# The Mongol Invasion (trilogy)

The Mongol Invasion is a trilogy of historical novels by Soviet writer Vasily Yan that explores the Mongol conquests, including the Mongol conquest of Central Asia and their Western campaign, as well as the resistance of the peoples living in Central Asia and Eastern Europe during the early 13th century. This trilogy is considered the author's most renowned work and comprises the novels "Genghis Khan" (1939), "Batu" (1942), and "To the "Last Sea" (1955).
Vasily Yan became interested in the theme of Genghis Khan's conquests in the early 20th century while serving in the Transcaspian region. Vasiliy Yan was inspired to write after having a dream in which Genghis Khan attempted to defeat him. In 1934, after receiving a recommendation from Maxim Gorky, the publishing house Young Guard commissioned Yan to write a story about Genghis Khan. However, due to various circumstances, the story was not published until 1939.
By February of 1940, the manuscript for the sequel "Batu" had already been submitted to Goslitizdat. Just two months later, the writer also offered a children's adaptation titled "Invasion of Batu" to Detgiz. As the Great Patriotic War unfolded in 1941, it became evident that his books were incredibly relevant to the current circumstances. On July 21st of that year, Vasily Yan was officially admitted to the Union of Soviet Writers. Thanks to the recommendation of Alexander Fadeev, the writer was honored as the recipient of the prestigious Stalin Prize of the first degree for his work in 1941.
During the Great Patriotic War, the writer kept working on his project even while being evacuated in Uzbekistan. When he got back to Moscow, his third book, "The Golden Horde and Alexander the Restless", was officially announced in the April 22, 1945 edition of "Literaturnaya Gazeta". Excerpts from the highly anticipated book had already been published in various prominent publications. The author submitted the manuscript to Goslitizdat at the end of 1948, but faced opposition from archaeologist Artemiy Artsikhovsky and writer Alexei Yugov. This led to significant revisions to the text. The novel was eventually split into two parts in 1950, and published posthumously in 1955 after the writer passed away.
The trilogy garnered high praise from a wide range of experts such as historians specializing in Russian, medieval, and Oriental studies, as well as critics and literary scholars. As a result of the overwhelmingly positive feedback, the books gained immense popularity and were in constant demand, leading to numerous reprints.

## Books
### Genghis Khan

The story starts close to Gurganj in Khwarazm, where a beggar dervish named Hadji Rakhim Baghdadi is on his way. He comes across a ravaged caravan in the desert and is informed by the surviving merchant Mahmud-Yalvach that the infamous thief Kara-Konchar ("black sword") is responsible for it. A dust storm forces them to seek shelter with nomads. They are joined by bey Jalal al-Din, son of the powerful ruler Muhammad II of Khwarazm, lost while hunting goitered gazelles. The group shares a meal, including the bey's prey, and extends hospitality to Kara-Konchar. Khan Jalal grants Kara-Konchar safe passage to Gurganj.
In Gurganj, Hadji Rakhim discovers his father and brother are dead in prison and finds his home abandoned. He escapes to Baghdad. There, Muhammad orders the execution of ten prisoners but spares a boy named Tugan, whom Rakhim recognizes as his brother. When a teacher-blacksmith refuses to help, Rakhim becomes Tugan's protector. He orders a dagger forged from Tugan's shackles, while Mahmud-Yalvach provides him with financial assistance.
Shah Muhammad, persuaded by his mother Turkan-Khatun, assigns his young son as heir, exiling Jalal ad-Din to Ghazna near India. He also strives to unveil the true identity of his 301st wife, Gül-Jamal, a Turkmen woman. When a sorceress fails to reveal her secrets, Gül-Jamal finds herself trapped in a locked room with a leopard, but is saved by Kara-Konchar. Uprisings in the East trouble the palace, leading Muhammad to march to Samarkand after persuasion from his mother.
Timur-Melik, leader of the Shah's guards, shares a meal with Kara-Konchar and the disgraced bey Jalal al-Din. A captured Türkic hunter, reluctant to serve Genghis Khan, reveals details about the Mongol leader during the meal. Meanwhile, spurred by his mother, Muhammad marches east, refusing Mongol peace offers. He initially achieves military success, but Genghis Khan's son subsequently breaks through his defenses, leading to a catastrophic defeat for the Khwarazmian ruler.
Following the suppression of the Samarkand uprising, Shah Muhammad encounters Genghis Khan's traders, including Mahmud-Yalvach, who informs him of Genghis's power. The Shah attempts to bribe Mahmud with a pearl, but Mahmud betrays him to Genghis. This betrayal leads to Mongol soldiers infiltrating Khwarazm, ultimately triggering Genghis Khan's invasion after their discovery and execution in Otrar.
Facing Mongol invasion, Shah Muhammad orders taxes to be collected three years in advance and drafts men for military service. Kurban-Qizik, a destitute peasant, faces hardship and seeks a tax reprieve in Bukhara, only to lose his horse and become vulnerable. Bukhara falls swiftly to the Mongol onslaught. The Kagan celebrates his triumph as Shah Muhammad, his son, and jigits, including Kurban-Qizik, flee westward towards Iran. Samarkand also falls under Mongol control, followed by another city - Merv.
Abandoned by all, including Kurban, Shah Muhammad tragically ends up on a leper island, losing his mind and eventually dying. Timur-Melik performs his burial, breaks the sword, and embraces a life as a dervish. Kurban, after slaying a Mongol and seizing his horse, rushes home only to find his mother and wife near death, their children deceased. Genghis Khan distributes the former Khwarazmian ruler's daughters to his sons and allies. Turkan-Khatun, ones powerful and self-proclaimed "mistress of all the women of the universe", now sings for scraps of food at Genghis Khan's yurt, a deeply tragic turn.
Jalal al-Din remains the only one to resist the Mongols, with his army growing like a snowball. Internal treachery, however, crippled his ability to confront the invaders directly. After defeat, he leaps into the tumultuous Sindh River, swims to the opposite bank, threatens Genghis Khan with his sword, and then makes his escape. For years, Jalal al-Din and his brave followers continued to fight against the Mongols, becoming a beacon of hope and inspiration for those who refused to submit to the invasion.
Hadji Rakhim serves Mahmud-Yalvach and is sent by him to deliver a message to Jochi, the Khagan's son. While in the desert, Rakhim and Tugan are captured by Kara-Konchar's band but are freed after the dervish narrates Kara-Konchar's exploits, including the dust storm encounter with Jalal al-Din and rescuing Gül-Jamal from the leopard. Learning she is still alive, he plans a rebellion in Gurganj to rescue her from Turkan-Khatun's infamous "tower of eternal oblivion". However, they both die during the Mongol destruction when breached dams flood the city. Following Jochi-khan's death, Hadji Rakhim becomes a tutor to his son, Batu.
Genghis Khan sends Subutai bagatur and Jebe noyon to locate the ex-Khwarazmian ruler. This advanced detachment conquered Simnan, Qom, Zanjan in Northern Iran, sparing only Hamadan, yet fail to find Muhammad. Polovtsian Khan Köten asks for Russian help, leading to Russian princes gathering near Kyiv. Subutai clarifies that the Tatars targeted the Polovtsians and Kipchaks, not Russians. The Mongols retreat from the Dnieper, deceiving Russian princes into pursuit, then defeat the Kipchaks and Mstislav Udatny's forces, slaughtering surrendered Kyiv regiment and executing captured princes during victory celebrations under planks.
Genghis Khan battles in India, where Jalal al-Din seeks refuge. The Mongol ruler aims to conquer the land and eliminate the former Khwarazm Shah's son. The Khan's wife urges advisor Yelü Chucai to convince Genghis Khan to return home. His health failing, the conqueror seeks a potion of immortality. Yelü suggests the wise Taoist Qiu Chuji, who is brought before the lord. However, the Chinese sage reveals that immortality is a myth. Shortly after, Genghis Khan passes, naming Ögedei his heir. Batu, the grandson of Genghis Khan and future Khan Batu, remains the ruler of the former Khwarazm.
In the epilogue, it is revealed that Tugan survives and transforms into a Mongol warrior. He travels to Khwarazm to locate his brother, Hadji Rahim, who is imprisoned and awaits execution by the imams. Hadji Rahim is forced to chronicle Genghis Khan's conquests before his death. Tugan gives his brother a potion, inducing unconsciousness and mimicking death. Guards, deceived, discard Hadji Rahim's body at a public dumping site. Tugan then retrieves his brother under cover of darkness and takes him to a secret location.

### Batu

The tale unfolds from the perspective of Hadji Rakhim, who begins his narrative with the recounting of his own miraculous escape. Following this event, he serves as a scribe. One night, he shelters a fugitive dressed in fine clothing, a man who identifies himself as a messenger of the Grand Vizier, Mahmud-Yalvach. Rakhim doesn't recognize him as his former student, Batu Khan. Besides the old faqih (religious scholar), the only other witness to the fugitive’s presence was the orphan, Yülduz, who lives with the respected Nazar-Karyazik, the stable master of the Kipchak Khan, Bayander.
Batu is sought after by assassins as he hides and plans to conquer the universe to its furthest edge - the "last sea". He is greeted by Arapsha an-Nasir, a young jigit, with a message from Khan Jalal al-Din. Nazar-Karizek begs horses from Khan Bayander so that he and his sons can participate in the great campaign. Just before leaving, he sells Yülduz for the Khan's harem, and his youngest son Musuk, who was in love with her, renounces his father.
Nazar-Karizek fell into the retinue of Subutai-bagatur, Batu Khan's mentor, and was assigned as a guard and spy to Hadji Rakhim. The fugitive Musuk, who was robbed, is taken into his squad by an Arab woman. Yülduz was also in the light: before leaving Sighnaq, Batu's mother selected seven of his forty wives who were to accompany their lord on a campaign. The Khan ordered that one of the "seven stars" should be Yülduz. The rest were four noble Mongols and two daughters of Khan Bayander, who nicknamed Yülduz "a hard-working, black wife".
Six months after leaving Sighnaq, in late fall, the Mongol army arrives at the Volga in late autumn. Musuk is wounded during a meeting with Gleb Vladimirovich, the deposed Grand Duke of Principality of Ryazan, and Babila, a fisherman, helps build a ford across the river. Batu Khan camps at Urakova Mountain near Yeruslan in the autumn of 1237.
Gleb Vladimirovich joins Batu's service as a nöker, offering guidance through Russian lands during a stormy night. Batu, entertained by Gazuk's tale of Attila, hears his younger wife declare him the Mongols' guiding star. Ryazan holds a veche where Yuri of Ryazan receives Mongolian envoys. One, a Bulgar merchant and suspected spy, demands a tithe on all goods. On Evpaty Kolovrat's advice, Yuri seeks aid from Grand Prince Yuri II of Vladimir. Anticipating disaster, Yuri also calls for assistance from other principalities. The content of the Tatar ambassadors' conversation with Georgy remains a mystery.
Batu Khan winters by the Voronezh River, rejecting Russian gifts as inferior to Chinese crafts. He accepts only a dozen horses, keeping one black steed and distributing the rest. Prince Fyodor refuses to bow to Batu, treating him as an equal. As punishment, the Ryazan delegation receives the meagerest food portions. They retort with a Polovtsian proverb: "Go to the feast, having eaten your fill at home." Fyodor and his companions are subsequently killed on Batu Khan's orders.
Facing winter's onset, the Mongol leader considers campaigns towards Ryazan or Kyiv. Heeding his advisors Subutai and Hadji Rakhim, he opts to resupply in captured Russian cities. In Ryazan, Princess Eupraxia of Kiev, grieving for her deceased husband, commits suicide. During the Mongol advance, Musuk and Uriankh-Kadan (Subutai's son) are captured by Prince Yuri of Ryazan. After the defeat of Russians on the Wild Field, the near-frozen Uriankh-Kadan is revived by Baba Opalenikha, a Russian captive. Faced with the powerful commander's offer of reward, she instead reveals a compassionate core: "We show mercy to sick cattle. And even though he is not Christian, he still possesses a human soul...".
Ryazan valiantly resists the Mongolian invasion, but without aid from other Russian lands, it is destroyed. Khan Batu quickly moves towards Kolomna, where an attempt to capture Genghis Khan's son results in death and the city's destruction. Moscow (Mushkaf) and Vladimir suffer the same fate. Russian princes unite to form an army under Evpaty Kolovrat to defeat the Mongols, but a traitor alerts the Khan, leading to a devastating attack.
After the defeat of Kozelsk, Batu Khan heads south to the Kipchak steppes. He sent Chinese architect Li Tong-po to Urakov Mountain to build a marching palace, the center of a new power. Yulduz requested Nazar-Karizek to accompany her, unforgivable due to past actions. The traitor Gleb is cast out by Arapsha after completing his task.
"Batu's" finale resonates deeply with the hardships of 1942, contrasting two stark chapters. The chapter titled "And Russia is Being Built Again!" is characterized by the constant rhythmic sound of axes on the burnt remains of Perun's Grove. This serves as a leitmotif throughout the chapter. In stark contrast, the chapter dedicated to the victors' celebration, "In the Distant Homeland," features mournful songs instead of triumphant ones. Returning home, Nazar-Kyarizek carries empty saddles, his sons lost in the Rus' campaign, highlighting the war's true cost.

### To the "Last Sea"

In the first part of the novel, Duda the Righteous, a skilled seal carver and advisor to the Caliph of Baghdad, learns that Abd-ar-Rahman, a descendant of Abd al-Rahman I, has appeared in the city. Recognizing his potential, they decide to send him north to Batu Khan to address the Tatar threat over Iraq. Duda serves as secretary and chronicler. Ambassadors travel by ship from the Iron Gate to Xacitarxan, with Islam Agha, the ship's owner, carrying the captivating Byzantine princess Daphne, who is destined for the Mongol khan after being captured by pirates. Meanwhile, Abd-ar-Rahman stays safe, adhering to Genghis Khan's Yassa. The ambassador consults the wise fortune teller Bibi-Gunduz, who reveals that the young Arab seeks fame over wealth, before continuing to Batu Khan's headquarters with a caravan of Arab merchants.
The story takes place in a grand palace built in the Volga steppe by Chinese architect Li Tun-po. Musuk, a taiji, serves the young and ambitious Khan Batu, who, recently triumphant in Zalesye, brims with youthful strength and newfound confidence. As he contemplates his destiny, he is determined to propagate the teachings of Genghis Khan and reach the "last sea". Upon arriving at the palace, Batu feels unwell, cared for by his beloved wife Yülduz-Khatun. His brother Ordu scours for a doctor, who happens to be Princess Daphne, brought by the centurion Arapsha alongside Duda.
Rejuvenated, Batu witnesses a scandal among his wives. In a show of authority, he gives three of them to his generals, while Ordu promises Daphne freedom, a herd of mares, and ninety-nine gifts. During an audience with the bishop, Ambassador Abd-ar-Rahman vows his sword and loyalty. Meanwhile, Li Tong-po and chronicler Hadji Rakhim enlighten Batu on the legacy of Iskander the Two-Horned, emphasizing that true greatness stems not only from conquest but also from mercy towards the conquered. Inspired, Batu declares the establishment of a new realm — the Blue Horde.
Hadji Rakhim's "Travel Book" continues, detailing Batu Khan's concern over Novgorod's independent spirit. He orders the selection of intelligent captives to gather intelligence. Arapsha finds Savva and Kozhemyaka, who reveal information about Yaroslav II of Vladimir and Alexander Nevsky. Subutai promises Alexander a high position, while Arapsha becomes ambassador to Novgorod. Prince Alexander sends raftsmen with gifts and ransom for the captives. Ambassador Gavrila organizes a bear show for Yülduz-Khatun, earning a reward from Zerbiet-Khanum. After successfully ransoming the captives, Gavrila departs for Novgorod with Emir Arapsha. Gavrila's journey is marked by concern for his wife Lyubava, who nearly became a nun due to infidelity rumors. Nogai Khan abducts her, but Gavrila rescues her just before she's tonsured.
Batu Khan faces opposition from the Genghisids as he prepares for a campaign to the West. Yulduz advises him not to destroy Kyiv, but to make it a second capital. Nogai Khan, a restless Tatar Khan's son, causes trouble by seducing and kidnapping Ordu's brother's Greek concubine. When Nogai tries to enter Yülduz-Khatun's chambers, Batu and Subotai trap him and send him to the "violent" detachment that includes diverse individuals like Kurdish knacker Utboy with a horse blanket made from his unfaithful concubine's skin. Utboy gives a blanket for Jalal al-Din's remains. Nogai defeats him, making him confess he didn't beat Shah's son. Mengü-khan leads the initial assault on Kyiv. The narrative then shifts to the camp of Polovtsian Khan Köten, where Hungarian Friar Julian is a guest. Julian carries a haughty message from Batu Khan to his king Béla IV of Hungary. Parts of the story are told from the perspective of Abd-ar-Rahman, sending reports to Baghdad.
Vadim, an aspiring icon painter, enters Alexander Nevsky's wife's entourage but faces accusations of demonic influence for painting the princess with blue eyes instead of the Virgin Mary. He seeks solace at the Kyiv-Pechersk Monastery but is eventually forced to take up arms against Mongol invaders. Kievan Rus' stood in the path of the Mongol advance towards the Black Sea, a conflict that also saw the French king facing martyrdom and the Holy Roman Emperor fleeing to Palestine. However, after the devastating conquest of Eastern Europe, Batu Khan's army, weakened and weary, halts its advance.
Batu himself is waiting for sad news at home: his noble wives brought his dearly beloved Yülduz to death, and she is mourned by serving intellectuals Haji Rahim and Li Tong-po. The great war shapes the birth of a new powerful state, impacting neighboring regions for centuries. Concluding his narrative, Hadji Rahim writes, "I can only wish my future readers never have to endure the worst our life can offer – the devastating hurricane of a cruel and senseless war".

## Language

The debate over whether Vasily Yan's extensive fiction works should be classified as novels or not raged on, with his trilogy The Invasion of the Mongols serving as a focal point. While the author was adamant that all of his extensive works of fiction were novellas and not novels, critics and literary scholars argued otherwise, labeling works such as "Genghis Khan", "Batu", and "To the "Last Sea"" as novels. In the realm of literary analysis, Vasily Yan was identified as a key figure in the Soviet historical novel genre, known for his depiction of pivotal moments in history and prominent historical figures. Lydia Alexandrova noted the unique aspect of Yan's writing, pointing out that his protagonists often portrayed negative historical figures. Ultimately, the classification and interpretation of Vasily Yan's works continued to spark discussion and debate within literary circles.
The trilogy is seen as a cohesive whole by both the author and critics, characterized by consistent literary techniques and methods of portraying historical events. Vasily Yan found valuable insights into the life of the Tuvans in the 1920s while working on historical novels about the Mongols. The character of Baba Opalenikha in the novel "Batu" was based on a real resident of Uyuk.
A central theme in "Genghis Khan" is the strained relationship between father and son, specifically the conflict between the great kagan and his eldest son Jochi, who governs in Khwarazm. Jochi is portrayed as a distorted reflection of Genghis Khan, sharing his father's intimidating presence and penetrating gaze. As a result, in Vasily Yan's work, Jochi was brutally killed by mercenaries on his father's orders, with his spine broken as per Mongolian tradition. Vasily Yan fearlessly exposed the tyrant Genghis Khan with accusatory descriptions, depicting his appearance as unaesthetic and repulsive. He described how Khan clapped his hands on his belly when happy, with a smile resembling a semblance, and laughter akin to a wolfhound's howl. In anger, Khan ordered the feeding of a swift dog with a defeated boy's heart, and upon receiving the heart, he grunted like an old boar. Yan's straightforwardness in presenting these details emphasized the tyrant's cruelty and brutality.
The composition of the trilogy was based on the chronicle of the Mongol campaign to the West. Consequently, the culmination and finale of the first book is the death of the "Shaker of the Universe". In the second part, his grandson Batu acts, with whom his grandfather had hopes of continuing the great cause. The plot of the trilogy is determined by the history and geography of the conquering campaigns of Genghis Khan and Batu. In the two parts of the trilogy, a harmonious unity of content and form was achieved, based on a deep knowledge of historical reality. For example, when Subutai and Jebe send a messenger to Mongolia after the Battle of the Kalka River, not knowing how to write, they compose a message in the form of a song and make the messenger sing it "nine times nine", because the number nine was a sacred number for the Mongols. Similarly, describing the first appearance of the young Batu-khan, Yan notes that three arrows with red feathers were sticking out of his quiver, given to him according to his rank.
Valentin Oskotsky believed that the most compelling aspect of this novel was the vivid depiction of Batu Khan's campaign "when the sun goes down", where Kiev defiantly stood against the Mongol forces, refusing to surrender like other cities that had fallen to the Tatars. Vasily Yan aimed to contrast Batu Khan's aggressive tactics with Alexander Yaroslavich's cautious approach, as the latter strategically avoided direct conflict with the Horde despite his victories over the Swedes and Livonian knights. In the artistic world created by Vasily Yan, Genghis Khan and Batu Khan symbolized destruction, while Alexander Nevsky represented creation through his military prowess and governance. Although the author's attempt to juxtapose these contrasting figures may not have been completely successful, the novel effectively showcased their divergent qualities and ideologies.

## Reception

Valentin Oskotsky, a literary critic, thought that Vasily Yan's trilogy of "main books" had some success but also had some hurdles when it came to getting published because of their controversial themes. It took five years to publish "Genghis Khan," even with support from Maxim Gorky, because it was risky to criticize tyranny in the 1930s. But once World War II started, things changed, and the novel became a groundbreaking work in Soviet literature that challenged the norms of the time.
The early reviews of "Genghis Khan" from 1939-1940 weren't great. Critics like Georgy Schtorm thought Vasily Yan focused too much on traditional exoticism in the East, while Zoya Kedrina liked the colorful language but felt the plot lacked cohesion. Sergei Khmelnitsky was especially tough, saying Yan oversimplified historical events despite knowing his stuff.
During the war years, the reissued novel received more positive reviews. Critics such as Leonid Volynsky and Valery Kirpotin praised Vasily Yan's novels for bringing the past to life and showing his passion for modernity and historical truth. Zoya Kedrina also complimented the writer's skill and accuracy in her review of the second novel in the trilogy. The overall message was in line with official Soviet evaluations, with A. Fadeev stating in 1942 that Yan's novels inspired patriotism and national pride in the Soviet people. Other critics agreed, emphasizing the relevancy and significance of Yan's works during that time. Lev Razgon praised Yanchevetsky as a writer who carried on the compassionate traditions of Russian literature, instilling a sense of dignity and resilience in his readers. Igor Kondakov observed a peak in interest for Yan's work during the tumultuous years of the 1980s-1990s, when individuals grappling with the aftermath of the empire sought solace and guidance in Yan's novels.
Sergei Petrov, a Soviet literary scholar and critic, had some thoughts on the novel Genghis Khan. He mentioned how the author switches between a descriptive style and a more analytical one. On the other hand, Lydia Alexandrova liked how Vasily Yan used documentation in the novel, comparing it to Alexander Pushkin's The Captain's Daughter. Yan's incorporation of historical quotes as chapter epigraphs gives the text a sense of authenticity and unity. The character of chronicler Hadji Rakhim is seen as a trustworthy narrator in the trilogy, adding credibility to the events in the story.
In 2016, Russian writer Dmitry Bykov casually talked about how Vasily Yan winning the Stalin Prize was a big deal, saying his novels about the Mongol horde were like a blueprint for Stalin's empire. Bykov wasn't a fan of Yan's fancy writing style, saying it was old-fashioned and lacking in new ideas. But despite that, Yan's books were a hit in both the USSR days and modern Russia. Another literary scholar, Wolfgang Kazak, mentioned in his book that Yan's novels, which focused on fighting against a stronger enemy and fighting for liberation, were super relevant before the war, which is why he got the Stalin Prize.
The trilogy was included into the 2013 list 100 Books for Schoolchildren recommended by the Ministry of Education and Science (Russia).