# Transylvania Campaign (1658-1662)

The Transylvania Campaign (1658-1662) was fought by the Ottoman Empire. After three military campaigns against Principality of Transylvania (1658, 1659-1660, and 1661-1662), it reestablished its dominance over the Kingdom. However, due to the support given by the Holy Roman Empire first to George II Rákóczi and later to John Kemény, this struggle triggered the Austro-Turkish War (1663–1664).

## Before the War

One of the vassal states of the Ottoman Empire, the Principality of Transylvania, pursued a relatively independent policy during the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) under the rule of Gabriel Bethlen (1613-1629). It actively participated in the war and also engaged in direct diplomacy with the Holy Roman Empire. This policy became even more pronounced under George II Rákóczi (1648-1657), drawing the attention of the Ottoman capital.
Indeed, in 1649, George II Rákóczi allied with the Cossack Hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky. He also influenced the Ottoman vassal states of Wallachia and Moldavia, eventually forming an alliance with King Charles X Gustav of Sweden through the Treaty of Radnot on December 6, 1656. Following this, in January 1657, he joined the Second Northern War (1655-1660), aiming to become King of Poland-Lithuania himself and establish his son as King of Transylvania. The initially successful Swedish-Transylvanian alliance resulted in the occupation of Warsaw on June 17, 1657.
However, the situation changed when the Holy Roman Empire entered the war on the side of Poland-Lithuania, capturing Kraków in August 1657, and when Denmark declared war on Sweden. The Swedish-Transylvanian forces lost their advantage, and the Transylvanian army, left without Swedish support, was forced to retreat towards Ukraine. Eventually, it suffered a crushing defeat by the Crimean Khanate, an ally of Poland-Lithuania, on July 31, 1657.
At the same time, a significant change took place in the administration of the Ottoman Empire. Following a long period of instability and short-lived grand viziers, Köprülü Mehmed Pasha was appointed Grand Vizier on September 15, 1656, with extensive powers. Having previously served as Beylerbey of Eğri in 1645, he was familiar with Transylvanian affairs. In 1657, during the Ottoman-Venetian War (1645-1669), he broke the Venetian blockade of the Dardanelles, defeating the Venetian navy at the Battle of the Dardanelles (1657) and recapturing Bozcaada and Limnos. Following this, by the end of 1657, he turned his attention to the problems caused by the Principality of Transylvania.
Although the Ottoman court deposed George II Rákóczi on November 3, 1657, for "declaring war without permission," he reclaimed the throne on January 9, 1658. After being deposed and reinstated once again, the Ottomans decided to launch a military campaign to resolve the issue permanently.

## War
### First Ottoman Campaign (1658)

Köprülü Mehmed Pasha established the imperial encampment in Edirne on April 13, 1658. Nine weeks later, the assembled Ottoman army marched on Transylvania. The forces of Silistra Beylerbeyi Kadri Pasha and Budin Beylerbeyi Kenan Pasha joined the Ottoman army, which besieged Ineu (Yanova) on August 31 and captured it on September 1.
Meanwhile, Crimean Khanate and Cossack Hetmanate cavalry invaded Alba Iulia, the capital of Transylvania, attempting to capture George II Rákóczi. However, he escaped across the Tisza River and sought refuge in the Holy Roman Empire. In response to the request of the Transylvanian Diet, the Ottomans halted their military operations and installed Ákos Barcsay as the new prince. The treaty signed on September 14, 1658, increased Transylvania's annual tribute from 15,000 ducats to 40,000, imposed a war indemnity of 500,000 thalers, and ceded Lugoj, Sebeș, and Ineu to the Ottoman Empire.
Despite the Ottoman victory, Köprülü Mehmed Pasha failed to capture George II Rákóczi. He had to return to Anatolia to suppress the Abaza Hasan Pasha rebellion, entering Edirne in a ceremonial procession on October 13, 1658.

### The Second Ottoman Campaign (1659-1660)

After the Ottoman army retreated, Rákóczi returned to Transylvania at the beginning of 1659 and settled in Varad. Moreover, he allowed the occupation of Varad, Kaloşvar, Tokaj, and Zatmar and Zabolcs by the Holy Roman Empire. Additionally, he persuaded Radu Gioan Bey (III. Mihnea), the Voivode of Wallachia, to join his side and incited him to revolt. With the aid of Ottoman forces under the command of the governor of Silistre, Can Arslan Pasha, and the Sancakbey of Elbasan, Mehmed Bey, along with 20,000 cavalry from the Crimean Khanate, Radu Gioan Bey was defeated at the Battle of Iași (1659) on November 12, 1659, and the capital of the Principality was moved from Târgoviște to Bucharest. I. Ghika was then appointed as Voivode.
The Holy Roman Empire, pressured by Hungarian nobles (Nádasdy, Zrínyi, and Batthyány) advocating a tougher stance against the Ottomans, sent August von Mayern as an envoy to the Ottoman court in August 1659. However, the only response was the demand for Rákóczi's surrender to the Ottoman Empire. Similarly, the Ottoman envoy Süleyman Ağa, who traveled to Vienna in December of the same year, confirmed that Ottoman-supported Transylvanian King Barcsay Ákos would continue to be backed.
While the rebellion in Wallachia was suppressed in 1659, Köprülü Mehmed Pasha also managed to quell the rebellion of Abaza Mehmed Pasha in the same year and refocused on Transylvanian affairs. That same year, Seydi Ahmed Pasha was appointed as the Beylerbey of Budin and the governor of Yanova. In late 1659, Seydi Ahmed Pasha, marching against Rákóczi, along with troops from the Eğri Beylerbey Sarı Hüseyin Pasha, inflicted a crushing defeat on the Transylvanian army at the Battle of Demirkapı near Deva on November 22, 1659, resulting in 3,700 Transylvanian casualties. Rákóczi retreated to Oraștie (Szasvaros/Broos).
When spring arrived, Rákóczi laid siege to Sibiu (Hermannstadt) with a 40,000-strong army. However, on May 13, 1660, he suffered another defeat at the Battle of Sibiu against the Ottoman forces led by Küçük Mehmed Pasha, the governor of Yanova, and lifted the siege, retreating to Kaloşvar (Klausenberg). Nevertheless, an Ottoman provincial army of 20,000-25,000 under Seydi Ahmed Pasha caught up with the Transylvanian forces and scored a major victory at the Battle of Kaloşvar on May 22, 1660. The Transylvanian army suffered 5,000 casualties, while Rákóczi, who escaped wounded to Varad, succumbed to his injuries and died on June 7, 1660.
While these events were unfolding in Transylvania, in Istanbul, on April 16, 1660, Kaptan-ı Derya Köse Ali Pasha was appointed as the "Serdar of Transylvania." Marching with the Rumelian army, Köse Ali Pasha besieged Varad Fortress on July 15, 1660, and successfully captured it on August 27. On September 25, 1660, he issued a new ahdname to the new Transylvanian king, Barcsay Ákos, further consolidating Ottoman dominance over Transylvania.

### The Third Ottoman Campaign (1661-1662)

The election of János Kemény as king by the Transylvanian Diet on January 1, 1661, following the abdication of Ottoman-backed Barcsay Ákos, prompted the Ottoman Empire to launch a third military campaign.
Although the Ottomans initially indicated their willingness to recognize Kemény, they imposed strict conditions: he was required to pay the remaining war indemnity owed by Transylvania, send his son as a hostage, and personally travel to Timișoara to receive his investiture from the "Serdar of Transylvania," Köse Ali Pasha. Kemény refused these terms and instead sought support from the Holy Roman Empire (April 23, 1661). The Ottoman court informed the Imperial envoy Reininger, who arrived in Istanbul for mediation, that any support for Kemény would be considered a casus belli.
In July 1661, the Ottomans launched multiple offensives into Transylvania. Silistre Beylerbey Ali Pasha and Crimean Khanate Mehmed IV Giray marched to install the Ottoman-appointed Michael I Apafi as king. Budin Beylerbey Ismail Pasha ravaged the Hațeg Valley and sacked the Saxon towns of Orăștie (Szaszváros/Broos) and Sebeș (Szászsebes). The Crimean cavalry advanced to Vințu de Jos (Alvincz). Facing this pressure, János Kemény retreated to Negrilești but was pursued and forced into battle at Baia Mare (Nagybánya), suffering a defeat and losing around 4,000 prisoners.