OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Method of Fluxions

Method of Fluxions (Latin: De Methodis Serierum et Fluxionum) is a mathematical treatise by Sir Isaac Newton which served as the earliest written formulation of modern calculus. The book was completed in 1671 and posthumously published in 1736.

## Background

Fluxion is Newton's term for a derivative. He originally developed the method at Woolsthorpe Manor during the closing of Cambridge due to the Great Plague of London from 1665 to 1667. Newton did not choose to make his findings known (similarly, his findings which eventually became the Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica were developed at this time and hidden from the world in Newton's notes for many years). Gottfried Leibniz developed his form of calculus independently around 1673, seven years after Newton had developed the basis for differential calculus, as seen in surviving documents like “the method of fluxions and fluents..." from 1666. Leibniz, however, published his discovery of differential calculus in 1684, nine years before Newton formally published his fluxion notation form of calculus in part during 1693.

## Impact

The calculus notation in use today is mostly that of Leibniz, although Newton's dot notation for differentiation ${\dot {x}}$ is frequently used to denote derivatives with respect to time.

## Rivalry with Leibniz

Newton's Method of Fluxions was formally published posthumously, but following Leibniz's publication of the calculus a bitter rivalry erupted between the two mathematicians over who had developed the calculus first, provoking Newton to reveal his work on fluxions.

## Newton's development of analysis

For a period of time encompassing Newton's working life, the discipline of analysis was a subject of controversy in the mathematical community. Although analytic techniques provided solutions to long-standing problems, including problems of quadrature and the finding of tangents, the proofs of these solutions were not known to be reducible to the synthetic rules of Euclidean geometry. Instead, analysts were often forced to invoke infinitesimal, or "infinitely small", quantities to justify their algebraic manipulations. Some of Newton's mathematical contemporaries, such as Isaac Barrow, were highly skeptical of such techniques, which had no clear geometric interpretation. Although in his early work Newton also used infinitesimals in his derivations without justifying them, he later developed something akin to the modern definition of limits in order to justify his work.
# Jacobo Hey Paoa

Jacobo Hey Paoa is the first Rapa Nui male to earn a law degree and become an attorney.

## Family

His parents, Urbano Edmunds Hey and Carolina Paoa Rangitopa were from Rapa-Nui. Urbano, who once served as the mayor of Hanga Roa, was the son of Henry Percy Edmunds and Sofia Catalina Renga No'i No'i Hereveri Vaka. From 1904 to 1929, Edmunds was the manager of the Scottish-Chilean company Williamson Balfour Agency—a sheep-raising and nitrates merchant that created the Island Exploitation Company. In addition to Urbano, Edmunds fathered Juan Edmunds Rapahango from a prior marriage. Rapahango was the father of politician Pedro Edmunds Paoa, and each would serve as the Mayor of Easter Island (Rapahango: 1973-1979, 1990-1992; Paoa: 1994-2008, 2012-ongoing).

## Educational background and legal career

Jacobo Hey Paoa traveled from Easter Island and settled in Santiago, Chile, at thirteen. He had difficulty adjusting to his new life, as he did not speak Spanish and was enrolled at an experimental school with unconventional teaching methods. Later, as an adult, Paoa himself entered the educational field. He graduated from the José Abelardo Núñez Higher Normal School as a Normalist Professor and eventually became the educational institution's director. In 1974, he began studying law at the University of Chile. He earned a Master's in Labor Law and Social Security—even receiving an exchange scholarship from the Rotary Club to study in Chicago, Illinois.

## Political life

By 1983, he returned to Easter Island. He served as the Provincial Governor from 1990 to 2000 during the governments of the center-left Concertación coalition until his resignation. He was instrumental in preparing the Indigenous Law 19.253 and its subsequent modification to restore the land to the members of the Rapa Nui people. He currently serves as Secretary of the Court, Notary, and Conservator of the Island's Real Estate. In certain instances, he is even called upon to serve as an alternate or subrogated judge for the Easter Island Court.
# Brian Staskawicz

Brian John Staskawicz ForMemRS is professor of plant and microbial miology at the University of California, Berkeley and scientific director of agricultural genomics at the Innovative Genomics Institute (IGI).

## Education

Staskawicz was educated at Bates College (BA, 1974), Yale University (MS, 1976) and the University of California, Berkeley where he completed a PhD in plant pathology in 1980.

## Research and career

Staskawicz has made many seminal contributions to the understanding of infection strategies of plant pathogens and immune response of plants. These include the cloning of the first pathogen effector gene and the cloning and characterisation of one of the first plant NOD-like receptors.
Staskawicz and his colleagues also played a major role in establishing Arabidopsis thaliana as a model organism to study the molecular basis of microbial recognition by plants and genetically dissect defense signaling pathways. More recently, he is leading an effort at the IGI in the genome editing of agriculture crops for biotic and abiotic stress resistance and improved plant performance. Work in his laboratory has identified and characterised bacterial effector proteins from both Pseudomonas syringae and Xanthomonas spp.

### Awards and honours

Staskawicz was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 2019. He is a member of the National Academy of Sciences of the US and has been elected a Fellow of both the American Phytopathological Society and the American Academy of Microbiology. In 2025 he was awarded the Wolf Prize in Agriculture.
# Miss World 1956

Miss World 1956 was the sixth edition of the Miss World pageant, held on 15 October 1956 at the Lyceum Ballroom in London, United Kingdom. 24 contestants competed for title of Miss World. The winner was Petra Schürmann, who represented Germany. She was crowned by Miss World 1955, Susana Duijm of Venezuela.
The announcement of the winner was marked by a moment of confusion. The United States representative, Miss USA 1956 first runner-up Betty Lane Cherry, was given the winner's sash to wear just before the ceremony, and briefly it was reported that she was the winner. She ultimately was named as the first runner-up, commenting to the press that "two seconds don't make one first".

## Background
### Selection of participants

Twenty-four contestants were selected to compete in the pageant. One contestant was appointed to represent her country after being a runner-up in her national pageant.

#### Replacements

In Germany the second runner-up Petra Schurmann was entered due to her English language skills.

#### Debuts, returns and withdrawals

This edition marked the debuts of Japan, Morocco, New Zealand, South Africa and Tunisia. The return of Egypt, Switzerland and Turkey which last competed in 1954.
Cuba was intended to be represented by Marcia Rodríguez Echevarría but for unknown reasons, she did not compete. Miss Honduras 1956 was canceled so they did not send entries to attend Miss Universe or Miss World. Peru was invited, but did not send a competitor.

## Results

| Placement | Contestant |
| Miss World 1956 | West Germany – Petra Schürmann |
| 1st runner-up | United States – Betty Lane Cherry |
| 2nd runner-up | Israel – Rina Weiss |
| 3rd runner-up | Japan – Midoriko Tokura |
| 4th runner-up | Denmark – Anne Rye Nielsen |
| 5th runner-up | Sweden – Eva Bränn |

## Contestants

* Austria – Margaret Scherz
* Belgium – Madeleine Hotelet
* Denmark – Anne Rye Nielsen
* Egypt – Norma Dugo
* Finland – Sirpa Helena Koivu
* France – Geneviève Solare
* Great Britain – Iris Alice Kathleen Waller
* Greece – Maria Paraloglou
* Holland – Ans van Pothoven
* Iceland – Ágústa Guðmundsdóttir
* Ireland – Amy Kelly
* Israel – Rina Weiss
* Italy – Angela Portaluri
* Japan – Midoriko Tokura
* Morocco – Lydia Marin
* New Zealand – Jeannette de Montalk
* South Africa – Norma Vorster
* Sweden – Eva Bränn
* Switzerland – Yolanda Daetwyler
* Tunisia – Pascaline Agnes
* Turkey – Suna Tekin
* United States – Betty Lane Cherry
* Venezuela – Celsa Pieri
* West Germany – Petra Schürmann
# Wladimir Klitschko vs. Alexander Povetkin

Wladimir Klitschko vs. Alexander Povetkin, was a professional boxing match contested on 5 October 2013 for the WBA, IBF, WBO, The Ring and IBO heavyweight championship.

## Background

At the end of 2012, the WBA ordered unified heavyweight champion Wladimir Klitschko to fight it's "Regular" beltholder Alexander Povetkin no later than 24 February 2013, but the two sides failed reach an agreement. Klitschko was permitted a voluntary title defence in the meantime. After stopping WBO 7th ranked heavyweight (WBA 12th) Francesco Pianeta in May, it was agreed that Klitschko and Povetkin would meet in October.
They had been originally scheduled to face off in December 2008 as an IBF mandatory defence, however an ankle injury for Povetkin saw him be replaced by Hasim Rahman. They were again set fight in September 2010, however Povetkin withdrew obstinately with a sinus problem.

## The fight

Klitschko dominated the bout, scoring a knockdown in round two from a quick left hook, and three knockdowns in round seven, including one from a straight right hand. All three judges scored it 119–104 on the scorecards. Klitschko landed 139 of 417 punches (33%) and Povetkin connected on 59 of 283 (21%).

## Aftermath

This bout is one of only two occasions where the WBA "Regular" heavyweight champion has challenged the "Super champion, the other being when Oleksandr Usyk knocked out Daniel Dubois in August 2023.
Povetkin would have one more shot at a world title against Anthony Joshua in September 2018.

## Undercard

Confirmed bouts:

## Broadcasting

| Country | Broadcaster |
| Australia | Main Event |
| Denmark | TV3+ |
| Germany | RTL |
| Hungary | Sport 1 |
| Poland | Polsat Sport |
| Russia | RTR Sport |
| Ukraine | Inter |
| United Kingdom | Box Nation |
| United States | HBO |
# Omer Hoffman

Omer Hoffman was a Belgian gymnast. He competed in the men's team, Swedish system event at the 1920 Summer Olympics, winning the bronze medal.
# Karthigai Deepam (film)

Karthigai Deepam is a 1965 Indian Tamil-language romantic drama film, directed by A. Kasilingam and produced by P. Markendeyan and A. Kasilingam. The script was written by A. Kasilingam and the comedy parts were written by Shankar Jai Somu. The film stars S. A. Ashokan, C. Vasantha, K. Vijayan and Leelavathi. It was released on 30 April 1965.

## Cast

* S. A. Ashokan as Pasubathi
* C. Vasantha as Poornam
* K. Vijayan as Kanaga Sabai
* Leelavathi as Thangam
* S. V. Ramadas as Namachivayam
* G. Sakunthala as Dr. Sathya Bhama
* Sadhan as Venu
* A. Sakunthala as Chandra
* Karikol Raju as Ganapathy
* Master Murali as Murali
* Baby Kala as Kala
* Jayanthi as Mythili
* Thiruchi Kamakshi as Sivakami

## Soundtrack

Music was composed by R. Sudarsanam and lyrics were written by Alangudi Somu.
| Song | Singers | Length |
| "Enna Paravai Sirakadithu" | T. M. Soundararajan | 03:43 |
| "Kaiyum Kaiyum Modhinal" | L. R. Eswari | 03:29 |
| "Paarkatha Ulagam" | T. M. Soundararajan, L. R. Eswari | 03:40 |
| "Thanga Theril" | L. R. Eswari | 03:22 |
| "Enna Paravai" – Sad | T. M. Soundararajan | 01:09 |
| "Ungu Unnuda Selvame" | L. R. Eswari | 03:49 |
| "Enna Paravai" – Female | P. Susheela | 03:30 |
| "Malai Sainthu Ponal" | T. M. Soundararajan | 04:57 |

## Reception

Kalki appreciated the performances of Ashokan and Leelavathi, though the critic felt Ashokan was occasionally overacting.
# Indira En Selvam

Indira En Selvam (transl. Indira is My Darling Child) is a 1962 Indian Tamil-language children's drama film, directed by C. Padmanaban and produced by S. Soundappan and C. Chenna Kesavan. The film's script was written by Viruthai Ramasamy, with music by C. N. Padurangan and H. R. Pathmanabha Sastri. The film stars Baby Sumangala, Pandari Bai, M. R. Radha and S. A. Ashokan, with Nagesh A. Karunanidhi, Gemini Chandra and C. Lakshmi Rajyam in supporting roles. The film was an average success.

## Cast

Cast according to the opening credits of the film and the songbook:

## Soundtrack

Music was composed by C. N. Pandurangan and H. R. Pathmanabha Sastri. The comedy number "Kadhalukku Kaaleju Yenga Irukku" by S. C. Krishnan and A. G. Rathnamala attracted attention. "Inbam Kondadum Maalai", a duet by P. B. Srinivas and K. Rani, became a hit.
| Songs | Singers | Lyrics | Length |
| "Inbam Kondadum Maalai" | P. B. Srinivas & K. Rani | Thamizhazhagan | 03:42 |
| "Kanni Paruvam Aval" | P. B. Srinivas & Soolamgalam Rajalakshmi | Villiputhan | 03:26 |
| "Aadi Aadi Enna Kandai" | A. L. Raghavan | Villiputhan | 04:13 |
| "Kadhalukku Kaaleju Yenga Irukku" | S. C. Krishnan & A. G. Rathnamala | Villiputhan | 03:15 |
| "Thithikkum Thamizhile" | Soolamangalam Rajalakshmi & Soolamangalam Jayalakshmi | Suratha | 03:40 |
| "Thella Thelintha Thaen" | (Radha) Jayalakshmi | Vaa. Su. Raa | 02:39 |
| "Ullasa Mangai Illaamal" | Soolamangalam Rajalakshmi | Kovai Kumarathevan | 04:20 |
# Freddy Frogface

Freddy Frogface (Danish: Orla Frøsnapper) is a 2011 Danish 3D animated comedy film directed by Peter Dodd, and based on the book Orla Frøsnapper by Ole Lund Kirkegaard. It was later dubbed into English and was released in several other countries. It is the first film in a trilogy of computer-animated films based on children's books by Kirkegaard, before Jelly T (2012) and Otto the Rhino (2013). It is described by most as Denmark's "Tiananmen Square".

## Plot

The story follows Victor, a 10-year-old boy who lives in a small sleepy town, where he and his dog Sausage spend the summer pulling pranks on adults, he usually hangs out with his best friend Jacob and his cousin, Claire, who recently moved into town. Despite this, he constantly gets picked on and beaten up by Freddy, the town bully, who is considered the meanest kid in town. Victor ends up embarrassing Freddy in public after he puts a frog in his mouth, which ends up giving Freddy the nickname "Freddy Frogface". Around the same time, the circus comes to town, and Victor tries his best to train Sausage for a big act he's planning for. Unknown to him however, Freddy secretly follows him and tries to steal his act.

## Original Danish Cast

* Nikolaj Lie Kaas as Orla Frøsnapper / Tryllekunster / Klovn
* Thure Lindhardt as Victor
* Nicolaj Kopernikus as Jakob / Lille Louis / Kontrollør / Fakir
* Katrine Falkenberg as Clara
* Margrethe Koytu as Fru Olsen
* Ole Thestrup as Smeden / Slagter Jørgensen
* David Bateson as Bardini
* Cecilie Stenspil as Fru Svensson / Fru Strong / Fru Sivertsen
* Lars Thiesgaard as Mister Strong
* Lasse Lunderskov as Kanonkongen / Hr. Svensson / Kanonmand
* Lars Ranthe as Linedanser

## English dub cast

Source:
* Freddy Frogface - Bruce Mackinnon
* Victor - Gregg Chillin
* Jacob - Jim North
* Clara - Katrine Falkenberg
* Little Louis - Katrine Falkenberg
* Mrs. Willough - Tina Robinson
* Mr. Svensson - Jim North
* Mrs. Svensson - Tina Robinson
* Ming Bozelius - Jim North
* Bardini - David Bateson
* Cannonball King - David Bateson
* Ole Antonioni - Andrew Jeffers
* Mr. Strong - Ian Burns
* Mrs. Strong - Tina Robinson
* Blacksmith - David Bateson
* Circus Man - Ian Burns
* Grandpa - Ian Burns
* Boys - Jeremy Keil Byrn
* Girls - Olivia Keil Byrn
* Mrs. Olsen - Tina Robinson
* Carlo Androkles - Andrew Jeffers
* Butcher Jonathan - Andrew Jeffers
# Carabus adamsi

Carabus adamsi is a species of ground beetle in the large genus Carabus that is native to parts of Russia, Georgia and Azerbaijan.
# Andrew Bird (film editor)

Andrew Bird is a British-born film editor. He has worked mostly in the German cinema. He has edited multiple films including The Seed of the Sacred Fig, The Edge of Heaven, Soul Kitchen and Head-On.

## Awards and nominations

German Film Awards:
* 2021, Best Editing, A Symphony of Noise (nominated)
* 2017, Best Editing, Goodbye Berlin (nominated)
* 2008, Best Editing, The Edge of Heaven Winner (won)
# Andris Poga

Andris Poga (born 29 June 1980, in Riga) is a Latvian orchestral conductor.

## Biography

Poga is a graduate of the Jāzeps Vītols Latvian Academy of Music, where he studied trumpet and conducting. He also studied conducting at the University of Music and Performing Arts in Vienna and philosophy at the University of Latvia.
From 2007 to 2010, Poga was artistic director and principal conductor of the Professional Symphonic Band Rīga. Poga received the Grand Music Award in 2007 in the category Debut of the Year for his concert with the Latvian National Symphony Orchestra.
In 2010, Poga won first prize in the second Evgeny Svetlanov Conducting Competition in Montpellier, France. From 2011 to 2014, Poga was assistant conductor to Paavo Järvi at Orchestre de Paris. From 2012 to 2014, he was assistant conductor of the Boston Symphony Orchestra.
Poga became music director of the Latvian National Symphony Orchestra (LNSO) with the 2013–2014 season. He concluded his chief conductorship of the LNSO at the close of the 2021–2022 season and now has the title of artistic advisor of the LNSO.
In June 2019, the Stavanger Symphony Orchestra announced the appointment of Poga as its next chief conductor, effective with the 2021–2022 season, with an initial contract of 3 seasons. In June 2023, the orchestra announced an extension of Poga's contract as chief conductor through the 2025-2026 season.
Poga has made commercial recordings for such labels as Odradek Records, Skani and Myrios Classics.
# Today You Die

Today You Die is a 2005 American action film directed and shot by Don E. FauntLeRoy. The film stars Steven Seagal, who also produces with Randall Emmett, George Furla and Danny Lerner. It co-stars Treach, Sarah Buxton, Mari Morrow, Nick Mancuso and Robert Miano. The film was released on direct-to-DVD in the United States on September 13, 2005.

## Plot

Harlan Banks (Steven Seagal) is a Robin Hood-esque thief who has always picked his own jobs and tried to pull heists that would leave him room to help out others. The work keeps getting riskier, and at the urging of his girlfriend Jada (Mari Morrow), Banks has decided to pull one final job, going in with some men who are planning a $20 million robbery.
After the heist goes bad, Banks heads to Las Vegas, where Jada wants him to get a real job. On the way to town, Banks and Jada passed a children's hospital displaying a going out of business sign. Banks gets a job driving an armored car for a man, Max (Kevin Tighe). The job is not exactly legitimate, and Bruno (Robert Miano), Banks' partner for the job, shoots a security guard, resulting in a chase through the Las Vegas Strip in the armored van.
However, Banks is stopped and sent to prison, where he befriends an inmate known as "Ice Kool" (Treach). With Ice's help, Banks escapes, determined to hunt Max down. Along the way, Banks meets a federal agent named Saunders (Nick Mancuso), and it turns out that Saunders, who is in league with Max, is the man behind the setup. So Banks sets out to take down both Saunders and Max with a job.

## Cast

* Steven Seagal as Harlan Banks
* Treach as "Ice Kool"
* Sarah Buxton as FBI Agent Rachel Knowles
* Mari Morrow as Jada
* Nick Mancuso as FBI Agent Saunders
* Robert Miano as Bruno
* Kevin Tighe as Max
* Jamie McShane as Vincent
* Lawrence Turner as Garret
* Brett Rice as Taggert
* Mitch Laue as The UNC-Wilmington Legend
* Lance J. Mancuso as Casino Guard
* Chloë Grace Moretz as Little Girl
* Elayn J. Taylor as Old Tarot Reader
* Hawthorne James as Derrick
* David Fryberger as Cop
* Morann Peri as Cop Partner
* John Gulino as Marshall
* Smalls as "Dinky-D"
* Darren Ting as Ming Lee
* John Wister as Rusty
* Lesley-Anne Down as Bank Manager
* J. Anthony Pena as Hispanic
* Lisa Guerrero as Reporter
* Brian Jay as The Bartender
* Jerry Trimble as Garret's Gang #1
* J. J. Perry as Thug
* Les Weldon as Helicopter Pilot
* Randy Couture as Vincent's Bodyguard #1

## Legal troubles

The producers of Today You Die filed lawsuits against Seagal because of experiences during the filming. Producers at Nu Image and Kill Master Productions alleged that Seagal, while filming this and Mercenary for Justice, arrived at the set late, left early, and re-wrote scripts without their permission, among other things. However, Seagal disputed the suit, and he countersued against producers, claiming fraud and breach of contract.

## Home media

The DVD of the film was released in Region 1 in the United States on September 13, 2005, and also Region 2 in the United Kingdom on 10 July 2006. It was distributed by Sony Pictures Home Entertainment.
# Brightest cluster galaxy

A brightest cluster galaxy (BCG) is defined as the brightest galaxy in a cluster of galaxies. BCGs include the most massive galaxies in the universe. They are generally elliptical galaxies which lie close to the geometric and kinematical center of their host galaxy cluster, hence at the bottom of the cluster potential well. They are also generally coincident with the peak of the cluster X-ray emission.
Formation scenarios for BCGs include:
The study of accretion populations in BCGs has cast doubt over this theory and astronomers have seen no evidence of cooling flows in radiative cooling clusters. The two remaining theories exhibit healthier prospects.
* Galactic cannibalism—galaxies sink to the center of the cluster due to dynamical friction and tidal stripping.
* Galactic merger—rapid galactic mergers between several galaxies take place during cluster collapse.
It is possible to differentiate the cannibalism model from the merging model by considering the formation period of the BCGs. In the cannibalism model, there are numerous small galaxies present in the evolved cluster, whereas in the merging model, a hierarchical cosmological model is expected due to the collapse of clusters. It has been shown that the orbit decay of cluster galaxies is not effective enough to account for the growth of BCGs.The merging model is now generally accepted as the most likely one, but recent observations are at odds with some of its predictions. For example, it has been found that the stellar mass of BCGs was assembled much earlier than the merging model predicts. This is due to the lack of significant stellar mass evolution in size, luminosity, or structure over a range of redshifts, suggesting that most BCGs were assembled by redshift z~1.5−2.0, which refutes any late hierarchical assembly and emphases passive evolution. Growth primarily comes from minor mergers and gas accretion after assembly. Discrepancies between observations and hierarchical simulations highlight the need for model revisions to better account for early mass assembly.
BCGs are divided into various classes of galaxies: giant ellipticals (gE), D galaxies and cD galaxies. cD and D galaxies both exhibit an extended diffuse envelope surrounding an elliptical-like nucleus akin to regular elliptical galaxies. The light profiles of BCGs are often described by a Sersic surface brightness law, a double Sersic profile or a de Vaucouleurs law. The different parametrizations of the light profile of BCG's, as well as the faintness of the diffuse envelope lead to discrepancies in the reported values of the sizes of these objects.