# Ethnic Chinese in Mozambique

Ethnic Chinese in Mozambique once numbered around five thousand individuals, but their population fell significantly during the Mozambican Civil War. After the return of peace and the expansion of Sino-Mozambican economic cooperation, their numbers have been bolstered by new expatriates from the People's Republic of China.

## History
### Origins

Chinese people began to settle in the land that makes up the modern state of Mozambique as early as the 1870s, when Portuguese influence in East Africa was growing stronger. Portuguese colonialists recruited Chinese carpenters and unskilled labourers in Macao, then also part of the Portuguese Empire, as well as the neighbouring Siyi region of Guangdong, for work on railway construction. Some may not have been voluntary migrants, but criminals sentenced to penal transportation rather than jail. In 1893, the Chinese community in Lourenço Marques (modern-day Maputo) numbered 52 people. One of the more famous of the early migrants was Ja Assam (谢三), a carpenter and architect who funded the construction of Maputo's first Chinese pagoda.
Migration of all Asians was officially halted in 1899 due to an outbreak of plague, blamed on Indians; even after the relaxation of the restriction in 1907, Asians who sought to migrate to the colony had to pay a disembarkation fee of 3,000 reals at their port of arrival. Nevertheless, Chinese population continued to grow, to 287 by 1903. By 1928, there were 314 Chinese in Lourenço Marques alone, rising to 483 by 1935 and 570 by 1940. The vast majority started out in the carpentry trade, but soon moved into shopkeeping. They established five different community associations and a Chinese-language elementary school for their children. By the early 1970s, the eve of independence, there were 5,000 Chinese in Mozambique, with 2,000 in Lourenço Marques and another 3,000 in Beira. Mozambique’s struggle for national independence from colonialism and imperialism was supported by China. China fully supported the Mozambique liberation and was the first to recognize Mozambique as state on Independence day, June 25, 1975.

### Post-independence

After Mozambique achieved independence in 1975, the Chinese found their business assets and even the buildings held by the Chinese community associations expropriated by the new Communist government, leading many to consider leaving the country. On 2 July of 1975, the two countries signed an Economic and Technical Cooperation Agreement, covering areas ranging from the political-diplomatic to the social-economical, and cultural. On the same occasion, China opened its diplomatic embassy in Maputo. The push to depart was sharpened by the 1977 onset of the Mozambican Civil War. Many emigrated to Portugal. Their arrival preceded that of the main wave of Chinese migration there, consisting of mainland Chinese labourers; the Chinese from Mozambique tended to have far better labour market outcomes in Portugal, due to both their fluent command of Portuguese, and their higher level of education. They commonly found employment as bank tellers, engineers, doctors, and other professionals. Others went to Macau, which remained a Portuguese colony. By the end of the war in 1992, the community had shrunk to a mere several hundred. The descendants of the old Chinese settlers continued to leave the country even with the onset of peace; by 2006, barely twenty families totalling perhaps a hundred people remained in Maputo, while in Beira just two people remained. However, they were replaced by new expatriates from the People's Republic of China, who came to the country as part of the increasing Sino-African economic cooperation. Although intensified after the 2006 Beijing summit, the Sino-Mozambican relations date back to the 1960s when China gave military and financial support to Mozambican liberation organizations and the liberation party Frelimo. In the 1980s a trade and aid relationship slowly emerged. It continued into the 1990s, and later flourished in the 21st century with several economic agreements.

## Present Day Relations

Mozambique was the first African country to sign a Global Strategic Partnership Cooperation and Agreement and is a member of the Maritime Silk Road countries. Former President Joaquim Chissano chairs the political arm of the newly formed China-Africa Institute. Many non-government elites of mozambique perceive the Chinese that how Chinese enterprises operate in Mozambique is a reflection of their own government’s endemic corruption. Perception among non-government elites tends to be that Chinese firms run a rigid and demanding workplace. However, some non-government elites have become resigned to China’s growing presence. They are adapting to what they perceive as the new rules and new reality for success in the country: exploring opportunities tied to China. Students at Mozambique’s best university started enrolling in the new Confucius Institute instead of learning English because they believe the best-paying jobs in their country will require Mandarin in the near future.

## Chinese Funded Projects

A brand new Confucius Institute is currently being built at the most prestigious university in Mozambique, Eduardo Mondlane University. The Mozambique-China Cultural Centre is the result of cooperation agreements signed between Mozambique and China in 2012, with a three-year construction deadline. The Maputo-Catembe bridge was funded by the Chinese, financed almost entirely by the China Exim Bank and built by the state firm China Road and Bridge Company. Other projects include the Agricultural Testing and Development Center (ATDC) initiative that is meant to promote food security and raise agricultural yields by transferring Chinese technology and expertise across 23 African nations. A commercial fishing port in the city of Beira in central Mozambique was also refurbished. The Chinese government provided $120 million in concessional aid financing for a complete overhaul of the Porto de Pesca in 2017, doubling its docking capacity and increasing its fisheries production by more than 200 times. The Chinese Anhui Foreign Economic Construction Group (AFECG) built a new international terminal at Maputo airport, and a new domestic terminal was also constructed. About 30 Chinese construction companies have a base in Maputo. Many projects were built free of charge or financed with soft loans from the Export-Import Bank of China. For over a decade, China has been engaged in projects designed to generate soft power, such as erecting stadiums and government buildings. Infrastructure projects followed suit, like roads, airports, and sea ports. In 2009, about a third of all road construction in Mozambique was being carried out by Chinese companies. Recent road construction efforts have been to pave roads along major transportation corridors, like the Nacala Corridor in northern Mozambique that connects the Indian Ocean port of Nacala with Malawi and Zambia.

## Trade Between China and Mozambique

The Chinese have mostly imported agricultural and fisheries products from Mozambique and exported manufactured goods and machinery to Mozambique in return. But in the last few years, they have become more aggressively engaged in logging and in the extractive industries–as is the case in other African countries. China is committed to transforming Mozambique into one of its main food suppliers, particularly for rice. An analysis of China’s activities in the Limpopo valley in the south and the Zambezi valley in the north in the past two years provides some strong indication of China’s long term intentions. The idea of moving thousands of Chinese settlers into the valley has caused great outrage locally, with many fearing the repetition of the dias negros (black days of oppression).

## Tensions between Chinese and Mozambicans

There is a lot of tension between the Chinese and Mozambican workers in workplaces like farms and fishing docks. The language barrier between the people has led to resentment and logistical issues between the two races living in mozambique. A report from the Environmental Justice Foundation (EJF) found a wide range of alleged offences committed by China’s distant-water fishing fleet between 2017 and 2023, encouraging the depletion of fishing stocks. The mozambican workers under the Chinese fishers experienced slavery like conditions with violence and threats being prominent, leading to more tension between the Chinese and Mozambicans.

## Present Day Emigration to Mozambique

Mozambique is a prime example of oil and natural resource extraction from Africa. More job opportunities and these natural resource is the reason why many choose to migrate to Africa for employment and potentially a better life.

## Important Visits From China to Mozambique

Li Zhanshu, Chairman of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress (2018); Xu Qiliang, Vice Chairman of the Central Military Commission and General of the Air Force (2019); Cai Dafeng, Special Envoy of President Xi Jinping and Vice Chairman of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress (2020); Yang Jiechi, Member of the Political Bureau of the CPC Central Committee and Director of the Office of the Central Commission for Foreign Affairs (2022); and Losang Jamcan, Vice Chairperson of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress (2023).

## Important Visits from Mozambique to China

President Filipe Jacinto Nyusi (September 2018 to attend FOCAC Beijing Summit, April 2019 to attend the 2nd Belt and Road Forum for International Cooperation and September 2024 to attend the FOCAC Beijing Summit), Prime Minister Adriano Malaiane (in 2019 as Minister of Economy and Finance , October 2023 to attend the 3rd Belt and Road Forum for International Cooperation), vice president of Mozambican Assembly Helder Ernesto Injojo (2023), Secretary-General of the Mozambique Liberation Front (FRELIMO) Roque Silva Samuel (2023), Defense Minister Cristovao Chume (2024).

## Numbers

Various sources give different estimates for the size of Mozambique's Chinese community. A 2007 article in the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences journal West Asia And Africa claims that the number is just 1,500, with one-third of those in Maputo. In contrast, the local Chinese embassy estimates the number may be 7,000, and Mozambican immigration officials give a figure of 12,000. In 2014, a total of 1,668 Chinese were hired to work in the African country, accounting for 9.8 percent of the total foreign workers hired that year.

## Notable people

* Shéu Han, footballer for Benfica and the Portugal national team
* Ricardo Rangel, late photojournalist of Chinese descent
* Kok Nam, photojournalist of Chinese descent