OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Schwinger's quantum action principle

The Schwinger's quantum action principle is a variational approach to quantum mechanics and quantum field theory. This theory was introduced by Julian Schwinger in a series of articles starting 1950.

## Approach

In Schwinger's approach, the action principle is targeted towards quantum mechanics. The action becomes a quantum action, i.e. an operator, $S$. Although it is superficially different from the path integral formulation where the action is a classical function, the modern formulation of the two formalisms are identical.
Suppose we have two states defined by the values of a complete set of commuting operators at two times. Let the early and late states be $|A\rangle$ and $|B\rangle$, respectively. Suppose that there is a parameter in the Lagrangian which can be varied, usually a source for a field. The main equation of Schwinger's quantum action principle is:
    $\delta \langle B|A\rangle =i\langle B|\delta S|A\rangle ,\$
where the derivative is with respect to small changes ($\delta$) in the parameter, and $S=\int {\mathcal {L}}\,\mathrm {d} t$ with ${\mathcal {L}}$ the Lagrange operator.
In the path integral formulation, the transition amplitude is represented by the sum over all histories of $\exp(iS)$, with appropriate boundary conditions representing the states $|A\rangle$ and $|B\rangle$. The infinitesimal change in the amplitude is clearly given by Schwinger's formula. Conversely, starting from Schwinger's formula, it is easy to show that the fields obey canonical commutation relations and the classical equations of motion, and so have a path integral representation. Schwinger's formulation was most significant because it could treat fermionic anticommuting fields with the same formalism as bose fields, thus implicitly introducing differentiation and integration with respect to anti-commuting coordinates.
# S. chilense

S. chilense may refer to:
* Solanum chilense, plant species from the subgenus Lycopersicon
* Symphyotrichum chilense, species of flowering plant in the family Asteraceae
* Stromatium chilense, species of beetle in the family Cerambycidae
# Tanja Karpela

Tanja Tellervo Karpela (née Vienonen; previously Karpela and Saarela; born 22 August 1970) is a Finnish former politician and beauty pageant titleholder who was crowned Miss Finland 1991. She was a Member of Parliament from 1999 to 2011 and served in the government of Finland as Minister of Culture from 2003 to 2007.

## Life and career

Karpela was born in Salo. As a beauty queen, she held the title of Miss Finland and represented her country in the Miss Universe 1991. Prior to her political career, she also became famous for her work as an underwear and lingerie model.
Karpela was elected to parliament from the Electoral District of Uusimaa in 1999, representing the Centre Party. She was appointed Minister of Culture in Prime Minister Anneli Jäätteenmäki's cabinet in 2003. After the resignation of Jäätteenmäki, Karpela went on to serve in the same post under Prime Minister Matti Vanhanen.
In December 2005 Karpela received a Big Brother Award from the Finnish on-line civil rights organization EFFI for proposing Internet traffic blocking software be installed in schools and libraries. She was also a supporter of the 2005 amendment to the Finnish Copyright Act and Penal Code, which has been nicknamed Lex Karpela due to her acceptance of what many perceive to be a highly controversial addition to the Finnish law. In March 2010, Karpela announced that she is no longer pursuing a parliamentary career following the 2011 parliamentary elections.

## Personal life

Karpela is a convicted drunk driver and since entering politics, she has become most famous for her relationships – she has remarried twice and broken off a third, separate engagement. Karpela caused a stir in 2001 when it became public that she (a divorcée) was having a relationship with Finance Minister Sauli Niinistö (a widower). Karpela's Centre Party was in opposition and Niinistö was considered the second-most influential man in government. Under close press scrutiny ever since, in 2003 Karpela and Niinistö announced their engagement. They broke off their engagement in 2004.
On 21 May 2006, Karpela married film director Olli Saarela, and took her new husband's surname. She filed for divorce from Olli Saarela in November 2007, and on 22 February 2008 she changed her name back to Karpela.
Karpela has two children (born 1995 and 1998) from her previous marriage to Totti Karpela and one (born 2009) from her third marriage to Janne Erjola.

## Honours

* Belgium: Grand Cross of the Order of the Crown (2004)
# Heterobathra

Heterobathra is a moth genus of the family Depressariidae.

## Species

* Heterobathra bimacula Lower, 1901
* Heterobathra votiva Meyrick, 1922
* Heterobathra xiphosema Lower, 1901
# Jan-Erik Silfverberg

Jan-Erik Silfverberg (born January 21, 1953) is a former professional ice hockey player. He played defense for 11 seasons with Brynäs IF of the Swedish Elitserien. He is the father of Jakob and Joakim Silfverberg.

## Awards

| League | Season(s) |
| Swedish Champion | 1971-1972 |
| Swedish Junior Hockey Player of the Year (Årets Junior) | 1971-1972 |
| SHL SM-silver medal | 1974-1975 |
| SHL Champion | 1975–1976, 1976–1977, and 1979–1980 |
| World Championship Silver Medal | 1976-1977 |
# Hong Cheong

Hong Cheong (also Hung Chiong and Hung Chong) was a Chinese photographer who operated a photographic studio in Yokohama, Japan, between 1875 and 1885. In addition to his photographic work, he was an artist, chart copier, portrait painter, and dealer in picture frames. Cheong left Japan in 1885 and opened a studio in Hong Kong. His photographic works included large format hand-coloured albumen prints.
It is possible that Hong Cheong was related to Tong Cheong, the Chinese operator of another photographic studio in Yokohama known from an advertisement of 1884.
# Tambja gabrielae

Tambja gabrielae is a species of sea slug, a dorid nudibranch, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Polyceridae.

## Distribution

This species is found in Sulawesi (Indonesia), Philippines and Papua New Guinea.

## Description

Tambja gabrielae has bright yellow or orange spots on a dark green to almost black background.
# Ron Shumon

Ronald Shumon (born December 11, 1955) is a former American football linebacker who played for the Cincinnati Bengals and the San Francisco 49ers of the National Football League (NFL). He played college football at Wichita State University.
# Speed skating at the 1928 Winter Olympics – Men's 500 metres

The 500 metres speed skating event was part of the speed skating at the 1928 Winter Olympics programme. The competition was held on Monday, 13 February 1928. Thirty-three speed skaters from 14 nations competed.

## Medalists

| Gold | Silver | Bronze |
| Bernt Evensen NorwayClas Thunberg Finland | | John Farrell United StatesJaakko Friman FinlandRoald Larsen Norway |

## Records

These were the standing world and Olympic records (in seconds) prior to the 1928 Winter Olympics.
| World Record | 43.1(*) | Roald Larsen | Davos (SUI) | 4 February 1928 |
| Olympic Record | 44.0 | Charles Jewtraw | Chamonix (FRA) | 26 January 1924 |
(*) The record was set in a high altitude venue (more than 1000 metres above sea level) and on naturally frozen ice.
Seven speed skaters were faster than the standing Olympic record with the two Olympic champions as new Olympic record holders. Bernt Evensen and Clas Thunberg each set a time of 43.4 seconds.

## Results

| Place | Athlete | Time |
| 1 | Clas Thunberg (FIN) | 43.4 OR |
| 1 | Bernt Evensen (NOR) | 43.4 OR |
| 3 | John Farrell (USA) | 43.6 |
| 3 | Roald Larsen (NOR) | 43.6 |
| 3 | Jaakko Friman (FIN) | 43.6 |
| 6 | Haakon Pedersen (NOR) | 43.8 |
| 7 | Charles Gorman (CAN) | 43.9 |
| 8 | Bertel Backman (FIN) | 44.4 |
| 9 | Oskar Olsen (NOR) | 44.7 |
| 10 | Eddie Murphy (USA) | 44.9 |
| 11 | Toivo Ovaska (FIN) | 45.2 |
| 11 | Willy Logan (CAN) | 45.2 |
| 11 | Irving Jaffee (USA) | 45.2 |
| 14 | Ross Robinson (CAN) | 45.9 |
| 15 | Christfried Burmeister (EST) | 46.2 |
| 16 | Alberts Rumba (LAT) | 46.3 |
| 17 | Valentine Bialas (USA) | 46.5 |
| 18 | Fritz Moser (AUT) | 46.7 |
| 19 | Zoltán Eötvös (HUN) | 46.8 |
| 20 | Fritz Jungblut (GER) | 47.2 |
| 21 | Otto Polacsek (AUT) | 47.5 |
| 22 | Aleksander Mitt (EST) | 47.7 |
| 23 | Gustaf Andersson (SWE) | 47.9 |
| 24 | Erhard Mayke (GER) | 49.1 |
| 24 | Rudolf Riedl (AUT) | 49.1 |
| 26 | Léonhard Quaglia (FRA) | 49.5 |
| 27 | Siem Heiden (NED) | 49.9 |
| 28 | Charles Thaon (FRA) | 50.1 |
| 28 | Kęstutis Bulota (LTU) | 50.1 |
| 30 | Frederick Dix (GBR) | 53.4 |
| 31 | Leonard Stewart (GBR) | 54.8 |
| 32 | Cyril Horn (GBR) | 54.9 |
| 33 | Wim Kos (NED) | 56.2 |
# Moncodeno

Moncodeno (Moncoeuden in Lombard) is a Cirque on the northern mountain slope of the Grigna, part of the Bergamasque Alps in the province of Lecco, Lombardy, northern Italy. It takes its name from the pasture of the same name. Mostly located in the administrative territory of the municipality of Esino Lario, a small part is situated in Cortenova.

## Geography

The geography is mainly karst and there are hundreds of caves. The most notable of these are the complesso del Releccio Alfredo Bini , with a depth of 1,313 metres (4,308 ft), making it one of the deepest caves in Italy, as well as the Ghiacciaia del Moncodeno (Icebox of Moncodeno), a cave, visited by Leonardo da Vinci that stays icy even in summer.

## History

In 1881, the 14th Congress of Italian mountaineers convened in Milan. The delegates of the Italian Alpine Club (CAI) were invited to attend a ceremony in Lombardy in the area known to the scientific world for the studies of Milan's CAI section president, the abbot and Lecco geologist, Antonio Stoppani, who founded the Capanna Moncodeno (hut). It is the first refuge built for Grigna researchers. The hut was destroyed by an avalanche in 1897. The Monza CAI rebuilt it close by in 1906 and named it Capanna Monza. This was set on fire and destroyed again by the Fascists in 1944. A new building was rebuilt and opened in 1951, named Rifugio Arnaldo Bogani.
# Municipality of Russell-Binscarth

The Municipality of Russell – Binscarth is a rural municipality (RM) in the Parkland Region of Manitoba, Canada. It is located in the far western part of the province and shares a border with the neighbouring province of Saskatchewan.

## History

It was incorporated on January 1, 2015, via the amalgamation of the RM of Russell, the Town of Russell, and the Village of Binscarth. It was formed as a requirement of The Municipal Amalgamations Act, which required that municipalities with a population less than 1,000 amalgamate with one or more neighbouring municipalities by 2015. The amalgamations were started by the government of Manitoba so that municipalities could reach the minimum population requirement of 1,000 in 1997 for incorporation as a municipality.

## Communities

* Binscarth
* Harrowby
* Johnson
* Millwood
* Russell (unincorporated urban community)

## Demographics

In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, Russell-Binscarth had a population of 2,596 living in 1,121 of its 1,243 total private dwellings, a change of 6.3% from its 2016 population of 2,442. With a land area of 569.7 km$^2$ (220.0 sq mi), it had a population density of 4.6/km$^2$ (11.8/sq mi) in 2021.
# Tambja blacki

Tambja blacki is a species of sea slug, a dorid nudibranch, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Polyceridae.

## Distribution

This species was originally described from Papua New Guinea and eastern Australia.
# Hermann Brunn

Karl Hermann Brunn (1 August 1862 – 20 September 1939) was a German mathematician, known for his work in convex geometry (see Brunn–Minkowski inequality) and in knot theory. Brunnian links are named after him, as his 1892 article "Über Verkettung" included examples of such links.

## Life and work

Hermann Brunn was born in Rome, and grew up in Munich. He studied mathematics and physics at the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, graduating in 1887 with the thesis Über Ovale und Eiflächen (About ovals and eggforms). He habilitated in 1889.
# Marian Derby

Marion Derby (later Marian Wisberg and also known as Marion Mountain) (March 12, 1923 - May 15, 2013) was an author, artist, and zen student of Shunryū Suzuki.
Derby was a puppeteer at one point, working with Frank Oz at the Children's Fairyland Puppet Fair hosted by the San Francisco Puppeteers Guild of America.
Derby was the head of the Los Altos Zen group (which later evolved into the Kannon Do Zen Meditation Center) where Shunryū Suzuki often taught. Derby was responsible for putting together the first draft of Shunryū Suzuki's Zen Mind, Beginner's Mind. Derby's father was driving Suzuki from Los Altos to San Francisco and he inquired about Suzuki's ambition wherein Suzuki replied "I'd like to write a book." After hearing about this conversation from her father, Derby approached Suzuki about taping his lectures and transcribing them. Suzuki later suggested she give the manuscript to Richard Baker who then further refined it with the help of Trudy Dixon.
Under the name Marian Mountain, Derby authored her own book on Zen entitled The Zen Environment: The Impact of Zen Meditation. She was working on a follow-up book entitled Snail Zen when she died.
# Hacker (card game)

Hacker is a dedicated deck card game for 3–6 players published by Steve Jackson Games (SJG) in 1992.

## History

In early 1990, SJG was developing a game called GURPS Cyberpunk. On March 1 of that year, the company was raided by the United States Secret Service as part of a nationwide investigation of data piracy. The agents took computers, printers, hard drives, at least one pocket calculator, over 300 floppy disks, and an entire BBS server. In the court case that followed, the Secret Services justified their actions by calling GURPS Cyberpunk "a handbook for computer crime".
In 1992, SJG made a card game called Hacker based on the Secret Service's beliefs.
In 1993, SJG released the supplement Hacker II: The Dark Side, which added new rules and new cards to the gameplay.

## Gameplay

The original game has 110 cards, 172 die-cut cardboard counters, 53 thin cardstock counters, two network ID cards, and a plastic ziplock bag.
The players use cards to construct a computer network, and then roll dice to try and infiltrate the system. Successful entry gains access to new systems, or the ability to crash the system or upgrade the player's equipment. If too many hackers try to infiltrate the same system, it initiates a system housecleaning. A player can also be raided by the FBI or Secret Service.
The first player to gain access to 12 systems wins the game.

## Reception

Allen Varney reviewed the game twice for Dragon:
* In the September 1992 edition (Issue 185), Varney found the game didn't have enough player interaction. Varney also didn't like the length of the game, which he felt went on too long because "When a Hacker game player pulls ahead of the pack and becomes 'Net Ninja', the others can bring down the Ninja easily, leading to a draggy war of attrition." Varney concluded, "[Steve] Jackson has made a fair hack at the subject... but he should have debugged a few more times before running it."
* A year later, in the December 1993 edition Varney gave a retrospective thumbs down to the game because of the lack of differentiation between players' roles. "Though individual roles aren’t vital, it helps when a social game gives each player a unique identity — a particular game position, a special power, or just a name. Hacker misses a bet on this count."

## Awards

Hacker won the 1992 Origins Award for Best Modern-Day Boardgame.
Hacker II won the 1993 Origins Award for Best Modern-Day Boardgame.

## Reviews

* Challenge #67 (December 1992)
* Casus Belli #71 (Sep 1992)
# Ahlers

Ahlers is a German surname. People with this surname include:
* Anny Ahlers (1907–1933), German actress and singer
* Daniel Ahlers (born 1973), Member of the South Dakota House of Representatives
* Eleanor E. Ahlers (1911–1997), American librarian and educator
* Emilio Ahlers (born 1942), Uruguayann rower
* Friedrich Ahlers-Hestermann (1883–1973), German painter
* Holton Ahlers (born 1999), American football player
* Jaco Ahlers (born 1982), South African golfer
* John Ahlers, American sports announcer
* José Ahlers (born 1941), Uruguayan rower
* Keith Ahlers (born 1955), English racecar driver
* Liesl Ahlers (born 1991), South African actress, director, singer, songwriter, martial artist
* Marie Ahlers (1989–1968), German politician
* Michael Ahlers (born 1973), German music educator
* Ozzie Ahlers (born 1946), American songwriter and music producer
* Ria Ahlers (born 1954), high jumper
* Tommy Ahlers (born 1975), Danish businessman and politician
* George Ahlers (born 1961), American businessman and owner of Last Leg Cidery in Northeast Pennsylvania
# Monclova Township, Lucas County, Ohio

Monclova Township is one of the eleven townships of Lucas County, Ohio, United States. The 2020 census found 14,827 people in the township.

## Geography

Located in the central part of the county, it borders the following townships and city:
* Springfield Township - north
* Maumee - east
* Perrysburg Township, Wood County - southeast
* Waterville Township - south
* Swanton Township - west
* Spencer Township - northwest
* Whitehouse - southwest
No municipalities are located in Monclova Township, although the unincorporated community of Monclova lies in the township's center.

## Name and history

Monclova Township was organized in 1853. It is the only Monclova Township statewide. According to Monclova Township's Land Use Plan 2009, the name "Monclova" means "one clan."

## Government

The township is governed by a three-member board of trustees, who are elected in November of odd-numbered years to a four-year term beginning on the following January 1. Two are elected in the year after the presidential election and one is elected in the year before it. There is also an elected township fiscal officer, who serves a four-year term beginning on April 1 of the year after the election, which is held in November of the year before the presidential election. Vacancies in the fiscal officership or on the board of trustees are filled by the remaining trustees.
# Sir George Thomas, 3rd Baronet

Sir George Thomas, 3rd Baronet (c. 1740 – 6 May 1815), was a British politician.

## Life

Thomas was the son of Sir William Thomas, 2nd Baronet, and he succeeded to his father's baronetcy in 1777.
In 1780 he create Dale Park near Madehurst by buying up separate pieces of land and joining them together into an estate. He married Sophia Montagu, daughter of Admiral John Montagu and Sophia Wroughton, on 20 December 1782. The lived in Madehurst Lodge during the 1780s whilst their new house was constructed by the architect Joseph Bonomi. The house is thought to have still been under construction in 1791.
He sat in the House of Commons of Great Britain as the Member of Parliament for Arundel between 1790 and 1797.
# John de Comb

John de Comb (or Combe) was the member of Parliament for Gloucester in the Parliament of 1305.
# Patriarch Arsenije

Patriarch Arsenije may refer to:
* Patriarch Arsenije II, Archbishop of Peć and Serbian Patriarch from 1457 to 1463
* Patriarch Arsenije III, Archbishop of Peć and Serbian Patriarch from 1674 to 1690 (1706)
* Patriarch Arsenije IV, Archbishop of Peć and Serbian Patriarch from 1725 to 1737 (1748)
# Hermann Brehmer

Hermann Brehmer (14 August 1826 – 28 December 1889) was a German physician who established the first German sanatorium for the systematic open-air treatment of tuberculosis.

## Biography

Brehmer was born in Kurtsch (Kurczów) near Strehlen (Strzelin), Prussian Silesia. He studied mathematics, astronomy, and natural science at the University of Breslau (Wrocław) from 1847 to 1850. Having gone to Berlin to work at an herbarium in 1850, he abandoned natural science and dedicated himself to medicine at the University of Berlin, receiving his doctorate in 1853.
Alternately, as a botany student in Silesia, Brehmer was diagnosed with tuberculosis and told to find a healthier climate. He went to the Himalayas, continued his studies, and found himself cured. In 1854 he returned to Germany to study medicine, ultimately writing a dissertation titled "Tuberculosis is a Curable Disease".
By 1854 Brehmer had settled in Görbersdorf (Sokołowsko), Silesia and opened the Brehmersche Heilanstalt für Lungenkranke, a hospital in Görbersdorf where patients were exposed to plentiful amounts of high altitude fresh air, and good nutrition. Initially, his sanatorium was based in a small group of cottages, though it would grow to have 300 beds. The results surpassed all previous treatments.
Brehmer died in Görbersdorf. His work was continued by one of his patients, Peter Dettweiler (1837–1904), who opened his own sanatorium (Heilanstalt Falkenberg in Hesse) in 1876; however, Dettweiler emphasized rest rather than exercise. Brehmer and Dettweiler's work was the primary influence on Dr. Edward Trudeau in establishing the successful Adirondack Cottage Sanitarium at Saranac Lake, New York, in the 1880s.
# Marian Dobmayer

Marian Dobmayer (24 October 1753 at Schwandorf, Bavaria – 21 December 1805 at Amberg, Bavaria) was a German Benedictine theologian.

## Life

He first entered the Society of Jesus, and after its suppression in 1773 joined the Benedictines in the monastery of Weissenohe, Diocese of Bamberg. There he was professed in 1775, and in 1778 ordained priest.
He was successively professor of philosophy at Neuberg, Bavaria (1781–87), of dogmatic theology and ecclesiastical history at Amberg (1787–94), and of dogmatic theology and patrology at the University of Ingolstadt (1794–99). On the reorganization of the latter school in 1799 he returned his monastery of Weissenohe, where he remained until its secularization. He them retired to Amberg, where he taught theology until his death.

## Works

In 1789 he published at Amberg a Conspectus Theologiæ Dogmaticæ. His chief work is the Systema Theologiæ Catholicæ, edited after his death by Theodor Pantaleon Senestrey in eight volumes (Sulzbach, 1807–19). The 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia describes it as "learned and moderate in its controversial parts."
# HMS S1

Two Royal Navy ships have been called HMS S1:
* HMS S1 (1914), launched in 1914, was the lead boat in her class of submarines.
* HMS S1 was originally an experimental submarine, HMS Swordfish, the only member of her class and launched in 1916. The submarine was converted to a surface patrol boat in 1917 and renamed HMS S1.