# Disability and women's health

Part of a series on :
Women's health :
Symbol of women's health :
Reproductive and sexual health
Reproductive health
Reproductive tract
External female genitalia
Clitoris
Clitoral hood
Labia minora
Labia majora
Vagina
Cervix
Uterus
Fallopian tube
Ovary
Reproductive system disease
Maternal health
Pregnancy
Unintended pregnancy
Gravidity and parity
Obstetrics
Obstetrics and gynaecology
Antenatal care
Adolescent pregnancy
Complications of pregnancy
Hyperemesis gravidarum
Ectopic pregnancy
Miscarriage
Obstetrical bleeding
Gestational diabetes
Excessive gestational weight gain
Hypertension
Preeclampsia
Eclampsia
Childbirth
Midwifery
Preterm birth
Multiple births
Oxytocin
Obstructed labor
Cesarian section
Retained placenta
Obstetrical fistulae
Vesicovaginal fistula
Rectovaginal fistula
Postpartum care
Maternal deaths
Perinatal mortality
Stillbirths
Abortion
Mother-to-child transmission
Sterilization
Compulsory sterilization
Reproductive life plan
Infertility
Childlessness
Assisted reproductive technology
In vitro fertilization
Parenting
Adoption
Fostering
Contraception & Family planning
Safe sex
Intrauterine devices
Oral contraceptives
Hormonal contraception
Tubal ligation
Male contraceptive
Condoms
Contraceptive prevalence
Contraceptive security
Planned parenthood
Menstruation
Menarche
Menstrual cycle
Menstrual aids
Tampons
Sanitary pads
Dysmenorrhea
Menorrhagia
Amenorrhoea
Menopause
Hormone replacement therapy
Sexual health
Sexually transmitted infections
HIV
Human papilloma virus
HPV vaccine
Pelvic inflammatory disease
Female genital cutting
Clitoridectomy
Infibulation
Child marriage
Forced marriage
Polygamy
Sexual intercourse
Orgasm
Dyspareunia
Other
Sex differences
Sex education
Puberty
Breast health
Gynaecological disorders
Vaginitis :
Non-reproductive health
Violence against women
Domestic violence
Intimate partner violence
Misogyny
Sexual harassment
Sexual assault
Rape
Femicide
Gender discrimination
Non-communicable diseases
Gynecologic cancer
Lung cancer
Breast cancer
Uterine cancer
Endometrial cancer
Cervical cancer
Papanicolaou test
Ovarian cancer
Cardiovascular disease
Dementia
Alzheimer's disease
Bone health
Osteoporosis
Hip fracture
Autoimmune disease
Anaemia
Other
Mental health
Anxiety
Depression
Major depressive disorder
Urinary tract
Urethra
Urinary tract infection
Urinary incontinence :
Sociocultural factors
Poverty
Disadvantaged
Gender equality
Healthcare inequality
Gender disparities in health
Social determinants of health
Reproductive justice
Women's empowerment :
Politics, research & advocacy
United Nations
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women
Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women
International Day of the Girl Child
Commission on the Status of Women
UN Women
United States
Office of Research on Women's Health
Women's Health Initiative
International Center for Research on Women
Nurses' Health Study
Black Women's Health Study
Cartwright Inquiry
Society for Women's Health Research :
Women's health by country
Women's health in China
Women's health in Ethiopia
Women's health in India
(Family planning)
Birth control in the United States
Reproductive health in the United States :
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Women with disabilities have the same health issues as any other women, such as the need for routine breast and cervical cancer screening. However, women with impaired mobility are often not given basic tests, such as weight monitoring, due to the lack of accessible equipment.
Article 12 of the United Nations Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women outlines women's protection from gender discrimination when receiving health services and women's entitlement to specific gender-related healthcare provisions. Article 25 of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities specifies that "persons with disabilities have the right to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of health without discrimination on the basis of disability." However, it has been noted that the women with disabilities face obstacles and hardships and cannot access the same medical resources as those without.
Because traditionally, men have been used to model and test health treatments, the approaches to health services, such as physical therapy, were not properly aligned with disabled women's needs. It wasn't until after the 1990s that women's health issues were studied in-depth in the United States. In addition, researching the health issues of women with disabilities is also understudied. Starting in the early 2000s, health issues for people with disabilities began to be studied in the United States. The first long-term study involving the experiences of women with disabilities and gynecological services was not published until 2001.
Women with physical and or intellectual disabilities often face a medical bias within their communities. Factors can include unconscious bias, symptoms, negative perceptions, and even harsh assessments that can contribute to such discrimination. Physicians can have gender bias in a diagnostic assessment of symptoms they cannot explain. As many before studying women's anatomy had thought prior that both men and women functioned the same way. As when doing assessments for both intellect and physical disabilities. They used the men's traits to correlate to symptoms for women. When in reality symptoms are shown differently.
Women with disabilities, especially individuals who belong to minority groups or who live in rural settings, are often underserved in their healthcare needs. In addition, women with disabilities are more likely to live in poverty, which puts them at a greater health risk. In general, because of a lack of social connectedness that many disabled women experience, they often become disconnected from sources of support which can include healthcare providers. In Brazil, women with disabilities are also less likely to seek out gynecological health care due to various reasons, including cultural attitudes and cost.
When disabled women need routine services for anything other than their main impairment(s), they can be perceived as "problematic patients" by healthcare providers. Women with disabilities have reported that they are seen through the lens of their disability first and as a person second by healthcare providers. Conversely, a 2003 report found that not only did healthcare providers, in general, have positive attitudes toward people with physical disabilities in Saudi Arabia, regardless of gender, which cited that most healthcare professionals worldwide have positive attitudes.
In countries with strict gender segregation, such as in Saudi Arabia, women must use women-only clinics, many of which do not have access for people with physical disabilities.

## Sexual health and contraception

Contraceptives are used by women with intellectual disabilities for various reasons, including pregnancy prevention, menstrual suppression, and management of teratogenic medications. Women with intellectual disabilities are more likely to use contraceptives or request a hysterectomy to manage menstruation. Different types of contraception are available to women with disabilities, but the prescription of a specific type of birth control is based on the type of disability and the associated side-effects.
Menstrual cycles are sometimes affected by different types of disabilities, such as rheumatoid arthritis. In addition, women who become disabled later in life sometimes experience transient menstrual disorders.
Healthcare professionals are less likely to refer women with disabilities for various gynecological screenings. This could be due to the healthcare provider's unfamiliarity with disability or the assumption that women with disabilities are asexual in nature. Women who have a spinal cord injury above the T6 vertebra can have autonomic dysreflexia during a pelvic exam which can be life-threatening. Women with intellectual disabilities are less likely to receive Pap smears because the process may be upsetting to the patient.
In the case that the examination table cannot be lowered during a Pap smear, women with physical disabilities can use alternative examination positions during the procedure, such as knee-chest position, diamond-shaped position, M-shaped position and V-shaped position. These alternative procedures can accommodate women who are unable to position their feet into stirrups or need greater body support. In addition, lithotomy stirrups can be used for additional comfort. The Welner table, designed by American obstetrician-gynecologist and disability rights activist Sandra Welner, is an examination table designed with a wider range of adjustments and positions to facilitate accessibility for both patients and doctors with physical disabilities. Welner also compiled the handbook, Welner's Guide to the care of women with disabilities.
A study conducted in 1989 found that 19% of women with physical disabilities had been counseled on sexuality in a medical setting and were rarely offered information about contraceptives. Women with intellectual disabilities often lack both education about sexual health and the ability to learn about it informally. In addition, their medical providers are less likely to discuss contraception with them. Women with intellectual disabilities can use supported decision-making with family members or other support persons to determine their preferred contraceptive option.
In Zimbabwe, people with disabilities are often treated as second-class citizens. Women in Zimbabwe face increased barriers when accessing services for sexual health. The National Reproductive Health Policy implemented in 2006 did not address the needs of women with disabilities. Zimbabwean women with disabilities faced negative attitudes about their reproductive health, such as those of female nurses who expressed the idea that "sex was not meant for the disabled."
Women with intellectual disabilities have been advised to become sterilized to possibly prevent sexual assault or because doctors may consider them unfit to become mothers. In the United States, a 1927 Supreme Court case, Buck v. Bell, allowed the forced sterilization of women with intellectual disabilities. In Singapore, the Voluntary Sterlisation Act (VSA) was passed in 1970 and which allowed any spouse, parent or guardian of persons who are "afflicted with any hereditary form of illness that is recurrent, mental illness, mental deficiency or epilepsy" to consent to the sterilization on their behalf. In Brazil, many healthcare providers and individuals with disabilities both see sterilization as the only option for contraception.

## Maternity care

Some studies have highlighted potential obstacles for pregnant women with disability. For example, a 1996 study discovered that over 50% of United States hospitals lacked the necessary infrastructure to cater to the needs of physically disabled pregnant women, which rendered their facilities inaccessible. These barriers may include lack of adjustable examination tables, wheelchair compatible features, and accessible weight scales.
A study published in the Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities demonstrated that pregnant women and mothers with intellectual disabilities benefit from the inclusion of a doula both before and after they gave birth. This approach contrasts with "crisis driven" services that are more often given to parents who have intellectual disabilities. Participants in one small study felt that they gained a trusting relationship with their doulas and that helped them stay calm both during labor and after. Additionally, the women felt that they were able to make better, more informed choices about their own care because of the information and support they received from their doulas.
Expectant mothers with intellectual disabilities may need more specialized training and guidance in regards to childcare after they give birth. Important themes in training may include consistent formal obstetric training and education for both providers and mothers.

## Breast health

Many women with a disability do not regularly receive or are not regularly referred for breast cancer screenings. Women with some physical disabilities may need to be referred to special mammography centers because most equipment is not designed to accommodate women who are unable to stand. Some women with disabilities may be unable to receive breast cancer screening due to financial concerns. Clinical depression is also a complication involved in whether or not women with disabilities get annual mammograms. There is also potential concern that ionizing radiation applied to the spine too early on in life may cause an increased risk of developing breast cancer. This is of particular concern for those women and girls who experienced disabilities relating to the spine from a young age.

## Later life

Standards of successful aging may be different for those experiencing disabilities and they may require additional support as they age. Older women are more likely to be disabled than younger women. The most common disability affecting elderly women worldwide is osteoarthritis. Older women who have disabilities that affect their mobility are at risk of losing contact with their communities and may experience degraded life outcomes associated as a result.
Women with physical disabilities are at a greater risk of having lower bone mass and are at risk for osteoporosis. Women with ID and Down syndrome often go through menopause at an earlier age than other women. Women with various disabilities sometimes show different symptoms from decreased estrogen levels during menopause.
Loss of estrogen after menopause can also lead to a greater likelihood of urinary incontinence Treatment and therapy interventions for incontinence have not been tested or modified for women with disabilities.