# LoRa

LoRa (from "Long Range", sometimes abbreviated as "LR") is a physical proprietary radio communication technique. It is based on spread spectrum modulation techniques derived from chirp spread spectrum (CSS) technology. It was developed by Cycleo, a company of Grenoble, France, and patented in 2014. In March 2012, Cycleo was acquired by the US company Semtech.
LoRaWAN (Long Range Wide Area Network) defines the communication protocol and system architecture. LoRaWAN is an official standard of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), ITU-T Y.4480. The continued development of the LoRaWAN protocol is managed by the open, non-profit LoRa Alliance, of which Semtech is a founding member.
Together, LoRa and LoRaWAN define a low-power, wide-area (LPWA) networking protocol designed to wirelessly connect battery operated devices to the Internet in regional, national or global networks, and targets key Internet of things (IoT) requirements, such as bi-directional communication, end-to-end security, mobility and localization services. The low power, low bit rate, and IoT use distinguish this type of network from a wireless WAN that is designed to connect users or businesses, and carry more data, using more power. The LoRaWAN data rate ranges from 0.3 kbit/s to 50 kbit/s per channel.

## Features

LoRa uses license-free sub-gigahertz radio frequency bands EU868 (863–870/873 MHz) in Europe; AU915/AS923-1 (915–928 MHz) in South America; US915 (902–928 MHz) in North America; IN865 (865–867 MHz) in India; and AS923 (915–928 MHz) in Asia; LoRa enables long-range transmissions with low power consumption. The technology covers the physical layer, while other technologies and protocols such as LoRaWAN cover the upper layers. It can achieve data rates between 0.3 kbit/s and 27 kbit/s, depending upon the spreading factor.
LoRa is one of the most popular low-power wireless sensor network technologies for the implementation of the Internet of Things, offering long-range communication compared to technologies such as Zigbee or Bluetooth, but with lower data rates.
LoRa devices have geolocation capabilities used for trilaterating positions of devices via timestamps from gateways.

## LoRa PHY

LoRa uses a proprietary spread spectrum modulation that is similar to and a derivative of chirp spread spectrum (CSS) modulation. Each symbol is represented by a cyclic shifted chirp over the bandwidth centered around the base frequency. The spreading factor (SF) is a selectable radio parameter from 5 to 12 and represents the number of bits sent per symbol and in addition determines how much the information is spread over time. There are $M=2^{\mathrm {SF} }$ different initial frequencies of the cyclic shifted chirp across the bandwidth around the center frequency. The symbol rate is determined by $R_{s}=B/M$. LoRa can tradeoff data rate for sensitivity (assuming a fixed channel bandwidth $B$) by selecting the SF, i.e. the amount of spread used. A lower SF corresponds to a higher data rate but a worse sensitivity, a higher SF implies a better sensitivity but a lower data rate. Compared to lower SF, sending the same amount of data with higher SF needs more transmission time, known as time-on-air. More time-on-air means that the modem is transmitting for a longer time and consuming more energy. Typical LoRa modems support transmit powers up to +22 dBm. However, the regulations of the respective country may additionally limit the allowed transmit power. Higher transmit power results in higher signal power at the receiver and hence a higher link budget, but at the cost of consuming more energy. There are measurement studies of LoRa performance with regard to energy consumption, communication distances, and medium access efficiency. According to the LoRa Development Portal, the range provided by LoRa can be up to 3 miles (4.8 km) in urban areas, and up to 10 miles (16 km) or more in rural areas (line of sight).
In addition, LoRa uses forward error correction coding to improve resilience against interference. LoRa's high range is characterized by high wireless link budgets of around 155 dB to 170 dB. Range extenders for LoRa are called LoRaX.

## LoRaWAN

Since LoRa defines the lower, physical, layer, the upper networking layers were lacking. The specification consist of two parts. The actual LoRaWAN acts as a cloud controlled MAC layer protocol for managing communication between LPWAN gateways and end-node devices. For communication within the cloud, LoRaWAN specifies data formats for higher layers, while the transport protocol could be any Internet protocol.
LoRaWAN defines the communication protocol and system architecture for the network, while LoRa's physical layer enables the long-range communication link. LoRaWAN is also responsible for managing the communication frequencies, data rate, and power for all devices. Devices in the network are asynchronous and transmit when they have data available to send. Data transmitted by an end-node device is received by multiple gateways. Each gateway has a multi-channel receiver, while the end-devices can hop between the channels using a single channel transceiver. Gateways forward the data packets without further processing to a centralized network server. This technology shows high reliability for the moderate load, however, it has some performance issues with sending acknowledgements (2016).
The data is then further forwarded to an associated application server. The cloud back-end interface definition uses JSON as data format. The cloud network specifies secure joining protocols for end-devices and possibilities for roaming between gateways. The application data payload is encrypted between the end-device and the cloud application and the content format is not specified by LoRaWAN.

### CSMA for LoRaWAN

In the wireless communication, particularly across the IoT applications, collision avoidance is essential for reliable communication and overall spectral efficiency. Previously, LoRaWAN has relied upon ALOHA as the medium access control (MAC) layer protocol, but to improve this, the LoRa Alliance's Technical Recommendation TR013 introduced CSMA-CA, which does not debilitate LoRa's distinctive modulation advantages such as Spreading Factor orthogonality, and the capability for below noise-floor communication. Employing the CAD based CSMA technique specified in TR013 overcomes the limitations of relying on Received Signal Strength (RSS)-based sensing, which is unable to maintain the two said advantages of LoRa modulation. Therefore, implementing TR013 enhances LoRaWAN's spectrum efficiency and ensures more reliable device communication, including in congested environments. TR013 is based on the LMAC and is the first industry-academia collaboration of LoRa Alliance to have resulted in a Technical Recommendation.

### Version history

* January 2015: 1.0
* February 2016: 1.0.1
* July 2016: 1.0.2
* October 2017: 1.1, adds Class B
* July 2018: 1.0.3
* October 2020: 1.0.4

### LoRa Alliance

The LoRa Alliance is an open, non-profit association whose stated mission is to support and promote the global adoption of the LoRaWAN standard for massively scaled IoT deployments, as well as deployments in remote or hard-to-reach locations.
Members collaborate in a vibrant ecosystem of device makers, solution providers, system integrators and network operators, delivering interoperability needed to scale IoT across the globe, using public, private, hybrid, and community networks. Key areas of focus within the Alliance are Smart Agriculture, Smart Buildings, Smart Cities, Smart Industry, Smart Logistics, and Smart Utilities.
Key contributing members of the LoRa Alliance include Actility, Amazon Web Services, Cisco, Everynet, Helium, Kerlink, MachineQ, a Comcast Company, Microsoft, MikroTik, Minol Zenner, Netze BW, Semtech, Senet, STMicroelectronics, TEKTELIC and The Things Industries. In 2018, the LoRa Alliance had over 100 LoRaWAN network operators in over 100 countries; in 2023, there are nearly 200, providing coverage in nearly every country in the world.
On October 1, 2024, Cisco announced it is "exiting the LoRaWAN space" with no planned migration for Cisco LoRaWAN gateways.