# Chera Perumals of Makotai

Cheraman Perumal dynasty, also known as the Perumal dynasty of Kerala, or the Chera Perumals of Makotai or Mahodayapuram (fl. c. 844–1124 CE), was a ruling dynasty in present-day Kerala, South India. Mahodayapuram, or Makotai, the seat of the Cheraman Perumals, is identified with present-day Kodungallur in central Kerala. Initially, their influence appeared to be limited to the area between present-day Quilon and Quilandy, but it later extended up to the Chandragiri river in northern Kerala and to Nagercoil in the south.
The medieval Cheras claimed descent from the (early historic) Cheras who flourished in pre-Pallava south India. Present-day central Kerala probably detached from larger Kongu Chera or Kerala kingdom (around 8th-9th century CE) to form the Chera Perumal kingdom. The exact relationship between these two branches of the Chera family is not known to scholars. The Chera Perumals are often described as members of the Surya Vamsa (the Solar Race).
The Chera Perumal kingdom derived most of its revenue from maritime trade relations (the Indian Ocean spice trade) with the Middle East. The port of Kollam, located within the kingdom, was a major point in overseas India trade to the West and the East Asia. Nambudiri-Brahmin settlements of agriculturally rich areas (fertile wet land) were another major source of support for the Chera state. The Cheraman Perumals are known for primarily employing a single script (Vattezhuthu Script) and language (early form of Malayalam) in all of their records in Kerala. It is known that the transformation of land relations played a crucial role in the collapse of the Chera state in the early twelfth century.

## Historiography

An earlier version of conventional Kerala historiography held the belief that the "Second/Later Chera Empire", or "Kulasekhara Empire" [sic] was a highly centralized monarchy ("unitary or imperial state model", emphasizing centralized administration). Modern scholars have accused early Kerala historians of inventing a "Second Chera Empire" to rival the glories of the imperial Cholas (in the Tamil country).

### Monarchy in Kerala (Narayanan, 1972)

However, critical research in the late 1960s and early 1970s offered a major corrective to this view (by suggesting a traditional monarchy). The theories of a Chera "empire", propounded by the early writers, were rejected. It was also discovered that the Chera kings did not bear the specific abhisekanama "Kulasekhara".

### Ritual sovereignty model (Narayanan, 2002/2013)

Suggestions at the other extreme have also emerged, proposing that the Chera king at Kodungallur held only "ritual sovereignty", while actual political power (even at Kodungallur, in some cases) rested with "a bold and visible Brahmin oligarchy". This perspective describes "a fragmented array of local chiefdoms ... held in check by a loose Tamil hegemony".
   "The Cera kingdom was not a strong, absolute monarchy by any means, but rather a confederation of lords and powerful Brahmin communities under the mantle of the Perumal...Therefore, the portrayal of the post Cera period as a time of major political decentralization attributes a false centrality to the Cera period itself..."
According to the third model or its variations, the (sovereign) power of the Perumal was restricted to the capital Mahodayapuram-Kodungallur and the surrounding regions. His kingship was purely ritual and remained nominal compared to the power that local chieftains (the Udaiyavar) exercised politically and militarily in distant northern and southern Kerala. Brahmins throughout Kerala also possessed significant authority in religious and social matters ("ritual sovereignty combined with a bold and visible Brahmin oligarchy").

### Index to Chera Inscriptions (ICI)

An index of most of the so-called Chera Perumal inscriptions can be found in 'Perumals of Kerala' (1972) by M. G. S. Narayanan. This general catalogue lists records discovered up to 1972 (some of the recently discovered inscriptions remain unreported and undeciphered).

## History

The Chera Perumals of Makotai claimed descent from the (early historic) Cheras who flourished in pre-Pallava (early historic) south India. Early Tamil poems provide clear indications of how different branches of the Chera family (simultaneously) managed various centers of power in Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
The Chera/Perumal dynasty introduced "kingship" as a form of rule in Kerala, marking a departure from the early historic system of clan-based societies. It is speculated that Kerala's rulers faced little economic pressure for territorial conquest, as the region was naturally rich and derived (a substantial) income from the trade with the Middle East. The Perumal kingdom had alternating friendly and hostile relations with the Cholas and the Pandyas. The kingdom was attacked and eventually forced into submission by the Cholas in the early 11th century CE (to break its near monopoly on trade with the Middle East).
   "A [Chola] naval campaign led to the conquest of the Maldive Islands, the Malabar Coast, and northern Sri Lanka, all of which were essential to the Chola control over trade with Southeast Asia and with Arabia and eastern Africa. These were the transit areas, ports of call for the Arab traders and ships to Southeast Asia and China, which were the source of the valuable spices sold at a high profit to Europe."
The Perumal kingship remained nominal compared with the power that local chieftains, the so-called "nattu-udaiyavar" or "nadu-vazhumavar", exercised politically and militarily. Chiefdoms under Chera Perumal rule, known as "nadus", are roughly comparable to the "rashtra" under the Rashtrakutas and "padi" under the Cholas. These chieftains wielded militaristic authority over their country (even over the Brahmin temples and settlements in their nadu). The udaiyavar chieftains were liable to serve the Chera Perumal in battles (against invading Pandyas and Cholas) and the chiefdoms functioned as revenue collection units for the Chera kingdom. The Chera Perumal only held direct authority over the country that extended from Palakkad to Vembanad Lake, including the port of Kodungallur. Koyil Adhikarikal/Al Koyil, the Chera royal "present" in a chiefdom, collected regular dues (the attaikkol and arantai) from the chiefdoms for the Perumal at Kodungallur.
Bhakti saints Cheraman Perumal Nayanar and Kulasekhara Alvar are generally identified as Perumal kings of Kerala. Shankaracharya, founder of the Vedanta advaita, is also traced to 8th century Kerala. Copper-plate charters of the Perumals show grants to Jewish and Christian merchants of West Asia. The West Asian Muslims had also established themselves as traders in the kingdom. Merchant guilds such as manigramam, and anjuvannam were active in the Perumal kingdom. The earliest attestation of Malayalam language [as an inscriptional variety] is also tentatively dated to the Chera Perumal period or a little later in Kerala. Temple architecture style known as "Kerala-Dravida" can be seen from the 11th century CE.
In the early 12th century, the medieval Chera kingdom of Kerala dissolved into several local powers. The gradual transformation of land relations, among other factors, played a crucial role in the collapse of the Chera state. Over time, the Chera Perumal state had gradually lost its role as the primary regulator of land ownership and transactions. The Perumal dynasty was succeeded in southern Kerala by the rulers of Venad (Kollam), whose kings, tracing their descent from the Cheras, were variously known as the Cheras or the "Kulasekhara dynasty". In other parts of Kerala, the chieftains of Kolathunad, and the future rulers of Kozhikode (Calicut) and Kochi (Cochin) succeeded the Perumals.

### Organs of the Perumal state

Koyil Adhikarikal, or Ala Koyil, was the Chera royal prince appointed to a chiefdom, responsible for collecting regular dues (the attaikkol and arantai) from the chiefdoms for the Chera Perumal. The managers of the four Nambudiri-Brahmin temples around Kodungallur, known as the "Nalu Thali", acted as the Chera Perumal's permanent council or ministers.
Four Temples (the Nalu Thali) :
| Temple in Kodungallur | Brahmin settlement | Notes |
| Nediya-thali or Thiruvanchikkulam Shiva Temple | Paravur | Associated with Cheraman Perumal Nayanar |
| Mel-thali or Thrikkulasekharapuram Temple | Moozhikkulam | Founded by Kulasekhara Alvar. |
| Kizh-thali Temple | Iranikulam | |
| Chingapuram/Sringapuram Thali | Irinjalakuda | |
The Thousand or the Ayiram were the personal Nair protection guards of the Chera Perumal king (related to the Kodungallur Bhagavathi Temple). They functioned as the 'companions of honour' to the Perumal. Padai-nayakar or Padai-nair was the commander of the armed forces of the kingdom or a chiefdom. The Hundred or the Nutruvar was the military organisation of each chiefdom (this body had no defined limits of territorial jurisdiction). The Hundred multiple generally indicated the number of households in the nadu that could join the militia. The Shadow, or Nizhal, were the personal protection guards of the udaiyavar, serving as their 'companions of honor'.
Prakrithi was a body of non-Brahmin or Vellala notables that assisted the udaiyavar, while the Adhikarar were temple or royal servants responsible for management, the collection of dues, or serving as local arbitrators.

## Major chieftaincies

Through the analysis of medieval Kerala inscriptions relating to the Chera Perumal period, scholars have substantiated the existence of several chieftaincies. From north to south, they are as follows: Kolla-desam (or) Kolathu-nadu (proposed name), Purakizha-nadu, Kurumporai-nadu, Erala-nadu, Valluva-nadu, Kizhmalai-nadu (the Eastern Hill Country), Vempala-nadu, Munji-nadu, Nanruzhai-nadu and Venadu or Kupaka (Kollam).
Kolathu-nadu (northern Kerala) came under the influence of the Perumals during the 11th century, while Venadu (southern Kerala) was probably formed under their influence in the early 9th century. The Perumal held direct (sovereign) authority over the country that extended from Palakkad to Vembanad Lake (including Kodungallur in the Periyar Valley). Within this country, the nadus were present as militaristic/revenue units (with members of martial families serving the Perumal king appointed as the Udayaivar).

## Chera Perumal genealogy
### Abhisekanama (regnal title)

An earlier version of conventional Kerala historiography believed that all the kings of the "Second/Later Chera Empire", or "Kulasekhara Empire" [sic] bore the specific abhisekanama (regnal name) "Kulasekhara". Hence, the ruling lineage was titled "Kulasekhara dynasty". However, critical research in the late 1960s and early 1970s offered a major corrective to this view. The theories of a Chera "empire", propounded by early historians, were also rejected.
It was also discovered that not all medieval Chera kings of Kerala bore the specific abhisekanama "Kulasekhara," except for Sthanu Ravi Kulasekhara and Rama Kulasekhara. The rulers were known by several common titles, as evidenced by inscriptions and literary sources. These included "Cheramanar" or "Cheraman", "Keralaraja", "Cheran", and "Cheralan". Some rulers were also referred to by the titles "Kothai/Kotha" or "Kothan", as well as "Udayan/Uthiyan". Additionally, the kings employed prestigious early historic Chera titles such as "Vanavan" and "Villavan".

### Chera Perumal genealogy

Originally revised by M. G. S. Narayanan (1972) from Elamkulam P. N. Kunjan Pillai (1963) Recent corrections (2014 and revised in 2020) on Narayanan by Manu V. Devadevan (edited by Kesavan Veluthat) are also employed.
Lists of Chera Perumals :
| Chera Perumal | Regnal years (tentative) | Notes |
| Sthanu Ravi Kulasekhara | 844–870 | Earliest known Chera ruler of Mahodayapuram. Contemporary to Chola king Aditya I Probably identical with Kulasekhara Alvar. |
| Rama Rajasekhara | 870–883 (revised chronology, 2020) | Probably identical with Cheraman Perumal Nayanar. |
| Vijayaraga | 883–895 | Married the daughter of king Kulasekhara. Married off his two daughters to Chola king Parantaka. |
| Goda Goda | 895—905 | |
| Kerala Kesari | 895—905 | Probably identical with king Goda Goda (above) |
| Goda Ravi | 905–943 | |
| Indu/Indesvaran Goda | 943–962 | |
| Bhaskara Ravi Manukuladitya | 962–1021 (or) 959–1025 (revised chronology, 2020) | Contemporary to Chola king Rajendra |
| Ravi Goda | 1021—1089 | Contemporary to Chola king Rajendra. |
| Rajasimha | 1021—1089 | Contemporary to Chola king Rajendra Contemporary to Chola viceroy Jatavarman Sundara Chola-Pandya Probably identical with king Ravi Goda (above) |
| Raja Raja | 1021—1089 | Contemporary to Chola viceroy Jatavarman Sundara Chola-Pandya. Contemporary to Chola viceroy Maravarman Chola-Pandya. |
| Ravi Rama | 1021—1089 | |
| Aditya Goda Ranaditya | 1021—1089 | |
| Rama Kulasekhara | 1089—1122 | Crowned in 1089 CE. Elder contemporary to Chola king Vikrama |
* ↑ The term "Chera Perumals" is widely used by prominent Kerala historians. Romila Thapar 2003 [2002] describes the medieval state as "Cheras or Perumals in Kerala" (pp. 327-28) and "Makotai kingdom in the Periyar Valley" (pp. 331-32). Noburu Karashima (2014) calls it "Ceraman Perumal dynasty of Mahodayapuram" (pp. 145-46). Manu Devadevan (2020), following on from a book edited by Kesavan Veluthat (2014), specifically favors the usage of the term "Ceraman" over "Cera" (pp. 122).
* ↑ Both Rajasimha and Raja Raja, from the Pandya inscriptions at Ambasamudram, were categorically identified as Chera Perumals by M. G. S. Narayanan (1972). This was confirmed in a recent book edited by Kesavan Veluthat (2014). The claim is disputed by Daud Ali (2007).

## Chera Perumal epigraphic records

* Quilon Syrian copper plates (Sthanu Ravi Kulasekhara)
* Quilon Syrian copper plates (plate 6)
* Vazhappally copper plate (Rama Rajasekhara)
* Jewish copper plates of Cochin (Bhaskara Ravi Manukuladitya)
* Tiruvalla copper plates
* Perunna inscription (Rama Kulasekhara)