# Empress Dowager Xiaoding

Empress Dowager Xiaoding (1545 – 18 March 1614), of the Li clan, was a Chinese empress dowager of the Ming dynasty. She was one of the concubines of the Longqing Emperor and the mother of his successor, the Wanli Emperor. After the Longqing Emperor's death, she became the de facto ruler in place of the underage Wanli Emperor. She oversaw the emperor's education while Grand Secretary Zhang Juzheng and the highest-ranking eunuch of the imperial palace, Feng Bao, managed the state administration. Although she did not typically involve herself in politics, she did intervene in the dispute over the appointment of the heir to the throne, where she supported the rights of the emperor's eldest son. Instead of focusing on politics, she devoted herself to religion. She was a devout Buddhist and surrounded herself with leading Buddhist monks of the time. She also used her influence and financial resources to extensively support Buddhist monasteries, particularly in the 1570s and 1580s, and to a lesser extent after 1601.

## Biography

Lady Li was born in 1545 in Huo County, a suburb of Beijing. Her father, Li Wei, was a bricklayer and a descendant of soldiers who had been resettled from Shanxi to Beijing in the early 15th century. She received a good education and in 1550, she became one of the maids of Zhu Zaiji, Prince of Yu. In 1567, Zhu Zaiji ascended to the throne as the Longqing Emperor and Lady Li became one of his concubines. In 1563, she gave birth to a son, Zhu Yijun, who was the Longqing Emperor's third child. His two older brothers from other concubines had died in infancy in 1559 and 1562. In 1568, Zhu Yijun was appointed as the crown prince. Lady Li and the Longqing Emperor also had another son, Zhu Yiliu, who became the Prince of Lu in 1571. They also had three daughters: Zhu Yao'e (1565–1590), Zhu Yaoying (1567–1594), and Zhu Yaoyuan (1569–1629). These daughters were given the titles of Princess Shouyang, Princess Yongning, and Princess Rui'an.
After the Longqing Emperor became the emperor, she was elevated to the position of Noble Consort (Guifei). Despite being favored by the emperor, she maintained a positive relationship with his sonless empress, who was her main competition for his attention. Her ability to work with her rivals and competitors was evident throughout her life and played a significant role in her achievements. She was not only capable, wise, and decisive, but also sensitive and knew her limits, never overstepping her boundaries.
In 1572, the Longqing Emperor died and her son Zhu Yijun became the Wanli Emperor. Lady Li was granted the title of empress dowager and, as per the law, assumed the role of head of government during her son's minority. She formed an alliance with Senior Grand Secretary Zhang Juzheng and the highest-ranking eunuch in the imperial palace, Feng Bao. Together, they ruled the empire, with Zhang overseeing the government, Feng Bao managing the imperial eunuchs, and Lady Li supervising the Wanli Emperor's education. However, she did not interfere in political decision-making. At the government's request, she spent more time in the imperial palace than in her own empress dowager palace until 1578 to oversee her son's education. She instilled in him the values of diligence, responsibility, and humility. Lady Li raised him with great care, but also with strictness. The Wanli Emperor's deep respect and devotion towards his mother, instilled by his strict upbringing, prevented him from openly opposing her throughout his life.
The alliance between Lady Li, Zhang Juzheng, and Feng Bao successfully governed the country for a decade until Zhang's death in 1582. Lady Li's position as the head of the government brought her prestige and recognition. However, in accordance with the rules established by the first Ming emperor, the Hongwu Emperor, she refrained from actively participating in politics and only occasionally attempted to intervene. For example, due to her Buddhist beliefs, she requested Zhang Juzheng to temporarily abolish the death penalty, but when he refused, citing the need to follow existing laws, she did not push her requests further. When she learned of the investigation into her father and brother for corruption, she did not offer them support but instead sent her father a set of masonry tools as a reminder of his humble origins. Even after Zhang Juzheng's death and Feng Bao's dismissal, Lady Li maintained her influence by forming an alliance with Zhang's successors, grand secretaries Shen Shixing, Xu Guo (許國), and Wang Xijue.
Instead of being involved in politics, she turned to religion. She was a devout Buddhist, known for her support of the reconstruction and construction of numerous Buddhist monasteries. She also made generous donations to Buddhist monks and monasteries. She even referred to herself as the bodhisattva Guanyin (Avalokiteśvara) and was often associated with this deity. She funded many expensive construction projects during the 1570s, 1580s, and the first half of the 1590s. Initially, her support was focused on Buddhists in and around Beijing, but she eventually expanded her efforts to include other regions, such as Jiangnan. However, in the mid-1590s, a disagreement with the emperor over the appointment of an heir to the throne caused a rift, resulting in her having fewer resources to fund projects. It was not until after the appointment of a successor in 1601 and the resolution of the dispute with the emperor that she was able to resume her activities, although they were not as extensive as they were during the first half of the Wanli Emperor's reign.
In 1586, the issue of succession arose when the emperor's favored concubine, Lady Zheng, gave birth to a son, Zhu Changxun (1586–1641). She was then elevated to the rank of "Imperial Noble Consort" (Huang Guifei), placing her just one rank below Empress Wang and above any of his other concubines, including Lady Wang, the mother of the emperor's eldest son Zhu Changluo (1582–1620). It was evident to those around him that the emperor favored the son of Lady Zheng as his successor over Zhu Changluo. This caused officials to demand the appointment of a crown prince, with many citing laws that required the appointment of Zhu Changluo, but some sided with the emperor and Lady Zheng. Despite the debates and disputes, the emperor delayed the decision until 1601, when he finally appointed Zhu Changluo as his successor. In the midst of the dispute, Empress Dowager Li and Empress Wang supported Lady Wang and her son. Empress Dowager Li also argued that the emperor's eldest son was the son of a mere palace maid, but countered that the emperor himself was also the son of a mere maid. Her public and behind-the-scenes support for the empress and Lady Wang balanced the emperor's favoritism towards Lady Zheng. Meanwhile, Lady Li relied on the laws established by the first Ming emperor, which considered the appointment of the empress and the crown prince as family matters of the imperial family. This gave the empress dowager the final and decisive word. As time passed, a loose group formed around her, consisting of high officials, prominent Buddhist monks, ordinary officials, and some eunuchs, all supporting her interests and those of the emperor's eldest son.
In 1595–1604, a disagreement over the succession caused a rift between the emperor and his mother. The emperor had agreed to begin the education of his eldest son in early 1594, but this concession was followed by attacks on the empress dowager. In 1595, her close confidant, the Buddhist monk Hanshan Deqing, was arrested and sent to southern China. That same year, the Wanli Emperor did not attend her birthday celebration. The following year, he demoted and transferred a high-ranking and respected eunuch, Zhang Cheng (張誠), who was related to Lady Li's family, to Nanjing. In 1600, the emperor bestowed a high honorary title on the Taoist Geng Yilan, who had participated in the arrest of Hanshan Deqing.
After the appointment of the heir to the throne in 1601, the emperor's relationship with his mother began to improve. In 1602, he bestowed gifts upon her brother, the Count of Wuqing, and in 1604, he had two temples built for her health. Their relationship continued to be steadily good as the Wanli Emperor ceased the persecution of Buddhists, which he had previously attacked in the decade prior. He and the empress dowager even supported Buddhist monks and monasteries on various occasions. As a result, the empress mother returned to public life on a larger scale after 1604, renewing her support for Buddhist institutions that had been subdued in the decade after 1594.
In 1614, she died and was given the posthumous name "Empress Dowager Xiaoding". She is buried with the Longqing Emperor in the Zhao Mausoleum in the Ming tombs near Beijing.

## Titles

* During the reign of the Jiajing Emperor (r. 1521–1567):
** Lady Li (李氏; from 1545)
** Palace Lady (宮人; from 1550)
** Concubine (from 1560)
* During the reign of the Longqing Emperor (r. 1567–1572):
** Imperial Noble Consort (皇貴妃; from March 1567)
* During the reign of the Wanli Emperor (r. 1572–1620):
** Empress Dowager Cisheng (慈聖皇太后; from 19 July 1572)
** Empress Dowager Cisheng Xuanwen Mingsu (慈聖宣文皇太后; from 1578)
** Empress Dowager Cisheng Xuanwen Mingsu (慈聖宣文明肅皇太后; from 1582)
** Empress Dowager Cisheng Xuanwen Mingsu Zhenshou Duanxian (慈聖宣文明肅貞壽端獻皇太后; from 1601)
** Empress Dowager Cisheng Xuanwen Mingsu Zhenshou Duanxian Gongxi (慈聖宣文明肅貞壽端獻恭熹皇太后; from 1606)
** Empress Dowager Xiaoding Zhenchun Qinren Duansu Bitian Zuosheng (孝定貞純欽仁端肅弼天祚聖皇太后, from 1614)

## Issue

* As Concubine Li:
** Zhu Yijun, the Wanli Emperor (萬曆帝 朱翊鈞; 4 September 1563 – 18 August 1620), the Longqing Emperor's third son
** Princess Shouyang (壽陽公主; 1565–1590), personal name Yao'e (堯娥), the Longqing Emperor's third daughter
*** Married Hou Gongchen (侯拱辰) in 1581
* As Imperial Noble Consort Li:
** Princess Yongning (永寧公主; 11 March 1567 – 22 July 1594), personal name Yaoying (堯媖), the Longqing Emperor's fourth daughter
*** Married Liang Bangrui (梁邦瑞; d. 9 May 1582) in 1582
** Zhu Yiliu, Prince Jian of Lu (潞簡王 朱翊鏐; 3 March 1568 – 4 July 1614), the Longqing Emperor's fourth son
** Princess Rui'an (瑞安公主; 1569–1629), personal name Yaoyuan (堯媛), the Longqing Emperor's fifth daughter
*** Married Wan Wei (萬煒; d. 1644) in 1585, and had issue (one son)