# Frankish language

Frankish (reconstructed endonym: *Frankisk), also known as Old Franconian or Old Frankish, was the West Germanic language spoken by the Franks from the 5th to 10th centuries.
Franks under king Chlodio would settle in Roman Gaul in the 5th century. One of his successors, named Clovis I, would take over the Roman province of Gallia Lugdunensis (in modern day France). Outnumbered by the local populace, the ruling Franks there would adapt to its language which was a Proto-Romance dialect. However, many modern French words and place names are still of Frankish origin.
Between the 5th and 9th centuries, Frankish spoken in Northeastern France, present-day Belgium, and the Netherlands is subsequently referred to as Old Dutch, whereas the Frankish varieties spoken in the Rhineland were heavily influenced by Elbe Germanic dialects and the Second Germanic consonant shift and would form part of the modern Central Franconian and Rhine Franconian dialects of German and Luxembourgish.
The Old Frankish language is poorly attested and mostly reconstructed from Frankish loanwords in Old French, and inherited words in Old Dutch, as recorded between the 6th to 12th centuries. A notable exception is the Bergakker inscription, which may represent a primary record of 5th-century Frankish, though it is debated whether the inscription is written in Frankish, or Old Dutch.

## Nomenclature

Germanic philology and German studies have their origins in the first half of the 19th century when Romanticism and Romantic thought heavily influenced the lexicon of the linguists and philologists of the time, including pivotal figures such as the Brothers Grimm. As a result, many contemporary linguists tried to incorporate their findings in an already existing historical framework of "stem duchies" and Altstämme (lit. "old tribes", i.e. the six Germanic tribes then thought to have formed the "German nation" in the traditional German nationalism of the elites) resulting in a taxonomy which spoke of "Bavarian", "Saxon", "Frisian", "Thuringian", "Swabian" and "Frankish" dialects. While this nomenclature became generally accepted in traditional Germanic philology, it has also been described as "inherently inaccurate" as these ancient ethnic boundaries (as understood in the 19th century) bore little or limited resemblance to the actual or historical linguistic situation of the Germanic languages. Among other problems, this traditional classification of the continental West Germanic dialects can suggest stronger ties between dialects than is linguistically warranted. The Franconian group is a well known example of this, with East Franconian being much more closely related to Bavarian dialects than it is to Dutch, which is traditionally placed in the Low Franconian sub-grouping and with which it was thought to have had a common, tribal origin.
In a modern linguistic context, the language of the early Franks is variously called "Old Frankish" or "Old Franconian" and refers to the language of the Franks prior to the advent of the High German consonant shift, which took place between 600 and 700 AD. After this consonant shift the Frankish dialect diverges, with the dialects which would become modern Low Franconian not undergoing the consonantal shift, while all others did so to varying degrees. As a result, the distinction between Old Dutch and Old Frankish is largely negligible, with Old Dutch (also called Old Low Franconian) being the term used to differentiate between the affected and non-affected variants following the aforementioned Second Germanic consonant shift.

## History
### Origins

The Germanic languages are traditionally divided into three groups: West, East and North Germanic. Their exact relation is difficult to determine, and they remained mutually intelligible throughout the Migration Period, rendering some individual varieties difficult to classify.
The language spoken by the Franks was part of the West Germanic language group, which had features from Proto-Germanic in the late Jastorf culture (c. 1st century BC). The West Germanic group is characterized by a number of phonological and morphological innovations not found in North and East Germanic. The West Germanic varieties of the time are generally split into three dialect groups: Ingvaeonic (North Sea Germanic), Istvaeonic (Weser–Rhine Germanic) and Irminonic (Elbe Germanic). While each had its own distinct characteristics, there certainly must have still been a high degree of mutual intelligibility between these dialects. In fact, it is unclear whether the West Germanic continuum of this time period, or indeed Franconian itself, should still be considered a single language or if it should be considered a collection of similar dialects.
In any case, it appears that the Frankish tribes, or the later Franks, fit primarily into the Istvaeonic dialect group, with certain Ingvaeonic influences towards the northwest (still seen in modern Dutch), and more Irminonic (High German) influences towards the southeast.

### Salian and Ripuarian Franks (3rd–5th centuries)

The scholarly consensus concerning the Migration Period is that the Frankish identity emerged during the first half of the 3rd century out of various earlier, smaller Germanic groups, including the Salii, Sicambri, Chamavi, Bructeri, Chatti, Chattuarii, Ampsivarii, Tencteri, Ubii, Batavi, and Tungri. It is speculated that these tribes originally spoke a range of related Istvaeonic dialects in the West Germanic branch of Proto-Germanic. Sometime in the 4th or 5th centuries, it becomes appropriate to speak of Old Franconian rather than an Istvaeonic dialect of Proto-Germanic.
Very little is known about what the language was like during this period. One older runic sentence (dating from around 425–450 AD) is on the sword scabbard of Bergakker which is either a direct attestation of the Old Franconian language or the earliest attestation of Old Low Franconian (Old Dutch) language. Another early sentence from the early 6th century AD (that is also described as the earliest sentence in Old Dutch as well) is found in the Lex Salica. This phrase was used to free a serf:
    "Maltho thi afrio lito"
    (I say, I free you, half-free.)
These are the earliest sentences yet found of Old Franconian.
During this early period, the Franks were divided politically and geographically into two groups: the Salian Franks and the Ripuarian Franks. The language (or set of dialects) spoken by the Salian Franks during this period is sometimes referred to as early "Old Low Franconian", and consisted of two groups: "Old West Low Franconian" and "Old East Low Franconian". The language (or set of dialects) spoken by the Ripuarian Franks are referred to just as Old Franconian dialects (or, by some, as Old Frankish dialects).
However, as already stated above, it may be more accurate to think of these dialects not as early Old Franconian but as Istvaeonic dialects in the West Germanic branch of Proto-Germanic.

### Frankish Empire (5th–10th centuries)

At around the 5th century, the Franks probably spoke a range of related dialects and languages rather than a single uniform dialect or language. The language of both government and the Church was Latin.

## Area
### Austrasia

During the expansion into France and Germany, many Frankish people remained in the original core Frankish territories in the north (i.e. southern Netherlands, Flanders, a small part of northern France, and the adjoining area in Germany centered on Cologne). The Franks united as a single group under Salian Frank leadership around 500 AD. Politically, the Ripuarian Franks existed as a separate group only until about 500 AD, after which they were subsumed into the Salian Franks. The Franks were united, but the various Frankish groups must have continued to live in the same areas that they had lived in before unification, and to speak the same dialects as before.
There must have been a close relationship between the various Franconian dialects. There was also a close relationship between Old Low Franconian (i.e. Old Dutch) and its neighboring Old Saxon and Old Frisian languages and dialects to the north and northeast, as well as the related Old English (Anglo-Saxon) dialects spoken in southern and eastern Britain.
A widening cultural divide grew between the Franks remaining in the north and the rulers far to the south. Franks continued to reside in their original territories and to speak their original dialects and languages. It is not known what they called their language, but it is possible that they always called it "Diets" (i.e. "the people's language") or something similar. The word Diets is cognate with the Old English word þēodisc which, likewise, meant both nation and speech.
Philologists think of Old Dutch and Old West Low Franconian as being the same language. However, sometimes reference is made to a transition from the language spoken by the Salian Franks to Old Dutch. The language spoken by the Salian Franks must have developed significantly during the seven centuries from 200 to 900 AD. At some point, the language spoken by the Franks must have become identifiably Dutch. Because Franconian texts are almost non-existent and Old Dutch texts scarce and fragmentary, it is difficult to determine when such a transition occurred, but it is thought to have happened by the end of the 9th century and perhaps earlier. By 900 AD the language spoken was recognizably an early form of Dutch, but that might also have been the case earlier. Old Dutch made the transition to Middle Dutch around 1150. A Dutch-French language boundary came into existence (but this was originally south of where it is today).

### Gaul

The Franks expanded south into Gaul as the Western Roman Empire collapsed in the fifth century. Although the Franks would eventually conquer almost all of Gaul, speakers of Old Franconian expanded only into northern Gaul in numbers sufficient to have a linguistic effect. For several centuries, northern Gaul was a bilingual territory (Latin and Franconian). The language used in writing, in government and by the Church was Latin. Eventually, the Franks who had settled more to the south of this area in northern Gaul started adopting the common Latin of the local population. This Colloquial Latin language acquired the name of the people who came to speak it (Frankish or Français); north of the French-Dutch language boundary, the language was no longer referred to as "Frankish" (if it ever was referred to as such) but rather came to be referred to as "Diets", i.e. the "people's language". Urban T. Holmes has proposed that a Germanic language continued to be spoken as a second tongue by public officials in western Austrasia and Neustria as late as the 850s, and that it completely disappeared as a spoken language from these regions only during the 10th century.

### German Franconia

The Franks also expanded their rule southeast into parts of Germany. Their language had some influence on local dialects, especially for terms relating to warfare. However, since the language of both the administration and the Church was Latin, this unification did not lead to the development of a supra-regional variety of Franconian nor a standardized German language. At the same time that the Franks were expanding southeast into what is now southern Germany, there were linguistic changes taking place in the region. The High German consonant shift (or second Germanic consonant shift) was a phonological development (sound change) that took place in the southern parts of the West Germanic dialect continuum in several phases, probably beginning between the 3rd and 5th centuries AD, and was almost complete before the earliest written records in the High German language were made in the 9th century. The resulting language, Old High German, can be neatly contrasted with Low Franconian, which for the most part did not experience the shift.

## Frankish in linguistic terminology

The term Frankish or Franconian (Standard High German: Fränkisch, Dutch: Frankisch) is a modern linguistic category first introduced by the German linguist Wilhelm Braune (1850–1926) to designate historical West Germanic texts which he could not readily classify as belonging to either Low Saxon, Alemannic or Bavarian. In contemporary linguistic terminology the term Franconian it used to describe a residual, non-homogeneous category of related dialects within the larger (historical) West Germanic dialect continuum. The various dialects conventionally grouped as Franconian have no common typological features which apply to all the various dialects included within the group.
Although the practice of alluding to tribal names from the Migration Period when naming dialect groups during the early stages of Germanic Philology was common as the linguistic borders of historical ancestor dialects were, at the time, thought to closely mirror the supposed tribal duchies of the Frankish Empire at the start of the Early Middle Ages, for many of the varieties grouped under Franconian, the diachronical connection to the actual Frankish language remains unclear.
The Second Germanic consonant shift, with Low Franconian (including Dutch and Afrikaans) not participating whereas the Central Franconian (which includes Luxembourgish) did, to varying degrees, is typically the main isoglos used to divide the varieties having received the epithet Franconian.

## Influence on Old French and Middle English

Most French words of Germanic origin came from Frankish, often replacing the Latin word which would have been used. It is estimated that modern French took approximately 1000 stem words from Old Franconian. Many of these words were concerned with agriculture (e.g. French: jardin 'garden'), war (e.g. French: guerre 'war') or social organization (e.g. French: baron 'baron'). Old Franconian has introduced the modern French word for the nation, France (Francia), meaning 'land of the Franks'. According to one hypothesis, the name for the Paris region, Île-de-France, was also given by the Franks.
The influence of Franconian on French is decisive for the birth of the early langues d'oïl compared to the other Romance languages, that appeared later such as Occitan, Romanian, Portuguese, Spanish, Italian, etc., because its influence was greater than the respective influence of Visigothic and Lombardic (both Germanic languages) on both Occitan and the Ibero-Romance languages, and Italian. Not all of these loanwords have been retained in modern French. French has also passed on words of Franconian origin to other Romance languages, and to English.
Old Franconian has also left many etyma in the different northern langues d'oïl such as Burgundian, Champenois, Lorrain, Northern Norman, Picard and Walloon, more than in Standard French, and not always the same ones.
Below is a non-exhaustive list of French words of Frankish origin. An asterisk prefixing a term indicates a reconstructed form of the Frankish word. Most Franconian words with the phoneme w changed it to gu when entering Old French and other Romance languages; however, the northern langues d'oil such as Picard, Northern Norman, Walloon, Burgundian, Champenois an Lorrain retained the /w/ or turned it into /v/. Perhaps the best known example is the Franconian *werra ('war' < Old Northern French werre, compare Old High German werre 'quarrel'), which entered modern French as guerre and guerra in Italian, Occitan, Catalan, Spanish and Portuguese. Other examples include gant ('gauntlet', from *want) and garder ('to guard', from *wardōn). Franconian words starting with s before another consonant developed it into es- (e.g. Franconian skirm and Old French escremie > Old Italian scrimia > Modern French escrime).
| Current French word | Old Franconian | Dutch or other Germanic cognates | Latin/Romance |
| affranchir "to free" | *frank "freeborn; unsubjugated, answering to no one", nasalized variant of *frāki "rash, untamed, impudent" | Du frank "unforced, sincere, frank", vrank "carefree, brazen", Du frank en vrij (idiom) "free as air" Du Frankrijk "France", Du vrek "miser", OHG franko "free man" Norwegian: frekk "rude" | L līberāre |
| alêne "awl" (Sp alesna, It lesina) | *alisna | MDu elsene, else, Du els | L sūbula |
| alise "whitebeam berry" (OFr alis, alie "whitebeam") | *alísō "alder" | MDu elze, Du els "alder" (vs. G Erle "alder"); Du elsbes "whitebeam", G Else "id." | non-native to the Mediterranean |
| baron | *baro "freeman", "bare of duties" | MDu baren "to give birth", Du bar "gravely", "bare", OHG baro "freeman", OE beorn "noble" | Germanic cultural import Late, Vulgar, and Medieval Latin *baro |
| bâtard "bastard" (FrProv bâsco) | *bāst "marriage" | MDu bast "lust, heat, reproductive season", WFris boaste, boask "marriage" | L nothus |
| bâtir "to build" (OFr bastir "to baste, tie together") bâtiment "building" bastille "fortress" bastion "fortress" | *bastian "to bind with bast string" | MDu besten "to sew up, to connect", OHG bestan "to mend, patch", G basteln "to tinker"; MDu best "liaison" (Du gemenebest "commonwealth") | L construere (It costruire) |
| bêche "spade" | *becca/bicca "pickaxe/spade" | | L becca |
| bière "beer" | *bera | Du bier | L cervisia (Celtic) |
| blanc, blanche "white" | *blank | Du blinken "to shine", blank "white, shining" | L albus |
| bleu "blue" (OFr blou, bleve) | *blao | MDu blā, blau, blaeuw, Du blauw | L caeruleus "light blue", lividus "dark blue" |
| bois "wood, forest" | *busk "bush, underbrush" | MDu bosch, busch, Du bos "forest", "bush" | L silva "forest" (OFr selve), L lignum "wood" (OFr lein) |
| bourg "town/city" | *burg or *burc "fortified settlement" | ODu burg, MDu burcht Got. baurg OHG burg OE burh, OLG burg, ON borg | L urbs "fortified city" |
| broder "to embroider" (OFr brosder, broisder) | *brosdōn, blend of *borst "bristle" and *brordōn "to embroider" | G Borste "boar bristle", Du borstel "bristle"; OS brordōn "to embroider, decorate", brord "needle" | L pingere "to paint; embroider" (Fr peindre "to paint") |
| broyer "to grind, crush" (OFr brier) | *brekan "to break" | Du breken "to break", | LL tritāre (Occ trissar "to grind", but Fr trier "to sort"), LL pistāre (It pestare "to pound, crush", OFr pester), L machīnare (Dalm maknur "to grind", Rom măşina, It maşinare) |
| brun "brown" | *brūn | MDu brun and Du bruin "brown" | L fuscus. This Latin adjective means “dark”, “dusky”, or “brown”. |
| choquer "to shock" | *skukjan | Du schokken "to shock, to shake" | |
| choisir "to choose" | *kiosan | MDu kiesen, Du kiezen, keuze | L ēligere (Fr élire "to elect"), VL exēligere (cf. It scegliere), excolligere (Cat escollir, Sp escoger, Pg escolher) |
| chouette "barn owl" (OFr çuete, dim. of choë, choue "jackdaw") | *kōwa, kāwa "chough, jackdaw" | MDu couwe "rook", Du kauw, kaauw "chough" | not distinguished in Latin: L būbō "owl", ōtus "eared owl", ulula "screech owl", ulucus likewise "screech owl" (cf. Sp loco "crazy"), noctua "night owl" |
| crampe "cramp" | *krampa | MDu crampe, G Krampf, ModSc cramp, ME cramp | MF crampe, Sp calambre, NF crampe |
| cresson "watercress" | *kresso | MDu kersse, korsse, Du kers, dial. kors | L nasturtium, LL berula (but Fr berle "water parsnip") |
| danser "to dance" (OFr dancier) | *dansōn | OHG dansōn "to drag along, trail"; further to MDu densen, deinsen "to shrink back", Du deinzen "to stir; move away, back up", OHG dinsan "to pull, stretch" | LL ballare (OFr baller, It ballare, Pg bailar) |
| début "begin" | *but "stump, log" | ON bútr "log, stump, butt", OE butt "tree stump" | MF desbuter "move, begin", OF but "aim, goal, target" or butte "mound, knoll, target" |
| déchirer "to rip, tear" (OFr escirer) | *skerian "to cut, shear" | MDu scēren, Du scheren "to shave, shear", scheuren "to tear" | VL extractiāre (Prov estraçar, It stracciare), VL exquartiare "to rip into fours" (It squarciare, but Fr écarter "to move apart, distance"), exquintiare "to rip into five" (Cat/Occ esquinçar) |
| dérober "to steal, reave" (OFr rober, Sp robar) | *rōbon "to steal" | MDu rōven, Du roven "to rob" | VL furicare "to steal" (It frugare) |
| écang "swingle-dag, tool for beating fibrous stems" | *swank "bat, rod" | MDu swanc "wand, rod", Du (dial. Holland) zwang "rod" | L pistillum (Fr dial. pesselle "swingle-dag") |
| écran "screen" (OFr escran) | *skrank | MDu schrank "chassis"; G Schrank "cupboard", Schranke "fence" | L obex |
| écrevisse "crayfish" (OFr crevice) | *krebit | Du kreeft "crayfish, lobster" | L cammārus "crayfish" (cf. Occ chambre, It gambero, Pg camarão) |
| éperon "spur" (OFr esporon) | *sporo | MDu spōre, Du spoor | L calcar |
| épier "to watch" Old French espie "male spy" , Modern French espion is from Italian | *spehōn "to spy" | Du spieden, bespieden "to spy", HG spähen "to peer, to peek, to scout", | |
| escrime "fencing" < Old Italian scrimia < OFr escremie from escremir "fight" | *skirm "to protect" | Du schermen "to fence", scherm "(protective) screen", bescherming "protection", afscherming "shielding" | |
| étrier "stirrup" (OFr estrieu, estrief) | *stīgarēp, from stīgan "to go up, to mount" and rēp "band" | MDu steegereep, Du stijgreep, stijgen "to rise", steigeren | LL stapia (later ML stapēs), ML saltatorium (cf. MFr saultoir) |
| flèche "arrow" | *fliukka | Du vliek "arrow feather", MDu vliecke, OS fliuca (MLG fliecke "long arrow") | L sagitta (OFr saete, It saetta, Pg seta) |
| frais "fresh" (OFr freis, fresche) | *friska "fresh" | Du vers "fresh", fris "cold", German frisch | |
| franc "free, exempt; straightforward, without hassle" (LL francus "freeborn, freedman") France "France" (OFr Francia) franchement "frankly" | *frank "freeborn; unsubjugated, answering to no one", nasalized variant of *frāki "rash, untamed, impudent" | MDu vrec "insolent", Du frank "unforced, sincere, frank", vrank "carefree, brazen", Du Frankrijk "France", Du vrek "miser", OHG franko "free man" | L ingenuus "freeborn" L Gallia |
| frapper "to hit, strike" (OFr fraper) | *hrapan "to jerk, snatch" | Du rapen "gather up, collect", G raffen "to grab" | L ferire (OFr ferir) |
| frelon "hornet" (OFr furlone, ML fursleone) | *hurslo | MDu horsel, Du horzel | L crābrō (cf. It calabrone) |
| freux "rook" (OFr frox, fru) | *hrōk | MDu roec, Du roek | not distinguished in Latin |
| galoper "to gallop" | *wala hlaupan "to run well" | Du wel "good, well" + lopen "to run" | |
| garder "to guard" | *wardōn | MDu waerden "to defend", OS wardōn | L cavere, servare |
| gant "gauntlet" | *want | Du want "glove" | |
| givre "frost (substance)" | *gibara "drool, slobber" | EFris gever, LG Geiber, G Geifer "drool, slobber" | L gelū (cf. Fr gel "frost (event); freezing") |
| glisser "to slip" (OFr glier) | *glīdan "to glide" | MDu glīden, Du glijden "to glide"; Du glis "skid"; G gleiten, Gleis "track" | ML planare |
| grappe "bunch (of grapes)" (OFr crape, grape "hook, grape stalk") | *krāppa "hook" | MDu crappe "hook", Du (dial. Holland) krap "krank", G Krapfe "hook", (dial. Franconian) Krape "torture clamp, vice" | L racemus (Prov rasim "bunch", Cat raïm, Sp racimo, but Fr raisin "grape") |
| gris "grey" | *grîs "grey" | Du grijs "grey" | L cinereus "ash-coloured, grey" |
| guenchir "to turn aside, avoid" | *wenkjan | Du wenken "to beckon", OS wenkian "to defect, become unfaithful", OHG wenchen "to bend, buckle, warp" | |
| guérir "to heal, cure" (OFr garir "to defend") guérison "healing" (OFr garrison "healing") | *warjan "to protect, defend" | MDu weeren, Du weren "to protect, defend", Du bewaren "to keep, preserve" | L sānāre (Sard sanare, Sp/Pg sanar, OFr saner), medicāre (Dalm medcuar "to heal") |
| guerre "war" | *werra "war" | Du war or wirwar "tangle", verwarren "to confuse" | L bellum |
| guider "to guide"; guide "guide" | *wītan | Du weten "to know" | L dērigere |
| guigne "heart cherry" (OFr guisne) | *wīksina | G Weichsel "sour cherry", (dial. Rhine Franconian) Waingsl, (dial. East Franconian) Wassen, Wachsen | non-native to the Mediterranean |
| haïr "to hate" (OFr hadir "to hate") haine "hatred" (OFr haïne "hatred") | *hatjan | Du haten "to hate", haat "hatred" | L ōdī "to hate", odium "hatred" |
| hanneton "cockchafer" | *hāno "rooster" + -eto (diminutive suffix) with sense of "beetle, weevil" | Du haan "rooster", leliehaantje "lily beetle", bladhaantje "leaf beetle", G Hahn "rooster", (dial. Rhine Franconian) Hahn "sloe bug, shield bug", Lilienhähnchen "lily beetle" | LL bruchus "chafer" (cf. Fr dial. brgue, beùrgne, brégue), cossus (cf. SwRom coss, OFr cosson "weevil") |
| haubert "hauberk" | *halsberg "neck-cover" | Du hals "neck" + berg "cover" (cf Du herberg "hostel") | L lorica |
| héron "heron" | *heigero, variant of *hraigro | MDu heiger "heron", Du reiger "heron" | L ardea |
| houx "holly" | *hulis | MDu huls, Du hulst | L aquifolium (Sp acebo), later VL acrifolium (Occ grefuèlh, agreu, Cat grèvol, It agrifoglio) |
| jardin "garden" (VL hortus gardinus "enclosed garden", Ofr jardin, jart) | *gardo "garden" | Du gaard "garden", boomgaard "orchard"; OS gardo "garden" | L hortus |
| lécher "to lick" (OFr lechier "to live in debauchery") | *leccōn "to lick" | MDu lecken, Du likken "to lick" | L lingere (Sard línghere), lambere (Sp lamer, Pg lamber) |
| maçon "bricklayer" (OFr masson, machun) | *mattio "mason" | Du metsen "to mason", metselaar "masoner"; OHG mezzo "stonemason", meizan "to beat, cut", G Metz, Steinmetz "mason" | VL murator (Occ murador, Sard muradore, It muratóre) |
| maint "many" (OFr maint, meint "many") | *menigþa "many" | Du menig "many", menigte "group of people" | |
| marais "marsh, swamp" | *marisk "marsh" | MDu marasch, meresch, maersc, Du meers "wet grassland", (dial. Holland) mars | L paludem (Occ palun, It palude) |
| maréchal "marshal" maréchaussée "military police" | *marh-skalk "horse-servant" | ODu marscalk "horse-servant" (marchi "mare" + skalk "servant"); MDu marscalc "horse-servant, royal servant" (mare "mare" + skalk "serf"); Du maarschalk "marshal" (merrie "mare" + schalk "comic", schalks "teasingly") | |
| nord "north" | *Nortgouue (790–793 A.D.) "north" + "frankish district" (Du gouw, Deu Gau, Fri/LSax Go) | Du noord or noorden "north", Du Henegouwen (province of Hainaut) | L septemtrio(nes) / septentrio(nes) "north, north wind, northern regions, (pl.) seven stars near the north pole", boreas "north wind, north", aquilo "stormy wind, north wind, north", aquilonium "northerly regions, north" |
| osier "osier (basket willow); withy" (OFr osière, ML auseria) | *halster | MDu halster, LG dial. Halster, Hilster "bay willow" | L vīmen "withy" (It vimine "withy", Sp mimbre, vimbre "osier", Pg vimeiro, Cat vímet "withy"), vinculum (It vinco "osier", dial. vinchio, Friul venc) |
| patte "paw" | *pata "foot sole" | Du poot "paw", Du pets "strike"; LG Pad "sole of the foot"; further to G Patsche "instrument for striking the hand", Patschfuss "web foot", patschen "to dabble", (dial. Bavarian) patzen "to blot, pat, stain" | LL branca "paw" (Sard brànca, It brince, Rom brîncă, Prov branca, Romansh franka, but Fr branche "treelimb"), see also Deu Pranke |
| poche "pocket" | *poka "pouch" | MDu poke, G dial. Pfoch "pouch, change purse" | L bulga "leather bag" (Fr bouge "bulge"), LL bursa "coin purse" (Fr bourse "money pouch, purse", It bórsa, Sp/Pg bolsa) |
| riche "rich" | *rīkī "rich" | MDu rike, Du rijk "kingdom", "rich" | L dives |
| sale "dirty" | *salo "pale, sallow" | MDu salu, saluwe "discolored, dirty", Du (old) zaluw "tawny" | L succidus (cf. It sudicio, Sp sucio, Pg sujo, Ladin scich, Friul soç) |
| salle "room" | *sala "hall, room" | ODu zele "house made with sawn beams", Many place names: "Melsele", "Broeksele" (Brussels) etc. | |
| saule "willow" | *salha "sallow, pussy willow" | OHG salaha, G Salweide "pussy willow", OE sealh | L salix "willow" (OFr sauz, sausse) |
| saisir "to seize, snatch; bring suit, vest a court" (ML sacīre "to lay claim to, appropriate") | *sakan "to take legal action" | Du zeiken "to nag, to quarrel", zaak "court case", OS sakan "to accuse", OHG sahhan "to strive, quarrel, rebuke", OE sacan "to quarrel, claim by law, accuse"; | VL aderigere (OFr aerdre "to seize") |
| standard "standard" (OFr estandart "standard") | *standhard "stand hard, stand firm" | Du staan (to stand) + hard "hard" | |
| tamis "sieve" (It tamigio) | *tamisa | MDu temse, teemse, obs. Du teems "sifter" | L crībrum (Fr crible "riddle, sift") |
| tomber "to fall" (OFr tumer "to somersault") | *tūmōn "to tumble" | Du tuimelen "to tumble", OS/OHG tūmōn "to tumble", | L cadere (archaic Fr choir, Fr chute (a fall) ) |
| trêve "truce" | *treuwa "loyalty, agreement" | Du trouw "faithfulness, loyalty" | L pausa (Fr pause) |
| troène "privet" (dialectal truèle, ML trūlla) | *trugil "hard wood; small trough" | OHG trugilboum, harttrugil "dogwood; privet", G Hartriegel "dogwood", dialectally "privet", (dial. Eastern) Trögel, archaic (dial. Swabian) Trügel "small trough, trunk, basin" | L ligustrum |
| tuyau "pipe, hose" (OFr tuiel, tuel) | *þūta | MDu tūte "nipple; pipe", Du tuit "spout, nozzle", OE þēote "channel; canal" | L canna "reed; pipe" (It/SwRom/FrProv cana "pipe") |

### Old French

Franconian speech habits are also responsible for the replacement of Latin cum ("with") with od ← apud "at", then with avuec ← apud hoc "at it" ≠ Italian, Spanish con) in Old French (Modern French avec), and for the preservation of Latin nominative homo "man" as an impersonal pronoun: cf. homme ← hominem "man (accusative)" and Old French hum, hom, om → modern on, "one" (compare Dutch man "man" and men, "one").

### Middle English

Middle English also adopted many words with Franconian roots from Old French; e.g. random (via Old French randon, Old French verb randir, from *rant "a running"), standard (via Old French estandart, from *standhard "stand firm"), scabbard (via Anglo-French *escauberc, from *skar-berg), grape, stale, march (via Old French marche, from *marka) among others.