# Sindhi language

Sindhi (/ˈsɪndi/ SIN-dee; Sindhi: سِنڌِي‎ (Perso-Arabic) or सिन्धी (Devanagari), pronounced) is an Indo-Aryan language spoken by more than 30 million people in the Pakistani province of Sindh, where it has official status, as well as by 1.7 million people in India, where it is a scheduled language without state-level official status. Sindhi is primarily written in the Perso-Arabic script in Pakistan, while in India, both the Perso-Arabic script and Devanagari are used.
The earliest written evidence of modern Sindhi as a language can be found in a translation of the Qur’an into Sindhi dating back to 883 AD. Sindhi was one of the first Indo-Aryan languages to encounter influence from Persian and Arabic following the Umayyad conquest in 712 AD. A substantial body of Sindhi literature developed during the Medieval period, the most famous of which is the religious and mystic poetry of Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai from the 18th century. Modern Sindhi was promoted under British rule beginning in 1843, which led to the current status of the language in independent Pakistan after 1947.

## History
### Origins

The name "Sindhi" is derived from the Sanskrit síndhu, the original name of the Indus River, along whose delta Sindhi is spoken.
Like other languages of the Indo-Aryan family, Sindhi is descended from Old Indo-Aryan (Sanskrit) via Middle Indo-Aryan (Pali, secondary Prakrits, and Apabhramsha). 20th century Western scholars such as George Abraham Grierson believed that Sindhi descended specifically from the Vrācaḍa dialect of Apabhramsha (described by Markandeya as being spoken in Sindhu-deśa, corresponding to modern Sindh) but later work has shown this to be unlikely.

### Early Sindhi (2nd–16th centuries)

Literary attestation of early Sindhi is sparse. The earliest written evidence of Sindhi as a language can be found in a translation of the Qur’an into Sindhi dating back to 883 A.D. Historically, Isma'ili religious literature and poetry in India, as old as the 11th century CE, used a language that was closely related to Sindhi and Gujarati. Much of this work is in the form of ginans (a kind of devotional hymn).
Sindhi was the first Indo-Aryan language to be in close contact with Arabic and Persian following the Umayyad conquest of Sindh in 712 CE.

### Medieval Sindhi (16th–19th centuries)

Medieval Sindhi literature is of a primarily religious genre, comprising a syncretic Sufi and Advaita Vedanta poetry, the latter in the devotional bhakti tradition. The earliest known Sindhi poet of the Sufi tradition is Qazi Qadan (1493–1551). Other early poets were Shah Inat Rizvi (c. 1613–1701) and Shah Abdul Karim Bulri (1538–1623). These poets had a mystical bent that profoundly influenced Sindhi poetry for much of this period.
Another famous part of Medieval Sindhi literature is a wealth of folktales, adapted and readapted into verse by many bards at various times and possibly much older than their earliest literary attestations. These include romantic epics such as Sassui Punnhun, Sohni Mahiwal, Momal Rano, Noori Jam Tamachi, Lilan Chanesar, and others.
The greatest poet of Sindhi was Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai (1689/1690–1752), whose verses were compiled into the Shah Jo Risalo by his followers. While primarily Sufi, his verses also recount traditional Sindhi folktales and aspects of the cultural history of Sindh.
The first attested Sindhi translation of the Quran was done by Akhund Azaz Allah Muttalawi (1747–1824) and published in Gujarat in 1870. The first to appear in print was by Muhammad Siddiq in 1867.

### Modern Sindhi (1843–present)

In 1843, the British conquest of Sindh led the region to become part of the Bombay Presidency. Soon after, in 1848, Governor George Clerk established Sindhi as the official language in the province, removing the literary dominance of Persian. Sir Bartle Frere, the then commissioner of Sindh, issued orders on August 29, 1857, advising civil servants in Sindh to pass an examination in Sindhi. He also ordered the use of Sindhi in official documents. In 1868, the Bombay Presidency assigned Narayan Jagannath Vaidya to replace the Abjad used in Sindhi with the Khudabadi script. The script was decreed a standard script by the Bombay Presidency thus inciting anarchy in the Muslim majority region. A powerful unrest followed, after which Twelve Martial Laws were imposed by the British authorities. The granting of official status of Sindhi along with script reforms ushered in the development of modern Sindhi literature.
The first printed works in Sindhi were produced at the Muhammadi Press in Bombay beginning in 1867. These included Islamic stories set in verse by Muhammad Hashim Thattvi, one of the renowned religious scholars of Sindh.
The Partition of India in 1947 resulted in most Sindhi speakers ending up in the new state of Pakistan, commencing a push to establish a strong sub-national linguistic identity for Sindhi. This manifested in resistance to the imposition of Urdu and eventually Sindhi nationalism in the 1980s.
The language and literary style of contemporary Sindhi writings in Pakistan and India were noticeably diverging by the late 20th century; authors from the former country were borrowing extensively from Urdu, while those from the latter were highly influenced by Hindi.

## Geographical distribution

Sindhi is the official language of the Pakistani province of Sindh and one of the scheduled languages of India, where it does not have any state-level status. Prior to the inception of Pakistan, Sindhi was the national language of Sindh.
There are many Sindhi language television channels broadcasting in Pakistan such as Time News, KTN, Sindh TV, Awaz Television Network, Mehran TV, and Dharti TV.

### Pakistan

In Pakistan, Sindhi is the first language of 30.26 million people, or 14.6% of the country's population as of the 2017 census. 29.5 million of these are found in Sindh, where they account for 62% of the total population of the province. There are 0.56 million speakers in the province of Balochistan, especially in the Kacchi Plain that encompasses the districts of Lasbela, Hub, Kachhi, Sibi, Sohbatpur, Jafarabad, Jhal Magsi, Usta Muhammad and Nasirabad.
The Pakistan Sindh Assembly has ordered compulsory teaching of the Sindhi language in all private schools in Sindh. According to the Sindh Private Educational Institutions Form B (Regulations and Control) 2005 Rules, "All educational institutions are required to teach children the Sindhi language. Sindh Education and Literacy Minister, Syed Sardar Ali Shah, and Secretary of School Education, Qazi Shahid Pervaiz, have ordered the employment of Sindhi teachers in all private schools in Sindh so that this language can be easily and widely taught. Sindhi is taught in all provincial private schools that follow the Matric system and not the ones that follow the Cambridge system.
At the occasion of 'Mother Language Day' in 2023, the Sindh Assembly under Culture minister Sardar Ali Shah, passed a unanimous resolution to extend the use of language to primary level and increase the status of Sindhi as a national language of Pakistan.

### India

The Indian Government has legislated Sindhi as a scheduled language in India, making it an option for education. Despite lacking any state-level status, Sindhi is still a prominent minority language in the Indian state of Rajasthan. In India, Sindhi mother tongue speakers were distributed in the following states:
2011 Census Statistics (India Total: 2,772,264) :
| State | Population |
| Gujarat | 1,184,024 |
| Maharashtra | 723,748 |
| Rajashtan | 386,569 |
| Madhya Pradesh | 245,161 |
| Chhattisgarh | 93,424 |
| Delhi (NCT) | 31,177 |
| Uttar Pradesh | 28,952 |
| Assam | 19,646 |
| Karnataka | 16,954 |
| Andhra Pradesh | 11,299 |
| Tamil Nadu | 8,448 |
| West Bengal | 7,828 |
| Uttarakhand | 2,863 |
| Odisha | 2,338 |
| Bihar | 2,227 |
| Jharkhand | 1,701 |
| Haryana | 1,658 |
| Kerala | 1,251 |
| Punjab | 754 |
| Goa | 656 |
| Dadra and Nagar and Daman and Diu | 894 |
| Meghalaya | 236 |
| Chandigarh | 134 |
| Puducherry | 94 |
| Nagaland | 82 |
| Himachal Pradesh | 62 |
| Tripura | 30 |
| Jammu and Kashmir | 19 |
| Andaman and Nicobar Islands | 14 |
| Arunachal Pradesh | 12 |
| Lakshadweep | 7 |
| Sikkim | 2 |

## Dialects

Sindhi has many dialects, and forms a dialect continuum at some places with neighboring languages such as Saraiki and Gujarati. Some of the documented dialects of Sindhi are:
* Vicholi: The prestige dialect spoken around Hyderabad and central Sindh (the Vicholo region). The literary standard of Sindhi is based on this dialect.
* Uttaradi: The dialect of northern Sindh (Uttaru, meaning "north"), with minor differences in Larkana, Shikarpur and in parts of Sukkur and Kandiaro.
* Lari: The dialect of southern Sindh (Lāṛu) spoken around areas like Karachi, Thatta, Sujawal, Tando Muhammad Khan and Badin districts.
* Siroli/Siraiki or Ubheji: The dialect of northernmost Sindh (Siro, meaning "head"). Spoken in smaller number all over Sindh but mainly in Jacobabad and Kashmore districts, it has little similarity with the Saraiki language of South Punjab and has variously been treated either as a dialect of Saraiki or as a dialect of Sindhi.
* Lasi: The dialect of Lasbela, Hub and Gwadar districts in Balochistan, closely related to Lari and Vicholi, and in contact with Balochi.
* Firaqi Sindhi: The dialect of the Kachhi plains the north eastern districts of Balochistan, where it is referred to as Firaqi Sindhi or commonly just Sindhi.
* Thareli: also called Tharechi dialect, spoken in north eastern Thar Desert of Sindh, called Nara desert (Achhro thar), but mainly spoken in the western part of Jaisalmer district of Rajasthan, India by many Sindhi Muslims.
* Sindhi Bhili: It is a dialect spoken in Sindh by the Sindhi Meghwars and Bheels. Sindhi Bhil is known to have many old Sindhi words, which were lost after Arabic, Persian, and Chaghatai influence.
The variety of Sindhi spoken by Sindhi Hindus who emigrated to India is known as Dukslinu Sindhi. Furthermore, Kutchi and Jadgali are sometimes classified as dialects of Sindhi rather than independent languages.
Sindhi dialects Comparison :
| English | Vicholi | Lari | Uttaradi | Lasi | Kutchi | Dhatki |
| I | Aao(n) | Aao(n) | Mā(n) | Ã | Aau(n) | Hu(n) |
| My | Muhnjo | Mujo | Mānjo/Māhjo | Mojo/Mājo | Mujo | Mānjo/Māhyo |
| You "Sin, plu" (formal) | Awha(n)/Awhee(n) Tawha(n)/Tawhee(n) | Aa(n)/Aei(n) | Taha(n)/Taa(n)/ Tahee(n)/Taee(n) | Awa(n)/Ai(n) | Aa(n)/Ai(n) | Awha/Ahee(n)/ Aween |
| To me | Mukhe | Muke | Mānkhe | Mukh | Muke | Mina |
| We | Asee(n) | Asee(n), Pān | Asā(n) | Asee(n) | Asee(n), Pān | Asee(n), Asā(n) |
| What | Chha/Kahirō | Kujjāro/Kujja | Chha/Shha | Chho | Kuro | Kee |
| Why | Chho | Ko | Chho/Shho | Chhela | Kolāi/Kurelāe | Kayla |
| How | Kiya(n) | Kei(n) | Kiya(n) | | Kee(n) | Kiya(n) |
| No | Na, Kōna, Kōn | Nā(n), Kīna | Na, Kōna, Kāna, Kon, Kān | Nā(n), Ma | Nā | Nā, Ni, Ko, Kon, Ma |
| Legs (plural, fem) | Tangu(n), Jjanghu(n) | Tangu(n), Jjangu(n) | Tangā(n), Jjanghā(n) | | | |
| Foot | Pair | Pair/Pagg/Pagulo | Pair | Pair | Pag | Pagg, Pair |
| Far | Pare | Ddoor | Pare/Parte | Ddor | Chhete | Ddor |
| Near | Vejhō | Vejo/Ōdō/Ōdirō/Ore | Vejhō/Vejhe/Orte | Ōddō | Wat, bājūme | Nerro |
| Good/Excellent | Sutho, Chaṅō | Khāso/Sutho/Thhāuko | Sutho, Bhalo, Chango | Khāsho | Khāso, Laat | Sutho, Phutro, Thhāuko |
| High | Utāho | Ucho | Mathe | Ucho | Ucho | Uncho |
| Silver | Rupo | Chādi/Rupo | Chāndi | Rupo | Rupo | |
| Father | Piu | Pay/Abo/Aba/Ada | Pee/Babo/Pirhe(n) | Pe | Pe, Bapa, Ada | |
| Wife | Joe/Gharwāri | Joe/Wani/Kuwār | Zaal/Gharwāri | Zaal | Vahu/Vau | Ddosi, Luggai |
| Man | Mardu | Māņu/Mārū/Mard /Murs/Musālu | Mānhu/Musālo/Bhāi /Kāko/Hamra | Mānhu | Māḍū/Mārū | Mārū |
| Woman | Aurat | Zāla/ōrat/ōlath | Māi/Ran | Zāla | Bāeḍi/Bāyaḍī | |
| Child/Baby | Bbār/Ningar/Bbālak | Bbār/Ningar/Gabhur/ Bacho/Kako | Bbār/Bacho/Adro/ Phar (animal) | Gabhar | Bār/Gabhar | |
| Daughter | Dhiu/Niyāni | Dia/Niyāni/Kañā | Dhee/Adri | Dhia | Dhi | Dikri |
| Sun | Siju | Sij, Sūrij | Sijhu | Siju | Sūraj | Sūraj |
| Sunlight | | Kārro | Oosa | | Tarko | |
| Cat | Billi | Bili/Pusani | Billi | Phushini | Minni | |
| Rain | Barsāt/Mee(n)h /Bārish | Varsāt/Mee(n)/Mai(n) | Barsāt/Mee(n)hu | | Varsāt | Meh, Maiwla |
| And | Aēi(n) | Ãū(n)/Ãē(n)/Nē | Aēi(n)/Aū(n)/Aen | Ãē/Or | Nē/Anē | A'e(n)/Ān |
| Also | Pin/Bhi | Pin, Bee | Bu/Pun | | Pin/Pan | |
| Is | Āhe | Āye | Aa/Āhe/Hai | Āhe/Āye | Āye | Āhe/Āh/Āye/Hai |
| Fire | Bāhe | Bāē/āgg/jjērō | Bāhe/Bāh | Jjērō | Jirō/lagāņō/āg | |
| Water | Pāņī | Pāņī/Jal | Pāņī | Pāņī | Pāņī/Jal | Pāņī |
| Where | Kithē | Kithē | Kithē, Kāthe, Kehda, Kāday, Kādah, Kidah, Kithrē | Kith | Kithē | Kith |
| Sleep | Nindr(a) | Nind(a) | Nindr(a) | Nind | Ninder | Oongh |
| Slap | Thaparr/Chammāt | Tārr | Chamātu/Chapātu/ Lapātu/Thapu | | | |
| To Wash | Dhoain(u) | Dhun(u) | Dhoain(u)/Dhuan(u)/ Dhowan(u) | | | Dhuwan(u)/ Dhoon(u) |
| Will write (Masc) | Likhandum, Likhandus | Likhados | Likhdum, Likhdus | Likhdosī | | Likhsā(n) |
| I Went | Aao(n) Vius | Aao(n) Vēs | Ma(n) Vayus (m)/ Vayas (f) | Ã viosī | | Hu Gios |

## Phonology

Sindhi has a relatively large inventory of both consonants and vowels compared to other Indo-Aryan languages. Sindhi has 46 consonant phonemes and 10 vowels. The consonant to vowel ratio is around average for the world's languages at 2.8. All plosives, affricates, nasals, the retroflex flap, and the lateral approximant /l/ have aspirated or breathy voiced counterparts. The language also features four implosives.

### Consonants

The retroflex consonants are apical postalveolar and do not involve curling back of the tip of the tongue, so they could be transcribed [t̠, t̠ʰ, d̠, d̠ʱ n̠ n̠ʱ ɾ̠ ɾ̠ʱ] in phonetic transcription. The affricates /tɕ, tɕʰ, dʑ, dʑʱ/ are laminal post-alveolars with a relatively short release. It is not clear if /ɲ/ is similar, or truly palatal. /ʋ/ is realized as labiovelar [w] or labiodental [ʋ] in free variation, but is not common, except before a stop.

### Vowels

| | Front | Central | Back |
| Close | i | | u |
| Near-close | ɪ | | ʊ |
| Close-mid | e | | o |
| Mid | | ə | |
| Open-mid | æ | | ɔ |
| Open | æ | | ɑ |
The vowels are modal length /i e æ ɑ ɔ o u/ and short /ɪ ʊ ə/. Consonants following short vowels are lengthened: /pət̪o/ [pət̪ˑoː] 'leaf' vs. /pɑt̪o/ [pɑːt̪oː] 'worn'.

## Grammar
### Nouns

Sindhi nouns distinguish two genders (masculine and feminine), two numbers (singular and plural), and five cases (nominative, vocative, oblique, ablative, and locative). This is a similar paradigm to Punjabi. Almost all Sindhi noun stems end in a vowel, except for some recent loanwords. The declension of a noun in Sindhi is largely determined from its grammatical gender and the final vowel (or if there is no final vowel). Generally, -o stems are masculine and -a stems are feminine, but the other final vowels can belong to either gender.
The different paradigms are listed below with examples. The ablative and locative cases are used with only some lexemes in the singular number and hence not listed, but predictably take the suffixes -ā̃ / -aū̃ / -ū̃ (ABL) and -i (LOC).
| | | SG | SG | SG | PL | PL | PL | Gloss |
| | | NOM | VOC | OBL | NOM | VOC | OBL | Gloss |
| M | I | ڇوڪِرو‎ chokiro | ڇوڪِرا‎ chokirā | ڇوڪِري‎ chokire | ڇوڪِرا‎ chokirā | ڇوڪِرا / ڇوڪِرَ‎ chokirā / chokira | ڇوڪِرَنِ‎ chokirani | boy |
| M | II | ٻارُ‎ ɓāru | ٻارَ‎ ɓāra | ٻارَ‎ ɓāra | ٻارَ‎ ɓāra | ٻارو / ٻارَ‎ ɓāra / ɓāro | ٻارَنِ‎ ɓārani | child |
| M | III | ساٿِي‎ sāthī | ساٿِي‎ sāthī | ساٿِيءَ‎ sāthīa | ساٿِي‎ sāthī | ساٿيئَرو‎ sāthīaro | ساٿيَنِ‎ sāthyani | companion |
| M | III | رَھاڪُو‎ rahākū | رَھاڪُو‎ rahākū | رَھاڪُوءَ‎ rahākūa | رَھاڪُو‎ rahākū | رَھاڪُئو‎ rahākuo | رَھاڪُنِ‎ rahākuni | inhabitant |
| M | IV | راجا‎ rājā | راجا‎ rājā | راجا‎ rājā | راجا / راجائتو ‎ rājā / rājāito | راجا / راجائتو ‎ rājā / rājāito | راجائُنِ ‎ rājāuni | king |
| M | IV | سيٺُ‎ seṭhu | سيٺُ‎ seṭhu | سيٺُ‎ seṭhu | سيٺَ ‎ seṭha | سيٺَ ‎ seṭha | سيٺَنِ ‎ seṭhani | merchant |
| F | I | زالَ‎ zāla | زالَ‎ zāla | زالَ‎ zāla | زالُون‎ zālū̃ | زالُون‎ zālū̃ | زالُنِ‎ zāluni | woman, wife |
| F | I | سَسُ‎ sasu | سَسُ‎ sasu | سَسُ‎ sasu | سَسُون‎ sasū̃ | سَسُون‎ sasū̃ | سَسُنِ‎ sasuni | mother-in-law |
| F | II | دَوا‎ davā | دَوا‎ davā | دَوا‎ davā | دَوائُون‎ davāū̃ | دَوائُون‎ davāū̃ | دَوائُنِ‎ davāuni | medicine |
| F | II | راتِ‎ rāti | راتِ‎ rāti | راتِ‎ rāti | راتيُون‎ rātyū̃ | راتيُون‎ rātyū̃ | راتيُنِ‎ rātyuni | night |
| F | II | هوٽَل‎ hoṭal | هوٽَل‎ hoṭal | هوٽَل‎ hoṭal | هوٽَلُون‎ hoṭalū̃ | هوٽَلُون‎ hoṭalū̃ | هوٽَلُنِ‎ hoṭaluni | hotel |
| F | III | ڳَئُون‎ ɠaū̃ | ڳَئُون‎ ɠaū̃ | ڳَئُونَ‎ ɠaū̃a | ڳَئُون‎ ɠaū̃ | ڳَئُون‎ ɠaū̃ | ڳَئُونِ‎ ɠaūni | cow |
| F | IV | نَدِي‎ nadī | نَدِي‎ nadī | نَدِيءَ‎ nadīa | نَديُون‎ nadyū̃ | نَديُون‎ nadyū̃ | نَديُنِ‎ nadyuni | river |
A few nouns representing familial relations take irregular declensions with an extension in -r- in the plural. These are the masculine nouns ڀاءُ‎ bhāu "brother", پِيءُ‎ pīu "father", and the feminine nouns ڌِيءَ‎ dhīa "daughter", نُونھَن‎ nū̃hã "daughter-in-law", ڀيڻَ‎ bheṇa "sister", ماءُ‎ māu "mother", and جوءِ‎ joi "wife".
| | SG | SG | SG | PL | PL | PL | Gloss |
| | NOM | VOC | OBL | NOM | VOC | OBL | Gloss |
| M | ڀاءُ‎ bhāu | ڀاءُ‎ bhāu | ڀاءُ‎ bhāu | ڀائُرُ / ڀائُرَ‎ bhāuru / bhāura | ڀائُرَ / ڀائُرو‎ bhāura / bhāuro | ڀائُرَنِ / ڀائُنِ‎ bhāurani / bhāuni | brother |
| F | ڌِيءَ / ڌِيءُ‎ dhīa / dhīu | ڌِيءَ / ڌِيءُ‎ dhīa / dhīu | ڌِيءَ / ڌِيءُ‎ dhīa / dhīu | ڌِيئَرُ / ڌِيئَرُون / ڌِيئُون‎ dhīaru / dhīarū̃ / dhīū̃ | ڌِيئَرُ / ڌِيئَرُون / ڌِيئُون‎ dhīaru / dhīarū̃ / dhīū̃ | ڌِيئَرُنِ / ڌِيئُنِ‎ dhīaruni / dhīuni | daughter |

### Pronouns
#### Personal pronouns

Personal pronouns :
| | SG | SG | PL | PL |
| | 1 | 2 | 1 | 2 |
| NOM | مَان‎ / آئُون‎ mā̃ / āū̃ | تُون‎ tū̃ | اَسِين‎ asī̃ | تَوِھِين‎ tavhī̃ |
| OBL | مُون‎ mū̃ | تو‎ to | اَسَان‎ asā̃ | تَوِھَان‎ tavhā̃ |
| GEN | مُنھِنجو‎ mũhinjo | تُنھِنجو‎ tũhinjo | — | — |
Like other Indo-Aryan languages, Sindhi has first and second-person personal pronouns as well as several types of third-person proximal and distal demonstratives. These decline in the nominative and oblique cases. The genitive is a special form for the first and second-person singular, but formed as usual with the oblique and case marker جو jo for the rest. The personal pronouns are listed to the right.
The third-person pronouns are listed below. Besides the unmarked demonstratives, there are also "specific" and "present" demonstratives. In the nominative singular, the demonstratives are marked for gender. Some other pronouns which decline identically to ڪو‎ ko "someone" are ھَرڪو‎ har-ko "everyone", سَڀڪو‎ sabh-ko "all of them", جيڪو‎ je-ko "whoever" (relative), and تيڪو‎ te-ko "that one" (correlative).
Third-person pronouns :
| | | | Demonstrative | Demonstrative | Demonstrative | Demonstrative | Demonstrative | Demonstrative | Demonstrative | Interrogative | Relative | Correlative |
| | | | Unmarked | Unmarked | Specific | Specific | Present | Present | Indefinite | Interrogative | Relative | Correlative |
| | | | PROX | DIST | PROX | DIST | PROX | DIST | Indefinite | Interrogative | Relative | Correlative |
| SG | NOM | M | ھِي‎ hī | ھُو‎ hū | اِھو‎ iho | اُھو‎ uho | اِجهو‎ ijho | اوجهو‎ ojho | ڪو‎ ko | ڪيرُ‎ keru | جو‎ jo | سو‎ so |
| SG | NOM | F | ھِيءَ‎ hīa | ھُوءَ‎ hūa | اِھَا‎ ihā | اُھَا‎ uhā | اِجَها‎ ijhā | اوجَها‎ ojhā | ڪَا‎ kā | ڪيرَ‎ kera | جَا‎ jā | سَا‎ sā |
| SG | OBL | OBL | ھِنَ‎ hina | ھُنَ‎ huna | اِنهين‎ inhẽ | اُنهين‎ unhẽ | — | — | ڪَنْھِن‎ kãhĩ | ڪَنْھِن‎ kãhĩ | جَنْھِن‎ jãhĩ | تَنْھِن‎ tãhĩ |
| PL | NOM | NOM | ھِي‎ hī | ھُو‎ hū | اِھي‎ ihe | اُھي‎ uhe | اِجهي‎ ijhe | اوجهي‎ ojhe | ڪي‎ ke | ڪيرَ‎ kera | جي‎ je | سي‎ se |
| PL | OBL | OBL | ھِنَنِ‎ hinani | ھُنَنِ‎ hunani | اِنَهنِ‎ inhani | اُنَهنِ‎ unhani | — | — | ڪِنِ‎ kini | ڪِنِ‎ kini | جِنِ‎ jini | تنِ‎ tini |

### Numerals

| Num. | Cardinal | Cardinal |
| 0 | ٻُڙِي‎ | ɓuṛi |
| 1 | هِڪُ‎ | hiku |
| 2 | ٻَہ‎ | ɓa |
| 3 | ٽِي‎ | ṭī |
| 4 | چَارِ‎ | cāri |
| 5 | پَنج‎ | pañja |
| 6 | ڇَھَہ‎ | chaha |
| 7 | سَتَ‎ | sata |
| 8 | اَٺَ‎ | aṭha |
| 9 | نَوَ‎ | nava |
| Num. | Cardinal | Cardinal |
| 10 | ڏَھَہ‎ | ɗaha |
| 11 | يَارَنھَن‎ | yārãhã |
| 12 | ٻَارَھَن‎ | ɓārahã |
| 13 | تيرَھَن‎ | terahã |
| 14 | چوڏَھَن‎ | coɗahã |
| 15 | پَندرَھَن‎ | pandrahã |
| 16 | سورَھَن‎ | sorahã |
| 17 | سَترَھَن‎ | satrahã |
| 18 | اَرِڙَھَن / اَٺَارَھَن‎ | ariṛahã / aṭhārahã |
| 19 | اُڻوِيھَہ‎ | uṇvīha |

### Postpositions

Most nominal relations (e.g. the semantic role of a nominal as an argument to a verb) are indicated using postpositions, which follow a noun in the oblique case. The subject of the verb takes the bare oblique case, while the object may be in nominative case or in oblique case and followed by the accusative case marker کي khe.
The postpositions are divided into case markers, which directly follow the noun, and complex postpositions, which combine with a case marker (usually the genitive جو jo).

#### Case markers

The case markers are listed below.$^{:399}$
The postpositions with the suffix -o decline in gender and number to agree with their governor, e.g. ڇوڪِرو جو پِيءُ‎ chokiro j-o pīu "the boy's father" but ڇوڪِر جِي مَاءُ‎ chokiro j-ī māu "the boy's mother".
Case markers :
| Case | Marker | Example | English |
| Nominative | — | ڇوڪِرو‎ chokiro | the boy |
| Accusative Dative | کي‎ khe | ڇوڪِري کي‎ chokire khe | the boy to the boy |
| Genitive | جو‎ j-o | ڇوڪِري جو‎ chokire jo | of the boy |
| Genitive | سَندو‎ sand-o | ڇوڪِري سَندو‎ chokire sando | of the boy |
| Sociative | سُڌو‎ sudh-o | ڇوڪِري سُڌو‎ chokire sudho | along with the boy |
| Comitative Instrumental | سَان‎ sā̃ | ڇوڪِري سَان‎ chokire sā̃ | with the boy |
| Comitative Instrumental | سَاڻُ‎ sāṇu | ڇوڪِري سَاڻُ‎ chokire sāṇu | with the boy |
| Locative | ۾‎ mẽ | ڇوڪِري ۾‎ chokire mẽ | in the boy |
| Locative | مَنجِهہ‎ manjhi | ڇوڪِري مَنجِهہ‎ chokire manjhi | in the boy |
| Adessive | تي‎ te | ڇوڪِري تي‎ chokire te | on the boy |
| Adessive | وَٽِ‎ vaṭi | ڇوڪِري وَٽِ‎ chokire vaṭi | near the boy the boy has... |
| Orientative | ڏَانھَن‎ ḍā̃hã | ڇوڪِري ڏَانھَن‎ chokire ḍā̃hã | towards the boy |
| Terminative | تَائيِن‎ tāī̃ | ڇوڪِري تَائيِن‎ chokire tāī̃ | up to the boy |
| Benefactive | ل‎اءِ lāi | ڇوڪِري لاءِ‎ chokire lāi | for the boy |
| Semblative | وَانگُرُ‎ vānguru | ڇوڪِري وَانگُرُ‎ chokire vānguru | like the boy |
| Semblative | جَھْڙو‎ jahṛ-o | ڇوڪِري جَھْڙو‎ chokire jahṛo | like the boy |
There are several ablative case markers formed from the spatial postpositions and the ablative ending -ā̃. These indicate complex motion such as "from inside of".$^{:400}$
Ablative case markers :
| Marker | Example | English |
| کَان‎ khā̃ | ڇوڪِري کَان‎ chokire khā̃ | from the boy |
| مَان‎ mā̃ | ڇوڪِري مَان‎ chokire mā̃ | from inside the boy |
| تَان‎ tā̃ | ڇوڪِري تَان‎ chokire tā̃ | from upon the boy |
| ڏَانھَان‎ ḍā̃hā̃ | ڇوڪِري ڏَانھَان‎ chokire ḍā̃hā̃ | from the direction of the boy |
Finally, some case markers are found in medieval Sindhi literature and/or modern poetic Sindhi, and otherwise not used in standard speech.
Obsolete/rare case markers :
| Case | Marker | Example | English |
| Accusative Adessive | ڪَني‎ kane | ڇوڪِري ڪَني‎ chokire kane | to/near the boy |

#### Complex postpositions

The complex postpositions are formed with a case marker, usually the genitive but sometimes the ablative. Many are listed below.$^{:405}$
| Sindhi | Transliteration | Explanation |
| جي اَڳيَان‎ | je aɠyā̃ | "ahead of, before"; apudessive |
| جي اَندَرِ‎ | je andari | "inside of"; inessive |
| جي بَدِرَان‎ | je badirā̃ | "instead of, in place of" |
| جي بَرَابَر‎ | je barābar | "equal to" |
| جي ٻَاھَرَان‎ | je ɓāharā̃ | "outside of" |
| کَان ٻَاھَرِ‎ | khā̃ ɓāhari | "outside of" |
| جي باري ۾‎ | je bāre mẽ | "about, concerning" |
| جي چَوڌَارِي‎ | je caudhārī | "around" |
| جي ھيٺَان‎ | je heṭhā̃ | "below, under" |
| جي ڪَري‎ | je kare | "for, on account of" |
| جي لَاءِ‎ | je lāi | "for" |
| جي مَٿَان‎ | je mathā̃ | "above, on top of, upon" |
| کَان پَري‎ | khā̃ pare | "far from" |
| جي پَارِ‎ | je pāri | "across, on the other side of" |
| جي پَاسي‎ | je pāse | "on the side of, near" |
| کَان پوءِ‎ | khā̃ poi | "after" |
| جي پُٺيَان‎ | je puṭhyā̃ | "behind" |
| جي سَامهون‎ | je sāmhõ | "in front of, facing" |
| کَان سِوَاءِ‎ | khā̃ sivāi | "besides, apart from" |
| جي وَاسطي‎ | je vāste | "for the sake of, on account of" |
| جي ويجهو‎ | je vejho | "near"; adessive |
| جي وِچِ ۾‎ | je vici mẽ | "between, among" |
| جي خَاطِرِ‎ | je xātiri | "for the sake of" |
| جي خِلَافِ‎ | je xilāfi | "against" |
| جي ذَرِيعي‎ | je zarī'e | "via, through"; perlative |

### Vocabulary

According to historian Nabi Bux Baloch, most Sindhi vocabulary is from ancient Sanskrit. However, owing to the influence of the Persian language over the subcontinent, Sindhi has adapted many words from Persian and Arabic. It has also borrowed from English and Hindustani. Today, Sindhi in Pakistan is slightly influenced by Urdu, with more borrowed Perso-Arabic elements, while Sindhi in India is influenced by Hindi, with more borrowed tatsam Sanskrit elements.

## Writing systems

Sindhis in Pakistan use a version of the Perso-Arabic script with new letters adapted to Sindhi phonology, while in India a greater variety of scripts are in use, including Devanagari, Khudabadi, Khojki, and Gurmukhi. Perso-Arabic for Sindhi was also made digitally accessible relatively earlier.
The earliest attested records in Sindhi are from the 15th century. Before the standardisation of Sindhi orthography, numerous forms of Devanagari and Laṇḍā scripts were used for trading. For literary and religious purposes, a Perso-Arabic script developed by Abul-Hasan as-Sindi and Gurmukhi (a subset of Laṇḍā) were used. Another two scripts, Khudabadi and Shikarpuri, were reforms of the Landa script. During British rule in the late 19th century, the Perso-Arabic script was decreed standard over Devanagari.

### Perso-Arabic script

During the British Raj, a variant of the Persian alphabet was adopted for Sindhi in the 19th century. The script is used in Pakistan and India today. It has a total of 52 letters, augmenting the Persian with digraphs and eighteen new letters (ڄ ٺ ٽ ٿ ڀ ٻ ڙ ڍ ڊ ڏ ڌ ڇ ڃ ڦ ڻ ڱ ڳ ڪ‎) for sounds particular to Sindhi and other Indo-Aryan languages. Some letters that are distinguished in Arabic or Persian are homophones in Sindhi.
Below table presents Sindhi Perso-Arabic alphabet. Letters shaded in yellow are solely used in writing of loanwords, and the phoneme they represent are also represented by other letters in the alphabet. Letters and digraphs shaded in green aren't usually considered as part of the base alphabet. They are either commonly used digraphs representing aspirated consonants, or are ligatures serving a grammatical function. These ligatures include the ۽‎, which is pronounced as [ãĩ̯] and represents and, and the ۾‎, which is pronounced as [mẽ] and it creates a locative relationship between words.
Sindhi alphabet :
| Perso-Arabic [IPA] | ا‎ [∅]/[ʔ]/[aː] | ب‎ [b] | ٻ‎ [ɓ] | ڀ‎ [bʱ] | ت‎ [t] | ٿ‎ [tʰ] |
| Perso-Arabic [IPA] | ٽ‎ [ʈ] | ٺ‎ [ʈʰ] | ث‎ [s] | پ‎ [p] | ج‎ [d͡ʑ] | ڄ‎ [ʄ] |
| Perso-Arabic [IPA] | جهہ‎ [d͡ʑʰ] | ڃ‎ [ɲ] | چ‎ [t͡ɕ] | ڇ‎ [t͡ɕʰ] | ح‎ [h] | خ‎ [x] |
| Perso-Arabic [IPA] | د‎ [d] | ڌ‎ [dʱ] | ڏ‎ [ɗ] | ڊ‎ [ɖ] | ڍ‎ [ɖʱ] | ذ‎ [z] |
| Perso-Arabic [IPA] | ر‎ [r] | ڙ‎ [ɽ] | ڙهہ‎ [ɽʰ] | ز‎ [z] | ژ‎ [ʒ] | س‎ [s] |
| Perso-Arabic [IPA] | ش‎ [ʂ] | ص‎ [s] | ض‎ [z] | ط‎ [t] | ظ‎ [z] | ع‎ [ɑː]/[oː]/[eː]/[ʔ]/[∅] |
| Perso-Arabic [IPA] | غ‎ [ɣ] | ف‎ [f] | ڦ‎ [pʰ] | ق‎ [q] | ڪ‎ [k] | ک‎ [kʰ] |
| Perso-Arabic [IPA] | گ‎ [ɡ] | ڳ‎ [ɠ] | گهہ‎ [ɡʱ] | ڱ‎ [ŋ] | ل‎ [l] | لهہ‎ [lʱ] |
| Perso-Arabic [IPA] | م‎ [m] | مهہ‎ [mʰ] | ن‎ [n]/[◌̃] | نهہ‎ [nʰ] | ڻ‎ [ɳ] | ڻهہ‎ [ɳʰ] |
| Perso-Arabic [IPA] | و‎ [ʋ]/[ʊ]/[oː]/[ɔː]/[uː] | ھ‎ [h] | هـ ه‎ [h] | ـہ ہ‎ [ə]/[əʰ]/[∅] | ء‎ [ʔ]/[∅] | ي‎ [j]/[iː] |
| Perso-Arabic [IPA] | ۽‎ [ãĩ̯] | ۾‎ [mẽ] |
The orthography of the letter hāʾ in Sindhi, especially as it comes to typing as opposed to handwriting, has been a source of confusion for many. Especially because whereas in Arabic and Persian, there exists one single letter for hāʾ, in Urdu, the letter has diverged into two distinct variants: gol he ("round he") and do-cašmi he ("two-eyed he"). The former is written is written round and zigzagged as "ہـ ـہـ ـہ ہ", and can impart the "h" (/ɦ/) sound anywhere in a word, or the long "a" or the "e" vowels (/ɑː/ or /eː/) at the end of a word. The latter is written in Arabic Naskh style (as a loop) (ھ) , in order to be used in digraphs and to create the aspirate consonants.
For most aspirated consonants, Sindhi relies on unique letters as opposed to the Urdu practice of digraphs. However, this doesn't apply to all aspirated consonants. Some are still written as digraphs. The letter hāʾ is also used in Sindhi to represent the sound [h] in native Sindhi words, in Arabic and Persian loanwords, and to represent vowels (/ə/ or /əʰ/) at the end of the word. The notations and conventions in Sindhi are different from either Persian or Arabic and from Urdu. Given the variety of the types of hāʾ across these languages for which Unicode characters have been designed, in order for the letters to be displayed correctly when typing, a correct and consistent convention needs to be followed. The following table will present these in detail.
| Unicode | Letter or Digraphs | Letter or Digraphs | Letter or Digraphs | Letter or Digraphs | IPA | Note | Examples |
| Unicode | Final | Medial | Initial | Isolated | IPA | Note | Examples |
| U+06BE | ـھ‎ | ـھـ‎ | ھـ‎ | ھ‎ | [h] | | دوھَ⹁ ھُو⹁ مھينن⹁ ويھُ‎ |
| U+0647 | ـه‎ | ـهـ‎ | هـ‎ | ه‎ | [h] | Used for borrowed words | وحدهُ لا⹁ والله‎ |
| U+062C + U+0647 | ـجهہ‎ | ـجهـ‎ | جهـ‎ | جهہ‎ | [d͡ʑʰ] | In isolated and final positions, an extra hāʾ ـہ‎ (U+06C1) is added | ٻاجَهہ⹁ اُجِهي⹁ منجهان⹁ ڪُجهہ‎ |
| U+06AF + U+0647 | ـگهہ‎ | ـگهـ‎ | گهـ‎ | گهہ‎ | [ɡʱ] | In isolated and final positions, an extra hāʾ ـہ‎ (U+06C1) is added | گهہ⹁ گهوٽُ⹁ گهڻگُهرون⹁ سگهہ‎ |
| U+0647 | ـهہ‎ | ـهـ‎ | - | - | [◌ʰ] | Forming part of digraph for representation of other aspirated consonants ([ɽʰ], [lʱ], [mʰ], [nʰ], [ɳʰ]). In isolated and final positions, an extra hāʾ ـہ‎ (U+06C1) is added | ٻنهي⹁ ٿالهہ‎ |
| U+06C1 | ـہ‎ | - | - | ہ‎ | [ə] / [əʰ] / [∅] | | نہ‎ |
The punctuation of Sindhi Perso-Arabic script differs slightly from that of Urdu, Persian, and Arabic. Namely, instead of using the typical inverted comma (،‎ [U+060C]) common in these mentioned alphabet, a reversed comma (⹁‎ [U+2E41]) is used. Although many documents do indeed incorrectly use Urdu punctuations.
Comparison of Punctuations :
| | Full Stop | Comma | ‌ Semicolon |
| Sindhi | .‎ | ⹁‎ | ⁏‎ |
| Urdu | ۔‎ | ،‎ | ؛‎ |
| Persian/Arabic | .‎ | ،‎ | ؛‎ |

### Devanagari script

In India, the Devanagari script is also used to write Sindhi. A modern version was introduced by the government of India in 1948; however, it did not gain full acceptance, so both the Sindhi-Arabic and Devanagari scripts are used. In India, a person may write a Sindhi language paper for a Civil Services Examination in either script. Devanagari was seen as the most practical option for Sindhi language in India. Diacritical bars below the letter are used to mark implosive consonants, and dots called nukta are used to form other additional consonants.
| अ | आ | इ | ई | उ | ऊ | ए | ऐ | ओ | औ |
| ə | a | ɪ | i | ʊ | uː | e | ɛ | o | ɔ |
| क | ख | ख़ | ग | ॻ | ग़ | | घ | | ङ |
| k | kʰ | x | ɡ | ɠ | ɣ | | ɡʱ | | ŋ |
| च | छ | | ज | ॼ | ज़ | | झ | | ञ |
| t͡ɕ | t͡ɕʰ | | d͡ʑʰ | ʄ | z | | d͡ʑ | | ɲ |
| ट | ठ | | ड | ॾ | ड़ | | ढ | ढ़ | ण |
| ʈ | ʈʰ | | ɖ | ɗ | ɽ | | ɖʱ | ɽʱ | ɳ |
| त | थ | | द | | | | ध | | न |
| t | tʰ | | d | | | | dʱ | | n |
| प | फ | फ़ | ब | ॿ | | | भ | | म |
| p | pʰ | f | b | ɓ | | | bʱ | | m |
| य | र | ल | व | | | | | | |
| j | r | l | ʋ | | | | | | |
| श | ष | स | ह | | | | | | |
| ʂ | ʂ | s | h | | | | | | |

### Laṇḍā scripts

Laṇḍā-based scripts, such as Gurmukhi, Khojki, and the Khudabadi script were used historically to write Sindhi.

#### Khudabadi

The Khudabadi alphabet was invented in 1550 CE, and was used alongside other scripts by the Hindu community until the colonial era, where the sole usage of the Arabic script for official purposes was legislated.
The script continued to be used on a smaller scale by the trader community until the Partition of India in 1947.
| ə | a | ɪ | i | ʊ | ɛ | o | ɔ |
| k | kʰ | | ɡ | ɠ | ɡʱ | | ŋ |
| c | cʰ | | ɟ | ʄ | ɟʱ | | ɲ |
| ʈ | ʈʰ | | ɖ | ɗ | ɽ | ṛ | ɳ |
| t | tʰ | | d | | dʱ | | n |
| p | pʰ | f | b | ɓ | bʱ | | m |
| j | r | l | ʋ | | | | |
| ʂ | | s | h | | | | |

#### Khojki

Khojki was employed primarily to record Muslim Shia Ismaili religious literature, as well as literature for a few secret Shia Muslim sects.

#### Gurmukhi

The Gurmukhi script was also used to write Sindhi, mainly in India by Hindus.

### Roman Sindhi

The Sindhi-Roman script or Roman-Sindhi script is the contemporary Sindhi script usually used by the Sindhis when texting messages on their mobile phones.

## Advocacy

In 1972, an bill was passed by the provincial assembly of Sindh which saw Sindhi, given official status thus becoming the first provincial language in Pakistan to have its own official status.
* Sindhi language was made the official language of Sindh according to Language Bill.
* All Educational institutes in Sindh are mandated to teach Sindhi as per the bill.

### Software

By 2001, Abdul-Majid Bhurgri had coordinated with Microsoft to develop Unicode-based Software in the form of the Perso-Arabic Sindhi script which afterwards became the basis for the communicated use by Sindhi speakers around the world. In 2016, Google introduced the first automated translator for Sindhi language. Later on in 2023 an offline support was introduced by Google Translate. Which was followed by Microsoft Translator strengthening support in May of same year.
In June 2014, the Khudabadi script of the Sindhi language was added to Unicode, However as of now the script currently has no proper rendering support to view it in unsupported devices.