# Symmetrical voice

Symmetrical voice, also known as Austronesian alignment or the Austronesian focus system, is a typologically unusual kind of morphosyntactic alignment in which "one argument can be marked as having a special relationship to the verb". This special relationship manifests itself as a voice affix on the verb that corresponds to the syntactic role of a noun within the clause, that is either marked for a particular grammatical case or is found in a privileged structural position within the clause or both.
There are two alignment types of languages with symmetrical voice, the Philippine type which mostly retains the original system from Proto-Austronesian with four voices (or sometimes three), and the Indonesian type which reduced them into only two voices.
The Philippine-type languages include languages of the Philippines, but is also found in Taiwan's Formosan languages, as well as in northern Borneo, northern Sulawesi, and Madagascar, and has been reconstructed for the ancestral Proto-Austronesian language. In the rest of the Malayo-Polynesian languages, including Proto-Oceanic, symmetrical voice was lost almost entirely.
The number of voices differs from language to language. While the majority sampled have four voices, it is possible to have as few as two voices, and as many as six voices. In the examples below, the voice affix on the verb appears in red text, while the subject, which the affix selects, appears in underlined bold italics.

## Terminology

The term Austronesian focus was widely used in early literature, but more scholars turn to the term voice recently because of the arguments against the term 'focus'. On the other hand, Starosta argued that neither voice nor focus is correct and that it is a lexical derivation.
Schachter (1987) proposed the word 'trigger', which has seen widespread use. As one source summarized, 'focus' and 'topic' do not mean what they mean in discourse (the essential piece of new information, and what is being talked about, respectively), but rather 'focus' is a kind of agreement, and the 'topic' is a noun phrase that agrees with the focus-marked verb. Thus using those terms for Austronesian/Philippine alignment is "misleading" and "it seems better to refer to this argument expression as the trigger, a term that reflects the fact that the semantic role of the argument in question triggers the choice of a verbal affix."

## Studies

A number of studies focused on the typological perspective of Austronesian voice system.
Some explored the semantic or pragmatic properties of Austronesian voice system.
Others contributed to the valence-changing morphology.

## Properties
### Agreement with the semantic role of the subject

In languages that exhibit symmetrical voice, the voice affix on the main verb within the clause marks agreement with "the semantic role of the [subject]".
For example, the Actor Voice affix may agree only with agent nominal phrases. (The asterisk means that the sentence is ungrammatical for the intended meaning.)

#### Kapampangan

S‹um›ulat
‹AV›will.write
ya=ng
3SG.DIR=ACC
poesia
poem
ing
DIR
lalaki
boy
king
OBL
pisara.
blackboard
S‹um›ulat ya=ng poesia ing lalaki king pisara.
‹AV›will.write 3SG.DIR=ACC poem DIR boy OBL blackboard
"The boy will write a poem on the blackboard."
Sumulat
yang
lalaki
ing
poesia
king
pisara.
* Sumulat yang lalaki ing poesia king pisara.
Intended: "The boy will write a poem on the blackboard." (Grammatical for: "The poem will write a boy on the blackboard.")
Sumulat
yang
poesia
ing
pisara
king
lalaki.
* Sumulat yang poesia ing pisara king lalaki.
Intended: "The boy will write a poem on the blackboard." (Grammatical for: "The blackboard will write a poem on the boy.")

#### Tagalog

B‹um›ilí
‹ASP.AV›buy
ng
IND
manggá
mango
sa
OBL
palengke
market
ang
DIR
lalaki.
man
B‹um›ilí ng manggá sa palengke ang lalaki.
‹ASP.AV›buy IND mango OBL market DIR man
"The man bought a mango at the market."
Bumilí
ng
lalaki
sa
palengke
ang
manggá.
* Bumilí ng lalaki sa palengke ang manggá.
Intended: "The man bought a mango at the market." (Grammatical for: "The mango bought a man at the market.")
Bumilí
ng
manggá
sa
lalaki
ang
palengke.
* Bumilí ng manggá sa lalaki ang palengke.
Intended: "The man bought a mango at the market." (Grammatical for: "The market bought a mango from the man.")
The sentences in (b) are ungrammatical because the patient nominal phrase is marked as the subject, even though the verb bears the Actor Voice infix. The sentences in (c) are ungrammatical because, instead of the agent nominal phrase, the location nominal phrase is marked as the subject.
The patient voice affix may agree only with patient nominal phrases.

#### Kapampangan

I-sulat
PV-will.write
n=e
3SG.ERG=3SG.DIR
ning
ERG
lalaki
boy
ing
DIR
poesia
poem
king
OBL
pisara.
blackboard
I-sulat n=e ning lalaki ing poesia king pisara.
PV-will.write 3SG.ERG=3SG.DIR ERG boy DIR poem OBL blackboard
"The poem will be written by the boy on the blackboard."
Isulat
ne
ning
poesia
ing
lalaki
king
pisara.
* Isulat ne ning poesia ing lalaki king pisara.
Intended: "The poem will be written by the boy on the blackboard." (Grammatical for: "The boy will be written by the poem on the blackboard.")
Isulat
ne
ning
lalaki
ing
pisara
king
poesia.
* Isulat ne ning lalaki ing pisara king poesia.
Intended: "The poem will be written by the boy on the blackboard." (Grammatical for: "The blackboard will be written by the boy on the poem.")

#### Tagalog

B‹in›ilí-∅
‹ASP›buy-PV
ng
IND
lalaki
man
sa
OBL
palengke
market
ang
DIR
manggá.
mango
B‹in›ilí-∅ ng lalaki sa palengke ang manggá.
‹ASP›buy-PV IND man OBL market DIR mango
"The mango was bought by the man at the market."
Binilí-∅
ng
manggá
sa
palengke
ang
lalaki.
* Binilí-∅ ng manggá sa palengke ang lalaki.
Intended: "The mango was bought by the man at the market." (Grammatical for: "The man was bought by the mango at the market.")
Binilí-∅
ng
lalaki
sa
manggá
ang
palengke.
* Binilí-∅ ng lalaki sa manggá ang palengke.
Intended: "The mango was bought by the man at the market." (Grammatical for: "The market was bought by the man at the mango.")
The sentences in (b) are ungrammatical because the agent nominal phrase is marked as the subject, even though the verb bears the patient voice affix. The sentences in (c) are ungrammatical because, instead of the patient nominal phrase, the location nominal phrase is marked as the subject.
The locative voice affix may agree only with location nominal phrases.

#### Kapampangan

Pi-sulat-an
LV-will.write-LV
n=e=ng
3SG.ERG=3SG.DIR=ACC
poesia
poem
ning
ERG
lalaki
boy
ing
DIR
pisara.
blackboard
Pi-sulat-an n=e=ng poesia ning lalaki ing pisara.
LV-will.write-LV 3SG.ERG=3SG.DIR=ACC poem ERG boy DIR blackboard
"The blackboard will be written a poem on by the boy."
Pisulatan
neng
poesia
ning
pisara
ing
lalaki.
* Pisulatan neng poesia ning pisara ing lalaki.
Intended: "The blackboard will be written a poem on by the boy." (Grammatical for: "The boy will be written a poem on by the blackboard.")
Pisulatan
neng
pisara
ning
lalaki
ing
poesia.
* Pisulatan neng pisara ning lalaki ing poesia.
Intended: "The blackboard will be written a poem on by the boy." (Grammatical for: "The poem will be written a blackboard on by the boy.")

#### Tagalog

B‹in›ilh-án
‹ASP›buy-LV
ng
IND
lalaki
man
ng
IND
manggá
mango
ang
DIR
palengke.
market
B‹in›ilh-án ng lalaki ng manggá ang palengke.
‹ASP›buy-LV IND man IND mango DIR market
"The market was bought a mango at by the man."
Binilhán
ng
palengke
ng
manggá
ang
lalaki.
* Binilhán ng palengke ng manggá ang lalaki.
Intended: "The market was bought a mango at by the man." (Grammatical for: "The man was bought a mango from by the market.")
Binilhán
ng
lalaki
ng
palengke
ang
manggá.
* Binilhán ng lalaki ng palengke ang manggá.
Intended: "The market was bought a mango at by the man." (Grammatical for: "The mango was bought a market at by the man.")
The sentences in (b) are ungrammatical because the agent nominal phrase is marked as the subject, even though the verb bears the locative voice affix. The sentences in (c) are ungrammatical because, instead of the location nominal phrase, the patient nominal phrase is marked as the subject.

### Types of semantic roles

Across languages, the most common semantic roles with which the voice affixes may agree are agent, patient, location, instrument, and benefactee. In some languages, the voice affixes may also agree with semantic roles such as theme, goal, reason, and time. The set of semantic roles that may be borne by subjects in each language varies, and some affixes can agree with more than one semantic role.

### Promotion direct to subject

Languages that have symmetrical voice do not have a process that promotes an oblique argument to direct object. Oblique arguments are promoted directly to subject.

#### Tagalog

Nagpadalá
M-n-pag-padalá
AV-ASP-¿?-send
AGENT
ang
DIR
mama
man
THEME
ng
IND
pera
money
GOAL
sa
OBL
anák
child
niyá.
3SG.GEN
 AGENT THEME GOAL
Nagpadalá ang mama ng pera sa anák niyá.
M-n-pag-padalá
AV-ASP-¿?-send DIR man IND money OBL child 3SG.GEN
"The man sent money to his child."
P‹in›adalh-án
‹ASP›send-LV
AGENT
ng
IND
mama
man
THEME
ng
IND
pera
money
GOAL
ang
DIR
anák
child
niyá.
3SG.GEN
 AGENT THEME GOAL
P‹in›adalh-án ng mama ng pera ang anák niyá.
‹ASP›send-LV IND man IND money DIR child 3SG.GEN
"His$_i$ child was sent money by the man$_i$."
Nagpadalhán
M-n-pag-padalh-án
AV-ASP-¿?-send-LV
AGENT
ang
DIR
mama
man
THEME
ng
IND
pera
money
GOAL
ng
IND
anák
child
niyá.
3SG.GEN
 AGENT THEME GOAL
* Nagpadalhán ang mama ng pera ng anák niyá.
 M-n-pag-padalh-án
 AV-ASP-¿?-send-LV DIR man IND money IND child 3SG.GEN
Intended: "The man sent his child money."
In the Tagalog examples above, the goal nominal phrase can either be an indirect object, as in (1), or a subject as in (2). However, it cannot become a direct object, or be marked with indirect case, as in (3). Verb forms, such as "nagpadalhan", which bear both an Actor Voice affix and a non-Actor Voice affix, do not exist in languages that have symmetrical voice.
The Tagalog examples contrast with the examples from Indonesian below. Indonesian is an Austronesian language that does not have symmetrical voice.

#### Indonesian

AGENT
Ayah
father
mengirim
meN-kirim
ACTIVE VOICE-send
THEME
uang
money
GOAL
kepada
to
saya.
1SG
AGENT THEME GOAL
Ayah mengirim uang kepada saya.
 meN-kirim
father {ACTIVE VOICE}-send money to 1SG
"Father sent money to me."
GOAL
Saya
1SG
di-kirim-i
PASSIVE VOICE-send-APPLICATIVE
THEME
uang
money
AGENT
oleh
by
Ayah.
father
GOAL THEME AGENT
Saya di-kirim-i uang oleh Ayah.
1SG {PASSIVE VOICE}-send-APPLICATIVE money by father
"I was sent money by Father."
AGENT
Ayah
father
mengirimi
meN-kirim-i
ACTIVE VOICE-send-APPLICATIVE
GOAL
saya
1SG
THEME
uang.
money
AGENT GOAL THEME
Ayah mengirimi saya uang.
 meN-kirim-i
father {ACTIVE VOICE}-send-APPLICATIVE 1SG money
"Father sent me money."
In the Indonesian examples, the goal nominal phrase can be the indirect object, as in (4), and the subject, as in (5). However, unlike in Tagalog, which has symmetrical voice, the goal nominal phrase in Indonesian can be a direct object, as in (6). The preposition kepada disappears in the presence of the applicative suffix -i, and the goal nominal phrase moves from sentence-final position to some verb-adjacent position. In addition, they can behave like regular direct objects and undergo processes such as passivisation, as in (5).

## Proto-Austronesian examples

The examples below are in Proto-Austronesian. Asterisks indicate a linguistic reconstruction. The voice affix on the verb appears in red text, while the subject, which the affix selects, appears in underlined bold italics. Four voices have been reconstructed for Proto-Austronesian: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Locative Voice and Instrument Voice.

### Proto-Austronesian

K‹um›aen
‹AV›eat
Semay
rice
Cau.
man
* K‹um›aen Semay Cau.
 ‹AV›eat rice man
"The man is eating some rice."
Kaen-en
eat-PV
nu
ERG
Cau
man
Semay.
rice
* Kaen-en nu Cau Semay.
 eat-PV ERG man rice
"A/the man is eating the rice." (or "The rice is being eaten by a/the man.")
Kaen-an
eat-LV
nu
ERG
Cau
man
Semay
rice
Rumaq.
house
* Kaen-an nu Cau Semay Rumaq.
 eat-LV ERG man rice house
"The man is eating rice in the house." (or "The house is being eaten rice in by the man.")
Si-kaen
IV-eat
nu
ERG
Cau
man
Semay
rice
lima-ni-á.
hand-GEN-3SG
* Si-kaen nu Cau Semay lima-ni-á.
 IV-eat ERG man rice hand-GEN-3SG
"The man is eating rice with his hand." (or "His$_i$ hand is being eaten rice with by the man$_i$.")

## Formosan examples

The data below come from Formosan, a geographic grouping of all Austronesian languages that belong outside of Malayo-Polynesian. The Formosan languages are primarily spoken in Taiwan.

### Amis

Amis has four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Locative Voice, and Instrument Voice.
The direct case marker, which marks the subject in Amis, is ku.
Mi-ʔaɬup
AV-hunt
ku
DIR
kapah
young man
tu
ACC
vavuy.
pig
Mi-ʔaɬup ku kapah tu vavuy.
AV-hunt DIR {young man} ACC pig
"A young man hunts a pig."
Ma-ʔaɬup
PV-hunt
nu
ERG
kapah
young man
ku
DIR
vavuy.
pig
Ma-ʔaɬup nu kapah ku vavuy.
PV-hunt ERG {young man} DIR pig
"A young man hunts a pig." (or "A pig is hunted by a young man.)
Pi-ʔaɬup-an
LV-hunt-LV
nu
ERG
kapah
young man
kura
that.DIR
lutuk
mountain
tu
ACC
vavuy.
pig
Pi-ʔaɬup-an nu kapah kura lutuk tu vavuy.
LV-hunt-LV ERG {young man} that.DIR mountain ACC pig
"A young man hunts a pig on that mountain." (or "That mountain is hunted a pig on by a young man.")
Sa-pi-ʔaɬup
IV-hunt
nu
ERG
kapah
young man
ku
DIR
ʔiluc
spear
tu
ACC
vavuy.
pig
Sa-pi-ʔaɬup nu kapah ku ʔiluc tu vavuy.
IV-hunt ERG {young man} DIR spear ACC pig
"A young man hunts a pig with a spear." (or "A spear is hunted a pig with by a young man.")

### Atayal

While they both have the same number of voices, the two dialects of Atayal presented below do differ in the shape of the circumstantial voice prefix. In Mayrinax, the circumstantial voice prefix is si-, whereas in Squliq, it is s-.

#### Mayrinax

Mayrinax has four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Locative Voice, and Circumstantial Voice.
The circumstantial Voice prefix selects for benefactee and instrument subjects.
The direct case morpheme in Mayrinax is kuʔ.
M-aras
AV-fetch
cuʔ
ACC
qusiaʔ
water
kuʔ
DIR
makurakis.
girl
M-aras cuʔ qusiaʔ kuʔ makurakis.
AV-fetch ACC water DIR girl
"The girl fetches water."
Ras-un
fetch-PV
nkuʔ
ERG
makurakis
girl
kuʔ
DIR
qusiaʔ.
water
Ras-un nkuʔ makurakis kuʔ qusiaʔ.
fetch-PV ERG girl DIR water
"The girl fetches water." (or "Water is fetched by the girl.")
Ras-an
fetch-LV
nkuʔ
ERG
makurakis
girl
cuʔ
ACC
qusiaʔ
water
kuʔ
DIR
βintaŋ
water bucket
ka
LIG
hani.
this
Ras-an nkuʔ makurakis cuʔ qusiaʔ kuʔ βintaŋ ka hani.
fetch-LV ERG girl ACC water DIR {water bucket} LIG this
"The girl fetches water in this water bucket." (or "This water bucket is fetched water in by the girl.")
Si-ʔaras
CV-fetch
nkuʔ
ERG
makurakis
girl
cuʔ
ACC
qusiaʔ
water
kuʔ
DIR
mamaliku=niaʔ.
husband=3SG.GEN
Si-ʔaras nkuʔ makurakis cuʔ qusiaʔ kuʔ mamaliku=niaʔ.
CV-fetch ERG girl ACC water DIR husband=3SG.GEN
"The girl fetches water for her husband." (or "Her husband$_i$ is fetched water for by the girl$_i$.")
Si-ʔaras
CV-fetch
nkuʔ
ERG
makurakis
girl
cuʔ
ACC
qusiaʔ
water
kuʔ
DIR
βintaŋ
water bucket
ka
LIG
hani.
this
Si-ʔaras nkuʔ makurakis cuʔ qusiaʔ kuʔ βintaŋ ka hani.
CV-fetch ERG girl ACC water DIR {water bucket} LIG this
"The girl fetches water with this water bucket." (or "This water bucket is fetched water with by the girl.")

#### Squliq

Squliq has four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Locative Voice, and Circumstantial Voice.
The circumstantial voice prefix selects for benefactee and instrument subjects.
The direct case morpheme in Squliq is qu’.
M-aniq
AV-eat
qulih
fish
qu’
DIR
Tali’.
Tali
M-aniq qulih qu’ Tali’.
AV-eat fish DIR Tali
"Tali eats fish."
Niq-un
eat-PV
na’
ERG
Tali’
Tali
qu’
DIR
qulih
fish
qasa.
that
Niq-un na’ Tali’ qu’ qulih qasa.
eat-PV ERG Tali DIR fish that
"Tali eats that fish." (or "That fish is eaten by Tali.")
Niq-an
eat-LV
na’
ERG
Tali’
Tali
qulih
fish
qu’
DIR
ngasal
house
qasa.
that
Niq-an na’ Tali’ qulih qu’ ngasal qasa.
eat-LV ERG Tali fish DIR house that
"Tali eats fish in that house." (or "That house is eaten fish in by Tali.")
S-qaniq
CV-eat
na’
ERG
Tali’
Tali
qulih
fish
qu’
DIR
Sayun.
Sayun
S-qaniq na’ Tali’ qulih qu’ Sayun.
CV-eat ERG Tali fish DIR Sayun
"Tali eats fish for Sayun." (or "Sayun is eaten fish for by Tali.")
S-qaniq
CV-eat
na’
ERG
Tali’
Tali
qulih
fish
qu’
DIR
qway.
chopsticks
S-qaniq na’ Tali’ qulih qu’ qway.
CV-eat ERG Tali fish DIR chopsticks
"Tali eats fish with chopsticks." (or "Chopsticks are eaten fish with by Tali.")

### Hla’alua

Hla’alua has three voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice and Circumstantial Voice.
The circumstantial voice suffix selects for location and theme subjects.
While bound pronouns have a direct case form, nouns do not bear a special direct case marker for subjects in Hla’alua.
Hli-um-u=cu=aku
ASP-AV-eat=ASP=1SG.DIR
hlavate
guava
usua.
two
Hli-um-u=cu=aku hlavate usua.
ASP-AV-eat=ASP=1SG.DIR guava two
"I have eaten two guavas."
Hli-paipekel-a=cu
ASP-mould-PV=ASP
a
DET
Eleke
Eleke
a
DET
tangusuhlu=na.
rice.cake=DEF
Hli-paipekel-a=cu a Eleke a tangusuhlu=na.
ASP-mould-PV=ASP DET Eleke DET rice.cake=DEF
"Eleke has moulded the rice cake." (or "The rice cake has been moulded by Eleke.")
Hli-aala-ana
ASP-take-CV
’Angai
’Angai
vutukuhlu
fish
a
DET
hluuhlungu=na.
stream=DEF
Hli-aala-ana ’Angai vutukuhlu a hluuhlungu=na.
ASP-take-CV ’Angai fish DET stream=DEF
"’Angai has caught fish in the stream." (or "The stream has been caught fish in by ’Angai.")
Hli-aala-ana=ku
ASP-take-CV=1SG.ERG
a
DET
vahlituku-isa
money-3
ama’a.
father
Hli-aala-ana=ku a vahlituku-isa ama’a.
ASP-take-CV=1SG.ERG DET money-3 father
"I have taken father's money." (or "Father's money has been taken by me.")

### Kanakanavu

Kanakanavu has four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Locative Voice, and Instrument Voice.
The direct case morpheme, which optionally marks the subject in Kanakanavu, is sua.
K‹um›aʉn
‹AV›eat
(sua)
DIR
ŋiau
cat
tapianaŋai.
bird
K‹um›aʉn (sua) ŋiau tapianaŋai.
‹AV›eat DIR cat bird
"A cat ate a bird."
Cʉʔʉr-ai
see-PV
maanu
child
iisi
this
(sua)
DIR
tacau
dog
iisa.
that
Cʉʔʉr-ai maanu iisi (sua) tacau iisa.
see-PV child this DIR dog that
"This child saw that dog." (or "That dog was seen by this child.")
Riucuucu-an
kiss-LV
Mu'u
Mu'u
(sua)
DIR
PaicU.
PaicU
Riucuucu-an Mu'u (sua) PaicU.
kiss-LV Mu'u DIR PaicU
"Mu'u kissed PaicU." (or "PaicU was kissed by Mu'u.")
Si-puʔa
IV-buy
maanu-maku
child-1SG.GEN
ʔʉnai
land
sua
DIR
vantuku
money
iisi.
this
Si-puʔa maanu-maku ʔʉnai sua vantuku iisi.
IV-buy child-1SG.GEN land DIR money this
"My child bought land with this money." (or "This money was bought land with by my child.")

### Kavalan

Kavalan has three voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice and Circumstantial Voice.
The circumstantial voice prefix selects for instrument and benefactee subjects.
The direct case morpheme, which marks the subject in Kavalan, is ya.
Q‹em›al
‹AV›dig
tu
ACC
rasung
well
ya
DIR
sunis.
child
Q‹em›al tu rasung ya sunis.
‹AV›dig ACC well DIR child
"The child dug a well."
Qal-an
dig-PV
na
ERG
sunis
child
ya
DIR
rasung.
well
Qal-an na sunis ya rasung.
dig-PV ERG child DIR well
"The child dug the well." (or The well was dug by the child.")
Ti-tangan=ku
CV-open=1SG.ERG
tu
ACC
ineb
door
ya
DIR
suqsuq.
key
Ti-tangan=ku tu ineb ya suqsuq.
CV-open=1SG.ERG ACC door DIR key
"I opened the door with the key." (or "The key was opened the door with by me.")
Ti-sammay
CV-cook
na
ERG
tama=ku
father=1SG.GEN
ya
DIR
tina=ku.
mother-1SG.GEN
Ti-sammay na tama=ku ya tina=ku.
CV-cook ERG father=1SG.GEN DIR mother-1SG.GEN
"My father cooked for my mother." (or "My mother was cooked for by my father.")

### Paiwan

Paiwan has four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Locative Voice, and Instrument Voice.
The direct case morpheme, which marks the subject in Paiwan, is a.
Q‹m›ałup
‹AV›hunt
a
DIR
tsautsau
man
tua
OBL
vavuy
pig
i
PREP
(tua)
(OBL)
gadu
mountain
tua
OBL
vuluq.
spear
Q‹m›ałup a tsautsau tua vavuy i (tua) gadu tua vuluq.
‹AV›hunt DIR man OBL pig PREP (OBL) mountain OBL spear
"The man hunts the pigs in the mountains with a spear."
Qałup-en
hunt-PV
nua
ERG
tsautsau
man
a
DIR
vavuy
pig
i
PREP
(tua)
(OBL)
gadu
mountain
tua
OBL
vuluq.
spear
Qałup-en nua tsautsau a vavuy i (tua) gadu tua vuluq.
hunt-PV ERG man DIR pig PREP (OBL) mountain OBL spear
"The man hunts the pigs in the mountains with a spear." (or "The pigs are hunted by the man in the mountains with a spear.")
Qałup-an
hunt-LV
nua
ERG
tsautsau
man
tua
OBL
vavuy
pig
a
DIR
gadu
mountain
tua
OBL
vuluq.
spear
Qałup-an nua tsautsau tua vavuy a gadu tua vuluq.
hunt-LV ERG man OBL pig DIR mountain OBL spear
"The man hunts the pigs in the mountains with a spear." (or "The mountains are hunted the pigs in by the man with a spear.")
Si-qałup
IV-hunt
nua
ERG
tsautsau
man
tua
OBL
vavuy
pig
i
PREP
(tua)
(OBL)
gadu
mountain
a
DIR
vuluq.
spear
Si-qałup nua tsautsau tua vavuy i (tua) gadu a vuluq.
IV-hunt ERG man OBL pig PREP (OBL) mountain DIR spear
"The man hunts the pigs in the mountains with a spear." (or "The spear is hunted the pigs with by the man in the mountains.")

### Pazeh

Pazeh, which became extinct in 2010, had four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Locative Voice, and Instrument Voice.
The direct case morpheme, which marks the subject in Pazeh, is ki.
Mu-ngazip
AV-bite
yaku
1SG
ki
DIR
wazu.
dog
Mu-ngazip yaku ki wazu.
AV-bite 1SG DIR dog
"The dog bit me."
Ngazib-en
bite-PV
wazu
dog
lia
ASP
ki
DIR
rakihan.
child
Ngazib-en wazu lia ki rakihan.
bite-PV dog ASP DIR child
"A dog bit the child." (or The child was bitten by a dog.")
Pu-batu’-an
pave-stone-LV
lia
ASP
ki
DIR
babaw
above
daran.
road
Pu-batu’-an lia ki babaw daran.
pave-stone-LV ASP DIR above road
"The road surface was paved with stones."
Saa-talek
IV-cook
alaw
fish
ki
DIR
bulayan.
pan
Saa-talek alaw ki bulayan.
IV-cook fish DIR pan
"The pan was cooked fish with."

### Puyuma

Puyuma has four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Locative Voice, and Circumstantial Voice.
The circumstantial voice suffix selects for benefactee and instrument subjects.
The direct case morpheme, which marks the subject in Puyuma, is na or i.
Tr‹em›akaw
‹AT.RL›steal
dra
ACC
paisu
money
i
DIR
Isaw.
Isaw
Tr‹em›akaw dra paisu i Isaw.
‹AT.RL›steal ACC money DIR Isaw
"Isaw stole money."
Tu=trakaw-aw
3.ERG=steal-PT.RL
na
DIR
paisu
money
kan
ERG
Isaw.
Isaw
Tu=trakaw-aw na paisu kan Isaw.
3.ERG=steal-PT.RL DIR money ERG Isaw
"Isaw stole the money." (or "The money was stolen by Isaw.")
Tu=trakaw-ay=ku
3.ERG=steal-LT.RL=1SG.DIR
dra
ACC
paisu
money
kan
ERG
Isaw.
Isaw
Tu=trakaw-ay=ku dra paisu kan Isaw.
3.ERG=steal-LT.RL=1SG.DIR ACC money ERG Isaw
"Isaw stole money from me." (or "I was stolen money from by Isaw.")
Tu=trakaw-anay
3.ERG=steal-CT.RL
i
DIR
tinataw
his.mother
dra
ACC
paisu.
money
Tu=trakaw-anay i tinataw dra paisu.
3.ERG=steal-CT.RL DIR his.mother ACC money
"He stole money for his mother." (or "His$_i$ mother was stolen money for by him$_i$.")
Ku=dirus-anay
1SG.ERG=wash-CT.RL
na
DIR
enay
water
kan
ACC
Aliwaki.
Aliwaki
Ku=dirus-anay na enay kan Aliwaki.
1SG.ERG=wash-CT.RL DIR water ACC Aliwaki
"I washed Aliwaki with water." (or "The water was washed Aliwaki with by me.")

### Seediq

The two dialects of Seediq presented below each have a different number of voices. The direct case morpheme, which marks the subject in both dialects, is ka.

#### Tgdaya

Tgdaya has four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Locative Voice and Instrument Voice.
S‹em›ebuc
‹AV›hit
ricah
plum
ka
DIR
Pawan.
Pawan
S‹em›ebuc ricah ka Pawan.
‹AV›hit plum DIR Pawan
"Pawan is hitting plums."
Sebet-un
hit-PV
na
ERG
Pawan
Pawan
ka
DIR
ricah.
plum
Sebet-un na Pawan ka ricah.
hit-PV ERG Pawan DIR plum
"Pawan is hitting the plum." (or "The plum is being hit by Pawan.")
Sebet-an
hit-LV
na
ERG
Pawan
Pawan
ricah
plum
ka
DIR
peepah.
farm.field
Sebet-an na Pawan ricah ka peepah.
hit-LV ERG Pawan plum DIR farm.field
"Pawan is hitting plums in the farm field." (or "The farm field is being hit plums in by Pawan.")
Se-sebuc
IV-hit
na
ERG
Pawan
Pawan
ricah
plum
ka
DIR
butakan.
stick
Se-sebuc na Pawan ricah ka butakan.
IV-hit ERG Pawan plum DIR stick
"Pawan is hitting plums with the stick." (or "The stick is being hit plums with by Pawan.")

#### Truku

Truku has three voices: Actor Voice, Goal Voice, and Circumstantial Voice.
The goal voice suffix selects for patient and location subjects. The circumstantial voice prefix selects for benefactee and instrument subjects.
K‹em›erut
‹AV›cut
babuy
pig
ka
DIR
Masaw.
Masaw
K‹em›erut babuy ka Masaw.
‹AV›cut pig DIR Masaw
"Masaw slaughters a/the pig."
Keret-an
cut-GV
Masaw
Masaw
ka
DIR
babuy.
pig
Keret-an Masaw ka babuy.
cut-GV Masaw DIR pig
"Masaw slaughters the pig." (or "The pig is slaughtered by Masaw.")
Keret-an
cut-GV
laqi
child
sagas
watermelon
ka
DIR
keti’inuh
board
ni’i.
this
Keret-an laqi sagas ka keti’inuh ni’i.
cut-GV child watermelon DIR board this
"The child cuts watermelon on this board." (or "This board is cut watermelon on by the child.")
Se-kerut
CV-cut
babuy
pig
Masaw
Masaw
ka
DIR
baki.
old.man
Se-kerut babuy Masaw ka baki.
CV-cut pig Masaw DIR old.man
"Masaw slaughters a/the pig for the old man." (or "The old man is slaughtered a/the pig for by Masaw.")
Se-kerut
CV-cut
babuy
pig
Masaw
Masaw
ka
DIR
puting.
knife
Se-kerut babuy Masaw ka puting.
CV-cut pig Masaw DIR knife
"Masaw slaughters a/the pig with the knife." (or "The knife is slaughtered a/the pig with by Masaw.")

### Tsou

Tsou has four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Locative Voice, and Benefactive Voice. In addition to the voice morphology on the main verb, auxiliary verbs in Tsou, which are obligatory in the sentence, are also marked for voice. However, auxiliaries only differentiate between Actor Voice and non-Actor Voice (in green text).
The direct case morpheme, which marks subjects in Tsou, is ’o.
Mi-’o
AUX.AV-1SG.DIR
mo-si
AV-put
to
OBL
peisu
money
ne
OBL
Nookay.
Nookay
Mi-’o mo-si to peisu ne Nookay.
AUX.AV-1SG.DIR AV-put OBL money OBL Nookay
"I deposit money in Nookay."
Os-’o
AUX.NAV-1SG.ERG
si-a
put-PV
to
OBL
panka
table
’o
DIR
peisu.
money
Os-’o si-a to panka ’o peisu.
AUX.NAV-1SG.ERG put-PV OBL table DIR money
"I put the money on the/a table." (or "The money was put on the/a table by me.")
Os-’o
AUX.NAV-1SG.ERG
si-i
put-LV
to
OBL
chumu
water
’o
DIR
kopu.
cup
Os-’o si-i to chumu ’o kopu.
AUX.NAV-1SG.ERG put-LV OBL water DIR cup
"I put water into the cup." (or "The cup was put water into by me.")
Os-’o
AUX.NAV-1SG.ERG
si-i-neni
put-LV-BV
to
OBL
ocha
tea
’o
DIR
Pasuya.
Pasuya
Os-’o si-i-neni to ocha ’o Pasuya.
AUX.NAV-1SG.ERG put-LV-BV OBL tea DIR Pasuya
"I served tea for Pasuya." (or "Pasuya was served tea for by me.")

## Batanic examples

The data below come from the Batanic languages, a subgroup under Malayo-Polynesian. These languages are spoken on the islands found in the Luzon Strait, between Taiwan and the Philippines.

### Ivatan

Ivatan has four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Locative Voice, and Circumstantial Voice.
The circumstantial voice prefix selects for instrument and benefactee subjects.
The direct case morpheme, which marks the subject in Ivatan, is qo.
Mangamoqmo
m-pang-qamoqmo
AV-¿?-frighten
qo
DIR
tao
man
so
ACC
motdeh
child
no
IND
boday
snake
do
OBL
vahay.
house
Mangamoqmo qo tao so motdeh no boday do vahay.
m-pang-qamoqmo
AV-¿?-frighten DIR man ACC child IND snake OBL house
"The man is frightening a child with a snake in the house."
Qamoqmo-hen
frighten-PV
no
IND
tao
man
qo
DIR
motdeh
child
no
IND
boday
snake
do
OBL
vahay.
house
Qamoqmo-hen no tao qo motdeh no boday do vahay.
frighten-PV IND man DIR child IND snake OBL house
"The man is frightening a child with a snake in the house." (or "A child is being frightened with a snake in the house by the man.")
Pangamoqmoan
pang-qamoqmo-an
¿?-frighten-LV
no
IND
tao
man
so
ACC
motdeh
child
no
IND
boday
snake
qo
DIR
vahay.
house
Pangamoqmoan no tao so motdeh no boday qo vahay.
pang-qamoqmo-an
¿?-frighten-LV IND man ACC child IND snake DIR house
"The man is frightening a child with a snake in the house." (or "The house is being frightened a child in with a snake by the man.")
Qipangamoqmo
qi-pang-qamoqmo
CV-¿?-frighten
no
IND
tao
man
so
ACC
motdeh
child
qo
DIR
boday
snake
do
OBL
vahay.
house
Qipangamoqmo no tao so motdeh qo boday do vahay.
qi-pang-qamoqmo
CV-¿?-frighten IND man ACC child DIR snake OBL house
"The man is frightening a child with a snake in the house." (or "The snake is being frightened a child with in the house by the man.")
Qipangamoqmo
qi-pang-qamoqmo
CV-¿?-frighten
no
IND
tao
man
so
ACC
motdeh
child
no
IND
boday
snake
do
OBL
vahay
house
qo
DIR
kayvan-a.
friend-3SG.GEN
Qipangamoqmo no tao so motdeh no boday do vahay qo kayvan-a.
qi-pang-qamoqmo
CV-¿?-frighten IND man ACC child IND snake OBL house DIR friend-3SG.GEN
"The man is frightening a child with a snake in the house for his friend." (or "His$_i$ friend is being frightened a child for with a snake in the house by the man$_i$.")

### Yami

Yami has four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Locative Voice, and Instrument Voice.
The direct case morpheme, which marks subjects in Yami, is si for proper names, and o for common nouns.
K‹om›an
‹AV›eat
so
OBL
wakay
sweet potato
si
DIR
Salang.
Salang
K‹om›an so wakay si Salang.
‹AV›eat OBL {sweet potato} DIR Salang
"Salang ate a sweet potato."
Kan-en
eat-PV
na
3SG.ERG
ni
ERG
Salang
Salang
o
DIR
wakay.
sweet potato
Kan-en na ni Salang o wakay.
eat-PV 3SG.ERG ERG Salang DIR {sweet potato}
"Salang ate the sweet potato." (or "The sweet potato was eaten by Salang.")
Ni-akan-an
ASP-eat-LV
na
3SG.ERG
o
DIR
mogis
rice
ori
that
ni
ERG
Salang.
Salang
Ni-akan-an na o mogis ori ni Salang.
ASP-eat-LV 3SG.ERG DIR rice that ERG Salang
"Salang ate from some of that rice." (or "Some of that rice was eaten from by Salang.")
I-akan
IV-eat
na
3SG.ERG
ni
ERG
Salang
Salang
o
DIR
among
fish
ya.
this
I-akan na ni Salang o among ya.
IV-eat 3SG.ERG ERG Salang DIR fish this
"Salang ate (a meal) with this fish." (or "This fish was eaten (a meal) with by Salang.")

## Philippine examples

The data below come from Philippine languages, a subgroup under Malayo-Polynesian, predominantly spoken across the Philippines, with some found on the island of Sulawesi in Indonesia.

### Blaan

Blaan has four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Instrument Voice, and Non-Actor Voice.
The non-Actor Voice affix selects for patient and location subjects, depending on the inherent voice of the verb.
| Agent Prefocus Base | Agent Prefocus Base | Patient Prefocus Base | Patient Prefocus Base | Instrument Prefocus Base | Instrument Prefocus Base |
| (1) | Actor Voice (intransitive)Stifunassembleale.3PL.DIRStifun ale.assemble 3PL.DIR"They assemble." | (1) | Actor VoiceM-batAV-throwagu1SG.DIRbula.ballM-bat agu bula.AV-throw 1SG.DIR ball"I throw the ball." | (1) | Actor VoiceK‹am›lang‹AV›cutagu1SG.DIRkayu.treeK‹am›lang agu kayu.‹AV›cut 1SG.DIR tree"I cut the tree." |
| (2) | Actor Voice (transitive)S‹am›tifun‹AV›assembleale3PL.DIRdadPLto.personS‹am›tifun ale dad to.‹AV›assemble 3PL.DIR PL person"They assemble the people." | (2) | Patient Voice (with patient subjectBat=guthrow=1SG.ERGbula.ballBat=gu bula.throw=1SG.ERG ball"I throw the ball" (or "The ball is thrown by me.") | (2) | Non-Actor Voice (with patient subject)K‹an›lang=gu‹NAV›cut=1SG.ERGkayu.treeK‹an›lang=gu kayu.‹NAV›cut=1SG.ERG tree"I cut the tree." (or "The tree is cut by me.") |
| (3) | Non-Actor Voice (with patient subject)S‹an›tifun=la‹NAV›assemble=3PL.ERGdadPLto.personS‹an›tifun=la dad to.‹NAV›assemble=3PL.ERG PL person"They assemble the people." (or "The people are assembled by them.") | (3) | Non-Actor Voice (with location subject)N-bat=guNAV-throw=1SG.ERGbulaballdiding.wallN-bat=gu bula diding.NAV-throw=1SG.ERG ball wall"I throw the ball at the wall." (or "The wall is thrown the ball at by me.") | (3) | Instrument VoiceKlang=gucut=1SG.ERGkayutreefalakol.hatchetKlang=gu kayu falakol.cut=1SG.ERG tree hatchet"I cut the tree with the hatchet." (or "The hatchet is cut the tree with by me.") |

### Cebuano

Cebuano has four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Circumstantial Voice, and Instrument Voice.
The circumstantial voice suffix selects for location, benefactee and goal subjects.
The direct case morpheme, which marks the subject in Cebuano, is ang or si.
Mo-lutò
AV-cook
si
DIR
Maria
Maria
ug
ACC
kalamáy
type.of.dessert
para
for
kang
OBL
Pedro.
Pedro
Mo-lutò si Maria ug kalamáy para kang Pedro.
AV-cook DIR Maria ACC type.of.dessert for OBL Pedro
"Maria will cook kalamáy for Pedro."
Luto-on
cook-PV
sa
ERG
babaye
woman
ang
DIR
bugás
rice
sa
OBL
lata.
can
Luto-on sa babaye ang bugás sa lata.
cook-PV ERG woman DIR rice OBL can
"The woman will cook the rice in the can." (or "The rice will be cooked by the woman in the can.")
Luto-an
cook-CV
sa
ERG
babaye
woman
ang
DIR
lata
can
ug
ACC
bugás.
rice
Luto-an sa babaye ang lata ug bugás.
cook-CV ERG woman DIR can ACC rice
"The woman will cook rice in the can." (or "The can will be cooked rice in by the woman.")
Luto-an
cook-CV
ni
ERG
Maria
Maria
si
DIR
Pedro
Pedro
ug
ACC
kalamáy.
type.of.dessert
Luto-an ni Maria si Pedro ug kalamáy.
cook-CV ERG Maria DIR Pedro ACC type.of.dessert
"Maria will cook Pedro kalamáy." (or "Pedro will be cooked kalamáy for by Maria.")
Sulat-án
write-CV
ni
ERG
Inday
Inday
si
DIR
Perla
Perla
ug
ACC
sulat.
letter
Sulat-án ni Inday si Perla ug sulat.
write-CV ERG Inday DIR Perla ACC letter
"Inday will write Perla a letter." (or "Perla will be written a letter to by Inday.")
I-sulát
IV-write
ni
ERG
Linda
Linda
ang
DIR
lapis
pencil
ug
ACC
sulat.
letter
I-sulát ni Linda ang lapis ug sulat.
IV-write ERG Linda DIR pencil ACC letter
"Linda will write a letter with the pencil." (or "The pencil will be written a letter with by Linda.")

### Kalagan

Kalagan has four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Instrument Voice, and Circumstantial Voice.
The circumstantial voice suffix selects for benefactee and location subjects.
The direct case morpheme, which marks the subject in Kalagan, is ya. The direct case form of the first person, singular pronoun is aku, whereas the ergative case form is ku.
K‹um›amang
‹AV›get
aku
1SG.DIR
sa
OBL
tubig
water
na
PREP
lata
can
kan
for
Ma’
Dad
adti
on
balkon
porch
na
PREP
lunis.
Monday
K‹um›amang aku sa tubig na lata kan Ma’ adti balkon na lunis.
‹AV›get 1SG.DIR OBL water PREP can for Dad on porch PREP Monday
"I will get the water with the can for Dad on the porch on Monday."
Kamang-in
get-PV
ku
1SG.ERG
ya
DIR
tubig
water
na
PREP
lata
can
kan
for
Ma’
Dad
adti
on
balkon
porch
na
PREP
lunis.
Monday
Kamang-in ku ya tubig na lata kan Ma’ adti balkon na lunis.
get-PV 1SG.ERG DIR water PREP can for Dad on porch PREP Monday
"I will get the water with the can for Dad on the porch on Monday." (or "The water will be gotten by me with the can for Dad on the porch on Monday.")
Pag-kamang
IV-get
ku
1SG.ERG
ya
DIR
lata
can
sa
OBL
tubig
water
kan
for
Ma’
Dad
adti
on
balkon
porch
na
PREP
lunis.
Monday
Pag-kamang ku ya lata sa tubig kan Ma’ adti balkon na lunis.
IV-get 1SG.ERG DIR can OBL water for Dad on porch PREP Monday
"I will get the water with the can for Dad on the porch on Monday." (or "The can will be gotten the water with by me for Dad on the porch on Monday.")
Kamang-an
get-CV
ku
1SG.ERG
ya
DIR
Ma’
Dad
sa
OBL
tubig
water
na
PREP
lata
can
adti
on
balkon
porch
na
PREP
lunis.
Monday
Kamang-an ku ya Ma’ sa tubig na lata adti balkon na lunis.
get-CV 1SG.ERG DIR Dad OBL water PREP can on porch PREP Monday
"I will get the water with the can for Dad on the porch on Monday." (or "Dad will be gotten the water for by me with the can on the porch on Monday.")
Kamang-an
get-CV
ku
1SG.ERG
ya
DIR
balkon
porch
sa
OBL
tubig
water
na
PREP
lata
can
kan
for
Ma’
Dad
na
PREP
lunis.
Monday
Kamang-an ku ya balkon sa tubig na lata kan Ma’ na lunis.
get-CV 1SG.ERG DIR porch OBL water PREP can for Dad PREP Monday
"I will get the water with the can for Dad on the porch on Monday." (or "The porch will be gotten the water from by me with the can for Dad on Monday.")

### Kapampangan

Kapampangan has five voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Goal Voice, Locative Voice, and Circumstantial Voice.
The circumstantial voice prefix selects for instrument and benefactee subjects.
The direct case morpheme in Kapampangan is ing, which marks singular subjects, and reng, which is for plural subjects. Non-subject agents are marked with ergative case, ning, while non-subject patients are marked with accusative case, -ng, which is cliticized onto the preceding word.
S‹um›ulat
‹AV›will.write
yang
ya=ng
3SG.DIR=ACC
poesia
poem
ing
DIR
lalaki
boy
gamit
OBL
pen
pen
king
OBL
papil.
paper
S‹um›ulat yang poesia ing lalaki gamit pen king papil.
 ya=ng
‹AV›will.write 3SG.DIR=ACC poem DIR boy OBL pen OBL paper
"The boy will write a poem with a pen on the paper."
I-sulat
PV-will.write
ne
na+ya
3SG.ERG+3SG.DIR
ning
ERG
lalaki
boy
ing
DIR
poesia
poem
king
OBL
mestra.
teacher.F
I-sulat ne ning lalaki ing poesia king mestra.
 na+ya
PV-will.write 3SG.ERG+3SG.DIR ERG boy DIR poem OBL teacher.F
"The boy will write the poem to the teacher." (or "The poem will be written by boy to the teacher.")
Sulat-anan
will.write-GV
ne
na+ya
3SG.ERG+3SG.DIR
ning
ERG
lalaki
boy
ing
DIR
mestro.
teacher.M
Sulat-anan ne ning lalaki ing mestro.
 na+ya
will.write-GV 3SG.ERG+3SG.DIR ERG boy DIR teacher.M
"The boy will write to the teacher." (or "The teacher will be written to by the boy.")
Pi-sulat-an
LV-will.write-LV
neng
na+ya=ng
3SG.ERG+3SG.DIR=ACC
poesia
poem
ning
ERG
lalaki
boy
ing
DIR
blackboard.
blackboard
Pi-sulat-an neng poesia ning lalaki ing blackboard.
 na+ya=ng
LV-will.write-LV 3SG.ERG+3SG.DIR=ACC poem ERG boy DIR blackboard
"The boy will write a poem on the blackboard." (or "The blackboard will be written a poem on by the boy.")
Panyulat
paN-sulat
CV-will.write
neng
na+ya=ng
3SG.ERG+3SG.DIR=ACC
poesia
poem
ning
ERG
lalaki
boy
ing
DIR
pen.
pen
Panyulat neng poesia ning lalaki ing pen.
paN-sulat na+ya=ng
CV-will.write 3SG.ERG+3SG.DIR=ACC poem ERG boy DIR pen
"The boy will write a poem with the pen." (or "The pen will be written a poem with by the boy.")
Pamasa
paN-basa
CV-will.read
nong
na+la=ng
3SG.ERG+3PL.DIR=ACC
libru
book
ning
ERG
babai
woman
reng
PL.DIR
anak.
child
Pamasa nong libru ning babai reng anak.
paN-basa na+la=ng
CV-will.read 3SG.ERG+3PL.DIR=ACC book ERG woman PL.DIR child
"The woman will read a book for the children." (or "The children will be read a book for by the woman.")

### Limos Kalinga

Limos Kalinga has five voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Locative Voice, Benefactive Voice and Instrument Voice.
Except for when the subject is the agent, the subject is found directly after the agent in the clause.
Nandalus
n-man-dalus
ASP-AV-wash
si
DIR
Malia=t
Malia=OBL
danat
PL
palatu.
plate
Nandalus si Malia=t danat palatu.
n-man-dalus
ASP-AV-wash DIR Malia=OBL PL plate
"Malia washed some plates."
Binayum
b‹in›ayu-∅=m
‹ASP›pound-PV=2SG.ERG
din
DIR
pagoy.
rice
Binayum din pagoy.
b‹in›ayu-∅=m
‹ASP›pound-PV=2SG.ERG DIR rice
"You pounded the rice." (or "The rice was pounded by you.")
D‹in›alus-an
‹ASP›wash-LV
ud
ERG
Malia
Malia
danat
DIR.PL
palatu.
plate
D‹in›alus-an ud Malia danat palatu.
‹ASP›wash-LV ERG Malia DIR.PL plate
"Malia washed the plates." (or "The plates were washed by Malia.")
I-n-dalus-an
BV-ASP-wash-BV
ud
ERG
Malia
Malia
si
DIR
ina=na=t
mother=3SG.GEN=OBL
nat
SG
palatu.
plate
I-n-dalus-an ud Malia si ina=na=t nat palatu.
BV-ASP-wash-BV ERG Malia DIR mother=3SG.GEN=OBL SG plate
"Malia washed a plate for her mother." (or "Her$_i$ mother was washed a plate for by Malia$_i$.")
I-n-dalus
IV-ASP-wash
ud
ERG
Malia
Malia
nat
DIR
sabun
soap
sinat
OBL.SG
palatu.
plate
I-n-dalus ud Malia nat sabun sinat palatu.
IV-ASP-wash ERG Malia DIR soap OBL.SG plate
"Malia washed a plate with the soap." (or "The soap was washed a plate with by Malia.")

### Maranao

Maranao has four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Circumstantial Voice, and Instrument Voice.
The circumstantial suffix selects for benefactee and location subjects.
The direct case morpheme, which marks the subject in Maranao, is so.
S‹om›ombali’
‹AV›butcher
so
DIR
mama’
man
sa
OBL
karabao
water.buffalo
ko
PREP
maior.
mayor
S‹om›ombali’ so mama’ sa karabao ko maior.
‹AV›butcher DIR man OBL water.buffalo PREP mayor
"The man will butcher water buffalo for the mayor."
Sombali’-in
butcher-PV
o
ERG
mama’
man
so
DIR
karabao.
water.buffalo
Sombali’-in o mama’ so karabao.
butcher-PV ERG man DIR water.buffalo
"The man will butcher the water buffalo." (or "The water buffalo will be butchered by the man.")
Sombali’-an
butcher-CV
o
ERG
mama’
man
so
DIR
maior
mayor
sa
OBL
karabao.
water.buffalo
Sombali’-an o mama’ so maior sa karabao.
butcher-CV ERG man DIR mayor OBL water.buffalo
"The man will butcher water buffalo for the mayor." (or "The mayor will be butchered water buffalo for by the man.")
Koaq-an
get-CV
o
ERG
mama’
man
sa
OBL
bolong
medicine
so
DIR
tinda.
store
Koaq-an o mama’ sa bolong so tinda.
get-CV ERG man OBL medicine DIR store
"The man will get the medicine at/from the store." (or "The store will be gotten medicine at/from by the man.")
I-sombali’
butcher-IV
o
ERG
mama’
man
so
DIR
gelat
knife
ko
PREP
karabao.
water.buffalo
I-sombali’ o mama’ so gelat ko karabao.
butcher-IV ERG man DIR knife PREP water.buffalo
"The man will butcher the water buffalo with the knife." (or "The knife will be butchered the water buffalo with by the man.")

### Palawan

Palawan has four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Instrument Voice, and Circumstantial Voice.
The circumstantial voice suffix selects for benefactee and location subjects.
‹Mog›lamuʔ
‹ASP.AV›cook
libun
woman
in
that.DIR
ot
IND
lugow
congee
kot
for
mosakit
sick person
sot
on
apuy.
fire
‹Mog›lamuʔ libun in ot lugow kot mosakit sot apuy.
‹ASP.AV›cook woman that.DIR IND congee for {sick person} on fire
"The woman will cook congee on the fire for the sick person."
La~lamuʔ-on
ASP~cook-PV
ot
IND
libun
woman
lugow
congee
in
that.DIR
kot
for
mosakit
sick person
sot
on
apuy.
fire
La~lamuʔ-on ot libun lugow in kot mosakit sot apuy.
ASP~cook-PV IND woman congee that.DIR for {sick person} on fire
"The woman will cook the congee on the fire for the sick person." (or "The congee will be cooked on the fire for the sick person by the woman.")
I-la~lamuʔ
IV-ASP~cook
ot
IND
libun
woman
lugow
congee
kot
for
mosakit
sick person
apuy
fire
in.
that.DIR
I-la~lamuʔ ot libun lugow kot mosakit apuy in.
IV-ASP~cook IND woman congee for {sick person} fire that.DIR
"The woman will cook congee with the fire for the sick person." (or "The fire will be cooked congee with for the sick person by the woman.")
La~lamuʔ-an
ASP~cook-CV
ot
IND
libun
woman
ot
IND
lugow
congee
sot
on
apuy
fire
mosakit
sick person
in.
that.DIR
La~lamuʔ-an ot libun ot lugow sot apuy mosakit in.
ASP~cook-CV IND woman IND congee on fire {sick person} that.DIR
"The woman will cook congee on the fire for the sick person." (or "The sick person will be cooked congee for on the fire by the woman.")
La~lamuʔ-an
ASP~cook-CV
ot
IND
libun
woman
ot
IND
lugow
congee
kot
for
mosakit
sick person
apuy
fire
in.
that.DIR
La~lamuʔ-an ot libun ot lugow kot mosakit apuy in.
ASP~cook-CV IND woman IND congee for {sick person} fire that.DIR
"The woman will cook congee on the fire for the sick person." (or "The fire will be cooked congee on for the sick person by the woman.")

### Subanen

Subanen has three voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, and Circumstantial Voice.
The examples below are from Western Subanon, and the direct case morpheme in this language is og.
S‹um›aluy
‹ASP.AV›buy
og
DIR
polopanad
teacher
nog
IND
kolatas.
paper
S‹um›aluy og polopanad nog kolatas.
‹ASP.AV›buy DIR teacher IND paper
"A teacher will buy some paper."
Soluy-on
buy-ASP.PV
nog
IND
polopanad
teacher
og
DIR
kolatas.
paper
Soluy-on nog polopanad og kolatas.
buy-ASP.PV IND teacher DIR paper
"A teacher will buy some paper." (or "Some paper will be bought by a teacher.")
Soluy-an
buy-ASP.CV
nog
IND
polopanad
teacher
og
DIR
bata′
child
nog
IND
kolatas.
paper
Soluy-an nog polopanad og bata′ nog kolatas.
buy-ASP.CV IND teacher DIR child IND paper
"A teacher will buy some paper for a child." (or "A child will be bought some paper for by a teacher.")

### Tagalog

Tagalog has six voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Locative Voice, Benefactive Voice, Instrument Voice, and Reason Voice.
The locative voice suffix selects for location and goal subjects. (In the examples below, the goal subject and the benefactee subject are the same noun phrase.)
The reason voice prefix can only be affixed to certain roots, the majority of which are for emotion verbs (e.g., galit "be angry", sindak "be shocked"). However, verb roots such as matay "die", sakit "get sick", and iyak "cry" may also be marked with the reason voice prefix.
The direct case morpheme, which marks subjects in Tagalog, is ang. The indirect case morpheme, ng /naŋ/, which is the conflation of the ergative and accusative cases seen in Proto-Malayo-Polynesian, marks non-subject agents and non-subject patients.
B‹um›ili
‹ASP.AV›buy
ng
IND
mangga
mango
sa
OBL
palengke
market
para
for
sa
OBL
ale
woman
sa
OBL
pamamagitan
means
ng
IND
pera
money
ang
DIR
mama.
man
B‹um›ili ng mangga sa palengke para sa ale sa pamamagitan ng pera ang mama.
‹ASP.AV›buy IND mango OBL market for OBL woman OBL means IND money DIR man
"The man bought a mango at the market for the woman by means of money."
B‹in›ili-∅
‹ASP›buy-PV
ng
IND
mama
man
sa
OBL
palengke
market
para
for
sa
OBL
ale
woman
sa
OBL
pamamagitan
means
ng
IND
pera
money
ang
DIR
mangga.
mango
B‹in›ili-∅ ng mama sa palengke para sa ale sa pamamagitan ng pera ang mangga.
‹ASP›buy-PV IND man OBL market for OBL woman OBL means IND money DIR mango
"The man bought the mango at the market for the woman by means of money." (or "The mango was bought by the man at the market for the woman by means of money.")
B‹in›ilh-an
‹ASP›buy-LV
ng
IND
mama
man
ng
IND
mangga
mango
para
for
sa
OBL
ale
woman
sa
OBL
pamamagitan
means
ng
IND
pera
money
ang
DIR
palengke.
market
B‹in›ilh-an ng mama ng mangga para sa ale sa pamamagitan ng pera ang palengke.
‹ASP›buy-LV IND man IND mango for OBL woman OBL means IND money DIR market
"The man bought a mango at the market for the woman by means of money." (or "At the market was bought a mango by the man for the woman by means of money.")
B‹in›ilh-an
‹ASP›buy-LV
ng
IND
mama
man
ng
IND
mangga
mango
sa
OBL
palengke
market
sa
OBL
pamamagitan
means
ng
IND
pera
money
ang
DIR
ale.
woman
B‹in›ilh-an ng mama ng mangga sa palengke sa pamamagitan ng pera ang ale.
‹ASP›buy-LV IND man IND mango OBL market OBL means IND money DIR woman
"The man bought a mango at the market for the woman by means of money." (or "The woman was bought a mango for by the man at the market by means of money.")
I-b‹in›ili
BV-‹ASP›buy
ng
IND
mama
man
ng
IND
mangga
mango
sa
OBL
palengke
market
sa
OBL
pamamagitan
means
ng
IND
pera
money
ang
DIR
ale.
woman
I-b‹in›ili ng mama ng mangga sa palengke sa pamamagitan ng pera ang ale.
BV-‹ASP›buy IND man IND mango OBL market OBL means IND money DIR woman
"The man bought a mango at the market for the woman by means of money." (or "The woman was bought a mango for by the man at the market by means of money.")
Ipinambili
Ip‹in›aN-bili
‹ASP›IV-buy
ng
IND
mama
man
ng
IND
mangga
mango
sa
OBL
palengke
market
para
for
sa
OBL
ale
woman
ang
DIR
pera.
money
Ipinambili ng mama ng mangga sa palengke para sa ale ang pera.
Ip‹in›aN-bili
‹ASP›IV-buy IND man IND mango OBL market for OBL woman DIR money
"The man bought a mango at the market for the woman by means of money." (or "The money was bought a mango with by the man at the market for the woman.")
Ik‹in›a-iyak
‹ASP›RV-cry
ng
IND
bata
child
ang
DIR
pag-kagat
NMLZ-bite
sa
OBL
kaniya
3SG.OBL
ng
IND
langgam.
ant
Ik‹in›a-iyak ng bata ang pag-kagat sa kaniya ng langgam.
‹ASP›RV-cry IND child DIR NMLZ-bite OBL 3SG.OBL IND ant
"The child cried because an/the ant bit him." (or "An/the ant's biting of him was cried about by the child.")
‹Um›iyak
‹ASP.AV›cry
ang
DIR
bata
child
dahil
because
k‹in›agat-∅
‹ASP›bite-PV
siya
3SG.DIR
ng
IND
langgam.
ant
‹Um›iyak ang bata dahil k‹in›agat-∅ siya ng langgam.
‹ASP.AV›cry DIR child because ‹ASP›bite-PV 3SG.DIR IND ant
"The child cried because an/the ant bit him." (or "The child cried because he was bitten by an/the ant.")

### Tondano

Tondano has four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Locative Voice, and Circumstantial Voice.
The circumstantial Voice selects for instrument, benefactee, and theme subjects.
The subject is found in sentence-initial position, before the verb.
Si
AN.SG
tuama
man
k‹um›eoŋ
‹AV›will.pull
roda
cart
wo
with
n-tali
INAN-rope
waki
to
pasar.
market
Si tuama k‹um›eoŋ roda wo n-tali waki pasar.
AN.SG man ‹AV›will.pull cart with INAN-rope to market
"The man will pull the cart with the rope to the market."
Roda
cart
keoŋ-ən
will.pull-PV
ni
ERG.AN.SG
tuama
man
wo
with
n-tali
INAN-rope
waki
to
pasar.
market
Roda keoŋ-ən ni tuama wo n-tali waki pasar.
cart will.pull-PV ERG.AN.SG man with INAN-rope to market
"The man will pull the cart with the rope to the market." (or "The cart will be pulled with rope to the market by the man.")
Pasar
market
keoŋ-an
will.pull-LV
ni
ERG.AN.SG
tuama
man
roda
cart
wo
with
n-tali.
INAN-rope
Pasar keoŋ-an ni tuama roda wo n-tali.
market will.pull-LV ERG.AN.SG man cart with INAN-rope
"The man will pull the cart with the rope to the market." (or "The market will be pulled the cart to with the rope by the man.")
Tali
rope
i-keoŋ
CV-will.pull
ni
ERG.AN.SG
tuama
man
roda
cart
waki
to
pasar.
market
Tali i-keoŋ ni tuama roda waki pasar.
rope CV-will.pull ERG.AN.SG man cart to market
"The man will pull the cart with the rope to the market." (or "The rope will be pulled the cart with to the market by the man.")
Se
AN.PL
okiʔ
child
i-lutuʔ
CV-will.cook
ni
ERG.AN.SG
mama
mother
seraʔ
fish
Se okiʔ i-lutuʔ ni mama seraʔ
AN.PL child CV-will.cook ERG.AN.SG mother fish
"Mother will cook fish for the children." (or "The children will be cooked fish for by mother.")
Ləloŋkotan
ladder
i-wareŋ
CV-will.return
ni
ERG.AN.SG
tuama
man
waki
to
wale.
house
Ləloŋkotan i-wareŋ ni tuama waki wale.
ladder CV-will.return ERG.AN.SG man to house
"The man will return the ladder to the house." (or "The ladder will be returned by the man to the house.")

## North Bornean examples

The data below come from North Bornean languages, a grouping under Malayo-Polynesian, mainly spoken on the northern parts of Borneo, spanning administrative areas of Malaysia and Indonesia.

### Bonggi

Bonggi has four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Instrumental Voice, and Circumstantial Voice.
The circumstantial voice suffix selects for benefactee and goal subjects.
The subject is found in sentence-initial position, before the verb.
Sia
3SG.DIR
imagi
in-N-bagi
RL-AV-divide
louk
fish
nyu.
2PL.GEN
Sia imagi louk nyu.
 in-N-bagi
3SG.DIR RL-AV-divide fish 2PL.GEN
"He divided your fish."
Louk
fish
nyu
2PL.GEN
biagi
b‹in›agi-∅
‹RL›divide-PV
nya.
3SG.ERG
Louk nyu biagi nya.
 b‹in›agi-∅
fish 2PL.GEN ‹RL›divide-PV 3SG.ERG
"He divided your fish." (or "Your fish was divided by him.")
Badiʔ
machete
ku
1SG.GEN
pimagi
p‹in›əN-bagi
‹RL›IV-divide
nya
3SG.ERG
louk
fish
nyu.
2PL.GEN
Badiʔ ku pimagi nya louk nyu.
 p‹in›əN-bagi
machete 1SG.GEN ‹RL›IV-divide 3SG.ERG fish 2PL.GEN
"He divided your fish with my machete." (or "My machete was divided your fish with by him.")
Ou
1SG.DIR
bigiadn
b‹in›agi-adn
‹RL›divide-CV
nya
3SG.ERG
louk
fish
nyu.
2PL.GEN
Ou bigiadn nya louk nyu.
 b‹in›agi-adn
1SG.DIR ‹RL›divide-CV 3SG.ERG fish 2PL.GEN
"He divided your fish for me." (or "I was divided your fish for by him.")
Ou
1SG.DIR
biniriadn
b‹in›ori-adn
‹RL›give-CV
nya
3SG.ERG
siidn.
money
Ou biniriadn nya siidn.
 b‹in›ori-adn
1SG.DIR ‹RL›give-CV 3SG.ERG money
"He gave money to me." (or "I was given money to by him.")

### Kadazan Dusun

Kadazan Dusun has three voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice and Benefactive Voice.
The direct case morpheme, which marks the subject in Kadazan Dusun, is i.
Mog-ovit
AV-bring
i
DIR
ama’
father
di
IND
tanak
child
do
ACC
buuk.
book
Mog-ovit i ama’ di tanak do buuk.
AV-bring DIR father IND child ACC book
"Father is bringing the child a book."
Ovit-on
bring-PV
di
IND
ama’
father
di
IND
tanak
child
i
DIR
buuk.
book
Ovit-on di ama’ di tanak i buuk.
bring-PV IND father IND child DIR book
"Father is bringing the child the book." (or "The book is being brought to the child by Father.")
Ovit-an
bring-BV
di
IND
ama’
father
i
DIR
tanak
child
do
ACC
buuk.
book
Ovit-an di ama’ i tanak do buuk.
bring-BV IND father DIR child ACC book
"Father is bringing the child a book." (or "The child is being brought a book to by Father.")

### Kelabit

Kelabit has three voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice and Instrument Voice.
Unlike other languages presented here, Kelabit does not use case-marking or word-ordering strategies to indicate the subject of the clause. However, certain syntactic processes, such as relativization, target the subject. Relativizing non-subjects results in ungrammatical sentences.
La’ih
man
sineh
that
nenekul
in-N-tekul
ASP-AV-spoon.up
nubaq
rice
nedih
3SG.GEN
ngen
with
seduk.
spoon
La’ih sineh nenekul nubaq nedih ngen seduk.
 in-N-tekul
man that ASP-AV-spoon.up rice 3SG.GEN with spoon
"That man spooned his rice up with a spoon."
Sikul
t‹in›ekul-∅
‹ASP›spoon.up-PV
la’ih
man
sineh
that
nubaq
rice
nedih
3SG.GEN
ngen
with
seduk.
spoon.
Sikul la’ih sineh nubaq nedih ngen seduk.
t‹in›ekul-∅
‹ASP›spoon.up-PV man that rice 3SG.GEN with spoon.
"That man spooned his rice up with a spoon." (or "His$_i$ rice was spooned up with a spoon by that man$_i$.")
Seduk
spoon
penenekul
p‹in›eN-tekul
‹ASP›IV-spoon.up
la’ih
man
sineh
that
nubaq
rice
nedih.
3SG.GEN
Seduk penenekul la’ih sineh nubaq nedih.
 p‹in›eN-tekul
spoon ‹ASP›IV-spoon.up man that rice 3SG.GEN
"That man spooned his rice up with a spoon." (or "A spoon was spooned his$_i$ rice up with by that man$_i$.")

### Kimaragang

Kimaragang has five voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Benefactive Voice, Instrument Voice and Locative Voice.
Only intransitive verbs can be marked with the locative voice suffix, which looks similar to the patient voice suffix.
The direct case marker, which marks the subject in Kimaragang, is it for definite nouns and ot for indefinite nouns.
Mangalapak
m-poN-lapak
AV-TR-split
oku
1SG.DIR
do
IND.INDF
niyuw.
coconut
Mangalapak oku do niyuw.
m-poN-lapak
AV-TR-split 1SG.DIR IND.INDF coconut
"I will split a coconut/some coconuts."
Lapak-on
split-PV
ku
1SG.IND
it
DIR.DEF
niyuw.
coconut
Lapak-on ku it niyuw.
split-PV 1SG.IND DIR.DEF coconut
"I will split the coconuts." (or "The coconuts will be split by me.")
Lapak-an
split-BV
ku
1SG.IND
do
IND.INDF
niyuw
coconut
it
DIR.DEF
wogok.
pig
Lapak-an ku do niyuw it wogok.
split-BV 1SG.IND IND.INDF coconut DIR.DEF pig
"I will split some coconuts for the pigs." (or "The pigs will be split some coconuts for by me.")
Tongo
what
ot
DIR.INDF
pangalapak
∅-poN-lapak
IT-TR-split
nu
2SG.IND
dilo’
that.IND
niyuw
coconut
______?
DIR
Tongo ot pangalapak nu dilo’ niyuw ______?
 ∅-poN-lapak
what DIR.INDF IT-TR-split 2SG.IND that.IND coconut DIR
"What will you split those coconuts with?" (or "The thing that will be split those coconuts with by you is what?")
Siombo
where
ot
DIR.INDF
ogom-on
sit-LV
ku
1SG.IND
_____?
DIR
Siombo ot ogom-on ku _____?
where DIR.INDF sit-LV 1SG.IND DIR
"Where shall I sit?" (or "The thing that will be sat upon by me is where?")

### Timugon Murut

Timugon Murut has five voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Benefactive Voice, Instrument Voice, and Circumstantial Voice.
There is no direct case marker to mark subjects in Timugon Murut. However, non-subject agents are marked with the ergative case marker, du, while non-subject non-agents are marked with the oblique case marker, da.
Mambali
m-paN-bali
AV-¿?-buy
dŭanduʔ=ti
woman=DET
da=konoon
OBL=clothes
da=dalaiŋ=no
OBL=child=DET
da=sŭab=no
OBL=morning=DET
da=duit=na-no.
OBL=money=3SG.GEN-DET
Mambali dŭanduʔ=ti da=konoon da=dalaiŋ=no da=sŭab=no da=duit=na-no.
m-paN-bali
AV-¿?-buy woman=DET OBL=clothes OBL=child=DET OBL=morning=DET OBL=money=3SG.GEN-DET
"The woman will buy clothes for the child in the morning with her money."
Bali-on
buy-PV
konoon
clothes
du=dŭanduʔ=ti
ERG=woman=DET
da=dalaiŋ=no
OBL=child=DET
da=sŭab=no
OBL=morning=DET
da=duit=na-no.
OBL=money=3SG.GEN-DET
Bali-on konoon du=dŭanduʔ=ti da=dalaiŋ=no da=sŭab=no da=duit=na-no.
buy-PV clothes ERG=woman=DET OBL=child=DET OBL=morning=DET OBL=money=3SG.GEN-DET
"The woman will buy clothes for the child in the morning with her money." (or "Clothes will be bought for the child in the morning by the woman with her money.")
Bali-in
buy-BV
dalaiŋ=no
child=DET
da=konoon
OBL=clothes
du=dŭanduʔ=ti
ERG=woman=DET
da=sŭab=no
OBL=morning=DET
da=duit=na-no.
OBL=money=3SG.GEN-DET
Bali-in dalaiŋ=no da=konoon du=dŭanduʔ=ti da=sŭab=no da=duit=na-no.
buy-BV child=DET OBL=clothes ERG=woman=DET OBL=morning=DET OBL=money=3SG.GEN-DET
"The woman will buy clothes for the child in the morning with her money." (or "The child will be bought clothes for in the morning by the woman with her money.")
Duit=na-no
money=3SG.GEN-DET
pambabali
paN-CV~bali
¿?-IV~buy
du=dŭanduʔ=ti
ERG=woman=DET
da=konoon
OBL=clothes
da=dalaiŋ=no
OBL=child=DET
da=sŭab=no.
OBL=morning=DET
Duit=na-no pambabali du=dŭanduʔ=ti da=konoon da=dalaiŋ=no da=sŭab=no.
 paN-CV~bali
money=3SG.GEN-DET ¿?-IV~buy ERG=woman=DET OBL=clothes OBL=child=DET OBL=morning=DET
"The woman will buy clothes for the child in the morning with her money." (or "Her$_i$ money will be bought clothes with for the child in the morning by the woman$_i$.")
Sŭab=na
morning=DET
pambalian
paN-bali-an
¿?-buy-CV
du=dŭanduʔ=ti
ERG=woman=DET
da=konoon
OBL=clothes
da=dalaiŋ=no
OBL=child=DET
da=duit=na-no.
OBL=money=3SG.GEN-DET
Sŭab=na pambalian du=dŭanduʔ=ti da=konoon da=dalaiŋ=no da=duit=na-no.
 paN-bali-an
morning=DET ¿?-buy-CV ERG=woman=DET OBL=clothes OBL=child=DET OBL=money=3SG.GEN-DET
"The woman will buy clothes for the child in the morning with her money." (or "The morning will be bought clothes in for the child by the woman with her money.")

## Malayic examples

The data below come from Malayic languages, a subgroup under Malayo-Polynesian, mainly spoken on parts of Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula, Borneo, and the islands between.

### Besemah

Besemah (a dialect of South Barisan Malay spoken in southwestern Sumatra) has two voices: Agentive Voice and Patientive Voice.
Jeme
people
ngambik
ng-ambik
AV-take
sidu
spoon
gale.
all
Jeme ngambik sidu gale.
 ng-ambik
people AV-take spoon all
"All people took the spoons."
Sidu
spoon
diambik
di-ambik
PV-take
jeme
people
gale.
all
Sidu diambik jeme gale.
 di-ambik
spoon PV-take people all
"The people took all the spoons."

### Indonesian

Indonesian has two voices: Actor Voice and Undergoer Voice.
Anak
child
saya
1SG
melihat
me-lihat
AV-see
orang
person
itu.
DIST
Anak saya melihat orang itu.
 me-lihat
child 1SG AV-see person DIST
"My child saw that person."
Orang
person
itu
DIST
dilihat
di-lihat
PV-see
anak
child
saya.
1SG
Orang itu dilihat anak saya.
 di-lihat
person DIST PV-see child 1SG
"My child saw that person." (or "That person was seen (by) my child.")

## Barito examples

The data below represent the Barito languages, and are from a language spoken on Madagascar, off the east coast of Africa. Other languages from Barito are spoken in Indonesia and the Philippines.

### Malagasy

Malagasy has three voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, and Circumstantial Voice.
The circumstantial voice suffix selects for instrument and benefactee subjects.
Malagasy does not have a direct case marker. However, the subject is found in sentence-final position.
Mamono
m-aN-vono
AV-TR-kill
akoho
chicken
amin'ny
with'DET
antsy
knife
ny
DET
mpiompy.
farmer
Mamono akoho amin'ny antsy ny mpiompy.
m-aN-vono
AV-TR-kill chicken with'DET knife DET farmer
"The farmer kills chickens with the knife."
Vonoin'ny
vono-ina'ny
kill-PV'DET
mpiompy
farmer
amin'ny
with'DET
antsy
knife
ny
DET
akoho.
chicken
Vonoin'ny mpiompy amin'ny antsy ny akoho.
vono-ina'ny
kill-PV'DET farmer with'DET knife DET chicken
"The farmer kills the chickens with the knife." (or "The chickens are killed with the knife by the farmer.")
Amonoan'ny
aN-vono-ana'ny
TR-kill-CV'DET
mpiompy
farmer
akoho
chicken
ny
DET
antsy.
knife
Amonoan'ny mpiompy akoho ny antsy.
aN-vono-ana'ny
TR-kill-CV'DET farmer chicken DET knife
"The farmer kills chickens with the knife." (or "The knife is killed chickens with by the farmer.")
Amonoan'ny
aN-vono-ana'ny
TR-kill-CV'DET
mpiompy
farmer
akoho
chicken
ny
DET
vahiny.
guest
Amonoan'ny mpiompy akoho ny vahiny.
aN-vono-ana'ny
TR-kill-CV'DET farmer chicken DET guest
"The farmer kills chickens for the guests." (or "The guests are killed chickens for by the farmer.")

## Non-Austronesian examples

Alignment types resembling symmetrical voice have been observed in non-Austronesian languages.

### Nilotic

The Nilotic languages are a group of languages spoken in the eastern part of Sub-Saharan Africa.

#### Dinka

Dinka is a dialect continuum spoken in South Sudan. The two dialects presented below each have a maximum of three voices.

##### Agar

Andersen (1991) suggests that Agar exhibits symmetrical voice. This language has a maximum of three voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, and Circumstantial Voice. The subject is found in sentence-initial position, before the verb. The non-finite form of the verb found in the examples below is yḛ̂ep "cut".
ô̰ok
1PL
á̰a-y‹ḛ̀›p
D.PL-‹AV›cut
tḭ̀im
tree
nè̤
PREP
yê̤ep.
axe
ô̰ok á̰a-y‹ḛ̀›p tḭ̀im nè̤ yê̤ep.
1PL D.PL-‹AV›cut tree PREP axe
"We are cutting the tree with the axe."
tḭ̀im
tree
à̰-y‹ḛ́›p-kṳ̀
D-‹PV›cut-1PL
nè̤
PREP
yê̤ep.
axe
tḭ̀im à̰-y‹ḛ́›p-kṳ̀ nè̤ yê̤ep.
tree D-‹PV›cut-1PL PREP axe
"We are cutting the tree with the axe." (or "The tree is being cut by us with the axe.")
yê̤ep
axe
à̰-y‹ḛ́e›p
D-‹CV›cut
ó̰ok
1PL.GEN
tḭ̀im.
tree
yê̤ep à̰-y‹ḛ́e›p ó̰ok tḭ̀im.
axe D-‹CV›cut 1PL.GEN tree
"We are cutting the tree with the axe." (or "The axe is being cut the tree with by us.")
However, the number of voice morphemes available in this language is reduced to two when the agent is a full noun (i.e., not a pronoun), such as in the examples below. In (5a), where the subject is a patient, and the agent is not a pronoun, the verb is marked with Circumstantial Voice. Compare to (2) above, in which the agent is pronominal, and the verb is marked with patient voice morpheme, ḛ́.
dhɔ̤̀ɔk
boy
à̰-y‹ḛ̀›p
D-‹AV›cut
tḭ̀im
tree
nè̤
PREP
yê̤ep.
axe
dhɔ̤̀ɔk à̰-y‹ḛ̀›p tḭ̀im nè̤ yê̤ep.
boy D-‹AV›cut tree PREP axe
"The boy is cutting the tree with the axe."
tḭ̀im
tree
à̰-y‹ḛ́e›p
D-‹CV›cut
dhɔ̤̀ɔk
boy
nè̤
PREP
yê̤ep.
axe
tḭ̀im à̰-y‹ḛ́e›p dhɔ̤̀ɔk nè̤ yê̤ep.
tree D-‹CV›cut boy PREP axe
"The boy is cutting the tree with the axe." (or "The tree is being cut by the boy with the axe.")
yê̤ep
axe
à̰-y‹ḛ́e›p
D-‹CV›cut
dhɔ̤̀ɔk
boy
tḭ̀im.
tree
yê̤ep à̰-y‹ḛ́e›p dhɔ̤̀ɔk tḭ̀im.
axe D-‹CV›cut boy tree
"The boy is cutting the tree with the axe." (or "The axe is being cut the tree with by the boy.")

##### Bor

Van Urk (2015) suggests that Bor exhibits symmetrical voice. This language has three voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, and Circumstantial Voice.
The subject is found in sentence-initial position, before the verb. The non-finite form of the verb found in the examples below is câam "eat".
Àyén
Ayen
à-c‹à›m
3SG-‹AV›eat
cuî̤in
food
nè̤
PREP
pǎal.
knife
Àyén à-c‹à›m cuî̤in nè̤ pǎal.
Ayen 3SG-‹AV›eat food PREP knife
"Ayen is eating food with a knife."
Cuî̤in
food
à-c‹ɛ́ɛ›m
3SG-‹PV›eat
Áyèn
Ayen.ERG
nè̤
PREP
pǎal.
knife
Cuî̤in à-c‹ɛ́ɛ›m Áyèn nè̤ pǎal.
food 3SG-‹PV›eat Ayen.ERG PREP knife
"Ayen is eating food with a knife." (or "Food is being eaten by Ayen with a knife.")
Pǎal
knife
à-c‹ɛ́ɛ›m-è̤
3SG-‹PV›eat-CV
Áyèn
Ayen.ERG
cuî̤in.
food
Pǎal à-c‹ɛ́ɛ›m-è̤ Áyèn cuî̤in.
knife 3SG-‹PV›eat-CV Ayen.ERG food
"Ayen is eating food with a knife." (or "The knife is being eaten food with by Ayen.")

#### Kurmuk

Andersen (2015) suggests that Kurmuk, which is spoken in Sudan, has a construction that resembles symmetrical voice. This language has three voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, and Circumstantial Voice.
The subject in the examples below is found in sentence-initial position, before the verb.
t̪áarák
person
ꜜbóor-ú-∅
skin-PST-AV
dɛ̀ɛl
goat
kʌ̀
PREP
ŋɪ̀ɪr.
knife
t̪áarák ꜜbóor-ú-∅ dɛ̀ɛl kʌ̀ ŋɪ̀ɪr.
person skin-PST-AV goat PREP knife
"The man skinned a goat with a knife."
dɛ̀ɛl
goat
bóor-út̪-ɪ̀
skin-PST-PV
ŋʌ̀
NOM
t̪áarák
person
kʌ̀
PREP
ŋɪ̀ɪr.
knife
dɛ̀ɛl bóor-út̪-ɪ̀ ŋʌ̀ t̪áarák kʌ̀ ŋɪ̀ɪr.
goat skin-PST-PV NOM person PREP knife
"The man skinned the goat with a knife." (or "The goat was skinned by the man with a knife.")
ŋɪ̀ɪr
knife
bóor-út̪-ꜜɪ́
skin-PST-CV
dɛ́ɛl
goat
ŋʌ̀
NOM
t̪áarák.
person
ŋɪ̀ɪr bóor-út̪-ꜜɪ́ dɛ́ɛl ŋʌ̀ t̪áarák.
knife skin-PST-CV goat NOM person
"The man skinned a goat with the knife." (or "The knife was skinned a goat with by the man.")