# Psygnosis

Psygnosis Limited (/sɪɡˈnoʊsɪs/; known as SCE Studio Liverpool or simply Studio Liverpool from 1999) was a British video game developer and publisher headquartered at Wavertree Technology Park in Liverpool. Founded in 1984 by Ian Hetherington, Jonathan Ellis, and David Lawson, the company initially became known for well-received games on the Atari ST and Amiga. In 1993, it became a wholly owned subsidiary and first-party developer of Sony Computer Entertainment (SCE) and began developing games for the original PlayStation. It later became a part of SCE Worldwide Studios. The company was the oldest and second largest development house within the company. The company is best known for creating the Wipeout, Formula One and Colony Wars series.
Reports of Studio Liverpool's closure surfaced on 22 August 2012, with Edge quoting staff tweets. Staff members were told the news by Michael Denny, vice president of Sony Worldwide Studios Europe. Sony said that the Liverpool site would remain in operation, as it was still home to many Sony Departments. At the time of its closure, it employed roughly 100 people comprising two development teams. Mick Hocking oversaw Studio Liverpool's operations as its last Group Studio Director, a position he continued to hold within Evolution Studios.
Psygnosis still exists as a legal entity under Sony and continues to make legal filings, but has had no developers since 2012. In December 2021, Sony renewed Psygnosis' logo and trademarks despite not using the Psygnosis branding since 2000, though this is thought to be standard filing practice as trademarks last for a decade in the United States and Sony had previously filed renewal applications in 2011 as well.

## History

Psygnosis was the eventual successor of the defunct 8-bit software house Imagine Software, where Lawson was one of the founders and Hetherington was financial director. Finchspeed, a company created by the directors, attempted to acquire the assets of the failing company but this was unsuccessful and the remains of Imagine, including their much-hyped but never completed "megagames", were sold by the receivers. While the name and trademarks were bought by Ocean Software, Sinclair Research paid a rumoured £100,000 for the rights to Bandersnatch and contracted a new company set up by Hetherington and Lawson, Fire Iron, to produce the game for the Sinclair QL for release in early 1985.
Sinclair withdrew funding from Fire Iron in early 1985 and Psygnosis, which became a limited company under United Kingdom company law in July 1985, launched their first title Brataccas, which featured many of the concepts originally intended for Bandersnatch, at the 1985 Personal Computer World show in September.
The name of another Imagine Megagame (the proposed but never developed Psyclapse) was later used by Psygnosis as an alternative label for some of its releases, such as Ballistix and Captain Fizz Meets The Blaster-Trons.
The box artwork was very distinctive with a black background and fantasy artwork by Roger Dean bordered in red. This style was maintained for the better part of 10 years. For the next few years, Psygnosis' releases contained increasingly improved graphics, but were marred by similarly difficult gameplay and control methods. The original company headquarters were located at the Port of Liverpool Building at the Pier Head in Liverpool, but soon moved to Century Buildings in Liverpool's Brunswick Business Park, and later moved down the road to South Harrington Building by the docks.
Although Psygnosis primarily became a game publisher, some games were developed fully or partly in-house. During the early days, artists were employed full-time at the headquarters, offering third-party developers, who were often just single programmers, a high-quality art resource. This allowed Psygnosis to maintain high graphical standards across the board. The original artists were Garvan Corbett, Jeff Bramfitt, Colin Rushby and Jim Bowers, with Neil Thompson joining a little later.
Obliterator, released in 1988, contained an opening animation by Jim Bowers. This short scene would pave the way for increasingly sophisticated intro animations, starting with 2D hand drawn sequences, and progressing into FMV and 3D rendered movies created with Sculpt 4D on the Amiga. Eventually, Psygnosis would buy Silicon Graphics workstations for the sole purpose of creating these animations.
While most game companies of the mid-to-late 1980s (including Psygnosis) were releasing identical games on both the Amiga and Atari ST, Psygnosis started to use the full potential of the Amiga's more powerful hardware to produce technically stunning games, with the landmark title Shadow of the Beast bringing the company its greatest success so far in 1989. Its multi-layered parallax scrolling and music were highly advanced for the time and as such led to the game being used as a showcase demonstration for the Amiga in many computer shops.
Psygnosis consolidated its fame after publishing the DMA Design Lemmings game franchise: debuting in 1991 on the Amiga, Lemmings was ported to a plethora of different computer and video game platforms, generating many sequels and variations of its concept through the years. Microcosm, a game that appeared on the FM Towns, Amiga CD32, and 3DO furthered the company's reputation for games with excellent graphics.
Psygnosis also created the "Face-Off" games in the Nickelodeon 1992 television game show, Nick Arcade, such as "Post Haste", "Jet Jocks" and "Battle of the Bands".
In 1993 the company was acquired by Sony Electronic Publishing. The acquisition cost Sony £20 million. In preparation for the September 1995 introduction of Sony's PlayStation console in Western markets, Psygnosis started creating games using the PlayStation as primary reference hardware. Among the most famous creations of this period were Wipeout, G-Police, and the Colony Wars series, some of which were ported to PC and to other platforms. The PlayStation marked a turning point in Psygnosis's game design, moving away from the prerendered graphics and limited gameplay that the company had become associated with. This was a successful period for the company; in the 1995–96 financial year, Psygnosis games accounted for 40% of all video games sales in Europe.
The acquisition was rewarding for Sony in another aspect: development kits for PlayStation consoles. As it had previously published PSY-Q development kits for various consoles by SN Systems, Psygnosis arranged for them to create a development system for the PS based on cheap PC hardware. Sony evaluated the system during CES in January 1994 and decided to adopt it.
As Psygnosis expanded after the Sony buyout, another satellite office was opened in Century Building with later offices opening in Stroud, London, Chester, Paris, Germany, and Foster City in California (as the Customer Support & Marketing with software development done in San Francisco), now the home of Sony Computer Entertainment America. The company headquarters has resided at Wavertree Technology Park since 1995.
The Stroud studio was opened in November 1993 in order to attract disgruntled MicroProse employees. Staff grew from initially about 50 to about 70 in 1997. Among the titles created at Stroud are Overboard! and G-Police. The Wheelhouse—its publishing name—was closed in 2000 as part of the Sony Computer Entertainment takeover of Psygnosis. Some members joined Bristol-based Rage Software, but faced a similar demise a number of years later.
Despite being owned by Sony, Psygnosis retained a degree of independence from its parent company during this period and continued to develop and publish titles for other platforms, including the Sega Saturn and the Nintendo 64. This caused friction between Psygnosis and Sony, and in 1996 Sony engaged SBC Warburg's services in finding a buyer for Psygnosis. However, though bids reportedly went as high as $300 million (more than ten times what Sony paid for the company just three years before), after six months Sony rescinded its decision to sell Psygnosis. Relations between the two companies had improved during this time, and Sony became reconciled to Psygnosis releasing games for competing platforms. Shortly after, Psygnosis took over distribution of its own titles, a task that Sony had been handling following the buyout.

### Studio Camden

Psygnosis had a subsidiary studio at Camden Town which developed Blast Radius, Kingsley's Adventure and Team Buddies. It was moved to Sony as a separate studio named SCE Studio Camden and released Dropship: United Peace Force before being merged with Team Soho into London Studio.

### As Studio Liverpool

In 1999, a process to consolidate Psygnosis into Sony Computer Entertainment was underway, resulting in the bulk of Psygnosis' sales, marketing and PR staff being made redundant and the development teams reporting directly into Sony Computer Entertainment Europe's president of software development. To reflect this, in 2000, the Psygnosis brand was dropped in favour of SCE Studio Liverpool. During the year, as its American division was shut down, Midway Home Entertainment acquired the remaining titles of Psygnosis' PlayStation lineup.
The newly named SCE Studio Liverpool released its first title, Formula One 2001, in 2001. The game was also the studio's first release on the PlayStation 2, and the first entry in the Formula One series after taking over from developer Studio 33. From 2001 to 2007, Studio Liverpool released eight instalments in the series between the PlayStation 2, PlayStation Portable and PlayStation 3. However, Sony Computer Entertainment's exclusive licence with the Formula One Group expired, without renewal, before the 2007 season, marking the end of any further Formula One series instalments from the developer.
Studio Liverpool also developed Wipeout Fusion, the first of two instalments of the series on the PlayStation 2, released in 2002. Next they developed Wipeout Pure for the PlayStation Portable, which launched alongside the handheld in 2005 to significant acclaim, with many media outlets heralding it a return to glory for the series. They followed up with the sequel Wipeout Pulse in 2007 which was later ported to the PlayStation 2 and released in Europe.
In 2008 it released Wipeout HD, a downloadable title for the PlayStation 3's PlayStation Network service, consisting of various courses taken from both Wipeout Pure and Wipeout Pulse remade in high definition. An expansion pack for Wipeout HD named Wipeout HD Fury is available at PlayStation Network, including new game modes, new tracks, new music and new ship skins/models. In 2007, a copy of Manhunt 2 was leaked online prior to its release by an employee from the Sony Europe Liverpool office.
On 29 January 2010, Sony made a public statement on its restructuring of Studio Liverpool. The closure of Studio Liverpool was announced on 22 August 2012. In a press release, Sony stated that after an assessment of all European studios, it had decided to close Studio Liverpool. Sony said that the Liverpool site would remain in operation, as it is home to a number of Sony World Wide Studios and SCEE Departments.
Eurogamer was told by an unnamed source that, at the time of its closure, Studio Liverpool was working on two PlayStation 4 launch titles. One was a Wipeout title described as "dramatically different"; the other was a motion capture-based game along the lines of Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell.

## Spin-off studios

In 2013 a number of former Studio Liverpool employees formed two new studios: Firesprite which worked on the visuals of The Playroom for the PlayStation 4, and Playrise Digital who had success with their Table Top Racing games. In September 2021, Sony acquired Firesprite.

## XDev

XDev, Sony's external development studio, is responsible for managing the development of titles at developers that are outside of Sony's own developer group. It has won 14 British Academy (BAFTA) video game awards and AIAS awards for LittleBigPlanet, 3 BAFTA awards for the Buzz! series and Develop Industry Excellence Awards for MotorStorm and Buzz!.

## Games
### Games developed or published as Psygnosis

| Year | Name | Platforms |
| 1995 | 3D Lemmings | MS-DOS, PlayStation, Sega Saturn |
| 1995 | 3D Lemmings Winterland | MS-DOS |
| 1994 | 3 Ninjas Kick Back | Sega Genesis/Mega Drive |
| 1999 | 3X: The Science of War | |
| 1996 | Adidas Power Soccer | PlayStation |
| 1998 | A Bug's Life | PlayStation, Microsoft Windows |
| 1997 | Adidas Power Soccer International 97 | PlayStation |
| 1998 | Adidas Power Soccer 98 | PlayStation, Microsoft Windows |
| 1992 | Agony | Amiga |
| 1992 | Air Support | Amiga, Atari ST |
| 1995 | All New World of Lemmings | Amiga, MS-DOS |
| 1997 | Alundra | PlayStation |
| 1991 | Amnios | Amiga |
| 1990 | Anarchy | Amiga, Atari ST |
| 1992 | Aquaventura | |
| 1991 | Armour-Geddon | Amiga, Atari ST, MS-DOS |
| 1994 | Armour-Geddon 2: Codename Hellfire | Amiga |
| 1996 | Assault Rigs | PlayStation, Sega Saturn, Windows |
| 1990 | Atomino | Amiga, Atari ST, Commodore 64, MS-DOS |
| 1999 | Attack of the Saucerman | PlayStation, Windows |
| 1990 | Awesome | Amiga, Atari ST, FM Towns |
| 1988 | Baal | Amiga, Atari ST, Commodore 64, MS-DOS |
| 1989 | Ballistix | Acorn Electron, Amiga, Atari ST, BBC Micro, Commodore 64, MS-DOS, TurboGrafx-16 |
| 1987 | Barbarian | Amiga, Amstrad CPC, Atari ST, Commodore 64, MS-DOS, ZX Spectrum |
| 1991 | Barbarian II | Amiga 500, Atari ST |
| 1994 | Benefactor | Amiga, Amiga CD32 |
| 1992 | Bill's Tomato Game | Amiga, Atari ST |
| 1998 | Blast Radius | PlayStation |
| 1989 | Blood Money | Amiga, Atari ST, Commodore 64, MS-DOS |
| 1995 | Blue Ice | Windows |
| 1993 | Bob's Bad Day | Amiga |
| 1993 | Bram Stoker's Dracula | NES, Super NES, Game Boy, Game Gear, Master System, Sega Genesis/Mega Drive, Sega CD/Mega-CD, Amiga, MS-DOS |
| 1985 | Brataccas | Amiga, Atari ST, Mac |
| 1994 | Brian the Lion | Amiga |
| 1992 | The Carl Lewis Challenge | |
| 1988 | Captain Fizz Meets The Blaster-Trons | |
| 1990 | Carthage | Amiga, Atari ST |
| 1991 | Christmas Lemmings | |
| 1996 | Chronicles of the Sword | MS-DOS, PlayStation |
| 1988 | Chrono Quest | Amiga, Atari ST, MS-DOS |
| 1997 | Colony Wars | PlayStation |
| 1998 | Colony Wars: Vengeance | PlayStation |
| 2000 | Colony Wars: Red Sun | PlayStation |
| 1993 | Combat Air Patrol | Amiga, MS-DOS |
| 1993 | Creepers | MS-DOS |
| 1992 | Cytron | Amiga |
| 1995 | Darker | MS-DOS |
| 1996 | Darkstalkers: The Night Warriors | Arcade, PlayStation, PlayStation 2, PlayStation Network |
| 1992 | Daughter of Serpents | MS-DOS |
| 1996 | Deadline | |
| 1986 | Deep Space | |
| 1995 | Defcon 5 | MS-DOS, PlayStation, Sega Saturn, 3DO |
| 1995 | Destruction Derby | MS-DOS, PlayStation, Sega Saturn, Nintendo 64 |
| 1996 | Destruction Derby 2 | MS-DOS, Windows, PlayStation |
| 1999 | Destruction Derby 64 | Nintendo 64 |
| 2000 | Destruction Derby Raw | PlayStation |
| 1995 | Diggers 2: Extractors | MS-DOS |
| 1995 | Discworld | MS-DOS, Mac OS, PlayStation, Sega Saturn |
| 1996 | Discworld II: Mortality Bytes! | MS-DOS, Windows, PlayStation, Sega Saturn |
| 1999 | Drakan: Order of the Flame | Windows |
| 1999 | Eagle One: Harrier Attack | PlayStation |
| 1994 | Ecstatica | MS-DOS |
| 1997 | Ecstatica II | MS-DOS, Windows |
| 1998 | Eliminator | PlayStation, Windows |
| 1999 | Expert Pool | Windows |
| 1996 | Formula 1 | PlayStation, Windows |
| 1997 | Formula 1 97 | PlayStation, Windows |
| 1998 | Formula 1 98 | PlayStation |
| 1999 | Formula One 99 | PlayStation, Windows |
| 2000 | Formula One 2000 | PlayStation, Game Boy Color |
| 1997 | G-Police | PlayStation, Windows |
| 1999 | G-Police: Weapons of Justice | PlayStation |
| 1993 | Global Domination | MS-DOS, Amiga |
| 1993 | Globdule | Amiga |
| 1995 | Guilty | MS-DOS |
| 1994 | Hardcore (cancelled) | Amiga, Sega Genesis/Mega Drive |
| 1994 | Hexx: Heresy of the Wizard | MS-DOS |
| 1993 | Hired Guns | Amiga, MS-DOS |
| 1990 | Infestation | Amiga, Atari ST, MS-DOS, FM Towns |
| 1993 | Innocent Until Caught | Amiga, MS-DOS |
| 1990 | The Killing Game Show | Amiga, Atari ST, Sega Genesis/Mega Drive |
| 1999 | Kingsley's Adventure | PlayStation |
| 1996 | Krazy Ivan | PlayStation, Sega Saturn, Windows |
| 1999 | Lander | Windows |
| 1993 | Last Action Hero | NES, Super NES, Sega Genesis/Mega Drive, Game Boy, Game Gear, Amiga, MS-DOS |
| 1991 | Leander | Amiga, Atari ST, Sega Genesis/Mega Drive |
| 1991 | Lemmings | Amiga, Atari ST, MS-DOS, ZX Spectrum, Amiga CDTV, Super NES, Acorn Archimedes, NES, Sharp X68000, PC-98, TurboGrafx-CD, Atari Lynx, Master System, Sega Genesis/Mega Drive, Amstrad CPC, Sam Coupé, Commodore 64, Amiga CD32, Philips CD-i, Game Gear, Game Boy, 3DO, Windows 95, Apple Macintosh, PlayStation, Game Boy Color, Sony PSP, Sony PS3 |
| 1993 | Lemmings 2: The Tribes | Amiga, Atari ST, MS-DOS, Sega Genesis/Mega Drive, Super NES, Game Boy, Acorn Archimedes, FM Towns |
| 1996 | Lemmings Paintball | Windows |
| 2000 | Lemmings Revolution | Windows |
| 1997 | Lifeforce Tenka | PlayStation, Windows |
| 1994 | Mary Shelley's Frankenstein | Super NES, Sega Genesis/Mega Drive, Sega CD/Mega-CD |
| 1990 | Matrix Marauders | Amiga, Atari ST |
| 1988 | Menace | Amiga, Atari ST, Commodore 64, MS-DOS |
| 2000 | Metal Fatigue | Windows |
| 1996 | Mickey's Wild Adventure | PlayStation |
| 1993 | Microcosm | FM Towns, Sega CD/Mega-CD, 3DO, Amiga CD32, MS-DOS |
| 2000 | Muppet Monster Adventure | PlayStation |
| 2000 | Muppet RaceMania | PlayStation |
| 1994 | Misadventures of Flink | CD32, Sega Genesis/Mega Drive, Sega CD/Mega-CD |
| 1999 | Nations: WWII Fighter Command | |
| 1989 | Nevermind | Amiga |
| 1990 | Nitro | Amiga, Atari ST |
| 1994 | Novastorm | PlayStation, MS-DOS, FM-Towns, 3DO, Sega CD/Mega-CD |
| 1994 | No Escape | Sega Genesis/Mega Drive |
| 1998 | O.D.T. – Escape... Or Die Trying | PlayStation, Windows |
| 1991 | Obitus | Amiga, Atari ST, MS-DOS, Super NES |
| 1988 | Obliterator | Amiga, Amstrad CPC, Atari ST, MS-DOS, ZX Spectrum |
| 1991 | Oh No! More Lemmings | Amiga, MS-DOS, Atari ST, SAM Coupé, Apple Macintosh, Acorn Archimedes |
| 1991 | Ork | Amiga, Atari ST |
| 1997 | Overboard! | Microsoft Windows, PlayStation |
| 1999 | Panzer Elite | Windows |
| 1993 | Perihelion: The Prophecy | Amiga |
| 1993 | Prime Mover | |
| 1993 | Prince of Persia 2: The Shadow and the Flame | MS-DOS, Mac OS, Super NES, FM Towns, Xbox (bonus) |
| 1999 | Pro 18 World Tour Golf | PlayStation, Windows |
| 1997 | Professional Underground League of Pain | MS-DOS, PlayStation, Windows |
| 1998 | Psybadek | PlayStation |
| 1993 | Puggsy | Sega Genesis/Mega Drive, Sega CD/Mega-CD, Amiga |
| 1995 | Pyrotechnica | |
| 1998 | Rascal | PlayStation |
| 1992 | Red Zone | Amiga |
| 1999 | Retro Force | PlayStation |
| 1998 | Roll Away | PlayStation, Android |
| 1999 | Rollcage | PlayStation, Windows |
| 2000 | Rollcage Stage II | PlayStation, Windows |
| 1997 | Rosco McQueen Firefighter Extreme | PlayStation |
| 1997 | Rush Hour | PlayStation, Microsoft Windows |
| 1994 | Second Samurai | Mega Drive, Amiga |
| 1997 | Sentient | PlayStation, MS-DOS, Windows |
| 1998 | Sentinel Returns | Windows, PlayStation |
| 1997 | Shadow Master | PlayStation, Windows |
| 1989 | Shadow of the Beast | Amiga, Atari ST, Commodore 64, Sega Genesis/Mega Drive |
| 1990 | Shadow of the Beast II | Amiga, Atari ST, Sega Genesis/Mega Drive |
| 1992 | Shadow of the Beast III | Amiga |
| 1995 | Silverload | MS-DOS |
| 1997 | Shipwreckers! | Microsoft Windows, PlayStation |
| 1998 | Spice World | PlayStation |
| 1990 | Stryx | |
| 2000 | Team Buddies | PlayStation |
| 1999 | Tellurian Defense | |
| 1987 | Terrorpods | Amiga, Atari ST, Commodore 64, Amstrad CPC, ZX Spectrum, MSX |
| 1996 | Adventures of Lomax, TheThe Adventures of Lomax | PlayStation, Windows |
| 1997 | The City of Lost Children | MS-DOS, PlayStation |
| 1993 | Theatre of Death | |
| 1997 | Thunder Truck Rally | PlayStation, Windows |
| 1993 | Walker | Amiga |
| 1995 | Wipeout | PlayStation |
| 1998 | Wipeout 64 | Nintendo 64 |
| 1996 | Wipeout: 2097/Wipeout XL | PlayStation |
| 1999 | Wipeout 3 | PlayStation |
| 2000 | Wipeout 3: Special Edition | PlayStation |
| 1993 | Wiz 'n' Liz: The Frantic Wabbit Wescue | Amiga, Sega Genesis/Mega Drive |
| 1995 | X-It | |
| 1998 | Zombieville | |

### Games developed as SCE Studio Liverpool

| Game title | Year released | Platform(s) |
| Formula One 2001 | 2001 | PlayStation 2 |
| Wipeout Fusion | 2002 | PlayStation 2 |
| Formula One 2002 | 2002 | PlayStation 2 |
| Formula One 2003 | 2003 | PlayStation 2 |
| Formula One 04 | 2004 | PlayStation 2 |
| Wipeout Pure | 2005 | PlayStation Portable |
| Formula One 05 | 2005 | PlayStation 2 |
| Formula One 06 | 2006 | PlayStation 2 |
| Formula One 06 | 2006 | PlayStation Portable |
| Formula One Championship Edition | 2006 | PlayStation 3 |
| Wipeout Pulse | 2007 | PlayStation 2 |
| Wipeout Pulse | 2007 | PlayStation Portable |
| Wipeout HD | 2008 | PlayStation 3 |
| Wipeout HD Fury (DLC) | 2009 | PlayStation 3 |
| Wipeout 2048 | 2012 | PlayStation Vita |