# Siege of Baghdad (1821)

The Siege of Baghdad was an October 1821 military engagement in Baghdad, Iraq between the attacking Iranian Qajar army, led by prince Mohammad Ali Mirza, and the defending Ottoman Empire under the provincial command of Dawud Pasha of Baghdad. It was part of the Ottoman–Persian War of 1821–1823, itself part of the larger Ottoman-Persian Wars that had been flaring up occasionally since the early 16th century.

## Prelude

At the beginning of the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire was facing the threat of the increasing power of the Qajar state in the east while dealing with the Greek revolt in the west. Russia, an adversary of the Ottomans, saw an opportunity to further weaken their enemy. The Russians induced the Iranian crown prince Abbas Mirza, son of Fath-Ali Shah Qajar, to invade Ottoman Turkey. The Iranians crossed into Ottoman territory, in the vicinity of Doğu Bayezid and Van, ostensibly in support of Kurdish tribes who opposed the Ottoman Empire.
The Turks responded with a two prong counterattack. In the north, Mohammad Amin Rauf Pasha planned to steamroll the Iranian garrisons in Eastern Anatolia and occupy parts of Azerbaijan to prevent Iran from gathering their troops, and force a peace on Ottoman terms.
In the south, in September a second counterattack was organized by the Ottoman "wali" (governor) of Baghdad, Dawud Pasha. He invaded Persia, but was unsuccessful and pursued by the Qajar army under the lead of Fath-Ali Shah Qajar's eldest son, prince Mohammad Ali Mirza. The Iranians chased the retreating Turks back into Ottoman territory, taking Shahrezur along the Sirvan River, supported by Feili Kurds and Lurs who defeated the Ottoman opposition and forced them to retreat to Kirkuk. Mohammad Ali Mirza conquered Sulayméniyah and following the capture of Samarra, the Qajar army besieged Baghdad with 40,000 infantry and artillery. The siege if successful would change the regional power balance in favor of Iran.

## Siege

The city's defense was led by Dawud Pasha. Despite receiving only limited reinforcements, Dawud Pasha organized the city's defenses, reinforced fortifications, and ensured supply lines were intact.
The Qajar army's efforts to breach the city's strong fortifications were resisted by the outnumbered Ottomans. As the siege continued, it became evident that the Qajar forces were struggling to maintain the momentum of their initial advances, especially as the region's harsh conditions, coupled with logistical challenges, took their toll on their army. Amid the siege, there was a cholera outbreak. It devastated Qajar ranks. Mohammad Ali Mirza himself became sick, and he died a month later on November 22, while in Ctesiphon. It is unknown how the Cholera outbreak effected the Ottomans.
At some point the Qajars and the Ottomans began negotiations; who initiated it is contradicted in Persian and Turkish sources, each side claimed the other sent an emissary for peace. In any case, the negotiations led to the lifting of the siege in late 1821. The Qajars suffered heavy losses, it is unknown what the Ottoman losses were. The Ottomans held Baghdad and the Qajar army departed northward towards Ctesiphon.

## Analysis

The siege represented not only a military struggle but also a clash of regional alliances. Many Kurdish tribes in the region, who were being courted by both the Ottoman and Qajar forces, had complicated loyalties. The Qajars promised to protect them from Ottoman repression, while the Ottomans emphasized their stability and historical presence in the region. Furthermore, the Qajar offensive was influenced by broader geopolitical factors. The Qajar Dynasty, with support from Russia, sought to extend its influence over Mesopotamia, which was crucial for controlling vital trade routes and strengthening their position against the Ottoman Empire.
The unsuccessful siege underscored the broader dynamics of Ottoman-Persian Wars in the 19th century, a period characterized by intense competition for regional dominance. While the Qajars sought to capitalize on Ottoman distractions in the west, the Ottomans demonstrated their capacity to defend their interests in the east despite the ongoing challenges in their European territories.