# Bar Kokhba revolt

The Bar Kokhba revolt (Hebrew: מֶרֶד בַּר כּוֹכְבָא, romanized: Mereḏ Bar Kōḵḇāʾ‍) was a large-scale armed rebellion by the Jews of Judaea against the Roman Empire, led by Simon bar Kokhba. It was the third and final major escalation of the Jewish–Roman wars. The revolt began in 132 CE and lasted until 135 or early 136 CE, ending in the total defeat of the short-lived Jewish state. The Romans brutally suppressed the uprising; Bar Kokhba was killed during the siege and fall of Betar, the last Jewish stronghold, in 135 CE. The Roman campaigns led to the near-depopulation of Judea through widespread killings, mass enslavement, and the displacement of many Jews from the region.
Roman rule in Judaea had been deeply resented, especially after the destruction of Jerusalem and the Second Temple in 70 CE during the First Jewish–Roman War. In its aftermath, the Romans increased their military presence and implemented unpopular changes to the province's administrative and economic systems. In 129/130 CE, Emperor Hadrian founded the pagan colony of Aelia Capitolina on the ruins of Jerusalem, extinguishing hopes for the Temple's restoration and fueling Jewish anger. The role of the Roman governor Quintus Tineius Rufus in provoking tensions is emphasized in rabbinic literature and by early Christian writers. Additionally, it is possible that a ban on circumcision may have contributed to the rebellion. Bar Kokhba’s charismatic leadership is believed to have played a key role in galvanizing the people.
With the outbreak of the conflict, Jewish rebel forces achieved significant victories, establishing an independent Jewish state that controlled much of the province for several years. Unlike the previous revolt, the rebels were well-prepared, employing guerrilla tactics and utilizing underground tunnels and hiding complexes embedded within their villages. Bar Kokhba was declared "nasi (נָשִׂיא, lit. 'prince') of Israel", and reportedly had the support of Rabbi Akiva, one of the most revered sages of the time, who identified him as the Messiah. The new state even minted its own coinage and weights. This setback for the Romans led Emperor Hadrian to assemble a large army – six full legions with auxiliaries and other elements from up to six additional legions, all under the command of Sextus Julius Severus – and launch an extensive military campaign across Judea, devastating the country. In the revolt's final phase, many sought refuge in natural caves, particularly in the Judaean Desert, but Roman troops besieged these hideouts, cutting off supplies and ultimately slaughtering those who were found.
The consequences for the Jewish population were catastrophic. Hundreds of thousands of Jews are estimated to have been killed, with many others sold into slavery or expelled. Judea was heavily depopulated, and the remaining Jews were largely concentrated in Galilee. The defeat had significant religious and philosophical consequences; Jewish messianic beliefs became more abstract and spiritualized, while rabbinical political thought shifted to a more cautious and conservative approach. Judaism and early Christianity continued to diverge more sharply. In addition to the loss of life, the Romans imposed severe religious restrictions, such as prohibitions on circumcision and Shabbat observance. Hadrian continued the construction of Aelia Capitolina, barring Jews from entering the city and its surrounding areas, while bringing in foreign populations and dedicating the city to Jupiter. Finally, the Romans renamed the province of Judea to Syria Palaestina, a measure aimed at obliterating Jewish ties to the land.

## Background

The Bar Kokhba revolt was the last of three Jewish revolts against Rome fought within a span of approximately 60 years. It was preceded by the First Jewish–Roman War (66–73 CE) and the Diaspora Revolt (115–117 CE). These revolts were brutally suppressed by Rome, resulting in the destruction of numerous Jewish communities, including Jerusalem, the national and religious center of the Jewish people. Hundreds of thousands of Jews were killed, many others were exiled or sold into slavery, and the status of Jews and Judaism throughout the Roman Empire was significantly diminished.
In 6 CE, Judaea transitioned from a client kingdom of Rome to a directly ruled Roman province. For the next six decades, aside from a brief period under another client king, Herod Agrippa I, the province was governed by successive Roman officials. The Jewish population grew increasingly resentful due to mismanagement, corruption, and the incompetence of these governors. Their rule was often marked by acts of brutality and religious insensitivity, which further inflamed local tensions. Escalating tensions emerged from ethnic, religious, and territorial conflicts with neighboring populations, worsened by widening economic inequalities. Meanwhile, memories of the Maccabean revolt and the period of independence under the Hasmoneans fueled Jewish nationalist aspirations for liberation from Roman rule. In 66 CE, unrest in Caesarea, followed by clashes in Jerusalem, sparked the outbreak of an open Jewish revolt—the First Jewish–Roman War. The rebellion was systematically subdued by the Romans under the command of Vespasian and later his son Titus. Jerusalem was razed, and the Second Temple was destroyed.
Following the war, Judaea underwent administrative reorganization. A senatorial-rank legate was appointed as governor, overseeing the province. Under his command, Legio X Fretensis—which had participated in the war—was permanently stationed in the province, establishing its main base in the ruins of Jerusalem. To further secure the region, the regions of Judea and Idumea were designated as a military zone, administered directly by officers of the legion. The province's status changed again in the 110s CE when it was placed under a proconsul, a higher-ranking official. Around this time, an additional legion, Legio VI Ferrata, was stationed in the province, with its main base at Legio (Kefar Othnai). The increased military presence was accompanied by efforts to establish and reinforce a more loyal population in the province, including through the settlement of discharged soldiers.
In 115 CE, during Trajan's reign, another large-scale Jewish insurrection, known as the Diaspora Revolt, erupted, spreading across Jewish communities in Egypt, Cyrenaica, Cyprus, and Mesopotamia, and continuing until 117. The final stages of this conflict, known as the Kitos War, appear to have led to unrest spilling over into Judaea. Mismanagement of the province in the early 2nd century likely contributed to the conditions that set the stage for the Bar Kokhba revolt, as governors enforcing anti-Jewish policies further destabilized an already volatile region.

## Sources

Unlike the First Jewish Revolt, which was thoroughly documented by Josephus—a participant and later eyewitness—the Bar Kokhba revolt is more challenging to reconstruct due to the limited availability of detailed accounts from either Roman or Jewish sources. Researchers rely on limited literary sources with differing objectives, reliability, and dates, leaving many crucial questions unresolved.
The best recognized source for the revolt is Cassius Dio, a Greco-Roman statesman and historian, who described the rebellion in Roman History (Book 69). However, Dio's account survives only in fragmented form, covering about two pages. It offers an overview of the rebellion's general progression and catastrophic outcomes but omits specific names and locations.
Eusebius, a 4th-century Christian bishop and historian from Caesarea, included a concise account of the revolt in his work, Ecclesiastical History. He identified Bar Chochebas (interpreted by Eusebius as meaning "star") as the leader of the Jewish rebels and described their final stronghold at Beththera (i.e., Betar). Though Eusebius lived a century and a half after the revolt and wrote his brief account from a Christian theological perspective, influenced by Supersessionism (the belief that the Church has superseded the Jewish people, assuming their role as God's covenanted people) his account provides important details on the revolt and its aftermath in Judea.
The Historia Augusta, a late Roman collection of biographies, devotes only a single sentence to the revolt, briefly addressing one of its causes.
Rabbinic literature makes occasional references to the Bar Kokhba revolt, offering insights into its leader, Simon bar Kokhba, and the aftermath of the rebellion, including Roman executions of Jewish leaders and episodes of religious persecution. Only one event—the siege and fall of Betar—is referred to with any detail.
Archaeological discoveries from 1952 onwards, particularly papyrological evidence including legal documents and correspondence between the revolt's leader and his subordinates, offer invaluable insights into the Bar Kokhba revolt's internal dynamics. Among the roughly 30 surviving documents, three are in Greek, while the others are split between Hebrew and Aramaic. These papyri provide insights into the rebels' civil administration, army structure, religious practices, and leadership challenges, but do not offer much detail about the course of the war itself. Additional knowledge about the revolt can be gleaned from the coins minted by the rebels, which help to estimate the duration of the uprising and reveal its goals: the establishment of Jewish independence and the rebuilding of the Temple.

## Immediate causes

The causes of the Bar Kokhba revolt have been debated among historians, with two main ancient sources providing differing explanations. Cassius Dio attributes the revolt to Jewish anger over Emperor Hadrian's decision to rebuild Jerusalem as a Roman colony, Aelia Capitolina. The Historia Augusta suggests that the immediate trigger for the uprising was a Roman ban on circumcision, a central Jewish practice. The prevailing scholarly consensus recognizes a combination of these causes in explaining the outbreak of the revolt.

### Establishment of Aelia Capitolina

In 129–130 CE, Hadrian toured the eastern provinces, promoting Hellenistic culture. The region's non-Jewish population honored him with new city names and festivals. During his visit of Judaea, he decided to rebuild the destroyed Jerusalem as a Roman colony named Aelia Capitolina, after his family name (Publius Aelius Hadrianus) and in honor of Capitoline Jupiter. This decision enraged the Jews, extinguishing their hopes of ever rebuilding Jerusalem and the Temple.
Historians once debated whether Aelia Capitolina's foundation caused the revolt or followed it as punishment. Cassius Dio wrote that Hadrian founded Aelia Capitolina on Jerusalem’s ruins and erected a temple to Jupiter on the Temple Mount. In his account, this caused "a long and serious war, since the Jews objected to having gentiles settled in their city and foreign cults established." Eusebius, however, described the colony's foundation as a punitive measure after the uprising. He wrote: "when the city had been emptied of the Jewish nation and had suffered the total destruction of its ancient inhabitants, it was colonized by a different race, and the Roman city which subsequently arose changed its name." The discovery of Aelia Capitolina coins in sites abandoned before the uprising, and buried in hoards alongside Bar Kokhba coins, supports Cassius Dio's version, suggesting the colony's founding preceded the conflict.
One interpretation involves the visit in 130 of Hadrian to the ruins of the Temple. At first sympathetic towards the Jews, Hadrian promised to rebuild the Temple, but the Jews felt betrayed when they found out that he intended to build a temple dedicated to Jupiter. A rabbinic version of this story, seemingly set during Hadrian's reign, suggests that the Romans did plan to rebuild the Temple, but a malevolent Samaritan convinced them to abandon the idea, claiming that the Jews would rebel once their city was restored. The reference to a malevolent Samaritan, however, is a common motif in Jewish literature. this account might reveal the Jewish sense of disappointment due to the Romans not rebuilding the Temple.
An additional legion, the VI Ferrata, arrived in the province to maintain order. Works on Aelia Capitolina commenced in 131. Consul Quintus Tineius Rufus performed the foundation ceremony which involved ploughing over the designated city limits. "Ploughing up the Temple", seen as a religious offence, turned many Jews against the Roman authorities. The Romans issued a coin inscribed Aelia Capitolina.
Mary E. Smallwood writes that the foundation of Aelia Capitolina was likely "an attempt to combat resurgent Jewish nationalism" by secularizing the Jewish holy capital. According to Martin Goodman, Hadrian established the colony as a "final solution for Jewish rebelliousness," aiming to permanently erase the city and prevent future rebellions among Jews in Judaea or in diaspora communities. The foundation of a Roman colony—rather than a Hellenistic polis—was designed to transplant foreign populations and impose Roman religious practices. While Hadrian founded many cities, this case was unique in that it was "not to flatter but to suppress the natives."

### Ban on circumcision

The biography of Hadrian in the Historia Augusta, a 4th-century work authored by pagan Roman writers, attributes the Jewish revolt to a prohibition on circumcision, referred to as mutilare genitalia—interpreted as a reference to the Jewish practice of brit milah. According to the text, "In their impetuosity the Jews also began a war, as they had been forbidden to mutilate their genitals." However, this source is often considered unreliable, and it is unclear whether the ban preceded or followed the revolt.
If the prohibition existed, some scholars suggest Hadrian, as a Hellenist, saw circumcision as bodily mutilation. E. Mary Smallwood argues he imposed a universal ban, later relaxed by Antoninus Pius, who is known to have granted Jews an exemption. She cites Talmudic passages implying the ban preceded the revolt, including one where Rabbi Eliezer ben Hurcanus permitted hiding circumcision knives in peril. Peter Schäfer and Joseph Geiger dispute this, questioning Historia Augusta's reliability and suggesting the ban was punitive. Schäfer further contends Roman laws on "genital mutilation" targeted slave castration, not circumcision.

### Other reasons

According to Doron Mendels, the revolt possibly arose from Jewish nationalists' expectation that, just as the First Temple was rebuilt after seventy years, the Second Temple's destruction would also be followed by restoration. As this period passed without renewal, frustration grew, sparking the uprising when circumstances allowed.
Other causes thought to have contributed to the revolt include: changes in administrative law, the widespread presence of legally-privileged Roman citizens, alterations in agricultural practice with a shift from landowning to sharecropping, the impact of a possible period of economic decline, and an upsurge of nationalism, the latter influenced by the Diaspora Revolt. The charismatic personality of the revolt's leader, Simon bar Kokhba, is also thought to have been a major cause of the revolt.

## Preparations and outbreak

Simeon Bar Kokhba's forces waited for Hadrian to leave before launching the uprisings. The Jews carefully planned the uprising, learning from mistakes of the First Jewish revolt. Cassius Dio reports that:
   The Jews [...] did not dare try conclusions with the Romans in the open field, but they occupied the advantageous positions in the country and strengthened them with mines and walls, in order that they might have places of refuge whenever they should be hard pressed, and might meet together unobserved underground; and they pierced these subterranean passages from above at intervals to let in air and light.
Dio's account has been corroborated by the discovery of hundreds of hiding complexes, created in large numbers in almost every populated area. Hideout systems were employed in the Judean hills, the Judean desert, northern Negev, and to some degree also in Galilee, Samaria and Jordan Valley. Many houses utilized underground hideouts, where the rebels hoped to withstand Roman superiority by the narrowness of the passages and even ambushes from underground. The cave systems were often interconnected and used as hideouts and for storage and refuge for their families. As of July 2015, some 350 hideout systems have been mapped within the ruins of 140 Jewish villages.
Dio also states that the Jews manufactured their own weapons in preparation for the revolt: "The Jews [...] purposely made of poor quality such weapons as they were called upon to furnish, in order that the Romans might reject them and that they themselves might thus have the use of them." However, there is no archaeological evidence to support Dio's claim that the Jews produced defective weapons. In fact, weapons found at sites controlled by the insurgents are identical to those used by the Romans.
vBetar (also Beitar, Bethar) was selected as the rebels' headquarters because of its strategic location near Jerusalem, abundant springs, and defensible position. Its ruins are now located at Khirbet el-Yehud, within the modern village of Battir, which retains the ancient town's name. Excavations at the site have revealed fortifications likely built by Bar Kokhba's forces, though determining whether these defenses were constructed at the beginning of the revolt or later in the conflict remains unresolved.

## Leadership, organization and administration
### Simon Bar Kokhba

The revolt was led by bar Kokhba, a charismatic leader whose support was likely driven by his personal qualities and abilities, including his charisma. According to rabbinic literature, Rabbi Akiva, a leading rabbi, recognized Bar Kokhba as the messiah. However, this claim was contested by other contemporary sages, such as Yohanan ben Torta.
   Rabbi Aqiba, when he saw Bar-Kozebah, he said this is the king Messiah. Said to him Rabbi Yohanan ben Torta, Aqiba, grass will grow on your cheeks, and the Messiah will not yet have come!"
The name Bar Kokhba does not appear in the Talmud but is found in early ecclesiastical sources. Previously, historians debated whether Bar Kokhba, meaning "son of the star", was his original name, with some suggesting that the name Bar Kosiba (meaning "son of disappointment" or "son of lies" in this interpretation), found in rabbinic texts, was a later, derogatory term. However, documents discovered in the Judaean Desert in the 1950s revealed that his original name was Simeon ben Kosiba. This name is believed to be derived from his place of origin. The title Bar Kokhba was likely bestowed upon him by Rabbi Akiva, based on the "Star Prophecy" found in Numbers 24:17: "A star (kokhav) rises from Jacob."
Seventeen letters discovered in the Judaean desert reveal some details on Bar Kokhba's personality.

### Military

Bar Kokhba led a well-organized army structured in a hierarchical system with designated ranks, including a "head of a camp." His letters indicate a clear chain of command, listing figures such as Judah bar Manasse, commander of Kiryath Arabaya, and Johnathan bar Beysayan and Masabala bar Simeon, commanders of Ein Gedi. These documents also suggest that his forces were composed of devout Jews. According to Rabbinic sources, some 400,000 men were at the disposal of Bar Kokhba at the peak of the rebellion.

### Coinage

The new independent state minted its own coins. From the first year of the revolt, there are silver tetradrachms featuring the Temple on the obverse with the word "Jerusalem." On the reverse, a lulav (palm branch) and ethrog (citrus fruit) are depicted, along with the inscription "Year One of the Redemption of Israel." As in the Hasmonean revolt and the First Jewish–Roman war, Hebrew underwent a resurgence, its presence on coins and documents reinforcing its role as a symbol of Jewish nationhood and independence.
Bar Kokhba, the leader of the revolt, is depicted on the coins as "Simeon, Prince of Israel." Coins from the first year also feature the inscription "Eleazar the priest," though the identity of this figure remains uncertain and debated. Some scholars identify him as Eleazar, Bar Kokhba's uncle, who was executed for seeking negotiations with the Romans, according to rabbinic literature. Regardless, this suggests that Bar Kokhba may have been preparing for the Temple's reconstruction, appointing a High Priest to officiate once it was restored. The coins suggest that restoring the Temple and its services was indeed a key goal, as they feature the Temple's facade and other related symbols.
For coins from the second year and undated coins, additional inscriptions appear, including "For the Freedom of Israel" and "For the Freedom of Jerusalem."

### Geographic extent of the revolt

The exact extent of Bar Kokhba's control remains uncertain. It is widely agreed that the rebels held all of Judea, including the villages of the Judaean Mountains, the Judaean Desert, and northern parts of the Negev Desert. However, there are differing views on the broader scope of the revolt. Two main schools of thought have emerged: Maximalists argue that rebel control may have extended beyond Judea, incorporating other parts of the province, including Galilee and the Golan, while minimalists limit rebel control to Judea and its immediate surroundings. Whether the rebels captured Jerusalem or resumed sacrificial worship on the Temple Mount remains unclear.
Until 1951, Bar Kokhba Revolt coinage was the sole archaeological evidence for dating the revolt. Despite the reference to Jerusalem on the coins, as of early 2000s, archaeological finds, and the lack of revolt coinage found in Jerusalem, supported the view that the revolt did not capture Jerusalem.
In 2020, the fourth Bar Kokhba minted coin and the first inscribed with the word "Jerusalem" was found in Jerusalem Old City excavations. Despite this discovery, the Israel Antiques Authority still maintained the opinion that Jerusalem was not taken by the rebels, because more than 22,000 coins Bar Kokhba coins had been found outside Jerusalem but only four were found within the city. The Israel Antiques Authority's archaeologists Moran Hagbi and Dr. Joe Uziel speculated "It is possible that a Roman soldier from the Tenth Legion found the coin during one of the battles across the country and brought it to their camp in Jerusalem as a souvenir."
Among those findings are the rebel hideout systems in the Galilee, which greatly resemble the Bar Kokhba hideouts in Judea, and though they are less numerous, are nevertheless important. The fact that Galilee retained its Jewish character after the end of the revolt has been taken as an indication by some that either the revolt was never joined by Galilee or that the rebellion was crushed relatively early there compared to Judea.
Several historians, notably W. Eck of the University of Cologne, theorized that the Tel Shalem arch depicted a major battle between Roman armies and Bar Kokhba's rebels in Bet Shean valley, thus extending the battle areas some 50 km northwards from Judea. The 2013 discovery of the military camp of Legio VI Ferrata near Tel Megiddo. However, Eck's theory on battle in Tel Shalem is rejected by M. Mor, who considers the location implausible given Galilee's minimal (if any) participation in the Revolt and distance from the main conflict flareup in Judea proper.
A 2015 archaeological survey in Samaria identified some 40 hideout cave systems from the period, some containing Bar Kokhba's minted coins, suggesting that the war raged in Samaria at high intensity.
Jews from Peraea are thought to have taken part in the revolt. This is demonstrated by a destruction layer dating from the early 2nd century at Tel Abu al-Sarbut in the Sukkoth Valley, and by abandonment deposits from the same period that were discovered at al-Mukhayyat and Callirrhoe. There is also evidence for Roman military presence in Perea in the middle of the century, as well as evidence of the settlement of Roman veterans in the area. This view is supported by a destruction layer in Tel Hesban that dates to 130, and a decline in settlement from the Early Roman to the Late Roman periods discovered in the survey of the Iraq al-Amir region. However, it is still unclear whether this decline was caused by the First Jewish–Roman War or the Bar Kokhba revolt. Bowersock suggested of linking the Nabateans to the revolt, claiming "a greater spread of hostilities than had formerly been thought... the extension of the Jewish revolt into northern Transjordan and an additional reason to consider the spread of local support among Safaitic tribes and even at Gerasa."

### Foreign participation

According to Cassius Dio, the Jewish rebels were aided by "many outside nations," who were eager "for gain." Menachem Mor suggests that non-Jewish populations in the region may have indeed joined the revolt alongside the Jews, though their numbers are difficult to assess. These participants likely came from the lower classes in Hellenistic cities, motivated by a desire to undermine the Roman-backed aristocracy and improve their own socio-economic conditions.

## Suppression of the revolt

After Legio X and Legio VI failed to subdue the rebels, additional reinforcements were dispatched from neighbouring provinces. Gaius Poblicius Marcellus, the legate of Roman Syria, arrived commanding Legio III Gallica, while Titus Haterius Nepos, the governor of Roman Arabia, brought Legio III Cyrenaica. It is likely that Legio XXII Deiotariana was destroyed during the early stages of the revolt.
Following a series of setbacks, Hadrian called his general Sextus Julius Severus from Britannia, and troops were brought from as far as the Danube. In 133/4, Severus landed in Judea with three legions from Europe (including Legio X Gemina and possibly also Legio IX Hispana), cohorts of additional legions and between 30 and 50 auxiliary units. They were joined by Hadrian himself, who arrived in the province, as noted by Cassius Dio.
The size of the Roman army amassed against the rebels was much larger than that commanded by Titus 60 years earlier – nearly one third of the Roman army took part in the campaign against Bar Kokhba. It is estimated that forces from at least 10 legions participated in Severus' campaign in Judea, including Legio X Fretensis, Legio VI Ferrata, Legio III Gallica, Legio III Cyrenaica, Legio II Traiana Fortis, Legio X Gemina, cohorts of Legio V Macedonica, cohorts of Legio XI Claudia, cohorts of Legio XII Fulminata and cohorts of Legio IV Flavia Felix, along with 30–50 auxiliary units, for a total force of 60,000–120,000 Roman soldiers facing Bar Kokhba's rebels. It is plausible that Legio IX Hispana was among the legions Severus brought with him from Europe, and that its demise occurred during Severus' campaign, as its disappearance during the second century is often attributed to this war.
One of the crucial battles of the war took place near Tel Shalem in the Beit She'an valley, near what is now identified as the legionary camp of Legio VI Ferrata. This theory was proposed by Werner Eck in 1999, as part of his general maximalist work which did put the Bar Kokhba revolt as a very prominent event on the course of the Roman Empire's history. Next to the camp, archaeologists unearthed the remnants of a triumphal arch, which featured a dedication to Hadrian, most likely referring to the defeat of Bar Kokhba's army. Additional finds at Tel Shalem, including a bust of Hadrian, specifically link the site to the period. The theory for a major decisive battle in Tel Shalem implies a significant extension of the area of the rebellion, with Eck suggesting the war encompassed also northern valleys together with Galilee.

### Fall of Betar

After losing many of their strongholds, Bar Kokhba and the remnants of his army withdrew to the fortress of Betar, which subsequently came under siege in the summer of 135. Legio V Macedonica and Legio XI Claudia are said to have taken part in the siege. According to Jewish tradition, the town was breached and destroyed on Tisha B'Av, the ninth day of the lunar month of Av, a day of fasting and mourning marking the anniversary of the destruction of the Second Temple.
Talmudic tradition attributes the downfall of Betar to a Samaritan, who acted as a "fifth column" and sowed discord between Bar Kokhba and his maternal uncle, Rabbi Eleazar of Modi'im. In this narrative, suspecting Eleazar of collaborating with the enemy, Bar Kokhba killed him with a single kick, forfeiting divine protection. Shortly thereafter, Betar was captured, and Bar Kokhba was killed. Scholars, however, consider this story to be a later addition with little historical value regarding the revolt. It is thought to reflect the deterioration of relations between Jews and Samaritans in the years following the revolt.
According to a Jewish tradition in Lamentations Rabbah, when Bar Kokhba's body was shown to Hadrian, the emperor ordered that the rest of the body be brought forward. It was discovered with a snake coiled around his neck, and Hadrian is said to have commented, "If his God had not slain him, who could have overcome him?" According to another Talmudic legend, found in the Babylonian Talmud, Sanhedrin, Bar Kokhba was executed by the sages, although this account is not considered reliable.
The horrendous scene after the city's capture could be best described as a massacre. The Jerusalem Talmud relates that the number of dead in Betar was enormous, and that the Romans "went about slaughtering them until a horse sunk in blood up to its nostrils, and the blood carried away boulders that weighted forty sela until it went four miles into the sea. If you should think that it (Betar) was close to the sea, behold, it was forty miles distant from the sea."

### Execution of sages

According to a rabbinic midrash, the Romans executed eight leading members of the Sanhedrin (the list of Ten Martyrs includes two earlier rabbis): Rabbi Akiva; Haninah ben Teradion; the interpreter of the Sanhedrin, Rabbi Huspith; Eleazar ben Shammua; Hanina ben Hakinai; Jeshbab the Scribe; Judah ben Dama; and Judah ben Bava. The date of Akiva's execution is disputed, some dating it to the beginning of the revolt based on the midrash, while others link it to final phases. The rabbinic account describes agonizing tortures: Akiva was flayed with iron combs, Ishmael had the skin of his head pulled off slowly, and Haninah was burned at a stake, with wet wool held by a Torah scroll wrapped around his body to prolong his death.

### Conclusion

Following the fall of Betar, the Roman forces went on a rampage of systematic killing, eliminating all remaining Jewish villages in the region and seeking out the refugees. Legio III Cyrenaica was the main force to execute this last phase of the campaign. Historians disagree on the duration of the Roman campaign following the fall of Betar. While some claim further resistance was broken quickly, others argue that pockets of Jewish rebels continued to hide with their families into the winter months of late 135 and possibly even spring 136. By early 136 however, it is clear that the revolt was defeated. The Babylonian Talmud (Sanhedrin 93b) says that Bar Kokhba reigned for a mere two and a half years.

## Aftermath
### Destruction and extermination

The revolt had catastrophic consequences for the Jewish population in Judaea, with profound loss of life, extensive forced displacements, and widespread enslavement. The scale of suffering surpassed even the aftermath of the First Jewish–Roman War, leaving the region of Judea in a state of desolation. Shimeon Applebaum estimates that about two-thirds of Judaea's Jewish population perished in the revolt. Some scholars characterize these consequences as an act of genocide. Describing the devastating consequences of the revolt, several decades after its suppression, the Roman historian Cassius Dio (c. 155–235) wrote:
   50 of their most important outposts and 985 of their most famous villages were razed to the ground. 580,000 men were slain in the various raids and battles, and the number of those that perished by famine, disease and fire was past finding out, Thus nearly the whole of Judaea was made desolate.
While several scholars, such as Peter Schäfer, have argued that these figures are exaggerations, later estimates suggest that the numbers may be accurate. In 2003, Cotton described Dio's figures as highly plausible, given accurate Roman census declarations. In 2021, an ethno-archaeological comparative analysis by Dvir Raviv and Chaim Ben David also supported the accuracy of Dio's figures, concluding that his data represent a "reliable account, which he based on contemporaneous documentation."
Archaeological evidence indicates that many sites in Judea suffered damage, destruction, or abandonment following the Bar Kokhba revolt, to the extent that Jewish settlement in Judea was almost completely eradicated by the end of the revolt. To date, no site in the region has revealed a continuous occupation layer throughout the 2nd century CE. The findings show clear signs of devastation or depopulation within the first few decades of the century, followed by a period of abandonment. When some of these former Jewish settlements were reoccupied in the late 2nd or early 3rd century CE, the new inhabitants were typically non-Jews, as reflected in their distinct material culture, which differed significantly from that of the earlier Jewish population.

### Expulsion and enslavement

Jewish survivors faced harsh punitive measures from the Romans, who often used social engineering to stabilize conflict zones. In the aftermath of the war, Jews were expelled from Jerusalem and its surroundings, including the districts of Gophna, Herodion, and Aqraba. The Romans proceeded with the construction of Aelia Capitolina on the ruins of Jerusalem and barred Jews from entering, except once a year on the day of Tisha B'Av. According to Jerome, Hadrian "commanded that by a legal decree and ordinances the whole nation should be absolutely prevented from entering from thenceforth even the district round Jerusalem, so that it could not even see from a distance its ancestral home." Similarly, Jerome writes that Jews were only allowed to visit the city to mourn its ruins, paying for the privilege.
Eusebius writes: "[...] all the families of the Jewish nation have suffered pain worthy of wailing and lamentation because God's hand has struck them, delivering their mother-city over to strange nations, laying their Temple low, and driving them from their country, to serve their enemies in a hostile land." Jerome provides a similar account: "in Hadrian's reign, when Jerusalem was completely destroyed and the Jewish nation was massacred in large groups at a time, with the result that they were even expelled from the borders of Judaea."
Roman policy also involved the mass enslavement and deportation of Jewish captives, a practice also observed after the revolt of the Salassi (25 BCE), the wars with the Raeti (15 BCE), and the Pannonian War (c. 12 BCE). William V. Harris estimates that more than 100,000 Jews were enslaved. The slave market was reportedly flooded with Jewish captives, who were sold into slavery and dispersed across the empire, significantly expanding the Jewish diaspora. The 7th-century Chronicon Paschale, drawing on earlier sources, states that Hadrian sold Jewish captives "for the price of a daily portion of food for a horse." Jerome reports that following the war, "innumerable people of diverse ages and both sexes were sold at the marketplace of Terebinthus," adding that "For this reason it is an accursed thing among the Jews to visit this acclaimed marketplace". In another work, he notes that thousands were sold there. Those not sold were transported to Gaza for auction, while many others were relocated to Egypt and other regions. Jerome records that Hadrian resettled Jewish captives in the Cimmerian Bosporus.
While Jewish presence in the region significantly dwindled, a smaller but continuous population remained, with Galilee emerging as its new demographic and religious center. Jewish communities also persisted on the periphery of Judea, in places such as Eleutheropolis, Ein Gedi, and the southern Hebron Hills, as well as on the coastal plain (including Caesarea), Beit She'an, and the Golan Heights. Some Judean survivors resettled in Galilee and coastal cities, with some rabbinical families gathering in Sepphoris. Galilee subsequently became the intellectual and spiritual hub of Jewish life, where the Mishnah and parts of the Talmud, foundational Jewish texts, were compiled between the 2nd and 4th centuries.

### Roman losses

Roman casualties were heavy; Legio X Fretensis sustained heavy casualties during the revolt, and Legio XXII Deiotariana was disbanded following the revolt, perhaps because of serious losses. Cassius Dio writes "Many Romans, moreover, perished in this war. Therefore, Hadrian, in writing to the Senate, did not employ the opening phrase commonly affected by the emperors: 'If you and your children are in health, it is well; I and the army are in health.'" Some argue that the exceptional number of preserved Roman veteran diplomas from the late 150s and 160s indicate an unprecedented conscription across the Roman Empire to replenish heavy losses within military legions and auxiliary units between 133 and 135, corresponding to the revolt.
Some historians argue that Legio IX Hispana's disbandment in the mid-2nd century could have also been a result of this war. Previously it had generally been accepted that the Ninth disappeared around 108 CE, possibly suffering its demise in Britain, according to German historian Theodor Mommsen; but archaeological findings in 2015 from Nijmegen dated to 121 contain the known inscriptions of two senior officers who were deputy commanders of the Ninth in 120 and lived on for several decades to lead distinguished public careers. It was concluded that the legion was disbanded between 120 and 197, either as a result of fighting the Bar Kokhba revolt, or in Cappadocia (161), or at the Danube (162).

### Confiscation of lands, colonization and resettlement

Eusebius' reference to the "enslavement" of Jewish territory after the Bar Kokhba revolt suggests that, similar to the measures taken by Vespasian after the First Jewish Revolt, land was returned to imperial ownership. This likely entailed the confiscation of land that had either reverted to Jewish control during the interim between the revolts or had been appropriated by the rebel state. Rabbinic literature mentions "Hadrian's vineyard," a vineyard in Galilee said to stretch from Tiberias to Sepphoris, with its boundaries marked by the bodies of Jews killed at Betar. E. Mary Smallwood suggests that this story may symbolize extensive land confiscations and the establishment of Roman estates in the region following the revolt.
Artistic, epigraphic, and numismatic evidence from post-revolt Judea indicates that the Roman authorities resettled the region with a diverse population. This included Roman veterans and immigrants from the western parts of the empire, who settled in Aelia Capitolina and its surroundings, administrative centers, and along main roads. Additionally, immigrants from the coastal plain and neighboring provinces such as Syria, Phoenicia, and Arabia settled in the Judean countryside. One of the primary beneficiaries of the decline in the Jewish population was the Samaritans. Capitalizing on the depopulation of Jewish areas, they expanded from their historical center in Samaria into northern Judea, the coastal plain, and the Beit She'an Valley. This expansion is reflected in a saying attributed to Abbahu in the Jerusalem Talmud, according to which thirteen towns were settled by the Samaritans during the period of anti-Jewish persecutions.
In the vicinity of Jerusalem, villages were depopulated, and arable land owned by Jews was confiscated. In the following centuries, the lack of an alternative population to fill the empty villages led Roman and later Byzantine authorities to seek a different approach to benefit the nobles, and ultimately the church, by constructing estate farms and monasteries on the empty village lands. The Roman legionary tomb at Manahat, the ruins of Roman villas at Ein Yael, Khirbet er-Ras, Rephaim Valley and Ramat Rachel, and the Tenth Legion's kilns discovered near Giv'at Ram are all indications that the rural area surrounding Aelia Capitolina underwent a romanization process, with Roman citizens and Roman veterans settling in the area during the Late Roman period. Indications for the settlement of Roman veterans in other parts of Judea proper includes a magnificent marble sarcophagus showing Dionysus discovered in Turmus Ayya, Latin-inscribed stone discovered at Khirbet Tibnah, a statue of Minerva discovered at Khirbat al-Mafjar, a tomb of a centurion at Beit Nattif and a Roman mansion with western elements discovered at Arak el-Khala, near Beit Guvrin.
In Perea, a Roman military presence in the middle of the 2nd century suggests that the Jews there were also victims of the revolt. The name of a Roman veteran from the village of Meason in Perea appears on a papyrus that was signed in Caesarea in 151, implying that lands there had been expropriated and given to Roman settlers. A building inscription of the Sixth Legion from the 2nd century was discovered at as-Salt, which is identified as Gadara, one of the principal Jewish settlements in Perea, and provides more proof of the Roman military presence there.

### Religious and cultural suppression

Following the revolt, Emperor Hadrian enacted a series of religious prohibitions aimed at eradicating Jewish nationalism in Judaea. Torah law and the Hebrew calendar were outlawed, Judaic scholars were executed, and sacred Jewish texts were publicly burned as offerings to Jupiter within the ruins of the Temple complex. At the Temple, he installed two statues, one of Jupiter, another of himself. These measures remained in effect until Hadrian's death in 138 CE, after which the surviving Jewish communities experienced some relief, the ban on Jewish entry into Jerusalem remained in place, exempting only those Jews who wished to enter the city for Tisha B'Av.
This period of persecution left a lasting mark on rabbinic tradition, where it is referred to as shemad (שְׁמָד‎; literally "destruction" or "desolation"). Rabbinic texts accompany Hadrian's name with the imprecation, "May his bones rot!" The Tosefta records Rabbi Ishmael, a 2nd-century sage, drawing a comparison between the destruction of the Temple and Hadrian's decrees, which he described as "uprooting the Torah" from among the Jews.
Hadrian's repression targeted Jewish religious leadership, with prominent scholars facing martyrdom for defying his decrees. Rabbi Akiva, one of the most revered figures in rabbinic tradition, was reportedly arrested for studying the Torah and tortured to death with iron combs while reciting the Shema, Judaism's central declaration of faith. Rabbi Judah ben Baba was executed after ordaining new rabbis in secret, while Rabbi Shimon bar Yochai reportedly went into hiding in a cave with his son for several years to escape execution.

### Sharp decline of Hebrew language

Following the revolt, the Hebrew language disappeared from daily use. Before the revolt, Hebrew was still used as a living language among a very significant part of the Jewish population in this region of the country. In the 3rd century sages no longer knew how to identify the Hebrew names of many plants mentioned in the Mishnah. Only a small number of sages who resided in the south still spoke Hebrew. The Jerusalem Talmud and the classic legend midrashes (in which the majority of the acts and stories are in Aramaic) both demonstrate that Hebrew was used mostly as a literary and artificial language. Hebrew is only found on a small percentage of cemeteries and synagogues.

### Philosophical and religious consequences

Rabbinical political thought became deeply cautious and conservative, with Jewish belief in the messiah becoming abstracted and spiritualized.
Doron Mendels suggested that after the revolt, Jewish nationalism in its activist form—meaning large-scale, organized efforts to establish a Jewish state—ceased. However, a passive nationalist sentiment persisted; in rabbinic circles, the aspiration for Jewish sovereignty remained alive, but did not lead to another full-scale revolt or political military movement. David Goodblatt argued that Jewish nationalism did not fall after the revolt, only its political and activist expressions ceased with the loss of Jewish statehood. He noted that Jewish national identity persisted through culture, law, language and religious traditions, even in the absence of a state. While institutions like the Temple, kingship and territorial control declined, they survived in Jewish thought, messianic hopes, and communal memory.
Eusebius of Caesarea wrote that Christians were killed and suffered "all kinds of persecutions" at the hands of rebel Jews when they refused to help Bar Kokhba against the Roman troops. Although Christians regarded Jesus as the Messiah and did not support Bar Kokhba, they were barred from Jerusalem along with the Jews. The outcome of the Bar Kokhba revolt reinforced the Christian interpretation that the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE signified divine punishment, making it a key argument in anti-Jewish polemics.

### From Judaea to Syria Palaestina

A further, more lasting punishment was also implemented by the Romans. In an attempt to erase any memory of Judea or Ancient Israel, the name Judaea was dropped from the provincial name, which was renamed Syria Palaestina. Despite such name changes taking place elsewhere, rebellions have never resulted in a nation's name being expunged.

### Later relations between the Jews and the Roman Empire

Relations between the Jews in the region and the Roman Empire continued to be complicated. Constantine I allowed Jews to mourn their defeat and humiliation annually on Tisha B'Av at the Western Wall. In 351–352 the Jews of Galilee launched yet another revolt, provoking heavy retribution. The Gallus revolt came during the rising influence of early Christians in the Eastern Roman Empire, under the Constantinian dynasty. In 355, however, the relations with the Roman rulers improved, upon the rise of Emperor Julian, the last of the Constantinian dynasty, who, unlike his predecessors, defied Christianity. In 363, not long before Julian left Antioch to launch his campaign against Sassanian Persia, he ordered the Jewish Temple rebuilt in his effort to foster religions other than Christianity. The failure to rebuild the Temple has mostly been ascribed to the dramatic Galilee earthquake of 363, and traditionally also to the Jews' ambivalence about the project. Sabotage is a possibility, as is an accidental fire, though Christian historians of the time ascribed it to divine intervention. Julian's support of Judaism caused Jews to call him "Julian the Hellene".
In 438, when the Empress Eudocia removed the ban on Jews' praying at the Temple site, the heads of the community in Galilee issued a call "to the great and mighty people of the Jews" which began: "Know that the end of the exile of our people has come!" However, the Christian population of the city saw this as a threat to their primacy, and a riot erupted which chased Jews from the city.
During the 5th and 6th centuries, a series of Samaritan revolts broke out across Palaestina Prima. Especially violent were the third and the fourth revolts, which resulted in near annihilation of the Samaritan community. It is likely that the Samaritan revolt of 556 was joined by the Jewish community, which had also suffered brutal suppression of their religion under Emperor Justinian. In the belief of restoration to come, in the early 7th century the Jews made an alliance with the Sasanian Empire, joining the invasion of Palaestina Prima in 614 to overwhelm the Byzantine garrison, and briefly gained autonomy in Jerusalem.

## Archaeology
### Destroyed Jewish villages and fortresses

Several archaeological excavations have been performed during the 20th and 21st centuries in ruins of Roman-period Jewish villages across Judea and Samaria, as well in the Roman-dominated cities on the coastal plain. Most of the villages in Judea's larger region show signs of devastation or abandonment that dates to the Bar Kokhba revolt. Buildings and underground installations carved out beneath or close to towns, such as hiding complexes, burial caves, storage facilities, and field towers, have both been found to have destruction layers and abandonment deposits. Furthermore, there is a gap in settlement above these levels. Fragmentary material from Transjordan and the Galilee adds to the discoveries from Judea.
Excavations at archaeological sites such as Horvat Ethri and Khirbet Badd ‘Isa have demonstrated that these Jewish villages were destroyed in the revolt, and were only resettled by pagan populations in the 3rd century. Discoveries from towns like Gophna, known to be Jewish before the revolt, demonstrate that pagans of Hellenistic and Roman culture lived there during the Late Roman period.
Herodium was excavated by archaeologist Ehud Netzer in the 1980s, publishing results in 1985. According to findings, during the later Bar-Kokhba revolt, complex tunnels were dug, connecting the earlier cisterns with one another. These led from the Herodium fortress to hidden openings, which allowed surprise attacks on Roman units besieging the hill.
The ruins of Betar, the last standing stronghold of Bar Kokhba, can be found at Khirbet al-Yahud, an archeological site located in the vicinity of Battir and Beitar Illit. A stone inscription bearing Latin characters and discovered near the site shows that the Fifth Macedonian Legion and the Eleventh Claudian Legion took part in the siege.

### Underground refuges

There were three categories of underground refuges: man-made hiding complexes with living spaces connected by tunnels, cliff shelters carved into steep cliff faces, and natural caves.

#### Hiding complexes

The Bar Kokhba revolt has been better understood thanks to the discovery of artificially carved hiding complexes under many sites across Judea, and on a lesser level in the Lower Galilee. Their discovery is consistent with Cassius Dio's writings, which reported that the rebels used underground networks as part of their tactics to avoid direct confrontations with the Romans. Many were hewn in earlier times and were utilized by rebels during the revolt as indicated by the usage of the coinage produced by Bar Kokhba and other archaeological findings.
Hiding complexes were found at more than 130 archaeological sites in Judea; most of them in the Judaean Lowlands, but also in the Judaean Mountains, and some also in Galilee. Examples include: Hurvat Midras, Tel Goded, Maresha, Aboud and others.

#### Cliff shelters and natural caves

Near the end of the uprising, many Jews fleeing for their life sought asylum in refuge caves, the most of which are found in Israel's Judaean Desert on high cliffs overlooking the Dead Sea and the Jordan Valley. The majority of these caves are large natural caverns (with few man-made modifications) that are situated in nearly inaccessible vertical cliffs.
They carried luxury goods, cash, arms, papers and deeds, and even the keys to their homes as a hint that they intended to return there once the fighting was over. These items were frequently discovered with their owners' bones in caverns, which is evidence of their tragic fate. The Cave of Letters in Nahal Hever and the caverns in Wadi Murabba'at, which yielded a plethora of written records from the time of the revolt, are among the best-known refuge caves.
The Cave of Letters was surveyed in explorations conducted in 1960–1961, when letters and fragments of papyri were found dating back to the period of the Bar Kokhba revolt. The Cave of Horror is the name given to Cave 8, where the skeletons of 40 Jewish refugees from the Bar Kokhba revolt, including men, women and children, were discovered. Three potsherds with the names of three of the deceased were also found alongside the skeletons in the cave.
The discovery of the Cave of Letters in the Dead Sea area, dubbed as "Bar Kokhba archive", which contained letters actually written by Bar Kokhba and his followers, has added much new primary source data, indicating among other things that either a pronounced part of the Jewish population spoke only Greek or there was a foreign contingent among Bar Kokhba's forces, accounted for by the fact that his military correspondence was, in part, conducted in Greek. The Cave of Horror also contained fragments of letters and writings. Several briefer sources have been uncovered in the area over the past century, including references to the revolt from Nabatea and Roman Syria.
In 2023, archaeologists discovered a cache consisting of four Roman swords and a pilum concealed within a crevice in a cave located within the Ein Gedi nature reserve. Analysis of the sword types and the discovery of a Bar Kokhba revolt coin within the cave strongly support the hypothesis put forth by archaeologists, which suggests that these items were concealed by Jewish rebels during the Bar Kokhba revolt, serving as a precautionary measure to elude detection by Roman authorities.

### Coinage

As of 2023, 24 coins from the Bar Kokhba revolt have been discovered outside of Judaea in various parts of Europe, including what was then the provinces of Britannia, Pannonia, Dacia, and Dalmatia. Most of the coins were discovered near Roman military locations, including multiple legionary and auxiliary camps, though not necessarily in a strict military context. It has been suggested to attribute these findings to Roman soldiers who took part in the uprising and brought the coins as souvenirs or commemorative relics, or to Jewish captives, slaves or immigrants who arrived in those areas in the aftermath of the revolt.
One Baraita contains a rabbinic depiction of a widespread archeological phenomenon: the discovery of hoards of Bar Kokhba coinage all over Judea. The Jews who hid those hoards were unable to collect them due to the presence of Roman garrisons, or because they were killed during the revolt's suppression. It is reasonable to believe that the extensive destruction played a part in the loss of the hiding locations as well. Thirty hoards from this era have been found, more than any other decade.

### Roman legionary camps

A number of locations have been identified with Roman Legionary camps in the time of the Bar Kokhba War, including in Tel Shalem, Jerusalem, Lajjun and more.

#### Jerusalem inscription dedicated to Hadrian (129/130)

In 2014, one half of a Latin inscription was discovered in Jerusalem during excavations near the Damascus Gate. It was identified as the right half of a complete inscription, the other part of which was discovered nearby in the late 19th century and is currently on display in the courtyard of Jerusalem's Studium Biblicum Franciscanum Museum. The complete inscription was translated as follows:
   To the Imperator Caesar Traianus Hadrianus Augustus, son of the deified Traianus Parthicus, grandson of the deified Nerva, high priest, invested with tribunician power for the 14th time, consul for the third time, father of the country (dedicated by) the 10th legion Fretensis Antoniniana.
The inscription was dedicated by Legio X Fretensis to Hadrian in 129/130. The inscription is considered to greatly strengthen the claim that indeed the emperor visited Jerusalem that year, supporting the traditional claim that Hadrian's visit was among the main causes of the Bar Kokhba Revolt, and not the other way around.

#### Tel Shalem triumphal arc and Hadrian's statue

The location was identified as a Roman military post during the 20th century, with archaeological excavation performed in the late 20th century following an accidental discovery of Hadrian's bronze statue in the vicinity of the site in 1975. Remains of a large Roman military camp and fragments of a triumphal arc dedicated to Hadrian were consequently discovered at the site.

## Legacy
### In Rabbinic Judaism

The disastrous end of the revolt occasioned major changes in Jewish religious thought. Jewish messianism was abstracted and spiritualized, and rabbinical political thought became deeply cautious and conservative. The Talmud, for instance, refers to Bar Kokhba as "Ben-Kusiba", a derogatory term used to indicate that he was a false Messiah. The deeply ambivalent rabbinical position regarding Messianism, as expressed most famously in Maimonides' "Epistle to Yemen," would seem to have its origins in the attempt to deal with the trauma of a failed Messianic uprising.

### In Zionism and modern Israel

In the post-rabbinical era, the Bar Kokhba Revolt became a symbol of valiant national resistance. The Zionist youth movement Betar took its name from Bar Kokhba's traditional last stronghold, and David Ben-Gurion, Israel's first prime minister, took his Hebrew last name from one of Bar Kokhba's generals.
A popular children's song, included in the curriculum of Israeli kindergartens, has the refrain "Bar Kokhba was a Hero/He fought for Liberty," and its words describe Bar Kokhba as being captured and thrown into a lion's den, but managing to escape riding on the lion's back.