# Paiwan language

Paiwan (Paiwan: Vinuculjan,) is a native language of southern Taiwan. It is spoken as a first language by the ethnic Paiwan, a Taiwanese indigenous people, and historically as a second language by many people in southern Taiwan. Paiwan is a Formosan language of the Austronesian language family. It is also one of the national languages of Taiwan.

## Dialects

Paiwan variants are seen divided into the following dialect zones by Ferrell.
* A1 – southern and central
** Kuɬaɬau (Kulalao) _ used in Ferrell's 1982 Paiwan Dictionary due to its widespread intelligibility and preservation of various phonemic distinctions; also spoken in Tjuabar Village, Taitung County, where Tjariḍik and "Tjuabar" (closely related to Tjavuaɬi) are also spoken.
** Kapaiwanan (Su-Paiwan)
** Tjuaqatsiɬay (Kachirai) – southernmost dialect
* A2 – central
** Ɬarəkrək (Riki-riki)
** Patjavaɬ (Ta-niao-wan)
* B1 – northernmost
** Tjukuvuɬ (Tokubun)
** Kaviangan (Kapiyan)
* B2 – northwestern
** Tjaɬakavus (Chalaabus, Lai-yi)
** Makazayazaya (Ma-chia)
* B3 – east-central
** Tjariḍik (Charilik)
* B4 – eastern
** Tjavuaɬi (Taimali)
** Tjakuvukuvuɬ (Naibon, Chaoboobol)
This classification were thought to be corrected by Cheng 2016 as below:
Note: A village unnoted of Vuculj/Ravar is by default placed under Vuculj here.
* Paridrayan group (Ravar)
** Paridrayan /pariɖajan/
** Tjailjaking
** Tineljepan
** Cavak
** Tjukuvulj
* Timur group
** Timur
** Tavatavang
** Vuljulju
** Sagaran (Ravar-Vuculj mixture)
* Makazayazaya branch
** 'ulaljuc
** Idra
** Masilidj
** Makazayazaya
** Paljulj
** Kazangiljan
** Masisi
** Kazazaljan
** 'apedang
** Kaviyangan
** Puljetji
** Tjuaqau
* Eastern branch
** Paumeli
** Tjulitjulik
** Viljauljaulj
** Kaljataran
** Ka'aluan
** Tjua'au
** Sapulju
** Kingku
** Djumulj
** Tjukuvulj
* Tjagaraus branch
** Payuan
** Padain
** Piuma
* Raxekerek branch (west)
** Raxekerek
** Kinaximan
** Tjevecekadan
* Raxekerek branch (east)
** Tjahiljik
** Tjacuqu
** Tjatjigelj
** Tjaqup
** Rahepaq
** Kaljapitj
** Qeceljing
** Pacavalj
** Kuvaxeng
** Utjaqas
** Ljupetj
* Tjala'avus branch
** Tjalja'avus
** Calasiv
** Tjana'asia
** Pucunug
** Vungalid
** Pailjus

## Phonology

Kuljaljau Paiwan has 23–24 consonants (/h/ is found only in loanwords, and /ʔ/ is uncommon) and 4 vowels. Unlike many other Formosan languages that have merged many Proto-Austronesian phonemes, Paiwan preserves most Proto-Austronesian phonemes and is thus highly important for reconstruction purposes.
The four Paiwan vowels are /i ə a u/. /ə/ is written ⟨e⟩ in the literature.
Kuljaljau (Kuɬaɬau) Paiwan consonants :
| | | Labial | Alveolar | Retroflex | Palatal | Velar | Uvular | Glottal |
| Nasal | Nasal | m | n | | | ŋ | | |
| Plosive | voiceless | p | t | | c | k | q | ʔ |
| Plosive | voiced | b | d | ɖ | ɟ | ɡ | | |
| Affricate | Affricate | | ts | | | | | |
| Fricative | voiceless | | s | | | | | (h) |
| Fricative | voiced | v | z | | | | | |
| Trill | Trill | | r | | | | | |
| Approximant | Approximant | w | l | | ʎ j | | | |
Central Paiwan consonants :
| | | Labial | Alveolar | Retroflex | Palatal | Velar | Uvular | Glottal |
| Nasal | Nasal | m | n | | | ŋ ⟨ng⟩ | | |
| Plosive | voiceless | p | t | | c ⟨tj⟩ | k | q ⟨q⟩ | ʔ ⟨ʼ⟩ |
| Plosive | voiced | b | d | ɖ ⟨dr⟩ | ɟ ⟨dj⟩ | ɡ | | |
| Affricate | Affricate | | ts ~ tʃ ⟨c⟩ | ts ~ tʃ ⟨c⟩ | ts ~ tʃ ⟨c⟩ | | | |
| Fricative | voiceless | | s | | | | | (h) |
| Fricative | voiced | v | z | | | | | |
| Rhotic | Rhotic | | r ~ ɣ ⟨r⟩ | r ~ ɣ ⟨r⟩ | r ~ ɣ ⟨r⟩ | r ~ ɣ ⟨r⟩ | | |
| Approximant | Approximant | ʋ ⟨w⟩ | | ɭ ⟨l⟩ | ʎ ⟨lj, ɬ⟩ j ⟨y⟩ | | | |
In Northern Paiwan the palatal consonants have been lost, though this is recent and a few conservative speakers maintain them as allophonic variants (not as distinct phonemes). /ʔ/ is robust, unlike in other Paiwan dialects where its status is uncertain, as it derives from *q.
Northern Paiwan (Sandimen) consonants :
| | | Labial | Alveolar | Retroflex | Palatal | Velar | Glottal |
| Nasal | Nasal | m | n | | | ŋ | |
| Plosive | voiceless | p | t | | | k | ʔ |
| Plosive | voiced | b | d | ɖ | | ɡ | |
| Affricate | Affricate | | ts | | | | |
| Fricative | voiceless | | s | | | | (h) |
| Fricative | voiced | v | z | | | | |
| Trill~ Fricative | Trill~ Fricative | | r | | | | |
| Approximant | Approximant | w | l ~ ʎ | ɭ | j | | |
Southern Paiwan (Mudan) consonants :
| | | Labial | Alveolar | Retroflex | Palatal | Velar | Uvular | Glottal |
| Nasal | Nasal | m | n | | | ŋ | | |
| Plosive | voiceless | p | t | | c | k | q | ʔ |
| Plosive | voiced | b | d | ɖ | ɟ | ɡ | | |
| Affricate | Affricate | | ts | | | | | |
| Fricative | voiceless | | s | | | | | (h) |
| Fricative | voiced | v | z | | | ɣ ~ r | | |
| Approximant | Approximant | w | | ɭ | ʎ j | | | |
Younger speakers tend to pronounce /ʎ/ as [l]. Fricative [ɣ] is characteristic of Mudan village; elsewhere is Southern Paiwan it tends to be a trill [r], though it still varies [r ~ ɣ ~ ʁ ~ h]. Word-initial *k has become /ʔ/.

## Grammar
### Pronouns

The Paiwan personal pronouns below are from Ferrell (1982).
Paiwan Personal Pronouns :
| Gloss | Equational | Genitive | Non-Eq., Non-Gen. |
| 1SG | -aken, ti-aken | ku-, ni-aken | tjanu-aken |
| 2SG | -sun, ti-sun | su-, ni-sun | tjanu-sun |
| 3SG | ti-madju | ni-madju | tjai-madju |
| 1PL.INCL | -itjen, ti-tjen | tja-, ni-tjen | tjanu-itjen |
| 1PL.EXCL | -amen, ti-amen | nia-, ni-amen | tjanu-amen |
| 2PL | -mun, ti-mun | nu-, ni-mun | tjanu-mun |
| 3PL | ti-a-madju | ni-a-madju | tjai-a-madju |

### Function words

Paiwan has three construction markers, which are also known as relational particles.
* a – shows equational relationship; personal sing. = ti, personal plural = tia
* nua – shows genitive / partitive relationship; personal sing. = ni, personal plural = nia
* tua – shows that the relationship is neither equational nor genitive; personal sing. = *tjai, personal plural = tjaia
Other words include:
* i – be at, in (place)
* nu – if when
* na – already (definitely) done/doing or have become
* uri – definite future negative marker
* uri – definite future marker
* ɬa – emphasis, setting apart
Affixed adverbials include:
* -tiaw
** nu-tiaw: tomorrow
** ka-tiaw: yesterday
* -sawni
** nu-sawni: soon, in a little while (future)
** ka-sawni: a little while ago
* -ngida
** nu-ngida: when? (future)
** ka-ngida: when? (past)
Interjections include the following:
* ui – yes
* ini – no (not do)
* neka – no, not (not exist)
* ai – oh! (surprise, wonder)
* ai ḍivá – alas!
* uá – oh! (surprise, taken aback)
* ai ḍaḍá – ouch! (pain)

### Verbs

Paiwan verbs have 4 types of focus.
* Agent/Actor
* Object/Goal/Patient
* Referent: spatial/temporal locus, indirect object, beneficiary
* Instrument/Cause/Motivation/Origin
The following verbal affixes are used to express varying degrees of volition or intent, and are arranged below from highest to lowest intention.
* ki- (intentional)
* pa- (intentional)
* -m- (volitionally ambiguous)
* si- (volitionally ambiguous)
* ma- (non-intentional)
* se- (non-intentional)
Paiwan verbs can also take on the following non-derivational suffixes.
* -anga: "certainly," "truly doing"
* -angata: "definitely" (emphatic)
* -anga: "still, yet, continuing to"

## Affixes

The Paiwan affixes below are from the Kulalao dialect unless stated otherwise, and are sourced from Ferrell (1982).

### Prefixes

* ka-: used as an inchoative marker with some stems; past marker
* ka- -an: principal, main
* kaɬa- -an: time/place characterized by something
* ma-ka-: go past, via; having finished
* pa-ka-: go/cause to go by way of (something/place)
* ka-si-: come from
* ken(e)-: eat, drink, consume
* ki-: get, obtain
* ku-: my; I (as agent of non-agent focus verb)
* ɬa-: belonging to a given [plant/animal] category
* ɬe-: to go in the direction of
* ɬia-: (have) come to be in/at
* li-: have quality of
* ma-: be affected by, be in condition of (involuntary)
* mare-: having reciprocal relationship
* mare-ka-: in some general category
* maɬe-: number of persons
* me-: agent marker usually involving change of status (used with certain verbs)
* mere-: be gigantic, super-
* mi-: agent marker that is usually intransitive (used with certain verbs)
* mi- -an: pretend, claim
* mu-: agent marker (certain verbs)
* ka-na- -anga: every
* pa-: to cause to be/occur
* pe-: emerge, come into view
* pi-: put in/on; do something to
* pu-: have or produce; acquire
* pu- -an: place where something is put or kept
* ma-pu-: do nothing except ...
* ra-: having to do with
* r-m-a-: do at/during
* r-m-a- -an: do at/in
* sa-: wish to; go to, in direction of; have odor, quality, flavor of
* pa-sa-: transfer something to; nearly, be on point of doing
* ki-sa-: use, utilize, employ
* na-sa-: perhaps, most likely is
* san(e)-: construct, work on/in
* ki-sane(e)-: become/act as; one who acts as
* ru-: do frequently/habitually; have many of
* se-: people of (village/nation); have quality of; occur suddenly/unexpectedly/unintentionally
* s-ar-e-: be in state/condition of (involuntary)
* si-: be instrument/cause/beneficiary of; instrument focus marker; belonging to certain time in past
* ma-si-: carry, transport
* su-: your; you (agent of non-agent focus verb); leave, remove, desist from
* ki-su-: remove or have removed from oneself
* ta-: past marker
* tu-: similar to, like
* ma-ru-: be dissimilar but of same size
* tja-: our, we (inclusive); more, to a greater extent, further
* ki-tja-: take along for use
* tjaɬa- -an: most, -est
* tjara-: be definitely
* tjaɬu-: reach/extend as far as
* tjari-: furthest, utmost
* tja-u-: to have just done
* tje-: choose to do at/from
* ka-tje- -an: containing
* tji-: used mainly in plant/animal species names (non-Kulalao frozen affix)
* tji-a-: be/remain at
* tju-: do/use separately; be/do at certain place
* m-uri-: search for

### Infixes

* -aɬ-, -al-, -ar-: having sound or quality of; involving use of; non-Kulalao
* -ar-: do indiscriminately, on all sides; non-Kulalao
* -m-: agent or actor; -n- following /p/, /b/, /v/, /m/; m- before vowel-initial words
* -in-: perfective marker, action already begun or accomplished, object or product of past action; in- before vowel-initial words

### Suffixes

* -an: specific location in time/space; specific one/type; referent focus
* -en: object/goal of action; object focus
* -aw, -ay: projected or intended action, referent focus
* -u: agent focus (most subordinate clauses); most peremptory imperative
* -i: object focus (most subordinate clauses); polite imperative
* -ɬ: things in sequence; groupings; durations of time
The following affixes are from the Tjuabar dialect of Paiwan, spoken in the northwest areas of Paiwan-occupied territory (Comparative Austronesian Dictionary 1995).

### Nouns

* -aḷ-, -alʸ- 'tiny things'
* -in- 'things made from plant roots'
* -an 'place' (always used with another affix)
* mar(ə)- 'a pair of' (used for humans only)
* pu- 'rich'
* ḳay- 'vegetation'
* sə- 'inhabitants'
* cua- 'name of a tribe'

### Verbs

* -aŋa 'already done'
* ka- 'to complete'
* kə- 'to do something oneself'
* ki- 'to do something to oneself'
* kisu- 'to get rid of'
* kicu- 'to do something separately'
* maCa- 'to do something reciprocally' (where C indicates the initial consonant of the stem)
* mə- 'to experience, to be something'
* pa- 'to cause someone to do something'
* pu- 'to produce, to get something'
* sa- 'to be willing to do something'
* calʸu- 'to arrive at'

### Adjectives

* ma- 'being'
* na- 'with the quality of'
* səcalʸi- 'very'
* ca- 'more than'