# Infant baptism

Infant baptism (or paedobaptism) is the practice of baptizing infants or young children. Infant baptism is also called christening by some faith traditions.
Most Christians belong to denominations that practice infant baptism. Branches of Christianity that practice infant baptism include Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy, and Oriental Orthodoxy. Among Protestants, several denominations practice infant baptism including Anglicans, Lutherans, Presbyterians, Congregationalists, Methodists, Nazarenes, Moravians, and United Protestants.
Christians who do not practice infant baptism are called credobaptists. Examples of demominations or groups that support credobaptism are Baptists, Reformed Baptists, and many Pentecostals.

## Ceremony

The exact details of the baptismal ceremony vary among Christian denominations. Many follow a prepared ceremony, called a rite or liturgy. In a typical ceremony, parents or godparents bring their child to their congregation's priest or minister. The rite used would be the same as that denomination's rite for adults, i.e., by pouring holy water (affusion) or by sprinkling water (aspersion). Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic traditions practice total immersion and baptize babies in a font, and this practice is also the first method listed in the baptismal ritual of Catholic Roman Rite, although pouring is the standard practice within the Latin Church of the Catholic Church. Catholic and Orthodox churches that do this do not sprinkle. At the moment of baptism, the minister utters the words "I baptize you (or, "The servant of God (name) is baptized") in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit" (see Matthew 28:19).
Although it is not required, many parents and godparents choose to dress the baby in a white gown called a christening gown for the baptism ceremony. Christening gowns often become treasured keepsakes that are used by many other children in the family and handed down from generation to generation. Traditionally, this gown is white or slightly off white and made with much lace, trim and intricate detail. In the past, a gown was used for both boys and girls; in the present day it has become more common to dress children in a baptismal outfit. Also normally made of white fabric, the outfit consists of a romper with a vest or other accessories. These clothes are often kept as a memento after the ceremony.

## Antiquity
### First century

The New Testament does not explicitly mandate infant baptism, nor does it clearly indicate that infants were regarded as candidates for baptism during that period.
Some scholars such as historian David F. Wright suggest that in first-century Pauline churches, baptism did not include infants. Wright describes the issue of infant baptism as 'obscurity unresolved,' suggesting that while evidence indicates that in Pauline churches, the children of baptized Christians were not typically baptized until at least c. 55 AD, the extent of this practice remains unclear.
Theologian Joachim Jeremias (2004) and William A. Strange (1996) argued that it originated in the apostolic age, claiming children of converts were baptized with their families. Advocates point to the many households mentioned to be baptized within Acts of the Apostles (16:15, 33) and 1 Corinthians 1:16 as potential evidence. The Global Dictionary of Theology (2009) acknowledges the ambiguity of these accounts, stating that while infants may have been included, the texts do not provide explicit confirmation. Jeremias cites that baptism extended to all household members because the Old Testament concept of “household” is inherently inclusive, drawing upon interpretations of 1 Samuel 22:16–19 and Genesis 17:23. Therefore, the term "house" (oikos) has been central to this debate.
The analogy between circumcision and baptism is a key argument for early infant baptism. In Jewish tradition, boys were circumcised on the eighth day, and some scholars argue early Jewish Christians viewed baptism similarly. Beyond the circumcision analogy, Jewish proselyte baptism involved entire households, including children, as a purification rite for Gentile converts to Judaism. Aland disagrees, stating it not a standard practice for Jewish-born children, and its evidence of usage among Jewish Christians lacks evidence, as Jewish children were typically incorporated via circumcision, not baptism, weakening the parallel to Christian practice.
The earliest Christian texts addressing the sinfulness of infants or small children include:
* Clement of Rome (1 Clement 14.4) stated "No one is clean from defilement, not even if his life be but one day old." Although used out of context, it later became a proof-text for baptism dealing with original sin.
* The Shepherd of Hermas explicitly portrays children as models of discipleship and moral purity. That they are inherently innocent, free of evil or wickedness, and serve as a model for believers.
* The Didache, a church order, which gives instructions on how adult baptism is conducted, yet children are to be given instruction preventing future sin.

### Second century

The second century, especially texts, does not provide explicit evidence on the practice of infant baptism. However, Wright and Aland posits there are some literary traces emerging toward the end of the second century (200 AD).
Some advocates mention Irenaeus of Lyon who wrote: "infants, small children, youngsters, youths, and old folk" as being "born again". Scholars such as Bakke (2005) and Nelson (1996) interpret this as an explicit reference to baptism. Bakke accepts only on the condition that "reborn" (renascuntur) is a technical term for baptism. Although Jenson (2012) and Meyers (1988) argue that it lacks specificity regarding infants.
During this period, as Christianity expanded, structured catechesis became necessary to ensure converts were well-prepared for their faith, especially amid persecution and heresies. The development of catechesis led to a more formalized approach to baptism, making it less common for infants to be baptized without preparation.
Some early Christian apologists appeared to believe infants or small children were free of sin or innocent. Examples of such teachings included:
* Aristides of Athens (Apology, Chapter 15, c. 125 AD) wrote that children are born sinless and are converted through personal persuasion rather than through a formal baptismal rite. Aristides states, “And when a child is born to one of them, the Christians give thanks to God; and if the child dies in infancy, they give thanks even more, for it has passed from this life sinless.”
* Athenagoras of Athens (On the Resurrection of the Dead, c. 177 AD): infants who die are not judged, as they "have done neither evil nor good."
* Justin Martyr saw infants and children as morally neutral, sinless until they could rationally choose to sin, per his focus on free will and the "seed of the Logos" (Second Apology, 10, c. 153 AD). He praised purity in "disciples from childhood" (First Apology, 15, c. 155 AD) implying no innate sinfulness.

### Third century

Definitive evidence for infant baptism appears in the third century. However, between the third and early fifth centuries, Christian parents commonly delayed baptizing their infants. Reasons for this included the belief that postponing baptism maximized its spiritual benefits, the practice of administering baptism only in cases of imminent death, and hesitation from parents who had not yet been baptized themselves.
The first clear reference to infant baptism comes from Tertullian, who opposed it. In On Baptism, he acknowledges it as an established custom but argues against it, suggesting that baptism should be delayed until individuals can personally profess faith. Strange observed that Tertullian’s opposition to infant baptism marked a departure from prevailing practice, arguing that patristic evidence suggests it was already a recognized norm. Additionally, Yilmaz (2020) notes that Tertullian's view did not resonate effectively in North African churches, where infant baptism continued as the general practice. North Africa remained the region with the strongest support for infant baptism, and it may well have been where the practice originated.
Other early references include:
* Hippolytus of Rome (Apostolic Tradition 21.3-5) instructed: “And they shall baptize the little children first. And if they can answer for themselves, let them answer. But if they cannot, let their parents answer or someone from their family.”
* Origen claimed infant baptism was an apostolic tradition handed down to the church. Though it is unclear whether this was based on theological reasoning or specific scriptural interpretations. His writings indicate that the practice was already well established.
* Cyprian of Carthage argued that baptism should not be delayed, even for newborns, stating that divine grace is not "distributed in greater or lesser degree according to the ages of the recipients."
A third century inscription from Rome’s Catacomb of Priscilla mentions an infant who had received baptism before passing away. Such inscriptions suggest that infant baptism was practiced regularly, especially in cases of illness or impending death. Scholars such as Jeremias and Everett Ferguson analyzed inscriptional evidence for infant baptism. Aland concluded that third-century inscriptions do not provide new insights beyond literary sources, as infant baptism was already documented by that time.

### Fourth century

During the fourth century, as Christianity shifted from being a persecuted or tolerated religion to one favored by the Roman state, two contrasting practices emerged. On one hand, the traditional catechumenate, characterized by extensive pre‐baptismal instruction (as seen in the works of Cyril of Jerusalem and Gregory of Nyssa) continued in some regions. On the other hand, a growing acceptance of infant baptism took root, driven by a developing theology of original sin.
During this period, the Church strongly condemned Pelagianism, which questioned the necessity of baptism for salvation, and affirmed that baptism must be administered without delay. For example, official decrees such as the Council of Florence’s Pro Jacobitis warned against postponing baptism, thereby underlining that infants (and others) must receive baptism promptly to secure salvation. These developments, along with texts from the Council of Carthage and the Roman Catechism that taught unbaptized infants could not attain heaven, demonstrate that by the end of the fourth century infant baptism was a widely accepted and normative practice in the Church.
However, Christian figures, including Tertullian, Rufinus, Gregory of Nazianzus, Basil of Caesarea, Ambrose, Jerome, Augustine, and Cyril of Alexandria, reference infant dedication or enrollment into the catechumenate rather than immediate baptism. This practice was widespread across various regions, including Carthage, Trier, Constantinople, Caesarea, Milan, Stridon, Tagaste, and Alexandria. Thus, during the fourth century, infant dedication followed by catechumenate enrollment was more common than immediate infant baptism, which was typically reserved for emergencies.
Several influential Christian figures of the fourth and fifth centuries, though born into Christian families, were not baptised as infants. These individuals include:
* Novatian (200–258) was only baptised in an emergency when gravely ill.
* Gregory of Nazianzus (c. 329–390) delayed his baptism until around age thirty.
* Basil of Caesarea was baptised around 357 AD, at about 27 years old.
* Gregory of Nyssa was baptized between 23 and 28 years old.
* Ambrose of Milan (340–397) was not baptised until he was unexpectedly elected bishop in 374 AD.
* John Chrysostom (347–407) was baptised around 368 AD, at approximately 20 years old.
* Jerome (347–420) received baptism in 366 AD, at about 19 years old.
* Augustine (354–430) postponed his baptism until Easter 387 AD, at age 33, despite his mother Monica’s Christian devotion.
Other early references include:
* Augustine of Hippo in his opposition to Pelagius, he argued that baptism was necessary for remission of original sin and insisted that little ones belonged to Christ’s flock only through baptism. He warned that those who died unbaptized would not attain salvation.
* Gregory of Nazianzus stated that infants are "conscious neither of the loss nor of the grace" and should be baptized only "if any danger presses," otherwise, baptism should wait until they are at least three or mature enough to respond to questions.
* Jerome urged parents to baptize their children early. In his letter to Laeta (403 AD), he implied that failing to baptize children was neglecting parental duties.
Archaeological evidence from baptismal fonts suggests variation in baptismal practices. Fourth-century iconography depicting small figures in baptism is interpreted either as baptism of Jesus or infant baptism. Funerary inscriptions from the third and fourth centuries indicate some infants were baptized in emergencies but do not establish it as a common practice.

### Fifth century

By the late fifth century, the doctrine of original sin played an increasingly central role in discussions on the necessity of infant baptism. As Augustinianism gained widespread acceptance in the West, the Council of Carthage (418 AD) had already declared that infants, though innocent in their personal acts, inherited original sin from Adam and thus required baptism to be cleanse of sin.
By the late fifth and early sixth centuries, a growing emphasis on the doctrine of repeatable penance further heightened fears that unbaptized infants would suffer eternal damnation. This period saw a shift in practice: parents began engaging in formal baptismal preparation activities on behalf of their children. Over time, these preparations gave way to a consolidated ceremony, where newborn infants were baptised, anointed (confirmation), and received communion all at once to ensure that even the youngest members of the community were promptly incorporated into the salvific rite.
Documents such as John the Deacon’s letter (circa 500 AD) highlight that the Church’s teaching and practice had firmly established infant baptism as essential for salvation in response to inherited sin. Large fonts from this period indicate that adult baptism continued alongside infant baptism well into the sixth and seventh centuries.
In 526 AD, eastern Roman emperor, Justinian I made infant baptism compulsory.

## Middle ages

High infant mortality contributed greatly to the spread of paedobaptism from the 6th century onwards, which was often practiced as a baptism in extremis (hence the use of the respite sanctuary). Infant baptism became widespread with the Carolingian and then Gregorian reforms of the 9th century and then the 11th-12th centuries.

## Theology
### Agreements among infant baptizers

Based on their understanding of New Testament passages such as Colossians 2:11–12, Christians who baptize infants believe that infant baptism is the New Testament counterpart to the Old Testament circumcision. In the Old Testament, all male converts to Judaism, male infants born to Jewish parents, and male servants were circumcised as ceremony of initiation into the Jewish community. Christians who baptize infants believe that baptism has replaced Old Testament circumcision and is the religious ceremony of initiation into the Christian community.
During the medieval and Reformation eras, infant baptism was seen as a way to incorporate newborn babies into the secular community as well as inducting them into the Christian faith. Due to high rates of infant mortality, it is important to note that canon law denied unbaptized infants a Christian burial in sacred ground.

### Teachings of Christian denominations practicing infant baptism

Different Christian denominations who practice infant baptism attach different meanings to the sacrament and explain its efficacy in different ways.

#### Catholic Church

The Catholic Church considers baptism, even for an infant, so important that "parents are obliged to see that their infants are baptized within the first few weeks" and, "if the infant is in danger of death, it is to be baptized without any delay." It declares: "The practice of infant Baptism is an immemorial tradition of the Church. There is explicit testimony to this practice from the second century on, and it is quite possible that, from the beginning of the apostolic preaching, when whole 'households' received baptism, infants may also have been baptized". It notes that "when the first direct evidence of infant Baptism appears in the second century, it is never presented as an innovation", that 2nd-century Irenaeus treated baptism of infants as a matter of course, and that, "at a Synod of African Bishops, St. Cyprian stated that 'God's mercy and grace should not be refused to anyone born', and the Synod, recalling that 'all human beings' are 'equal', whatever be 'their size or age', declared it lawful to baptize children 'by the second or third day after their birth'". In the 17th and 18th centuries, many infants were baptized on the day of their birth as in the cases of Francoise-Athenais, Marquise de Montespan, Jeanne Du Barry and Marie Anne de Cupis de Camargo. Infant baptism is seen as showing very clearly that salvation is an unmerited favor from God, not the fruit of human effort. "Born with a fallen human nature and tainted by original sin, children also have need of the new birth in Baptism to be freed from the power of darkness and brought into the realm of the freedom of the children of God, to which all men are called ... The Church and the parents would deny a child the priceless grace of becoming a child of God were they not to confer Baptism shortly after birth".
The church has no dogmatic official teaching regarding the fate of infants who die without baptism, and theologians of the church hold various views (in particular, many have asserted that they go to Limbo). "The Church entrusts these infants to the mercy of God."
The Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith issued on 20 October 1980 an instruction on infant baptism, whose purpose was "to recall the principal points of doctrine in this field which justify the Church's constant practice down the centuries and demonstrate its permanent value in spite of the difficulties raised today". The document then indicated some general guidelines for pastoral action.
The document recalled that infant baptism has long been considered of apostolic origin, and that the first direct evidence of its practice, dating from the 2nd century, does not present it as an innovation. It then responded to objections that baptism should follow faith, that the person baptized should consciously receive the grace of the sacrament, that the person should freely accept baptism, that infant baptism is unsuitable in a society marked by instability of values and conflicts of ideas, and that the practice is inimical to a missionary outlook on the part of the church.
The instruction then gave guidelines for pastoral practice, based on two principles. The major principle is that baptism, as the sign and means of God's love that precedes any action on our part and that frees from original sin and communicates divine life, must not be delayed. The subordinate principle is that assurances must be given that the gift thus granted can grow by authentic education in the faith and Christian life. If these assurances are not really serious, there can be grounds for delaying baptism. If they are certainly absent, the sacrament should even be refused.
Accordingly, the rules for involvement on the part of practicing Christian parents must be supplemented with other considerations in the case of "families with little faith or non-Christian families". If these request that a child of theirs be baptized, there must be assurances that the child will be given the benefit of the Christian upbringing required by the sacrament. Examples of such assurances are "the choice of godparents who will take sincere care of the child, or the support of the community". If there is satisfactory assurance, i.e., "any pledge giving a well-founded hope for the Christian upbringing of the children", then "the priest cannot refuse to celebrate the sacrament without delay, as in the case of children of Christian families". If there is insufficient assurance, "it will be prudent to delay baptism", while keeping contact with the parents in the hope of securing the required conditions for celebrating the sacrament. As a last resort, enrollment of the child in a course of catechetical instruction on reaching school age can be offered in lieu of immediate celebration of baptism. The possibility of delaying infant baptism in the case of non practicing or non believing parents raises a number of questions. How can we discern that there are guarantees of an authentic Christian education? Can a priest propose an alternative celebration in the case where baptism is to be delayed? In some German speaking countries, bishops have opened the door to a "two step baptism", i.e. two celebrations separated by a time of evangelization of the parents. In this case, the rite of baptism itself is to be performed in the second celebration, when parents are supposed to have enough maturity to raise the child in the Catholic faith.
The Catechism of the Catholic Church states: "Since Baptism signifies liberation from sin and from its instigator the devil, one or more exorcisms are pronounced over the candidate". In the Roman Rite, the wording of the prayer of exorcism is: "Almighty and ever-living God, you sent your only Son into the world to cast out the power of Satan, spirit of evil, to rescue man from the kingdom of darkness and bring him into the splendour of your kingdom of light. We pray for this child: set him (her) free from original sin, make him (her) a temple of your glory, and send your Holy Spirit to dwell with him (her). Through Christ our Lord."

#### Eastern Churches

The Eastern Orthodox Church, Oriental Orthodoxy and the Assyrian Church of the East also insist on the need to have infants baptized as soon as is practicable after birth. Similar to the Catholic Church, they teach that baptism is not merely a symbol but actually conveys grace. Baptism is a sacrament because it is an "instrument" instituted by Jesus Christ to impart grace to its recipients. Infants are traditionally baptized on the eighth day, recalling the biblical injunction to circumcise on the eighth day. However, this is not mandatory. In many of these churches, the Sacred Mystery of Chrismation (Confirmation) is administered by the priest immediately after baptism. Holy Communion, in the form of consecrated wine and bread, is also given to infants after they are baptized.

#### Lutheran Churches

Lutherans practice infant baptism because they believe that God mandates it through the instruction of Jesus Christ, "Go and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit", in which Jesus does not set any age limit:
   The command is general. It includes infants, women, men, and teenagers, even though none of these groups is specifically named. Each of these groups is included in "all nations."
They also cite other biblical passages such as Mark 10:13-15, Mark 16:16, John 3:3-7 and Acts 2:38-39 in support of their position. For example, in the Acts of the Apostles Peter's teachings on Pentecost included children in the promise of baptism, "Repent and be baptized, every one of you, in the name of Jesus Christ for the forgiveness of your sins. And you will receive the gift of the Holy Spirit. The promise is for you and your children".
For them baptism is a "means of grace" through which God creates and strengthens "saving faith" as the "washing of regeneration" in which people are reborn (John 3:3–7): "baptismal regeneration". Since the creation of faith is exclusively God's work, it does not depend on the actions of the one baptized, whether infant or adult. Even though baptized infants cannot articulate that faith, Lutherans believe that it is present all the same. Because it is faith alone that receives these divine gifts, Lutherans confess that baptism "works forgiveness of sins, delivers from death and the devil, and gives eternal salvation to all who believe this, as the words and promises of God declare". In the special section on infant baptism in his Large Catechism Luther argues that infant baptism is God-pleasing because persons so baptized were reborn and sanctified by the Holy Spirit.
   Lutherans [WELS] believe that babies are conceived and born sinful and therefore need to be born again to enter the kingdom of heaven. Through Baptism, the Holy Spirit works rebirth, creates faith in them, and saves them. Although some deny the possibility of infant faith, the Bible clearly teaches that babies can believe.

#### Methodist Churches

In the Methodist Churches, baptism is a sacrament of initiation into the visible church. Wesleyan covenant theology further teaches that baptism is a sign and a seal of the covenant of grace:
   Of this great new-covenant blessing, baptism was therefore eminently the sign; and it represented "the pouring out" of the Spirit, "the descending" of the Spirit, the "falling" of the Spirit "upon men," by the mode in which it was administered, the pouring of water from above upon the subjects baptized. As a seal, also, or confirming sign, baptism answers to circumcision.
Infant baptism, in Methodism, is celebrated as "an acceptance of the prevenient grace of God and as a confession on the part of the church of its responsibility for children in general and for every child in particular." Methodists teach that people receive justifying grace, which is integral to salvation, after they repent and personally accept Jesus as Savior. Many Methodist denominations, such as the Free Methodist Church and Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection, practice infant baptism for families who desire it for their children, but provide a rite for child dedication for those who have a preference for credobaptism only after their child has made a personal acceptance of Jesus as his/her savior.

#### Presbyterian, Congregational and Reformed Churches

Presbyterian, Congregational and Reformed Christians believe that baptism, whether of infants or adults, is a "sign and seal of the covenant of grace", and that baptism admits the party baptized into the visible church. Being a member of the visible church does not guarantee salvation; though it does provide the child with many benefits, including that of one's particular congregation consenting to assist in the raising of that child in "the way he should go, (so that) when he is old he will not turn from it". Elect infants (those predestined for salvation) who die in infancy are by faith considered regenerate on the basis of God's covenant promises in the covenant of grace.
Presbyterian, Congregational and many Reformed Christians see infant baptism as the New Testament form of circumcision in the Jewish covenant. Circumcision did not create faith in the 8-day-old Jewish boy. It merely marked him as a member of God's covenant people Israel. Likewise, baptism does not create faith; it is a sign of membership in the visible covenant community.
Presbyterian, Congregational and Reformed Christians consider children of professing Christians to be members of the visible church (the covenant community). They also consider them to be full members of the local congregation where their parents are members and members of the universal church (the set of all true believers who make up the invisible church) unless and until they prove otherwise. Baptism is the mark of membership in the covenant of grace and in the universal church, although regeneration is not inseparably connected with baptism.

### Contrasts between infant and adult baptism

Infant baptism can be contrasted with what is called "believer's baptism" (or credobaptism, from the Latin word credo meaning "I believe"), which is the religious practice of baptizing only individuals who personally confess faith in Jesus, therefore excluding underage children.
Pedobaptism and credobaptism are positions which bubble up from theological views at a more fundamental level of one's theological system.
* If baptism is a sign that a person is a member of God's covenant community, and if the children of believers are members of that community, it follows that the children of believers should receive the sign that they are members of God's covenant community by being baptized, as an infant is entitled to a passport that indicates the child as a member of a particular country.
* Believers and the children of believers become members of God's covenant community (or church) through baptism.
* It is believed by some Christians that in the heart of a baptized child, faith as a gift or grace from God, as distinct from an act by the person, is made present.
* It is believed by some Christians that baptism is not merely a symbol and that it has a real effect, conveying divine grace.

### Arguments for infant baptism

Christians who practice infant baptism do not completely agree on the reasons for doing so, and offer different reasons in support of the practice. Among the arguments made in support of the practice are:
* Analogy with circumcision: Some Christians posit an analogy of baptism to circumcision, pointing to children, since the historic Israelite application of circumcision was to infants, not to adult converts, of which there were few. Covenant theology identifies baptism less as a statement of faith than as an assumption of identity; that is to say that infant baptism is a sign of covenantal inclusion. Assuming that what God instituted in the Old Testament continues unless the New Testament specifically abrogates it, including infants in the giving of the sign of the covenant must continue in the New Covenant. It is especially so if the practice is an important one.
* Jesus' affirmation: According to Luke 18:15-17, when parents brought their babies to Jesus, the disciples tried to prevent them from coming. Jesus becomes indignant and says, "Let the little children come to me, and do not hinder them, for the kingdom of God belongs to such as these." This seems to confirm that infants can have a personal relationship with Jesus just as parents can have a personal relationship with their babies. More importantly, Jesus confirms that babies of believers belong to the kingdom of God. In other words, babies of believers are counted as believers, not unbelievers. Therefore, Jesus specifically instructs not to hinder them.
* Peter's speech: According to the Book of Acts, "Peter replied, 'Repent and be baptized, every one of you, in the name of Jesus Christ for the forgiveness of your sins. And you will receive the gift of the Holy Spirit. The promise is for you and your children and for all who are far off—for all whom the Lord our God will call.'" (Acts 2:38–39, NIV–UK, emphasis added) Some churches within The United Methodist Church argue that the phrase "every one of you" recalls the use of the same phrase in Deuteronomy 29:10–12, where there is explicit mention of the "little ones" present; and it takes the phrase "and your children" to mean that Peter included children in the covenant community.
* Early Christian practice: Several early Church Fathers seem to have taught that infant baptism is proper; Origen states that the practice of baptizing infants is of apostolic origin.
It is worth acknowledging that critics of infant baptism have stated that when Paul contrasts infant baptism with circumcision, he intends to show that both are analogies of spiritual truth.

### Arguments against infant baptism

* Infants cannot repent or believe: Baptism in Scripture always has the prerequisite of repentance and faith, which are impossible for an infant.
* No scriptural instances: There are no explicit instances of infant baptism in the scripture

#### Denominations and religious groups opposed to infant baptism

Trinitarian Christian denominations that oppose infant baptism include the International Christian Church, all Baptist and Anabaptist traditions and denominations, Pentecostals, Assemblies of God and more.
Several nontrinitarian religious groups also oppose infant baptism, including Oneness Pentecostals, Christadelphians, Jehovah's Witnesses, United Church of God, and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.
B.R. White describes the motivations behind persecution of the Anabaptists during the Reformation as follows:
   Other Christians saw the baptism of each new-born baby into the secular parish community and close links between church and state as the divinely-ordained means of holding society together. Hence many other Christians saw the Anabaptists as subversive of all order. Consequently, from the earliest days, they were sharply persecuted and leaders were soon executed.
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) completely rejects infant baptism. Little children are considered both born without sin and incapable of committing sin. They have no need of baptism until age eight, when they can begin to learn to discern right from wrong, and are thus accountable to God for their own actions. However, the LDS Church performs a non-saving ordinance to name and bless children, customarily performed on infants.

## Confirmation

For Catholic, Methodist Christians, and Weslian Confirmation "strengthens" (the original meaning of the word "confirm") the grace of Baptism, by conferring an increase and deepening of that grace.
In Eastern Christianity, including the Eastern Catholic Churches, the sacrament of Confirmation is conferred immediately after baptism, and there is no renewal of baptismal promises. In the Latin Church and its Latin liturgical rites of the Catholic Church, the sacrament is to be conferred at about the age of discretion (generally taken to be about 7), unless the Episcopal Conference has decided on a different age, or there is danger of death or, in the judgment of the minister, a grave reason suggests otherwise (canon 891 of the Code of Canon Law). The renewal of baptismal promises by those receiving the sacrament in the Western Catholic Church is incidental to the rite and not essentially different from the solemn renewal of their baptismal promises that is asked of all members of this church each year at the Easter Vigil service. Only in French-speaking countries has there been a development of ceremonies, quite distinct from the sacrament of Confirmation, for young Catholics to profess their faith publicly, in line with their age.
Within the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, confirmation or "the laying on of hands" is an essential part of the baptismal ordinance, and to receive baptism without confirmation is to leave the ordinance incomplete. Confirmation is the conferring of the gift of the Holy Ghost as a constant companion. To confirm means to "make more sure" and the ordinance of confirmation stands as a witness of the individual becoming a member of the LDS Church and not just an acceptance of Jesus.

## Opposition to infant baptism

According to Catholic legal professor and former Irish president Mary McAleese, as outlined in her doctoral thesis, infant baptism amounts to "enforced membership of the Catholic Church", which violates fundamental rights of children. These "infant conscripts ... are held to lifelong obligations of obedience" without their understanding or consent. "Parents can guide and direct [their children] but they can't impose, and what the church has failed to do is to recognize that there has to be a point at which our young people, as adults who have been baptized into the church and raised in the faith, have the chance to say 'I validate this' or 'I repudiate this'. You and I know, we live now in times where we have the right to freedom of conscience, freedom of belief, freedom of opinion, freedom of religion and freedom to change religion. The Catholic Church yet has to fully embrace that thinking."

### Controversies

Baptisms have sometimes accidentally led to injuries, or deaths, such as drowning deaths, to babies. In Romania, this has served as an opportunity to revise practices.

## Yazidi baptism

In Yazidism, children are baptized at birth and circumcision is not required, but is practiced by some due to regional customs. The Yazidi baptism is called Mor kirin (literally: 'to seal'). Traditionally, Yazidi children are baptized at birth with water from the Kaniya Sipî ('White Spring') at Lalish. It involves pouring holy water from the spring on the child's head three times.