# Kingdom of Kumaon

29°35′50″N 79°39′33″E﻿ / ﻿29.5971°N 79.6591°E﻿ / 29.5971; 79.6591
The Kingdom of Kumaon (Kumaoni: कुमाऊं राज्य , Persian: پادشاهی کوماون , Tibetan: ཀུ་མའོ་རྒྱལ་ཕྲན།) also known as Kurmanchal, was a Himalayan kingdom that existed for nearly 1200 years. The kingdom was established by Vasu Dev of Katyuri Dynasty in 7th Century after he unified many small principalities. After the fall of the Katyuris in the 11th Centry and about three centuries of fragmentation, the Chand Dynasty managed to reunify Kumaon in the middle of 15th Century. During their rule Kumaon was spread sovereign from river Tons to river Karnali. They shifted the capital from Kartikeyapura (Baijnath) to Champawat in the 12th Century, and finally to Almora in 1563. Kumaon was annexed to the Kingdom of Nepal in 1791.
During the 500 year rule of the Katyuris, new culture and traditions began to form, which would serve as the basis of modern day Kumaoni culture. Shaivism within Hinduism became the predominant belief of the region. Several temples were build during this time period, like the Jageshwar Temples Complex and the Katarmal Sun Temple. Sanskrit and Pali languages were widely used. The administration during this time was done very finely, bridges and roads were well built. All the functionaries were worthy, educated and devoted to their duty. After the decline of the Katyuri Dynasty, Kurmanchal fragmented into many petty kingdoms.
After about three centuries of fragmentation, the Chand Dynasty unified what is the modern - day Kumaon division and Doti during the middle of 15th Century, although they were present in Kumaon from the 8th Century. During the 700 year rule (400 year rule of united Kumaon) of the Chands, culture and religion in Kumaon bloomed, and folk traditions and practices gained more and more importance as a popular form of folk Hinduism emerged, which is still majorly practiced. The Kumaoni language gained prominence while Sanskrit was used only for religious and educational purposes. A party system type of government was practiced during the Chand rule. For about a century, the kingdom experienced a Golden Age and became an epicenter for trade, religion, education and literature among the Himalayan kingdoms. From the start of 18th Century the Kingdom of Kumaon began to weaken. Owing to political instability, financial crisis, power stuggle, and rebellions within, the Kingdom of Nepal was able to invade and annex the Kingdom of Kumaon in 1791. After 24 years of oppressive Nepalese rule, this region fell to the British East India Company and later the British Crown.
The Katyuris and the Chands left a substantial legacy to modern - day Uttarakhand. Much of the Kumaoni culture, societal norms, and folk traditions, along with the Kumaoni language, derive from the culture and traditions of the Katyuris and the Chands.

## Etymology

Kumaon is believed to have been derived from Kurmanchal, meaning land of the Kurma Avatar (the tortoise incarnation of Lord Vishnu, the preserver according to Hinduism). The region of Kumaon is named after as such.
During the time of the British control of the region, between 1815 and 1857 it was also romanized as Kemaon.

## History
### Pre - establishment
#### Pre - historic

Kumaon finds mention in the early Hindu scriptures as Manaskhand.
Prehistoric dwellings and Stone Age implements have been discovered in Almora and Nainital districts.
The paintings at Lakhudiyar Caves near Almora are believed to represent life in the prehistoric village during the Mesolithic period.

#### Kunindas

Initially settled by Kol tribals, the region witnessed successive waves of Kiratas, Khasas and Indo-Scythians(sakas).
The kingdom of Kuninda (or Kulinda in ancient literature) was an ancient central Himalayan kingdom documented from around the 2nd century BCE to the 3rd century CE, located in the southern areas of modern Himachal Pradesh and far western areas of Uttarakhand in northern India and Doti in Nepal.
The Kunindas were among the first known indigenous rulers of the region.

### Katyuri Dynasty
#### Establishment

Around 700 CE, the Katyuri dynasty was established by Vasu Dev in the region. They called their state Kurmanchal, the land of Kurma, the second avatar of Vishnu, from which the present name is derived. Their capital was Kartikeyapura (morden day-Baijnath) and the Gomati Valley came to be known as the Katyur Valley after the ruling dynasty. during their reign they dominated lands of varying extent from the Katyur Valley (modern-day Baijnath) in Kumaon, between 7th and 11th centuries C.E., and established their capital at Baijnath in Bageshwar district; which was then known as Kartikeyapura and lies in the centre of Katyur Valley. Brahmadev Mandi (a trading and business center in a flat area of the then Katyuri dynasty) in the Kanchanpur District of Nepal was established by Katyuri king Brahma Dev. Brahmadev Mandi still exists by this name.

#### Peak

During the peak of Katyuri Dynasty the sovereigns were bestowed the title of Giriraj Chakrachudamani, and the 16 monarchs who ruled during that time are termed as Chakravarti or Emperors.

#### Downfall

It is believed that from king Dhan Dev and Vir Dev the downfall of this powerful dynasty began. Vir Dev used to collect heavy taxes and forced his people to work as his slaves, King Vir Dev teased his subjects by his tyranny to the extent that he forcibly married his own maternal aunt Tila (Tilottama Devi). It is said that the Kumaoni folk song 'Mami Tile Dharo Bola' became popular from that very day.

### Period of Fragmentation
#### Fall of Katyuri Dynasty

After the death of tyrant Vir Dev, there ensued a civil war among his sons. Fierce fight took place among them. Whole of the kingdom was ruined. The people of this very family divided the whole kingdom among themselves. At the places where they were formerly placed as provincial governors or faujdars, there they declared themselves as independent kings. Outside Kumaun the feudatory kings of Garhwal, who were till then under the jurisdiction of the Katyuris, stopped paying revenue and also became independent kings.
The same condition prevailed in Kumaun when the Chand kings came there. Petty feudatory kings ruled here and there and attacking one another showed their power. King Brahmdeo of this very family (after whose name Brahmdeo Mandi was founded) established his kingdom in Kali Kumaun. His first fort lay in Sui and the Rawat king of Dumkot was under him. The second branch started ruling at Doti. The third established itself at Askot. Fourth settled down at Baramandal. The fifth maintained its sovereignty over Katyur and Danpur. The sixth branch ruled here and there in Pali whose main places then were Dwarahat and Lakhanpur. In this way this extensive empire got divided into small parts.

#### Arrival of Chand Dynasty

Besides these petty kings of Katyuri family, during the time between the fall of the Katyuris and the arrival of the Chands, the region of Kumaun lay divided into petty kingdoms. Faldakol and Dhaniyakot lay under the authority of a Khati Rajput who regarded him as belonging to Solar dynasty. Chaugarkha was ruled by a Padiyar king whose capital was Padyarkot. In the paragana of Gangolihat ruled a Mankoli king. He had come from Piuthan in modern day Nepal and regarded himself as a Rajput of Lunar dynasty. After ruling for seven to eight generations they being defeated by the Chands returned to the place where their descendants still exist. Kota, Chhakhata and Kutauli came under the jurisdiction of the Khas kings. Sor, Sira, Darma, Askot, and Johar all were annexed to the Kingdom of Doti. The first Chand king Som Chand also established a petty kingdom in Kali Kumaon after subjugating the powerful social groups there.
When the sun of the fortune of the Emperors of Solar dynasty ( Katyuris) in Kumaun set and at places small feudatory kings began to rule, the people said that the sun of Kumaun had set and there was night and darkness all over Kumaun. But on the arrival of the Chands, people started saying that there was night in Kumaun as the sun had set, but one thing good now is that now moonlight has appeared i.e. kings of Lunar dynasty (Chands) have come. That there is again light in the earth sunk in darkness.

### Chand Dynasty

Sometime in the 8th century, the Chand Dynasty was established by King Som Chand, He continued to call his state Kurmanchal, and established its capital in Champawat or Kali Kumaon. At that time Kumaon was going through a period of fragmentation, and the Chands ruled as petty kings. They slowly developed into a major power of the Himalayas and near after 1450 had unified Kumaon under King Ratna Chand.
The Baleshwar and Nagnath temples were built in this city during the 11th and 12th centuries. During this period, learning and new forms of painting (the pahari school of art) developed.

#### Peak and Invasion of Taklakot (Tibet)

Many pilgrims came to the court of Baz Bahadur Chand to complain about the Huniyas (The area from northwestern Tibet till the borders of Ladakh at that time was known as Hundesh, and Tibetans there were called Huniyas) robbing them on their pilgrimage to Kailash Manasarovar, and committing atrocities. Being quite religious, he could not stand it, and decided to bring an end to this problem.
Baz Bahadur Chand himself led his army through Juhar Pass and entered Tibetan territory, which was then under Khoshut Khanate. He captured the Fort of Taklakot in 1670. This was the first time in history that an Indian king had captured this stronghold of Tibet.
There was no strong response from the higher Tibetan authority to this intrusion, and although it is not very well documented, civil war and unrest, Mongol conquest and rise of regional warlords in Tibetan territory could be a probable cause.
The time period of King Baz Bahadur Chand's reign as well as that of his successors till two to three generations has been considered by many as the Golden Age of Kumaon region.

#### Conflicts and battles

King Gyan Chand, the King of Kumaon, ascended the throne in 1698. In 1699 he invaded Garhwal, which was under the King Fateh Shah . He crossed Ramganga River and plundered Sabli, Khatli, and Sainchar. In 1701, Fateh Shah entered in Chaukot (now Syalde region with 3 part, Talla Chaukot (lower), Malla Chaukot (Upper) and Bichla Chaukot (middle)) and Gewar Valley (region of Chaukhutia, Masi, and Dwarahat) as reply. The Kumaonis defeated the Garhwalis in the Battle of Duduli (near Melchauri in Garhwal). In 1707, the Kumaoni forces annexed Juniyagarh in Bichla Chaukot (Syalde), and razed the old fort at Chandpur Garhi, the capital of Garhwal Kingdom. On 13 July 1715, Kumaoni troops clashed with Garhwali troops that were moving to Moradabad and Bareilly. An ally of the Mughal Empire, Kumaon was encouraged to continue fighting Garwhal until they submitted to the Mughal Empire. The Mughal Empire was against Garwhal because of their funding of rebels in Punjab. Twice in the second year of Farrukh Siyar’s reign (between 25 July and 19 December 1713) the Kumaon chief sent him booty obtained in the battles against the combined forces of the Srinagar-Garhwal chief and his Jat and Gujar allies. In early 1715, Kumaon finally captured Srinagar from Garwhal, sending Garwhali chiefs into Mughal courts. In 1742 Ali Mohammed Khan of Rohilkhand invaded Kumaon and annexed Kashipur, Rudrapur, and two other Kumaoni parganas.
Few years Later, Jagat Chand (1708–20), invaded Garhwal, defeated the ruling King of Garhwal and expelled him from Srinagar, then capital of Garhwal Kingdom. After ruling for few years he bestowed the Kingdom on a Brahmin.

#### Nepalese invasion and its defeat

In the latter half of the 18th century, the power of Kumaon was on decline, as the prince Mahendra Chand was unable to properly administer the country and conflicts with other neighbouring kingdoms, natural calamities, intrigues and dissensions further weakened the Kingdom.
Seeing this opportunity, in 1791 the Kingdom of Nepal invaded Kumaon. Gorkha Army led by the Gorkha commanders Bahadur shah, Kazi Jagjit Pande, Amar Singh Thapa and Sur Singh Thapa set to attack Kumaon from Doti. One regiment went from Kali Kumaon to Sor, another set out to capture Visung. When the news of the sudden invasion reached Almora, Mahendra Chand summoned his troops and taking a contingent with him moved towards Gangolihat.
Amar Singh Thapa with his troops attacked the Kumaoni contingent but was defeated and escaped. However few hours later he came back with a bigger army and better preparation, tottaly surrounded Kumaon from the west. Mahendra Chand hearing the defeat and death of his uncle, Diwan (Prime Minister) Lal Singh, became nervous and fled, thus Gorkhas finding their path clear reached and captured Almora and Kumaon was annexed to the Kingdom of Nepal.Kingdom of Garhwal was also annexed by the Gorkhas in 1804.

### 24-year Gorkha Occupation of Kumaon (Gorkhyol)

The Gorkha rule over Kumaon lasted for 24 years and has been termed as "Cruel and Oppressive" in a number of texts. Kumaon and Garhwal were made into governorates within the Kingdom of Nepal. Kumaonis were not given political representation and all offices were occupied by Nepali administrators. Kumaonis and Garhwalis alike were mistreated. It is to be noted that the Gorkhas were not keen on integrating Kumaon and Garhwal fully into the Kingdom of Nepal, or providing for the people there, rather they only though of the conquered territories as frontier states, to maintain distance from the East India Company.
The Gorkhas were also involved in slave trade consisting of Kumaonis and Garhwalis, who were captured and sold in the markets. Excessive taxation, slavery and mistreatment made the Gorkhas unpopular in Kumaon and Garhwal, whose cruel treatment towards the natives is still bitterly remembered today. The justice system of the Gorkhas was biased and based on superstitions, which failed to provide justice to those who needed it.
The only architectural advancements during the period was a road connecting Kali River to Srinagar via Almora.

### Kumaon Province

The Gorkhas were defeated by the East India Company in Anglo-Nepalese War and were forced to cede Kumaon to the British as part of the Treaty of Sugauli in 1816. The Kumaon region was joined with the eastern half of the Garhwal region and was governed as a chief-commissionership, also known as the Kumaon Province, on the non-regulation system. In seventy years it was governed by three successive administrators: Mr. Traill, Mr J. H. Batten and Sir Henry Ramsay. The British set up a small administrative unit to govern the region, known as Patwari Halka.

## Government

It can be easily discerned that the first Chand monarch Raja Som Chand was in favour of division of power and acted accordingly. He created a party system in Kumaon with a strong say and influence in the decision of the King. He formed two factions - Mahar faction and Fartyal faction to give representation to all four castes. The leader of the faction, rather than being a hereditary post, was a post given on the basis of knowledge, influence and experience. The post of Diwan (Prime Minister, दीवान) was automatically given to the one who had majority support within the factions, although exceptions were seen many time. It would not be wrong to say that an unofficial form of constitutional administration was practiced in Kumaon. Even if the monarchs of the Chand Dynasty were absolute monarchs, they had to consider the opinions of the factions and the elected Budhas (बुड्ढा) and Sayanas (सयाना) (Regional administrators) to maintain their support since they could not risk going against such influential group of people. This decentralized constitutional system was laid out by Raja Som Chand to prevent any one certain group or individual from gaining too much power. But this system also gave way to rivalries within factions and lessening of the power of the king, which is evident looking at the history of puppet monarchs in Kumaon.

### Maharaja

The Maharaja of Kumaon (कुमाऊँ के महाराजा) had absolute authority, but was traditionally influenced by the opinions of the Mahar faction and the Fartyal faction, who rightfully had a say in the decisions of the Maharaja. The Maharaja appointed the Diwan (Prime Minister, दीवान) officially, but the post was automatically given to whoever had the majority support within the two factions.
Whenever a prince was crowned as the monarch, only then would he be given the title of 'Chand' (चंद). Other princes used the title 'Rautela' (रौतेला) and 'Gusain' (गुसाईं).
The Seal of the Maharaja was necessary to issue any order on paper or copper - plates. But the Maharaja could only authorize the orders if the Diwan found it just and fair. The Maharaja couldn't give out official orders by himself. Officers and managers were appointed by the monarch in his Durbar by the recommendation of the Diwan. The posts of deputy - diwan and the other ministers were handed out to the most influential and able people. These posts were not usually hereditary but sometimes were occupied by one family or clan for a long time.
Since the rulers were mostly religious, rajgurus and purohits were appointed to give the Maharaja spiritual and administrative advice. These posts were usually occupied by a single family. They conducted all religious ceremonies related to the Maharaja, the Diwan or the factions.
The Maharaja tried to maintain a good public image and sometimes were open to criticism from general public, although this largely depended on the individual. They also had to maintain the support of regional administrators and the factions since they were strong enough to depose the Maharaja.

#### Royal Seal

The copper-plates of Chand kings were called katardar (कटारदार) as the kings instead of putting their signatures made the mark of their dagger on them. Their names used to be engraved in the beginning of the copper-plate or the paper document.

### Central Government
#### Diwan

The leader who commanded majority within the Mahar faction and Fartyal faction was appointed the Diwan (Prime Minister, दीवान; دیوان).

#### The Royal Durbar (Court)

The royal court (शाही दरबार) was the centre of command for the entire kingdom. It was situated in the Malla Mahal (मल्ला महाल) in Almora, the capital of Kumaon. The officials that sat there were -
* Kardars (Administrators or Revenue Officers, करदार) were appointed by the Diwan.
* Rajguru (Royal Priest, राजगुरु) and the Purohits (Royal Chaplains, पुरोहित) were appointed by the monarch.
* Karbaris (Managers, कारोबारी) were also appointed by the monarch, likely with the advice of his Diwan.
* Mantris (Ministers, मंत्री), were also a part of the royal court, and each was assigned specific roles.

### Regional Government
#### Kiladar

* Faujdars or Kiladars (Chiefs or Governors of forts or castles, फौजदार; قلعه‌دار ) were appointed by the monarch. According to older accounts, during a chala (mutiny, चल) or an attack, when the royal fort’s drum was sounded, the leaders of all four alas (forts, आला) – the Faujdars – would march to the capital from all four directions, accompanied by their army, nishan (insignia, निशान; نشان), flag, and musical instruments.

#### Subahdar and Naib Subahdar

* Subahdar or Sardar (Provincial Governor, सुबेदार, सरदार; صوبهدار , سردار), were the governors of provinces within the Kingdom of Kumaon. This post was handed out to either military commanders, statesmen or princes, depending upon their capabilities and experience and was usually not hereditary, although later on some families went on to occupy these posts by claiming the title of 'permanent governor'. There were many subahs (provinces, सूबा; صوبہ) within the kingdom with their own governors, who were appointed by the monarch at his own will. The larger the province the more influential and powerful Sardar it had. Although there were many provinces, the two largest and most important one were -
* Subah of Terai - Bhabar, under the Subahdar of Terai Bhabar.
* Subah of Kashipur, under the Subahdar of Kashipur.
* Naib Subahdar (Deputy/Lieutenant Governor, नायब सूबेदार; نائب صوبہ دار) were also appointed by the monarch to assist the Sardar or take his role during his absence.

#### Sayanas, Budhas and Thokdaars

* Sayanas (सयाना) were responsible for depositing the collected taxes in the royal treasury. Besides the land - cultivators and the monarch, they also had some rights to the village property. In Pali there were four Sayanas - two Manrals, one Bisht and one Bangari. Sayanas of the Manral caste were eligible to have nakkaras (symbols) and symbols. Later on Baz Bahadur Chand gave this right to Budhas of Johar and Darma aswell.Sayanas were eligible to have their meals in Thāt (specific landholding within a village) of a village for themselves and their colleagues whenever they paid a visit to the village. After every second year one Rupee was paid to every Sayana as fee. The people were also bound to render him personal services in his area. They collected taxes in various forms like cash or crop. The amount for each kind of material was specified by the royal court everytime time.
* Budhas (बुड्ढा) had the same responsibility as the Sayanas, there were just called by this name in Kali Kumaon, Johar and Darma. The Budhas of Kali Kumaun had equal rights and powers as those of the Sayanas, but they were also consulted in royal functions. Due to this fact their position was much stronger than that of Sayanas. In Johar and Darma the Budhas had no special privileges as they were not involved in the management of the state. In Kali Kumaun they were also four budhas - Tadagi, Karki, Bora and Chaudhari.
* Thokdars (थोकदार {Not to be confused with the same hindi word for wholesaler}) were the regional chiefs and powerful zamindars (Aristocrats) who taxed the residents of the villages under them to pay it to the Maharaja. They were also responsible for administration of the places under them. Thokdars were dynasty based but could be removed or appointed to the monarch's liking. Their unanimous support was important for the monarch to keep his position. The Thokdar was somewhat less respected as compared to Sayanas and Budhas. He was not entitled to have his drum, nakkara and symbol and he was not consulted in the state administration. But all three types of officials were bound to help in military and home affairs.
* Kamin's (कामिन) function was similar to the above three and he also received salary, but unlike them he did not have any right on village land and property. Thus it was a very weak position as compared to others.

### Local Government
#### Padhan

* Padhan (पधान) was found in every village who was below the ranks of the above three. He used to collect land revenue. He also discharged the functions of police in the village. He had to remain under the subjugation of Sayana who was born in his village. This post was hereditary.

#### Kotal and Pahari (Attendants and Police)

* Kotal (कोताल) was under Padhan who was appointed or could be expelled by him. He used to work as a clerk and an assistant of Padhan.
* Pahri (security guard/policeman, पहरी) was kept in every village who usually used to work as the attendant of the village. He used to manage the postal affairs of the village, collect grains, and patrol the village. He mostly belonged to the shudra community. He also received grains and other food items as donation on festivals.
The copper-plate issued in the time of the Chand kings was signed by all the officers, which indicates the sense of responsibility of the officers.
According to British Civil Servant E.T. Atkinson -
"I can therefore thoroughly put this account forward as a unique record of the civil administration of a Hill state untainted almost by any foreign admixture, for until the Gorkhali Conquest and subsequently the British occupation Kumaun was always independent."

### Foreign Influence

When the 50th king of Kumaon Raja Baz Bahadur Chand reinstated Kumaoni authority over Terai after meeting Emperor Aurangzeb and came back to Almora, he introduced those customs which he had seen in Muslim courts and also in those of other kings. Naubat (kettle drums, نوبت) and Naqqāra-Khāna (place where drummers sit to beat the drums, نقاره‌خانه) were built. Bearers of asa (a staff covered with golden silver plate, عصا) and ballam (a mace so prepared, बलम), the chopdars (Ceremonial Guards, چوبدار) were also appointed. The king had brought with him a few mace-bearers, drummers, mirasis, clowns and mimes from the plains. A brahmin confectioner was also engaged to prepare sweets for the palace.

## Symbol
### Emblem and Flag

The cow was the royal emblem of the Chand Dynasty of Kumaon. Cows are considered sacred in Hinduism, the religion of the Chand kings and the Kumaoni people. The cow was used in the emblem, seal, flag and coinage of the Chand Dynasty. It was also used to symbolise Kumaon itself, like saying "Victory to the cow" would mean "Victory to Kumaon (the land whose banner is adorned with the cow)".
Slaughtering of cows was strictly prohibited in the Kingdom of Kumaon, and was punishable by death.
Kiladars, Sayanas and Budhas had their personal standards and insignias. The Diwan used the seal of the monarch to issue orders.

### Seal of the Maharaja of Kumaon

The copper-plates of Chand kings were called katardar (कटारदार) as the kings instead of putting their signatures made the mark of their dagger on them. Their names used to be engraved in the beginning of the copper-plate. The name of chief officers as well were engraved in the copper plates. This very rule was followed while putting signatures on papers also.This can be seen in the official papers from the reign of Baz Bahadur Chand and Udyot Chand.
Kumaon was somewhat famous for its high quality swords and daggers, which were in demand in the Mughal Empire. This could be a reason as to why dagger was chosen as the seal.

## Culture
### Language

The Kumaoni language is one of the Central Pahari languages. For a number of reasons, Kumaoni usage is shrinking rapidly. UNESCO's Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger designates Kumaoni as a language in the unsafe category which requires consistent conservation efforts.

### Cuisine

Kumaoni cuisine is the food of the Kumaon region of Uttarakhand, India. Kumaoni food is simple and nutritious, suited to the harsh environment of the Himalayas.