# Modern Hebrew

Modern Hebrew (endonym: עִבְרִית חֲדָשָׁה, romanized: 'Ivrit ḥadasha, IPA: or), also referred to as Israeli Hebrew or simply Hebrew, is the standard form of the Hebrew language spoken today, and is the native language of the Jewish people. Developed as part of the revival of Hebrew in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, it is the only surviving Canaanite language, as well as one of the oldest languages still spoken, with its earliest written records dating back to the 2nd millennium BC. The revival of Hebrew predates the creation of the State of Israel, where it is now the sole official and national language, used for all mediums of life. Thus, Modern Hebrew is often regarded as one of the most successful instances of language revitalization in history.
A Northwest Semitic language within the Afroasiatic language family, Hebrew was spoken since antiquity as the vernacular of the Jewish people until around the 3rd century BCE, when it was supplanted by a western dialect of the Aramaic language, the local or dominant languages of the regions Jews migrated to, and later Judeo-Arabic, Judaeo-Spanish, Yiddish, and other Jewish languages. Although Hebrew continued to be used for Jewish liturgy, poetry and literature, and written correspondence, it became extinct as a spoken language.
By the late 19th century, Russian-Jewish linguist Eliezer Ben-Yehuda had begun a popular movement to revive Hebrew as an everyday language, motivated by his desire to preserve Hebrew literature and a distinct Jewish nationality in the context of Zionism. Soon after, a large number of Yiddish and Judaeo-Spanish speakers were murdered in the Holocaust or fled to Israel, and many speakers of Judeo-Arabic emigrated to Israel in the Jewish exodus from the Muslim world, where many would adapt to Modern Hebrew.
Currently, Hebrew is spoken by approximately 9–10 million people, counting native, fluent, and non-fluent speakers. Some 6 million of these speak it as their native language, the overwhelming majority of whom are Jews who were born in Israel or immigrated during infancy. The rest is split: 2 million are immigrants to Israel; 1.5 million are Israeli Arabs, whose first language is usually Arabic; and half a million are expatriate Israelis or diaspora Jews.
Under Israeli law, the organization that officially directs the development of Modern Hebrew is the Academy of the Hebrew Language, headquartered at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.

## Name

The most common scholarly term for the language is "Modern Hebrew" (עברית חדשה). Most people refer to it simply as "Hebrew" (עברית Hebrew pronunciation:).
The term "Modern Hebrew" has been described as "somewhat problematic" as it implies unambiguous periodization from Biblical Hebrew. Haiim B. Rosén [he] (חיים רוזן) supported the now widely used term "Israeli Hebrew" on the basis that it "represented the non-chronological nature of Hebrew". In 1999, Israeli linguist Ghil'ad Zuckermann proposed the term "Israeli" to represent the multiple origins of the language.$^{:325}$

## Background

The history of the Hebrew language can be divided into four major periods:
* Biblical Hebrew, until about the 3rd century BCE; the language of most of the Hebrew Bible
* Mishnaic Hebrew, the language of the Mishnah and Talmud
* Medieval Hebrew, from about the 6th to the 13th century CE
* Modern Hebrew, from the late 19th century to now, the language of the modern State of Israel
Jewish contemporary sources describe Hebrew flourishing as a spoken language in the kingdoms of Israel and Judah, during about 1200 to 586 BCE. Scholars debate the degree to which Hebrew remained a spoken vernacular following the Babylonian captivity, when Old Aramaic became the predominant international language in the region.
Hebrew died out as a vernacular language somewhere between 200 and 400 CE, declining after the Bar Kokhba revolt of 132–136 CE, which devastated the population of Judea. After the exile, Hebrew became restricted to liturgical and literary use.

## Revival

Hebrew had been spoken at various times and for many purposes throughout the Diaspora. During the Old Yishuv, it had developed into a spoken lingua franca among Palestinian Jews. Eliezer Ben-Yehuda then led a revival of the Hebrew language as a mother tongue in the late 19th century and early 20th century.
Modern Hebrew used Biblical Hebrew morphemes, Mishnaic spelling and grammar, and Sephardic pronunciation. Many idioms and calques were made from Yiddish. Its acceptance by the early Jewish immigrants to Ottoman Palestine was caused primarily by support from the organisations of Edmond James de Rothschild in the 1880s and the official status it received in the 1922 constitution of the British Mandate for Palestine. Ben-Yehuda codified and planned Modern Hebrew using 8,000 words from the Bible and 20,000 words from rabbinical commentaries. Many new words were borrowed from Arabic, due to the language's common Semitic roots with Hebrew, but changed to fit Hebrew phonology and grammar, for example the words gerev (sing.) and garbayim (pl.) are now applied to 'socks', a diminutive of the Arabic ğuwārib ('socks'). In addition, early Jewish immigrants, borrowing from the local Arabs, and later immigrants from Arab lands introduced many nouns as loanwords from Arabic (such as nana, zaatar, mishmish, kusbara, ḥilba, lubiya, hummus, gezer, rayḥan, etc.), as well as much of Modern Hebrew's slang. Despite Ben-Yehuda's fame as the renewer of Hebrew, the most productive renewer of Hebrew words was poet Haim Nahman Bialik.
One of the phenomena seen with the revival of the Hebrew language is that old meanings of nouns were occasionally changed for altogether different meanings, such as bardelas (ברדלס, a loanword from Koinē Greek: πάρδαλις, romanized: párdalis, lit. 'leopard, panther'), which in Mishnaic Hebrew meant 'hyena', but in Modern Hebrew it now means 'cheetah'; or shezīf (שזיף) which is now used for 'plum', but formerly meant 'jujube'. The word kishū’īm (formerly 'cucumbers') is now applied to a variety of summer squash (Cucurbita pepo var. cylindrica), a plant native to the New World. Another example is the word kǝvīsh (כביש), which now denotes a street or a road, but is actually an Aramaic adjective meaning 'trodden down' or 'blazed', rather than a common noun. It was originally used to describe a blazed trail. The flower Anemone coronaria, called in Modern Hebrew kalanit (כלנית), was formerly called in Hebrew shoshanat ha-melekh ('the king's flower').

## Classification

Modern Hebrew is classified as an Afroasiatic language of the Semitic family, within the Canaanite branch of the Northwest Semitic subgroup. While Modern Hebrew is largely based on Mishnaic and Biblical Hebrew as well as Sephardi and Ashkenazi liturgical and literary tradition from the Medieval and Haskalah eras and retains its Semitic character in its morphology and in much of its syntax, some scholars posit that Modern Hebrew represents a fundamentally new linguistic system, not directly continuing any previous linguistic state, though this is not the consensus among scholars.
Modern Hebrew is considered to be a koiné language based on historical layers of Hebrew that incorporates foreign elements, mainly those introduced during the most critical revival period between 1880 and 1920, as well as new elements created by speakers through natural linguistic evolution. A minority of scholars argue that the revived language had been so influenced by various substrate languages that it is genealogically a hybrid with Indo-European. These theories are controversial and have not been met with general acceptance, and the consensus among a majority of scholars is that Modern Hebrew, despite its non-Semitic influences, can correctly be classified as a Semitic language. Although Modern Hebrew has more of the features attributed to Standard Average European than Biblical Hebrew, it is still quite distant, and has fewer such features than Modern Standard Arabic.

## Alphabet

Modern Hebrew is written from right to left using the Hebrew alphabet, which is an abjad, or consonant-only script of 22 letters based on the "square" letter form, known as Ashurit (Assyrian), which was developed from the Aramaic script. A cursive script is used in handwriting. When necessary, vowels are indicated by diacritic marks above or below the letters known as Nikkud, or by use of Matres lectionis, which are consonantal letters used as vowels. Further diacritics like Dagesh and Sin and Shin dots are used to indicate variations in the pronunciation of the consonants (e.g. bet/vet, shin/sin). The letters "צ׳‎", "ג׳‎", "ז׳‎", each modified with a Geresh, represent the consonants [t͡ʃ], [d͡ʒ], [ʒ]. The consonant [t͡ʃ] may also be written as "תש‎" and "טש‎". [w] is represented interchangeably by a simple vav "ו‎", non-standard double vav "וו‎" and sometimes by non-standard geresh modified vav "ו׳‎".
| Name | Alef | Bet | Gimel | Dalet | He | Vav | Zayin | Chet | Tet | Yod | Kaf | Lamed | Mem | Nun | Samech | Ayin | Pe | Tzadi | Kof | Resh | Shin | Tav |
| Printed letter | א‎ | ב‎ | ג‎ | ד‎ | ה‎ | ו‎ | ז‎ | ח‎ | ט‎ | י‎ | כ‎ ך‎ | ל‎ | מ‎ ם‎ | נ‎ ן‎ | ס‎ | ע‎ | פ‎ ף‎ | צ‎ ץ‎ | ק‎ | ר‎ | ש‎ | ת‎ |
| Cursive letter | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| Pronunciation | /ʔ/, /∅/ | /b/, /v/ | /g/ | /d/ | /h/ | /v/ /u/, /o/, /w/ | /z/ | /χ~ħ/ | /t/ | /j/, /i/, /e(i̯)/ | /k/, /χ/ | /l/ | /m/ | /n/ | /s/ | /ʔ~ʕ/, /∅/ | /p/, /f/ | /t͡s/ | /k/ | /ʁ~r/ | /ʃ/, /s/ | /t/ |
| Transliteration | ', ∅ | b, v | g | d | h | v, u, o, w | z | kh, ch, h | t | y, i, e, ei | k, kh | l | m | n | s | ', ∅ | p, f | ts, tz | k | r | sh, s | t |

## Phonology

Modern Hebrew has fewer phonemes than Biblical Hebrew but it has developed its own phonological complexity. Israeli Hebrew has 25 to 27 consonants, depending on whether the speaker has pharyngeals. It has 5 to 10 vowels, depending on whether diphthongs and vowels are counted, varying with the speaker and the analysis.

## Morphology

Modern Hebrew morphology (formation, structure, and interrelationship of words in a language) is essentially Biblical. Modern Hebrew showcases much of the inflectional morphology of the classical upon which it was based. In the formation of new words, all verbs and the majority of nouns and adjectives are formed by the classically Semitic devices of triconsonantal roots (shoresh) with affixed patterns (mishkal). Mishnaic attributive patterns are often used to create nouns, and Classical patterns are often used to create adjectives. Blended words are created by merging two bound stems or parts of words.

## Syntax

The syntax of Modern Hebrew is mainly Mishnaic but also shows the influence of different contact languages to which its speakers have been exposed during the revival period and over the past century.

### Word order

The word order of Modern Hebrew is predominately SVO (subject–verb–object). Biblical Hebrew was originally VSO (verb–subject–object), but drifted into SVO. In the modern language, a sentence may correctly be arranged in any order but its meaning might be hard to understand unless אֶת is used. Modern Hebrew maintains classical syntactic properties associated with VSO languages: it is prepositional, rather than postpositional, in marking case and adverbial relations, auxiliary verbs precede main verbs; main verbs precede their complements, and noun modifiers (adjectives, determiners other than the definite article ה- (ha), and noun adjuncts) follow the head noun; and in genitive constructions, the possessee noun precedes the possessor. Moreover, Modern Hebrew allows and sometimes requires sentences with a predicate initial.

## Lexicon

Modern Hebrew has expanded its vocabulary effectively to meet the needs of casual vernacular, of science and technology, of journalism and belles-lettres. According to Ghil'ad Zuckermann:
   The number of attested Biblical Hebrew words is 8198, of which some 2000 are hapax legomena (the number of Biblical Hebrew roots, on which many of these words are based, is 2099). The number of attested Rabbinic Hebrew words is less than 20,000, of which (i) 7879 are Rabbinic par excellence, i.e. they did not appear in the Old Testament (the number of new Rabbinic Hebrew roots is 805); (ii) around 6000 are a subset of Biblical Hebrew; and (iii) several thousand are Aramaic words which can have a Hebrew form. Medieval Hebrew added 6421 words to (Modern) Hebrew. The approximate number of new lexical items in Israeli is 17,000 (cf. 14,762 in Even-Shoshan 1970 [...]). With the inclusion of foreign and technical terms [...], the total number of Israeli words, including words of biblical, rabbinic and medieval descent, is more than 60,000.$^{:64–65}$

### Sample text

From Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights :
| Modern Hebrew | Transliteration | English |
| כׇּל בְּנֵי הָאָדָם נוֹלְדוּ בְּנֵי חוֹרִין וְשָׁוִים בְּעֶרְכָּם וּבִזְכֻיוֹתֵיהֶם. כֻּלָם חוֹנְנוּ בִּתְבוּנָה וְּבְמַצְפּוּן, לְפִיכָךְ חוֹבָה עֲלֵיהֶם לִנְהֹג אִישׁ בְּרֵעֵהוּ בְּרוּחַ שֶׁל אַחֲוָה. | Kol bne ha'adam noldu bne chorin veshavim be'erkam uvizchuyotehem. Kulam chonenu bitvunah uvematzpun, lefichach chovah 'alehem linhog 'ish bere'ehu beruach shel achavah. | All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood. |

### Loanwords

Modern Hebrew has loanwords from Arabic (both from the local Palestinian dialect and from the dialects of Jewish immigrants from Arab countries), Aramaic, Yiddish, Judaeo-Spanish, German, Polish, Russian, English and other languages. Simultaneously, Israeli Hebrew makes use of words that were originally loanwords from the languages of surrounding nations from ancient times: Canaanite languages as well as Akkadian. Mishnaic Hebrew borrowed many nouns from Aramaic (including Persian words borrowed by Aramaic), as well as from Greek and to a lesser extent Latin. In the Middle Ages, Hebrew made heavy semantic borrowing from Arabic, especially in the fields of science and philosophy. Here are typical examples of Hebrew loanwords:
| loanword | loanword | loanword | derivatives | derivatives | derivatives | origin | origin | origin |
| Hebrew | IPA | meaning | Hebrew | IPA | meaning | language | spelling | meaning |
| בַּי | /baj/ | goodbye | | | | English | bye | bye |
| אֶגְזוֹז | /eɡˈzoz/ | exhaust system | | | | English | exhaust system | exhaust system |
| דיג׳יי | /ˈdidʒej/ | DJ | דיג׳ה | /diˈdʒe/ | to DJ | English | to DJ | to DJ |
| וַאלְלָה | /ˈwala/ | really!? | | | | Arabic | والله | really!? |
| כֵּיף | /kef/ | fun | כַּיֵּף‎ | /kiˈjef/ | to have fun | Arabic | كيف | pleasure |
| תַּאֲרִיךְ | /taʔaˈʁiχ/ | date | תֶּאֱרַךְ | /teʔeˈreχ/ | to date | Arabic | تاريخ | date, history |
| חְנוּן | /χnun/ | geek, wimp, nerd, "square" | | | | Moroccan Arabic | خنونة‎ | snot |
| אַבָּא | /ˈaba/ | dad | | | | Aramaic | אבא‎ | the father/my father |
| דוּגרִי | /ˈdugʁi/ | forthright | | | | Ottoman Turkish | طوغری‎ doğrı | correct |
| פַּרְדֵּס | /paʁˈdes/ | orchard | | | | Avestan | 𐬞𐬀𐬌𐬭𐬌⸱𐬛𐬀𐬉𐬰𐬀 | garden |
| אֲלַכְסוֹן | /alaχˈson/ | diagonal | | | | Greek | λοξός | slope |
| וִילוֹן | /viˈlon/ | curtain | | | | Latin | vēlum | veil, curtain |
| חַלְטוּרָה | /χalˈtuʁa/ | shoddy job | חִלְטֵר | /χilˈteʁ/ | to moonlight | Russian | халтура | shoddy work |
| בָּלָגָן | /balaˈɡan/ | mess | בִּלְגֵּן | /bilˈɡen/ | to make a mess | Russian | балаган | chaos |
| תַּכְלֶ׳ס | /ˈtaχles/ | directly/ essentially | | | | Yiddish | תכלית | goal (Hebrew word, only pronunciation is Yiddish) |
| חְרוֹפּ | /χʁop/ | deep sleep | חָרַפּ | /χaˈʁap/ | to sleep deeply | Yiddish | כראָפ | snore |
| שְׁפַּכְטֵל | /ˈʃpaχtel/ | putty knife | | | | German | Spachtel | putty knife |
| גּוּמִי | /ˈɡumi/ | rubber | גּוּמִיָּה | /ɡumiˈja/ | rubber band | German | Gummi | rubber |
| גָּזוֹז | /ɡaˈzoz/ | carbonated beverage | | | | Turkish from French | gazoz from eau gazeuse | carbonated beverage |
| פּוּסְטֵמָה | /pusˈtema/ | stupid woman | | | | Ladino | פּוֹשׂטֵימה postema | inflamed wound |
| אַדְרִיכָל | /adʁiˈχal/ | architect | אַדְרִיכָלוּת | /adʁiχaˈlut/ | architecture | Akkadian | 𒀵𒂍𒃲 | temple servant |
| צִי | /t͡si/ | fleet | | | | Ancient Egyptian | ḏꜣy | ship |
* ↑ bitFormation. "Loanwords in Hebrew from Arabic". Safa-ivrit.org. Archived from the original on 11 October 2014. Retrieved 26 August 2014.
* 1 2 bitFormation. "Loanwords in Hebrew from Russian". Safa-ivrit.org. Archived from the original on 10 October 2014. Retrieved 26 August 2014.
* ↑ bitFormation. "Loanwords in Hebrew from Turkish". Safa-ivrit.org. Archived from the original on 10 October 2014. Retrieved 26 August 2014.
* ↑ bitFormation. "Loanwords in Hebrew from Ladino". Safa-ivrit.org. Archived from the original on 8 February 2005. Retrieved 26 August 2014.
* ↑ אתר השפה העברית. "Loanwords in Hebrew from Akkadian". Safa-ivrit.org. Archived from the original on 10 October 2014. Retrieved 26 August 2014.