# Islamic Revival in British India

Islamic Revival in British India: Deoband, 1860-1900 is a book authored by Barbara D. Metcalf, a professor at the University of California. Originally, this book emerged as a revised edition of her doctoral dissertation and was published in 1982 by Princeton University Press. The book focused on the formative phase of the Deobandi movement. It is the first major monograph dedicated to the institutional and intellectual history of this movement. Moreover, it sought to clarify the transformative journey undertaken by Islamic scholars, commencing in the 18th century. This journey was catalyzed by the challenges faced by Indian Islam in the aftermath of the 1857 Mutiny, prompting a diverse array of approaches for a resolution. Throughout her research, the author gathered pertinent materials in Urdu to present a precise depiction of Deoband's organizational structure.
The book opens with an examination of the landscape of 18th-century Islamic reform movements. Subsequently, it reserves four detailed chapters to present an account of the establishment, administration, financial intricacies, and the education and training of young scholars at the Deoband seminary. The work engaged in a critical examination of various styles of religious leadership, delving into the multifaceted roles of Muftis, Shaikhs, writers, and debaters. A chapter is set aside for an analysis of the social milieu within which the Deobandi ulama operated. Furthermore, the book examines alternative trends within Sunni Islam, including the Ahl-i Hadith, the Barelwis, the Nadwatul Ulama, and Deoband's rival, Aligarh. It seeks to position Deoband within a historical context and accentuate its unique attributes when compared to other institutions of Indian Muslim erudition and the tapestry of various religious movements.

## Content

The initial chapters investigate the historical context of the Deobandi movement, examining the role of Indian Islamic scholars in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. It highlights the scholars' growing significance after the decline of the Mughal state, contrasting developments in northern India's Muslim culture centers. The emphasis on ma'qulut in the Dars-i Nizami at the Firangi Mahal in Lucknow is contrasted with Shah Waliullah Dehlawi and his dynasty's focus on Hadith in Delhi.
The core section details the founding of the Darul Uloom Deoband in 1867 following the destruction of Delhi. It presents sympathetic portraits of the Deobandi movement's founders, Qasim Nanawtawi and Rashid Ahmad Gangohi, drawn from their writings and Urdu biographies. Metcalf references original sources, including Darul Uloom's annual reports, providing evidence for the balance between tradition and reform in the Deobandis' approach.
Institutionally, Darul Uloom's networks and donors draw inspiration from the West, influenced by founders' experiences at Delhi College. The deliberate rejection of traditional ties for broader linkages aligns the Deobandis with a trend in nineteenth-century Indian Islam toward institutional and ideological rationalization. This shift is evident in discussions about attempts to subordinate the seminary to local interests as well as the character of religious teachings at Deoband, emphasizing Hadith and Hanafi law complemented by Sufi spirituality without Pir worship.
The roles of leading Deobandi 'ulama' as educators, issuers of fatawa, and participants in religious disputes are examined. Their impact as writers in developing Urdu as the primary language of Indian Islam is noted, particularly Ashraf Ali Thanwi's Bahishti Zewar. The 'ulama's social background is analyzed based on annual reports, dispelling common misconceptions about their status as part of the ashraf.
The final chapters focus on contemporary conflicts between the Deobandis and other movements within Indian Islam, such as the Ahl-i Hadith, Barelvi 'Ulama', Aligarh movement, and Nadwatul 'Ulama'.

## Theme

The author analyzes the perspectives of Islamic scholars. According to Francis Robinson, the essence of the entire book lies in recognizing the existence of an Islamic reality—a prerequisite for any genuinely fruitful study. Robinson emphasizes Metcalf's achievements, particularly her investigation into the varied responses of northern Indian ulama to the decline of Muslims and the dominance of the British. This exploration sheds new light on groups such as the Barelwis, Ahl-i-Hadiths, Nadwatul Ulama, and the Deoband school. Metcalf's second success reveals the vibrancy of 18th and 19th-century Indian Islam, exposing the emergence of innovative religious forms. The third success unveils the reasons behind the success of the Deobandi way, while the fourth provides ample evidence depicting the vulgarization of Islamic learning by 19th-century Indian ulama. Amedeo Maiello observes a shift in focus from modernist advocates in previous studies to Metcalf's emphasis on the response of Islamic scholars to the social and cultural disorientation of their time. This shift highlights the intricate yet unified nature of the Indian Muslim pattern of reform. Moreover, Maiello emphasizes the crucial moderating role played by Islamic scholars in updating the inherited tradition. Yohanan Friedmann favored the book's consideration of the extent to which Sufi doctrine and practice influenced Deoband.

## Reception

The book received mostly positive reviews, with some critical opinions. Gowher Rizvi underscores its contribution beyond simplistic categorizations, emphasizing the importance of considering participants' perspectives and beliefs for a more profound exploration. William R. Roff sees the book as a significant work of historical and cultural analysis, describing it as a valuable addition to studies of Islam and society in the modern world. Christopher Shackle positions the work as essential reading for students of Indian Islam, emphasizing its relevance to those concerned with the modern period. Yohanan Friedmann acknowledges the book's provision of fresh material as a substantial contribution to knowledge about a crucial religious movement in modern Muslim India. Similarly, Francis Robinson commends its originality, technical skill, and richness of ideas. Amedeo Maiello praises Metcalf's adept use of original sources, including school records and unpublished material, viewing the book as a much-needed study in modern Muslim Indian history. Gopal Krishna, former Director of the Centre for the Study of Developing Societies, opines, "This meticulously scholarly book is truly marvelous." The Daily Star rates it as an "outstanding study." However, Annemarie Schimmel, while acknowledging the social science approach, criticizes the author's lack of knowledge in classical Islamic languages and the tradition of Islamic education, pointing out a potential limitation in the book's scope.

## Legacy

In 2002, Muhammad Qasim Zaman published The Ulama in Contemporary Islam which built upon themes explored in Islamic Revival in British India. While Metcalf delves into the origins of the Deobandi movement, Zaman scrutinizes their approach in strategizing, articulating, contesting, and safeguarding their religious authority through a range of discursive and non-discursive means.