# Yam languages

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The Yam languages, also known as the Morehead River languages, are a family of Papuan languages. They include many of the languages south and west of the Fly River in Papua New Guinea and Indonesian Western New Guinea (South Papua).

## Name

The name Morehead and Upper Maro River, or Morehead–Maro, refers to the area around the Morehead and Maro rivers. Most of the languages are found between these rivers, but the Nambu subgroup are spoken east of the Morehead. Evans (2012) refers to the family instead with the more compact name Yam. This name is motivated by a number of linguistic and cultural items of significance: yam (and cognates) means "custom, tradition"; yəm (and cognates) means "is"; and yam tubers are the local staple and of central cultural importance.

## External relationships

Ross (2005) tentatively includes the Yam languages in the proposed Trans-Fly – Bulaka River family. More recently (Evans 2012) has argued that this is not justified and more data has to be gathered. Evans (2018) classifies the Pahoturi River languages as an independent language family.
Yam languages have also been in intensive contact with Marind and Suki speakers, who had historically expanded into Yam-speaking territories via headhunting raids and other expansionary migrations.

## Classification

Internal classification of the Yam languages:
* Yei
* Tonda languages (a dialect chain)
* Nambu languages (a dialect chain)
Wichmann (2013) did not find a connection between the branches in his automated comparison.

## Languages

Yam languages are spoken by up to 3,000 people on both sides of the border in Papua New Guinea and Indonesia. In Papua New Guinea, Yam languages are spoken in Morehead Rural LLG, Western Province. In Papua, Indonesia, Yam languages are spoken in Merauke Regency.
Yam languages and respective demographic information listed by Evans (2018) are provided below. Geographical coordinates are also provided for some villages.
    List of Yam languages LanguageAlternative namesSubgroupSpeakersVillages or hamlets AntaTokwe, Upper Morehead, ThamngaTonda150Ufarua (8°38′08″S 141°38′00″E﻿ / ﻿8.635484°S 141.633236°E﻿ / -8.635484; 141.633236﻿ (Uparua)), Forzitho, Thamgakar (8°37′34″S 141°36′40″E﻿ / ﻿8.626232°S 141.611057°E﻿ / -8.626232; 141.611057﻿ (Damgar)) in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG KomnzoKamundjo, Upper Morehead, (Mema, Ranzér), Zókwasi, FaremTonda200Rouku (8°42′06″S 141°35′55″E﻿ / ﻿8.701793°S 141.598485°E﻿ / -8.701793; 141.598485﻿ (Rouku)), Gunana, Morehead (8°42′32″S 141°38′05″E﻿ / ﻿8.708915°S 141.634593°E﻿ / -8.708915; 141.634593﻿ (Morehead Station)), Firra, Masu, Kanathér in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG WáraTjokwe, Upper Morehead, Wära, MätTonda350Yokwa (8°42′02″S 141°31′23″E﻿ / ﻿8.700472°S 141.523053°E﻿ / -8.700472; 141.523053﻿ (Iokwa)), (Mäwsa, Kwaikér, Zäzér Ménz) in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG WérèTokwe, Upper Morehead, WóräTonda100Tokwa (8°38′36″S 141°26′10″E﻿ / ﻿8.643291°S 141.436129°E﻿ / -8.643291; 141.436129﻿ (Tokwa)), Kanfok in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG KémäUpper MoreheadTonda130Wämnefér (8°44′29″S 141°24′57″E﻿ / ﻿8.74137°S 141.415826°E﻿ / -8.74137; 141.415826﻿ (Wemnevere)) in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG KáncháKunja, Lower Morehead, Peremka, KénzäTonda350*Bondobol (8°55′46″S 141°20′18″E﻿ / ﻿8.929521°S 141.338469°E﻿ / -8.929521; 141.338469﻿ (Bondobol)), Bula (9°07′42″S 141°20′26″E﻿ / ﻿9.128337°S 141.340513°E﻿ / -9.128337; 141.340513﻿ (Bula)), Jarai (9°11′49″S 141°35′04″E﻿ / ﻿9.196839°S 141.584426°E﻿ / -9.196839; 141.584426﻿ (Jarai)) in southeast Morehead Rural LLG, PNG RánmoTonda, Renmo, BlafeTonda200*Yéndorodoro (8°35′31″S 141°17′48″E﻿ / ﻿8.59196°S 141.29677°E﻿ / -8.59196; 141.29677﻿ (Indorodoro)), Mengete (8°39′25″S 141°17′03″E﻿ / ﻿8.657045°S 141.284029°E﻿ / -8.657045; 141.284029﻿ (Mengete)) in west Morehead Rural LLG, PNG MblafeBlafe, Blafe Wonana, TondaTonda350*Weam (8°37′08″S 141°08′05″E﻿ / ﻿8.618919°S 141.134728°E﻿ / -8.618919; 141.134728﻿ (Weam Village)), Kandarisa (8°37′17″S 141°13′10″E﻿ / ﻿8.621418°S 141.2194°E﻿ / -8.621418; 141.2194﻿ (Kandarisa)), Wereaver (8°35′48″S 141°07′25″E﻿ / ﻿8.596603°S 141.123567°E﻿ / -8.596603; 141.123567﻿ (Wereavere)) (only recently in Wereaver) in west Morehead Rural LLG, PNG Warta ThuntaiGuntai, KanTonda430Wando (8°53′09″S 141°15′31″E﻿ / ﻿8.885893°S 141.258528°E﻿ / -8.885893; 141.258528﻿ (Wando)), Bensbach (8°50′57″S 141°14′59″E﻿ / ﻿8.8493°S 141.249855°E﻿ / -8.8493; 141.249855﻿ (Bensbach Lodge)), Balamuk, Korombo 1, Korombo 2 (8°45′15″S 141°15′56″E﻿ / ﻿8.754213°S 141.265672°E﻿ / -8.754213; 141.265672﻿ (Korombo)) in mid southwest Morehead Rural LLG, PNG ArammbaNoneTonda750Fwasam, Gowi, Kiriwa (8°26′15″S 141°30′57″E﻿ / ﻿8.437511°S 141.515843°E﻿ / -8.437511; 141.515843﻿ (Kiriwo)), Meru (8°28′19″S 141°27′59″E﻿ / ﻿8.471963°S 141.466349°E﻿ / -8.471963; 141.466349﻿ (Merru)), Sedefi (8°30′53″S 141°36′38″E﻿ / ﻿8.514592°S 141.610694°E﻿ / -8.514592; 141.610694﻿ (Setavi)), Serki (8°15′02″S 141°45′58″E﻿ / ﻿8.250688°S 141.766022°E﻿ / -8.250688; 141.766022﻿ (Serki)) in north central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG NggarnaNgar, Kanum, SotaTondaunknownVicinity of Sota in west Morehead Rural LLG, PNG RemaTonda10? (moribund or extinct)Wereaver (8°35′48″S 141°07′25″E﻿ / ﻿8.596603°S 141.123567°E﻿ / -8.596603; 141.123567﻿ (Wereavere)) in west Morehead Rural LLG, PNG SmerkiSmärki, Kanum, BarkariTonda150Rawu Biru, Tomer, Tomerau, Yakiw in southeast Merauke Regency, Indonesia TamerSmerki, Smärki, KanumTonda120Yanggandur (recently moved there) in southeast Merauke Regency, Indonesia NgkontarNgkontar, NgkolmpuTonda100Yanggandur in southeast Merauke Regency, Indonesia and into PNG NgkolmpuKiki, Ngkntra Kiki, Kanum, Enkelembu, Kenume, KnwneTondaeast Merauke Regency, Indonesia and into PNG Bedi NgkolmpuKanum, Enkelembu, Kenume, KnwneTonda5 (moribund or extinct)Onggaya in south central Merauke Regency, Indonesia YeiYei1278Po, Torai, Bupul, Tanas, Kwel in east Merauke Regency, Indonesia NenNambu350Bimadeben (8°42′06″S 141°35′55″E﻿ / ﻿8.701793°S 141.598485°E﻿ / -8.701793; 141.598485﻿ (Bimadeben Vill/ Comm. Sch)) in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG NamaNambu1200Daraia (8°36′59″S 141°44′01″E﻿ / ﻿8.61637°S 141.733576°E﻿ / -8.61637; 141.733576﻿ (Darava)), Mata (8°40′28″S 141°44′35″E﻿ / ﻿8.674546°S 141.743133°E﻿ / -8.674546; 141.743133﻿ (Mata)), Ngaraita (8°35′58″S 141°42′54″E﻿ / ﻿8.599511°S 141.714869°E﻿ / -8.599511; 141.714869﻿ (Garaita)) in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG NamatMibiniNambu170*Mibini (8°50′20″S 141°38′17″E﻿ / ﻿8.838849°S 141.637931°E﻿ / -8.838849; 141.637931﻿ (Mibini)) in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG NamboNmbo, Keraki; Namna, YarneNambu710Nambo variety: Gubam (8°37′10″S 141°55′21″E﻿ / ﻿8.619428°S 141.922509°E﻿ / -8.619428; 141.922509﻿ (Gubam)), Bebdeben (8°40′04″S 141°55′33″E﻿ / ﻿8.667668°S 141.925772°E﻿ / -8.667668; 141.925772﻿ (Bebdeben)), Arufi (8°45′38″S 141°54′49″E﻿ / ﻿8.760576°S 141.913707°E﻿ / -8.760576; 141.913707﻿ (Arufi)) in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG; Namna variety: Pongarki (8°39′51″S 141°49′37″E﻿ / ﻿8.664295°S 141.827064°E﻿ / -8.664295; 141.827064﻿ (Pongariki)), Derideri (8°41′13″S 141°51′22″E﻿ / ﻿8.686837°S 141.85624°E﻿ / -8.686837; 141.85624﻿ (Derideri)) in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG NemeNambu200Keru (8°29′02″S 141°47′18″E﻿ / ﻿8.483752°S 141.788348°E﻿ / -8.483752; 141.788348﻿ (Keru)), Mitere in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG DreNdreNambu1Ramar in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG NamoNäNambu374*Tais (9°10′03″S 141°54′21″E﻿ / ﻿9.167526°S 141.905733°E﻿ / -9.167526; 141.905733﻿ (Tais)), Mari (9°11′37″S 141°42′09″E﻿ / ﻿9.193532°S 141.70247°E﻿ / -9.193532; 141.70247﻿ (Mari)) in south Morehead Rural LLG, PNG LenLäNambu8–10Now living in Tais (9°10′03″S 141°54′21″E﻿ / ﻿9.167526°S 141.905733°E﻿ / -9.167526; 141.905733﻿ (Tais)), original village was Yaoga in south Morehead Rural LLG, PNG
See also: Districts of Papua (Indonesian Wikipedia)

## Pronouns

The pronouns Ross (2005) reconstructs for the family are,

### Proto-Yam (Proto–Morehead – Upper Maro)

    I/we*ni you*bu s/he/they*be

## Typology

Many Yam languages display vowel harmony, including in Nambu and Tonda languages.

## Vocabulary comparison

The following basic vocabulary words are from McElhanon & Voorhoeve (1970) and Voorhoeve (1975), as cited in the Trans-New Guinea database.
The words cited constitute translation equivalents, whether they are cognate (e.g. tor, ter for “tooth”) or not (e.g. sento, yarmaker for “bird”).
    glossKanumYei head melkilpel hair mel-katapeab eye sicur tooth torter leg tegucere louse neːmpinnim dog krarjeu pig kwerbecek bird sentoyarmaker egg belmekur blood mbelgul bone mbaːrgor skin keikeipaːr tree perper man ireel-lu sun koŋkomir water atakakao fire mensbenj stone mellemejer name iuore eat anaŋcenye one nampernampei two yempokayetapae