# 2025 German federal election

Federal elections were held in Germany on 23 February 2025 to elect the 630 members of the 21st Bundestag, down from 736 in 2021 due to reforms in seat distribution. The 2025 election took place seven months ahead of schedule due to the 2024 collapse of the incumbent governing coalition. Following the loss of its majority, the government called and intentionally lost a motion of confidence, which enabled the approval of a new election by the president. The 2025 election was the fourth early election in post-war German history, and the first since 2005.
Three opposition parties increased their votes in the election, compared with the previous federal election (2021). The conservative CDU/CSU alliance became the largest group in the Bundestag, with 28.5% of votes. Although this result was well below the 41.5% vote they had achieved in 2013 and its second to worst since 1949, it positioned them to lead the new government. The far-right Alternative for Germany (AfD) with 20.8% doubled its share and achieved its best result in nation-wide German elections, moving into second place. The socialist Left party, polling well under 5% until January 2025, massively improved within a few weeks to 9%. On the other hand, the Sahra Wagenknecht Alliance (BSW), a populist splinter from the Left, fell in the polls, and at 4.98% narrowly failed to enter the Bundestag.
The three parties of the formerly governing "Traffic light coalition" all lost support. The centre-left Social Democratic Party (SPD) lost over nine percentage points and dropped to third rank with just 16.4%, their worst result since 1887. Their remaining junior partner, The Greens, also declined from 15% to 12%, still their second best ever result. The Free Democratic Party (FDP), whose departure from the government precipitated the election, recorded their worst historical result with 4.3%, and again lost representation in the Bundestag for the second time ever, as in 2013.
The South Schleswig Voters' Association (SSW), which as a minority party is exempt from the 5% threshold, retained their single seat.
Voter turnout was 82.5%, a six percentage point increase from 2021, and the highest since German reunification.

## Background
### Date assignment

Germany's Basic Law and Federal Election Act provide that federal elections must be held on a Sunday or a national holiday no earlier than 46 and no later than 48 months after the first sitting of a Bundestag unless the Bundestag is dissolved earlier. The 20th and sitting Bundestag held its first sitting on 26 October 2021. Therefore, the next regular election was to be held on a Sunday between 31 August 2025 and 26 October 2025. In August 2024, the Federal Cabinet initially recommended 28 September 2025 as the election date, which was approved by President Frank-Walter Steinmeier.

### Snap election

Federal elections can be held earlier if the president dissolves the Bundestag and schedules a snap election. They may only do so under two scenarios described by the Basic Law:
* After a federal election or any other vacancy in the chancellor's office, if the Bundestag fails to elect a chancellor with an absolute majority of its members by the 15th day after the first ballot, the president is free either to appoint the candidate who received a plurality of votes as chancellor or to dissolve the Bundestag (according to Article 63, Section 4).
* If the chancellor proposes a motion of confidence that fails, they may ask the president to dissolve the Bundestag. The president can grant or deny the chancellor's request (according to Article 68).
In both cases, federal elections would have to be held on a Sunday or national holiday no later than 60 days after the dissolution.
Following a government crisis, Olaf Scholz dismissed FDP leader Christian Lindner from the incumbent government on 6 November 2024, triggering the collapse of the traffic light coalition and leaving the government without a majority. On the same day, Chancellor Scholz announced he would submit a motion of confidence to hold a snap election; this was initially planned for January 2025 for a late March election but was brought forward after pressure from the opposition.
Scholz submitted a motion of confidence to the Bundestag on 11 December 2024, which was brought to a vote on 16 December. The motion required an absolute majority of 367 yes votes to pass. This was not achieved, with 207 yes votes, 394 no votes, 116 abstentions, and 16 absent or not voting. Of those members who were present and voting, the SPD group unanimously voted for confidence, while all opposition groups except for three members from the AfD voted against confidence. All Green members abstained to ensure the motion would fail without voting against its coalition.
After the vote's failure, Scholz went to Bellevue Palace to meet with President Steinmeier and recommend a dissolution. The governing parties and the CDU/CSU agreed that 23 February 2025 should be the date for the snap election. The president is not obliged to grant a dissolution, and the Basic Law allows him 21 days to decide. The president also has the sole authority to set the election date, though he agreed with the parties' proposal. Steinmeier first held discussions with all party leaders, as he has a constitutional duty to determine whether there is any possible majority in the current Bundestag. On 20 December, Steinmeier's office released a statement confirming that the talks were completed and that there was no possible majority. Steinmeier officially dissolved the Bundestag on 27 December, at the same time setting the election date as 23 February.

### Electoral system

Germany has a mixed-member proportional electoral system. Voters have two votes: the first is used to elect a candidate directly in their constituency using first-past-the-post, and the second is for a party's electoral list. To enter the Bundestag, a party must either get five percent of the nationwide second vote or win three constituencies via first votes – passing the electoral threshold. Either case results in that party entering the Bundestag and receiving seats in proportion to its national share of the second vote. Parties representing recognized minorities that contest federal elections, currently only the SSW, are exempt from the threshold.
Initially, in an overall distribution, all 630 seats (except those won by independent candidates) are allocated proportionally at the federal level to parties clearing the threshold, then subsequently within each party to its candidates in each state. Both calculations are done using the Webster/Sainte-Laguë method. The number of constituencies each party wins in each state is subtracted from its allocation to arrive at the final number of list seats. The list seats won by each party are allocated using closed lists drawn up by each party within each state.
Independent candidates are elected if they receive a plurality of the vote in their constituency. The second votes of ballots on which a winning independent candidate is the first vote are not considered in the proportional distribution of seats to preserve voter equality. However, these votes determine whether a party has exceeded the 5% threshold.

#### 2023 reform

Before this election, if a party won enough constituencies in a state to exceed its proportional entitlement, it could keep the so-called overhang seats. As a result of a 2008 decision by the Federal Constitutional Court, leveling seats then had to be added for other parties to keep the composition of the Bundestag proportional. Consequently, the 2017 and 2021 elections saw large numbers of additional seats.
After the 2021 election produced a Bundestag with 736 members – making it the largest freely elected parliament in the world – renewed debate began over the system that had been in place since the 2013 election. The Bundestag passed a reform law in March 2023 to fix the size of any future Bundestag at 630 members. It introduced two major changes:
* The seat distribution would be determined solely through each party's share of the second vote (Zweitstimmendeckung, "second vote coverage")
* The three-constituency rule (Grundmandatsklausel, "basic mandate clause") was eliminated, but later reinstated by the courts.
The principle of second vote coverage means that parties are no longer allowed to keep overhang seats; if a party wins overhang seats in a state, its constituency winners are excluded from the Bundestag in decreasing order of their first vote share. The three-constituency rule stipulates that if a party does not pass the 5% threshold but wins constituencies, it is only eligible for second vote seats as long as it wins at least three constituencies. A situation where a party won constituencies but failed the three-constituency rule has only happened once: in 2002, the PDS won two constituencies on the first vote and 4% of the second votes, making the party eligible for only two seats in the Bundestag. Independent candidates are excluded from this rule - if an independent wins a constituency (which has not happened since 1949), the candidate is still elected.
Both the CSU and The Left opposed these changes. In the 2021 election, The Left fell short of the five percent threshold but remained in the Bundestag because it won three constituencies. In contrast, the CSU barely crossed the threshold with 5.2% of the nationwide second vote while winning 45 of the 46 constituencies in Bavaria. The CSU was also the only party to win overhang seats in that election. Both parties appealed to President Steinmeier to veto the proposed changes; nevertheless, Steinmeier signed the bill after his office concluded it was constitutional. Both party organizations and the government of Bavaria, controlled by the CSU, filed formal complaints to the Federal Constitutional Court.
Hearings were held on 23 and 24 April 2024. On 30 July 2024, the court largely upheld the new electoral law. However, it ruled that a five-percent threshold without any exceptions is unconstitutional; though it recognized the threshold is necessary to prevent fragmentation, it held there must be measures to minimize wasted votes. To settle electoral law in sufficient time for this election, as an interim measure, the court re-introduced the basic mandate clause as it was "until there is a new regulation on the matter." As such, a party getting a plurality of first votes in at least three constituencies would still enter the Bundestag, obtaining seats in proportion to its national second vote share.

## Political parties and candidates

The table below lists the parties represented in the 20th Bundestag that was elected in 2021.
| Parties | Parties | Parties | Parties | Leader(s) | Leading candidate(s) | Ideology | Seats | Seats | Status |
| Parties | Parties | Parties | Parties | Leader(s) | Leading candidate(s) | Ideology | 2021 election | At dissolution | Status |
| | Social Democratic Party of Germany Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands | Social Democratic Party of Germany Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands | Social Democratic Party of Germany Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands | Saskia Esken Lars Klingbeil | Olaf Scholz | Social democracy | 206 / 736 | 207 / 733 | Governing coalition |
| | CDU/CSU | | Christian Democratic Union of Germany Christlich Demokratische Union Deutschlands | Friedrich Merz | Friedrich Merz | Christian democracy | 152 / 736 | 153 / 733 | Opposition |
| | CDU/CSU | | Christian Social Union in Bavaria Christlich-Soziale Union in Bayern | Markus Söder | Friedrich Merz | Christian democracy Bavarian regionalism | 45 / 736 | 43 / 733 | Opposition |
| | Alliance 90/The Greens Bündnis 90/Die Grünen | Alliance 90/The Greens Bündnis 90/Die Grünen | Alliance 90/The Greens Bündnis 90/Die Grünen | Franziska Brantner Felix Banaszak | Robert Habeck | Green politics | 118 / 736 | 117 / 733 | Governing coalition |
| | Free Democratic Party Freie Demokratische Partei | Free Democratic Party Freie Demokratische Partei | Free Democratic Party Freie Demokratische Partei | Christian Lindner | Christian Lindner | Liberalism | 91 / 736 | 90 / 733 | Opposition. Previously in coalition |
| | Alternative for Germany Alternative für Deutschland | Alternative for Germany Alternative für Deutschland | Alternative for Germany Alternative für Deutschland | Alice Weidel Tino Chrupalla | Alice Weidel | National conservatism Right-wing populism | 83 / 736 | 76 / 733 | Opposition |
| | The Left Die Linke | The Left Die Linke | The Left Die Linke | Ines Schwerdtner Jan van Aken | Heidi Reichinnek Jan van Aken | Democratic socialism | 39 / 736 | 28 / 733 | Opposition |
| | Sahra Wagenknecht Alliance Bündnis Sahra Wagenknecht | Sahra Wagenknecht Alliance Bündnis Sahra Wagenknecht | Sahra Wagenknecht Alliance Bündnis Sahra Wagenknecht | Sahra Wagenknecht Amira Mohamed Ali | Sahra Wagenknecht | Left-wing populism Cultural conservatism | 0 / 736 | 10 / 733 | Opposition |
| | Ungrouped | | South Schleswig Voters' Association Südschleswigscher Wählerverband | Christian Dirschauer | Stefan Seidler | Danish minority interests Frisian minority interests | 1 / 736 | 1 / 733 | Opposition |
| | Ungrouped | | Alliance Germany Bündnis Deutschland | Steffen Grosse | — | Conservatism Liberal conservatism | 0 / 736 | 1 / 733 | Opposition |
| | Ungrouped | | Values Union WerteUnion | Hans-Georg Maaßen | — | Economic liberalism Right-wing populism | 0 / 736 | 1 / 733 | Opposition |
| | Ungrouped | | Independent | — | — | — | 0 / 736 | 5 / 733 | Opposition |
| | Ungrouped | | Independent | — | — | — | 0 / 736 | 1 / 733 | Governing coalition |

### Nominations and lead candidates

In contrast to the 2021 election, the Kanzlerfrage (chancellor question) for the CDU/CSU was resolved relatively quickly. After good performances for the CDU in the September 2024 state elections in Saxony and Thuringia, the two other prospective candidates – North Rhine-Westphalia Minister-President Hendrik Wüst and Bavaria Minister-President and CSU leader Markus Söder – expressed their full support for Friedrich Merz. Söder was thought to pursue another attempt at the nomination; many CDU rank-and-file, however, saw him in a negative light after a months-long battle with Armin Laschet for the nomination in 2021, followed by personal attacks on Laschet that were seen as undermining the Union campaign, as well as his categorical ruling-out of any coalition with the Greens after this election. (The CSU has only provided the Union's lead candidate twice: in 1980 and 2002.)
At The Left's party convention in October, former lead candidate Gregor Gysi announced an effort called Mission Silberlocke ("Mission Silver Locks") to bolster the party's prospects in the face of infighting and faltering polling. Gysi committed to run for re-election in his constituency of Berlin-Treptow – Köpenick, with former parliamentary group leader Dietmar Bartsch running for a third time in Rostock – Landkreis Rostock II and former Minister-President of Thuringia Bodo Ramelow – the only Left member to have led a state government – contesting a Bundestag seat for the first time since 2005 in Erfurt – Weimar – Weimarer Land II. The goal is to capitalize on the three men's relatively high personal popularities and give The Left the best chance to win three constituencies and ensure they remain in the Bundestag. The effort is nicknamed in humorous reference to their advanced ages. Party co-leader Ines Schwerdtner is also running to replace the retiring longtime MdB Gesine Lötzsch in the stronghold of Berlin-Lichtenberg, and parliamentary co-leader Sören Pellmann is seeking re-election in Leipzig II, which are both seen as likely holds for The Left. Experts also rated Gysi and Ramelow as favorites to win their respective constituencies, which combined would retain the party's representation. Jan van Aken was elected party co-chair alongside Schwerdtner on the same day; however, in November, van Aken and parliamentary co-leader Heidi Reichinnek were selected as The Left's dual lead candidacy for the campaign.
In November, various SPD legislators and leading figures – most prominently former party leader Sigmar Gabriel – began publicly calling for Defence Minister Boris Pistorius to be designated the party's chancellor candidate owing to its and Scholz's poor polling. Polling for ARD showed Pistorius as the most favorably viewed national politician: 60% of voters thought he would be a good chancellor, compared to 42% for Merz and 21% for Scholz. In a video released on 21 November, Pistorius ended two weeks of public debate by disavowing any interest in running for chancellor and expressing his full support for Scholz. Such a protracted and public debate, and party leadership's apparent inability to quickly control or restrain it, was seen as embarrassing and damaging; Jusos President Philipp Türmer directly called out party leaders Saskia Esken and Lars Klingbeil for the "shitshow" at their national congress the following weekend. Nonetheless, Scholz was unanimously renominated as chancellor candidate by the party's executive, a group which includes Pistorius, on 25 November. Scholz's nomination was confirmed at a party congress on 11 January; as is usual for sitting chancellors, the vote was by acclamation rather than secret ballot, and he received little opposition.
On 17 November, the Greens nominated sitting vice chancellor Robert Habeck as its chancellor candidate. Habeck and foreign minister Annalena Baerbock remain their co-lead candidates, though Baerbock was the chancellor candidate in 2021. Habeck's campaign does not use the term chancellor candidate and instead refers to him as a "Candidate for the people of Germany" (Kandidat für die Menschen in Deutschland). However, the media uses the usual term.
On 7 December, the AfD executive nominated Alice Weidel as its chancellor candidate. This is the first time the party has referred to its leader as a chancellor candidate (Kanzlerkandidat). This term is normally reserved for the parties (SPD, Greens, and CDU/CSU) seen as having a realistic chance of becoming a senior coalition partner and providing a chancellor instead of the term lead candidate (Spitzenkandidat/in) used for smaller parties. Because other parties refuse to work with it, its chances of entering government are unlikely.
The BSW also nominated Sahra Wagenknecht as a chancellor candidate on 16 December. General Secretary Christian Heye flatly conceded that the party, polling between four and eight percent at the time, had no chance of providing a chancellor and said: "We are neither imagining things nor are we megalomaniacal." He blamed the "inflation" of the term's usage in forcing their hand; he further noted that parties without a Chancellor candidate faced disadvantages, such as no invitations to certain televised debates (most of which were held only between formal Chancellor candidates).

### Competing parties

A total of 41 parties have been approved to run in this election. Automatic approval is granted to so-called "established parties": those that have been continuously represented in the Bundestag with at least five members since the previous election (SPD, CDU, Greens, FDP, AfD, CSU, and Left) or those that have been continuously represented in any state parliament with at least five members since that state's last election (Alliance Germany, BSW, and Free Voters). These parties also do not need to submit signatures to support their nominations. The CDU and CSU form a long-standing alliance of conservative parties in Germany, where the CSU only competes in Bavaria and the CDU elsewhere. Both parties always have a joint leading candidate and have a joint parliamentary group in the Bundestag.
Other political organizations constitute "non-established parties" and must petition the Federal Electoral Committee for approval to run in the election. The committee must determine whether these organizations meet the definition of a political party set forth by section 2 of the Political Parties Act: that it desires to influence politics and obtain parliamentary representation "either permanently or for an extended period", and in particular, that its "scope and stability...its number of members, and public profile provide sufficient guarantees of the seriousness of this objective". In addition, most of its members and board of directors must be German citizens, based in and managed from within the country.
Thirty-one parties were approved but must submit signatures to support their nominations. Constituency nominations require 200 signatures of eligible voters residing within its boundaries. The number of signatures needed to file a state list is set at 0.1% of the state's eligible voting population at the previous election, with a maximum of 2,000. The 2023 electoral reform law added the restriction that parties can only run constituency candidates in states where it has a state list.
The committee also determined the validity of a party's claim to represent a recognized minority, which not only exempts them from the five-percent hurdle but also the requirement to submit signatures. The SSW's claim was approved, while the claim of Die Sonstigen ("The Others") was not approved.
On 22 January, Table.Media reported that an FDP member submitted complaints against the validity of 14 of the party's state lists (in all states except Berlin and Lower Saxony), alleging that voting on nominations was not conducted by secret ballot as required by federal law. Instead of filling out a pre-printed ballot, delegates wrote "yes", "no", "abstention", or a candidate's name on a blank sheet of paper while in their seats, which the complaint argued could lead to the ballot being seen by others or the delegate being identified by their handwriting. The electoral committees of several states confirmed they were investigating a complaint, while federal party leaders denied any laws were broken. All of the FDP's lists were ultimately approved. The state returning officer of Hesse, in calling the complaint "far-fetched", pointed to a 2017 court case that found that a minimum level of secrecy (e.g., getting up from one's seat or covering one's ballot with a hand) is sufficient in internal party votes.
Ultimately, 29 of the 41 parties approved to run in the election submitted a valid state list in at least one state. In the table below, green indicates a party's state list has been approved, while red indicates a state list has been rejected. The number in each box indicates how many direct candidates the party ran in the indicated state. Parties are ordered by their results in the 2021 election, then alphabetically.
| Party | Party | State | State | State | State | State | State | State | State | State | State | State | State | State | State | State | State |
| Party | Party | BW | BY | BE | BB | HB | HH | HE | MV | NI | NW | RP | SL | SN | ST | SH | TH |
| 1 | Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) | 38 | 47 | 12 | 10 | 2 | 6 | 22 | 6 | 30 | 64 | 15 | 4 | 16 | 8 | 11 | 8 |
| 2 | Christian Democratic Union of Germany (CDU) | 38 | – | 12 | 10 | 2 | 6 | 22 | 6 | 30 | 64 | 15 | 4 | 16 | 8 | 11 | 8 |
| 3 | Alliance 90/The Greens (GRÜNE) | 37 | 47 | 12 | 8 | 2 | 6 | 22 | 6 | 30 | 64 | 15 | 4 | 16 | 8 | 11 | 8 |
| 4 | Free Democratic Party (FDP) | 38 | 47 | 12 | 10 | 2 | 6 | 22 | 6 | 30 | 64 | 15 | 4 | 16 | 8 | 11 | 8 |
| 5 | Alternative for Germany (AfD) | 38 | 45 | 12 | 10 | 2 | 6 | 22 | 6 | 30 | 62 | 15 | 4 | 16 | 8 | 11 | 8 |
| 6 | Christian Social Union in Bavaria (CSU) | – | 47 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| 7 | The Left (Die Linke) | 38 | 47 | 12 | 10 | 2 | 6 | 22 | 6 | 29 | 63 | 15 | 4 | 16 | 8 | 11 | 8 |
| 8 | Free Voters (FREIE WÄHLER) | 37 | 47 | 7 | 10 | 1 | 6 | 22 | 6 | 26 | 47 | 15 | 4 | 14 | 8 | 11 | 7 |
| 9 | Human Environment Animal Protection Party (Tierschutzpartei) | 4 | 11 | 5 | Rej. | – | – | 1 | 1 | 2 | – | 3 | – | – | Rej. | Rej. | Rej. |
| 10 | Grassroots Democratic Party of Germany (dieBasis) | 10 | 12 | Rej. | Rej. | Rej. | – | Rej. | Rej. | – | 3 | Rej. | Rej. | Rej. | Rej. | Rej. | – |
| 11 | Die PARTEI (Die PARTEI) | 11 | 6 | 4 | 5 | 1 | – | 4 | – | 3 | 12 | 1 | – | 6 | 2 | 1 | – |
| 12 | Team Todenhöfer (Team Todenhöfer) | Rej. | – | 2 | – | – | – | Rej. | – | – | 4 | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| 13 | Pirate Party Germany (PIRATEN) | Rej. | Rej. | Rej. | – | Rej. | Rej. | Rej. | Rej. | 3 | Rej. | – | – | – | Rej. | – | Rej. |
| 14 | Volt Germany (Volt) | 29 | 35 | – | 5 | 2 | 3 | 19 | – | 21 | 32 | 13 | – | 5 | – | 11 | – |
| 15 | Ecological Democratic Party (ÖDP) | 2 | 30 | Rej. | – | – | – | Rej. | – | – | Rej. | 4 | Rej. | Rej. | – | – | Rej. |
| 16 | South Schleswig Voters' Association (SSW) | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 5 | – |
| 17 | Party for Rejuvenation Research (Verjüngungsforschung) | – | Rej. | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| 18 | Party of Humanists (PdH) | Rej. | 2 | Rej. | – | – | – | – | – | – | Rej. | Rej. | – | 3 | – | – | – |
| 19 | Alliance C – Christians for Germany (Bündnis C) | 1 | – | – | – | – | – | Rej. | – | – | Rej. | – | – | Rej. | – | – | – |
| 20 | Bavaria Party (BP) | – | 6 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| 21 | Marxist–Leninist Party of Germany (MLPD) | 15 | 4 | 5 | – | 2 | 5 | 6 | 2 | 5 | 16 | – | 1 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 6 |
| 22 | Human World (Menschliche Welt) | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| 23 | Party of Progress (PdF) | Rej. | – | – | Rej. | Rej. | – | – | – | Rej. | 2 | Rej. | – | – | – | – | Rej. |
| 24 | Socialist Equality Party (SGP) | – | – | 1 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| 25 | Civil Rights Movement Solidarity (BüSo) | – | – | 4 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| 26 | Alliance Germany (BÜNDNIS DEUTSCHLAND) | 5 | 12 | 11 | 2 | 2 | – | 4 | 3 | 5 | 15 | 5 | – | 11 | 4 | 4 | – |
| 27 | Sahra Wagenknecht Alliance (BSW) | – | 5 | 4 | – | – | – | – | – | – | 1 | 10 | – | 7 | – | – | 8 |
| 28 | MERA25 (MERA25) | Rej. | Rej. | 1 | Rej. | – | Rej. | Rej. | – | Rej. | – | – | – | Rej. | – | – | – |
| 29 | Values Union (WerteUnion) | – | Rej. | Rej. | – | – | – | – | Rej. | Rej. | 5 | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Non-party candidates | Non-party candidates | 5 | 8 | 4 | 4 | 1 | – | 5 | 2 | 7 | 10 | 1 | – | 3 | 4 | 3 | 5 |

## Campaign
### FDP "D-Day" paper

On 15 November 2024, the newspapers Die Zeit and Süddeutsche Zeitung independently reported that the collapse of the traffic light coalition on 6 November was the result of a deliberate strategy in which the FDP had been planning its exit from the alliance for several weeks. They reported on the existence of a detailed working paper that used controversial militaristic language: the 18-page economic report that resulted in Lindner's firing was called "the torpedo", and the upcoming election campaign was described as an "open battle". Most contentious was that the day of the report's publication was referred to as "D-Day" – which in German is used exclusively to refer to the Allied invasion of Normandy and has a violent connotation. Using the language of war to refer to the political process led to heavy criticism.
This also contradicted Lindner's assertion that the end of the government was a "calculated break" on the part of Scholz. Criticism came from the SPD upon the revelation that their coalition partner had not acted in good faith for weeks: parliamentary leader Rolf Mützenich described himself as "feeling deceived and disappointed" and "horrified" by the controversial language. In an 18 November interview with RTL and n-tv, FDP General Secretary Bijan Djir-Sarai denied using the term "D-Day" and stated the party's leadership was unaware of the paper. Lindner did not deny the paper's existence but replied to reporters: "We are in a campaign. Where is the news here?"
Media speculation continued as to what degree the FDP was responsible for the coalition's end. On the morning of 28 November, the online news portal Table.Media published excerpts of an eight-page document alleged to be the working paper; it was indeed titled "D-Day Scenarios and Actions" and laid out a strategy as detailed as the original reporting surmised, including strategies to undermine the coalition, communication tactics, and pre-written quotations for Lindner. SZ confronted party leaders with the excerpts and gave them a 1:30 p.m. deadline to respond to questions. The party did not, but instead officially released the full paper at 6 p.m. with a statement from Djir-Sarai claiming it was "to prevent false impressions ... of the paper" by the media.
According to the party, the paper was first prepared by Federal Managing Director Carsten Reymann on 24 October "to deal with the questions surrounding how the exit of the FDP from the government could be communicated", and the "purely technical paper" was not presented to legislators or government members. Djir-Sarai and Reymann resigned the next day to take responsibility for the paper's contents. SPD acting general secretary Matthias Miersch described Djir-Sarai as "a transparent scapegoat" to protect Lindner and called it "unimaginable" that the party leader would not know of the paper's existence. In a written statement released that evening, Lindner again denied any knowledge of the paper and stated he would not have approved of it and that it was only circulated among internal party staffers and not any elected officials.
Marco Buschmann, who served as justice minister until the traffic light coalition's collapse, was appointed to succeed Djir-Sarai as general secretary of the FDP on 1 December.

### Party manifestos and policies

The political parties released manifestos. The CDU proposed support for Ukraine. The FDP proposed pension reform. The Greens proposed support for immigrants. Die Linke proposed a return to their roots of democratic socialism following the Sahra Wagenknecht Alliance split. Wind energy has been a policy.

### Debates and interviews

Immediately after the confidence vote's failure, public broadcasters ARD and ZDF announced their plans to hold two debates featuring chancellor candidates from four parties. Scholz and Merz were invited to a debate on 9 February, while Habeck and Weidel were invited to a separate face-off on 10 February. This represented a change from the 2021 campaign, when ARD and ZDF held a three-way debate between the Union, SPD and Green chancellor candidates. Representatives of AfD and the Greens complained about their candidates' exclusions and claimed the public broadcasters had been biased in their decision. Habeck's campaign spokesperson announced he would decline the invitation and accused ARD and ZDF of "intervening" in the campaign in favor of the two established parties. Weidel's spokesperson demanded her inclusion in a three-way debate based on the AfD's second place in opinion polls and said the party was reviewing legal action against the broadcasters. Lindner and Wagenknecht offered to take Habeck's place in the second debate.
On 18 December, Table.Media reported that Scholz had agreed to participate in the ARD–ZDF debate on the condition that he would face off only against Merz, which was accepted by the public broadcasters. Green chief whip Irene Mihalic demanded an explanation from the broadcasters. An ARD spokesperson denied the report and claimed there was no influence by politicians or conditions involved in the decision. According to the spokesperson, the two-way debate would feature the incumbent and the challenger with the best chances to succeed him. Habeck declined his invitation in writing to ARD on 20 December, and the broadcasters cancelled the planned second debate.
The broadcasters also announced plans for two further four-way interview programmes. Scholz, Merz, Habeck and Weidel would separately face questions from an audience in two programmes to be held on 13 and 17 February. They will also preside over their usual "closing roundtable" (Schlussrunde) with the leaders of all parties currently represented in the Bundestag on 20 February.
RTL also announced plans for a debate between Merz and Scholz on the Sunday before the proposed election date. The channel ultimately plans two additional head-to-head debates between other parties' leading candidates on the same night. A spokesperson for the broadcaster said: "We are convinced that one debate with the current five chancellor candidates would be nothing more than a talk show". The Left, which was not invited, stated it was considering legal action against its omission. RTL claimed in a statement that The Left had not been invited due to trailing in opinion polls behind the other parties.
Axel Springer SE media brands Welt and Bild announced a joint debate between Scholz and Merz to be held on 19 February, the last Wednesday before the election.
ProSiebenSat.1 Media was the final major broadcaster to announce a debate or interview program, scheduling what it calls "citizen speed dating" on the night before the election. Ten voters are given three minutes each to ask the four leading candidates their questions.
2025 German federal election debates and interviews :
| Date | Broadcasters | P Present S Surrogate I Invited NI Not invited N Not present | P Present S Surrogate I Invited NI Not invited N Not present | P Present S Surrogate I Invited NI Not invited N Not present | P Present S Surrogate I Invited NI Not invited N Not present | P Present S Surrogate I Invited NI Not invited N Not present | P Present S Surrogate I Invited NI Not invited N Not present | P Present S Surrogate I Invited NI Not invited N Not present | P Present S Surrogate I Invited NI Not invited N Not present | P Present S Surrogate I Invited NI Not invited N Not present |
| Date | Broadcasters | CDU | SPD | Greens | AfD | FDP | Left | CSU | BSW | FW |
| 28 January 2025 | ZDF national-public | P Frei | P Klingbeil | P Baerbock | P Weidel | P Lindner | P van Aken | P Dobrindt | P Wagenknecht | NI |
| 6 February 2025 | ZDF national-public | NI | NI | P Banaszak | S Chrupalla | P Lindner | P van Aken | P Dobrindt | P Wagenknecht | NI |
| 9 February 2025 | ARD, ZDF national-public | P Merz | P Scholz | NI | NI | NI | NI | NI | NI | NI |
| 10 February 2025 | ARD national-public | NI | NI | NI | NI | P Lindner | P van Aken | P Bär | P Wagenknecht | NI |
| 12 February 2025 | BR regional-public (Bavaria) | NI | NI | NI | P Protschka | NI | P Gürpinar | NI | P Ernst | P Aiwanger |
| 12 February 2025 | MDR regional-public (Central Germany) | P Müller | P Schneider | P Lemke | P Chrupalla | P Herbst | P Ramelow | NI | P Lüders | NI |
| 12 February 2025 | SWR regional-public (Southwest Germany) | P Warken | P Schmid | P Brantner | P Frohnmaier | P Skudelny | P Mirow | NI | P Tatti | NI |
| 13 February 2025 | ZDF national-public | P Merz | P Scholz | P Habeck | P Weidel | NI | NI | NI | NI | NI |
| 16 February 2025 | RTL, n-tv national-commercial | P Merz | P Scholz | P Habeck | P Weidel | NI | NI | NI | NI | NI |
| 17 February 2025 | ARD national-public | P Merz | P Scholz | P Habeck | P Weidel | NI | NI | NI | NI | NI |
| 19 February 2025 | Welt national-commercial | P Merz | P Scholz | NI | NI | NI | NI | NI | NI | NI |
| 20 February 2025 | ARD, ZDF national-public | S Linnemann | S Miersch | S Baerbock | P Weidel | P Lindner | P van Aken | P Dobrindt | P Wagenknecht | NI |
| 22 February 2025 | Sat.1, ProSieben national-commercial | N Merz | P Scholz | P Habeck | P Weidel | NI | NI | NI | NI | NI |

### Possible coalitions

A renewal of the outgoing traffic light coalition was not deemed desirable by any of the three parties. Lindner of the FDP categorically disavowed any prospects of his party joining such a coalition in November following his removal from the government if his party entered the Bundestag again.
A government led by the CDU/CSU was seen as most likely, given it held a large polling lead. Merz was seen as willing to discuss a coalition with the SPD, FDP and Greens; however, CSU leader Söder has openly refused to enter a government with the Greens. Representatives of both parties have stated that a black–green coalition would be difficult to manage. A fifth grand coalition in Germany's history between the CDU and SPD can thus be considered the most realistic outcome of government formation. Such a coalition was also preferred by the voters, being the most popular government arrangement in opinion polling. However, Söder stipulated that he would only support the black-red alliance so long as incumbent SPD chancellor Scholz is not included in the next cabinet. Scholz indicated his intention to step down from leadership post-election and be uninvolved in coalition formation, paving the way for negotiations on a grand coalition.
FDP leader Lindner had indicated his desire to form a government with the CDU/CSU, a frequent coalition throughout modern German history and last represented in the second Merkel cabinet. Merz stated that only if the FDP's polling figures increased to six or seven percent would "a stable majority be in reach". FDP Bundestag Vice-President Wolfgang Kubicki has supported a black-red-yellow "Germany coalition", including the SPD. The FDP failed to reach the 5% necessary for Bundestag representation, and discussions on the idea were rendered moot.
Difficulty in predicting coalitions before the elections came due to the fact that the BSW, FDP, and Linke were all polling around 5% shortly before the election, while the Free Voters were well below 5%. In the end, only Linke of the four smaller parties made it into the Bundestag, meaning that coalition formation could mathematically result in a grand coalition.

#### Firewall and alleged Union-AfD cooperation

The CDU, SPD, Greens and FDP all refuse to form a coalition including the BSW on the federal level, despite the SPD-BSW coalition (Red–purple coalition) in office in Brandenburg and a CDU-SPD-BSW coalition (blackberry coalition) in Thuringia.
All other parties also refuse to form a coalition with or cooperate with the AfD. The CDU has passed a "resolution of incompatibility" regarding the AfD and The Left, prohibiting cooperation with either party at the federal level; the FDP will also not work with The Left.
Following a stabbing attack in Aschaffenburg on 22 January, in which a rejected Afghan asylum seeker mortally wounded two people, Merz announced that the Union would introduce two non-binding resolutions on migration policy and homeland security to the Bundestag, appealing to SPD and Green lawmakers for their support. Despite high-ranking members of both parties rejecting these initiatives, Merz's "five-point plan" on migration was adopted on 29 January with votes from the Union, FDP and AfD, marking a historic first on the federal level. Lawmakers from the SPD, Greens and Left Party strongly criticized Merz for his alleged cooperation with the AfD, which the Union denied; Catholic, Protestant and Jewish representatives and retired CDU chancellor Angela Merkel voiced similar concerns. Following the vote, hundreds of thousands of protesters attended demonstrations against Merz's decisions across Germany. Subsequently, a similar bill proposed by the Union to limit migrant intake was defeated in the Bundestag on 31 January, despite the AfD's support.
While the debate on the cordon sanitaire dominated political discourse the following weeks, Politbarometer data suggested popular opinion to be split evenly between approval and criticism of Merz's course of action, resulting in no major polling shifts.

### Target seats

The Free Voters targeted four constituencies to enter the Bundestag via the Grundmandatsklausel. They failed to win any seats.
Seats targeted by the Free Voters :
| Rank | Constituency | Candidate | Winning party 2021 | Swing required | Winning party 2025 | Lead |
| 1 | Rottal-Inn | Hubert Aiwanger | CSU | 18.37% | CSU | 11.91% |
| 2 | Oberallgäu | Indra Baier-Müller | CSU | 20.75% | CSU | 28.19% |
| 3 | Augsburg-Stadt | Michael Wörle | CSU | 23.79% | CSU | 27.35% |
| 4 | Landshut | Peter Dreier | CSU | 26.09% | CSU | 13.92% |
The Left announced Mission Silberlocke (Mission Silver Locks), in which popular party veterans ran in three districts, also aiming to achieve full representation for the party through the Grundmandatsklausel. The Left won two of the three targeted seats in winning six constituencies total, their best showing since winning sixteen in 2009.
Seats targeted by The Left :
| Rank | Constituency | Candidate | Winning party 2021 | Swing required | Winning party 2025 | Lead |
| 1 | Berlin-Treptow – Köpenick | Gregor Gysi | Left | 19.99% | Left | 21.30% |
| 2 | Erfurt – Weimar – Weimarer Land II | Bodo Ramelow | SPD | 8.02% | Left | 10.17% |
| 3 | Rostock – Landkreis Rostock II | Dietmar Bartsch | SPD | 8.72% | AfD | 1.20% |

## Foreign interference

According to the Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution, foreign powers may attempt to discredit candidates seen as undesirable or raise doubts about the election's legitimacy.

### United States and Russia

United States businessman and government official Elon Musk repeatedly posted in favor of the AfD on his platform X. He also endorsed AfD in an op-ed published in Welt am Sonntag. This was indirectly criticized by President Steinmeier and directly by the CDU, Greens, SPD, FDP, Left, the German Journalists Association and other German media as unacceptable external influence. Similarly, United States Vice President JD Vance met with AfD leadership and criticized other German parties for refusing to cooperate with the party. Both Scholz and Merz rebuked Vance for his comments.
German security authorities also expected interference in the federal election campaign from abroad. The focus was on officially controlled disinformation campaigns from Russia, to whom Musk is alleged to be connected. The European Digital Media Observatory at the European University Institute cites an investigation from German outlet Correctiv that found over 100 websites had been established with the help of artificial intelligence to spread disinformation regarding electoral candidates.

## Members of the Bundestag standing down

| Name | Party | State | Constituency | Member since |
| Andreas Rimkus | SPD | North Rhine-Westphalia | Düsseldorf II | 2013 |
| Peter Ramsauer | CSU | Bavaria | Traunstein | 1990 |
| Renate Künast | Green | Berlin | N/A | 2002 |
| Niels Annen | SPD | Hamburg | Hamburg-Eimsbüttel | 2005 |
| Sarah Ryglewski | SPD | Bremen | N/A | 2017 |
| Annette Widmann-Mauz | CDU | Baden-Württemberg | Tübingen | 1998 |
| Yvonne Magwas | CDU | Saxony | N/A | 2013 |
| Nadine Schön | CDU | Saarland | St. Wendel | 2009 |
| Michelle Müntefering | SPD | North Rhine-Westphalia | Herne – Bochum II | 2013 |
| Markus Grübel | CDU | Baden-Württemberg | Esslingen | 2002 |
| Andreas Scheuer | CSU | Bavaria | Passau | 2002 |
| Kai Gehring | Green | North Rhine-Westphalia | N/A | 2005 |
| Sönke Rix | SPD | Schleswig-Holstein | N/A | 2005 |
| Manuela Rottmann | Green | Bavaria | N/A | 2017 |
| Volkmar Klein | CDU | North Rhine-Westphalia | Siegen-Wittgenstein | 2009 |
| Paul Lehrieder | CSU | Bavaria | Würzburg | 2005 |
| Katrin Budde | SPD | Saxony-Anhalt | N/A | 2017 |
| Dietmar Nietan | SPD | North Rhine-Westphalia | N/A | 2005 |
| Michael Gerdes | SPD | North Rhine-Westphalia | N/A | 2009 |
| Tabea Rößner | Green | Rhineland-Palatinate | N/A | 2009 |
| Kordula Schulz-Asche | Green | Hesse | N/A | 2017 |
| Erwin Rüddel | CDU | Rhineland-Palatinate | N/A | 2009 |
| Heike Baehrens | SPD | Baden-Württemberg | N/A | 2013 |
| Michael Roth | SPD | Hesse | Werra-Meißner – Hersfeld-Rotenburg | 1998 |
| Thomas Hitschler | SPD | Rhineland-Palatinate | Südpfalz | 2013 |
| Astrid Damerow | CDU | Schleswig-Holstein | N/A | 2017 |
| Tobias Lindner | Green | Rhineland-Palatinate | N/A | 2011 |
| Martin Rosemann | SPD | Baden-Württemberg | N/A | 2013 |
| Sven-Christian Kindler | Green | Lower Saxony | N/A | 2009 |
| Oliver Grundmann | CDU | Lower Saxony | N/A | 2013 |
| Christine Aschenberg-Dugnus | FDP | Schleswig-Holstein | N/A | 2017 |
| Maria Klein-Schmeink | Green | North Rhine-Westphalia | Münster | 2009 |
| Dagmar Andres | SPD | North Rhine-Westphalia | Euskirchen – Rhein-Erft-Kreis II | 2021 |
| Michael Grosse-Brömer | CDU | Lower Saxony | Harburg | 2002 |
| Hermann Gröhe | CDU | North Rhine-Westphalia | Neuss I | 1994 |
| Udo Schiefner | SPD | North Rhine-Westphalia | N/A | 2013 |
| Max Straubinger | CSU | Bavaria | N/A | 1994 |
| Bernd Westphal | SPD | Lower Saxony | N/A | 2013 |
| Beate Walter-Rosenheimer | Green | Bavaria | N/A | 2012 |
| Marco Wanderwitz | CDU | Saxony | N/A | 2002 |
| Albrecht Glaser | AfD | Hesse | N/A | 2017 |
| Gesine Lötzsch | Left | Berlin | Berlin-Lichtenberg | 2002 |
| Petra Pau | Left | Berlin | N/A | 1998 |
| Karamba Diaby | SPD | Halle | Halle | 2013 |
| Kevin Kühnert | SPD | Berlin | Berlin-Tempelhof-Schöneberg | 2021 |
| Tessa Ganserer | Green | Bavaria | N/A | 2021 |
| Cem Özdemir | Green | Baden-Württemberg | Stuttgart I | 1994 |
| Volker Wissing | Ind. | Rhineland-Palatinate | N/A | 2021 |
| Susanne Hennig-Wellsow | Left | Thuringia | N/A | 2021 |
| Bernd Riexinger | Left | Baden-Württemberg | N/A | 2017 |
| Helge Braun | CDU | Hesse | N/A | 2021 |
| Monika Grütters | CDU | Berlin | Berlin-Reinickendorf | 2021 |
| Ekin Deligöz | Green | Bavaria | N/A | 1998 |
| Katja Keul | Green | Lower Saxony | N/A | 2009 |
| Wolfgang Strengmann-Kuhn | Green | Hesse | N/A | 2017 |
| Stefan Wenzel | Green | Lower Saxony | N/A | 2021 |
| Mario Brandenburg | FDP | Rhineland-Palatinate | N/A | 2017 |
| Canan Bayram | Green | Berlin | Berlin-Friedrichshain-Kreuzberg – Prenzlauer Berg East | 2017 |
| Frank Bsirske | Green | Lower Saxony | N/A | 2021 |
| Susanne Menge | Green | Lower Saxony | N/A | 2021 |
| Markus Kurth | Green | North Rhine-Westphalia | N/A | 2017 |
| Ingrid Nestle | Green | Schleswig-Holstein | N/A | 2009 |
| Victor Perli | Left | Lower Saxony | N/A | 2017 |
| Martina Renner | Left | Thuringia | N/A | 2013 |
| Manfred Grund | CDU | Thuringia | Eichsfeld – Nordhausen – Kyffhäuserkreis | 1994 |
| Enak Ferlemann | CDU | Lower Saxony | Cuxhaven – Stade II | 2002 |
| Axel Schäfer | SPD | North Rhine-Westphalia | Bochum I | 2002 |
| Sabine Weiss | CDU | North Rhine-Westphalia | Wesel I | 2005 |
| Jens Koeppen | CDU | Brandenburg | Uckermark – Barnim I | 2005 |
| Jan Korte | Left | Lower Saxony | N/A | 2005 |
| Josip Juratovic | SPD | Baden-Württemberg | Heilbronn | 2005 |
| Matthias Birkwald | Left | North Rhine-Westphalia | N/A | 2009 |
| Beate Müller-Gemmeke | Green | Baden-Württemberg | N/A | 2009 |
| Cornelia Möhring | Left | Schleswig-Holstein | N/A | 2009 |
| Heike Brehmer | CDU | Saxony-Anhalt | Harz | 2009 |
| Thomas Lutze | SPD | Saarland | N/A | 2009 |
| Ingo Gädechens | CDU | Schleswig-Holstein | Ostholstein – Stormarn-Nord | 2009 |
| Josef Rief | CDU | Baden-Württemberg | Biberach | 2009 |
| Edgar Franke | SPD | Hesse | Schwalm-Eder | 2009 |
| Wolfgang Hellmich | SPD | North Rhine-Westphalia | N/A | 2013 |
| Ingrid Pahlmann | CDU | Lower Saxony | N/A | 2013 |
| Bernhard Daldrup | SPD | North Rhine-Westphalia | N/A | 2013 |
| Claudia Tausend | SPD | Bavaria | N/A | 2013 |
| Gabriele Katzmarek | SPD | Baden-Württemberg | N/A | 2013 |
| Bettina Müller | SPD | Rhineland-Pfalz | N/A | 2013 |
| Martin Rosemann | SPD | Baden-Württemberg | N/A | 2013 |
| Katja Leikert | CDU | Hesse | N/A | 2013 |
| Erich Irlstorfer | CSU | Bavaria | Freising | 2013 |
| Achim Post | SPD | North Rhine-Westphalia | N/A | 2013 |
| Susanne Mittag | SPD | Lower Saxony | Delmenhorst – Wesermarsch – Oldenburg-Land | 2013 |
| Manfred Todtenhausen | FDP | North Rhine-Westphalia | N/A | 2017 |
| Matthias Seestern-Pauly | FDP | Lower Saxony | N/A | 2017 |
| Olaf in der Beek | FDP | North Rhine-Westphalia | N/A | 2017 |
| Mathias Stein | SPD | Schleswig-Holstein | Kiel | 2017 |
| Christoph Hoffmann | FDP | Baden-Württemberg | N/A | 2017 |
| Reinhard Houben | FDP | North Rhine-Westphalia | N/A | 2017 |
| Hermann-Josef Tebroke | CDU | North Rhine-Westphalia | Rheinisch-Bergischer Kreis | 2017 |
| Katrin Budde | SPD | Saxony-Anhalt | N/A | 2017 |
| Leni Breymaier | SPD | Baden-Württemberg | N/A | 2017 |
| Susanne Ferschl | Left | Bavaria | N/A | 2017 |
| Barbara Benkstein | AfD | Thuringia | Meissen | 2017 |
| Manuel Gava | SPD | Lower Saxony | Stadt Osnabrück | 2021 |
| Dirk Spaniel | WU | North Rhine-Westphalia | N/A | 2021 |
| Volker Münz | AfD | North Rhine-Westphalia | N/A | 2024 |
| Knut Gerschau | FDP | Lower Saxony | N/A | 2021 |
| Emily Vontz | SPD | Saarland | N/A | 2023 |
| Dagmar Andres | SPD | North Rhine-Westphalia | N/A | 2021 |
| Martin Diedenhofen | SPD | North Rhine-Westphalia | N/A | 2021 |
| Jürgen Berghahn | SPD | North Rhine-Westphalia | Lippe I | 2021 |
| Anke Domscheit-Berg | Left | Brandenburg | N/A | 2017 |
| Ingo Bodtke | FDP | Saxony-Anhalt | N/A | 2021 |
| Hans-Jürgen Thies | CDU | North Rhine-Westphalia | Soest | 2017 |
| Frank Ullrich | SPD | Thuringia | Suhl – Schmalkalden-Meiningen – Hildburghausen – Sonneberg | 2021 |

## Turnout

By 14:00 local time, early estimates from German election officials indicated that voter turnout was higher this year compared to 2021. 52% of eligible voters had already cast their ballots, excluding mail-in votes. In contrast, at the same point in 2021, the turnout was 36.5%. The results are not directly comparable with those of 2021 because more voters voted by absentee ballot in 2021 due to COVID-19.
| Turnout | Time | Time | Time | Time | Time | Time |
| Turnout | 14:00 | 14:00 | 14:00 | 18:00 | 18:00 | 18:00 |
| Turnout | 2021 | 2025 | ± | 2021 | 2025 | ± |
| Total | 36.5% | 52.0% | 15.5 pp | 76.4% | 82.5% | 6.2 pp |
| Sources |||||||
In recent German federal elections, including the 2025 election, voter turnout has shown significant regional variations. Participation rates have traditionally been higher in western states such as Bavaria and Baden-Württemberg, while lower in eastern states like in Saxony-Anhalt and Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. However, the 2025 election registred an increase of voter participation in the east, particularly in areas where the AfD gained support. Certain regions, mostly in eastern Germany, experienced exceptional surges in voter participation. In Thuringia, turnout by 12:00 PM reached 44.5%, nearly doubling the figure from the same time in the previous election. Similar upward trends were observed in Berlin and Saxony-Anhalt, where midday turnout stood at 33% and 37.1%, respectively, both unusually high for these regions.

## Results

The election reflected a strong divide between the former West and East Germany, with the AfD becoming the strongest party in the east and securing all five former East German states. Two more parties mirrored AfD's overperformance across the former border: the far-left Die Linke, with additional high performances in the former West German states of Bremen and Hamburg, and the BSW, described as 'populist far-left', 'left populist' or 'leftist populist'. All three secured their best results in eastern constituencies, while performing the worst in western ones. This has been the opposite for the four other major parties: the Union, the SPD, the Greens and the FDP. The Union performed well in the western part of the country, securing every area-state there. They recorded a particularly strong result in Bavaria, where the CSU carried every constituency.
* A slideshow showing the difference between this election and the last
* A slideshow showing the difference between this election and the last
Preliminary results :
| Party with most list votes in each constituency | Winning party of the single-member constituencies | Voter turnout in the constituencies |
| Party | Party | Votes | % | Seats | Votes | % | Seats | Total seats | +/– |
| | Christian Democratic Union | 11,196,374 | 22.55 | 36 | 12,604,184 | 25.46 | 128 | 164 | +12 |
| | Alternative for Germany | 10,328,780 | 20.80 | 110 | 10,177,318 | 20.56 | 42 | 152 | +69 |
| | Social Democratic Party | 8,149,124 | 16.41 | 76 | 9,936,433 | 20.07 | 44 | 120 | –86 |
| | Alliance 90/The Greens | 5,762,380 | 11.61 | 73 | 5,443,393 | 11.00 | 12 | 85 | –33 |
| | The Left | 4,356,532 | 8.77 | 58 | 3,933,297 | 7.95 | 6 | 64 | +25 |
| | Christian Social Union | 2,964,028 | 5.97 | 0 | 3,272,064 | 6.61 | 44 | 44 | –1 |
| | Sahra Wagenknecht Alliance | 2,472,947 | 4.98 | 0 | 299,401 | 0.60 | 0 | 0 | New |
| | Free Democratic Party | 2,148,757 | 4.33 | 0 | 1,622,912 | 3.28 | 0 | 0 | –91 |
| | Free Voters | 769,279 | 1.55 | 0 | 1,254,565 | 2.53 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| | Human Environment Animal Protection Party | 482,201 | 0.97 | 0 | 82,498 | 0.17 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| | Volt Germany | 355,262 | 0.72 | 0 | 391,666 | 0.79 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| | Die PARTEI | 242,741 | 0.49 | 0 | 122,268 | 0.25 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| | Grassroots Democratic Party of Germany | 85,373 | 0.17 | 0 | 41,923 | 0.08 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| | Bündnis Deutschland | 76,372 | 0.15 | 0 | 87,955 | 0.18 | 0 | 0 | New |
| | South Schleswig Voters' Association | 76,138 | 0.15 | 1 | 58,779 | 0.12 | 0 | 1 | 0 |
| | Ecological Democratic Party | 49,764 | 0.10 | 0 | 54,606 | 0.11 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| | Team Todenhöfer | 24,553 | 0.05 | 0 | 9,783 | 0.02 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| | Party of Progress | 21,388 | 0.04 | 0 | 1,282 | 0.00 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| | Marxist–Leninist Party of Germany | 19,551 | 0.04 | 0 | 24,218 | 0.05 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| | Party of Humanists | 14,294 | 0.03 | 0 | 1,871 | 0.00 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| | Pirate Party Germany | 13,800 | 0.03 | 0 | 2,151 | 0.00 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| | Bavaria Party | 12,278 | 0.02 | 0 | 5,763 | 0.01 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| | Alliance C – Christians for Germany | 11,768 | 0.02 | 0 | 2,021 | 0.00 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| | MERA25 | 6,994 | 0.01 | 0 | 658 | 0.00 | 0 | 0 | New |
| | Values Union | 6,736 | 0.01 | 0 | 2,849 | 0.01 | 0 | 0 | New |
| | Human World | 694 | 0.00 | 0 | | | | 0 | 0 |
| | Bürgerrechtsbewegung Solidarität | 676 | 0.00 | 0 | 1,295 | 0.00 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| | Socialist Equality Party | 425 | 0.00 | 0 | 73 | 0.00 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| | Party for Rejuvenation Research | 303 | 0.00 | 0 | | | | 0 | 0 |
| | Independents | | | | 70,163 | 0.14 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| Total | Total | 49,649,512 | 100.00 | 354 | 49,505,389 | 100.00 | 276 | 630 | –105 |
| Valid votes | Valid votes | 49,649,512 | 99.44 | | 49,505,389 | 99.15 | | | |
| Invalid/blank votes | Invalid/blank votes | 279,141 | 0.56 | | 423,264 | 0.85 | | | |
| Total votes | Total votes | 49,928,653 | 100.00 | | 49,928,653 | 100.00 | | | |
| Registered voters/turnout | Registered voters/turnout | 60,510,631 | 82.51 | | 60,510,631 | 82.51 | | | |
| Source: Federal Returning Officer ||||||||||

### Results by state

Party list vote share by state :
| State | Union | AfD | SPD | Grüne | Linke | BSW | FDP | Others | Turnout |
| Baden-Württemberg | 31.6 | 19.8 | 14.2 | 13.6 | 6.8 | 4.1 | 5.6 | 4.3 | 83.4 |
| Bavaria | 37.2 | 19.0 | 11.6 | 12.0 | 5.7 | 3.1 | 4.2 | 7.2 | 84.5 |
| Berlin | 18.3 | 15.2 | 15.1 | 16.8 | 19.9 | 6.6 | 3.8 | 4.2 | 80.3 |
| Brandenburg | 18.1 | 32.5 | 14.8 | 6.6 | 10.7 | 10.7 | 3.2 | 3.4 | 81.5 |
| Bremen | 20.5 | 15.1 | 23.1 | 15.6 | 14.8 | 4.3 | 3.5 | 3.0 | 77.8 |
| Hamburg | 20.7 | 10.9 | 22.7 | 19.3 | 14.4 | 4.0 | 4.5 | 3.4 | 80.8 |
| Hesse | 28.9 | 17.8 | 18.4 | 12.6 | 8.7 | 4.4 | 5.0 | 4.2 | 83.1 |
| Lower Saxony | 28.1 | 17.8 | 23.0 | 11.5 | 8.1 | 3.8 | 4.1 | 3.6 | 83.4 |
| Mecklenburg-Vorpommern | 17.8 | 35.0 | 12.4 | 5.4 | 12.0 | 10.6 | 3.2 | 3.6 | 79.5 |
| North Rhine-Westphalia | 30.1 | 16.8 | 20.0 | 12.4 | 8.3 | 4.1 | 4.4 | 3.8 | 82.2 |
| Rhineland-Palatinate | 30.6 | 20.1 | 18.6 | 10.4 | 6.5 | 4.2 | 4.6 | 4.9 | 83.0 |
| Saarland | 26.9 | 21.6 | 21.9 | 7.2 | 7.3 | 6.2 | 4.3 | 4.7 | 82.4 |
| Saxony | 19.7 | 37.3 | 8.5 | 6.5 | 11.3 | 9.0 | 3.2 | 4.4 | 81.2 |
| Saxony-Anhalt | 19.2 | 37.1 | 11.0 | 4.4 | 10.8 | 11.2 | 3.1 | 3.3 | 77.7 |
| Schleswig-Holstein | 27.6 | 16.3 | 18.8 | 14.9 | 7.8 | 3.4 | 4.7 | 6.5 | 83.5 |
| Thuringia | 18.6 | 38.6 | 8.8 | 4.2 | 15.2 | 9.4 | 2.8 | 2.5 | 80.7 |

#### Constituency seats

The CDU/CSU won 172 constituency seats, while the SPD got narrowly ahead of the AfD with 44 seats to the latter's 42. The Greens came in fourth with 12 seats, with Die Linke securing six. The AfD swept through the former East German states, winning 41 constituencies out of 44. It also won Marzahn – Hellersdorf constituency in eastern Berlin, making it the first time in its history it has won a seat in the capital. In 23 constituencies, the candidate with the most votes was not elected, due to a lack of second vote coverage. Those include 18 Union candidates - 15 from the CDU and three from the CSU - as well as four would-be delegates from the AfD and one more from the SPD.
| State | Total seats | Seats won | Seats won | Seats won | Seats won | Seats won | Seats won |
| State | Total seats | SPD | CDU | CSU | Grüne | AfD | Linke |
| Baden-Württemberg | 32 | | 29 | – | 3 | | |
| Bavaria | 44 | | – | 44 | | | |
| Berlin | 12 | 1 | 3 | – | 3 | 1 | 4 |
| Brandenburg | 9 | 1 | | – | | 8 | |
| Bremen | 1 | 1 | | – | | | |
| Hamburg | 6 | 3 | 1 | – | 2 | | |
| Hesse | 17 | 2 | 15 | – | | | |
| Lower Saxony | 30 | 15 | 15 | – | | | |
| Mecklenburg-Vorpommern | 5 | | | – | | 5 | |
| North Rhine-Westphalia | 64 | 17 | 44 | – | 3 | | |
| Rhineland-Palatinate | 12 | 1 | 11 | – | | | |
| Saarland | 4 | 2 | 2 | – | | | |
| Saxony | 15 | | | – | | 14 | 1 |
| Saxony-Anhalt | 7 | | | – | | 7 | |
| Schleswig-Holstein | 10 | 1 | 8 | – | 1 | | |
| Thuringia | 8 | | | – | | 7 | 1 |
| Total | 276 | 44 | 128 | 44 | 12 | 42 | 6 |

#### List seats

| State | Total seats | Seats won | Seats won | Seats won | Seats won | Seats won | Seats won |
| State | Total seats | SPD | CDU | Grüne | AfD | Linke | SSW |
| Baden-Württemberg | 47 | 13 | | 9 | 19 | 6 | – |
| Bavaria | 57 | 14 | – | 14 | 22 | 7 | – |
| Berlin | 12 | 3 | 2 | 2 | 3 | 2 | – |
| Brandenburg | 12 | 3 | 4 | 2 | | 3 | – |
| Bremen | 4 | | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | – |
| Hamburg | 7 | | 2 | 1 | 2 | 2 | – |
| Hesse | 28 | 8 | | 7 | 9 | 4 | – |
| Lower Saxony | 35 | 2 | 6 | 8 | 13 | 6 | – |
| Mecklenburg-Vorpommern | 8 | 2 | 3 | 1 | | 2 | – |
| North Rhine-Westphalia | 72 | 14 | 3 | 16 | 26 | 13 | – |
| Rhineland-Palatinate | 19 | 6 | | 4 | 7 | 2 | – |
| Saarland | 4 | | | 1 | 2 | 1 | – |
| Saxony | 15 | 3 | 7 | 2 | | 3 | – |
| Saxony-Anhalt | 9 | 2 | 4 | 1 | | 2 | – |
| Schleswig-Holstein | 15 | 4 | | 3 | 5 | 2 | 1 |
| Thuringia | 10 | 2 | 4 | 1 | 1 | 2 | – |
| Total | 354 | 76 | 36 | 73 | 110 | 58 | 1 |

### Voter demographics

Sociology of the electorate :
| Demographic | Demographic | Union | AfD | SPD | Grüne | Linke | BSW | FDP | Others |
| Total vote | Total vote | 29% | 21% | 16% | 12% | 9% | 5% | 4% | 4% |
| Sex ||||||||||
| Men | Men | 30% | 24% | 15% | 11% | 7% | 4% | 5% | 4% |
| Women | Women | 27% | 18% | 18% | 13% | 11% | 6% | 4% | 3% |
| Age ||||||||||
| 18–24 years old | 18–24 years old | 13% | 21% | 12% | 10% | 25% | 6% | 5% | 8% |
| 25–34 years old | 25–34 years old | 17% | 24% | 12% | 14% | 16% | 6% | 5% | 6% |
| 35–44 years old | 35–44 years old | 24% | 26% | 13% | 14% | 8% | 6% | 4% | 5% |
| 45–59 years old | 45–59 years old | 33% | 22% | 15% | 12% | 5% | 5% | 4% | 4% |
| 60–69 years old | 60–69 years old | 33% | 19% | 21% | 11% | 5% | 5% | 4% | 2% |
| 70 or older | 70 or older | 43% | 10% | 25% | 7% | 5% | 4% | 5% | 1% |
| Education ||||||||||
| Primary education | Primary education | 32% | 29% | 20% | 4% | 5% | 4% | 3% | 3% |
| Secondary education | Secondary education | 28% | 28% | 15% | 6% | 7% | 6% | 3% | 7% |
| Higher education | Higher education | 27% | 13% | 16% | 18% | 11% | 5% | 5% | 5% |
| Socio-occupational classification ||||||||||
| Blue-collar worker | Blue-collar worker | 22% | 38% | 12% | 5% | 8% | 5% | 4% | 6% |
| White-collar worker | White-collar worker | 26% | 21% | 15% | 13% | 9% | 6% | 4% | 6% |
| Self-employed | Self-employed | 35% | 21% | 10% | 14% | 7% | 2% | 9% | 2% |
| Retired | Retired | 39% | 13% | 24% | 9% | 5% | 4% | 4% | 2% |
| Personal economic situation ||||||||||
| Good | Good | 31% | 17% | 17% | 13% | 8% | 5% | 5% | 4% |
| Bad | Bad | 17% | 39% | 12% | 6% | 11% | 7% | 3% | 5% |
| Source: Infratest dimap ||||||||||

## Analysis and aftermath

The CDU/CSU, AfD and Die Linke were considered the biggest winners of the election. Following the election, a lack of diversity in the new Bundestag was reported. 23 candidates who received the most constituency votes in their districts (which would have previously entitled them to a Direktmandat) were excluded from sitting due to the 2023 electoral reform enacted by the Scholz government.

### CDU/CSU

The evening following the election, CDU leader Friedrich Merz stated that he and his party were fundamentally opposed to partnering with the AfD to form a government, saying: "We have fundamentally different views, for example on foreign policy, on security policy, in many other areas, regarding Europe, the euro, [and] NATO. […] You want the opposite of what we want, so there will be no cooperation." However, in January 2025, Merz and the CDU had looked for active support from the AfD on several proposals about immigration policies, leading some to speculate that the "firewall" excluding the far-right from governing had fallen, or was no longer a major factor in the party's political strategy.
Merz said that the CDU/CSU alliance had already started negotiations with the SPD to form a coalition government by April of the same year; although the same coalition had already supported governments led by Chancellor Angela Merkel for 12 years, some noted how Merz's political background – being a representative of the CDU's most conservative wing – and his previous criticism of left-wing parties, including the SPD itself and The Greens, faced criticism by progressive politicians. Further political divergences and issues between the CDU and the SPD, including immigration policies, support for Ukraine against the Russian invasion, public expense and fiscal policy, were also cited as key factors that could influence the stability of the government, as well as the relationship between Merz and Markus Söder, the leader of the CSU – the Bavarian counterpart of the CDU.

### AfD

The AfD increased its vote share in all states and became the largest party in all five former East German states; according to the exit polls, it was the second most-voted party in the 18-29 age bracket (21%), behind only the Linke, and the most voted party among voters aged between 30 and 44 (26%). Though all other parties represented in the Bundestag stated their opposition to forming an alliance or coalition with the AfD, the CDU campaigned largely on an anti-immigration platform. Björn Höcke, the AfD leader in Thuringia, claimed that "the CDU has employed conservative right wing slogans in their election campaign", arguing that the AfD was the best-positioned party to help Merz implement his campaign agenda.
The AfD is expected to become the largest opposition party in the Bundestag. This position grants the party significant parliamentary privileges, including the right to respond first to the chancellor’s addresses, increased speaking time, and greater influence in committee assignments. The AfD’s influence over committee leadership, positions has raised concerns among its opponents, particularly regarding its potential role in security and intelligence oversight. The party’s growing representation in the Bundestag also results in increased public funding. Although all other parties uphold a firewall against cooperation with the AfD, its leaders have expressed confidence that mounting political pressures may eventually force the CDU/CSU to engage with them.

### SPD

The SPD only received 16.4% of the vote, the lowest in the modern history of the party. Despite their poor result the SPD are likely to stay in government, though as a minority partner in a grand coalition with the CDU. Following the results of the election, SPD leader and incumbent Chancellor Olaf Scholz announced he would not seek to take part in negotiations for a new government led by CDU leader Friedrich Merz. As a result, SPD co-leader Lars Klingbeil took over negotiations and was expected to become the party's new leader in the Bundestag.

### Greens

The morning after the election, co-chancellor candidate of The Greens Robert Habeck announced his withdrawal from the party's leadership. The other co-candidate for The Greens, Annalena Baerbock, as well as former party leader Ricarda Lang, were expected to become the next party leaders in the Bundestag.

### Die Linke

Die Linke, which had been initially projected to struggle to return to the Bundestag until weeks before the election took place, won 8.8% of all votes, almost twice as much as their result in the previous cycle; according to the exit polls, it was the most voted party among voters aged between 18 and 29 (24%). It also increased its vote share in every region. Some analysts attributed the party's result to the positive outcome of its campaign, which had notably avoided focusing on more restrictive immigration policies, in contrast to other left of centre parties such as the SPD, and had included further measures to fight poverty and the housing crisis.

### FDP

Shortly after it was known that the FDP would not return to the Bundestag, having not managed to win at least 5% of all votes following the disastrous defeat, Christian Lindner resigned as the party's leader and announced his retirement from active politics. The FDP's general secretary, Marco Buschmann, also stepped down from his role. This was the worst result in the party's history in terms of percentage of the party list vote.

### BSW

The BSW fell just short of reaching the nationwide five percent hurdle with 13,435 votes fewer than needed to qualify for seats. The 4.97% of the second vote meant they would not be represented in the Bundestag. Some noted how the rise of Die Linke in opinion polls prior to the election might have likely harmed the prospects of the BSW. As a result, party leader Sahra Wagenknecht threatened to take legal action over the election's results, citing overseas voting problems.

### International reactions
#### Leaders

* United States: In a post on Truth Social, President Donald Trump congratulated the election winners without naming Friedrich Merz or the CDU/CSU. He argued that Germany's shift to the right reflected a political trend shared with the United States, driven by issues like immigration and energy policy.
* United Kingdom: Prime Minister Keir Starmer congratulated Merz and the CDU/CSU for their election results and expressed a willingness to cooperate further with the next German government.
* Ukraine: President Volodymyr Zelenskyy congratulated the CDU/CSU on their victory and said he would look forward to "continuing our joint work" to "bring real peace closer to Ukraine, and strengthen Europe."
* France: President Emmanuel Macron said he had spoken with Merz to congratulate him on his election victory and praised SPD leader Scholz.
* Israel: Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu congratulated Merz and the CDU/CSU and expressed a desire to increase cooperation between the two countries.
* Egypt: President Abdel Fattah el-Sisi congratulated Merz and the CDU/CSU on their election victory, wishing him success. He expressed a commitment to strengthening strategic bilateral relations and emphasized the importance of joint coordination in "promoting regional peace and stability at this critical time."
* Greece: Prime Minister Kyriakos Mitsotakis called the election "A decisive victory for our political family, for Germany, and for Europe. Congratulations Friedrich Merz! One thing is clear: you will be Germany's next chancellor."
* Czech Republic: Prime Minister Petr Fiala called for greater cooperation between the next German government and hoped for success in the forthcoming coalition negotiations.
* Hungary: Prime Minister Viktor Orbán congratulated Alice Weidel on X stating that "people of Germany voted for change in immense numbers."
* Finland: Prime Minister Petteri Orpo congratulated Friedrich Merz, emphasizing the need for a strong Germany to support Ukraine and bolster Europe's security and economy.
* Latvia: Prime Minister Evika Siliņa expressed enthusiasm about building a "stronger, more secure and competitive Europe" with Merz.
* Portugal: Prime Minister Luís Montenegro looked forward to tackling "common challenges in the EU, NATO and the United Nations."
* Denmark: Prime Minister Mette Frederiksen congratulated Merz, stressing the importance of a "strong Europe and a strong Germany" in uncertain times.
* Croatia: Prime Minister Andrej Plenković congratulated Merz and Söder, and expressed hope that the formation of a new German government will be as soon as possible.
* NATO: Secretary-General Mark Rutte congratulated Merz on his election victory and called on European allies to increase defence spending.
* Russia: Kremlin spokesman Dmitry Peskov emphasized a desire for a more pragmatic approach to areas of mutual interest but acknowledged that the future of bilateral ties would depend on how the new German government acts, stating that Russia would wait to see how relations evolve.

#### Others

The leader of the Freedom Party of Austria, Herbert Kickl, stated: "Today, a gentle, soothing wind of the freedom of 1989 is blowing through Berlin and the entire Federal Republic."
Italian Deputy Prime Minister Matteo Salvini stated: "Change is winning in Germany too! AfD doubles its votes, despite attacks and lies from the left: stop illegal immigration and Islamic fanaticism, enough with the eco-madness, prioritize peace and jobs, Europe must be radically changed." and congratulated AfD co-leader Weidel.

## Government formation

The failure of the FDP and BSW to reach the 5 per cent threshold in the Bundestag meant that the two parties did not receive seats in the new Bundestag. Although the traditional coalition of CDU and CSU emerged as the strongest party grouping, they fell short of an absolute majority, which made further coalition negotiations necessary. The only two possibilities for a coalition with a majority in the Bundestag would involve the CDU/CSU with either the SPD or the AfD.
Since CDU leader and incoming chancellor Friedrich Merz had publicly ruled out a coalition with the AfD on repeated occasions before and after the election, the only coalition which could be considered was between the centre-right CDU/CSU and the centre-left SPD. The SPD under the leadership of co-party leader Lars Klingbeil agreed to the talks. The decision to start the talks immediately was motivated by the desire of both parties to find a solution to pressing challenges such as the stagnating German economy, the ongoing Russian invasion of Ukraine and concerns about the actions of US President Donald Trump that are undermining transatlantic relations, to avoid prolonged political uncertainty.
Because the CDU/CSU and SPD were always the strongest parties until this election, a coalition of the two is conventionally known as a "grand coalition" (Große Koalition). Such a coalition has already existed four times in Germany (Kiesinger cabinet, Merkel I cabinet, Merkel III cabinet, Merkel IV cabinet), first from 1966, when the conservative-liberal coalition of the CDU and FDP under Chancellor Ludwig Erhard collapsed and most recently from 2017 until 2021 under Chancellor Angela Merkel, when the coalition negotiations between the CDU, Greens and FDP failed. The coalitions often only materialised when other coalitions were not possible.

### Start of the negotiations

The CDU negotiating team included Friedrich Merz and other high-ranking officials such as CSU leader Markus Söder, CDU General Secretary Carsten Linnemann and CDU parliamentary group leader Thorsten Frei, CSU parliamentary group leader Alexander Dobrindt, the Saxon Minister President Michael Kretschmer, the deputy chairwoman of the CDU Karin Prien and CSU politician Dorothee Bär. The SPD delegation was made up of important personalities such as Defence Minister Boris Pistorius and Labour Minister Hubertus Heil, as well as the Secretary General Matthias Miersch, Bundestag President Bärbel Bas, the two Minister Presidents Manuela Schwesig and Anke Rehlinger, and the head of the SPD in North Rhine-Westphalia Achim Post.
Both sides had originally wanted the talks not to commence until 5 March, in view of the parliamentary elections in Hamburg on 2 March, as well as Carnival (peaking 3 March), which is very popular in some parts of Germany. Subsequently however, Klingbeil and Merz agreed to an early start in their talks, so exploratory talks between the two parties began in Berlin on 28 February 2025, five days after the election. Merz had set himself the target of forming a coalition by Easter. From the outset, there were differences of opinion between the CDU and SPD on the reform of the debt brake (which limited the German budget deficit to 0.35% of GDP per year), a possible tax reform, the minimum tax reform, the minimum wage, the citizen's income, immigration and a new right to vote.
Following the events at the White House on 28 February, exploratory talks were further intensified, as both parties recognised the need for a government capable of acting quickly in Europe's largest economy after US President Donald Trump suspended US military aid for Ukraine. The parties met again on 3 March.

### Debt brake agreement

On the evening of 4 March, after it had already become apparent several times over the course of the previous days, it was made public that the CDU/CSU and SPD had reached an agreement on billions in debt. According to the draft, there were plans to amend the Basic Law in order to exclude defence expenditure of over 1% of GDP and a second special fund, this time not for defence as in 2022, but for infrastructure in the amount of 500 billion euros. However, Merz had ruled out a reform of the debt brake and additional debt during the debt during the election campaign.
Both proposals would require an amendment to the Basic Law (German constitution), to be approved by a two-thirds majority of the Bundestag, and the Bundesrat would have to agree. For such an amendment to be approved by the newly elected Bundestag, the new government would need to gain the approval of either the right-wing Alternative for Germany (AfD) or the left-wing party The Left, since the elected members of the two parties combined exceed a third of the Bundestag (a so-called blocking minority). This would be difficult, since neither government party (CDU/CSU and SPD) wanted to make any deal with the AfD, and The Left was opposed to investments in defence.
According to Article 39 (2) of the Basic Law, a retiring Bundestag is capable of passing resolutions and acting until the inauguration of the newly elected parliament, which must take place no later than the 30th day after the election. The prospective coalition partners (CDU/CSU and SPD) therefore decided to attempt to pass the legislation through the retiring 20th Bundestag (elected in 2021), since the necessary two-thirds majority would already be achieved there if the Greens or FDP voted in favour.; they therefore requested two special sessions on the proposed constitutional amendments (12 and 18 March).
On 8 March, both sides announced the start of coalition negotiations and have already set out their initial common positions in a paper. The reaction to the paper from the future opposition came promptly: the AfD sees socialism in the black-red paper, the FDP sees "ideologised climate policy", The Left and Alliance 90/The Greens criticise omissions in the social sphere, and The BSW sees it as "a red carpet rolled out for the AfD to enter the Chancellery in 2029" . Economists also criticised the paper.
On 10 March, the Greens, on whose approval the CDU and SPD are reliant on for their plans, announced that they do not want to approve the project. Instead, they introduced their own draft bill in the Bundestag which, among other things, calls for the debt brake to be applied not only to defence, but also for civil defence and cyber security from 1% of GDP. At the same time, they see the special funds for infrastructure as a way for the SPD and CDU/CSU to finance their election campaign promises, instead of the infrastructure. Nevertheless, they were open to talks.
At the same time, The Left and AfD took their case to the Federal Constitutional Court to appeal against the special sessions and the constitutional amendments in the "old" Bundestag as they felt their rights as members of parliament had been violated. The applications were rejected as unfounded by the Federal Constitutional Court on 14 March.
The first of the two special sessions was then held on 12 March in the Bundestag. The SPD and CDU/CSU motions, as well as those of the Greens and the FDP were referred to the relevant committees after a long debate. On the same day, the minister presidents of the federal states in Berlin called for speed. In the meantime, however, it is uncertain whether the necessary majority in the Bundesrat exists, as the Free Voters in Bavaria and the BSW in Brandenburg and Thuringia do not want to vote in favour of the law.
On 13 March, it was announced that the Greens, CDU and SPD had reached an agreement. According to the compromise, 100 billion of the 500 billion special funds for infrastructure will go towards climate protection. Moreover, spending on civil defence, cyber security, intelligence services and aid to countries attacked in violation of international law will all be excluded from the debt brake.
On 18 March, the Bundestag voted 512-206 in favor of the proposed reforms to the debt brake. The vote was hailed as a victory for Friedrich Merz and a significant step toward amending the Basic Law to allow for greater flexibility in defence and infrastructure spending. With the Bundestag's approval by a two-thirds majority, the proposed amendment moves to the Bundesrat, where it requires approval by a two-thirds majority for full enactment.
Motion to Amend the Basic Law
Reform the German balanced budget amendment :
| Ballot → | Ballot → | 18 March 2025 |
| Required majority → | Required majority → | 489 out of 718 |
| | Yes • SDP (205)• CDU/CSU (193)• Greens (112)• Independents (2) | 512 / 718 |
| | No • FDP (87)• AfD (73)• The Left (28)• BSW (9)• Independents (6)• CDU/CSU (1)• Greens (1)• SDP (1) | 206 / 718 |
| | Abstentions | 0 / 718 |
| | Absentees • Greens (4)• AfD (3)• FDP (3)• CDU/CSU (2)• BSW (1)• Independents (1)• SDP (1) | 15 / 733 |
| Result → | Result → | Approved Y |
| Sources |||