# McCune–Reischauer

McCune–Reischauer romanization (/məˈkjuːn ˈraɪʃaʊ.ər/ mə-KEWN RYSHE-ow-ər) is one of the two most widely used Korean-language romanization systems. The system was first published in 1939 by George M. McCune and Edwin O. Reischauer.
A variant of McCune–Reischauer is used as the official system in North Korea. Another variant is currently used for standard romanization library catalogs in North America. On the other hand, South Korea formerly used yet another variant as its official system from 1984 to 2000, but replaced it with the Revised Romanization of Korean in 2000.

## Characteristics

The following are some characteristics of the McCune–Reischauer system:
* With a few exceptions, it does not attempt to transliterate Korean hangul but rather represents the phonetic pronunciation.
** Example: 독립 (pronounced [동닙]) tongnip (not *tokrip)
* The voiceless and voiced allophones of the Korean phonemes /ㄱ/, /ㄷ/, /ㅂ/, and /ㅈ/ are transcribed differently.
** Examples: 가구 kagu, 등대 tŭngdae, 반복 panbok, 주장 chujang
* The apostrophe is used for transcribing strongly aspirated consonants ㅋ, ㅌ, ㅍ, and ㅊ (k', t', p' and ch' respectively), and for distinguishing ㄴㄱ (n'g) from ㅇㅇ (ng).
** Examples: 투표 t'up'yo; 연구 yŏn'gu (cf. 영어 yŏngŏ)
* The breve is used for the vowels ㅓ (ŏ) and ㅡ (ŭ).

### Limitations

McCune–Reischauer employs dual use of apostrophes, with the more common being for syllabic boundaries. Therefore, it may take some time for learners to familiarise themselves with the placement of apostrophes to determine how a romanized Korean word is pronounced. For example, 마찬가지 → mach'an'gaji, which consists of the syllables ma, ch'an, ga, and ji.
In the early days of the Internet, the apostrophe and breve were even omitted altogether for both technical and practical reasons, which made it impossible to differentiate the aspirated consonants k', t', p' and ch' from the unaspirated consonants k, t, p and ch, ㄴㄱ (n'g) from ㅇㅇ (ng), and the vowels ㅜ and ㅡ as well as ㅗ from ㅓ. As a result, the South Korean government adopted a revised system of romanization in 2000. However, Korean critics claimed that the Revised System fails to represent ㅓ and ㅡ in a way that is easily recognizable and misrepresents the way that the unaspirated consonants are actually pronounced.
Regardless of the official adoption of the new system in South Korea, North Korea continues to use a version of McCune–Reischauer.

## Guide

This is a simplified guide for the McCune–Reischauer system.

### Vowels

| Hangul | ㅏ | ㅐ | ㅑ | ㅒ | ㅓ | ㅔ | ㅕ | ㅖ | ㅗ | ㅘ | ㅙ | ㅚ | ㅛ | ㅜ | ㅝ | ㅞ | ㅟ | ㅠ | ㅡ | ㅢ | ㅣ |
| Romanization | a | ae | ya | yae | ŏ | e | yŏ | ye | o | wa | wae | oe | yo | u | wŏ | we | wi | yu | ŭ | ŭi | i |

### Consonants
#### Word-initially and word-finally

| Hangul | Hangul | ㄱ | ㄲ | ㄴ | ㄷ | ㄸ | ㄹ | ㅁ | ㅂ | ㅃ | ㅅ | ㅆ | ㅇ | ㅈ | ㅉ | ㅊ | ㅋ | ㅌ | ㅍ | ㅎ |
| Romanization | Word-initial | k | kk | n | t | tt | r | m | p | pp | s | ss | — | ch | tch | ch' | k' | t' | p' | h |
| Romanization | Word-final | k | k | n | t | — | l | m | p | — | t | — | ng | t | — | t | k | t | p | t |
The heterogeneous consonant digraphs (ㄳ, ㄵ, ㄶ, ㄺ, ㄻ, ㄼ, ㄽ, ㄾ, ㄿ, ㅀ, and ㅄ) exist only as syllabic finals and are transcribed by their actual pronunciation.

#### Word-medially

The following table is sufficient for the transcription of most proper names.
Final consonant of the previous syllable + initial consonant of the next syllable :
| | | Initial | Initial | Initial | Initial | Initial | Initial | Initial | Initial | Initial | Initial | Initial | Initial | Initial | Initial | Initial |
| | | ㅇ — | ㄱ k | ㄲ kk | ㄴ n | ㄷ t | ㄸ tt | ㄹ r | ㅁ m | ㅂ p | ㅃ pp | ㅅ s | ㅆ ss | ㅈ ch | ㅉ tch | ㅎ h |
| Final | (vowel) | — | g | kk | n | d | tt | r | m | b | pp | s | ss | j | tch | h |
| Final | ㄱ k | g | kk | kk | ngn | kt | ktt | ngn | ngm | kp | kpp | ks | kss | kch | ktch | kh |
| Final | ㄴ n | n | n'g | nkk | nn | nd | ntt | ll | nm | nb | npp | ns | nss | nj | ntch | nh |
| Final | ㄷ t | d | tk | tkk | nn | tt | tt | nn | nm | tp | tpp | ss | ss | tch | tch | th |
| Final | ㄹ l | r | lg | lkk | ll | ld | ltt | ll | lm | lb | lpp | ls | lss | lj | ltch | rh |
| Final | ㅁ m | m | mg | mkk | mn | md | mtt | mn | mm | mb | mpp | ms | mss | mj | mtch | mh |
| Final | ㅂ p | b | pk | pkk | mn | pt | ptt | mn | mm | pp | pp | ps | pss | pch | ptch | ph |
| Final | ㅇ ng | ng | ngg | ngkk | ngn | ngd | ngtt | ngn | ngm | ngb | ngpp | ngs | ngss | ngj | ngtch | ngh |
The following subsections are for cases not covered by the table above, or for cases where the result should be different from the table.

##### Any syllabic final + syllabic initial ㅇ

In this combination, the syllabic final (except ㅇ, which is always ng) is
* either directly transferred to the syllabic initial position of the next syllable (i.e. replacing the ㅇ),
** Examples: 독일 [도길] Togil, 낟알 [나달] nadal, 촬영 [촤령] ch'waryŏng, 답안 [다반] taban, 웃어라 [우서라] usŏra, 낮은 [나즌] najŭn
** When the syllabic final ㄷ or ㅌ (including ㄾ) is followed by 이, palatalization occurs.
*** Examples: 미닫이 [미다지] midaji, 같이 [가치] kach'i, 훑이다 [훌치다] hulch'ida
** Syllabic final digraphs are split.
*** Examples: 앉아 [안자] anja, 읊어 [을퍼] ŭlp'ŏ
* or neutralized to one of {ㄱ, ㄴ, ㄷ, ㄹ, ㅁ, ㅂ} first, and then transferred to the syllabic initial position of the next syllable.
** Examples: 웃어른 [욷어른→우더른] udŏrŭn, 값어치 [갑어치→가버치] kabŏch'i

##### Any syllabic final + syllabic initial {ㄱ, ㄷ, ㅂ, ㅈ}

If the syllabic initial is pronounced
* {[ㄱ], [ㄷ], [ㅂ], [ㅈ]}, they are romanized {g, d, b, j}. When g is preceded by n, an apostrophe is added between them (i.e. n'g).
* {[ㄲ], [ㄸ], [ㅃ], [ㅉ]}, they are romanized {k, t, p, ch} (not {kk, tt, pp, tch}).
Examples:
* 대궐 [대궐] taegwŏl vs. 태권도 [태꿘도] t'aekwŏndo
* 전등 [전등] chŏndŭng vs. 손등 [손뜽] sontŭng
* 물방아 [물방아] mulbanga vs. 물방울 [물빵울] mulpangul
* 환자 [환자] hwanja vs. 한자(漢字) [한짜] hancha

##### Any syllabic final + syllabic initial ㅎ

Any combination with the syllabic initial ㅎ is transcribed based on the actual pronunciation, except when the result is [ㅋ], [ㅌ], or [ㅍ]; these are treated as ㄱㅎ (kh), ㄷㅎ (th), and ㅂㅎ (ph) respectively.
* Examples: 앉히다 [안치다] anch'ida, 굳히다 [구치다] kuch'ida, 맞히다 [마치다] mach'ida
* Examples of exceptions:
** 속히 ([소키], but treated as [속히]) sokhi
** 못하다 ([모타다], treated as [몯하다]) mothada
** 곱하기 ([고파기], treated as [곱하기]) kophagi

##### Syllabic final ㅎ + any syllabic initial

Any combination with the syllabic final ㅎ (including ㄶ and ㅀ) is transcribed based on the actual pronunciation.
* Examples: 좋다 [조타] chot'a, 많네 [만네] manne, 끓고 [끌코] kkŭlk'o

### Personal names

The rules stated above are also applied in personal names, except between a surname and a given name. A surname and a given name are separated by a space, but multiple syllables within a surname or within a given name are joined without hyphens or spaces.
The original 1939 paper states the following:
   The Romanization of Proper Names and Titles
   Proper names like words should not be divided into syllables, as has often been done in the past. For example, the geographic term 光州 should be romanized Kwangju. Irregularities occurring in proper names such as in P'yŏngyang 平壤 which is colloquially pronounced P'iyang or P'eyang, should usually be ignored in romanizations intended for scholarly use.
   Personal names demand special consideration. As in China, the great majority of surnames are monosyllables representing a single character, while a few are two character names. The given name, which follows the surname, usually has two characters but sometimes only one. In both two character surnames and two character given names the general rules of euphonic change should be observed, and the two syllables should be written together.
   The problem of the euphonic changes between a surname and given name or title is very difficult. A man known as Paek Paksa 백 박사 (Dr. Paek) might prove to have the full name of Paeng Nakchun 백낙준 because of the assimilation of the final k of his surname and the initial n of his given name. The use in romanization of both Dr. Paek and Paeng Nakchun for the same person would result in considerable confusion. Therefore it seems best for romanizations purposes to disregard euphonic changes between surnames and given names or titles, so that the above name should be romanized Paek Nakchun.
   For ordinary social use our romanization often may not prove suitable for personal names. Even in scholarly work there are also a few instances of rather well-established romanizations for proper names which might be left unchanged, just as the names of some of the provinces of China still have traditional romanizations not in accord with the Wade–Giles system. There is, for example, Seoul, which some may prefer to the Sŏul of our system. Another very important example is 李, the surname of the kings of the last Korean dynasty and still a very common Korean surname. Actually it is pronounced in the standard dialect and should be romanized I, but some may prefer to retain the older romanization, Yi, because that is already the familiar form. In any case the other romanizations of 李, Ri and Li, should not be used.
The original paper also gives McCune–Reischauer romanizations for a number of other personal names:
* Footnotes on page 1: Ch'oe Hyŏnbae (최현배), Chŏng Insŏp (정인섭), Kim Sŏn'gi (김선기)
* Footnotes on page 4: Ch'oe Namsŏn (崔南善 (최남선))
* Footnotes on page 20: Kim Yongun (金龍雲 (김용운)), O Sejun (吳世𤀹 (오세준))

## Variants
### North Korean variant

A variant of McCune–Reischauer is currently in official use in North Korea. The following are the differences between the original McCune–Reischauer and the North Korean variant:
* Aspirated consonants are represented by adding an h instead of an apostrophe.
** However, ㅊ is transcribed as ch, not chh.
* ㅈ is transcribed as j even when it is voiceless.
* ㅉ is transcribed as jj instead of tch.
* ㄹㄹ is transcribed as lr instead of ll.
* ㄹㅎ is transcribed as lh instead of rh.
* When ㄹ is pronounced as ㄴ, it is still transcribed as r instead of n.
* ㄴㄱ and ㅇㅇ are differentiated by a hyphen.
** But when ng is followed by y or w, a hyphen is not used, like the original system.
* In personal names, each syllable in a Sino-Korean given name is separated by a space with the first letter of each syllable capitalized (e.g. 안복철 An Pok Chŏl). Syllables in a native Korean name are joined without syllabic division (e.g. 김꽃분이 Kim KKotpuni).
** However, it is not really possible to follow this rule. See the § ALA-LC variant section below.
The following table illustrates the differences above.
| Hangul | McCune–Reischauer | North Korean variant | Meaning |
| 편지 | p'yŏnji | phyŏnji | letter (message) |
| 주체 | Chuch'e | Juche | Juche |
| 안쪽 | antchok | anjjok | inside |
| 빨리 | ppalli | ppalri | quickly |
| 발해 | Parhae | Palhae | Balhae |
| 목란 | mongnan | mongran | Magnolia sieboldii |
| 연구 | yŏn'gu | yŏn-gu | research, study |
| 영어 | yŏngŏ | yŏng-ŏ | English language |
| 안복철 | An Pokch'ŏl | An Pok Chŏl | personal name (surname 안, given name 복철) |
| 렬도 | ryŏlto | ryŏldo | archipelago |

### South Korean variant

A variant of McCune–Reischauer was in official use in South Korea from 1984 to 2000. The following are the differences between the original McCune–Reischauer and the South Korean variant:
* 시 was written as shi instead of the original system's si. When ㅅ is followed by ㅣ, it is realized as the [ɕ] sound (similar to the English [ʃ] sound (sh as in show)) instead of the normal [s] sound. The original system deploys sh only in the combination 쉬, as shwi.
* ㅝ was written as wo instead of the original system's wŏ in this variant. Because the diphthong w (ㅗ or ㅜ as a semivowel) + o (ㅗ) does not exist in Korean phonology, the South Korean government omitted a breve in wŏ.
* Hyphens were used to distinguish between ㄴㄱ and ㅇㅇ, between ㅏ에 and ㅐ, and between ㅗ에 and ㅚ in this variant system, instead of the apostrophes and ë in the original version. Therefore, apostrophes were used only for aspiration marks and ë was not used in the South Korean system.
* ㄹㅎ was written as lh instead of rh.
* Assimilation-induced aspiration by an initial ㅎ is indicated. ㄱㅎ is written as kh in the original McCune–Reischauer system and as k' in the South Korean variant.
* In personal names, each syllable in a given name was separated by a hyphen. The consonants ㄱ, ㄷ, ㅂ, and ㅈ right after a hyphen are written as k, t, p, and ch, respectively, even when they are voiced (e.g. 남궁동자 Namgung Tong-cha). But a hyphen can be omitted in non-Sino-Korean names (e.g. 한하나 Han Hana).
** However, it is not really possible to follow this rule. See the § ALA-LC variant section below.
The following table illustrates the differences above.
| Hangul | McCune–Reischauer | South Korean variant | Meaning |
| 시장 | sijang | shijang | market |
| 쉽다 | shwipta | swipta | easy |
| 소원 | sowŏn | sowon | wish, hope |
| 연구 | yŏn'gu | yŏn-gu | research, study |
| 영어 | yŏngŏ | yŏng-ŏ | English language |
| 회사에서 | hoesaësŏ | hoesa-esŏ | at a company |
| 차고에 | ch'agoë | ch'ago-e | in a garage |
| 발해 | Parhae | Palhae | Balhae |
| 낙하산 | nakhasan | nak'asan | parachute |
| 못하다 | mothada | mot'ada | to be poor at |
| 곱하기 | kophagi | kop'agi | multiplication |
| 남궁동자 | Namgung Tongja | Namgung Tong-cha | personal name (surname 남궁, given name 동자) |

### ALA-LC variant

The ALA-LC romanization of Korean is based on but deviates from McCune–Reischauer. The following are some differences between the original McCune–Reischauer and the ALA-LC variant:
* Unlike the original McCune–Reischauer, it addresses word division in seven pages of detail.
** A postposition (or particle) is separated from its preceding word,$^{:30}$ even though the original McCune–Reischauer paper explicitly states that this should not be done.
* /ㄷ/ + /ㅆ/ is written as ts instead of ss.$^{:8,19,21,66}$
* The surname 이 is written as Yi instead of I.$^{:14}$
* For given names:
** A hyphen is inserted between the syllables of a two-syllable given name only when it is preceded by a surname, with the sound change between the syllables indicated$^{:13}$ (e.g. 이석민 Yi Sŏng-min). The original McCune–Reischauer paper explicitly states that this also should not be done.
** If a given name is three syllables long$^{:40}$ or is of non-Sino-Korean origin, the syllables are joined without syllabic division$^{:41}$ (e.g. 신사임당 Sin Saimdang, 김삿갓 Kim Satkat).
** However, it is not really possible to follow this rule because a certain name written in hangul can be a native Korean name, or a Sino-Korean name, or even both. For example, 보람 can not only be a native Korean name, but can also be a Sino-Korean name (e.g. 寶濫). In some cases, parents intend a dual meaning: both the meaning from a native Korean word and the meaning from hanja. In fact, ALA-LC admitted that it is not really possible to determine whether a certain given name is Sino-Korean or not.
The following table illustrates the differences above.
| Hangul | McCune–Reischauer | ALA-LC variant | Meaning |
| 꽃이 | kkoch'i | kkot i | flower + (subject marker) |
| 굳세다 | kusseda | kutseda | strong, firm |
| 이석민 | I Sŏngmin | Yi Sŏng-min | personal name (surname 이, given name 석민) |

## Other systems

A third system, the Yale romanization system, which is a transliteration system, exists but is used only in academic literature, especially in linguistics.
The Kontsevich system, based on the earlier Kholodovich system, is used for transliterating Korean into the Cyrillic script. Like McCune–Reischauer romanization it attempts to represent the pronunciation of a word, rather than provide letter-to-letter correspondence.