# Ravachol

François Claudius Koenigstein, also known as Ravachol (14 October 1859 – 11 July 1892), was a French anarchist individualist and illegalist mainly known for his terrorist activism, impact, the myths developed around his figure and his influence on the anarchist movement in France.
Born 14 October 1859, at Saint-Chamond, from the Saint-Étienne area, he began a life of crime marked by the murder and robbery of a rich hermit. In this city, Ravachol gradually adopted anarchist ideas and met other activists, such as Rosalie Soubère and Joseph Jas-Béala. He managed to escape from arrest and with these two accomplices, the militant moved to Paris in 1891. There, joined by the young anarchist militant Charles Simon, they carried out the Saint-Germain and Clichy bombings (1892), targeting the judge and prosecutor responsible for the judicial persecution of anarchists arrested during the Clichy Affair (1891).
Quickly arrested after the second attack, he stood trial, took full responsibility for the bombings in an effort to protect his companions, and was sentenced to life imprisonment with mitigating circumstances granted by the jury. Later, he was tried for the hermit’s murder and condemned to death, ultimately being guillotined on 11 July 1892, at Montbrison.
Although he was swiftly captured, arrested, and executed shortly after his attacks, which caused no fatalities, Ravachol is widely regarded as one of the launchers of the Era of Attacks (1892–1894). His assumption of full responsibility, efforts to exonerate his companions, and transformation from criminal to 'people’s avenger' in a sense, made him a martyr for anarchists and created the myth of Ravachol within the French population. He also became the cultural archetype of the 'anarchist terrorist'.

## Biography
### Birth and youth

François Claudius Koënigstein was born 14 October 1859 in Saint-Chamond, Loire. He was the eldest child of the four children of a Dutch father (Jean Adam Koenigstein) and a French mother (Marie Ravachol). His father beat his mother and eventually abandoned the family, leaving Marie Ravachol and their children alone. For her part, she worked, whenever she had the opportunity, as a laborer in a raw silk industry. His mother frequently sent him to beg for money for the family and he started working at a very young age, even though he was attending school.
He left school at the age of eleven, after being bullied by his classmates because he wore "shabby" clothes. Around this time, he worked, for example, as a livestock herder during the winter, doing so without proper shoes, which caused his feet to be constantly frozen. His younger sister died of fever around this period. In the following years, Ravachol worked as a shepherd, but also as a miner and in various other industries in the region. He was once fired from a job for arriving five minutes late, despite having worked many unpaid overtime hours. Around the age of 16, he secured a position in Saint-Chamond as an apprentice dyer with Richard and Puteau. However, this apprenticeship ended without the dyers deciding to keep him on or teach him more about their craft in greater detail. For additional income he played accordion at society balls on Sundays at Saint-Étienne and was payed 5 francs per evening.
As an adult, he adopted his mother's maiden name as his surname, following years of struggle after his father abandoned the family when François was only eight years old.

### Militantism, crimes, anarchism

When he completed his apprenticeship without success, Ravachol left Saint-Chamond and the Saint-Étienne region to go to Lyon in search of work. There, he began attending public readings in study circles that read socialist and anarchist newspapers. At the age of 18, Ravachol read the book The Wandering Jew (1844) by Eugène Sue, which, according to his own testimony, started his distanciation from religious ideas. After a lecture given by the communard Paule Minck, in which she discussed the Semaine sanglante (Bloody Week), on 3 December 1881, in Saint-Chamond, he fully completed his break from religion.
After being dismissed from a new job along with his brother, he found himself unemployed and in poverty. Unable to provide for his family, Ravachol began by stealing chickens, while his brother stole coal. At the same time, he gradually became an anarchist and started attempting to make bombs, though without success at first. He was already in possession of dangerous materials, as he was arrested after supplying sulfuric acid to a woman.
Meanwhile, Marie and François Ravachol entered into conflict: the mother reproached her son for being in an intimate relationship with a married woman. As a result of these accusations, he severed all ties with his mother. Then, on the night of 14 to 15 May 1891, in Terrenoire, he dug up the grave of Baroness de la Rochetaillée with the aim of finding and retrieving her jewelry. He found nothing and returned empty-handed. Ravachol also began selling alcohol illegally and got involved in counterfeiting operations.
On 18 June 1891, in Chambles, he murdered and robbed Jacques Brunel, a 93-year-old hermit who had lived off alms and charity. Though seemingly without resources, the elderly man was not poor; he had amassed donations for over fifty years while pretending to be extremely impoverished, which made him a man of relatively considerable wealth. Ravachol was then arrested for this murder but managed to escape. He spent some time hiding in the home of two of his companions, Rosalie Soubère and Joseph Jas-Béala. He also fled to Spain sometime after the murder. This is where he found refuge with Paul Bernard, another exile. It is speculated that during this time in Spain, particularly Barcelona, Ravachol learned how to make bombs. In August, 1891, he traveled to Paris using a fake name and 'met up with other Parisian anarchists'. At this meeting, he met Henri Louis Descamps' wife, Descamps being one of the arrested and judged during the Clichy affair. There, Charles Chaumentin and his wife, two anarchist militants, welcomed and hosted him.

### Radicalization of 'Ravachol's band'

Ravachol was joined there by Soubère and Jas-Béala, which is probably an indication about the fact that the group was already planning to launch attacks targetting the authorities in Paris. The group also met Charles Simon, a young anarchist militant whom Chaumentin introduced to them by declaring that he 'knew Paris like the back of his hand' and that he was someone capable of helping them with their plans.
Indeed, the situation in France was very tense between the anarchists and the French state, which radicalized Ravachol and his group. They reacted primarily to two major events: in 1891, the Fourmies massacre, where the army fired on demonstrators demanding an eight-hour workday, and the Clichy affair, where anarchists were arrested, struck with sabers, beaten, and deprived of water and care by the police for some time. The fact that the anarchists arrested after the Clichy affair were judged with great severity, with prosecutor Léon Bulot demanding the death penalty for all three and judge Edmond Benoît (1843–1909) sentencing them to harsh prison terms of two and five years, had a significant impact on anarchist circles in France and acted as the catalyst for the attacks carried out by Ravachol. Deeply shocked by these developments, Ravachol decided to take action against the magistrates responsible for the judicial persecution of the Clichy anarchists.
On the night of 14–15 February 1892, the group, managed to seize thirty kilograms of dynamite by stealing it from the Soisy-sur-Seine quarry, giving them the possibility to use this significant arsenal in the preparation of attacks.

### Bombings

In the following days, Ravachol and Simon built the bomb, Simon conducted a first reconnaissance of the judge's residence at 136 Boulevard Saint-Germain, and then the group of four took the tramway to carry out the attack on 11 March 1892. Soubère sat between Simon and Béala and carried the bomb, hiding it under her skirts. She then handed it to Ravachol, who, armed with two loaded pistols, entered the building, placed the bomb on the second floor, the center of the building—since he did not know exactly where Benoît lived. He lit the fuse and fled, while Soubère and Béala stood watch outside. The militant remained on-site to observe the aftermath of the explosion as her companions left the area.
The bombing caused no deaths, did not hit judge Benoît, who lived on the fifth floor, and injured one person.
The anarchists involved in the plan were not satisfied with the failure of their operation: they decided to make another attempt soon after, this time targeting the prosecutor in the Clichy affair, Bulot. This preparation was complicated by the arrest of Simon after the betrayal of Charles Chaumentin, turned police informant, who denounced them. According to Jean Maitron and Rolf Dupuy, this denunciation by the traitorous anarchist actually provided little help to the police, as the authorities already knew most of the information he provided. The subsisting members of the group subsequently committed the Clichy bombing in the next days, with a similar mode of action, but this time injuring seven people in the process, while still not killing their target, in that case Léon Bulot, the prosecutor.

### Denunciation and arrest

On 30 March 1892, Ravachol, then in hiding and dining at the restaurant Le Véry on 22 Boulevard Magenta, was recognized by an employee, Jules Lhérot, who quickly passed the information on to the restaurant's owner, Jean‑Marie Véry. Véry decided to alert the police and denounced Ravachol to the authorities, leading to his arrest. The police became aware of the dangerous situation of their informants and increased security measures around the restaurant.
This did not prevent the anarchist militants Jean-Pierre François and Théodule Meunier from carrying out the Véry bombing, where they exacted revenge for Véry's collaboration and succeeded in killing him. The trial opened the next day, on 26 April 1892.

### First part of the trial

The trial of Ravachol and his accomplices opened on 26 April 1892 at the Seine Assizes Court. According to Gilles Ferragu, this was an extraordinary trial for several reasons. First of all, it was divided into two parts: the trial for the Paris bombings was assigned to the Seine Assizes Court, while the trial for the hermit's murder and other crimes that the police accused Ravachol of committing was scheduled for a later date in Montbrison.
It was also the first trial of such magnitude for an anarchist terrorist, and a moment of wavering for the republican order established by the French Third Republic. The authorities were extremely uncomfortable with this trial because they had to balance the appearance of a fair trial—where Ravachol would be able to speak openly and freely to legitimize their judicial system as free—while also preventing the trial from becoming a political platform for the anarchist. The royalist press notably highlighted the paradox of this political trial, which already foreshadowed the Dreyfus affair, mocking the Third Republic by pointing out that the republicans, who had once advocated insurrection and revolution, were now being outflanked on their left.
The authorities then implemented measures aimed at controlling the composition of the jury in their favor and ensuring that the attending public was carefully selected. Later during the Era of Attacks, laws would be passed to restrict press freedom during anarchist trials. As for Ravachol, he was assisted by Parisian anarchist circles: his lawyer, Lagasse, former lawyer of one of the arrested during the Clichy affair, referenced a number of militants who helped gather information about the jurors in an attempt to challenge individuals likely to convict Ravachol.
The defensive strategy of Ravachol and Lagasse was to highlight the political dimension of the trial and to defend the reason behind the attacks. He also tried to exonerate his companions, such as Rosalie Soubère, saying about her:
   Hell yeah, sir, she hadn't a clue, this gal, that she was hiding a bomb under her skirts. She couldn't tell the difference. It was wrapped in tar paper.
Ravachol could not read very well, so he began the trial with a written statement on a piece of paper, reading it with difficulty. In it, he declared:
   I struck the president Mr. Benoît: 1° Because he showed himself to be too biased during the Decamps trial and because he increased the sentence to the maximum; 2° Because he paid no attention to the violence committed by the police against Decamps and Dardare, who were left for dead. My vengeance targeted Mr. Bulot because he had demanded the death penalty against an honest father. I wanted to make those responsible for enforcing punishments understand that they should be more lenient. As for the innocent victims I may have harmed, I sincerely regret it. I regret it all the more because my life has been full of bitterness. I deeply regret also bringing to these benches people whose only fault was knowing me. Anarchy aims to make society one big family where the weakest will be protected by all, where everyone will have enough to eat.
During the trial, rumors circulated in the press suggesting that Ravachol and Lagasse were attempting to make Pierre Martinet, one of the theorists of individualist anarchism—who was imprisoned at the time, speak about anarchism at the court. Although it is unclear whether these rumors were true, they demonstrated that the French state was overwhelmed by the events to the point that, instead of resorting to its usual rhetoric after an attack—where the perpetrator was dehumanized and the restoration of order staged—the press naturally assumed that an anarchist might come to express his opinions during the trial. Anarchism was thus considered legitimate to present as a counterpoint to state ideology within the trial itself by the press, showing the impact of Lagasse's defence.
An 'anonymous' juror who reportedly spoke in Le Figaro noted Ravachol's unveiling of the established ritual of the political trial:
   It is the trial of a party that he is bringing before us; it is anarchy alone that he asks us to condemn in his defence, and in doing so, he transforms us, without our realizing it, into politicians sitting in a sort of political tribunal.
Ultimately, he was found guilty by the jury with Simon but with mitigating circumstances, which made them avoid the death penalty and instead be sentenced to life in penal labour. Soubère and Béala were acquitted, like Chaumentin.

### Second part of the trial

Ravachol's second trial was on 21 June 1892, before the Loire Assize Court in Montbrison, for the crimes that predated the bombings. He admitted to the grave robbing and to murdering the hermit of Chambles, in 1891, something he had never denied but denied the other charges.
His brother and sister supported him by testifying to his role as a father during their childhood. He was ultimately convicted and sentenced to death for this series of crimes and for others that he probably didn't commit. After his condemnation to death, he declared:
   May my innocent and involuntary victims understand and forgive me. [...] Long live anarchy!
He was refused the right to read a final statement, which he gave instead to his lawyer. The statement was very probably written by Ravachol with corrections and help from his lawyer and other anarchists. As soon as he was sentenced to death, the authorities sought to carry out his execution as quickly as possible and were pleased that he refused to appeal the sentence.

### Execution

Ravachol was executed on 11 July 1892 at Montbrison. He spoke briefly with his jailers before being transferred to the guillotine. During these conversations, he first refused to have a drink but then decided to have a glass of wine mixed with water. He openly refused the chaplain and declared to his jailers:
   Courage, it’s easy to say, but you can’t always be sure you’ll have it in moments like this; I’ll have some, if I can.—Look, they’re giving me my finest clothes; I’ll be stylish, it’s like I’m going to a ball.—The chaplain? I don’t want him. Consolations at a time like this are nonsense! Religion, I don’t give a damn about it. It’s only good for idiots, and all people are idiots.
Ravachol was then placed in a van and transferred to the execution location. During the travel, he repeatedly sang the sixth stanza of La Chanson du Père Dûchene [fr]. He was positioned right next to the guillotine and stepped toward the gathered crowd to speak a few words but was interrupted by the executioners, who placed him in the guillotine before he could finish. His last words, as his head was about to be severed, were:
   Pigs, long live the Republi...!

## Posterity
### Myth(s) of Ravachol
#### Anarchist circles, practices and thought

Ravachol was the first anarchist guillotined in France, as noted by Émile Pouget. Within anarchist circles, his figure was initially met with distance and disapproval, as the fact that Ravachol had committed 'vile' crimes—such as desecrating graves or murdering a hermit—before engaging in political attacks was poorly received by many anarchists, who initially distanced themselves from his actions. However, his two bombings, his decision to take full responsibility for them—protecting his companions—and his execution changed the situation. His image was thus rehabilitated by anarchists, who gradually transformed him into a hero and a martyr. Hélène Millot describes the rapid evolution of his image within anarchist circles in France as follows:
   The anarchist press did not immediately rally behind Ravachol, who seemed to many to be disreputable, or even suspicious. [...] Within a few days, Ravachol gained political legitimacy and became the hero of Anarchy—or rather its herald: he had indeed used his trial as a platform for propaganda, turning it into a political forum, a practice that all subsequent anarchists brought to trial would emulate (as a result, authorities soon banned the press from transcribing trial proceedings and pleas). His demeanor compelled the admiration of all the journalists present at the trial. Moreover, he was remarkably defended by his lawyer, Lagasse.
Ravachol became a figure of martyrdom for anarchists, even Christ-like. He was compared to Jesus-Christ in anarchist art; for example, Paul Adam wrote about him:
   To have affirmed the right to existence at the risk of being vilified by the herd of civic slaves and of incurring the ignominy of the scaffold, to have conceived as a technique the elimination of the useless in order to support an idea of liberation, to have had the audacity to conceive it and the devotion to carry it out, is this not sufficient to deserve the title of Redeemer?
This Christ-like perspective of Ravachol was based on parallel narratives between the Christian story and that of the anarchist: he sought to convert all the individuals he encountered to anarchism, including his guards; he died at the age of 33; he went to his 'martyrdom' singing—in this case, a deeply anticlerical song, paradoxically—much like traditional Christian hagiographies. However within anarchist circles, this comparison of Ravachol to Christ was not shared by everyone and was rather defended by intellectuals with relatively loose ties to anarchism.
The arrest, trial, and execution of the anarchist militant greatly inspired other activists of the period, who followed in his footsteps during the Era of Attacks. Thus, in France, Théodule Meunier, Auguste Vaillant, and Émile Henry were deeply influenced by Ravachol and sought to avenge him in their respective attacks. In February 1894, Désiré Pauwels planned traps for the Paris police commissioners responsible for Ravachol's arrest but did not injure his intended targets. A commemorative woodcut of Ravachol by the French artist Charles Maurin in 1893 was used on the cover of a 1900s-era bomb making pamphlet La Salute è in voi!, associated with the Italian American Galleanisti anarchists. The Galleanists were proponents of political violence and "propaganda of the deed."
Ravachol was also celebrated in various anarchist songs composed in his honor, such as La Ravachole to the tune of La Carmagnole. An anarchist group in Belleville, Paris in the late 1890s named themselves "The Avengers of Ravachol".

#### Popular legend and culture

From his second attack, the press, knowing nothing of his identity except that he was an anarchist, began portraying Ravachol as a hero intervening to save the people. Poems and songs were published in his honor, such as La Complainte de Ravachol (Ravachol's Lament), and his figure became synonymous with that of an unknown—then known—hero who would avenge the people. In reality, the anarchist specificity of Ravachol was of little interest to this second form of portrayal, which focused more on his status as an 'outlaw'. Millot says, about this re-use:
   [The popular songs and texts] all show an obvious sympathy for Ravachol, a sympathy that is directed less toward the anarchist or the criminal than toward the traditionally popular figure of the outlaw. Singing about Ravachol's exploits allows for mocking judges, police officers, property owners, concierges, and waiters—figures that were prime targets for the ridicule of the Parisian working class.

#### Influence on art and French society

He became a character in novels, as his biography lent itself well to such developments. Indeed, the anarchist had an unhappy childhood, a life marked by twists and turns, betrayals, impossible loves, and adventures—all elements that made him a favored figure in fin-de-siècle 19th-century French literature. The police hunt for a glorified unknown figure was followed in the media and foreshadowed artistic productions such as the emergence of the character Fantômas, whom Ravachol partly inspired. In reality, the connection between Ravachol and popular adventure novels was made by Ravachol himself, as he stated to have read The Wandering Jew by Eugène Sue and to have evolved politically through it. He thus established himself a dialectical relationship with literature, both responding to it and inspiring it.
This romanticized portrayal of Ravachol as a hero of the people has continued within French society to this day. Thus, René Dumas’s 1981 biography of Ravachol explicitly adopted novelistic chapter titles to describe his life: 'How the poor shepherd became a smuggler and counterfeiter', 'The monstrous crimes of Saint-Étienne and Izieux', 'Paris, here I come!', 'A bomb under the skirts: the infernal suitcase', 'The astonishing travels of Mr. Deibler'.

#### Later inspirations

Strasbourg-based Situationist students active in the May 68 events in France associated their manifesto On the Poverty of Student Life with a "Society for the Rehabilitation for Karl Marx and Ravachol".
Two cities in Disco Elysium, Revachol (the game's setting) and Koenigstein, are named after Ravachol.

### Impact on terrorism
#### Shift in the scope of terrorism

In addition to ushering in the Era of Attacks, Ravachol transformed terrorism, shifting it from a person-centered approach to a location-centered one. Thus, although he still targeted specific individuals in a traditional form of tyrannicide, he now aimed at the homes of his targets—thereby crossing the boundaries of their privacy. The location took on a crucial symbolic importance, a phenomenon adopted by other terrorists of the period. Vaillant, for instance, targeted the National Assembly instead of a specific individual, Désiré Pauwels attacked the Catholic Church through the Madeleine bombing, and Emile Henry targeted the headquarters of the Carmaux mining company. With the exception of the assassination of Sadi Carnot by Caserio, most terrorists following Ravachol adopted this location-based aspect of terrorism—a trend that intensified in 20th and 21st-century terrorism.

## Works
### Books

* Memoirs, dictated to his jailors, 30 March 1892 (in French on Wikisource)

### Speeches

* Forbidden Defence Speech, Montbrison, 21 June 1892 (in French on the website of the University of Strasbourg) (in English at Marxist.org)

## Works about Ravachol
### Songs

* La Ravachole by Sébastien Faure, 1905. (in French on Wikisource) (in English on Marxist.org) (Sung in French by Atelier Anarkonia)