# Broken plural

In linguistics, a broken plural (or internal plural) is an irregular plural form of a noun or adjective found in the Semitic languages and other Afroasiatic languages such as the Berber languages. Broken plurals are formed by changing the pattern of consonants and vowels inside the singular form. They contrast with sound plurals (or external plurals), which are formed by adding a suffix, but are also formally distinct from phenomena like the Germanic umlaut, a form of vowel mutation used in plural forms in Germanic languages.
There have been a variety of theoretical approaches to understanding these processes and varied attempts to produce systems or rules that can systematize these plural forms. However, the question of the origin of the broken plurals for the languages that exhibit them is not settled, though there are certain probabilities in distributions of specific plural forms in relation to specific singular patterns. As the conversions outgo by far the extent of mutations caused by the Germanic umlaut that is evidenced to be caused by inflectional suffixes, the sheer multiplicity of shapes corresponds to multiplex attempts at historical explanation ranging from proposals of transphonologizations and multiple accentual changes to switches between the categories of collectives, abstracta and plurals or noun class switches.

## Arabic

While the phenomenon is known from several Semitic languages, it is most productive in Arabic.
In Arabic, the regular way of making a plural for a masculine noun is adding the suffix ‹See RfD› -ūn[a] (for the nominative) or ‹See RfD› -īn[a] (for the accusative and genitive) at the end. For feminine nouns, the regular way is to add the suffix ‹See RfD› -āt. However, not all plurals follow these simple rules. One class of nouns in both spoken and written Arabic produce plurals by changing the pattern of vowels inside the word, sometimes also with the addition of a prefix or suffix. This system is not fully regular, and it is used mainly for masculine non-human nouns; human nouns are pluralized regularly or irregularly.
Broken plurals are known as ‹See RfD› jam' taksīr (جَمْعُ تَكْسِيرٍ, literally "plural of breaking") in Arabic grammar. These plurals constitute one of the most unusual aspects of the language, given the very strong and highly detailed grammar and derivation rules that govern the written language. Broken plurals can also be found in languages that have borrowed words from Arabic, for instance Persian, Pashto, Turkish, Azerbaijani, Sindhi, and Urdu. Sometimes in these languages the same noun has both a broken plural Arabic form and a local plural.
In Persian this kind of plural is known by its Arabic term ‹See RfD› jam'-e mokassar (جَمِع مُکَسَّر, literally "broken plural"). However the Persian Academy of Literature (Farhangestan) does not recommend the usage of such Arabic plural forms, but instead the native Persian plural suffix ‹See RfD› -hā.
Full knowledge of these plurals can come only with extended exposure to the Arabic language, though a few rules can be noted. One study computed the probability that the pattern of vowels in the singular would predict the pattern in the broken plural (or vice versa) and found values ranging from 20% to 100% for different patterns.
A statistical analysis of a list of the 3000 most frequent Arabic words shows that 978 (59%) of the 1670 most frequent nominal forms take a sound plural, while the remaining 692 (41%) take a broken plural. Another estimate of all existing nominal forms gives over 90,000 forms with a sound plural and just 9540 with a broken one. This is due to the almost boundless number of participles and derived nominals in "-ī", most of which take a sound plural.

### Example

Semitic languages typically utilize triconsonantal roots, forming a "grid" into which vowels may be inserted without affecting the basic root.
Here are a few examples; note that the commonality is in the root consonants (capitalized), not the vowels.
* ‹See RfD› KiTāB كِتَاب "book" → ‹See RfD› KuTuB كُتُب "books"
* ‹See RfD› KāTiB كَاتِب "writer, scribe" → ‹See RfD› KuTTāB كُتَّاب "writers, scribes"
* ‹See RfD› maKTūB مَكْتُوب "letter" → ‹See RfD› maKāTīB مَكَاتِيب "letters"
* ‹See RfD› maKTaB مَكْتَب "desk, office" → ‹See RfD› maKāTiB مَكَاتِب "offices"
    note: these four words all have a common root, K-T-B ‏ك – ت – ب‎ "to write"
In the non-semitic Persian language it is current to use:
* ‹See RfD› KiTāB کِتَاب‌ "book" → ‹See RfD› KiTāBhā کِتَاب‌ْهَا "books"
* ‹See RfD› KāTiB كَاتِبْ‌ "writer, scribe" → ‹See RfD› KāTiBhā كَاتِبْ‌هَا "writers, scribes"

### Patterns in Arabic

| Singular form | Plural form | Singular example | Singular example | Singular example | Plural example | Plural example | Plural example | Other examples | Notes |
| CiCāC | CuCuC | ‏كِتَاب‎ | ‹See RfD› kitāb | 'book' | كُتُب | ‹See RfD› kutub | 'books' | | |
| CaCīCah | CuCuC | ‏سَفِينَة‎ | ‹See RfD› safīnah | 'ship' | سُفُن | ‹See RfD› sufun | 'ships' | [[wikt:جزيرة|‹See RfD› juzur]] (islands), [[wikt:مدينة|‹See RfD› mudun]] (cities) | |
| CaCv̄C | CuCuC | ‏أَسَاس‎ | ‹See RfD› ʾasās | 'foundation' | أُسُس | ‹See RfD› ʾusus | 'foundations' | | |
| CaCv̄C | CuCuC | ‏سَبِيل‎ | ‹See RfD› sabīl | 'path' | سُبُل | ‹See RfD› subul | 'paths' | [[wikt:طريق|‹See RfD› turuq]] (paths) | |
| CaCv̄C | CuCuC | ‏رَسُول‎ | ‹See RfD› rasūl | 'messenger' | رُسُل | ‹See RfD› rusul | 'messengers' | | |
| CvCCah | CuCaC | ‏شَقَّة‎ | ‹See RfD› šaqqah | 'apartment' | شُقَق | ‹See RfD› šuqaq | 'apartments' | | |
| CvCCah | CiCaC | ‏قِطّة‎ | ‹See RfD› qiṭṭah | 'cat' | قِطَط | ‹See RfD› qiṭaṭ | 'cats' | | |
| CvCCah | CuCaC | ‏غُرْفَة‎ | ‹See RfD› ġurfah | 'room' | غُرَف | ‹See RfD› ġuraf | 'rooms' | | |
| CiCC | CiCaCah | ‏هِرّ‎ | ‹See RfD› hirr | 'cat' | هِرَرَة | ‹See RfD› hirarah | 'cats' | [[wikt:فيل|‹See RfD› fiyalah]] (elephants) [[wikt:قرد|‹See RfD› qiradah]] (apes) | |
| CuCC | CiCaCah | ‏دُبّ‎ | ‹See RfD› dubb | 'bear' | دِبَبَة | ‹See RfD› dibabah | | | |
| CvCC | CuCūC | ‏قَلْب‎ | ‹See RfD› qalb | 'heart' | قُلُوب | ‹See RfD› qulūb | 'hearts' | [[wikt:فن|‹See RfD› funūn]] (arts), [[wikt:بيت|‹See RfD› buyūt]] (houses) [[wikt:جد|‹See RfD› judūd]] (grandfathers) | |
| CvCC | CuCūC | ‏عِلْم‎ | ‹See RfD› ʿilm | 'science' | عُلُوم | ‹See RfD› ʿulūm | 'sciences' | | |
| CvCC | CuCūC | ‏جُحْر‎ | ‹See RfD› juḥr | 'hole' | جُحُور | ‹See RfD› juḥūr | 'holes' | | |
| CvCC | CiCāC | ‏كَلْب‎ | ‹See RfD› kalb | 'dog' | كِلَاب | ‹See RfD› kilāb | 'dogs' | | |
| CvCC | CiCāC | ‏ظِلّ‎ | ‹See RfD› ẓill | 'shadow' | ظِلَال | ‹See RfD› ẓilāl | 'shadows' | | |
| CvCC | CiCāC | ‏رُمْح‎ | ‹See RfD› rumḥ | 'spear' | رِمَاح | ‹See RfD› rimāḥ | 'spears' | | |
| CaCaC | CiCāC | ‏جَمَل‎ | ‹See RfD› jamal | 'camel' | جِمَال | ‹See RfD› jimāl | 'camels' | | |
| CaCuC | CiCāC | ‏رَجُل‎ | ‹See RfD› rajul | 'man' | رِجَال | ‹See RfD› rijāl | 'men' | | |
| CvCC | ʾaCCāC | ‏يَوْم‎ | ‹See RfD› yawm | 'day' | أَيَّام | ‹See RfD› ʾayyām | 'days' | [[wikt:رب|‹See RfD› ʾarbāb]] (masters) [[wikt:جد|‹See RfD› ʾajdād]] (grandfathers) | |
| CvCC | ʾaCCāC | ‏جِنْس‎ | ‹See RfD› jins | 'kind, type' | أَجْنَاس | ‹See RfD› ʾajnās | 'kinds, types' | | |
| CvCC | ʾaCCāC | ‏لُغْز‎ | ‹See RfD› luḡz | 'mystery' | أَلْغَاز | ‹See RfD› ʾalḡāz | 'mysteries' | [[wikt:عمق|‹See RfD› ʾaʿmaq]] (deeps) | |
| CaCaC | ʾaCCāC | ‏سَبَب‎ | ‹See RfD› sabab | 'cause' | أَسْبَاب | ‹See RfD› ʾasbāb | 'causes' | [[wikt:ولد|‹See RfD› ʾawlād]] (boys), [[wikt:قلم|‹See RfD› ʾaqlām]] (pens) | |
| CuCuC | ʾaCCāC | ‏عُمُر‎ | ‹See RfD› ʿumur | 'lifespan' | أَعْمَار | ‹See RfD› ʾaʿmār | 'lifespans' | [[wikt:ربع|‹See RfD› ʾarbāʿ]] (quarters) | |
| CaCūC | ʾaCCiCah | ‏عَمُود‎ | ‹See RfD› ʿamūd | 'pole' | أَعْمِدَة | ‹See RfD› ʾaʿmidah | 'poles' | | Ends with ‹See RfD› taʾ marbuta |
| CaCīC | ʾaCCiCāʾ | ‏صَدِيق‎ | ‹See RfD› ṣadīq | 'friend' | أَصْدِقَاء | ‹See RfD› ʾaṣdiqāʾ | 'friends' | | |
| CaCīC | CuCaCāʾ | ‏سَعِيد‎ | ‹See RfD› saʿīd | 'happy' | سُعَدَاء | ‹See RfD› suʿadāʾ | 'happy' | [[wikt:وزير|‹See RfD› wuzarāʾ]] (ministers) [[wikt:بخيل|‹See RfD› bukhalāʾ]] (cheapskates) | mostly for adjectives and occupational nouns |
| CāCiC | CuCCāC | ‏كَاتِب‎ | ‹See RfD› kātib | 'writer' | كُتَّاب | ‹See RfD› kuttāb | 'writers' | [[wikt:طالب|‹See RfD› ṭullāb]] (students) [[wikt:ساكن|‹See RfD› sukkān]] (residents) | Gemination of the second root; mostly for the active participle of Form I verbs |
| CāCiC | CaCaCah | ‏جَاهِل‎ | ‹See RfD› jāhil | 'ignorant' | جَهَلَة | ‹See RfD› jahalah | 'ignorant' | | |
| CāCiC | CuCCaC | ‏سَاجِد‎ | ‹See RfD› sājid | 'prostrated' | سُجَّد | ‹See RfD› sujjad | | | |
| CāCiCah | CuCCaC | ‏سَاجِدَة‎ | ‹See RfD› sājidah | 'prostrated' (Fem.) | سُجَّد | ‹See RfD› sujjad | | | |
| CāCiCah | CawāCiC | ‏قَائِمَة‎ | ‹See RfD› qāʾimah | 'list' | قَوَائِم | ‹See RfD› qawāʾim | 'lists' | [[wikt:بارجة|‹See RfD› bawārij]] (battleships) | |
| CāCūC | CawāCīC | ‏صَارُوخ‎ | ‹See RfD› ṣārūḫ | 'rocket' | صَوَارِيخ | ‹See RfD› ṣawārīḫ | 'rockets' | [[wikt:حاسوب|‹See RfD› ḥawāsīb]] (computers), ṭawāwīs (peacocks) | |
| CiCāCah | CaCāʾiC | ‏رِسَالَة‎ | ‹See RfD› risāla | 'message' | رَسَائِل | ‹See RfD› rasāʾil | 'messages' | [[wikt:بطاقة|‹See RfD› biṭāqah baṭāʾiq]] (cards) | |
| CaCīCah | CaCāʾiC | ‏جَزِيرَة‎ | ‹See RfD› jazīrah | 'island' | جَزَائِر | ‹See RfD› jazāʾir | 'islands' | [[wikt:حقيبة|‹See RfD› haqāʾib]] (suitcases), [[wikt:دقيقة|‹See RfD› daqāʾiq]] (minutes) | |
| CaCCaC | CaCāCiC | ‏دَفْتَر‎ | ‹See RfD› daftar | 'notebook' | دَفَاتِر | ‹See RfD› dafātir | 'notebooks' | | applies to all four-literal nouns with short second vowel |
| CuCCuC | CaCāCiC | ‏فُنْدُق‎ | ‹See RfD› funduq | 'hotel' | فَنَادِق | ‹See RfD› fanādiq | 'hotels' | | applies to all four-literal nouns with short second vowel |
| maCCaC | maCāCiC | ‏مَلْبَس‎ | ‹See RfD› malbas | 'apparel' | مَلَابِس | ‹See RfD› malābis | 'apparels' | [[wikt:مكتب|‹See RfD› makātib]] (offices) | Subcase of previous, with ‹See RfD› m as first literal |
| maCCiC | maCāCiC | ‏مَسْجِد‎ | ‹See RfD› masjid | 'mosque' | مَسَاجِد | ‹See RfD› masājid | 'mosques' | [[wikt:منزل|‹See RfD› manāzil]] (houses) | Subcase of previous, with ‹See RfD› m as first literal |
| miCCaCah | maCāCiC | ‏مِنْطَقَة‎ | ‹See RfD› minṭaqah | 'area' | مَنَاطِق | ‹See RfD› manāṭiq | 'areas' | | |
| CvCCv̄C | CaCāCīC | ‏صَنْدُوق‎ | ‹See RfD› ṣandūq | 'box' | صَنَادِيق | ‹See RfD› ṣanādīq | 'boxes' | | applies to all four-literal nouns with long second vowel |
| miCCāC | maCāCīC | ‏مِفْتَاح‎ | ‹See RfD› miftāḥ | 'key' | مَفَاتِيح | ‹See RfD› mafātīḥ | 'keys' | | Subcase of previous, with ‹See RfD› m as first literal |
| maCCūC | maCāCīC | ‏مَكْتُوب‎ | ‹See RfD› maktūb | 'message' | مَكَاتِيب | ‹See RfD› makātīb | 'messages' | | Subcase of previous, with ‹See RfD› m as first literal |

## Hebrew

In Hebrew, though all plurals must take either the ‹See RfD› -īm ־ים (generally masculine) or ‹See RfD› -ōt ־ות (generally feminine) plural suffixes, the historical stem alternations of the so-called segolate or consonant-cluster nouns between CVCC in the singular and CVCaC in the plural have often been compared to broken plural forms in other Semitic languages. Thus the form ‹See RfD› malkī מַלְכִּי‎ "my king" in the singular is opposed to ‹See RfD› məlāxīm מְלָכִים‎ "kings" in the plural.
In addition, there are many other cases where historical sound changes have resulted in stem allomorphy between singular and plural forms in Hebrew (or between absolute state and construct state, or between forms with pronominal suffixes and unsuffixed forms etc.), though such alternations do not operate according to general templates accommodating root consonants, and so are not usually considered to be true broken plurals by linguists.

## Geʽez (Ethiopic)

Broken plurals were formerly used in some Ethiopic nouns. Examples include ˁanbässa "lion" with ˁanabəst "lions", kokäb "star" with kwakəbt "stars", ganen "demon" with aganənt "demons", and hagar "region" with ˀahgur "regions". Some of these broken plurals are still used in Amharic today, but they are generally seen as archaic.