OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Diffractive solar sail

A diffractive solar sail, or diffractive lightsail, is a type of solar sail which relies on diffraction instead of reflection for its propulsion. Current diffractive sail designs use thin metamaterial films, containing micrometer-size gratings based on polarization or subwavelength refractive structures, causing light to spread out (i.e. diffract) and thereby exert radiation pressure when it passes through them.

## History

The idea of using diffraction for a solar sail was first proposed in 2017 by researchers at the Rochester Institute of Technology. This was enabled in part by advances in material design and fabrication (particularly of gratings), and optoelectronic control. In 2019 a diffractive solar sail project from the Rochester Institute of Technlology suggested a solar polar orbit mission with diffractive sails that could reach a higher solar inclination angle and smaller orbital radius than one with reflective sails, reaching NASA's NIAC phase II. In 2022 the NIAC project reached phase III and gained US$2 million of support from NASA, with involvement of researchers from both Johns Hopkins University and the Rochester Institute of Technology.

## Advantages over reflective sails

Reflective solar sail designs tend to consist of large, thin reflective sheets. By the law of reflection, the forces acting on them will always be normal to the sheet surface; the sheets must therefore be tilted during navigation, which poses structure and control challenges, and reduces the power reaching the sail. These in turn can lower reliability, increase mass, and reduce acceleration. Furthermore, reflective sails tend to absorb a reasonable proportion of the light hitting them, causing them to heat up; this can cause structural problems, particularly when the sail is repeatedly heated and then allowed to cool. Also, each photon hitting the sail is used once, i.e. it's either reflected or absorbed.
On the other hand, in a diffractive sail the grating can redirect light even when the sheet directly faces the sun, allowing much more efficient control with maximum power hitting the sail. The diffractive film can be designed to allow for optoelectronic control of the gratings, thereby reducing mass and increasing reliability relative to mechanical control. Since the film is translucent, most of the light just passes through the sail, reducing overall heating. Photons can be reused: either by passing through a second diffraction grating for more thrust, or by going to a solar cell to provide electricity.
# Esquel (meteorite)

Esquel is a meteorite found near Esquel, a Patagonian town in the northwest part of the province of Chubut in Argentina. It is a pallasite, a type of stony–iron meteorite that when cut and polished shows yellowish olivine (peridot) crystals.
In 1951 a farmer uncovered a meteorite in an unknown location near Esquel while digging a hole for a water tank. The meteorite was purchased from the finders and taken to the United States in 1992 by meteorite expert Robert Haag. The Esquel pallasite is known worldwide among collectors and the meteoritical scientific community. Esquel is regarded as one of the most beautiful meteorites ever found and is also one of the most desirable pallasites among meteorite collectors. It is a main group pallasite (MGP).

## Specimens

The Meteoritical Bulletin no. 29 (1964) reports a main mass of "about 1500 kg". However O. A. Turone claimed a main mass weight of 755 kilograms (1,664 lb). Robert Haag, the buyer of the main mass, reported a weight of 680 kilograms (1,500 lb). Almost all of the Esquel ever found on the market is cut from his piece.
# Tocache District

Tocache District is one of five districts of the province Tocache in Peru.
# Three-stratum theory

The three-stratum theory is a theory of cognitive ability proposed by the American psychologist John Carroll in 1993. It is based on a factor-analytic study of the correlation of individual-difference variables from data such as psychological tests, school marks and competence ratings from more than 460 datasets. These analyses suggested a three-layered model where each layer accounts for the variations in the correlations within the previous layer.
The three layers (strata) are defined as representing narrow, broad, and general cognitive ability. The factors describe stable and observable differences among individuals in the performance of tasks. Carroll argues further that they are not mere artifacts of a mathematical process, but likely reflect physiological factors explaining differences in ability (e.g., nerve firing rates). This does not alter the effectiveness of factor scores in accounting for behavioral differences.
Carroll proposes a taxonomic dimension in the distinction between level factors and speed factors. The tasks that contribute to the identification of level factors can be sorted by difficulty and individuals differentiated by whether they have acquired the skill to perform the tasks. Tasks that contribute to speed factors are distinguished by the relative speed with which individuals can complete them. Carroll suggests that the distinction between level and speed factors may be the broadest taxonomy of cognitive tasks that can be offered. Carroll distinguishes his hierarchical approach from taxonomic approaches such as Guilford's Structure of Intellect model (three-dimensional model with contents, operations, and products).

## Development of the three-stratum theory

The three-stratum theory is derived primarily from Spearman's (1927) model of general intelligence and Horn & Cattell's (1966) theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence. Carroll's model was also heavily influenced by the 1976 edition of the ETS standard kit. His factor analyses were largely consistent with the Horn-Cattell model except that Carroll believed that general intelligence was a meaningful construct.
This model suggests that intelligence is best conceptualized in a hierarchy of three strata.
Stratum III (general intelligence): g factor, accounts for the correlations among the broad abilities at Stratum II.
Stratum II (broad abilities): 8 broad abilities—fluid intelligence, crystallized intelligence, general memory and learning, broad visual perception, broad auditory perception, broad retrieval ability, broad cognitive speediness, and processing speed.
Stratum I (specific level): more specific factors under the stratum II.
Kevin McGrew (2005) integrated the Horn-Cattell model with Carroll's to create the Cattell-Horn-Carroll Theory of Cognitive Abilities (CHC Theory), which has since been influential in guiding test development. Johnson and Bouchard have criticized CHC theory and the two major theories on which it is based, suggesting that their g-VPR model provides a better explanation of the available data.
# Eugenio Tano

Eugenio Tano (July 4, 1840 – 1914) was an Italian painter.
He was born in Marzi, near Cosenza in Calabria, Kingdom of the Two Sicilies; his father was a painter of religious subjects. Eugenio received his first training in Rogliano, his mother's native town. He later attended the Academy of Fine Arts in Naples and, after the unification of Italy, he studied in Florence with Stefano Ussi.
In 1860 Eugenio participated in Garibaldi's enterprise in Sicily and the Kingdom of Naples. He lived for many years in Florence. At the 1877 Mostra Nazionale of Naples, he exhibits: Portrait of a Garibaldi; at the 1880 Turin exhibition: Priest in Countryside, and in the 1881 Milan Exhibition, L'Arno, a landscape. At the 1884 Promotrice of Florence, he exhibits: Dall' Ardenza ad Antignano. In 1885, in Milan and the next year in Venice, he displayed an Un bagno nascosto. At the Exposition of Livorno in 1886, Tano sent a Portrait of a Garibaldi. He also painted genre and portraits, including Queen Margherita.
# The Life of Pi'erre 4

Professional ratings :
| Review scores ||
| Source | Rating |
| The Guardian | |
| Highsnobiety | 2/5 |
| Pitchfork | 6.7/10 |
The Life of Pi'erre 4 is the debut studio album by American record producer and rapper Pi'erre Bourne. It was released on June 21, 2019, by SossHouse Records and Interscope Records. The album debuted at number 107 on the Billboard 200 albums chart in the United States.
Almost exactly a year after the album's release, a deluxe edition was released on June 19, 2020.

## Track listing

All tracks written and produced by Pi'erre Bourne, except where noted.
Sample credits
* "Ballad" contains an uncredited sample of "Jumblegloss", written by Stephen Malkmus and performed by Stephen Malkmus and the Jicks.
* "Lovers" contains a sample of "It's Forever", written by Leon Huff and performed by The Ebonys.

## Personnel

* James Kang – mixing and recording
* Tatsuya Sato – mastering

## Charts

| Chart (2019) | Peak position |
| US Billboard 200 | 107 |
# Sir Henry Hoghton, 7th Baronet

Sir Henry Philip Hoghton, 7th Baronet (1768–1835) was a British politician who sat in the House of Commons from 1795 to 1802.
Hoghton was the elder son of Sir Henry Hoghton, 6th Baronet and his second wife Fanny Booth, daughter of Daniel Booth of Hutton Hall, Essex, Governor of the Bank of England, and was born on 12 June 1768. He was educated at Charterhouse School from 1784 to 1785 and was admitted at St. John’s College, Cambridge in 1786. He was High Sheriff of Lancashire in 1794-5 and succeeded his father in the baronetcy on 9 March 1795. He married Susannah Parker, widow of Thomas Townley Parker of Cuerden Hall and daughter of Peter Brooke of Astley Hall on 13 November 1797.
Hoghton replaced his father as Member of Parliament for Preston at an uncontested by-election on 26 March 1795. The Earl of Derby sponsored his election to Brooks on 14 November 1795. He was returned as MP for Preston in the 1796 general election after a contest. He did not speak in parliament and gave up his seat at the 1802 general election.
Hoghton was Colonel of the 3rd Royal Lancashire Militia from 1797 to 1803. He died on 27 November 1835.
# Jim Gerard

Richard James Gerard QSO (born 20 October 1936) is a former New Zealand politician. He was a National Party Member of Parliament from 1984 to 1997.

## Early life

Gerard was born on 20 October 1936 in Canterbury. His father was the National MP Geoff Gerard. Gerard received his education at Christ's College and then became a sheep farmer in Cheviot. He held several roles with Federated Farmers.

## Political career

Gerard served on the Oxford County Council for some time. He was the National Party chair of the Rangiora electorate for eight years.

### Member of Parliament

He was first elected to Parliament in the 1984 election, replacing the retiring Derek Quigley in the Rangiora electorate. He remained MP for Rangiora until the 1996 election, when the electorate was abolished. Gerard was unsuccessful in his campaign for the new Waimakariri electorate, losing to former Labour Party leader Mike Moore. He remained in Parliament as a list MP.
In 1990, Gerard was elected Chairman of Committees. Until 1992, the Chairman of Committees was known as the Deputy Speaker only when presiding over the House. On 10 November 1992, the position of Deputy Speaker was made official under the Standing Orders, and the role of Chairman of Committees was discontinued, with Gerard becoming the first Deputy Speaker. He held that role until 13 December 1996.
In April 1997, he resigned from Parliament to become New Zealand's High Commissioner to Canada in Ottawa. This was the first resignation by a list MP since New Zealand adopted the mixed-member proportional electoral system. Gerard was replaced by the next candidate on National's party list, Annabel Young.
In 1990, Gerard received the New Zealand 1990 Commemoration Medal. In the 1999 New Year Honours, he was appointed a Companion of the Queen's Service Order for public services.

### Waimakariri District

Gerard was elected Mayor of Waimakariri in 2001. He was re-elected in 2004, but lost the mayoralty in 2007 to Ron Keating. In October 2010, he was elected councillor for Waimakariri and was again returned to that role in 2013. At the 2016 and 2019 local elections, Gerard did not contest a councillor position; instead, he contested and was elected to the Rangiora community board.
# Sir Henry Hoghton, 5th Baronet

Sir Henry Hoghton, 5th Baronet (c.1678–1768) of Hoghton Tower, Lancashire was a British politician who sat in the House of Commons between 1710 and 1741. He had strong dissenting religious views which sustained his militancy against the Jacobite rebellions.
Hoghton was the second, but eldest surviving son of Sir Charles Hoghton, 4th Baronet and his wife Mary Skeffington, daughter of John Skeffington, 2nd Viscount Masserene. The family had a strong non-conformist tradition, to which he adhered and went on to found many dissenting chapels. In 1695 he was admitted at Middle Temple. He succeeded to the baronetcy and estates on the death of his father on 10 June 1710.
Hoghton became a Freeman of Preston in 1682 and a burgess of Wigan in 1710. He was Deputy Lieutenant of Lancashire and Colonel of the militia. At the 1710 general election he was elected Whig Member of Parliament for Preston, but lost the seat in 1713. He was returned unopposed for Preston at the 1715 general election.
During the Jacobite rebellion Hoghton was active in attending to the defence of the county. His house in Preston was occupied by both sides during the conflict. In the aftermath, he was appointed in 1716 as one of the Commissioners for forfeited estates. At the 1722 general election he stood for Lancashire instead of Preston, but was defeated. After an unsuccessful attempt at Kingston-upon-Hull in 1724 he was brought in by the government as MP for East Looe at a by-election on 17 February 1724. He was returned unopposed at Preston at the 1727 general election and again in 1734. In 1734 he was appointed judge-advocate-general by Walpole. He was defeated at Preston at the 1741 general election and resigned his post.
At the time of the 45 rebellion he was ready to defend the county but had insufficient resources and took refuge in Yorkshire. As a magistrate after the rebellion he applied the law against Roman Catholics very severely. He was castigated by the government, had his decisions put aside, and threatened with removal from the bench.
Hoghton died on 23 February 1768 at the age of 91. He had married three times. Firstly he married Mary Boughton (with £5,000) daughter of Sir William Boughton, 4th Baronet in October 1710. She died in 1720 and he married secondly Lady Elizabeth Russell, widow of Lord. James Russell and daughter of Richard Lloyd, mercer, of London on 14 April 1721, She died in 1736 and he married thirdly Susanna Butterworth (with £8,000), daughter of Thomas Butterworth of Manchester, Lancashire
He had no children by any of his three marriages and the baronetcy passed his nephew, also Henry.
# Guillaume Couture (musician)

Guillaume Couture (23 October 1851 – 15 January 1915) was a Canadian choir conductor, composer, music critic, and music educator. Although he never pursued a performance career, he is particularly remembered for his work as a voice teacher, having taught many notable Canadian singers. He is the grandfather of composer Jean Papineau-Couture.

## Life and career

Born in Montreal, Couture was choirmaster at Saint-Jacques Cathedral before studying at the Conservatoire de Paris with Romain Bussine and Théodore Dubois from 1873 to 1875. His Rêverie, opus 2 (notably the only Canadian orchestral work published before 1900) was premiered in Paris in 1875 in a concert that also included original works by Henri Duparc, Gabriel Fauré, and César Franck. That same year he returned to his native city where he began teaching privately and writing as a music critic for La Minerve. He continued to return periodically to France for further studies with Bussine through 1887.
In early 1876 Couture returned to Paris to assume the post of choirmaster at the Basilica of St. Clotilde, Paris. César Franck was notably the organist at the cathedral at that time. He left there in late 1877 for Montreal where he took up teaching again, both privately and for religious institutions like the Congregation of Notre Dame and the Institute of the Sisters of the Holy Names of Jesus and Mary. He taught at the High School for Girls, Montreal, from 1885 to 1914.
Among his notable students were Joseph-Arsène Brassard, Jean-Noël Charbonneau, Guillaume Dupuis, Achille Fortier, Henri Gagnon, Charles Labelle, Arthur Laurendeau, Édouard LeBel, Frédéric Pelletier, Arthur Plamondon, Céline Marier, Léo-Pol Morin, Rodolphe Plamondon, Caroline Racicot, Roy Royal, and Louis Verschelden.
Couture continued to work as a music critic, writing for such papers as Revue de Montréal, La Patrie, and Montreal Star. In 1880 he became conductor of the Montreal Philharmonic Society which he led until it disbanded in 1899. In 1894 he founded the Montréal Symphony Orchestra (no relation to the current orchestra), which he directed through 1896. He composed his most significant work, the oratorio Jean le Précurseur, from 1907 to 1909. He died in Montreal in 1915 at the age of 63, and was entombed at the Notre Dame des Neiges Cemetery in Montreal.
# Jim George (weightlifter)

James D. George (born June 1, 1935) is a retired American weightlifter. He competed at the 1956 and 1960 Olympics and won a bronze and a silver medal, respectively.
George is the son of Bulgarian immigrants from Macedonia. His elder brother, Pete George, is also a retired Olympic weightlifter. Jim was a four-time AAU champion and the 1959 Pan American champion in the light-heavyweight division. He also won four medals at the world championships (1955–1959) and set two world record (1956), in the snatch and clean and jerk.
# Sinamkol

Sinamkol is a 2020 Tamil-language war drama film directed by Ranjith Joseph and starring Aravindhan. It is a Sri Lankan-Indian co-production.

## Plot

Sinamkol is the story of a Tamil Eelam soldier Amudhan, his incredible journey and tribunals, as he searches for his wife and daughter after being released from detention by the genocidal Sri Lankan regime. Parallelly, a Tamil family from diaspora visiting Tamil Eelam encounters troubles of post-war challenges. Sinamkol carries a powerful political message of post-war challenges faced by the minority Tamils.

## Cast

* Aravindhan
* Narvini Dery Ravishangar
* Leelawathy
* Sinthar Athith
* Mathumathi
* Theepachelvan

## Production

The film is about the change that Jaffna has undergone in the past ten years. The film was shot in northern and eastern Sri Lanka. Other than three cast members, most of the cast are newcomers. The film was in the making for the past ten years. The film was shot in Jaffna and Mullaitivu. The film was shot in places affected by the Sri Lankan Civil War. Much of the crew members are Sinhalese and the film was funded by Tamilians living abroad. The film is about a militant who is released from a Sinhalese controlled prison and returns to his motherland.

## Awards and nominations

| Year | Award | Category | Nominee | Result | Ref. |
# Leonard Fenwick

Sir Leonard Raymond Fenwick, CBE (born 10 August 1947) is an English hospital executive, who until August 2017 was the Chief Executive of Newcastle upon Tyne Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, from where he was sacked after being found guilty of Gross Misconduct.

## Career

Born and raised West Jesmond, Newcastle upon Tyne, he joined the NHS aged 18 as a management trainee at the Royal Victoria Infirmary in 1965. Aged 20 he was appointed an administrative officer at the then new Hull Royal Infirmary. In the 1970s he returned to Newcastle as part of the team involved in the planning and design of the dental hospital and associated dental school.
Fenwick was then appointed commissioning manager for the former Freeman Road Hospital, before being promoted senior management lead, and in 1977 was appointed as Unit Administrator. He was then appointed General Manager of the Freeman Hospital, becoming Chief Executive when it became an NHS Trust in 1992. In 1998 he became the Chief Executive of Newcastle upon Tyne Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust (NUTH).
In April 2011, he was named as the 11th highest paid employee (£232,500) in the English NHS. In 2015 the Health Service Journal judged him as the fifth to top Chief Executive in the National Health Service. According to The Guardian newspaper, he was one of a number of NHS Chief Executives who publicly supported government imposition of the new junior doctors contract.

### Dismissal

On 12 January 2017 the Board of NUTH announced that Sir Leonard had been placed on extended leave. A disciplinary panel was then convened, after an investigation was carried out into claims of bullying and abusive behaviour. It was claimed that Fenwick had tried to force the resignations of two consultants, who were caught having sex with junior members of staff on hospital premises. The dismissals were stopped by the Trust's chair, Kingsley Smith, and non-executive director Bryan Dodson, and after a subsequent 20 minute hearing the two consultants were advised that they could keep their jobs. However, during the investigation allegations and issues were raised against Fenwick by different sources, which resulted in the Board commissioning an investigation and report by an outside HR specialist. This report led to a two-day disciplinary hearing, which found "allegations relating to inappropriate behaviour, use of resources and a range of governance issues, which were proven." Fenwick appealed against the decision, but a second independent panel again found the allegations proven, and resultantly Fenwick was dismissed on grounds of Gross Misconduct.
NUTH added that "Due to the serious nature of the issues the Trust was required to report a number of concerns to NHS Counter Fraud and Security Management Services, known as NHS Protect. As a result it would be inappropriate for the Trust to make any further comment on this matter."
# Essigberg

The Essigberg is a hill in Hesse, Germany.
51°18′54″N 9°20′50″E﻿ / ﻿51.31500°N 9.34722°E﻿ / 51.31500; 9.34722
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# Obo Aba Hisanjani

Obo Aba Hisanjani (born 24 November 1949) is a Nigerian poet.
He was born in the small village of Ajah, now a bustling marketplace. He has campaigned against the development and exploitation of the surrounding areas for purely commercial purposes. In a television interview in 2001 he spoke about the loss of traditional land rights and values.
Known in Lagos as the Bushman Poet, he is known for his native rhythms and complex Yoruba rhymes. His main themes cover traditional practices. He was criticised by many politicians in the 1980s for being against modernisation.
He is currently the Nigerian Poet Laureate.

## List of works

* Èdè Yorùbá (1965)
* ÁLÍFÁBËÊTÌ YORÙBÁ (1966)
* Egbe Isokan Egbe Omo (1971)
* Oyibos are a comin (1982) (translated as 'Whitemen are coming')
* Ade Oyibos (1991) (trans. The Royal Banana Man / White Man)
# Euphorbia thulinii

Euphorbia thulinii is a species of plant in the family Euphorbiaceae. It is endemic to Somalia, and is threatened by habitat loss.