# Rajarajeshwara Temple

The Rajarajeshwara Temple is a Hindu temple in Taliparamba, Kannur district, Kerala, India, dedicated to Shiva. It is one of the 108 Shiva Temples of Kerala and one of the Dwadasha Shivalayam (12 important Shiva temples of ancient Kerala, stretching from Gokarnam to Kanyakumari.)

## Iconography

Within the temple, Shiva's presence transitions from an ascetic manifestation in the day, to an auspicious one at night. This means the deity blesses liberation (Moksha) during day time and at night blesses with prosperity (Aishwaryam).
In the Rajarajeshwaram Temple, Shiva is represented in his majestic form, riding Nandi, the sacred white bull. His posture is notable for his feet being placed upon Kumbhodara, a Shiva Gana with a lion's countenance. The Ashta Bhairavas, and the key leaders of Shiva's retinue(The Shiva Gana)— Analodbhava, Nikumbha, Kumbhodara, Herambha, and Bhingiriti—serve as his guards around Nandi. Here Shiva is along with Shakti, he is accompanied by his children, Veerabhadra and Bhadrakali, who emerged from his very essence.
Shiva has a Damaru attached to a giant trident (Thrishul) in one hand. His body is smeared with ashes, his neck is with a bluish tint colour, his hair is matted and adorned with the waxing and waning moon, and Ganga Devi is locked in his matted hair. He wears a lower body cloth of tiger skin, a belt made of bells, and a garland of rudraksha. Around his neck is a giant snake, Vasuki, the king of Nagas, with a third eye on his forehead. Various Nagas serve as his ornaments. Chanting the syllable Panchakshari ("Om namah Shivaya") with immense focus, the Shiva Ganas, his ardent devotees, surround him in service. With him are his consort, the mother goddess Shakti(Parvati), and his sons Ganesha and Subrahmanya. This is believed to be the auspicious form of Shiva.
Shiva, in his form as Parameshwara or Rajarajeshwara, receives homage from a comprehensive array of divine beings and all other entities, including Maha Vishnu and Maha Lakshmi, Brahma and Saraswati, Dharma Shastha, the Saptarshi and other celestial sages, all devas, asuras, humans, animals, plants, trees, rivers, seas, mountains, planets, and the entire universe.
The iconography can be inferred from the temple rituals and architecture. Rare temples in India feature enclosed sanctums for Nandi and Kumbhodara. Parvati's unmanifested presence is as Annapoorneshwari within the temple. Ganapati and Subrahmanya are also spiritually present within the Shiva sanctum. Bhadrakali and Veerabhadra, originally residing on the west side, were moved westward to a separate temple, Madayi Kavu. However, devotees still bow towards the west wall in reverence to Bhadrakali. A separate pond representing Ganga Devi is present, and Mahalakshmi is spiritually present in the east. Krishna is consecrated in a separate Vasudevapuram temple near the temple pond.

### The Three Perspective of Worshiping Shiva - Ascetic, Auspicious and Tantrik

Shaivism is a religious sect in ancient India where the followers believe that Shiva is the supreme god. Shiva is primarily worshipped in three forms.
* First, Shiva is worshipped alone without his consort Shakti, primarily by ascetics (sanyasis) who renounce worldly pleasures to dedicate themselves to serving humanity. In this form, Shiva is believed to grant liberation (moksha in Hindu theology) from the cycle of birth and death.
* Second, Shiva is worshipped in his auspicious form, accompanied by Shakti (his consort), his ganas (attendants), and his children. Based on theology, this is the form of worship suitable for common people.
* Third, Shiva is worshipped by practitioners of Tantra Shastra.He is depicted with Shakti and his retinue (The Shiva Gana) and, sometimes in cremation grounds, worshipped in tantric rituals.

### Mahalakshmi and Shiva

Rajarajeshwaram distinguishes itself from other Shiva temples by giving utmost importance to Mahalakshmi. The deity is also known as Aishwarya Prabhu, and the locality is likewise called Lakshmipuram. Mahalakshmi is the Hindu goddess of prosperity. Mahalakshmi's worship traces its roots to Vedic concepts of auspiciousness, represented by "Shri," though the explicit form of Lakshmi emerges more prominently in the Puranas. Texts like the Vishnu, Markandeya, and Skanda Puranas, particularly through the Samudra Manthan narrative, solidify her iconography and mythology, with the Devi Mahatmya in the Markandeya Purana portraying her as a manifestation of the supreme Goddess. She represents the divine feminine trinity as a key member of the Tridevi, alongside Saraswati and Parvati. Her association with Vishnu as his consort underscores her role as the embodiment of prosperity and abundance, with her avatars often accompanying his incarnations. The diverse forms of Mahalakshmi, exemplified by the Ashtalakshmi, further emphasize the multifaceted nature of her blessings.
Hindu theology identifies eight forms of prosperity that a person should strive to achieve in their lifetime, each represented by an avatar of Mahalakshmi:
Mahalakshmi embodies these eight forms of prosperity that one should strive to achieve in a lifetime. She is the consort of Maha Vishnu, also known as Narayana. 'Narayana' is derived from 'Nara,' meaning person, and 'Ayana,' meaning path or footsteps. Thus, Narayana symbolizes 'the path of a person' and represents an individual's life journey. The theological moral, therefore, is that Maha Vishnu, who represents the complete journey of human life, strives to attain his consort, Mahalakshmi, who represents prosperity.
The Eight Forms of Prosperity: A Holistic Approach to a Fulfilling Life
* Spiritual Devotion: Cultivate a deep sense of spiritual devotion by embracing physical and mental cleanliness as essential foundations for worship. This path requires self-discipline, contemplation, and the endurance to overcome challenges.
* Material Wealth: Actively pursue material wealth while understanding the effort and responsibility it demands. Financial stability requires discipline, an organized lifestyle, and the ability to prioritize meaningful activities.
* Food and Resources: The fortune to strive to secure food and resources for yourself and others, recognizing the challenges involved in providing for basic needs. This pursuit emphasizes the importance of resourcefulness and care for the well-being of others.
* Intellectual Growth: The fortune to foster intellectual curiosity and humility by embracing the discomfort of questioning and learning. Continuous growth comes from challenging assumptions and seeking knowledge with an open mind.
* Courage and Resilience: The fortune to develop a resilient and courageous spirit, capable of overcoming fear and setbacks. Develop resilience by combining perseverance, inner strength, and courage. This enables to face fears, vulnerabilities, and inevitable obstacles with determination.
* Creative Artistry and Progeny: The blessing of raising good children is a form of creative abundance, nurturing them to become compassionate and responsible individuals. Additionally, this is the fortune to engage in creative expression, embracing the uncertainties and frustrations of the artistic process.
* Social Stature: The fortune to build a commanding and respectable social stature rooted in unwavering integrity. True influence arises from ethical conduct and selfless service to others.
* Strive for Victory: The fortune to achieve victory by overcoming laziness and procrastination, staying focused on your goals, and maintaining a visionary mindset. Set clear aims, work diligently, and remain steadfast in the pursuit of success. True victory is not only about reaching the destination but also about the discipline and determination you demonstrate along the journey.
These pursuits, inspired by the eight forms of prosperity embodied by Mahalakshmi, offer a holistic framework for a meaningful and fulfilling life. Each pursuit requires dedication, effort, and a balanced approach to personal and communal growth. Various Hindu Puranas describe Mahalakshmi appearing and disappearing from the world multiple times. Although she is the primary goddess in Vaishnavism, she is also believed to be an ardent devotee of Shiva. Some Puranas depict Shiva showing sisterly affection towards Mahalakshmi, acknowledging her devotion.
One of Mahalakshmi's appearances is linked to the story of the Samudra Manthan (churning of the ocean). After she emerged from the ocean, following the churning of Mount Mandara, sweat dripped from her brow onto the mountain. This sweat is said to have become the Bael tree, also known as Bilva or Shri Phal. Mahalakshmi is revered as one of Shiva's greatest devotees. The Puranas recount Mahalakshmi's penance (tapas) to Shiva, and how the Bilwa (Shriphal) tree, representing her essence, became Shiva's favorite due to her devotion. It is believed that Mahalakshmi and her consort, Mahavishnu, pay homage to Shiva at the Rajarajeshwaram temple. One legend narrates Shiva appearing as Mahavishnu, after which Shiva ensured the presence of both Mahavishnu and Mahalakshmi in the temple. Consequently, the Shriphal (Bilwa) tree is not harmed on the temple premises, and only Tulsi leaves are used for puja. This is the only temple where Tulsi worships the Shiva Linga, a practice attributed to the presence of Mahavishnu and Mahalakshmi. The surrounding area of the temple is known as Lakshmipuram.
A story recounts her penance to Shiva. While offering lotus flowers to the Shiva Linga and chanting Shiva's 1,000 names, Shiva tested her devotion by removing one of the flowers. At the end of her ritual, Mahalakshmi realized a flower was missing. Remembering Vishnu's comparison of her breasts to lotus flowers, she unhesitatingly cut off one of her breasts and offered it to the Shiva Linga. Shiva, astonished by her devotion, restored her breast and declared that she was more than just his favorite devotee; she would always be his sister. He said that the leaves of the Bilva tree, representing Mahalakshmi, would form the shape his three eyes, symbolizing the shared physical appearance of siblings. These leaves would be his favorite offering. To commemorate Mahalakshmi's sacrifice, Shiva declared that the Bilva fruit would resemble female breasts. He further decreed that all women are manifestations of Lakshmi and could worship Shiva as their brother, receiving his protection.

## Shaivism: History, Sects, and its Presence in Kerala
### Introduction to Shaivism

Shaivism is one of the oldest sects of Hinduism, devoted to the worship of Shiva as the Supreme Being. It has been a significant spiritual tradition in India for thousands of years, influencing philosophy, art, and culture. Shaivism has evolved through different historical periods, adopting diverse beliefs and practices across regions. Historical Background of Shaivism Shaivism can be traced back to the Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3300–1300 BCE), where seals depicting a proto-Shiva figure in a meditative pose have been discovered. The Vedic texts contain hymns dedicated to Rudra, an early form of Shiva, which gradually developed into the more complex theological system of Shaivism. By the early centuries CE, Shaivism had become a well-established tradition, with references in the epics (Ramayana and Mahabharata) and the Puranas. During the medieval period, various Shaiva philosophical schools emerged, contributing significantly to Hindu thought. Vedic and Non-Vedic Shaivism Shaivism is broadly divided into Vedic and Non-Vedic traditions: Vedic Shaivism includes traditions rooted in Vedic texts, primarily recognizing Rudra-Shiva as an important deity in the Vedic pantheon. The Shaiva Siddhanta sect is an example of a Vedic-based Shaiva tradition, as it incorporates rituals, sacrifices, and scriptural adherence aligned with the Agamas and Vedas. Non-Vedic Shaivism includes esoteric and Tantric traditions, where Shiva is worshipped through direct experience, meditation, and rituals not prescribed in the Vedic texts. This includes schools such as Kashmir Shaivism, Pashupata Shaivism, and Kapalika traditions. Major Sects of Shaivism and Their Propagators Over time, Shaivism branched into different sects, each with its distinct philosophies and practices. Some of the key sects, their main proponents, and royal patrons include:
* Shaiva Siddhanta – Predominantly found in Tamil Nadu, it emphasizes dualism, where Shiva is the supreme deity but distinct from the soul. Its key propagators include Tirumular, Meykandar, and Manikkavachakar. The Chola kings, including Rajaraja Chola I and Rajendra Chola I, were major patrons of this sect.
* Kashmir Shaivism – A monistic (Advaita) school of thought that believes Shiva and the individual soul are one. It developed in Kashmir between the 8th and 12th centuries CE. Notable figures include Vasugupta, Abhinavagupta, and Somananda. The Karkota and Utpala dynasties of Kashmir, particularly Lalitaditya Muktapida, supported this sect.
* Veerashaivism (Lingayatism) – Popular in Karnataka, it considers Shiva as the only deity and follows a unique set of rituals centered around the Ishtalinga (personal Shiva emblem). Basavanna, Allama Prabhu, and Akka Mahadevi were its chief proponents.
* Pashupata Shaivism – One of the earliest sects, founded by Lakulisha in the 2nd century CE, advocating asceticism and strict practices to attain liberation. The Maitraka dynasty of Gujarat supported this sect.
* Kapalika and Aghori Traditions – Known for their esoteric and extreme practices, these sects emphasize transcendence beyond conventional norms.
* Vira Shaivism – A movement in South India that upholds social equality and devotion to Shiva through personal discipline and community service. Basavanna is considered one of its most prominent figures, and the Rashtrakuta and Hoysalas were strong patrons of this movement.
* Maheshwara Shaivism – A philosophical and devotional sect that views Shiva as Maheshwara, the supreme lord of the universe. This sect emphasizes a balance between devotion, philosophy, and ritual practices, integrating aspects of Vedanta and Tantra. Adi Shankaracharya played a significant role in integrating Maheshwara Shaivism within his Advaita Vedanta framework. Rajaraja Chola I is believed to have shifted from pre-existing Shaiva Siddhanta practices to Maheshwara Shaivism, making it a dominant tradition in the Chola Empire by incorporating grand temple rituals and philosophical interpretations.
In Kerala majority of the Shiva temples are related to the Maheshwara sect. This is believed to be propagated there by the Chola ruler Raja Raja Chola 1.

### Royal Patrons of Shaivism

Throughout history, several kings were key patrons of Shaivism, promoting temples, literature, and sects. Some of the most influential rulers include:
* Rajaraja Chola I & Rajendra Chola I – Built the Brihadeeswarar Temple and expanded Shaiva Siddhanta influence while incorporating Maheshwara Shaivism.
* Lalitaditya Muktapida (Kashmir) – Patron of Kashmir Shaivism and its scholars.
* Vijayanagara Kings – Strong supporters of Veerashaivism and Shaiva temple traditions.
* Rashtrakutas & Hoysalas – Promoted temple building and Shaiva Bhakti movements.
* Maitrakas of Gujarat – Advocated Pashupata Shaivism.

### Shaivism in Kerala

Kerala has a rich tradition of Maheshwara sect Shaivism, intertwined with its temple culture, rituals, and literature. Well known temples are Rajarajeshwaram, Kottiyoor, Vaidyanatha, Srikanteshwaram, Thali, Thrippangod, Vadakkumnathan, Eranakulathappan, Thiruvairanikkulam, Chengannur, Iranikkulam, Ettumanoor and Vaikom
Some key aspects of Shaivism in Kerala state include: Tantric Shaivism – Kerala follows unique Tantric Shaiva practices, especially in temple worship and rituals. The Tantrasamuchaya and other texts guide the worship methodologies.
Influence of Adi Shankara – The great philosopher Adi Shankaracharya, who was born in Kerala, propagated Advaita Vedanta, aligning closely with monistic Shaivism.
Shiva-Bhakti Traditions – Kerala has a strong tradition of devotional poetry and temple festivals dedicated to Shiva, including the famous Shivaratri celebrations.
Today, Shaivism in Kerala continues through temple worship, classical art forms like Kathakali that depict Shiva's legends, and widespread observance of Shiva-centric festivals. Kathakali performances often depict stories of Shiva. Shivaratri is a major festival celebrated in Kerala. The Shiva temple on the sand banks of River Periyar in Aluva is famed for Shivarathri and Pitru tarpana. Thousands of people gather irrespective of caste and religion. Kerala has a rich tradition of Shaivism, intertwined with its temple culture, rituals, and literature. The temples of Kerala, particularly those dedicated to Shiva, stand as living monuments to this enduring faith. Kerala, with its unique blend of Tantric rituals, temple culture, and devotional traditions, continues to uphold Shaivism as a living spiritual heritage. The sect’s influence can be seen in Kerala’s art, literature, and religious practices, ensuring its enduring presence in the region.

## History of the Temple

The Rajarajeshwara Temple has a long and complex history. Although the exact origins are debated, the temple is believed to connect to the Mushika dynasty, the first Brahminic settlements in Kerala, and the Chola dynasty.
According to the Sennur Inscriptions, the Chola ruler Raja Raja Chola I (Arulmozhivarman, reign 985-1014 CE) conquered the Mushika Kingdom in north kerala, referred to by the Cholas as Kolla Desam (Not to be related with Kollam District of Kerala State - The word 'Kol' translates to 'Tax') in a naval battle. The Cholas attacked Kodungallur in central Kerala and south Kerala in the Battle of Kandalur Salai in 988 C. This victory earned him the title "Mummudi Chola" (Chola who wears the three crowns of Chola, Chera, and Pandya kingdoms), or Rajarajeshwara, the emperor.
As a devout Shaivite ruler, Raja Raja Chola I is believed to have played a significant role in building the temple complex. He established a strong relationship with the powerful Namboothiri settlements in Perinchallur (Taliparamba) as a way to acknowledge and reinforce his imperial authority.
Perinchellur is considered the first significant Brahmin settlement (or Gramam) in Kerala. The Brahmin community held considerable power in the region. The area around Taliparamba has a long history of Brahmin settlements, and the temple likely flourished under their patronage. Recognizing the influence of the Namboothiri Brahmin community, the Mushika and Kolathiri dynasties supported the continued existence of the temple.
Hindu legend associates the temple's origins with the sages Parashurama and Agastya, although this is primarily mythological. The temple is believed to have suffered damage during the Mysore invasions.
Significance Final theological resolutions for issues faced by temples throughout Kerala, as well as individual devotees, often involve seeking guidance and solutions through Prashnam, a traditional method of astrological decision-making conducted on a petha (raised platform) in the temple complex.

## Legend and folklore
### The Legend of the Three Shivalingas

According to one legend, Sage Parashurama, upon encountering an ancient shrine in a state of disrepair, sought to understand its history. Sage Narada appeared and recounted the following tale:
The sons of Brahma, the four kumaras—Sages Sanaka, Sanandana, Sanatana, and Sanatkumara —churned the Sun's disk to mitigate its intense heat. From the resulting dust, mixed with the divine nectar of immortality, Amrita, they fashioned three Shivalingas. Brahma presented these Shivalingas to Goddess Parvati, consort of Shiva. In turn, Goddess Parvati bestowed these Shivalingas upon three kings who had engaged in rigorous austerities. Maandhatha received the Shivalingam during the Treta Yuga, while Muchukunda and Shathasoman received theirs in the Dvapara Yuga. Parvati instructed them to install the idols in locations untouched by death or the presence of any cremation ground.
After an extensive search, Maandhatha discovered a suitable location: a small piece of land, barely large enough to accommodate a plate. In Malayalam, 'Thalika' signifies a plate. It is believed that the region subsequently came to be known as Taliparamba, meaning "the place large enough to accommodate a Thalika," in commemoration of this legend. Maandhatha installed his Shivalingam at this very spot. At the end of the Treta Yuga, this linga disappeared into the earth.
During the Dvapara Yuga, King Muchukunda, after receiving the second lingam from Parvati, also sought this location. He installed his Shivalingam at the same spot, which eventually dissolved into the earth. King Shathasoman, the recipient of the third Shivalingam, was likewise drawn to this sacred site. As he attempted to install the Shivalingam, it began to sink into the earth. King Shathasoman implored Sage Agastya for assistance. The sage appeared, performed an abhisheka (ablution) on the idol, and lit a ghee lamp. He prostrated before the Shivalingam twelve times. During his thirteenth prostration, the Lingam anchored itself to the earth. Consequently, the number of prostrations performed by Sage Agastya for this purpose became known as twelve and a half. With the installation of the third Shivalingam, the sacred spot attained threefold spiritual significance.

### Parashurama, Agasthya and Shri Rama

Upon hearing this narrative from Narada, Parashurama resolved to renovate the temple for the benefit of humanity. At his request, the celestial architect Vishwakarma undertook the renovation work. During the final stages of the renovation, Agastya appeared, performed an abhisheka on the idol, and lit a ghee lamp. This lamp has continued to burn continuously since then, fueled by a steady supply of ghee. Offering ghee in gold, silver, and copper pitchers with utmost devotion is considered an important offering to the deity.
It is believed that Shri Rama, upon his return from Lanka, halted at this temple to worship Shiva. In honor of his presence, devotees are not permitted to enter the Namaskara mandapam even today.

### Vaishnavite Folklore

The Northern door of the temple remains permanently closed, symbolizing the concurrent presence of both Shaiva and Vaishnava aspects within the shrine. According to legend, Goddess Mahalakshmi, consort of Vishnu, once visited the shrine to pay homage to Rajarajeshwara. The goddess is considered the greatest devotee of Shiva. Shiva's favorite tree and leaf is Shriphala (Kuvalam in Malayalam). Upon her arrival, Shiva assumed the form of Mahavishnu to ensure her prosperity-bestowing presence within the shrine. Mistaking him for her husband, Mahalakshmi entered the sanctum sanctorum and sat beside him. Only when Shiva reverted to his original form did Mahalakshmi realize her error. After offering her respects, she prepared to depart through the back door. However, Shiva instructed his attendants, the Bhoothaganas, to permanently close the northern door, ensuring that the aspect of prosperity represented by Mahalakshmi would remain within the shrine for the benefit of worshippers.
Later, when Vishnu arrived at the temple in search of his consort, Shiva's attendants implored him to allow Lakshmi's presence to continue for the benefit of devotees. Vishnu graciously consented to both of their presences. This combination of Shaiva and Vaishnava aspects is celebrated twice a year, during Shivaratri and Vishu, by ceremoniously bringing the Uthsavamoorthi of the nearby renowned Srikrishna temple of Trichambaram to Sri Rajarajeshwara temple. The town of Taliparamba is also known as Lakshmipuram, a name believed to be associated with this legend. In some hymns dedicated to Lord Rajarajeshwara, he is also revered as Aishwarya Prabhu, the lord of prosperity, and Lakshmi Puraadheeshwaran, the lord of Lakshmipuram.
Significance of Devotion and The Importance of Legends
Devotees revere the deity with royal titles, addressing him as Rajarajeswara, the Emperor or Supreme God. The deity is also addressed as Perumthrikovilappan or Perum-chelloorappan.

### Kumbhodara: The Lion-Faced Attendant of Shiva

Adjacent to the Rajarajeshwara temple stands a temple dedicated to Kumbhodara, also known as Bhootha Natha. Kumbhodara, a lion-faced gaṇa with a potbelly and a voracious appetite, is one of the leaders of Shiva's retinue, the Shiva Gaṇa, and is responsible for disciplining the other gaṇas. This powerful celestial being is even said to be the one upon whom Shiva places his foot when mounting Nandi. The gaṇas are known for creating obstacles in one's progress and fulfilling karmic actions destined for individual souls.
Temples with a dedicated idol of Kumbhodara are rare. In Kerala, while the deity is present in major Shiva temples (mahakshetras), Kumbhodara's representation is usually a geometric stone or an inanimate form worshipped through Tantra. This makes it difficult for ordinary devotees, who may not understand Tantra theology, to fully grasp the deity. However, Rajarajeshwara Temple stands out with a dedicated temple housing a large idol of Kumbhodara. Due to the deity's relative obscurity, many devotees mistakenly believe it to be a temple of Ayyappan or Shasta. Although both Shasta and Kumbhodara possess the power to issue decrees and discipline followers, they are considered distinct deities within Hindu theology.
Role in the Story of Dilīpa Mahārāja
One of the well-known stories involving Kumbhodara is the tale of King Dilīpa from the Raghuvaṃśa dynasty. King Dilīpa, a devout follower of dharma, approached his kulaguru, Vasiṣhṭha Maharshi, with the concern that he and his wife Sudakṣhiṇā did not have children. Vasiṣhṭha Maharshi revealed that Dilīpa had once neglected to pay respects to the great cow Kāmadhenu, resulting in a curse that prevented him from having children. To atone for this, Dilīpa and his wife were instructed to serve Kāmadhenu's daughter, Nandini.
Dilīpa and Sudakṣhiṇā followed Nandini with great devotion for 21 days. On the 22nd day, Nandini decided to test Dilīpa's character. She led him into a cave in the Himalayas, where a lion attacked her. Dilīpa tried to protect Nandini but found himself unable to move. The lion, Kumbhodara, then revealed his true identity as a servant of Lord Shiva, entrusted with the protection of the forest.
Kumbhodara's Test of Dilīpa's Devotion
Kumbhodara informed Dilīpa that he could not be stopped as he was acting under Shiva's command. However, Dilīpa, understanding the importance of his duty, offered himself to Kumbhodara in exchange for Nandini's safety. Impressed by Dilīpa's selflessness, Kumbhodara accepted the offer. At that moment, flowers showered from the sky, and Nandini revealed her divine form. She blessed Dilīpa and assured him that his devotion had earned him her protection. She granted him the boon of having a son, who would be a great ruler.
Kumbhodara in Śhivapurāṇa
Kumbhodara is also mentioned in the Śivapurāṇa, where he is described as a powerful and refulgent figure. He played a significant role in maintaining order and discipline among the gods, instilling fear and respect through his presence. He is often associated with his friend Nikumbha.
Kumbhodara's stories highlight the themes of devotion, duty, and the divine protection granted to those who faithfully serve and uphold dharma. His role as an attendant of Shiva and his interactions with devotees like King Dilīpa showcase the intricate relationship between the divine and the mortal realms.

## Traditional approach to temple visitation

Traditionally, devotees begin their pilgrimage by visiting the Vasudevapuram shrine, located on the southern bank of the vast temple tank known as Aashraamath-chira. Here, they offer prayers to Krishna, depicted in an idol at the shrine. It is believed that an ashram once belonged to Sage Agastya on the banks of this temple tank, and the tank itself was reconstructed approximately 460 years ago by a devotee named Chittoor Namboodiripad.
Proceeding towards the Rajarajeswara Temple, devotees then pay their respects at the shrine of Bhoothanatha (Kumbhodhara), considered the chief lieutenant of Shiva. Bhoothanatha is also known as Aravathappan. Both Krishna and Bhoothanatha are considered significant deities accompanying Rajarajeswara. The temple complex occupies a spacious eight-acre compound, enclosed by a compound wall with two gopurams (tower gates) on the eastern and western sides. This ancient compound wall is an architectural marvel, constructed with massive, precisely cut stones stacked upon one another without the use of mortar. The base of the wall is wide, gradually tapering towards the top. The main entrance to the temple is on the eastern side. Before entering, devotees traditionally offer prayers to Kanhirangaattappan (Vaidyanatha, an aspect of Shiva revered as the Deity of Physicians) in a temple approximately 6 kilometers away.

### Temple Rituals and Traditions

Upon entering the eastern gate, devotees traditionally circumambulate the central shrine before proceeding further. To the north, a small shrine houses a guardian deity, a Yakshi. While Yakshis are often depicted as female spirits with malevolent tendencies, this Yakshi is considered a benevolent figure, bestowing prosperity. This unique life-size wooden sculpture depicts the Yakshi as holding a mirror. After paying respects to the guardian deity, devotees proceed towards the front of the central shrine and worship Rishabha (Nandi), situated outside the shrine facing the deity. Near Rishabha stands the Balikkallu, a large granite stone adorned with numerous figurines and intricate carvings.
During the circumambulation of the Naalambalam (the outer structure surrounding the sanctum sanctorum), devotees proceed in a clockwise direction, keeping the shrine to their left. From the south-west corner, they offer prayers towards Annapoorneshwari(Parvathi), enshrined at the Cherukunnu temple a few kilometers away. Standing on the west side, devotees then worship Bhadrakali, enshrined in the Madayi Kavu temple. It is believed that Bhadrakali was originally worshipped in the western gopuram of the Sri Rajarajeswara temple before being relocated to the Madayi Kavu.
Following the outer circumambulation of the Nalambalam, devotees enter the inner space surrounding the sanctum sanctorum to worship the deity, Rajarajeshwara. As is customary in Shiva temples, circumambulation is performed only up to the water outlet of the sanctum and is then completed with a reverse circumambulation.
Traditionally, only men are permitted to enter the Naalambalam during daytime hours. Women, however, may enter after the Athazha pooja in the evening. It is believed that following the Athazha pooja, according to temple folklore, the deity assumes a state of heightened grace and benevolence, accompanied by his consort, Parvati. This is considered the most auspicious time for women to enter the Naalambalam and worship the divine couple.

## Architecture

The sanctum sanctorum is a prime example of Kerala temple architecture. It is a two-tiered rectangular structure with copper sheets and a golden Kalasham on top. Of its four doors, only the eastern and southern ones are open. The eastern doors lead to the lingam, representing Lord Rajarajeshwara. Ghee Lamps, including the Bhadradeepam lit by Sage Agastya, adorn both sides of the lingam. Silver Nilavilakku (Ghee Lamps) line the floor, and the lingam is often decorated with Shiva's insignia: three eyes, a crescent moon, and the Nagaphanam (serpent head). A golden Prabha, topped by a Vyaalimukham (face of a mythical demon), forms the backdrop. A Balibimbam or Uthsavamoorthi, representing the lingam and used in special ceremonies, is placed in front, adorned with a golden sheet, pure gold ornaments, and a Navarathna pendant.
Devotees can view the Lingam twice a day. The first opportunity is at 5:30 AM during Nirmalyam when the previous day's decorations are removed for the first abhishekam. The lingam, covered by a golden cup called Golaka, and its base, covered with a gold sheet, are revealed. This Nirmalya Darshanam, known as Kani, is considered highly auspicious. The second opportunity is at 9:30 AM when the decorations are removed again after the third pooja of the day for the Navakaabhishekam, also known as Kalashaabhishekam.
The southern door of the sanctum sanctorum also remains open, where Shiva is worshipped as Dakshinamurti. While no idol is present, a mural painting of Dakshinamurti adorns the wall. There is a shrine dedicated to Ganesha on the south-western side and another shrine for Subrahmanya on the north-western side.

## Temple offerings, rituals, and festivals

The Rajarajeshwara Temple exhibits unique characteristics, notably the incorporation of Vaishnavite influences within its Shaivite worship. The deity is revered in the transcendental form of Sadaashiva. Unlike many Shiva temples where the Bilwa leaf is essential, Tulsi leaves are used in worship here. Furthermore, Rudrabhishekam, a common ritual in most Shiva temples, is not performed. Wednesday holds greater significance than the traditionally revered Monday. Pradosham, a major observance in other Shiva temples, is not emphasized here. Additionally, the continuous flow of holy water (dhaara) over the Lingam, a standard practice in many Shiva shrines, is absent. Other distinctive features include the lack of a Dwajasthambha (flagstaff) and the absence of an annual festival or ritualistic annual bath. The deity is never taken outside the temple precincts for processions. On the northern side of the sanctum sanctorum lies the seat of Parashurama, and the door leading to this area remains perpetually closed.
Daily, five poojas are performed, consistent with the traditions of major shrines. Each day begins around 5:30 AM with the removal of the previous day's floral decorations, followed by Abhishekam using sacred water drawn from a dedicated temple tank, considered a sacred Ganga theertham. Around 6:00 AM, the deity is adorned with flower garlands, a ritual known locally as Poochaarthal. The first pooja of the day, Natravat, commences around 7:30 AM. The Pantheeradi pooja follows at approximately 9:00 AM. Subsequently, the floral decorations are removed, and Kalashaabhishekam with sanctified water precedes the Navaka pooja. The Navaka pooja is conducted in the Mandapam before the Srikovil. Uniquely, unlike most major temples where this second Abhishekam and Navaka pooja are reserved for special occasions, these rituals are performed daily. The Uchha pooja, followed by the offering of Maha Naivedyam, takes place at 10:00 AM.
Devotees present various offerings during all poojas, including Neyy-amrita (ghee pots), Neyy-vilakku (ghee lamps), and pattrom. From the Natravat pooja onwards, Ponnumkudam and Vellikkudam, vessels filled with ghee, are offered. Special prostrations, Yaamanamaskaaram and Ashwamedha namaskar, accompanied by Rigvedic mantras, are significant offerings. Notably, prostrations are not performed at the namaskara mandapam. Legend states that Sri Rama, upon his return from Lanka to Ayodhya, prayed and offered prostrations at this temple's namaskara mandapam. To honor this event, prostrations within the mandapam have been discontinued. Devotees receive Tulsi and Vibhuti as prasadam. The thaali, a wedding pendant, is a significant offering to Parvati, and turmeric powder serves as the Goddess's prasadam.
Five daily poojas are conducted, adhering to the tradition of major shrines. In the early morning, around 5:30 AM, the previous day's floral decorations are removed, and Abhishekam is performed using sacred water from a dedicated temple tank, considered a sacred Ganga theertham. Following the Abhishekam, around 6:00 AM, the deity is adorned with flower garlands, a ritual known locally as poochaarthal. The first pooja of the day, Natravat, is performed around 7:30 AM, followed by the Pantheeradi pooja around 9:00 AM. Subsequently, the decorations are removed, and Kalashaabhishekam with sanctified water precedes the Navaka pooja. The Navaka pooja is conducted in the Mandapam before the Srikovil. Unlike most major temples where this second Abhishekam and Navaka pooja are reserved for special occasions, these rituals are performed daily. The Uchha pooja, followed by the offering of Maha Naivedyam, takes place at 10:00 AM. The morning poojas conclude with the final Uchha pooja at 12:00 PM, after which the temple closes until 5:00 PM. Deepaaraadhana is performed according to sunset timings, and the final pooja, Athazha pooja, is conducted at 8:00 PM.
Shivarathri is the most significant and auspicious festival, marked by special poojas and the procession of the Balibimbam on a caparisoned elephant, accompanied by instrumental music and hymns. The Uthsava Bimbam(festival idol) of Shri Krishna from the Trichambaram temple is also brought to the temple, and the Sankaranaarayana pooja, a worship of the combined form of Shiva and Vishnu, is performed. Vishu, the Malayalam New Year, is celebrated with festivities beginning the previous evening. The presence of Shri Krishna from the Thrichabaram temple is considered auspicious on this night. Puthari (harvest festival), Karkadaka Sankramam (July), and Nira are other important celebrations.
The rulers of Chirakkal were devout followers of the deity. The Maharajas of Travancore traditionally offered an elephant to the temple before their coronation. Over centuries, the Kolathiri and Travancore royal families reciprocally adopted heirs from each other. The Samuthiri family of Kozhikode was also a devotee. The fifteenth-century philosopher, Uddhanda Shastrikal(from Tamilnadu, the author of the Kokila Sandeśa and Mallika Maruta), an adherent of Nirguna Brahmam (attributeless reality), typically refrained from saluting deities. However, upon visiting this temple, he found himself involuntarily bowing in obeisance, describing the experience as "like a lotus closing upon seeing the moon." The temple maintains a tradition of bestowing honors, including a golden wristband and title, upon individuals who have made significant contributions in their respective fields. Many eminent personalities have received these honors.

## Religious customs and rites

The Rajarajeshwara Temple is considered one of the most sacred places for performing Koodiyattam and Chakyar Koothu. Whenever a new Koodiyattam is directed, it is first performed at this temple. Only the "Mani" family of Chakyars has the exclusive right to perform Koodiyattam here. Nātyāchārya Vidūshakaratnam Padma Shri Mani Madhava Chakyar, a legendary Koodiyattam and Chakyar Koothu maestro, performed here for many decades. The title "Vidūshakaratnam" was awarded to him by this temple.
One of the highest honors an artist or scholar can receive is the "Veerashringhala" (Golden Bracelet), awarded by the unanimous approval of the temple's scholarly body. Guru Mani Madhava Chakyar was the youngest and last person to receive the Veerashringhala.
It is a religious custom among many local Hindu women to visit three prominent temples in Taliparamba during pregnancy. Apart from Rajarajeshwara Temple, the other two temples are Sri Krishna Temple at Trichambaram and Kanhirangad Vaidyanatha Kshetram, another Shiva temple, about 6 km from Taliparamba. It is believed that Shiva at Rajarajeshwara Temple assures the child a high status, Sri Krishna of Trichambaram bestows good nature and mental qualities, and Vaidyanatha Shiva at Kanjirangad Temple gives the child a long life.

## Popular visitors

* Karnataka former chief minister Yeddyurappa visited several times. He donated an elephant to this temple during one of his visits.
* Tamil Nadu former chief minister Jayalalithaa had a special relation with this temple.
* BJP president Amit Shah

## Controversies

In July 2006, Malayalam actress Meera Jasmine, a Christian, was found to have visited the temple despite the fact that non-Hindus are banned from entry. She later apologised and offered to pay money to perform purification rituals.