# Bafuliiru Chiefdom

The Bafuliiru Chiefdom (French: Chefferie de Bafuliiru), also known as the Bafulero Chiefdom (Chefferie de Bafulero), is a chiefdom located in Uvira Territory, South Kivu, in the eastern region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Covering an area of 1,514,270 square kilometers, it is the largest administrative entity in Uvira Territory, often considered akin to a separate territory due to its size. The chiefdom was established in 1928, alongside the Bavira Chiefdom and the Ruzizi Plain Chiefdom, as part of the reorganization of Uvira Territory during the colonial era.
The Bafuliiru Chiefdom is predominantly inhabited by the Fuliiru people, who rely on the chiefdom's governance structure for local administration and cultural preservation. It is subdivided into five groupements (groupings), which are further divided into villages.

## Geography

The Bafuliiru Chiefdom is situated in the eastern part of the DRC, specifically within the Uvira Territory of the South Kivu Province. With an area of 1,514.270 km$^2$, it is the largest among all the chiefdoms in Uvira Territory and appears to constitute a separate territory. The region boasts a diverse range of terrains. It includes parts of the eastern section of the Albertine Rift, which is a branch of the East African Rift System. The area is predominantly mountainous, with the Mitumba Mountains forming a significant part of the landscape. It extends to the eastern shores of Lake Tanganyika, one of the African Great Lakes. In addition, the Bafuliiru Chiefdom is surrounded by lush forests, including portions of the Itombwe Massif, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The vegetation in the area is primarily characterized by tropical rainforests and savannah grasslands.

### Hydrology

The Bafuliiru Chiefdom exhibits diverse hydrographic features, including plains, plateaus, and lakes. The easternmost part of the community is primarily characterized by expansive plains that encompass regions such as Luvungi, Lubarika, Katogota, Kiliba, Runingu, and Kawizi. These areas form an integral part of the Ruzizi Plain, situated between Mitumba mountain chain and the Ruzizi River. The elevation in this area ranges from 773 to 1000 meters above sea level.
The chiefdom is further characterized by two distinct plateaus: the Middle Plateau and the High Plateau. The Middle Plateau extends between Luvungi and Mulenge, with a gradual variation in elevation from 100 meters to 1800 meters. Within this plateau, notable villages include Namutiri, Ndolera, Bulaga, Langala, Bushokw, Bushuju, Butole, Bwesho, Katala and Mulenge. The Middle Plateau provides a favorable environment for cultivating crops such as cassava, coffee, bananas, beans, and maize in various locations. The High Plateau, which forms part of the Mitumba chain, boasts the highest peaks, surpassing 3,000 meters above sea level. The High Plateau serves as a watershed between the tributaries of the Ulindi and Elila rivers, as well as numerous torrents that flow into the Ruzizi River and Lake Tanganyika.

### Climate

The chiefdom has two primary climatic zones: a hot semi-arid climate in the Ruzizi Plain and a cooler, more temperate climate in the highlands. The Ruzizi Plain is characterized by a semi-arid climate, with minimal rainfall during the dry season from June to September, where monthly precipitation is less than 50 mm. Average temperatures in the plain hover around 22.5 °C, with daily maximums ranging from 30.5 °C to 35.5 °C in September, and dropping to 14.5 °C to 17.5 °C during the mid-dry season in July. Winds, mainly descending from Burundi and following the Ruzizi Valley and Lake Tanganyika, accentuate the hot and irregular tropical conditions in this area. The low altitude of the plain contributes to high temperatures and limited rainfall, resulting in degraded shrub savanna vegetation and reduced soil fertility.
In contrast, the highlands of the chiefdom experience cooler temperatures due to higher altitudes. Temperatures decrease progressively with elevation, ranging from 24 °C at 100 meters to 12 °C at 3,000 meters, though the observed gradient is slightly less steep than the theoretical average of 6 °C per 1,000 meters. The highlands benefit from abundant and regular rainfall, fostering diverse vegetation types, including wooded savannas, gallery forests, bamboo groves, and dense equatorial forests.
Between the Ruzizi Plain and the highlands lies a transitional zone, extending from Namutiri to Katala. This area features a humid climate that balances the dryness of the plains with the cooler temperatures of the highlands. The transitional climate supports agricultural activities, particularly the cultivation of crops such as cassava, coffee, and beans.

### Administrative division

The Bafuliiru Chiefdom is classified as a Decentralized Territorial Entity (Entité Territoriale Décentralisée, ETD), in accordance with the Constitution of 18 February 2006. The Mwami hold both customary and modern authority within this decentralized structure. In his administrative capacity, he represents the provincial executive and oversees local development affairs. The chiefdom is subdivided into groupements (groupings), each led by a groupement chief (chef de groupement) who serves as the Mwami's direct representative. Each groupement is further divided into localités (villages), which are governed by village chiefs who report to their respective groupement chiefs.
The Muhungu groupement consists of the following villages:
* Kabondola
* Kagunga
* Kaholwa
* Kalemba
* Kasheke
* Kaluzi
* Kazimwe
* Kibumbu
* Kasanga
* Kihanda
* Mukololo
* Lugwaja
* Masango
* Muzinda
* Muhungu
* Namukanga
* Kiriba
* Butaho
* Kahwizi
The Kigoma groupement consists of the following villages:
* Bibangwa
* Bikenge
* Kukanga
* Bushajaga
* Kahungwe
* Butumba
* Kabere
* Karava
* Kalengera
* Kahololo
* Kalimba
* Karaguza
* Kahungwe
* Kasheke
* Kiryama
* Kanga
* Kashagala
* Kasenya
* Kishugwe
* Kigoma
* Lubembe
* Kihinga
* Mangwa
* Miduga
* Kitembe
* Mibere
* Kitija
* Muhanga
* Kabamba
* Mulenge
* Kaduma
* Mushojo
* Masango
* Kitoga
* Mashuba
* Mulama
* Kagaragara
* Ndegu,
* Rurambira
* Rugeje
* Rubuga
* Rusako
* Sogoti
* Taba
* Sange
* Kabunambo
The Runingu groupement consists of the following villages:
* Katembo
* Kashatu
* Ruhito
* Ruhuha
* Namuziba
* Kasambura
* Katwenge
* Bulindwe
* Narumoka
* Kalindwe
The Itara/Luvungi groupement consists of the following villages:
* Bwegera
* Lubarika
* Kakamba
* Murunga
* Ndolera
* Katogota
* Luberizi
* Bulaga
* Luburule
* Bideka
The Lemera groupement consists of the following villages:
* Kiringye
* Kidote
* Langala
* Bwesho
* Mahungu or Mahungubwe
* Narunanga
* Namutiri
* Lungutu
* Kahanda
* Kigurwe
* Ndunda

## History

The chiefdom traces its origins to the migration and settlement of the Bahamba clan of the Fuliiru people, led by Mwami Kahamba Kalingishi. According to Alfred Moeller de Laddersous, the Bahamba migrated from present-day Lwindi Chiefdom under Chief Kikanwe and settled in the uninhabited area known as "Bufuliro". Over time, the Bahamba adopted the name Bafuliru as a marker of their evolving identity. The chronology of their arrival remains a subject of scholarly debate, with Belgian colonial records dating it to the 16th century, while Congolese historians Kingwengwe Mupe and Bosco Muchukiwa Rukakiza suggest the 17th century.
Other narratives describe a broader migration involving Fuliru and the Vira people from the northeast, potentially passing through Maniema before settling in Uvira Territory. Led by an ancestral figure named Nalwindi, the group split into two: the Bafuliru, under Kahamba Kalingishi, established themselves in the highlands of Lemera groupement, while the Vira, under Kirungu, settled on Munanira's peak and expanded into the lowlands. Bavira's oral traditions emphasize distinctions between the two groups, tracing the Bafuliru's origins to the north and the Bavira's to the south near Katanga.
Governance within the Bafuliru Chiefdom was historically decentralized, characterized by the presence of multiple bami (chiefs). According to Congolese historian Jacques Depelchin, both "Buvira" (modern-day Bavira Chiefdom) and "Bufuliro" (Bafuliru Chiefdom) maintained this polycentric governance, devoid of a singular paramount chief. This independent political tradition persisted even as colonial authorities began delineating ethnic boundaries in 1907, which extended along Lake Tanganyika and the Ruzizi Plain, occasionally overlapping with Bavira territories. Chief Luhama—a key figure in Bafuliru history—consolidated the Bahamba dynasty's power by apportioning his domain among his three sons: Nyamugira, who governed from Moira to the Munyovwe River; Mutahonga, who controlled the area between the Munyovwe and Kise Rivers, including the eastern slopes of the Ruzizi Valley; and Lusagara, who oversaw the mountainous regions. This strategic division ensured stability while maintaining centralized authority within the family, with leadership passing from father to eldest son. The chiefdom also assimilated other clans, notably the Bazige, whose autonomous chiefdom based in the present-day Muhungu groupement under Chief Kalunga, son of Mukobesi, was subsumed following their defeat by Mahina Mukogabwe II, a Bafuliru ruler who reigned from 1914 to 1927. Over time, Bazige adopted Kifuliiru and merged into Bafuliru society through intermarriage and economic exchanges, ultimately recognizing Mukogabwe as their mwami. Meanwhile, the Balunga clan aligned with the Bavira, forming a unique faction that did not embrace the Bafuliru's conventional leadership structures.
On 18 August 1928, the Bafuliru Chiefdom was officially constituted as part of the newly formed Uvira Territory, alongside the Bavira and Ruzizi Plain Chiefdoms, through an edict issued by the Chef de Division des Districts (C.D.D.) of the Kivu region. Fuliru historian Kingwengwe Mupe notes that Chief Matakambo, the son of Mahina Mukogabwe and grandson of Nyamugira I—the first Bahamba leader—received his official appointment on 19 March 1933. Despite its official establishment, the vast size of the chiefdom posed challenges in defining its precise boundaries. Colonial records from the Belgian Congo indicate that the geographical limits of the Bafuliiru Chiefdom were finalized on the same date as Matakambo's appointment in 1933:
* To the east: The Ruzizi River up to its confluence with the Luvubu, then from the Luvubu to Kalinda. From Kalinda, the boundary follows the mountain range leading to Ravine Mize, and from there, it follows the Costermansville Road (Bukavu) to Kawizi, including the Kanomo River. The boundary extends to the mouth of the Kanomo River where it meets the great Musondjo.
* To the south: From the confluence of Musondjo and Kamono, a line is drawn towards Mount Ngongwa, then from the source of the small Musondjo to its mouth where it joins the big Musondjo. The boundary continues along the great Musondjo until it meets the Lwindi River.
* To the west: From Lwindi, the boundary extends to the foot of Mount Lutandala, encompassing the valley between the Matiazo and Bihimvu Mountains. It then follows the course of the Kalongofya stream parallel to Mount Kaya. From there, it proceeds along the eastern slope of Mount Kaya to the source of the Kinwalangazi River, and finally, it follows the Kinwalangazi River until its confluence with the Luvubu. The boundary extends from the source of the Luvubu River to the source of the Kabundji River, which eventually joins the Luvimbi River at its mouth.
These delineations helped establish the territorial extent of the Bafuliru Chiefdom within the region. Nyamugira, another descendant of Mahina Mukogabwe, was appointed chief on 4 March 1940, consolidating Bahamba leadership over the chiefdom. While many sources credit the Bahamba with founding the Bafuliru Chiefdom, others suggest they supplanted the Balemera clan to establish their dominance. Kingwengwe Mupe contends that the Bahamba clan displaced or possibly overthrew the Balemera clan to assert control over the chiefdom. The Balemera clan, believed to be the region's original inhabitants, had strong ancestral ties to the area, with their stronghold in Lemera groupement—a location regarded as the heartland of their domain.

## Security problems

Over the last three decades, the Bafuliiru Chiefdom has encountered security challenges, with a history of conflicts often triggered by political, ethnic, and resource-driven tensions. Such conflicts have caused violent outbreaks and the forced movement of civilians in impacted regions.

### First and Secondo Congo Wars

The chiefdom has been affected by spillover effects from conflicts in neighboring countries during the First and Second Congo Wars. These conflicts turned the area into a major battleground for various armed groups, leading to widespread violence, displacement, and immense suffering for the local population. The region witnessed the presence of formidable forces such as the Rwandan Patriotic Army (RPA), Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo-Zaire (AFDL), Forces Armées Burundaises (FAB), Rally for Congolese Democracy (RCD), and numerous Mai-Mai groups, each pursuing their own agendas and alliances.

#### First Congo War

During the First Congo War, rival factions clashed for control. The AFDL, backed by Rwanda and Uganda, confronted Mobutu Sese Seko's government forces. According to Amnesty International, the AFDL was responsible for various human rights violations during its campaign to overthrow Mobutu. On 6 October 1996, a massacre occurred at Lemera Hospital, where the AFDL and a Banyamulenge-led force killed 37 people, among them Hutu refugees, Zairean soldiers, and Fuliiru civilians. According to the Democratic Republic of the Congo 1993-2003 UN Mapping Report, the victims were killed in their beds by "gunshots or bayonets". In subsequent days and weeks, the violence continued to escalate. On 13–14 October 1996, the AFDL and Banyamulenge armed units killed refugees in the Runingu camp. Similarly, on 20 October 1996, AFDL/RPA/FAB units targeted Burundian and Rwandan Hutu refugees in the Luvungi groupement, which resulted in significant casualties. In Katala village, located in the middle plateau of Bafuliiru Chiefdom, they captured and killed refugees who were attempting to flee at close range. Local people were then forced to bury the bodies in mass graves.
On the same day, 20 October 1996, AFDL/APR/FAB units killed an unidentified number of Hutu refugees, including approximately twenty in the camp's hospital in Kanganiro camp in Luvungi groupement. Parenthetically, the units also killed an unknown number of Hutu refugees and Zairean civilians who were fleeing towards Burundi in Rubenga village in Uvira Territory. In Kakumbukumbu village, located five kilometers from Lubarika camp, soldiers burned thirty refugees alive in a house. On 21 October 1996, AFDL/APR/FAB units butchered around 370 refugees in Luberizi and Mutarule. By May 1997, the conflict resulted in the ousting of Mobutu and marked the beginning of a tumultuous period for the region. Laurent-Désiré Kabila declared himself the president of the DRC and renamed the country the "Democratic Republic of the Congo".

#### Second Congo War

In the Second Congo War, which began in 1998, the Bafuliru Chiefdom once again became a battleground for rival factions and armed groups vying for power and control. The conflict witnessed various armed groups, including the Rwandan Patriotic Army (RPA), the Rally for Congolese Democracy (RCD), Rally for Congolese Democracy–Goma (RCD-Goma) and multiple Mai-Mai groups, clashing in the region.
Numerous areas within the Bafuliru Chiefdom experienced targeted attacks on civilians. On 6 August 1998, members of RCD-Goma killed 13 people, including the chief of the Kiringye area, in the village of Lwiburule. Concurrently, and in the proximate vicinity of Kivovo, Kigongo, and Kalungwe villages, RCD-Goma and RPA operatives killed 15 civilians. In the village of Katogota on 14 May 2000, RCD-Goma carried out a massacre that claimed the lives of over 300 people.
The conflict came to an end with the signing of the Global and Inclusive Agreement in 2002, followed by the establishment of a transitional government. However, the effects of the wars continue to linger, with communities grappling with the long-lasting consequences of violence, displacement, and trauma.

## Economy

Subsistence agriculture is the chiefdom's primary economic activity, with the surrounding fertile lands supporting the cultivation of a variety of crops such as cassava, beans, peanuts, coffee, banana, rice, and maize. The region also grows sorghum, wheat, and soybeans, along with various fruit trees, including orange, mango, guava, and avocado.
Cassava is among the most prominent agricultural commodities in the chiefdom areas of Ruzizi Plain and the Bafuliru Chiefdom. According to Bafuliiru folklore, cassava was introduced to the region during their migration from Lwindi Chiefdom, and it continues to serve as a vital food source. Banana cultivation is widespread throughout the Bafuliiru Chiefdom, serving both as a food crop and a raw material for producing Kasigisi, a fermented beverage made from bananas and sorghum.
Rice production, specifically varieties such as IR5, L9, and IRON 282, is also prominent, although it is more often cultivated as a cash crop. Rice is primarily grown at the CEP Kabwe, Kaliri, and the Cenre Developpement Communautaire (CDC) in Kiringye. Similarly, beans are grown predominantly in the central part of Lemera, covering areas from Rubanga to Mulenge, with large portions marketed in Bukavu and Uvira, as well as exported to neighboring countries like Burundi and Rwanda. Maize is widely cultivated in the Ruzizi Plain and the Hauts Plateaux, where it serves as a primary food source. Peanuts, primarily grown in Luvungi are consumed locally and exported to Rwanda and Burundi, with some also sold in Bukavu.
The Bafuliiru Chiefdom is also notable for its coffee production, with two species cultivated: Coffea arabica and Coffea canephora. The more common arabica species is grown in areas such as Ndolera, Buheba, Lemera, Katala, and Mugule, and is a significant export product, particularly to Burundi.