# Majhi language

Majhi is an Indo-Aryan language spoken in parts of Nepal and formerly in some small pockets of neighboring India.$^{:1}$ The language is associated with the Majhi people, an ethnic group in those regions who dwell historically near the Saptakoshi River and its tributaries and elsewhere in central and eastern Nepal. The Majhi people generally subsist off of work associated with rivers, including fishing and ferrying.$^{:2}$ Majhi is written using the Devanagari writing system.
Ethnologue classifies Mahji as a 6b threatened language. There are roughly 24,400 L1 speakers of Majhi in Nepal and roughly 46,120 L1 and L2 speakers of the language around the globe. Most of the Majhi speakers in Nepal are bilingual with the more predominant Nepali language,$^{:2}$ and the latter language is replacing Majhi in use. Majhi's lack of official status, use in education, in media, in print, etc. places the survival of the language in a precarious position.$^{:2}$
The last speaker in India, Thak Bahadur Majhi of Jorethang in Sikkim state, died in 2016.

## Phonology
### Vowels

Majhi has a total of 13 vowels, five of which are diphthongs.$^{:6,8}$
| | Front | Central | Back |
| High | i | | u |
| High-mid | e | | o |
| Low-mid | | ə əː | |
| Low | | a aː | |
N.B. Diphthongs in Majhi include: eu, əu, au, əi, oi.$^{:8}$ The vowels /ɜː, a$_c$ː/ do not occur anywhere except in the word-final position while other vowels can appear in any position in a word.$^{:7}$

### Consonants

Majhi has a total of 29 consonants.$^{:9}$
| | | Bilabial | Dental | Alveolar | Retroflex | Palatal | Velar | Glottal |
| Nasal | Nasal | m | | n | | | ŋ | |
| Plosive/ Affricate | voiceless | p | t | ts | ʈ | | k | |
| Plosive/ Affricate | aspirated | pʰ | tʰ | tsʰ | ʈʰ | | kʰ | |
| Plosive/ Affricate | voiced | b | d | dz | ɖ | | g | |
| Plosive/ Affricate | breathy | bʱ | dʱ | dzʱ | ɖʱ | | gʱ | |
| Fricative | Fricative | | | s | | | | h |
| Liquid | lateral | | | l | | | | |
| Liquid | rhotic | | | r | | | | |
| Glide | Glide | w | | | | j | | |

### Syllable structure

Majhi allows consonant clusters to form in the onset but not the coda. However, researchers believe that further study on syllable structure is necessary to ascertain a fuller understanding of the syllable structure.$^{:17}$ When Majhi features two consonants in the onset, the second consonant will be a glide (/j, w/).$^{:13}$ Some examples of the syllable structure are included in the chart below.
| Pattern | Example | Translation |
| CVC | nun | 'salt' |
| CCV | hje | 'this' |
| CCVC | sjal | 'jackal' |
| CV | ṭe.ṭhi | 'niece'$^{:17}$ |

## Morphology
### Affixation
#### Derivational affixation

Majhi uses affixation to derive words through nominalization, verbalization, and negation. For nominalizers and verbalizers, Majhi uses suffixation. For negation, Majhi uses prefixation. Examples are included in the chart below.
| | Example 1$^{:19}$ | Example 2$^{:58}$ | Example 3$^{:58}$ | Example 4$^{:70}$ |
| Function | Nominalizer (from verb) | Verbalizer (from noun) | Verbalizer (from adjective) | Negator (noun to noun) |
| Majhi | hiṭh-aiwalk-NMZhiṭh-aiwalk-NMZ'the walking' | nid-aisleep-VBZnid-aisleep-VBZ'to be asleep' | moṭ-aifat-VBZ moṭ-aifat-VBZ'to be fat' | dzun-balPROH-speak.IMPdzun-balPROH-speak.IMP'don't speak' |

#### Inflectional affixation

Majhi uses morphemes to inflect words (specifically, to decline nouns and to conjugate verbs). Nouns are declined for case, number, and gender. Nouns are also declined for pronominal possessive suffixes, which indicate the possessor of the noun (see example below).$^{:43}$ Verbs are conjugated for person, number, tense, aspect, and mood.$^{:89}$
| | Example 1$^{:21}$ | Example 2$^{:19}$ | Example 3$^{:48}$ |
| Function | Noun declension | Noun declension (with pronominal possessive suffix) | Verb conjugation |
| Majhi | bari-kafield-LOCbari-kafield-LOC'in the field' | buhari-rdaughter-in-law-POSS.2SGbuhari-rdaughter-in-law-POSS.2SG'your daughter-in-law' | siddha-naĩfinish-PST.1SGsiddha-naĩfinish-PST.1SG'I finished' |

### Other morphological processes
#### Compounding

Majhi can form new words by combining two roots. In the example below, combining the words for grandfather and grandmother yields the plural grandparents.$^{:22}$
| First Root | Second Root | Combined New Word |
| adze | adza | adzeadza |
| 'grandfather' | 'grandmother' | 'grandparents' |

#### Reduplication

Majhi sometimes completely reduplicates a full noun, verb, adjective, or adverb form in order to add extra emphasis. For nouns, Majhi also adds a suffix "-e" to the first instance of the noun. For example, the noun "kapal" means 'head,' and, when it is reduplicated with the suffix as "kapal-e kapal," the combined phrase means 'all heads.'$^{:20}$ Verbs do not have such a suffix. For example, the verb "bəl-ni" means 'I said,' but, when reduplicated "bəl-ni bəl-ni," the combined reduplication would mean 'I said it (which I will definitely not change).'$^{:89}$ Adjectives can be reduplicated for emphasis in the same manner. For example, the adjective "lamo" means "long," and, when it is reduplicated as "lamo lmao," it means very long.$^{:54}$ Adverbs can be reduplicated in the same manner as adjectives. For example, the adverb "tshiṭo" means 'quickly,' and, when it is reduplicated as "tshiṭo tshiṭo," it means 'very quickly.'$^{:96}$

### Particles

Mahji features several particles that perform various functions, including indicating questions, emphasis, and hearsay.$^{:73,97}$ Mahji also shares some particles with Nepali.$^{:97}$ Examples of some Mahji particles are given below.

#### Question particle te

The particle te comes at the end of a sentence and indicates a question.$^{:97}$
hək-lə
become-PRF
pətshi
after
keti
what
kha-a-i
eat-CAUS-INF
te
PRT
hək-lə pətshi keti kha-a-i te
become-PRF after what eat-CAUS-INF PRT
'After the child was born, what was fed to her?'

#### Contrastive, emphatic particle ta

Mahji uses the particle ta in order to provide an emphatic contrast.$^{:97}$
muĩ
I
ta
PRT
dzainai
go-PST.1SG
muĩ ta dzainai
I PRT go-PST.1SG
'Now I go (as for me)."

#### Hearsay particle ni

Mahji uses the hearsay particle ni to indicate an uncertain secondhand knowledge.$^{:73}$
keṭo
boy
a-le
come-PST.3SG
ni
HS
keṭo a-le ni
boy come-PST.3SG HS
'The boy came (they say).'

## Syntax
### Standard word order

The basic word order of Majhi is SOV.$^{:111}$ This word order is fairly consistent across the language. Mahji is an in situ language for wh-questions and yes-no questions, meaning that it maintains its standard word order for questions.$^{:118}$ The three examples below illustrate this word order:

#### Declarative sentence$^{:85}$

ram-in
Ram-ERG
Subject
kam
work
Object
sək-le
finish-PST.3SG
Verb
ram-in kam sək-le
Ram-ERG work finish-PST.3SG
Subject Object Verb
'Ram finished the work.'

#### Wh-question$^{:119}$

tui
you
Subject
kətte
how-much
Quantity
mun
liquor
Object
kha-tshəs
eat-NPST.2SG
Verb
tui kətte mun kha-tshəs
you how-much liquor eat-NPST.2SG
Subject Quantity Object Verb
'How much liquor do you drink?'

#### Yes–no question$^{:120}$

Subject
hoi-nin
he-ERG
Object
gai
cow
Verb
ban-le
tie-PST
Subject Object Verb
hoi-nin gai ban-le
he-ERG cow tie-PST
'Did he tie the cow?'

### Noun phrases and adpositional phrases
#### Possessee + possessor

With the possessee + possessor relationship (genitive modifiers), the possessor precedes the possessee.$^{:105}$
bãs-kərə
bamboo-GEN
tsoja
splinter
bãs-kərə tsoja
bamboo-GEN splinter
'the splinter of bamboo'

#### Adposition + noun phrase

Majhi uses adpositions as analytical rather than synthetic markers.$^{:28}$ In the example below, the noun phrase also appears with a specific case (the genitive case) with this postposition.$^{:29}$
kaṭh-kərə
wood-GEN
lagi
for
kaṭh-kərə lagi
wood-GEN for
'for wood'

### Adverb placement

In Mahji, the adverb generally precedes the verb. For example, see below.$^{:96}$
hoi-nin
He-ERG
Subject
bhərkhər
recently
Adverb
kətha
story
Object
sun-le
heard-PST.3SG
Verb
hoi-nin bhərkhər kətha sun-le
He-ERG recently story heard-PST.3SG
Subject Adverb Object Verb
'He has recently heard the story.'