# Philosophy, politics and economics

Philosophy, politics and economics, or politics, philosophy and economics (PPE), is an interdisciplinary undergraduate or postgraduate degree which combines study from three disciplines. The first institution to offer degrees in PPE was the University of Oxford in the 1920s. This particular course has produced a significant number of notable graduates such as Aung San Suu Kyi, Burmese politician and former State Counsellor of Myanmar, Nobel Peace Prize winner; Princess Haya bint Hussein, daughter of the late King Hussein of Jordan; Christopher Hitchens, the British–American author and journalist; Will Self, British author and journalist; Oscar-winning writer and director Florian Henckel von Donnersmarck; Michael Dummett, Gareth Evans, Philippa Foot, Christopher Peacocke, Gilbert Ryle, and Peter Strawson, philosophers; Harold Wilson, Edward Heath, David Cameron, Liz Truss and Rishi Sunak, Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom; Hugh Gaitskell, Michael Foot, William Hague and Ed Miliband, former Leaders of the Opposition; former Prime Ministers of Pakistan Benazir Bhutto and Imran Khan; and Malcolm Fraser, Bob Hawke and Tony Abbott, former Prime Ministers of Australia; and Malala Yousafzai, Nobel Peace Prize winner.
In the 1980s, the University of York went on to establish its own PPE degree based upon the Oxford model; King's College London, the University of Warwick, the University of Manchester, and other British universities later followed. According to the BBC, the Oxford PPE "dominate[s] public life" in the UK. It is now offered at several other leading colleges and universities around the world. More recently Warwick University and King's College added a new degree under the name of PPL (Politics, Philosophy and Law) with the aim to bring an alternative to the more classical PPE degrees.
In the United States, it is offered by over 50 colleges and universities, including three Ivy League schools and a large number of public universities. Harvard University began offering a similar degree in Social Studies in 1960, combining history, political science, economics, sociology, and anthropology. In 2020, in addition to its undergraduate degree programs in PPE, Virginia Tech joined the Chapman University's Smith Institute as among the first research centers in the world dedicated to interdisciplinary research in PPE. Several PPE programs exist in Canada, including the Frank McKenna School of Philosophy, Politics and Economics at Mount Allison University. In Asia, Peking University, Tsinghua University, Waseda University, NUS, Tel-Aviv University and Ashoka University are among those that have PPE or similar programs.
In recent years, noteably in civil law countries, Politics, Philosophy, Law and Economics (PPLE) has been on the rise as a broader version of PPE.

## History

Philosophy, politics and economics was established as a degree course at the University of Oxford in the 1920s, as a modern alternative to classics (known as "literae humaniores" or "greats" at Oxford) for those entering the civil service. It was thus initially known as "modern greats". The first PPE students commenced their course in the autumn of 1921. The regulation by which it was established is Statt. Tit. VI. Sect. 1 C; "the subject of the Honour School of Philosophy, Politics, and Economics shall be the study of the structure, and the philosophical and economic principles, of Modern Society." Initially it was compulsory to study all three subjects for all three years of the course, but in 1970 this requirement was relaxed, and since then students have been able to drop one subject after the first year – most do this, but a minority continue with all three.
During the 1960s some students started to critique the course from a left-wing perspective, culminating in the publication of a pamphlet, The Poverty of PPE, in 1968, written by Trevor Pateman, who argued that it "gives no training in scholarship, only refining to a high degree of perfection the ability to write short dilettantish essays on the basis of very little knowledge: ideal training for the social engineer". The pamphlet advocated incorporating the study of sociology, anthropology and art, and to take on the aim of "assist(ing) the radicalisation and mobilisation of political opinion outside the university". In response, some minor changes were made, with influential leftist writers such as Frantz Fanon and Régis Debray being added to politics reading lists, but the core of the programme remained the same.
Christopher Stray has pointed to the course as one reason for the gradual decline of the study of classics, as classicists in political life began to be edged out by those who had studied the modern greats.
Political theorists Dario Castiglione and Iain Hampsher-Monk have described the course as being fundamental to the development of political thought in the UK since it established a connection between politics and philosophy. Previously at Oxford, and for some time subsequently at Cambridge, politics had been taught only as a branch of modern history.

## Course material

The programme is rooted in the view that to understand social phenomena one must approach them from several complementary disciplinary directions and analytical frameworks. In this regard, the study of philosophy is considered important because it both equips students with meta-tools such as the ability to reason rigorously and logically, and facilitates ethical reflection. The study of politics is considered necessary because it acquaints students with the institutions that govern society and help solve collective action problems. Finally, studying economics is seen as vital in the modern world because political decisions often concern economic matters, and government decisions are often influenced by economic events. The vast majority of students at Oxford drop one of the three subjects for the second and third years of their course. Oxford now has more than 600 undergraduates studying the subject, admitting over 200 each year.

## Academic opinions

Oxford PPE graduate Nick Cohen and former tutor Iain McLean consider the course's breadth important to its appeal, especially "because British society values generalists over specialists". Academic and Labour peer Maurice Glasman noted that "PPE combines the status of an elite university degree – PPE is the ultimate form of being good at school – with the stamp of a vocational course. It is perfect training for cabinet membership, and it gives you a view of life". However, he also noted that it had an orientation towards consensus politics and technocracy.
Geoffrey Evans, an Oxford fellow in politics and a senior tutor, critiques that the Oxford course's success and consequent over-demand is a self-perpetuating feature of those in front of and behind the scenes in national administration, in stating "all in all, it's how the class system works". In the current economic system, he bemoans the unavoidable inequalities besetting admissions and thereby enviable recruitment prospects of successful graduates. The argument itself intended as a paternalistic ethical reflection on how governments and peoples can perpetuate social stratification.
Stewart Wood, a former adviser to Ed Miliband who studied PPE at Oxford in the 1980s and taught politics there in the 1990s and 2000s, acknowledged that the programme has been slow to catch up with contemporary political developments, saying that "it does still feel like a course for people who are going to run the Raj in 1936... In the politics part of PPE, you can go three years without discussing a single contemporary public policy issue". He also stated that the structure of the course gave it a centrist bias, due to the range of material covered: "...most students think, mistakenly, that the only way to do it justice is to take a centre position".

## List of offering universities
### United Kingdom
#### England

* Birkbeck, University of London
* Durham University
* Goldsmiths, University of London
* Keele University
* King's College London
* Kingston University
* Lancaster University
* London School of Economics
* The Open University
* Royal Holloway, University of London
* SOAS University of London
* University College London
* University of Buckingham
* New College of the Humanities at Northeastern
* University of East Anglia
* University of Essex
* University of Exeter
* University of Hull
* University of Leeds
* University of Liverpool
* University of Loughborough
* University of Manchester
* University of Nottingham
* University of Oxford
* University of Reading
* University of Sheffield
* University of Southampton
* University of Sussex
* University of Warwick
* University of Winchester
* University of York

#### Scotland

* University of Aberdeen
* University of Edinburgh
* University of the Highlands and Islands
* University of Stirling

#### Wales

* Swansea University

#### Northern Ireland

* Queen's University Belfast

### North America
#### Canada

* Mount Allison University (within the Frank McKenna School of Philosophy, Politics, & Economics)
* Queen's University
* The King's University
* University of British Columbia (Okanagan Campus)
* University of Regina
* University of Western Ontario
* Wilfrid Laurier University

#### United States

* Arizona State University (certificate)
* Austin College
* Belmont Abbey College
* Binghamton University (under the designation of "PPL" – replacing economics with law)
* Bowie State University
* Bowling Green State University (under the designation of "PPEL" – with law)
* Boyce College
* Bridgewater State University (minor)
* Calvin University
* Carnegie Mellon University (under the designation "Ethics, History, and Public Policy", abbreviated "EHPP")
* Carroll University
* Claremont McKenna College
* Cornell University (offers academic year abroad at Oxford University to study PPE)
* Criswell College
* Dallas Baptist University
* Dartmouth College (under the modified major of "Politics, Philosophy, and the Economy")
* Denison University
* Drexel University
* Duke University (certificate)
* Eastern Oregon University
* Elon University (minor)
* Emory & Henry College
* Florida State University (minor)
* George Mason University
* Georgia State University
* Indiana University of Pennsylvania
* Juniata College
* The King's College
* La Salle University
* Liberty University (online)
* Mercer University
* Minnesota State University, Mankato
* Mount St. Mary's University
* Murphy Institute (Tulane University, under the designation "Political Economy")
* Northeastern University
* Northwest Nazarene University
* Ohio Northern University
* Ohio State University
* Ottawa University
* Palm Beach Atlantic University
* Pomona College
* Rhodes College
* Rutgers University–New Brunswick (certificate)
* Seattle Pacific University
* Siena Heights University (certificate)
* Spring Hill College
* St. John's University (master's degree)
* State University of New York at Oswego
* Suffolk University
* Swarthmore College
* Taylor University
* Texas Tech University (as a concentration of an Honor Sciences and the Humanities degree)
* Transylvania University
* University of Akron
* University of Alabama at Birmingham (as a concentration of an Economics degree)
* University of Arizona (under the designation "PPEL" – with law)
* University at Buffalo
* University of California, Berkeley (minor, under the designation "PPL" – replacing economics with law)
* University of California, Irvine
* The University of Idaho (minor)
* University of Iowa (under the designation "Ethics & Public Policy")
* The University of Louisville (minor)
* University of Maryland
* University of Michigan (honors program)
* University of Minnesota Morris (as a concentration of a Philosophy degree)
* University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (minor)
* University of Notre Dame (minor)
* University of Pennsylvania
* University of Pittsburgh
* University of Richmond (under the designation "PPEL" – with law)
* University of Rochester
* University of San Diego (minor)
* University of Sioux Falls (as "Philosophy, Economics, and Political Theory")
* University of Southern California
* University of Virginia (under the designation "PPL" – replacing economics with law)
* University of Washington Bothell (under the designation "Law, Economics & Public Policy", abbreviated "LEPP")
* University of Washington Tacoma
* University of Wisconsin Political Economy, Politics and Philosophy (certificate program)
* Utah State University (certificate)
* Villanova University (honors program and honors minor)
* Virginia Tech (offers both a major and a minor in PPE)
* Wabash College
* Wesleyan University (under the designation "College of Social Studies")
* Western Washington University
* Wheaton College (certificate)
* Wheeling University (under the designation "political and economic philosophy")
* Xavier University (under the designation "Philosophy, Politics, and the Public", abbreviated "PPP")
* Yale University (under the designation "ethics, politics and economics", abbreviated "EP&E")

### Africa
#### South Africa

* Stellenbosch University
* University of Cape Town
* University of KwaZulu-Natal
* University of South Africa
* University of Johannesburg
* University of Witwatersrand
* University of Pretoria

#### Nigeria

* Obafemi Awolowo University,
* Afe Babalola University,

### Oceania
#### Australia

* Australian National University
* Deakin University
* La Trobe University
* University of Adelaide
* University of New South Wales
* University of Sydney
* University of Queensland
* University of Technology, Sydney
* University of Western Australia
* University of Wollongong
* Murdoch University (appears as a unit in Philosophy (BA) or Ethics minor)
* Monash University

#### New Zealand

* University of Canterbury
* University of Otago
* Victoria University of Wellington

### Europe
#### Northern Europe
##### Iceland

* Bifröst University, Iceland

##### Sweden

* Lund University, Sweden
* Stockholm University, Sweden
* Södertörn University, Sweden

#### Southern Europe
##### Italy

* Ca' Foscari University of Venice, Italy (under the designation of "Philosophy, International Studies and Economics" abbreviated "PISE", more recently "Philosophy, International and Economic Studies")
* Free University of Bolzano, Italy
* Libera Università Internazionale degli Studi Sociali Guido Carli, Rome (Italy)
* University of Milan, Italy (BA International Politics, Law, and Economics, MA Politics, Philosophy, and Public Affairs )
* University of Bari, Italy (University Master Programme, 'Philosophy, Politics and Economics in Med')

##### Spain

* Charles III University of Madrid, Autonomous University of Madrid, Autonomous University of Barcelona and Pompeu Fabra University (alliance of four universities), Spain
* Ramon Llull University, Barcelona, Spain
* Comillas Pontifical University, Madrid (joint degree), Spain
* Francisco de Vitoria University, Spain
* University of Navarra, Spain
* University of Deusto, Basque Country, Spain
* IE University, Madrid, Spain (offered together with Law)

##### Portugal

* ISCTE – University Institute of Lisbon (Politics, Economy and Society)
* Catholic University of Lisbon – Human Sciences university

##### Turkey

* Ankara University, Turkey(Politics and Economics, still abbreviated as PPE)

#### Western Europe
##### Austria

* Central European University, Vienna, Austria
* University of Vienna, Austria (MA Philosophy and Economics, P&E)
* University of Salzburg, Austria
* University of Graz, Austria (under the designation of MA "political, economic and legal philosophy" abbreviated "PELP")

##### Belgium

* UCLouvain, Belgium

##### France

* American University of Paris, France
* Sciences Po, France
* European School of Political and Social Sciences, France

##### Germany

* Karlshochschule International University, Germany, offers both a BA in Politics, Philosophy & Economics "PPE" as well as a MA in "Social Transformation: PPE".
* Bard College Berlin, Germany (under the designation of BA "Economics, Politics and Social Thought" abbreviated "EPST")
* Frankfurt School of Finance & Management, Germany (under the designation of B.Sc. "Management, Philosophy & Economics" abbreviated "MPE")
* University of Bayreuth, Germany (Philosophy and Economics, P&E)
* University of Hamburg, Germany (under the designation of M.Sc. "politics, economics and philosophy" abbreviated "PEP")
* Heinrich-Heine-University Düsseldorf, Germany (Bachelor since 2018/ Master starting in 2023)
* Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, Germany
* Witten/Herdecke University (bachelor and master), Germany

##### Ireland

* National University of Ireland, Maynooth
* UCD, National University of Ireland
* Trinity College, The University of Dublin

##### The Netherlands

* Utrecht University(Honours College)
* Leiden University, Netherlands
* University of Amsterdam, Netherlands under the designation: PPLE, Politics, Psychology, Law and Economics
* VU Amsterdam, Netherlands, Bachelor's Philosophy, Politics and Economics at the John Stuart Mill College
* Erasmus University College, Netherlands, under the designation, Bachelor of Liberal Arts and Science – Major in Philosophy, Politics and Economics (PPE) – and a Research Master in Philosophy and Economics.
* University of Groningen, Netherlands, Master's Philosophy, Politics and Economics

##### Switzerland

* University of Zurich, Switzerland (under the designation of MA "economic and political philosophy")
* University of Bern, Switzerland (under the designation of MA "political, legal and economic philosophy" abbreviated "PLEP")
* University of Lucerne, Switzerland

#### Eastern Europe
##### Czech Republic

* CEVRO Institute, Prague, Czech Republic
* Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic, BA & MA programs

##### Hungary

* Corvinus University of Budapest, Budapest, Hungary
* University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary

##### Others

* University of Bucharest, Romania (Master's degree in Philosophy, Politics and Economics)
* National Research University – Higher School of Economics, (Masters in Politics, Economics, Philosophy), Moscow, Russia
* Ukrainian Catholic University, Lviv, Ukraine (under the designation "Ethics. Politics. Economics", abbreviated "EPE")
* American University of Armenia, (Minor in Philosophy, Politics, & Economics, abbreviated as PPE), Yerevan, Armenia

### Asia
#### East Asia
##### China
###### Mainland China

* Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
* Peking University, Beijing, China
* Renmin University of China, Beijing, China
* Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
* Fudan University, Shanghai, China
* Nankai University, Tianjin, China
* Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
* Zhongnan University of Economics and Law, Wuhan, China
* Shandong University, Jinan, China
* Inner Mongolia University, Hohhot, China

###### Hong Kong Special Administrative Region

* Hang Seng University of Hong Kong

##### Korea

* Seoul National University, S. Korea
* Korea University, S. Korea
* Kyungpook National University, S. Korea
* Sungkyunkwan University, S. Korea
* Sogang University, S. Korea
* Hanyang University (under the designation "PPEL" – with law), S. Korea
* Yonsei University, S. Korea

##### Japan

* Keio University, Japan
* University of Kyoto, Japan
* University of Tokyo, Japan
* Waseda University, Japan

#### Southeast Asia
##### Singapore

Nanyang Technologial University, Singapore
* Yale-NUS, Singapore
* National University of Singapore, Singapore

##### Thailand

* Rangsit University, Thailand
* Thammasat University, Thailand

#### South Asia
##### India

* Lucknow University, Lucknow, India
* Amity University, Noida, India
* Bangalore University, Bangalore, India
* Birla Institute of Technology and Science, India
* Azim Premji University, Bangalore, India
* Ashoka University, India

##### Pakistan

* Aga Khan University, Karachi, Pakistan

##### Bangladesh

* Asian University for Women, Bangladesh

#### Middle East
##### Israel

* Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel
* Tel Aviv University (under the designation "PPEL" – with law), Israel
* Open University of Israel, Israel

### Latin America

* Universidad Torcuato Di Tella (under the designation "Ciencia Sociales, Orientación en Política y Economía"), Argentina
* Universidad Metropolitana (under the designation "Estudios Liberales"), Venezuela
* Universidad de las Americas (under the designation "Filosofia, Politica, y Economia"), Ecuador
* Universidad del Desarrollo Chile (under the Master Program "Filosofia, Politica, y Economia PPE"), Santiago de Chile.
* Universidad del Pacífico (under the designation "Política, Filosofía y Economia"), Peru.