# The Promotion of Standard Chinese (Tuipu)

Tuipu (Chinese: 推普) is a series of measures and actions implemented by the government of the People's Republic of China in mainland China. These efforts aim to promote the social application of Putonghua, defined as the language with "Beijing pronunciation as the standard pronunciation, Northern dialects as the foundational dialect, and exemplary modern vernacular Chinese writings as the grammatical norm."
Putonghua does not have an officially established legal status in the Constitution of the People's Republic of China.
Initially, the campaign intended to prepare for the complete abolition of Chinese characters in favor of implementing a romanization of Chinese writing system (Pinyin) as part of a broader "script reform." However, the focus shifted to the promotion of simplified Chinese characters and Pinyin instead. Currently, the promotion of Putonghua is overseen by the State Language Commission (SLC).
At present, broadcast and television media on the mainland generally use Putonghua as the standard reporting language. While Putonghua has become mainstream, there have been calls for the preservation of regional dialects. The government acknowledges that dialects are valuable cultural assets but maintains that this recognition does not conflict with the implementation of policies and measures related to Standard Chinese promotion.

## History

After the 1911 Xinhai Revolution, the Republic of China began systematically promoting the National Language (Guoyu). In 1913, the Commission on the Unification of Pronunciation introduced the "National Pronunciation" (Guoyin) system, which emphasized "Beijing pronunciation as the primary foundation, with consideration for both northern and southern dialects," and included entering tones. This system later became known as the "Old National Pronunciation."
During this time, debates arose about the standard pronunciation for the National Language. One faction supported Guoyin, advocating for a hybrid approach based on Beijing pronunciation with adjustments for other regional accents. The other faction favored pure Beijing pronunciation as the standard. In 1920, Zhang Shiyi, then Head of the English Department at Nanjing Higher Normal School, published "The Issue of Unifying the National Language", advocating for Beijing pronunciation as the standard. This view gained acceptance.
In 1923, the National Language Unification Preparatory Committee established the Guoyin Dictionary Revision Committee and adopted Beijing pronunciation as the standard, naming it the "New National Pronunciation" (Xin Guoyin). In May 1932, the Ministry of Education of the Republic of China formally published the "Vocabulary of Frequently Used Words in National Pronunciation", which clarified that the standard referred to the modern phonetic system of Beijing rather than strictly adhering to local articulations. This marked the formal establishment of the first standardized system for modern Chinese: the Guoyu system.
After the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949, Guoyu was renamed "Putonghua" (common language) to emphasize its universal applicability. In 1955, the National Script Reform Conference in Beijing formalized the promotion of Putonghua based on Beijing pronunciation as the standard. On February 6, 1956, the State Council of the People's Republic of China issued the "Directive on Promoting Putonghua", officially defining it as "a language with Beijing pronunciation as the standard, Northern dialects as the basis, and modern vernacular Chinese writings as the grammatical norm."
In 1982, promoting Putonghua was incorporated into the Constitution of the People's Republic of China. In 1994, the Putonghua Proficiency Test was introduced, and on October 31, 2000, the National People's Congress passed the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language.
In December 2021, the General Office of the State Council issued the "Opinions on Comprehensively Strengthening Language and Script Work in the New Era". This document set a goal of achieving an 85% nationwide Putonghua penetration rate by 2025.

## Regulations and Policies

The government of the People’s Republic of China bases its efforts to promote Putonghua on constitutional principles and specific legislation such as the "Law on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language". Article 19 of the Constitution of the People's Republic of China explicitly states:
"The State promotes the nationwide use of Putonghua"
According to the official stance of the People's Republic of China, the promotion of Putonghua has significantly contributed to economic, educational, and cultural development, as well as to social progress, achieving substantial accomplishments. China aims to achieve the preliminary popularization of Putonghua nationwide.
   The State promotes the nationwide use of Putonghua.
This official position has drawn attention and debate from various quarters. For example, Yang Haiying, a Mongolian scholar based in Japan, criticized the move, claiming it represents a reversal of the ethnic policies that the Chinese government had implemented for the past 75 years since its establishment.

## Implementation Measures
### Putonghua Proficiency Test

To support the promotion of Putonghua, the government introduced the Putonghua Proficiency Test (Putonghua Shuiping Ceshi, PSC). This test is overseen by the National Putonghua Proficiency Testing Committee and implemented by relevant provincial and municipal organizations.
The test categorizes proficiency into three levels, each with two grades:
* Level 1: Grade A (highest grade), Grade B
* Level 2: Grade A, Grade B
* Level 3: Grade A, Grade B
Participants receive corresponding Putonghua Proficiency Certificates based on their test performance. By 2009, over 30 million individuals in mainland China had taken the test.

#### Use of Putonghua in Public Service

The Chinese government mandates the use of Putonghua by civil servants, typically requiring a proficiency level of Level 3, Grade A.

#### Use of Putonghua in Education

For teachers, a minimum proficiency of Level 2, Grade B is generally required. For Chinese language teachers, the standard is higher, requiring Level 2, Grade A.

#### Use of Putonghua in Service Industries

In service sectors such as commerce, postal services, and telecommunications, relevant regulations also govern the use of Putonghua to ensure consistency in communication.

### Media Promotion

Between 2000 and 2014, the National Radio and Television Administration (NRTA) issued multiple directives aimed at limiting and suppressing the use of local dialects in regional broadcast media. This included prohibiting the use of dialects in dubbed films and reducing the airtime for local dialect programs. Outside of a few regions such as Guangdong, Southern Fujian, and Shanghai, the use of local dialects in media was minimal, with strict limitations on broadcast time and range. For example, programs in Shanghainese were restricted to a few radio and television programs, justified by the concern that "the standard of Putonghua was declining, and local dialects were becoming widespread". In July 2009, a spokesperson for NRTA, Zhu Hong, stated that except for regional opera productions, Chinese television dramas should primarily use Putonghua. Dialects and non-standard forms of Putonghua were not to be used, and even the language of prominent characters should adhere to Putonghua. However, in the 2014 TV drama "Deng Xiaoping at History's Crossroads" and the 2021 film "Mao Zedong in Caixi", both Deng Xiaoping and Mao Zedong still spoke in dialects.
In the Guangdong Province's Pearl River Delta Economic Zone, during the 1980s, the government specifically allowed local channels such as Southern TV (now Greater Bay Area TV), Pearl River Channel, Guangzhou Broadcasting Network, and Foshan TV to use Cantonese. This decision was driven by the need to compete with Hong Kong's television programs and to strengthen "political propaganda," rather than an effort to preserve or promote local culture, language, or customs.

### Putonghua Promotion Activities

Approved by the State Council of the People's Republic of China, the third week of September each year is designated as National Putonghua Promotion Week. In addition, various regions hold Putonghua competitions at irregular intervals.

### Promotional slogans

Various slogans to promote Putonghua are frequently developed across mainland China, with periodic calls for public submissions. However, slogans such as "Don’t speak dialects, don’t use profanity, be a qualified citizen" have sparked concerns. These slogans can lead the younger generation to develop a biased view, equating the use of Putonghua with being "qualified" or "progressive," which undermines the recognition and cultural value of local dialects and mother tongues. The impact of such perceptions is notably more pronounced in regions using Beijing Mandarin and Jin dialects compared to southern areas.

## Accent discrimination
### Non-Han Chinese Accents

Since 2016, the Zhuang accent in Putonghua has been widely mocked, ridiculed, and sensationalized by speakers of standard Putonghua. This phenomenon gained significant attention after a particular segment of a Zhuang-language monologue about heartbreak went viral. The phrase "蓝瘦，香菇" (lán shòu, xiāng gū) was used as a humorous misinterpretation of the phrase "难受想哭" (nán shòu xiǎng kū), meaning "I feel bad and want to cry." The phrase, when written phonetically in Mandarin, sounds like "lan shou, xiang gu," which is nonsensical in standard Mandarin but became a viral meme.

## Local government measures
### Guangxi

Guangxi has historically been a multilingual region, with Cantonese exerting significant influence due to geographical factors. Later, the Guangxi Autonomous Region government implemented administrative measures to promote the use of Mandarin in several southeastern cities. In 1996, Nanning and Wuzhou were among the first cities to remove Nanning Baihua (a Cantonese dialect) announcements from public buses. Additionally, Nanning's TV and radio stations were prohibited from broadcasting in Cantonese, depriving residents of a language environment via media broadcasts. Local authorities in Nanning also promoted the stigmatization of dialects as "vulgar" in schools and workplaces while associating Mandarin with being "civilized." In 2001, Nanning discontinued broadcasts of Guangdong TV's Pearl River Channel, followed by Beihai in 2002.
By the end of 2010, Guangxi Radio's economic broadcast, which had aired Cantonese programs for 18 years, was entirely canceled. In October 2012, the Pearl River Channel was banned from broadcasting in Wuzhou by the National Radio and Television Administration. On December 28 of the same year, Guangdong Southern TV's satellite channel (TVS-2) was abruptly removed from cable television in parts of Guangxi. Today, in the southeastern Cantonese-speaking regions of Guangxi, Cantonese has been marginalized. In Nanning, the provincial capital, Cantonese has become an endangered language, replaced by a "Nanning Mandarin" dialect mixed with Cantonese and Zhuang accents. The most local dialect of Nanning, Pinghua, has become even more marginalized under the dual pressures of Mandarin and Cantonese.
Although Guangxi Radio and Television once positioned its movie and TV channel as a Cantonese channel in 2014 due to a collaboration with Guangdong Radio and Television, the channel aired significantly fewer Cantonese programs compared to Guangdong. Most of the Cantonese programs were rebroadcasts from Guangdong Radio and Television, while Guangxi-produced Cantonese content was limited to local news. This positioning lasted only about three years; after a rebranding in 2017, all Cantonese programs were canceled.
Before the Nanning Metro Line 2 commenced operations in 2017, there were reports suggesting that local dialects, including Yongxun Cantonese (Nanning Baihua), would be incorporated into the line's station announcements. However, proposals to include Chinese dialects and minority languages in the announcements were delayed indefinitely, with authorities citing the lack of explicit approval. As a result, the line's announcements currently include only Mandarin and English.

### Guangdong

The promotion of Mandarin in Guangdong reached its peak following the State Council of the People's Republic of China's issuance of the "Directive on Promoting Mandarin" in 1956. In July of the same year, the Guangdong Provincial Department of Education issued a notice, marking the first inclusion of Mandarin instruction in Guangdong's primary and secondary school curriculum.
In the first half of 1982, Ren Zhongyi, then First Secretary of the Guangdong Provincial Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, instructed Guangdong Radio and Television to enhance efforts in promoting Mandarin. This involved organizing language experts to prepare Mandarin promotion broadcasts and launching a radio lecture titled "How Guangdong People Can Learn Mandarin Well." Additionally, two documents were issued in the name of the Guangdong Provincial Committee, mandating that major conferences above the county level must use Mandarin. The substantial human and financial resources dedicated to this effort made Guangdong a leader in Mandarin promotion. After his retirement, Ren Zhongyi further emphasized this in 1999, writing:
   Unify Guangdong's language with Mandarin; Shenzhen should set an example for the entire province.
In 1990, the State Language Commission designated Guangdong, Fujian, and Shanghai as key regions in southern China for Mandarin promotion. In 1991, specialized research teams conducted in-depth studies in certain areas of Guangdong and Fujian. Subsequently, on February 2, 1992, the Guangdong Provincial Committee of the Chinese Communist Party and the Guangdong Provincial Government issued the "Decision on Vigorously Promoting Mandarin."

#### Guangzhou

In the 1980s, Guangzhou gradually prohibited teachers from using Cantonese as the medium of instruction in schools, mandating the use of Mandarin for all subjects. Additionally, schools were not allowed to offer separate Cantonese courses. This policy led to a significant increase in the number of younger generations who cannot speak, are unwilling to speak, or speak Cantonese incorrectly. This aggressive push for Mandarin resulted in widespread dissatisfaction. Former Guangzhou Mayor Li Ziliu was a staunch advocate for Mandarin promotion and was awarded the "Mandarin Promotion Medal" by the National Language Commission for his efforts.

### Zhejiang
#### Hangzhou

The development of Wu Chinese in Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province, is facing significant challenges, with some local elementary school students unable to speak it at all. In response, some elementary schools in Hangzhou have introduced Hangzhou dialect interest classes, sparking widespread discussion.
The reasons for offering these classes are threefold:
* Declining Usage: Fewer children are able to speak the Hangzhou dialect.
* Cultural Preservation: As part of cultural integration, the dialect, recognized as an intangible cultural heritage, should be preserved.
* Promotion through Education: Schools see their role as promoting the dialect in an engaging way through these interest classes.
This initiative has been seen as an effort to protect and revitalize the local dialect amid concerns of its decline.

### Xinjiang

Since 2014, the authorities in Xinjiang have gradually implemented a series of measures to assimilate local communities, including changing language policies. The previous bilingual education policy has been gradually abandoned. In June 2017, the Education Bureau of Hotan in Xinjiang's southern region released the "Five Regulations on Bilingual Education," which mandated the use of Mandarin and Chinese characters in all preschool education (kindergartens) starting in the autumn. By the first grade of primary school and the first year of middle school, Mandarin would also be pushed, with the goal of fully transitioning to Mandarin-based education by 2020.
At the same time, a large number of Uyghur individuals were placed into "re-education" programs, and their children were sent to newly established boarding schools. In 2017 alone, more than 500,000 children enrolled in kindergartens in Xinjiang, with over 90% being Uyghur and other Muslim minority children. In the southern region, where Uyghurs are most concentrated, the authorities invested $1.2 billion to expand kindergartens, including constructing dormitories. Children were required to speak only Mandarin at school, with penalties for non-compliance.
Additionally, in 2017, Zhu Hailun, Secretary of the Xinjiang Political and Legal Affairs Committee, issued a directive to "re-education camps," emphasizing the learning of Mandarin (referred to as the "national language") as a key focus. The directive mandated the use of Mandarin textbooks, teaching in Mandarin, and rigorous oral and written exams. "Exam scores, especially those in Mandarin tests," were to be recorded in student files and used as a primary criterion for graduation.

### Tibet

While promoting Mandarin, the Tibetan government has simultaneously restricted Tibetan language education. In February 2018, the Tibet Autonomous Region Public Security Bureau issued a notice titled "Announcement on Reporting Clues of Criminal Activities of Criminal Organizations," in which the act of "protecting the mother tongue (Tibetan)" was labeled as "reactionary thought." It was also accused of having "close ties and collusion with various illegal organizations," and the public was urged to report such activities to the police.

### Inner Mongolia

In early June 2020, the authorities in Inner Mongolia issued an oral directive to Mongolian-language schools, requiring that from the start of the new school year on September 1, primary school Chinese language lessons be taught in Mandarin. On August 26, the Inner Mongolia Department of Education released the "Implementation Plan for Using Nationally Standardized Chinese Textbooks in Schools that Teach Ethnic Languages in the First Grade of Primary and First Grade of Secondary Schools," which stipulated that, starting from the autumn semester of 2020, first-grade primary schools in ethnic language schools would begin using national standard language textbooks. Over the next two years, other subjects such as Moral and Legal Education in primary schools and History in secondary schools would also transition to being taught in Mandarin. This decision sparked widespread concern in Inner Mongolia, with many Mongolian scholars and parents believing that the new policy endangered the survival of the Mongolian language.
Local teachers and parents criticized the government's decision, viewing it as an attempt to eliminate the Mongolian language. They strongly opposed the policy, calling local education bureaus and the Ministry of Education in Beijing to express their dissatisfaction. On August 30, the day before the policy was to take effect, large-scale protests were organized in front of county government buildings, and teachers and students were urged to go on strike. According to reports from Voice of America, the government shut down "Bainu," China's only Mongolian-language social media platform, and summoned netizens who had discussed bilingual education matters in WeChat groups.
In response, the Inner Mongolia Department of Education clarified that the claim of eliminating Mongolian-language teaching was not true. They explained that the change was simply the introduction of Mandarin in the first grade for Chinese language lessons. Other subjects, except for the three to be adjusted, would continue to use the same textbooks, the language of instruction would remain unchanged, Mongolian language and mother tongue classes would remain the same, and the existing bilingual education system would not be altered. Local language teaching would continue as it had in the past.

## The Relationship Between Mandarin and Local Languages

The relationship between promoting Mandarin and preserving local languages has been a subject of debate. Many argue that the promotion of Mandarin may lead to the disappearance of local languages. Some believe that protecting dialects is a form of local protectionism, which could hinder the promotion of Mandarin. However, others argue that protecting dialects and promoting Mandarin are complementary and not contradictory.

## The Popularity of Standard Mandarin in Other Chinese-speaking Regions
### Taiwan (Republic of China)

In Taiwan, the government under the Kuomintang's long-term rule strongly promoted Mandarin through the "National Language Movement," sometimes employing strict measures (such as the "Broadcasting Act", which limited the proportion of local language usage in media). This led Mandarin to become the primary language for the majority of Taiwanese people. It is estimated that approximately 90% of the population speaks Mandarin, and in many urban areas, Mandarin is used in over 40% of communication. Although the National Language Movement has been abolished and policies now focus on promoting local languages (including Taiwanese Hokkien, Hakka, and indigenous languages), Mandarin has continued to replace local languages, especially among younger generations of Hakka, indigenous, and mainland Chinese descendants. This has caused a decline in the use of Taiwan's indigenous languages, with some experts predicting that Taiwanese Hokkien, once the dominant language of Han Chinese in Taiwan, could become extinct by the 21st century.

### Hong Kong

Most schools in Hong Kong use Cantonese for teaching Chinese, known as "mother tongue teaching". Other subjects are typically taught in Cantonese or English (refer to EMI schools). After the signing of the Sino-British Joint Declaration in the 1980s, there was a growing trend of learning Mandarin. Many students and citizens paid for private Mandarin courses offered by institutions, and many visited research societies and language centers to inquire about learning Mandarin. A significant number of these learners were working professionals who wanted to study a new language during their free time, as well as students wanting to enrich themselves during their summer break.
In September 1981, the Education Department, the predecessor of the current Education Bureau, launched a Mandarin trial program based on the recommendations of the Curriculum Development Council and societal needs. The first phase began with Primary 4 students and gradually expanded to Primary 6. The second phase of the program started in September 1984 for Secondary 1 students, and in 1986, Mandarin was officially introduced as a school subject. However, participation in the program was not mandatory for all schools, and schools were allowed to decide whether to implement the program. At the time, the program faced issues with a lack of qualified teachers, so the Education Department offered Mandarin courses for teachers to improve their skills. In the early 1980s, Mandarin was taught mainly using Zhuyin (Bopomofo) and then later with Hanyu Pinyin. Both phonetic systems were popular in Hong Kong, but since most Hong Kong residents were familiar with the English alphabet, Hanyu Pinyin gradually became more dominant. However, there was still debate in society about which system should be used. Some believed that Zhuyin should be taught to young children to avoid interference with learning English, and that Hanyu Pinyin should be introduced after students had mastered English.
In 1985, the number of people learning Mandarin increased by 20% to 30% compared to the previous year. Surveys at the time indicated that the main reasons for learning Mandarin were China's opening up policies and an increase in the number of people traveling to China, as knowing Mandarin would facilitate business, accommodation, and communication in China. Some groups, such as the Hong Kong Chinese Cultural Promotion Center, even organized Mandarin summer camps in Beijing, which included sightseeing and Mandarin classes.
After Handover of Hong Kong in 1997, the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (HKSAR) government promoted Mandarin education vigorously.

### Singapore

After its independence, Singapore adopted English as its primary language, but actively promoted Standard Chinese, primarily targeting the majority Chinese population. Despite this, the influence of English remained strong. After 30 years of the "Speak Mandarin Campaign," the number of people using dialects (the most common Chinese dialects in Singapore are Hokkien and Teochew) significantly decreased, but many of these people switched to speaking English instead. Given Singapore's multilingual environment, which includes Malay, Tamil, and other languages, the government promoted English as a unifying language.