# Hup language

The Hup language (also called Hupdë, Hupdá, Hupdé, Hupdá Makú, Jupdá, Makú, Makú-Hupdá, Makú De, Hupda, and Jupde) is one of the four Naduhup languages. It is spoken by the Hupda indigenous Amazonian peoples who live on the border between Colombia and the Brazilian state of Amazonas. There are approximately 1500 speakers of the Hup language. As of 2005, according to the linguist Epps, Hup is not seriously endangered – although the actual number of speakers is few, all Hupda children learn Hup as their first language.

## History

Although their territory was the target of forced transferrals throughout the 17th and 18th centuries, due to their isolation, the Naduhup were among the least affected, since they were protected by the geography of their land. They were also the target of several Catholic missions, though those ultimately failed, as the Naduhup refused to send their children to Catholic education centres.
Contact with the Tucanoan people, also known as the River Indians, who live along the rivers rather than in the forests, has significantly impacted the Naduhup, both culturally and linguistically. Since before European contact, the Naduhup and Tukanoan peoples have engaged in trade, the Naduhup providing labour and hunted meats and the Tucanoan providing agricultural goods. However, the Naduhup are viewed as inferior by the Tucanoan, because of their linguistic and lifestyle differences. Because of this inequality, most Naduhup people can understand and/or speak a Tucanoan, while it is the opposite vice versa – very few, if any Tucanoan people speak Hup.

## Language profile

Relatively few linguistic materials of Hup are available, due to the isolation of the Hupda. Incomplete vocabulary lists and dictionaries were established in 1955 (Giacone) and 1993 (Erickson and Erickson). The most complete descriptive grammar of Hup, A Grammar of Hup, was written by Patience Epps in 2005, was updated in 2008, and outlines Hup phonology, parts of speech, morphology, aspect, tense, modality, among many other features.
Hup is one of four languages in the Naduhup (Makú) family. Though Makú is the term most commonly used to refer to this language family, there is controversy over its usage, since it is also an ethnic slur, translating to “without language”, used by the Tukanoan towards the Naduhup. There has not been a consensus on a replacement term, although Epps proposed “Naduhup”, which combines the names of the four members of the language family - Nadëb, Dâw, Hup, and Yuhup. Of the four members of the language family, Hup is most closely related to Yuhup, followed by Dâw, and then lastly by Nadëb. Hup and Yuhup are nearly mutually intelligible, sharing more than 90% of their basic vocabularies.

## Phonology
### Consonants

There are nineteen contrasting consonants in Hup, with the twentieth /p’/ occurring in the morpheme-initial position in only one word of only some Hup dialects. /j/, /g/, and /ç/ only appear in morpheme-final position, while all other consonants may appear in morpheme initial, medial, and final position. Hup has glottalized consonants of both stops and approximants which can be seen in the chart below. This language also has nasal allophones of the voiced stops.
| | | Bilabial | Denti- alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Glottal |
| Plosive | voiceless | p | t | c ⟨ch⟩ | k | ʔ |
| Plosive | voiced | b | d | ɟ ⟨y⟩ | g ⟨k⟩ | |
| Plosive | glottalized | bˀ (pʼ) | dˀ | ɟˀ ⟨yʼ⟩ | gˀ ⟨kʼ⟩ | |
| Fricative | Fricative | | | ç ⟨ch⟩ | | h |
| Glide | plain | w | | j ⟨y⟩ | | |
| Glide | ejective | wʼ | | jʼ ⟨yʼ⟩ | | |
Adapted from Epps (2005), p. 40.

### Vowels

Hup contains a large segmental phonemic inventory, in comparison to the Tukanoan languages that neighbour it geographically. Hup vowels are composed of nine contrasting sounds, with no occurring diphthongs:
| | Front | Central | Back |
| Close | i | ɨ | u |
| Mid | e | ə | o |
| Open | æ | a | ɔ |
However, these nine sounds occur only in non-nasal contexts. In nasal morphemes, there are only six distinct vowels:
| | Front | Central | Back |
| Close | ĩ | ɨ̃ | ũ |
| Open | æ̃ | ã | ɔ̃ |
Adapted from Epps (2005)
According to Epps (2005), this indicates that the contrast between mid-vowels and high/low vowels are neutralised in nasal contexts. Nasalisation is morphemic at the syllable level and targets all segments – generally, every syllable is either fully nasal or fully oral.

### Tonality

Hup tonality functions in what is called a word-accent system – there is a word-level tone contrast system; the contrast is restricted to one syllable per word, which is predictable and also exhibits other features of stressed syllables (greater intensity, longer duration, and higher pitch). There are two tones: rising and high, which only appear in nouns and adjectives.
Hup Tones :
| Rising | /cǎʔ/ [cǎʔ] "clump of roots" |
| High | /cáʔ/ [cáʔ] "box, nest" |

## Morphology

Nouns and verbs are open class, while adjectives are closed class. Nouns usually appear as arguments of clauses and can appear bare in the clause, while verbs must be inflected in some way. Hup is highly agglutinative and concatenative, with a high rate of synthesis and low rate of phonological fusion of morphemes. Therefore, its morphemes are easily segmented. Roots typically undergo compounding, while formatives are affixed or cliticised.

### Personal pronouns

| | Subject | Object | Oblique | Possessive | Possessive |
| | | | | Downriver Hup dialects | Umari Norte dialect |
| 1sg | ʔɑ̃h́ | ʔɑ́n | ʔɑ̃h́-ɑ̃t́ | nɨ̌ | nɨ̌h |
| 2sg | ʔɑ́m | ʔɑ́m-ɑ́n | ʔɑ́m-ɑ́t | ʔɑ́mɨ̌h | ʔɑ́m-nɨ̌h |
| 3sg | tɨ́h | tɨ́h-ɑ́n | tɨ́h-ɨ́t | tɨnɨ̌h | tɨh-nɨ̌h |
| 1pl | ʔɨ́n | ʔɨ́n-ɑ́n | ʔɨ́n-ɨ́t | ʔɨnɨ̌h | ʔɨn-nɨ̌h |
| 2pl | nɨ́ŋ | nɨ́ŋ-ɑ́n | nɨ́ŋ-ɨ́t | nɨŋɨ̌h | nɨŋ-nɨ̌h |
| 3pl | hɨ́d | hɨ́d-ɑ́n hɨɾan (TD) | hɨ́d-ɨ́t [hɨɾɨt] (TD) | hɨdnɨ̌h hɨdɨ̌h [hɨɾɨh] (TD) yɨʔd’ə̌h-nɨ̌h | hɨd-nɨ̌h |
Adapted from Epps (2005), p. 138

### Demonstrative and Interrogative Pronouns

| Inflection | Demonstratives (forms and meanings) | Demonstratives (forms and meanings) | Demonstratives (forms and meanings) | Demonstratives (forms and meanings) | Interrogative |
| uninflected | nu- / nɨ- Proximal | n'i- Distal | yu- / yɨ- Intangible | cã- 'other' | hɨ̃ Interrogative |
| -p (from Dependent) | núp 'this' | n'íp 'that' | yúp 'that' | cãp 'another' | hɨ̃p 'which?' |
| -t (from Oblique) | nút 'here' | n'ít 'there' | yɨ́t 'thus, then' | - | hɨ̃t 'where?' |
| -ǎn Object | nú-uw-ǎn 'this-(FLR)-OBJ' | n'í-iw-ǎn 'that-(FLR)-OBJ' | yú-uw-ǎn 'that-(FLR)-OBJ' | cã-ãw-ǎn 'another-(FLR)-OBJ' | hɨ̃w-ǎn 'which one?' |
| -V´t Oblique | nú-uw-ṹt 'this-(FLR)-OBL' | n'í-ĩw-ĩt 'that-(FLR)-OBL' | yú-uw-út 'that-(FLR)-OBL' | cã-ãw-ãt 'another-(FLR)-OBL' | hɨ̃w-ɨ̃t 'with which one?' |
| -Vp Dependent | nú-ũw-ṹp 'this-(FLR)-DEP' | n'i-ĩw-ĩp 'that-(FLR)-DEP' | yú-uw-úp 'that-(FLR)-DEP' | cã-ãw-ãp 'another-(FLR)-DEP' | hɨ̃p 'which; how, in what manner?' |
| -V´h Declarative | nú-ũw-ṹh 'this-(FLR)-DECL' | n'i-ĩw-ĩh 'that-(FLR)-DECL' | yú-uw-úh 'that-(FLR)-DECL | cã-ãw-ãh 'another-(FLR)-DECL' | - |
| -Vʔ Interrogative | núw-ũʔ - | n'íw-ĩʔ - | yúw-uʔ - | cãw-ãʔ - | - |
| -cóʔ Locative | nú-cóʔ 'in this place here' | n'í-cóʔ 'in that place there' | yɨ́-cóʔ 'over there' | cã-ʔah-cóʔ 'in another place' | hɨ̃-cóʔ 'at/ to what location? |
| -d'əh Plural/ collective | nɨ-d'əh 'these' | n'í-d'əh 'those' | yɨ́--d'əh 'those, they' | cã-d'əh 'others' | - |
| - n'ɨ́h Nominalizer | nɨ-n'ɨ́h 'these, this, about here' | n'í-n'ɨ́h 'those, about there' | yɨ́-n'ɨ́h 'those, thus' | cã-- n'ɨ́h 'whatever' | hɨ̃- n'ɨ́h 'what, what kind?' |
| -ʔap Quantity,number | náʔap 'this many' | n'ip-ʔap 'that many' | yɨ́-ʔap / yáʔap 'this many, all that' | - | hɨ̃-ʔap 'how many?' |

### Semiverbal "Verby" nouns

Some nouns of Hup are semi-verbal, namely those which have to do with the passage of time, as well as periods of time, which are “inherently progressive and impermanent.”
“Passage of time” words:
* wəhə́d "old man"
* wɑ́ "old woman"
* dóʔ "child"
“Periods of time” words:
* wɑ́g "day"
* j'ə́b "night"
While these words belong to the noun class (they typically appear as arguments of a clause, and aspectual inflection is not required), they have verb-like qualities, such as occurrence in verbal compounds (which is normally restricted to only verbs):
mɔ̌h
inambu
tɨh
3sg
yæ̃ʔ-wɑd-hi-wɑ́g-ɑ́h
roast-eat-FACT-day-DECL
mɔ̌h tɨh yæ̃ʔ-wɑd-hi-wɑ́g-ɑ́h
inambu 3sg roast-eat-FACT-day-DECL
"He cooked and ate inambu until daybreak."

### Respect markers

The enclitic =wəd, derived from the word for “old man” wəhə́d, can be inserted as a respect marker when referring to spiritual beings or other humans. The feminine form of this is =wa.
yunícu=wəd-ǎn
Junilson=RESP-OBJ
ʔãh
1sg
ʔɨ́d-ɨh
speak-DECL
yunícu=wəd-ǎn ʔãh ʔɨ́d-ɨh
Junilson=RESP-OBJ 1sg speak-DECL
"I spoke to respected Junilson."
This marker is usually used to refer to someone older or of higher status, though it can also be used to indicate someone to be feared, especially when used to refer to dangerous spirits.
yúp
that.ITG
tɨ̃hɨ̃́y=wəd
snake=RESP
nɨ̌h
POSS
tóg-óh!
daughter-DECL
yúp tɨ̃hɨ̃́y=wəd nɨ̌h tóg-óh!
that.ITG snake=RESP POSS daughter-DECL
"It was the old/respected Snake’s daughter! (from the Rainbow Spirit and the Snake of the Hollow-Star story)."
The usage of =wəd is also not necessarily respectful. The enclitic can also be affixed to children's names as a sign of affection, comparable to doing the same in English with the titles “Mister” or “Miss”.

### Negation

Negation is complex in Hup, as three separate strategies can be used to express negation in the language. The most common form of indicating negation is through the negator suffix [-nɨ́h] on verbal or adjectival predicates (and not nominal predicates, which are negated with the identity negation article). Secondly, predicative particle [pã̌] can be used with noun phrases to express specifically the negation of the existence of a referent. Lastly, the article [ʔǎp] expresses negation against an entity within a clause or the against entire clause itself, where the most common use of this particle is as an identity negator with nominal predicates.
Adapted from Epps (2005), p. 726
maŋgǎ
margarita
hɨ́d-ǎn
3PL-OBJ
təw-nɨ́h
scold-NEG
maŋgǎ hɨ́d-ǎn təw-nɨ́h
margarita 3PL-OBJ scold-NEG
‘Margarita didn't yell at them.’ (Verbal predicate negation in main clauses, Epps (2005), p. 726)
g'ɨ-nɨ́h=hɔ̃
hot-NEG=NONVIS
yúw-úh
that-DECL
g'ɨ-nɨ́h=hɔ̃ yúw-úh
hot-NEG=NONVIS that-DECL
‘It's not hot.’ (Adjectival predicate negation in main clauses, Epps (2005), p. 732) Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (help);
Adapted from Epps (2005), p. 738
[tiyɨʔ
man
pǒg]
big
pã̌
NEG:EX
[tiyɨʔ pǒg] pã̌
man big NEG:EX
‘There is no big man.’ (Existential negation, Epps (2005), p. 738)
Adapted from Epps (2005), p. 742
nutæ̌n-æ̃́y
today-DYNM
ʔɨd
story
ʔǎp
NEG:ID
nutæ̌n-æ̃́y ʔɨd ʔǎp
today-DYNM story NEG:ID
‘(It's) not a story of today.’ (Identity/nominal predicate negation, Epps (2005), p. 742)
Negative responses to questions or refusals to offers in Hup require one of the strategies above; there is no general lexeme/morpheme for 'no' in Hup.

## Syntax
### Basic syntactic word order

The most frequent and grammatically simplest word order in Hup is Subject (Agent), Object, Verb (SOV). Epps notes that the agent, the actor/argument of a transitive sentence, precedes the object and verb in the syntactic structure of Hup.
Adapted from Epps (2005), p. 168
tiyǐʔ
man
cadakǎʔ-ǎn
chicken-OBJ
pɨhɨtyúm
corn
nɔ́ʔ-ɔ̃́y
give-DYNM
tiyǐʔ cadakǎʔ-ǎn pɨhɨtyúm nɔ́ʔ-ɔ̃́y
man chicken-OBJ corn give-DYNM
‘The man gives corn to the chicken.’ (Nominal subject AOV order, Epps (2005), p. 168)
Adapted from Epps (2005), p. 180
nùp
this
hɔ̴̴̌p-ǎn
fish-OBJ
ʔɨn
1PL
wæd-té-h
eat-FUT-DECL
nùp hɔ̴̴̌p-ǎn ʔɨn wæd-té-h
this fish-OBJ 1PL eat-FUT-DECL
‘We'll eat this fish.’ (Pronominal subject AOV order, Epps (2005), p. 180)
The verb-final construction of clauses in Hup, as seen above, is best characterized as AOV (agent, object, verb).

### Case and agreement

Hup is nominative-accusative. All subjects are unmarked, while the object and other noun cases are suffixed. Which suffix is used can depend on number, animacy, type of noun, and grammatical function, as shown in the table below. Case marking extends also to the noun phrase and relative clause, and the suffixes attach to the final constituent of the phrase.
| Grammatical function | Nouns | Nouns marked for number | Pronouns, demonstratives |
| S, A | -ø | -ø | -ø |
| O (Direct object) | Human: -ɑ̌n, Animal: -ɑ̌n (optional), Inanimate: -ø | -ɑ̌n (Plural: -n’ɑ̌n) | -ɑ̌n |
| O (beneficiary, recipient of ditransitive verbs) | -ɑ̌n | -ɑ̌n (Plural: -n’ɑ̌n) | -ɑ̌n |
| Directional oblique | -an | | |
| Oblique | -V́t | -V́t | -V́t |
Adapted from Epps (2005), p. 143
tɨh=tæ̃h ʔín-ɑ̌n=mɑh
3sg=child,mother-OBJ=REP
tɨh
3sg
mǽh-ǽh
hit-DECL
{tɨh=tæ̃h ʔín-ɑ̌n=mɑh} tɨh mǽh-ǽh
3sg=child,mother-OBJ=REP 3sg hit-DECL
"He beat his wife, it’s said." (Direct Object, Epps (2005), p. 144) Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (help);
nǽm
louse
ʔɑ́m-ɑ̌n
2sg-OBJ
ʔɑ̃h
1sg
key-nɨ̌ŋ
see-COOP
nǽm ʔɑ́m-ɑ̌n ʔɑ̃h key-nɨ̌ŋ
louse 2sg-OBJ 1sg see-COOP
"I’ll look for lice for you." (“You” as a beneficiary, Epps (2005), p. 145)
hɔ̃p=n'ɑn
fish=PL.OBJ
tɨh
3sg
w'ób-óh
place-DECL
hɔ̃p=n'ɑn tɨh w'ób-óh
fish=PL.OBJ 3sg place-DECL
"She placed the fish (on the smoking platform)." (Plural object, Epps (2005), p. 153)
yɑ́g-ɑn
hammock-DIR
g'ɑ̃ʔ-ʔɑ́y
suspend-VENT.IMP
hɑ́m
go.IMP
yɑ́g-ɑn g'ɑ̃ʔ-ʔɑ́y hɑ́m
hammock-DIR suspend-VENT.IMP go.IMP
"Go lie in the hammock!" (Directional Oblique, Epps (2005), p. 156)
tiyǐʔ(-ɑ̌n)
man(-OBJ)
(tɨh=)pǒg-ɑ̌n
(3sg=)big-OBJ
túk-úy=mɑh
want-DYNM=REP
tiyǐʔ(-ɑ̌n) (tɨh=)pǒg-ɑ̌n túk-úy=mɑh
man(-OBJ) (3sg=)big-OBJ want-DYNM=REP
"She wants the big man, it’s said." (Suffixes assigned to last word of noun phrase, Epps (2005), p. 155) Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (help);
Though the object case and directional oblique markers are almost identical phonologically, the only difference being the stress, directional oblique is mainly used to indicate direction, and sometimes, location, in which it coincides with oblique case.

### Syntactically Bound Nouns

In Hup, there is a class of nouns that must occur with a modifier. These nouns may have many different meanings, but generally all of the members of kin terms, human nouns, plant parts, and animal body parts are considered these 'bound' nouns. These bound nouns are also often closely related to the phenomenon of inalienable possession, but not necessarily. Outside of the aforementioned semantic sets of typically 'bound' nouns; other examples of bound nouns are "eggs, jars and other hollow items, holes belonging to insects, rivers, and a generic term for swarming insects."

### Syntactic Constructions and Modification in Hup

Modification is a semantic operation and syntactic construction by which referents in a language can be modified. There are three types of modifier constructions, each of which are present in Hup: subcategorizing modification, selecting modification, and situating modification.

#### Property Concept Modification

Subcategorizing modification includes property concept modification. In Hup, property concept modification is constructed using a juxtaposition strategy (zero strategy). As noted by Epps, adjectives (property concepts in a modifying relationship with a referent) follow the nouns they modify, which is in contrast to other types of noun phrases containing a modifier like numerals, demonstratives, and compounded nouns, which precede the noun.
tɨh
3SG
wɔn-hám-ay-áh
follow-go-INCH-DECL
té
until
tod
hollow.tree
pǒg
big
g'et-pó-ow-ít=mah
stand-EMPH1-FLR-OBL=REP
tɨh wɔn-hám-ay-áh té tod pǒg g'et-pó-ow-ít=mah
3SG follow-go-INCH-DECL until hollow.tree big stand-EMPH1-FLR-OBL=REP
‘She went after (the spirit), to where a big hollow tree stood, they say.' (Property concept modification 'big hollow tree', juxtaposition strategy, Epps (2005), p. 326) Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (help);

#### Numeral Modification

Selecting modification includes numeral concept modification. In Hup, numeral modification is constructed using a juxtaposition strategy (zero strategy). Epps notes that numerals can occur both as nominal modifiers and as nominal heads in a noun phrase, and that as modifiers, they typically precede the noun using a juxtaposition strategy.
ʔɨn
1PL
wɨd-ham-bɨ́-ay-áh...
arrive-go-HAB-INCH-DECL
j'ák
buriti
b'ɔk
swamp
kə́d-ə́h,
pass-DECL
koʔap
two
b'ɔ̌k
swamp
ʔɨn wɨd-ham-bɨ́-ay-áh... j'ák b'ɔk kə́d-ə́h, koʔap b'ɔ̌k
1PL arrive-go-HAB-INCH-DECL buriti swamp pass-DECL two swamp
‘We arrived as we always do... we passed the buriti-swamps, two swamps’ (Numeral modification 'two swamps', juxtaposition strategy, Epps (2005), p. 314)

#### Object Modification

In Hup, object modification is constructed using a relational or flag strategy. An adposition marks a modifying relationship between an object concept and referent. According to Epps, expression of possession in Hup--a type of object modification relationship--involves the conjunction of two nouns and the postpositional particle [nɨ̌h], which indicates inalienable possession.
pedú
Pedro
nɨ̌h
POSS
cug'æ̌t
book
pedú nɨ̌h cug'æ̌t
Pedro POSS book
‘Pedro's book’ (Object modification 'Pedro's book', alienable possession, relational strategy (flag/adposition), Epps (2005), pp. 225-226)

#### Deictic Modification

Situating modification includes deictic modification. In Hup, deictic modification, including the modifying relationship of demonstratives with a referent, is constructed using a juxtaposition strategy (zero strategy). In Hup, deictic modifiers and demonstratives precede the referent noun in a noun phrase.
núp
this
təg
tooth
ʔán
1SG.OBJ
péʔ-éy=hɔ̃
hurt-DYNM=NONVIS
núp təg ʔán péʔ-éy=hɔ̃
this tooth 1SG.OBJ hurt-DYNM=NONVIS
‘This tooth hurts (lit. 'hurts me')’ (Deictic modification, juxtaposition strategy, Epps (2005), pp. 292) Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (help);

### Complex Coordinative Construction
#### Conjunctive Construction in Hup

Hup can construct complex coordinative sentences, which are sentences containing two clauses, typically grammatically symmetrical, and is achieved through coordination strategies. While various coordinative constructions exist in Hup, including conjunctive (additive coordination like English 'and'), disjunctive (alternative coordination like English 'or'), and adversative (contrastive coordination like English 'but'), the conjunctive coordinative construction is the most common complex coordinative construction in Hup.
Conjunctive relationships between two clauses in Hup are typically translated with 'and' in English. In other words, glossing of Hup will use the English term 'and' in the translation line for both clausal and phrasal coordination.
nút
here
tɨ́h-ǎn
3SG-OBJ
d'oʔ-cæŋpe-g'et-yɨ́ʔ-ɨ́y=mah
take-astraddle-stand-TEL-DYNM=REP
tɨ́h-ǎn
3SG-OBJ
tɨ́h
3SG
yók-óh
poke-DECL
nút tɨ́h-ǎn d'oʔ-cæŋpe-g'et-yɨ́ʔ-ɨ́y=mah tɨ́h-ǎn tɨ́h yók-óh
here 3SG-OBJ take-astraddle-stand-TEL-DYNM=REP 3SG-OBJ 3SG poke-DECL
‘(He) made him stand with his legs apart like this, (and) he poked him.’ (Conjunctive coordinative construction, juxtaposition strategy, Epps (2005), pp. 805) Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (help);
núp
this
tɨ́h
3SG
kəmən-g'ét-ay-áh
wrap.arms.around-stand-INCH-DECL
tɨ́h-ǎn
3SG-OBJ
dɔw̌h
check
n'æm'-g'ét-éy=cud
lick-stand-DYNM=INFR
tɨnɨ̌h
3SG.POSS
yãʔambǒʔ-óh
dog-DECL
núp tɨ́h kəmən-g'ét-ay-áh tɨ́h-ǎn dɔw̌h n'æm'-g'ét-éy=cud tɨnɨ̌h yãʔambǒʔ-óh
this 3SG wrap.arms.around-stand-INCH-DECL 3SG-OBJ check lick-stand-DYNM=INFR 3SG.POSS dog-DECL
‘He's standing like this with his arms around (the dog), and (it) is licking his cheek, the dog!’ (Conjunctive coordinative construction, juxtaposition strategy, Epps (2005), pp. 806)
The most common strategy in Hup for both phrasal and clausal coordination is the simple juxtaposition of the coordinated elements, or ‘zero strategy’. As seen in the examples above, the clauses are conjoined through juxtaposition, and in other words there is no overt marker(s) indicating coordination of the clauses. Conjunctive clausal coordination in Hup typically requires a juxtaposition strategy or zero-marked asyndetic strategy. In short, conjunctive clausal coordination in Hup uses no binder or coordinator in between coordinands, and clauses are juxtaposed together.
Additionally, this construction in Hup utilizes a de-ranking strategy. The majority of Hup’s clause-linking strategies involve a combination of a main clause and a dependent clause; the dependent-clause verb lacks inflection for tense-aspect-mode, and therefore the two clauses are imbalanced as the dependent clause is de-ranked. For example, the gloss from p. 805 depicts a main clause with telic aspect marking, while the dependent clause is not fully inflected with the telic aspect marking.

#### Phrasal Coordination in Hup

Like clausal coordination, the most common strategy in Hup for phrasal coordination is the simple juxtaposition of the coordinated elements, or ‘zero strategy’. No morphological indicator is required for the coordination of noun phrases in Hup.
nihṹʔ
all
b'ɔ̌ʔ=tat
gourd=fruit
naháw=tat
macucu=fruit
núp
this
g'ǒp=tat
tucuma=fruit
hɨd
3PL
d'oʔ-pɨ́d-ɨ́h
take-DIST-DECL
nihṹʔ b'ɔ̌ʔ=tat naháw=tat núp g'ǒp=tat hɨd d'oʔ-pɨ́d-ɨ́h
all gourd=fruit macucu=fruit this tucuma=fruit 3PL take-DIST-DECL
‘They took all kinds: gourds, macucú fruits, (and) these tucumá fruits.' (Phrasal coordination, juxtaposition strategy, Epps (2005), pp. 334)

## Semantics
### Plurals

The plurality marker for nouns is =d'əh and follows an animacy hierarchy: humans, animals, and inanimates. For humans, plural marking is obligatory, though exception is made for a non-specific referent.
tiyǐʔ=d'əh-əwə́c
man=PL-FLR-EXCL2
ʔəg-nɑ́ʔ-ɑ́y
drink-lose.senses-DYNM
tiyǐʔ=d'əh-əwə́c ʔəg-nɑ́ʔ-ɑ́y
man=PL-FLR-EXCL2 drink-lose.senses-DYNM
"Only the men got drunk!" (Epps (2005), p. 165) Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (help);
hup
person
də̌b
many
hɨd
3pl
bɨ́ʔ-ɨ́h
work-DECL
hup də̌b hɨd bɨ́ʔ-ɨ́h
person many 3pl work-DECL
"Lots of people worked." (Epps (2005), p. 166)
However, the marker is present for groups of people, which are considered conceptually plural.
nutæ̌n-ɑy
today-INCH
teghɔ̃́=d'əh
Non-Indian=PL
nɨ̌h
POSS
yɑ́g-ɑy
hammock-INCH
nutæ̌n-ǽp
today-DEP
nutæ̌n-ɑy teghɔ̃́=d'əh nɨ̌h yɑ́g-ɑy nutæ̌n-ǽp
today-INCH Non-Indian=PL POSS hammock-INCH today-DEP
"Nowadays we use the hammocks of the Non-Indians, these days." (Epps (2005), p. 165)
Animals are generally also marked for plurality, but differ in that the marker is not obligatory for groups of animals. As with humans, non-specific referents are also not marked.
núp
this
nutæ̌n
today
yɑʔɑ́m=d'əh
jaguar=PL
hɨd
3pl
wæd-nɨ́h-ɑy-ɑ́h
eat-NEG-INCH-DECL
núp nutæ̌n yɑʔɑ́m=d'əh hɨd wæd-nɨ́h-ɑy-ɑ́h
this today jaguar=PL 3pl eat-NEG-INCH-DECL
"So today jaguars don’t eat (people)." (Epps (2005), p. 168)
hɔ̃̌p(*=d'əh)
fish(*=PL)
ʔɑ̃́h
1sg
kək-d'oʔ-nɨ́h
pull-take-NEG
hɔ̃̌p(*=d'əh) ʔɑ̃́h kək-d'oʔ-nɨ́h
fish(*=PL) 1sg pull-take-NEG
"I didn't catch any fish." (Epps (2005), p. 168)
hɔ̃̌p=d'əh
fish=PL
pɑ̃̌
NEG:EX
hɔ̃̌p=d'əh pɑ̃̌
fish=PL NEG:EX
"The (specific) fish are not here." (Epps (2005), p. 168)
Inanimate objects are not marked for plurality and rely on numerals to indicate such. Plural inanimate entities are regarded with low importance, due to usually having low conceptual salience, and therefore are also almost always unmarked for number in discourse as well.
dadɑ́nya
orange
tɨ́h-ɑ̌n
3sg-OBJ
ʔɑ̃h nɔ́ʔ-b'ɑy-ɑ́h
give-AGAIN-DECL
dadɑ́nya tɨ́h-ɑ̌n {ʔɑ̃h nɔ́ʔ-b'ɑy-ɑ́h}
orange 3sg-OBJ give-AGAIN-DECL
"I gave her the oranges (that I’d brought)." (Epps (2005), p. 169) Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (help);

### Numerals

Numerals in Hup are fairly etymologically unambiguous, which is very rare cross-linguistically. For the cardinal numerals 1-5, the forms likely derive from grammaticalized phrases, referring to the quantity of various salient phenomena for Hup people, with some variation between dialects. These dialectal variants will be labeled further as TD (Tat Deh), B (Barreira), UN (Umari Norte), and NF (Nova Fundação).The quantifier morpheme (-ʔǎp) is already integrated into the numerals '2' and '3' and may be used for the numerals 4+, but is not mandatory. For the cardinal numerals 6-20, there is much more variation, and their forms have not been lexicalized to the extent of numerals 1-5. Furthermore, through lexical borrowing, "virtually all speakers prefer Portuguese numerals for 6+," and for numerals 20+, Portuguese forms are exclusively used.
| | Numeral | Likely Etymology |
| 1 | ʔayǔp (TD, B) ʔǽp (UN) | compare with demonstrative 'yúp' - 'that' (intangible) |
| 2 | koʔǎp (B) kaʔǎp (TD, UN) kəwěg-ʔǎp (NF?) | 'eye-quantity' |
| 3 | mɔ́twaʔǎp (B) mɔ́ɾaʔǎp (TD) mɔ́t-wɨg-ʔǎp (NF?) bab' pẵ (UN) | 'rubber.tree-seed-quantity' 'sibling NEG:EX' (UN) |
| 4 | hi-bab'-nǐ (TD, B) bab'-nǐ (TD, UN) | '(FACT)-have_sibling/accompany.NMZ' |
| 5 | ʔayup dapṹh (TD, B) ʔædapṹh (TD) nap'ṹh (variant B) ʔæp d'apṹh (UN) | 'one hand' |

## Abbreviations

| Abbreviation | Meaning |
| AGAIN | repetitive aspect / topic-shift |
| COOP | cooperative |
| DECL | declarative |
| DEP | dependent marker, topic marker |
| DIR | directional oblique |
| DYNM | dynamic |
| EXCL | exclusive |
| EXCL2 | exclusive (dialectical variant) |
| FACT | factitive |
| FLR | following marker |
| IMP | imperative |
| INCH | inchoative |
| ITG | intangible |
| NEG | negative (verbal) |
| NEG:EX | negative existence |
| NMZ | nominalizer |
| OBJ | object |
| PL | plural/collective |
| POSS | possessive |
| REP | reportive evidential |
| RESP | respect marker |
| VENT | ventive |
| EMPH1 | emphatic (1st person) |
| REP | repetitive aspect |
| NONVIS | nonvisual experiential |
OBJ:object RESP:respect marker ITG:intangible COOP:cooperative DIR:directional oblique DYNM:dynamic FLR:following marker VENT:ventive