# Rakhine State

Rakhine State (/rəˈkaɪn/ ; Rakhine and Burmese: ရခိုင်ပြည်နယ်; MLCTS: ra.hkuing pranynai, Rakhine pronunciation, Burmese pronunciation:), formerly known as Arakan State, is a state in Myanmar (Burma). Situated on the western coast, it is bordered by Chin State to the north, Magway Region, Bago Region and Ayeyarwady Region to the east, the Bay of Bengal to the west and the Chattogram Division of Bangladesh to the northwest. It is located approximately between latitudes 17°30' north and 21°30' north and longitudes 92°10' east and 94°50' east. The Arakan Mountains or Rakhine Yoma separated Rakhine State from central Burma from North to South. Off the coast of Rakhine State there are some fairly large islands such as Ramree, Cheduba and Myingun. Rakhine State has an area of 36,762 square kilometres (14,194 sq mi) and its capital is Sittwe (formerly known as Akyab).

## Names

The state was historically known as Arakan in English until the Burmese government adopted the English name Rakhine in 1989.

## History

The history of the region of Arakan (now renamed Rakhine State) can be roughly divided into seven parts. The first four divisions and the periods are based on the location of the centre of power of the main polities in the northern Rakhine region, especially along the Kaladan River. Thus, the history is divided into the Dhanyawadi, Waithali, Laymro and Mrauk U. Mrauk U was conquered by the Konbaung dynasty of Burma in 1784–85, after which Rakhine became part of the Konbaung kingdom of Burma. In 1824, the first Anglo-Burmese war erupted and in 1826, Rakhine (alongside Tanintharyi) was ceded to the British East India Company as war reparations by the Burmese. Rakhine thus became part of the province of Burma in British India. In 1948, Burma was given independence and Rakhine became part of the newly independent state.

### Independent kingdom

Beginning in the 400s, the Pyus and Kanyans of Tibeto-Burman people began migrating westward, crossing the Arakan Mountains and settling in what is now Rakhine State. By the 1100s, they had consolidated control of the region, becoming a tributary state of the Pagan Empire until the 13th century. Over time, these Tibeto-Burmans mixed with Indo-Aryans and formed a distinct cultural identity, eventually becoming the Rakhine people (also known as the Arakanese).
According to Arakanese legend, the first recorded kingdom was founded by the Sakya clan of Buddha who are ancient Hindus Indo-aryans, centred around the northern town of Dhanyawadi, arose in the 34th century BCE and lasted until 327 CE. Rakhine documents and inscriptions state that the famed Mahamuni Buddha image was cast in Dhanyawady in around 554 BCE when the Buddha visited the kingdom. After the fall of Dhanyawadi in the 4th century CE, the centre of power shifted to a new dynasty based in the town of Waithali. The Waithali kingdom ruled the regions of Arakan from the middle of the 4th century to 818 CE. The period is seen as the classical period of Arakan culture, architecture and Buddhism, as the Waithali period left behind more archaeological remains than its predecessor. A new dynasty emerged in four towns along the Lemyo River as Waithali waned in influence, and ushered in the Lemro period, where four principal towns served as successive capitals.
After its partial dominance by the Islamic Delhi Sultanate and Bengal Sultanate, the final Kingdom of Mrauk U was founded in 1429 by Min Saw Mon. It is seen by the Arakanese people as the golden age of their history, as Mrauk U served as a commercially important port and base of power in the Bay of Bengal region and involved in extensive maritime trade. The Kingdom of Mrauk-U went on to conquer Chittagong with the help of the Portuguese. The country steadily declined from the 18th century onwards after its loss of Chittagong to the Mughal Empire. Internal instability, rebellion and dethroning of kings were very common. The Portuguese, during the era of their greatness in Asia, gained a temporary establishment in Arakan.

### Burmese rule

On 2 January 1785, the internally divided kingdom fell to invading forces of the Konbaung dynasty. The Mahamuni Image was taken away by the Burmese Forces as war loot. Thus, an expansionist Burma came into direct territorial contact with territories of the British East India Company, which set the stage for future flaring of hostility. Various geopolitical issues gave rise to the First Anglo-Burmese War (1824–26). As the image of Mahamuni had been taken as war loot by the Burmese, this time the huge bell of the temple was taken by the Presidency armies and awarded to an Indian soldier, Bhim Singh, a Risaldar in the 2nd Battalion of the Bengal Army, for his bravery. This inscribed huge bell is still installed in a temple at village Nadrai near Kasganj town in present-day Kanshiram Nagar District of Uttar Pradesh India. In the Treaty of Yandabo (1826), which ended hostilities, Burma ceded Arakan alongside Tanintharyi (Tenasserim) to British India. The British made Akyab (now Sittwe) the capital of Arakan. Later, Arakan became part of the province of Burma of the British Indian Empire, and then part of British Burma when Burma was made into a separate crown colony. Arakan was administratively divided into three districts along traditional divisions during the Mrauk U period.

### British rule

Rakhine was the centre of multiple insurgencies which fought against British rule, notably led by the monks U Ottama and U Seinda. During the Second World War, Rakhine was given autonomy under the Japanese occupation of Burma and was even granted its own army known as the Arakan Defense Force. The Arakan Defense Force went over to the allies and turned against the Japanese in early 1945. Rakhine (Arakan) was the site of many battles during the Second World War, most notably the Arakan Campaign 1942–43 and the Battle of Ramree Island.

### Burmese independence

In 1948, Rakhine became a division within the Union of Burma, and the three districts became Arakan Division. From the 1950s, there was a growing movement for secession and restoration of Arakan independence. In part to appease this sentiment, in 1974, the socialist government under General Ne Win constituted "Rakhine State" from Arakan Division giving at least nominal acknowledgment of the regional majority of the Rakhine people.

### 2010 onwards (after 2008 constitution)

Since 2010, Rakhine state has had two chief ministers: Hla Maung Tin and Major General Maung Maung Ohn. Hla Maung Tin ( January 2011 – 20 June 2014) was an elected Rakhine State Hluttaw member representing USDP from Ann Township in 2010 general election. He resigned from the post after recurrent intense inter-communal conflicts between Muslims and Rakhine ethnic groups in 2012–14. In 2014, he was replaced by Major General Maung Maung Ohn (30 June 2014 – present). Ohn was Deputy Minister for Border Affairs and head of the Rakhine State's Emergency Coordination Center before he was named to become a military-appointed Rakhine State Hluttaw member by Election Commission on 21 June 2014. His appointment as Chief Minister was formalised on 30 June 2014 although Arakan National Party opposed it.

### 2012 Rakhine State riots

The 2012 Rakhine State riots were a series of conflicts between Rohingya Muslims and Rakhine Buddhists who are majority in the Rakhine State. Before the riots, there were widespread and strongly held fears circulating among Buddhist Rakhines (who were a large majority) that they would soon become a minority in their ancestral state. The riots finally came after weeks of sectarian disputes including the death of ten Burmese Muslims by Rakhines and murder of a Rakhine by Rohingyas. From both sides, whole villages were "decimated". According to the Burmese authorities, the violence, between ethnic Rakhine Buddhists and Rohingya Muslims, left 78 people dead, 87 injured, and up to 140,000 people have been displaced. The government has responded by imposing curfews and by deploying troops in the region. On 10 June 2012, a state of emergency was declared in Rakhine, allowing the military to participate in the administration of the region. Rohingya NGOs overseas have accused the Burmese army and police of targeting Rohingya Muslims through arrests and participating in violence. However, an in-depth research conducted by the International Crisis Group shows that both communities are grateful for the protection provided by the military. A number of monks' organisations have taken measures to block aid from NGOs that help Rohingyas. In July 2012, the Burmese Government did not include the Rohingya minority group in the census and classified them as stateless Bengali Muslims from Bangladesh since 1982. About 140,000 Rohingya in Burma remain confined in IDP camps. The official of the United Nations and Human Rights Watch have described the persecution of the Rohingya as ethnic cleansing. The UN human rights envoy to Myanmar reported "the long history of discrimination and persecution against the Rohingya community could amount to crimes against humanity", and there have been warnings of an unfolding genocide. Yanghee Lee, the UN special investigator on Myanmar, believes the country wants to expel its entire Rohingya population.

### Resurgence of armed conflict (2016–present)

As of December 2024, the State Administration Council junta stably possesses only Sittwe Township, Kyaukpyu Township, and Munaung Township. The rest of Rakhine State is either controlled by the Arakan Army, or heavily contested.

### Political repression by the Myanmar government

The NLD government refused to share executive power at state level after the Arakan National Party won a majority of votes in Rakhine State in the 2015 election. The Arakanese repeatedly complained that their proposals in parliament are frequently rejected or not addressed.
On 16 January 2018, thousands of Mrauk U residents staged a protest after officials banned a memorial event to mark the 233rd anniversary of the end of the Mrauk U kingdom. Local police opened fire on the crowd, killing seven and wounding 12. Two speakers of the event-Aye Maung, a prominent Rakhine politician, was charged under section 17(1) of Unlawful Associations Act and Sections 121 and 505 of the Penal Code, which relate to high treason and incitement and Wai Hun Aung, a Sittwe-based activist, was filed with public mischief charges under the Penal Code. Eight rakhine youths who were wounded in the protest were detained and charged under Article 6 (1) for allegedly destroying government property and public asset.
In 2017, State Counselor Aung San Suu Kyi and the Tatmadaw rejected national-level political dialogue, which was a mandatory step of the Nationwide Ceasefire Agreement (NCA), where regional stakeholders discuss suggestions at large-scale public consultations, the results of which are shared by representatives at the Union Peace Conference or 21st Century Panglong, to be held in Rakhine State. In February 2017, the Arakan Liberation Party—which is one of eight NCA signatories—proposed holding ethnic-based national-level political dialogue in Rakhine State, but Aung San Suu Kyi turned down the request, saying the ALP was not yet ready. The ALP made necessary preparations and submitted letters three times to request approval to hold the dialogue, but the government did not reply, and at the Joint Implementation Coordination Meeting (JICM) Aung San Suu Kyi again declined the request, citing sensitive issues involving the Rohingya Muslims in Rakhine State.
The Union Election Committee (UEC) announced on 16 October 2020 that the 2020 Myanmar general election would not be held in the townships of Pauktaw, Ponnagyun, Rathedaung, Buthidaung, Maung Daw, Kyauktaw, Minbya, Myebon, Mrauk U; two quarters and 52 village tracts within Kyaukphyu Township, three quarters and 29 village tracts within Ann Township, four quarters within Sittwe Township, and ten quarters and 52 village tracts within Toungup Township. The UEC argued that holding a free and fair election would not be possible in the townships due to ongoing violence. With the exception of Toungup Township, Rakhine ethnic parties are overwhelmingly dominant in these townships. The Rakhine Nationalities Development Party (RNDP) and Arakan National Party (ANP) won a majority of the seats in these townships the in 2010 and 2015 general elections. An estimated 1.2 million people in Rakhine State subsequently lost their voting rights.

### 2019 internet shutdown

The government of Myanmar authorised the shutdown of internet services in nine townships on 21 June 2019, including Ponnangyun, Kyauktaw, Maungdaw, Buthidaung, Rathedaung, Mrauk U, Minbya, and Myebon in Rakhine State, as well as Paletwa in Chin State.
The restriction was lifted in five of nine townships in September 2019: four in Rakhine State – Maungdaw, Buthidaung, Rathedaung and Myebon – and one township in Chin State, Paletwa. However, the restriction was re-imposed in those five townships in February 2020.
Around 100 students gathered in Yangon on 22 February 2020 and demanded an end to the internet cut-off in Rakhine and Chin states, where civilian casualties are mounting as government troops battle ethnic rebels, the Arakan Army. A case has been filed, on nine students who organised the protest, under section 19 of the Peaceful Assembly Law, which outlaws unauthorised assemblies and carries a maximum six-month prison sentence.
Internet services were restored in Maungdaw Township on 1 May 2020.
On 1 August 2020, 2G internet services were permitted in the remaining seven townships – Buthidaung, Kyauktaw, Minbya, Mrauk U, Myebon, Ponnagyun and Rathedaung Townships in Rakhine State and Paletwa Township in Chin State. However, 3G and 4G services remained restricted.
On 2 February 2021, a day after the Tatmadaw seized power in a coup d'état, mobile internet services were restored in those eight townships in Rakhine State and Chin State.

### 2020 - Present

In November 2020, the Myanmar military and the Arakan Army (AA) reached an informal ceasefire, leading to a temporary reduction in hostilities in Rakhine State. However, after the military coup in February 2021, clashes resumed in the region.
Following the military coup in February 2021, Rakhine State experienced intensified armed conflicts, particularly between the Myanmar Armed Forces (MAF) and the Arakan Army (AA). By September 2021, the AA and its political wing, the United League of Arakan (ULA), had gained control over roughly 75% of Rakhine’s townships.
In early 2024, the battle for the border town of Maungdaw resulted in heavy fighting, leading to numerous civilian casualties and displacements. Reports indicate that during this period, civilians, including the Rohingya population, were subjected to coordinated killings, large-scale arson attacks, and shelling. Notably, on August 5, 2024, an attack in Maungdaw targeted Rohingya civilians attempting to flee by boat, resulting in numerous deaths.
On October 27, 2023, Operation 1027 was launched by the Three Brotherhood Alliance, consisting of the Arakan Army (AA), the Ta'ang National Liberation Army (TNLA), and the Myanmar National Democratic Alliance Army (MNDAA). The offensive led to the capture of over 130 military outposts and strategic bases in northern Shan State, including the key border town of Laukkai. Reports indicated significant losses for the Myanmar military, with hundreds of soldiers killed and over 4,000 troops, including senior officers, surrendering.
By February 2025, a CSIS report indicated that the Arakan Army had begun establishing local governments in the Rakhine townships under its control. However, little is known about their governance structure or the inclusion of non-Arakan ethnic groups. It remains unclear whether the AA will halt military operations after securing its claimed territory, as its offensives in Paletwa, Magway, and other areas suggest broader territorial ambitions. The group's stance on Myanmar’s political future is also uncertain, while it previously sought autonomy under the 2018 constitution like the United Wa State Army, it may now pursue full statehood or independence.

## Demographics

Rakhine State (formerly known as Arakan Province), like many parts of Burma, has a diverse ethnic population. Official Burmese figures state Arakan State's population as 3,118,963.
The ethnic Rakhine make up the majority, followed by a considerable population of Rohingya Muslims. The Rakhine reside mainly in the lowland valleys as well as Ramree and Manaung (Cheduba) islands. A number of other ethnic minorities like the Thet, Kamein, Chin, Mro, Chakma, Khami, Daingnet, Bengali Hindu and Maramagri inhabit mainly in the hill regions of the state.
According to the State Sangha Maha Nayaka Committee's 2016 statistics, 12,943 Buddhist monks were registered in Rakhine State, comprising 2.4% of Myanmar's total Sangha membership, which includes both novice samanera and fully-ordained bhikkhu. The majority of monks belong to the Thudhamma Nikaya (88.9%), followed by Shwegyin Nikaya (3.9%), with the remainder of monks belonging to other small monastic orders. 534 thilashin were registered in Rakhine State, comprising 0.9% of Myanmar's total thilashin community.
The Rakhine are traditionally Theravada Buddhists. As per the 1983 Census, 98.63% of the Rakhine in Rakhine State were Buddhist and another 1.19% were Muslim. The Chin were the 3rd largest ethnic group, contributing 4% of the population in the 1983 Census. At that time, out of the 64,404 Chin in Rakhine, 55.76% were Buddhist and 33.79% were Animist. Muslims constituted more than 80–96% of the population near the border with Bangladesh and the coastal areas. As per the 1983 Census, 99.82% of the Rohingya, 99.24% of the "Other foreigners", 89.20% of the "Mixed races", 85.50% of the Indians and 67.51% of the "Pakistanis" in Rakhine state were Muslims.

## Administrative divisions

Rakhine State consists of seven districts, as below, showing areas and officially estimated populations in 2002:
* Maungdaw (3,538 km$^2$; 763,844 people)
* Sittwe (12,504 km$^2$; 1,099,568 people)
* Mrauk-U (recently created out of Sittwe District)
* Kyaukpyu (9,984 km$^2$; 458,244 people)
* Ann (NA km$^2$; NA people)
* Taungup (NA km$^2$; NA people)
* Thandwe (10,753 km$^2$; 296,736 people)
* Total Rakhine State: 36,778 km$^2$; 2,915,000 people
Combined, these districts have a total of 17 townships and 1,164 village-tracts. Sittwe is the capital of the state.

## Transport

Few roads cross the Arakan Mountains from central Burma to Rakhine State. The three highways that do are the Ann to Munbra (Minbya in Burmese pronunciation) road in central Rakhine, the Toungup to Pamtaung road in south central Rakhine, and the Gwa to Ngathaingchaung road in far southern Rakhine. Air travel still is the usual mode of travel from Yangon and Mandalay to Sittwe and Ngapali, the popular beach resort. Only in 1996 was a highway from Sittwe to the mainland constructed. The state still does not have a rail line (although Myanmar Railways has announced a 480-km rail extension to Sittwe from Pathein via Ponnagyun-Kyauttaw-Mrauk U-Minbya-Ann).
The airports in Rakhine State are
* Sittwe Airport
* Kyaukpyu Airport
* Thandwe Airport
* Ann Airport
* Manaung Airport
With Chinese investment, a deep sea port has been constructed in Kyaukphyu to facilitate the transport of natural gas and crude oil from the Indian Ocean to China without passing through Strait of Malacca.
Rivers useful for transportation in Rakhine are
* Naf River
* Kaladan River
* Lemro River
* Mayu River

## Economy

Rakhine is one of the poorest states in Myanmar. Over 69% of the population live in poverty.
Rice is the main crop in the region, occupying around 85% of the total agricultural land. Coconut and nipa palm plantations are also important. Fishing is a major industry, with most of the catch transported to Yangon, but some is also exported. Wood products such as timber, bamboo and fuel wood are extracted from the mountains. Small amounts of inferior-grade crude oil are produced from primitive, shallow, hand-dug wells, but there is yet unexplored potential for petroleum and natural gas production.
Tourism is slowly being developed. The ruins of the ancient royal town Mrauk U and the beach resorts of Ngapali are the major attractions for foreign visitors, but facilities are still primitive, and the transportation infrastructure is still rudimentary.
While most places in Myanmar have chronic power shortages, in rural states like Rakhine the problem is greater. In 2009, the electricity consumption of a state of 3 million people was 30 MW, or 1.8% of the country's total generation capacity. In December 2009, the military government added three more hydropower plants, Saidin, Thahtay Chaung and Laymromyit, at a cost of over US$800 million. The three plants together can produce 687 megawatts, with surplus electricity distributed to other states and divisions.
Additionally, as of November 2024, reports indicate that over 2 million people in Rakhine State are at risk of famine due to reduced food production and ongoing conflicts. Without urgent action, it is predicted that 95% of the population will regress into survival mode.

## Global Interests
### China

China considers Rakhine State as a strategic interest. Rakhine State hosts several major Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) projects, including the Kyaukphyu deep-sea port and oil and gas pipelines. This region serves as an important land and maritime route, allowing China access to the Indian Ocean and reducing its dependence on the Strait of Malacca.
Myanmar also acts as a buffer state for China in managing Western and Indian influence in Southeast Asia. Despite international criticism, China has maintained close relations with Myanmar's military while also engaging with major ethnic armed organizations (EAOs). Given its significant economic and political interests, China expects any governing authority in Rakhine State, including the Arakan Army and its political wing, the United League of Arakan (ULA), to ensure the security of Chinese investments.

### India

India sees Myanmar as an important partner under its "Act East" policy, which aims to improve connectivity and strengthen India's influence in Southeast Asia. India’s main concerns include ensuring stability in its northeastern states and balancing China's growing presence in Myanmar. India has invested in strategic projects such as the Kaladan Multi-Modal Transit Transport Project and the India-Myanmar-Thailand Trilateral Highway.
Like China, India also maintains flexible diplomacy by engaging with both Myanmar’s military government and EAOs operating near its borders, including the AA. The AA could seek stronger ties with India by emphasizing shared security interests and economic cooperation. This could include protecting India’s infrastructure projects in Rakhine State and proposing trade or development initiatives that align with India’s regional ambitions. Some Indian policymakers may see the AA as a potential counterweight to China’s influence in Myanmar’s coastal regions.

### Others

The United States and European countries may support Rakhine state's political aspirations if it aligns with their broader goals of democracy and human rights. If the AA establishes a governance model in the state that reflects democratic principles, it could attract diplomatic engagement from Western nations. However, shifts in U.S. political leadership and global trends in democratic governance may affect the level of support and engagement.
Bangladesh, which shares a border with Rakhine State, is primarily concerned about stability and potential refugee movements. The country hosts around one million Rohingya refugees who fled Rakhine State, and it has expressed interest in their safe return. Bangladesh’s stance on the Rakhine state depends on how it addresses Rohingya-related issues.

## Education

Educational opportunities in Myanmar are extremely limited outside the main cities of Yangon and Mandalay. The following is a summary of the public school system in the state in academic year 2013–2014.
| AY 2013–2014 | Primary | Middle | High |
| Schools | 2,515 | 137 | 69 |
| Teachers | 11,045 | 2,909 | 1,337 |
| Students | 370,431 | 100,566 | 26,671 |
Sittwe University is the main university in the state.

## Health care

The general state of health care in Myanmar is poor. The military government spends anywhere from 0.5% to 3% of the country's GDP on health care, consistently ranking among the lowest in the world. Although health care is nominally free, in reality, patients have to pay for medicine and treatment, even in public clinics and hospitals. Public hospitals lack many of the basic facilities and equipment. In general, the health care infrastructure outside of Yangon and Mandalay is extremely poor but is worse in remote areas like Rakhine State. The entire Rakhine State has fewer hospital beds than the Yangon General Hospital. The following is a summary of the public health care system in the state.
| 2002–2003 | # Hospitals | # Beds |
| Specialist hospitals | 0 | 0 |
| General hospitals with specialist services | 1 | 200 |
| General hospitals | 16 | 553 |
| Health clinics | 24 | 384 |
| Total | 41 | 1,137 |