OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Equation of State

PV = nRT
Ideal gas: A hypothetical gas that exhibits linear relationships among volume, pressure, temperature, and amount (mol) at all conditions; approximately by simple gases at ordinary conditions. Although no ideal gas actually exists, most simple gases, such as N2, O2, H2, and the noble gases, show nearly ideal behavior at ordinary temperatures and pressures. Ideal gas law: An equation that expresses the relationships among volume, pressure, temperature, and amount (mol) of an ideal gas: PV=nRT.

## Types

There are three basic classes of ideal gas:
* the classical or Maxwell-Boltzmann ideal gas,
* the ideal quantum Bose gas, composed of bosons, and
* the ideal quantum Fermi gas, composed of fermions.
The classical ideal gas can be separated into two types: The classical thermodynamic ideal gas and the ideal quantum Boltzmann gas. Both are essentially the same, except that the classical thermodynamic ideal gas is based on classical statistical mechanics, and certain thermodynamic parameters such as the entropy are only specified to within an undetermined additive constant. The ideal quantum Boltzmann gas overcomes this limitation by taking the limit of the quantum Bose gas and quantum Fermi gas in the limit of high temperature to specify these additive constants. The behavior of a quantum Boltzmann gas is the same as that of a classical ideal gas except for the specification of these constants. The results of the quantum Boltzmann gas are used in a number of cases including the Sackur-Tetrode equation for the entropy of an ideal gas and the Saha ionization equation for a weakly ionized plasma.

# Internal Energy

a function of temperature only U = U(T)
Internal energy: is the total of kinetic and potential energies of all the particles in a system.

# Implied Property Relations for an Ideal Gas

C_v is a function of temperature only
C_(v )≡(∂U/∂T)_v= dU(T)/dT= C_v (T)
H is a function of temperature only
H ≡U+PV=U(T)+RT=H(T)
C_p is a function of temperature only
C_p= dH/dT= dU/dT+R=C_v+R Any change of state of an ideal gas
dU = C_(v ) dT ∆U= ∫▒C_(v ) dT dH = C_(p dT) ∆H= ∫▒C_(p ) dT
Some facts about Ideal Gas Law: The ideal gas law can be rearranged to calculate the density and molar mass of a gas. Also, in a mixture of gases, each component contributes its own partial pressure to the total pressure (this is also called the Dalton's law of partial pressures). The mole fraction of each component is the ratio of its partial pressure to the total pressure. The most important idea is that the total pressure is the sum of the gas pressure and the vapor pressure of water at the given temperature when a gas is in contact with the water. [The Molecular Nature of Matter and Change].

### Reference

Silberberg, Martin S. Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter and Change. 5th ed. 2009
# Structural Biochemistry/Inhalation
## Definition

Inhalation is a drug administration route in which a drug or inhalant is smoked. Inhalation is effectively used medically for several anesthetics. The onset of this drug administration route is quite rapid due to the fact that there are capillaries located in the lungs, making it easy for the drug to quickly enter the bloodstream. Once the drug is in the bloodstream, it takes approximately five to eight seconds for the drug to reach the brain.

## Problems with Inhalation

Although inhalation is an effective method of drug administrations, there are three factors that must be kept into consideration with medically using this drug administration method.
1. Drugs and materials must not be irritating to the mucous membranes and lungs. 2. Controlling the dosage may be more difficult than other drug administration methods. 3. The drug must be administered until the desired effect is met. $^{[1]}$

## References

* Hart, Carl. Drugs, Society, and Human Behavior. 12th. McGraw-Hill Humanities, 2008. Print.
# Ring/Lessons/Strings
## Strings

In this chapter we are going to learn about strings creation and manipulation.

## String Literals

Syntax:

## Get String Length

We can get the string length (letters count inside a string) using the len function
Syntax:
Example:

## Convert Letters Case

Syntax:
Example:

## Access String Letters

We can access a letter inside a string by the letter index
Syntax:
Example:
We can use for in to get string letters.
Example:
We can modify the string letters
Example:

## Left Function

We can get a specified number of characters from a string using the Left function.
The starting position is 1.
Syntax:
Example:

## Right Function

We can get a specified number of characters from a string using the Right function.
The starting position is the last character on the right.
Syntax:
Example:

## Trim Function

We can remove all leading and trailing spaces from a string using the Trim function.
Syntax:
Example:

## Copy Function

We can duplicate a string more than one time using the copy function.
Syntax:
Example

## Lines Function

We can count the number of lines inside a string using the Lines function.
Syntax:
Example:

## Substr Function

We can work on sub strings inside a string using the substr function. Using Substr we can
* Find substring
* Get substring from position to end
* Get Number of characters from position
* Transform Substring To Another Substring

## Find substring

Syntax:
Example:

## Get substring from position to end

Syntax:
Example:

## Get Number of Characters From Position

Syntax:
Example:

## Transform Substring To Another Substring

Syntax:
Example:

## strcmp Function

We can compare between two strings using the strcmp function.
Syntax:
Example:
Output:

## str2list and list2str Functions

We can convert string lines to list items using the str2list function. Also we can convert the list to a string using list2str function.
Syntax:
Example:
# Ring Theory

This wikibook covers ring theory.

## Contents

* The category of rings
* Ring extensions

## Table of contents

    Introduction
** Rings
** Properties of rings
** Integral domains and Fields
** Subrings
** Idempotent and Nilpotent elements
** Characteristic of a ring
** Ideals in a ring
** Simple ring
* Homomorphisms
** Homomorphisms of rings
** Theorems on homomorphisms
** Quotient rings
** Imbedding of rings
** Maximal and Prime Ideals
** Divisibility in rings
* Some special domains
** Principal Ideal Domains
** Euclidean domains
** Polynomial rings
** Unique Factorization domain
** Primitive and irreducible polynomials
** R(x) as a UFD
* Extension fields
** Extension fields
** Field adjunctions
** Algebraic elements and algebraic extensions
** Roots of polynomials
** Constructions by ruler and compass

## Resources

* http://www.polya.uklinux.net/rings.pdf
# Ring/Lessons/Operators
## Operators

In this chapter we will introduce the operators provided by the Ring programming language.

## Arithmetic Operators

The next table presents all of the arithmetic operators provided by the Ring language. Assume variable X=50 and variable Y=10 then:

## Relational Operators

The next table presents all of the relational operators provided by the Ring language. Assume variable X=50 and variable Y=10 then:

## Logical Operators

The next table presents all of the logical operators provided by the Ring language. Assume variable X=True and variable Y=False then:

## Bitwise Operators

The next table presents all of the bitwise operators provided by the Ring language. Assume variable X=8 and variable Y=2 then:

## Assignment Operators

The next table presents all of the assignment operators provided by the Ring language.
Assume variable X=8 then:

## Operators Precedence

The next table present operators from higher precedence (Evaluated first) to lower precedence.
Example:
# Ring/Lessons/Variables
## Variables

To create a new variable, you just need to determine the variable name & value. The value will determine the variable type and you can change the value to switch between the types using the same variable name.
Syntax:
.. tip::
The operator '=' is used here as an Assignment operator and the same operator can be used in conditions, but for testing equality of expressions.
.. note::
The Variable will contains the real value (not a reference). This means that once you change the variable value, the old value will be removed from memory (even if the variable contains a list or object).

## Dynamic Typing

Ring is a dynamic programming language that uses `Dynamic Typing <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_system>`_.

## Deep Copy

We can use the assignment operator '=' to copy variables. We can do that to copy values like strings & numbers. Also, we can copy complete lists & objects. The assignment operator will do a complete duplication for us. This operation called `Deep Copy <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object_copy#Deep_copy>`_

## Weakly Typed

Ring is a `weakly typed language <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strong_and_weak_typing>`_, this means that the language can automatically convert between data types (like string & numbers) when that conversion make sense.
Rules:
.. note::
The same operator '+' can be used as an arithmetic operator or for string concatenation.
Example:
# Ring/Lessons/Security and Internet Functions
## Security and Internet Functions

This chapter contains the security and internet functions provided by the Ring programming language for Hashing, Encryption & Decryption. Before using the functions load the openssllib.ring library:
* MD5
* SHA1
* SHA256
* SHA512
* SHA384
* SHA224
* Encrypt
* Decrypt
* Randbytes
Before using the functions load the internetlib.ring library:
* Download
* SendEmail

## MD5 Function

We can calculate the MD5 hash using the MD5 Function
Syntax:
Example:
Output:

## SHA1 Function

We can calculate the SHA1 hash using the SHA1 Function
Syntax:
Example:
Output:

## SHA256 Function

We can calculate the SHA256 hash using the SHA256 Function
Syntax:
Example:
Output:

## SHA512 Function

We can calculate the SHA512 hash using the SHA512 Function
Syntax:
Example:
Output:

## SHA384 Function

We can calculate the SHA384 hash using the SHA384 Function
Syntax:
Example:
Output:

## SHA224 Function

We can calculate the SHA224 hash using the SHA224 Function
Syntax:
Example:
Output:

## Encrypt Function

We can use the Encrypt function to encrypts the data using the Blowfish algorithm.
Syntax:

## Decrypt Function

We can use the Decrypt function to decrypt the data encrypted using the Encrypt function.
Syntax:

## Encryption and Decryption Example

The next example demonstrates how to use the Encrypt and Decrypt functions.
These functions use the Blowfish algorithm.

## File Hash

The next example demonstrates how to calculate the hash functions for files
Output:

## Randbytes Function

We can generate a string of pseudo-random bytes using the Randbytes function.
Syntax:
Example:

## Download Function

Syntax:
Example:

## SendEmail Function

Syntax:
Example:
# Ring/Lessons/System Functions
## System Functions

In this chapter we are going to learn about the system functions
* System
* Get
* IsMSDOS
* IsWindows
* IsWindows64
* IsUnix
* IsMacOSX
* IsLinux
* IsFreeBSD
* IsAndroid
* Windowsnl
* Get Command Line Arguments
* Get Active Source File Name

## System Function

We can execute system commands using the system function
Syntax:
Example:

## Get Function

We can get environment variables using the Get function
Syntax:
Example:

## IsMSDOS

We can check if the operating system is MSDOS or not using the IsMSDOS function
Syntax:

## IsWindows

We can check if the operating system is Windows or not using the IsWindows function
Syntax:

## IsWindows64

We can check if the operating system is Windows 64bit or not using the IsWindows64 function
Syntax:

## IsUnix

We can check if the operating system is Unix or not using the IsUnix function
Syntax:

## IsMacOSX

We can check if the operating system is Mac OS X or not using the IsMacOSX function
Syntax:

## IsLinux

We can check if the operating system is Linux or not using the IsLinux function
Syntax:

## IsFreeBSD

We can check if the operating system is FreeBSD or not using the IsFreeBSD function
Syntax:

## IsAndroid

We can check if the operating system is Android or not using the IsAndroid function
Syntax:

## Example

Output:

## Windowsnl

We can get the windows new line string using the Windowsnl function.
Syntax:
Example:
if iswindows cStr = substr(cStr,windowsnl,nl) ok
aList = str2list(cStr) # to do - list items processing using "for in" cStr = list2str(aList)
if iswindows cStr = substr(cStr,nl,windowsnl) ok
write("ouput.txt",cStr)

## Get Command Line Arguments

We can get the command line arguments passed to the ring script using the sysargv variable.
The sysargv variable is a list contains the command line parameters.
Example
Output

## Get Active Source File Name

We can get the active source file name (*.ring) using the filename function
Syntax:
Example:
Output:
Example:
# Teaching Elementary School Health Education/Growth and Development/I Will Learn About the Growth and Development of Infants and Children

Infancy consists of the period from birth to about two years of age. The first years of life are a time of incredible growth and development. Although there is uniformity in the growth and development of most children, no two children develop exactly alike. Children differ in physical, cognitive, social, and emotional growth patterns. They also differ in the ways they interact with and respond to their environment as well as play, affection, and other factors. An understanding of infant growth and development patterns and concepts is necessary for parents and caregivers to create a nurturing and caring environment that will stimulate optimal growth in young children.

## Types of Development

Physical Development refers to physical changes in the body and involves changes in weight, height, motor skills, vision, hearing, and development of the senses and perceptions. Physical growth is rapid during the first two years of life. WIth each physical change, a child acquires new abilities. By repeating motor actions, an infant builds physical strength and muscular coordination.
Cognitive Development refers to the development of cognitive skills such as reasoning, language acquisition, problem solving, and knowledge acquisition. Children learn through their senses and through mulitple interactions with people and things in the environment. As children grow and interact with their environment, they go through various stages of cognitive development.
Emotional Development is the expression of feelings about one's self, others, and things. Social development is relating to others. These two types of development are placed together because they are closely interrelated growth patterns and are referred to as social-emotional development. Social-emotional development includes developing feelings of self-esteem, trust, and friendship. It also includes developing skills to socialize and interact effectively with others.

## Developmental Milestones

Developmental milestones are the physical or behavioral signs of development or maturation in infants and children. Observing developmental milestones helps to determine the growth and development progress of an infant over time.
# Teaching Elementary School Health Education/Injury Prevention and Safety/Gangs

Gangs
Recognizing Gangs
Risks of Belonging to a Gang
Reasons for Membership in a Gang
Protection form Gangs
Leaving a Gang
# Teaching Elementary School Health Education/Injury Prevention and Safety/Motor Vehicle Safety

Motor Vehicle Safety
Obtaining a Valid Driver’s License
Being a Defensive Driver
Avoiding High-Risk Driving
Avoiding Drinking and Driving
Avoiding Traffic Violations
Wearing Safety Belts
Motor Vehicle Violence – Carjacking
# Teaching Elementary School Health Education/Growth and Development
## Introduction

Growth and Development is the area of health that focuses on keeping body systems healthy, recognizing healthy habits that protect female and male reproductive health, learning about pregnancy and childbirth, learning about the development of and responsible care for infants and children, developing a learning style, achieving the developmental tasks of adolescence, developing habits that promote healthful aging, and sharing with family feelings about dying and death. It also focuses on teaching people important life skills.

## What to Teach?

HEALTH GOALS THAT I AM FOCUSING ON:
I Will Keep My Body Systems Healthy
I Will Learn About the Growth and Development of Infants and Children
I Will Provide Responsible Care For Infants and Children
I Will Develop My Learning Style
MORE HEALTH GOALS FOR GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
* Recognizing healthy habits that protect female and male reproductive health
* Learning about pregnancy and childbirth
* Achieving the developmental tasks of adolescence
* Developing habits that promote healthful aging
* Sharing with family feelings about dying and death
* Life Skills

## Some Lesson Plans on How You Could Teach Growth and Development (Grade 3-5)

* http://www.lessonplanspage.com/PEScienceRespiratorySystemLoveYourLungs3.htm
* http://www.lessonplanspage.com/PECentralNervousSystemAnd5Senses5.htm
* http://www.lessonplanspage.com/ScienceCIInteractingSystemsHumanBody24.htm
# Teaching Elementary School Health Education/Injury Prevention and Safety/Physical Violence and Abuse/Recovering from Violence

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder
Secondary Victimization
Victim Recovery
Perpetrator Recovery
# Teaching Elementary School Health Education/Injury Prevention and Safety

Injury Prevention and Safety
Injury Prevention and Safety is the area of health that focuses following guidelines to reduce the risk of unintentional injuries. It is an important area of health that teaches young people important life skills to help keep them safe and out of harms way in the future. The over all area of Injury Prevention and safety includes following safety guidelines for the following risk situations:
Unintentional Injuries
Severe Weather, Natural Disasters, and National Alerts
Motor Vehicle Safety
Violence
Respecting Authority and Obeying Laws
Physical Violence and Abuse
Sexual Violence and Abuse
Gangs
Weapons
First Aid
# Teaching Elementary School Health Education/Injury Prevention and Safety/Physical Violence and Abuse

Physical Violence and Abuse
Self Defense Strategies
Hazing
Bullying
Child Abuse
Physical Abuse
Neglect
Emotional Abuse
Sexual Abuse
Child Abuse laws
Mental and Emotional Abuse
Domestic Violence
Dating Violence
Recovering from Violence
# The Grand Inquisitor/Fyodor Dostoevsky

...a short biography of the author
# The Geology of Indonesia/Volcanoes

Indonesia is home for 129 active volcanoes, which make it the largest country with active volcanoes.
# The Grand Inquisitor

This book is an annotated text for 3 noteworthy chapters from Fyodor Dostoevsky's book The Brothers Karamazov. The three chapters considered here are The Grand Inquisitor, Rebellion, and The Devil, which are considered to be some of the most powerful chapters from the book, and some of the most influential chapters in the canon of western literature. Eventually this book could be expanded to include other chapters from this book, although it is unlikely that the entire book will ever be annotated here.
These three chapters revolve around Ivan Karamazov, an educated intellectual and admitted atheist in Russia. The first two chapters also include Alyosha Karamazov, a counter-point to Ivan, who is a monk in training, and is well known for his qualities of compassion, unconditional love, strong faith, and trustworthiness.

## Table of Contents

* Introduction

### Background

* History
* Fyodor Dostoevsky
* The Brothers Karamazov
* Characters

### Text

* Rebellion
* Rebellion (Part 2)
* The Grand Inquisitor
* The Grand Inquisitor (Part 2)
* The Devil
* The Devil (Part 2)

## Appendices

* Resources
# The Grand Inquisitor/Characters
## Grushenka

The problems between Dimitri and Fyodor escalate when they both fall in love with the same woman: Grushenka. The quarrel becomes physical, and Dimitri storms out of the house. Ivan asks to meet Alyosha at a local bar to talk. They talk briefly about Dimitri (which is what Alyosha is concerned about), but then Ivan recites the "poem" that he has written, "The Grand Inquisitor".

## Smerdyakov and Ivan

Ivan is a respected intellectual, but Smerdyakov is revealed to be highly intellegent in his own right. Smerdyakov has a high amount of respect for Ivan, although that respect is rarely returned. Smerdyakov is an epileptic, and is prone to occasional, debilitating seizures which can last for long periods of time. He also hints occasionally that he is capable of pretending to have such a seizure, and is very convincing at it.
# The Geology of Indonesia/Tsunami

The largest and deadly tsunami in Indonesia occurred in the Aceh region, in the northern tip of Sumatra Island. Ten thousands of people died due to this deadly tsunami. The tsunami with wave up to 30 m was triggered by submarine earthquake and possible submarine landslide.
# Telescope Making/The Telescope Mount

The telescope mount supports the entire assembled telescope. The mount allows you to aim the telescope, and then holds it steady while you look through it.
note this topic is applicable to all types of scopes not just the newtonian, hence I am leaving it at the "==" heading level
I presume we are not getting into star-tracking clockwork?
# Telescope Making

You can make a telescope for around $25 in materials. You can make one for $50 that will amaze your friends and family, and show you things you didn't know existed. It can be done in a few weeks. However, telescope-making can get messy. You can break a piece you've slaved over. Then you walk around in the worst mood you have ever been in. But in the end you have a telescope that people will look at, and through, and say, "You couldn't have made this." Yes, you did, and that is the best part of all.
Let's make a telescope.

## Table of Contents

* Thinking About Telescopes
* Project 1: The Newtonian Reflector
* Making the Optics
* Assembling the Telescope
* The Telescope Mount

## External Links

* The Surplus Shed, Optical Parts
* Astromart Telescope Making Page
* American Science and Surplus, Optical Parts
* Got Grit sells grinding materials. They have a good reputation.

## Further reading

* "Build your own telescope" shows how to set up an extremely low-cost demonstration of how telescopes work.
* The Cookbook Camera (CCD "Cookbook Camera" Project) was a great resource in 1996 for people who wanted to add a CCD to their telescope. Is "Wikibooks: Telescope Making" the best place to bring it up-to-date?
* adapting a low-cost web camera to a telescope
* "The Trackball telescope"; OR "The Trackball telescope" describes yet another style of telescope mount that uses a sphere resting against a driven axle to track the stars.
* "Mel Bartels Mirror Making Page" One of the most respected and quoted amateur mirror and telescope makers.
* "Telescope Makers Web Ring Home Page" This is the home page where you can list your web site and show off your creation;This is the list of websites in the ring.
* "The Amateur Telescope Makers list server" You can join the list or just read the postings and the archives. A huge source of information.
* "Mark's Notes for the Amateur Telescope Maker" by Mark T. VandeWettering.
* "Barn Door Star Tracker" by Tom Veik.
# Traditional Chinese Medicine/Inducing Resuscitation By Clearing Away Heat

* An Gong Niu Huang Wan (安宫牛黄丸)
* Zi Xue Dan (紫雪丹)
* Zhi Bao Dan (至宝丹)
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