# Nepali grammar

Nepali grammar is the study of the morphology and syntax of Nepali, an Indo-European language spoken in South Asia.

## Morphology
### Nouns

Nepali nouns that denote male and female beings are sometimes distinguished by suffixation or through pairs of lexically differing terms. Thus one pattern involves masculine -o/ā vs feminine -ī suffixes (e.g. chorā "son" : chorī "daughter", buṛho "old man" : buṛhī "old woman"), while another such phenomenon is that of the derivational feminine suffix -nī (e.g. chetrī "Chetri" : chetrīnī "Chetri woman", kukur "dog" : kukurnī "female dog"). Beyond this, nouns are otherwise not overtly marked (i.e. inanimate nouns, abstract nouns, all other animates).
Overall, in terms of grammatical gender, among Indo-Aryan languages, Nepali possesses an "attenuated gender" system, in which "gender accord typically is restricted to female animates (so that the system is essentially restructured as zero/+Fem), optional or loose even then […], and greatly reduced in syntactic scope. […] In Nepali, the [declensional] ending is a neutral -o, changeable to -ī with Personal Feminines in more formal style."
Nepali distinguishes two numbers, with a common pluralizing suffix for nouns in -harū (e.g. mitra "friend" : mitraharū "friends"). Unlike the English plural it is not mandatory, and may be left unexpressed if plurality is already indicated in some other way: e.g. by explicit numbering, or agreement. Riccardi (2003:554) further notes that the suffix "rarely indicates simple plurality: it often means that other objects of the same or a like class are also indicated and may be translated as 'and other things'."

### Adjectives

Adjectives may be divided into declinable and indeclinable categories. Declinables are marked, through termination, for the gender and number of the nouns they qualify. The declinable endings are -o for the "masculine" singular, -ī for the feminine singular, and -ā for the plural. e.g. sāno kitāb "small book", sānī keṭī "small girl", sānā kalamharū "small pens".
"Masculine", or rather "neutral" -o is the citation form and the otherwise overwhelmingly more encountered declension, as previously noted, gender in Nepali is attenuated and accord "typically is restricted to female animates", and "optional or loose even then". However, "In writing, there has been a strong tendency by some to extend the use of feminine markers beyond their use in speech to include the consistent marking of certain adjectives with feminine endings. This tendency is strengthened by some Nepali grammars and may be reinforced by the influence of Hindi upon both speech and writing."
Indeclinable adjectives are completely invariable, and can end in either consonants or vowels (except -o).
* Examples of declinable adjectives: ṭhūlo "big", rāmro "good", seto "white", sāno "small".
* Examples of indeclinable adjectives: garīb "poor", saphā "clean", dhanī "rich", nayā̃ "new".

### Postpositions

In Nepali the locus of grammatical function or "case-marking" lies within a system of agglutinative suffixes or particles known as postpositions, which parallel English's prepositions. There is a number of such one-word primary postpositions:
* ko – genitive marker; variably declinable in the manner of an adjective. X ko/kī/kā Y has the sense "X's Y", with ko/kī/kā agreeing with Y.
* lāī – marks the indirect object (hence named "Ergative marker"), or, if definite, the direct object.
* le – both instrumental and ergative marker; in its latter capacity it is applied to the subject obligatorily in the transitive perfective/perfect and optionally in other transitive aspects.
* mā – general locative marker; "in, at, on", etc.
* bhandā – an ablative postposition used for comparatives and along with adverbs for compound postpositions.
* Riccardi (2003:557) lists the following other common primary postpositions: tala "below", muni "under", dekhi "from", bāṭa "from", sãga "with", sita "with", pachi "after", samma "up to", bittikai "as soon as".
Beyond this come compound postpositions, composed of a primary postposition (most likely ko or bhandā) plus an adverb.
* ko lāgi "for", ko pachāṛī "behind", ko viruddha "against", bhandā māthi "above", bhandā par "beyond", etc.

### Pronouns

Nepali has personal pronouns for the first and second persons, while third person forms are of demonstrative origin, and can be categorized deictically as proximate and distal. The pronominal system is quite elaborate, by reason of its differentiation on lines of sociolinguistic formality. In this respect it has three levels or grades of formality/status: low, middle, and high (see T-V distinction for further clarification). Pronouns do not distinguish gender.
The first person singular pronoun is म ma, and the first person plural is हामी hāmī. The following table lists the second and third person singular forms.
| | 2nd pn. | 3rd pn. | 3rd pn. | 3rd pn. |
| | 2nd pn. | Prox. | Dist. | Dist. |
| Low | तँ tã | यो yo (यस yas) | त्यो tyo (त्यस tyas) | ऊ ū (उस us) |
| Middle | तिमी timī | यिनी yinī (यिन yin) | तिनी tinī (तिन tin) | उनी unī (उन un) |
| High | तपाईं tapāī̃ | यहाँ yahā̃ | | वहाँ wahā̃ |
yo and tyo have yī and tī as plurals, while other pronouns pluralize (including hāmī, for emphasis, but excluding ū) with the common suffix -harū. Also, bracketed beside of a number of forms in the above chart are their oblique counterparts, used when they (as demonstrative pronouns) or that which they qualify (as demonstrative determiners) are followed by a postposition. However, the need to oblique weakens the longer distance between demonstrative and postposition gets. Also, one exception which does not require obliquing is -sãga "with".

### Verbs

Verbs in Nepali are quite highly inflected, agreeing with the subject in number, gender, status and person. They also inflect for tense, mood, and aspect. As well as these inflected finite forms, there are also a large number of participial forms.
Possibly the most important verb in Nepali, as well as the most irregular, is the verb हुनु hunu 'to be, to become'. In the simple present tense, there are at least three conjugations of हुनु hunu, only one of which is regular. The first, the ho-conjugation is, broadly speaking, used to define things, and as such its complement is usually a noun. The second, the cha-conjugation is used to describe things, and the complement is usually an adjectival or prepositional phrase. The third, the huncha-conjugation, is used to express regular occurrences or future events, and also expresses 'to become' or 'to happen'.
They are conjugated as follows:
Simple Present conjugation of the verb हुनु hunu :
| | हो ho | छ cha | हुन्छ huncha |
| First person singular | हुँ hũ | छु chu | हुन्छु hunchu |
| First person plural | हौँ haũ | छौँ chaũ | हुन्छौँ hunchaũ |
| Second person singular low-grade | होस् hos | छस् chas | हुन्छस् hunchas |
| Second person middle-grade/plural | हौ hau | छौ chau | हुन्छौ hunchau |
| High grade | हुनुहन्छ hunuhuncha | हुनुहन्छ hunuhuncha | हुनुहन्छ hunuhuncha |
| Third person singular low-grade | हो ho | छ cha | हुन्छ huncha |
| Third person middle-grade/plural masculine | हुन् hun | छन् chan | हुन्छन् hunchan |
| Third person middle-grade/plural feminine | हुन् hun | छिन् chin | हुन्छिन् hunchin |
हुनु hunu also has two suppletive stems in the simple past, namely भ- bha- (the use of which corresponds to the huncha-conjugation) and थि- thi- (which corresponds to both the cha and ho-conjugations) which are otherwise regularly conjugated. भ- bha- is also the stem used in the formation of the various participles.
The finite forms of regular verbs are conjugated as follows (using गर्नु garnu 'to do' as an example):
Finite forms of गर्नु garnu 'to do' :
| | Simple Present/Future | Probable Future | Simple Past | Past Habitual | Injunctive | Imperative |
| First person singular | गर्छुgarchuगर्छुgarchu'I (will) do' | गरुँलाgarũlāगरुँलाgarũlā'I will (probably) do' | गरेँgarẽगरेँgarẽ'I did' | गर्थेँgarthẽगर्थेँgarthẽ'I used to do' | गरुँgarũगरुँgarũ'may I do' | – |
| First person plural | गर्छौँgarchaũगर्छौँgarchaũ'We (will) do' | गरौँलाgaraũlāगरौँलाgaraũlā'We will (probably) do' | गर्यौgaryaũगर्यौgaryaũ'We did' | गर्थ्यौँgarthyaũगर्थ्यौँgarthyaũ'We used to do' | गरौँgaraũगरौँgaraũ'may we do, let's do' | – |
| Second person singular low-grade | गर्छस्garchasगर्छस्garchas'you (will) do' | गर्लास्garlāsगर्लास्garlās'you will (probably) do' | गरिस्garisगरिस्garis'you did' | गर्थिस्garthisगर्थिस्garthis'you used to do' | गरेस्garesगरेस्gares'may you do' | गर्garगर्gar'do!' |
| Second person middle-grade/plural | गर्छौgarchauगर्छौgarchau'you (will) do' | गरौलाgaraulāगरौलाgaraulā'you will (probably) do' | गर्यौgaryauगर्यौgaryau'you did' | गर्थ्यौgarthyauगर्थ्यौgarthyau'you used to do' | गरौgarauगरौgarau'may you do' | गरgaraगरgara'do' |
| High grade | गर्नुहुन्छgarnuhunchaगर्नुहुन्छgarnuhuncha'you (will) do' | गर्नुहोलाgarnuholaगर्नुहोलाgarnuhola'you will (probably) do' | गर्नुभयोgarnubhayoगर्नुभयोgarnubhayo'you did' | गर्नुहुन्थ्योgarnuhunthyoगर्नुहुन्थ्योgarnuhunthyo'you used to do' | गर्नुहोस्garnuhosगर्नुहोस्garnuhos'may you do, please do' | – |
| Third person singular low-grade | गर्छgarchaगर्छgarcha'he does' | गर्लाgarlāगर्लाgarlā'he will (probably) do' | गर्योgaryoगर्योgaryo'he did' | गर्थ्योgarthyoगर्थ्योgarthyo'he used to do' | गरोस्garosगरोस्garos'may he do' | – |
| Third person middle-grade/plural masculine | गर्छन्garchanगर्छन्garchan'they (will) do' | गर्लान्garlānगर्लान्garlān'they will (probably) do' | गरेgareगरेgare'they did' | गर्थेgartheगर्थेgarthe'they used to do' | गरून्garūnगरून्garūn'may they do' | – |
| Third person middle-grade/plural feminine | गर्छिन्garchinगर्छिन्garchin'she (will) do' | गर्लिन्garlinगर्लिन्garlin'she will (probably) do' | गरिन्garinगरिन्garin'she did' | गर्थिन्garthinगर्थिन्garthin'she used to do' | गरुन्garūnगरुन्garūn'may she do' | – |
As well as these, there are two forms which are infinitival and participial in origin, but are frequently used as if they were finite verbs. Again using गर्नु garnu as an example, these are गरेको gareko 'did' and गर्ने garne 'will do'. Since they are simpler than the conjugated forms, these are often overused by non-native speakers, which can sound stilted.
The eko-participle is also the basis of perfect constructions in Nepali. This is formed by using the auxiliary verb हुनु hunu (usually the cha-form in the present tense and the thi-form in the past) with the eko-participle. So, for example, मैले काम गरेको छु maile kām gareko chu means 'I have done (the) work'.

#### Infinitives

Nepali has two infinitives. The first is formed by adding -नु nu to the verb stem. This is the citation form of the verb, and is used in a number of constructions, the most important being the construction expressing obligation. This is formed by combining the nu-infinitive with the verb पर्नु parnu 'to fall'. This is an impersonal construction, which means that the object marker -लाई lāī is often added to the agent, unless the verb is transitive, in which case the ergative/instrumental case marker -ले le is added. So, for example, I have to do work would be translated as मैले काम गर्नुपर्छ maile kām garnuparcha. It is also used with the postposition -अघि aghi 'before'. गर्नुअघि garnuaghi, then, means 'before doing'.
The second infinitive is formed by adding -न na to the verb stem. This is used in a wide variety of situations, and can generally be used where the infinitive is used in English. For example, म काम गर्न रामकहाँ गएको थिएँ ma kām garna rāmkahā̃ gaeko thiẽ 'I had gone to Ram's place to do work'.