# East Kainji languages

The East Kainji languages are spoken in a compact area of the Jos Plateau in Nigeria, near Jos. There are more than 20 of them, most of which are poorly studied.

## History

East Kainji languages are less internally diverse than some of the other Plateau branches in the Nigerian Middle Belt (Blench 2007). Historically, the East Kainji branch had been influenced by Chadic languages that no longer exist in the region. Today, there are at most 100,000 speakers of East Kainji languages, with almost all languages of the languages being threatened by larger languages such as Hausa and English. Although they are morphologically simple, they have 4-level tones instead of the 3-level tones typical of the region.
At the time of the British conquest, several of these languages were in the process of shifting from duodecimal to decimal systems. Languages attested with such systems include Janji, Gure-Kahugu (Gbiri-Niragu) and Piti.

## Features

Compared to the neighbouring Plateau languages, East Kainji languages are morphologically simple. They have four level tones, as opposed to most other languages in the Nigerian Middle Belt having only three level tones. The fourth tone in East Kainji languages originated as a superhigh tone used to mark plurals.
Syllables in East Kainji languages are generally open (CV). Blench (2020) suggests that the East Kainji branch is most closely related to Basa, since both have (C)V-CVCV phonotactic structures.

## Classification

East Kainji was once thought to be a primary branch of the Kainji languages, but this is no longer the case. Impressionistically, Piti and Atsam appear to be distinct, but the rest form a continuous dialect chain.
The East Kainji languages have historically undergone influence from non-Hausa West Chadic languages. East Kainji is not as internally diverse as West Kainji.

### Ethnologue

Ethnologue indicates several branches; these will be retained here for reference:
* Piti–Atsam
* Jos languages: Amo (Map)
** Northern Jos languages:
*** Jera languages: Lere, Ziriya (Sheni?)
**** Lameic languages: Gyem, Shau
**** Ningic languages: Gamo-Ningi, Kudu-Camo
**** North-Central Jos languages: Iguta, Janji, Tunzuii (Tunzu)
***** Boze-Loro languages: Jere, Panawa
***** Chokobo-Lemoro-Sanga languages: Izora
***** Lemoro-Sanga languages: Lemoro, Sanga
*** Kauru languages: Kurama, Gbiri-Niragu (Gure-Kahugu), Bina, Dungu, Kaivi, Kinuku, Kono, Mala, Ruma, Shuwa-Zamani, Surubu, Tumi, Vono

### Blench (2018)

Most recent Kainji classification by Blench (2018:83):
* Amic languages: Map
* Tsamic languages: Tsam (Cahwai), Ngmgbang, Bishi (Piti)
* Kaduna languages: Gbiri-Niragu, Shuwa-Zamani, Vori (Shuwa-Zamani), Kurmi (Kurama), Mala-Ruma, Bin, Kono, Kaivi, Vono, Tumi, Dungu, Nu (Kinuku)
* North-central cluster: Lemoro, Janji, Iguta, Zora (Cokobo) (moribund)
** Shammɔ cluster: Sanga, Gusu, Moro, Loro, Bunu, Tunzu (Duguza)
*** (branch): Zele (Jere), Boze, Panawa
* Northern Jos group:
** Sheni cluster: Ziriya (extinct), Kere (extinct), Sheni (almost extinct)
** Lere cluster: Si (extinct), Gana (extinct), Takaya (extinct)
** Lame cluster: Gyem, Shau (extinct)
** Ningi cluster: Kudu-Camo (almost extinct), Gamo-Ningi (Butu-Ningi) (extinct)

### Blench (2012)

In Blench's 2012 classification, Piti–Atsam is named "Southern". Northern Jos is named "Jos", and the Jera languages are named "Northern Jos", which he further subdivides into several dialect clusters; Amo is placed in this group.
In the tree below given by Blench (2012), East Kainji is split into a core Jos group and peripheral Southern group.
* Southern group: Piti, Atsam
* Jos group (Jera):
** Lere cluster: Si (almost extinct), Gana (almost extinct), Takaya (almost extinct)
** North-central cluster:, Izora (Cokobo), Lemoro, Sanga, Janji, εBoze (Buji), iGusu, iZele (Jere), iBunu (Ribina), iPanawa-iLoro, Iguta, Tunzu (Duguza), tiMap
** Sheni cluster: Ziriya (extinct), Kere (extinct), Sheni (almost extinct)
** Kauru group: Gbiri-Niragu, Shuwa-Zamani, Surubu, Kurama, Mala-Ruma, Bina, Kono, Kaivi, Vono, Tumi, Kinuku, Dungu
** Northern group (Ningi-Lame):
*** Ningi cluster: Kudu-Camo (almost extinct), Gamo-Ningi (Butu-Ningi) (†)
*** Lame cluster: Gyem (almost extinct), Shau (almost extinct)

### Shimizu (1982)

Classification of the Northern Jos group according to Shimizu (1982: 165):
* Northern Jos
** R-group
*** Rahama: Ziriya, Sheni
*** South: Janji, Jere, Guta
** L-group
*** Central
**** Zora (Chokobo)
**** Moro, Sanga
*** North
**** Lere
***** Takaya (Taura)
***** Si (Rishuwa), Gana
**** Lame-Ningi
***** Lame: Gyem, Shau
***** Ningi
****** Kudu (Kuda), Chamo
****** Gamo (Butu), Ningi
Shimizu (1982) also reconstructs Proto-Northern Jos.

### Glottolog

Glottolog's classification is similar to Blench's, but the Piti–Atsam name is retained. In this classification, all languages except for Piti–Atsam are grouped under "Jos". Amo, while within the "Jos" group, is left out of both Kauru and Jera (or "Northern Jos", following Blench).
Only Kurama, Gbiri-Niragu, Jere, Sanga and Lemoro have more than a few thousand speakers.

## Names and locations

Below is a comprehensive list of East Kainji language names, populations, and locations from Blench (2019).
| | Language | Branch | Cluster | Dialects | Alternate spellings | Own name for language | Endonym(s) | Other names (location-based) | Other names for language | Exonym(s) | Speakers | Location(s) |
| Map | Amic | | | Amon, Among | Timap | Kumap pl. Amap | | Ba | | 3,550 (NAT 1950) | Plateau State, Bassa LGA; Kaduna State, Saminaka LGA | |
| Atsam | A | | | | | sg. Tsam, pl. Atsam | | | Chawai, Chawe, Chawi | 10,200 (1931 Gunn); 30,000 (1972 Barrett) | Kaduna State, Kachia LGA | |
| Bishi | A | | Riban (Ngmgbang) was formerly listed as a dialect, but is clearly a distinct language | Abisi, Bisi | | xx pl. Abishi | | Pitti | | 1,600 (NAT 1950); Live in at least 26 villages (Ajaegbu et al. 2013) | Kaduna State, Saminaka LGA | no data |
| Ngmgbang | A | | Formerly listed as a dialect of Bishi, but is clearly a distinct language | Ribam | Rigmgbang | | | | | few villages (Ajaegbu et al. 2013) | Kaduna State, Saminaka LGA | no data |
| Lere cluster (extinct) | "Northern Jos" | Lere (extinct) | | | | | | | | 765 (NAT 1949); 1,000 (1973 SIL); languages extinct | Bauchi State, Toro LGA | |
| Si | "Northern Jos" | Lere (extinct) | | | | Rishuwa | Kauru | Kuzamani | | | | |
| Gana (extinct) | "Northern Jos" | Lere (extinct) | | | | | | | | Extinct | | |
| Takaya (extinct) | "Northern Jos" | Lere (extinct) | | | | | | Taura | | Extinct | | |
| Gamo–Ningi cluster | Gamo-Ningi | Gamo–Ningi | | | | | | | | 15,000 but most speak Hausa. | Bauchi State, Ningi LGA | |
| Gamo | Gamo-Ningi | Gamo–Ningi | | | tì-Gamo | dòò-Gamo pl. à-ndi-Gamo | | Butancii | Buta, Butawa, Butu | There are some 32 settlements of Gamo, but of these only Kurmi still spoke the language in 1974 (Shimizu 1982). | | |
| Ningi | Gamo-Ningi | Gamo–Ningi | | | | | | | | | | |
| Iguta | C | | | | | Anaguta | Naraguta | | | 2,580 (HDG); 3,000 (1973 SIL) | Plateau State, Bassa LGA | |
| Janji | C | | | Jenji | Tìjánjí | Ajanji | | | Anafejanzi | 360 (NAT 1950) | Plateau State, Bassa LGA | |
| Jere cluster | C | Jere | | Jera, Jeere | | | | | | 23,000 (1972 SIL) | Plateau State, Bassa LGA; Bauchi State, Toro LGA | |
| Boze | C | Jere | Boze is divided into 3 dialects, εGorong, εKɔkɔŋ as well as a third rather divergent speech form, εFiru | Anabeze | eBoze | unaBoze pl. anaBoze | Buji | | | εGorong (2500?), εKɔkɔŋ (3000) εFiru (1500?) (Blench est, 2003). Due to language loss, especially in road settlements, there are considerably more ethnic Boze. Ethnologue figures are total district populations, not speakers. | Plateau State, Bassa LGA. Both sides of the Jos-Zaria road, directly north of Jos. | |
| Gusu | C | Jere | | Gussum | i–Sanga | sg. o–Sanga, pl. a–Sanga | | Anibau, Anosangobari | | 2,350 (1936 HDG) | Plateau State, Bassa LGA; Bauchi State, Toro LGA | |
| Jere | C | Jere | | | Ezelle | Anazele, Azelle | Jengre | | | 4,500 (1936 HDG) | Plateau State, Bassa LGA; Kaduna State, Saminaka LGA | |
| Ibunu-Lɔrɔ | C | Jere | | Bunu | Ìbunu; iLɔrɔ | Ànarubùnu, (Anorubuna, Narabuna); ɔnɔLɔrɔ pl. AnoLɔrɔ | Rebina, Ribina, Rubunu | | | 2,000 (LA 1971); 1500 (Blench 2003) in four villages | Bauchi State, Toro LGA | |
| Panawa | C | Jere | | | iPanawa | unuPanawa pl. anaPanawa | Bujiyel | | | 1600 CAPRO (1995a). 3500 (Blench 2003) in five villages | Bauchi State, Toro LGA | |
| Tunzu | C | | | | one person Tunzú, people àTunzû | ìTunzû | Dugusa, Duguza | | | 2500 speakers (Blench 2003 est.), though there are likely 2000 more ethnic Tunzu who do not speak the language. | Plateau State, Jos East Local Government (5 villages), main settlement at N10˚ 02, E 9˚ 06. Bauchi State, Toro LGA (2 villages) | |
| Sheni-Ziriya-Kere cluster | C | Sheni-Ziriya-Kere | | | | | | | | | | |
| Sheni | C | Sheni-Ziriya-Kere | | Shani, Shaini | tiSeni | one person onoSeni, people anaSeni | | | | 6 fluent speakers remaining out of ethnic community of about 1500 (Blench 2003) | Kaduna State, Lere LGA. Two settlements, Sheni (N10˚ 22.6, E 8˚ 45.9) and Gurjiya (N10˚ 21.5, E 8˚ 45.2) | |
| Kere (extinct) | C | Sheni-Ziriya-Kere | | | | | | | | extinct (Blench 2003) | Kaduna State, Lere LGA. Kere | |
| Ziriya (extinct) | C | Sheni-Ziriya-Kere | | Jiriya | | | | | | extinct (ethnic community ca. 2000) | Bauchi State: Toro LGA: Ziriya (N10˚ 22.6, E 8˚ 50) | |
| Nu | Kauru | | | | Tinu | Binu pl. Anu | Kinugu, Kinuka, Kinuku | | | 460 (NAT 1949); 500 (1973 SIL); 3000 (est. 2016). About seven villages | Kaduna State, Saminaka LGA | |
| Tumi | Kauru | | | | Tutumi | | Kitimi | | | 635 (NAT 1949) | Kaduna State, Saminaka LGA | no data |
| Bin | Kauru | | | Bina | tìBin | bìBin pl. áBin | | Bogana | Binawa | 220 (NAT 1949), 2,000 (1973 SIL). 4 villages (2016) ca. 3-4000 (est.) | Kaduna State, Saminaka LGA. About 15 km west of Mariri, along the Geshere road. | |
| Gbiri–Niragu cluster | Kauru | Gbiri–Niragu | | | | | | | | 5,000 (1952 W&B) | Kaduna State, Saminaka LGA | |
| Gbiri | Kauru | Gbiri–Niragu | | | Igbiri, Agari, Agbiri | | Gura, Gure, Guri | | | | | |
| Niragu | Kauru | Gbiri–Niragu | | | Anirago, Aniragu | | Kafugu, Kagu, Kahugu, Kapugu | | | | | |
| Kurama | Kauru | | | | Tikurumi | Akurumi | | Bagwama (also refers to Ruma) | | 11,300 (NAT 1949) | Kaduna State, Saminaka and Ikara LGAs; Kano State, Tudun Wada LGA | |
| Ruma | Kauru | | | Rurama | Turuma | Arumaruma | | Bagwama (also refers to Kurama) | | 2,200 (NAT 1948) | Kaduna State, Saminaka LGA | |
| Shuwa–Zamani | Kauru | | | | | | | | | | Kaduna State, Saminaka LGA | |
| Vori | Kauru | | | | TiVori | PiVori pl. AVori | Srubu, Skrubu, Surubu, Zurubu | Fiti | | 1,950 (NAT 1948) | Kaduna State, Saminaka LGA | |
| Dungu | Kauru | | | Dungi, Dingi, Dwingi, Dunjawa | | | | | | 310 (NAT 1949) | Kaduna State, Saminaka LGA | no data |
| Kono | Kauru | | | Konu, Kwono | | | | | | 1,550 (NAT 1949) | Kaduna State, Saminaka LGA | no data |
| Mala | Kauru | | | | Tumala | Amala | Rumaya, Rumaiya | | | 1,800 (NAT 1948) | Kaduna State, Saminaka LGA | no data |
| Vono | Kauru | | | | Kivɔnɔ | Avɔnɔ | | Kibolo, Kiwollo, Kiballo | | 335 (NAT 1949); 500 (1973 SIL) | Kaduna State, Saminaka LGA | no data |
| Kaivi | Kauru | | | Kaibi | | | | | | 650 (NAT 1949) | Kaduna State, Saminaka LGA | no data |
| Gyem | Lame | | | Gema | | | | | | 2000 (est. 2015) | Bauchi State, Toro LGA, Lame district | |
| Shau | Lame | | | Sho | Lìsháù | | | | | Almost extinct | Bauchi State, Toro LGA, villages of Shau and Mana | |
| Kudu–Camo cluster | Ningi | Kudu–Camo | Basa said to be a sub–group | | | | | | | Language moribund, perhaps extinct | Bauchi State, Ningi LGA | |
| Kudu | Ningi | Kudu–Camo | | Kuda | | | | | | Probably extinct | | |
| Camo | Ningi | Kudu–Camo | | Chamo | | | | | | Probably extinct | | |
| Lemoro | North-Central | | | Limorro | Emoro | Anemoro | Anowuru | | | 2,950 (1936 HDG) | Plateau State, Bassa LGA; Bauchi State, Toro LGA | |
| Sanga | North-Central | | | | Aŋma Asanga | Asanga | | | | 1,700 (NAT 1950); 5,000 (1973 SIL) | Bauchi State, Toro LGA, Lame district | |
| Zora | North-Central | | | | iZora | uZora pl. aZora | | | Cikobu, Chokobo | 425 (1936 HDG), 19 speakers (March 2016); 10 settlements close to N10˚ 21.7, E 8˚ 50.6. About 3-4000 ethnic Zora. | Plateau State, Bassa LGA | |

## Lexical comparison

The following table shows the singular and plural forms for ‘arm, hand’ from various East Kainji language varieties. Names in parentheses are from Williamson (1972). The data has been combined by Blench (2020) from Williamson (1972), Shimizu (1979, 1982), and Blench's unpublished field data.
| Language | Cluster | ‘arm, hand’ | ‘arms, hands’ |
| Bishi (Piti) | Southern | moɔk | |
| Atsam (Chaw) | Southern | wɔk | |
| Kudu (Kuda) | Ningi | mò-ri | |
| Camo (Cham) | Ningi | ùkérí | |
| Gamo (Buta) | Ningi | ù-ʔára | à-ʔára |
| Gyem (Gyem) | Lame | ò-meᵏ | cè-rèèku |
| Shau | Lame | u-ʔara | tu-ʔara |
| Si | Lere | àya | |
| Gana | Lere | ù-ʔaya | |
| Takaya (Taur) | Lere | àyà | |
| Izora | North-central | ù-ʔara | tààra |
| eMoro | North-central | wàʔara | tàara |
| Sanga | North-central | ò-ʔàra | tà-ʔàra |
| Janji (Janj) | North-central | tààre | |
| εBoze (Buji) | North-central | ò-wàrè | tàre |
| iZele | North-central | ò-warè | tà-are |
| iBunu (Ribn) | North-central | ù-wáré | tà-áré |
| iPanawa | North-central | ù-wáré | tì-wáré |
| iLoro | North-central | ù-wáré | tàáré |
| iGuta | North-central | ù-wɨrɨ | tɨ̀-ɨ̀rɨ |
| tiMap (Amo) | North-central | ù-cárà | à-cárà |
| Ziriya † | Sheni | àyí | |
| Sheni (Shen) | Sheni | taya | uta-taya |
| Gbiri | Kauru | ka-kiara | na- |
| Niragu | Kauru | ka-ʧara | Kahu |
| Surubu (Surb) | Kauru | ka-ʧara | na- |
| Kurama (Krma) | Kauru | tá-áré | tí- |
| Kono | Kauru | u-cara | i-cara |