OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Classical Nahuatl/Introduction

Nahuatl (pronounced in two syllables, NA-watl ['na.watɬ]) is a term applied to some members of the Aztecan or Nahuan sub-branch of the Uto-Aztecan language family. The languages called "Nahuatl" are all Native American languages indigenous to central Mexico.
The term "Nahuatl" is often used specifically with reference to the Classical Nahuatl language, which was the language of the Aztec Empire, and, according to Aztec historiography, the earlier Toltec Empire, and was used as a lingua franca in much of Mesoamerica during the 7th century AD through the late 16th century, at which time its prominence and influence was interrupted by the Spanish conquest of the New World. It should be pointed out that Nahuatl influence increased slightly for some time before decreasing, as the Spaniards used Nahuatl to strengthen their influence over the conquered territories and to spread Christianity; it was even used in places it had not previously been spoken. This was also done (although not to the same extent) for the Quechua in South America. When the Spanish colonies began to gain independence, the Spanish-speaking leaders (mainly "criollos") made Spanish the predominant language.
The term "Nahuatl" also serves to identify a number of modern Nahuatl dialects (linguistic variants, some of them mutually unintelligible) that are still spoken by at least 1.5 million people in what is now Mexico, as well as small populations in El Salvador and the United States of America. All of these dialects show influence from the Spanish language to some degree, although the extent of this influence varies. No modern dialects are identical to Classical Nahuatl, but those spoken in and around the Valley of Mexico are generally more closely related to Classical Nahuatl than peripheral ones. Modern variants of Nahuatl are still the most widely spoken group of Native American languages in Mexico, although most Nahuatl speakers also speak Spanish as a second language.
Nahuatl was originally written with a pictographic script which was not a full writing system but instead served as a mnemonic to remind readers of texts they had learnt orally. The script appeared in inscriptions carved in stone and in picture books, many of which the Spanish destroyed. The Spanish introduced the Latin alphabet to write Nahuatl, and a large amount of prose and poetry was subsequently written. There has been considerable debate about how to spell Nahuatl in Latin script, as many of the sounds present in Nahuatl are not present in the Romance languages Latin was developed to express.
# Classical Nahuatl/Numbers

Note: It is counted in steps of 20, ordinal numbers have "ic" (=so that) in front of the numeral (in some dialects also "ipan")
| arabic number | roman number | numeral | ordinal number | ordinal number word |
| 0 | - | ahtle | | |
| 1 | I | ce | 1. | ic ce |
| 2 | II | ome | 2. | ic ome |
| 3 | III | yei | 3. | ic yei |
| 4 | IV | nahui | 4. | ic nahui |
| 5 | V | macuilli | 5. | ic macuilli |
| 6 | VI | chicuace | 6. | ic chicuace |
| 7 | VII | chicome | 7. | ic chicome |
| 8 | VIII | chicuyei | 8. | ic chicuyei |
| 9 | IX | chicnahui | 9. | ic chicnahui |
| 10 | X | matlactli | 10. | ic matlactli |
| 11 | XI | matlactlihuan ce | 11. | ic matlactlihuan ce |
| 12 | XII | matlactlihuan ome | 12. | ic matlactlihuan ome |
| 13 | XIII | matlactlihuan yei | 13. | ic matlactlihuan yei |
| 14 | XIV | matlactlihuan nahui | 14. | ic matlactlihuan nahui |
| 15 | XV | caxtölli | 15. | ic caxtölli |
| 16 | XVI | caxtöllihuan ce | 16. | ic caxtöllihuan ce |
| 17 | XVII | caxtöllihuan ome | 17. | ic caxtöllihuan ome |
| 18 | XVIII | caxtöllihuan yei | 18. | ic caxtöllihuan yei |
| 19 | XIX | caxtöllihuan nahui | 19. | ic caxtöllihuan nahui |
| 20 | XX | cempohualli | 20. | ic cempohualli |
| 21 | XXI | cempohuallihuan ce | 21. | ic cempohuallihuan ce |
| 22 | XXII | cempohuallihuan ome | 22. | ic cempohuallihuan ome |
| 23 | XXIII | cempohuallihuan yei | 23. | ic cempohuallihuan yei |
| 29 | XXIX | cempohuallihuan chicnahui | 29. | ic cempohuallihuan chicnahui |
| 30 | XXX | cempohuallihuan matlactli | 30. | ic cempohuallihuan matlactli |
| 31 | XXXI | cempohuallihuan matlactli ce | 31. | ic cempohuallihuan matlactli ce |
| 39 | XXXIX | cempohuallihuan caxtöllihuan nahui | 39. | ic cempohuallihuan caxtöllihuan nahui |
| 40 | XL | ompohualli | 40. | ic ompohualli |
| 50 | L | ompohuallihuan matlactli | 50. | ic ompohuallihuan matlactli |
| 60 | LX | eipohualli | 60. | ic eipohualli |
| 70 | LXX | eipohuallihuan matlactli | 70. | ic eipohuallihuan matlactli |
| 80 | LXXX | nauhpohualli | 80. | ic nauhpohualli |
| 90 | XC | naupohuallihuan matlactli | 90. | ic naupohuallihuan matlactli |
| 100 | C | macuilpohualli | 100. | ic macuilpohualli |
| 200 | CC | matlacpohualli | 200. | ic matlacpohualli |
| 300 | CCC | caxtölpohualli | 300. | ic caxtölpohualli |
| 1.000 | M | ce mil | 1000. | ic ce mil |
back to nahuatl
# Classical Nahuatl/Incorporation of Foreign Words

Due to the phonology of Nahuatl not covering all possible sounds in Spanish, foreign words that are incorporated into Nahuatl are made to fit Nahautl's phonology using the closest Nahuatl phoneme.
Conversion table :
| Spanish Sound | Nahuatl Sound | Reasoning |
| guerrero | quellelo |
| gobernador | copelnatol |
| medio | melio | medial position exception |
| caballo | cahuallo | medial position exception |
| doña | toya | one form of substitution for "ñ" |
| doña | tona | one form of substitution for "ñ" |
| Fabian | papia | F turns into a P |
| José | Xoce | normal substititution |
| cristiano, cruz | quixtiano, coloz | Nahuatl cannot start with two consonants. If a Spanish word starts with two consonants, the "r" sound in dropped. |
| mula | mola |
| batan | patan |
# Classical Nahuatl/Example Sentences

Example 1 :
| | Object | Verb | Subject | Subject |
| Nahuatl | Anime | ītōcā | Xapon | tlayōlītīliztli. |
| English (literally) | Anime | is called | Japanese | animation |
| English translation | Japanese animation is called anime. | Japanese animation is called anime. | Japanese animation is called anime. | Japanese animation is called anime. |
# Cognitive Science: An Introduction/Kinds of Intelligences

Cognitive science is about intelligent agents in general, not just human ones. As such it's useful to think about what kinds of agents there are in the broadest possible terms. Philosopher Daniel Dennett offers a useful classification scheme for this, with each class named after a relevant scientist.

## Darwinian Creatures

Some agents are created (or born) with every competency they will ever have. They cannot learn. We will call these "Darwinian creatures."

## Skinnerian Creatures

In addition to the competencies they are created/born with, Skinnerian creatures (named after the behaviourist and learning scientist B.F. Skinner) can learn. You can see the chapter on learning for more information about what learning is, but for purposes of this discussion you can think of learning in terms of reinforcement learning (as its known in AI) or operant conditioning (as it's known in psychology): making behaviours more or less likely according to feedback from the environment.

## Popperian Creatures

Popperian creatures have all the skills of Skinnerian creatures, but can also consider hypothetical situations and make decisions based on the outcome in their imagination. For example, you might imagine that hot sauce on ice cream would taste bad, so you choose not to eat it. You learned, in this case, from a simulation in your imagination, rather than directly from experience with the environment. This class is named after Karl Popper, a philosopher of science.

## Gregorian Creatures

The most complex intelligence class (that we know of so far), is that of the Gregorian creatures, who have various thinking tools, from math to capitalism to computer programming. These tools are shared culturally, and in artifacts outside of the creatures themselves. This class of creatures is named after Richard Gregory, a British psychologist.
* ↑ Dennett, D. C. (2017). From bacteria to Bach and back: The evolution of minds. New York: WW Norton & Company.
# Learning Over Human History
## Genetic Learning

Genetics in a learning context refers to learning when environments change very slowly over the course of time. Factors that change environments could include things like evolution or even natural disasters. People and animals adapt to these things and learn about the environment around them through observation.

## Cultural Learning/Cultural Transmission

Cultural learning, also referred to as cultural transmission, takes place when environments change more quickly. It is a type of learning rooted in more in imitation and often in tradition. There are various different kinds of cultural learning.
* Content bias is imitation of the best ideas in society or those that seem to work successfully. Basically, the idea is to shape society to improve based on what was successful in the past
. Upholding cultural tradition can also come into play in this type of learning.
* Prestige Bias is similar to content bias but is on a more personal level. Prestige bias involves observing how the most elite or successful people in society lived and trying to do things based on imitating them.
* Conformist bias is simply imitating the most popular way of doing things. It comes through observation and over time gaining an understanding of cultural standards. For example, if someone from North America visited China, they would notice many different cultural customs in day to day interactions and language patterns, and by observing what most people do they could imitate it to act in a way more suited to that culture.
* Individual learning is basically shaping cultural standards by figuring things out on your own, and not requiring observation of the previous cultural standards to function. This type of learning often takes place when cultures change very rapidly, because in those instances cultural transmission gets more limited the faster the culture changes.

## References

* ↑ Heinrich, McElreath, J, R (2007). Dual inheritance theory: The evolution of human cultural capacities and cultural evolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
# Digital Electronics/Asychronous Device
## Asychronous Device

* Digital Multiplexer
* Digital DeMultiplexing
# Digital Electronics/Asychronous Device/Digital Multiplexer
## Digital demultiplexers

Demultiplexers take one data input and a number of selection inputs, and they have several outputs. They forward the data input to one of the outputs depending on the values of the selection inputs. Demultiplexers are sometimes convenient for designing general purpose logic, because if the demultiplexer's input is always true, the demultiplexer acts as a decoder. This means that any function of the selection bits can be constructed by logically OR-ing the correct set of outputs.
    Example: A Single Bit 1-to-4 Line Demultiplexer

### List of ICs which provide demultiplexing

The 7400 series has several ICs that contain demultiplexer(s):
    S.No.IC No.FunctionOutput State 1 74139 Dual 1:4 demux. Output is inverted input 3 74156 Dual 1:4 demux. Output is open collector 4 74138 1:8 demux. Output is inverted input 5 74154 1:16 demux. Output is inverted input 6 74159 1:16 demux. Output is open collector and same as input

## Reference

    Multiplexer
# Digital Electronics/Combinational Gates
## Combination gates
### Buffer

    Basic Logic GatesCombinational GatesSymbolMathmatical FormulaTruth Table Buffer Y = is NOT NOT A Y = AA B 0 0 1 1

### NOT Gate

    Digital GateCombinational GatesSymbolMathematical ExpressionTruth Table NOT Gate Y = is NOT AA B 0 1 1 0

### NAND Gate

    Digital GateCombinational GateSymbolMathematical ExpressionTruth Table Buffer Y = is NOT (A*B)A B Y 0 1 1 1 0 1

### NOR Gate

    Digital GateCombinational GateSymbolMathematical ExpressionTruth Table NOT Y = is NOT (A+B)A B Y 0 1 0 1 0 0

### XNOR Gate

    Basic GatesCombinational GateSymbolMathematical FormulaTruth Table NOT Gate 100px|Cổng NOT (NOT Gate)]]Y = is NOT AA B Y 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1
# Digital Electronics/Building Circuits with Breadboards

One of the best ways to learn how digital circuits work is to build them with an inexpensive solderless breadboard.
They typically come in three sizes
* mini
* half (around 400 connection points)
* full
# Digital Electronics/Digital Decoder
## Digital Decoder

Digital Decoder is a Digital Device that use Control Lines to select Output Lines

## Configuration

    Gate level circuit diagram of a single bit 4-to-2 line encoder
| I$_3$ | I$_2$ | I$_1$ | I$_0$ | O$_1$ | O$_0$ |
| 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 |
| 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
| 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 |
| 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 |
# Digital Electronics/Data Selector
## Data Selector

Data Selector take one data input and a number of selection inputs, and they have several outputs. They forward the data input to one of the outputs depending on the values of the selection inputs.
Demultiplexers are sometimes convenient for designing general purpose logic, because if the demultiplexer's input is always true, the demultiplexer acts as a decoder. This means that any function of the selection bits can be constructed by logically OR-ing the correct set of outputs.
# Digital Electronics/Digital Data
## Digital Data

Digital Data is a Binary Numbers of two bits 0 and 1 . A 0 & 1 could be
* 0v & 5v
* Switch Opened & Switch Closed
* High & Low

## Data Communication
### Parallel In Parallel Out

Input Data is entered in Parallel and get out in Parallel
Data In --> Data Out
    0 --> 0
    1 --> 1
    0 --> 0
    1 --> 1

### Parallel In Series Out

Input Data is entered in Parallel and get out in Series
Data In
    0
    1
    0
    1
Data Out
    0101
# Mead

Mead (IPA:ˈmiːd) is an alcoholic beverage produced from fermented honey. Its strength can vary, but most commercial mead varieties have a similar alcohol percentage to wines. It tends to be quite sweet, with an obvious honey flavour.

### See also

* Mead recipe in the Cookbook
# Bartending/Cocktails

This is an index of the recipes for various mixed alcoholic drinks, and their non-alcoholic equivalents. Cocktails of historical significance are also listed at Wikipedia.
Alphabetical list of all cocktails: A-Z glossary of cocktails
Cocktails categorized by major ingredients:
* Cocktails with beer
* Cocktails with bourbon
* Cocktails with brandy
* Cocktails with gin
* Cocktails with rum
* Cocktails with tequila
* Cocktails with vodka
* Cocktails with whiskey
* Cocktails with wine
Other categories:
* Cocktails with amaretto
* Cocktails with Jägermeister
* Cocktails with orange flavored liqueur
* Cocktails with sake
* Cocktail shots and shooters
* Flaming beverages
* Other cocktails
* Non-alcoholic cocktails
# Bartending/Alcohol/Vodka

Vodka is purified by distillation from a fermented substance such as grain or molasses, and it usually has an alcohol content of 35% to 50% by volume (70 - 100º proof). Vodka consists primarily of water and alcohol (ethanol), and sometimes various flavorings.
The classic Russian and Polish vodka is 40% ABV (USA 80 proof). This can be attributed to the Russian standards for vodka production introduced in 1894 by Alexander III from research undertaken by the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev. According to the Vodka Museum in Moscow, Mendeleev found the perfect percentage to be 38. However, since spirits in his time were taxed on their strength, the percentage was rounded up to 40 to simplify the tax computation. At strengths less than this, vodka drunk neat can taste "watery"; above this strength, the taste of vodka can have more "burn". Some governments set a minimum alcohol content for a spirit to be called "vodka". For example, the European Union sets a minimum of 37.5% alcohol by volume.
Although vodka is generally drunk neat in its Eastern European and Scandinavian homeland, its growth in popularity elsewhere owes much to its usefulness in cocktails and other mixed drinks, such as the bloody Mary, the screwdriver, the vodka tonic, and the vodka martini.

## References

* ↑ Gin and Vodka Association
# Bartending/Alcohol/Nut-flavored liqueur
## Amadeus

       28% ABV (56º proof)
       Origin: Austria (Mozart Distillery)
       Flavor: Almond and orange
       Appearance: Brandywine

## Amaretto
### Amaretto Di Saronno

       28% ABV (56º proof)
       Country of origin: Italy
       Flavor: almond, apricot drupe
       Appearance: Brandywine

### Lazzaroni Amaretto

       24% ABV (48º proof)
       Country of origin: Italy
       Flavor: Almond, apricot drupe
       Appearance: Brandywine

## Frangelico

       20% ABV (40º proof)
       Country of origin: Italy
       Flavor: Wild hazelnuts, berries, flowers, herbs
       Appearance: Brandywine

## Nocello

       24% ABV (48º proof)
       Country of origin: Italy
       Flavor: hazelnut and walnut
       Color: hazel

## Nocino

       40% ABV (80º proof)
       Country of origin: Italy
       Flavor: green walnut-husk infusion
       Color: dark brown
# Bartending/Alcohol/Orange liqueur

Triple sec, the most common type of orange liqueur, gets its name from the distillation process. Sec means dry. Triple sec means triple dry, or triple distilled. It's a useful orange-flavored liqueur.
Inexpensive triple secs tend to be much sweeter and with a less assertive orange flavour than Cointreau and other high-end triple secs. Therefore they will balance cocktails differently, often making them too sweet or not as orange-flavoured as would be expected. Different triple secs will require different proportions, and with some of the cheapest, which are low-proof grain alcohol and artificial flavorings, no proportion will be quite right. Be sure to taste your ingredients and invest in those which will create a more balanced drink. Also, those with a brandy base rather than a neutral base will be slightly sweeter and of a different character, and cannot always be directly substituted.

### Cointreau

       40% ABV (80º proof)
       Origin: France
       Flavor: Sweet and bitter orange peel.
       Appearance: Pale orange, almost colorless

### Curaçao
#### Blue Curaçao

       31% ABV (62º proof)
       Origin: Curaçao, Netherlands Antilles
       Flavor: Laraha orange peel
       Appearance: Azure blue

#### Dry Orange Curaçao

       31% ABV (62º proof)
       Origin: Curaçao, Netherlands Antilles
       Flavor: Laraha orange
       Appearance: Pale orange

### Grand Marnier

       40% ABV (80º proof)
       Origin: France
       Flavor: Cognac, orange distillate.
       Appearance: Brandywine
# Bartending/Cement Mixer (shot)

The Cement Mixer is not a shot that is meant to be enjoyed, and is often given to a friend as a joke.

## Ingredients

* 2 shot glasses
* Baileys Irish Cream
* Lime Juice

## Method

Fill one shot glass with Bailey's, and the other glass with lime juice. Have the victim drink the Bailey's, followed immediately by the lime juice. An alternative is to carefully pour both into a layered shot, being careful not to mix them.
The result is the creamy Bailey's followed by the tart lime juice causes the mixture to taste and feel as if it were hardening (like cement) in the victim's mouth. A long-standing myth is that the lime somehow sours the Bailey's, but this is not the case, it merely causes the emulsified liqueur to curdle, (get chunky).
Caution: you may want to do this either near a toilet or sink as this causes a lot of people to be sick
# Chemical Sciences: A Manual for CSIR-UGC National Eligibility Test for Lectureship and JRF/Resonance enhanced multiphoton ionization

Resonance Enhanced Multi-Photon Ionization (REMPI) is a technique applied to the spectroscopy of atoms and small molecules. In practice, a tunable laser can be used to access an excited intermediate state. The selection rules associated with a two-photon or other multi-photon photoabsorption are different from the selection rules for a single photon transition. The REMPI technique typically involves a resonant single or multiple photon absorption to an electronically excited intermediate state followed by another photon which ionizes the atom or molecule. The light intensity to achieve a typical multiphoton transition is generally significantly larger than the light intensity to achieve a single photon photoabsorption. Because of this, a subsequent photoabsorption is often very likely. An ion and a free electron will result if the photons have imparted enough energy to exceed the ionization threshold energy of the system. In many cases, REMPI provides spectroscopic information that can be unavailable to single photon spectroscopic methods, for example rotational structure in molecules is easily seen with this technique.

## Rydberg states, Rydberg molecules

High photon intensity experiments can involve multiphoton processes with the absorption of integer multiples of the photon energy. In experiments that involve a multiphoton resonance, the intermediate is often a low-lying Rydberg state, and the final state is often an ion. The initial state of the system, photon energy, angular momentum and other selection rules can help in determining the nature of the intermediate state. This approach is exploited in Resonance Enhanced Multi-Photon Ionization Spectroscopy (REMPI). The technique is in wide use in both atomic and molecular spectroscopy. An advantage of the REMPI technique is that the ions can be detected with almost complete efficiency and even time resolved for their mass. It is also possible to gain additional information by performing experiments to look at the energy of the liberated photoelectron in these experiments. (Robert N. Compton formerly of O.R.N.L. and Philip M. Johnson pioneered the development of REMPI. The technique was named by Johnson).
In "Applied Laser Spectroscopy, ed. D. Andrews, VCH (1992), Chapter 9 "Laser Mass Spectroscopy" by K.W. Ledingham and R.P. Singhal" it is stated, that R.N. Zare is the namegiving instance to the REMPI process.

## References

* ↑ http://web.utk.edu/~rcompton/
* ↑ http://www.chem.stonybrook.edu/PJohnson.html
* ↑ Applied Laser Spectroscopy, ed. D. Andrews, VCH (1992), Chapter 9 "Laser Mass Spectroscopy" by K.W. Ledingham and R.P. Singhal
# Chemical Sciences: A Manual for CSIR-UGC National Eligibility Test for Lectureship and JRF/Resonance fluorescence

Resonance fluorescence is fluorescence from an atom or molecule in which the light emitted is at the same frequency as the light absorbed.
In resonance fluorescence, a photon is absorbed, causing an electron to jump to a higher level from which, after a delay, it falls back to its original level, emitting a photon having the same energy as the one absorbed. The emission direction is random.

## Notes

* ↑ "Resonance Fluorescence" (pdf). IUPAC Compendium of Chemical Terminology. IUPAC. 1997. Retrieved 2007-06-01.
# Chemical Sciences: A Manual for CSIR-UGC National Eligibility Test for Lectureship and JRF/Residual chemical shift anisotropy

Residual chemical shift anisotropy (RCSA) is the difference between the chemical shift anisotropy (CSA) of aligned and non-aligned molecules. It is normally three orders of magnitude smaller than static CSA. RCSA is useful for structural determination and it is among the new developments in NMR spectroscopy.