# Mahmud Mir-Djalali

Major General Mahmud Mir-Djalali (Persian: محمود میرجلالی; 28 January 1898 – 3 May 1983) was an Iranian military commander who served as Vice Chairman of the General Staff of the Armed Forces under Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi. Initially starting his career with the Persian Cossack Brigade in 1920 and playing a critical role in the 1921 Pahlavi coup, Mir-Djalali led the establishing of the Mechanized Artillery Forces and Military Industries of Iran under Reza Shah Pahlavi with the Czechoslovakian Arms companies Skoda Works, CKD, and Zbrojovka Brno, building out key sites like Base J, Saltanatabad Arms Factory and the Parchin Chemical and Explosives Factory. For this, he was known within the Imperial Military as the "Father" of Iran's Armored Forces and Military Industrial Complex.
He is also the maternal grandfather of eBay founder Pierre Omidyar, whose purchase of PayPal in 2002 would jumpstart the rise of Elon Musk and Peter Thiel.

## Early Life

Mir-Djalali was born on January 28, 1898, in Tehran to a family of Nakhchivan origin, whose members were veterans of the Persian Cossack Brigade. He received his early education at Dar-ul-Funun before enrolling in the Mošir-al-Dawla Military School in 1917. As part of the first group of graduates in 1920, he was commissioned as a second lieutenant and assigned to the Central Brigade of the Cossacks in Tehran, where he served as an artillery officer for over three years.

## Military Career under Reza Shah Pahlavi
### 1921 Persian Coup d'etat

Mir-Djalali played a critical role in the success of the 1921 Persian coup d'état. When Reza Khan and his Persian Cossack Brigade marched from Qazvin to Mehrabad (then on the outskirts of Tehran), Mir-Djalali was serving as the artillery unit commander stationed at the old gates of Tehran, which controlled access to the city. As negotiations with the Qajar representatives broke down and the Cossacks advanced toward the capital, Sardar Homayoun ordered the artillery units to fire on the approaching forces in an attempt to halt the uprising. However, Mir-Djalali made the ultimate decision to disobey these orders. Instead of opening fire on the Cossacks, he commanded that the gates of Tehran be opened, allowing Reza Khan and his forces to enter the city unchallenged. Additionally, Mir-Djalali personally had two cannon rounds fired over Golestan Palace, serving as a signal that the coup had reached the heart of the capital. The sound of the cannon fire reportedly terrified Ahmad Shah Qajar, breaking his already wavering resolve to resist. He retreated to the Farahabad Palace, where he ultimately surrendered to Reza Khan. Following this, Mir-Djalali earned the complete trust of Reza Khan and his close ally, Amanullah Jahanbani. Recognizing his loyalty and decisive actions, Reza Khan entrusted Mir-Djalali with significant responsibilities and key military positions, ensuring his continued influence in the restructuring of Iran’s armed forces.

### French Education

After serving in the Central Brigade of Tehran for over three years and achieving the rank of first lieutenant in the newly unified Imperial Iranian Army—which Reza Khan had formed by merging the former units of the Persian Cossack Brigade, Gendarmerie, and Shahrbani—Mir-Djalali was selected for advanced military education in France. On June 3, 1923, he was among a group of 46 officers sent abroad for further training, under the supervision of now-Major General Jahanbani. This initiative was part of Reza Khan’s broader military reform program, aimed at modernizing the armed forces by adopting European military doctrines. The first group of Iranian officers sent to France included several figures who would later play crucial roles in shaping Iran’s modern army, such as Haj-Ali Razmara and Abdollah Hedayat. Their training in France, particularly in French military academies, was instrumental in restructuring Iran’s armed forces along French organizational principles, introducing modern tactics, officer training programs, and logistical systems that significantly enhanced Iran’s military capabilities.
After successfully completing a required course in advanced mathematics, Mir-Djalali continued his higher education at a military academy in the École spéciale militaire de Fontainebleau outside Paris, specializing in field-artillery operation. Upon his return to Iran in 1926, he joined the field-artillery unit of the army. He soon became one of the main instructors of courses in field-artillery at the Military Academy, teaching new methods of neutralizing or suppressing the enemy by cannon as well as the tactics, techniques, and procedures for the employment of fire support systems. At the time of his promotion to the rank of colonel in the mid 1930s, he took advanced courses for military commanders in the National War University taught by a group of French instructors in 1937-38.

### Artillery Commander

Mir-Djalali played a crucial role in modernizing and mechanizing the Artillery Units of the Ground Forces through cooperation with the Czechoslovakian industrial firms Škoda Works and ČKD. Prior to these developments, Iran's artillery units were equipped with severely outdated Imperial Russian cannons, many of which had been in service since the Qajar era. Recognizing the urgent need for modernization, Mir-Djalali and Jahanbani led the Iranian Military's initiative to acquire more advanced artillery and howitzers from the French Schneider-Creusot (75 mm Model 1919 and 76mm Model 1909) and Swedish Bofors (75mm Model 1934) in the 1920s. However, as Iran sought to expand and mechanize its artillery capabilities further, Mir-Djalali turned to Czechoslovakian expertise, forming a partnership that would prove instrumental in reshaping Iran's ground forces. Following the successful construction of the Karaj Sugar Factory in 1932 by ČKD, a strategic industrial relationship developed between Iran and Czechoslovakia. This partnership was largely facilitated by Walter Hauck, a former Imperial German Army officer with Fritz Klein's Persian Expedition during World War I, which included a partially successful attack on the refineries of Abadan—a key strategic target due to British-controlled oil production. Later, Hauck deserted the German forces and played an active role in encouraging tribal uprisings and leading attacks against Russian and British troops in Persia, with the tacit approval of Reza Khan and Jahanbani.
Hauck’s deep familiarity with Iran and its military needs allowed him to forge a strong relationship with Mir-Djalali, leading to Iran's acquisition of advanced artillery and howitzers from Škoda and ČKD, such as the 37mm vz.37, vz 14, 100mm vz 30, 105mm vz 35 and the 75mm Model 1939. As Iran's military modernization efforts accelerated, Jahanbani and Mir-Djalali sought to introduce tanks into the mechanized artillery divisions. Initially, the Iranian government negotiated with the American company Marmon-Herrington, which specialized in producing light tanks and armored vehicles. However, when American press coverage highlighted Reza Shah's humble background as a commoner in the mountains of Mazandaran, he took offense and instructed Jahanbani to terminate the contract with the Americans, seeking alternative suppliers instead. This led Iran to Škoda and ČKD, which collaborated to develop a new tank model tailored to Iranian specifications. The result was the AH-IV, a light tank that Iran became the first country to purchase. This was soon followed by a specialized version of the ČKD LT vz. 38, designated as the TNH-P, developed specifically for the Iranian Army. By 1937, Iran had received 60 units, marking a significant milestone in the modernization of its armored divisions. These acquisitions not only bolstered Iran’s military capabilities but also solidified its strategic partnership with Czechoslovakia, which continued to play a crucial role in Iranian military-industrial development throughout the 1930s. In the late 1930s he became commander of the Mechanized Brigade, and in 1940, after his promotion by Reza Shah to the rank of Brigadier General, he was elevated to the position of commander of the Mechanized Division.

### Military Industries

As part of the broader initiative to strengthen Iran’s artillery and mechanized forces, Mir-Djalali was also tasked by Jahanbani with overseeing the development of Iran’s military-industrial infrastructure with Škoda Works and ČKD. This effort aimed to reduce Iran’s dependence on foreign imports, enhance self-sufficiency in arms production, and modernize the country’s military capabilities. The first major achievement in this endeavor was the establishment of the Doshan Tappeh Machine Gun Factory, a joint project between Škoda and Zbrojovka Brno. This facility was tasked with producing belt-fed machine guns, as well as the vz. 24 bolt-action carbine, which became widely used by both the Iranian military and the Gendarmerie. The rifle, locally referred to as the "Bernos", was prized for its reliability and effectiveness. The success of this factory encouraged further investments in Iran’s military-industrial base, leading Škoda and ČKD to expand their involvement into aviation engineering and maintenance. Iran had recently acquired aircraft from both the UK and Germany for its growing Imperial Iranian Air Force, necessitating the development of a dedicated aviation maintenance and manufacturing sector. Škoda and ČKD were instrumental in constructing aircraft maintenance hangars and an engineering base to support the IIAF's fleet. Additionally, there were ambitious plans to manufacture light aircraft under licenses from DeHavilland and Hawker Aircraft, with Czechoslovakian firms supplying machining tools and constructing workshops to facilitate production. To bolster local expertise, Iranian cadets were sent to Czechoslovakia to train as military technicians for aircraft maintenance and engineering. These initiatives laid the foundation for Doshan Tappeh Air Base, which remains the air forces main headquarters to this day.
Mir-Djalali played a central role in overseeing the acquisition and integration of tanks into the Iranian ground forces, implementing modern tactics and strategies, and training Iranian officers in mechanized warfare. Initially operating out of Base J (present-day Mehrabad Airport), he worked closely with Hauck, to oversee the deployment of Czechoslovakian-made tanks and ensure their smooth integration within the Iranian military-industrial complex. In 1935, the Saltanatabad Garrison and Factory was established under the supervision of Colonel Mir-Djalali, with Škoda and ČKD tasked with setting up facilities for the production of ammunition, artillery shells, howitzers, and rifles. To support the long-term operation of Iran’s armored divisions, Saltanatabad was expanded with a brass and copper foundry, allowing local technicians to repair and maintain the tanks and, potentially, assemble entire tanks domestically. This expansion aimed to reduce reliance on foreign suppliers and lay the groundwork for future military production in Iran. In 1938, Reza Shah and Mir-Djalali even explored the design of a new tank model based on the AH-IV light tank, with Skoda Architect Stanislav Sůva sketching preliminary designs. However, this project never materialized, as Iran continued to rely on existing tank imports. Beyond armored vehicles, Škoda was also tasked with developing Iran’s artillery training facilities. This included the design and construction of an artillery range and tank training grounds in Abbasabad, providing Iranian officers and soldiers with advanced training in modern artillery and mechanized warfare. Furthermore, Škoda was instrumental in establishing the Parchin Chemical and Explosives Factory, located south of Tehran, to manufacture explosives and ordnance, further strengthening Iran’s self-sufficiency in military production.

## Military Career under Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi
### World War II

During the 1941 Anglo-Soviet Invasion of Iran, Mir-Djalali was ordered by the General Staff to deploy the entire Tehran Garrison, including infantry, artillery, and armored units, to Kermanshah and Ahvaz. This decision was based on the mistaken assumption that the British were bluffing and that a show of force might dissuade them from launching a full-scale invasion. However, Iranian Military Intelligence had failed to detect the full extent of the Soviet military buildup in the north, leaving the northern front completely unprepared. When the invasion commenced, the Red Army launched a rapid and overwhelming advance towards Tehran, catching the Iranian defenders off guard. In the south, Iranian artillery units put up a brief but futile resistance, engaging British forces advancing from Iraq. However, the sheer numerical and technological superiority of the British forces quickly overpowered the Iranian defenders. With British and Soviet forces swiftly approaching Tehran, Reza Shah issued direct orders for an immediate cessation of hostilities. In compliance, Mir-Djalali ordered all remaining Iranian units to withdraw to Tehran, effectively preserving what remained of Iran’s artillery, armored forces, and military-industrial assets.
Although this decision was met with criticism—particularly from Reza Shah’s detractors, who saw it as a sign of military incompetence or surrender—it proved to be a strategically crucial move in the long run. By withdrawing the bulk of Iran’s artillery, tanks, and military-industrial assets instead of allowing them to be destroyed or captured in battle, Mir-Djalali ensured their survival. This would prove vital during the Azerbaijan Crisis of 1946, when the Iranian military was once again called upon to defend their sovereignty against Soviet-backed separatists in the north. The preserved military assets played a key role in restoring Iranian control over Azerbaijan, demonstrating the long-term importance of Mir-Djalali’s actions in 1941.
On 22 June 1942 Mir-Djalali was appointed commander of the Khorasan army division and in 1943 as technical-vice minister of Commerce, Industries and Crafts. Despite the occupation of Iran, from 1944 to 1947, Mir-Djalali served as the Chief of Military Industries, during which he cooperated with Soviet Army representatives in Tehran to ensure the continued operation of Parchin and Saltanatabad, Iran's key military-industrial complexes. With many of the stranded Czechoslovakian engineers and technicians remaining in Iran, Mir-Djalali facilitated their work in maintaining and producing artillery shells, ammunition, and explosives, which were redirected to support the Soviet Red Army during the Siege of Stalingrad. Unfortunately, tragedy struck when his successor and protegee as the Mechanized Artillery commander, Mohsen Milanian, defected. Regarded as a brilliant tactician trained directly by Charles DeGaulle, Milanian was Mir-Djalali's deputy while commander and was promoted as his replacement. He turned viciously against the British and the Shah after his brother, Captain Hassan Milanian, the commanding officer of the gunboat IIS Leopard, was killed by the British Navy while defending Abadan in 1941. Milanian became a Tudeh Party sympathizer and was recruited directly by the head of the Tehran Residency of the GRU, Rashid Qurbanbekov, providing a treasure trove of intelligence. During the Azerbaijan Crisis of 1946, Milanian was arrested after being caught trying to get his units to revolt against the Pahlavi’s. Mir-Djalali was able to protect him from being executed and the GRU helped him escape and defect to the Soviet Union (The highest-ranking Iranian officer ever to do so). On 22 March 1947, Mir-Djalali returned back to military command and was promoted to the rank of major-general.
Following the downfall of Czechoslovakia after the 1948 Communist coup, which led to the nationalization of its defense industries and the severing of military ties with Iran, Mir-Djalali was reassigned as the head of the Iranian military mission in France and Belgium from 1949 to 1951. His primary objective was to establish new partnerships with Western European nations to continue the development of Iran’s military industries and secure alternative suppliers for artillery, armored vehicles, and aircraft maintenance. During his tenure in France, Mir-Djalali cultivated close relations with René Pleven, the French Minister of Defense and explored potential partnerships with Hotchkiss and Panhard for the modernization of Iran’s light armored forces. In Belgium, he worked with Fabrique Nationale (FN Herstal) and Cockerill, two of the most prominent arms manufacturers, negotiating deals for small arms production and armored vehicle components. These efforts reoriented Iran’s military procurement strategy towards Western Europe, reducing its reliance on Czechoslovakian and German manufacturers while strengthening ties with NATO-aligned nations. His mission laid the foundation for Iran's future acquisitions of European military equipment throughout the 1950s and 1960s.

### 1953 Iranian Coup d'etat

After the assassination of his close friend Haj-Ali Razmara, Mir-Djalali returned to Tehran and was appointed Deputy Minister of War during the short-lived government of Ḥossein Ala' in March 1951. As tensions escalated over the nationalization of Iran’s oil industry under Mohammad Mossadegh, Mir-Djalali—who was married to a distant cousin of Mossadegh—was assigned a critical role in overseeing the transition of Iran's oil assets from Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (AIOC) control to Iranian national ownership. Appointed commander of the Khuzestan Province Army Division (Inspection Area #3), he was tasked with securing the oil fields and refineries of Khuzestan and Abadan, ensuring the Iranian military’s oversight of the nationalization process. His mission became particularly sensitive when British naval forces threatened to land troops in Abadan under the pretext of protecting British employees and securing Iranian oil fields—a plan known as Operation Buccaneer. On August 3, 1951, Mossadegh personally entrusted Mir-Djalali with monitoring and reporting all British military movements while keeping Iranian forces on full alert. The British, despite their opposition to nationalization, reportedly held Mir-Djalali in high regard, considering him one of the most competent commanders in the Iranian military. When the 1953 coup (Operation Ajax) was ultimately executed, Mir-Djalali reaffirmed his loyalty to the Shah and following orders from Prime Minister Fazlollah Zahedi, he took decisive action to secure the refineries and oil installations under military control. His intervention ensured that, regardless of the shifting political landscape, the refineries remained under loyalist hands, preventing any attempt by external forces to regain control over the nationalized oil industry.

### General Staff of the Armed Forces

In the mid-1950s, as Iran’s armed forces underwent a major reorganization. With the establishment of Army Mission Iran, Military Assistance and Advisory Group (ARMISH-MAAG), the Iranian Military adopted American military structures and doctrines, the position of Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff was introduced for General Abdollah Hedayat and Mir-Djalali serving as Vice Chairman. This restructuring reflected Iran’s growing military ties with the United States, as part of the Cold War-era modernization efforts under the Shah, aimed at transforming the Iranian military into a more advanced, Western-modeled force. As Vice Chairman, Mir-Djalali played a pivotal role in overseeing the transition, ensuring the integration of new command structures, military training programs, and logistical frameworks into the Iranian armed forces. His experience in military-industrial development and mechanized warfare made him a key figure in shaping Iran’s new military doctrine. Under this new structure, the Iranian armed forces expanded significantly, acquiring modern American weaponry, enhancing mechanized divisions, and strengthening their regional strategic capabilities. Mir-Djalali’s tenure as Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff coincided with increased U.S. military aid and training, further solidifying Iran’s alignment with Western military standards.

## Personal Life
### Retirement

After retiring from the armed forces in 1957, Mir-Djalali transitioned to a political career, being elected as a senator from Kerman in the Iranian Senate in 1960. He served in this capacity until 1975, also holding a position within the Senate Secretariat. His tenure in the upper house of Iran’s Parliament coincided with the transformative period of the White Revolution, initiated by Mohammad Reza Shah in the early 1960s. The Iranian Senate, composed mainly of influential political figures, landowners, military officers, and technocrats, played a crucial role in legislating and implementing the Shah’s modernization efforts. Mir-Djalali was directly involved in debates and policymaking, particularly regarding the land reform program, which aimed to redistribute large estates to peasant farmers, breaking the traditional feudal landholding system. Additionally, he was a supporter of the provisions that granted women the right to vote and serve in Parliament.
Throughout his time in the Senate, Mir-Djalali remained an influential voice in military and defense-related affairs, leveraging his long-standing experience in the armed forces to advocate for policies that would strengthen Iran’s strategic position. His involvement in military-industrial development and national defense initiatives ensured that the armed forces continued to receive modernized equipment and expanded infrastructure under the Shah’s modernization agenda.

### Family

Mir-Djalali married Fakhr Aazam Darai, a member of the Qajar Royal Family and a direct descendant of Fath Ali Shah Qajar. Through her lineage, she was also a distant cousin of Mohammad Mossadegh. Together, they had four children: Fereydoun, Bahram, Elahe, and Aliyeh. Leveraging his strong ties with France, Mir-Djalali ensured that his children received the highest quality education. His eldest son, Fereydoun Mir-Djalali, pursued architecture at the prestigious École des Beaux-Arts in Paris. After returning to Iran, he founded Detail Consulting Architects, a firm that played a crucial role in shaping Tehran’s modern architectural landscape. Fereydoun successfully collaborated with world-renowned architects such as Louis Kahn, Kenzo Tange, and Raj Rewal, bringing international expertise to Iranian projects. Among his most notable commissions was the Farah Park Hotel, designed in partnership with Kenzo Tange, which was planned for a prime location at the corner of Farah Park in Tehran. However, the ambitious project was ultimately never realized, and its intended site remains an empty lot to this day.
Dr. Bahram Mir-Djalali graduated from the University of Paris Faculty of Medicine and became a surgeon. During the Iran-Iraq War, he served as a combat medic, where he was nearly killed while providing medical assistance on the frontlines. After the war, Bahram specialized in transgender surgery, establishing the Mirdamad Clinic in Tehran. His clinic became the largest and most renowned gender transition medical center in Iran, playing a pioneering role in advancing the field within the country. His work and unique status of promoting transgender rights in Iran were featured in the 2008 documentary Be Like Others, which explored the experiences of transgender individuals undergoing gender confirmation surgery in Iran.
Elahe pursued her higher education at the Sorbonne University, where she earned a Ph.D. in linguistics under Maurice Gross and Gilbert Lazard, a distinguished scholar of Persian linguistics and literature who also taught Ali Shariati, the Ideologue of the Iranian Revolution. Elahe dedicated her career to the preservation and promotion of Iranian cultural heritage, founding the Roshan Cultural Heritage Institute with Pierre's support, an organization committed to advancing research on the religious elements of Iranian languages, literature, and traditions. Through this institute, she actively supported scholarly works, including co-writing and sponsoring Hamid Dabashi’s biography on Jalal Al-e Ahmad.
Elahe's son, Pierre Omidyar, went on to become the founder of eBay, one of the most successful e-commerce platforms in history, with the backing of his family. In 2002, he orchestrated eBay's acquisition of PayPal, paving the way for Elon Musk, Peter Thiel, and David O. Sacks to emerge as dominant figures in Silicon Valley. This acquisition was instrumental in establishing PayPal as a global leader in digital payments, fueling the growth of the PayPal Mafia, a group of entrepreneurs who later founded or invested in major tech companies such as Tesla, SpaceX, LinkedIn, Palantir, YouTube, and Yelp.

### Death

After the Iranian Revolution, Mir-Djalali stayed in Iran and passed away on 3 May, 1983.