# Bisayan languages

The Bisayan languages or Visayan languages are a subgroup of the Austronesian languages spoken in the Philippines. They are most closely related to Tagalog and the Bikol languages, all of which are part of the Central Philippine languages. Most Bisayan languages are spoken in the whole Visayas section of the country, but they are also spoken in the southern part of the Bicol Region (particularly in Masbate and Sorsogon where several dialects of Waray are spoken), islands south of Luzon, such as those that make up Romblon, most of the areas of Mindanao and the province of Sulu located southwest of Mindanao. Some residents of Metro Manila also speak one of the Bisayan languages.
Over 30 languages constitute the Bisayan language family. The Bisayan language with the most speakers is Cebuano, spoken by 20 million people as a native language in Central Visayas, parts of Eastern Visayas, and most of Mindanao. Two other well-known and widespread Bisayan languages are Hiligaynon (Ilonggo), spoken by 9 million in most of Western Visayas and Soccsksargen; and Waray-Waray, spoken by 6 million in Eastern Visayas region. Prior to colonization, the script and calligraphy of most of the Visayan peoples was the badlit, closely related to the Tagalog baybayin.

## Nomenclature

Native speakers of most Bisayan languages, especially Cebuano, Hiligaynon and Waray, not only refer to their language by their local name, but also by Bisaya or Binisaya, meaning Bisayan language. This is misleading or may lead to confusion as different languages may be called Bisaya by their respective speakers despite their languages being mutually unintelligible.
However, languages that are classified within the Bisayan language family but spoken natively in places outside of the Visayas do not use the self-reference Bisaya or Binisaya. To speakers of Cuyonon, Surigaonon, Butuanon and Tausug, the term Visayan usually refers to either Cebuano or Hiligaynon.
There have been no proven accounts to verify the origins of Bisaya. However, there is an ethnic group in Malaysia and Brunei who call themselves with the same name. However, these ethnic groups in the Philippines must not be confused with those in Borneo.

## Evidence

David Zorc lists the following innovations as features defining the Bisayan languages as a group (Zorc 1977:241). Tausug is noted to have diverged early from the group and may have avoided some sound changes that affected the others.
* *lC, *Cl > *Cl (where C is any consonant not *h, *q, or *l)
* *qC, *Cq > *Cq (MOST) *qC, *Cq > *qC (Tausug, and most Bikol languages)
Reflexes of PCPh and PPh :
| | *qaldaw | *qalsəm | *qitlug | *baqguh |
| Tagalic | *qaːdaw (Tag: ˈʔaː.raw) | *qaːsəm (Tag: ˈʔaː.sim) | *qitlug (Tag: ʔit.ˈlog) | *baːguh (Tag: ˈbaː.go) |
| Bikol | *qaldaw (Naga: ˈʔal.daw) | *qalsəm (Naga: ˈʔal.som) | *qitlug (Iriga: ʔit.ˈlog) | *baqguh (Naga: ˈbaʔ.go) |
| Bisayan | *qadlaw (ALL: ˈʔad.law) | *qasləm (Kin: ˈʔas.ləm, Ceb: ˈʔas.lum) | *qitlug (MOST: ˈʔit.log) | *bagquh (Ceb: ˈbag.ʔo) |

## Internal classification

David Zorc gives the following internal classification for the Bisayan languages (Zorc 1977:32). The five primary branches are South, Cebuan, Central, Banton, and West. However, Zorc notes that the Bisayan language family is more like a dialect continuum rather than a set of readily distinguishable languages.
The South Bisayan languages are considered to have diverged first, followed by Cebuan and then the rest of the three branches. Also, in the Visayas section, the province of Romblon has the most linguistic diversity, as languages from three primary Bisayan branches are spoken there: Romblomanon from Central Bisayan, Inunhan from Western Bisayan and Banton (which has an independent Bisayan branch).
Notably, Baybayanon and Porohanon have Warayan substrata, indicating a more widespread distribution of Waray before Cebuano speakers started to expand considerably starting from the mid-1800s.
A total of 36 varieties are listed below. Individual languages are marked by italics.
* Bisayan
** 1. South (spoken on the northeastern coast of Mindanao)
*** Butuan-Tausug
**** Tausug
**** Butuanon
*** Surigao
**** Surigaonon
**** Tandaganon
** 2. Cebuan (spoken in Cebu, Bohol, Siquijor, Eastern Negros, western Leyte and northern, southeastern and northwestern parts of Mindanao)
*** Cebuan
**** Cebuano
***** Boholano
** 3. Central (spoken across most of the Visayan region)
*** Warayan (spoken in eastern Leyte, Biliran and Samar)
**** Waray
**** Baybayanon
**** Kabalian
**** Southern Sorsogon (Gubat)
*** Peripheral
**** Hiligaynon (Ilonggo) (spoken in eastern Panay and Guimaras, Western Negros and south-central Mindanao)
**** Capiznon
**** Bantayanon
**** Porohanon
**** Masbate-Sorsogon
***** Masbateño
***** Central Sorsogon (Masbate)
*** Romblon (also the name of the province)
**** Romblomanon
** 4. Asi (spoken in northwestern Romblon Province)
**** Asi
** 5. West
*** Aklan (spoken in northwestern Panay)
**** Aklanon/Inakeanon
**** Malaynon
*** Karayan
**** Karay-a (spoken in western and inland Panay)
*** North-Central (spoken on Tablas Island and the southern tip of Mindoro)
**** Inonhan (language related to Karayan)
*** Kuyan (spoken in the archipelagos west of Panay and Romblon as well as the southern tip of Mindoro)
**** Ratagnon
**** Cuyonon
*** Caluyanon
**** Caluyanon
The auxiliary language of Eskayan is grammatically Bisayan, but has essentially no Bisayan (or Philippine) vocabulary.
Magahat and Karolanos, both spoken in Negros, are unclassified within Bisayan.

## Names and locations

Zorc (1977: 14–15) lists the following names and locations of Bisayan languages. The recently documented languages Karolanos, Magahat, and Kabalian are not listed in Zorc (1977).
| Subgroup | Language | Other names | Location(s) |
| Banton | Banton | | Banton Island, Romblon |
| Banton | Sibale | Banton | Sibale (Maestre de Campo) Island, Romblon |
| Banton | Odionganon | Corcuera Island dialect | Odiongan area, Tablas Island, Romblon |
| Western | Alcantaranon | | Alcantara, Tablas Island, Romblon |
| Western | Dispoholnon | | San Andres (Despujols), Tablas Island |
| Western | Looknon | Inunhan | Look and Santa Fe, Tablas Island |
| Western | Datagnon | Ratagnun, Latagnun | Ilin Island and Magsaysay, Occidental Mindoro |
| Western | Santa Teresa | | Barrio Santa Teresa of Magsaysay, Occidental Mindoro |
| Western | Bulalakawnon | | Bulalacao (San Pedro), southern Oriental Mindoro |
| Western | Semirara | | Semirara Island Group |
| Western | Cuyonon | Cuyuno | Cuyo Island, except Agutaya; coastal area around Puerto Princesa, Palawan; Culion and Busuanga Islands |
| Western | Aklanon | Akeanon, Aklano, Aklan | Aklan and northern Capiz, Panay Island |
| Western | Pandan | | Pandan area, Antique, including the Buruanga, Aklan area of Panay |
| Western | Kinaray-a | Antiqueño, Hinaray-a, Sulud, Panayano | most of Antique, Panay Island; most inland areas of Iloilo and Capiz; southern Guimaras Island off of Iloilo |
| Western | Gimaras | | Guimaras Island, Iloilo |
| Central | Romblomanon | Niromblon, Sibuyanon | Romblon and Sibuyan Island; San Agustin area, Tablas Island |
| Central | Bantayan | | Bantayan Island |
| Central | Capiznon | | Capiz and northeastern Iloilo, Panay Island |
| Central | Hiligaynon | Ilonggo | most of Iloilo, Panay Island; western Guimaras and Negros Occidental |
| Central | Kawayan | | Cauayan, Negros Occidental |
| Central | Masbate | Masbate | Masbate and Ticao Island |
| Central | Camotes | | Camotes Island, between Cebu and Leyte |
| Central | Northern Samar | Samareño, Waray-Waray | northern Samar |
| Central | Samar-Leyte | Samareño, Waray-Waray, Sinamar | central Samar; northern half of Leyte |
| Central | Waray | Samareño, Waray-Waray, Binisayâ | southern Samar Island, Eastern Samar |
| Central | Sorsogon | Sorsogonon, Bikol | northern Sorsogon, Bikol |
| Central | Gubat | Sorsogonon | southern Sorsogon, Bikol (including Gubat) |
| Cebuan | Cebuano | Sugbuanon, Sugbuhanon, Cebuan, Sebuano | Cebu Island; Negros Oriental; eastern Visayas and the coastal areas of northern and eastern Mindanao |
| Cebuan | Boholano | Bol-anon | Bohol Island |
| Cebuan | Leyte | Kanâ, Leyteño | central western Leyte; immigrants to Dinagat Island |
| Southern | Butuanon | | Butuan, Agusan del Norte area |
| Southern | Surigaonon | Jaun Bisayâ | Surigao del Norte |
| Southern | Jaun-Jaun | Siargaonon | Siargao Island, Surigao del Norte |
| Southern | Kantilan | | Cantilan and Madrid, Surigao del Sur |
| Southern | Naturalis | | Tandag and Tago, Surigao del Sur |
| Southern | Tausug | Moro, Taw Sug | Jolo Island; southern and western Palawan |

## Comparisons

The following comparisons are from data gathered by Zorc (1997).

### Personal-noun case markers

| Subgroup | Variety | Singular | Singular | Singular | Plural | Plural | Plural |
| Subgroup | Variety | NOM | ERG | OBL | NOM | ERG | OBL |
| Banton | Banton | si | ni | kang | sa | na | kaná |
| Banton | Sibale | si | ni | kang | sína | nína | kína |
| Banton | Odionganon | si | ni | kang | sa | na | kaná |
| Western, Inonhan | Alcantaranon | | | | | | |
| Western, Inonhan | Dispoholnon | si | ni | kay | sánday | nánday | kánday |
| Western, Inonhan | Looknon | si | ni | kay | sánday | nánday | kánday |
| Western, Kuyan, Ratagnon | Datagnon | si | ni | ki | sánda | nánda | kanánda |
| Western, Kuyan, Ratagnon | Santa Teresa | si | ni | kay | sánday | nánday | kánday |
| Western, Inonhan | Bulalakawnon | si | ni | kay | sánday | nánday | kánday |
| Western, Kuyan, Caluyanon | Semirara | si | ni | kay | sánday | nánday | kánday |
| Western, Kuyan | Cuyonon | si | ni | ki | sanda | nanda | kanda |
| Western | Aklanon | si | ni | kay | sánda(y) | nánda(y) | kánda(y) |
| Western, Kinaray-a | Pandan | si | ni | kay | sánday | nánday | kánday |
| Western, Kinaray-a | Kinaray-a | si | ni | kay | sánday | nánday | kánday |
| Western, Kinaray-a | Gimaras | | | | | | |
| Central | Romblomanon | si | ni | kay | siná | niná | kiná |
| Central, Peripheral | Bantayan | | | | | | |
| Central, Peripheral | Capiznon | si | ni | kay | sánday | nánday | kánday |
| Central, Peripheral | Hiligaynon | si | ni | kay | silá ni | níla ni | sa íla ni |
| Central, Peripheral | Kawayan | | | | | | |
| Central, Peripheral | Masbate | si | ni | kan | sinda | ninda | kanda |
| Central, Peripheral | Camotes | | | | | | |
| Central, Warayan, Waray | Northern Samar | si | ni | kan | sirá | nirá | kánda |
| Central, Warayan, Waray | Samar-Leyte | si | ni | kan | sirá | níra | kánda |
| Central, Warayan, Waray | Waray | hi | ni | kan | hirá | níra | kánda |
| Central, Peripheral | Sorsogon (Central Sorsoganon) | si | ni | kan | sirá | nirá | kánda |
| Central, Warayan | Gubat (South Sorsoganon) | si | ni | kan | sirá | nirá | kánda |
| Cebuan | Cebuano | si | ni | kang | silá si siláng | níla ni níang | sa íla ni, sa ílang |
| Cebuan | Boholano | si | ni | kang | síla | níla | kaníla |
| Cebuan | Leyte | | | | silang | nilang | sa ilang |
| Southern, Butuan-Tausug | Butuanon | si | ni | kang | sinda | ninda | kanda |
| Southern, Surigaonon | Surigaonon | si | ni | kay | síla | níla | kaníla |
| Southern, Surigaonon | Jaun-Jaun | si | ni | kan | síla si | níla ni | díla ni |
| Southern, Surigaonon | Kantilan | | | | | | |
| Southern, Tandaganon | Naturalis | | | | | | |
| Southern, Butuan-Tausug | Tausug | hi | hi | kan | hinda | hinda | kanda |

### Common-name case markers

| Subgroup | Variety | NOM | NOM | NOM | ERG | ERG | ERG | OBL |
| Subgroup | Variety | Indefinite | Definite | Definite | Indefinite | Definite | Definite | |
| Subgroup | Variety | | Past | Nonpast | | Past | Nonpast | Future |
| Banton | Banton | -y | kag | | it | ittong | | sa |
| Banton | Sibale | -y | kag | | it | itkag | | sa |
| Banton | Odionganon | -y | kag | | it | ittong | | sa |
| Western, Inonhan | Alcantaranon | | ang | | it | tang | | sa |
| Western, Inonhan | Dispoholnon | | ang | | it | kang | | sa |
| Western, Inonhan | Looknon | | ang | | it | tang | | sa |
| Western, Kuyan, Ratagnon | Datagnon | | ang | | # | ang | | sa |
| Western, Kuyan, Ratagnon | Santa Teresa | | ang | | | kang | | sa |
| Western, Inonhan | Bulalakawnon | | ang | | it | tang | | sa |
| Western, Kuyan, Caluyanon | Semirara | | ang | | | kang | | sa |
| Western, Kuyan | Cuyonon | | ang | | i | i-ang | | sa |
| Western | Aklanon | -y | ro~do | | it | ku | | sa |
| Western, Kinaray-a | Pandan | | ang | | it | kang | | sa |
| Western, Kinaray-a | Kinaray-a | | ang | | ti | kang | | sa |
| Western, Kinaray-a | Gimaras | | ang | | ti | kang | | sa |
| Central | Romblomanon | | ang | | ning | nang | | sa |
| Central, Peripheral | Bantayan | | ang | | sing | sang | | sa |
| Central, Peripheral | Capiznon | | ang | | sing | sang | | sa |
| Central, Peripheral | Hiligaynon | | ang | | sing | sang | | sa |
| Central, Peripheral | Kawayan | | ang | | sing | sang | | sa |
| Central, Peripheral | Masbate | | an | | sin | san | | sa |
| Central, Peripheral | Camotes | in | an | | sin | san | | sa |
| Central, Warayan, Waray | Northern Samar | in | an | | si(n) | sa(n) | | sa |
| Central, Warayan, Waray | Samar-Leyte | in | an | it | sin | san | sit | sa |
| Central, Warayan, Waray | Waray | in | an | it | hin | han | hit | ha |
| Central, Peripheral | Sorsogon (Central Sorsoganon) | | an | | sin | san | | sa |
| Central, Warayan | Gubat (South Sorsoganon) | | an | | sin | san | | sa |
| Cebuan | Cebuano | -y | ang | | ug | sa | | sa |
| Cebuan | Boholano | | ang | | ug | sa | | sa |
| Cebuan | Leyte | | ang | | ug | sa | | sa |
| Southern, Butuan-Tausug | Butuanon | | ang | | | hong | | sa |
| Southern, Surigaonon | Surigaonon | | ang | | | nang | | sa |
| Southern, Surigaonon | Jaun-Jaun | | an | | | nan | | sa |
| Southern, Surigaonon | Kantilan | | ang | | | nang | | sa |
| Southern, Tandaganon | Naturalis | | ang | | | nang | | sa |
| Southern, Butuan-Tausug | Tausug | in | | | sin | | | ha |

## Reconstruction

David Zorc's reconstruction of Proto-Bisayan had 15 consonants and 4 vowels (Zorc 1977:201). Vowel length, primary stress (penultimate and ultimate), and secondary stress (pre-penultimate) are also reconstructed by Zorc.
Proto-Bisayan Consonants :
| | | Bilabial | Dental | Palatal | Velar | Glottal |
| Plosive | Voiceless | p | t | | k | ʔ |
| Plosive | Voiced | b | d | | ɡ | |
| Nasal | Nasal | m | n | | ŋ | |
| Fricative | Fricative | | s | | | h |
| Lateral | Lateral | | l | | | |
| Approximant | Approximant | w | | j | | |
Proto-Bisayan Vowels :
| Height | Height | Front | Front | Central | Central | Back | Back |
| Close | Close | i /i/ | i /i/ | | | u /u/ | u /u/ |
| Mid | Mid | | | ə /ə/ | ə /ə/ | | |
| Open | Open | | | a /a/ | a /a/ | | |