# Pakawan languages

The Pakawan languages were a small language family spoken in what is today northern Mexico and southern Texas.

## Classification

Five clear Pakawan languages are attested: Coahuilteco, Cotoname, Comecrudo, Garza and Mamulique. The first three were first proposed to be related by John Wesley Powell in 1891, in a grouping then called Coahuiltecan. Goddard (1979) groups the latter three in a Comecrudan family while considering the others language isolates. The current composition and the present name "Pakawan" are due to Manaster Ramer (1996).
The term Coahuiltecan languages today refers to a slightly expanded and less securely established grouping. Most Pakawan languages have at times been included also in the much larger and highly hypothetical Hokan "stock".

## Common vocabulary

The following word comparisons are given by Manaster Ramer (1996):
| Core Pakawan | Core Pakawan | Core Pakawan | Peripheral Pakawan | Peripheral Pakawan | tentative reconstruction |
| Coahuilteco | Comecrudo | Cotoname | Karankawa | Tónkawa | tentative reconstruction |
| axtē 'two' | ale-kueten 'two' | | haíkia 'two' | | #al-, #axte 'two' |
| '' | | | | | #ali 'ear' |
| uxualʼ 'heaven' | apel 'sky, heaven, clouds' | | | | #apel' 'sky' |
| apam 'water' | | áx̣ 'water' | klai, komkom 'water' | | #axə 'juice, water' |
| tciene 'salt' | | dá-än | dem, ketac | | #dem 'salt' |
| xāi 'to be extinguished, to come to an end' | kai 'to eat' | | aknámas 'to eat' | | #kai 'to eat up, consume' |
| axām 'not' | kam 'no' | | kóṃ 'not' | | #kam 'no(t)' |
| hām 'to eat' | kam 'to eat' | hahame, xaxame 'to eat; food' | | | #kam 'to eat, drink' |
| '' | | | | | #kamkam 'body of water' |
| xasal 'heart' | kayasel 'heart' | | láhama 'heart' | | #kayasel 'heart' |
| | pe=kĕwek 'low (of water)' | xuăxe 'low (of water)' | | | #k(a)waka 'low (of water)' |
| | kemen 'vein' | kemma 'bow' | | | #keme(n) 'sinew, vein' |
| | pa=kna(x) 'high, big' | kenex 'good' | | | #kenex 'good, big' |
| '' | | ō' 'sun' | klos, dóowal 'sun' | | #ketekawi 'sun, star' |
| talōm 'fire' | klewem, klewen, len | mánĕx 'fire' | kwátci, kwoilesem 'fire' | | #klewem 'fire' |
| '' | | kĕnám | kanín | | #knem 'breast' |
| kuas | kial | sä'x | | | #kual 'blood' |
| kuan 'to go' | kio; kie 'to go'; 'to come' | awóyo! 'go over there!' | | | #kuV- 'to go, come' |
| k’āu 'husband' | gnax, na 'man' | xuaináxe 'man' | | | #kwainaxə 'man' |
| '' | kuak 'reed, cane; arrow' | ka-u, kau 'reed; arrow' | | | #kwak 'reed' |
| | pe=kla 'to suck' | huäxle 'to suck' | | | #kwa(x/k?)la 'to suck' |
| kʼāu 'to marry' | kuau, kwai 'married' | | | | #k'aw 'to marry' |
| '' | wax 'belly' | kox 'belly' | | | #k'wax 'belly' |
| tšum 'night, evening' | lesum, lesom 'evening' | | | | #lesum 'evening' |
| '' | | | | | #lel 'buttock, leg' |
| '' | | katówan | | | #lot 'arm' |
| '' | | | | | #makə 'to give' |
| masõ 'to give up, abandon, desert, leave' | mel, pa=mesai 'to fall' | | | | #maɬ- 'to fall' |
| māux 'hand' | mapi 'hand' | miapa 'wing' | | | #mapi 'hand' |
| | pa=msol, pa=msul 'red' | msae 'red' | | | #msa'ol 'red' |
| | el-pau 'to kneel down, sink or sit down' | pawe 'to sit' | | | #pawə 'to sit' |
| pilʼ 'one' | pe-kueten 'one' | | | | #pil' 'one' |
| ānua 'moon' | kan 'moon' | | | | #q'an 'moon' |
| saayēx 'to be wanting' | | | | | #sayex 'to want' |
| | sel 'straw' | suau 'grass, tobacco; to smoke' | | | #sel 'grass' |
| | pa=kahuai, -kawai 'to write, paint; paper' | thawe 'painted (on body, face)' | | | #tkawai 'paint' |
| tʼāhaka, tʼāxakan 'what' | tete 'how, what, why' | *tit 'what' | | | #t'ete- 'what' |
| tʼil 'day' | al 'sun' | o 'sun' | | | #t'al 'sun' |
| | xop 'far, distant' | huanpa, xuanpa 'far' | | | #xwanpa 'far' |
| | '' | yá-ĕx | | | #ya'ex 'nose' |
| yēwal 'to bewitch' | yamel, yamis 'devil' | | | | #yameɬ 'evil spirit' |
| na- 'my, me' | na 'I' | na 'I' | | | |
| mai- '2PS subject prefix' | emnã 'you (sg.)' | *men 'you (sg.)' | | | |
| | pamawau | | | | |
| | la-ak 'goose' | krak 'goose' | | | |
| | kol 'crane' | karakor 'crane' | | | |
| | ketuau 'dog' | kowá-u 'dog' | | | |
| | kiextuén 'rabbit' | kiáx̣nem 'rabbit' | | | |
| | pa=kwessom 'orphan' | kuwosam 'small, little; boy, girl' | | | |
| malāux 'male sexual organs' | melkuai 'female sexual organs' | | | |
| xūm 'to die' | kamau 'to kill' | wátxuka 'to kill' | | | |
| tzin 'I' | yen 'I' | | | | |
| tzōtz 'chest' | yeso knem 'to nurse' | | | | |
| *tšei 'to hear' | ye 'to hear' | | | | |
| tilʼ 'posterior, anus' | alel; (al)el 'leg'; 'buttocks, backsides, bottom' | | | | |
| tām 'woman's breast' | | dom 'breast' | | | |
| mās 'to look, observe' | max, ma, mahe 'to see' | | | | |
| kuāx(ai) 'to suffer' | kayau 'ache, sore' | | | | |
The following sound changes and correspondences should be noted:
* Vocalization of word-final *l in Cotoname: 'sun', 'straw', red'
* Lenition of *p to /xw/ in Coahuilteco between vowels: #apel', #mapi
* Syncope of
* Apocope of final e (perhaps /ə/) in Comecrudo: 'man', 'low [water]', 'to kneel'.
* /k/, /kw/ in other languages correspond to /x/, /xw/ in Cotoname, when before /a/ ('man', 'low [water]', 'to eat', 'to suck', 'to write'), as well as in Coahuilteco, when before any low vowel (__examples).
* /kiV/ in Comecrudo corresponds to /kuV/ in Coahuilteco: 'blood', 'to go'
* s ~ l (perhaps indicating a lateral fricative /ɬ/) in Comecrudo corresponds to s in Coahuilteco: Comecrudo 'blood', 'devil', 'to fall'.
* Initial y in Comecrudo corresponds to /ts/ in Coahuilteco: I, chest, to hear

## Lexical comparison

The Comecrudo, Cotoname, Karankawa, Coahuilteco, Solano, and Maratino data below are all from Swanton (1940). The Quinigua data is from Gursky (1964), which in turn is from del Hoyo (1960). Naolan is from Weitlaner (1948), and Tonkawa is from Hoijer (1949).
| language | head | hair | eye | ear | nose | tooth | tongue | mouth | hand | foot | breast | meat | blood | bone | person | name |
| Comecrudo | eláx | eláx, emól | u-i | alí | yáx̣ | í | expén | xál | mapí | emí, lemí | kném | ewé, kai | kiál | ehûei, klemí, xí | estók | lekaú |
| Cotoname | makuát | makuát | arókwan | | yá-ĕx | | | | | ayésim | kĕnám | kemás | sä'x | | xuaináxe | |
| Karankawa | en-okea | ekia aikui | em-ikus | | em-ai aluak | é, dolonakin | a-lean | emi-akwoi | étsma | eham, kékeya | kanín | | | | ahaks, tecoyu, úci, yámawe | |
| Tonkawa | taˑkey | xʔaˑk | nemtan-xaˑ | henicxayʔan | yamʔacxan | | ne̠ta̠le- | kala | nota- | naˑtan | | ʔawas | ʔoˑn | ne̠kame- | tickan | hes-tewe-(toˑ-) 'to name (him)' |
| Coahuilteco | | | | | | | | | māux | | tām | ahāuh | kuās, hātz | | pīlam | aux |
| Solano | | | | | | | | | | | | nikaog | | | | |
| Maratino | | | | | | | | | | | | migtikui | | | | |
| Quinigua | kai | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| Naolan | | | mi yuːhu; ma yoho (my) | | | | | | | | | ma naːme; manáme (of deer) | | | | |
| language | dog | fish | louse | tree | leaf | flower | water | fire | stone | earth | salt | road | eat | die | I | you |
| Comecrudo | ketuaú, klám | atuís, selaú | ak 'blackish louse' | xaí | sel | awaí, exnó, xaí, pawaí | áx̣ | klewém, len | woyekuél | kamlá | sepén | ál | to, kai | kamaú, plau, pokuét | na, ye-inán, yén | nánã |
| Cotoname | kowá-u | | | | | | áx̣ | mánĕx | | pén | dá-än | | haháme | wátĕxo | | |
| Karankawa | kec | áṃ, kiles | | akwiní | | | klai, komkom | húmhe, kwátci, kwoilesem | | | dem, ketac | | aknámas | | náyi | áwa |
| Tonkawa | ʔekˑan | neswalʔan | | | xaˑsoy-tlc | nahen- | ʔaˑx | mʔelʔan | yatexan | haˑc | mamʔe- | naˑx | ya̠xa- | hewawa- | saˑ- | naˑ-ya |
| Coahuilteco | | | | | | | | talōm | | tāp | | | hām | xūm, tzam | na, tzin | |
| Solano | | | | | | | apam | | | | tciene | | namō 'eat it' | | na- (?) | |
| Maratino | | | | | | | | | | | | | migtikui | paahtcu 'kill' | | |
| Quinigua | karama | ama, ami; ka | | ana | | | ka, kwa, wa | | pixa | ama | | | ama; ka(ene) | | | |
| Naolan | | | | | | | mi; míː | | | | | | mi koːl; ma koːl (my) | | mi, ma (poss.) | |