteed to have a positive net impact for the organizations who choose to invest in such efforts.
Direct revenue is of course a primary driver and metric in determining the feasibility of HCI research and application, but other factors are in play. Consumer confidence in both specific products and in companies as a whole is at stake.
WIth the proliferation of software and hardware choices and their integration into our daily lives becoming more complete every day, a user’s interaction with a small, seemingly insignificant member of a much larger family of products can determine the likelihood of further adoption. Negativity bias combined with the one-to-many aspects of social media and broadcast entertainment on-air and online can lead to instances where one user’s negative experience literally determines the success of a product or company in the marketplace.
Of course, it’s important to remember that there’s more to improving interaction than simply addressing usability issues, but those of us willing to take on the challenge of advancing the state of humanity’s relationship with technology are those best positioned to continue combating the fragmentation in our multifaceted field of science.
# Models and Theories in Human-Computer Interaction/Human Meets Machine - We are the Metaphore
### We are the Metaphor (Eric Andren)

Relating human to machine provides a great way to explain technologies on a level familiar to our being. It also provides a wonderful outlet for the connection of technology and nature and the expansion of technology into a direction better informed by the systems observed in nature each day.
By relating and realizing that the technologies or machines we create are more or less reverse engineered low functioning version of natural phenomenon we can allow the development of newer technologies to follow and be informed by these physical systems and increase usability.
We use metaphors in interface such as windows and other iconic representations like the file or trashcan. Metaphors are used to increase familiarity to make the user more comfortable and make the interface reach a higher level of usability. What would be more comfortable than an interface that reflected the systems we are influenced by since the moment we are conceived?
Tapping into this emotional outlet can create a marriage between human and system that reaches a level of unity provided by the phenomenon that created humanity and that we are slowly gaining a greater understanding of and infusing into our technologies.
# Introduction to World Issues

This book is intended to introduce the subject of World Issues.

## Table of Contents

* Mass Media
* Global Organization
* Quality of Life
* Terrorism
* Current Events
* Philosophy
* Religion
* Genocide
* The Mundane
# Introduction to World Issues/Mass Media

Mass media has a profound effect on how we live our lives. An understanding of the power of media in the formation of public opinion and regional attitudes is essential in learning about world-issues. Often, mass media is criticized for having a bias. However, it is important to note that everyone is biased. Every story that a person tells will be filtered through their human experience.

## Defining Media

Mass media are communications specifically conceived and designed to reach a very large audience. These can be sorted into five categories:
* Print media, such as magazines, newspapers, and flyers
* Visual media, such as television and billboards
* Audio media, such as radio
* Electronic Media, such as blogs, podcasts, and news websites
* Virtual media, a not yet fully explored area of the media, an area in which one can virtually "see" the outside world.
# Introduction to model railways
## Table of Contents

* Introduction
* Getting started for the novice
* Baseboards
* Tools
* Scenery
* References and further information
* More technical issues
* Cleaning
# Introduction to Transport Systems Casebook/About

This Casebook contains a set of case studies developed by students enrolled in the Introduction to Transportation Systems course taught by Prof. Jonathan Gifford in the School of Policy, Government and International Affairs at George Mason University.
# Introduction to World Issues/Terrorism
## Defining Terrorism

"The usage of terror to get a point across or to advocate something or other."
Elements of terrorism:

## Categories of Terrorism and Terrorist Groups
### Anti-Nationalist

Anti-nationalism is the idea that nationalism is undesirable or even dangerous in one form or another, and sometimes, though less often, the idea that all nationalism is dangerous and unfavourable in all cases. Anti-nationalism is, to varying degrees, the antithesis of nationalism.