OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Structural Biochemistry/Cirrhosis
### What is cirrhosis?

Cirrhosis is the final stage of chronic liver disease in which the liver begins to slowly deteriorate and malfunction. With cirrhosis, blood flow through the liver is blocked from scar tissue replacing healthier liver tissue. The scar tissue hinders the liver's everyday functions to control infections, remove bacteria and toxins from the blood, process nutrients, hormones and drugs, make proteins that regulate blood clotting, and produce bile to help absorb fats and fat-soluble vitamins.

### Causes of Cirrhosis

Common causes of cirrhosis, especially in the United States, are long-term Hepatitis C infection and long-term alcohol abuse.
Other potential causes are: autoimmune inflammation of the liver, disorders of the drainage system of the liver, long-term Hepatitis B infection, medications, metabolic disorders of iron and copper, nonalocoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), and nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH).

### Symptoms of Cirrhosis

Typically in the earlier stages of this liver disease, people will not show symptoms. But gradually, as the disease progresses, some may show symptoms of:
* Weakness
* Fatigue
* Loss of appetite
* Nausea
* Vomiting
* Weight Loss
* Abdominal pain and bloating
* Itching
* Spiderlike blood vessels on the skin

### Diagnosing Cirrhosis

During a doctor's visit, if the physician feels that a risk factor for cirrhosis, such as alcohol or obesity use, is present, the physician will conduct a physical examination in which they will ask the patient about their medical history and if they have displayed any symptoms of this disease.
The physician may request for a computerized tomography (CT) scan or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the liver to find signs of enlargement or reduced blood flow.
A liver biopsy can confirm the diagnosis of cirrhosis, but it is not necessary to determine if a patient is diagnosed with cirrhosis.

### Complications with Cirrhosis

As the liver slowly deteriorates, complications may develop. Some complications include:
* Bleeding disorders
* Buildup of fluid in the abdomen and infection of the fluid
* Enlarged veins in the esophagus, stomach, or intestines that can bleed easily
* Increased pressure in the blood vessels of the liver
* Kidney failure
* Mental confusion, change in level of consciousness, or coma

### Treatment

Cirrhosis patients should make changes to their lifestyles to cope with the disease by:
* Ceasing intake of alcohol
* Limiting salt and eating nutritious diet
* Getting vaccinated for influenza, hepatitis A & B
Some patients may be eligible for liver transplants if they have reached the end-stage of cirrhosis. Typically, patients at this stage are still facing complications regardless of treatments.

### References

* http://digestive.niddk.nih.gov/ddiseases/pubs/cirrhosis/index.aspx
* http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0001301/
# Cancer Classification

Cancers are classified in two ways: by the type of tissue in which the cancer originates (histological type) and by primary site, or the location in the body where the cancer first developed. This section introduces you to the first method: cancer classification based on histological type. The international standard for the classification and nomenclature of histologies is the International Classification of Diseases for Oncology, Third Edition (ICD-O-3).

# Classification by tissue types

From a histological standpoint there are hundreds of different cancers, which are grouped into six major categories:
* Carcinoma
* Sarcoma
* Myeloma
* Leukemia
* Lymphoma
* Mixed Types (Blastoma)

# Classification by site of origin

By primary site of origin, cancers may be of specific types like breast cancer, lung cancer, prostate cancer, liver cancer renal cell carcinoma (kidney cancer), oral cancer, brain cancer etc.

# Classification by grade

Cancers can also be classified according to grade. The abnormality of the cells with respect to surrounding normal tissues determines the grade of the cancer. Increasing abnormality increases the grade, from 1–4.
Cells that are well differentiated closely resemble normal specialized cells and belong to low grade tumors. Cells that are undifferentiated are highly abnormal with respect to surrounding tissues. These are high grade tumors.
* Grade 1 – well differentiated cells with slight abnormality
* Grade 2 – cells are moderately differentiated and slightly more abnormal
* Grade 3 – cells are poorly differentiated and very abnormal
* Grade 4 – cells are immature and primitive and undifferentiated

# Classification by stage

Cancers are also classified individually according to their stage. There are several types of staging methods. The most commonly used method uses classification in terms of tumor size (T), the degree of regional spread or node involvement (N), and distant metastasis (M). This is called the TNM staging.
For example, T0 signifies no evidence of tumor, T 1 to 4 signifies increasing tumor size and involvement and Tis signifies carcinoma in situ or limited to surface cells. Similarly N0 signifies no nodal involvement and N 1 to 4 signifies increasing degrees of lymph node involvement. Nx signifies that node involvement cannot be assessed. Metastasis is further classified into two – M0 signifies no evidence of distant spread while M1 signifies evidence of distant spread.
Stages may be divided according to the TNM staging classification. Stage 0 indicates cancer being in situ or limited to surface cells while stage I indicates cancer being limited to the tissue of origin. Stage II indicates limited local spread, Stage II indicates extensive local and regional spread while stage IV is advanced cancer with distant spread and metastasis.

## References

* “Cancer Classification” By Dr Ananya Mandal, MD
<http://www.news-medical.net/health/Cancer-Classification.aspx >
# Structural Biochemistry/Chromatography/Paper
## Basic Concept of Paper Chromatography

Though this is a different kind of chromatography, it still separates mixtures of substances into the individual components, molecules, even atoms. The size and concentration of the component is determinant of the component's rate. The stationary phase, which is either a solid or a liquid supported by a solid, is absorbed in a uniform manner in paper chromatography. On the contrary, the mobile phase, being gas or liquid, serves as the solvent. Compounds can travel as far as the solvent does when the paper is dipped in a container filled with solvent. These compounds travel at different rates and separated into distinctly colored dots on the paper. The solvent that is used can be either nonpolar or polar. These properties affect the solubility of the compounds and components in the particular mixture. Polar components will be attracted to the water molecules attached to the cellulose (paper) and not attracted to a nonpolar solvent. The chromatogram will not contain the polar components, given that it doesn't climb up the paper with the nonpolar solvent. These components spend more time in the stationary phase rather than the mobile phase therefore the rate of moving up the paper is slow. If it were the opposite and nonpolar components were in a polar solvent, then the same thing will occur. The mobile phase can be various organic solvents or mixture. The compound can be stained with iodine in order to visualize where they have traveled easily.The stationary phase can be called a paper chromatogram. Usually, one will split the paper into individual lanes so that multiple trials can be done with one paper. Also it will allow the experimenter to compare the differences or similarities present in each lane depending on how far the compound has traveled.
The paper is placed in a container with a shallow layer of a suitable solvent or mixture of solvents in it. Sometimes the paper is just coiled into a loose cylinder and fastened with paper clips top and bottom. Then the cylinder stands in the bottom of the container. The container is covered to make sure that the atmosphere in the beaker is saturated with solvent vapor. Saturating the atmosphere in the beaker with vapor stops the solvent from evaporating as it rises up the paper. As the solvent slowly travels up the paper, the different components of the ink mixtures travel at different rates and the mixtures are separated into different colored spots.
The distance travelled relative to the solvent is called the Rf value. Its formula is: Rf = distance traveled by compound (a.k.a. the solute) / distance traveled by solvent. Thus, the higher the Rf value, the further the compound has traveled up the paper. The main benefit of the Rf value is that we can now compare values similar values and conclude that they are indeed the same compound

## General Scheme
# References

http://www.chemguide.co.uk/analysis/chromatography/paper.html
* 1 2 3 Chromatography,
# Structural Biochemistry/Chromatography/Planar

Planar chromatography is one type of chromatography technique in which the stationary phase is on a flat plate and the mobile phase moves through stationary phase due to capillary action. This technique was used to separate the mixture. There are two types of planar chromatography: A. Thin layer chromatography TLC. B. Paper Chromatography
# Structural Biochemistry/Chromatography/Liquid
### Liquid Chromatography

Liquid Chromatography is a separation technique in which the mobile phase is a liquid. This technique can be done on either a column or a plane. Nowadays liquid chromatography is done by high performance liquid chromatography.
In High Performance Liquid Chromatography, the sample is forced by the mobile phase, a liquid at high pressure, through a stationary phase column that is irregularly packed, has spherically shaped particles, or a porous monolithic layer.
# Skaneateles Conservation Area/Invasive species/Rhamnus cathartica
## Rhamnus cathartica (common buckthorn)

Common buckthorn or European buckthorn (Rhamnus cathartica) is native to much of Europe, western Asia and northern Africa.
It’s a small tree or large shrub that was introduced to North America by early settlers for medicinal purposes and later for use as an ornamental hedge plant and had escaped cultivation as early as 1800.

### Ecological impact

Buckthorns displace native plants and alter soil nutrients. Buckthorn prefers forest edges, meadows, and disturbed areas. It fixes nitrogen and can create dense thickets shading out native vegetation.

### Description

Buckthorn forms small trees up to 25 feet tall. Buckthorns are usually dioecious and bloom in the spring. These flowers ripen into black fruit from August to September. These fruits can persist into winter. Fruits are eaten by birds, mice, and deer. Seeds can remain viable in the soil for 2-6 years. Young buckthorn can mature in 5-6 years.
* ↑ J.S.Kurylo, K.S.Knight, J.R.Stewart, A.G.Endress (2007). "Rhamnus cathartica: native and naturalized distribution and habitat preferences." Journal of the Torrey Botanical Society. 134(3): 420-430.
* ↑ Jessica S. Kurylo, & Anton G. Endress (2012). Rhamnus cathartica : Notes on Its Early History in North America. Northeastern Naturalist. 19. 601-640. 10.2307/41810145
* ↑ Richard N. Mack (2003). "Plant naturalizations and invasions in the eastern United States: 1634-1860." Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden. 90(1): 77-90.
* ↑ CABI (2021) Rhamnus cathartica (buckthorn). In: Invasive Species Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. www.cabi.org/isc.
* ↑ "Common Buckthorn." New York Invasive Species Information 2021
* ↑ "Common Buckthorn." Western New York PRISM 2021

### Observations of Rhamnus cathartica at the SCA

The following photographs and corresponding iNaturalist observations of Rhamnus cathartica were made at or very near the Skaneateles Conservation Area. Click on images to enlarge and read details on Wikimedia Commons or on the "iNat obs" links to view the corresponding observations at iNaturalist.
* Rhamnus cathartica being removed from old field behind transfer station, 28 Mar 2011. iNat obs
* Rhamnus cathartica being removed from old field behind transfer station, 29 Mar 2011. iNat obs
* Rhamnus cathartica resprouts from one of the above buckthorns in old field behind transfer station, 24 Jun 2011. iNat obs
* Rhamnus cathartica more resprouts, 18 Sep 2011. iNat obs
* Rhamnus cathartica being removed from above fishing pond, 30 Apr 2012. iNat obs
* Rhamnus cathartica on side of main Federal Farm trail, 28 Aug 2014. iNat obs
# Skaneateles Conservation Area/Invasive species/Viburnum

The majority of the Viburnum species found in our vicinity area are native shrubs or small trees, but there are a half dozen Viburnum species that are listed as invasive in our region.
Table 1. List of invasive Viburnum species likely to be present in the region. :
| Invasive Viburnum species | Common name | NYS Score | NYS Rank | NYS Tier | FL Tier | SCA Tier | iMap | iNat |
| Viburnum plicatum | Japanese snowball | — | High | 2 | 2 | 1a | Map | iNat |
| Viburnum opulus var. opulus | Guelder rose, European cranberry bush | 67.09 | Moderate | — | — | 3 | Map | iNat |
| Viburnum sieboldii | Siebold’s viburnum | 62.50 | Moderate | — | buffer | 1b | Map | iNat |
| Viburnum dilatatum | linden arrowwood | 57.14 | Moderate | — | buffer | 1b | Map | iNat |
| Viburnum lantana | wayfaring tree | 53.75 | Moderate | — | 4 | 1a | Map | iNat |
| Viburnum setigerum | Tea viburnum | 41.25 | Low | — | — | 1b | — | iNat |
* ↑ New York Invasive Species (IS) Information (NYIS.info) 2021
* ↑ New York State Invasive Species Tiers: NYS Tier
* ↑ New York State Invasive Species Tiers: FL-PRISM Tier
* ↑ The SCA Tier is tentatively calculated using the tier guidelines with the "larger area" = FL-PRISM and buffer = "a few miles."
* ↑ New York State Invasive Species Tiers: iMapInvasives
# Skaneateles Conservation Area/Invasive species/Poa

<< Moderately invasive plants at the SCA

## Poa spp. (bluegrass)

There are about 15 bluegrass (Poa species) growing wild in New York state, including both native and introduced grasses. Of these species, 5 are considered to be invasive:
* Poa compressa (Canada blue grass) - Moderately invasive (69%)
* Poa pratensis (Kentucky blue grass) - Moderately invasive (68%)
* Poa bulbosa (bulbous blue grass) - Invasive (49%)
* Poa annua (annual bluegrass) -
* Poa trivialis (rough-sheathed blue grass) - widespread weed of seasonally-wet shaded areas

## Invasiveness ranking for Poa (bluegrass)

Regulated by New York State law.

### 1. Ecological impact (/)

1.1. Impact on Natural Ecosystem Processes and System-Wide Parameters
1.2. Impact on Natural Community Structure
1.3. Impact on Natural Community Composition
1.4. Impact on other species or species groups

### 2. Biological characteristics and dispersal ability (/)

2.1. Mode and rate of reproduction
2.2 Innate potential for long-distance dispersal
2.3. Potential to be spread by human activities
2.4. Characteristics that increase competitive advantage
2.5. Growth vigor
2.6. Germination/Regeneration
2.7. Other species in the genus invasive in New York or elsewhere

### 3. Ecological amplitude and distribution (/)

3.1. Density of stands in natural areas in the northeastern USA and eastern Canada
3.2. Number of habitats the species may invade
3.3. Role of disturbance in establishment
3.4. Climate in native range
3.5. Current introduced distribution in the northeastern USA and eastern Canada
3.6. Current introduced distribution of the species in natural areas in the 8 NY PRISMs

### 4. Difficulty of control (/)

4.1. Seed banks
4.2. Vegetative regeneration
4.3. Level of effort required

### References for invasiveness ranking

* ↑ M.J. Jordan, G. Moore & T.W. Weldy (2008). Invasiveness ranking system for non-native plants of New York. Unpublished. The Nature Conservancy, Cold Spring Harbor, NY; Brooklyn Botanic Garden, Brooklyn, NY; The Nature Conservancy, Albany, NY. ssss assessed by aaaa, dddd.
* ↑ New York Codes, Rules and Regulations, Title 6 Section 575.4 - Regulated invasive species

## Observations of ssss (ccc) at the SCA

The following photographs and corresponding iNaturalist observations of tttt were made at or very near the Skaneateles Conservation Area. Click on images to enlarge and read details on Wikimedia Commons or on the "iNat obs" links to view the corresponding observations at iNaturalist.
* tttt, Skaneateles Conservation Area, dd mmm yyyy. iNat obs
* File:Tttttt SCA-yymmdd nn.jpg
# Skaneateles Conservation Area/Invasive species/Potamogeton crispus
## Potamogeton crispus (curly-leaf pondweed)

Curly-leaf pondweed (Potamogeton crispus) is a submerged perennial aquatic weed from Europe, Africa, and Australia that invades both shallow and deep water, including ponds at the conservation area. It is one of the first pond weeds observed each season but often dies off early, depleting oxygen levels in the ponds.
* ↑ WNYPRISM (2021). Curly-leaf Pondweed. Western New York Partnership for Regional Invasive Species Management.

### Description

Leaves are about a half inch wide and 1 to 3 inches long, arranged spirally around the stem. Stems may reach up to about 30 inches in length.
* ↑ LHPRISM (2021). Potamogeton crispus (Curly-leaf pondweed) Lower Hudson Partnership for Regional Invasive Species Management.

### Observations of Potamogeton crispus at the SCA

The following photographs and corresponding iNaturalist observations of Potamogeton crispus were made at or very near the Skaneateles Conservation Area. Click on images to enlarge and read details on Wikimedia Commons or on the "iNat obs" links to view the corresponding observations at iNaturalist.
* Potamogeton crispus on a stump at the edge of a beaver pond at the SCA, 4 Sep 2018. iNat obs
* Potamogeton crispus on a log at the edge of a beaver pond at the SCA, 4 Sep 2018. iNat obs
# The Maryland Entrepreneur's Guide/Additional Resources

Chapter 1 Private Financing
Chapter 2 Maryland Financing Programs
Chapter 3 Federal Financing
Chapter 4 Incubators
Chapter 5 Business Enterprise Programs
Chapter 6 Opportunities for Business Growth
Chapter 7 Tax Credit and Incentive Programs
Chapter 8 Intellectual Property Protection
Chapter 9 Choice of Entity
Additional Resources
Contributors
Conditions of Use; Contributor's Disclaimer
Small Business Source This website serves as guide to local entrepreneurs by providing access to advice from established entrepreneurs in the Maryland area, advice and how-to articles, local business news and local business calendars. The Small Business Source also provides links to a number of local and regional nonprofits and government resources.
SBA Learning Center The SBA Learning Center is an online service provided by the US Small Business Administration that offers instruction for small businesses, and provides information on counseling, mentoring, and training programs offered by local SBA District Offices.
State Agency Resources
DBED site that deals with starting new businesses
DBED site that deals with resources available to businesses
Attorney General's manual: Guide to Legal Aspects of Doing Business in Maryland
Business In Maryland Made Easy site that allows one-stop registration of simple business forms, one-stop shop to complete and submit business licenses, and expedited review of qualifying development projects
Private Resources
Saul Ewing LLP: The Entrepreneur's Guide To Early Stage Financing
The preceding chapters of this Guide have provided links to specific references which may help an entrepreneur establish and maintain a Maryland business entity. Some resources are more comprehensive and may also be worthy of additional consideration for both new and established Maryland businesses. Some of these additional resources are listed below.
# The Maryland Entrepreneur's Guide

A concise guide to federal and Maryland financing and support programs for emerging companies brought to you by the Guide's Original Contributors.
A downloadable PDF version is available here: A Maryland Entrepreneur's GuidePDF.
Please note that the PDF version of the Guide is updated periodically from the Wikibooks version and may not include all current contributions to the Guide that you see today.
Contributions to the Guide are encouraged. All contributors should read the Editing Guidelines before making any changes to the Guide.
* Chapter 1 -Private Financing
* Several types of early-stage private equity are available for business entrepreneurs. Entrepreneurs should be aware of funding sources other than bank loans and their own personal funds.
* Chapter 2 -Maryland Financing Programs
* The State of Maryland has many state sponsored financing programs of which entrepreneurs should be aware.
* Chapter 3 –Federal Financing
* Important small business financing programs are provided by the U.S. federal government.
* Chapter 4 –Incubators
* University and non-university incubators, and incubation associations, can be important for small businesses.
* Chapter 5 –Business Enterprise Programs
* State & county business enterprise programs should be considered.
* Chapter 6 –Opportunities for Business Growth
* Business associations, councils, chambers of commerce and other business support groups may provide assistance.
* Chapter 7 –Tax Credit and Incentive Programs
* Special zoning and tax credit programs can be an important incentive.
* Chapter 8 –Intellectual Property Protection
* A description of the various types of protections available for intellectual property.
* Chapter 9 –Choice of Entity
* Choosing the right entity for your business is the first step in creating a successful company.
* Additional Resources
* Other comprehensive resources may be worthy of additional consideration.
* Contributors
* Participants helping to develop this Guide.
* Conditions of Use; Contributor's Disclaimer
# TeX/TeX dimensions

A dimension specifies a distance. Dimension are used to specify sizes of things, such as the length of a line. Dimensions are written using a factor (a multiplier) and a unit of measure.

## Units of measure

The font-independent units of measure that TeX understands are:
* pt: point (72.27 points = 1 inch)
* pc: pica (1 pica = 12 points)
* bp: big point (72 big points = 1 inch)
* in: inch
* cm: centimeter (2.54 centimeters = 1 inch)
* mm: millimeter (10 millimeters = 1 centimeter)
* dd: didot point (1157 didot points = 1238 points)
* cc: cicero (1 cicero = 12 didot points)
* sp: scaled point (65536 scaled points = 1 point)
The font-dependent units of measure are:
* ex: a vertical measure usually about the height of the letter 'x' in the current font
* em: a horizontal measure usually equal to the point size of the current font and about the width of the letter 'M' in the font
Finally, TeX provides three "infinite" units of measure: 'fil', 'fill' and 'filll', in increasing order of strength.

## Usage

A dimension is written as a factor (a multiplier) followed by a unit of measure, for example:
The last of these represents an infinite distance. TeX only accepts infinite distances when specifying the stretch or shrink of a glue. An infinite distance outweighs any finite distance or any weaker infinite distance. For example, if you add 1000in or 2fil to -1fill, then you obtain -1fill.

## See also:

* \hskip
* \mskip
* \vskip
* \hfill
* \hfil
* \hss
* \vss
* \hfilneg
# TeX/above
## Description

\above is TeX's more general command for making fractions. Printing
produces the fraction $a \over b$ where the separating bar has thickness 0.5pt. Grouping may be required to make sure that not too much is included in the numerator and denominator. A good rule of thumb is to simply put braces around any fraction as in
The primitives \over and \atop can be replicated in terms of \above as

## See Also

* \atop
* \atopwithdelims
* \over
* \overwithdelims
# TeX/abovedisplayskip
## Description

Value for spacing above a display style formula. See also \abovedisplayshortskip

## External links

* http://tex.stackexchange.com/questions/30909/abovedisplayskip-vs-abovedisplayshortskip
# TeX/abovedisplayshortskip
## Description

Extra spacing above a mathematical display style formula

## See also

* abovedisplayskip

## External links

* http://tex.stackexchange.com/questions/30909/abovedisplayskip-vs-abovedisplayshortskip