# Kakoslukos/Deir el-Bahari
## History

Deir el-Bahari, located on the west bank of the Nile at Thebes (modern Luxor) is a complex of mortuary temples and tombs that has served as a major religious center for over two millennia. Its history begins with the 11th Dynasty when Pharaoh Mentuhotep II (c.2061-2010 BCE) constructed his funerary temple here to commemorate the reunification of Egypt after the First Intermediate Period. Mentuhotep's terraced complex, integrating a royal tomb into a temple platform, pioneered the cliffside temple style later emulated by New Kingdom rulers. Centuries later, the 18th Dynasty queen Hatshepsut erected her famous temple Djeser-Djeseru, designed by her architect Senenmut, directly beside Mentuhotep's complex. Richly decorated reliefs in Hatshepsut's temple celebrated her divine birth, commercial expedition to Punt, and association with Amun-Ra, cementing the temple's significance in state religion and royal propaganda. Later, Thutmose III added a smaller temple, Djeser-Akhet, just above hers. By the Third Intermediate Period, Deir el-Bahari became a burial ground for priests and a hiding place for royal mummies such as those discovered in the DB320 cache in 1881.
Archaeological exploration in Deir el-Bahari began ramping up in the late 19th century. Édouard Naville's excavations from 1893 to 1906, sponsored by the Egypt Exploration Fund, revealed both Hatshepsut's temple and Mentuhotep II's complex. This was followed by Herbert Winlock's Metropolitan Museum of Art expeditions (1911-1931), which unearthed significant finds, including statues of Hatshepsut and Thutmose III and caches of ritual objects. The Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology began extensive restoration work in the 1960s, stabilizing Hatshepsut's temple and recovering Thutmose III's largely destroyed shrine. Meanwhile, the sites significance as a necropolis continued into the Ptolemaic Period, when parts off Hatshepsut's temple were reused for cults of Imhotep and Amenhotep, Son of Hapu. Deir el-Bahari's rich history reflects its role as a sacred landscape where kings and priests were memorialized, divine legitimacy was protected, and Theban religious traditions flourished across changing dynasties.

## Associated Deities

The purpose and significance of the structures and burials at Deir el-Bahari is closely related with the deities associated with Deir el-Bahari and the greater Theban Necropolis.
Hathor was a prominent goddess at Deir el-Bahari revered as a divine mother, protector, and patroness of the west bank necropolis. The great bay of cliffs at Deir el-Bahari was sacred to Hathor even before pharaonic construction; Mentuhotep II was the first to build there, likely honoring Hathor's local cult. In Mentuhotep II's temple complex, several royal women described as "unique royal favorites and priestesses of Hathor" were interred with their own decorated shrines underscoring the goddess' importance at the site. Hathor was originally called "Lady of the West" and served as a symbolic mother to the deceased, often depicted as a cow emerging from the western cliffs to welcome and nourish souls. Hatshepsut built a grand Hathor chapel on the south side of her temple's middle terrace, featuring Hathor-headed columns and cult statues. Vibrant reliefs in the chapel show the queen offering to Hathor (sometimes shown as a cow), reflecting Hathor's role in royal funerary rites and her continuous worship at Deir el-Bahari from the Middle Kingdom into the New Kingdom. Hathor's connection to music and joy symbolized by the sistrum often shown in her temple reliefs, also reinforces her status as a nurturing and protective deity for both kings and commoners.
Hathor was a prominent goddess at Deir el-Bahari, venerated as a divine mother, protector, and patroness of the necropolis. The cliffs at Deir el-Bahari were sacred to Hathor before pharaonic construction, with Mentuhotep II likely honoring her cult when building there. His temple complex included shrines for royal women, priestesses of Hathor, underscoring the goddess’s significance. Hathor, as “Lady of the West,” was often depicted as a cow emerging from the cliffs to welcome and nourish souls. . Hatshepsut’s temple featured a Hathor chapel with Hathor-headed columns and reliefs of offerings, highlighting Hathor’s enduring role in funerary rites and royal worship from the Middle to New Kingdom.
Anubis was the jackal-headed god of mummification and necropolises, revered as a guardian of tombs and guide of souls. In early periods he held a preeminent position as Lord of the Dead with epithets such as "He Who is Upon His Mountain" and "Foremost of the Westerners", reflecting his role as protector of the necropolis. By the New Kingdom, Anubis was overshadowed in the theology by Osiris, but he remained essential as the patron of embalmers and a psychopomp for the deceased and continued to be invoked as the guardian of tomb doors and the guide who conducts the "weighing of the heart" judgement for souls.. At Deir el-Bahari, Hatshepsut's temple included a dedicated chapel of Anubis on the north side of the middle terrace. Wall reliefs in the chapel show Anubis receiving offerings, emphasizing his function in the mortuary cult as the god who presided over embalming and the transition to the afterlife. Archaeologically, the Anubis chapel's well preserved paintings and inscriptions attest to Anubis' veneration at the site and the broader Theban Necropolis.
Anubis, the jackal-headed god of mummification, was revered as a guardian of tombs and guide of souls. Known as “He Who is Upon His Mountain” and “Foremost of the Westerners,” Though later eclipsed by Osiris in theology, Anubis remained essential as the patron of embalmers, and continued to be invoked as the guardian of tomb doors and the guide who conducts the "weighing of the heart" judgement for souls. At Deir el-Bahari, Hatshepsut’s temple featured a dedicated Anubis chapel on the north side of the middle terrace. Well-preserved reliefs show Anubis receiving offerings, reflecting his role in embalming rites and transition to the afterlife, with archaeological evidence confirming his importance across the Theban Necropolis.
Osiris, god of death and resurrection, became increasingly central to Theban funerary religion. Osiris is depicted as a mummified king wearing the Atef-crown and his mythology as the murdered and resurrected ruler made him the divine guarantor of rebirth for the deceased. The worship of Osiris at Deir el-Bahari can be traced to the Middle Kingdom when King Mentuhotep II incorporated Osirian symbolism into his mortuary cult. Osiris' cult was fully integrated into royal mortuary temples at Hatshepsut's Djeser-Djeseru, over twenty-five life size Osiride statues of the queen in Osiris form stood against the pillars of the upper terrace.
Meretseger, a deity local to the Theban Necropolis, was a cobra goddess who personified the sacred mountain overlooking the tombs. her name means "She Who Loves Silence". Meretseger was believed to guard the entire necropolis, especially the secluded Valley of the Kings and Valley of the Queens. Because the Theban peak looms over the the royal tomb valleys, Meretseger was envisioned as a cobra coiled atop that mountain watching for tomb robbers or anyone who violated sacred tombs. Archaeologically, Meretseger's cult is attested by numerous votive stelae and graffiti left by the original tomb artisans. These inscriptions show that she was viewed as both a fearsome and merciful deity, as she would strike those who wronged the gods or robbed tombs with poison or blindness, yet she could also cure and forgive the penitent.
Meretseger, a cobra goddess local to the Theban Necropolis, personified the sacred peak overlooking the royal tombs and was called “She Who Loves Silence.” She guarded the necropolis, especially the Valley of the Kings, envisioned as a cobra atop the mountain watching for tomb robbers. Her cult is evidenced by votive stelae and artisans' graffiti, portraying her as both a punisher of wrongdoers and a merciful healer who forgave the penitent.
Amun ("The Hidden One") was the supreme god of Thebes, originally a local air deity who rose to national prominence as "Amun-Ra". He is typically depicted as a man with a double plumed crown, sometimes fused with the sun god Ra, reflecting his role as a creator and solar deity. AMun's worship at Deir el-Bahari began in the Middle Kingdom: the mortuary complex of Mentuhotep II was likely among the first west Theban temples designed to receive the barque of Amun during festivals. In the New Kingdom, Hatshepsut built the central sanctuary of her terraced temple for Amun-Ra, placing his cult chapel at the heart of Djeser-Djeseru. Inscriptions and reliefs from the site honor Amun's oracles and his role in legitimizing Hatshepsut's kingship, underscoring Amun's status as king of the gods and patron of pharaohs at the Theban Necropolis.

## Mortuary temple of Nebhepetre Mentuhotep

Mentuhotep II, the Eleventh Dynasty king who reunited Egypt at the beginning of the Middle Kingdom, built a very unusual funerary complex. His mortuary temple was built on several levels in the great bay at Deir el-Bahari. It was approached by a 16-meter-wide (52-foot) causeway leading from a valley temple which no longer exists.
The mortuary temple itself consists of a forecourt and entrance gate, enclosed by walls on three sides, and a terrace on which stands a large square structure that may represent the primeval mound that arose from the waters of chaos. As the temple faces east, the structure is likely to be connected with the sun cult of Ra and the resurrection of the king.
From the eastern part of the forecourt, an opening called the Bab el-Hosan ('Gate of the Horseman') leads to an underground passage and an unfinished tomb or cenotaph containing a seated statue of the king. On the western side, tamarisk and sycamore trees were planted beside the ramp leading up to the terrace. At the back of the forecourt and terrace are colonnades decorated in relief with boat processions, hunts, and scenes showing the king's military achievements.
Statues of the Twelfth Dynasty king Senusret III were found here too.
The inner part of the temple was actually cut into the cliff and consists of a peristyle court, a hypostyle hall and an underground passage leading into the tomb itself. The cult of the dead king centred on the small shrine cut into the rear of the Hypostyle Hall.
The mastaba-like structure on the terrace is surrounded by a pillared ambulatory along the west wall, where the statue shrines and tombs of several royal wives and daughters were found. These royal princesses were the priestesses of Hathor, one of the main ancient Egyptian funerary deities. Although little remained of the king's own burial, six sarcophagi were retrieved from the tombs of the royal ladies (Ashayet, Henhenet, Kawit, Kemsit, Muyet and Sadhe). Each was formed of six slabs, held together at the corners by metal braces and carved in sunken relief. The sarcophagus of Queen Kawit, now in the Cairo Museum, is particularly fine.
The burial shaft and subsequent tunnel descend for 150 meters and end in a burial chamber 45 meters below the court. The chamber held a shrine, which once held the wooden coffin of Nebhepetre Mentuhotep. A great tree-lined court was reached by means of the processional causeway, leading up from the valley temple. Beneath the court, a deep shaft was cut which led to unfinished rooms believed to have been intended originally as the king's tomb. A wrapped image of the pharaoh was discovered in this area by Howard Carter. The temple complex also held six mortuary chapels and shaft tombs built for the pharaoh's wives and daughters.
Archaeological finds
One of the most significant finds at the site is a collection of statues of King Mentuhotep II in various forms. In the court of the temple a sandstone head of Mentuhotep II was found buried and is now housed in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Several seated statues of Mentuhotep II were also found buried possibly indicating a ritual of buried objects Some of the recovered statues show the king wearing the Red Crown of Lower Egypt, emphasizing his role as a unifier in the First Intermediate Period. At each corner of the temple, foundation deposits were discovered consisting of small tablets made of wood, alabaster and bronze. The deposits contained pottery fragments, animal bones (likely from ritual sacrifices), and tools used in temple construction. These deposits suggest ritual offerings at the start of construction likely intended to sanctify the temple space.
Excavations revealed tree holes that indicated that sycamore fig trees were planted in the temple's forecourt. Some tree holes contained buried statues which is believed to link the practice of tree planting with ritual protection or regeneration beliefs. Flower beds and irrigation features were also found, indicating that the temple complex included gardens as part of its landscape.
Some walls of the temple showed evidence of Ptolemaic or later modifications, indicating that parts of the temple were reused in the Hellenistic and Roman periods. There were traces of later burials including a cemetery with poor burials stretching into the temple complex. The temple was likely partially dismantled and repurposed during the New Kingdom, possibly during the nearby construction of Hatshepsut's temple.

## Mortuary temple of Hatshepsut

[edit] Main article: Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut
See also: Depiction of Hatshepsut's birth and coronation
The focal point of the Deir el-Bahari complex is the Djeser-Djeseru meaning "the Holy of Holies", the Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut. It is a colonnaded structure, which was designed and implemented by Senenmut, royal steward and architect of Hatshepsut, to serve for her posthumous worship and to honor the glory of Amun.
Djeser-Djeseru sits atop a series of colonnaded terraces, reached by long ramps that once were graced with gardens. It is built into a cliff face that rises sharply above it, and is largely considered to be one of the "incomparable monuments of ancient Egypt". It is 97 feet (30 m) tall.
The unusual form of Hatshepsut's temple is explained by the choice of location, in the valley basin of Deir el-Bahari, surrounded by steep cliffs. It was here, in about 2050 BC, that Mentuhotep II, the founder of the Middle Kingdom, laid out his sloping, terrace-shaped mortuary temple. The pillared galleries at either side of the central ramp of the Djeser Djeseru correspond to the pillar positions on two successive levels of the Temple of Mentuhotep.
During the shift into the Ptolemaic (332-30 BCE) and Roman (30 BCE-4th Century CE) periods, the temple became a center for the cult of Amenhotep, son of Hapu and Imhotep. During these periods, the temple became a major cult site for these deified figures, known for their wisdom, healing and oracular powers. Greek inscriptions discovered in the temple provide insight into religious activities, economic functions, and visitors who frequented the sight during these later periods.
Today the terraces of Deir el-Bahari only convey a faint impression of the original intentions of Senenmut. Most of the statue ornaments are missing – the statues of Osiris in front of the pillars of the upper colonnade, the sphinx avenues in front of the court, and the standing, sitting, and kneeling figures of Hatshepsut; these were destroyed in a posthumous condemnation of this pharaoh. The architecture of the temple has been considerably altered as a result of reconstruction in the early twentieth century AD.
Conservation Efforts
Since the early 20th century, continuous archaeological and conservation work has been undertaken to preserve the Temple of Hatshepsut. As part of the UNESCO World Heritage site of Thebes the temple has been a focal point of archaeological and conservation efforts for over a century.
The conservation of the Temple of Hatshepsut at Deir el-Bahari has been a continuous effort, addressing structural instability, environmental damage, and past restoration methods. Large-scale excavation and conservation work began in the 19th century with Auguste Mariette, followed by Édouard Naville, who conducted documentation and reconstruction efforts between 1891 and 1908. In the early 20th century, Herbert Winlock and the Metropolitan Museum of Art focused on stabilizing the temple’s walls and reinforcing weakened structures. Later, Émile Baraize of the French Antiquities Service carried out additional reconstructions using stone, concrete, and gypsum, though records of these interventions were limited.
Since the 1960s, Polish archaeological missions have led major conservation projects, particularly on the festival courtyard, coronation portico, and royal cult complex. The Hatshepsut Chapel, located on the temple's upper terrace has been a primary focus due to its archaeological significance and vulnerability. In the 2000s, modern technologies such as 3D scanning and damage mapping were introduced to assess structural weaknesses, revealing cracks, missing sections, and displaced blocks from earlier restorations. Conservation teams reinforced walls, stabilized the foundations, and analyzed ancient mortars to develop improved preservation methods.
A significant discovery in 2013 was a tomb beneath the Hatshepsut Chapel containing burials from the 23rd-25th Dynasties, which required additional stabilization measures. Structural reinforcements were implemented, including the installation of a protective manhole for controlled access. Conservationists have also focused on preserving stone surfaces and polychrome decorations affected by environmental exposure. Ongoing research continues to refine preservation strategies with long-term plans integrating climate impact assessments, stone conservation, and controlled reconstruction to maintain the structural and historical integrity of the temple.

## Mortuary temple of Thutmose III

The Mortuary Temple of Thutmose III, also called Djeser-Akhet (Holy of the Horizon), was discovered in 1961, the mortuary temple of Thutmose III was built in at about 1435-1425 BC, late in Thutmose's reign. It overlooks other earlier structures present on the site, such as the temples of Hatshepsut and Mentuhotep Nebhepetre. Built on a steep, artificially leveled terrace, the temple features a basilica-style hypostyle hall with clerestory windows, a rare architectural innovation that foreshadowed the later hypostyle halls of the Ramesside Period. The temple complex was primarily dedicated to Amun-Ra, reflecting the King's close association with the Theban-state god. A key highlight is the Hathor shrine, discovered in 1906, which housed a statue of hathor as a cow protecting the king. The temple's reliefs, recovered in thousands of fragments, show Thutmose III in vibrant polychrome scenes performing rituals, offering to gods, and participating in the Beautiful Festival of the Valley.
Rediscovered in 1962 by a Polish-Egyptian mission, the site revealed column bases, a red granite doorway, and vast amounts of painted limestone and sandstone reliefs. Excavations also uncovered statues of Thutmose III, foundation deposits beneath the Hathor chapel containing botanical offerings, faience amulets, and pottery The temple was heavily damaged by an 11th century BCE earthquake and subsequent stone-robbing, leaving only foundations and scattered architectural elements. Despite its ruinous state, the temple's design closely mirrors Hatshepsut's nearby temple while innovating with its elevated basilica-style hall. Over time the site became a focus for the worship of Hathor during the Third Intermediate Period, as indicated by later votive offerings. Today the reconstructed reliefs and artifacts from Djeser-Akhet contribute significantly to the understanding of royal cult practices and 18th Dynasty temple architecture.
There are ongoing conservation efforts including a reconstruction of the temple's layout which have been made difficult by the severity of the destruction in some areas of the temple. Some progress, however, has been made on the reconstruction of the layout of the upper terrace.

## Contemporary Issues and Tourism

Today, Deir el-Bahari is one of Egypt's most visited archaeological sites and part of the UNESCO World Heritage listing "Ancient Thebes with its Necropolis". Its restored terraces, particularly Hatshepsut's temple, attract thousands of tourists annually, drawn by the site's architectural beauty and historical significance. The Polish-Egyptian Conservation Project has been instrumental in transforming the once-ruined site into a partially reconstructed monument with accessible terraces, restored statues, and visitor pathways. However, parts of the site such as Mentuhotep II's temple remain off-limits due to their fragile condition. Modern infrastructure including interpretive signage and a visitor center, aims to balance public access with heritage preservation, while the site continues to be a focal point of scholarly research and conservation.
Deir el-Bahari has also been a focal point for modern security concerns. On November 17, 1997, the site was the scene of the Luxor Massacre, when militants killed over 60 tourists at Hatshepsut's temple, causing a severe blow to Egypt's tourism industry. Since then, the Egyptian government has implemented extensive security measures including armed Tourist Police, metal detectors and surveillance systems. While tourism has recovered in the years since the attack, the event remains a stark reminder of the vulnerability of cultural heritage cites to political violence. Despite this, Deir el-Bahari continues to thrive as a key destination within the Luxor region's tourism economy, representing both a testament to Egypt's enduring legacy and a symbol of resilience in the face of modern threats.