# Hadhramaut

Hadhramaut (Arabic: حَضْرَمَوْتُ, romanized: Ḥaḍramawt, /ˌhɑːdrəˈmɔːt/ HAH-drə-MAWT; Hadrami Arabic: حَضْرَمُوتُ, Ḥaḍramūt) is a geographic region in the southern part of the Arabian Peninsula which includes the Yemeni governorates of Hadhramaut, Shabwa and al-Mahra, as well as Aden, Abyan and Lahij. Some sources also include Dhofar Governorate, in southwestern Oman, and Shaurah, in Najran Province, in southern Saudi Arabia. The name is of ancient origin, and is reflected in the name of the Yemeni Governorate of Hadhramaut. The people of Hadhramaut are called the Hadharem. They formerly spoke Hadramautic, an old South Arabian language, but they now predominantly speak Hadhrami Arabic.

## Etymology

The origin of the name of Ḥaḍramawt is not exactly known, and there are numerous debated hypotheses regarding its meaning. The most popular folk etymology is that the word means "death has come", from the Arabic: حَضَر, romanized: ḥaḍara, lit. 'he came' or also Arabic: مَوْت, romanized: mawt, lit. 'death'.
The name Ḥaḍramawt has also been found within Biblical Hazarmaveth (Biblical Hebrew: חֲצַרְמָוֶת, romanized: Ḥăṣarmāweṯ; Genesis 10:26 and 1 Chronicles 1:20). There, it is the name of a son of Joktan, identified as Qahtan (southern Arab) in Islam, the purported ancestor and progenitor of the South Arabian kingdoms. According to various Bible dictionaries, the name Hazarmaveth means "court of death", reflecting a meaning similar to the Arabic folk etymologies.
Though the origins of the name are unknown, there are several scholarly proposals. Kamal Salibi says that the diphthong "-aw" is an incorrect vocalisation, noting that "-ūt" is a frequent ending for place names in the Ḥaḍramawt; given that "Ḥaḍramūt" is the colloquial pronunciation of the name, and also its ancient pronunciation, the correct reading of the name would thus be "place of ḥḍrm". Salibi proposes, then, that the name means "the green place", which is appropriate given its well-irrigated wadis, giving a lushness that contrasts with the surrounding high desert plateau.
A now-rejected etymology was proposed by Juris Zarins, the twentieth-century discoverer of the city, who claimed it to be the ancient incense trade route capital Ubar in Oman, also called the "Atlantis of the Sands". He also claimed that the name may come from the Greek word ὕδρευματα hydreumata, i.e. enclosed (and often fortified), referring to watering stations within the wadis. Though it accurately describes the configuration of settlements in the pre-Islamic Wadi Ḥaḍramawt, this explanation for the name is anachronistic and phonetically inconsistent; for example, the name contains pharyngeal fricatives, which are neither found nor substituted-for in existing Greek speech.
Variations of the name are attested-to as early as the middle of the 1st millennium BC. The names ḥḍrmt (𐩢𐩳𐩧𐩣𐩩) and ḥḍrmwt (𐩢𐩳𐩧𐩣𐩥𐩩) are found in texts of the Old South Arabian languages (Ḥaḍramitic, Minaic, Qatabanic and Sabaic), though the second form is not found in any known Ḥaḍramitic inscriptions. In either form, the word itself can be a toponym, a tribal name, or the name of the kingdom of Ḥaḍramawt. In the late fourth or early 3rd century BC, Theophrastus gives the name Άδρραμύτα, a direct transcription of the Semitic name into Greek.

## History

Part of a series on the :
History of Yemen :
Timeline :
Ancient history
Kingdom of Awsan (c. 800 – c. 700 BC)
Kingdom of Saba' (c. 1200 – c. 275 CE)
Kingdom of Ḥaḑramawt (c. 1000 – c. 290 BCE)
Kingdom of Qatabān (c. 1000 – c. 200 AD)
Kingdom of Ma'in (c. 600 – c. 150 BCE)
Kingdom of Ḥimyar (c. 110 – c. 525 CE)
Axumite Yemen (c. 517 – c. 570 )
Sasanian Yemen (c. 570 – c. 630 ) :
Islamic history
First Islamic State (c. 622 – c. 632)
Rashidun Caliphate
Umayyad Caliphate
Abbasid Caliphate
Ziyadid dynasty
Najahid dynasty
Sulayhid dynasty
Zurayids (266–316)
Hamdanids (304–439)
Mahdids (304–439)
Ayyubid dynasty
Rasulid dynasty
Tahirid state (266–316)
Kathiri State (304–439) :
Modern history
Ottoman Eyalet
Qasimid state
Aden Protectorate
Ottoman vilayet
Mutawakkilite Kingdom
South Yemen (1967–1990)
North Yemen (1962–1990)
Unified Yemen (1990-present) :
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### Ancient

The Kingdom of Hadhramaut was established in the early 1st millennium BCE. Its capital was Shabwa, not far from the city of Teman (the capital of the Kingdom of Qataban), a tribal federation consisting of several tribes united by their common veneration of the lunar god Sin; Hadramout was originally the name of one of the tribes. The mention of Hadramout and its god Sin is found in the inscription of Surwah by the Makrib Sabean writer Karib'il Watar I around 700–680 BCE.
The Kingdom, led by King Shahr-al-Khuraymat, formed an alliance with the Kingdom of Ma'in and the Kingdom of Qataban and became independent from the Kingdom of Sheba around 330 BCE, during which the Himyarite dynasty ruled the Kingdom of Sheba. The relationship between the Kingdom of Hadramout and the Himyarite Kingdom remained tense, with both sides waging wars against each other for control of the trade routes and territory in the region.
The Hadhrami are referred to as Chatramotitai in ancient Greek texts. Hadhramautic texts come later than Sabaean ones, and some Sabaean texts from Hadhramaut are known. Greek, Latin, Sabaean and Hadhramautic texts preserve the names of a large number of kings of Hadhramaut, but there is as yet no definitive chronology of their reigns. Their capital was Shabwa in the northwest corner of the kingdom, along the Incense trade route. Eratosthenes called it a metropolis. It was an important cult centre as well. At first, the religion was South Arabian polytheism, distinguished by the worship of the Babylonian moon god Sin. By the sixth century, the monotheistic cult of Rahmanan was followed in the local temple.
The political history of Hadhramaut is not easy to piece together. Numerous wars involving Hadhramaut are referenced in Sabaean texts. From their inscriptions, the Hadhrami are known to have fortified Libna (now Qalat [ar]) against Himyar and to have fortified mwyt (Ḥiṣn al-Ghurāb حِصْن ٱلْغُرَاب) against the Kingdom of Aksum in the period following the death of Dhū Nuwās (525/7). The kingdom ceased to exist by the end of the 3rd century CE, having been annexed by the Himyarite Kingdom. Hadhramaut continued to be used in the full titulature of the kings of Sabaʾ and Dhu Raydān (Himyar).
In the 2nd century CE, Hadramout was known for its frankincense and myrrh trade. The incense trade route (southern incense route) that passed through the southern part of Hadramout helped the region flourish economically and culturally. The Kingdom of Hadramout played a significant role in connecting the cultures of Arabia, Mesopotamia, East Africa, and the Roman Empire.

### Islamic

In the 7th century, Islam spread to Hadramout, and it was gradually integrated into the Caliphate. The region played a role in Islamic history during the Rashidun Caliphate and the Umayyad Caliphate. In the 11th century, the Hadramout region came under the rule of the Mahdids, who were of Banu Hadhrami origin.$^{:237}$ They established the Qasimi dynasty, which ruled the region for several centuries.$^{:239}$
Early Islamic authors believed the nomadic Kinda tribe that founded a kingdom in central Arabia were originally from Hadhramaut, although distinct from the settled Hadhrami population.
Miqdad ibn Aswad, a companion of Muhammad, was reportedly from Hadhramaut. Several prophets before them are believed to have dwelt here, including Hud of ʿĀd. He is thought to be buried at Qabr Hud, which is also called Shiʿb Hud, but this is not universally accepted.

### Portuguese and Ottoman Influence

In the 16th century, the Portuguese arrived in Hadhramaut and established several settlements along the southern coast. However, their influence was short-lived as the Yemeni Imams managed to drive them out by the 17th century.$^{:115}$ Subsequently, Hadhramaut came under Ottoman influence, and the Ottomans maintained control over the region until the early 20th century.$^{:114}$

### Modern
#### Sultanates and the British rule

The Qu'aiti sultans ruled the vast majority of Hadramaut, under a loose British protectorate, the Aden Protectorate, from 1882 to 1967, when the Hadhramaut was annexed by South Yemen. The Qu'aiti dynasty was founded by Umar bin Awadh al-Qu'aiti, a Yafa'i tribesman whose wealth and influence as hereditary Jemadar of the Nizam of Hyderabad's armed forces enabled him to establish the Qu'aiti dynasty in the latter half of the 19th century, winning British recognition of his paramount status in the region in 1882. The British Government and the traditional and scholarly sultan Ali bin Salah signed a treaty in 1937, appointing the British government as "advisors" in Hadhramaut. The British exiled him to Aden in 1945, but the Protectorate lasted until 1967.

#### Communist rule

In 1967, the former states of the British Aden Protectorate became an independent Communist state, the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen. South Yemen was united with North Yemen in 1990 as the Republic of Yemen.

#### Contemporary Yemen

The capital and largest city of Hadhramaut is the port Mukalla. Mukalla had a 1994 population of 122,400 and a 2003 population of 174,700, while the port city of Ash Shihr has grown from 48,600 to 69,400 in the same time. One of the more historically important cities in the region is Tarim. An important locus of Islamic learning, it is estimated to contain the highest concentration of descendants of Muhammad anywhere in the world.

## Geography
### Political geography

The borders of Hadhramaut have varied over time to include the territory between Aden and Dhofar, but it always included the Wadi Hadhramaut, the lands between the Wadi and the coast, and the desert region of the Empty Quarter north of the Wadi. This encompasses the current governorates of Hadramaut and Mahra in their entirety as well as parts of the Shabwah Governorate. The current governorate of Hadhramaut roughly incorporates the former territory of the two sultanates.
The Hadharem live in densely built towns centered on traditional watering stations along the wadis. Hadharem harvest crops of wheat and millet, tend date palm and coconut groves, and grow some coffee. On the plateau, Bedouins tend sheep and goats. Society is still highly tribal, with the old Seyyid aristocracy, descended from the Islamic prophet Muhammad, traditionally educated, strict in their Islamic observance, and highly respected in religious and secular affairs.

### Physical geography

Hadhramaut is geographically divided into Inner Hadhramaut (Hadrami Arabic: حضرموت الداخل) which is made up of Wadi Hadhramaut, smaller tributary wadis south from the main wadi, and Coastal Hadhramaut (Hadrami Arabic: حضرموت الساحل) which consists of a narrow, arid coastal plain bounded by the steep escarpment of a broad plateau locally known as the Jowl (Hadrami Arabic: ٱلْجَوْل, romanized: al-Jawl, averaging 1,370 m (4,490 ft)). The undefined northern edge of Hadhramaut slopes down to the desert of the Empty Quarter, where the Hadhramaut Plateau or Highlands (Arabic: هَضْبَة حَضْرَمَوْت, romanized: Haḍbat Ḥaḍramawt) meets the Gulf of Aden in the Arabian Sea, elevation abruptly decreases.
* Shibam in Wadi Hadhramaut, with mountains in the background
* Bir Ali Crater in Shabwa, the crater is about 1.3 km wide and contains water with a surface of about 800 meters wide

#### Inner Hadhramaut
##### Mountains

The Hadhramaut Mountains (Arabic: جِبَال حَضْرَمَوْت, romanized: Jibāl Ḥaḍramawt), also known as the "Mahrat Mountains" (Arabic: جِبَال ٱلْمَهْرَة, romanized: Jibāl Al-Mahrah), are a mountain range in Yemen. They are contiguous with the Omani Dhofar Mountains to the northeast, and James Canton considered Aden in the southwest to be in the mountains' recesses.

##### Wadis

Wadi Hadhramaut (Arabic: وادي حضرموت) is the main wadi in the region which has 16 tributary wadis, which are:
Wadis :
| Southern plateau | Northern plateau |
| Wadi Dahr | Wadi Hanin |
| Wadi Rahyah | Wadi Sad |
| Wadi 'Amd | Wadi Na'am |
| Wadi Dawan | Wadi Ja'imah |
| Wadi al'Ain | Wadi Thabi |
| Wadi Manoob bin Ali | Wadi al-Jon |
| Wadi 'Adim | |
| Wadi 'Aynat | |
| Wadi Tena | |
| Wadi Sena | |

##### Desert
#### Coastal Hadhramaut
## Economy

Historically, Hadhramaut was known for being a major producer of frankincense, which in the early 20th century was mainly exported to Mumbai in India.$^{:84}$ The region has also produced senna and coconut. Currently, Hadhramaut produces approximately 260,000 barrels of oil per day; one of the most productive fields is Al Maseelah in the strip (14), which was discovered in 1993. The Yemeni government is keen to develop its oil fields to increase oil production to increase national wealth in response to the requirements of economic and social development in the country. Oil contributes 30–40% of the nation's GDP, over 70% of total state revenues, and more than 90% of the value of the country's exports.$^{:85}$

### Oil and gas

A Soviet discovery in the southern governorate of Shabwah has proven only marginally successful even when taken over by a different group. A Western consortium began exporting oil from Masila in the Hadhramaut in 1993, and production there reached 67,000 m$^3$/d (420,000 bbl/d) in 1999. There are new finds in the Jannah (formerly known as the Joint Oil Exploration Area) and east Shabwah blocks. Yemen's oil exports in 1995 earned about US$1 billion. Yemen's offshore oil and gas deposits are estimated to contain billions of barrels of oil and gas. Marib oil contains associated natural gas. In September 1995, the Yemeni Government signed an agreement that designated TotalEnergies of France to be the lead company for a project for the export of liquefied natural gas (LNG). In 1997, Yemen Gas Company joined with various privately held companies to establish Yemen LNG (YLNG).
In August 2005, the government gave final approval to three LNG supply agreements, enabling YLNG to award a $2 billion contract to an international consortium to build the country's first liquefaction plant at Balhaf on the Arabian Sea coast. The project is a $3.7 billion investment over 25 years, producing approximately 6.7 million tons of LNG annually, with shipments likely to go to the United States and South Korea. Production of LNG began in October 2009. The Yemen government expects the LNG project to add $350 million to its budget and enable it to develop a petrochemicals industry.
Hadramout produces approximately 258.8 thousand barrels per day. One of the prominent oil fields is the Masila Basin Sector (14), discovered in 1993. The Yemeni government is committed to developing its oil fields to increase oil production, aiming to enhance national wealth in response to the country's economic and social development needs. Oil contributes between 30% and 40% of the gross domestic product (GDP) value and represents more than 70% of the total general budget revenues of the state. Moreover, it constitutes more than 90% of the country's export value.

## Culture
### Music

Hadhrami Music is one of the five main Yemeni musical genres or "colours" (Arabic: الوان, romanized: alawn). It is native to the Hadhramaut region and regarded as one of the most prominent forms of Arabic music. Its unique maqamat are widely employed by composers and musicians throughout the Arabian Peninsula. It compasses vocal performances in the Hadhrami Arabic dialect and features melodic phrases and a characteristic humming-style known as the Dan.
Hadhramaut's strategic location along the ancient incense road has shaped a unique musical traditions. Indian and African musical elements have intermingled with indigenous forms over time. Besides, It has been deeply influenced by Sufism.
The region is renowned for its vast array of over four hundred distinct rhythmic patterns that vary by locality. These rhythms are closely tied to daily activities and special occasions—from planting and fishing to wedding celebrations. A key musical form in the region is al-Dan, a fixed melodic structure in which the melody precedes the lyrics; in contrast, in other songs the lyrics typically come before the melody. Steps have been taken by the Yemeni government to include the Dan art on UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage, Cultural authorities in Yemen have already received initial approval from UNESCO to consider its inclusion.
Numerous art critics note that the Hadhrami Dan has played a pivotal role in shaping vocal traditions throughout the Arab world, particularly within the Gulf region. This distinctive musical form is regarded as a foundational element for many singing schools, with contemporary artists continuing to draw inspiration from its rich heritage and folkloric melodies.
The Hadhrami Dan has spread to the Arabian Gulf through the migration of Hadhrami musicians who settled in Gulf countries. Over time, local musicians integrated the Hadhrami Dan and other forms of the Dan and other Hadhrami musical forms into their own repertoires. Furthermore, Hadhrami music has significantly influenced the cultural landscapes of regions beyond the Arabian Peninsula, notably in parts of Africa and East Asia.
There are a number of Hadhrami influential musicians and poets who played important role in shaping the Hadhrami and the wider Arabian music . Abu Bakr Salem Belfkih (1932–2017), for example, modernised al-Dân songs by incorporating contemporary musical instruments, while poets such as Haddad al-Kaff (1910–1970) and Hussein al-Mihdhar (1932–2000) enriched the tradition with their lyrics. Additionally, Mohammed Juma Khan (1903–1963) is celebrated as a pioneer who blended his Punjabi musical influences with local traditions.
Moreover, several prominent non-Hadhrami Arab musicians have also embraced Hadhrami styles. These include Kuwaiti singer Abdallah Al Rowaished; Saudi singers Abdul Majeed Abdullah and Abdel Rab Idris, the latter of Hadhrami origin; as well as Emirati singers Ahlam and Hussain Al Jassmi.
The instruments used in Hadhrami music vary widely, encompassing percussion instruments, string instruments, wind instruments, and simple clapping techniques, often used individually or in combination. This includes notably the Qanbūs; which the Hadhrami migrants spread it across the Indian Ocean across the Muslim Southeast Asia areas (notably in Indonesia, Malaysia, and Brunei).

## Demographics

The people of the region are known as the Hadharem belong generally to the semitic south Arabians who claim descent from Yarub bin Qahtan. There is, however, a large number of Sada (Hadrami Arabic: سادة, romanized: Sadah; Singular: Sayyid), or descendant of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad, and of townsmen of northern origin, besides a considerable class of African or mixed descent. The Sada, descendants of Husain ibn Ali, grandson of the Islamic Prophet, Form a numerous and highly respected aristocracy. They are divided into families, tho chiefs of which are known as Munsibs, who are looked on as the religious leaders of the people and are even in some cases are regarded with great respect as saints. Among the leading families are that of Sheikh Abu Bakar bin Salem (Hadrami Arabic: الشيخ ابو بكر بن سالم) of ʽAynat, al-Aidarus (Hadrami Arabic: العيدروس) of Shihr and Wadi Dawan, Bin Sumayt (Hadrami Arabic: بن سميط) of Shibam and the Sakkaf (Hadrami Arabic: سقاف) of Seiyun. They do not bear arms, nor occupy themselves in trade nor manual labour nor even agriculture; though owning a large proportion of the land, they employ labourers to cultivate it. As compared with the other classes they are well educated and are strict tn their observance of religious duties, and owing to the respect due to their descent they exercise a strong influence both in temporal and spiritual affairs.
The Mashayikh (Hadrami Arabic: المشايخ) is another highly regarded group that is second in prestige to the Sada. Like the Sada, they don't bear arms. Men from this group are given the honorific surname Sheikh (Hadrami Arabic: شيخ) and women are given the surname Sheikha (Hadrami Arabic: شيخة) which is different from the term Sheikh (Arabic: شيخ) that is used to refer to a tribal chief or a Muslim scholar. Prominent Mashayikh families include the ‘Amudi (Hadrami Arabic: العمودي), Ba Wazir (Hadrami Arabic: با وزير), and Ba ‘Abbad (Hadrami Arabic: با عبّاد) families.
The Qaba'il (Hadrami Arabic: القبائل) or tribesmen, as in the rest of Arabia, are the predominant class in the population. All the adults carry arms. Some of the tribes have settled towns and villages, others live a bedouin life keeping however within the territory which is recognised as belonging to the tribe. They are divided into sections or families, each headed by a chief while the head of the tribe is called the muqaddam or sultan. He is the leader in peace and in war, but the tribesmen are not his subjects; he can only rule with their support. Historically, the most powerful tribes in Hadhramaut was the Qu’aiti, a branch of the Yafa'a tribe. Originally invited by the Sada to protect the settled districts against the marauding tribes, they established themselves as rulers of the country, and possessed the coastal districts with the towns of Mukalla and Shihr as well as Shibam in the interior. The family had accumulated great wealth and was in the service of the Nizam of Hyderabad in India as commander of the Arab levy composed of his tribesmen.
The townsmen are the free inhabitants of the towns and villages as distinguished from the Sada and the tribesmen; they do not carry arms, but are the working members of the community, merchants, artificers, cultivators, and servants and are entirely dependent on the tribes and chiefs under whose protection they live. The servile class contains a large African element, brought over formerly when the slave trade nourished on this coast; as all Islamic countries they are well treated, and often rise to positions of trust.

### Hadhrami diaspora

Since the early 19th century, large-scale Hadhramaut migration has established sizable Hadhrami minorities all around the Indian Ocean, in South Asia, Southeast Asia and East Africa, including Mombasa, Hyderabad, Aurangabad, Maharashtrian Konkan, Mangalore, Bhatkal, Gangolli, Malabar, Sylhet, Tanzania, the Malay Archipelago, Sri Lanka, southern Philippines and Singapore. In Hyderabad and Aurangabad, the community is known as Chaush and resides mostly in the neighborhood of Barkas. There are also settlements of Hadharem in Gujarat, such as in Ahmadabad and Surat. In South India, the Nawayath community also descends from Hadrami traders.
Earlier, several sultans in the Malay Archipelago such as the Malacca Sultanate, Pontianak Sultanate or Sultanate of Siak Sri Indrapura were descents of Hadharem . In the 19th century, Hadhrami businessmen owned many of the maritime armada of barks, brigs, schooners and other ships in the Malay archipelago. In modern times, several Indonesian ministers, including former Foreign Minister Ali Alatas and former Finance Minister Mar'ie Muhammad are of Hadhrami descent, as is the former Prime Minister of East Timor, Mari Alkatiri (2006).
The Hadharem have also settled in large numbers along the East African coast, and two former ministers in Kenya, Shariff Nasser and Najib Balala, are of Hadhrami descent. It has also been proved by genetic evidence that the Lemba people of Southern Africa bear some relation to the people of Hadramaut.
Within the Hadhramaut region there has been a historical Jewish population.